BARNARD 
 
 NORMAL SCHOOLS 
 
 VOLUME 1
 
 UNIVERSITY of 
 AT 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 LIBRARY
 
 NORMAL SCHOOLS, 
 
 AND OTHER 
 
 INSTITUTIONS, AGENCIES, AND MEANS 
 
 DESIGNED FOR THE 
 
 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION OF TEACHERS. 
 
 BY HENRY BARNARD, 
 
 SUPERINTENDENT OF COMMON SCHOOLS OF CONNECTICUT. 
 
 PART I. UNITED STATES AND BRITISH PROVINCES. 
 
 HARTFORD: 
 
 PUBLISHED BY CASE, TIFFANY AND COMPANY. 
 1851. 
 
 130033
 
 Reprinted, 1929, by 
 
 COLORADO STATE TEACHEBS COLLEGE 
 
 QREKLEY, COLORADO 
 As Education Series No. 6 
 

 
 Educftto 
 
 v, \ 
 
 O 
 
 CIRCULAR 
 
 The following pages constitute the second of the series of 
 Essays which the undersigned was authorized by the Legis- 
 lature in 1850 to prepare for general circulation in Connect- 
 icut, on topics connected with the condition and improve- 
 ment of our Common Schools. The necessity and importance 
 of specific preparation for the business of teaching are rec- 
 ognized by the State in its recent legislation for the estab- 
 lishment of an institution to be devoted exclusively to this 
 object. The gradual development of this idea from its first 
 ^ formal presentation by Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet, in 1825, 
 to its partial realization in the State Normal School at New 
 ^^ Britain, in 1850, is traced in the documents which are here 
 embodied. 
 
 While Connecticut was discussing the subject, or slum- 
 bering over it, "with the half patriarchial, half poetical 
 dream," which is apt to come over us when we think of our 
 "venerable common school system," Massachusetts was act- 
 V ing not only in this but in other departments of educational 
 improvement, with a vigor and liberality which has placed 
 her public schools over at least one half of her territory, at 
 least a half century in advance of our own in towns of the 
 same wealth and population. New- York, too, whose school 
 . system as originally drafted by a native of Connecticut, was 
 ^ copied in its essential features from our own, under the lead 
 0* of De Witt Clinton in 1826, commenced a series of improve- 
 ^ ments which resulted in Teachers Departments, District 
 Libraries, Union Schools, County Inspection Teachers' Insti- 
 tutes, and a Normal School, which have done more, and are 
 doing more now to develop the resources of the State than 
 her gigantic system of railroads and canals. 
 
 The city of Philadelphia, whose system of public schools, 
 made free by taxation on property, went into operation only 
 two years before Connecticut passed a law exempting the 
 people from the obligation of raising a tax on property for 
 a portion of the expense of supporting common schools 
 (the most disastrous law ever placed on her statute book) 
 has now a system of public instruction from the Primary 
 School for children four years of age, to the Normal School
 
 4 CIRCULAR 
 
 in which the female teachers of all her schools can be 
 trained, maintained with a liberality, and embracing oppor- 
 tunities of an extended English, classical, and business edu- 
 cation, which is free to all and practically enjoyed by the 
 children of the rich and poor of which we have no ap- 
 proach in any city of our State. 
 
 The State of Michigan, which has been admitted to the 
 Union since the idea of a Normal School was first present- 
 ed in Connecticut, has set apart, not the bonus of a bank as 
 a temporary experiment, but a permanent fund for the en- 
 dowment of an institution devoted exclusively to the pro- 
 fessional education of teachers. 
 
 The province of Upper Canada, stimulated by the ex- 
 ample of the neighboring State of New- York, has within 
 ten years organized a system of common schools more com- 
 plete in its plan, more efficient in its administration, and 
 embracing more of the agencies of educational progress, 
 than the system of any one of the United States. At the head 
 of these agencies of progress stands the Provincial Normal 
 School, for which, besides a standing appropriation of $10,- 
 000 a year for the current expenses, the sum of $55,000 has 
 just been almost unanimously voted by the Legislature, to 
 provide a suitable building and apparatus for the accommo- 
 dation of the school. 
 
 Some notice of these institutions will be given in the fol- 
 lowing pages, together with the republication of a number 
 of documents and addresses setting forth the origin, nature, 
 and advantages of Normal Schools, and her institutions, 
 agencies, and means, for the professional education and im- 
 provement of teachers, in the United States. 
 
 This Essay will be followed by a volume on the same 
 great topic, in which an account will be given of the organi- 
 zation and course of instruction of several of the best Nor- 
 mal Seminaries in Europe, together with an outline of the 
 system of Public Schools in the countries where these Sem- 
 inaries have been longest in operation. Although not pre- 
 pared exclusively or originally for this series of publica- 
 tions, copies will be furnished to all orders from any part of 
 the State, on the same terms with the Principles of School 
 Architecture, viz : at half the cost of publication. 
 
 HENRY BARNARD, 
 
 SUPERINTENDENT OF COMMON SCHOOLS. 
 HABTFORD, January 6th, 1851.
 
 NORMAL SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 Table. Number, location and date of 
 erection of Normal Schools, . 9 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 Legislative History of Normal 
 Schools 11 
 
 Law Establishing State Normal 
 School, 27 
 
 First Annual Report of Board of 
 Trustees 31 
 
 Report of Superintendent for 1850, 35 
 
 Topics for Lectures, Discussion, and 
 Composition on the Theory and 
 Practice of Education, . . 43 
 
 Remarks on Teachers' Seminaries, 
 by Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, in 1825, 47 
 
 Circular Terms of Admission, Course 
 of Instruction, &c. ... 57 
 
 Hints respecting Applicants for Ad- 
 mission, ..... 61 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 History of Normal Schools, . 73 
 
 Resolves establishing Normal Schools, 74 
 Regulations respecting Admission, 
 
 Studies, &c 67 
 
 Normal School at West Newton, . 71 
 
 ' Letter from Cyrus Peirce, . 73 
 
 Normal School at Bridgewater, . 79 
 
 Letter from Nathan Tillinghast, 79 
 Condition of State Normal Schools 
 
 in 1850 81 
 
 Report of Board of Education, 81 
 
 Visitors of West Newt- 
 on School 84 
 
 Report of Visitors of Westfield 
 
 School, 86 
 
 Report of Visitors of Bridgewater 
 
 School, 80 
 
 Report of Secretary of the Board, 89 
 
 Addresses and other Documents con- 
 nected with the History of Normal 
 Schools in Massachusetts. 
 
 Outline of an Institution for Teach- 
 ers, by James G. Carter, 1825, 91 
 
 Memorial of American Institute of 
 
 Instruction, .... 103 
 
 Teachers' Seminary at Andover, 113 
 
 Remarks of Dr. Channing on Educa- 
 tion, Teachers, and Normal Schools, 115 
 
 Normal Schools and Teachers' Semi- 
 naries, by Calvin E. Stowe, . 123 
 Necessity of in each State, . 124 
 Preparation for Admission, . 127 
 Model School and School of Prac- 
 tice, 128 
 
 Course of Instruction, . . 128 
 
 Advantages, .... 138 
 
 PACK. 
 
 Objections 140 
 
 Notes. Chinese Education, . 143 
 
 Prussian Schools prior to 1819, 144 
 
 School Counsellor Dinter, . 146 
 
 Teachers' Conferences in Prussia, 146 
 
 Educational Convention in Plymouth 
 
 County, 151 
 
 Rev. Charles Brooks, . . 151 
 
 Ichabod Morton, . . . 153 
 
 Robert Rantoul, . . . 153 
 
 Rev. Dr. Putnam, . . . 153 
 
 John Quincy Adams, . . 154 
 
 Daniel Webster, ... 154 
 
 Rev. Dr. Robbins, . . . 157 
 
 Special Preparation, a Pre-requisite 
 to Teaching, a Lecture by Horace 
 
 Mann, in 1838, ... 159 
 
 Address at the opening of the Nor- 
 mal School at Barre, by Edward 
 
 Everett 179 
 
 Remarks by Horace Mann and others 
 on the opening of the new Nor- 
 mal School house in Bridgewater, 195 
 
 Dedicatory Address at Bridgewater, 
 
 by William G. Bates, 1846, . 201 
 
 Dedicatory Address at Westfield, by 
 
 Rev. Heman Humphrey, . . 215 
 /Teachers' Associations and Agencies, 227 
 Teachers' Institutes, . . . 227 
 County Teachers' Association, 228 
 Massachusetts Teachers' Associa- 
 tion, 228 
 
 American Institute of Instruction, 229 
 
 List of Lectures delivered before, 230 
 
 Agents of Board of Education, . 232 
 
 Educational Periodicals, . . 232 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 History of Normal Schools, . . 235 
 Plan of Teachers' Departments in 
 
 Academies 237 
 
 Report of Prof. Potter, . . 238 
 
 State Normal School at Albany, 241 
 
 Address of Samuel S. Randall, . 242 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 Normal School in City of Philadel- 
 phia 251 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 Modes of Professional Improvement 
 adopted from 1843 to 1848, . 261 
 
 Professorship of Didactics in Brown 
 University, ..... 265 
 
 MICHIGAN. 
 State Normal School at Ypsilanti, 266 
 
 BRITISH PROVINCES. 
 Upper Canada, .... 267 
 Nova Scotia, 267
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 In the winter of 1825, there appeared, almost simultan- 
 eously,* but without any knowledge of each other's views, 
 and even without any personal knowledge of each other, in 
 the Connecticut Observer, printed in Hartford, over the 
 signature of a "Father," and in the Patriot, printed in Bos- 
 ton, over the signature of "Franklin," a series of articles in 
 which the claims of Education as a science, and Teaching 
 as an art, were ably discussed, and an Institution was pro- 
 posed in each series, having the same general features, for 
 the special training of teachers for their profession. These 
 articles were collected and published by their respective 
 authors, in pamphlet form, the first with the title of "Plan 
 of a Seminary for the Education of Instructors of Youth, 
 by Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet. Boston, 1825," and the last 
 with the title "Essays on Popular Education, containing a 
 particular examination of the Schools of Massachusetts, and 
 an Outline of an Institution for the Education of Teachers, 
 by James G. Carter. Boston, 1826." 
 
 In the same year, 1825, Walter R. Johnson, then residing 
 in Germantown, Penn., without any knowledge of the views 
 of Mr. Carter or Mr. Gallaudet, in a pamphlet, entitled 
 "Observations on the Improvement of Seminaries of Learn- 
 ing," set forth the necessity and advantages of schools for 
 the special training of teachers. 
 
 In the same year, in which appeared the earliest publica- 
 tion on the subject in Connecticut, Governor Clinton com- 
 mended to the consideration of the Legislature of New York, 
 "the education of competent teachers;" and in 1826, "the 
 establishment of a seminary" for this purpose. From this 
 time, the importance of the professional education of teach- 
 ers, and of institutions specially devoted to this object, be- 
 gan to attract the attention of statesmen and educators, 
 until, at the close of a quarter of a century, the idea is prac- 
 
 *The article by Mr. Gallaudet, containing the statement of his plan of a Seminary, 
 was published on the 4th of January, 1825, and those of Mr. Carter, devoted to his 
 Outline of an Institution, appeared the 10th and 15th of February, 1825.
 
 8 INTRODUCTION 
 
 tically realized in each of the four states in which the enter- 
 prise was first proposed. The history of the efforts made 
 by the friends of educational improvement to establish Nor- 
 mal Schools in these states is full of instruction and encour- 
 agement to those who are laboring in the same field, and 
 for the same object, in other states. 
 
 The Normal Schools already established in this country 
 are, it is believed, doing much good, and realizing the prom- 
 ises of those who have been active in getting them up ; but 
 as compared with European Institutions of the same kind, 
 and the demands for professional training in all our schools, 
 they labor under many disadvantages. 
 
 1. Pupils are admitted without adequate preparatory at- 
 tainments, and without sufficient test of their "aptness to 
 teach." 
 
 2. A majority of the pupils do not remain a sufficient 
 length of time, to acquire that knowledge of subjects and 
 methods, and especially that intellectual power and enlight- 
 enment, which are essential to the highest success in the 
 profession. 
 
 3. There are no endowments to reduce the expense of a 
 prolonged residence to a class of poor but promising pupils. 
 
 4. They are not provided with a sufficient number of 
 teachers for the number of pupils admitted. 
 
 5. From the want of a well-defined and limited purpose 
 in each institution, they are aiming to accomplish too much 
 more for every class of pupils, those with, and those 
 without previous experience, the young, and the more ad- 
 vanced, those intended for country and unclassified 
 schools, and those intended for the highest grade of city and 
 town schools, than can be well done for either class of 
 pupils. 
 
 Further experience will make these deficiences more ap- 
 parent, not to those who have the immediate charge of these 
 institutions, for they are already painfully conscious of 
 them, but to the people, legislatures, and liberally-disposed 
 men, who must apply the remedies by increased appropria- 
 tions to existing, and the establishment of additional 
 schools. 
 
 The following is a list of the Normal Schools already es- 
 tablished, with the location and date of the establishment 
 of each school.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 OF NORMAL SCHOOLS IN AMERICA. 
 
 State and Location. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Date when 
 
 first 
 Established. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS, 3 
 
 West Newton, 
 
 Bridgewater, 
 
 Westfield, 
 
 NEW YORK, 1 
 
 Albany, 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA, 1 
 
 Philadelp h ia, 
 
 CONNECTICUT, 1 
 
 New Britain, 
 
 MICHIGAN, 1 
 
 Ypsilanti, 
 
 BRITISH PROVINCES, 2 
 
 Toronto, for Upper Canada, 
 
 St. John's, for New Brunswick, 
 
 1839 
 1839 
 1839 
 
 1845 
 1848 
 1849 
 1850 
 
 1846 
 1848
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 The earliest mention of the establishment of a Seminary 
 for Teachers in Connecticut, was made by Mr. William 
 Russell,* in August 1823, in a pamphlet, entitled Sugges- 
 tions on Education : 
 
 "The common schools for children, are, in not a few instances, con- 
 ducted by individuals who do not possess one of the qualifications of 
 an instructor; and, in very many cases, there is barely knowledge 
 enough 'to keep the teacher at a decent distance from his scholars.' An 
 excellent suggestion was lately made on a branch of this subject, by a 
 writer in a periodical publication. His proposal was, that a seminary 
 should be founded, for the teachers of district schools; that a course 
 of study should be prescribed to persons who are desirous of obtaining 
 the situation of teachers in such schools; and that no individual should 
 be accepted as an instructor, who had not received a license, or degree, 
 from the proposed institution. The effects of such an improvement in 
 education seem almost incalculable. The information, the intelligence, 
 and the refinement, which might thus be diffused among the body of 
 the people, would increase the prosperity, elevate the character, and 
 promote the happiness of the nation to a degree perhaps unequalled in 
 the world," 
 
 In the first number of the Connecticut Observer, pub- 
 lished in Hartford, Conn., January 4, 1825, Rev. Thomas H. 
 Gallaudett, then Principal of the American Asylum for the 
 Education of the Deaf and Dumb, commenced a series of 
 Essays, with the signature of "A Father," on a Plan of a 
 Seminary for the Education of Instructors of Youth. These 
 essays attracted much attention in Connecticut, and other 
 parts of New England, and were collected and published in 
 a pamphlet of 40 pages, in Boston, in the same year. Selec- 
 tions from the same were re-published in the newspapers, 
 and the plan was presented and discussed in the educational 
 conventions which assembled in Hartford, in 1828 and in 
 1830. The following is the substance of the plan : 
 
 "Suppose, Mr. Editor, an Institution, call it by what name you please, 
 should be established somewhere in New England, for the training up 
 of young men for the profession of instructors of youth in the common 
 branches of English education. Suppose such an institution should be 
 so well endowed, by the liberality of the public, or of individuals, as to 
 
 *Mr. Russell was at that date a teacher in the New Township Academy, New Hav- 
 en. He afterward removed to Boston, where he engaged earnestly in the work of edu- 
 cational improvement. In 1826 he became editor of the Journal of Education, the first 
 periodical devoted exclusively to the subject, published in the English language. Mr. 
 Russell is now Principal of the Normal Institute at Merrimack, New Hampshire.
 
 12 NORMAL SCHOOL IN CONNECTICUT. 
 
 have two or three professors, men of talents and habits adapted to the 
 pursuit, who should devote their lives to the object of the 'Theory and 
 Practice of the Education of Youth,' and who should prepare and de- 
 liver, and print, if you and they please, a course of lectures on the 
 subject. 
 
 Let the Institution be furnished with a library, which should contain 
 all the works, theoretical and practical, in all languages, which can be 
 obtained on the subject of education, and also with all the apparatus 
 that modern ingenuity has devised for this purpose; such as maps, 
 charts, globes, orreries, &c. &c. 
 
 Let there be connected with the Institution a school smaller or 
 larger, as circumstances might dictate, of indigent children and youth, 
 and especially of foreign youth whom we are rearing for future benevo- 
 lent efforts, in which the theories of the professors might be reduced 
 to practice, and from which daily experience would derive a thousand 
 useful instructions. 
 
 To such an Institution let young men resort, of piety, of talents, of 
 industry, and of adaptedness to the business of the instructors of youth, 
 and who would expect to devote their lives to so important an occupa- 
 tion. Let them attend a regular course of lectures on the subject of 
 education; read the best works; take their turns in the instruction of 
 the experimental school, and after thus becoming qualified for their 
 office, leave the Institution with a suitable certificate or diploma, 
 recommending them to the confidence of the public." 
 
 In 1838, an "Act to provide for the better supervision of 
 Common Schools," creating a Board of Commissioners, with 
 a Secretary, who was "to devote his whole time to ascertain 
 the condition, increase the interest, and promote the useful- 
 ness of common schools," was passed by the Legislature. In 
 a speech made by the chairman of the Committee that re- 
 ported the bill, in the House of Representatives, (Henry 
 Barnard, of Hartford,) the following remarks were made in 
 reference to this particular subject: 
 
 "This measure, if adopted and sustained by the Legislature and the 
 people for ten years, must result in making some legislative provision 
 for the better education, and special training of teachers for their deli- 
 cate and difficult labors. Every man who received his early education 
 in the district schools of Connecticut, must be conscious, and most of 
 us must exhibit in our own mental habits, and in the transactions of 
 ordinary business, the evidence of the defective instruction to which 
 we were subjected in these schools. And no one can spend a half hour 
 in the best common school in his neighborhood, without seeing, both in 
 the arrangements, instruction, and discipline of the teacher, the want, 
 not only of knowledge on his part, but particularly of a practical abil- 
 ity to make what he does know available. He has never studied and 
 practiced his art, the almost creative art of teaching, under an ex- 
 perienced master, and probably has never seen, much less spent any 
 considerable portion of time visiting, any better schools than the one 
 in which he was imperfectly taught in which he said his lessons, as 
 the business is significantly described in a phrase in common use. 
 
 The first step will be to get at the fact, and if it is as I suppose, that 
 our teachers are not qualified, and that there is now no adequate pro- 
 vision made in our Academies and higher seminaries for the right 
 qualification of teachers of district schools, then let the fact be made
 
 NORMAL SCHOOL IN CONNECTICUT. 13 
 
 known to the Legislature and the people, by reports, by the press, and 
 by popular addresses, the only ways in which the Board can act, on 
 either the Legislature or the schools; and in time, sooner or later, 
 we shall have the seminaries, and the teachers, unless the laws which 
 have heretofore governed the progress of society, and of education in 
 particular, shall cease to operate. It is idle to expect good schools until 
 we have good teachers, and the people will rest satisfied with such 
 teachers as they have, until their attention is directed to the subject, 
 and until we can demonstrate the necessity of employing better, and 
 show how they can be made better, by proper training in classes or 
 seminaries established for this specific purpose. With better teachers 
 will come better compensation and more permanent employment. The 
 people pay now quite enough for the article they get. It is dear at 
 even the miserably low price at which so much of it can be purchased. 
 Let us have light on the whole subject of teachers, their qualifica- 
 tions, preparation, compensation and supervision, for on these points 
 there is a strange degree of indifference, not to say ignorance, on the 
 part both of individuals, and of the public generally." 
 
 During the year following the establishment of the Board, 
 the Secretary, (Mr. Barnard,) published in the Connecticut 
 Common School Journal a number of articles, original and 
 selected, in which the professional education of teachers was 
 discussed, and the history of Normal Schools in Prussia, 
 Holland, and France presented. In the course of the four 
 years in which the Journal was published, the Essays of Mr. 
 Gallaudet, the Report of Prof. Stowe on Normal Schools and 
 Teachers' Seminaries, all that portion of Prof. Baches Re- 
 port on Education in Europe, devoted to an account of par- 
 ticular institutions for the education of teachers, and many 
 other documents and articles on the same subject, were 
 spread before the people of this state. Of several numbers 
 of the Journal devoted to these publications, more than ten 
 thousand copies were circulated. 
 
 In the First Annual Report of the Secretary of the Board 
 of Commissioners of Common Schools, submitted to the 
 General Assembly, in May, 1839, the establishment "of at 
 least one seminary for teachers," is urged in the following 
 manner : 
 
 "As there are some who still regard it as an experiment, it can be 
 at first for the training of female teachers for the common schools. 
 Such an institution, with a suitable principal and assistants, and es- 
 pecially a model school connected with it, in which theory could be 
 carried into practice, and an example given of what a district school 
 ought to be, would, by actual results, give an impulse to the cause of 
 popular education, and the procuring of good teachers, that could be 
 given in no other way. The time of continuance at such an institution 
 could be longer or shorter according to circumstances. Even a short 
 continuance at it would often be of vast benefit. It would furnish an 
 illustration of better methods of instruction and government than "the 
 district school as it is" can give, which is the only model a large ma- 
 jority of our teachers are now familiar with. The expense to those 
 attending, need not be great, if such a seminary were moderately en-
 
 14 NORMAL SCHOOL IN CONNECTICUT. 
 
 dowed from the public treasury, and the contributions of towns and 
 public spirited individuals. To secure this most desirable co-operation, 
 the state approprfation might be made on condition that an equal or 
 greater amount be raised from other sources. Once established, it 
 would speedily draw to it numbers of our young women, to improve 
 the qualifications they already possess for teaching, and give the ex- 
 perience and skill which are necessary. If wisely managed, it would 
 give credentials to none but the best of teachers. 
 
 They will command good wages. Those employing them would ex- 
 pect to give such wages. For the object in applying to this source 
 would be to get teachers of superior qualifications at an enhanced 
 price. The supply would create a demand. The demand would in turn 
 secure a greater supply of well-educated teachers for the primary 
 schools. Through them, better methods of teaching, by which an in- 
 creased amount of instruction, and that of a more practical character, 
 would be disseminated through a large number of districts. The good 
 done would thus not be confined to the comparative few who should 
 pursue the studies of the seminary, or acquire skill and experience in 
 the model school. Each would carry out the same methods. Enter- 
 prising teachers, too, who had not enjoyed the same opportunity for 
 improvement, would strive to excel those who had; and thus a whole- 
 some spirit of emulation would be provoked among teachers. 
 
 One such seminary, with the model school annexed, or rather form- 
 ing an essential part of the institution, where the best methods of 
 school government, and all the numerous and complicated processes 
 of teaching, developing, and guiding the human mind, and cultivating 
 the moral nature, could be taught and illustrated, would be the safest 
 and least expensive way of testing the practicability of introducing 
 others, both for males and females, into every county of the state, as a 
 part of our common school system." 
 
 This document was referred to a "Joint Select Committee 
 on Common Schools," of the two Houses of the General As- 
 sembly, to whom the following "Report and Resolution re- 
 specting the Education of Teachers," was submitted, May, 
 1839: 
 
 "The Joint Select Committee on Common Schools, to whom was re- 
 ferred the Report of the Board of Commissioners of Common Schools, 
 together with the Report of their Secretary, have had the same under 
 consideration, and beg leave to report in part, that in their estimation, 
 the main deficiency in the common schools of the State, is an inade- 
 quate supply of well-qualified teachers, and that to supply this de- 
 ficiency, and thereby improve the quality, and increase the amount of 
 instruction communicated in these schools, which must forever remain 
 the principal reliance of a vast majority of parents for the education 
 of their children, the experience of other states and countries demon- 
 strates the necessity of making some legislative provision for the 
 education of teachers. With this view, and to secure the co-operation 
 of counties, towns and individuals who may be more directly benefitted 
 by this appropriation, or who may choose to unite with the State in 
 elevating the character of the common schools in the mode attempted, 
 the Committee recommend the passage of the accompanying resolu- 
 tion. All of which is respectfully submitted, 
 
 By order of the Committee, 
 
 JOHN A. ROCKWELL, Chairman. 
 
 Resolved, That the Comptroller of public accounts is hereby author- 
 ized to draw an order on the Treasurer, in favor of the Board of Com-
 
 NORMAL SCHOOL IN CONNECTICUT. 15 
 
 missioners of Common Schools, for the sum of $5000, or such portions 
 thereof as they may request, to be paid out of any money not other- 
 wise appropriated; provided said Board shall certify that an amount 
 equal to that applied for, has been placed at their disposal; both sums 
 to be expended under the direction of said Board in promoting and 
 securing the qualifications in teachers for the common schools of 
 Connecticut." 
 
 The resolution called forth a full expression of opinion in 
 the House of Representatives, and was finally passed in 
 that body without a dissenting voice. 
 
 The Secretary of the Board, who was a member from 
 Hartford, in the course of discussion, made the following 
 remarks in the House of Representatives : 
 
 "The report of the Committee, brief as it, is, embodies the substance 
 of all I should have to say, if I should review in detail the condition 
 of our common schools, with a view of proposing a series of measures 
 for their improvement. The great want of these schools is that of 
 better teachers. Good teachers will make better schools, and schools 
 made better by the labors of good teachers, is the best argument which 
 can be addressed to the community in favor of improved school-houses, 
 a judicious selection of a uniform series of text books in the schools 
 of the same society, of vigilant and intelligent supervision, and liberal 
 appropriations for school purposes. Give me good teachers, and in five 
 years I will work not a change, but a revolution in the education of 
 the children of this State. I will not only improve the results, but 
 the machinery, the entire details of the system by which these results 
 are produced. Every good teacher will himself become a pioneer, and 
 a missionary in the cause of educational improvement. The necessity 
 of giving such a teacher every facility of a well-located, well-ventilated, 
 and well-seated school-house, of giving the teacher a timely supply of 
 the best text books and apparatus, and of keeping him employed 
 through the year, and from year to year, with just such pupils and 
 studies as he can teach to the best advantage these things will be 
 seen and felt by parents, and by districts. And the public, as repre- 
 sented in the Legislature, will see to it that much of our defective 
 legislation is supplied by that which will create and sustain a popular 
 interest in the subject, lead to the appointment of faithful officers, 
 assign to each class of officers appropriate duties, subject all appropri- 
 ations of school money to severe scrutiny, provide for the training 
 and adequate compensation of good teachers, and the employment of 
 such teachers in schools of different grades. The idea of employing a 
 graduate of a college to teach the alphabet to young children, will be 
 given up, not only as poor economy, but as leading to the neglect of 
 accomplished female teachers, who can do not only that work, but the 
 whole work of education in primary and in small district schools, 
 much better than the best male teachers. But let us not deceive our- 
 selves. Five thousand dollars will not make adequate provision for 
 the training of teachers. The entire sum will not properly endow a 
 Normal School. Small as the sum is, it is the largest sum I dare 
 propose at this time, and so advised the Committee. But as one of 
 those who may be intrusted with its expenditure, I should not advise 
 its appropriation at this time, to the establishment of a Normal School. 
 This sum should be so expended as to reach, if practicable, every teach- 
 er in the state. The teachers should be induced to come together for 
 a week, or a month, and attend a course of instruction on the best 
 methods of school teaching and government. They should profit by
 
 16 NORMAL SCHOOL IN CONNECTICUT. 
 
 the lectures and practical hints of experienced teachers. They should 
 have access to, and be induced to purchase and read good books on the 
 theory and practice of teaching. They should be induced to form asso- 
 ciations for mutual improvement, the advancement of their common 
 profession, and the general improvement of education, and the schools 
 of the state. They are the natural guardians of this great interest 
 at least they are the co-operators with parents in this work of edu- 
 cating the rising generation, to take the place of that which is passing 
 off the stage. They are the chosen priesthood of education they must 
 bear the ark on their shoulders. The appropriation thus applied, so as 
 to improve the teachers now in the school, and create in them a thirst 
 for something higher and better than can be given in any temporary 
 course of instruction, will lead to the establishment of an institution 
 for the professional education and training of teachers, the great 
 agency by which the cause of education is to be carried upward and 
 onward in this state. Though the prospect is dark enough, I think 
 I can see the dawning of a better day, on the mountain tops, and the 
 youngest members of this house, if they live to reach the age of the 
 oldest, will see a change pass over the public mind, and over public 
 action, not only in respect to the professional education of teachers, 
 but the whole subject of common schools. Old, dilapidated, incon- 
 venient school-houses will give place to new, attractive, and commodi- 
 ous structures. Young children will be placed universally under the 
 care of accomplished female teachers; female teachers will be em- 
 ployed in every grade of schools as assistants, and in most of our 
 country districts, as sole principals: a school of a 'higher order' than 
 the district school will receive the older boys and girls, not only of a 
 district, but of a society, and the common school will no longer be 
 regarded as common, because it is cheap, inferior, and patronized only 
 by the poor, and those who are indifferent to the education of their 
 children, but common as the light and the air, because its blessings 
 are open to all, and enjoyed by all. The passage of this resolution will 
 hasten on that day; but whether the resolution is passed or not, that 
 day will assuredly come, and it will bring along a train of rich 
 blessings which will be felt in the field and the workshop, and convert 
 many a home into a circle of unfading smiles. For one, I mean to 
 enjoy the satisfaction of the labor, let who will enter into the harvest." 
 
 In the Senate it was referred to the Board of Commis- 
 sioners of Common Schools, to report to the next General 
 Assembly a specific plan of expenditure. 
 
 What the Legislature thus refused to do, the Secretary 
 undertook to do at his own expense, in order "to show the 
 practicability of making some provision for the better qual- 
 ification of common school teachers, by giving them an op- 
 portunity to revise and extend their knowledge of the stud- 
 ies usually pursued in district schools, and of the best meth- 
 ods of school arrangements, instruction and government, 
 under the recitations and lectures of experienced and well- 
 known teachers and educators." 
 
 A class was formed from such teachers of Hartford coun- 
 ty as were disposed to come together on public notice, and 
 placed under the general charge of Mr. Wright, the Prin- 
 cipal of the Grammar School. Mr. Wright gave instruction
 
 NORMAL SCHOOL IN CONNECTICUT. 17 
 
 in Grammar and in methods of school keeping. Mr. Post, a 
 teacher in the Grammar School, reviewed the whole subject 
 of Mental and Practical Arithmetic, with full explanations 
 of the difficult points in Fractions, Roots, &c. Professor 
 Davies explained the different parts of the higher Mathe- 
 matics, so far as they were ever taught in district schools, 
 or would help to explain elementary Arithmetic. Rev. Mr. 
 Barton, formerly connected with the Teachers' Seminary 
 at Andover, gave lessons in Reading. Rev. T. H. Gallaudet 
 explained how Composition could be taught even to the 
 younger classes in schools, and gave several familiar lectures 
 on school government, and the instruction of very young 
 children by means of the slate. Mr. Brace, Principal of 
 Hartford Female Seminary, explained the first principles 
 of Mathematical and Astronomical Geography, the use of 
 Globes, &c. Mr. Snow, Principal of the Center District 
 School, gave several practical lessons in methods of teach- 
 ing, with classes in his own school. Mr. Barnard delivered 
 several lectures explanatory of the relations of the teacher 
 to the school system, to parents and their pupils ; also on the 
 laws of health to be practically observed by pupils and 
 teachers in the school-room; and on the best modes of con- 
 ducting the Teachers' Associations, and interesting parents. 
 A portion of each day was also devoted to oral discussions 
 and written essays on subjects connected with teaching, 
 and to visiting the best schools in Hartford. Before separat- 
 ing, the members of the Teachers' Class published a "Card," 
 expressing "their most cordial thanks, for the very excellent 
 course of instruction which they have been permitted to en- 
 joy during a few weeks past. They also beg leave to present 
 their sincere thanks to those gentlemen who have so kindly 
 instructed them, for the very familiar, lucid and interesting 
 manner in which the different subjects have been present- 
 ed." 
 
 On the success of this experiment, the Secretary of the 
 Board, in the Connecticut Common School Journal, for No- 
 vember, 1839, says, 
 
 "We have no hesitation in saying that a judicious application of 
 one-fifth of the sum appropriated unanimously by the House of Repre- 
 sentatives, to promote the education of teachers for common schools, 
 in different sections of the State, would have accomplished more for 
 the usefulness of the coming winter schools and the ultimate pros- 
 perity of the school system, than the expenditure of half the avails of 
 the School Fund in the present way. One thousand at least of the 
 eighteen hundred teachers, would have enjoyed an opportunity of crit- 
 ically revising the studies which they will be called upon to teach, 
 with a full explanation of all the principfes involved, and with refer- 
 
 B
 
 18 NORMAL SCHOOL IN CONNECTICUT. 
 
 ence to the connection which one branch of knowledge bears to an- 
 other, and also to the best methods of communicating each, and the 
 adaptation of different methods to different minds. They would have 
 become familiar with the views and methods of experienced teachers, 
 as they are carried out in better conducted schools than those with 
 which they had been familiar. They would have entered upon their 
 schools, with a rich fund of practical knowledge, gathered from obser- 
 vation, conversation and lectures; and with many of their own defec- 
 tive, erroneous, and perhaps mischievous views, corrected and im- 
 proved. Who can tell how many minds will be perverted, how many 
 tempers ruined, how much injury done to the heart, the morals, and 
 the manners of children, in consequence of the injudicious methods of 
 inexperienced and incompetent teachers, the coming winter? The 
 heart, the manners, the morals, the minds of the children are, or should 
 be in the eye of the state, too precious materials for a teacher to 
 experiment upon, with a view to qualify himself for his profession; 
 and yet the teacher is compelled to do so under the present order of 
 things. He has no opportunity afforded him, as every mechanic has, 
 to learn his trade; and if he had, there is but little inducement held 
 out for him to do this. No man is so insane as to employ a workman 
 to construct any valuable or delicate piece of mechanism, who is to 
 learn how to do it for the first time on that very article. No one 
 employs any other than an experienced artist to repair a watch. No 
 parent intrusts the management of a lawsuit, involving his property 
 or his reputation, to an attorney who has not studied his profession 
 and given evidence of his ability. No one sends for a physician to 
 administer to his health, who has not studied the human constitution 
 and the nature and uses of medicine. No one sends a shoe to be 
 mended, or a horse to be shod, or a plough to be repaired, except to an 
 experienced workman; and yet parents will employ teachers, who are 
 to educate their children for two worlds who are to mould and fashion 
 and develop that most delicate, complicated, and wonderful piece of 
 mechanism, the human being, the most delicate and wonderful of all 
 God's creations to fit them for usefulness in life, to become upright 
 and intelligent witnesses, jurors, electors, legislators, and rulers, safe 
 in their power to resist the manifold temptations to vice and crime 
 which will beset their future path, strong and happy in the 'godlike 
 union of right feelings with correct principles.' " 
 
 From the proceedings of the Board of Commissioners, it 
 appears that the subject received their attention, and they 
 thus refer to it in their Report of 1840 : 
 
 "Wherever Normal Schools have been established and ably sus- 
 tained, the experiment has uniformly resulted in supplying teachers of 
 a superior order. As in every other art whose principles are reduced 
 to rule, and matured into a system, the learner is not limited to the 
 slow and scanty results of his single, unaided experience, but is at 
 once enriched with the accumulated treasures of all who have labored 
 in the same mine before him. Without such an opportunity, he may 
 be compared to the medical practitioner, who commences his labors 
 without the knowledge of any settled principles of his art, but expects 
 to acquire his knowledge of his profession in the course of his prac- 
 tice. If it is plain that the physician needs, at the commencement of 
 his career, that knowledge of the healing art, which contains the em- 
 bodied experience of those who have gone before him, and carried his 
 profession to the highest degree of excellence, no less does the in- 
 structor of a school need the wisdom of his predecessors to guide him, 
 at his first setting out; nor can he any better afford to wait for the
 
 NORMAL SCHOOL IN CONNECTICUT. 19 
 
 slow returns of his own experience. Indeed, there is in the case of 
 the young teacher, a peculiar need of this wisdom in advance, since 
 the employment is not usually a business for life, but only of a few 
 years at farthest, a period in itself too short to gain much of the 
 wisdom of experience, and terminated almost as soon as such wisdom 
 begins to be acquired. 
 
 In the opinion of the Board, we can not make an adequate provision 
 for the supply of the requisite number of teachers, who shall be at 
 once capable of teaching, in the best manner, all that the pupils of our 
 common schools are capable of learning, and of conducting the order 
 and government of their institutions, according to the most approved 
 methods, without the establishment of NORMAL SCHOOLS, devoted ex- 
 clusively to the education of teachers in the principles and practice 
 of their profession, and guided by men eminent for their talents and 
 practical wisdom. But if it is thought that we are not prepared to 
 erect and sustain seminaries of this independent and elevated descrip- 
 tion, the Board would suggest the expediency of commencing the work 
 of educating teachers on a limited scale, by connecting a department 
 for this purpose, with some of the existing academies in different 
 sections of the state. A small amount of funds, judiciously expended 
 in the modes indicated by the Secretary in his Report, would, in the 
 opinion of the Board, accomplish a great, immediate good in improving 
 the qualifications of our common school teachers. 
 
 The resolution appropriating five thousand dollars from the Treas- 
 ury, to be expended by the Board, in promoting and securing the 
 requisite qualification of teachers for the common schools of the state, 
 provided, that an amount equal to that applied for should be placed at 
 their disposal from other sources, for the same object, which passed 
 the House of Representatives, at the last session of the Legislature, 
 and was afterward, by a joint vote of both Houses, referred to the 
 Board for some specific plans of expenditure, has received the con- 
 sideration of a Committee of their number, and of the Board at its 
 last meeting. In their opinion, the sum is too small, even with such 
 local and individual subscriptions, as could now be raised, to authorize 
 the establishment of a thoroughly organized Normal School. If this 
 sum, therefore, had been placed at their disposal, they would have 
 expended it in the different counties of the state, under such circum- 
 stances as would have called forth as widely extended co-operation and 
 contributions from towns and individuals as possible, and have diffused 
 its agency over a period of three years." 
 
 The Secretary, in his Report to the Board, in 1840, dis- 
 cusses the whole subject in the following manner: 
 
 "The most efficient instrumentality, however, on which we can rely 
 for the permanent and almost indefinite improvement of education in 
 our common schools, is the employment of teachers properly qualified 
 for their duties. The want of such teachers is widely felt, and the 
 absence of all arrangements for securing the necessary supply, is the 
 principal defect in our system. 
 
 What can be done to remove this defect? Upon the practical solution 
 of this problem depends the immediate and permanent prosperity of 
 our schools. 
 
 1. The first and necessarily imperfect method of securing well-quali- 
 fied teachers, would be to raise the standard of qualification now re- 
 quired by law, and to create a county or senatorial district board for 
 the examination of teachers. This would operate to induce candidates 
 to prepare themselves more extensively and thoroughly in the studies
 
 20 NORMAL SCHOOL IN CONNECTICUT. 
 
 which they are to teach, and on which they are to be examined, and 
 would exclude in a great measure the operation of local, family, and 
 personal influences, in granting or withholding the necessary certifi- 
 cates. There is, however, no sure test of ability and skill in instruc- 
 tion and government, but actual demonstration in the school-room. To 
 secure this practical knowledge, other means than those of examina- 
 tion, however strict and impartial, such as now exist in the State, 
 must be provided. 
 
 2. A second method would be to improve the present sources relied 
 on for supporting teachers. These sources are the common schools, 
 and the higher seminaries of education. Both might be made far more 
 efficient than they now are in this respect, by engrafting upon them 
 a class or department for the education of teachers. 
 
 From the older and more advanced scholars of either sex of the 
 district schools, or the high school if it exists, such as have dis- 
 tinguished themselves by their scholarship and good conduct, and 
 manifest the requisite talents, as well as desire to become teachers, 
 might be selected to receive, in the evening and at such other times 
 as might be found convenient, specific instruction in the theory and 
 practice of teaching. These might be allowed to assist in their re- 
 spective schools under the direction of the teacher, with great profit to 
 themselves, and to the younger classes especially. They would thus 
 have an opportunity of applying their instructions to practice, they 
 would not be educated above their business, and would acquire the 
 habits and methods of teaching in the very class of schools which they 
 would afterward be called upon to instruct. If school societies under- 
 stood their own interest, they would establish a common school of a 
 higher order, if for no other purpose than to provide a home supply 
 of better teachers for their respective districts. In Holland this 
 method was formerly the sole resort for the training of teachers, but 
 in perfecting her system of primary instruction, regularly organized 
 Normal Schools have been lately established. In the public schools of 
 the city of New York, this plan is thoroughly organized and carried 
 out. In Boston and Philadelphia, a model school is connected with it. 
 
 Academies and similar institutions can become more useful than 
 they now are in supplying good teachers 
 
 First, by instituting a 'teachers' class' in the winter and spring, for 
 young ladies, and in the summer and autumn for young men, who 
 have been teachers, or expect to become such soon. Here they should 
 have an opportunity to revise the studies of the district school, and 
 receive such knowledge of the best methods and familiar practical 
 illustrations as the principal and other friends of education can give 
 during the period allotted to the course. An experiment of this kind 
 was tried at Hartford, in the Grammar School, with a class of twenty- 
 six young men, and in the Female Seminary with a class of sixteen 
 young ladies, with the most gratifying results. 
 
 Second, by organizing a department for the more liberal and thor- 
 ough education of teachers. Such a department should include a pro- 
 fessor, who should devote his whole time to the theory and practice of 
 education, a course of instruction embracing all the studies of the 
 common schools, with the best methods of communicating them to 
 others, and a model school. The model school might be a primary 
 department of the academy, under an appropriate assistant, or the 
 neighboring district school, in which, under the supervision of the 
 professor, the best methods should be pursued. The students of the 
 department should have an opportunity, not only of witnessing fre- 
 quently and familiarly the exercises and management of this school,
 
 NORMAL SCHOOL IN CONNECTICUT. 21 
 
 but should receive explanations and lectures there, as to the modes 
 pursued, be allowed to conduct the recitations, and on return to the 
 class-room, be required to give their views, in writing and orally, on 
 what they had seen or heard. 
 
 In giving the above outline of a properly organized 'Teachers' De- 
 partment,' I have in reality incorporated the Normal School with the 
 Academy. The advantages of this arrangement are the saving of much 
 additional expense for buildings, apparatus, and assistants, and the 
 liberalizing influence of association in the recitation-room, and out of 
 it, with persons destined to other pursuits, on the mind and manners 
 of those who are to become teachers. The disadvantages are, in the 
 present comparatively low social and literary position, accorded to 
 the profession, in public estimation, lest the department and those 
 connected with it, should be regarded as only an appendage to the 
 Academy; and those destined for a longer or shorter time to become 
 teachers, lose that enthusiasm to the proposed calling, which is essen- 
 tial to eminent success, and acquire, what under the most favorable 
 circumstances is likely to come soon enough, a partiality for those 
 pursuits, which they see command a higher social rank, more honor- 
 able fame, and a richer pecuniary return. What is now wanted in 
 this State, and in the country, are institutions in which the exclusive 
 attention of men of the first talents and experience in education, 
 should be devoted to the distinct object of giving the greatest practical 
 elevation and efficiency to the profession of common school teacher, 
 and where all the arrangements, to the minutest detail, should be 
 shaped to establish this great end. This want can be in no way so 
 effectually supplied as by the establishment of, at least, one thoroughly 
 organized Normal School." 
 
 The Board, in the Third Annual Report for 1841, again 
 recommend : 
 
 "That some provision be made for the establishment of Normal 
 Schools, or Seminaries for the training of teachers, where a practical 
 knowledge of the best methods of arranging the classes and studies, 
 and conducting the government and instruction of district schools, can 
 be communicated and illustrated. One such school, under an experi- 
 enced principal and assistant, with a model school connected with it, 
 where theory can be carried into practice, and an example given of 
 what a district school ought to be, would draw to it numbers of our 
 young men, and young women, to improve the qualifications they 
 already possess for teaching, and gain the experience and skill which 
 are necessary. 
 
 An appropriation for this object will supply a radical defect in our 
 system, and give an impulse of the most powerful and salutary, char- 
 acter, to the cause of school improvement." 
 
 Again, in his Third Annual Report, the Secretary of the 
 Board returns to the subject, dwelling more particularly on 
 the establishment of one Normal School: 
 
 "But the most effectual way of improving the qualifications of teach- 
 ers, of creating in them, and in the community, a proper estimate of 
 the true dignity and usefulness of the office, of carrying out into 
 practice the soundest views of education, is to establish at least one 
 institution for their specific training. 
 
 Such an institution, in the outset at least, had better be confined to 
 the preparation of female teachers. The course of instruction should 
 have special reference to common schools in the country. The model
 
 22 NOBMAL SCHOOL IN CONNECTICUT. 
 
 school should, as far as practicable, bear a close resemblance in its 
 elements to an ordinary district school. The pupils should be such as 
 are willing to meet a portion of the expense of residence at the insti- 
 tution, by the assistance they would render at such times as would 
 not interfere with the studies and exercises of the place. 
 
 The whole spirit of the institution should be such as to invite those 
 only to come, who have a natural fondness for the office of teaching, 
 and are animated in their preparatory work, by higher motives than 
 the hope of pecuniary returns they are likely to receive. 
 
 The establishment of one or more schools of this description, is 
 recommended in nearly every communication from school visitors. 
 They have been objected to, in four instances, for the following rea- 
 sons. 'They are of foreign origin.' They need not necessarily be 
 modeled, and indeed ought not to be, after foreign institutions. They 
 should be adapted to meet our own wants, to raise up Connecticut 
 teachers for Connecticut schools. The objection is as valid against 
 institutions for the deaf and dumb, or the blind, or the insane, or 
 colleges, or even the common school, which is only an improvement 
 on the parochial schools of Germany. 
 
 'They are unnecessary: our colleges, academies and private schools, 
 can furnish teachers for the higher order of common schools, and 
 these last for the district school.' It is possible that much might be 
 done in this way, but at present, there are no adequate means pro- 
 vided in any of the institutions for the specific training, or the 
 apprenticeship required. We have good teachers, but they have become 
 such, by improving their native tact by experience in the school-room: 
 but who knows how many minds and hearts have been ruined or 
 injured by the experiments of beginners? The best teachers uni- 
 versally acknowledge the value and necessity of such schools. 
 
 'Those who are educated there, will not become teachers for life, or 
 teachers in common schools.' They will, however, be more likely to 
 make teaching a profession, than any other class. It would answer 
 a good purpose, even if they taught for a few years. To provide 
 against the last result, the institution should be confined to females, 
 and those who receive its benefits, should come under obligations to 
 teach two or three years in common schools; but above all, they should 
 be such only as are actuated by the highest devotional feelings. 
 
 'The teachers thus educated, will be few compared with the number 
 of schools.' But a beginning must be made, and in the present state 
 of the public mind, and of the public schools, a single demonstration 
 of what can be done, and of the best manner of doing it, is needed. 
 The good which a few teachers properly trained, would do, would not 
 be confined to the districts in which they labored. Their schools 
 would become model schools for other districts, and the awakening 
 influence of their example and precept would be felt all around them. 
 Teachers who have not enjoyed the advantages of such training, would 
 strive to excel those who had, and thus a wholesome spirit of emulation 
 would be provoked among teachers. 
 
 'Districts will not pay wages sufficient to employ teachers who are 
 thus prepared.' There are districts which pay liberally, and who look 
 long and far to find good teachers. Such districts would go directly 
 to such an institution for their teachers. Besides, an improvement in 
 the qualifications of teachers, would to some extent increase the de- 
 mand for them, and the demand would increase the compensation. 
 
 'The time required for this preparation is more than most teachers 
 can give.' Although it would be desirable to extend the course of
 
 NORMAL SCHOOL IN CONNECTICUT. 23 
 
 instruction to two years at least, still much can be accomplished in a 
 brief period. Six months' residence in such an institution, with daily 
 practice or observation in the model school, or even a shorter period, 
 would be of incalculable service. 
 
 'The expense of such an institution will be great.' Like other good 
 institutions, it will cost something, but the cost will depend somewhat 
 on the scale with which it is commenced. An appropriation of $10,000 
 on the part of the State, united with what could be raised by individual 
 subscriptions, would be sufficient to make a fair trial." 
 
 In 1844, a Committee of eight members, one from each 
 county, was appointed by the General Assembly, to take in- 
 to consideration the state of Common Schools in Connecti- 
 cut, and report on the subject to the next session, with plans 
 and suggestions for their improvement. This Committee, in 
 their Report of May, 1845, which was printed and widely 
 circulated, remark, that true economy, as well as the higher 
 inducement of the best interests of the State, in the im- 
 proved education of its children, would be promoted by the 
 establishment of a Normal School. 
 
 "There is one other improvement which your Committee deem of 
 great importance, but which they do not think the present state of the 
 public mind would justify, viz the establishment of a Normal School 
 or Teachers' Seminary. 
 
 Teaching is an art, subject to certain rules and principles like any 
 other art. It is true, that individuals may attain some degree of skill 
 in teaching, without having had regular and systematic instruction in 
 the art; as some men do in the arts of the painter, the carpenter, or 
 the smith, without having served a regular apprenticeship. It is true, 
 too, that every one gets some idea of teaching while he is himself 
 obtaining the rudiments of knowledge. But who would intrust an 
 important work in building, machinery, or painting, or send a son to 
 serve an apprenticeship, with an artisan who had not been regularly 
 taught his profession, unless indeed he were satisfied that by long 
 study and experience, he had fully made up for the deficiency in his 
 early education. 
 
 How much more, then, should we hesitate to commit the education 
 of our children to unskillful hands to those who have barely suf- 
 ficient attainments to entitle them to the certificate required by law, 
 without having had the slightest instruction, or experience, in the art 
 of teaching, and who even acquired the rudiments of knowledge from 
 those who were themselves exceedingly deficient both in art and 
 learning. 
 
 By far the greater part of our teachers, when they begin to instruct, 
 are of this character. Many never teach but a single season. Others, 
 who continue in the profession, change their school, season after 
 season, giving no satisfaction to their employers, and deriving none 
 themselves from their pursuit. A few only become successful teachers, 
 and these soon find their way, as has before been said, into such 
 common schools as duly appreciate their talents, or are employed in 
 private schools and academies. 
 
 It is said by experienced teachers, that every child in the State 
 might obtain, at twelve years of age, under proper instruction in the
 
 24 NORMAL SCHOOL IN CONNECTICUT. 
 
 common schools, a good practical knowledge in all the branches re- 
 quired by law to be taught in those schools. How different is the fact 
 now! 
 
 Your Committee are of the opinion that true economy, as well as 
 the higher inducement of the best interests of the state, in the im- 
 proved education of its children, would be promoted by the establish- 
 ment of a Normal School. The annual expense of a school adapted to 
 this state, would probably be about $4,000, or 5 cents a year for each 
 child in the state. The public, however, have at present but little 
 information on the subject. There can be no doubt, that sooner or 
 later, these institutions will be deemed an indispensable part of every 
 common school system." 
 
 In 1846, the General Assembly, by a concurrent vote, ap- 
 proved "in the main," of a plan, submitted by the Joint 
 Standing Committee on Education, for the improvement of 
 the school system, which embraced among other features, 
 the establishment of a Normal School. This plan, with the 
 Report of the Committee, was ordered to be printed, and two 
 thousand copies circulated with the laws relating to com- 
 mon schools. The attention of the school visitors in every 
 school society, was specially called to the subject by the Su- 
 perintendent, with a request that they would communicate 
 their views to this department on its various features. In 
 almost every instance the Normal School feature of the plan 
 was approved, and most heartily in those societies where 
 the schools were in the best condition, and the subject had 
 received the most attention. In his Report to the General 
 Assembly in May, 1847, the Superintendent submitted the 
 results of his reflections on the subject as follows : 
 
 "The most important improvement recommended by the Committee, 
 is the establishment of a Normal School, or Seminary for the instruc- 
 tion of teachers, or the training of the young men and young women 
 of the state, who have the requisite qualifications of talent, tact, and 
 character, to a practical knowledge of the best methods of school in- 
 struction and government. This subject has long been before the 
 people of this state. The first distinct presentation of its claims, and 
 one of the ablest ever made, was given by the Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, 
 of Hartford, in a series of articles in the Connecticut Observer, com- 
 menced in January, 1825, and afterward published in a pamphlet. This 
 pamphlet has been republished entire, or in copious extracts, in most 
 of the educational periodicals of the country, and has undoubtedly 
 aided in preparing the public mind for the action which has already 
 followed in several states, and which is likely to take place still more 
 generally. From the communications received from school visitors on 
 this point, both for this and the last year, it will be seen that the 
 friends of school improvement, from every section of the state, are 
 calling for some legislative action on this subject. 
 
 The plan of a Normal School or Teachers' Seminary, embraces a 
 thorough course of instruction in the studies pursued in common 
 schools under competent teachers, with reference to teaching the same 
 things to others. This last includes the art of teaching, or a knowledge 
 of human nature and of the human mind, and of the order in which its 
 several faculties should be called into exercise; of the best motives
 
 NORMAL SCHOOL IN CONNECTICUT. 25 
 
 by which good habits of study can be cultivated In the young; of the 
 arrangement and classification of scholars, and of the best means and 
 appliances for securing obedience and order, and for keeping alive an 
 interest in the daily exercises of the school. To accomplish these 
 things thoroughly, there must be all the necessary apparatus for illus- 
 tration and experiment in reference to the studies pursued, and a 
 model school where the future teacher may, as it were, serve an 
 apprenticeship in the workshop of education. The Normal School 
 should do for the teacher what the directions of the master-workman, 
 and the usual term and duties of the apprenticeship do for the future 
 mechanic; and the law school, or the medical school, or the theological 
 seminary does for the professions of law, medicine or theology. It 
 should give a thorough knowledge of what is to be done, and the 
 practical skill how to do it. We have teachers who have acquired this 
 knowledge and skill, but in too many instances they have acquired 
 the same by experience and experiments in the school-room, at the 
 expense of time lost, tempers ruined, and minds distorted, of the 
 children of the state. The Normal School affords an opportunity to 
 such persons as have the requisite natural qualifications, of acquiring 
 the knowledge and experience necessary for the highest success, with- 
 out subjecting the schools to the ruinous waste of time and mind to 
 which they are now exposed. 
 
 This subject has already attracted the attention of the Legislatures 
 of other states, and it will not probably be long before a large number 
 of our sister states will enjoy the benefits of these institutions. Surely 
 Connecticut, which was the first seriously to agitate the subject, ought 
 not to be the last to avail herself of the wise suggestions of her own 
 citizens, and the experience of two such states as New York and 
 Massachusetts. If the Legislature would pledge the means to sustain 
 the annual expense of one such school, on an economical scale, for a 
 period long enough to give the institution a fair trial, it is believed 
 that there are towns in which it should be located, and individuals, 
 ready to provide the necessary buildings, furniture and apparatus." 
 
 This document was referred to the Joint Standing Com- 
 mittee on Education, who in their remarks on "the estab- 
 lishment of schools, where teaching as an art shall be 
 taught," say, "From these returns, your Committee have 
 been led to suppose that the time has come for the State to 
 do something for the establishment of such seminaries." 
 
 The Committee deemed it best for the Legislature to pro- 
 ceed with caution in the matter, and therefore, after recom- 
 mending provision for temporary Normal Schools, or Teach- 
 ers' Institutes, proposed the appointment of a Committee, 
 "to make due examination, and report to the next Legisla- 
 ture a definite plan for the support, location, and internal 
 arrangement of one or more schools for teachers." This 
 Committee was accordingly appointed, and after visiting 
 the Normal Schools in New York and Massachusetts, sub- 
 mitted a Report to the Legislature, in which they in 1848, 
 recommended an appropriation of $2,500 a year for four 
 years, toward the support of a Normal School, to be located 
 by a Board of Trustees, consisting of eight members, one 
 for each county, to be chosen by the General Assembly. The
 
 26 NORMAL SCHOOL IN CONNECTICUT. 
 
 Committee state that liberal offers were received from sev- 
 eral towns, which guarantee that the State shall be at no 
 expense for buildings, &c. The plan of the Committee was 
 embodied in a Bill which passed the House of Representa- 
 tives by a large majority, and was lost in the Senate by one 
 vote. The Committee in their Report remark: 
 
 "That in the course of their examination, whatever doubts any of 
 them had previously entertained with regard to the utility of such 
 schools, and the expediency of establishing them, those doubts have 
 been entirely removed; such schools are no longer to be regarded as 
 a doubtful experiment." 
 
 The Superintendent, in his Report for 1849, after enum- 
 erating the various instances in which the establishment of 
 Normal Schools has been presented to the Legislature, adds : 
 
 "Such is a brief history of the manner in which the spe- 
 cial training of teachers for their work, has been brought be- 
 fore the Legislature and the people of the state. To this it 
 may be added, that many essays on the subject have been 
 published in the public prints and in pamphlet form, and 
 that in the course of the last six years it has been distinctly 
 presented in the written reports of the school visitors of 
 more than half of the school societies of the state. It would 
 be an insult to the common intelligence of the people of the 
 state to suppose that the subject was not understood. And 
 as no considerable opposition has been manifested, it may 
 fairly be presumed that they are prepared for some action 
 on the subject." 
 
 And such was the opinion of the General Assembly in 
 1849, as will appear by the documents which follow. To the 
 Report of the Superintendent for 1849, was appended a 
 Plan of a Teachers' Seminary by Rev. Merrill Richardson, 
 of Terryville, who in an address delivered before the School 
 Society of Plymouth, in 1842, and in the Connecticut School 
 Manual, from 1846 to 1848, and in addresses delivered be- 
 fore the Teachers' Institutes, and in other ways by lip and 
 pen, proved himself an earnest and efficient advocate before 
 the people, of a Normal School or Teachers' Seminary. To 
 this gentleman, to the Hon. Seth P. Beers, to John P. Nor- 
 ton, Esq., of Farmington, to Hon. Lorin P. Waldo, of Tol- 
 land, and particularly to James M. Bunce, Esq., of Hart- 
 ford, are the friends of school improvement indebted for 
 the establishment of a Normal School in Connecticut, in 
 just ten years after the subject was first officially brought 
 before the Legislature.
 
 LEGISLATION OF CONNECTICUT 
 
 RESPECTING NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 AN ACT for the establishment of a State Normal School. 
 
 SEC. 1. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in 
 General Assembly convened, There shall be established, as hereinafter 
 provided, one Normal School, or seminary for the training of teachers 
 in the art of instructing and governing the common schools of this 
 state; the object of which Normal School, or seminary, shall be, not to 
 educate teachers in the studies now required by law, but to receive 
 such as are found competent in these studies, in the manner herein- 
 after provided, and train them in the best methods of teaching and 
 conducting common schools. 
 
 SEC. 2. There shall be appointed, by the Legislature, eight trustees 
 of said Normal School, one from each county in the state; two of whom 
 shall, in the first instance, hold their office for one year, two for two 
 years, two for three years, and two for four years, the term of office 
 to be by them determined, by lot or otherwise; the vacancies to be 
 filled by appointment by the Legislature, for the residue of the term 
 which shall so become vacant; and the Superintendent of Common 
 Schools, ex-officio, shall also be a member of said board. 
 
 SEC. 3. The expenses necessarily incurred by said trustees, in the 
 discharge of their duties, shall be defrayed out of the funds herein 
 appropriated for the support of said school; and they shall receive no 
 compensation for their services. 
 
 SEC. 4. To said board of trustees shall be committed the location of 
 said school; the application of the funds for the support thereof; the 
 appointment of teachers, and power of removing the same; the power 
 to prescribe the studies and exercises of the school, rules for its man- 
 agement, and granting diplomas; and they shall report annually to 
 the Legislature their own doings, and the progress and condition of 
 the school, and the said trustees are hereby authorized to change the 
 location of said Normal School, from time to time, as they deem best 
 for the interest of said school, and for the accommodation of the pupils 
 in the different parts of the state, provided suitable buildings and 
 fixtures are furnished without expense to the state. 
 
 SEC. 5. The number of pupils shall not exceed -two hundred and 
 twenty; and the visitors of each school society in the state shall be 
 requested to forward to the Superintendent of Common Schools, an- 
 nually, the names of four persons, two of each sex, applicants for 
 admission to said school, whom the said visitors shall certify they 
 have examined and approved as possessed of the qualifications required 
 of teachers of common schools in this state; which applicants shall 
 have given to said visitors a written declaration, signed with their 
 own hands, that their object in seeking admission to the school is to 
 qualify themselves for the employment of common school teachers; 
 and that it is their intention to engage in that employment in this 
 state, which applicants the said visitors shall recommend to the trus- 
 tees as suitable persons, by their age, character, talents and attain- 
 ments, to be received as pupils in the Normal School. The trustees 
 shall select by lot, from the whole number of applicants from each
 
 28 AN ACT CONCERNING EDUCATION. 
 
 county, the proportion of pupils to which such county is entitled by its 
 population, of male and female, each an equal number: Provided, that 
 not more than one shall be admitted from any school society, till each 
 society, from which an application is made, shall have a pupil in the 
 school. The trustees shall forward to each pupil, so appointed, a 
 certificate of his appointment, returning also to the principal a list of 
 pupils appointed to the school. If there shall not be a sufficient 
 number of applicants from any county, to fill the number of appoint- 
 ments allowed to such county, the trustees shall fill the vacancy by 
 lot from among the whole number of remaining applicants. To all 
 pupils so admitted to the school, the tuition and all the privileges of 
 the school shall be gratuitous. 
 
 SEC. 6. The said trustees are authorized to make provisions for a 
 Model Primary School, under a permanent teacher approved by them, 
 in which the pupils of the Normal School shall have opportunity to 
 practice the modes of instruction and discipline inculcated in the Nor- 
 mal School. 
 
 SEC. 7. For the support of said Normal School, there is hereby ap- 
 propriated the bonus derived from the "State Bank," and the interest 
 which may accrue thereon ; from which the sum of twenty-five hundred 
 dollars, annually, for the term of four years, shall be paid to said 
 trustees, with said interest, by order of the Comptroller, on the Treas- 
 urer of the State; no part of which sum shall be expended in any 
 building or fixtures for said school. 
 
 Approved, June 22d, 1849. 
 
 Public Acts, May session, 1849. 
 
 EXTRACT from Section 1st of an Act, incorporating the State Bank at 
 
 Hartford. 
 
 "Provided, That the President and Directors of said bank shall pay 
 into the treasury of this state the sum of ten thousand dollars, as a 
 bonus, which sum shall be appropriated to the support of a Normal 
 School in this state, in such ways and at such place as shall be pro- 
 vided by the Legislature." 
 
 Resolutions and Private Acts, May session, 1849. 
 
 EXTRACT from Section 12th of an Act Incorporating the Deep River 
 
 Bank. 
 
 "Provided, That before said bank shall commence discounting notes, 
 the Directors of said bank shall pay to the treasurer of this state the 
 sum of one thousand dollars for the purpose of sustaining a Normal 
 School in this state." 
 
 Resolutions and Private Acts, May session, 1849. 
 
 "Resolved, That the Comptroller of Public Accounts be, and he here- 
 by is directed to draw an order on the Treasurer of the State, payable 
 to the trustees of the State Normal School, for the sum of one thousand 
 dollars, heretofore deposited with said Treasurer, by the Deep River 
 Bank, for the use of said School." 
 
 Resolutions and Private Acts, May session, 1850.
 
 AN ACT CONCERNING EDUCATION. 29 
 
 AN ACT in alteration of "An Act concerning Education" 
 
 SEC. 1. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in 
 General Assembly convened, The Principal of the State Normal School, 
 shall be, ex-officio, Superintendent of Common Schools, whose duty it 
 shall be to exercise a general supervision over the common schools of 
 the state, to collect information from school visitors in the manner 
 provided in the twenty-fifth section of the Act concerning Education, 
 and from other sources, to prepare and submit an annual report to the 
 General Assembly, containing a statement of the condition of the 
 common schools of the state, plans and suggestions for the improve- 
 ment and better organization of the common school system, and all 
 such matters relating to his office and to the interests of education as 
 he shall deem expedient to communicate. 
 
 SEC 2. That the Superintendent appointed by virtue hereof be, and 
 he is hereby authorized and directed to hold at one convenient place 
 in each county of the state, in the months of September, October or 
 November annually, schools or conventions of teachers, for the purpose 
 of instructing in the best modes of governing and teaching our common 
 schools, and to employ one suitable person to assist him at each of 
 said schools. 
 
 SEC. 3. That the compensation of the Superintendent shall be three 
 dollars per day, in full for his services while actually employed in 
 performing the duties required of him by law, and shall be allowed 
 his necessary disbursements for traveling expenses, stationery, print- 
 ing and clerk-hire, in the business of said office. And the person or 
 persons by him employed in assisting at said school, shall be allowed 
 not exceeding three dollars per day for the time occupied in traveling 
 to and from, and attending said school conventions; which compensa- 
 tion and disbursements shall be paid from the civil list funds of the 
 state, after being taxed and allowed by the Comptroller, who shall 
 draw an order on the State Treasurer therefor. 
 
 SEC. 4. That the Superintendent of Common Schools be, and he Is 
 hereby directed to give seasonable notice to each school society of the 
 times and places of holding said schools or conventions, and such other 
 notice to the teachers as he may deem expedient. 
 
 SEC. 5. That so much of the tenth section of the Act concerning 
 Education as constitutes the Commissioner of the School Fund, ex- 
 officio, Superintendent of Common Schools, and the resolve, passed in 
 1848, providing for employing persons to hold schools of teachers, 
 and for holding the same, be, and the same are hereby repealed. 
 Provided, that the Commissioner of the School Fund shall, ex-officio, 
 remain Superintendent of Common Schools, exercising all the powers 
 heretofore conferred on him, until the Principal of the State Normal 
 School shall be appointed, and enter on the duties of said appointment. 
 
 Approved, June 22d, 1849. 
 
 Public Acts, May session, 1849.
 
 FIRST ANNUAL REPORT 
 
 OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL OF 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 SUBMITTED MAY 15TH, 1850. 
 
 To the General Assembly of the State of Connecticut: 
 
 THE Board of Trustees of the State Normal School, in conformity to 
 a requisition of the act for the establishment of the same, respectfully 
 present their first Annual Report. 
 
 The Board, at its first meeting, on the 7th of August, after duly or- 
 ganizing, resolved to issue a public notice, inviting proposals for the 
 location of the school, either permanent, or otherwise, as the act pro- 
 vides. To this invitation but one town made a prompt response, and 
 for a time the projected institution seemed in danger of prospective 
 defeat, from public apathy and indifference. After the lapse of some 
 two or three months, the cause of this alarming silence was under- 
 stood to proceed from the general impression which had gone abroad, 
 that the institution was to be of a migratory nature, and pass from 
 place to place, without remaining long enough anywhere, to gain a 
 residence, and make its acquisition desirable. No adequate inducement 
 was offered to the people of any locality in the state, to make the 
 necessary outlay, and offer the proposals solicited. 
 
 To obviate this embarrassment, and induce the requisite proposals, 
 the Board, at a subsequent meeting, in the exercise of the discretionary 
 power vested in it, resolved, that, wherever located, the institution 
 should be permanently established during four years, at least, the pe- 
 riod contemplated by the act. Soon after it was understood that such 
 action had been taken by the Board, the cloud of uncertainty which 
 had hung over the fate of the projected institution, disappeared, and 
 liberal offers were made by several towns in the central part of the 
 state, which will be further noticed in the sequel of this report. 
 
 Another question of great moment, deeply involving the welfare of 
 the institution, claimed and received the early attention of the Board, 
 viz. who shall be its Principal? On the decision of this question, the 
 Board felt that very much of the character and usefulness of the 
 institution was depending; and it received that careful attention and 
 anxious deliberation, which its importance seemed to demand. After 
 consultation with the friends of the enterprise, in different parts of 
 the state, and thoroughly canvassing the merits of several condidates, 
 whose names had been presented, the Board came, unanimously, to 
 the choice of the Hon. Henry Barnard, a gentleman well known in this 
 state, by his former labors in the cause of popular education, as 
 Secretary of the late Board of Education, and more recently Commis- 
 sioner of Common Schools in the state of Rhode Island. His dis- 
 tinguished ability and zeal in the cause, coupled with his entire self- 
 consecration, and large experience, constitute the surest guaranty of 
 the successful discharge of the duties of the appointment, and that no 
 effort will be lacking on his part, to give to the institution efficiency 
 and utility. From the time when this appointment was conferred on 
 Mr. Barnard, he has co-operated with the Board of which he is, 
 ex officio, a member, in the preparatory labors of locating the school, 
 and putting it in operation.
 
 32 FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE TRUSTEES 
 
 Up to the time of the meeting of the Board on the 15th of January, 
 proposals for the location of the school had been received from the 
 city of Middleton, and from the villages of Farmington, New Britain, 
 and Southington. A Committee on Location was, thereupon, appointed, 
 to visit each of these localities, and ascertain, from personal observa- 
 tion and inquiry, their comparative advantages. A full hearing was, 
 subsequently, given to the several applicants, in vindication of their 
 respective claims to the location of the institution, and the spirit of 
 competition elicited on the occasion was truly gratifying, inasmuch as 
 it evinced a proper appreciation of the institution, on the part of those, 
 at least, who were so laudably zealous for its acquisition. Of all the 
 several offers thus made to the state, it may justly be said, that they 
 were liberal, and highly creditable to the parties by whom they were 
 presented. No one of them was so clearly superior to the others, as 
 to preclude all doubt relative to their comparative eligibility. But 
 lest, after all, there should be some misunderstanding between the 
 parties and the Board, the following propositions were adopted by the 
 latter, as the conditions on which the school should be established: 
 
 "The Trustees will expect a building, or buildings, to be provided, 
 sufficiently large to accommodate 220 pupils, with suitable rooms for 
 recitations and lectures, furnished with the necessary fixtures, and on 
 a site acceptable to the Trustees. The plans and specifications thereof 
 shall be furnished by the Principal of the School, and the building or 
 buildings shall be acceptable to the Trustees. They will also expect 
 such an apparatus to be furnished, as will be needed by the school, to 
 the value of not less than one thousand dollars: and a library of books, 
 chiefly on education, to the value of not less than five hundred dollars. 
 They will also require one school to be placed at their disposal, as a 
 Model School, the teacher of which shall be approved by the Trustees, 
 but paid by the District. And, finally, while the Trustees will do all 
 in their power to make the institution of such a character as shall 
 reflect honor on the state, and be calculated to insure its perpetuity, 
 yet, they wish it to be distinctly understood, that they can not, in any 
 way, bind the state to continue the school for a longer period than 
 four years, from April 1st, 1850; and they can not accept of any pro- 
 posals which shall imply, directly, or indirectly, any obligation, on the 
 part of the state, to make any reimbursement, at the end of four years, 
 if the school should be discontinued at that time. 
 
 To the conditions thus set forth, the people of New Britain promptly 
 and fully acceded, and raised, by private subscription, the sum of six- 
 teen thousand dollars; four thousand of which they propose to expend 
 on their own schools of practice, to be connected with the Normal 
 School, and the residue of twelve thousand dollars, they offer to the 
 state for the purposes above specified. On the subsequent organization 
 of the subscribers into a Joint Stock Company, they fixed the amount 
 of their stock at twenty thousand dollars." 
 
 While the Normal School edifice is in process of building, the present 
 season, the Company have furnished and fitted up, for the temporary 
 accommodation of the state, a spacious and commodious room in a 
 public building, located near the center of the village, in which the 
 Board is pleased to be able to announce the opening of the State 
 Normal School, this day, (May 15th,) with thirty pupils in attendance, 
 under the immediate supervision and instruction of Mr. T. D. P. Stone, 
 as Associate Principal, a native citizen of this state, but for many 
 years a highly successful teacher in the states of Massachusetts and 
 New Hampshire, and for the last year the teacher of the Massachusetts 
 State Reform School, located at Westborough. It may be proper to
 
 OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL. 33 
 
 add, that Mr. Stone presented to the Board the most satisfactory cre- 
 dentials of excellence of character, and accomplishments as a teacher; 
 and no doubt is entertained, but that he will magnify the office thus 
 confidently conferred upon him, and so far, at least, as he is con- 
 cerned, enable the friends of the institution to realize the fulfilment 
 of their most sanguine hopes. 
 
 Superadded to the commendable liberality thus exhibited by the 
 people of New Britain, the Board was particularly gratified by the 
 spirit of unanimity and cordiality which accompanied and crowned 
 their donation; and there can be no doubt, from the interest and 
 enthusiasm already manifested on their part, that they will continue 
 to foster and encourage an institution which they so highly and so 
 justly appreciate, and which is so closely identified with the prosperity 
 and reputation of their goodly village. The nascent germ, which they 
 have so sedulously procured, and generously planted in their midst, 
 will long receive their fostering care, and loving kindness, and, rising 
 in growth and grandeur, is destined to become, not only the crowning 
 ornament of the beautiful village in which it flourishes, but the 
 ornament of the entire state. 
 
 The Board take this occasion to inform the Legislature, that the 
 bonus of the Deep River Bank, which, by the condition of its charter, 
 was to be applied for the benefit of the State Normal School, has been 
 appropriated and deposited for this object; but no authority having 
 been given to the Trustees, by the last Legislature, to receive the same, 
 they would suggest that this inadvertency be remedied, by the passage 
 of a resolution, authorizing the Board to receive the deposit, that it 
 may be applied to its legitimate object. 
 
 The Trustees would moreover inform the General Assembly of the 
 occurrence of four vacancies in their Board, two of which arise from 
 the expiration of the shortest term of service prescribed by the act 
 instituting the same; one for Fairfield, and the other for New London 
 County; the third, owing to the decease, in the early part of the year, 
 of our lamented associate, Francis Bacon, Esq., occurs for Litchfield 
 County; and the fourth has been made by the resignation of the Rev. 
 J. D. Baldwin, he having removed from the county of Windham, for 
 which he was appointed; all of which the Legislature will please to 
 fill by the appointment of men who, in addition to their other quali- 
 fications, shall be especially pre-eminent for that high degree of 
 patriotism, and devotion to the Republic, which shall secure their 
 services to the state, icithout compensation, agreeably to Section 3d of 
 the act, which so plentifully provides, that the Trustees of the State 
 Normal School "shall receive no compensation for their services." 
 
 In conclusion, the Board would take occasion to express the sincere 
 gratification which they derive from the auspicious indications which 
 attend the infancy of the institution committed to their charge; and 
 with the harmonious and zealous co-operation of all concerned in its 
 prosperity, they confidently anticipate for it a career of great useful- 
 ness and beneficence, in imparting increased efficiency to our system 
 of public instruction, and in multiplying, augmenting, and diffusing 
 the blessings of popular education. In behalf of the Board, 
 
 FRANCIS GILLETTE, Chairman. 
 New Britain, May 15th, 1850.
 
 EXTRACT 
 
 FROM THE 
 
 Fifth Annual Report of the Superintendent (Henry Barnard) of the 
 
 Common Schools of Connecticut to the General Assembly, 
 
 May session, 1850. 
 
 AFTER the lapse of a quarter of a century since the attention of the 
 people of Connecticut was first called to the importance of providing 
 for the special preparation of teachers of common schools for their 
 arduous and responsible labors, the Legislature in 1849 appropriated 
 the sum of ten thousand dollars, paid by the State Bank, and of one 
 thousand dollars paid by the Deep River Bank, as a bonus for their 
 respective charters, to meet the annual expenses of a State Normal 
 School, or Teachers' Seminary, for a period of four years. Apart from 
 my official connection with the institution, I felt it to be my duty as 
 Superintendent of Common Schools, to do every thing in my power, 
 not only to make its objects known, but to facilitate its early organiza- 
 tion and opening, as the most important agency which could be em- 
 ployed by the state to increase the usefulness of the common schools, 
 both as to the quality and amount of education given. So anxious 
 were the trustees and officers of the institution to make a beginning 
 of their enterprise, that without waiting for the complete outfit of 
 buildings, apparatus and library, which the people of New Britain had 
 pledged themselves to furnish on the location of the Normal School in 
 that village, the school was opened on the 15th of the present month, 
 (May,) under as favorable auspices, as to pupils and opportunities for 
 imparting practical knowledge, as any of the seven Normal Schools 
 which are now in successful operation on this continent. At the close 
 of the first week, there were thirty-five Normal pupils in attendance, 
 under the immediate instruction of Rev. T. D. P. Stone, the Associate 
 Principal of the School, and upward of three hundred pupils from the 
 village, in four Schools of Practice, under the charge of Mr. Stone, 
 assisted by Prof. Guion, three female teachers and pupils of the Normal 
 School. The four Schools of Practice are supported by the Central 
 District of the New Britain School Society. 
 
 In the absence of any published rules of the Board of Trustees, 
 regulating permanently the number of sessions in the year, and the 
 length of each session, the subject and course of instruction, the period 
 of attendance or degree of proficiency to entitle a pupil to the diploma 
 of the institution, I will venture to set forth the general plans and 
 aims of the officers who have been entrusted with the immediate care 
 of the institution, for the purpose of making known its objects, and 
 showing its probable influence on our common schools. 
 
 1. The officers of the Normal School believe that they could best 
 promote the permanent improvement of the common schools of the 
 state, by truly educating, and thoroughly training a few efficient 
 teachers of the right stamp of character, physical, intellectual, estheti- 
 cal and moral, and then securing their permanent employment at fair 
 remunerating wages, at central points in different sections of the state, 
 as Normal teachers in model school-houses* or, by being allowed to 
 select every year out of such candidates as may be presented by the 
 visitors for the several school societies, a small number of pupils who 
 possess the health, gentleness of manners, fondness for children, purity 
 of character, singleness of purpose and tact, that indicate a natural 
 fitness for teaching, and then, retain them long enough to superadd
 
 36 MB. BARNARD'S REPORT. 
 
 such appropriate knowledge of the studies to be taught, and practical 
 skill in arranging the classes and conducting the instruction and 
 discipline of an elementary school, under the ordinary conditions of 
 an agricultural district. But as either of these courses are impractic- 
 able under present circumstances, they will aim to benefit in such 
 measure as they can, as many pupils as may apply for admission; to 
 co-operate every year in such ways as shall be open to them, with as 
 many teachers of the state as they can meet for professional improve- 
 ment, whether the same shall be pupils of the school or not; to act by 
 personal visits to the schools, and by public addresses, on as many 
 societies and districts as their engagements at the Normal School will 
 admit; and to prepare the public mind of the state generally, by pre- 
 cept and example, by voice and pen, as far and fast as they can, for 
 more thorough and progressive steps of improvement in every depart- 
 ment of the educational field. 
 
 2. The benefit of the Normal School to any pupil will be measured 
 by the preparation each may bring in character, attainments and 
 aptitude for the business, and the time and industry which may be 
 devoted to the work. The officers of the school cannot encourage for 
 a moment, the idea that a person who does not understand a subject 
 thoroughly, can ever teach that subject well, or that a residence of a 
 few weeks or months in the institution, however diligently and wisely 
 employed, will be sufficient to gain a knowledge of the human mind, 
 and of a child's mind in particular; of the studies which it is de- 
 sirable to have well taught in our common schools, and of the best 
 methods of teaching the same; of the motives which are to be appealed 
 to to secure habits of study, order and obedience; and of all the tech- 
 nical and practical details of school keeping. They believe, however, 
 that a person of quick observation, of some natural aptitude for the 
 business, and a clear intellect of the average power and cultivation, 
 can, with ordinary diligence and devotion, obtain much additional 
 information, and some practical experience, correct many old errors 
 and appropriate many valuable hints, and above all catch the true 
 professional spirit, by even one term's residence at the school. A single 
 visit to a good school; an hour's conversation with a good teacher; the 
 reading of a single chapter in Emerson's "Schoolmaster," or Page's 
 "Theory and Practice of Teaching," may be not only a help, but the 
 starting point of a new life to the young teacher. The officers of the 
 Normal School will, therefore, welcome any teacher or candidate for 
 teaching, to the institution under their charge, for a visit of an hour 
 or a residence of years. 
 
 3. By means of the regular classes in tlie Normal School and in the 
 Schools of Practice, an opportunity will be offered to every member of 
 the school to review thoroughly any one or all of the elementary 
 studies required to be taught in the common schools of the state, and 
 to extend his attainments in any of these studies, and such kindred 
 branches as will facilitate his success as a teacher in any grade of 
 common schools. 
 
 The reviews and recitations will be so conducted, as to methods and 
 practical illustrations, as to make the studies far more interesting and 
 profitable than they now are, whether regarded in the way of informa- 
 tion, or as means of intellectual discipline, preparatory to those labors 
 and duties of life which are most important and universal. A knowl- 
 edge of the elements and structure of the English language, is justly 
 deemed of paramount importance, and it is proposed so to teach it, as 
 to give to every child who shall attend a common school with ordinary 
 regularity and diligence, not only the ability to spell and read with 
 accuracy and facility, but to converse and compose in it with a good
 
 MR. BABNABD'8 BEPOKT. 37 
 
 degree of readiness and power, and at the same time acquire an earnest 
 and discriminating taste for the choicest productions of American and 
 English literature. Penmanship is now taught in every district school, 
 and it is proposed to connect the exercises in this branch not only with 
 constant practice in English composition, with book-keeping and other 
 forms of business, but also with the art of drawing, thus educating to 
 a higher degree than mere writing can do, both the eye and the hand, 
 rendering the one observant, and the other exact, and at the same time, 
 training several important faculties of the mind, and imparting a 
 power which can be turned to many useful purposes in every depart- 
 ment of practical life. 
 
 In addition to the studies now generally taught in our schools, it is 
 proposed to give some practical instruction in vocal music and physi- 
 ology; and to those, whose previous training, or whose residence at 
 the institution will be long enough to allow of this extension of the 
 course without abridging the time and attention which are due to the 
 elementary studies, a general view of the principles of agricultural 
 chemistry and domestic economy, will be presented. 
 
 4. Subjects will be taught in the Normal School rather than text 
 books; and the manner in which the same subject is treated by several 
 of the best authors, will be compared and discussed, in order that the 
 graduates may be prepared to decide on the comparative merits of 
 school books, whenever a change of text books is desirable in a school, 
 and at the same time be able to teach the subjects properly, even if 
 pupils of the same class should study the subject in different books. 
 
 5. The elementary studies will be thoroughly reviewed with constant 
 practice on the blackboard, and by the aid of such maps, and cheap 
 and simple apparatus as are now furnished in our best class of common 
 schools, and are indispensable in all schools, not only that these studies 
 may be more vividly apprehended, but that the teachers may be pre- 
 pared to use means of practical and visible illustration whenever the 
 same shall be furnished. For the want of knowledge of many useful 
 applications of the blackboard in all of the elementary studies, even 
 the blackboard is but little used at the present time by the teachers 
 of our district schools. 
 
 6. In addition to familiar and practical suggestions on particular 
 points in the organization, instruction and discipline of schools, as 
 occasion may call for the same in the daily routine of the institution, 
 lectures will be given" on the history of education and schools; on the 
 object and principles of public instruction in general, and of our own 
 system in particular; on the art of teaching and its methods, and the 
 application of these methods to each particular study; on the theory 
 of discipline and its practice; on the peculiarities of a district school, 
 as well as of other grades of schools; on the general principles of 
 school architecture; on the legal position and relations of a teacher 
 in our system of common schools; and a variety of other topics which 
 need not be enumerated in this place. [Topics for Discussion.} 
 
 These topics will be examined by the pupils in the light of their own 
 previous experience and observation, will be tested by contrast and 
 comparison with the matter and manner of instruction and discipline 
 in the institution, and its associated schools of practice, will be further 
 investigated in the books on the history of education and schools, and 
 the theory and practice of teaching in the library, and will be made 
 the themes of oral discussion and written essays which will constitute 
 a part of the regular routine of the Normal School. 
 
 7. The various principles which come under the general department 
 of the theory and practice of teaching, will not only be exemplified as 
 
 130033
 
 38 MB. BARNARD'S REPORT. 
 
 far as practicable in the management, instruction and discipline of 
 the Normal Schools and the Schools of Practice, but an opportunity 
 will be afforded to the pupils of the first, to apply the same in practice 
 to such extent and in such manner as the previous education of each 
 shall render expedient and desirable. To give the most thorough 
 familiarity with the theory and practice of organizing and conducting 
 common schools, and at the same time to enable a few at least of 
 each class to continue their connection with the school, a certain 
 number will be employed as assistant teachers in the schools of the 
 village, and, as far as practicable, of the neighboring districts. Oppor- 
 tunity will be given to such pupils to spend a portion of the vacations 
 in visiting the best schools in different parts of the state, and in 
 attending educational meetings of various kinds which may be appoint- 
 ed by the Superintendent of Common Schools. The pupils thus em- 
 ployed will embody in written reports the results of their observation 
 and experience, which will be subject to the examination and criticism 
 of the officers of the institution. 
 
 8. To cultivate a truly religious feeling, to lay the foundation and 
 implant the motives for a truly religious life, to enable the teachers 
 by precept and example rightly to develop the moral faculties, and to 
 define and enforce the performance of all the great primary moral 
 duties, in the schools which may be placed under their charge, will be 
 one of the cardinal objects of the Normal School. Every suitable 
 effort, consistent with perfect religious toleration, will be made, to 
 give a deep moral and religious tone to all the exercises, and to the 
 whole character of the institution, from a deep conviction that a 
 sense of responsibility to God, and of love to man, must form the 
 main-spring of a teacher's activity, while it is the surest pledge of 
 success. 
 
 9. Occasional lectures on important topics of education, or even 
 courses of lectures on subjects of intrinsic value, and which reflect 
 light on the studies, labors and duties of the teacher's calling, will be 
 secured from time to time from persons who have given to these 
 subjects special preparation. In this way it is anticipated that the 
 pupils will have the benefit of the counsel, experience and study of 
 many wise and distinguished teachers and educators from this and 
 other states. 
 
 10. No efforts will be spared, by correspondence and personal ap- 
 plication, to assist the Normal pupils in obtaining permanent situations 
 as teachers, according to the qualifications of each, and to promote 
 their advancement from a school of a lower grade and compensation, 
 to one of a more desirable character in both respects. Any aid which 
 can be given to the graduates of the school by advice and cooperation, 
 in their several fields of labor, will be cheerfully extended. An oppor- 
 tunity will be afforded to such as may wish to return to the institution 
 for a short period to perfect or practice themselves in particular de- 
 partments of instruction, in which on trial they may find themselves 
 deficient. An anniversary meeting, or reunion of all the members of 
 the school, will be encouraged at least once in a year. The State 
 Teachers' Association will be invited to hold at least one meeting 
 every year within the walls of the institution, where every facility 
 at the command of its officers will be extended to make the teachers 
 of the state welcome, and their session profitable and interesting. 
 Every thing will be done by the officers of the school, which a strong 
 desire can suggest, and unwearied efforts accomplish, to make the 
 school worthy of the kind feeling and prompt cooperation of all who 
 are, and of all who propose to become teachers in any grade of public
 
 MB. BARNARD'S REPORT. 39 
 
 or private schools in the state, to grapple as with bands of steel, and 
 yet only by the sympathy of a common pursuit and the sense of 
 reciprocal benefit, the pupils to the school, and the teachers of the 
 state to each other, and to unite all hearts and all hands in the great 
 work of the more complete, practical and universal education of the 
 children of Connecticut. 
 
 11. To make the objects of the Normal School generally known, to 
 interest young persons of the right character and views in the business 
 of teaching, and induce them to connect themselves with the institu- 
 tion for a sufficient length of time to obtain the full benefits of a 
 methodical course of theoretical and practical instruction, to cooperate 
 with such pupils as may go out from the Normal School to teach in 
 different parts of the state, to visit schools of different grades in 
 large and small, in village and country districts, for the purpose of 
 ascertaining their condition, suggesting improvements, and adapting 
 the instruction of the Normal School to the real deficiencies of ele- 
 mentary education, to establish pleasant social and professional rela- 
 tions with teachers, school officers and parents, it is the intention of 
 the officers of the institution to attend Institutes, Teachers' Associ- 
 ations, and common school meetings of every name, to which they may 
 be invited, or where they have reason to suppose their presence and 
 cooperation will prove acceptable. It is believed, that in the course 
 of the four years for which the enterprise is now planned, every school 
 society, and a large majority of the sixteen hundred and fifty districts, 
 will be visited by one or more of the teachers of the Normal School. 
 
 This department of labor is as necessary to the success of the enter- 
 prise as the instructions which may be given within the walls of the 
 Normal School. 
 
 Among the results which will follow from the successful manage- 
 ment of the State Normal School for a period of four years, now 
 provided for by law, may be specified the following. 
 
 1. It will make an institution or institutions of this character, in 
 some form, an indispensable feature of our common school system. 
 This has been the uniform result in every country and every state 
 where the experiment has been tried under favorable auspices. There 
 is not on record a single instance of the abandonment of this agency 
 for providing good teachers for public schools, whenever it has been 
 tried under liberal legislative or governmental patronage. There are 
 more than two hundred such schools now in successful operation in 
 this country and in Europe, and every year is adding to the number. 
 
 2. It will thus supply the want which has long been known to exist 
 by those who have given most attention to the improvement of com- 
 mon schools, of a place where young men and young women of the 
 requisite natural qualifications, can acquire the science and the art of 
 teaching without a series of experiments which are annually made at 
 the expense of the health, faculties, and affections of the children 
 placed under their charge. It will do for the future teacher what the 
 direction of the master workman and the usual term and duties of 
 apprenticeship do for the future mechanic; what the law school, and 
 clerkship in the office of an older practitioner at the bar, do for the 
 young lawyer; what the medical school, the practice in the hospital, 
 or dissecting room, or study in the office of the experienced physician, 
 do for the medical student. It is applying to the business of teaching 
 the same preparatory study and practice which the common judgment 
 of the world^demands of every other profession and art. In this case 
 it is provided for by the state, because the state has found it to be a 
 matter of interest and duty; of right in its strongest and best
 
 40 MB. BARNARD'S REPORT. 
 
 sense; to look after the education of children, and to contribute 
 toward the wages of the teacher; and to protect her own appropriations 
 she should see that the teachers are properly qualified. 
 
 3. It will help to make teaching a permanent employment. The 
 more truly efficient a teacher becomes, the more thoroughly the habits 
 of his mind and life are moulded to his occupation, the more deeply 
 his soul is imbued with the spirit of his profession, the less likely he 
 is, and the less capable he becomes of changing his career, and the 
 more he is fortified against the temptations to forsake it; and the 
 example and success of one such teacher will have a powerful influence 
 in determining the choice of many others just starting in the pro- 
 fession. 
 
 4. It will help to verify the vocation of the pupils to the profession 
 for which they are preparing. The Normal School will be a very 
 uncomfortable place for any person whose heart is not in the work, 
 and who looks upon teaching, not as a calling, a mission, but as a 
 meaningless routine, a daily task, imposed by necessity, or taken up 
 because nothing better offered, and to be thrown aside as soon as a 
 more lucrative occupation shall turn up, or open. It will be soon 
 ascertained who enters upon the prescribed round of observation and 
 practice, of reading and discussion, of study and lectures, with the 
 enthusiasm of persons in earnest and in love with their business; and 
 only such will be encouraged to persevere, or will be recommended as 
 teachers on leaving the school. 
 
 6. While it is probable that much the largest number of teachers 
 who become connected with the school will not remain long enough to 
 experience the full benefit of what is understood to be a course of 
 Normal instruction and training, still it is believed a small number at 
 least will, and the good which a few teachers properly trained will do, 
 will not be confined to the districts in which they are employed. 
 Their schools will become model schools for other districts, and the 
 awakening influence of their example and labors will be felt all around 
 them. Teachers who have not enjoyed the advantages of such training, 
 will strive to excel those who have, and thus a wholesome spirit of 
 emulation will spring up among the teachers of the same neighbor- 
 hood. 
 
 6. Through the direct and necessary influence of even a few good 
 schools scattered all over the state; of schools made good, and seen 
 and felt and acknowledged to be made good, by teachers who have 
 gone out from this institution with improved and improving views of 
 the nature, objects and methods of teaching, and by the many other 
 modes in which the officers and pupils of this school propose to act 
 on the public mind, the standard of teachers' qualifications and wages 
 will be gradually and permanently raised. Good teachers will be in 
 demand, and their services will command good wages. The contrast 
 between a good teacher, and a poor one, will be seen and felt; and 
 then the great commercial law of demand and supply will begin to 
 operate. The want of good teachers will be felt; and then will follow 
 the corresponding demand. The demand will induce young men and 
 young women so to qualify themselves as to meet this want. And 
 with a demand for and supply of the better article, the poor one will 
 remain a drug in the market. The other obstacles which now remain 
 in the way of the employment of good teachers will gradually and 
 forever disappear. Old, dilapidated, inconvenient, and unhealthy 
 school-houses will give place to new, attractive and comfortable struc- 
 tures; for districts having the first will find it difficult to secure the 
 services of a good teacher, who will understand well the relations
 
 MR. BARNARD'S BEPORT. 41 
 
 which a good house bears to his own health and his success both in 
 government and instruction. That relic of barbarism, the practice of 
 "boarding round," of compelling the teacher to live homeless and 
 without the ordinary facilities and seclusion for study, of being sub- 
 jected to inconveniencies to which the lawyer, or clergyman, or me- 
 chanic are not subjected by their employers, will no longer remain a 
 hindrance to the formation of a permanent, well qualified body of 
 professional teachers. 
 
 7. It will do much in connection with Teachers' Institutes, Conven- 
 tions, and Associations, to inspire and strengthen a professional feeling 
 among teachers. All the advantages felt by those who prepare in 
 common for other professions, or act in concert, friendships, mutual 
 encouragement and assistance in studies, discussions and comparisons 
 of view, and the social position and influence which follow the asso- 
 ciation of large numbers in the same pursuit, will be experienced. 
 There has been till within a few years but little of this professional 
 spirit. Good teachers have grown up and remained isolated. Their 
 experience has furnished them with excellent methods, a social posi- 
 tion, and adequate pecuniary return. But their number has been 
 small and their influence has been hardly felt beyond their own school- 
 rooms, much less has it been made to give elevation, character and 
 amelioration to the profession generally. 
 
 8. It will do something toward building up a professional literature 
 which shall embody the experience, reflection, and discussions of our 
 own teachers on the science and art of education as applied and 
 developed in our common schools. The practice of writing essays in 
 the Normal School on educational topics; of discussing the same 
 subjects in public meetings of teachers and parents; of making reports 
 to the Principal on the state of the schools in which they may be 
 engaged, or which they may visit, will lead to the establishment and 
 support of an Educational Periodical for their own benefit. By means 
 of such a periodical, an active spirit of inquiry will be awakened and 
 kept alive; improvements in each district will be announced and made 
 the common property of the profession; wrong ideas in education will 
 be exposed and exploded; and the sound practice of good teachers will 
 be embodied in words and reduced to the precision of scientific prin- 
 ciples. 
 
 9. The officers of this institution expect to find in many of the mem- 
 bers of the school a strong natural impulse to the study of education, 
 and an enthusiastic attachment to their future profession, as the 
 noblest, holiest department of human exertion. Upon that class, be the 
 same large or small, as they appear, do they rely for giving an impulse 
 of a most powerful kind to educational improvement, and especially 
 in fields for which the laborers are at present few. Whoever else may 
 doubt, or falter or fail, these will not. Though called upon to labor 
 in obscurity, they will toil on and find their happiness in their work. 
 New difficulties will only nerve their hearts for sterner encounters. 
 
 These anticipations of good to the teachers, the schools, and the 
 state, may all be darkened, postponed and defeated. Public confidence, 
 which must be the breath of life to this enterprise, may be withheld, 
 or withdrawn through the influence of sectarian jealously, sectional 
 prejudice, or party spirit. All that the officers of the Normal School 
 can do, to avoid studiously all just occasions of offense, and to deserve 
 the entire confidence of the people, the Legislature, and the teachers 
 of the state, will be done. All they ask is a fair field, a reasonable 
 amount of cooperation from school teachers and school officers, the 
 charitable judgments of their fellow citizens, good health, and the 
 blessing of God upon their labors.
 
 TOPICS 
 
 FOB 
 
 DISCUSSION AND COMPOSITION ON THE THEORY AND 
 PRACTICE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 1. The daily preparation which the teacher should bring to the 
 school-room. 
 
 2. The circumstances which make a teacher happy in school. 
 
 3. The requisites of success in teaching. 
 
 4. Causes of failure in teaching. 
 
 5. The course to be pursued in organizing a school. 
 
 6. The order of exercises or programme of recitations. 
 
 7. The policy of promulgating a code of rules for the government 
 of a school. 
 
 8. The keeping of registers of attendance and progress. 
 
 9. The duties of the teacher to the parents of the children and to 
 school-officers. 
 
 10. The opening and closing exercises of a school. 
 
 11. Moral and religious instruction and influence generally. 
 
 12. The best use of the Bible or Testament in school. 
 
 13. Modes of promoting a love of truth, honesty, benevolence, and 
 other virtues among children. 
 
 14. Modes of promoting obedience to parents, respectful demeanor 
 to elders, and general submission to authority. 
 
 15. Modes of securing cleanliness of person and neatness of dress, 
 respect for the school-room, courtesy of tone and language to com- 
 panions, and gentleness of manners. 
 
 16. Modes of preserving the school-house and appurtenances from 
 injury and defacement. 
 
 17. Length and frequency of recess. 
 
 18. The games, and modes of exercise and recreation to be encour- 
 aged during the recess, and at intermission. 
 
 19. Modes of preventing tardiness, and securing the regular attend- 
 ance of children at school. 
 
 20. Causes by which the health and constitution of children at 
 school are impaired, and the best ways of counteracting the same. 
 
 21. The government of a school generally. 
 
 22. The use and abuse of corporal punishment. 
 
 23. The establishment of the teacher's authority in the school. 
 
 24. Manner of treating stubborn and refractory children, and the 
 policy of dismissing the same from school. 
 
 25. Prizes and rewards. 
 
 26. The use and abuse of emulation. 
 
 27. Modes of interesting and bringing forward dull, or backward 
 scholars. 
 
 28. Modes of preventing whispering, and communication between 
 scholars in school.
 
 44 TOPICS FOB DISCUSSION. 
 
 29. Manner of conducting recitations generally; and how to prevent 
 or detect imperfect lessons. 
 
 30. Methods of teaching, with illustrations of each, viz: 
 
 a. Monitorial. 
 
 6. Individual. 
 
 c. Simultaneous. 
 
 d. Mixed. 
 
 e. Interrogative. 
 /. Explanative. 
 g. Elliptical. 
 
 h. Synthetical. 
 i. Analytical. 
 
 31. Modes of having all the children of a school (composed as most 
 District schools are, of children of all ages, and in a great variety of 
 studies,) at all times something to do, and a motive for doing it. 
 
 32. Methods of teaching the several studies usually introduced into 
 public schools such as 
 
 a. The use, and nature, and formation of numbers. 
 
 6. Mental Arithmetic. 
 
 c. Written Arithmetic. 
 
 d. Spelling. 
 
 e. Reading. 
 
 /. Grammar including conversation, composition, analysis 
 
 of sentences, parsing, &c. 
 g. Geography including map-drawing, use of outline maps, 
 
 atlas, globes, &c. 
 7i. Drawing with special reference to the employment of 
 
 young children, and as preliminary to penmanship. 
 i. Penmanship. 
 j. Vocal music, 
 fc. Physiology so far at least as the health of children and 
 
 teacher in the school-room is concerned. 
 
 33. The apparatus and means of visible illustration, necessary for 
 the schools of different grades. 
 
 34. The development and cultivation of observation, attention, 
 memory, association, conception, imagination, &c. 
 
 35. Modes of inspiring scholars with enthusiasm in study, and culti- 
 vating habits of self-reliance. 
 
 36. Modes of cultivating the power and habit of attention and 
 study. 
 
 37. Anecdotes of occurrences in the school, brought forward with 
 a view to form right principles of moral training and intellectual 
 development. 
 
 38. Lessons, on real objects, and the practical pursuits of life. 
 
 39. Topics and times for introducing oral instruction, and the use 
 of lectures generally. 
 
 40. Manner of imparting collateral and incidental knowledge. 
 
 41. The formation of museums and collections of plants, minerals, 
 &c. 
 
 42. Exchange of specimens of penmanship, map and other drawings, 
 minerals, plants, &c., between the different schools of a town, or of 
 different towns. 
 
 43. School examinations generally. 
 
 44. How far committees should conduct the examination.
 
 TOPICS FOB DISCUSSION. 45 
 
 45. Mode of conducting an examination by written questions and 
 answers. 
 
 46. School celebrations, and excursions of the school, or a portion 
 of the scholars, to objects of interest in the neighborhood. 
 
 47. Length and frequency of vacations. 
 
 48. Books and periodicals on education, schools and school systems. 
 
 49. Principles to be regarded in the construction of a school-house 
 for schools of different grades. 
 
 50. Principles on which text-books in the several elementary 
 studies should be composed. 
 
 51. The use of printed questions in text-books. 
 
 52. The private studies of a teacher. 
 
 53. The visiting of each other's schools. 
 
 54. The peculiar difficulties and encouragements of each teacher, 
 in respect to school-house, attendance, supply of books, apparatus, 
 parental interest and co-operation, support by committees, &c, &c. 
 
 55. The practicability of organizing an association of the mothers 
 and females generally of a district or town, to visit schools, or of their 
 doing so without any special organization. 
 
 56. Plan for the organization, course of instruction, and manage- 
 ment generally of a Teachers Institute. 
 
 57. Advantages of an Association or Conference of the Teachers of 
 a Town or State, and the best plan of organizing and conducting the 
 same. 
 
 58. Plan of a Normal School or Seminary, for the training of 
 Teachers for Common or Public Schools.
 
 REMARKS 
 
 ON SEMINARIES FOR TEACHERS, 
 
 BY REV. THOMAS H. GALLAUDET. 
 
 The following remarks originally appeared in the Con- 
 necticut Observer, published in Hartford, Conn., in a series 
 of articles, with the signature of "A Father." The first ar- 
 ticle was dated the 5th of January, 1825. 
 
 No important result can be attained with regard to the accomplish- 
 ment of any object which affects the temporal or eternal well-being of 
 our species, without enlisting an entire devotedness to it, of intelli- 
 gence, zeal, fidelity, industry, integrity, and practical exertion. What 
 is it, that has furnished us with able divines, lawyers, and physicians? 
 The undivided consecration of the talents and efforts of intelligent 
 and upright individuals to these professions. How have these talents 
 been matured, and these efforts been trained, to their beneficial results? 
 By a diligent course of preparation, and a long discipline in the school 
 of experience. We have our theological, law, and medical institutions, 
 in which our young men are fitted for the pursuit of these respective 
 professions, by deriving benefit from the various sources of informa- 
 tion which libraries, lectures, and experiments afford. Unaided by 
 such auxiliaries, genius, however brilliant; invention, however prolific; 
 observation, however acute; ingenuity, however ready; and persever- 
 ance, however indefatiguable, have to grope their way, through a 
 long and tiresome process, to the attainment of results which a little 
 acquaintance with the labors of others in the same track of effort, 
 would render a thousand times more easy, rapid, and delightful. Ex- 
 perience is the storehouse of knowledge. Now why should not this 
 experience be resorted to as an auxiliary in the education of youth? 
 Why not make this department of human exertion, a profession, as 
 well as those of divinity, law, and medicine? Why not have an Insti- 
 tution for the training up of Instructors for their sphere of labor, as 
 well as institutions to prepare young men for the duties of the divine, 
 the lawyer, or the physician? 
 
 Can a subject of more interest present itself to the consideration of 
 the public? Does not the future improvement of our species, to which 
 the philanthropist and the Christian look forward with such delightful 
 anticipation, depend on the plans which are adopted for the develop- 
 ment and cultivation of the intellectual and moral powers of man? 
 Must not these plans begin with infancy and childhood? Do not the 
 attainments of the pupil depend upon the talents, fidelity, and the 
 integrity of those by whom he is taught? How will he learn to think, 
 to speak, to read, and to write with accuracy, unless his instructors 
 are able to teach him? Shall their ability depend upon their indi- 
 vidual experience and attainments? Are you satisfied with a divine, 
 a lawyer, or a physician, who has qualified himself, or pretended to 
 do so, for his profession, by solitary, unaided, unadvised, untaught, 
 inexperienced efforts? You do not do this. Why not then, require 
 in the instructors of youth, to whom you commit the training up of 
 your offspring, an adequate preparation for their most important and 
 responsible employment?
 
 48 MB. GAIXAUDET, ON TEACHERS' SEMINARIES. 
 
 But this preparatory discipline is considered indispensable not 
 merely for the learned professions, but for the ordinary occupations 
 of life. A term of years is required to fulfill the duties of an ap- 
 prenticeship to any of the mechanical trades. An artisan does not 
 venture to solicit the patronage of the public, till he has undergone 
 this apprenticeship. This training under the instruction of experi- 
 enced masters, is deemed of still more importance in what are termed 
 the liberal arts, such as painting, sculpture, and engraving. To foster 
 them, academies are formed; models are collected; lectures are de- 
 livered; and the young novitiate is willing to devote years of patient 
 and assiduous labor, to fit himself for success in his profession. We 
 hear, too, of what is termed a regularly-bred merchant; and the 
 drilling of the counter and the counting-house is considered indis- 
 pensable to prepare one for all the complicated transactions of trade 
 and commerce. And if men are to be trained to arms, academies 
 are established, at which experience, ingenuity, and science are put 
 in requisition, to qualify the young and inexperienced for military 
 exploits. In fact, there is scarce any pursuit connected with the 
 business of life, but what men have endeavored to render successful, 
 by a process predicated on well-known principles of human nature; 
 by making it, in the first place, a distinct profession or calling; 
 then, by yielding to those who have long been engaged in it the 
 deference which their experience justly demands; and finally, by com- 
 pelling those who would wish to adopt it, to devote themselves to it, 
 and to pass through all the preparatory steps which are necessary for 
 the consummation of their acquaintance, both with its theory and 
 practice. In this way only we hope to form good mechanics, painters, 
 engravers, sculptors, farmers, merchants, physicians, and lawyers. 
 
 Perhaps some of my illustrations may be considered of too humble 
 a kind. But my subject is a very practical one, and I intend to treat 
 it in a practical way. Permit me, then, to inquire of my readers, when 
 they wish to get a shoe made, to whom they apply. Do they not take 
 considerable pains to find a first-rate workman; one who has learned 
 his trade well, and who can execute his work in the best manner? 
 And when our wives and daughters want a new bonnet, or a new 
 dress, will they not make a great many inquiries, and take not a few 
 steps, and consume no small portion of very valuable time, to ascertain 
 the important fact, who is the most skillful and tasteful milliner and 
 seamstress within their reach; and are they not willing to undergo 
 many inconveniences, and to wait till their patience is almost ex- 
 hausted, and their wants very clamorous, in order to obtain the 
 precious satisfaction of having the work done by hands whose skill 
 and ingenuity have been long tested, and on whose experience and 
 judgment in adjusting colors, and qualities, and proportions, and 
 symmetry, and shape, they can safely rely? 
 
 Is a shoe, or a bonnet, to be put in competition with an immortal 
 mindf 
 
 In your very articles of dress to clothe a frail, perishable body, that 
 is soon to become the prey of corruption, will you be so scrupulous in 
 the choice of those whom you employ to make them; and yet feel no 
 solicitude in requiring of those to whom is entrusted the formation of 
 the habits, and thoughts and feelings of a soul that is to live for ever, 
 a preparation for their most responsible task; an apprenticeship to 
 their important calling; a devotedness to a pursuit which involves all 
 that can affect the tenderest sympathies of a kind parent, the most 
 ardent hopes of a true patriot, the most expanded views of a sincere 
 philanthropist, the most benevolent wishes of a devout Christian?
 
 MR. GALLAUDET, ON TEACHERS' SEMINARIES. 49 
 
 I am told that the Patent-office at Washington is thronged with 
 models of machines, intended to facilitate the various processes of 
 mechanical labor; and I read in our public prints, of the deep interest 
 which is felt in any of those happy discoveries that are made to provide 
 for the wants, and comforts, and luxuries of man, at an easier and a 
 cheaper rate; and I hear those eulogized as the benefactors of our race, 
 whose genius invents, and whose patient application carries into effect 
 any project for winnowing some sheaves of wheat a little quicker, or 
 spinning some threads of cotton a little sooner, or propelling a boat a 
 little faster, than has heretofore been done; and, all this while, how 
 comparatively few improvements are made in the process of educating 
 the youthful mind; and in training it for usefulness in this life, and 
 for happiness in the life to come! 
 
 Is human ingenuity and skill to be on the alert in almost every other 
 field of enterprise but this? How can we reconcile our apathy on this 
 subject with the duties which we owe to our children, to our country, 
 and to our God? 
 
 Let the same provision, then, be made for giving success to this de- 
 partment of effort that is so liberally made for all others. Let an in- 
 stitution be established in every state, for the express purpose of train- 
 ing up young men for the profession of instructors of youth in the 
 common branches of an English education. Let it be so well endowed, 
 by the liberality of the public, or of individuals, as to have two or 
 three professors, men of talents and habits adapted to the pursuit, who 
 should devote their lives to the object of the "Theory and Practice of 
 the Education of Youth," and who should prepare and deliver, and 
 print, a course of lectures on the subject. 
 
 Let the institution be furnished with a library, which shall contain 
 all the works, theoretical and practical, in all languages, that can be 
 obtained on the subject of education, and also with all the apparatus 
 that modern ingenuity has devised for this purpose; such as maps, 
 charts, globes, orreries, &c. 
 
 Let there be connected with the institution, a school, smaller or 
 larger, as circumstances might dictate, in which the theories of the 
 professors might be reduced to practice, and from which daily ex- 
 perience would derive a thousand useful instructions. 
 
 To such an Institution let young men resort who are ready to devote 
 themselves to the business of instructors of youth. Let them attend a 
 regular course of lectures on the subject of education; read the best 
 works; take their turns in the instruction of the experimental school, 
 and after thus becoming qualified for their office, leave the Institution 
 with a suitable certificate or diploma, recommending them to the con- 
 fidence of the public. 
 
 I have scarcely room to allude to the advantages which would result 
 from such a plan. It would direct the attention, and concentrate the 
 efforts, and inspire the zeal, of many worthy and intelligent minds to 
 one important object. They would excite each other in this new career 
 of doing good. Every year would produce a valuable accession to the 
 mass of experience that would be constantly accumulating at such a 
 store-house of knowledge. The business of instructing youth would be 
 reduced to a system, which would embrace the best and the readiest 
 mode of conducting it. This system would be gradually diffused 
 throughout the community. Our instructors would rank, as they ought 
 to do, among the most respectable professions. We should know to 
 whom we intrusted the care and education of our offspring. These 
 instructors, corresponding, as they naturally would, with the Institu- 
 
 D
 
 50 MR. GALLAXJDET, ON TEACHERS* SEMINARIES. 
 
 tion which they had left, and visiting it, at its annual, and my imagin- 
 ation already portrays, delightful festivals, would impart to it, and to 
 each other, the discoveries and improvements which they might in- 
 dividually make, in their separate spheres of employment. 
 
 In addition to all this, what great advantages such an institution 
 would afford, by the combined talents of its professors, its library, its 
 experimental school, and perhaps by the endowment of two or three 
 fellowships, for this very object, for the formation of the best books to 
 be employed in the early stages of education; a desideratum, which 
 none but some intelligent mothers, and a few others who have devoted 
 themselves to so humble, yet important an object, can duly appreciate. 
 
 Such an Institution, too, would soon become the center of information 
 on all topics connected with the education of youth; and thus, the com- 
 bined results of those individuals in domestic life, whose attention has 
 been directed to the subject, would be brought to a point, examined, 
 weighed, matured, digested, systematized, promulgated, and carried in- 
 to effect. 
 
 Such an Institution would also tend to elevate the tone of public 
 sentiment, and to quicken the seal of public effort with regard to the 
 correct intellectual and moral education of the rising generation. 
 
 To accomplish any great object, the co-operation of numbers is neces- 
 sary. This is emphatically true in our republican community. Individ- 
 ual influence, or wealth, is inadequate to the task. Monarchs, or 
 nobles, may singly devise, and carry into effect, Herculean enterprises. 
 But we have no royal institutions; ours must be of more gradual 
 growth, and perhaps, too, may aspire to more generous and impartial 
 beneficence, and attain to more settled and immovable stability. Now 
 to concentrate the attention, and interest, and exertions of the public 
 on any important object, it must assume a definite and palpable form. 
 It must have "a local habitation and name." For instance, you may, 
 by statements of facts, and by eloquent appeals to the sympathies of 
 others, excite a good deal of feeling with regard to the deaf and 
 dumb, or to the insane. But so long as you fail to direct this good 
 will in some particular channel of practical effort, you only play round 
 the hearts of those whom you wish to enlist in the cause. They will 
 think, and feel, and talk, and hope that something will be done; but 
 that is all. But erect your Asylum for the deaf and dumb, and your 
 Retreat for the insane. Bring these objects of your pity together. 
 Let the public see them. Commence your plans of relief. Show that 
 something can be done, and how and where it can be done, and you 
 bring into action that sympathy and benevolence which would other- 
 wise have been wasted in mere wishes, and hopes, and expectations. 
 Just so, with regard to improvements in education. Establish an 
 Institution, such as I have ventured to recommend, in every state. 
 The public attention will be directed to it. Its Professors will have 
 their friends and correspondents in various parts of the country, to 
 whom they will, from time to time, communicate the results of their 
 speculations and efforts, and to whom they will impart a portion of 
 the enthusiasm which they themselves feel. Such an Institution, too, 
 would soon become an object of laudable curiosity. Thousands would 
 visit it. Its experimental school, if properly conducted, would form 
 a most delightful and interesting spectacle. Its library and various 
 apparatus would be, I may say, a novelty in this department of the 
 philosophy of the human mind. It would probably, also, have its public 
 examinations, which would draw together an assembly of intelligent 
 and literary individuals. Its students, as they dispersed through the 
 community, would carry with them the spirit of the Institution, and
 
 MR. GALLAUDET, ON TEACHERS' SEMINARIES. 51 
 
 thus, by these various processes of communication, the whole mass of 
 public sentiment, and feeling, and effort, would be imbued with it. 
 
 Another advantage resulting from such an Institution, would be, that 
 it would lead to the investigation and establishment of those principles 
 of discipline and government most likely to promote the progress of 
 children and youth in the acquisition of intellectual and moral ex- 
 cellence. How sadly vague and unsettled are most of the plans in this 
 important part of education, now in operation in our common schools. 
 What is the regular and well-defined system of praise and blame; of 
 rewards and punishments; of exciting competition or appealing to 
 better feelings; in short, of cultivating the moral and religious temper 
 of the pupil, while his intellectual improvement is going on, which 
 now pervades our schools? Even the gardener, whom you employ to 
 deck your flower beds, and cultivate your vegetables, and rear your 
 fruit trees, you expect to proceed upon some matured and well-under- 
 stood plan of operation. On this subject I can hardly restrain my 
 emotions. I am almost ready to exclaim, shame on those fathers and 
 mothers, who inquire not at all, who almost seem to care not at all, 
 with regard to the moral discipline that is pursued by instructors in 
 cultivating the temper and disposition of their children. On this 
 subject, every thing depends on the character and habits of the in- 
 structor; on the plans he lays down for himself; on the modes by 
 which he carries these plans into effect. Here, as in every thing else, 
 system is of the highest importance. Nothing should be left to whim 
 and caprice. What is to be this system? Who shall devise it? 
 Prudence, sagacity, affection, firmness, and above all, experience, 
 should combine their skill and effort to produce it. At such an Insti- 
 tution, as I have proposed, these requisites would be most likely to 
 be found. Then might we hope to see the heart improved, while the 
 mind expanded; and knowledge, human and divine, putting forth its 
 fruits, not by the mere dint of arbitrary authority, but by the gentler 
 persuasion of motives addressed to those moral principles of our 
 nature, the cultivation of which reason and religion alike inculcate. 
 
 It is feared by some that it will be impossible ever to produce a 
 sufficient degree of public interest in such a project to carry it into 
 effect. 
 
 I am not so sanguine as to think, that the whole mass of the com- 
 munity can, at once, be electrified, as it were, by any appeals, how- 
 ever eloquent, or any efforts, however strenuous, into one deep and 
 universal excitement on this or any other topic. Information must be 
 gradually diffused; the feelings of influential men in various sections 
 of the country must be enlisted; able writers in our public prints and 
 magazines must engage their hearts and their pens in the cause. 
 
 In addition to all this, suppose that some intelligent and respectable 
 individual, after having made himself master of the subject in all its 
 bearings, and consulted with the wise and judicious within his reach, 
 who might feel an interest in it, should prepare a course of lectures, 
 and spend a season or two in delivering them in our most populous 
 towns and cities. The novelty of this, if no other cause, would attract 
 a great many hearers. Such an individual, too, in his excursions, 
 would have the best opportunity of conferring with well-informed and 
 influential men; of gaining their views; of learning the extent and 
 weight of all the obstacles which such a project would have to en- 
 counter, and the best modes of removing them; and, if it should indeed 
 appear deserving of patronage, of enlisting public sentiment and feeling 
 in its favor.
 
 52 MR. GALLAUDET, ON TEACHERS 1 SEMINARIES. 
 
 But after all, I do not deem it, at present, necessary for the com- 
 mencement of the plan which I have proposed, that any thing like an 
 universal public interest should be taken in it. 
 
 If the experiment could, at first, be made upon a small scale; if such 
 an Institution could be moderately endowed with funds sufficient to 
 support one or two professors, and procure even the elements of a 
 library, afterward to be enlarged as public or private bounty might 
 permit; if it could be established in some town large enough to furnish 
 from its youthful population, pupils to form its experimental school; 
 and if only a few young men, of talents and worth, could be induced 
 to resort to it, with an intention of devoting themselves to the busi- 
 ness of instruction as a profession, it would not, I think, be long 
 before its practical utility would be demonstrated. The instructors, 
 although few in number, who would, at first, leave the Institution, 
 would probably be located in some of our larger towns. Their modes 
 of instruction would be witnessed by numbers of the influential and 
 intelligent, and, if successful, would soon create a demand for other 
 instructors of similar qualifications. And as soon as such a demand 
 should be produced, other individuals would be found willing to pre- 
 pare themselves to meet it. And thus we might hope that both private 
 and public munificence, so bountifully bestowed, at the present day, 
 on other useful objects, would eventually contribute a portion of its 
 aid to an establishment designed to train up our youth more success- 
 fully to derive benefit from all the other efforts of benevolence, or 
 institutions of literature and religion, which are so widely extending 
 their influence through every part of our highly-favored country. 
 
 Another obstacle, in the prosecution of such a plan, is the difficulty 
 of inducing young men of character and talents to embark in it, and 
 to devote themselves to the business of instruction for life. 
 
 I can not but hope that the time is not far distant, when the educa- 
 tion of youth will assume, in the minds of intelligent and pious indi- 
 viduals, its proper place among the various other benevolent exertions 
 which are made, through the aids of private and public bounty, for 
 meliorating the temporal and eternal condition of man. In the mean- 
 while, can not a few young men, of talents and piety, be led to feel 
 that the thousands of our rising generation, the hope of the church 
 and the state, have strong claims upon their benevolence; and that to 
 concentrate their time and their efforts to such an enterprise, may be 
 as much their duty as to engage in the missionary cause? Missionaries 
 make great sacrifices, and practice much self-denial, and endure 
 weighty labors, without any prospect of temporal emolument, in order 
 to train up heathen youth for usefulness in this world, and for happi- 
 ness in the next; and can not those be found who will undergo some 
 sacrifices, and self-denial, and labor, to bring about so great a good 
 as a reformation in the instruction of those youth who are bone of our 
 bone, and flesh of our flesh f Only admit the importance of the object, 
 (and who can deny it) and it almost looks like an impeachment of 
 their Christian sincerity, to suppose that among those hundreds of 
 young men who are pressing forward into the ranks of charitable enter- 
 prise, none can be persuaded to enter upon a domestic field of labor, 
 which promises so much for the advancement of the Redeemer's king- 
 dom. No, only let the project be begun, let the way of usefulness be 
 opened, let the countenance and support of even a few pious and 
 influential individuals be afforded, and I am persuaded that agents to 
 carry on the work, at least to commence it, will not be wanting. 
 
 The difficulty is not in being unable to procure such agents; it lies 
 deeper: it arises from the very little interest that has yet been taken
 
 MR. CAM. .U-IIKT. ON TKACHI.KS' SKM INAKIKS. 53 
 
 in the subject; from the strange neglect, among parents, and patriots, 
 and Christians, of a well-digested and systematic plan for the education 
 of children and youth; from the sluggish contentment that is felt with 
 the long established modes of instruction; and from the apprehensions 
 that all improvements are either unsafe or chimerical. 
 
 Once rouse this apathy into the putting forth of a little exertion, and 
 invest the subject with its true dignity and importance, and let it be 
 felt that the church is under the most solemn obligations to feed the 
 lambs of her flock, and your young men will come at her bidding, to 
 spend their strength and their days in this delightful service. 
 
 But these young men are poor and can not defray the expense of a 
 preparatory education at such a Seminary as has been proposed. 
 
 Poor young men are taken by the hand of charity, and prepared for 
 other spheres of benevolent exertion; and shall this wide, and as yet 
 almost uncultivated field of benevolence be quite neglected, for the 
 want of a little pecuniary aid? Who gave the first impulse to Foreign 
 Missionary efforts? Was nothing done until the whole Christian public 
 was awakened to a sense of its duty? Did this mighty enterprise 
 begin in the collected councils of the grave and venerable fathers 
 of the church? Was the whole plan of operation digested and matured 
 in all its parts, and no steps taken until all obstacles were removed, 
 and patronage, and influence, and means collected and concentrated 
 to insure the successful prosecution of the vast design? No; long, long 
 before all this complicated machinery was put in motion, the master- 
 spring was at work, and a few pious and prayerful young men gave an 
 impulse, at first to private zeal, and afterward to public co-operation, 
 and the result fills us with gratitude and astonishment. 
 
 Let a MILLS and his associates arise to a hearty engagedness in the 
 project of diffusing throughout our country a system for the best 
 mode of conducting the education of youth; let their faith be strong, 
 and their perseverance unwavering; and influence and wealth will 
 soon contribute their share in the prosecution of the work, and poverty 
 on the part of those who are willing to endure the heat and burden of 
 the day, will cease to be an obstacle in the way of accomplishing their 
 benevolent designs. Providence can, in this, as in all the other de- 
 partments of his dispensations, make even the selfish passions of our 
 nature contribute to the promotion of good and charitable exertions. 
 
 Those who should devote themselves to the business of the instruc- 
 tion of youth os a profession, and who should prepare themselves for 
 it by a course of study and discipline at such a Seminary as I have 
 proposed, would not find it necessary, as our missionaries do, to de- 
 pend on the charity of their countrymen for support. Their talents, 
 their qualifications, and their recommendations, would inspire public 
 confidence, and command public patronage. For experience would soon 
 prove, if it can not be now seen in prospect, that to save time in the 
 education of youth, and to have this education, complete instead of 
 being imperfect, and to prepare the youthful mind for accurate thought, 
 and correct feeling, and practical, energetic action, in all the business 
 of life, is to save money; and even those who now expend a few 
 dollars with so niggardly a hand, in the education of their dear, im- 
 mortal offspring, would soon learn how to calculate on the closest 
 principles of loss and gain, in the employment of instructors, and be 
 willing to give twice as much to him who would do his work twice as 
 well and in half the time, as they now give to him who has neither 
 skill nor experience in his profession. 
 
 Am I extravagant in these speculations? I think I am not; and if 
 my readers will exercise a little more patience, I hope to show, that in
 
 54 MR. GAIXAUDET, ON TEACHEKS' SEMINARIES. 
 
 adopting the plan which I have proposed, there will be an actual saving 
 of money to individuals and to the state, in addition to those numerous 
 advantages in a social, political, and religious point of view, that would 
 result from it, and which are, if I mistake not, so great, that if they 
 could not be attained in any other way, a pecuniary sacrifice ought not 
 for a moment to stand in competition with them. 
 
 My reasoning is founded on two positions, which, I think, can not be 
 controverted; that the present modes of instructing youth are sus- 
 ceptible of vast improvement; and that if these improvements could 
 be carried into operation, by having a more effectual system of educa- 
 tion adopted, and by training up instructors of superior attainments 
 and skill, there would be a great saving, both of time and labor, and 
 of all the contingent expenses necessary to be incurred. 
 
 Suppose, for the sake of argument, though I believe it falls short 
 of the truth, that eight years of pretty constant attendance at school, 
 counting from the time that a child begins to learn his letters, is 
 necessary to give him what is called a good English education. I do 
 not fear to hazard the assertion, that under an approved system of 
 education, with suitable books prepared for the purpose, and conducted 
 by more intelligent and experienced instructors, as much would be 
 acquired in five years, by our children and youth, as is now acquired 
 in eight. 
 
 Now with regard to those parents who calculate on receiving benefit 
 from the labor of their children, it will easily be seen that, by gaining 
 three years out of eight in the course of their education, there will be 
 an immense saving to the state. This saving alone would, I appre- 
 hend, if youth were usefully employed, more than defray the additional 
 wages which would have to be given to instructors of skill and ex- 
 perience, and who should devote themselves to their employment as a 
 profession for life. But if even the advantage to be derived from the 
 labor of children is not taken into the account, it is evident that, for 
 having the same object accomplished in five years that now consumes 
 eight, you could at least afford to pay as much for five years of in- 
 struction as you now pay for eight. In addition to this, as it is the 
 custom in many of our country towns for the instructor to board in 
 the families of those who send children to school, there would be a 
 saving also in this respect. There would be a saving, too, with regard 
 to all the contingent expenses of the school, such as books, stationery, 
 wood, &c. 
 
 In a community constituted like that of New England, where so 
 great a proportion of its population is devoted to agricultural and 
 mechanical pursuits, any system of education which could save the 
 public three years out of eight of the time and labor of all its children 
 and youth, would, it is manifest, add an immense sum to the pecuniary 
 resources of the country, and recommend itself to every patriot and 
 philanthropist, even on the most rigid principles of a calculating 
 economy. 
 
 Besides, the grand objects of education to prepare the rising gen- 
 eration for usefulness and respectability in life, and to train them up 
 for a better and happier state of existence beyond the grave would 
 not only be accomplished in a shorter space of time, but they would be 
 much more effectually accomplished. At present, with all the time, 
 and labor, and expense bestowed upon it, the work is only half done; 
 and the effects of our imperfect modes of instruction are to render 
 youth far less competent to succeed in any pursuits in which they may 
 engage, than if their education was conducted by intelligent instruc-
 
 MB. GALLAUDET, ON TEACHERS' SEMINARIES. 55 
 
 tors, on a well-digested plan, and made as thorough and complete as it 
 might be. 
 
 How often has the individual of native vigor of intellect and force 
 of enterprise to lament, through a long life of unremitted effort, his 
 many disappointments in the prosecution of his plans of business, 
 arising altogether from the defects of his early education! And if this 
 early education were properly conducted, what an accession it would 
 yield to the resources of the community, in the superior ingenuity and 
 skill of our artists; in the more accurate and systematic transactions 
 of our merchants; in the profounder studies and more successful labors 
 of our professional men; in the wider experience and deeper sagacity 
 of our statesmen and politicians; in the higher attainments and loftier 
 productions of our sons of literature and science; and, permit me to 
 add, in the nobler patriotism, the purer morals, and the more ardent 
 piety of the whole mass of our citizens. 
 
 I know it is no easy task to convince some minds that all these 
 advantages yield just so many dollars and cents to the private purse, 
 or to the public treasury. But my appeal is to those who take a 
 more comprehensive view of what constitutes the real wealth of any 
 community, and who estimate objects not by what they will to-day 
 fetch in the market, if exposed to sale, but by their effects upon the 
 permanent well-being and prosperity of the state. 
 
 With such I leave the candid consideration of the remarks which I 
 have offered in this and the preceding Essays; in the mean while, 
 cherishing the hope, that that Being who is now most wonderfully 
 adjusting the various enterprises of benevolence, that distinguish the 
 age in which we live from all others which have preceded it, to the 
 consummation of His gracious designs for the universal happiness of 
 man, on the principles which the gospel of Jesus Christ inculcates, 
 and which it alone can produce, will, sooner or later, and in some way 
 or other, rouse the attention, and direct the efforts of the Christian 
 world to that department of philanthropic exertion, the neglect of 
 which must retard, if not quite counteract, complete success in all 
 others, the education of youth." 
 
 After the lapse of a quarter of a century, the author of 
 the above remarks had the satisfaction of being present on 
 the 15th of May, 1850, at New Britain, and of taking part 
 in exercises appropriate to the opening of the "Normal 
 School, or Seminary for the training of teachers in the art 
 of instructing and governing the common schools of this 
 state." The members of the school, during the first term, 
 formed an Association for mutual improvement, to which 
 they have given the name of the "Gallaudet Society," as an 
 evidence of their appreciation of his early and long-contin- 
 ued labors to bring about the establishment of a Normal 
 School in Connecticut.
 
 FIRST ANNUAL CIRCULAR 
 
 OF THE 
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOL AT NEW BRITAIN. 
 
 THE State Normal School or "Seminary for the training of teachers 
 in the art of teaching and governing the Common Schools" of Con- 
 necticut, was established by act of the Legislature, May session, 1849, 
 and the sum of eleven thousand dollars was appropriated for its 
 support for a period of at least four years. 
 
 The sum appropriated for the support of the school is derived not 
 from the income of the School Fund, or any of the ordinary resources 
 of the Treasury, but from a bonus of ten thousand dollars paid by the 
 State Bank, at Hartford, and of $1000 paid by the Deep River Bank, 
 for their respective charters. No part of this sum can be expended 
 in any building or fixtures for the school, or for the compensation of 
 the trustees. 
 
 The entire management of the Institution, as to the application of 
 the funds, the location of the school, the regulation of the studies 
 and exercises, and the granting of diplomas, is committed to a Board 
 of Trustees, consisting of the Superintendent of Common Schools, 
 ex officio, and one member for each of the eight counties of the state, 
 appointed by the Legislature, two in each year, and to hold their 
 office for the term of four years, and serve without compensation. 
 The Board must submit an annual report as to their own doings, and 
 the progress and condition of the seminary. 
 
 The Normal School was located permanently in New Britain, on the 
 1st of February, 1850, after full consideration of the claims and offers 
 of other towns, on account of the central position of the town in the 
 state, and its accessibility from every section by railroad; and also 
 in consideration of the liberal offer on the part of its citizens, to pro- 
 vide a suitable building, apparatus, and library, to the value of $16,000, 
 for the use of the Normal School, and to place all the schools of the 
 village under the management of the Principal of the Normal School, 
 as Schools of Practice. 
 
 The building provided for the accommodation of the Normal School, 
 and the Schools of Practice, when completed, will contain three large 
 study-halls, with nine class-rooms attached, a hall for lectures and 
 exhibitions, a laboratory for chemical and philosophical experiments, 
 an office for the Principal and trustees, a room for the library, and 
 suitable accommodations for apparatus, clothes, furnaces, fuel, &c. The 
 entire building will be fitted up and furnished in the most substantial 
 manner, and with special reference to the health, comfort and success- 
 ful labor of pupils and teachers. In addition to the Normal School 
 building, there are three houses located in different parts of the 
 village, for the accommodation of the primary schools belonging to the 
 Schools of Practice. 
 
 The immediate charge of the Normal School, and Schools of Prac- 
 tice, is committed to Rev. T. D. P. Stone, Associate Principal, to whom 
 all communications relating to the schools, can be addressed. 
 
 The school was opened for the reception of pupils, on Wednesday, 
 the 15th of May, 1850, and the first term closed on Tuesday, October 1st. 
 The number of pupils in attendance during the term, was sixty-seven; 
 thirty males, and thirty-seven females.
 
 58 FIBST ANNUAL CIRCULAR. 
 
 The second term will commence on Wednesday, the 4th of December, 
 1850, and continue till the third Wednesday in April, 1851, divided 
 into two sessions as given below. 
 
 TERMS AND VACATIONS. The year is divided into two terms, Summer 
 and Winter, each term consisting of two sessions. 
 
 The first session of the winter term commences on the first Wednes- 
 day of December, and continues fourteen weeks. The second session 
 of the winter term commences on the third Wednesday of March, and 
 continues six weeks. 
 
 The first session of the summer term commences on the third Wed- 
 nesday of May, and continues twelve weeks. The second session of the 
 summer term commences on the third Wednesday of August, and con- 
 tinues six weeks. 
 
 To accommodate pupils already engaged in teaching, the short ses- 
 sion of each term will, as far as shall be found practicable, be devoted 
 to a review of the studies pursued in the district schools in the season 
 of the year immediately following, and to a course of familiar lectures 
 on the classification, instruction and discipline of such schools. 
 
 ADMISSION OF PUPILS. The highest number of pupils which can be 
 received in any one term, is two hundred and twenty. 
 
 Each school society is entitled to have one pupil in the school; and 
 no society can have more than one in any term, so long as there are 
 applicants from any society, at the time unrepresented. Until the 
 whole number of pupils in actual attendance shall reach the highest 
 number fixed by law, the Principal is authorized to receive all appli- 
 cants who may present themselves, duly recommended by the visitors 
 of any school society. 
 
 Any person, either male or female, may apply to the school visitors 
 of any school society for admission to the school, who will make a 
 written declaration, that their object in so applying is to qualify him- 
 self (or herself) for the employment of a common school teacher, and 
 that it is his (or her) intention to engage in that employment, in this 
 state. 
 
 The school visitors are authorized to forward to the Superintendent 
 of Common Schools, in any year, the names of four persons, two of 
 each sex, who shall have applied as above, for admission to the school, 
 and who shall have been found on examination by them, "possessed 
 of the qualifications required of teachers of common schools in this 
 state," and whom they "shall recommend to the trustees as suitable 
 persons, by their age, character, talents, and attainments, to be received 
 as pupils in the Normal School." 
 
 Applicants duly recommended by the school visitors, can forward 
 their certificate directly to the Associate Principal of the Normal 
 School at New Britain, who will inform them of the time when they 
 must report themselves to be admitted to any vacant places in the 
 school. 
 
 Persons duly recommended, and informed of their admission, must 
 report themselves within the first week of the term for which they are 
 admitted, or their places will be considered as vacated. 
 
 Any persons, once regularly admitted to the Normal School, can 
 remain connected with the same, for three years, and will not lose 
 their places, by temporary absence in teaching common schools in the 
 state such experience, in connection with the instruction of the Insti- 
 tution, being considered a desirable part of a teacher's training.
 
 FIB8T ANNUAL CIRCULAR. 59 
 
 STUDIES. The course of Instruction will embrace: 1. A thorough 
 review of the studies pursued in the lowest grade of common schools. 
 
 2. An acquaintance with such studies as are embraced in the highest 
 grade of common schools, authorized by law, and which will render 
 the teaching of the elementary branch more thorough and interesting. 
 
 3. The art of teaching and its methods, including the history and 
 progress of education, the philosophy of teaching and discipline, as 
 drawn from the nature of the juvenile mind, and the application of 
 those principles under the ordinary conditions of our common schools. 
 
 The members of the school will be arranged in three classes Junior, 
 Middle and Senior. All pupils, on being admitted to the school, will 
 be ranked in the Junior Class, until their familiarity with the studies 
 of the lowest grade of common schools have been satisfactorily tested. 
 The Middle Class will embrace those who are pursuing the branches 
 usually taught in Public High Schools. The Senior Class will comprise 
 those who are familiar with the studies of the Junior and Middle Clas- 
 ses, or who are possessed of an amount of experience in active and 
 successful teaching, which can be regarded as a practical equivalent. 
 All the studies of the school will be conducted in reference to their be- 
 ing taught again in common schools. 
 
 PRACTICE IN THE ART OF TEACHING AND GOVERNING SCHOOLS. The 
 several schools of the First School District, comprising the village of 
 New Britain, are placed by a vote of the District, under the instruction 
 and discipline of the Associate Principal, as Model Schools, and Schools 
 of Practice, for the Normal School. These schools embrace about four 
 hundred children, and are classified into three Primary, one Inter- 
 mediate, and one High School. The course of instruction embraces all 
 the studies pursued in any grade of common schools in Connecticut. 
 The instruction of these schools will be given by pupils of the Normal 
 School, under the constant oversight of the Associate Principal and 
 Professors. 
 
 TEXT BOOKS. A Library of the best text books, in the various stu- 
 dies pursued in the schools, is commenced, and already numbers up- 
 ward of four thousand volumes. Pupils are supplied with text books 
 in such studies as they may be engaged, at a charge, barely sufficient 
 to keep the books in good condition, and supply such as may be injured 
 or lost. Arrangements have also been made to furnish teachers who 
 wish to own a set of text books at the publishers' lowest wholesale 
 prices. 
 
 APPARATUS. The sum of one thousand dollars is appropriated for the 
 purchase of apparatus, which will be procured from time to time, as 
 the wants of the school may require. As far as practicable, such 
 articles of apparatus will be used in the class-rooms of the Normal 
 School, as can be readily made by teachers themselves, or conveniently 
 procured at low prices, and be made useful in the instruction of District 
 Schools. 
 
 LIBRARY. The school is already furnished with the best works on 
 the Theory and Practice of Education, which the Normal pupils are 
 expected to read, and on several of which they are examined. The 
 library will be supplied with Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, and other 
 books of reference, to which free access will be given to members of 
 the school. 
 
 BOARD. Normal pupils must board and lodge in such families, and 
 under such regulations, as are approved by the Associate Principal. 
 
 The price of board, including room, fuel, lights and washing, in 
 private families, ranges from $2.00 to $2.50 per week. Persons, ex-
 
 60 FIRST ANNUAL CIRCULAR. 
 
 pecting to join the school, should signify their intention to the Associ- 
 ate Principal, as early as practicable, before the commencement of a 
 term, that there may be no disappointment in the place and price of 
 board. 
 
 DISCIPLINE. The discipline of the institution is committed to the 
 Associate Principal, who is authorized to secure the highest point of 
 order and behavior by all suitable means, even to a temporary sus- 
 pension of a pupil from the schools. The age of the pupils, the objects 
 which bring them to a Normal School, and the spirit of the institution 
 itself, will, it is believed, dispense with the necessity of a code of 
 rules. The members are expected to exemplify in their own conduct, 
 the order, punctuality, and neatness of good scholars, and exhibit in 
 all their relations, Christian courtesy, kindness and fidelity. 
 
 EXAMINATION AND INSPECTION. The school will be visited each term 
 by a committee of the trustees, who will report the results of their 
 examination to the Board. 
 
 There will be an examination at the close of each term, before the 
 whole Board, and at the close of the summer term, the examination 
 will be public, and, will be followed by an exhibition. 
 
 The school is at all times open to inspection, and school visitors, 
 teachers, and the friends of education generally in the state, are 
 cordially invited to visit it at their convenience. 
 
 DIPLOMA. The time required to complete the course of instruction 
 and practice, which shall be deemed by the trustees a suitable prepara- 
 tion for the business of teaching, and entitle any applicant to a Diploma 
 of the Normal School, will depend on the age, attainments, mental 
 discipline, moral character, and evidence of practical tact in instruction 
 and government of each applicant. 
 
 No diploma will be given to any person who does not rank in the 
 Senior Class, and has not given evidence of possessing some practical 
 talent as a teacher in the Schools of Practice, or in the District Schools 
 of the state. 
 
 TEACHERS' INSTITUTES. 
 
 A portion of the vacation in the spring and autumn, will be devoted 
 by the Officers of the Normal School, to Teachers' Institutes, or Con- 
 ventions, in different parts of the state. 
 
 At least two of these Institutes will be held in the spring, for the 
 special benefit of teachers who may be engaged, or expect to teach 
 district schools in the summer following. 
 
 COUNTY TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. 
 
 The Principal, or one of the Professors of the Normal School, will 
 attend, on invitation and due notice, at every regular meeting of any 
 County Teachers' Association, which shall continue in session through 
 two evenings and one day, and assist in the lectures, discussions and 
 other exercises of the occasion. 
 
 STATE TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. 
 
 The State Teachers' Association has voted to hold an annual meeting 
 at New Britain during the examination at the close of the summer 
 term of the Normal School, and a special meeting at the dedicatory 
 exercises at the completion of the Normal School in the spring. Ar- 
 rangements will be made to entertain all members of the Association, 
 during the meeting. 
 
 Adopted at a meeting of the Board of Trustees, held at New Britain, 
 Oct. 1, 1850. 
 
 FRANCIS GILLETTE, President.
 
 HINTS TO SCHOOL VISITORS 
 
 RESPECTING 
 
 APPLICANTS FOR ADMISSION TO THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 
 BY the First Annual Circular of the Trustees of the State Normal 
 School, the undersigned are directed, for the present, to receive as 
 pupils, all persons whom the visitors of any School Society shall 
 recommend as suitable persons, by their age, character, and attain- 
 ments, for this purpose. Upon your recommendation will depend, in no 
 small degree, the character and usefulness of this institution. 
 
 We beg of you, therefore, as far as you can, to send us candidates 
 for admission to the Normal School, who possess 
 
 1. Purity and strength of moral and religious character, an ex- 
 emplary life, and the habit of self-government, and of subjecting their 
 own actions to the test of moral and religious principle. 
 
 2. Good health, a vigorous and buoyant constitution, and a fund of 
 lively, cheerful spirits. The business of teaching demands liveliness 
 and activity both of mind and body. 
 
 3. Good manners, and by this, we mean those manners which are 
 dedicated by the spirit of our Saviour's Golden Rule, of doing unto 
 others as we would that others should do unto us, in manner as well 
 as in matter. 
 
 4. A love of, and sympathy with, children. 
 
 5. A competent share of talent and information, such as the law 
 (Section 22) demands of every teacher, and which you are required by 
 the Act establishing this School, to ascertain by actual examination. 
 The proposed course of instruction in the Normal School can not 
 create, it can only improve, the talent and information of its pupil- 
 teachers. 
 
 6. A native tact and talent for teaching and governing others. No 
 amount of instruction and practice can supply a deficiency in these 
 respects. 
 
 7. A love for the occupations of the school-room, and a desire to 
 engage in the business of teaching for life. 
 
 8. The Common School spirit if need be, a martyr spirit, to live and 
 die, for the more thorough, complete and practical education of all the 
 children of the State in the Common Schools to be made, by their 
 exertions, in co-operation with parents and school officers, good enough 
 for the best, and cheap enough for the poorest. 
 
 9. Some experience as teachers. Even a short experience will serve 
 to develope, if they possess them, the germs of the above qualities and 
 qualifications, and will make even a brief course of instruction in the 
 Normal School highly profitable. 
 
 HENRY BARNARD, Principal of State Normal School. 
 T. D. P. STONE, Associate Principal.
 
 62 TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS. 
 
 EXTRACT FROM SECTION 22, CHAPTER II, OF THE STATUTES OF CONNECTICUT. 
 
 "The Board of Visitors shall themselves, or by a Committee by them 
 appointed for that purpose, examine all candidates for teachers in the 
 Common Schools of [each] society, and shall give to those persons 
 with whose moral character, literary attainments, and ability to teach, 
 they are satisfied, a certificate, setting forth the branches he or she is 
 found capable of teaching; provided that no certificate shall be given 
 to any person, not found qualified to teach reading, writing, arith- 
 metic, and grammar thoroughly, and the rudiments of geography and 
 history." 
 
 TEACHERS' INSTITUTES. 
 
 THE earliest of the class of meetings now known as Teachers' Insti- 
 tutes in Connecticut, was held at Hartford in 1839, and continued in 
 session four weeks. A similar meeting for the benefit of female 
 teachers was held in the spring of 1840. In 1846 a convention of two 
 hundred and fifty teachers assembled in Hartford, and continued in 
 session five days. In 1847 the Legislature made provision for holding 
 two meetings of this kind, of one week each, in each county of the 
 State; and by the act of 1849, it is made the duty of the Superintendent 
 "to hold at one convenient place in each county of the State, in the 
 months of September, October, or November annually, schools or con- 
 ventions of teachers, for the purpose of instructing in the best modes 
 of governing and teaching our common schools, and to employ one 
 suitable person to assist him at each of said schools." 
 
 EDUCATIONAL PERIODICALS AND PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 The State makes no provision for the publication of an educational 
 paper. In 1838, the Connecticut Common School Journal was com- 
 menced by the Secretary of the Board of Commissioners of Common 
 Schools, and continued by him till the abolition of the Board in 1842. 
 In 1846, the Connecticut School Manual was commenced by Rev. Merril 
 Richardson, and continued for two years, when it was suspended for 
 the want of patronage. In 1850, the Superintendent, in pursuance of 
 a plan set forth in his report to the Legislature of that year, was 
 authorized to prepare and issue a series of publications on the most 
 important topics connected with the condition and improvement of 
 common schools. The series will embrace, 1. Legislation of Connecticut 
 respecting Common Schools. 2. Condition of the Common Schools in 
 each town and district. 3. School houses. 4. Normal Schools and 
 other agencies for the professional education of teachers. 5. Attend- 
 ance and classification of children at school. 6. System of organiza- 
 tion for common schools in cities and large districts. 7. Means of 
 popular education in manufacturing villages. 8. Course of instruction 
 in a small country district school. 9. Text Book and Apparatus. 
 10. School Inspection. 11. Means and mode of supporting schools. 
 12. Parental and public interest in common schools. 13. Public schools 
 in other states and countries. 
 
 PUBLIC ADDRESSES AND SCHOOL INSPECTION. 
 
 The Legislature in 1850 authorized the Superintendent to secure the 
 delivery of at least one address in a public meeting of parents, school 
 officers, and teachers in each School Society, on topics connected with 
 the improvement of the common schools in respect to organization, 
 administration, instruction, and discipline. Under this power, the 
 superintendent is aiming to illustrate some of the advantages of a 
 system of county inspection and reports.
 
 TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS. 63 
 
 TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS. 
 
 The first association of teachers in Connecticut, and as far as we 
 have any knowledge, in the United States, was formed at Middletown, 
 in 1798, under the name of the "School Association for Middlesex 
 County." Its objects, as set forth in a printed circular in 1799, were 
 "to promote a systematic course of instruction, and elevate the char- 
 acter and qualifications of teachers." 
 
 A State Teachers' Association was formed in 1847, and County 
 Associations of teachers exist in the counties of Fairfield, Windhaw, 
 New-Haven, New-London, and Litchfield. The State does not make 
 any appropriation in aid of the objects of these associations, and the 
 attendance of teachers is not encouraged by local school officers.
 
 MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 To James G. Carter, of Lancaster, belongs the credit of 
 having first called public attention in Massachusetts, to the 
 necessity and advantages of an institution devoted exclus- 
 ively to the professional training of teachers, in a series of 
 articles in the Boston Patriot, with the signature of "Frank- 
 lin," in the winter of 1824-5. After fifteen years of con- 
 stant appeals to the people and the Legislature, by himself 
 and others, through the press and in every form of public 
 address, report, and memorial, he had the satisfaction of 
 seeing his plan realized by two brief Resolves of the Legis- 
 lature, passed on the 19th of April, 1838. For this action of 
 the Legislature, the gratitude of the friends of education in 
 Massachusetts, and in the whole country, are specially due 
 to the munificence of the late Edmund D wight, of Boston, 
 as set forth in the Report and Resolves on the following 
 page. 
 
 We intended to preface this account of the Massachusetts 
 State Normal Schools, with a sketch, mainly documentary, 
 of the efforts put forth by many individuals, in public 
 stations and in private life in the Legislature and out of it 
 in conventions and associations of teachers and school 
 officers through the periodical press, from the country 
 newspaper to the quarterly review and in every form of 
 public address and report, whether prepared for the district 
 school meeting or for halls of legislation, for the profes- 
 sional improvement of teachers in all departments. With 
 much diligence, and by an extensive correspondence, we 
 have collected the writings and notices of the labors of Car- 
 ter, Lincoln, Russell, Woodbridge, Alcott, Burnside, Baily, 
 Emerson, Brooks, Morton Everett, Rantoul, Channing, Mann, 
 Stowe, Humphrey, and others; with an account of the ex- 
 periment of the Teachers' Seminary at Andover, of the pro- 
 ceedings of the American Institute of Instruction, the Essex 
 County Teachers' Association, and the State Teachers' As- 
 sociation, the Board of Education, the Journal and Annals 
 of Education, the Common School Journal, the Massachus- 
 etts Teacher, the Annual Reports of Town School Commit- 
 tees, and other institutions and agencies by which the pub- 
 lic mind of Massachusetts has been enlightened on the ne- 
 
 E
 
 66 MASSACHUSETTS STATE NOBMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 cessity and means of common school improvement, beyond 
 any other state. But ill health, and other causes, forbid the 
 completion of my original plan at this time. 
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 The following brief account of the history and organiza- 
 tion of the State Normal Schools, in Massachusetts, is cop- 
 ied from the "Tenth Annual Report of the Secretary of the 
 Board of Education." 
 
 "In a communication made by the Secretary of the Board of Educa- 
 tion to the Legislature, dated March 12, 1838, it was stated that private 
 munificence had placed at his disposal the sum of ten thousand dollars, 
 to be expended, under the direction of the Board of Education, for 
 qualifying teachers for our Common Schools, on condition that the 
 Legislature would place in the hands of the Board an equal sum, to be 
 expended for the same purpose. 
 
 On the 19th of April, of the same year, resolves were passed, accept- 
 ing the proposition, and authorizing the Governor, with the advice 
 and consent of the Council, to draw his warrant upon the treasurer 
 for the sum of ten thousand dollars, to be placed at the disposal of 
 the Board for the purpose specified in the original communication." 
 
 The following is a copy of the Resolve and of the Report 
 of the Committee on the subject : 
 
 "The Joint Committee, to whom was referred the communication of 
 the Hon. Horace Mann, Secretary of the Board of Education, relative 
 to a fund for the promotion of the cause of popular education in this 
 Commonwealth, and also the memorial of the Nantucket County 
 Association for the promotion of education, and the improvement of 
 schools, and also the petition and memorial of the inhabitants of the 
 town of Nantucket, on the same subject, having duly considered the 
 matter therein embraced, respectfully report, 
 
 That the highest interest in Massachusetts is, and will always con- 
 tinue to be, the just and equal instruction of all her citizens, so far 
 as the circumstances of each individual will permit to be imparted; 
 that her chief glory, for two hundred years, has been the extent to 
 which this instruction was diffused, the result of the provident legis- 
 lation, to promote the common cause, and secure the perpetuity of 
 the common interest; that for many years a well-grounded apprehen- 
 sion has been entertained, of the neglect of our common town schools 
 by large portions of our community, and of the comparative degrada- 
 tion to which these institutions might fall from such neglect; that the 
 friends of universal education have long looked to the Legislature for 
 the establishment of one or more seminaries devoted to the purpose 
 of supplying qualified teachers, for the town and district schools, by 
 whose action alone other judicious provisions of the law could be 
 carried into full effect; that at various times, the deliberation of both 
 branches of the General Court has been bestowed upon this, among 
 other subjects, most intimately relating to the benefit of the rising 
 generation and of all generations to come, particularly when the pro- 
 vision for instruction of school teachers was specially urged on their 
 consideration, in 1827, by the message of the Governor, and a report 
 thereupon, accompanied by a bill, was submitted by the chairman, now 
 a member of the Congress of the United States, following out to their 
 fair conclusions, the suggestion of the Executive, and the forcible 
 essays of a distinguished advocate of this institution at great length,
 
 MASSACHUSETTS STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS. 67 
 
 published and widely promulgated; that although much has been 
 done within two or three years, for the encouragement of our town 
 schools by positive enactment, and more by the liberal spirit, newly 
 awakened in our several communities, yet the number of competent 
 teachers is found, by universal experience, so far inadequate to supply 
 the demand for them, as to be the principal obstacle to improvement, 
 and the greatest deficiency of our republic; that we can hardly ex- 
 pect, as in the memorials from Nantucket is suggested, to remove 
 this deficiency even in a partial degree, much less to realize the com- 
 pletion of the felicitous system of our free schools, without adopting 
 means for more uniform modes of tuition and government in them, 
 without better observing the rules of prudence in the selection of our 
 common books, the unlimited diversity of which is complained of 
 throughout the State, and that these benefits may reasonably be ex- 
 pected to follow from no other course than a well-devised scheme in 
 full operation, for the education of teachers; that the announcement, 
 in the communication recently received from the Secretary of the 
 Board of Education, of that private munificence, which offers $10,000 
 to this Commonwealth, for removal of this general want, at least in 
 the adoption of initiatory measures of remedy, is received by us with 
 peculiar pleasure, and, in order that the General Court may con- 
 summate this good, by carrying forward the benevolent object of the 
 unknown benefactor, the committee conclude, with recommending the 
 passage of the subjoined resolutions. 
 
 All which is respectfully submitted, 
 
 JAMES SAVAGE, per order. 
 
 RESOLVES 
 
 RELATIVE TO QUALIFYING TEACHERS FOR COMMON SCHOOLS. 
 
 Whereas, by letter from the Honorable Horace Mann, Secretary of 
 the Board of Education, addressed, on the 12th March current, to the 
 President of the Senate, and the Speaker of the House of Representa- 
 tives, it appears, that private munificence has placed at his disposal 
 the sum of ten thousand dollars, to promote the cause of popular edu- 
 cation in Massachusetts, on condition that the Commonwealth will con- 
 tribute from unappropriated funds, the same amount in aid of the 
 same cause, the two sums to be drawn upon equally from time to 
 time, as needed, and to be disbursed under the direction of the Board 
 of Education in qualifying teachers for our Common Schools; there- 
 fore, 
 
 Resolved, That his Excellency, the Governor, be, and he is hereby 
 authorized and requested, by and with the advice and consent of the 
 Council, to draw his warrant upon the Treasurer of the Common- 
 wealth in favor of the Board of Education, for the sum of $10,000, in 
 such installments and at such times, as said Board may request: 
 provided, said Board, in their request, shall certify, that the Secretary 
 of said Board has placed at their disposal an amount equal to that 
 for which such application may by them be made; both sums to be ex- 
 pended, under the direction of said Board, in qualifying teachers for 
 the Common Schools in Massachusetts. 
 
 Resolved, That the Board of Education shall render an annual 
 account of the manner in which said moneys have been by them 
 expended." 
 
 "The Board, after mature deliberation, decided to establish three 
 Normal Schools; one for the north-eastern, one for the south-eastern, 
 and one for the western part of the State. Accordingly, one was 
 opened at Lexington, in the county of Middlesex, on the 3d day of
 
 68 MASSACHUSETTS STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 July, 1839. This school, having outgrown its accommodations at Lex- 
 ington, was removed to West Newton, in the same county, in Sept., 
 
 1844, where it now occupies a commodious building. 
 
 The second Normal School was opened at Barre, in the county of 
 Worcester, on the 4th day of September, 1839. This school has since 
 been removed to Westfield, in the county of Hampden, both on account 
 of the insufficiency of the accommodations at Barre, and because the 
 latter place is situated east of the centre of population of the western 
 counties. 
 
 The third school was opened at Bridgewater, on the 9th day of Sept., 
 1840, and is permanently located at that place. 
 
 For the two last-named schools, there had been, from the beginning, 
 very inadequate school-room accommodations. In the winter of 1845, 
 a memorial, on behalf of certain friends of education in the city of 
 Boston and its vicinity, was presented to the Legislature, offering the 
 sum of five thousand dollars, to be obtained by private subscriptions, 
 on condition that the Legislature would give an equal sum, for the 
 purpose of erecting two Normal School-houses; one for the school at 
 Westfield and one for that at Bridgewater. By resolves of March 20, 
 
 1845, the proposition of the memorialists was accepted and the grant 
 made; and by the same resolves it was ordered, 'that the schools 
 heretofore known as Normal Schools, shall be hereafter designated as 
 State Normal Schools.' 
 
 The school at West Newton is appropriated exclusively to females; 
 those at Bridgewater and Westfield admit both sexes. 
 
 Among the standing regulations adopted by the Board, for the gov- 
 ernment of the State Normal Schools, are the following most of 
 which were adopted in the beginning, and have been constantly in 
 force; only a few modifications, and those very slight ones, having 
 since been introduced: 
 
 ADMISSION. As a prerequisite to admission, candidates must declare 
 it to be their intention to qualify themselves to become school teachers. 
 If they belong to the State, or have an intention and a reasonable 
 expectation of keeping school in the State, tuition is gratuitous. Other- 
 wise, a tuition-fee is charged, which is intended to be about the same as 
 is usually charged at good academies in the same neighborhood. If 
 pupils, after having completed a course of study at the State Normal 
 Schools, immediately engage in school keeping, but leave the State, 
 or enter a private school or an academy, they are considered as having 
 waived the privilege growing out of their declared intention to keep a 
 Common School in Massachusetts, and are held bound in honor to pay 
 a tuition-fee for their instruction. 
 
 If males, pupils must have attained the age of seventeen years 
 complete, and of sixteen, if females; and they must be free from any 
 disease or infirmity, which would unfit them for the office of school 
 teachers. 
 
 They must undergo an examination, and prove themselves to be well 
 versed in orthography, reading, writing, English grammar, geography 
 and arithmetic. 
 
 They must furnish satisfactory evidence of good intellectual capacity 
 and of high moral character and principles. 
 
 Examinations for admission take place at the commencement of each 
 term, of which there are three in a year. 
 
 TERM OF STUDY. At West Newton and Bridgewater, the minimum 
 of the term of study is one year, and this must be in consecutive 
 terms of the schools. In regard to the school at Westfield, owing to the
 
 MASSACHUSETTS STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS. 69 
 
 unwillingness of the pupils in that section of the State to remain at 
 the school, even for so short a time as one year, the rule requiring a 
 year's residence has been from time to time suspended. It is found to 
 be universally true, that those applicants whose qualifications are best, 
 are desirous to remain at the school the longest. 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY. The studies first to be attended to in the State 
 Normal Schools, are those which the law requires to be taught in the 
 district schools, namely, orthography, reading, writing, English, gram- 
 mar, geography and arithmetic. When these are mastered, those of a 
 higher order will be progressively taken. 
 
 For those who wish to remain at the school more than one year, and 
 for all belonging to the school, so far as their previous attainments will 
 permit, the following course is arranged: 
 
 1. Orthography, reading, grammar, composition, rhetoric and logic. 
 
 2. Writing and drawing. 
 
 3. Arithmetic, mental and written, algebra, geometry, book-keeping, 
 navigation, surveying. 
 
 4. Geography, ancient and modern, with chronology, statistics and 
 general history. 
 
 5. Human Physiology, and hygiene or the Laws of Health. 
 
 6. Mental Philosophy. 
 
 7. Music. 
 
 8. Constitution and History of Massachusetts and of the United 
 States. 
 
 9. Natural Philosophy and Astronomy. 
 
 10. Natural History. 
 
 11. The principles of piety and morality, common to all sects of 
 Christians. 
 
 12. THE SCIENCE AND ABT OF TEACHING WITH REFERENCE TO ALL THE 
 ABOVE NAMED STUDIES. 
 
 RELIGIOUS EXERCISES. A portion of the Scriptures shall be read 
 daily, in every State Normal School. 
 
 VISITERS. Each Normal School is under the immediate inspection of 
 a Board of Visiters, who are in all cases to be members of the Board 
 of Education, except that the Secretary of the Board may be appointed 
 as one of the visiters of each school. 
 
 The Board appoints one Principal Instructor for each school, who 
 is responsible for its government and instruction, subject to the rules 
 of the Board, and the supervision of the Visiters. The Visiters of the 
 respective schools appoint the assistant instructors thereof. 
 
 To each Normal School, an Experimental or Model School is at- 
 tached. This School is under the control of the Principal of the Normal 
 School. The pupils of the Normal School assist in teaching it. Here, 
 the knowledge which they acquire in the science of teaching, is prac- 
 tically applied. The art is made to grow out of the science, instead of 
 being empirical. The Principal of the Normal School inspects the 
 Model School more or less, daily. He observes the manner in which 
 his own pupils exemplify, in practice, the principles he has taught 
 them. Sometimes, all the pupils of the Normal School, together with 
 the Principal, visit the Model School in a body, to observe the manner 
 in which the teachers of the latter, for the time being, conduct the 
 recitations or exercises. Then, returning to their own school-room, in 
 company with the assistant teachers themselves, who have been the 
 objects of inspection, each one is called upon to deliver his views, 
 whether commendatory or otherwise, respecting the manner in which 
 the work has been performed. At this amicable exposition of merits 
 and defects, the Principal of the Normal School presides. After all
 
 70 MASSACHUSETTS STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 others have presented their views, he delivers his own; and thus his 
 pupils, at the threshold of their practice, have an opportunity to acquire 
 confidence in a good cause, of which they might otherwise entertain 
 doubts, and to rectify errors which otherwise would fossilize into habit. 
 
 The salaries of the teachers of the State Normal Schools are paid by 
 the State." 
 
 The following Rules were adopted for the regulation of the Normal 
 Schools, at a meeting of the Board of Education, held in December, 
 1849. 
 
 1. No new applicants for admission to the Normal Schools shall be 
 received, except at the commencement of the term. 
 
 2. It shall be the duty of the Secretary of the Board and of one of the 
 visitors to be present on the first day of the term, for the examination 
 of the candidates for admission. 
 
 3. There shall be two periods for the admission of new members, 
 the time to be fixed by the visitors of each school. 
 
 4. Candidates for admission at the West Newton Normal School must 
 promise to remain four consecutive terms; and at the other Normal 
 Schools, three consecutive terms. An exception may be made in the 
 case of persons of more than ordinary experience and attainments. 
 
 5. It shall be the duty of the principals of the several Normal Schools 
 to make a report, at the end of each term, to the visitors, and if, in 
 their judgment, any do not promise to be useful as teachers, they 
 shall be dismissed. 
 
 6. The course of study in each of the Normal Schools shall begin 
 with a review of the studies pursued in the common schools, viz: 
 reading, writing, orthography, English grammar, mental and written 
 arithmetic, geography, and physiology. 
 
 7. The attention of pupils, in the Normal Schools, shall be directed, 
 1. To a thorough review of elementary studies; 2. To those branches 
 of knowledge which may be considered as an expansion of the above- 
 named elementary studies, or collateral to them; 3. To the art of 
 teaching and its modes. 
 
 8. The advanced studies shall be equally proportioned, according to 
 the following distribution, into three departments, viz.: 1. The mathe- 
 matical, including algebra through quadratic equations; geometry, to 
 an amount equal to three books in Euclid; book-keeping; and survey- 
 ing. 2. The philosophical, including natural philosophy, astronomy, 
 moral and intellectual philosophy, natural history, particularly that of 
 our own country, and so much of chemistry as relates to the atmos- 
 phere, the waters, and the growth of plants and animals. 3. The 
 literary, including the critical study of the English language, both in 
 its structure and history, with an outline of the history of English 
 literature; the history of the United States, with such a survey of 
 general history as may be a suitable preparation for it; and historical 
 geography, ancient and mediaeval, so far as is necessary to understand 
 general history, from the earliest times to the period of the French 
 Revolution. 
 
 9. "The art of teaching and its modes" shall include instruction on 
 the philosophy of teaching and discipline, as drawn from the nature 
 and condition of the juvenile mind; the history of the progress of the 
 art, and the application of it to our system of education; and as much 
 exercise in teaching under constant supervision, toward the close of 
 the course, as the circumstances and interests of the model schools will 
 allow. 
 
 10. Members of the Normal Schools may, with the consent of the 
 respective boards of visitors, remain as much longer than the period 
 required, as they may desire.
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 
 
 AT 
 
 WEST NEWTON. 
 
 THE State Normal Schools, of which there are three in Massachu- 
 setts, are designed for those only who purpose to teach, and especially 
 for those who purpose to teach in the common schools. The school at 
 West Newton is for females. 
 
 It was opened at Lexington, July 3d, 1839, with the examination of 
 three pupils, who were all that presented themselves as candidates. 
 At the close of the first term it numbered twelve pupils. 
 
 The school continued at Lexington five years. In May, 1844, having 
 by far outgrown its accommodations, it was removed to West Newton, 
 where the liberality of the Hon. Josiah Quincy, Jr., of Boston, had 
 provided for it by the purchase of a building, formerly used as a 
 private academy, which he generously gave to the Institution. 
 
 The whole number of graduates is 423, nearly all of whom have en- 
 gaged in teaching, the most of them in the public schools of this state. 
 
 CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE. 1. The applicant must be at least sixteen 
 years old. 
 
 2. She must make an explicit declaration of her intention to become 
 a TEACHER. 
 
 3. She must produce a certificate of good PHYSICAL, INTELLECTUAL, 
 and MORAL CHARACTER, from some responsible person. It is exceedingly 
 desirable that this condition be strictly complied with on the part of 
 those who present candidates. 
 
 4. She must pass a satisfactory examination in the common branches, 
 viz: Reading, spelling and defining, arithmetic, grammar, writing and 
 geography. 
 
 5. She must give a pledge to remain in the school at least four con- 
 secutive terms, and to observe faithfully all the regulations of the 
 Institution, as long as she is a member of it. 
 
 6. All candidates for admission must be at the school-room on the 
 morning of the day which precedes that on which the term commences, 
 at half-past eight o'clock. None will be admitted after the day of ex- 
 amination. 
 
 7. Each pupil, at entrance, must be supplied with slate and pencil, 
 blank book, Bible, Worcester's Comprehensive Dictionary, and Morse's 
 Geography. Many of the other books used will be furnished from the 
 library of the school. 
 
 STUDIES. The course of study in each of the State Normal Schools 
 begins with a review of the studies pursued in the Common Schools, 
 viz: Reading, writing, orthography, English grammar, mental and 
 written arithmetic, geography and physiology. 
 
 The attention of pupils is directed, 1st, to a thorough review of ele- 
 mentary studies; 2d, to those branches of knowledge which may be 
 considered as an expansion of the above-named elementary studies, or 
 collateral to them; to the art of teaching and its modes. 
 
 The advanced studies are equally proportioned, according to the 
 following distribution, into three departments, viz: 1. The mathe-
 
 72 WEST NEWTON STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 
 matical, including algebra through quadratic equations; geometry, to 
 an amount equal to three books in Euclid; book-keeping and surveying. 
 2. The philosophical, including natural philosophy, astronomy, moral 
 and intellectual philosophy, natural history, particularly that of our 
 own country, and so much of chemistry as relates to the atmosphere, 
 the waters, and the growth of plants and animals. 3. The literary, 
 including the critical study of the English language, both in its struc- 
 ture and history, with an outline of the history of English literature; 
 the history of the United States, with such a survey of general history 
 as may be a suitable preparative for it; and historical geography, 
 ancient and mediaeval, so far as is necessary to understand general 
 history, from the earliest time to the period of the French Revolution. 
 
 "The art of teaching and its modes," includes instruction as to the 
 philosophy of teaching and discipline, as drawn from the nature and 
 condition of the juvenile mind; the history of the progress of the art, 
 and the application of it to our system of education; and as much 
 exercise in teaching under constant supervision, toward the close of 
 the course, as the circumstances and interests of the Model schools may 
 allow. 
 
 Members of the higher classes give teaching exercises before the 
 whole school, several each week. Members of the senior class spend 
 three weeks, each, in the public grammar school of District No. 7, 
 which is connected with the institution as its Model department. 
 
 Pupils who have had considerable experience in teaching, and are 
 otherwise qualified for it, will be allowed to enter existing classes. 
 
 Pupils who may desire to study the Latin and French languages, and 
 to prepare themselves to instruct in those branches usually taught in 
 High Schools, can have an opportunity to do so, by giving a pledge 
 to remain in the school for a term of three years, provided the number 
 is sufficient to warrant the forming of a class. 
 
 EXAMINATIONS. The school is visited and examined by the Visiting 
 Committee of the Board of Education, at the close of each term; and 
 a public examination is held whenever a class graduates. The school 
 is open to visitors at all times. 
 
 LIBRARY AND APPARATUS. A well-selected Library, consisting mostly 
 of works on education, belongs to the school, and also a well-assorted 
 Apparatus, for the illustration of principles in natural philosophy, 
 chemistry, mathematics, &c. &c. 
 
 TUITION. For those who purpose to teach in the public schools of 
 the state, tuition is free; for such as intend to teach elsewhere, it is 
 $10 per term, payable at entrance, and such can not be admitted to 
 the exclusion of those first mentioned. At the beginning of each term, 
 each pupil pays to the Principal $1,50, to meet incidental expenses. 
 
 BOARD. Board may be had in good families at from $2 to $2,50 per 
 week, including washing and fuel. Some of the pupils take rooms and 
 board themselves at a lower rate. The whole annual expense is about 
 $100. 
 
 TERMS AND VACATIONS. There are three terms in the year. The 
 winter term commences on the second Wednesday in December, and 
 continues fifteen weeks. The summer term commences on the second 
 Wednesday in April, and continues fifteen weeks. The autumn term 
 commences on the first Wednesday in September, and continues twelve 
 weeks. Between the summer and autumn terms, there is a vacation 
 of six weeks; between the other terms a vacation of two weeks. No 
 session is held on the week of the anniversaries in Boston.
 
 WEST NEWTON STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 73 
 
 Pupils who reside in the vicinity, and whose friends request it, have 
 leave to go home on Saturday morning and stay until Monday morning, 
 provided this can be done without interference with school duties. 
 
 Pupils are not permitted to board at such a distance from the in- 
 stitution, as to render it impracticable for them to be present during 
 all regular exercises. 
 
 STUDY HOURS, &c. It is expected, as a matter of course, that the 
 young ladies will conform to the general order and usage of the 
 families in which they reside. Where it can be done conveniently, it 
 is desirable that they should breakfast about one hour after rising, 
 dine at a quarter past two o'clock, and sup from six to six and a half 
 o'clock. 
 
 The hours for rising, studying, &c., will vary somewhat with the 
 season of the year. For the winter and autumn terms, the pupils will 
 rise at six o'clock, and study one hour, either before or after breakfast, 
 as may suit the custom of the family. In the summer term, they will 
 rise at five o'clock and study two hours. In the afternoon, they will 
 study from four till five and a half o'clock. Evening study hours for 
 the winter and autumn terms commence at seven o'clock, and continue 
 two hours, with a short recess; for the summer term, evening study 
 hours commence at eight o'clock, and continue one hour. 
 
 All study hours are to be spent in perfect quietness. At all seasons 
 of the year pupils are to retire at ten o'clock. Every light must be 
 extinguished at half-past ten, at the utmost. 
 
 It is expected that the pupils will attend public worship on the 
 Sabbath, health, weather, and walking permitting; preserve order and 
 quiet in their rooms, and throughout the house; and refrain from 
 every thing like a desecration of the day. 
 
 ORDER, PUNCTUALITY and NEATNESS, in their persons and in their 
 rooms, and a kind and respectful demeanor, are expected of all. 
 
 It is expected that the young ladies will avoid all ground of com- 
 plaint, and endeavor to make themselves agreeable in their family 
 intercourse, thus securing honor to themselves and the institution. 
 
 The Principal requests that any marked and continued disregard of 
 these regulations may be reported to him. 
 
 The school sessions commence at eight and a half o'clock, A. M., and 
 close at two o'clock, p. M. On Saturday no session is held. 
 
 Pupils who desire to leave town for home, or for other places, are 
 expected to confer with the Principal. 
 
 The following letter from Mr. Peirce, the first Principal 
 of the West Newton State Normal School, will exhibit the 
 views with which this eminent teacher and educator con- 
 ducted the first institution of the kind opened on this con- 
 tinent : 
 
 "DEAR SIR: You ask me 'what I aimed to accomplish, and would 
 aim to accomplish now, with my past experience before me, in a Normal 
 School.' 
 
 I answer briefly, that it was my aim, and it would be my aim again, 
 to make better teachers, and especially, better teachers for our common 
 schools; so that those primary seminaries, on which so many depend 
 for their education, might answer, in a higher degree, the end of their 
 institution. Yes, to make better teachers; teachers who would under- 
 stand, and do their business better; teachers, who should know more 
 of the nature of children, of youthful developments, more of the sub-
 
 74 WEST NEWTON STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 
 jects to be taught, and more of the true methods of teaching; who 
 would teach more philosophically, more in harmony with the natural 
 development of the young mind, with a truer regard to the order and 
 connection in which the different branches of knowledge should be 
 presented to it, and, of course, more successfully. Again, I felt that 
 there was a call for a truer government, a higher training and discip- 
 line, in our schools; that the appeal to the rod, to a sense of shame and 
 fear of bodily pain, so prevalent in them, had a tendency to make 
 children mean, secretive, and vengeful, instead of high-minded, truth- 
 ful, and generous; and I wished to see them in the hands of teachers, 
 who could understand the higher and purer motives of action, as grati- 
 tude, generous affection, sense of duty, by which children should be 
 influenced, and under which their whole character should be formed. 
 In short, I was desirous of putting our schools into the hands of those 
 who would make them places in which children could learn, not only 
 to read, and write, and spell, and cipher, but gain information on 
 various other topics, (as accounts, civil institutions, natural history, 
 physiology, political economy, &c.) which would be useful to them in 
 after life, and have all their faculties, (physical, intellectual and 
 moral,) trained in such harmony and proportion, as would result in 
 the highest formation of character. This is what I supposed the object 
 of Normal Schools to be. Such was my object. 
 
 But in accepting the charge of the first American Institution, of this 
 kind, I did not act in the belief that there were no good teachers, or 
 good schools among us; or that I was more wise, more fit to teach, 
 than all my fellows. On the contrary, I knew that there were, both 
 within and without Massachusetts, excellent schools, and not a few 
 of them, and teachers wiser than myself; yet my conviction was strong, 
 that the ratio of such schools to the whole number of schools were 
 small; and that the teachers in them, for the most part, had grown 
 up to be what they were, from long observation, and through the 
 discipline of an experience painful to themselves, and more painful to 
 their pupils. 
 
 It was my impression also, that a majority of those engaged in 
 school-keeping, taught few branches and those imperfectly, that they 
 possessed little fitness for their business, did not understand well, 
 either the nature of children or the subjects they professed to teach, 
 and had little skill in the art of teaching or governing schools. I could 
 not think it possible for them, therefore, to make their instructions 
 very intelligible, interesting, or profitable to their pupils, or present to 
 them the motives best adapted to secure good lessons and good con- 
 duct, or, in a word, adopt such a course of training as would result in 
 a sound development of the faculties, and the sure formation of a good 
 character. I admitted that a skill and power to do all this might be 
 acquired by trial, if teachers continued in their business long enough; 
 but while teachers , were thus learning, I was sure that pupils must be 
 suffering. In the process of time, a man may find out by experiment, 
 (trial,) how to tan hides and convert them into leather. But most 
 likely the time would be long, and he would spoil many before he got 
 through. It would be far better for him, we know, to get some knowl- 
 edge of Chemistry, and spend a little time in his neighbor's tannery, 
 before he sets up for himself. In the same way, the farmer may learn 
 what trees, and fruits, and seeds, are best suited to particular soils, 
 and climates, and modes of culture, but it must be by a needless outlay 
 of time and labor, and the incurring of much loss. If wise, he would 
 first learn the principles and facts which agricultural experiments 
 have already established, and then commence operations. So the more 
 J considered the subject, the more the conviction grew upon my mind,
 
 WEST NEWTON STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 75 
 
 that by a judicious course of study, and of discipline, teachers may be 
 prepared to enter on their work, not only with the hope, but almost 
 with the assurance of success. I did not then, I do not now, (at least 
 in the fullest extent of it,) assent to the doctrine so often expressed 
 in one form or another, that there are no general principles to be 
 recognized in education; no general methods to be followed in the art 
 of teaching; that all depends upon the individual teacher; that every 
 principle, motive and method, must owe its power to the skill with 
 which it is applied; that what is true, and good, and useful in the 
 hands of one, may be quite the reverse in the hands of another; and 
 of course, that every man must invent his own methods of teaching 
 and governing, it being impossible successfully to adopt those of 
 another. To me it seemed that education had claims to be regarded 
 as a science, being based on immutable principles, of which the prac- 
 tical teacher, though he may modify them to meet the change of 
 ever-varying circumstances, can never lose sight. 
 
 That the educator should watch the operations of nature, the de- 
 velopment of the mind, discipline those faculties whose activities first 
 appear, and teach that knowledge first, which the child can most 
 easily comprehend, viz., that which comes in through the senses, rather 
 than through reason and the imagination; that true education de- 
 mands, or rather implies the training, strengthening, and perfecting 
 of all the faculties by means of the especial exercise of each; that in 
 teaching, we must begin with what is simple and known, and go on 
 by easy steps to what is complex and unknown; that for true progress 
 and lasting results, it were better for the attention to be concentrated 
 on a few studies, and for a considerable time, than to be divided among 
 many, changing from one to another at short intervals; that in train- 
 ing children we must concede a special recognition to the principle of 
 curiosity, a love of knowledge, and so present truth as to keep this 
 principle in proper action; that the pleasure of acquiring, and the 
 advantage of possessing knowledge, may be made, and should be made, 
 a sufficient stimulus to sustain wholesome exertion without resorting 
 to emulation, or medals, or any awards other than those which are the 
 natural fruits of industry and attainment; that for securing order 
 and obedience, there are better ways than to depend solely or chiefly 
 upon the rod, or appeals to fear; that much may be done by way of 
 prevention of evil; that gentle means should always first be tried; 
 that undue attention is given to intellectual training in our schools, 
 to the neglect of physical and moral; that the training of the faculties 
 is more important than the communication of knowledge; that the 
 discipline, the instruction of the school-room, should better subserve 
 the interests of real life, than it now does; these are some of the 
 principles, truths, facts, in education, susceptible, I think, of the 
 clearest demonstration, and pretty generally admitted now, by all en- 
 lightened educators. 
 
 The old method of teaching Arithmetic, for instance, by taking jip 
 some printed treatise and solving abstract questions consisting of large 
 numbers, working blindly by what must appear to the pupil arbitrary 
 rules, would now be regarded as less philosophical, less in conformity 
 to mental development, than the more modern way of beginning with 
 mental Arithmetic, using practical questions, which involve small 
 numbers, and explaining the reason of every step as you go along. 
 
 So in the study of Grammar, no Normal teacher, whether a graduate 
 or not, of a Normal School, would require his pupils to commit the 
 whole text-book to memory, before looking at the nature of words, 
 and their application in the structure of sentences Almost all have
 
 76 WEST NEWTON STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 
 found out that memorizing the Grammar-book, and the exercise of 
 parsing, do very little toward giving one a knowledge of the English 
 language. 
 
 Neither is it learning Geography, to read over and commit to mem- 
 ory, statistics of the length and breadth of countries, their boundaries, 
 latitude and longitude, &c., &c., without map or globe, or any visible 
 illustration, as was once the practice. Nor does the somewhat modern 
 addition of maps and globes much help the process, unless the scholar, 
 by a previous acquaintance with objects in the outer world, has been 
 prepared to use them. The shading for mountains, and black lines 
 for rivers on maps, will be of little use to a child who has not already 
 some idea of a mountain and a river. 
 
 And the teacher who should attempt to teach reading by requiring 
 a child to repeat from day to day, and from month to month, the 
 whole alphabet, until he is familiar with all the letters, as was the 
 fashion in former days, would deserve to lose his place and be sent 
 himself to school. Could anything be more injudicious? Is it not 
 more in harmony with Nature's work, to begin with simple, significant 
 words, or rather sentences, taking care always to select such as are 
 easy and intelligible, as well as short? Or, if letters be taken first, 
 should they not be formed into small groups, on some principle of 
 association, and be combined with some visible object? 
 
 Surely, the different methods of teaching the branches above-men- 
 tioned, are not all equally good. Teaching is based on immutable 
 principles, and may be regarded as an art. 
 
 Nearly thirty years' experience in the business of teaching, I thought, 
 had given me some acquaintance with its true principles and processes, 
 and I deemed it no presumption to believe that I could teach them 
 to others. This I attempted to do in the Normal School at Lexington; 
 1st didactically, i. e. by precept, in the form of familiar conversations 
 and lectures; 2d. by giving every day, and continually, in my own 
 manner of teaching, an exemplification of my theory; 3d. by requiring 
 my pupils to teach each other, in my presence, the things which I had 
 taught them; and 4th. by means of the Model School, where, under 
 my general supervision, the Normal pupils had an opportunity, both 
 to prove and to improve their skill in teaching and managing schools. 
 At all our recitations, (the modes of which were very various,) and 
 in other connections, there was allowed the greatest freedom of in- 
 quiry and remark, and principles, modes, processes, every thing indeed 
 relating to school-keeping, was discussed. The thoughts and opinions 
 of each one were thus made the property of the whole, and there was 
 infused into all hearts a deeper and deeper interest in the teachers' 
 calling. In this way the Normal School became a kind of standing 
 Teachers' Institute. 
 
 But for a particular account of my manner and processes at the 
 Normal School, allow me to refer you to a letter which I had the 
 honor, at your request, to address to you from Lexington, Jan. 1, 1841, 
 and which was published in the Common School Journal, both of 
 Connecticut and Massachusetts, (vol. 3.) 
 
 What success attended my labors, I must leave to others to say. I 
 acknowledged, it was far from being satisfactory to myself. Still the 
 experiment convinced me that Normal Schools may be made a power- 
 ful auxiliary to the cause of education. A thorough training in them, 
 I am persuaded, will do much toward supplying the want of experience. 
 It will make the teachers' work easier, surer, better. I have reason 
 to believe that Normal pupils' are much indebted for whatever of 
 fitness they possess for teaching, to the Normal School. They uniformly
 
 WEST NEWTON STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 77 
 
 profess so to feel. I have, moreover, made diligent inquiry in regard 
 to their success, and it is no exaggeration to say, that it has been 
 manifestly great. Strong testimonials to the success of many of the 
 early graduates of the Lexington (now W. Newton) Normal School, 
 were published with the 8th Report of the late secretary of the Board 
 of Education, and may be found in the 7th vol. of the Massachusetts 
 Common School Journal. 
 
 But it is sometimes asked, (and the inquiry deserves an answer,) 
 Allowing that teaching is an art, and that teachers may be trained 
 for their business, have we not High Schools and Academies, in which 
 the various school branches are well taught? May not teachers in 
 them be prepared for their work? Where is the need then of a dictinct 
 order of Seminaries for training teachers? I admit we have Acade- 
 mies, High Schools, and other schools, furnished with competent teach- 
 ers, in which is excellent teaching; but at the time of the establishment 
 of the Normal Schools in Massachusetts, there was not, to my knowl- 
 edge, any first-rate institution exclusively devoted to training teachers 
 for our common schools; neither do I think there is now any, except 
 the Normal Schools. And teachers can not be prepared for their work 
 anywhere else, so well as in seminaries exclusively devoted to this 
 object. The art of teaching must be made the great, the paramount, 
 the only concern. It must not come in as subservient to, or merely 
 collateral with any thing else whatever. And again, a Teachers' Sem- 
 inary should have annexed to it, or rather as an integral part of it, 
 a model, or experimental school for practice. 
 
 Were I to be placed in a Normal School again, the only difference in 
 my aim would be to give more attention to the development of the fac- 
 ulties, to the spirit and motives by which a teacher should be moved, 
 to physical and moral education, to the inculcation of good principles 
 and good manners. 
 
 In conclusion, allow me to recapitulate. It was my aim, and it would 
 be my aim again, in a Normal School, to raise up for our common 
 schools especially, a better class of teachers, teachers who would not 
 only teach more and better than those already in the field, but who 
 would govern better; teachers, who would teach in harmony with 
 the laws of juvenile development, who would secure diligent study and 
 good lessons and sure progress, without a resort to emulation and 
 premiums, and good order from higher motives than the fear of the 
 rod or bodily pain; teachers, who could not only instruct well in the 
 common branches, as reading, writing, arithmetic, &c., but give valu- 
 able information on a variety of topics, such as accounts, history, 
 civil institutions, political economy, and physiology; bring into action 
 the various powers of children, and prepare them for the duties of 
 practical life; teachers, whose whole influence on their pupils, direct 
 and indirect, should be good, tending to make them, not only good 
 readers, geographers, grammarians, arithmeticians, &c., but good schol- 
 ars, good children, obedient, kind, respectful, mannerly, truthful; and 
 in due time, virtuous, useful citizens, kind neighbors, high-minded, 
 noble pious men and women. And this I attempted to do by inculcating 
 the truth in the art of teaching and governing, the truth in all things; 
 and by giving them a living example of it in my own practice."
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 
 
 AT 
 
 BRIDGEWATER. 
 
 The Normal School at Bridgewater, as well as that at 
 Westfield, receives both male and female pupils. The regu- 
 lations respecting the admission of pupils, course of study, 
 number and length of each session, are set forth in the Reg- 
 ulations of the Board. The following communications from 
 Mr. N. Tillinghast, who has been the Principal of this Insti- 
 tution from its first establishment, and has now the longest 
 experience of any Normal School teacher in this country, 
 gives the general results of his experience, and the exper- 
 ience of this Institution in the work of educating teachers. 
 
 "The main facts about this school you are already acquainted with. 
 It went into operation September 9th, 1840, with 28 pupils. There have 
 entered the school in all, 657 pupils; 365 females, 292 males. Up to 
 August, 1846, pupils were received for two terms, which were not 
 necessarily successive. Since that time they have been required to 
 remain three successive terms, of 14 weeks each. The average num- 
 ber at present is between 60 and 70. The whole number of pupils 
 since August, 1846, is 252; of these, 32, from various causes, have left 
 the school after one or two terms. Of the 220, two have not been, and 
 apparently, do not intend to be, teachers. 
 
 It seems to me that these schools are doing good. My own scholars 
 have, I think, succeeded as well as I could reasonably expect. Many 
 have failed; indeed many from whom I looked for success; others 
 have continued to keep schools, but doing no better, for aught that I 
 know, than they would have done without staying a year here; but 
 still I can not feel disappointed. 
 
 There are, it seems to me, grave defects in the constitution of my 
 school. Four years would, in my judgment, be profitably given to the 
 subjects which we touch on in one. If pupils must be taught subjects 
 in these schools, as I think they must for a time under the best organ- 
 ization, the course ought to extend over three years at least. I think 
 it would be a better plan than the present, to receive pupils for, say 
 twenty-one weeks, and to give that time to reading, spelling, arith- 
 metic, and geography; and in another twenty-one weeks, to take up 
 reading, spelling, physiology, grammar; so that only a few studies 
 should be in the school at a time, and teachers might go for a term 
 without interfering with their teaching school. The great evil now, in 
 my school, is the attempt to take up so many studies, most persons 
 inverting the truth, and supposing the amount acquired the important 
 thing, and the study unimportant. But I should be content if I could 
 bring pupils into such a state of desire that they would pursue truth, 
 and into such a state of knowledge that they could recognize her when 
 overtaken. A very few studies, and long dwelling on them this is my 
 theory. I have no especial belief in teaching others methods of teach- 
 ing: I do not mean, that the subject should be entirely passed by; but 
 that pupils should not be trained into, or directed into particular 
 processes; it seems to me that each well-instructed mind will arrive 
 at a method of imparting, better for it than any other method. I there-
 
 80 STATE NORMAL SCHOOL AT BRIDGEWATEB. 
 
 fore have tried to bring my pupils to get results for themselves and 
 to show them how they may feel confident of the truth of their results. 
 I have sought criticism from my scholars on all my methods, processes, 
 and results; aimed to have them, kindly of course, hut freely criticise 
 each other; and they are encouraged to ask questions, and propose 
 doubts. I call on members of the classes to hear recitations, and on 
 the others to make remarks, thus approving and disapproving one an- 
 other; they are called upon to make up general exercises, and to de- 
 liver them to their classes, sometimes on subjects and in styles fitted 
 to those whom they address; sometimes they are bid to imagine them- 
 selves speaking to children. I find I am getting more into details than 
 I intend, or you wish. My idea of a Normal School is, that it should 
 have a term of four years; that those studies should be pursued that 
 will lay a foundation on which to build an education. I mean, for ex- 
 ample, that algebra should be thoroughly studied as the foundation for 
 arithmetic; that geometry and trigonometry should be studied, by 
 which, with algebra, to study natural philosophy &c.; the number of 
 studies should be comparatively small, but much time given to them. 
 I, of course do not intend to write a list of studies and what I have 
 said above is only for illustration; the teacher should be so trained as 
 to be above his text books. Whatever has been done in teaching in all 
 countries, different methods, the thoughts of the best minds on the 
 science and the art of instruction, should be laid before the neophyte 
 teachers. In a proper Normal School there should be departments, and 
 the ablest men put over them, each in his own department. Who 
 knows more than one branch well? 
 
 I send herewith a catalogue of my school, which will give you some 
 idea of its osteology; what of life these bones have, others must judge. 
 But when shall the whole vision of the Prophet be fulfilled in regard 
 to the teachers of the land, "And the breath came into them, and they 
 lived and stood upon their feet, (not on those of any author) an ex- 
 ceeding great army." 
 
 God prosper the work, and may your exertions in the cause be grate- 
 fully remembered." 
 
 The Visitors of the Bridgewater Normal School, in their 
 Report to the Board, in December, 1850, present the follow- 
 ing statement : 
 
 "That at the first term of the normal year, seventeen pupils en- 
 tered; and during that term the whole number was fifty-nine. At the 
 second term, thirty-one entered; during which term the whole number 
 was seventy-two. At the third term, ending November 12, twenty-five 
 entered; and the whole number during that term was seventy-nine. 
 The whole number received during the year was seventy-three. Fifteen 
 graduated at the end of the year. Two of the graduating class left the 
 school on account of ill health. 
 
 The young men of the graduating class are all engaged for the win- 
 ter schools. Of the young ladies, some are teaching now, and all intend 
 to take schools as they have opportunity. 
 
 The visitors have repeated their attendance upon the school, at dif- 
 ferent times during the year, with the highest satisfaction. They have 
 witnessed, with great pleasure, the enlightened zeal and earnestness 
 with which the principal and his assistants have done their work, and 
 bear testimony to the evident thoroughness with which the training 
 of the pupils has been conducted. They regard this school as an honor 
 to the state, and as doing a most important service in regard to the 
 great cause of education."
 
 CONDITION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS IN MASSACHUSETTS IN 1850. 
 
 The following facts and suggestions respecting the con- 
 dition and improvement of the State Normal Schools of 
 Massachusetts at the close of the year 1850, are gathered 
 from the "Fourteenth Annual Report of the Board of Edu- 
 cation," dated Dec. 12, 1850. The whole document is highly 
 creditable to the commonwealth of Massachusetts. The large 
 amount voluntarily raised by the people of the several cities 
 and towns, for the support of common schools, is without 
 a parallel in the history of popular education. The appropri- 
 ation of a portion of the avails of the school fund, for the 
 general purposes of Teachers' Institutes, Normal Schools, 
 State and County Associations of Teachers, Agents of the 
 Board of Education for Inspection of Schools and Address- 
 es to the People, does more for the prosperity of the school 
 system, than a much larger sum expended directly on the 
 schools, and which, in most cases, would only diminish to 
 that extent the sum raised by the people of the towns. 
 
 TEACHERS' INSTITUTES 
 
 "Twelve different Teachers' Institutes have been held, and attended 
 by the secretary, in as many different and distant parts of the state. By 
 an improved organization, and by the use of somewhat permanent 
 teachers for the more important branches in which instruction was 
 given, these Institutes have been made to act with, it is believed, very 
 beneficial effects, upon a larger number of teachers than have been 
 reached in any former year. The Board continue to think very highly 
 of the usefulness and efficiency of well-managed Teachers' Institutes, 
 and would respectfully urge the continuance of the means necessary 
 for their support. Not less than 1,750 individuals, nearly all of them 
 actual teachers in the common schools, have, this year, been members 
 of the Institutes; very much larger numbers have listened to the lec- 
 tures and course of instruction given at them; and the testimony is 
 abundant and uniform as to the beneficial effects upon the schools of 
 the influence thus exerted." 
 
 NORMAL SCHOOLS 
 
 "But the most important organ for the advancement of the teachers, 
 and with them of the schools in the commonwealth, and the most 
 prolific of hopeful results, is the Normal Schools; and to these the 
 Board have continued to give their especial attention. 
 
 The citizens of most of the towns in the state, have reason to look 
 with pride and satisfaction upon what they have done in regard to the 
 building, furnishing, warming, and ventilating of school-houses; and 
 they have reason to rejoice that their example has been followed in 
 many of the sister states. These improvements are valuable in them- 
 
 F
 
 
 82 STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS IN MASSACHUSETTS IN 1850. 
 
 selves, and still more as evidence of the interest which the people 
 take in their schools. But they are external. They do not directly 
 touch the most essential interests of the schools: the education of the 
 teachers is the important thing. Nearly all the evils complained of in 
 the present condition of the schools will diminish, and finally, almost 
 disappear, under the influence of highly qualified teachers. The great- 
 est of them, irregularity of attendance and truancy, can be removed 
 in no other way. They may be lessened, but can not be prevented, by 
 enactments. The remedy in each school is a good teacher; one who 
 knows how to interest his pupils, and make them feel that absence 
 from school is an absolute personal loss, and who knows how to win 
 the affections, so as to make his pupils earnestly desire to do what 
 he wishes. 
 
 The better education of teachers, then, in whatever may render 
 them more able to teach, and more powerful to influence, is the object 
 which, most of all the Board desire to keep in view; and the most ef- 
 ficient agency for this object with which they are acquainted, is the 
 Normal School. They refer, with satisfaction, to the several reports 
 which they herewith submit, upon the condition of the Normal Schools. 
 
 It was expected that the numbers in these schools would be some- 
 what diminished by the increase in the length of time required to be 
 spent at them. In this expectation the Board have been agreeably 
 disappointed, the attendance not having been less than in any former 
 year. 
 
 Still, notwithstanding what has yet been done by these schools, and 
 by the Teachers' Institutes, the supply of competent teachers is en- 
 tirely inadequate to the wants of the schools; and there is danger lest, 
 to meet this demand, persons superficially instructed shall be sent out 
 as teachers from the Normal Schools. To guard against this danger, 
 and, at the same time, to elevate the standard in the schools from 
 which the pupils of the Normal Schools come, and in the Normal 
 Schools themselves, the Board deem it advisable to make the requisi- 
 tions for admission higher; and, to render '"the annual examinations for 
 the classes within the Normal Schools more minute, more thorough 
 and more extended than heretofore, they propose to have them con- 
 ducted in such a way as to bring these schools into more intimate 
 relations with the distinguished teachers in other institutions in the 
 state, and to make their true character and condition better and more 
 extensively known to the citizens. Such examinations would, they 
 believe, operate as a healthful stimulus both to teachers and pupils, 
 and, if made publicly, might lead to more thorough and effective ex- 
 aminations in the other schools in the state. 
 
 The house for the Normal School, at West Newton, is situated in 
 such immediate proximity to the Worcester railroad, that the exercises 
 of the school are, at all seasons, seriously interrupted by the noise; 
 and, during the warmer months of the year, when the windows are re- 
 quired to be open, the inconvenience and loss of time are very con- 
 siderable. The school also, in consequence of its rapid increase, is now 
 but poorly accommodated, although the house, when placed, not many 
 years ago at the disposal of the Board was considered very ample. 
 It is, therefore, much to be desired, that the Board should have the 
 means of erecting a more commodious house, in a more retired and 
 quiet situation. For the present building, the school was indebted to 
 the munificence of a gentleman who is willing to consent to its being 
 disposed of for some other use, provided the benefit hte intended to 
 confer upon the school may be still enjoyed by it. The lot on which 
 it stands is well situated for the purposes of business, and likely to
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS IN MASSACHUSETTS IN 1850. 83 
 
 meet with a ready sale. Landholders in the neighborhood have ex- 
 pressed a generous and liberal disposition toward the school; and 
 there is a probability that a desirable lot could be obtained on favor- 
 able terms. Remembering that this was the earliest Normal School in 
 America, that, being near the seat of government and the center of 
 population of the state, and on one of the great lines of communication 
 with the interior and with the west, it is frequently visited by strang- 
 ers who come to examine the Massachusetts school system, we confi- 
 dently hope that the Legislature will consent to make such an appro- 
 priation as will enable the Board to erect a building which shall be, in 
 all respects, internally and externally, creditable to the state, and 
 worthy of the purpose for which it is erected. We should be glad to 
 point it out to the visitor as a building which, in structure, arrange- 
 ment, furniture, and apparatus, might be regarded as a model and 
 placed in a situation the choice of which should not seem to have been 
 left to accident or necessity. 
 
 In their last Annual Report, the Board made known to the Legisla- 
 ture some regulations recently made in regard to the studies to be 
 pursued at the Normal Schools. Among the advanced studies, they 
 proposed to include "so much of chemistry as relates to the atmos- 
 phere, the waters, and the growth of plants and animals." So much 
 instruction in chemistry as this, was thought desirable to be given, 
 especially with reference to its application to agriculture, that the 
 teachers educated at the expense of the state, may have some acquaint- 
 ance with the principles of science, which lie at the foundation of the 
 most essential and important of all the arts. To provide the means 
 of giving instruction in this subject by lectures and experiments, it is 
 desirable, in the view of the Board, that the annual appropriation for 
 the support of the Normal Schools should be somewhat increased. 
 
 In their last Annual Report, the Board had the pleasure of acknowl- 
 edging a munificent bequest from the late Henry Todd, Esq., of Boston, 
 made for. the purpose of aiding the Normal Schools. On the 7th day of 
 June, 1850, Thomas P. Gushing, Esq., executor of Mr. Todd, paid into 
 the hands of the treasurer of the commonwealth, as the amount of 
 that bequest, the sum of $10,797.72. As it is known to have been the 
 intention of the donor to have the whole interest of his bequest appro- 
 priated so as to be a clear addition to what would otherwise have 
 been at the disposal of the Board for the Normal Schools, the Board 
 propose to use the interest of Mr. Todd's bequest in providing for 
 stated annual examinations of these schools, and in such other ways 
 as may seem best for their advancement and immediate usefulness." 
 
 SCHOOL FUND. 
 
 "On the first of December, 1850, the school fund 
 
 amounted to $958,921 19 
 
 Having been increased, during the year, by the 
 
 sum of 74,580 45 
 
 Of this fund, the sum of 218,559 73 
 
 consists of land notes not productive, 
 
 leaving the sum of 740,361 46 
 
 productive, and so invested as to yield about $40,000 for distribution 
 among the towns for the support of schools. 
 
 The school fund, it thus appears, has very nearly reached the limit 
 ($1,000,000) fixed by the act of 1843, by which it was established. 
 
 The benefits which have been derived from the wise and economical 
 use of this fund, are every where manifest in all the public schools of 
 the commonwealth. As hitherto managed, the fund has been produc-
 
 84 STATE NOBMAL SCHOOLS IN MASSACHUSETTS IN 1850. 
 
 tive of unmixed good. The danger incident to a large fund for the 
 benefit of schools is, that the people, relying upon this fund, shall 
 neglect to take a personal interest in the support of the schools, in 
 consequence of being relieved from the necessity of taxing themselves. 
 But no evil of this kind has yet come near us. During the year 1850, 
 162 cities and towns have raised more than twice the sum required 
 by law to entitle them to their portion of the school fund. All the 
 towns, except five, have raised more, and the greater part much more 
 than the required sum; two only have raised just the required sum, 
 and only two, out of 321 cities and towns, have fallen below that sum. 
 A single town has made no return. The average of all the sums 
 raised in the several towns and cities, for the instruction of the 
 children between the ages of five and fifteen years, is nearly three 
 times the sum required by law. Thrice the sum required by law would 
 be $4 50 for each child. The aggregate actually raised is $4 42 for 
 each. It thus appears that the effect of this bounty of the state has 
 been most beneficent, and nothing but beneficent, so far as can be 
 judged from the sums voluntarily raised for the support of schools. 
 In view of the benefits thus accruing to the great interest of which 
 they have charge, the Board can not but look with favor upon a propo- 
 sition which promises to enhance and prolong these benefits, by widen- 
 ing the limit within which the school fund is now prospectively con- 
 fined. 
 
 And this provision they deem the more important, as the time may 
 come when the sale of the public lands, from a moiety of the proceeds 
 of which appropriations for educational purposes are now drawn, shall 
 cease to be productive. 
 
 The charges made upon these proceeds during the past year, have 
 been: 
 
 The grant made to Amherst College, . . . $5,000 00 
 
 For the Normal Schools 7,500 00 
 
 For Teachers' Institutes 3,050 00 
 
 The Massachusetts Teachers' Association, . . 150 00 
 
 County Teachers' Association, 550 00 
 
 School District Libraries, 320 00 
 
 Salary of the Secretary of the Board, . . . 1,600 00 
 
 Salary of Clerk and Assistant Librarian, . . . 1,266 67 
 
 Agents of the Board of Education 1,008 33 
 
 Expenses of the Board of Education, . . . 224 49 
 
 Incidental expenses of the Secretary, . . . 157 30 
 
 Expenses of the office 664 29 
 
 Expenses of the Annual Reports of the Board and 
 
 Secretary, 3,930 73 
 
 Expenses of the Committee on Education, . . 246 80 
 
 $25,668 61 
 
 WEST NEWTON NOBMAL SCHOOL 
 
 EXTBACT from the Report of the Committee of Visitors of the West 
 Newton Normal School. 
 
 "The whole number of pupils connected with the school, during the 
 year, is 132. The greatest number at any time, 102; the least, 70. The 
 average age at entrance was 18 years. The number of towns represent- 
 ed is 45. Hampshire County sends one pupil; Worcester, two; Barn- 
 stable, two; Nan tucket, two; Franklin, three; Plymouth, three; Essex, 
 six; Norfolk, fifteen; Middlesex, thirty; and Suffolk, fifty-seven. Elev-
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS IN MASSACHUSETTS IN 1850. 85 
 
 en pupils are from other states; from Rhode Island, one; Maine, three; 
 Vermont, three; New Hampshire, four. 
 
 Of the parents of these pupils, 23 are farmers, 21 merchants, 8 car- 
 penters, 4 shipmasters, 3 clergymen, 3 custom-house officers, 3 super- 
 intendents of railroads, 2 physicians, 2 editors; 29 are widows; 5 pu- 
 pils are orphans; and the pursuits of the remainder are distributed 
 among almost all the occupations known in our community. 
 
 Fifty-five young ladies have graduated, after having honorably com- 
 pleted the term prescribed for pupils at this institution. 
 
 Two classes have been received during the year. For the first, fifty- 
 seven candidates presented themselves for examination, and forty-seven 
 were received. The average age of this class, at entrance, was 18*4 
 years. For the second class, forty-seven candidates presented them- 
 selves, and thirty-seven were admitted. The number of pupils who have 
 remained at the school for a longer time than that required by the 
 rules of the school, is 44. The number pledged to a three years' course 
 is 12. 
 
 Besides the usual studies, the pupils have had the benefit of twenty- 
 one lectures on educational and scientific subjects, which have been 
 delivered gratuitously to the school, by gentlemen eminent in their var- 
 ious departments. 
 
 In regard to the model school connected with this institution, the 
 committee beg leave to make an extract from the report of the prin- 
 cipal, made at the close of the term, in December. 
 
 He says: "By an agreement entered into between the District No. 
 7, of Newton, and the principal of this institution, on the 7th of Decem- 
 ber last, the grammar school of the district became connected with the 
 State Normal School, as its model department. By the terms of the 
 agreement, the district furnishes schoolroom, &c., and one permanent 
 male teacher, approved by both parties, and allow such addition to 
 their number, by pupils from abroad, on a small tuition, as circum- 
 stances justify. The State Normal School furnishes a portion of ap- 
 paratus, &c., and two assistant teachers, each to observe one week pre- 
 vious to teaching, and to teach two weeks under constant supervision. 
 The number of young ladies who have been thus employed, during the 
 year, is 35; the whole number of pupils for the year, in the model 
 school, is 125; the number from abroad, 50; the average age of the pu- 
 pils, 14 years. 
 
 By an additional agreement between the same parties, the primary 
 school of this village became also connected with the State Normal 
 School, May 1, 1850. Since this time, the instruction and management 
 of this school have mainly devolved upon pupils of this institution, un- 
 der the direction of the permanent teacher of the grammar department. 
 Teachers have been furnished on the same principle as to the other 
 school. The number of teachers furnished to the primary school, is 22; 
 the whole number of pupils is 75, and their average age, 7 years. 
 
 The model school has continued under its former permanent teacher, 
 Mr. Allen, who has greatly distinguished himself as a successful edu- 
 cator, and who is worthy of great commendation for the earnestness 
 and faithfulness with which he has devoted himself to the interest both 
 of the district and of this institution. It is enough, perhaps, to say of 
 the model school, that its efficiency has been continually increasing, 
 and that, in the opinion of those competent to judge of it, it has al- 
 ready a rank considerably above the average of schools of the same 
 grade elsewhere. 
 
 It was expected that the arrangement with the primary department 
 would be a temporary one, each party reserving the right to give it up
 
 86 STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS IN MASSACHUSETTS IN 1850. 
 
 at any time. It is the opinion of the school committee of the town, and 
 of the permanent teacher of the model school, as it is my own, that the 
 experiment has proved eminently successful, and that the general char- 
 acter of the school has essentially improved. It is, however, our opin- 
 ion, that a still better arrangement may now be properly made for it, 
 by giving it one permanent female teacher, and an assistant from this 
 school." 
 
 On another topic, the principal says in his report "It is believed 
 that, without a single exception, the 132 pupils at the school, this year, 
 have had not only an honest and steady purpose to become teachers, 
 but have a strong desire to do good in this most excellent way. 
 
 Of the fifty-five graduates, which include those who leave us to-day, 
 the greater portion are already engaged in the work; several have 
 places secured, which they are expecting to occupy in a few days; sev- 
 eral more continue yet longer here, and a small number only wait for 
 an opportunity to teach." 
 
 The committee are gratified to be able to state, that notwithstanding 
 the rule adopted by the Board at its last annual meeting, by which no 
 pupil, "except those of more than ordinary experience and attainments, 
 can be received into this school for a less period than four consecutive 
 terms," and the further regulation restricting examinations for admis- 
 sion to the commencement of two instead of three terms in the year, 
 the number of pupils has not diminished; a result which shows the 
 public appreciation of the advantages afforded by the Normal Schools 
 for the education of teachers. 
 
 Two examinations of this school have been made by the committee, 
 during the year one in April, and one in December both of which, 
 conducted in a manner which precluded the idea of special preparation 
 for the occasion, were highly satisfactory. 
 
 The committee having ordered, for the use of the school-house, one 
 of Mr. Chilson's furnaces, were informed, when they waited on him 
 for the purpose of paying for it, that the bill was canceled; Mr. Chil- 
 son desiring in this way to express the interest he felt in the Normal 
 Schools. The committee desire gratefully to acknowledge this gratuity, 
 coming as it does from a gentleman to whom the public are greatly in- 
 debted for improvements in warming and ventilating apparatus for 
 private houses, churches, and schools." 
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOL AT WESTFIELD. 
 
 EXTRACT from the Report of the Visitors of the School. 
 
 "The number of pupils in this school has been somewhat diminished, 
 by requiring those who enter to remain three terms instead of two. 
 The whole number for the year ending November, 1850, was 119; the 
 whole number for the year previous was 148. It was expected the num- 
 ber would be reduced, and in fact it seemed necessary it should be; for 
 the school-room had become crowded. By prolonging the time of con- 
 tinuance, those who go out from the school hereafter will be better 
 qualified for their work. 
 
 The average age of the pupils, the last term, was 22 years. A large 
 proportion of them had taught more or less. Two have attended, the 
 last year, who have taught twenty terms each; and a large number 
 that have taught from five to ten terms. 
 
 The wages of teachers have very much increased within three years. 
 Several young men are receiving $40 per month, and board themselves, 
 instead of $25 and $30; and several young ladies are receiving $3.50 
 per week, and board, instead of $2.
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS IN MASSACHUSETTS IN 1850. 87 
 
 The pupils during the last year have been from the following coun- 
 ties: From Berkshire, 18; from Hampden, 41; from Hampshire, 12; 
 from Franklin, 15; from Worcester, 15; from Middlesex, 5; from Es- 
 sex, 2; from Norfolk, 3; from Bristol, 1; from the other states, 7. 
 
 Mr. D. S. Rowe, the principal, is assisted by Mr. E. G. Beckwith, a 
 graduate of college, and Miss J. E. Avery. The instruction is thorough 
 and accurate, and the discipline good. 
 
 The number of males in the school, the last year, has been 31, and 
 the number of females, 88. 
 
 The pupils, with very few exceptions, have redeemed their pledge to 
 teach in the schools of this Commonwealth; and as great a proportion 
 of them as could reasonably be expected, are excellent teachers." 
 
 The visitors of this school are Rev. E. Davis, D.D., of 
 Westfield, and Rev. Mark Hopkins, D.D., President of Wil- 
 liamstown College.
 
 EXTRACT 
 
 FROM THE 
 
 Fourteenth Annual Report of the Secretary (Rev. Barnas Sears, D. D.) 
 of the Board of Education. 
 
 The State Normal Schools are in a flourishing and prosperous con- 
 dition. Notwithstanding the increased rigor exercised in the examina- 
 tion of candidates for admission, and the extension, in two of them, 
 of the required period of study, the numbers in attendance are about 
 as large as ever. The fears entertained by many, that the increase of 
 expense, occasioned by a more protracted course of study, would ma- 
 terially diminish the attendance, are shown to be groundless. The senti- 
 ment in favor of a professional education for teachers is becoming so 
 strong in the community, and the public mind is becoming so enlight- 
 ened in respect to the character of the teachers required, and the pol- 
 icy to be pursued in the choice of them and in remunerating their ser- 
 vices, that teachers are compelled either to go through a more thorough 
 course of preparation, or abandon the occupation. In order to keep even 
 pace with the progress of public opinion in regard to an improved sys- 
 tem of education, the Normal Schools will need to be gradually elevated 
 till they shall reach that point which is best adapted to teachers de- 
 signed for the common district school. It will be a question worthy of 
 mature deliberation, whether the higher position designed to be given 
 to the Normal Schools, shall not be attained rather by raising the req- 
 uisitions for entrance than by prolonging the term of study. I see no 
 good reason why the state should be at the expense of giving, in the 
 Normal Schools, so much of that kind of instruction for which ample 
 provision is already made in the higher public schools. The Normal 
 Schools, to answer their original design, must aim more at furnishing 
 that peculiar training which teachers require, and which the public 
 schools can not give. Then the necessity of their existence will be ap- 
 parent to all, and no other schools or institutions will complain of be- 
 ing forced into competition with those which enjoy state patronage. A 
 portion of the time which is now spent in teaching the elements of 
 arithmetic, grammar, geography, reading and orthography, might be 
 saved for those higher objects for which more particularly Normal 
 Schools were established. Before many years more shall have passed 
 away, three classes, each having a half year's course of study, might 
 be formed in these schools. The first might be devoted to a critical re- 
 view and thorough mastery of the studies to be taught in common 
 schools, with such collateral branches as should be deemed necessary; 
 the second, to a philosophical and systematic course of instruction in 
 didactics, or the theory of teaching; the third, to the practice of teach- 
 ing under the immediate and constant inspection of a superior. The 
 arrangement here proposed would require that a greater degree of at- 
 tention be paid to the model schools. But it would remove the embar- 
 rassment now caused by the interruption of the studies of the class, 
 portions of which are called away to teach, and would render the time 
 spent in teaching in the model school much more profitable both to 
 teacher and pupil. The model school, which may just as well be one of 
 the public schools as any other, should have its own full corps of 
 teachers. The notion of employing pupils from the Normal Schools, in 
 rotation, in place of an assistant teacher, merely because it is more 
 economical, is unworthy of the liberal policy of the state. When a mem- 
 ber of the Normal School enters the model school, the regular teacher 
 or teachers of the latter should not be relieved at all from duty. On 
 the contrary, such teacher should proceed as usual, and the learner
 
 90 DR. BEAKS' REPORT FOR 1850. 
 
 should stand by and carefully observe the process, and afterward in- 
 quire for the reasons of it, if they should not be fully understood at 
 the time. After a suitable period of observation, the learner should un- 
 dertake to give a lesson, or some part of one, the principal teacher 
 standing by, noticing the manner in which the instruction is given, 
 and being ready at any moment to resume the exercise. Two important 
 objects would be gained by such an arrangement. First, the school 
 itself would not suffer in its interests from surrendering its classes to 
 be experimented on by young teachers, but would rather be benefited 
 by having all its exercises conducted with reference to illustrating the 
 best methods of teaching. In the second place, the learner would occupy 
 the place of an apprentice, working every moment under the observa- 
 tion and guidance of a master. 
 
 Provision has recently been made for advanced classes in the Normal 
 Schools, and several persons have availed themselves of it during the 
 past year. It is evident that the number of such will be constantly in- 
 creasing, and will require more of the teacher's time than can be given 
 them without abstracting it too much from the regular classes. If such 
 an appendage is to be permanently attached to the Normal Schools, it 
 will be necessary to enlarge the number of instructors to correspond 
 with the additional amount of labor imposed. Perhaps no better course 
 can be recommended for the present. A question of great importance, 
 however, here presents itself for consideration, namely, whether it 
 would not be expedient to make one of our Normal Schools, that at 
 Bridgewater, for example, exclusively a school for males, designed to 
 form a higher class of teachers for a corresponding grade of schools. 
 Then each Normal School would have its distinctive character, that at 
 West Newton being for females only, and that at Westfield for both 
 sexes, and every person, who should wish to enjoy the advantages of a 
 Normal School training, could find a school adapted to his particular 
 wants. The difference between the common district school and the cen- 
 tral school of our more populous towns and grammar school of the 
 cities, is becoming so great, that it is no longer possible to look to the 
 same class of individuals for teachers in them all. Besides, the law re- 
 quiring the establishing of high schools, is rapidly creating a demand 
 for a description of teachers which none of our institutions furnish. 
 The colleges do not educate men with reference to the business of 
 teaching. A young graduate, without any experience in teaching, is but 
 little better prepared to take charge of a high school than he is to 
 practice at the bar. Nor do our Normal Schools give the amount of edu- 
 cation requisite for teachers aspiring to a place in the high school. It 
 is at this moment more difficult to procure suitable teachers for high 
 schools than for any other class of schools. The choice ordinarily lies 
 between experienced teachers of limited education, and men of liberal 
 education, who either have had no experience and yet wish to be- 
 come teachers, or, having had some practice in teaching while earning 
 the money to pay their college bills, wish now to earn still more to 
 enable them to study a profession. It is not safe for towns to open high 
 schools under such auspices, and few committees are willing to expose 
 themselves and their enterprise to these hazards. 
 
 If there were a Normal School of a higher order, persons, who had 
 already received a good literary and scientific education elsewhere, 
 might repair to it and attend exclusively to the theory and practice of 
 teaching. Even graduates from the colleges, who propose to become 
 teachers, would, in many instances, avail themselves of such opportun- 
 ities for studying the art which they are to practice for life. An air 
 exclusively professional would thus be given to the school, and a short- 
 er period of attendance might suffice than would be necessary in the 
 other Normal Schools.
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 OF AN INSTITUTION FOR THE EDUCATION OF TEACHERS. 
 
 BY JAMBS G. CARTEB. 
 
 The following outline constitutes Essay VI. of Essays on 
 Popular Education, published by Mr. Carter in the Boston 
 Patriot, with the signature of Franklin, in the winter of 
 1824-25. The series was commenced on the 17th of Decem- 
 ber, 1824; and the essay containing the outline was pub- 
 lished on the 10th and 15th of February, 1825. 
 
 It will do but little good for the Legislature of the State to make 
 large appropriations directly for the support of schools, till a judicious 
 expenditure of them can be insured. And in order to do this, we must 
 have skillful teachers at hand. It will do but little good to class the 
 children till we have instructors properly prepared to take charge of 
 the classes. It will do absolutely no good to constitute an independent 
 tribunal to decide on the qualifications of teachers, while they have 
 not had the opportunities necessary for coming up to the proper stand- 
 ard. And it will do no good to overlook and report upon their success, 
 when we know beforehand that they have not the means of success. It 
 would be beginning wrong, too, to build houses and to tell your young 
 and inexperienced instructors to teach this or to teach that subject, 
 however desirable a knowledge of such subjects might be, while it is 
 obvious that they cannot know how, properly, to teach any subject. The 
 science of teaching for it must be made a science is first in the or- 
 der of nature, to be inculcated. And it is to this point that the public 
 attention must first be turned, to effect any essential improvement. 
 
 And here let me remark upon a distinction in the qualifications of 
 teachers, which has never been practically made; though it seems as- 
 tonishing that it has so long escaped notice. I allude to the distinction 
 between the possession of knowledge, and the ability to communicate 
 it to other minds. When we are looking for a teacher, we inquire how 
 much he knows, not how much he can communicate; as if the latter 
 qualification were of no consequence to us. Now it seems to me that 
 parents and children, to say the least, are as much interested in the 
 latter qualification of their instructor as in the former. 
 
 Though a teacher cannot communicate more knowledge than he 
 possesses, yet he may possess much, and still be able to impart but lit- 
 tle. And the knowledge of Sir Isaac Newton could be of but trifling use 
 to a school, while it was locked up safely in the head of a country 
 schoolmaster. So far as the object of a school or of instruction, there- 
 fore, is the acquisition of knowledge, novel as the opinion may seem, 
 it does appear to me that both parents and pupils are even more inter- 
 ested in the part of their teacher's knowledge which they will be likely 
 to get, than in the part which they certainly cannot get. 
 
 One great object in the education of teachers which it is so desirable 
 on every account to attain, is to establish an intelligible language of 
 communication between the instructor and his pupil, and enable the 
 former to open his head and his heart, and infuse into the other some 
 of the thoughts and feelings which lie hid there. Instructors and pupils 
 do not understand each other. They do not speak the same language. 
 They may use the same words; but this can hardly be called the same 
 language, while they attach to them such very different meanings. We 
 must either, by some magic or supernatural power, bring children at
 
 92 MR. CARTER ON EDUCATION OF TEACHERS. 
 
 once to comprehend all our abstract and difficult terms, or our teach- 
 ers must unlearn themselves, and come down to the comprehension of 
 children. One of these alternatives is only difficult, while the other is 
 impossible. 
 
 The direct, careful preparation of instructors for the profession of 
 teaching, must surmount this difficulty; and I doubt if there be any 
 other way in which it can be surmounted. When instructors under- 
 stand their profession, that is, in a word, when they understand the 
 philosophy of the infant mind, what powers are earliest developed, and 
 what studies are best adapted to their development, then it will be 
 time to lay out and subdivide their work into an energetic system of 
 public instruction. Till this step toward a reform, which is preliminary 
 in its very nature, be taken, every other measure must be adopted in 
 the dark; and, therefore, be liable to fail utterly of its intended result. 
 Houses, and funds, and books are all, indeed, important; but they are 
 only the means of enabling the minds of the teachers to act upon the 
 minds of the pupils. And they must, inevitably, fail of their happiest 
 effects, till the minds of the teachers have been prepared to act upon 
 those of their pupils to the greatest advantage. 
 
 If, then, the first step toward a reform in our system of popular edu- 
 cation be the scientific preparation of teachers for the free schools, our 
 next inquiry becomes, How can we soonest and most perfectly achieve 
 an object on every account so desirable? The ready and obvious answer 
 is, establish an institution for the very purpose. To my mind, this 
 seems to be the only measure which will insure to the public the at- 
 tainment of the object. It will be called a new project. Be it so. The 
 concession does not prove that the project is a bad one, or a visionary, 
 or an impracticable one. Our ancestors ventured to do what the world 
 had never done before, in so perfect a manner, when they established 
 the free schools. Let us also do what they have never so well done yet, 
 and establish an institution for the exclusive purpose of preparing in- 
 structors for them. This is only a second part, a development or con- 
 summation of the plan of our fathers. They foresaw the effect of uni- 
 versal intelligence upon national virtue and happiness; and they pro- 
 jected the means of securing to themselves and to us universal educa- 
 tion. They wisely did a new thing under the sun. It has proved to be a 
 good thing. We now enjoy the results of their labors, and we are sen- 
 sible of the enjoyment. Their posterity have praised them, loudly 
 praised them, for the wisdom of their efforts. Let us, then, with hints 
 from them, project and accomplish another new thing, and confer as 
 great a blessing on those who may come after us. Let us finish the 
 work of our fathers, in regard to popular education, and give to it its 
 full effect. Let us double, for we easily may, the happy influences of an 
 institution which has already attracted so much notice from every part 
 of our country, and drawn after it so many imitations, and send it, 
 thus improved, down to posterity for their admiration. 
 
 If a seminary for the purpose of educating teachers scientifically be 
 essential in order to give the greatest efficacy to our system of popular 
 education, then, in the progress of the discussion, the three following 
 questions arise in the order in which they are stated. By whom should 
 the proposed institution be established? What would be its leading 
 features? And what would be some of the peculiar advantages to the 
 public which would result from it? To answer these several questions 
 at length would require a book; while I have, at present, only leisure 
 to prepare one or two newspaper essays. A few hints, therefore, upon 
 the above three topics are all that I dare profess to give, and more than 
 I fear I can give, either to my own satisfaction or that of those readers 
 who may have become interested in the subject.
 
 MB. CABTEB ON EDUCATION OF TEACHERS. 93 
 
 The institution, from its peculiar purpose, must necessarily be both 
 literary and scientific in its character. And although, with its design 
 constantly in view, we could not reasonably expect it to add, directly, 
 much to the stock of what is now called literature, or to enlarge much 
 the boundaries of what is now called science, yet, from the very nature 
 of the subject to which it would be devoted, and upon which it would 
 be employed, it must in its progress create a kind of literature of its 
 own, and open a new science somewhat peculiar to itself the science 
 of the development of the infant mind, and the science of communicat- 
 ing knowledge from one mind to another while in a different stage of 
 maturity. The tendency of the inquiries which must be carried on, and 
 the discoveries which would be constantly made, in a seminary for this 
 new purpose, would be to give efficacy to the pursuits of other literary 
 and scientific institutions. Its influence, therefore, though indirect, 
 would be not the less powerful upon the cause of literature and the 
 sciences generally. These remarks may seem to anticipate another part 
 of my subject; but they are introduced here to show that a seminary 
 for the education of teachers would stand, at least, on as favorable a foot- 
 ing in relation to the public, as other literary and scientific institutions. 
 It seems now to be believed that the Legislature of the State are the 
 rightful proprietors of all public institutions for the diffusion of knowl- 
 edge. And if they are of any, they certainly ought to be of one for such 
 a purpose. Because there are none in which the public would be more 
 deeply interested. There are none which would tend so much to diffuse 
 knowledge among the whole mass of the people. And this, as has been 
 before remarked, is a solemn duty enjoined upon our government by 
 the constitution under which they are organized, and from which they 
 derive their authority. Besides, it is the first impulse of every govern- 
 ment, operating as quickly and steadily as instinct, to provide for its 
 own preservation. And it seems to be conceded on all hands, by the 
 friends as well as the enemies of freedom, that a government like our 
 own can only exist among a people generally enlightened; the only 
 question as to the permanency of free institutions being, whether it be 
 possible to make and to keep the whole population of a nation so well 
 educated as the existence of such institutions supposes and requires. 
 
 Our government, therefore, are urged by every motive which the 
 constitution can enjoin or self-preservation suggest, to see to it that 
 knowledge is generally diffused among the people. Upon this subject of 
 popular education, a free government must be arbitrary; for its exist- 
 ence depends upon it. The more ignorant and degraded people are, the 
 less do they feel the want of instruction, and the less will they seek it. 
 And these are the classes of a community which always increase the 
 fastest up to the very point, where the means of subsistence fail. So 
 that if any one class of men, however small, be suffered as a body to 
 remain in ignorance, and to allow their families to grow up without in- 
 struction, they will increase in a greater ratio, compared with their 
 numbers, than the more enlightened classes, till they have a prepon- 
 derance of physical power. And when this preponderance becomes over- 
 whelming, what hinders a revolution and an arbitrary government, by 
 which the mind of a few can control the physical strength of the many? 
 
 If this reasoning be correct, a free government must look to it be- 
 times, that popular ignorance does not gain upon them. If it do, there 
 is a thistle in the vineyard of the republic, which will grow and spread 
 itself in every direction, till it cannot be eradicated. The ignorant must 
 be allured to learn by every motive which can be offered to them. And 
 if they will not thus be allured, they must be taken by the strong arm 
 of government and brought out, willing or unwilling, and made to 
 learn, at least, enough to make them peaceable and good citizens. It 
 would be well, indeed, if the possibility could be held out to all of sue-
 
 94 MB. CABTEB ON EDUCATION OF TEACHERS. 
 
 cessfully aspiring to responsible stations in society. A faint hope is 
 better than despair. And though only one chance in a thousand be fav- 
 orable, even that is worth something to stimulate the young to greater 
 efforts, to become worthy of distinction. The few who, under all the 
 disadvantages which adverse circumstances impose, can find their way 
 by untired perseverance to places of trust and influence in the repub- 
 lic, serve to give identity of feeling, of purpose, and pursuit to the 
 whole. They harmonize and bind together all those different and dis- 
 tant classes of the community, between which fretful jealousies nat- 
 urally subsist. 
 
 These are hints, only, at an argument, perhaps unintelligible ones, to 
 establish the principle, that free governments are the proprietors of all 
 literary and scientific institutions, so far as they have the tendency to 
 diffuse knowledge generally among the people. The free schools of 
 Massachusetts, as the most efficient means of accomplishing that ob- 
 ject, should therefore be the property and the peculiar care of govern- 
 ment. An argument will, at once, be drawn from these principles why 
 they should assume the direction of the schools, so far as to insure to 
 the people over whom they are appointed to preside, competent teach- 
 ers of them. And as this is the main purpose of the proposed institu- 
 tion, the reasoning seems to be conclusive why they should be its pro- 
 prietor, or, at least, its patron and protector. 
 
 An institution for the education of teachers, as has been before in- 
 timated, would form a part, and a very important part, of the free- 
 school system. It would be, moreover, precisely that portion of the sys- 
 tem which should be under the direction of the State, whether the 
 others are or not. Because we should thus secure at once, a uniform, 
 intelligent, and independent tribunal for decision on the qualifications 
 of teachers. Because we should thus relieve the clergy of an invidious 
 task, and insure to the public competent teachers, if such could be 
 found or prepared. An institution for this purpose would become, by 
 its influence on society, and particularly on the young, an engine to 
 sway the public sentiment, the public morals, and the public religion, 
 more powerful than any other in the possession of government. It 
 should, therefore, be responsible immediately to them. And they should 
 carefully overlook it, and prevent its being perverted to other purposes, 
 directly or indirectly, than those for which it is designed. It should be 
 emphatically the State's institution. And its results would soon make 
 it the State's favorite and pride, among other literary and scientific 
 institutions. The Legislature of the State should, therefore, establish 
 and build it up, without waiting for individuals, at great private sacri- 
 fices, to accomplish the work. Such would be the influence of an insti- 
 tution for the education of teachers; and such is the growing convic- 
 tion of the strength of early associations and habits, that it cannot be 
 long before the work will be begun in some form. If it be not under- 
 taken by the public and for public purposes, it will be undertaken by 
 individuals for private purposes. 
 
 The people of Massachusetts are able and willing, yea, more than 
 willing, they are anxious to do something more for popular education, 
 for the diffusion of knowledge generally. The only questions with them 
 are how and where can means be applied to the purpose to the greatest 
 advantage. It may safely be submitted, by the friends of the free 
 schools, to a republican people and their republican government, which 
 institutions on comparison most deserve the public bounty; those 
 whose advantages can be enjoyed but by a few, or those which are open 
 to the whole population; those which have for their main objects good 
 that is remote, or those whose happy influences are felt at once, 
 through the whole community. Which institutions deserve the first 
 consideration, and the most anxious attention of a popular govern-
 
 MB. CARTER ON EDUCATION OF TEACHERS. 95 
 
 ment, those which will place a few scholars and philologists upon a 
 level with the Germans in a knowledge of Greek accents, or those 
 which will put our whole people upon the level of enlightened men in 
 their practical knowledge of common things? These objects may all be 
 important to us. But the former will be provided for by individuals; 
 the latter are the peculiar care of government. 
 
 The next question, mentioned above, as arising in the progress of 
 this discussion, was, what would be the leading features of an institu- 
 tion for the education of teachers. If the institution were to be found- 
 ed by the State, upon a large scale, the following parts would seem to 
 be obviously essential. 1. An appropriate library, with a philosophical 
 apparatus. 2. A principal and assistant professor in the different de- 
 partments. 3. A school for children of different ages, embracing both 
 those desiring a general education, and those designed particularly for 
 teachers. 4. A Board of Commissioners, or an enlightened body of men 
 representing the interests and the wishes of the public. 
 
 1. A library should of course be selected with particular reference to 
 the objects of the institution. It would naturally and necessarily con- 
 tain the approved authors on the science of education in its widest 
 sense. It would embrace works of acknowledged merit in the various 
 branches of literature and science intimately connected with educa- 
 tion; such as anatomy and physiology, the philosophy of the human 
 mind and heart, and the philosophy of language. 
 
 Physical education forms a very essential part of the subject, and 
 should be thoroughly understood. This branch includes the develop- 
 ment of all the organs of the body. And works upon the physiology of 
 children should be added to the library. Books on gymnastics, contain- 
 ing directions for particular exercises adapted to the development of 
 the several organs, belong to the library of the accomplished instruct- 
 or, as well as to that of the surgeon. Indeed, if the former properly use 
 them, they will enable him to give a firmness to the parts of the body 
 which may, perhaps, supersede the necessity of the interference of the 
 latter to set them right in manhood. 
 
 The philosophy of the infant mind must be understood by the in- 
 structor before much progress can be made in the science of education; 
 for a principal branch of the science consists in forming the mind. And 
 the skill of the teacher in this department is chiefly to be seen in his 
 judicious adaptation of means to the development of the intellectual 
 faculties. Every book, therefore, which would aid in an analysis of the 
 youthful mind, should be placed in the library of the proposed institu- 
 tion. 
 
 The human heart, the philosophy of its passions and its affections, 
 must be studied by those who expect to influence those passions, and 
 form those affections. This branch of the subject includes the govern- 
 ment of children, especially in the earliest stages of their discipline. 
 The success of the teacher here depends upon the good judgment with 
 which he arranges and presents to his pupils the motives that will 
 soonest move them, and most permanently influence their actions. The 
 mistaken or wicked principles of parents and instructors, in this de- 
 partment of education, have, no doubt, perverted the dispositions of 
 many hopeful children. If successful experience has been recorded, It 
 should be brought to the assistance of those who must otherwise act 
 without experience. 
 
 Lastly, the study of the philosophy of language would be essential to 
 the scientific teacher. The term language is not here understood to 
 mean a class of words called Greek, or another class of words called 
 Latin, or even that class of words which we call English. It means 
 something more general, and something which can hardly be defined.
 
 96 MB. CARTER ON EDUCATION OF TEACHERS. 
 
 It embraces all the means we use to excite in the minds of others the 
 ideas which we have already in our own minds. These, whatever they 
 are, are included in the general definition of language. This is a great 
 desideratum in our systems of education. We do not possess a language 
 by which we can produce precisely the idea in a pupil which we have 
 in our own mind, and which we wish to excite in his. And impatient 
 and precipitate teachers quite often quarrel with their pupils, because 
 they do not arrive at the same conclusions with themselves, when, if they 
 could but look into their minds, they would find that the ideas with 
 which they begin to reason, or which enter into their processes of 
 reasoning, are altogether different. Every book or fact, therefore, which 
 would do anything to supply this desideratum, or enable the teacher 
 better to understand precisely the idea which he excites in the mind 
 of his pupils, should be collected in the instructor's library. 
 
 2. The institution should have its principal and its assistant profes- 
 sors. The government and instruction of a seminary for the education 
 of teachers would be among the most responsible situations which 
 could be assigned to men in literary or scientific pursuits. As many of 
 the objects of the institution would be new, so the duties of its instruct- 
 ors would also be new. No commanding minds have gone before pre- 
 cisely in the proposed course, and struck out a path which others may 
 easily follow. There are no rules laid down for the direction of those 
 who will not think upon, or who cannot understand the subject. Men 
 must, therefore, be brought to the task who have the ability to observe 
 accurately and to discriminate nicely. They must also collect the re- 
 sults of what experience they can from books and from others, in or- 
 der to enable themselves to form some general principles for the di- 
 rection of their pupils, who will go abroad to carry their improvements 
 to others. It is not supposed for a moment that all who may receive 
 instruction at the proposed institution with the intention of becoming 
 teachers, will necessarily be made thereby adepts in the science, any 
 more than it is believed that all who happen to reside four years with- 
 in the walls of a college are necessarily made expert in the mysteries 
 of syllogisms and the calculus. But having seen correct general prin- 
 ciples of education successfully reduced to practice, they may, at least, 
 become artists in the profession, and be able to teach pretty well upon a 
 system, the philosophy of which they cannot thoroughly comprehend. 
 
 3. A school of children and youth of different ages and pursuing dif- 
 ferent branches of study would form an essential part of the institu- 
 tion. In the early stages of the education of children, the discipline 
 should consist almost wholly of such exercises as serve to develop the 
 different faculties and strengthen all the powers of the mind. And in 
 the subsequent education of youth, when the discipline comes to con- 
 sist partly in the development of the mind, and partly in the communi- 
 cation of knowledge, the course of instruction would be the same, 
 whether the pupil were destined to be a teacher or not. The objects of 
 the institution do not, therefore, become peculiar till after the pupil 
 has acquired a certain degree of freedom and strength of mind; nor 
 till after he has made the acquisition of the requisite amount of knowl- 
 edge for the profession of teacher. Though a pupil would necessarily 
 imbibe a good deal of clearness and method in his intellectual exercises 
 by submitting the direction of them to a skillful instructor, the study 
 of the science of teaching cannot properly begin till he changes rela- 
 tions with those about him; and, instead of following a course pre- 
 scribed by another, and exhibiting the powers of his own mind with- 
 out an effort to take cognizance of them, he assumes to look down upon 
 humbler minds, to direct their movements, and to detect and classify 
 the phenomena of their subtle workings.
 
 MR. CARTER ON EDUCATION OF TEACHERS. 97 
 
 After the young candidate for an instructor, therefore, has acquired 
 sufficient knowledge for directing those exercises and teaching those 
 branches which he wishes to profess, he must then begin his labors 
 under the scrutinizing eyes of one who will note his mistakes of govern- 
 ment and faults of instruction, and correct them. The experienced and 
 skillful professor of the science will observe how the mind of the young 
 teacher acts upon that of the learner. He will see how far and how 
 perfectly they understand each other, and which is at fault if they do 
 not understand each other at all. If the more inexperienced teacher 
 should attempt to force upon the mind of a child an idea or a process 
 of reasoning for which it was not in a proper state, he would be 
 checked at once, and told of his fault; and thus, perhaps, the pupil 
 would be spared a disgust for a particular study, or an aversion to all 
 study. As our earliest experience would in this manner be under the 
 direction of those wiser than ourselves, it would the more easily be 
 classed under general principles for our direction afterward. This part 
 of the necessary course in an institution for the education of teachers 
 might be much aided by lectures. Children exhibit such an such intel- 
 lectual phenomena; the scientific professor of education can explain 
 those phenomena, and tell from what they arise. If they are favorable, 
 he can direct how they are to be encouraged and turned to account in 
 the development and formation of the mind. If they are unfavorable, 
 he can explain by what means they are to be overcome or corrected. 
 Seeing intellectual results, he can trace them, even through complicat- 
 ed circumstances, to their causes; or, knowing the causes and circum- 
 stances, he can predict the result that will follow them. Thus every 
 day's experience would be carefully examined, and made to limit or 
 extend the comprehension of the general principles of the science. Is 
 there any other process or method than this to arrive at a philosophical 
 system of education? If any occurs to other minds, it is to be hoped 
 that the public may soon have the benefit of it. 
 
 4. The fourth branch, which I mentioned above as constituting an 
 important part of an institution for the education of teachers, was a 
 Board of Commissioners. Although they would, probably, have little to 
 do with the immediate government and instruction of the institution, 
 they would be valuable to it by representing the wishes of the com- 
 munity, and by bringing it more perfectly in contact with the public in- 
 terests. Besides, it must occur to every one, that in the general man- 
 agement of such an establishment, many of the transactions would re- 
 quire characters and talents very different from those that would, gen- 
 erally, be found in the principal or professors. Men might easily be 
 found who would lecture to admiration, and yet be wholly incompetent 
 to assume the general direction of the establishment. The professors, 
 too, would always want assistance and authority, in determining what 
 acquisitions should be required for admission into the institution, and 
 what proficiency should be deemed essential in the candidates before 
 leaving it to assume the business of teaching. Upon what principles 
 shall the school be collected? How shall the privilege of attending as 
 new learners in the science of education be settled upon applications 
 from different parts of the State or country? These and many similar 
 questions would render a body of men, distinct from the professors, 
 important to the institution. Many decisions, too, must necessarily be 
 made, affecting individual and private interests. This would be an in- 
 vidious duty, and the instructors should be relieved from it as far as 
 possible. It is confidently believed that the peculiar advantages to be 
 enjoyed at such an institution by children and youth generally, as well 
 as by those designed for teachers, would command a price sufficient to 
 defray nearly the whole expenses of the establishment. If not so, then 
 
 G
 
 98 MR. CARTEK ON EDUCATION OF TEACHERS. 
 
 might not each town send one or more young men to the institution to 
 be properly educated for instructors, and require them in return to 
 teach their public schools to liquidate the expense? All these means, 
 however, are subjects for future consideration, and are to be devised 
 after the utility of the institution has been demonstrated. 
 
 The peculiar advantages of an institution for the education of teach- 
 ers would be far too numerous and too important to be either embraced 
 or enforced in the space which remains for this topic. A few, therefore, 
 of the most obvious ones are all that can here be alluded to. One ad- 
 vantage, and a very certain one, would be to raise the character of 
 teachers generally; and consequently, in the same degree, the char- 
 acter of the schools which they teach. Let us pause, for a moment, to 
 consider to what an extent we are interested in every thing which 
 affects our system of public instruction; and hence derive a motive, 
 before we pass on, to enforce attention to every suggestion for im- 
 provement in it. 
 
 There were in the district of Massachusetts, according to the census 
 of 1820, five hundred and twenty-three thousand one hundred and fifty- 
 nine souls. Of this number, two hundred and forty-one thousand seven 
 hundred and eleven were under the age of eighteen years. The num- 
 bers have since been much augmented. If the population has increased 
 only as fast since the last census as it did between the census of 1810 
 and that of 1820, there are now, in round numbers, about two hundred 
 and fifty thousand children and youth in Massachusetts under the age 
 of eighteen years. This, it will be perceived, amounts to almost one- 
 half of the whole number of souls. If we take from the older those be- 
 tween the ages of eighteen and twenty-one, and add them to the young- 
 er part of the population, we shall find at least half, and probably 
 more than half of the whole, under twenty-one years. 
 
 These are all flexible subjects of education, in its most comprehen- 
 sive sense; though they are not all within the influence of that part of 
 it which can be easily controlled by legislation, or indeed by any means 
 except by an enlightened public opinion. A few of this great number 
 have left the schools and all direct means of education, and entered 
 upon the active business of life. And a portion of the younger part of 
 them are yet subject only for domestic education. But after these de- 
 ductions from the two extremes, it will not be extravagant to state, 
 that one-third of the whole population are of a suitable age, have op- 
 portunity, and do actually attend school some portion of the year. In 
 Massachusetts we have not the means of knowing accurately the num- 
 bers of children and youth who attend our schools; because we have 
 no system of returns to any public authority, by which such facts can 
 be ascertained. But I am confirmed in the belief that the above is not 
 an extravagant estimate, by two circumstances. One of them is, sev- 
 eral towns have been carefully examined, and this is about the propor- 
 tion of the population found in their schools. And the other is, official 
 documents and acknowledged authorities from the neighboring State 
 of Connecticut informs us that one-third of the population attend their 
 free schools a part of the year. And probably the same would be found 
 to be true of New York, as well as of the remainder of the New Eng- 
 land States. 
 
 These are statistical facts. Others may reason upon them and draw 
 what conclusions they can, about immigration, the future prospects of 
 New England, her comparative influence in the Union, and the facili- 
 ties she affords for a manufacturing district. They have been intro- 
 duced here because they suggest motives stronger than any others, to 
 enforce attention to our means of popular education. One-third of our 
 whole population are now at that period of life when their principles 
 and characters are rapidly forming. Habits, both moral and intellect-
 
 MB. CARTER ON EDUCATION OF TEACHERS. 99 
 
 ual, are taking their direction, and acquiring the strength of age. In all 
 this, the schools must have a deep influence. Both the degree and the 
 kind of influence are, to a certain extent, within our control, and con- 
 sequently depend upon our efforts. In twenty years, and surely twenty 
 years are not beyond the ken of a tolerably clear-sighted politician, 
 this part of our population will succeed to most of the responsible 
 places and relations of their fathers. They must receive all that we 
 have to leave for them. They must take our names, and attach to 
 them honor or infamy. They must possess our fortunes, to preserve 
 or disperse them. And they must inherit our free institutions, 
 to improve, pervert, or destroy them. Here, then, are the strongest 
 political motives, as well as paternal affection, urging upon us atten- 
 tion to all the means of forming correctly the characters of those who 
 are to receive from us our choicest blessings. And what means 
 within our control can be devised more efficient for this purpose, than 
 those primary seminaries for instruction, where the mass of the people 
 must receive several years of their education? Find, if they are to 
 be found, or create, if they are not now to be found, a class of teach- 
 ers well skilled in their profession, and put them into all our free 
 schools. What an effect would soon be produced in their condition! 
 And what a renovating influence these same schools would soon have 
 upon the character of the whole people who have access to them! 
 
 But these are general advantages of a good class of teachers. I 
 promised to speak of the peculiar advantages of the proposed institu- 
 tion to produce them. The library, collected with particular reference 
 to the objects of the institution, would contain the facts of the science 
 of education scattered along in the history of the world. Facts are 
 the materials of philosophy. And we cannot philosophize, safely, till 
 we have an extensive stock before us. The library would naturally 
 collect, not only those phenomena relating to the subject which have 
 already been observed, but also the records of those which must be 
 daily passing before our eyes. Books connected with and collateral 
 to the science will be as important to the purposes of the institution 
 as those professedly written upon the subject. And frequently they 
 will be found to be much more so. Because the former contain the 
 facts and the phenomena, while the latter have only an author's 
 reasoning and conclusions upon them. And the authors who have 
 written upon education, with very few exceptions, have reasoned 
 speciously, but from very limited and imperfect inductions. So that 
 their conclusions, though they may be corect, as far as they had the 
 necessary means of making them so, are liable to fail, totally, when 
 reduced to practice under circumstances a little different from those 
 from which the principles have been formed. We want more ex- 
 perience before we begin to reason at large and to draw sweeping 
 conclusions on the subject. And our library would be chiefly valuable 
 as containing that experience, or the results of it, accurately and 
 authentically recorded. 
 
 But the conclusions of writers on the subject, though received and 
 repeated by every body, are not binding and beyond question, till we 
 know that the facts from which they reasoned are all which can 
 affect the principles that they deduce from them. And to believe that 
 the experience of two thousand years, embracing the present age, 
 which is so full of phenomena of all kinds, has not added something 
 to our means of a copious and safe induction to principles of educa- 
 tion, requires a stretch of credulity with which my mind is not gifted. 
 It will be safer, as a general rule, to assume that they teach us what 
 to avoid, rather than what to imitate.
 
 100 MR. CARTER ON EDUCATION OF TEACHERS. 
 
 When we have collected the means of reasoning correctly, which 
 books can afford, and added to them the living materials of philosophy, 
 which will be constantly exhibited in the school which is to form a 
 part of the institution, we are to place all these before instructors of 
 discriminating minds, who are able and willing to observe as well as 
 to reason. We are, then, to turn the public attention toward them 
 in good earnest, and let them see that something is expected from 
 them. There is a moral certainty, under such circumstances, that the 
 expectation will be gratified. When the public attention is turned 
 toward any subject, all the ardent and discriminating minds act in 
 concert. And like the rays of the sun converged to a point by a lens, 
 they act with an intensity which must produce an effect. 
 
 It would be a natural result of the proposed institution to organize 
 the teachers into a more distinct profession, and to raise the general 
 standard of their intellectual attainments. It would therefore con- 
 centrate and give energy and direction to exertions and inquiries, 
 which are now comparatively wasted for want of such direction. No 
 one, indeed, can now forsee, precisely, what effect would be pro- 
 duced upon our systems of education and principles of instruction by 
 subjecting them to such an ordeal. To foretell the improvements that 
 would be made, would be to make them, and supersede the necessity 
 of an institution for the purpose. Though the necessity would still 
 remain for some similar means to propagate them among the people. 
 But if our principles of education, and particularly our principles of 
 government and instruction, are not already perfect we may confi- 
 dently expect improvements, though we may not know, precisely, in 
 what they will consist. 
 
 Many persons knew twenty years ago that steam was expansive. 
 But who foresaw the degree to which its expansion could be raised, 
 or the purposes to which it could be applied? Public attention was 
 turned to the subject in earnest, and we now see vessels moving in 
 every direction by its power. It was known long since that light wood 
 would float, and water run down hill. But who foresaw, twenty years 
 ago, the present state of our internal improvements by means of 
 canals? Public attention and powerful minds were directed to the 
 subject, and we now see boats ascending and descending our moun- 
 tains, and traversing our continent in every direction. Those who 
 were before almost our antipodes, have now, by the facilities of com- 
 munication, become our neighbors. The most intrepid prophet would 
 hardly have dared, even ten years ago, to predict the present state of 
 our manufactories. This has all been done, because it could be done, and 
 many minds were tunred to the subject, and resolved that it should 
 be done. All these are in many respects analogous cases, and go to 
 show that we do not always know how near to us important im- 
 provements are; and that it is only necessary to direct the public atten- 
 tion to a subject in order to insure some inventions in it. 
 
 A great variety of other peculiar advantages to the public, it occurs 
 to me, must arise from an institution for the education of teachers. 
 But I have confined myself to those only which seemed to be 
 the most striking and important. All others will be found to be in- 
 volved, in a great degree, or wholly, in those which I have stated. 
 And although to enumerate them might add some new motives for 
 attention to the subject, they could not not strengthen much the 
 argument in favor of an institution somewhat like that which has been 
 above described. I must now take my leave of the subject for the pres- 
 ent; my only regrets being that I have not had ability to do more jus- 
 tice to the several topics which I have discussed, nor time to do more 
 justice to my own views of them.
 
 MB. CARTER ON EDUCATION OF TEACHEB8. 101 
 
 Mr. Carter commenced his public labors in the cause of 
 popular education by the publication of "Letters to the Hon. 
 William Prescott, LLD., on the Free Schools of New Eng- 
 land, with Remarks on the Principles of Instruction," in 
 1824. In the same year he commenced in the Boston Patriot, 
 over the signature of "Franklin," a series of Essays on 
 Popular Education, which were subsequently published, in 
 a pamphlet form, in 1826. In this series of essays he first 
 gave to the public his plan of a Teachers' Seminary. These 
 essays, and particularly his views on the principles of edu- 
 cation as a science, and his outline of an institution for the 
 education of teachers, attracted much attention. They were 
 very ably and favorably reviewed in the United States Re- 
 view, edited by Theophilus Parsons, and of which Journal 
 Mr. Carter, on its being united with the Literary Gazette, 
 became editor, and devoted a portion of the columes to an 
 advocacy of educational improvements before the public. 
 The essays were made the basis of an article in the North 
 American Review, for 1827, by Prof. Ticknor, and through 
 that article his plan was made known to the English public. 
 Prof. Bryce, in his "Sketch of a Plan for a System of Na- 
 tional Education for Ireland," published in London, in 1828, 
 speaks of the "outline," as the "first regular publication on 
 the subject" of the professional education of teachers which 
 he had heard of. 
 
 In 1827, Mr. Carter presented a memorial to the Legisla- 
 ture, praying for aid in the establishment of a seminary for 
 the education of teachers with a model school attached. The 
 memorial was favorably reported on by a committee, of 
 which the Hon. William B. Calhoun, of Springfield, Mass., 
 was chairman, and a bill, making an appropriation, was 
 lost by one vote in the Senate. In that year, the town of 
 Lancaster appropriated a portion of land, and the use of an 
 academy building, to aid him in carrying out his plan as a 
 private enterprise. He purchased several dwelling-houses to 
 accommodate his pupils and teachers with lodgings and 
 board, hired assistants who were to be taught by himself 
 on his plan, and opened his school. Within a few months 
 after his school opened, the people of Lancaster, who did 
 not comprehend the full and ultimate public benefits of the 
 new institution, began to manifest opposition, and threw 
 such obstacles in his way, that he was obliged to abandon 
 his project, as a public enterprise, after having embarrassed 
 himself by his pecuniary outlays for buildings and teachers. 
 He, however, continued to give instruction for many years 
 afterward to private pupils, many of whom are now suc- 
 cessful teachers in different parts of the Union.
 
 102 MR. CAKTER ON EDUCATION OF TEACHERS. 
 
 In 1830, Mr. Carter assisted in the establishment of the 
 American Institute of Instruction, of which he was for 
 many years an officer and an active member. At its first 
 session he delivered a lecture on "the development of the 
 intellectual faculties," in which he treats of education as a 
 science; and in 1831, he gave another lecture on "the neces- 
 sity and most practicable means of raising the qualifica- 
 tions of teachers." 
 
 In 1835, and for several years afterward, he was a mem- 
 ber of the Legislature, and in that position, as chairman of 
 the Committee of Education, drafted several able reports 
 and bills, to promote the cause of educational improvement. 
 During his first term, he secured the appropriation of three 
 hundred dollars a year in aid of the objects of the American 
 Institute of Instruction. In the same session he submitted an 
 elaborate report in favor of "an Act to provide for the bet- 
 ter instruction of youth, employed in manufacturing estab- 
 lishments," which the Hon. Rufus Choate characterized 
 as "a measure of large wisdom and expanded benevolence, 
 which makes it practicable and safe for Massachusetts to 
 grow rich by manufacture and by art." In 1836, as chair- 
 man of the same committee, he reported a bill for the ap- 
 pointment of a Superintendent of Common Schools, and ad- 
 vocated the establishment of a seminary for the profession- 
 al education of teachers. 
 
 In 1837, Mr. Carter made a vigorous effort in the House 
 to secure the appropriation of one half of the United States 
 Surplus Revenue, for the education of Common School 
 teachers. His speech, on the second of February, for this 
 object, is an able exposition of the claims of free schools for 
 efficient and liberal legislation, and of the necessity of an 
 institution devoted exclusively to the appropriate education 
 of teachers for them. His amendment was lost; but he had 
 the satisfaction, at a later period of the session, to draft 
 the bill, establishing the Board of Education, which was 
 adopted. Gov. Everett nominated Mr. Carter the first mem- 
 ber of the Board.
 
 MEMORIAL 
 
 OF THE 
 
 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INSTRUCTION TO THE LEGISLATURE 
 OF MASSACHUSETTS ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 (Submitted January, 1837.) 
 
 To THE HONORABLE THE LEGISLATURE 
 
 OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 The Memorial of the Directors of the American Institute of Instruc- 
 tion, praying that provision may be made for the better preparation 
 of the teachers of the schools of the Commonwealth, respectfully 
 showeth : 
 
 THAT there is, throughout the Commonwealth, a great want of well- 
 qualified teachers: 
 
 That this is felt in all the schools, of all classes, but especially in 
 the most important and numerous class, the district schools: 
 
 That wherever, in any town, exertion has been made to improve 
 these schools, it has been met and baffled by the want of good teach- 
 ers; that they have been sought for in vain; the highest salaries 
 have been offered, to no purpose; that they are not to be found in 
 sufficient numbers to supply the demand: 
 
 That their place is supplied by persons exceedingly incompetent, in 
 many respects; by young men, in the course of their studies, teaching 
 from necessity, and often with a strong dislike for the pursuit; by 
 mechanics and others wanting present employment; and by persons 
 who, having failed in other callings, take to teaching as a last resort, 
 with no qualifications for it, and no desire of continuing in it longer 
 than they are obliged by an absolute necessity: 
 
 That those among this number who have a natural fitness for the 
 work, now gain the experience, without which no one, whatever his 
 gifts, can become a good teacher, by the sacrifice, winter after winter, 
 of the time and advancement of the children of the schools of the 
 Commonwealth : 
 
 That every school is now liable to have a winter's session wasted 
 by the unskillful attempts of an instructor, making his first ex- 
 periments in teaching: By the close of the season, he may have 
 gained some insight into the mystery, may have hit upon some toler- 
 able method of discipline, may have grown somewhat familiar with 
 the books used and with the character of the children; and, if he 
 could go on in the same school for successive years, might become a 
 profitable teacher; but whatever he may have gained himself, from 
 his experiments, he will have failed too entirely of meeting the just 
 expectations of the district, to leave him any hope of being engaged 
 for a second term: He accordingly looks elsewhere for the next 
 season, and the district receives another master, to have the existing 
 regulations set aside, and to undergo another series of experiments: 
 We do not state the fact too strongly, when we say that the time, 
 capacities, and opportunities of thousands of the children are now 
 sacrificed, winter after winter, to the preparation of teachers, who, 
 after this enormous sacrifice, are, notwithstanding, often very wretch- 
 edly prepared:
 
 104 MEMORIAL OF NORMAL SCHOOLS 1837. 
 
 That many times, no preparation is even aimed at: that such is the 
 known demand for teachers of every kind, with or without qualifica- 
 tions, that candidates present themselves for the employment, and 
 committees, in despair of finding better, employ them, who have 
 no degree of fitness for the work: that committees are obliged to 
 employ, to take charge of their children, men to whose incompetency 
 they would reluctantly commit their farms or their workshops: 
 
 That the reaction of this deplorable incompetency of the teachers, 
 upon the minds of the committees, is hardly less to be deplored, 
 hardly less alarming, as it threatens to continue the evil and render 
 it perpetual; Finding they cannot get suitable teachers at any price 
 they naturally apportion the salary to the value of the service ren- 
 dered, and the consequence is, that, in many places, the wages of a 
 teacher are below those given in the humblest of the mechanic arts; 
 and instances are known, of persons of tolerable qualifications as 
 teachers, declining to quit, for a season, some of the least gainful of 
 the trades, on the ground of the lowness of the teachers' pay. 
 
 We merely state these facts, without enlarging upon them, as they 
 have already too great and melancholy a notoriety. We but add our 
 voice to the deep tone of grief and complaint which sounds from 
 every part of the State. 
 
 We are not surprised at this condition of the teachers. We should 
 be surprised if it were much otherwise. 
 
 Most of the winter schools are taught for about three months in 
 the year; the summer not far beyond four. They are, therefore, of 
 necessity, taught, and must continue to be taught, by persons who, 
 for two-thirds or three-fourths of the year, have other pursuits, in 
 qualifying themselves for which they have spent the usual period, 
 and which, of course, they look upon as the main business of their 
 lives. They cannot be expected to make great exertions and expensive 
 preparation for the work of teaching, in which the standard is so low, 
 and for which they are so poorly paid. 
 
 Whatever desire they might have, it would be almost in vain. There 
 are now no places suited to give them the instruction they need. 
 
 For every other profession requiring a knowledge of the principles 
 of science and the conclusions of experience, there are special schools 
 and colleges, with learned and able professors, and ample apparatus. 
 For the preparation of the teachers, there is almost none. In every 
 other art ministering to the wants and conveniences of men, masters 
 may be found ready to impart whatsoever of skill they have to the 
 willing apprentice; and the usage of society justly requires that years 
 should be spent under the eye of an adept, to gain the requisite 
 ability. An apprentice to a schoolmaster is known only in tradition. 
 
 We respectfully maintain that it ought not so to be: so much of 
 the intelligence and character, the welfare and immediate and future 
 happiness of all the citizens, now and hereafter, depends on the 
 condition of the common schools, that it is of necessity a matter of 
 the dearest interest to all of the present generation; that the common 
 education is to such a degree the palladium of our liberties, and the 
 good condition of the common schools, in which that education is 
 chiefly obtained, so vitally important to the stability of our State, to 
 our very existence as a free State, that it is the most proper subject 
 for legislation, and calls loudly for legislative provision and protection. 
 The common schools ought to be raised to their proper place; and 
 this can only be done by the better education of the teachers. 
 
 We maintain that provision ought to be made by the State for the 
 education of teachers; because, while their education is so important
 
 MEMORIAL OF NORMAL SCHOOLS 1837. 105 
 
 to the State, their condition generally is such as to put a suitable 
 education entirely beyond their reach; because, by no other means 
 is it likely that a system shall be introduced, which shall prevent the 
 immense annual loss of time to the schools, from a change of teachers; 
 and, because, the qualifications of a first-rate teacher are such as 
 cannot be gained but by giving a considerable time wholly to the 
 work of preparation. 
 
 In his calling, there is a peculiar difficulty in the fact, that whereas, 
 in other callings and professions, duties and difficulties come on 
 gradually, and one by one, giving ample time, in the intervals, for 
 special preparation, in his, they all come at once. On the first day 
 on which he enters the school, his difficulties meet him with a single, 
 unbroken, serried front, as numerously as they ever will; and they 
 refuse to be separated. He cannot divide and overcome them singly, 
 putting off the more formidable to wrestle with at a future time; he 
 could only have met them with complete success, by long forecast, 
 by months and years of preparation. 
 
 The qualifications requisite in a good teacher, of which many have 
 so low and inadequate an idea, as to think them almost the instinctive 
 attributes of every man and every woman, we maintain to be ex- 
 cellent qualities, rarely united in a high degree in the same individual, 
 and to obtain which one must give, and may well give, much time and 
 study. 
 
 We begin with the loicest. He must have a thorough knowledge of 
 whatever he undertakes to teach. If it were not so common, how 
 absurd would it seem, that one should undertake to communicate to 
 another fluency and grace in the beautiful accomplishment of reading, 
 without having them himself; or to give skill in the processes of 
 arithmetic, while he understood it so dimly himself as to be obliged 
 to follow the rules, as blindly as the child he was teaching! And 
 yet, are there not many teachers yearly employed by committees, 
 from the impossibility of finding better, who, in reading and arithme- 
 tic, as in every thing else, are but one step before, if they do not 
 fall behind, the foremost of their own pupils? Is it not so in geogra- 
 phy, in English grammar, in every thing, in short, which is now 
 required to be taught? 
 
 If the teacher understood thoroughly what is required in the usual 
 prescribed course, it would be something. But we maintain that the 
 teachers of the public schools ought to be able to do much more. In 
 every school occasions are daily occurring, on which, from a well- 
 stored mind, could be imparted, upon the most interesting and im- 
 portant subjects, much that would be of the greatest value to the 
 learner, at the impressible period of his pupilage. Ought not these 
 occasions to be provided for? Besides, there are always at least a few 
 forward pupils, full of talent, ready to make advances far beyond the 
 common course. Such, if their teacher could conduct them, would 
 rejoice, instead of circling again and again in the same dull round, 
 to go onward, in other and higher studies, so manifestly valuable, 
 that the usual studies of a school seem but as steps, intended to lead 
 up to them. 
 
 In the second place, a teacher should so understand the ordering 
 and discipline of a school, as to be able at once to introduce system 
 and to keep it constantly in force. Much precious time, as already 
 stated, is lost in making, changing, abrogating, modeling and remodel- 
 inging rules and regulations. And not only is the time utterly lost, 
 but the changes are a source of perplexity and vexation to master and 
 pupil. A judicious system of regulations not only takes up no time,
 
 106 MEMOBIAL OF NORMAL SCHOOLS 1837. 
 
 but saves time for every thing else. We believe there are few persons 
 to whom this knowledge of system comes without an effort, who are 
 born with such an aptitude to order that they fall into it naturally 
 and of course. 
 
 In the third place, a teacher should know how to teach. This, we 
 believe, is the rarest and best of his qualifications. Without it, great 
 knowledge, however pleasant to the possessor, will be of little use 
 to his pupils; and with it, a small fund will be made to produce great 
 effects. It cannot, with propriety, be considered a single faculty. It 
 is rather a practical knowledge of the best methods of bringing the 
 truths of the several subjects that are to be taught, to the com- 
 prehension of the learner. Not often does the same method apply 
 to several studies. It must vary with the nature of the truths to be 
 communicated, and with the age, capacity, and advancement of the 
 pupil. To possess it fully, one must have ready command of ele- 
 mentary principles, a habit of seeing them in various points of view, 
 and of promptly seizing the one best suited to the learner; a power 
 of awakening his curiosity, and of adapting the lessons to the mind, 
 so as to bring out its faculties naturally and without violence. It 
 therefore supposes an acquaintance with the minds of children, the 
 order in which their faculties expand, and by what discipline they may 
 be nurtured, and their inequalities repaired. 
 
 This knowledge of the human mind and character may be stated as 
 a fourth qualification of a teacher. Without it, he will be always 
 groping his way darkly. He will disgust the forward and quick-witted, 
 by making them linger along with the slow; and dishearten the slow, 
 by expecting them to keep pace with the swift. He will fail of the 
 peculiar end of right education, the quickening to life and action those 
 faculties which, without his fostering care, would have been left to lie 
 dormant. 
 
 Whoever considers to how great a degree the successful action of 
 the mind depends on the state of the feelings and affections, will be 
 ready to admit that an instructor should know so much of the con- 
 nection and subordination of the parts of the human character, as to 
 be able to enlist them all in the same cause, to gain the heart to the 
 side of advancement, and to make the affections the ministers of truth 
 and wisdom. 
 
 We have spoken very briefly of some of the qualifications essential to 
 a good teacher. It is hardly necessary to say that there are still higher 
 qualifications, which ought to belong to the persons who are to have 
 such an influence upon the character and well-being of the future 
 citizens of the Commonwealth; who, besides parents, can do more 
 than all others toward training the young to a clear perception of 
 right and wrong, to the love of truth, to reverence for the laws of 
 man and of God, to the performance of all the duties of good citizens 
 and good men. The teacher ought to be a person of elevated charac- 
 ter, able to win by his manners and instruct by his example, without 
 as well as within the school. 
 
 Now it is known to your memoralists that a very large number of 
 those, of both sexes, who now teach the summer and the winter schools, 
 are, to a mournful degree, wanting in all these qualifications. Far 
 from being able to avail themselves of opportunities of communicating 
 knowledge on various subjects, they are grossly ignorant of what they 
 are called on to teach. They are often without experience in man- 
 aging a school; they have no skill in communicating. Instead of 
 being able to stimulate and guide to all that is noble and excellent, 
 they are, not seldom, persons of such doubtful respectability and re-
 
 MEMORIAL OF NORMAL SCHOOLS 1837. 107 
 
 finement of character, that no one would think, for a moment, of 
 holding them up as models to their pupils. In short, they know not 
 what to teach, nor how to teach, nor in what spirit to teach, nor what 
 is the nature of those they undertake to lead, nor what they are them- 
 selves, who stand forward to lead them. 
 
 Your memorialists believe that these are evils of portentous moment 
 to the future welfare of the people of this Commonwealth, and that, 
 while they bear heavily on all, they bear especially and with dis- 
 proportioned weight upon the poorer districts in the scattered popu- 
 lation of the country towns. The wealthy are less directly affected 
 by them, as they can send their children from home to the better 
 schools in other places. The large towns are not affected in the same 
 degree, as their density of population enables them to employ teachers 
 through the year, at salaries which command somewhat higher quali- 
 fications. 
 
 We believe that you have it in your power to adopt such measures 
 as shall forthwith diminish these evils, and at last remove them; 
 and this can only be done by providing for the better preparation of 
 teachers. 
 
 We therefore pray you to consider the expediency of instituting, for 
 the special instruction of teachers, one or more seminaries, either 
 standing independently, or in connection with institutions already ex- 
 isting; as you shall, in your wisdom, think best. 
 
 We also beg leave to state what we conceive to be essential to such 
 a seminary. 
 
 1. There should be a professor of professors, of piety, of irreproach- 
 able character and good education, and of tried ability and skill in 
 teaching. 
 
 2. A library, not necessarily large, but well chosen, of books on sub- 
 jects to be taught, and on the art of teaching. 
 
 3. School-rooms, well situated, and arranged, heated, ventilated, and 
 furnished, in the manner best approved by experienced teachers. 
 
 4. A select apparatus of globes, maps, and other instruments most 
 useful for illustration. 
 
 5. A situation such that a school may be connected with the sem- 
 inary, accessible by a sufficient number of children, to give the 
 variety of an ordinary district school. 
 
 We beg leave also further to state the manner in which we conceive 
 that such a seminary would be immediately useful to the schools with- 
 in the sphere of its influence. 
 
 We do not believe that the majority of the district schools in the 
 Commonwealth will soon, if ever, be taught by permanent teachers. 
 We believe that they will continue to be taught, as they are now, 
 by persons who, for the greater part of the year, will be engaged in 
 some other pursuit: that, as in the early history of Rome, the gen- 
 erous husbandman left his plough to fight the battles of the state, 
 so, in Massachusetts, the free and intelligent citizen will, for a time, 
 quit his business, his work-shop, or his farm, to fight, for the sake 
 of his children and the state, a more vital battle against immorality 
 and ignorance. And we rejoice to believe that it will be so. So shall 
 the hearts of the fathers be in the schools of their children: so shall 
 the teachers have that knowledge of the world, that acquaintance 
 with men and things, so often wanting in the mere schoolmaster, and 
 yet not among the least essential of his qualifications.
 
 108 MEMORIAL OF NORMAL SCHOOLS 1837. 
 
 But we wish to see these citizens enjoy the means of obtaining the 
 knowledge and practical skill in the art of teaching, which shall enable 
 them to perform the duties of their additional office worthily. 
 
 Establish a seminary wherever you please, and it will be immedi- 
 ately resorted to. We trust too confidently in that desire of ex- 
 cellence which seems to be an element in our New England character, 
 to doubt that any young man, who, looking forward, sees that he shall 
 have occasion to teach a school every winter for ten years, will avail 
 himself of any means within his reach, of preparation for the work. 
 Give him the opportunity, and he cannot fail to be essentially benefitted 
 by his attendance at the seminary, if it be but for a single month. 
 
 In the first place, he will see there an example of right ordering 
 and management of a school; the spirit of which he may immediately 
 imbibe, and can never after be at a loss, as to a model of management, 
 or in doubt as to its importance. 
 
 In the second place, by listening to the teaching of another, he will 
 be convinced of the necessity of preparation, as he will see that 
 success depends on thorough knowledge and a direct action of the 
 teacher's own mind. This alone would be a great point, as many a 
 schoolmaster hears reading and spelling, and looks over writing and 
 arithmetic, without ever attempting to give any instruction or ex- 
 planation, or even thinking them necessary. 
 
 In the third place, he will see put in practice metohds of teaching; 
 and though he may, on reflection, conclude that none of them are ex- 
 actly suited to his own mind, he will see the value of method, and will 
 never after proceed as he would have done, if he had never seen me- 
 thodical teaching at all. 
 
 In the next place, he will have new light thrown upon the whole 
 work of education, by being made to perceive that its great end is not 
 mechanically to communicate ability in certain operations, but to draw 
 forth and exercise the whole powers of the physical, intellectual, and 
 moral being. 
 
 He will, moreover, hardly fail to observe the importance of the 
 manners of an instructor, and how far it depends on himself to give 
 a tone of cheerfulness and alacrity to his school. 
 
 In the last place, if the right spirit prevail at the seminary, he will 
 be prepared to enter upon his office with an exalted sense of its 
 importance and responsibility not as a poor drudge, performing a 
 loathsome office for a miserable stipend, but as a delegate of the 
 authority of parents and the State, to form men to the high duties of 
 citizens and the infinite destinies of immortality, answerable to them, 
 their country, and their God for the righteous discharge of his duties. 
 
 Now we believe that this single month's preparation would be of 
 immense advantage to a young instructor. 
 
 Let him now enter the district school. He has a definite idea of 
 what arrangements he is to make, what course he is to pursue, what 
 he is to take hold of first. He knows that he is himself to teach, he 
 knows what to teach, and, in some measure, how he is to set about it. 
 He feels how much he has to do to prepare himself, and how much 
 depends on his self-preparation. He has some conception of the 
 duties and responsibilities of his office. At the end of a single season, 
 he will, we venture to say, be a better teacher than he could have 
 been after half a dozen, had he not availed himself of the experience of 
 others. He will hardly fail to seek further occasions to draw more 
 largely at the same fountain.
 
 MEMORIAL OF NORMAL SCHOOLS 1837. 109 
 
 Let us not be understood as offering this statement of probable re- 
 sults as mere conjecture. They have been confirmed by all the ex- 
 perience, to the point, of a single institution in this State, and of 
 many in a foreign country. What is thus, from experience and the 
 reason of things, shown to be true in regard to a short preparation, 
 will be still more strikingly so of a longer one. 
 
 To him, who shall make teaching the occupation of his life, the 
 advantages of a Teachers' Seminary cannot easily be estimated. They 
 can be faintly imagined by him only, who, lawyer, mechanic, or physi- 
 cian, can figure to himself what would have been his feelings, had 
 he, on the first day of his apprenticeship, been called to perform, at 
 once, the duties of his future profession, and, after being left to suffer 
 for a time the agony of despair at the impossibility, had been told that 
 two, three, seven years should be allowed him to prepare himself, 
 with all the helps and appliances which are now so bountifully furn- 
 ished to him, which are furnished to every one except the teacher. 
 
 We have no doubt that teachers, prepared at such a seminary, 
 would be in such request as to command, at once, higher pay than 
 is now given, since it would unquestionably be found good economy 
 to employ them. 
 
 It raises no objection, in the minds of your memorialists, to the plan 
 of a seminary at the State's expense, that many of the instructors 
 there prepared would teach for only a portion of the year. It is on 
 that very ground that they ought to be aided. For their daily callings 
 they will take care to qualify themselves; they cannot, unaided, be 
 expected to do the same in regard to the office of teacher, because it is 
 a casual and temporary one; it is one which they will exercise, in the 
 intervals of their stated business, for the good of their fellow-citizens. 
 They ought, for that especial reason, to be assisted in preparing for it. 
 The gain will be theirs, it is true; but it will be still more the gain of 
 the community. It will be theirs, inasmuch as they will be able to 
 command better salaries; but it will be only in consideration of the 
 more valuable services they will render. The gain will be shared by 
 other schools than those they teach. Seeing what can be done by good 
 teachers, districts and committees will no longer rest satisfied with 
 poor, and the standard will every where rise. 
 
 If it were only as enabling teachers throughout the State to teach, 
 as they should, the branches now required to be taught, the seminaries 
 would be worth more than their establishment can cost. But they 
 would do much more. They would render the instruction given more 
 worthy, in kind and degree, the enlightened citizens of a free State. 
 
 Without going too minutely into this part of the subject, we cannot 
 fully show how the course of instruction might, in our judgment, be 
 enlarged. We may be allowed to indicate a few particulars. 
 
 The study of geometry, that benignant nurse of inventive genius, is 
 at present pursued partially, in a few of the town schools. We may 
 safely assert that, under efficient teachers, the time now given to 
 arithmetic would be amply sufficient, not only for that, but for geom- 
 etry, and its most important applications in surveying and other useful 
 arts. To a population so full of mechanical talent as ours, this is a 
 lamentable omission. 
 
 We may also point to the case of drawing in right lines. It might, 
 with a saving of time, be ingrafted on writing, if the instructors were 
 qualified to teach it. This beautiful art, so valuable as a guide to the 
 hand and eye of every one, especially of every handcraftsman, and 
 deemed almost an essential in every school in France, and other coun-
 
 110 MEMORIAL OF NORMAL SCHOOLS 1837. 
 
 tries of Europe, is, so far as we can learn from the Secretary's excel- 
 lent report, entirely neglected in every public school in Massachusetts. 
 
 We might make similar observations in regard to book-keeping, now 
 beginning to be introduced; natural philosophy, physiology, natural 
 history, and other studies, which might come in, not to the exclusion, 
 but to the manifest improvement, of the studies already pursued. 
 
 When we consider the many weeks in our long northern winters, 
 during which, all through our borders, the arts of the husbandman and 
 builder seem, like the processes of the vegetable world, to hold holiday, 
 and the sound of many a trowel and many an ax and hammer ceases 
 to be heard, and the hours, without, any interruption of the busy labors 
 of the year, might be given to learning by the youth of both sexes, 
 almost up to the age of maturity, these omissions, the unemployed in- 
 tellect, the golden days of early manhood, lost acquisitions that 
 might be made and are not, assume a vastness of importance which 
 may well alarm us. 
 
 It may possibly be apprehended, that should superior teachers be 
 prepared in the seminaries of Massachusetts, they would be invited to 
 other States by higher salaries, and the advantage of their education 
 be thus lost to the State. We know not that it ought to be considered 
 an undesirable thing that natives of Massachusetts, who will certainly 
 go, from time to time, to regions more favored by nature, should go 
 with such characters and endowments as to render their chosen homes 
 more worthy to be the residence of intelligent men. But we apprehend 
 it to be an event much more likely to happen, that the successful ex- 
 ample of Massachusetts should be imitated by her sister republics, 
 emulous, as New York already shows herself, of surpassing us in what 
 has hitherto been the chief glory of New England, a jealous care of 
 the public schools. 
 
 For the elevation of the public schools to the high rank which they 
 ought to hold in a community, whose most precious patrimony is their 
 liberty, and the intelligence, knowledge and virtue on which alone it 
 can rest, we urge our prayer. We speak boldly, for we seek no private 
 end. We speak in the name and behalf of those who cannot appear 
 before you to urge their own suit, the sons and daughters of the pres- 
 ent race, and of all, of every race and class of coming generations in 
 all future times. 
 
 For the directors of the American Institute of Instruction. 
 
 George B. Emerson; S. R. Hall; W. J. Adams; D. Kimball; E. A. 
 Andrews; B. Greenleaf; N. Cleveland, Committee. 
 
 The above Memorial was prepared in pursuance of the 
 following votes of the Institute. 
 
 At the Annual Meeting, in Boston, in August, 1836, the 
 subject of the Professional Education of Teachers was ably 
 discussed, and the following resolutions, offered by Mr. 
 Frederic Emerson, of Boston, were adopted : 
 
 "Resolved, "That the business of teaching should be performed by 
 those who have studied the subject of instruction as a profession. 
 Therefore, 
 
 Resolved, That there ought to be at least one seminary in each state, 
 devoted exclusively to the education of teachers; and that this sem- 
 inary should be authorized to confer appropriate degrees."
 
 MEMORIAL OF NORMAL SCHOOLS 1837. Ill 
 
 At a later period of the session, Mr. Morton, of Plymouth, 
 proposed another resolution for the purpose of securing 
 some action : 
 
 Resolved, "That a committee be appointed to obtain funds by solicit- 
 ing our State Legislature tbe next session, and by inviting individual 
 donations for the purchase of land and the erection of the necessary 
 buildings, and to put in operation a seminary to qualify teachers of 
 youth for the most important occupation of mankind on the earth." 
 
 After a long and ardent debate, the following was offered 
 as an amendment, by Mr. F. Emerson, and was adopted : 
 
 Ordered, "That the Board of Directors be instructed to memorialize 
 the Legislature on the subject of establishing a seminary for the ''ed- 
 ucation of teachers." 
 
 A memorial was accordingly prepared by Mr. George B. 
 Emerson, in behalf of a committee of the Directors, and 
 submitted to the Legislature in January, 1837, by whose or- 
 der it was printed and circulated with the other documents 
 of the session. This paper is the ablest argument in behalf 
 of a Normal School which had appeared up to that date ; and 
 will not suffer in comparison with any which the discussion 
 of the subject has at any time called forth. It however did 
 not lead to any legislative action during that session, but 
 undoubtedly prepared the way. In the mean time, the Leg- 
 islature, on the recommendation of the Governor, and of the 
 Committee of Education, of which James G. Carter was 
 chairman, and of a Memorial by the Directors of the Insti- 
 tute in 1836, which was drawn up by Mr. George B. Emer- 
 son, passed an Act instituting the Board of Education. 
 
 By the action of this Board, and the labors of its Secre- 
 tary, and the well-timed liberality of Edmund Dwight, in 
 1838, the idea of a Normal School, so long advocated by the 
 friends of school improvement, became a recognized fact in 
 the legislation of Massachusetts. Previous to any action on 
 the part of the Legislature, an experiment had been com- 
 menced as a private enterprise at Andover, in connection 
 with one of the best conducted academies of the state.
 
 TEACHERS' SEMINARY 
 
 AT 
 
 ANDOVER, MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 "The Teachers' Seminary at Andover was established in September, 
 1830, as a department of Phillips' Academy, one of the oldest literary 
 institutions in New England. Its object, as set forth in a circular is- 
 sued by the Trustees, was 'to afford the means of a thorough scientific 
 and practical education, preparatory to the profession of teaching, and 
 to the various departments of business.' 
 
 Though nominally a department of Phillips' Academy, it was from 
 the first a separate institution, having its organization entirely distinct 
 from that of the classical department. 
 
 The Trustees erected for the seminary a commodious and substantial 
 school-edifice, and expended between two and three thousand dollars 
 in the purchase of apparatus for illustrating the different branches of 
 science. Liberal appropriations were made from time to time for the 
 purpose of diminishing the expenses of the students. The institution 
 was provided with a convenient boarding-house, and rooms for the ac- 
 commodation of nearly a hundred pupils. 
 
 The seminary embraced a teachers' department, a general depart- 
 ment, and a preparatory department or model school. The course of 
 instruction in the teachers' department occupied a period of three 
 years, and embraced most of the English branches pursued in our 
 colleges, together with lectures and discussions on the theory and 
 practice of teaching, and other kindred exercises. The course of in- 
 struction in the general department was shorter and more irregular. 
 The members of this department were allowed to join any of the 
 classes in the teachers' department, which they were prepared to 
 enter. 
 
 In addition to the ordinary exercises of the general department, the 
 study of civil engineering was introduced during the early history of 
 the institution, and successfully prosecuted for several years, under 
 the direction of the Rev. F. A. Barton. At a later period, special atten- 
 tion was given to the study of scientific and practical agriculture, un- 
 der the instruction of the Rev. Alonzo Gray. 
 
 The preparatory department was an English school for boys, usually 
 taugh by a separate instructor, under the general superintendence of 
 the Principal. Members of the teachers' classes were sometimes em- 
 ployed to conduct recitations in the preparatory department, but this 
 department could not, at any time, be regarded as a school for practice. 
 
 The first Principal of the seminary was the Rev. S. R. Hall, who 
 continued in office nearly seven years. In July, 1837, he was succeeded 
 by the Rev. Lyman Coleman, who remained at the head of the institu- 
 tion till Nov. 1842, when the original object of the Trustees was aban- 
 donefl, or the Teachers' Seminary was merged in Phillips' Academy. 
 
 The number of students in the teachers' classes was somewhat 
 larger during the first six years than during the last six. The average 
 number for the whole period was about fifty. The whole number of 
 students that completed the prescribed course of study, during the 
 
 H
 
 114 TEACHERS' SEMINARY AT ANDOVER, MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 existence of the seminary, was a little less than one hundred. 
 
 The immediate cause for uniting the Teachers' Seminary with the 
 classical department of Phillips' Academy, in 1842, was the want of 
 funds to sustain it as a separate institution. The limited number of 
 students in the teachers' classes resulted in part from the same cause. 
 In the classical department, the tuition of indigent students was remit- 
 ted; but no such provision was made for the members of the teachers' 
 classes. 
 
 The name of Samuel Farrar, Esq., of Andover, is identified with the 
 history of this institution. If his generous and untiring efforts in its 
 behalf had been seconded by those who had the means of giving it a 
 liberal endowment, its usefulness would not have been brought to so 
 abrupt a termination."
 
 REMARKS 
 
 OF 
 
 DR. WILLIAM E. CHANNING ON EDUCATION AND TEACHERS. 
 
 In 1833, Dr. Charming brought the aid of his personal in- 
 fluence and powerful pen, to the service of the teacher. In 
 an article in the Christian Examiner, for November, 1833, 
 written for the express purpose of commending the Annals 
 of Education, and the great subject to which it was devoted, 
 under the editorial charge of William C. Woodbridge, to the 
 attention of the best class of minds in the community, the 
 following views are presented as to the importance of in- 
 stitutions for the education of teachers, and the true nature 
 and dignity of the office : 
 
 "We are not aware that in this country a single school for teachers 
 is supported at the public expense. How much would be gained, if 
 every state should send one of its most distinguished citizens to ex- 
 amine the modes of teaching at home and in Europe, and should then 
 place him at the head of a seminary for the formation of teachers." 
 ****** 
 
 "There is no office higher than that of a teacher of youth; for there 
 is nothing on earth so precious as the mind, soul, character of the 
 child. No office should be regarded with greater respect. The first 
 minds in the community should be encouraged to assume it. Parents 
 should do all but impoverish themselves, to induce such to become the 
 guardians and guides of their children. To this good, all their show 
 and luxury should be sacrificed. Here they should be lavish, whilst 
 they straiten themselves in every thing else. They should wear the 
 cheapest clothes, live on the plainest food, if they can in no other way 
 secure to their families the best instruction. They should have no 
 anxiety to accumulate property for their children, provided they can 
 place them under influences which will awaken their faculties, inspire 
 them with pure and high principles, and fit them to bear a manly, 
 useful, and honorable part in the world. No language can express the 
 cruelty or folly of that economy, which, to leave a fortune to a child, 
 starves his intellect, impoverishes his heart." 
 
 "We know not how society can be aided more than by the formation 
 of a body of wise and efficient educators. We know not any class 
 which would contribute so much to the stability of the state, and to 
 domestic happiness. Much as we respect the ministry of the gospel, 
 we believe it must yield in importance to the office of training the 
 young. In truth, the ministry now accomplishes little, for want of that 
 early intellectual and moral discipline, by which alone a community 
 can be prepared to distinguish truth from falsehood, to comprehend 
 the instructions of the pulpivt, to receive higher and broader views of 
 duty, and to apply general principles to the diversified details of life. 
 A body of cultivated men, devoted, with their whole hearts, to the 
 improvement of education, and to the most effectual training of the 
 young, would work a fundamental revolution in society. They would 
 leaven the community with just principles."
 
 116 DR. CHANNING ON EDUCATION AND TEACHERS. 
 
 "We maintain that higher ability is required for the office of an 
 educator of the young, than for that of a statesman. The highest abil- 
 ity is that which penetrates farthest into human nature, comprehends 
 the mind in all its capacities, traces out the laws of thought and moral 
 action, understands the perfection of human nature, and how it may 
 be approached, understands the springs, motives, applications, by 
 which the child is to be roused to the most vigorous and harmonious 
 action of all its faculties, understands its perils, and knows how to 
 blend and modify the influences which outward circumstances exert 
 on the youthful mind. The speculations of statesmen are shallow, 
 compared with these. It is the chief function of the statesman to 
 watch over the outward interests of a people; that of the educator to 
 quicken its soul. The statesman must study and manage the passions 
 and prejudices of the community; the educator must study the essen- 
 tial, the deepest, the loftiest principles of human nature. The states- 
 man works with coarse instruments for coarse ends; the educator is 
 to work by the most refined influences on that delicate, ethereal es- 
 sence the immortal soul." 
 
 "One great cause of the low estimation in which the teacher is now 
 held, may be found in narrow views of education. The multitude think, 
 that to educate a child, is to crowd into its mind a given amount of 
 knowledge to teach the mechanism of reading and writing to load 
 the memory with words to prepare a boy for the routine of a trade. 
 No wonder, then, that they think almost every body fit to teach. The 
 true end of education, is to unfold and direct aright our whole nature. 
 Its office is to call forth power of every kind power of thought, af- 
 fection, will, and outward action; power to observe, to reason, to judge, 
 to contrive; power to adopt good ends firmly, and to pursue them effic- 
 iently; power to govern ourselves, and to influence others; power to gain 
 and to spread happiness. Reading is but an instrument; education is to 
 teach its best use. The intellect was created, not to receive passively 
 a few words, dates, facts, but to be active for the acquisition of truth. 
 Accordingly, education should labor to inspire a profound love of truth, 
 and to teach the processes of investigation. A sound logic, by which 
 we mean the science or art which instructs us in the laws of reasoning 
 and evidence, in the true methods of inquiry, and in the sources of 
 false judgments, is an essential part of a good education. And yet, how 
 little is done to teach the right use of the intellect, in the common 
 modes of training either rich or poor. As a general rule, the young are 
 to be made, as far as possible, their own teachers the discoverers of 
 truth the interpreters of nature the framers of science. They are 
 to be helped to help themselves. They should be taught to observe and 
 study the world in which they live, to trace the connections of events, 
 to rise from particular facts to general principles, and then to apply 
 these in explaining new phenomena. Such is a rapid outline of the 
 intellectual education, which, as far as possible, should be given to all 
 human beings; and with this, moral education should go hand in hand. 
 In proportion as the child gains knowledge, he should be taught how 
 to use it well how to turn it to the good of mankind. He should study 
 the world as God's world, and as the sphere in which he is to form 
 interesting connections with his fellow-creatures. A spirit of humanity 
 should be breathed into him from all his studies. In teaching geog- 
 raphy, the physical and moral condition, the wants, advantages, and 
 striking peculiarities of different nations, and the relations of climate, 
 seas, rivers, mountains, to their characters and pursuits, should be 
 pointed out, so as to awaken an interest in man wherever he dwells. 
 History should be constantly used to exercise the moral judgment of
 
 DR. CHANGING ON EDUCATION AND TEACHERS. 117 
 
 the young, to call forth sympathy with the fortunes of the human race, 
 and to expose to indignation and abhorrence that selfish ambition, that 
 passion for dominion, which has so long deluged the earth with blood 
 and woe. And not only should the excitement of just moral feeling be 
 proposed in every study. The science of morals should form an im- 
 portant part of every child's instruction. One branch of ethics should 
 be particularly insisted on by the government. Every school, estab- 
 lished by law, should be specially bound to teach the duties of the 
 citizen to the state, to unfold the principles of free institutions, and to 
 train the young to an enlightened patriotism. From these brief and 
 imperfect views of the nature and ends of a wise education, we learn 
 the dignity of the profession to which it is entrusted, and the import- 
 ance of securing to it the best minds of the community." 
 
 "We have said that it is the office of the teacher to call into vigor- 
 ous action the mind of the child. He must do more. He must strive to 
 create a thirst, an insatiable craving for knowledge, to give animation 
 to study and make it a pleasure, and thus to communicate an impulse 
 which will endure when the instructions of the school are closed. The 
 mark of a good teacher is, not only that he produces great effort in 
 his pupils, but that he dismisses them from his care, conscious of hav- 
 ing only laid the foundation of knowledge, and anxious and resolved 
 to improve themselves. One of the sure signs of the low state of in- 
 struction among us is, that the young, on leaving school, feel as if the 
 work of intellectual culture were done, and give up steady, vigorous 
 effort for higher truth and wider knowledge. Our daughters at sixteen, 
 and our sons at eighteen or twenty, have finished their education. The 
 true use of a school is. to enable and dispose the pupil to learn through 
 life; and if so, who does not see that the office of teacher requires 
 men of enlarged and liberal minds, and of winning manners in other 
 words, that it re.quires as cultivated men as can be found in society. 
 If to drive and to drill were the chief duties of an instructor if to 
 force into the mind an amount of lifeless knowledge to make the 
 child a machine to create a repugnance to books, to mental labor, to 
 the acquisition of knowledge were the great objects of the school- 
 room, then the teacher might be chosen on the principles which now 
 govern the school-committees in no small part of our country. Then 
 the man who can read, write, cypher, and whip, and will exercise his 
 gifts at the lowest price, deserves the precedence which he now too 
 often enjoys. But if the human being be something more than a block 
 or a brute if he have powers which proclaim him a child of God, and 
 which were given for noble action and perpetual progress, then a 
 better order of things should begin among us, and truly enlightened 
 men should be summoned to the work of education." 
 
 In an address delivered at the Odeon, in Boston, on the 
 28th of Feb., 1837, he thus advocates the establishment of 
 an institution for the professional training of teachers : 
 
 "We need an institution for the formation of better teachers; and, 
 until this step is taken, we can make no important progress. The most 
 crying want in this commonwealth is the want of accomplished teach- 
 ers. We boast of our schools; but our schools do comparatively little, 
 for want of educated instructors. Without good teaching, a school is 
 but a name. An institution for training men to train the young, would 
 be a fountain of living waters, sending forth streams to refresh present 
 and future ages. As yet, our legislators have denied to the poor and 
 laboring classes this principal means of their elevation. We trust they 
 will not always prove blind to the highest interest of the state.
 
 118 DB. CHANNING ON EDUCATION AND TEACHERS. 
 
 We want better teachers, and more teachers, for all classes of so- 
 ciety for rich and poor, for children and adults. We want that the 
 resources of the community should be directed to the procuring of 
 better instructors, as its highest concern. One of the surest signs of 
 the regeneration of society will be, the elevation of the art of teaching 
 to the highest rank in the community. When a people shall learn that 
 its greatest benefactors and most important members, are men devoted 
 to the liberal instruction of all its classes to the work of raising to 
 life its buried intellect, it will have opened to itself the path of true 
 glory. This truth is making its way. Socrates is now regarded as the 
 greatest man in an age of great men. The name of king has grown 
 dim before that of apostle. To teach, whether by word or action, is the 
 highest function on earth. 
 
 Nothing is more needed, than that men of superior gifts, and of 
 benevolent spirit, should devote themselves to the instruction of the 
 less enlightened classes in the great end of life in the dignity of their 
 nature in their rights and duties in the history, laws, and institu- 
 tions of their country in the philosophy of their employments in the 
 laws, harmonies, and productions of outward nature, and, especially, 
 in the art of bringing up children in health of body, and in vigor and 
 purity of mind. We need a new profession or vocation, the object of 
 which shall be to wake up the intellect in those spheres where it is 
 now buried in habitual slumber. 
 
 We want a class of liberal-minded instructors, whose vocation it 
 shall be, to place the views of the most enlightened minds within the 
 reach of a more and more extensive portion of their fellow-creatures. 
 The wealth of a community should flow out like water for the prepar- 
 ation and employment of such teachers for enlisting powerful and 
 generous minds in the work of giving impulse to their race. 
 
 Nor let it be said that men, able and disposed to carry on this work, 
 must not be looked for in such a world as ours. Christianity, which 
 has wrought so many miracles of beneficence which has sent forth 
 so many apostles and martyrs so many Howards and Clarksons, can 
 raise up laborers for this harvest also. Nothing is needed but a new 
 pouring out of the spirit of Christian love nothing but a new compre- 
 hension of the brotherhood of the human race, to call forth efforts 
 which seem impossibilities in a self-seeking and self-indulging age." 
 
 From the outset, Dr. Charming exhibited great interest 
 in the establishment of the Board of Education, and the per- 
 manent organization of the Normal Schools. In a letter ad- 
 dressed to Mr. Mann, in August, 1837, congratulating him 
 and the commonwealth on his acceptance of the office of 
 Secretary of the Board, he says : 
 
 "You could not find a nobler station. Government has no nobler one 
 to give. You must allow me to labor under you according to my op- 
 portunities. If at any time I can aid you, you must let me know, and 
 I shall be glad to converse with you always about your operations. 
 When will the low, degrading party quarrels of the country cease, and 
 the better minds come to think what can be done toward a substantial, 
 generous improvement of the community? 'My ear is pained, my very 
 soul is sick,' with the monotonous, yet furious clamors about currency, 
 banks, &c., when the spiritual interests of the community seem hardly 
 to be recognized as having any reality. 
 
 If we can but turn the wonderful energy of this people into a right 
 channel, what a new heaven and earth must be realized among us!
 
 DR. CHANNING ON EDUCATION AND TEACHERS. 119 
 
 And I do not despair. Your willingness to consecrate yourself to this 
 work, is a happy omen. You do not stand alone, or form a rare excep- 
 tion to the times. There must be many to be touched by the same 
 truths which are stirring you." 
 
 A few months afterward, he attended, at Taunton, one of 
 the series of county conventions, which Mr. Mann held, in 
 pursuance of the plan of the Board, to attract attention to 
 the improvement of common schools, and took part in the 
 proceedings by submitting and advocating a resolution 
 affirming the immediate and pressing necessity of public 
 and legislative action in behalf of common education. We 
 make a few extracts from a newspaper report : 
 
 "We are told that this or that man should have an extensive edu- 
 cation; but, that another, who occupies a lower place in society, needs 
 only a narrow one: that the governor of a state requires a thorough 
 education, while the humble mechanic has need only to study his last 
 and his leather. But why should not the latter, though pursuing an 
 humble occupation, be permitted to open his eyes on the lights of 
 knowledge? Has he not a soul of as great capacity as the former? Is 
 he not sustaining the same relations as a parent, a citizen, a neighbor, 
 and as a subject of God's moral government? To educate a child is, in 
 fact, a greater work than to perform the duties of a governor. What 
 is it? It is to take the direction of mind, to cultivate the powers of 
 thought, and to teach the duties which we owe to God and to our 
 neighbor. Can a parent teach his child these duties, unless he has 
 learned them himself? Every one, no matter what is his occupation 
 or place, needs an education, in order that he may have the proper use 
 of his powers, and be enabled to improve them through life. 
 
 Some say, were these views of education to prevail, there would be 
 little or no work done manual labor would fail. But for the purpose 
 of working effectually, one should be intelligent; he will bring the 
 more to pass, because he labors for some known object, and is stimu- 
 lated by motives which he understands and feels. 
 
 We want worthy laborers, who exalt themselves while they benefit 
 others. The circumstances in which they are placed, are fitted to call 
 forth their mental powers, to awaken thought, and to impress them 
 with their responsibilities. They are brought into intimate connection 
 with their fellow-men, and, if qualified by education, may exert over 
 them, even in the humble walks of life, a most salutary influence. 
 
 He, said, that, on the same principle that he would educate one, he 
 would educate all. The poor man, as to his natural capacity, does not 
 differ from others. He is equally susceptible of improvement, and 
 would receive as great advantages as others from a well-bestowed ed- 
 ucation. 
 
 Other views, he said, made him desire that education might be dif- 
 fused among all classes. Our institutions demand this general diffus- 
 ion. They are for the common mass of the people; and unless the peo- 
 ple are educated, they both lose the benefit of these institutions and 
 weaken their power. Liberty requires that every citizen, in order to its 
 proper enjoyment, should have the means of elevation. 
 
 Again, all participate in the sovereignty of the country. Men, in oth- 
 er countries, have been fighting to be sovereigns. Here every man is 
 one. Every citizen participates in legislating for the commonwealth, 
 and in administering the government. Ought not every man who has
 
 120 DR. CHANNING ON EDUCATION AND TEACHERS. 
 
 such duties devolving on him, to receive as liberal a training as pos- 
 sible? 
 
 For the sake of union, this should be done; especially in our coun- 
 try, where there are no titled orders born to higher privileges than 
 others. In other countries, the class in power have the principal means 
 of knowledge, and, in order to keep the civil power in their hands, 
 their object is to withhold from others the means of mental improve- 
 ment. But, according to the genius of our government, education must 
 bring all conditions and all classes together. 
 
 He said, in proportion as men are educated, they are more on an 
 equality as to property. They communicate together maintain a more 
 agreeable intercourse live in more harmony, and in greater love. Bar- 
 riers are broken down; and society, by its general culture, is raised to 
 a higher state of refinement and happiness. 
 
 He rejoiced that we had colleges liberally endowed; and he would not 
 divert from them one stream of bounty. But he thought more of the 
 mass than of the few; and wanted men educated for the community 
 at large, and not for themselves alone. He rejoiced that we had acad- 
 emies, and that they were rising in importance; but he felt a deeper 
 interest in the common schools. He desired the education of all the cit- 
 izens, not as a politician, or as one seeking public favor; he was a can- 
 didate for no office; but he desired it as a man a friend to his race. 
 
 He affirmed that the common schools have not kept pace with our 
 wealth; that it is more essential to the prosperity of a school that it 
 have a good teacher, than it is to the prosperity of a nation that it 
 have wise and able rulers. We have, in many of our schools, teachers 
 who do honor to the name: many, he regretted to say, were untaught 
 and incompetent. They were not so much to blame, because they were 
 not furnished with those means for qualifying themselves, which every 
 other profession provides for those who would enter it. He most deeply 
 regretted that our Legislature had not appropriated their surplus funds 
 last winter, in establishing an institution for teachers. How much more 
 good those large funds would have done! He hoped no more would 
 come into their hands to be disposed of as these had been. 
 
 He could speak from experience. He was, for some time, in early 
 life, a teacher, and he ever felt pain in remembering his deficiencies. 
 Though he had no reason to suppose he was then behind others in the 
 same employment, yet the remembrance of his lack of skill in dis- 
 cipline, and ignorance of the modes of access to the youthful mind, 
 ever gave him deep regret. He had not, while filling the responsible 
 station of teacher, learned how to make education a pleasure to a 
 child. 
 
 But an institution for teachers is not all. There must be funds 
 raised to pay them for their laborious services. How strange that 
 the man who has the care of our children, should be thought to hold 
 so low a place! But it must be seen and felt that his services are of 
 vital importance, and deserve a generous recompense. In Prussia, 
 where education has made great progress, teachers are obtained eas- 
 ily, and at a moderate expense, because other lucrative occupations 
 are not open to them. In this country other occupations afford higher 
 wages, and, therefore, that of a teacher has not risen to the honor 
 of a profession. No good teacher can be obtained without ample com- 
 pensation. Boston, though recently disgraced by its mobs, is doing 
 much in compensating its teachers is giving as great a salary to one 
 of its teachers as to its mayor. 
 
 How is Massachusetts, he asked, to sustain its high character and 
 rank? Look on the map, and you perceive how diminutive it is in 
 size, compared with many of the other states. What is to prevent
 
 DB. CHANNING ON EDUCATION AND TEACHERS. 121 
 
 this little state from falling behind others which have greater natural 
 advantages, and losing its influence? Nothing but cultivating the 
 minds of its citizens cultivating them in learning and virtue. On 
 this foundation its eminence and greatness will stand firm." 
 
 In a discourse on self-culture, delivered in Boston, in 
 1838, in the course of Franklin Lectures, which were at- 
 tended mainly by those who were occupied by manual labor, 
 Dr. Channing holds the following language : 
 
 "They, whose childhood has been neglected, though they may make 
 progress in future life, can hardly repair the loss of their first years; 
 and I say this, that we may all be excited to save our children from 
 this loss that we may prepare them, to the extent of our power, for 
 an effectual use of all the means of self-culture, which adult age may 
 bring with it. With these views, I ask you to look with favor on the 
 recent exertions of our Legislature, and of private citizens, in behalf 
 of our public schools, the chief hope of our country. The Legislature 
 has, of late, appointed a board of education, with a secretary, who 
 is to devote his whole time to the improvement of public schools. An 
 individual more fitted to this office than the gentleman who now 
 fills it, (Horace Mann, Esq.,) can not, I believe, be found in our 
 community; and if his labors shall be crowned with success, he will 
 earn a title to the gratitude of the good people of this state, unsur- 
 passed by that of any other living citizen. Let me also recall to your 
 minds a munificent individual, (Edmund Dwight, Esq.,) who, by a gen- 
 erous donation, has encouraged the Legislature to resolve on the 
 establishment of one or more institutions called Normal Schools, the 
 object of which is, to prepare accomplished teachers of youth a work, 
 on which the progress of education depends more than on any other 
 measure. The efficient friends of education are the true benefactors 
 of their country, and their names deserve to be handed down to that 
 posterity for whose highest wants they are so generously providing. 
 * * * We need for our schools gifted men and women, worthy, by 
 their intelligence and their moral power, to be intrusted with a na- 
 tion's youth; and, to gain these, we must pay them liberally, as well 
 as afford other proofs of the consideration in which we hold them. In 
 the present state of the country, when so many paths of wealth and 
 promotion are opened, superior men can not be won to an office so 
 responsible and laborious as that of teaching, without stronger induce- 
 ments than are now offered, except in some of our large cities. The 
 office of instructor ought to rank, and be recompensed, as one of the 
 most honorable in society; and I see not how this is to be done, at 
 least in our day, without appropriating to it the public domain. This 
 is the people's property, and the only part of their property which is 
 likely to be soon devoted to the support of a high order of institutions 
 for public education. This object, interesting to all classes of society, 
 has peculiar claims on those whose means of improvement are re- 
 stricted by narrow circumstances. The mass of the people should 
 devote themselves to it as one man should toil for it with one soul. 
 Mechanics, farmers, laborers! let the country echo with your united 
 cry, 'The public lands for education.' Send to the public council men 
 who will plead this cause with power. No party triumphs, no trades- 
 unions, no associations, can so contribute to elevate you as the meas- 
 ure now proposed. Nothing but a higher education can raise you in 
 influence and true dignity. The resources of the public domain, wisely 
 applied for successive generations to the culture of society and of 
 the individual, would create a new people would awaken through 
 this community intellectual and moral energies, such as the record of 
 no country display, and as would command the respect and emulation
 
 122 DR. CHANNING ON EDUCATION AND TEACHERS. 
 
 of the civilized world. In this grand object, the working-men of all 
 parties, and in all divisions of the land, should join with an enthusiasm 
 not to be withstood. They should separate it from all narrow and 
 local strifes. They should not suffer it to be mixed up with the 
 schemes of politicians. In it, they and their children have an infin- 
 ite stake. May they be true to themselves, to posterity, to their coun- 
 try, to freedom, to the cause of mankind." 
 
 In a letter written in 1841, in reply to a communication 
 respecting the Normal School at Lexington, he refers to his 
 own experience as a teacher, and to the attempt in the Leg- 
 islature to break down the Normal Schools : 
 
 "I have felt, as you well know, a deep interest in their success, (Nor- 
 mal Schools,) though, perhaps, you do not know all the reasons of it. 
 I began life as a teacher, and my own experience has made me feel 
 the importance of training the teacher for his work. I was not more 
 deficient than most young men who pass through college. Perhaps 
 I may say, without presumption, that I was better fitted than most 
 to take charge of a school; and yet I look back on no part of my life 
 with so much pain as on that which I gave to school-keeping. The 
 interval of forty years has not relieved me from the sorrow and self- 
 reproach which the recollection of it calls forth. How little did I do 
 for the youthful, tender minds intrusted to me! I was not only a poor 
 teacher, but, what was worse, my inexperience in the art of whole- 
 some discipline led to the infliction of useless and hurtful punish- 
 ments. I was cruel through ignorance; and this is the main source 
 of cruelty in schools. Force, brute force, is called in to supply the 
 place of wisdom. I feel myself bound to make this confession as 
 some expiation for my errors. I know the need of a Normal School. 
 I speak not from speculation, but sad experience. 
 
 But, indeed, does it not stand to reason, that where all other voca- 
 tions need apprenticeship, the highest of all vocations that of awak- 
 ening, guiding, enlightening the human soul must require serious 
 preparation? That attempts should have been made in the Legislature 
 to break down our Normal Schools, and almost with success is one of 
 the most discouraging symptoms of our times. It shows that the 
 people will not give their thoughts to the dearest interest of society; 
 for any serious thought would have led them to frown down such ef- 
 forts in a moment. I rejoice that the friends of education are begin- 
 ning to visit the Normal School at Lexington. I earnestly implore for 
 it the blessing of Heaven."
 
 NORMAL SCHOOLS 
 
 AND TEACHERS' SEMINARIES. 
 
 BY 
 CALVIN E. STOWE, D. D. 
 
 The following remarks were originally prepared and de- 
 livered as an Address before the College of Professional 
 Teachers in Cincinnati and Columbus, Ohio. They were first 
 published in the American Biblical Repository for July, 
 1839, and in the same year republished in Boston by Marsh, 
 Capen, Lyon and Webb, in a little volume, with the author's 
 "Report on Elementary Public Instruction in Europe, which 
 was made to the General Assembly of Ohio, in December, 
 1837." 
 
 "Ich versprach Gott : Ich will jedes preussische Bauerkind fur ein Wesen ansehen, 
 das mich bei Gott verklagen kann, wenn ich ihm nicht die beste Menschen-und-Chris- 
 ten-Bildung schaffe, die ich ihm zu schaffen vermag." 
 
 "I promised God, that I would look upon every Prussian peasant child aa a being 
 who could complain of me before God, if I did not provide for him the best educa- 
 tion, as a man and a Christian, which it was possible for me to provide." Dinter 1 * 
 Letter to Baron Von Altenstein. 
 
 When the benevolent Franke turned his attention to the subject of 
 popular education in the city of Hamburgh, late in the seventeenth 
 century, he soon found that children could not be well taught with- 
 out good teachers, and that but few good teachers could be found un- 
 less they were regularly trained for the profession. Impressed with 
 this conviction, he bent all his energies toward the establishment of 
 a teachers' Seminary, in which he finally succeeded, at Halle, in 
 Prussia, about the year 1704;* and from this first institution of the 
 kind in Europe, well qualified teachers were soon spread over all the 
 north of Germany, who prepared the way for that great revolution in 
 public instruction, which has since been so happily accomplished 
 under the auspices of Frederick William III. and his praiseworthy co- 
 adjutors. Every enlightened man, who, since the time of Franke, has 
 in earnest turned his attention to the same subject, has been brought 
 to the same result; and the recent movements in France, in Scotland; 
 in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Ohio, and other States in 
 the American Union, all attest the very great difficulty, if not entire 
 impossibility, of carrying out an efficient system of public instruction 
 without seminaries expressly designed for the preparation of teachers. 
 
 Having devoted some attention to this subject, and having spent 
 considerable time in examining institutions of the kind already estab- 
 lished in Europe, I propose in this paper to exhibit the result of my 
 investigations. In exhibiting this result, I have thought proper to 
 draw out, somewhat in detail, what I suppose would be the best plan, 
 on the whole, without expecting that all parts of the plan, in the pres- 
 ent state of education in our country, will be carried into immediate 
 execution. I propose what I think ought to be aimed at, and what, 
 I doubt not, will ultimately be attained, if the spirit which is now 
 awake on the subject be not suffered again to sleep. 
 
 *See page 241.
 
 124 STOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 The sum of what I propose is contained in the six following propos- 
 itions, namely: 
 
 I. The interests of popular education in each State demand the es- 
 tablishment, at the seat of government, and under the patronage of 
 the legislature, of a NORMAL SCHOOL,! that is, a Teachers' Seminary 
 and Model-school, for the instruction and practice of teachers in the 
 science of education and the art of teaching. 
 
 II. Pupils should not be received into the Teachers' Seminary under 
 sixteen years of age, nor until they are well versed in all the branches 
 usually taught in common schools. 
 
 III. The model-school should comprise the various classes of chil- 
 dren usually admitted to the common schools, and should be subject 
 to the same general discipline and cc-urse of study. 
 
 IV. The course of instruction in the Teachers' Seminary should in- 
 clude three years, and the pupils be divided into three classes, accord- 
 ingly. 
 
 V. The senior classes in the Teachers' Seminary should be em- 
 ployed, under the immediate instruction of their professors, as in- 
 structors in the model-school. 
 
 VI. The course of instruction in the Teachers' Seminary should 
 comprise lectures and recitations on the following topics, together 
 with such others as further observation and experience may show to 
 be necessary: 
 
 1. A thorough, scientific, and demonstrative study of all the branch- 
 es to be taught in the common schools, with directions at every step 
 as to the best method of inculcating each lesson upon children of dif- 
 ferent dispositions and capacities, and various intellectual habits. 
 
 2. The philosophy of mind, particularly in reference to its suscep- 
 tibility of receiving impressions from mind. 
 
 3. The peculiarities of intellectual and moral development in chil- 
 dren, as modified by sex, parental character, wealth or poverty, city 
 or country, family government, indulgent or severe, fickle or steady, 
 &c., &c. 
 
 4. The science of education in general, and full illustrations of the 
 difference between education and mere instruction. 
 
 5. The art of teaching. 
 
 6. The art of governing children, with special reference to impart- 
 ing and keeping alive a feeling of love for children. 
 
 7. History of education, including an accurate outline of the educa- 
 tional systems of different ages and nations, the circumstances which 
 gave rise to them, the principles on which they were founded, the ends 
 which they aimed to accomplish, their successes and failures, their 
 permanency and changes, how far they influenced individual and na- 
 tional character, how far any of them might have originated in pre- 
 meditated plan on the part of their founders, whether they secured 
 the intelligence, virtue, and happiness of the people, or otherwise, with 
 the causes, &c. 
 
 8. The rules of health, and the laws of physical development. 
 
 9. Dignity and importance of the teacher's office. 
 
 10. Special religious obligations of teachers in respect to benevolent 
 devotedness to the inetllectual and moral welfare of society, habits of 
 entire self-control, purity of mind, elevation of character, &c. 
 
 tThe French adjective normal is derived from the Latin noun norma, which signi- 
 fies o carpenter's square, a rule, a pattern, a model; and the very general use of this 
 term to designate institutions for the preparation of teachers, leads us at once to the 
 idea of a model-school for practice, as an essential constituent part of a Teacher's 
 Seminary.
 
 8TOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 125 
 
 11. The Influence which the school should exert on civilization and 
 the progress of society. 
 
 12. The elements of Latin, together with the German, French, and 
 Spanish languages. 
 
 On each of the topics above enumerated, I shall attempt to offer 
 such remarks as may be necessary to their more full development and 
 illustration; and then state the argument in favor of, and answer 
 the objections which may be urged against, the establishment of such 
 an institution as is here contemplated. 
 
 To begin with the first proposition. 
 
 I. The interests of popular education in each state demand the es- 
 tablishment, at the seat of government, and under the patronage of 
 the legislature, of a Normal School, that is, a Teachers' Seminary and 
 model-school, for the instruction and practice of teachers in the 
 science of education and the art of teaching. 
 
 If there be necessity for such an institution, there can be little 
 doubt that the legislature should patronize and sustain it; for, new as 
 our country is, and numerous as are the objects to which individual 
 capital must be applied, there can be no great hope, for many years 
 to come, of seeing such institutions established and supported by pri- 
 vate munificence. It is a very appropriate object of legislative pat- 
 ronage; for, as the advantages of such an institution are clearly open 
 to all the citizens of the State, and equally necessary to all, it is right 
 that each should sustain his proper share of the expense. 
 
 Reserving my general argument in favor of these establishments 
 till after a more full development of their object, organization, and 
 course of study, I shall confine my remarks under this head to the sub- 
 ject of legislative patronage, and the influence which such an institu- 
 tion would exert, through the legislature and officers of government, 
 on the people at large. And in order that the institution may exert 
 the influence here contemplated, it will appear obviously necessary 
 that it be placed at the seat of government. 
 
 Popular legislators ought to have some objects in view besides the 
 irritating and often petty questions of party politics. Any observing 
 man, who has watched the progress of popular legislation among us, 
 cannot but have noticed the tendency of continued and uninterrupted 
 party bickering to narrow the mind and sour the temper of political 
 men, to make them selfish, unpatriotic, and unprincipled. It is highly 
 necessary for their improvement as men, and as republican law-givers, 
 that the bitterness and bigotry of party strife should sometimes be 
 checked by some great object of public utility, in which good men 
 of all parties may unite, and the contemplation and discussion of 
 which shall enlarge the views and elevate the affections. The legis- 
 latures of several states have already had experience of these bene- 
 fits. The noble institutions for deaf mutes, for the blind, and for the 
 insane, which have grown up under their care, and been sustained 
 by their bounty, are not less beneficial by the moral influence they 
 exert, every year, on the officers of government who witness their 
 benevolent operations, than by the physical and intellectual blessings 
 which they confer on the unfortunate classes of persons for whom 
 they were more particularly designed. Who can witness the pro- 
 ficiency of the blind and the mute in that knowledge which constitutes 
 the charm of life, as witnessed in the annual exhibitions of these 
 institutions at Columbus, during the sessions of the legislature, with- 
 out feeling the blessedness of benevolence, and inwardly resolving to 
 be himself benevolent? Without some such objects in view, political 
 character deteriorates, and the legislator sinks to the demagogue. 
 When our American Congress has had noble objects in view; when
 
 126 STOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 it has been struggling for the rights of man, and the great principles 
 which are the foundations of free institutions, it has been the nursery 
 of patriotism and the theater of great thoughts and mighty deeds; but 
 when its objects have been mean; and its aims selfish, how sad the 
 reverse in respect to its moral character and national influence! 
 
 Colleges, and institutions for the higher branches of classical learn- 
 ing, have seldom flourished in this country under legislative patron- 
 age; because the people at large, not perceiving that these institutions 
 are directly beneficial to them, allow their legislators to give them only 
 a hesitating, reluctant, and insufficient support. No steady, well-digest- 
 ed plan of improvement is carried consistently through, but the meas- 
 ures are vacillating, contradictory, and often destructive, not from 
 want of sagacity to perceive what is best, but simply from want of in- 
 terest in the object, and a consequent determination to maintain it 
 at the cheapest rate. But an institution of the kind here contemplated, 
 the people at large will feel to be for their immediate benefit. It is to 
 qualify teachers for the instruction of their own children; and among 
 the people throughout most of the free States, there is an appreciation 
 of the advantages and necessity of good common-school instruction, 
 which makes them willing to incur heavy sacrifices for the sake of 
 securing it. They will, therefore, cheerfully sustain their legislators 
 in any measure which is seen to be essential to the improvement and 
 perfection of the common-school system; and that the establishment 
 of a Normal School is essential to this, I expect to prove in the course 
 of this discussion. 
 
 Supposing the institution to be established at the seat of govern- 
 ment, under proper auspices, the legislature would every year witness 
 its beneficial results; they would attend the exhibitions of its pupils 
 both in the seminary and in the model-school, as they now, in several 
 States, attend the exhibitions of the blind and mute; their views would 
 be enlarged, their affections moved, their ideas of what constitutes 
 good education settled; they would return to their constituents full 
 of zeal and confidence in the educational cause, and impart the same 
 to them; they would learn how schools ought to be conducted, the 
 respective duties of parents, teachers, and school officers; they would 
 become the most efficient missionaries of public instruction; and, ere 
 long, one of the most important errands from their constituents would 
 be, to find for them, in the Teachers' Seminary, a suitable instructor 
 for their district school. Such an influence will be to the school sys- 
 tem, what electricity is to the operations of nature, an influence un- 
 ceasing, all-pervading, lightning-winged. 
 
 The Superintendent of Public Instruction, in every State, would be 
 essentially aided by such an institution at the seat of government. 
 He greatly needs it as a fulcrum to pry over, when he would move 
 the legislature or the people. He cannot bring the legislature to the 
 common schools, nor these to the legislature, to illustrate existing 
 deficiencies or recommend improvements; but here is a model con- 
 structed under his own eye, which he can at any moment exhibit 
 to the legislature, and by which he can give complete illustrations of 
 all his views. 
 
 As the young men in the seminary grow up, he watches their prog- 
 ress, and ascertains the peculiar qualifications and essential charac- 
 teristics of each individual; and, as he passes through the State, and 
 learns the circumstances and wants of each community, he knows 
 where to find the teacher best fitted to carry out his views, and give 
 efficiency to the system in each particular location. Nothing is lost; 
 the impression which he makes is immediately followed up and deep- 
 ened by the teacher, before it has time to cool and disappear. A
 
 8TOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 127 
 
 superintendent of schools without a Teachers' Seminary, is a general 
 without soldiers, depending entirely on the services of such volunteers 
 as he can pick up on his march, most of whom enlist but for the day, 
 and go home to sleep at night. 
 
 Such is a brief view of the reasons for legislative patronage, and a 
 location at the seat of government. I do not imagine that one insti- 
 tution will be enough to supply the wants of a whole state; but let 
 THE ONE be established first, and whatever others are needful will 
 speedily follow.* 
 
 We now proceed to our second general proposition. 
 
 II. Pupils should not be received into the Teachers' Seminary under 
 sixteen years of age, nor until they are well versed in all the branches 
 usually taught in the common schools. 
 
 The age at which the pupils leave the common school is the proper 
 age for entering the Teachers' Seminary, and the latter should begin 
 just where the former closes. This is young enough; for few persons 
 have their judgments sufficiently matured, or their feelings under 
 sufficient control, to engage in school-teaching by themselves, before 
 they are twenty years old. It is not the design of the Teachers' 
 Seminary to go through the common routine of the common-school 
 course, but a thorough grounding in this is to be assumed as the 
 foundation on which to erect the structure of the teachers' education. 
 
 III. The model-school should comprise the various classes of chil- 
 dren usually admitted to the common schools, and should be subject 
 to the same general discipline and course of study. 
 
 The model-school, as its name imports, is to be a model of what the 
 common school ought to be; and it must be, therefore, composed of 
 like materials, and subject to similar rules. The model-school, in 
 fact, should be the common school of the place in which the Teachers' 
 Seminary is situated; it should aim to keep in advance of every other 
 school in the State, and every other school in the State should aim 
 to keep up with that. It is a model for the constant inspection of the 
 pupils in the teachers' department, a practical illustration of the 
 lessons they receive from their professors; the proof-stone by which 
 they are to test the utility of the abstract principles they imbibe, and 
 on which they are to exercise and Improve their gifts of teaching. 
 Indeed, as School-counselor Dinter told a nobleman of East-Prussia, to 
 set up a Teachers' Seminary without a model-school, is like setting 
 up a shoemaker's shop without leather. 
 
 IV. The course of instruction in the Teachers' Seminary should 
 include three years, and the pupils be divided into three classes, ac- 
 cordingly. 
 
 The course of study, as will be seen by inspecting it in the following 
 pages, cannot well be completed in less time than this; this has been 
 found short enough for professional study in the other professions, 
 which is generally commenced at a maturer age, and after the pupil 
 has had the advantage of an academical or collegiate course; and if it 
 is allowed that five or seven years are not too much to be spent in 
 acquiring the trade of a blacksmith, a carpenter, or any of the common 
 indispensable handcrafts, surely three years will not be deemed too 
 much for the difficult and most important art of teaching. 
 
 * This article was written in its special reference to Ohio, and the new States of 
 the West. In some of the older States, the expense of living at the seat of govern- 
 ment might operate as an objection to the location of the Seminary there.
 
 128 STOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 V. The senior class in the Teachers' Seminary should be employed, 
 under the immediate inspection of their professors, as instructors in 
 the model-school. 
 
 The model-school is intended to be not only an illustration of the 
 principles inculcated theoretically in the seminary, but is calculated 
 also as a school for practice, in which the seminary pupils may learn, 
 by actual experiment, the practical bearing of the principles which 
 they have studied. After two years of theoretical study, the pupils 
 are well qualified to commence this practical course, under the imme- 
 diate inspection of their professors ; and the model-school being under 
 the inspection of such teachers, it is obvious that its pupils can suffer 
 no loss, but must be great gainers by the arrangement. 
 
 This is a part of the system for training teachers which cannot be 
 dispensed with, and any considerable hope of success retained. To 
 attempt to train practical teachers without it, would be like attempting 
 to train sailors by keeping boys upon Bowditch's Navigator, without 
 ever suffering them to go on board a ship, or handle a ropeyarn. One 
 must begin to teach, before he can begin to be a teacher; and it is 
 infinitely better, both for himself and his pupils, that he should make 
 this beginning under the eye of an experienced teacher, who can give 
 him directions and point out his errors, than that he should blunder 
 on alone, at the risk of ruining multitudes of pupils, before he can 
 learn to teach by the slow process of unaided experience. 
 
 VI. Course of instruction in the Teachers' Seminary. 
 
 1. A thorough, scientific, and demonstrative study of all branches 
 to be taught in the common schools, with directions, at every step, as 
 to the best method of inculcating each lesson on children of different 
 dispositions and capacities, and various intellectual habits. 
 
 It is necessary here to give a general outline of a course of study 
 for the common schools of this country. The pupils usually in at- 
 tendance are between the ages of six and sixteen, and I would arrange 
 them in three divisions, as follows: 
 
 FIRST DIVISION, including the youngest children, and those least ad- 
 vanced, generally between the ages of six and nine. 
 
 Topics of Instruction 1. Familiar conversational teaching, in re- 
 spect to objects which fall daily under their notice, and in respect to 
 their moral and social duties, designed to awaken their powers of 
 observation and expression, and to cultivate their moral feelings. 
 
 2. Elements of reading. 
 
 3. Elements of writing. 
 
 4. Elements of numbers. 
 
 5. Exercises of the voice and ear singing by rote. 
 
 6. Select readings in the Pentateuch, Psalms, and Gospels. 
 
 SECOND DIVISION, including those more advanced, and generally be- 
 tween the ages of nine and twelve. 
 
 Topics of Instruction. 1. Exercise in reading. 
 
 2. Exercises in writing. 
 
 3. Arithmetic. 
 
 4. Elements of geography, and geography of the United States. 
 
 5. History of the United States. 
 
 6. Moral and religious instruction in select Bible narratives, parables, 
 and proverbs. 
 
 7. Elements of music, and singing by note. 
 
 8. English grammar and parsing.
 
 8TOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 129 
 
 THIRD DIVISION, most advanced, and generally between the ages of 
 twelve and sixteen. 
 
 Topics of Instruction. 1. Exercises in reading and elocution. 
 
 2. Caligraphy, stenography, and linear drawing. 
 
 3. Algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, with their application to 
 civil engineering, surveying, &c. 
 
 4. English composition, forms of business, and book-keeping. 
 
 5. General geography, or knowledge of the earth and of mankind. 
 
 6. General history. 
 
 7. Constitution of the United States, and of the several States. 
 
 8. Elements of the natural sciences, including their application to 
 the arts of life, such as agriculture, manufacturers, &c. 
 
 9. Moral instruction in the connected Bible history, the life and 
 discourses of Christ, the religious observation of Nature, and history 
 of Christianity. 
 
 10. Science and art of vocal and instrumental music. 
 
 Thorough instruction on all these topics I suppose to be essential to 
 a complete common-school education; and though it may be many 
 years before our schools come up to this standard, yet I think nothing 
 short of this should satisfy us; and, as fast as possible, we should be 
 laboring to train teachers capable of giving instruction in all these 
 branches. When this standard for the common school has been at- 
 tained, then, before the pupil is prepared to enter on the three years' 
 course of study proposed in the Teachers' Seminary, he must have 
 studied all the topics above enumerated, as they ought to be studied 
 In the common schools. 
 
 The study of a topic, however, for the purpose of applying it to 
 practical use, is not always the same thing as studying it for the 
 purpose of teaching it. The processes are often quite different. A 
 man may study music till he can perform admirably himself, and yet 
 possess very little skill in teaching others; and it is well known that 
 the most successful orators are not unfrequently the very worst teach- 
 ers of elocution. The process of learning for practical purposes is 
 mostly that of combination or synthesis; but the process of learning 
 for the purpose of teaching is one of continued and minute analysis, 
 not only of the subject itself, but of all the movements and turnings 
 of the feelers of the mind, the little antennae by which it seizes and 
 retains its hold of the several parts of a topic. Till a man can min- 
 utely dissect, not only the subject itself, but also the intellectual 
 machinery by which it is worked up, he cannot be very successful as 
 a teacher. The orator analyzes his subject, and disposes its several 
 parts in the order best calculated for effect; but the mental processes 
 by which he does this, which constitute the tact that enables him to 
 judge right, as if by instinct, are generally so rapid, so evanescent, 
 that it may be impossible for him to recall them so as to describe 
 them to another; and it is this very rapidity of intellectual move- 
 ment, which gives him success as an orator, that renders it the more 
 difficult for him to succeed as a teacher. The musician would perform 
 very poorly, who should stop to recognize each volition that moves the 
 muscles which regulate the movement of his fingers on the organ- 
 keys ; but he who would teach others to perform gracefully and rapidly, 
 must give attention to points minute as these. The teacher must 
 stop to observe and analyze each movement of the mind itself, as it 
 advances on every topic; but men of genius for execution, and of 
 great practical skill, who never teach, are generally too impatient to 
 
 I
 
 130 STOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 make this minute analysis, and often, indeed, form such habits as at 
 length to become incapable of it. The first Duke of Marlborough 
 was one of the most profound and brilliant military men that ever 
 lived; but he had been so little accustomed to observe the process of 
 his own mind, by which he arrived with such certainty at those 
 astounding results of warlike genius which have given him the first 
 rank among Britain's soldiers, that he could seldom construct a con- 
 nected argument in favor of his plans, and generally had but one 
 answer to all the objections which might be urged against them, and 
 that was usually repeated in the same words, "Silly, silly, that's 
 silly." A like remark is applicable Fo Oliver Cromwell, and several 
 other men distinguished for prompt and energetic action. The mental 
 habits best adapted for effect in the actual business of life are not 
 always the mental habits best suited to the teacher; and the Teach- 
 ers' Seminary requires a mode of instruction in some respects different 
 from the practical school. 
 
 The teacher, also, must review the branches of instruction above 
 enumerated with reference to their scientific connections, and a thor- 
 ough demonstration of them, which, though not always necessary In 
 respect to their practical application to the actual business of life, is 
 absolutely essential to that ready command which a teacher must 
 have over them in order to put them into the minds of others. 
 
 Nor is this all. There is a great variety of methods for inculcating 
 the same truth; and the diversities of mind are quite as numerous 
 as the varieties of method. One mind can be best approached by one 
 method, and another mind by another; and in respect to the teacher, 
 one of the richest treasures of experience is a knowledge of the 
 adaptation of the different methods to different minds. These rich 
 treasures of experience can be preserved, and classified, and imparted 
 in the Teachers' Seminary. If the teacher never studies his profes- 
 sion, he learns this part of his duties only by the slow and wasteful 
 process of experimenting on mind, and thus, in all probability, ruins 
 many before he learns how to deal with them. Could we ascertain 
 how many minds have been lost to the world in consequence of the 
 injudicious measures of inexperienced and incompetent teachers; if 
 we could exhibit, in a statistical table, the number of souls which 
 must be used up in qualifying a teacher for his profession, by intrust- 
 ing him with its active duties without previous study, we could prove 
 incontrovertibly that it is great want of economy, that it is a most 
 prodigious waste, to attempt to carry on a system of schools without 
 making provision for the education of teachers. 
 
 2. The philosophy of mind, particularly in reference to its suscepti- 
 bility of receiving impressions from mind. 
 
 The teacher should learn, at least, not to spoil by his awkward 
 handling what Nature has made well ; he should know how to preserve 
 the intellectual and moral powers in a healthful condition, if he be 
 not capable of improving them. But, through ignorance of the nature 
 of mind, and its susceptibilities, how often are a teacher's most in- 
 dustrious efforts worse than thrown away perverting and destroying 
 rather than improving! Frequently, also, the good which is gained 
 by judicious efforts in one direction is counteracted by a mistaken 
 course in another. 
 
 Under this head there should be a complete classification of the 
 sources of influence, a close analysis of the peculiar nature and causes 
 of each, and of its applicability to educational purposes. There should 
 be also a classification of the errors liable to be committed, with a 
 similar analysis, and directions for avoiding them. It appears to me
 
 8TOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 131 
 
 that there are some valuable discoveries yet to be made in this branch 
 of knowledge; and that, for the purposes of education, the powers of 
 the mind are susceptible of a classification much better than that 
 which has hitherto generally been adopted. 
 
 3. The peculiarities of intellectual and moral development in chil- 
 dren, as modified by sex, parental character, wealth or poverty, city 
 or country, family government, indulgent or severe, fickle or steady, 
 &c. 
 
 These diversities all exist in every community, and exert a most 
 important influence on the developments of children; and no teacher 
 can discharge his duties diligently and thoroughly without recognizing 
 this extensive class of influences. The influence of sex is one of the 
 most obvious, and no successful teacher, I believe, ever manages the 
 boys and the girls of his school in precisely the same manner. But 
 the other sources of influence are no less important. Parental char- 
 acter is one. Parents of high-minded and honorable feeling, will be 
 likely to impart something of the same spirit to their children. Such 
 children may be easily governed by appeals to their sense of character, 
 and perhaps ruined by the application of the rod. If parents are 
 mean-spirited and selfish, great allowance should be made for the 
 failings of their children, and double diligence employed to cultivate 
 in them a sense of honor. 
 
 The different circumstances of wealth and poverty produce great 
 differences in children. The rich child generally requires restraint, 
 the poor one encouragement. When the poor are brought in contact 
 with the rich, it is natural that the former should feel somewhat 
 sensitive as to the distinctions which may obtain between them and 
 their fellows; and in such cases special pains should be taken to 
 shield the sensibilities of the poor child against needless wounds, and 
 make him feel that the poverty for which he is no way blamable is 
 not to him a degradation. Otherwise he may become envious and 
 misanthropic, or be discouraged and unmanned. But how often does 
 the reverse of this take place, to the great injury of the character 
 both of the poor and the rich! Surely it is misfortune enough to the 
 suffering child that he has to bear the ills arising from ignorance or 
 negligence, vice or poverty, in his parents; and the school should be 
 a refuge for him, where he can improve himself and be happy. 
 
 Again, city and country produce diversities in children almost as 
 great as the difference of sex. City children are inclined to the ardent, 
 quick, glowing temperament of the female; country children lean more 
 to the cooler, steadier, slower development of the male. City children 
 are more excitable; by the circumstances in which they are placed, 
 their feelings are kept in more constant and rapid motion, they are 
 more easily moved to good, and have stronger temptation to evil; 
 while country children, less excitable, less rapid in their advances 
 toward either good or evil, present, in their peculiarities, a broad and 
 solid foundation for characters of stable structure and enduring use- 
 fulness. Though human nature is every where the same, and schools 
 present the same general characteristics; yet the good country teacher, 
 if he remove to the city, and would be equally successful there, will 
 find it necessary to adopt several modifications of his former ar- 
 rangements. 
 
 Many other circumstances give rise to diversities no less important. 
 It is the business of the Teachers' Seminary to arrange and classify 
 these modifying influences, and give to the pupil the advantages of an 
 anticipated experience in respect to his method of proceeding in re- 
 gard to them. No one will imagine that the teacher is to let his
 
 132 STOWE ON NORMAJL SCHOOLS. 
 
 pupils see that he recognizes such differences among them; he should 
 be wise enough to keep his own counsel, and deal with each individual 
 in such manner as the peculiar circumstances of each may render 
 most productive of good. 
 
 4. The science of education in general, and full illustration of the 
 difference between education and mere instruction. 
 
 Science, in the modern acceptation of the term, is a philosophical 
 classification and arrangement of all the facts which are observed in 
 respect to any subject, and an investigation from these facts of the 
 principles which regulate their occurrence. Education affords its facts, 
 and they are as numerous and as deeply interesting as the facts of 
 any other science; these facts are susceptible of as philosophical a 
 classification and arrangement as the facts of chemistry or astronomy; 
 and the principles which regulate their occurrence are as appropriate 
 and profitable a subject of investigation as the principles of botany 
 or zoology, or of politics or morals. I know it has been said by some, 
 that education is not a science, and cannot be reduced to scientific 
 principles; but they who talk thus either ma"ke use of words without 
 attaching to them any definite meaning, or they confound the idea of 
 education with that of the mere art of teaching. Even in this sense 
 the statement is altogether erroneous, as will be shown under the 
 next head. 
 
 The teacher should be acquainted with these facts, with their classi- 
 fication, their arrangement and principles, before he enters on the 
 duties of his profession; or he is like the surgeon who would operate 
 on the human body before he has studied anatomy, or the attorney 
 who would commence practice before he has made himself acquainted 
 with the first principles of law. 
 
 It is a common error to confound education with mere instruction; 
 an error so common, indeed, that many writers on the subject use 
 the words as nearly, if not entirely, synonymous. Instruction, how- 
 ever, comprehends but a very small part of the general idea of educa- 
 tion. Education includes all the extraneous influences which com- 
 bine to the formation of intellectual and moral character; while in- 
 struction is limited to that which is directly communicated from one 
 mind to another. "Education and instruction (says Hooker) are the 
 means, the one by use, the other by precept, to make our natural 
 faculty of reason both the better and the sooner to judge rightly be- 
 tween truth and error, good and evil." A man may become well 
 educated, though but poorly instructed, as was the case with Pascal 
 and Franklin, and many others equally illustrious; but if a man is well 
 instructed, he cannot, without some great fault of his own, fail to 
 acquire a good education. Instruction is mostly the work of others; 
 education depends mainly on the use which we ourselves make of the 
 circumstances by which we are surrounded. The mischiefs of defec- 
 tive instruction may often be repaired by our own subsequent efforts; 
 but a gap left down in the line of our education is not so easily put 
 up, after the opportunity has once passed by. 
 
 5. The art of teaching. 
 
 The art of teaching, it is true, is not a science, and cannot be learned 
 by theoretic study alone, without practice. The model-school is ap- 
 propriately the place for the acquisition of this art by actual practice; 
 but, like all the rational arts, it rests on scientific principles. The 
 theoretical instruction, therefore, in this branch, will be limited mainly 
 to a development of the principles on which it is founded; while the 
 application of those principles will be illustrated, and the art of 
 teaching acquired, by instructing in the model-school under the care
 
 8TOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 133 
 
 of the professors, and subject to their direction, and remarks. The 
 professor assigns to the pupil his class in the model-school, he ob- 
 serves his manner of teaching, and notices its excellences and defects; 
 and after the class is dismissed, and the student is with him alone, 
 or in company only with his fellow-students, he commends what he 
 did well, shows him how he might have made the imperfect better, 
 and the erroneous correct, pointing out, as he proceeds, the applica- 
 tion of theoretic principles to practice, that the lessons in the model- 
 school may be really an illustration of all that has been taught in the 
 Teachers' Seminary. 
 
 6. The art of governing children, with special reference to the im- 
 parting and keeping alive of a feeling of love for children. 
 
 Children can be properly governed only by affection; and affection, 
 rightly directed, is all-powerful for this purpose. A school governed 
 without love is a gloomy, mind-killing place; it is like a nursery of 
 tender blossoms filled with an atmosphere of frost and ice. Affection 
 is the natural magnet of the mind in childhood; the child's mind is 
 fitted by its Creator to be moved by a mother's love; and cold in- 
 difference or stern lovelessness repels and freezes it. In governing 
 children there is no substitute for affection, and God never intended 
 there should be any. 
 
 General rules cannot be given for the government of a school; the 
 results of experience can be treasured up, systematized, and imparted; 
 the candidate for the teacher's office can be exercised to close ob- 
 servation, patience, and self-control; and all these are essential 
 branches of instruction in the art of governing. Still, if there be no 
 feeling of love for children, all this will not make a good school- 
 governor. There is great natural diversity in individuals in regard 
 to this, as in all other affections; yet every one whom God has fitted 
 to be a parent has the elements of this affection, and these elements 
 are susceptible of development and improvement. 
 
 7. History of education, including an accurate outline of the educa- 
 tional systems of different ages and nations; the circumstances which 
 gave rise to them; the principles on which they were founded; the 
 ends which they aimed to accomplish; their successes and failures, 
 their permanency and changes; how far they influenced individual and 
 national character; how far any of them might have originated in 
 premeditated plan on the part of their founders; whether they secured 
 the intelligence, virtue, and happiness of the people, or otherwise, 
 with the causes, &c. 
 
 To insure success in any pursuit, the experience of our predecessors 
 is justly considered a valuable, and generally an indispensable aid. 
 What should we think of one who claimed to be a profound politician 
 while ignorant of the history of political science; while unacquainted 
 with the origin of governments, the causes which have modified their 
 forms and influences, the changes which have taken place in them, 
 the different effects produced by various systems under diverse in- 
 fluences, and of the thousand combinations in which the past treasures 
 wisdom for the future? What should we think of the lawyer who 
 knew nothing of the history of law? or the astronomer, ignorant of 
 the history of astronomy? In every science and every art we recog- 
 nize the value of its appropriate history; and there is not a single 
 circumstance that gives value to such history, which does not apply, 
 in all its force, to the history of education. Yet, strange to say, the 
 history of education is entirely neglected among us; there is not a 
 work devoted to the subject in the English language; and very few, 
 indeed, which contain even notices or hints to guide one's inquiries
 
 134 STOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 on this deeply interesting theme. I wish some of those writers who 
 complain that education is a hackneyed subject, a subject so often 
 and so much discussed, that nothing new remains to be said upon it, 
 would turn their inquiries in this direction, and I think they will find 
 much, and that too of the highest utility, which will be entirely new 
 to the greater part even of the reading population. 
 
 Man has been an educator ever since he became civilized. A great 
 variety of systems of public instruction have been adopted and sus- 
 tained by law, which have produced powerful and enduring influences; 
 and are we to set sail on this boundless ocean entirely ignorant of the 
 courses, and soundings, and discoveries of our predecessors? 
 
 The Hebrew nation, in its very origin, was subjected to a premedi- 
 tated and thoroughly systemized course of national instruction, which 
 produced the most wonderful influence, and laid the foundation for 
 that peculiar hardihood and determinateness of character, which have 
 made them the astonishment of all ages, a miracle among nations. 
 A full development of this system, and a careful illustration of the 
 particulars which gave it its peculiar strength, and of the circum- 
 stances which perverted it from good to evil, which turned strength 
 into the force of hate, and perseverance into obstinacy, would be a 
 most valuable contribution to the science of general education. The 
 ancient Persians and Hindoos had ingenious and thoroughly digested 
 systems of public instruction, entirely diverse from each other, yet 
 each wonderfully efficacious in its own peculiar way. The Greeks 
 were a busily educating people, and great varieties of systems sprung 
 up in their different states and under their different masters, all of 
 them ingenious, most of them effective, and some of them character- 
 ized by the highest excellences. Systems which we cannot and ought 
 not to imitate, may be highly useful as warnings, and to prevent our 
 trying experiments which have been often tried before, and failed to 
 be useful. The Chinese, for example, have had for ages a system 
 which is peculiarly and strictly national; its object has always been 
 to make them Chinese, and nothing else; it has fully answered the 
 purpose intended; and what has been the result?* A nation of ma- 
 chines, a people of patterns, made to order; a set of men and women 
 wound up like clocks, to go in a certain way, and for a certain time, 
 with minds wonderfully nice and exact in certain little things; but 
 as stiff, as unsusceptible of expansion, as incapable of originating 
 thought, or deviating from the beaten track, as one of their own 
 graven images is of navigating a ship. In short, they are very much 
 such a people as the Americans might become in a few centuries, if 
 some amiable enthusiasts could succeed in establishing what they are 
 pleased to denominate a system exclusively American. Education, to 
 be useful, must be expansive, must be universal; the mind must not 
 be trained to run in one narrow channel; it must understand that 
 human beings have thought, and felt, and acted, in other countries 
 than its own; that the results of preceding efforts have their value, 
 and that all light is not confined to its own little Goshen. 
 
 When a science has become fixed as to its principles, when its 
 facts are ascertained and well settled, then its history is generally 
 written. Why, then, have we no history of education in our language? 
 Simply, because the science of education, with us, is yet in its infancy; 
 because, so far from being a hackneyed or an exhausted subject, on 
 which nothing new remains to be said, its fundamental principles are 
 not yet so ascertained as to become the basis of a fixed science. It 
 cannot be pretended that there are no materials for the composition 
 
 * See Note A, at the close of this article.
 
 STOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 135 
 
 of such a history. We are not destitute of information respecting 
 the educational systems of the most ancient nations, as the Chal- 
 deans, Assyrians, Egyptians, and Carthaginians; and in respect to the 
 Hindoos, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Chinese, the 
 modern Europeans, the materials for their educational history are 
 nearly as ample as those for their civil history; and the former is 
 quite as important to the educator as the latter is to the civilian. The 
 brief and imperfect, but highly interesting sketches, given by Sharon 
 Turner in his History of England, afford sufficient proof of my asser- 
 tion; and they are to a full history of English education, as the first 
 streaks of dawn to the risen sun. Should Teachers' Seminaries do 
 nothing else than excite a taste and afford the materials for the 
 successful pursuit of this branch of study only, they would more than 
 repay all the cost of their establishment and maintenance. Systems 
 of education which formed and trained such minds as arose in Egypt, 
 in Judea, in Greece systems under whose influence such men as 
 Moses and Isaiah, Solon, and Plato, and Paul, received those first 
 impressions which had such commanding power over their mighty 
 Intellects, may afford to us many valuable suggestions. The several 
 topics to which I have above alluded, as particularly worthy of notice 
 in a history of those systems, are too obviously important to require a 
 separate illustration. 
 
 8. The rules of health and the laws of physical development. 
 
 The care of the body while we are in this world is not less im- 
 portant than the culture of the mind; for, as a general fact, no mind 
 can work vigorously in a feeble and comfortless body; and when the 
 forecastle of a vessel sinks, the cabin must soon follow. The edu- 
 cating period of youth is the time most critical to health; and the 
 peculiar excitements and temptations of a course of study, add greatly 
 to the natural dangers of the forming and developing seasons of life. 
 Teachers, therefore, especially, should understand the rules of health, 
 and the laws of physical development; and it is impossible that they 
 should understand them, unless they devote some time to their study. 
 What a ruinous waste of comfort, of strength, and of life, has there 
 been in our educational establishments, in consequence of the ignor- 
 ance and neglect of teachers on this point! And how seldom is this 
 important branch of study ever thought of as a necessary qualification 
 for the office of teacher! 
 
 As it is a most sacred duty of the teacher to preserve uninjured 
 the powers of the mind, and keep them in a healthful condition, so it 
 Is no less his duty to take the same care of the physical powers. The 
 body should not only be kept in health, but its powers should be de- 
 veloped and improved with as much care as is devoted to the im- 
 provement of the mind, that all the capabilities of the man may be 
 brought out and fitted for active duty. But can one know how to do 
 this if he never learns? And will he be likely to learn, unless he has 
 opportunity of learning? It is generally regarded as the province of 
 teachers to finish out and improve on Nature's plan; but if they can 
 all be brought to understand their profession so well as not to mar 
 and spoil what Nature made right, it will be a great improvement on 
 the present condition of education in the world. 
 
 9. Dignity and importance of the teacher's office. 
 
 Self-respect, and a consciousness of doing well, are essential to 
 comfort and success in any honorable calling; especially in one subject 
 to so many external depressions, one so little esteemed and so poorly 
 rewarded by the world at large, as that of the teacher. No station of 
 so great importance has probably ever been so slightly estimated;
 
 136 STOAVE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 and the fault has been partly in the members of the profession itself. 
 They have not estimated their official importance sufficiently high; 
 they have given a tacit assent to the superficial judgment of the 
 world; they have hung loosely on the profession, and too often aban- 
 doned it the first opportunity. They ought early to understand that 
 their profession demands the strongest efforts of their whole lives; 
 that no employment can be more intimately connected with the prog- 
 ress and general welfare of society; that the best hopes and tenderest 
 wishes of parents and of nations depend on their skill and fidelity; 
 and that an incompetent or unworthy discharge of the duties of their 
 office brings the community into the condition of an embattled host 
 when the standard-bearer faileth. If teachers themselves generally 
 had a clear and definite conception of the immensely responsible place 
 they occupy; if they were skilled in the art of laying these concep- 
 tions vividly before the minds of the people among whom they labor, 
 it would produce a great influence on the profession itself, by bring- 
 ing it under the pressure of a mightier motive, and cause all classes 
 of people more clearly to understand the inestimable worth of the 
 good teacher, and make them more willing to honor and reward him. 
 And this, too, would be the surest method of ridding the profession 
 of such incumbents as are a disgrace to it, and an obstacle to its 
 elevation and improvement. Julius Caesar was the first of the Romans 
 who honored school-teachers by raising them to the rank of Roman 
 citizens, and in no act of his life did he more clearly manifest that 
 peculiar sagacity for which he was distinguished. 
 
 10. Special religious obligations of teachers in respect to benevolent 
 devotedness to the intellectual and moral welfare of society, habits 
 of entire self-control, purity of mind, elevation of character, &c. 
 
 The duties of the teacher are scarcely less sacred or less delicate 
 than those of the minister of religion. In several important respects 
 he stands in a similar relation to society; and his motives and en- 
 couragements to effort must, to a considerable extent, be of the same 
 class. It is not to be expected that teaching will ever become gener- 
 ally a lucrative profession, or that many will enter it for mere love 
 of money, or that, if any should enter it from such a motive, they 
 would ever be very useful in it. All teachers ought to have a com- 
 fortable support, and a competency for the time of sickness and old 
 age; but what ought to be and what is, in such a world as this, are 
 often very different things. If a competency is gained by teaching, 
 very few will ever expect to grow rich by it. Higher motives than 
 the love of wealth must actuate the teacher in the choice of his 
 profession, and animate him in the performance of its laborious duties. 
 Such motives as the love of doing good, and peculiar affection for 
 children, do exist in many minds, notwithstanding the general selfish- 
 ness of the world; and these emotions, by a proper kind of culture, 
 are susceptible of increase, till they become the predominant and 
 leading desires. The teacher who has little benevolence, and little 
 love for children, must be a miserable being, as well as a very poor 
 teacher; but one who has these propensities strongly developed, and 
 is not ambitious of distinction in the world of vanity and noise, but 
 seeks his happiness in doing good, is among the happiest of men; 
 and some of the most remarkable instances of healthy and cheerful 
 old age are found among school-teachers. As examples, I would 
 mention old Ezekiel Cheever, who taught school in New England for 
 seventy-one years without interruption, and died in Boston in the year 
 1708, at the advanced age of ninety-three; or Dr. G. F. Dinter, now 
 living at Konigsberg in Prussia, in the eightieth year of his age. In- 
 deed, the ingenious author of Hermippus Redivivus affirms, that the
 
 8TOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 137 
 
 breath of beloved children preserves the benevolent schoolmaster's 
 health, as salt keeps flesh from putrefaction. In Prussia, school- 
 teachers generally enter on their profession at the age of twenty-two 
 or twenty-five, and the average term of service among the lorty thou- 
 sand teachers there employed is over thirty years, making the average 
 duration of a teacher's life there nearly sixty years ; a greater longevity 
 than can be found in any profession in the United States. Many 
 teachers continue in the active discharge of their official duties more 
 than fifty years; and the fiftieth anniversary of their induction to 
 office is celebrated by a festival, and honored by a present from 
 government. 
 
 The other qualities mentioned, self-control, purity of mind, elevation 
 of character, are so obviously essential to a teacher's usefulness, that 
 they require no comment. We need only remark, that these are moral 
 qualities, and can be cultivated only by moral means; that they are 
 religious qualities, and must be excited and kept alive by religious 
 motives. Will any one here raise the cry, Sectarianism, Church and 
 State f I pity the poor bigot, or the narrow-souled unbeliever, who 
 can form no idea of religious principle, except as a sectarian thing; 
 who is himself so utterly unsusceptible of ennobling emotions, that 
 he cannot even conceive it possible that any man should have a prin- 
 ciple of virtue and piety superior to all external forms, and untram- 
 meled by metaphysical systems. From the aid of such men, we have 
 nothing to hope in the cause of sound education; and their hostility 
 we may as well encounter in one form as another, provided we make 
 sure of the ground on which we stand, and hold up the right principles 
 in the right shape. 
 
 11. The influence which the school should exert on civilization and 
 the progress of society. 
 
 It requires no great sagacity to perceive that the school is one of 
 the most important parts of the social machine, especially in modern 
 times, when it is fast acquiring for itself the influence which was 
 wielded by the pulpit some two centuries ago, and which, at a more 
 recent period, has been obtained by the periodical press. As the 
 community becomes separated into sects, which bigotry and intoler- 
 ance force into subdivisions still more minute, the influence of the 
 pulpit is gradually circumscribed; but no such causes limit the in- 
 fluence of the school. Teachers need only understand the position 
 they occupy, and act in concert, to make the school the most effective 
 element of modern civilization, not excepting even the periodical 
 press. A source of influence so immense, and which draws so deeply 
 on the destinies of man, ought to be thoroughly investigated and 
 considered, especially by those who make teaching their profession. 
 Yet I know not, in the whole compass of English literature, a single 
 work on the subject, notwithstanding that education is so worn out a 
 theme, that nobody can say any thing new upon it. 
 
 12. The elements of Latin, together with the German, French, and 
 Spanish languages. 
 
 The languages of Europe have received most of their refinement 
 and their science through the medium of the Latin; and so largely are 
 they indebted to this tongue, that the elements of it are necessary as a 
 foundation for their study of the modern languages. That the German 
 should be understood by teachers, especially in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and 
 the Western States generally, is obvious from the fact, that more than 
 half the school districts contain German parents and children, who are 
 best approached through the medium of their own tongue; and the rich 
 abundance and variety of educational literature in this language;
 
 138 STOWE ON NOKMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 greater, I venture to say than in all other languages together, render 
 it an acquisition of the highest importance to every teacher. In the 
 present state of the commercial world one cannot be said to have ac- 
 quired a business education without a knowledge of French; while our 
 intimate relations with Mexico and South America render the Spanish 
 valuable to us, and, indeed, in the Western country, almost indispen- 
 sable. The mental discipline which the study of these languages gives 
 is of the most valuable kind, and the collateral information acquired 
 while learning them is highly useful. Though a foreign tongue is a dif- 
 ficult acquisition for an adult, it is very easy for a cihld. In the Rhine 
 provinces of Germany, almost every child learns, without effort, both 
 German and French, and, in the commercial cities, English also; and 
 the unschooled children of the Levant often learn four or five different 
 languages merely by the ear. I do not suppose that the modern lang- 
 uages will soon become a regular branch of study in all our common 
 schools; still, many who depend on those schools for their education, 
 desire to study one or more of them, and they ought to have the op- 
 portunity; and if we would make our common schools our best schools, 
 as they surely ought to be, the teachers must be capable of giving in- 
 struction in some of these languages. 
 
 I have thus endeavored to give a brief view of the course of study 
 which should be pursued in a Teachers' Seminary, and this, I suppose, 
 in itself, affords a strong and complete argument to establish the ne- 
 cessity of such an institution. A few general considerations in favor 
 of this object will now be adduced. 
 
 1. The necessity of specific provision for the education of teachers is 
 proved by the analogy of all other professions and pursuits. 
 
 To every sort of business in which men engage, some previous dis- 
 cipline is considered necessary; and this idea, confirmed by all exper- 
 ience, proceeds on the universal and very correct assumption, that the 
 human mind knows nothing of business by intuition, and that miracu- 
 lous inspiration is not to be expected. A man is not thought capable of 
 shoeing a horse, or making a hat, without serving an apprenticeship at 
 the business. Why, then, should the task of the schoolmaster, the most 
 difficult and delicate of all, the management of the human mind, that 
 most intricate and complex of machines, be left to mere intuition, be 
 supposed to require no previous training? That the profession of school- 
 teacher should so long be kept so low in the scale of professions, that 
 it should even now be so generally regarded as a pursuit which needs, 
 and can reward, neither time nor pains spent in preparation for its 
 important duties, is a plain proof and example of the extreme slowness 
 of the human race to perfect the most important parts of the social sys- 
 tem. 
 
 2. A well-endowed, competent, and central institution, in a State, for 
 the education of teachers, would give, in that State, oneness, dignity, 
 and influence to the profession. 
 
 It would be a point of union that would hold the profession together, 
 and promote that harmony and co-operation so essential to success. 
 Teachers have been isolated and scattered, without a rallying-point or 
 rendezvous; and the wonderful influence which has been exerted by 
 the Western college of teachers (and other similar institutions in the 
 Eastern States), the whole secret of which is, that it affords a central 
 point around which teachers may rally, is but a faint shadow of what 
 might be accomplished by a well-endowed and ably-manned seminary. 
 Let there be some nucleus around which the strength of the profession 
 may gather, and the community will soon feel its importance, and give 
 it its due honor. 
 
 This object cannot be accomplished by small institutions scattered 
 through the State, nor by erecting teachers' departments in existing in-
 
 8TOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 139 
 
 stitutions. The aggregate expense of such an arrangement would be 
 quite as great as that of endowing one good institution; and without 
 such an institution it would, after all, accomplish but very little. It 
 would be like distributing the waters of the canal to every little village 
 in the State, instead of having them run in one broad and deep channel, 
 suitable for navigation. 
 
 3. Such an institution would serve as a standard and model of edu- 
 cation throughout the community. 
 
 The only reason why people are satisfied with an inferior system of 
 common-school instruction is, that they have no experience of a better. 
 No community ever goes voluntarily from a better to a worse, but the 
 tendency and the effort generally are to rise in excellence. All our ideas 
 of excellence, however, are comparative, and there will be little pros- 
 pect of advancement unless we have a standard of comparison higher 
 than any thing to which we have already attained. 
 
 A well-managed institution at the seat of government, which should 
 embody all real improvements, and hold up the highest standard of 
 present attainment, being visited by the executive officers, the legisla- 
 tors, the judges, the members of the bar, and other enlightened and 
 influential men, who annually resort to the capital from every part of 
 the State, would present a pattern to every school district, and excite 
 emulation in every neighborhood. As an example of the rapidity with 
 which improvements are taken, provided only there are appropriate 
 channels for them to flow in, I may mention the practice of singing in 
 schools, so recently introduced, and now so generally approved. 
 
 4. Such an institution would produce concentration of effort; its ac- 
 tion would possess the vigor which strong sympathies impart; and it 
 would tend to a desirable uniformity in books and modes of teaching. 
 
 I do not suppose that absolute perfection will ever be attained in the 
 art of teaching; and while absolute perfection is not reached, it is cer- 
 tain there ought not to be entire uniformity in books and modes of 
 teaching. But in this, as in all other human arts, there may be con- 
 stant approximation toward the perfect; and this progress must be 
 greatly accelerated by the concentration of effort, and the powerful 
 sympathetic action of mind on mind, collected in one institution, and 
 determined, as it were, to one focus. The action of such an institution 
 would obviate the principal evils, now so strongly felt, arising from 
 the diversity of books and methods; it would produce as much uni- 
 formity as would be desirable in the existing stage of improvement; 
 and the more advanced the progress, the greater would be the uni- 
 formity. 
 
 5. All experience (experience which we generally appeal to as the 
 safest guide in all practical matters) has decided in favor of institu- 
 tions sustained by government for the education of teachers. 
 
 No country has ever yet obtained a sufficient number of well-quali- 
 fied teachers in any other way; while every government which has 
 adopted this method, and vigorously pursued it, either has already 
 gained the object, or is in the fair way of gaining it, however unprom- 
 ising the beginnings might have been. No country has ever been so well 
 supplied with competent teachers as Prussia at the present moment, 
 and yet, thirty years ago, the mass of school-teachers there was prob- 
 ably below the present average standard of New England and Ohio. 
 Dinter gives several examples of ignorance and incapacity during the 
 first years of his official labor in East Prussia, which we should scarce- 
 ly expect to find any where in the United States; and the testimony of 
 Dr. Julius before the British House of Commons, which was published 
 in connection with my last report to the Legislature of Ohio, gives a
 
 140 STOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 similar view of the miserable condition of the Prussian schools at that 
 time. 
 
 Now, what has been the great means of effecting so desirable an ob- 
 ject in Prussia? Obviously, and by universal acknowledgement, the es- 
 tablishment of seminaries for the education of teachers.* The experi- 
 ment was commenced by placing one in each of the ten provinces into 
 which the kingdom is divided (equivalent to having one in each of the 
 several States of this Union) ; and as their utility was tested, their 
 number was increased; till now there are more than forty for a popu- 
 lation of fourteen millions. Wirtemberg, Bavaria, Austria, Russia, Hol- 
 land, France, and all other countries which desire to obtain a sufficient 
 number of well-qualified teachers, find it necessary to follow this ex- 
 ample; and I do not believe the United States are an exception to so 
 general a rule. Indeed, such institutions must be even more necessary 
 for us than for them, since, from the crowded state of the professions 
 in old countries, there is much greater competition for the appointment 
 of schoolmaster there than here. 
 
 It now only remains that I state a few of the more prominent objec- 
 tions which are sometimes made to these institutions, and endeavor to 
 answer them. 
 
 1. "Such institutions are unnecessary. We have had good teachers 
 without them, and may have good teachers still." 
 
 This is the old stereotyped objection against every attempt at im- 
 provement in every age. When the bold experiment was first made of 
 nailing iron upon a horse's hoof, the objection was probably urged that 
 horseshoes were entirely unnecessary. "We have had excellent horses 
 without them, and shall probably continue to have them. The Greeks 
 and Romans never used iron horseshoes: and did they not have the 
 best of horses, which could travel thousands of miles, and bear on 
 their backs the conquerors of the world?" So, when chimneys and glass 
 windows were first introduced, the same objection would still hold 
 good. "We have had very comfortable houses without these expensive 
 additions. Our fathers never had them, and why should we?" And at 
 this day, if we were to attempt, in certain parts of the Scottish High- 
 lands, to introduce the practice of wearing pantaloons, we should prob- 
 ably be met with the same objection. "We have had very good men 
 without pantaloons, and no doubt we shall continue to have them." In 
 fact, we seldom know the inconveniences of an old thing till we have 
 taken a new and better one in its stead. It is scarcely a year since the 
 New York and European sailing packets were supposed to afford the 
 very ne plus ultra of a comfortable and speedy passage across the At 
 lantic; but now, in comparison with the newly-established steam-pack- 
 ets, they are justly regarded as a slow, uncertain, and tedious mode of 
 conveyance. The human race is progressive, and it often happens that 
 the greatest conveniences of one generation are reckoned among the 
 clumsiest waste lumber of the next. Compare the best printing-press at 
 which Dr. Franklin ever worked, with those splendid machines which 
 now throw off their thousand sheets an hour; and who will put these 
 down by repeating, that Dr. Franklin was a very good printer, and 
 made very good books, and became quite rich without them? 
 
 I know that we have good teachers already; and I honor the men 
 who have made themselves good teachers, with so little encouragement, 
 and so little opportunity of study. But I also know that such teachers 
 are very few, almost none, in comparison with the public wants; and 
 that a supply never can be expected without the increased facilities 
 which a good Teachers' Seminary would furnish. 
 
 * See Notes B and C, at the close of this article.
 
 8TOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 141 
 
 2. "Such an institution would be very expensive." 
 
 True, it would cost more than it would to build a stable, or fence in 
 a few acres of ground; and in this view of the matter a canal is expen- 
 sive, and so is a public road, and many other things which the public 
 good requires, and the people are willing to pay for. The only questions 
 worthy of answer are: Whether the expense be disproportionate to the 
 object to be secured by it? and whether it be beyond the resources of 
 the country? To both these questions I unhesitatingly answer, No. The 
 object to be secured is one which would fully justify any amount of 
 expense that might be laid out upon it; and all that need be done might 
 be done, and not a man in the State feel the poorer for it. We could not 
 expect a perfect institution at once. We must begin where we are, and 
 go forward by degrees. A school sufficient for all present purposes 
 might well be maintained for five thousand dollars a year; and what 
 is that for States with resources like most of the States of this Union, 
 and for the sake of securing an object so great as the perfection of the 
 school system? If the kingdom of Prussia, with fourteen millions of 
 people, two-thirds of whom are very poor, and the other third not very 
 rich, can support forty-two Teachers' Seminaries, surely such States as 
 Ohio, and Pennsylvania, and Virginia, and others, with populations of 
 more than a million, none of whom are very poor, and many fast grow- 
 ing rich, can afford to support one. 
 
 3. "We cannot be certain that they who study in such institutions 
 would devote themselves to the business of teaching." 
 
 This objection applies with equal force to all professional institu- 
 tions; and if it is of any weight against a Teachers' Seminary, it is 
 equally available against a medical school. The objection, however, has 
 very little weight; for after a man has prepared himself for a profes- 
 sion, he generally wishes to engage in it, if he is competent to dis- 
 charge its duties; and if he is not competent, the public are no losers 
 by his withdrawal. 
 
 But let it even be supposed that a Teachers' Seminary should be es- 
 tablished on the plan above sketched out, and occasionally a man 
 should go successfully through the prescribed course of study, and not 
 engage in teaching; are the public the losers by it? Is the man a worse 
 member of society after such a course of study, or a better? Is he less 
 interested in schools, or less able to perform the duties of a school of- 
 ficer, or less qualified to give a useful direction to the system among 
 the people, than he would have been without such a course of study? 
 Is he not manifestly able to stand on higher ground in all these re- 
 spects, than he otherwise could have done? The benefit which the pub- 
 lic would derive from such men out of the profession (and such would 
 be useful in every school district) would amply remunerate all the ex- 
 penses of the establishment. But such cases would be too few to avail 
 much on either side of the argument; certainly, in any view of them, 
 they can argue nothing against the establishment of Teachers' Sem- 
 inaries. 
 
 4. "Teachers educated in such an institution would exclude all others 
 from the profession." 
 
 Not unless the institution could furnish a supply for all the schools, 
 and they were so decidedly superior that the people would prefer them 
 to all others; in which case certainly the best interests of education 
 demand that the statement in the objection should be verified in fact. 
 But the success of the institution will not be so great and all-absorbing 
 as this. It will not be able at once to supply half the number of teach- 
 ers needed, and all who are educated in it will not be superior to every 
 one who has not enjoyed its advantages. There is great diversity of 
 natural gifts; and some, with very slender advantages, will be superior
 
 142 STOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 to others who have been in possession of every facility for acquisition. 
 That such an institution will elevate the standard of qualification 
 among teachers, and crowd out those who notoriously fall below this 
 standard, is indeed true; but this, so far from being an objection, is 
 one of its highest recommendations. 
 
 5. "One such institution cannot afford a sufficient supply for all the 
 schools." 
 
 This is readily conceded; but people generally admit that half a loaf 
 is better than no bread, especially if they are hungry. If we have a 
 thousand teachers, it is much better that three hundred of the number 
 should be well qualified, than that all should be incompetent; and five 
 hundred would be still better than three hundred, and seven hundred 
 better than either, and the whole thousand best of all. We must begin 
 as well as we can, and go forward as fast as we are able; and not be like 
 the poor fool who will not move at all, because the first step he takes 
 from his own door will not land him at once in the place of his destina- 
 tion. The first step is a necessary preliminary to the second, and the sec- 
 ond to the third, and so on till all the steps are taken, and the journey 
 completed. The educated teacher will exert a reforming influence on 
 those who have not been so well prepared; he will elevate and enlarge 
 their views of the duties of the profession, and greatly assist them in 
 their endeavors after a more perfect qualification.* He will also excite 
 capable young men among his pupils to engage in the profession; for 
 one of the greatest excitements of the young to engage in any business, 
 is to see a superior whom they respect in the successful prosecution of 
 it. 
 
 Every well-educated teacher does much toward qualifying those who 
 are already in the profession without sufficient preparation, and to- 
 ward exciting others to engage in it; and thus, though the institution 
 cannot supply nearly teachers enough for all the schools, yet all the 
 schools will be better taught in consequence of its influence. Moreover, 
 a State institution would be the parent of many others, which would 
 gradually arise, as their necessity would be appreciated from the per- 
 ceived success of the first. 
 
 6. "The wages of teachers are not sufficient to induce teachers so 
 well educated to engage in the profession." 
 
 At present this is true; for wages are generally graduated accord- 
 ing to the aggregate merit of the profession, and this, hitherto, has 
 not been very great. People will not pay high for a poor article; and a 
 disproportionate quantity of poor articles in market, which are offered 
 cheap, will affect the price of the good, with the generality of pur- 
 chasers. But let the good be supplied in such quantities as to make the 
 people acquainted with it, and it will soon drive out the bad, and 
 command its own price. The establishment of a Teachers' Seminary 
 will raise the wages of teachers, by increasing their qualifications, and 
 augmenting the real value of their services; and people eventually will 
 pay a suitable compensation for good teaching, with much less grudg- 
 ing than they have hitherto paid the cheap wages of poor teachers, 
 which, after all, as has been well observed, is but "buying ignorance at 
 a dear rate."* 
 
 * See Note D, at the close of this article. 
 
 * The New England practice of having district schools taught by college-students, 
 during their winter vacation, has been of great and acknowledeged utility both to the 
 teachers and the schools. I have no desire to discourage this good old practice ; for I 
 apprehend that our common district schools, for many years to come, will need the 
 services of temporary teachers of this kind. It is to be wished, however, that our 
 colleges would make some provision for the special instruction of such students as 
 engage in teaching. It would not only make their teachers much more valuable, but 
 would fit them also to become school-examiners and inspectors after they have left the 
 vocation of schoolmaster for some more lucrative employment.
 
 8TOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 143 
 
 NOTES 
 
 (A.) 
 
 CHINESE EDUCATION. 
 
 There is a regular system of schools in China of two kinds the peo- 
 ple's schools, and schools for the nobles. The course commences when 
 the child is five years old, and is continued very rigorously, with but 
 few and short vacations, to the age of manhood. In the people's schools 
 the course consists of four parts, each of which has its appropriate 
 book. The first is called Pe-kia-sing, and contains the names of persons 
 in one hundred families, which the children must commit to memory. 
 The second is called Tsa-tse, and contains a variety of matters neces- 
 sary to be known in the common business of life. The third is called 
 Tsien-tse-ouen, a collection of one thousand alphabetical letters. The 
 fourth is San-tse-king, a collection of verses of three syllables each, de- 
 signed to teach the elements of Chinese morals and history. Such is the 
 provision for the common people. 
 
 For the nobles there is a great university at Pekin, the Koue-tze-kien, 
 to which every mandarin is allowed to send one of his sons. The can- 
 didate for admission must go first to the governor of a city of the 
 third rank for examination, and if approved, he receives the degree of 
 Hien-ming. He then goes to the governor of a city of the first rank, 
 and, if he maintains a good examination there, is admitted to the uni- 
 versity. 
 
 A mandarin is annually sent out from Pekin, to visit the higher in- 
 stitutions in the larger cities, and to confer degrees on the pupils, ac- 
 cording to their progress. A class of four hundred is selected, and 
 passes through ten examinations. The fifteen who have acquitted them- 
 selves best in all these examinations, receive the degree of Sinoa-tsay, 
 the most important privilege of which is, that they are no longer liable 
 to be whipped with the bamboo. Rich men's sons, who cannot always 
 obtain this degree by a successful passage through the ten examina- 
 tions, can procure the equivalent degree of Kien-song by paying a stip- 
 ulated sum into the public treasury. Having attained either of these 
 lower degrees, the pupil, after three years, can offer himself at Pekin 
 for the higher degree of Kinjin, which must be obtained after rigorous 
 examination. The successful applicants for the honor, after one year 
 longer, can demand at Pekin an examination for the highest acad- 
 emical degree, that of Tsin-tse. He who obtains this is congratulated 
 and feasted by his friends; he is regarded with veneration by the peo- 
 ple, is eligible to the highest office in the State, and may be raised by 
 the Emperor to the dignity of Han-lin. 
 
 The Emperor himself is required to be a man of learning, and the 
 care of his early education is committed to a special college of learned 
 men, called Tschea-sza-fu; and he is regarded in law as the educator 
 and instructor of his people, as well as their ruler. In each village there 
 is a public hall, where the civil and military functionaries assemble on 
 the first and fifteenth of every month, and a discourse is delivered to 
 them on the Sacred Edict. This Sacred Edict contains, 1. The principles 
 of Khong-hi, an ancient emperor. 2. A commentary by his son, Young- 
 tching, who reigned about the year 1700; and, 3. A paraphrase by Wang- 
 yeou-po. It was translated into English by Rev. W. Milne, Protestant 
 Missionary at Malacca, and printed in London in 1817. 
 
 In the above brief sketch, it is plain that the Chinese have a great 
 veneration for learning, and that the emoluments and honors of the 
 empire are designed to be accessible to those only who have taken 
 academical degrees. But the whole system is arranged to make them
 
 144 STOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 Chinese. It excludes every thing of foreign origin, it admits neither 
 improvement nor variation, and the result is manifest in the character 
 of the people. 
 
 Some, however, of our modern improvements have long been known 
 and practiced in the Chinese schools. Such as the practice of the chil- 
 dren reading and repeating together in choir, the art of mnemonics, 
 and others of the like kind. See Schwartz's Geschichte der Erziehung, 
 vol. i. p. 68-75. 
 
 (B.) 
 
 PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS A FEW TEARS AGO. 
 
 The following questions and answers are from Dr. Julius's testimony, 
 before the Committee of the British House of Commons, in 1834, re- 
 specting the Prussian School System. 
 
 "Do you remember, from your own knowledge, what the character 
 and attainments of the schoolmasters were previous to the year 1819?" 
 
 "I do not recollect; but I know they were very badly composed of 
 non-commissioned officers, organists, and half-drunken people. It has 
 not risen like a fountain at once. Since 1770, there has been much done 
 in Prussia, and throughout Germany, for promoting education of teach- 
 ers, and by them of children." 
 
 "In your own observation has there been any very marked improve- 
 ment in the character and attainments of schoolmasters, owing to the 
 pains taken to which you have referred?" 
 
 "A very decided improvement." 
 
 Dinter, in his autobiography, gives some surprising specimens of 
 gross incapacity in teachers, even subsequent to 1819. The following 
 anecdotes are from that interesting work, Dinner's Leben von ihm 
 selbst beschrieben. 
 
 In the examination of a school in East Prussia, which was taught by 
 a subaltern officer dismissed from the army, the teacher gave Dinter 
 a specimen of his skill in the illustration of Scripture narrative. The 
 passage was Luke vii., the miracle of raising the widow's son at Nain. 
 "See, children (says the teacher), Nain was a great city, a beautiful 
 city; but even in such a great, beautiful city, there lived people who 
 must die. They brought the dead youth out. See, children, it was the 
 same then as it is now dead people couldn't go alone they had to be 
 carried. He that was dead began to speak. This was a sure sign that he 
 was alive again, for if he had continued dead he couldn't have spoken 
 a word" 
 
 In a letter to the King, a dismissed schoolmaster complained that the 
 district was indebted to him 200705 dollars. Dinter supposed the man 
 must be insane, and wrote to the physician of the place to inquire. The 
 physician replied that the poor man was not insane, but only ignorant 
 of the numeration table, writing 200 70 5 instead of 275. Dinter sub- 
 joins, "By the help of God, the King, and good men, very much has now 
 been done to make things better." 
 
 In examining candidates for the school-teacher's office, Dinter asked 
 one where the Kingdom of Prussia was situated. He replied, that *ie 
 believed it was somewhere in the southern part of India. He asked an- 
 other the cause of the ignisfatuus, commonly called Jack-with-the-lan- 
 tern. He said they were specters made by the devil. Another being 
 asked why he wished to become a school-teacher, replied, that he must 
 get a living somehow. 
 
 A military man of great influence once urged Dinter to recommend 
 a disabled soldier, in whom he was interested, as a school-teacher. "I 
 will do so," says Dinter, "if he sustains the requisite examination." 
 "Oh," says the Colonel, "he doesn't know much about school-teaching,
 
 8TOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 145 
 
 but he Is a good, moral, steady man, and I hope you will recommend 
 him to oblige me." D. O yes, Colonel, to oblige you, if you in your turn 
 will do me a favor. Col. What is that? D. Get me appointed drum- 
 major in your regiment. True, I can neither beat a drum, nor play a 
 fife; but I am a good, moral, steady man as ever lived. 
 
 A rich landholder once said to him, "Why do you wish the peasant 
 children to be educated? it will only make them unruly and disobed- 
 ient." Dinter replied, "If the masters are wise, and the laws good, the 
 more intelligent the people, the better they will obey." 
 
 Dinter complained that the military system of Prussia was a great 
 hindrance to the schools. A nobleman replied that the young men en- 
 joyed the protection of the government, and were thereby bound to 
 defend it by arms. Dinter asked if every stick of timber in the house 
 ought first to be used in a fire-engine, because the house was protected 
 by the engine? or whether it would be good policy to cut down all the 
 trees of an orchard to build a fence with, to keep the hogs from eating 
 the fruit? 
 
 (C.) 
 
 SCHOOL-COUNSELOR DINTER. 
 
 GUSTAVUS FREDERICK DINTER was born at a village near Leipsic, in 
 1760. He first distinguished himself as principal of a Teachers' Sem- 
 inary in Saxony, whence he was invited by the Prussian government 
 to the station of School-Counselor for Eastern Prussia. He resides at 
 Konigsberg, and about ninety days in the year he spends in visiting 
 the schools of his province, and is incessantly employed nearly thir- 
 teen hours a day for the rest of his time, in the active duties of his 
 office; and that he may devote himself more exclusively to his work, 
 he lives unmarried. He complains that his laborious occupation pre- 
 vents his writing as much as he wishes for the public, yet, in addition 
 to his official duties, he lectures several times a week, during term- 
 time, in the University at Konigsberg, and always has in his house a 
 number of indigent boys, whose education he superintends, and, though, 
 poor himself, gives them board and clothing. He has made it a rule to 
 spend every Wednesday afternoon, and, if possible, one whole day in 
 the week besides, in writing for the press; and thus, by making the 
 best use of every moment of time, though he was nearly forty years 
 old before his career as an author commenced, he has contrived to pub- 
 lish more than sixty original works, some of them extending to several 
 volumes, and all of them popular. Of one book, a school catechism, fifty 
 thousand copies were sold previous to 1830; and of his large work, the 
 School-Teacher's Bible, in 9 volumes 8vo, thirty thousand copies were 
 sold in less than ten years. 
 
 He is often interrupted by persons who are attracted by his fame, or 
 desire his advice; and while conversing with his vistors, that no time 
 may be lost, he employs himself in knitting; and thus not only supplies 
 himself with stockings and mittens, suited to that cold climate, but 
 always has some to give away to indigent students and other poor peo- 
 ple. His disinterestedness is quite equal to his activity, and of the in- 
 come of his publications, he devotes annually nearly five hundred dol- 
 lars to benevolent purposes. Unweariedly industrious, and rigidly eco- 
 nomical as he is, he lays up nothing for himself. He says, "I am one of 
 those happy ones, who, when the question is put to them, 'Lack ye any 
 thing?' (Luke xxii. 35), can answer with joy, 'Lord, nothing.' To have 
 more than one can use is superfluity; and I do not see how this can 
 make any one happy. People often laugh at me, because I will not in- 
 cur the expense of drinking wine, and because I do not wear richer 
 clothing, and live in a more costly style. Laugh away, good people; the 
 
 J
 
 146 STOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 poor boys, also, whose education I pay for, and for whom, besides, I 
 can spare a few dollars for Christmas gifts, and new-year's presents, 
 they have their laugh too." 
 
 Toward the close of his autobiography, he says respecting the King of 
 Prussia, "I live happily under Frederick William; he has just given 
 me one hundred and thirty thousand dollars to build churches with in 
 destitute places; he has established a new Teachers' Seminary for my 
 poor Polanders, and he has so fulfilled my every wish for the good of 
 posterity, that I can myself hope to live to see the time when there 
 shall be no schoolmaster in Prussia more poorly paid than a common 
 laborer. He has never hesitated, during the whole term of my office, 
 to grant me any reasonable request for the helping forward of the 
 school-system. God bless him! I am with all my heart a Prussian. And 
 now, my friends, when ye hear that old Dinter is dead, say 'May he 
 rest in peace; he was a laborious, good-hearted, religious man; he was 
 a Christian." 
 
 A few such men in the United States would effect a wonderful change 
 in the general tone of our educational efforts. 
 
 (D.) 
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF SCHOOL-TEACHERS. 
 
 At the commencement of the late school efforts in Prussia, for the 
 benefit of teachers already in the profession who had not possessed the 
 advantages of a regular training, it was the custom for them to as- 
 semble during the weeks of vacation in their schools, and, under the 
 care of a competent teacher, go through a regular course of lessons for 
 their improvement. Of the entire course a careful and minute journal 
 was kept and transmitted to the government. The following is from 
 the journal of a four weeks' course of this kind, which was held at 
 Regenwald in 1821, under the charge of School-Counselor Bernhardt. 
 The King gave his special approbation of this journal, and caused a 
 large number of copies to be printed and circulated throughout the 
 kingdom. The Minister of Public Instruction expresses himself re- 
 specting it in the following terms: 
 
 "The view presented and acted upon by School-Counselor Bernhardt, 
 that the important point is not the quantity and variety of knowledge 
 communicated, but its solidity and accuracy; and that the foundation 
 of all true culture consists in the education to piety, the fear of God, 
 and Christian humility; and, accordingly, that those dispositions, be- 
 fore all things else, must be awakened and confirmed in teachers, that 
 thereby they may exercise love, long-suffering, and cheerfulness, in 
 their difficult and laborious calling these principles are the only cor- 
 rect ones, according to which the education of teachers every where, 
 and in all cases, can and ought to be conducted, notwithstanding the 
 regard which must be had to the peculiar circumstances and the intel- 
 lectual condition of particular provinces and communities. The Minis- 
 try hereby enjoin it anew upon the Regency, not only to make these 
 principles their guide in their own labors in the common schools and 
 Teachers' Seminaries, but also to command and urge them in the most 
 emphatic manner on all teachers and pupils in their jurisdiction. 
 That this will be faithfully done, the Ministry expect with so much the 
 more confidence, because in this way alone can the supreme will of his 
 Majesty the King, repeatedly and earnestly expressed, be fulfilled. Of 
 the manner in which the Regency execute this order, the Ministry ex- 
 pect a Report, and only remark further, that as many copies of the 
 journal as may be needed will be supplied." 
 
 The strongly religious character of the instructions in the following 
 journal will be noticed; but will any Christian find fault with this 
 characteristic, or with the King and Ministry for commending it?
 
 STOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 147 
 
 The journal gives an account of the employment of every hour In 
 the day, from half past six in the morning to a quarter before nine in 
 the evening. Instead of making extracts from different parts of it, I 
 here present the entire journal for the last week of the course, that 
 the reader may have the better opportunity of forming his own judg- 
 ment on the real merits of the system. 
 
 FOURTH WEEK. 
 
 Monday, Oct. 22. A. M. 6% -7. Meditation. Teachers and parents, for- 
 get not that your children are men, and that, as such, they have the 
 ability to become reasonable. God will have all men to come to the 
 knowledge of the truth. As men, our children have the dignity of men, 
 and a right to life, cultivation, honor, and truth. This is a holy, inalien- 
 able right, that is, no man can divest himself of it without ceasing to 
 be a man. 7-8%. Bible instruction. Reading the Bible, and verbal anal- 
 ysis of what is read. Jesus in the wilderness. 9-12. Writing. Exercise 
 in small letters. P. M. 2-5. Writing as before. 5%-7 Singing. 8-8%. 
 Meditation. Our schools should be Christian schools for Christian chil- 
 dren, and Jesus Christ should be daily the chief teacher. One thing is 
 needful. Jesus Christ, the same yesterday, to-day, and forever. The 
 great end of our schools, therefore, is the instruction of children in 
 Christianity; or the knowledge of heavenly truths in hope of eternal 
 life; and to answer the question, What must I do to be saved? Our 
 children, as they grow up, must be able to say, from the conviction of 
 their hearts, We know and are sure that thou art the Christ, the Son 
 of the living God. Beloved teachers, teach no Christianity without 
 Christ, and know that there cannot be a living faith without knowl- 
 edge and love. 
 
 Tuesday, Oct. 23. A. M. 6-7. Meditation. Christian Schools are the 
 gardens of God's spirit, and the plantations of humanity, and, there- 
 fore, holy places. How dreadful is this place! This is none other than 
 the house of God. Teachers, venerate your schools regard the sacred as 
 sacred. 7-8%. Bible instruction. Reading of the Bible and verbal anal- 
 ysis of what is read. Luke xv. 1-10. 8%-9. Catechism. Repeating the sec- 
 ond article with proper emphasis, and the necessary explanation of 
 terms. 10-12. Writing. Exercises in German capitals, with the writing 
 of syllables and words. P. M. 1-4. General repetition of the instructions 
 for school-teachers given during the month. 4-5. Brief instruction re- 
 specting school discipline and school laws. 5-7 Singing. 8-8%. Medita- 
 tion. Teachers, you should make your school a house of prayer, not a 
 den of murderers. Thou shalt not kill that is, thou shalt do no injury 
 to the souls of thy children. This you will do if you are an ungodly 
 teacher, if you neglect your duty, if you keep no order or discipline in 
 your school, if you instruct the children badly, or not at all, and set 
 before them an injurious example. The children will be injured also 
 by hurrying through the school-prayers, the texts, the catechism, and 
 by all thoughtless reading and committing to memory. May God help 
 you! 
 
 Wednesday, Oct. 24. 6-6%. Meditation. Dear teachers, you labor for 
 the good of mankind and the kingdom of God; be, therefore, God's in- 
 struments and co-workers. Thy kingdom come. In all things approv- 
 ing ourselves as ministers of God. 6%-8%. Bible instruction as before, 
 John iv. 1-15. 8%-9. Catechism. The correct and emphatic reading and 
 repeating of the first section, with brief explanation of terms. 10-12. 
 Instruction in school discipline and school laws. P. M. 1-3. Instruction 
 in the cultivation of fruit-trees. For instruction in this branch of econ- 
 omy, the school is arranged in six divisions, each under the care of a 
 teacher acquainted with the business, with whom they go into an or- 
 chard, and under his inspection perform all the necessary work. Gen-
 
 148 STOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 eral principles and directions are written in a book, of which each stu- 
 dent has a copy. More cooling is the shade, and more sweet the fruit, 
 of the tree which thine own hands have planted and cherished. 3-5. 
 Instruction in school discipline and school laws. 5 J /4-%. Singing. 8-9, 
 Meditation. The Christian school-teacher is also a good husband and 
 father. Blameless, the husband of one wife, vigilant, sober, of good 
 behavior, apt to teach, not given to wine, no striker, not greedy of 
 filthy lucre, patient, not a brawler, not covetous, one that ruleth well 
 his own house, having his children in subjection, with all gravity. He 
 that readeth, let him understand. 
 
 Thursday, Oct. 25. A. M. 6-6%. Meditation. Dear teachers, do all in 
 your power to live in harmony and peace with your districts, that you 
 may be a helper of the parents in the bringing up of their children. 
 Endeavor to maintain the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace. As 
 much as in you lies, live peaceably with all men. 6%-9. Bible instruc- 
 tion as before, Luke vii. 11-17. Reading by sentences, by words, by 
 syllables, by letters. Reading according to the sense, with questions as 
 to the meaning. Understandest thou what thou readest? 10-11. Instruc- 
 tions as to prayer in schools. Forms of prayer suitable for teachers and 
 children are copied and committed to memory. Lord, teach us to pray. 
 11-12. Writing. Exercise in capitals and writing words. P. M. 2-3. In- 
 struction respecting prayer in the family and in the school. Forms of 
 prayer for morning and evening, and at the table, are copied, with in- 
 structions that school children should commit them to memory, that 
 they may aid their parents to an edifying performance of the duty of 
 family worship; that, as the school thus helps the family, so the fam- 
 ily also may help the school. Use not vain repetitions. 3-5. Bible in- 
 struction. General views of the contents of the Bible, and how the 
 teacher may communicate, analyze, and explain them to his children, 
 yearly, at the commencement of the winter and summer terms. 5^-7. 
 Singing. 8-9. Meditation. Teachers, acquire the confidence and love of 
 your districts, but never forsake the direct path of duty. Fear God, 
 do right, and be afraid of no man. The world, with its lusts, passeth 
 away, but he that doeth the will of God shall abide forever. 
 
 Friday, Oct. 26. Meditation. Teachers, hearken to the preacher, and 
 labor into his hands; for he is placed over the Church of God, who will 
 have the school be an aid to the Church. Remember them that labor 
 among you, and are over you in the Lord, and esteem them highly in 
 love for their works' sake. Neither is he that planteth any thing, nor 
 he that watereth any thing, but God who giveth the increase. 7-9. 
 Bible instruction. Summary of the contents of the Bible, to be com- 
 mitted to memory by children from ten to fifteen years of age. 10-12. 
 Bible instruction. Brief statement of the contents of the historical 
 books of the New Testament. P. M. 1-5. Bible instruction. Contents of 
 the doctrinal and prophetical books of the New Testament. Selection 
 of the passages of the New Testament proper to be read in a country 
 school. A guide for teachers to the use of the Bible in schools. 5-7. 
 Singing. 8-9. Meditation. Honor and love, as a good teacher, thy King 
 and thy father-land; and awake the same feelings and sentiments in 
 the hearts of thy children. Fear God, honor the King, seek the good of 
 the country in which you dwell, for when it goes well with it, it goes 
 well with thee. 
 
 Saturday, Oct. 27. 6-6 *. Meditation. By the life in the family, the 
 school, and the church, our heavenly Father would educate us and our 
 children for our earthly and heavenly home; therefore parents, teach- 
 ers, and preachers, should labor hand in hand. One soweth and another 
 reapeth. I have laid the foundation, another buildeth thereon; and let 
 every man take heed how he buildeth thereon. Means of education: 1. 
 In the family the parents, domestic life, habits; 2. In the school the
 
 8TOWE ON NORMAL SCHOOLS. 149 
 
 teacher, the instruction, the discipline; 3. In the church the preach- 
 ing, the word, the sacraments. 6%-9%. Bible instruction. Rules which 
 the teacher should observe in reading the Bible. In analyzing it. In re- 
 spect to the contents of the Old Testament books, and selections from 
 them for reading, written instructions are given and copied, on ac- 
 count of the shortness of the time which is here given to this topic. 
 10-12. Bible instruction. General repetition. P. M. 1-4. Bible instruction. 
 General repetition. 4-5. Reading. Knowledge of the German language, 
 with written exercises. 7-10 Vk. Review of the course of instruction and 
 the journal. 10%-12. Meditation. The prayer of Jesus (John xvii.), with 
 particular reference to our approaching separation. 
 
 Sunday, Oct. 28. 6 %-9. Morning prayer. Catechism. Close of the term. 
 (In the open air on a hill at sunset) singing and prayer. Address by 
 the head teacher. Subject. What our teacher would say to us when we 
 separate from him. 1. What you have learned apply well, and follow it 
 faithfully. If ye knew these things, happy are ye if ye do them. 2. 
 Learn to see more and more clearly that you know but little. We know 
 in part. 3. Be continually learning, and never get weary. The man has 
 never lived who has learned all that he might. 4. Be yourself what you 
 would have your children become. Become as little children. 5. Let 
 God's grace be your highest good, and let it strengthen you in the dif- 
 ficulties which you must encounter. My grace is sufficient for thee 
 my strength is perfect in thy weakness. 6. Keep constantly in mind the 
 Lord Jesus Christ. He has left us an example that we should follow 
 his steps. Hymn Lord Jesus Christ, hearken thou to us. Prayer. Ben- 
 ediction. 
 
 Review of the hours spent in different studies during the four weeks. 
 Arithmetic, sixty -seven; writing, fifty-six; Bible, twenty-five; medita- 
 tion, thirty-six; other subjects, twenty-six; singing, twenty-eight. To- 
 tal, two hundred and thirty-eight. From nine to ten, in the morning, 
 was generally spent in walking together, and one hour in the after- 
 noon was sometimes spent in the same manner. 
 
 Familiar lectures were given on the following topics: 1. Directions 
 to teachers as to the knowledge and right use of the Bible in schools. 
 2. Directions to teachers respecting instruction in writing. 3. Direc- 
 tions for exercises in mental arithmetic. 4. Instructions respecting 
 school discipline and school laws. 5. A collection of prayers for the 
 school and family, with directions to teachers. 6. The German parts of 
 speech, and how they may be best taught in a country school. 7. The 
 day-book. 
 
 Printed books were the following: 1. Dinter's Arithmetic. 2. Dinter 
 on Guarding against Fires. 3. Brief Biography of Luther. 4. On the 
 Cultivation of Fruit-Trees. 5. German Grammar. 6. Baumgarten's Let- 
 ter-Writer for Country Schools. 7. Luther's Catechism. 
 
 That which can be learned and practiced in the short space of a few 
 weeks, is only a little a very little. But it is not of so much import- 
 ance that we have more knowledge than others; but most depends on 
 this, that I have the right disposition; and that I thoroughly under- 
 stand and faithfully follow out the little which I do know. 
 
 God help me, that I may give all which I have to my school; and 
 that I, with my dear children, may, above all things, strive after that 
 which is from above. Father in heaven, grant us strength and love for 
 this.
 
 PROCEEDINGS 
 
 OF AN 
 
 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTION IN PLYMOUTH COUNTY, IN 1838. 
 
 In the autumn of 1834, Rev. Charles Brooks, pastor of a 
 church in Hingham, commenced his labors in behalf of com- 
 mon schools, and particularly of the establishment of a state 
 system of supervision, and of a Normal School. Mr. Brooks 
 had become interested in these features of a system of pub- 
 lic education during a visit to Europe, and from an oppor- 
 tunity of becoming well acquainted with the details of the 
 Prussian system, in conversation with Dr. Julius, who was 
 his companion across the Atlantic, during his voyage home, 
 when the latter gentleman was on his visit to this country 
 on a commission from the Government of Prussia, to exam- 
 ine into our system of prison discipline. As will be seen 
 hereafter, that visit was twice blessed it helped, by dis- 
 seminating a knowledge of our improvements in prisons, 
 and our amelioration of the criminal code, to advance the 
 cause of humanity in Europe, and make known among our 
 statesmen and educators the progress which had been made 
 in Germany in the means and agencies of popular educa- 
 tion. Mr. Brooks' first public effort was on the 3d of Decem- 
 ber, 1835, in a thanksgiving address to his people, in which 
 he gave a sketch of the Prussian system of education, and 
 proposed the holding a series of conventions of the friends 
 of common schools to agitate the subject of establishing a 
 Normal School in the old colony. The first of these conven- 
 tions was held on the 7th of December, 1836, and continued 
 in session two days. This was followed by a second, at Hing- 
 ham, on the llth ; at Duxbury, on the 18th ; at New Bedford, 
 on the 21st and 23d ; at Fair Haven, on the 23d ; and at East 
 Bridgewater, on the 24th and 25th of the same month. Mr. 
 Brooks continued his labors in the county in the autumn 
 and winter following, sometimes before conventions, and 
 sometimes by his individual appointment. He was at Kings- 
 ton on the 16th of January, 1837 ; at South Hingham, Feb- 
 ruary 4th; at Quincy, February 21st; at Dunbury, May 
 10th ; at Hansen, July 9th ; at Plymouth, October 24th ; and 
 at Weymouth, November 5th. 
 
 The labors of this gentleman were not confined to the old 
 colony, or even to the State of Massachusetts. In the course 
 of the same year he lectured at Northampton, Springfield,
 
 152 EDUCATIONAL CONVKNTION IN PLYMOUTH COUNTY. 
 
 Deerfield, Boston, Middleborough, and other places in Mas- 
 sachusetts, in 1836 and 1837, and particularly in the Hall of 
 the House of Representatives on the 18th and 19th of Janu- 
 ary, 1837, during the memorable session of the Legislature, 
 in which the Board of Education was instituted ; and on the 
 28th of January, 1838, during the no less memorable ses- 
 sion, by which the first appropriation in behalf of Normal 
 Schools was made. His theme every where was the Teacher 
 "As is the Teacher, so is the School," and the aim of all 
 his discourses was to induce individuals and legislatures to 
 establish Normal Schools and other agencies for improving 
 the qualifications and the pecuniary and social condition of 
 the teacher, as the source of all other improvements in pop- 
 ular education. His facts and illustrations were drawn from 
 the experience of Prussia and Holland. Mr. Brooks closed 
 his active labors in this cause in Massachusetts after he had 
 the satisfaction of seeing the Board of Education estab- 
 lished, and the first Normal School opened ; but not until he 
 had made a powerful effort to get one of these institutions 
 located in Plymouth county, by means of the educational 
 convention held at Hanover, on the 3d of September, 1838, 
 which was graced by the presence and address of several of 
 the most distinguished public men in the commonwealth. 
 After noticing the proceedings of that convention, we will 
 return to our narrative. 
 
 At a meeting of the Plymouth County Association for the 
 Improvement of Common Schools," held at Hanover, Sep- 
 tember 3d, 1838, the question of a Normal School in Ply- 
 mouth County was discussed by an array of distinguished 
 men, such as the cause has seldom brought together in this 
 country. The following notice of the proceedings is abridged 
 from the Hingham Patriot. After an address by Mr. Mann, 
 Secretary of the Board of Education, on "Special Prepara- 
 tion, a Pre-requisite to Teaching," Rev. Mr. Brooks, of 
 Hingham, introduced a resolution approving of a plan, pro- 
 posed by a committee of the Association, to raise in the sev- 
 eral towns in the county a sum sufficient to provide a build- 
 ing, fixtures, and apparatus, in order to secure the location 
 of one of the three Normal Schools which the Board pro- 
 posed to establish in Plymouth county. Mr. Brooks excused 
 himself from advocating the resolution, inasmuch as he had 
 reiterated his views on the subject in every town in the 
 county, and published them in two addresses through the 
 press; he therefore gave way to friends from abroad, who 
 had come with strong hands and warm hearts to aid in the 
 holy work.
 
 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTION IN PLYMOUTH COUNTY. 153 
 
 Mr. Ichabod Morton, of Plymouth, who had, two years 
 before, out of a large heart, and small resources, offered to 
 meet one tenth of the expense of the enterprise, advocated 
 the raising up better teachers, who, by a Christian educa- 
 tion, could carry the happiness of childhood fresh and whole 
 through life. 
 
 Mr. Rantoul, of Gloucester, thought a reformation in our 
 common schools was exceedingly needed, and this change 
 for the better could only be effected by better teachers, 
 well paid, and permanently employed. 
 
 Rev. George Putnam, of Roxburg : 
 
 "For himself he saw no objection to the establishment of Normal 
 Schools. But perhaps some might say, there was no need of special 
 preparation for a teacher. To this opinion he must emphatically ob- 
 ject. If there be any department for the able and proper performance 
 of whose duties special instruction is absolutely necessary, it is that of 
 the educator. He said he had once kept school, and with tolerable ac- 
 ceptance, he believed, to his employers, but though just from college, 
 he found himself deficient in the very first steps of elementary knowl- 
 edge. He had studied all the mathematics required at Cambridge, but 
 he did not know how to come at a young mind so as successfully to 
 teach enumeration. He had studied the classics; but he could not teach 
 a boy how to construct a simple English paragraph. He found himself 
 wanting in that highest of arts, the art of simplifying difficult things 
 so that children can grasp them. He therefore, from his own experi- 
 ence, ventured to say, that no liberal profession so comes short of its 
 objects as that of the schoolmaster. Few, very few, apprehend its dif- 
 ficulties. To know how to enter the child's soul, and when there to 
 know what to do, is knowledge possesed but by few, and if there be a 
 province in which specific preparation be necessary it is this; and this 
 very preparation is what Normal Schools promise to confer. We want 
 no law schools, or any higher schools or colleges at this time, so much 
 as we want seminaries, to unfold the young minds of this community. 
 Another objection might be with some, that a Normal School in Ply- 
 mouth County was some trick of the rich to get advantage of the poor. 
 He ably refuted this objection. He said it happened to have a directly 
 opposite tendency. It was to be a free school; free in tuition and open 
 to the porest of the poor. It would eminently benefit the poor. The rich 
 would not go to it except where a great love of teaching actuated a 
 rich young person. On the other hand it would be a free school where 
 a very superior education would be furnished gratis to any one who 
 wished to become a teacher in the county. Another objection might be 
 felt by some, viz., that it may tend to raise the wages of our teach- 
 ers. To this he replied, that females might become teachers to a wider 
 extent than now. It would, moreover, raise common schools to be the 
 best schools in the community; and when they had become the best 
 schools, as they should be, then the money now spent in private schools 
 would be turned in to the public ones, as in the Latin School at Bos- 
 ton, and higher wages could be given without any additional burden 
 on our towns. He asked why should not the great mass of the people 
 have the best schools? Why should not talent and money be expended 
 on town schools as well as on academies and colleges? Let the town 
 schools be made as good as to force all parents, from mere selfishness, 
 to send their children. Let all our young people come together, as re- 
 publicans should, find common sympathies, and move by a common 
 set of nerves. The Normal School, while it opens infinite advantages to
 
 154 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTION IN PLYMOUTH COUNTY. 
 
 the poor, will lessen their burdens and elevate them to knowledge and 
 influence." 
 
 Hon. John Quincy Adams: 
 
 "He had examined the subject of late, and he thought the move- 
 ments in this county by the friends of education had been deliberate 
 and wise and Christian; and he thought the plan, contemplated by the 
 very important resolution before the meeting, could not but find favor 
 with every one who would examine and comprehend it. All accounts 
 concur in stating a deficiency of competent teachers. He said, when he 
 came to that meeting, he had objections to the plan rising in his mind; 
 but those objections had been met and so clearly answered, that he now 
 was convinced of the wisdom and forecast of the project, and that it 
 aimed at the best interests of this community. Under this head, and 
 alluding to his views, he said, the original settlers of New England 
 were the first people on the face of the globe who undertook to say that 
 all children should be educated. On this our democracy has been found- 
 ed. Our town schools, and town meetings, have been our stronghold in 
 this point; and our efforts now are to second those of our pious an- 
 cestors. Some kingdoms of Europe have been justly praised for their 
 patronage of elementary instruction, but they were only following our 
 early example. Our old system has made us an enlightened people, and 
 I feared that the Normal School system was to subvert the old system, 
 take the power from the towns and put it into the state, and overturn 
 the old democratic principle of sustaining the schools by a tax on prop- 
 erty; but, I am happy to find that this is not its aim or wish; but on 
 the contrary, it is accordant to all the old maxims, and would elevate 
 the town schools to the new wants of a growing community. He said, 
 he thought of other objections, but they were so faint as to have faded 
 out of his mind. We see monarchs expending vast sums, establishing 
 Normal Schools through their realms, and sparing no pains to convey 
 knowledge and efficiency to all the children of their poorest subjects. 
 Shall we be outdone by Kings? Shall monarchies steal a march on re- 
 publics in the patronage of that education on which a republic is based? 
 On this great and glorious cause let us expend freely, yes, more freely 
 than on any other. There was a usage, he added, in the ancient republic 
 of Sparta, which now occurred to him, and which filled his mind with 
 this pleasing idea, viz., that these endeavors of ours for the fit educa- 
 tion of all our children would be the means of raising up a generation 
 around us which would be superior to ourselves. The usage alluded to 
 was this: the inhabitants of the city on a certain day collected to- 
 gether and marched in procession; dividing themselves into three com- 
 panies; the old, the middle-aged, and the young. When assembled for 
 the sports and exercises, a dramatic scene was introduced, and the 
 three parties had each a speaker; and Plutarch gives the form of 
 phraseology used in the several addresses on the occasion. The old 
 men speak first; and addressing those beneath them in age, say, 
 
 "We have been in days of old 
 Wise, generous, brave, and bold." 
 
 Then come the middle-aged, and casting a triumphant look at their 
 seniors, say to them, 
 
 "That which in days of yore ye were, 
 We, at the present moment, are." 
 
 Last march forth the children, and looking bravely upon both com- 
 panies who had spoken, they shout forth thus: 
 
 "Hereafter at our country's call. 
 We promise to surpass you all." 
 
 Hon. Daniel Webster : 
 
 "He was anxious to concur with others in aid of the project. The 
 ultimate aim was to elevate and improve the primary schools; and to
 
 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTION IN PLYMOUTH COUNTY. 155 
 
 secure competent instruction to every child which should he born. No 
 object is greater than this; and the means, the forms and agents are 
 each and all important. He expressed his obligation to town schools, 
 and paid a tribute to their worth, considering them the foundation of 
 our social and political system. He said he would gladly bear his part 
 of the expense. The town schools need improvement; for if they are no 
 better now than when he attended them, they are insufficient to the 
 wants of the present day. They have, till lately, been overlooked by 
 men who should have considered them. He rejoiced at the noble efforts 
 here made of late, and hoped they might be crowned with entire suc- 
 cess. * * It has become the fashion to teach every thing through the 
 press. Conversation, so valued in ancient Greece, is overlooked and 
 neglected; whereas it is the richest source of culture. We teach too 
 much by manuals, too little by direct intercourse with the pupil's mind; 
 we have too much of words, too little of things. Take any of the com- 
 mon departments, how little do we really know of the practical detail, 
 say geology. It is taught by books. It should be taught by excursions 
 in the fields. So of other things. We begin with the abstracts, and know 
 little of the detail of facts; we deal in generals, and go not to partic- 
 ulars; we begin with the representative, leaving out the constituents. 
 Teachers should teach things. It is a reproach that the public schools 
 are not superior to the private. If I had as many sons as old Priam, I 
 would send them all to the public schools. The private schools have 
 injured, in this respect, the public; they have impoverished them. They 
 who should be in them are withdrawn; and like so many uniform com- 
 panies taken out of the general militia, those left behind are none the 
 better. This plan of a Normal School in Plymouth County is designed 
 to elevate our common schools, and thus to carry out the noble ideas 
 of our pilgrim fathers. There is growing need that this be done. But 
 there is a larger view yet. Every man and every woman, every brother 
 and every sister, is a teacher. Parents are eminently teachers. Every 
 man has an interest in the community, and helps his share to shape it. 
 Now, if Normal Schools are to teach teachers, they enlist this interest 
 on the right side; they make parents and all who any way influence 
 childhood competent to their high office. The good which these Sem- 
 inaries are thus to spread through the community is incalculable. They 
 will turn all the noblest enthusiasm of the land into the holy channel 
 of knowledge and virtue. Now, if our Plymouth school succeeds, they 
 will go up in every part of the state, and who then can compute the 
 exalted character which they may finally create among us? In families 
 there will be better teaching, and the effect will be felt throughout 
 society. This effort thus far has done good. It has raised in many 
 minds a clear conviction of the importance of competent teachers; and 
 a clear benefit to follow this will be, to raise the estimation in which 
 teachers should be held. He hoped that this course of policy would 
 raise, even beyond what we expected, the standard of elementary 
 instruction. He considered the cost very slight. It can not come into 
 any expanded mind as an objection. If it be an experiment, it is a 
 noble one, and should be tried." 
 
 [Mr. Webster has always stood out a bold and eloquent 
 advocate of common schools. In his centennial address at 
 Plymouth, in 1822, he paid the following noble tribute to the 
 policy of New England in this respect: 
 
 "In this particular, New England may be allowed to claim, I think, 
 a merit of a peculiar character. She early adopted and has con- 
 stantly maintained the principle, that it is the undoubted right, and 
 the bounden duty of government, to provide for the instruction of all 
 youth. That which is elsewhere left to chance, or to charity, we
 
 156 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTION IN PLYMOUTH COUNTY. 
 
 secure by law. For the purpose of public instruction, we hold every 
 man subject to taxation in proportion to his property, and we look 
 not to the question, whether he himself have, or have not, children 
 to be benefited by the education for which he pays. We regard it as 
 a wise and liberal system of police, by which property, and life, and 
 the peace of society are secured. We seek to prevent, in some meas- 
 ure, the extension of the penal code, by inspiring a salutary and 
 conservative principle of virtue and of knowledge in an early age. 
 We hope to excite a feeling of respectibility, and a sense of character, 
 by enlarging the capacity, and increasing the sphere of intellectual 
 enjoyment. By general instruction, we seek, as far as possible, to 
 purify the whole moral atmosphere; to keep good sentiments upper- 
 most, and to turn the strong current of feeling and opinion, as well 
 as the censures of the law, and the denunciations of religion, against 
 immorality and crime. We hope for a security, beyond the law, and 
 above the law, in the prevalence of enlightened and well-principled 
 moral sentiment. We hope to continue and prolong the time, when, 
 in the villages and farm-houses of New England, there may be un- 
 disturbed sleep within unbarred doors. And knowing that our gov- 
 ernment rests directly on the public will, that we may preserve it, 
 we endeavor to give a safe and proper direction to that public will. 
 We do not, indeed, expect all men to be philosophers or statesmen; 
 but we confidently trust, and our expectation of the duration of our 
 system of government rests on that trust, that by the diffusion of 
 general knowledge and good and virtuous sentiments, the political 
 fabric may be secure, as well against open violence and overthrow, as 
 against the slow but sure undermining of licentiousness." 
 
 In a speech delivered at Madison, Indiana, after congrat- 
 ulating the people of the state on the attention they had paid 
 to common school education, Mr. Webster adds : 
 
 "Among the planets in the sky of New England the burning lights, 
 which throw intelligence and happiness on her people the first and 
 most brilliant is her system of common schools. I congratulate myself 
 that my first speech on entering public life was in their behalf. Edu- 
 cation, to accomplish the ends of good government, should be uni- 
 versally diffused. Open the doors of the school-house to all the 
 children of the land. Let no man have the excuse of poverty for not 
 educating his own offspring. Place the means of education within 
 his reach, and if they remain in ignorance, be it his own reproach. 
 If one object of the expenditure of your revenue be protection against 
 crime, you could not devise a better or cheaper means of obtaining 
 it. Other nations spend their money in providing means for its de- 
 tection and punishment, but it is for the principles of our government 
 to provide for its never occurring. The one acts by coercion, the other 
 by prevention. On the diffusion of education among the people rests 
 the preservation and perpetuation of our free institutions. I appre- 
 hend no danger to our country from a foreign foe. The prospect of a 
 war with any powerful nation is too remote to be a matter of calcu- 
 lation. Besides there is no nation on earth powerful enough to 
 accomplish our overthrow. Our destruction, should it come at all, 
 will be from another quarter. From the inattention of the people 
 to the concerns of their government from their carelessness and 
 negligence I must confess that I do apprehend some danger. I fear 
 that they may place too implicit a confidence in their public servants, 
 and fail properly to scrutinize their conduct, that in this way they 
 may be made the dupes of designing men, and become the instru- 
 ments of their own undoing. Make them intelligent, and they will be
 
 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTION IN PLYMOUTH COUNTY. 157 
 
 vigilant give them the means of detecting the wrong, and they will 
 apply the remedy."] 
 
 Rev. Dr. Robbins remarked 
 
 "As the offer of the Normal Schools had been first made to the Old 
 Colony, that "mother of us all," he hoped that the descendants of the 
 pilgrims would sustain the exalted character of their fathers; and, as 
 in times past, so now, go forward in improvements which are to 
 elevate and bless all coming generations." 
 
 The object of the Convention was attained. One of the 
 three Normal Schools which the Board had decided to es- 
 tablish out of the donation of $10,000, by Mr. Dwight, and 
 the appropriation of the same sum by the state, placed at 
 their disposal, was located at Bridgewater, in Plymouth 
 County. 
 
 A previous convention in Plymouth County, at Halifax, 
 on the 24th of January, 1837, had adopted a petition to the 
 Legislature, drawn up by the Rev. Charles Brooks,* asking 
 for the Establishment of a Board of Education, and a 
 Teachers' Seminary ; and in the same year, the Directors of 
 the American Institute of Instruction presented a memorial 
 on the same subject, drawn up by George B. Eberson,f of 
 Boston. The Board of Education was established in that 
 year, and the Normal School in the year following. 
 
 * Although not directly connected with the history of Normal Schools in Massa- 
 chusetts, it may be mentioned in this place, that no individual in the whole country 
 has done more to arouse the public mind of New England to the importance of Nor- 
 mal Schools, and to some extent, the leading minds of some other states, than the 
 Rev. Charles Brooks. He lectured before the Legislature of New Hampshire, by their 
 request, at Concord, on the 13th, 14th, and 15th of June, 1837 and 1838, and again 
 in 1845, and in the former year at Keene, Portsmouth, Concord, and Nashua; before 
 the Legislature of Vermont, in 1847, and at several other points in that state ; before 
 the State Convention of the friends of education at Hartford, Connecticut, in Novem- 
 ber, 1838 ; before the Legislature of New Jersey, March 13, 1839 ; at Philadelphia 
 about the same time ; and at Providence in 1838, during the struggle which ended in 
 the re-organization of the public schools of that city, and at a later period, when the 
 establishment of the Public High School was in jeopardy. On one of these visits, Mr. 
 Brooks delivered eight addresses in seven days. These, however, are not all the times 
 and places in which we have met with notices of his labors and addresses in behalf 
 of his favorite subject. Although his labors, every where, in his own country and out 
 of it, in his own state and out of it, were gratuitous, he did not escape the assaults 
 of the newspapers. In one of these, he was represented as "Captain Brooks," with 
 ferule in hand, at the head of a troop of schoolmasters and schoolmistresses, march- 
 ing for a Normal School in the clouds. 
 
 t Mr. Emerson commenced his career as a teacher, in a district school, and before 
 opening his private school for young ladies, he was principal of the English High 
 School, in Boston, on its first establishment, in 1821. Under his immediate direction, 
 Colburn's "First Lessons in Intellectual Arithmetic," printed on separate sheets for 
 this purpose, were first tested, and the deficiencies ascertained in the classes of this 
 school. If Mr. Emerson had rendered no other service to the cause of educational im- 
 provement in this country, than to have successfully organized the First Public Eng- 
 lish High School, and have assisted in perfecting the "First Lessons," he would be 
 entitled to a large measure of the gratitude of teachers and the public generally.
 
 A LECTURE,* 
 
 ON SPECIAL PREPARATION, A PREREQUISITE TO TEACHING, 
 
 1838. 
 
 BY HORACE MANN, 
 
 Gentlemen of the Convention:' 
 
 AFTER the lapse of another year, we are again assembled to hold 
 counsel together for the welfare of our children. On this occasion we 
 have much reason to meet each other with voices of congratulation 
 and hearts of gladness. During the past year the cause of Popular 
 Education in this Commonwealth has gained some suffrages of public 
 opinion. On presenting its wants and its claims to citizens in every 
 part of the State, I have found that there were many individuals who 
 appreciated its importance, and who only awaited an opportunity to 
 give utterance and action to their feelings; in almost every town, 
 some, in many, a band. 
 
 Some of our hopes, also, have become facts. The last Legislature 
 acted toward this cause the part of a wise and faithful guardian. 
 Inquiries having been sent into all parts of the Commonwealth to 
 ascertain the deficiencies in our Common-School system, and the 
 causes of failure in its workings; and the results of those inquiries 
 having been communicated to the Legislature, together with sug- 
 gestions for the application of a few obvious and energetic remedies, 
 that body forthwith enacted such laws as the wants of the system 
 most immediately and imperiously demanded. Probably at no session 
 since the origin of our Common-School system have laws more 
 propitious to its welfare been made, than during the last. 
 ******** 
 
 But among all the auspicious events of the past year, ought not the 
 friends of Popular Education to be most grateful, on account of the 
 offer made by a private gentlemant to the Legislature, of the sum 
 of ten thousand dollars, upon the conditions that the State should add 
 thereto an equal sum, and that the amount should be expended, under 
 the direction of the Board of Education, in qualifying teachers for 
 our Common Schools, and of the promptness and unanimity with 
 which the Legislature acceded to the proposition? I say, the unanimity 
 for the vote was entirely unanimous in the House of Representatives, 
 and there was but one nay in the Senate. Vast donations have been 
 made in this Commonwealth, both by the government and by indi- 
 viduals, for the cause of learning in some of its higher, and, of course, 
 more limited departments; but I believe this to be the first instance 
 where any considerable sum has been given for the cause of educa- 
 tion, generally, and irrespective of class, or sect, or party. Munificent 
 donations have frequently been made, among ourselves, as well as in 
 other States and countries, to perpetuate some distinctive theory or 
 dogma of one's own, or to requite a peculiar few who may have 
 
 * Copied, by permission, from Lectures on Education by Horace Mann, Secretary 
 of the Massachusetts Board of Education. Boston: William B. Fowle. 1845. Most 
 of the Lectures embraced in this volume were delivered by Mr. Mann before conven- 
 tions of the friends of education, held in the several counties of Massachusetts in the 
 autumn of each year, from 1838 to 1842. The lecture which follows was delivered in 
 1838, to prepare the public mind for a fair trial of the experiment of providing means 
 for the special qualification of teachers for the common schools of the State. 
 
 t Hon. Edmund Dwight, of Boston.
 
 160 MR. MANN'S LECTURE IN 1838. 
 
 honored or flattered the giver. But this was given to augment the 
 common mass of intelligence, and to promote universal culture; it was 
 given with a high and enlightened disregard of all local, party, per- 
 sonal, or sectional views; it was given for the direct benefit of all the 
 heart and all the mind, extant, or to be extant, in our beloved Com- 
 monwealth; and, in this respect, it certainly stands out almost, if not 
 absolutely alone, both in the amount of the donation, and in the ele- 
 vation of the motive that prompted it. I will not tarnish the bright- 
 ness of this deed by attempting to gild it with praise. One of the 
 truest and most impressive sentences ever uttered by Sir Walter 
 Scott, is, however, so appropriate, and forces itself so strongly upon 
 my mind, that I cannot repress its utterance. When that plain and 
 homely Scotch girl, Jeannie Deans, the highest of all the characters 
 ever conceived by that gifted author, is pleading her suit before the 
 British queen, and showing herself therein to be ten times a queen, 
 she utters the sentiment I refer to: "But when," says she, "the hour 
 of trouble comes to the mind or to the body, and when the hour of 
 death comes, that comes to high and low, then it isna what we hae 
 dune for oursells, but what we hae dune for others, that we think 
 on maist pleasantly." 
 
 There is, then, at last, on the part of the government of Massa- 
 chusetts, a recognition of the expediency of providing means for the 
 special qualification of teachers for our Common Schools; or, at least, 
 of submitting that question to a fair experiment. Let us not, how- 
 ever, deceive or flatter ourselves with the belief, that such an opinion 
 very generally prevails, or is very deeply seated. A few, and those, 
 as we believe, best qualified to judge, hold this opinion as an axiom. 
 But this cannot be said of great numbers; and it requires no prophetic 
 vision to forsee that any plan for carrying out this object, however 
 wisely framed, will have to encounter not only the prejudices of the 
 ignorant, but the hostility of the selfish. 
 
 The most momentous practical questions now before our State and 
 country are these: In order to preserve our republican institutions, 
 must not out Common Schools be elevated in character and increased 
 in efficiency? and, in order to bring our schools up to the point of 
 excellence demanded by the nature of our institutions, must there not 
 be a special course of study and training to qualify teachers for their 
 office? No other worldly interest presents any question comparable 
 to these in importance. To the more special consideration of the 
 latter, namely, whether the teachers of our public schools require a 
 special course of study and training to qualify them for their voca- 
 tion, I solicit your attention, during the residue of this address. 
 
 I shall not here insist upon any particular mode of preparation, or 
 of preparation in any particular class of institutions, whether Normal 
 Schools, special departments in academies, colleges, or elsewhere, 
 to the exclusion of all other institutions. What I insist upon, is, not 
 the form, but the substance. 
 
 In treating this subject, duty will require me to speak of errors 
 and deficiencies; and of the inadequate conceptions now entertained 
 of the true office and mission of a teacher. This is a painful obliga- 
 tion, and in discharging it I am sure I shall not be misunderstood by 
 any candid and intelligent mind. Toward the teachers of our schools, 
 as a class, I certainly possess none but the most fraternal feelings. 
 Their want of adequate qualifications is the want of the times, rather 
 than of themselves. Teachers, heretofore, have only been partakers 
 In a general error, an error in which you and I, my hearers, have 
 been as profoundly lost as they. Let this be their excuse hitherto,
 
 MR. MANN'S LECTURE IN 1838. 161 
 
 and let the Ignorance of the past be winked at; but the best service 
 we can now render them, is to take this excuse away, by showing 
 the inadequacy and the unsoundness of our former views. Let all who 
 shall henceforth strive to do better, stand acquitted for past delin- 
 quencies; but will not those deserve a double measure of condemna- 
 tion who shall set themselves in array against measures, which so 
 many wise and good men have approved, at least until those meas- 
 ures have been fairly tested? When the tree shall have been planted 
 long enough to mature its fruit, then let it be known by its fruit. 
 
 No one has ever supposed that an individual could build up a 
 material temple, and give it strength, and convenience, and fair pro- 
 portions, without first mastering the architectural art; but we have 
 employed thousands of teachers for our children, to build up the 
 Immortal Temple of the Spirit, who have never given to this divine, 
 educational art, a day nor an hour of prelimnary study or attention. 
 How often have we sneered at Dogberry in the play, because he holds 
 that "to read and write comes by nature;" when we ourselves have 
 undertaken to teach, or have employed teachers, whose only fitness 
 for giving instruction, not only in reading and writing, but in all other 
 things, has come by nature, if it has come at all; that is, in exact 
 accordance with Dogberry's philosophy. 
 
 In maintaining the affirmative of this question, namely, that all 
 teachers do require a special course of study and training, to qualify 
 them for their profession, I will not higgle with my adversary in 
 adjusting preliminaries. He may be the disciple of any school in 
 metaphysics, and he may hold what faith he pleases, respecting the 
 mind's nature and essence. Be he spiritualist or materialist, it here 
 matters not, nay, though he should deny that there is any such 
 substance as mind or spirit at all, I will not stop to dispute that point 
 with him, preferring rather to imitate the example of those old 
 knights of the tournament, who felt such confidence in the justness of 
 their cause, that they gave their adversaries the advantage of sun 
 and wind. For, whatever the mind may be, in its inscrutable nature 
 or essence, or whether there be any such thing as mind or spirit at 
 all, properly so called, this we have seen and do know, that there 
 come beings into this world, with every incoming generation of chil- 
 dren, who, although at first so ignorant, helpless, speechless, so 
 incapable of all motion, upright or rotary, that we can hardly persuade 
 ourselves they have not lost their way, and come, by mistake, into 
 the wrong world; yet, after a few swift years have passed away, we 
 see thousands of these same ignorant and helpless beings, expiating 
 horrible offenses in prison-cells, or dashing themselves to death against 
 the bars of a maniac's cage; others of them, we see, holding "colloquy 
 sublime," in halls where a nation's fate is arbitrated, or solving some 
 of the mightiest problems that belong to this wonderful universe; 
 and others still, there are, who, by daily and nightly contemplation 
 of the laws of God, have kindled that fire of divine truth within their 
 bosoms, by which they become those moral luminaries whose light 
 shineth from one part of the heavens unto the other. And this amaz- 
 ing change in these feeble and helpless creatures, this transfigura- 
 tion of them for good or for evil, is wrought by laws of organization 
 and of increase, as certain in their operation, and as infallible in 
 their results, as those by which the skillful gardener substitutes 
 flowers, and delicious fruits, and healing herbs, for briers, and thorns, 
 and poisonous plants. And as we hold the gardener responsible for 
 the productions of his garden, so is the community responsible for 
 the general character and conduct of its children. 
 
 K
 
 162 MB. MANN'S LECTUBE IN 1838. 
 
 Some, indeed, maintain, erroneously as we believe, that a differ- 
 ence in education is the sole cause of all the differences existing 
 among men. They hold that all persons come into the world just 
 alike in disposition and capacity, though they go through it and out 
 of it so amazingly diverse. They hold, in short, that if any two men 
 had changed cradles, they would have changed characters and epi- 
 taphs; that, not only does the same quantity of substance or essence 
 go to the constitution of every human mind, but that all minds are 
 of the same quality also, all having the same powers, and bearing, 
 originally, the same image and superscription, like so many half- 
 dollars struck at the government mint. 
 
 But deeply as education goes to the core of the heart and the 
 marrow of the bones, we do not claim for it any such prerogative. 
 There are certain substructures of temperament and disposition, 
 which education finds, at the beginning of its work, and which it can 
 never wholly annul. Nor does it comport with the endless variety 
 and beauty manifested in all other parts of the Creator's works, to 
 suppose that he made all ears and eyes to be delighted with the same 
 tunes and colors; or provided so good an excuse for plagiarism, as 
 that all minds were made to think the same thoughts. This inherent 
 and original diversity, however, only increases the difficulty of edu- 
 cation, and gives additional force to the argument for previous prepa- 
 ration; for, were it true that all children are born just alike, in dis- 
 position and capacity, the only labor would be to discover the right 
 method for educating a single child, and to stereotype it for all the 
 rest. 
 
 This, however, we must concede to those who affirm the original 
 equality and exact similitude of all minds; namely, that all minds 
 have the same elementary or constituent faculties. This is all that 
 we mean when we say that human nature is every where the same. 
 This is, in part, what the Scriptures mean when they say, "God hath 
 made of one blood all nations of men." The contrasts among men 
 result, not from the possession of a different number of original 
 faculties, but from possessing the same faculties, in different pro- 
 portions, and in different degrees of activity. The civilized men of 
 the present day, have neither more nor less faculties, in number, than 
 their barbarian ancestors had. If so, it would be interesting to ascer- 
 tain about what year, or century, a new good faculty was given to 
 the race, or an old bad one was taken away. An assembly of civilized 
 men, on this side of the globe, convening to devise measures for 
 diminishing the number of capital crimes, and thus to reduce the 
 number of capital crimes, and thus to reduce the number of capital 
 punishments, were born with the same number and kind of faculties, 
 though doubtless differing greatly in proportion and in activity, 
 with a company of Battas islanders, on the opposite side of the 
 globe, who, perhaps at the same time, may be going to attend the 
 holiday rites of a public execution, and, as is their wont to dine on the 
 criminal. As each human face has the same number of features, each 
 human body the same number of limbs, muscles, organs, &c., so each 
 human soul has the same capacities of Reason, Conscience, Hope, 
 Fear, Love, Self-love, &c. The differences lie in the relative strength 
 and supremacy of these powers. The human eye is composed of about 
 twenty distinct parts or pieces; yet these constituent parts are so 
 differently arranged that one man is far-sighted, another near-sighted. 
 When an oculist has mastered a knowledge of one eye, he knows the 
 general plan upon which all eyes have been formed; but he must 
 still learn the peculiarities of each, or, in his practice, he will ruin
 
 MB. MANN'S LECTURE IN 1838. 163 
 
 all he touches.* When a surgeon, or an assassin, knows where one 
 man's heart is, he knows, substantially, where the hearts of all other 
 men may be found. And so of the mind and its faculties. It is 
 because of this community of original endowments that all the great 
 works of nature, and art, and science, address a common suceptibility 
 or capacity existing in all minds. It is because of this kindred 
 nature that the same earth is given to us all as a common 
 residence. The possession by each of his complement of powers 
 and susceptibilities, confers the common nature, while the differ- 
 ent portions or degrees in which they exist, and the predominance 
 of one or a few over the others, break us up into moral and 
 intellectual classes. It is impossible to vindicate the propriety of 
 making or of carrying a Revelation to the whole human race, unless 
 that race has common capacities and wants to which the revelation 
 is adapted. And hence we learn the appalling truth, a truth which 
 should strike "loud on the heart as thunder on the ear," that every 
 child born into this world has tendencies and susceptibilities pointing 
 to the furthest extremes of good and evil. Each one has the capacity of 
 immeasurable virtue or vice. As each body has an immensity of natu- 
 ral space open all around it, so each spirit, when waked into life, has an 
 immensity of moral space open all around it. Each soul has a pinion 
 by which it may soar to the highest empyrean, or swoop downward 
 to the Tartarean abyss. In the feeblest voice of infancy, there is a 
 tone which can be made to pour a sweeter melody into the symphonies 
 of angels, or thunder a harsher discord through the blasphemies of 
 demons. To plume these wings for an upper or a nether flight; to 
 lead these voices forth into harmony or dissonance; to woo these 
 beings to go where they should go, and to be what they should be, 
 does it, or does it not, my friends, require some knowledge, some 
 anxious forethought, some enlightening preparation? 
 
 You must pardon me, if on this subject I speak to you with great 
 plainness; and you must allow me to appeal directly to your own 
 course of conduct in other things. You have property to be preserved 
 for the support of your children while you live, or, when you die, for 
 their patrimony; you have health and life to be guarded and con- 
 tinued, that they may not be bereaved of their natural protectors; 
 and you have the children themselves, with their unbounded, un- 
 fathomable capacities of happiness and misery. Now, in respect to 
 your property, what is it your wont to do, when a young lawyer comes 
 into the village, erects his sign, and (the most unexclusive of men) 
 gives to the public a general invitation? Though he has a diploma 
 from a college, and the solemn approval of bench and bar, yet how 
 warily do the public approach him. How much he is reconnoitered 
 before he is retained. How many premeditated plans are laid to ap- 
 pear to meet him accidentally, to talk over indifferent subjects with 
 him, the weather, the crops, or Congressional matters, in order to 
 measure him, and probe him, and see if there be any hopefulness in 
 him. And should all things promise favorably, the young attorney is 
 intrusted, in the first instance, only with some outlawed note, or 
 some doubtful account, before a justice of the peace. No man ever 
 thinks of trusting a case which involves the old homestead, to his 
 inexperienced hands. He would as soon set fire to it. 
 
 * I have heard that distinguished surgeon, Doct. John C. Warren, of Boston, relate 
 the following anecdote, which happened to him in London : Being invited to witness 
 a very difficult operation upon the human eye, by a celebrated English oculist, he 
 was so much struck by the skill and science which were exhibited by the operator, that 
 he sought a private interview with him, to inquire by what means he had become BO 
 accomplished a master of his art. "Sir," said the oculist, "I spoiled a hat-full of eyes 
 to learn it." Thus it is with incompetent teachers ; they may spoil schoolrooms-full 
 of children to learn how to teach, and perhaps may not always learn even then.
 
 164 ME. MANN'S LECTURE IN 1838. 
 
 So, too, of a young physician. No matter from what medical college, 
 home or foreign, he may bring his credentials. From day to day the 
 neighbors watch him without seeming to look at him. In good-wives' 
 parties, the question is confidentially discussed, whether, in a case 
 of exigency, it would be safe to send for him. And when, at last, he 
 is gladdened with a call, it is only to look at some surface ailment, 
 or to pother a little about the extremities. Nobody allows him to 
 lay his unpracticed hand upon the vitals. Now this common senti- 
 ment, this common practice of mankind, is only the instinctive dic- 
 tate of prudence. It is only a tacit recognition of a truth felt by all 
 sensible men, that there are a thousand ways to do a thing wrong, 
 but only one way to do it right. And if it be but reasonable to 
 exercise such vigilance and caution, in selecting a healer for our 
 bodies which perish, or a counselor for our worldly estates, who shall 
 assign limits to the circumspection and fidelity with which the teach- 
 ers of our children should be chosen, who, in the space of a few 
 short years, or even months, will determine, as by a sort of predesti- 
 nation, upon so much of their future fortunes and destiny? 
 
 Again: it is the universal sense of mankind, that skill and facility, 
 in all other things, depend upon study and practice. We always de- 
 mand more, where opportunities have been greater. We stamp a 
 man with inferiority, though he does ten times better than another, 
 if he has had twenty times the advantages. We know that a skillful 
 navigator will carry a vessel through perilous straits, in a gale of 
 wind, and save cargo and lives, while an ignorant one will wreck both, 
 In a broad channel. With what a song of delight we have all wit- 
 nessed, how easily and surely that wise and good man, at the head 
 of a great institution in our own State, will tame the ferocity of the 
 insane; and how, when each faculty of a fiery spirit bursts away 
 like an affrighted steed from its path, this mighty tamer of madmen 
 will temper and quell their wild impetuosity and restore them to the 
 guidance of reason. Nay, the great moral healer can do this, not to 
 one only, but to hundreds, at a time; while, even in a far shorter 
 period than he asks to accomplish such a wonderful work, an ignorant 
 and passionate teacher will turn a hundred gentle, confiding spirits 
 into rebels and anarchists. And, my hearers, we recognize the ex- 
 istence of these facts, we apply these obvious principles, to every 
 thing but to the education of our children. 
 
 Why cannot we derive instruction even from the folly of those 
 wandering showmen who spend a life in teaching brute animals to 
 perform wonderful feats? We have all seen, or at least we have all 
 heard of, some learned horse, or learned pig, or learned dog. Though 
 the superiority over their fellows, possessed by these brute prodigies, 
 may have been owing, in some degree, to the possession of greater 
 natural parts, yet it must be mainly attributed to the higher compe- 
 tency of their instructor. Their teacher had acquired a deeper insight 
 into their natures; his sagacious practice had discovered the means 
 by which their talents could be unfolded and brought out. However 
 unworthy and even contemptible, therefore, the mere trainer of a dog 
 may be, yet he illustrates a great principle. By showing us the 
 superiority of a well-trained dog, he shows what might be the super- 
 iority of a well-trained child. He shows us that higher acquisitions, 
 what may be called academical attainments, in a few favored indi- 
 viduals of the canine race, are not so much the results of a more 
 brilliant genius on the part of the dog-pupil, as they are the natural 
 reward and consequence of his enjoying the instructions of a pro- 
 fessor who has concentrated all his energies upon dog-teaching.
 
 MR. MANN'S LECTURE IN 1838. 165 
 
 Surely it will not be denied that a workman should understand two 
 things in regard to the subject-matter of his work: first, its natural 
 properties, qualities, and powers; and secondly, the means of modi- 
 fying and regulating them, with a view to improvement. In relation 
 to the mechanic arts, this is admitted by all. Every body knows 
 that the strength of the blow must be adjusted to the malleability of 
 the metal. It will not do to strike glass and flint either with the 
 same force or with the same implements; and the proper instrument 
 will never be selected by a person ignorant of the purpose to be 
 effected by its use. If a man working on wood mistakes it for iron, 
 and attempts to soften it in the fire, his product is ashes. And so 
 if a teacher supposes a child to have but one tendency and one adap- 
 tation when he has many; if a teacher treats a child as though his 
 nature were wholly animal, or wholly intellectual, or wholly moral 
 and religious, he disfigures and multilates the nature of that child, and 
 wrenches his whole structure into deformity. 
 
 The being, Man, is more complex and diversified in constitution, and 
 more variously endowed in faculties, than any other earthly work of 
 the Creator. It is in this assemblage of powers and perogatives that 
 his strength and majesty reside. They constitute his sovereignty and 
 lordship over the creation around him. By our bodily organization we 
 are adapted to the material world in which we are placed; our eye 
 to the light, which makes known to us every change in the form, 
 motion, color, position, of all objects within visual range; our ear 
 and tongue to the air, which flows around us in silence, yet is for- 
 ever ready to be waked into voice and music; our hand to all the 
 cunning works of art which subserve utility or embellishment. Still 
 more wonderfully does the spiritual nature of man befit his spiritual 
 relations. Whatever there is of law, of order, of duty, in the works 
 of God, or in the progressive conditions of the race, all have their 
 spiritual counterparts within him. By his perceptive and intellectual 
 faculties he learns the properties of created things, and discovers 
 the laws by which they are governed. By tracing the relation be- 
 tween causes and effects, he acquires a kind of prophetic vision and 
 power; for, by conforming to the changing laws of Nature, he en- 
 lists her in his service, and she works with him in fulfilling his pre- 
 dictions. Regarded as an individual, and as a member of a race 
 which reproduces itself and passes away, his lower propensities, 
 those which he holds in common with the brutes, are the instincts 
 and means to preserve himself and to perpetuate his kind; while by 
 his tastes, and by the social, moral, and religious sentiments of which 
 he is capable, he is attuned to all the beauties and sublimities of cre- 
 ation, his heart is made responsive to all the delights of friendship 
 and domestic affection and he is invited to hold that spiritual inter- 
 course with his Maker, which at once strengthens and enraptures. 
 
 Now the voice of God and of Nature declares audibly which of 
 these various powers within us are to command, and which are to 
 obey; and with which, in every questionable case, resides the ulti- 
 mate arbitrament. Even the lowest propensities are not to be wholly 
 extirpated. Within the bounds prescribed by the social and the 
 divine law, they have their rightful claims. But the moral and the 
 religious sentiments, Benevolence, Conscience, Reverence for the 
 All-creating and All-bestowing Power, these have the prerogative of 
 supremacy and absolute dominion. These are to walk the halls of 
 the soul, like a god, nor suffer rebellion to live under their eye. Yet 
 how easy for this many-gifted being to fall, more easy, indeed, be- 
 cause of his many gifts. Some subject-faculty, some subordinate 
 power, in the spiritual realm, unfortunately inflamed, or, what is 
 far more common, unwisely stimulated by an erroneous education,
 
 166 MB. MANN'S LECTURE IN 1838. 
 
 grows importunate, exorbitant, aggrandizes itself, encroaches upon 
 its fellow-faculties, until, at last, obtaining the mastery, it subverts 
 the moral order of the soul, and wages its parricidal war against 
 the sovereignty of consience within, and the laws of society and of 
 Heaven without. And how unspeakably dreadful are the retributions 
 which come in the train of these remorseless usurpers, when they 
 obtain dominion over the soul! Take, for instance, the earliest-de- 
 veloped, the most purely selfish and animal appetite that belongs 
 to us, that for nourishing beverage. It is the first which demands 
 gratification after birth. Subjected to the laws of temperance, it 
 will retain its zest, fresh and genial, for threescore years and ten, 
 and it affords the last corporal solace upon earth to the parched 
 lips of the dying man. Yet, if the possessor of this same pleasure- 
 giving appetite shall be incited shall be incited, either by examples 
 of inordinate indulgence, or by festive songs in praise of the vine 
 and the wine-cup, to inflame it, and to feed its deceitful fires, though 
 but for the space of a few short years, then the spell of the sorcerer 
 will be upon him; and, day by day, he will go and cast himself into 
 the fiery furnace which he has kindled; nor himself, the pitiable 
 victim, alone, but he will seize upon parents and wife and his group 
 of innocent children, and plunge with them all into the seething hell 
 of intemperance. 
 
 So there is, in human nature, an innate desire of acquiring property, 
 of owning something, of using the possessive my and mine. Within 
 proper limits, this instinct is laudably indulged. Its success affords a 
 pleasure in which reason can take a part. It stimulates and strength- 
 ens many other faculties. It makes us thoughtful and fore-thoughtful. 
 It is the parent of industry and frugality, and industry and frugality, 
 as we all know, are blood-relations to the whole family of the virtues. 
 But to the eye and heart of one in whom this love of acquisition has 
 become absorbing and insane, all the diversified substances in crea- 
 tion are reduced to two classes, that which is gold, and that which is 
 not; all the works of Nature are valued or despised, and the laws 
 and institutions of society upheld or asasiled, as they are supposed to 
 be favorable or unfavorable to the acquisition of wealth. Whether at 
 home or abroad, in the festive circle or in the funeral train; whether 
 in hearing the fervid and thrilling appeals of the sanctuary, or the 
 pathos of civic eloquence, one idea alone, that of money, money, 
 money, holds possession of the miser's soul; its voice rings forever 
 in his ear; and were he in the garden of Eden, its beauty, and music, 
 and perfume suffusing all his senses, his only thought would be, how 
 much money it would bring! Such mischief comes from giving su- 
 premacy to a subordinate, though an essential and highly useful facul- 
 ty. This mischief, to a greater or less extent, parents and teachers 
 produce, when, through an ignorance of the natural and appropriate 
 methods of inducing children to study, they hire them to learn by the 
 offer of pecuniary rewards. 
 
 So, too, we all have an innate love for whatever is beautiful; a 
 sentiment that yearns for higher and higher degrees of perfection in 
 the arts, and in the embellishments of life, a feeling which would 
 prompt us to "gild refined gold, to paint the lily, to throw a perfume 
 on the violet, and add another hue unto the rainbow." Portions of 
 the external world would have been exquisitely adapted to this inborn 
 love of the beautiful, by Him who has so clothed the lilies of the field 
 that they outshine Solomon in all his glory. This sentiment may be 
 too much or too little cultivated; so little as to make us disdain grat- 
 ifications that are at once innocent and pure; or so much as to over- 
 refine us into a hateful fastidiousness. In the works of nature, beauty 
 is generally, if not always, subordinated to utility. In cases of in-
 
 MR. MANN'S LECTURE IN 1838. 167 
 
 compatibility, gracefulness yields to strength, not strength to grace- 
 fulness. How would the rising sun mock us with his splendor, if he 
 brought no life or warmth in his beams! The expectation of autumnal 
 harvests enhances the beauty of vernal bloom. These manifestations 
 of nature admonish us respecting the rang which ornament or ac- 
 complishment should hold in the character and in the works of men; 
 and, of course, in the education of children. Christ referred occasion- 
 ally to the beauties and charms of nature, but dwelt perpetually upon 
 the obligations of duty and charity. But what opposite and grievous 
 offenses are committed on this subject by different portions of so- 
 ciety! The laboring classes, by reason of early parental neglect in 
 cultivating a love for the beautiful, often forego pleasures which a 
 bountiful Providence scatters profusely and gratuitously around them, 
 and strews beneath their feet; while there is a class of persons at 
 the other extremity of the social scale, who, from never comprehend- 
 ing the immeasurably value of the objects for which they were creat- 
 ed, and the vast beneficence of which, from their wealth and station, 
 they are capable, actually try every thing, however intrinsically noble 
 or sacred, by some conventional law of fashion, by some arbitrary and 
 capricious standard of elegance. In European society, this class of 
 "fashionables" is numerous. They have their imitators here, beings, 
 who are not men and women, but similitudes only, who occupy the 
 vanishing point in the perspective of society, where all that is true, 
 or noble, or etsimable in human nature, fades away into nothing. With 
 this class it is no matter what a man does with the "Ten Command- 
 ments," provided he keeps those of Lord Chesterfield; and, in their 
 society, Beau Brummel would take precedence of Dr. Franklin. 
 
 In a Report lately made by the Agricultural Commissioner for the 
 survey of this Commonwealth, I noticed a statement respecting some 
 farmers in the northern part of the county of Essex, who attempted 
 to raise sun-flowers for the purpose of extracting oil from the seeds. 
 Twenty bushels to the acre was the largest crop raised by any one. 
 Six bushels of the seed yielded but one gallon of oil, worth, in the 
 market, one dollar and seventeen cents only. It surely required no 
 great boldness to assert that the experiment did not succeed: culti- 
 vation, one acre: product, three gallons of oil; value, three dollars 
 and fifty cents! which would, perhaps, about half repay the cost of 
 labor. Woe to the farmer who seeks for independence by raising run- 
 flowers! Ten times woe to the parents who rear up sun-flower sons 
 or sun-flower daughters, instead of sons whose hearts glow and 
 burn with an immortal zeal to run the noble career of usefulness and 
 virtue which a happy fortune has laid open before them; instead 
 of daughters who cherish such high resolves of duty as lift them even 
 above an enthusiasm for greatness, into those loftier and serene reg- 
 ions where greatness comes not from excitement, but is native, and 
 ever-springing and ever-abiding. Every son, whatever may be his ex- 
 pectations as to fortune, ought to be so educated that he can super- 
 intend some part of the complicated machinery of social life; and 
 every daughter ought to be so educated that she can answer the claims 
 of humanity, whether those claims require the labor of the head or the 
 labor of the hand. Every daughter ought to be so trained that she 
 can bear, with dignity, and self-sustaining ability, those revolutions in 
 Fortune's wheel, which sometimes bring the kitchen up and turn the 
 parlor down. 
 
 Again; we have a natural, spontaneous feeling of self-respect, an 
 innate sense that, simply in our capacity as human beings, we are 
 worth something, and entitled to some consideration. This principle 
 constitutes the interior frame-work of some of the virtues, veiled, in- 
 deed, by their own beautiful covering, but still necessary in order to
 
 168 MR. MANN'S LECTURE IN 1838. 
 
 keep them in an erect posture, amidst all the overbearing currents 
 and forces of the world. Where this feeling of self-respect exists too 
 weakly, the whole character becomes limber, flaccid, impotent, sinks 
 under the menace of opposition, and can be frightened out of any thing 
 or into any thing. On the other hand, when this propensity aggrandizes 
 itself, and becomes swollen and deformed with pride, and conceit, and 
 intolerance, it is a far more offensive nuisance than many of those 
 which the law authorizes us to abate, summarily, by force and arms. 
 Our political institutions are a rich alluvium for the growth of self- 
 esteem; for, while every body knows that there are the greatest differ- 
 ences between men in point of honesty of ability, of will to do good 
 and to promote right, yet our fundamental laws, and rightly too, 
 ordain a political equality. But what is not right is, that the political 
 equality is the fact mainly regarded, while tfaere is a tendency to dis- 
 regard the intellectual and moral inequalities. And thus a faculty, 
 designed to subserve, and capable of subserving the greatest good, 
 engenders a low ambition, and fills the land with the war-whoop of 
 party strife. 
 
 These are specimens only of a long list of original tendencies or 
 attributes of the human mind, from a more full enumeration and ex- 
 position of which, I must, on this occasion, refrain. But have not enough 
 been referred to, to authorize us to assert the general doctrine, that ev- 
 ery teacher ought to have some notions, clear, definite, and comprehen- 
 sive, of the manifold powers, the various nature, of the beings con- 
 fided to his hands, so that he may repress the redundancy of a too 
 luxuriant growth, and nourish the feeble with his fostering care? No 
 idea can be more erroneous than that children go to school to learn 
 the rudiments of knowledge only, and not to form character. The 
 character of children is always forming. No place, no companion is 
 without an influence upon it; and at school it is formed more rapidly 
 than any where else. The mere fact of the presence of so many chil- 
 dren together, puts the social or dissocial nature of each into fervid 
 action. To be sent to school, especially in the country, is often as 
 great an event in a child's life, as it is, in his father's, to be sent to 
 the General Court: and we all know with what unwonted force all 
 things affect the mind, in new places and under new circumstances. 
 Every child, too, when he first goes to school, understands that he 
 is put upon his good behavior; and, with man or child, it is a very de- 
 cisive thing, and reaches deep into character and far into futurity, 
 when put upon his good behavior, to prove recreant. Now, teachers 
 take children under their care, as it were, during the first warm days 
 of the spring of life, when more can be done toward directing their 
 growth and modifying their dispositions, than can be done in years, 
 at a later season of their existence. 
 
 Equally indispensable is it, that every teacher should know, by what 
 means, by virtue of what natural laws, the human powers and facul- 
 ties are strengthened or enfeebled. There is a principle running 
 through every mental operation, without a knowledge of which, with- 
 out a knowledge how to apply which, the life of the most faithful 
 teacher will be only a succession of well-intentioned errors. The 
 growth or decline of all our powers depends upon a steadfast law. 
 There is no more chance in the processes of their growth or decay 
 than there is in the Multiplication Table. They grow by exercise, and 
 they lose tone and vigor by inaction. All the faculties have their re- 
 lated objects, and they grow by being excited to action through the 
 stimulus or instrumentality of those objects. Each faculty, too, has 
 its own set or class of related objects; and the classes of related ob- 
 jects differ as much from each other as do the corresponding facul- 
 ties which they naturally excite. If any one power or faculty, there-
 
 MB. MANN'S LECTURE IN 1838. 169 
 
 fore, is to be strengthened, so as to perform its office with facility, 
 precision, and dispatch, that identical faculty, not any other one, 
 must be exercised. It does not strengthen any left arm to exercise 
 my right; and this is just as true of the powers of the mind as of 
 the organs of the body. The whole pith of that saying of Solomon, 
 "Train up a child in the way he should go," consists in this principle, 
 because "to train" means to drill, to repeat, to do the same thing over 
 and over again, that is, to exercise. Solomon does not say, "Tell a 
 child the way he should go, and when he is old, he will not depart 
 from it." Had he said this, we could refute him daily by ten thousand 
 facts. Unfortunately, education among us, at present, consists too 
 much in telling, not in training, on the part of parents and teachers; 
 and of course, in hearing, not in doing, on the part of children and 
 pupils. The blacksmith's right arm, the philosopher's intellect, the 
 philanthropist's benevolence, all grow and strengthen according to 
 this law of exercise. The farmer works solid flesh upon his cattle; 
 the pugilist strikes vigor into his arms and breast; the foot-soldier 
 marches strength into his limbs; the practical man thinks quickness 
 and judgment into his mind; and the true Christian lives his prayers 
 of love and his thoughts of mercy, until every man becomes his broth- 
 er. Our own experience and observation furnish us with a life-full of 
 evidence attesting this principle. How did our feet learn to walk, 
 our fingers to write, our organs of speech to utter an innumerable 
 variety of sounds? By what means does the musician pass from coarse 
 discords to perfect music, from hobbling and shambling in his meas- 
 ure, to keeping time like a chronometer, from a slow and timid touch 
 of keys or chords, to such celerity of movement, that, though his will 
 sends out a thousand commands in a minute, his nimble fingers obey 
 them all? It is this exercise, this repetition, which gives to jugglers 
 their marvelous dexterity. By dint of practice, their motions become 
 quicker than our eyesight, and thus elude inspection. A knowledge of 
 this principle solves many of the riddles of life, by showing us whence 
 comes the domineering strength of human appetites and passions. It 
 comes from exercise, from a long indulgence of them in thought and 
 act, until the offspring of sinful desire turn back, and feast upon the 
 vitals of the wretch who nurtured them. It is this which makes the 
 miser pant and raven for gain, more and more, just in proportion to 
 the shortness of the life during which he can enjoy it. It is this which 
 sends the drunkard to pay daily tribute to his own executioner. It 
 is this which scourges back the gambler to the hell he dreads. 
 
 It is by this law of exercise that the perceptive and reflective in- 
 tellect, I mean the powers of observing and judging, are strength- 
 ened. If, therefore, in the education of the child, the action of these 
 powers is early arrested; if his whole time is engrossed and his whole 
 energy drawn away, by other things; or, if he is not supplied with 
 the proper objects or aparatus on which these faculties can exert 
 themselves, then the after-life of such a child will be crowded with 
 practical errors and misjudgments. As a man, his impressions of 
 things will be faint and fleeting; he will never be able to describe 
 an object as he saw it, nor to tell a story as he heard it. No hand- 
 craftsman or mechanic ever becomes what we call a first-rate work- 
 man, until after innumerable experiments and judgments, that is, 
 repitions, or exercises. And the rule is the same even with genius; 
 artisan or artist, he must practice long and sedulously upon lines, pro- 
 portions, reliefs, before he can become the first sculptor of the age, 
 or the first bootmaker in the city. The teacher, then, must continue 
 to exercise the powers of his pupils, until he secures accuracy even 
 in the minutest things he teaches. Every child can and should learn 
 to judge, almost with mathematical exactness, how long an inch is;
 
 170 MB. MANN'S LECTURE IN 1838. 
 
 no matter if he does not guess within a foot of it the first time. Wheth- 
 er the story of Casper Hauser be true or not, it has verisimilitude, and 
 is therefore instructive. It warns us what the general result must be, 
 if, by a non-presentation of their related objects, the faculties of a 
 child are not brought into exercise. We meet with persons every day 
 who, in regard to some one or more of the faculties, are Casper Haus- 
 ers. This happens, almost universally, not through any natural defect, 
 but because parents and teachers have been ignorant, either of the 
 powers to be exercised, or of the related objects through whose in- 
 strumentality they can be excited to action. 
 
 But here arises a demand for great skill, aptitude, and resources, 
 on the part of the teacher; for, by continuing to exercise the same 
 faculty, I do not mean a monotonous repetition of the same action, 
 nor a perpetual presentation of the same object or idea. Such a 
 course would soon cloy and disgust, and thus terminate all effort in 
 that direction. Would a child ever learn to dance, if there were but 
 one figure; or to sing, if there were but one tune? Nature, science, 
 art, offer a boundless variety of objects and processes, adapted to 
 quicken and employ each of the faculties. These resources the teach- 
 er should have at his command, and should make use of them, in 
 the order, and for the period, that each particular case may require. 
 Look into the shops of our ingenious artisans and mechanics, and see 
 their shining rows of tools, hundreds in number, but each adapted 
 to some particular process in their curious art. Look into the shop or 
 hut of a savage, an Indian mechanic, and you will find his chest of 
 tools composed of a single jack-knife! So with our teachers. Some 
 of them have apparatus, diagram, chart, model; they have anecdote, 
 epigram, narrative, history, by which to illustrate every branch of 
 study, and to fit every variety of disposition; while the main resource 
 of others, for all studies, for all ages, and for all dispositions, is the 
 rod! 
 
 Again: a child must not only be exercised into correctness of ob- 
 servation, comparison, and judgment, but into accuracy in the nar- 
 ration or description of what he has seen, heard, thought, or felt, so 
 that, whatever thoughts, emotions, memories, are within him, he can 
 present them all to others in exact and luminous words. Dr. Johnson 
 said, "Accustom your children constantly to this: if a thing happened 
 at one window, and they, when relating it, say that it happened at 
 another, do not let it pass, but instantly check them. You do not 
 know where deviation from the truth will end." Every man who sees 
 effects in causes, will fully concur with the Doctor in regard to the 
 value of such a habit of accuracy as is here implied. If, in the nar- 
 ration of an event, or in the recitation of a lesson, a child is permitted 
 to begin at the last end of it, and to scatter the middle about pro- 
 miscuously, depend upon it, if that child, after growing up, is called 
 into court as a witness, somebody will suffer in fortune, in reputation, 
 or perhaps in life. When practicing at the bar, I was once engaged 
 in an important case of slander, where the whole question of the in- 
 nocence or guilt of the defendant turned upon the point whether, at a 
 certain time, he was seen out of one window or out of another; and 
 the stupid witness first swore that it was one window, then another 
 window, and at last, thought it might be a door; and doubtless, he 
 could have been made to swear that he saw him through the skylight. 
 Would you appreciate the importance of accuracy, in observation and 
 statement, take one of those cases which so frequently occur in our 
 courts of law, where a dozen witnesses, all honest, swear one way, 
 and another dozen, equally honest, counter-swear; and contrast it 
 with a case, which so rarely occurs, where a witness, whose mind, like 
 a copying machine, having taken an exact impression of whatever it
 
 MR. MANN'S LECTURE IN 1838. 171 
 
 has seen or heard, attests to complicated facts, In a manner so orderly, 
 luminous, natural, giving to each, time, locality, proportion, that 
 when he has finished, every auditor, bench, bar, spectators, all feel 
 as though they had been personally present and witnessed the whole 
 transaction. Now, although something of this depends, unquestion- 
 ably, upon soundness in physical and mental organization, yet a vast 
 portion of it is referable to the early observation or neglect, on the 
 part of teacher or parent, of the law we are considering. 
 
 There is another point, too, which the teacher should regard, es- 
 pecially where only a small portion of non-age is appropriated to 
 school atendance. In exercising the facultfes for the purpose of 
 strengthening them, the greatest amount of useful knowledge should 
 be commuflicated. The faculties may be exercised and strengthened 
 in acquiring useful or useless knowledge. A farmer or a stone-mason 
 may exercise and strengthen the muscles of his body, by pitching or 
 rolling timbers of stones backward and forward; but, by converting 
 the same materials into a house or a fence, he may at once gain 
 strength and do good. Every teacher, at the same time that he exer- 
 cises the faculties of his pupils, ought to impart the greatest amount 
 of valuable knowledge; and he should always be above the temptation 
 of keeping a pupil in a lower department of study, because he himself 
 does not understand the higher; or, on the other hand, of prematurely 
 carrying his pupil into a higher department, because of his own igno- 
 rance of the lower. Suppose a bright boy, for instance, to be studying 
 arithmetic and geography, at school. Now, arithmetic cannot be taught 
 unless it is understood; but, with the help of an atlas, and a text-book 
 whose margin is all covered with questions, the business of teaching 
 geography may be set up on a very slender capital of knowledge. And 
 here a teacher who is obliged to be very economical of his arithmetic, 
 would be tempted to keep his pupil upon all the small town, and tiny 
 rivers, and dots of islands in the geography, in order to delay him, 
 and gain time, like the officers of those banks whose specie runs low, 
 who seek to pay off their creditors in cents, because it takes so long to 
 count the copper. Every teacher ought to know vastly more than he is 
 required to teach, so that he may be furnished, on every subject, with 
 copious illustration and instructive anecdote; and so that the pupils 
 may be disabused of the notion, they are so apt to acquire, that they 
 carry all knowledge in their satchels. Every teacher should be pos- 
 sessed of a faculty at explanation, a tact in discerning and solving 
 difficulties, not to be used too often, for then it would supersede the 
 efforts it should encourage, but when it is used, to be quick and sure 
 as a telescope, bringing distant objects near, and making obscure ones 
 distinct. In the important, but grossly neglected and abused exercise 
 of reading, for instance, every new fact, every new idea, is news to the 
 child; and, did he fully understand it, he would be as eager to learn it, 
 as we are to learn what is news to us. But how, think you, should we 
 be vexed, if our news-bringer spoke every third word in a foreign lang- 
 uage or gave us only a Pennsylvania newspaper printed in German, 
 when we wanted to know how their votes stood in an election for Pres- 
 ident? Whatever words a child does not understand, in his reading les- 
 son, are, to him, words in a foreign language; and they must be trans- 
 lated into his own language before he can take any interest in them. 
 But if, instead of being translated into his language, they are left un- 
 noticed, or are translated into another foreign language still, that is, 
 into other words or phrases of which he is ignorant, then, the child, 
 instead of delightful and instructive ideas, gets empty words, mere 
 sounds, atmospheric vibrations only. In Dr. Johnson's Dictionary, the 
 word "Network" is defined to be "any thing reticulated or decussat- 
 ed, with interstices between the intersections." Now who, ignorant
 
 172 MR. MANN'S LECTURE IN 1838. 
 
 of the meaning of the word "net-work" before, would understand it 
 any better by being told, that it is "any thing reticulated or decussat- 
 ed, with interstices between the intersections?" Nor would he be much 
 enlightened if, on looking further, he found that the same author had 
 given the following definitions of the defining words: "reticulated," 
 "formed with interstitial vacuities;" "decussated," "intersected at 
 acute angles;" "interstice," "space between one thing and another;" 
 "intersection," "point where lines cross each other." If this is not, 
 as Milton says, "dark with excess of bright," it is, at least, "darkness 
 visible." A few years since, a geography was published in this State, 
 the preface of which boasted of its adaptation to the capacities of 
 children, and, on the second page, there was this definition of the 
 words "zenith and nadir:" "zenith and nadir, two Arabic words im- 
 porting their own signification." A few years since, an English trav- 
 eler and book-maker, who called himself Thomas Ashe, Esq., visited 
 the Big Bone Licks, in Kentucky, where he found the remains of the 
 mammoth, in great abundance, and whence he carried away several 
 wagon-loads of bones. In describing the size of one of the shoulder- 
 blades of that animal, he says, it "was about as large as a breakfast- 
 table!" A child's mind may be dark and ignorant before, but, under 
 such explanations as these, darkness will coagulate, and ignorance be 
 sealed in hermetically. Let a school be so conducted but for one sea- 
 son, and all life will be abstracted from it; and it will become the 
 painful duty of the school committee, at its close to attend a post- 
 mortem examination of the children, without even the melancholy 
 satisfaction of believing that science will be benefited by the horrors 
 of the dissection. 
 
 Every teacher should be competent to some care of the health of 
 his pupils, not merely for the purpose of regulating the temperature 
 of the school-room, and, of course, the transition which the scholars 
 must undergo, on entering or leaving it, though this is of no small 
 importance, but so that, as occasion offers, he may inculcate a knowl- 
 edge of some of the leading conditions upon which health and life 
 depend. I saw, last year, in the public town school of Northampton, 
 under the care of Mr. R. M. Hubbard, more than a hundred boys, 
 from ten or eleven to fifteen or sixteen years of age, who pointed out 
 the place and gave the name of all the principal bones in their bodies, 
 as well as an anatomist would have done; who explained the physio- 
 Igical processes of the circulation of the blood and the alimentation of 
 food, and described the putrefactive action of ardent spirits upon the 
 delicate tissues of the stomach. Now such boys have a chance, nay, a 
 certainty, of far longer life and far better health, than they would 
 otherwise have; and as they grow up, they will be far less easily 
 tempted to emulate either of the three cockney graces, Gin, Swear- 
 ing, and Tobacco. 
 
 But I must pass by other considerations, respecting the growth and 
 invigoration of the intellectual faculties, and the classes of subjects 
 upon which they should be employed. I hasten to the consideration 
 of another topic, incalculably more important. 
 
 The moral faculties increase or decline, strengthen or languish, by 
 the same law of exercise. In legislating for men, actions are mainly 
 regarded; but in the education of children, motives are every thing, 
 MOTIVES ABE EVERY THING. All, this side of the motive, is mere mechan- 
 ism, and it matters not whether it be done by the hand, or by a crank. 
 There was profound philosophy in the old theological notion, that who- 
 ever made a league with the devil, in order to gratify a passion 
 through his help, became the devil's property afterward. And so, 
 when a teacher stimulates a child to the performance of actions, ex- 
 ternally right, by appealing to motives intrinsically wrong, he sells
 
 MB. MANN'S LECTURE IN 1838. 173 
 
 that child into bondage to the wrong motive. Some parents, finding a 
 desire of luxurious food a stronger motive-power in their children than 
 any other, accomplish every thing through its means. They hire them 
 to go to school and learn, to go to church and remember the text, 
 and to behave well before company, by a promise of dainties. Every 
 repitition of this enfeebles the sentiment of duty, through its inaction, 
 while it increases the desire for delicacies, by its exercise; and as 
 they successively come into competition afterward, the virtue will be 
 found to have become weaker, and the appetite stronger. Such par- 
 ents touch the wrong pair of nerves, the sensual instead of the moral, 
 the bestial instead of the divine. These springs of action lie at the 
 very extremes of human nature, one class down among the brutes, 
 the other up among the seraphim. When a child, so educated, becomes 
 a man, and circumstances make him the trustee or fiduciary of the 
 friendless and unprotected, and he robs the widow and orphan to ob- 
 tain the means of luxury or voluptuousness, we exclaim, "Poor human 
 nature," and are ready to appoint a Fast; when the truth is, he was 
 educated to be a knave under that very temptation. Were a surgeon 
 to operate upon a human body with as little knowledge of his subject 
 as this, and whip round his double-edged knife where the vital parts lie 
 thickest, he would be tried for manslaughter at the next court, and 
 deserve conviction. 
 
 Take another example; and I instance one of the motive-forces 
 which, for the last fifty or a hundred years, has been mainly relied on, 
 in our schools, academies, and colleges, as the stimulus to intellectual 
 effort, and which has done more than every thing else to cause the 
 madness and the profligacy of those political and social rivalries that 
 now convulse the land. Let us take a child who has only a moderate 
 love of learning, but an inordinate passion for praise and place; and 
 we therefore allure him to study by the enticements of precedents and 
 applause. If he will surpass all his fellows, we advance him to the 
 post, and signalize him with the badges of distinction, and never suf- 
 fer the siren of flattery to cease the enchantments of her song. If he 
 ever has any compassionate misgivings in regard to the effect which 
 his own promotion may have upon Ms less brilliant, though not less 
 meritorious fellow-pupils, then we seek to withdraw his thoughts from 
 this virtuous channel, and to turn them to the selfish contemplation 
 of his own brilliant fortunes in future years; if waking conscience 
 ever whispers in his ear, that that pleasure is dishonorable which 
 gives pain to the innocent; then we dazzle him with the gorgeous vis- 
 ion of triumphal honors and applauding multitudes; and when, in 
 after-life, this victim of false influences deserts a righteous cause be- 
 cause it is declining, and joins an unrighteous one because it is pros- 
 pering, and sets his name in history's pillory, to be scoffed and jeered 
 at for ages, then we pour out lamentations, in prose and verse, over 
 the moral suicide! And yet, by such a course of education, he was 
 prepared beforehand, like a skillfully organized machine, to prove a 
 traitor and an apostle at that very conjuncture. No doubt, a college- 
 boy will learn more Greek and Latin if it is generally understood that 
 college-honors are to be mainly awarded for proficiency in those 
 languages; but what care we though a man can speak seven languag- 
 es, or dreams in Hebrew or Sanscrit, because of their familiarity, if he 
 has never learned the language of sympathy for human suffering, and 
 is deaf when the voice of truth and duty utters their holy mandates! 
 We want men who feel a sentiment, a consciousness of brotherhood 
 for the whole human race. We want men who will instruct the ignor- 
 ant, not delude them; who will succor the weak, not prey upon 
 them. We want men who will fly to the moral breach when the wa- 
 ters of desolation are pouring in, and who will stand there, and, if
 
 174 MB. MANN'S LECTURE IN 1838. 
 
 need be, die there, applause or no applause. No doubt, every one 
 is bound to take watchful care of that portion of his happiness which 
 rightfully depends upon the good opinion of others; but before any 
 teacher attempts to secure the proficiency of his pupils by inflaming 
 their love of praise and place, ought he not to appeal, with earnest 
 and prolonged entreaty, to every higher sentiment? and even then, 
 should he fail of arousing a desire for improvement, would it not be 
 better to abandon a pupil to mediocrity, or even insignificance, than 
 to insure him the highest eminence by awakening an unholy ambition 
 in his bosom? It is infinitely better for any nation to supoprt a hos- 
 pital for fools, than to have a parliament or a congress of knaves. 
 
 And thus it is with all moral developments. Ignorance may appeal 
 to a wrong motive, and thus give inordinate strength to an inferior 
 sentiment, while honesty in quest of a right action. For a few times, 
 perhaps even for a few years, the appeal may be successful; but, by- 
 and-by, the inferior sentiment, or propensity, will gain predominance, 
 and usurp the throne, and rule by virtue of its own might. 
 
 So, too, a train of circumstances may be prepared, or a system of 
 government adopted, designed by their author for good, yet productive 
 of a venomous brood of feelings. Suppose a teacher attempts to se- 
 cure obedience by fear, instead of love, but still lacks the energy or 
 the talent requisite for success. Forthwith, and from the necessity 
 of the case, there are two hostile parties in that school, the 
 teacher with his government to maintain, the pupils with their 
 various and ever-springing desires to gratify, in defiance of that gov- 
 ernment. Not only will there be revolts and mutinies, revolutions and 
 counter-revolutions in such a school, but, what is infinitely worse, be- 
 cause of its meanness and baseness, there will be generated a moral 
 pestilence of deception and trickery. The boldest spirits, those al- 
 ready too bold and fool-hardy, will break out into open rebellion, and 
 thus begin to qualify themselves to become, in after-life, violators and 
 contemners of the laws of society; while those who are already prone to 
 concealment and perfidy, will sharpen their wits for deception; they 
 will pretend to be saying or doing one thing when saying or doing an- 
 other; they will sever the connection between tongue and heart; they 
 will make the eyes, the face, and all the organs that contribute to the 
 natural language belie the thoughts; and, in fine, will turn the whole 
 body into an instrument of dissimulation. Such children, under such 
 management, are every day preparing to become, not men of frank- 
 ness, of ingenuousness, of a beautiful transparency of disposition, 
 but sappers and miners of character, men accomplishing all their 
 ends by stratagem and ambush, and as full of guile as the first ser- 
 pent. Who of us has not seen some individual so secretive and guile- 
 ful as to be impervious to second-sight, or even to the boasted vision 
 of animal magnetism? I cannot but believe that most of those hate- 
 ful specimens of duplicity, I might rather say, of triplicity, or multi- 
 plicity, which we sometimes encounter in society, had their origin in 
 the attempts made in early life to evade commands injudiciously given, 
 or not enforced when given. If any thing pertaining to the education 
 of children demands discretion, prudence, wisdom, it is the commands 
 which we impose upon them. In no case ought a command ever to be 
 issued to a child without a moral certainty either that it will be volun- 
 tarily obeyed, or, if resisted, that it can be enforced; because disobed- 
 ience to superiors, who stand at first in the place of the child's con- 
 science, prepares the way for disobedience to conscience itself, when 
 that faculty is developed. Hence the necessity of discriminating, as a 
 preliminary, between what a child will do, or can be made to do, and 
 the contrary. Hence, when disobedience is apprehended, the issue 
 should be tried rather on a case of prohibition than of injunction, be-
 
 MR. MANN'S LECTURE IN 1838. 175 
 
 cause a child can be deterred when he cannot be compelled. Hence, 
 also, the necessity, of discriminating between what a child has the 
 moral power to do, and what it is in vain to expect from him. Take 
 a child who has been brought up luxuriously, indulgently, selfishly, 
 and command him, in the first instance, to incur some great sacrifice 
 for a mere stranger, or for some object which he neither understands 
 nor values, and disobedience is as certain as long days in the middle of 
 June; I mean the disobedience of the spirit, for fear, perhaps, may 
 secure the performance of the outward act. Such a child knows noth- 
 ing of the impulsions of conscience, of the joyful emotions that leap 
 up in the heart after the performance of a generous deed; and it is 
 as absurd to put such a weight of self-denial upon his benevolence, 
 the first time, as it would be to put a camel's load upon his shoulders. 
 Such a child is deeply diseased. He is a moral paralytic. In regard to 
 all benevolent exertion and sacrifice, he is as weak as an infant; and 
 he can be recovered and strengthened to virtuous resolutions only by 
 degrees. What should we think of a physician, who, the first time his 
 patient emerged from a sick chamber, pallid, emaciated, tottering, 
 should prescribe a match at wrestling, or the running of races? Yet 
 this would be only a parallel to the mode in which selfish or vicious 
 children are often treated; nay, some persons prepare or select the 
 most difficult cases, cases requiring great generosity or moral intre- 
 pedity, by which to break new beginners into the work of benevol- 
 ence or duty. If, by a bad education, a child has lost all generous af- 
 fections (for no child is born without them) ; if he never shares his 
 books or divides his luxuries with his playmates; if he hides his play- 
 things at the approach of his little visitors; if his eye never kindles at 
 the recital of a magnanimous deed, of course I mean one the mag- 
 nanimity of which he can comprehend, then he can be won back to 
 kindness and justice only by laborious processes, and in almost im- 
 perceptible degrees. In every conversation before such children, gen- 
 erosity and self-denial should be spoken of with a fervor of admiration 
 and a glow of sympathy. Stories should be told or read them, in which 
 the principal actors are signalized by some of the qualities they de- 
 light in (always provided that no element of evil mingles with them) ; 
 and when their attachments are firmly fastened upon hero or heroine, 
 then the social, amiable, and elevated sentiments which are deficient 
 in the children themselves, should be developed in the actors or char- 
 acters whom they have been led to admire. A child may be led to 
 admire qualities on account of their relationships and associations, 
 when he would be indifferent to them if presented separately. If a 
 child is selfish, the occasion for kind acts should be prepared, where 
 all the accompaniments are agreeable. As the sentiment of benevol- 
 ence gains tone and strength, and begins to realize some of those ex- 
 quisite gratifications which God, by its very constitution, has annexed 
 to its exercise, then let the collateral inducements be weakened, and 
 the experiments assume more of the positive character of virtue. In 
 this way, a child so selfish and envious as to be grieved even at the 
 enjoyment of others, may be won, at last, to seek for delight in offices 
 of humanity and self-sacrifice. There is always an avenue through 
 which a child's mind can be reached; the failures come from our want 
 of perseverance and sagacity in seeking it. We must treat moral 
 more as we treat physical distempers. Week after week the mother 
 sits by the sick-bed, and welcomes fasting and vigils; her watchful- 
 ness surrounds her child, and with all the means and appliances that 
 wealth or life can command, she strives to bar up every avenue 
 through which death can approach him. Did mothers care as much for 
 the virtues and moral habits as for the health and life of their off- 
 spring, would they not be as patient, as hopeful, and as long-suffering
 
 176 MR. MANN'S LECTURE IN 1838. 
 
 in administering antidote and remedy to a child who is morally, as 
 to one who is physically, diseased? 
 
 Is it not in the way above described, after a slowly brightening twi- 
 light of weeks, perhaps of months, that the oculist, at last, lets in the 
 light of the meridan sun upon the couched eye? Is it not in this way, 
 that the convalescent of a fevered bed advances, from a measured pit- 
 tance of the weakest nutrition, to that audacious health which spurns 
 at all restraints upon appetite, whether as to quantity or quality? For 
 these healings of the diseased eye or body, we demand the profession- 
 al skill and science of men, educated and trained to the work; nay, if 
 any impostor or empiric wantonly tampers with eye or life, the in- 
 jured party accuses him, the officers of the law arrest him, the jurors 
 upon their oaths convict him, the judges pass sentence, and the sheriff 
 executes the mandates of the law; while parties, officers, jurors, 
 judges, and sheriffs, with one consent, employ teachers to direct and 
 train the godlike faculties of their children, who never had one hour of 
 special study, who never received one lesson of special instruction, to 
 fit them for their momentous duties. 
 
 If, then, the business of education, in all its departments, be so re- 
 sponsible; if there be such liability to excite and strengthen any one 
 faculty of the opening mind, instead of its antagonist; if there be such 
 danger of promoting animal and selfish propensities into command 
 over social and moral sentiments; if it be so easy for an unskillful 
 hand to adjust opportunity to temptation in such a way that the ex- 
 posed are almost certain to fall; if it be a work of such delicacy and 
 difficulty to reclaim those who have wandered; if, in fine, one, not 
 deeply conversant with the human soul, with all its various faculties 
 and propensities, and with all the circumstances and objects which 
 naturally excite them to activity, is in incomparably greater danger of 
 touching the wrong spring of action, than one unacquainted with mu- 
 sic is of touching the wrong key or chord of the most complicated mus- 
 ical instrument, then, ought not every one of those who are installed 
 into the sacred office of teacher, to be "a workman who needeth not to 
 be ashamed? Surely, they should know, beforehand, how to touch the 
 right spring, with the right pressue, at the right time. 
 
 There is a terrible disease that sometimes afflicts individuals, by 
 which all the muscles of the body seem to be unfastened from the voli- 
 tions of the mind, and then, after being promiscuously transposed, to 
 be refastened; so that a wrong pair of muscles is attached to every 
 volition. In such a case, the afflicted patient never does the thing he 
 intends to do. If he would walk forward, his will starts the wrong pair 
 of muscles, and he walks backward. When he would extend his right 
 arm to shake hands with you, in salutation, he starts the wrong pair 
 of muscles, thrusts out his left, and slaps or punches you. Precisely so 
 is it with the teacher who knows not what faculties of his pupils to 
 exercise, and by what objects, motives, or processes, they can be brought 
 into activity. He is the will of the school; they are the body which 
 that will moves; and, through ignorance, he is perpetually applying his 
 will to the wrong points. What wonder, then, if, spending day after 
 day in pulling at the wrong pairs of muscles, the teacher involves the 
 school in inextricable disorder and confusion, and, at last, comes to the 
 conviction that they were never made to go right? 
 
 But, says an objector, can any man ever attain to such knowledge 
 that he can touch as he should this "harp of a thousand strings?" Per- 
 haps not, I reply; but ask, in my turn, Cannot every man know better 
 than he now does? Cannot something be done to make good teachers 
 better, and incompetent ones less incompetent? Cannot something be 
 done to promote the progress and to diminish the dangers of all our 
 schools? Cannot something be done to increase the intelligence of those
 
 MR. MANN'S LECTUBE IN 1838. 177 
 
 female teachers, to whose hands our children are committed, in the 
 earliest and most impressible periods of childhood; and thus, in the 
 end, to increase the intelligence of mothers, for every mother is ex 
 officio a member of the College of Teachers? Cannot something be 
 done, by study, by discussion, by practical observation and especially 
 by the institution of Normal Schools, which shall diffuse both the art 
 and the science of teaching more widely through our community, than 
 they have ever yet been diffused? 
 
 My friends, you cannot go for any considerable distance in any di- 
 rection, within the limits of our beloved Commonwealth, without pass- 
 ing one of those edifices professedly erected for the education of our 
 children. Though rarely an architectural ornament, yet, always, they 
 are a moral beauty, to the land in which we dwell. Enter with me, for 
 a moment, into one of these important, though lowly mansions. Sur- 
 vey those thickly seated benches. Before us are clustered the children 
 of to-day, the men of to-morrow, the immortals of eternity! What cost- 
 ly works of art; what splendid galleries of sculpture or of painting, 
 won by a nation's arms, or purchased by a nation's wealth, are com- 
 parable in value to the treasures we have in these children? How many 
 living and palpitating nerves come down from parents and friends, 
 and center in their young hearts! and, as they shall advance in life, 
 other living and palpitating nerves, which no man can number, shall 
 go out from their bosoms to twine round other hearts, and to feel their 
 throbs of pleasure or of pain, of rapture or of agony! How many for- 
 tunes of others shall be linked with their fortunes, and shall share an 
 equal fate. As yet, to the hearts of these young beings, crime has not 
 brought in its retinue of fears, nor disappointment its sorrows. Their 
 joys are joys, and their hopes more real than our realities; and, as 
 visions of the future burst upon their imaginations, their eye kindles, 
 like the young eagle's at the morning sunbeam. Grouping these chil- 
 dren into separate circles, and looking forward, for but a few short 
 years, to the fortunes that await them, shall we predict their destiny, 
 in the terrific lanuage of the poet: 
 
 "These shall the fury passions tear 
 
 The vultures of the mind, 
 
 Disdainful Anger, pallid Fear, 
 
 And Shame that skulks behind. 
 "Ambition this shall tempt to rise, 
 
 Then whirl the wretch from high, 
 
 To bitter Scorn a sacrifice, 
 
 And grinning Infamy. 
 "The stings of Falsehood, those shall try, 
 
 And hard unkindness' alter'd eye 
 
 That mocks the tear it forced to flow ; 
 
 And keen Remorse, with blood defiled, 
 
 And moody Madness, laughing wild, 
 
 Amid severest woe ; " 
 
 or, concentrating our whole souls into one resolve, high and prophet- 
 ically strong, that our duty to these children shall ~be done, shall we 
 proclaim, in the blessed language of the Savior; "!T is NOT THE WILL 
 OF YOUR FATHER WHICH is IN HEAVEN, THAT ONE OF THESE LITTLE ONES 
 
 SHOULD PERISH."
 
 AN ADDRESS* 
 
 BY 
 
 EDWARD EVERETT, GOVERNOR OF MASSACHUSETTS, 
 
 AT THE OPENING OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL AT BAKRE, SEPTEMBER 5, 1839. 
 
 We are assembled to take a suitable public notice of the opening of 
 an institution in this place, destined, as we hope, to exercise a salu- 
 tary influence on the cause of common school education. The visitors 
 of the institution have thought it expedient that a public explanation 
 should be made, at this time, of its nature and objects, and of the hopes 
 and expectations with which it is founded; and they have requested 
 me, on their behalf, to appear before you for this purpose. I have com- 
 plied with their request cheerfully. My official connection with the 
 Board of Education, which, under the authority of the Legislature, has 
 established the school, and the deep personal interest I take in the re- 
 sult of this experiment for the improvement of popular education in 
 the commonwealth, (convinced as I am that the time has come when 
 it is incumbent on the people of Massachusetts to do more than has yet 
 been done for the improvement of their common schools,) are the mo- 
 tives which have led me, at considerable personal inconvenience, to 
 undertake the duty which has been assigned to me on this occasion. 
 
 The institution which is now opened in this pleasant and prosperous 
 village, is devoted to the education of teachers of common schools, and 
 is called a Normal School. The name normal is derived from a Latin 
 word, which signifies a rule, standard, or law. Schools of this char- 
 acter were called Normal Schools, on their establishment in France, 
 either because they were designed to serve in themselves as the model 
 or rule by which other schools should be organized and instructed, or 
 because their object was to teach the rules and methods of instructing 
 and governing a school. This name has been adopted to designate the 
 schools for teachers established in Massachusetts, because it is already 
 in use to denote similar institutions in Europe; because it applies ex- 
 clusively to schools of this kind, and prevents their being confounded 
 with any others; and because it is short, and of convenient use. It has 
 been already adopted in England and in our sister states, in writing 
 and speaking of institutions for the education of teachers. 
 
 Schools of this kind are of comparatively recent date. In 1748, a 
 private school for teachers was established by the Rev. John Julius 
 Hecker, a minister of the gospel at Berlin, and chief counselor of the 
 consistory of that place. A document cited by M. Cousin, in his cele- 
 brated report on the subject of public instruction in Prussia, speaks 
 of Hecker as "the first individual who undertook to train young men 
 for the art of teaching." This little institution was founded at a very 
 critical period in the history of Prussia, and even of Europe; in fact, it 
 was an era of mighty movement throughout the world. Frederic II., 
 commonly, and by a somewhat questionable title, called the Great, was 
 projecting the plans of aggrandizement by which he aimed to raise 
 Prussia, before his time a secondary state, to the rank of a leading 
 power in Europe. It would have been happy for his subjects and man- 
 kind if all his measures had been as wise or as innocent as those which 
 he adopted for the improvement of education. He seems early to have 
 
 * Copied by permission from "Orations and Speeches on various occasions, by Ed" 
 ward Everett. 2 vols. Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown. 1850."
 
 180 GOV. EVERETT'S ADDRESS AT BARRE. 
 
 comprehended the importance of the systematic education of teachers; 
 and in the year 1754, the private school, established under the auspices 
 of Mr. Hecker, was raised to the rank of a royal primary school for the 
 education of schoolmasters and parish clerks. It was directed, by a 
 royal ordinance of that year, that all schoolmasters and parish clerks, 
 whose places were in the gift of the crown, should be appointed 
 from this institution. It is probable that at the same time funds were 
 appropriated by the government for its support. 
 
 Scarcely, however, was this beginning made in the systematic edu- 
 cation of teachers, when the dreadful Seven Years' war came on; a 
 war which spread from our western wilderness, where it broke out, 
 to the bounds of the civilized world, and the remotest European set- 
 tlements in India. Frederic was the hero of this war on the continent 
 of Europe. He conducted it with a perseverance, skill and resolution, 
 which astonished mankind, and came out of it with an exhausted 
 treasury, shattered health, and a wasted kingdom. The Normal School 
 at Berlin, in common with all the other institutions of the country, 
 languished under the pressure of the times. It remained, with the ex- 
 ception of a few inconsiderable establishments of the same character 
 in the city of Berlin, the only institution for the education of teachers, 
 and was, of course, wholly inadequate to the wants of the kingdom. 
 In 1770, a fund of four thousand dollars annually was appropriated 
 by Frederic for the general improvement of the Prussian schools,^ and 
 it was expended in raising the salaries of teachers. A considerable 
 impulse was given to the cause of education by this endowment; but I 
 do not find any further notice of the progress of Normal Schools during 
 the residue of his reign. 
 
 Shortly after his death, the French Revolution began; and in the 
 disastrous wars and convulsions to which it gave rise, the various 
 states of Germany, and none more so than Prussia, were trampled to 
 the dust. The effects were felt in all their institutions; but, as often 
 happens in human affairs, the moment of extremest depression is the 
 moment of commencing regeneration. The Prussian monarchy, broken 
 by the fatal battle of Jena, in 1806, seemed on the verge of dissolution, 
 and to owe a precarious existence to the clemency of Napoleon. At 
 this gloomy period, it occurred to some noble minds to attempt the 
 restoration of affairs by a strong appeal to the popular mind, and by 
 awakening a powerful sentiment of patriotism. Every thing was re- 
 sorted to which could promote this end. The clergy were appealed to; 
 the high schools and universities were agitated; a secret association, 
 under the name of the Union of Virtue, (Tugenbund,) was formed 
 throughout the country; the ancient German costume was revived; a 
 jealousy of foreigners inculcated; and, as an important instrument 
 toward the end in view, the attention of the government was, in 1809, 
 again particularly turned to the subject of education of teachers. In 
 1810, the Normal School at Berlin was re-organized; but before the 
 result could be seen, the great and final struggle of the northern 
 powers of Europe with Napoleon took place. The conflict was for the 
 independence or subjection, the life or death, of nations. The entire 
 population rose as a man at the call of the governments; the univer- 
 sities and academies sent their young men, scarce able to bear the 
 weight of a musket, to the war; and it terminated in the overthrow 
 of the invader. 
 
 From that moment, every thing in Germany seemed animated with 
 new life. Prussia, in particular, with the establishment of a general 
 peace, bent all the power of the monarchy upon national education, 
 as the great safeguard of national independence. The Normal School 
 of Berlin was transferred to Potsdam, as a situation more retired and 
 favorable for its objects. Similar schools were proposed throughout
 
 GOV. EVERETT'S ADDRESS AT BARRE. 181 
 
 the kingdom, and in other parts of Germany; and in the year 1819, 
 the subject of education was referred to a separate department of the 
 government, under a minister of state exclusively devoted to its ad- 
 ministration. The present organization of the Prussian system of edu- 
 cation dates from this period, and by the provisions of an ordinance 
 of the government of the same year, a royal Normal School is estab- 
 lished in each of the ten provinces of the kingdom, as an essential part 
 of the system. From these seminaries, with the aid derived from 
 various local establishments of the same character, teachers thoroughly 
 trained in the art of instruction are furnished for all the public schools 
 of Prussia. The same process has been going on contemporaneously 
 in Saxony, in Bavaria, in Wirtemberg, in Baden, and other German 
 states. The example early spread to France, and more recently to Hol- 
 land. One or two institutions of a private character have, it is be- 
 lieved, been established in England for the formation of teachers; and 
 it has been proposed at the present session of parliament, by a com- 
 mittee of the privy council of the realm, to found a central Normal 
 School in the city of London.* 
 
 The attention of the friends of education in several of the states of 
 the Union has for some time been turned to this subject. In New 
 York, some provision has been made by the Legislature for training 
 teachers at the incorporated academies of the state. In some of our 
 own respectable academies, the qualifying of teachers of both sexes 
 has been particularly attended to, and these establishments, in point 
 of fact, have served as the nurseries from which many of our schools 
 have been furnished with instructors. In addition to what has been 
 done in this way, an institution, amply endowed by private liberality, 
 has existed for some time at Andover, expressly devoted to the educa- 
 tion of instructors. Many respectable teachers have, it is believed, 
 been formed at this school. 
 
 The subject of special provision by public authority for the education 
 of teachers has at many different times, within the last few years, been 
 considered by the committees of education of the two branches of the 
 Legislature. Their establishment has been strongly urged in the re- 
 ports which, from time to time, have emanated from this source. 
 Among those who have recommended such a provision with the greatest 
 zeal and intelligence, it would be unjust not to mention the name of 
 a citizen of this county, (Mr. Carter, of Lancaster,) who, both in a 
 separate publication and in official reports as a member of both 
 branches of the Legislature, has rendered distinguished service in this 
 way. 
 
 In the first report of the Board of Education, at the beginning of the 
 year 1838, the attention of the Legislature was invited to this subject. 
 In the course of the ensuing session, the secretary of the board was 
 authorized by a friend of education, whose name was not communi- 
 cated to the public,* to inform the Legislature that ten thousand dol- 
 lars would be furnished by him whenever the same sum should be 
 appropriated from the public treasury, to be expended under the direc- 
 tion of the Board of Education in qualifying teachers for the common 
 schools of Massachusetts. This offer was promptly accepted by the 
 Legislature, and the requisite appropriation made. 
 
 The steps taken by the Board of Education, in discharge of the im- 
 portant trust thus devolved upon them, are minutely set forth in their 
 second annual report, which was made to the Legislature at the com- 
 mencement of the last session. It will be sufficient to observe, on the 
 
 * Since the delivery of this address, this and other similar projects have gone into 
 highly successful operation in England, under the auspices of the committee of the 
 privy council for education. 
 
 * The late Hon. Edward Dwight.
 
 182 GOV. EVERETT'S ADDRESS AT BARRE. 
 
 present occasion, that after deliberate and anxious reflection, and a 
 careful comparison of the claims of various places proposed, in dif- 
 ferent parts of the commonwealth, Lexington, in Middlesex county, 
 and Barre, in Worcester county, have been selected as the sites of 
 two of the Normal Schools. A confident expectation is entertained 
 that a third may shortly be established in some other part of the 
 state, t 
 
 These institutions are, of course, to some extent experimental. They 
 are so of necessity. The funds provided for their support, with all the 
 subsidiary aid which can reasonably be expected from the friends of 
 education in the neighborhood of the schools, although highly creditable 
 to the generous spirit by which they are furnished, are quite inade- 
 quate to the endowment of permanent establishments. For reasons 
 set forth in the report to which I have alluded, it was thought proper 
 not to stake the result of the whole trial on one school; but to afford 
 to different parts of the commonwealth an opportunity of judging for 
 themselves. It was further considered that three years is the shortest 
 period which would authorize any safe conclusion as to the operation 
 of the system. It will readily be perceived that when the funds to be 
 disposed of are divided among three schools, and distributed over three 
 years, it becomes necessary to adopt the most frugal scale of expen- 
 diture not inconsistent with the object to be attained. Our situation 
 in this respect is widely different from that of foreign countries, 
 where ample funds for objects of this kind are appropriated by wealthy 
 governments; where buildings, apparatus, libraries, and the mainten- 
 ance of pupils, are provided for by permanent dotations; and as many 
 instructors are supported as are deemed necessary for the fullest devel- 
 opment of the system. 
 
 The narrowness of the means from which the experiment of our 
 Normal Schools is undertaken may (though we trust it will not) defeat 
 its success. We hope that so much good will manifestly be done within 
 the range of our resources, that the Legislature will be disposed, and 
 private benefactors encouraged, to convert our temporary Normal 
 Schools into permanent foundations for the qualification of teachers. 
 Still, however, we trust, in justice to all concerned, that it will be borne 
 in mind, that this experiment is conducted under considerable disad- 
 vantages, independent of the difficulties incident to the organization 
 of every new institution. This consideration, we trust, will secure us 
 the sympathy and co-operation of the community in which the schools 
 are established, and of the public at large. It is always of great im- 
 portance to a youthful institution, that it should be kindly regarded in 
 the place where it is established. We trust that the respected prin- 
 cipal of this school, and all who many have a joint care with him in 
 conducting it, and all who resort to it to qualify themselves as teachers, 
 will enjoy the good will, and be favored with the countenance and 
 kind offices, of the reverend clergy of all denominations, of the indi- 
 viduals of lead and influence in the other professions, and of the citi- 
 zens generally in this part of the commonwealth. While no pains will 
 be spared to make the school creditable to the community in which 
 it is placed, nothing will do more to promote its prosperity than the 
 friendly regard of an enlightened public. 
 
 This occasion requires a few remarks on the character and objects 
 of Normal Schools, and the importance of a systematic education of 
 teachers. Much has been said and written of late on this subject. Not 
 to mention foreign publications, it is discussed at length in the legis- 
 lative reports to which I have alluded, and a very valuable essay by 
 
 t Since this address was delivered, a third Normal School has been founded at 
 Bridgewater, and those at Lexington and Barre have been transferred to Newton and 
 Westfield.
 
 oov. EVERETT'S ADDRESS AT BARRE. 183 
 
 Professor Stowe, on Normal Schools and Teachers' Seminaries, has 
 recently been given to the public. The necessary limits of an address 
 of this kind will require my remarks to be of a very general character. 
 
 The office of the teacher, in forming the minds and hearts of the 
 young, and training up those who are to take our places in life, is all- 
 important. After all that has been said, in all ages, on the subject, 
 more than justice has not been, and never can be, done to the theme. 
 With no small part of the children in the community, the intercourse 
 of the teacher with the young is scarcely inferior, in closeness and the 
 length of time for which it is kept up, to that of the parents; not at 
 all inferior, in the importance of the objects to be attained by it. As 
 soon as the child is old enough to be sent to school, the teacher is re- 
 lied upon to furnish occupation for the opening faculties of the mind, 
 to direct its efforts in the acquisition of the elements of knowledge, 
 and to suggest the first distinct ideas on some of the most important 
 questions in conduct and morals. The child is committed to the teach- 
 er's hands in the very morning of life, when the character, still more 
 than the young limbs, is, so to say, still in the gristle. They have, 
 both limbs and character, acquired some of their proper consistency 
 and power of resistance; but to how much of the intellectual and moral 
 frame are not the first impress and shaping to be given at school? 
 Is this a light matter? If the teacher was to fashion your child's per- 
 sonal proportions, or to remold his features, with what jealousy would 
 you inquire after his qualification for that task? Is it of less import- 
 ance how he fashions and molds the features of the mind? Is it of 
 small account, whether your child's germinating faculties to use a 
 proverbial expression, to which no rhetoric can add force shall be 
 "nipped in the bud," a bud in which seeds of immortal life and heav- 
 enly intelligence have been curiously wrapped by the Creator? The 
 husband-man can tell us if it is a matter of little or no consequence 
 whether you employ a skillful or an unskillful person to raise a crop 
 of corn, the growth of a few months, under a simple process of cul- 
 ture. And yet so much depends on proper management, that from 
 the same seed you may see, in one field, the corn towering up, vigor- 
 ous, swelling with life and strength, its broad, healthy leaves crack- 
 ling till the farmer thinks he can both hear it and see it grow, the 
 graceful tassel dancing on the summit of the stalk, and dropping its 
 fertilizing powder on the silken filaments, which force their way from 
 the top of the husk to receive the vital principle, and convey it to the 
 ripening ear; and perhaps on the other side of the way, in a corner of 
 the sluggard's garden, struggling with rank weeds for the joint pos- 
 session of the unenriched soil, you will see, from the same seed, a 
 scanty, blighted, sickly crop, yellow as saffron when it ought to be 
 green, and black when it ought to be yellow, and scarce promising a 
 few meager stalks for the barn-yard. Whenever I witness such a con- 
 trast in the natural world, I ask myself, with trembling, whether the 
 mind is a principle so much less delicate than a blade of grass, 
 whether the proper care and culture of the intellect, the raising up 
 and the training up of that unspeakable mystery on earth, a thinking, 
 reasoning, discoursing, immortal creature, are so inferior in import- 
 ance, in difficulty, and in the amount of the consequences involved, 
 that while we would trust the tillage of our field, the sowing of our 
 corn, and the gathering of the harvest, only to an expert and a judi- 
 cious hand, any one may be trusted to keep our schools and cultivate 
 the minds of our children? 
 
 These inquiries scarcely need an answer. Every man's reflection who 
 is able to reason on the subject, every one's observation who has 
 turned his attention to it, every one's experience who has had chil- 
 dren of his own confided to a succession of teachers, and still more,
 
 184 GOV. EVERETT'S ADDRESS AT BARRE. 
 
 who, at any time, has himself been engaged in the business of in- 
 struction, will satisfy himself that the teacher's duty is important, 
 complicated, and arduous. It is not a mere piece of job-work, to which 
 any one may turn his hand, but a professional calling, which requires 
 knowledge, judgment, and experience. 
 
 There is scarce such a thing conceivable, as even a solitary act, 
 consisting of several parts or movements, which does not admit of 
 every degree of excellence in the manner and success of the perform- 
 ance. See two men handle an ax, in cutting down a tree, one a raw 
 hand, the other a practiced woodman. Look at two persons on horse- 
 back, of equal courage and strength, the one for the first time in his 
 life in the saddle, the other an expert rider. One seems to realize 
 the fable of the Centaur, as if he were himself a part of the animal 
 on which he is moving; the other can scarce keep his seat. Let an 
 inexperienced person go to work with a handsaw or a paint brush; or 
 undertake to conduct a piece of cloth through a power-loom, or to 
 cover a whip-handle with its mysterious network; and he will be very 
 sure, for several times, to fail. I think there are few persons in this 
 assembly, except those who may have had considerable practice, who 
 can drive a nail straight into a board, without striking their fingers 
 with the hammer. In fact, "to hit a nail on the head," simple as 
 the operation seems, is in reality one of so much nicety, that it has 
 become a proverbial expression for dexterity and skill. 
 
 We might cast our eyes over the entire circle of human pursuit, 
 and find new illustrations of the necessity of diligent preparation for 
 every calling; and no one can seriously suppose that the office of an 
 instructor makes an exception. But inasmuch as institutions for the 
 education of teachers are as yet hardly known by name among us, 
 it is a natural question how teachers in our country have hitherto been 
 able to prepare themselves for the discharge of their duties. May 
 not the means which have hitherto proved adequate for the supply of 
 our schools with competent instructors, still suffice for that purpose? 
 The question is a fair one, and deserves a candid answer. 
 
 Whoever thinks that we are favored with an ample supply of teach- 
 ers, as well qualified as can be wished, needs no further answer. Who- 
 ever considers that of the teachers in times past and at the present 
 day in our schools, there are those possessing all degrees of qualifi- 
 cation, from very high to very low, it will seem a pertinent inquiry, 
 what their means of preparation have been; and such an inquirer 
 will probably be of opinion that we need a more systematic and effi- 
 cient preparation for this purpose. 
 
 We must assume, then, first, that natural aptitude goes very far, 
 on the plan hitherto pursued, in deciding the qualification of the 
 teacher. This, under all circumstances, will be an important element. 
 One man will be a better teacher, with little or no training or ex- 
 perience, than some others, who pass their lives in the business. This, 
 however, is equally the case in every pursuit or calling, in law, 
 physic, and divinity, in trade, manufactures, and farming, and is 
 never thought to supersede the necessity of education. Some remain 
 inefficient and incapable after every imaginable advantage; others, 
 with slender opportunities, bound, as it were, at a single leap, to the 
 front rank. I have seen a person, who, from his infancy, never knew 
 a want; who passed from the arms of a careful nurse into the care 
 of the best of teachers; who enjoyed, from the first, every conceiv- 
 able aid and encouragement, (except the most efficient of all, the 
 spur of necessity,) the best of masters, the best of books in abundance, 
 and steady schooling, and, at the close of his school education, grossly 
 ignorant in every branch of knowledge; while another, of the same
 
 oov. EVERETT'S ADDRESS AT BARRE. 185 
 
 age, educated under the stern discipline of necessity, with limited 
 means, the ordinary chance of instructors, the old books which his 
 father wore out before him, and attendance at school far from steady, 
 has advanced from one branch to another, mastering each as he goes, 
 with a keen relish for learning, and an ever-craving appetite for new 
 truth. Whatever may be the calling of these two men, one is destined 
 to eminence, the other to failure. Should circumstances call them to 
 the instructor's desk, it is quite evident that he who has learned little 
 will have still less to teach, while the other will be very likely to 
 exhibit the same facility in the communication as in the acquisition 
 of knowledge. 
 
 In the next place, the teacher's fitness, at the present day, depends 
 very much on the kind of instruction which he received himself while 
 at school. If he was so fortunate as to be taught by a sound, accurate, 
 and judicious instructor, he will be not unlikely to exhibit that char- 
 acter himself. A good degree of the school-keeping capacity, and I may 
 say, also, incapacity, are traceable to this source. Our schools are under 
 a kind of traditionary discipline. To a considerable extent they are 
 kept by young men and women, who make a pretty rapid transition 
 from the pupil's bench to the master's and mistress's chair. Unless 
 they possess strong, original minds, which are not very common, 
 there is not much likelihood that they will rise above the standard 
 of the schools where they were themselves taught. If these were 
 very good, they will be more apt to fall below it. Mediocrity is much 
 more apt to be propagated than excellence. If a teacher of average 
 capacity keep the school for a few years, he will not be likely to make 
 any improvements, and will do very well if he hands it over to his 
 successor as good as he found it. When this state of things prevails 
 in a community for a long course of years, we behold the painful 
 spectacle of schools in the rear of every thing else. There is progress 
 in every thing else, but the schools are stationary, and even degener- 
 ating. I have heard judicious observers express the doubt, whether 
 the average of our district schools, at the present day, are better than 
 they were thirty years ago. If the remark is just, it is a state of 
 things not very creditable to the commonwealth. To keep pace with 
 the general progress of improvement, they ought to be much better. 
 We should be ashamed to be quoted hereafter, as a proof that there 
 is a law in the intellectual and moral, like that which has been ob- 
 served in the natural world, with respect to many of the products 
 of the earth that the fruit which is borne on the graft runs out with 
 the original stock. Good husbandry requires that attention should 
 be constantly given to the discovery of improved methods, and the 
 introduction of new varieties raised from the seed. Tradition is 
 closely allied to degeneracy. 
 
 Where the teacher engages in his pursuit for life, a new source of 
 qualification presents itself of great value; I mean experience. He 
 qualifies himself. But such teachers are not found, I presume, in 
 many of our common schools. They rise to higher stations. Besides 
 this, it may happen, when Experience is the teacher, as with teachers 
 of other kinds r the pupil is by no means sure to excel his master. Self- 
 instruction is not always improving. It depends on the character of 
 a man's mind, how much advantage he derives from experience. The 
 experience of one man is clear and decisive. He commits an error, 
 perceives it, and henceforward avoids it. He is struck with the ad- 
 vantage of some procedure or method, traces that advantage to its 
 principle, builds a rule upon it, and enlarges or amends his practice 
 to the end of life. The experience of other men yields them no such 
 fruit. It is vague and irresolute. They live and act, but have no 
 experience, properly so called. Proceeding without steady principles
 
 186 GOV. EVERETT'S ADDRESS AT BARRE. 
 
 of conduct, without the intelligence or the moral aptitude to profit 
 by their mistakes, the working of one day counteracts that of an- 
 other. It is only where order, the first law of earth, as well as Heaven, 
 presides, that day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night 
 showeth forth knowledge. Without this guide of conduct, experience 
 may perplex instead of directing. The mistake of to-day produces 
 the mistake of to-morrow; and life is exhausted in half -finished experi- 
 ments and constantly-repeated blunders, so that whether a man's ex- 
 perience profit him depends upon whether it is good experience, which 
 may be either successful experience, or unsuccessful experience wisely 
 heeded ; and it may -often happen that the recorded experience of an- 
 other more judicious mind will in reality guide a man better than his 
 own. 
 
 The recorded experience of others, then, that is, books, is another 
 means by which the teacher at present qualifies himself for his call- 
 ing. Unquestionably, the conscientious instructor may derive the 
 greatest advantages from the careful study of judicious publications 
 on the subject of his pursuit. The number of these is greatly mul- 
 tiplied of late years. It is a branch of literature comparatively of 
 recent growth; and without doing injustice to the works of the pat- 
 riarchs in this science, of Plato and of Cicero to the writings of 
 Ascham, of Milton, of Locke, I am inclined to think that, for practical 
 views, what has been written within the last fifty years exceeds, both 
 in amount and value, all that had before been given to the world on 
 the subject of education. As far as my acquaintance with the subject 
 extends, the works of Miss Edgeworth are entitled to the credit of 
 having first promulgated, in the English language at least, sound 
 and judicious views as to the whole business of education. A per- 
 son thoroughly possessed of every thing in her works, would have 
 but little to learn, as to general principles, (with one exception,) from 
 other sources. There are, however, many things, of course, in her 
 publications, not applicable to the condition of things in this country; 
 and on one all important topic, the subject of religious instruction, there 
 is a deeply to be lamented deficiency. For the practical purposes 
 of the American teacher, some good works have appeared in our own 
 country, of which that of Mr. Jacob Abbott appears to me decidedly 
 the best. No person can peruse it without gaining new conceptions 
 of the importance of the teacher's duty, and practical hints as to the 
 best method of discharging it. Whether a perusal of it will not, in 
 most cases, leave on the reader's mind a painful impression as to 
 the imperfection of our schools, in condition and management, is a 
 question which each must answer for himself. 
 
 From the various useful works on the business of instruction, the 
 faithful teacher will, under all circumstances, derive great benefit. 
 But neither in this nor any other calling, will the solitary study of 
 books effect all that is to be desired, to say nothing of the objection 
 to this and all the other sources of self-instruction, which arises 
 from the condition of the schools, while the master is endeavoring to 
 improve himself. Those of our children may do well who have the 
 advantage of his teaching, after he has qualified himself by experience 
 in office and the study of good books; but what is to become of those 
 who are to get their education while the process is going on, and be- 
 fore it has proceeded to any valuable extent? As a general remark, 
 perhaps it would not be unjust to say, that most of our teachers retire 
 from that pursuit about the time they become well qualified to carry 
 it on to the greatest advantage. 
 
 We are thus brought to the necessity of some specific preliminary 
 preparation for the office of teacher a preparation which shall fit 
 him in some degree beforehand for his duties. To afford this prepara-
 
 oov. EVERETT'S ADDRESS AT BARRE. 187 
 
 tion, is the precise object of a Normal School. Nothing is farther 
 from my purpose than to set up the pretension that there can be no 
 well-qualified teacher without such a school; but that great advant- 
 ages may be expected from a regular plan of instruction, in semi- 
 naries devoted to this object; a plan of instruction to come in aid of 
 all the other means of improvement, on which the faithful teacher 
 must now exclusively depend. To afford this instruction, is the ob- 
 ject of the Normal Schools now established in the commonwealth. 
 It is impossible that it should be so thorough and comprehensive, as 
 the theory of a perfect institution of the kind requires. There are 
 no funds applicable to the expense of such an establishment; and our 
 young men and women could not generally afford the time requisite 
 for a very long course of preparation, because the majority of our 
 districts do not require, and would not support, teachers who, having 
 been at great expense of time and money in fitting themselves for 
 their calling, would need a proportionate compensation. We suppose 
 that many of those who resort to these institutions, will, at present, 
 be able only to pass but a part of one year in the enjoyment of their 
 advantages; but while provision is made for the shortest period for 
 which any individual could reasonably wish to be received, a thorough 
 course of instruction will also be arranged for those who desire to 
 devote a longer time to their preparation as teachers. 
 
 Such a course of instruction will obviously consist of the following 
 parts : 
 
 i. A careful review of the branches of knowledge required to be 
 taught in our common schools; it being, of course, the first requisite 
 of a teacher that he should himself know well that which he is to aid 
 others in learning. Such an acquaintance with these branches of 
 knowledge is much less common than may be generally supposed. 
 The remark may sound paradoxical, but I believe it will bear exami- 
 nation, when I say, that a teacher thoroughly versed in those branches 
 of knowledge only which are taught in our common schools, is as dif- 
 ficult to find as a first-rate lawyer, divine, or physician, statesman, 
 man of business, or farmer. A good schoolmaster should be able to 
 read and speak the English language with propriety, ease, and grace; 
 and this can not be done without a thorough knowledge of its gram- 
 mar. He should possess, at the same time, a clear, shapely, and rapid 
 hand-writing, and be well versed in the elemental principles and oper- 
 ations of numbers. Without going beyond these three branches, 
 best designated by the good old-fashioned names of reading, writing, 
 and arithmetic, I venture to say that a man who possesses them 
 thoroughly is as rare as one of corresponding eminence in any of the 
 learned professions. And yet the law requires such masters for our 
 district schools. What says the statute? "In every town containing 
 fifty families or householders, there shall be kept, in each year, at 
 the charge of the town, by a teacher or teachers of competent abilities 
 and good morals, a school for the instructions of children in orthog- 
 raphy, reading, writing, English grammar, geography, arithmetic, 
 and good behavior." 
 
 How few, even of those considered men of education, are thoroughly 
 versed even in the branches required by law in our common schools! 
 How much fewer who know them as a teacher should know them! for 
 a teacher ought to know of every thing much more than the learner 
 can be expected to acquire. The teacher must know things in a mas- 
 terly way, curiously, nicely, and in their reasons. 
 
 The great mistake in monitorial instruction is, that it supposes that 
 the moment the bare knowledge of a fact in its naked form is attained, 
 it qualifies a person to teach it to others. The teacher must see the
 
 188 GOV. EVERETT'S ADDRESS AT BARRE. 
 
 truth under all Its aspects, with its antecedents and consequents, or 
 he cannot present it in just that shape in which the young mind can 
 apprehend it. He must, as he holds the diamond up to the sun, turn 
 its facets round and round, till the pupil catches its luster. It is not 
 an uncommon thing to hear it said of a grown person that he is too 
 learned to teach children; that he knows too much, is too far in ad- 
 vance of their minds, to perceive their difficulties. I imagine the 
 trouble generally to be of the opposite character. The man of learn- 
 ing either never understood the matter thoroughly, or he has forgotten 
 what he once knew. He has retained enough of his school learning for 
 the particular calling of life he has chosen; but he has not retained a 
 clear recollection of the elemental truths which it is necessary the 
 learner should comprehend. If in this state of things he can not com- 
 prehend the schoolboy's difficulty, it is not his superior wisdom, but 
 his ignorance, which is at fault. These remarks apply particularly to 
 the science of numbers, over which most of our children pass lan- 
 guishing days and weeks, vainly striving to master a hard "sum" or a 
 hard rule, which they finally give up in despair, or of which they con- 
 tent themselves with some false explanation, from pure want of ca- 
 pacity on the part of the teacher. A child of eight or nine years of 
 age, at one of our district schools, had run through the chief rules of 
 arithmetic, as it used to be taught, doing all the sums, and setting 
 them down in his ciphering book, without the slightest comprehension 
 of the reason of any one of the operations. At last, after going for a 
 second or third time through the rule of decimals, he, for the first 
 time, caught a glimpse of the real nature of a decimal fraction, of 
 which he had been wholly ignorant before, and which, in his simplic- 
 ity, he thought a discovery of his own. It was not till some time after- 
 ward that he found out that mankind had for a great while been aware 
 that a decimal is the numerator of a fraction whose denominator is a 
 unit with as many ciphers as the numerator has places. The first ob- 
 ject of instruction in a Normal School is, as far as possible, in the 
 space of time assigned to its instructions, to go over the circle of 
 branches required to be taught, and see that the future teacher is 
 thoroughly and minutely versed in them. 
 
 2. The second part of instruction in a Normal School is the art of 
 teaching. To know the matter to be taught, and to know it thoroughly, 
 are of themselves, though essential, not all that is required. There is 
 a peculiar art of teaching. The details of this branch are inexhausti- 
 ble, but it is hoped that the most important principles may be brought 
 within such a compass as to afford material benefit to those who pass 
 even the shortest time at these institutions. The subject should be 
 taken up at its foundation, in those principles of our nature on which 
 education depends; the laws which control the faculties of the youth- 
 ful mind in the pursuit and attainment of truth; and the moral senti- 
 ments on the part of teacher and pupil which must be brought into 
 harmonious action. The future teacher must be instructed in the most 
 effectual way of reaching untaught mind a process subtile, difficult, 
 various. The first thing requisite often will be to ascertain what has 
 to be unlearned, both as to positive errors and bad habits of mind. 
 The child who has been accustomed to add numbers together by 
 counting on his fingers, instead of learning a simple addition table by 
 rote at the outset; who has formed to himself a small, ill-looking, and 
 illegible scrawl, under the name of a running hand, without ever hav- 
 ing learned to shape the letters in bold and fair proportions; or who, 
 under the notion of refinements beyond the common standard, has 
 been taught such barbarisms as "he shew me the book," "I have began 
 to read it," "had I have had time to go," such a child, I say, comes
 
 GOV. EVERETT'S ADDRESS AT BARRE. 189 
 
 into the hands of the teacher heavily laden with a cargo, which it 
 must be the first labor and care to throw overboard. 
 
 But the art of teaching is not confined to a correction of the errors, 
 or a reform of the bad habits, of the mistaught pupil. Where nothing 
 of this kind is to be done, the mind of the learner is still to be guided, 
 aided, and encouraged in its progress. The perfection of the art of 
 teaching consists in hitting the precise point between that which the 
 studious pupil must do for himself, and that which the instructor may 
 do with him and for him. It is not enough, in teaching a child to read, 
 to correct with a harsh voice some gross error which he may make in 
 reading a verse or two in the New Testament or the National Reader. 
 The teacher must himself, patiently, kindly, and with a gentle voice, 
 read the passage over repeatedly, and see that the learner under- 
 stands the meaning of every word, and of the whole sentence. It is 
 peculiar to arithmetic, that though there are degrees of readiness in 
 performing its operations, there are no degrees of clearness and cer- 
 tainty in the knowledge of its principles. The incredible vexation 
 which attends the study of this branch with many children, generally 
 arises from the unskillfulness of the teacher, in not taking care that 
 the learner, as he goes along, understands thoroughly each successive 
 step. If this be done, the child of ten years old will know what he 
 knows at all as well as Sir Isaac Newton. Some simple schoolboy 
 muse, in former times, has recorded its sorrowful experience on this 
 subject in the following plaintive and, in my day, very popular strain 
 
 "Multiplication is vexation. 
 
 Division is as bad, 
 The rule of three doth puzzle me, 
 And practice makes me mad." 
 
 But if proper care be taken that every step be thoroughly understood 
 before advancing to the next, multiplication and division will be found 
 as simple as addition or subtraction; while the rule of three and prac- 
 tice have been shown, in the recent and best school books, to be 
 wholly unnecessary, inasmuch as all questions usually performed by 
 their aid can be more readily performed by simpler processes. 
 
 One thing is certain; that though there can be no difference in the 
 average capacity of equal numbers of the children in two schools in 
 the same community, there is often a vast difference in the average 
 scholarship, after the same amount of schooling. To what can the 
 difference be ascribed, but to the different degrees of skill on the part 
 of teachers? It is not an uncommon thing to find children who, after 
 having been months, and even years, employed either on the lower 
 elements or on the higher branches of learning, leave school, at last, 
 knowing nothing thoroughly, and not much superficially. They can 
 not read with fluency, force, and intelligence, to say nothing of grace 
 and beauty; they write a poor, unsteady, hieroglyphical hand; they 
 have no clear notions of grammatical construction, and are awkward 
 and incorrect in the use of numbers. Perhaps this is the description 
 of nearly half the children who leave school in town or country. The 
 little that is learned of Latin and Greek is equally inaccurate and 
 shallow. The fault is commonly laid at the pupil's door, especially if 
 he has had what is usually called schooling enough. I think, however, 
 generally, that the fault is with the teacher, who is frequently not 
 thoroughly versed himself in what he undertakes to teach more fre- 
 quently unskilled in the art of teaching. The astonishing difference 
 sometimes noticed in the progress of the same school under different 
 teachers, in successive seasons, shows how much is justly attributable 
 to this cause. 
 
 Besides the general art of teaching, there are peculiar methods, ap- 
 plicable to each branch of knowledge, which should be unfolded in the
 
 190 GOV. EVERETT'S ADDRESS AT BARRE. 
 
 instructions of a Normal School ; but this is a topic in which my limits 
 do not permit me to engage. I hasten to 
 
 3. The third branch of instruction to be imparted in an institution, 
 which concerns the important subject of the government of the school, 
 and which might perhaps more justly have been named the first. The 
 best method of governing a school that is, of exercising such a moral 
 influence in it as is most favorable to the improvement of the pupils 
 will form a very important part of the course of instruction designed 
 to qualify teachers for their calling. It is this part of their duty which 
 is probably least considered by themselves or their employers; for the 
 reason, perhaps, that qualification in this respect is least capable of 
 being estimated by an external standard. But how much is not implied 
 in the words "to govern a school!" For several hours in the day, the 
 teacher is to exercise the authority of a parent over fifty or sixty, per- 
 haps over ninety or a hundred children. Parents can form an opinion 
 whether this is a task to be executed without system, without princi- 
 ples, and as a matter of course; or whether it is not that in which the 
 youthful teacher will most stand in need of all the preparation which 
 it is possible to acquire. Without the aid of that instinct of natural 
 affection which fortifies parental authority, he is expected, with a 
 parent's power, to control alike the docile and the obstinate, the sullen 
 and the gay. While his entire intercourse with his pupils is that of 
 constraint and requisition, he must acquire an absolute control over 
 many a youthful spirit, which has already been irritated by caprice, 
 soured by tyranny, or spoiled by indulgence at home. And he is to do 
 this not by violence and storm, but by wisely threading the maze of 
 that living labyrinth, the affections of the youthful heart. In this de- 
 partment perhaps greater improvement has taken place of late years 
 than in any other; there has been a general call for moral influence, 
 instead of physical power. I do not say that this last should never be 
 resorted to, but I trust the day is wholly past for that ferocious war- 
 fare between master and pupil which was once so general, and with no 
 other effect than that of turning the teacher's office into a hateful 
 tyranny, and the happy season of childhood into a long martyrdom. 
 Dr. Johnson, in composing a legal argument to be used by another 
 person, puts into his mouth the sentiment, "that a school can be gov- 
 erned only by fear." It would, I think, have been much nearer the 
 truth to say, that a school can be governed only by patient, enlight- 
 ened, Christian love, the master principle of our natures. It softens 
 the ferocity of the savage; it melts the felon in his cell. In the man- 
 agement of children it is the great source of influence; and the teach- 
 er of youth, though his mind be a storehouse of knowledge, is ignorant 
 of the first principles of his art, if he has not embraced this as an 
 elemental maxim. 
 
 But let it not be thought that these are smooth sayings, and that 
 moral discipline is unattended with difficulty, and preferred by an 
 indolent age for its comparative ease. The reverse is nearer the truth. 
 To walk the rounds of the school with a ratan in the hand, to be be- 
 stowed as liberally on the thoughtless exuberance of youthful spirits, 
 on the restlessness of the little urchin unused to his confinement, and 
 on the mistakes of mere inadvertence or absolute ignorance, as on 
 hardened perversity and resolute disobedience, is a much easier task 
 than to graduate each of these cases on the scale of moral demerit, 
 and to treat them accordingly. It is related of the late Dr. Bowditch, 
 that he very early manifested that skill in numbers which afterward 
 raised him to the level of the first mathematicians of the day. While 
 quite a child at school, he performed a difficult sum in arithmetic with 
 astonishing readiness. His schoolmaster was at once so ignorant of 
 the mode of governing a school, and had so little acquainted himself
 
 GOV. EVERETT'S ADDRESS AT BARRE. 191 
 
 with the powers of his pupil's mind, that he thought it impossible the 
 task should have been performed without assistance, and asked who 
 had helped him. On being told by young Bowditch that he had done 
 it himself, the coarse tyrant severely chastised him for falsehood a 
 treatment well calculated to subvert the entire moral frame of a sen- 
 sitive lad, but much more simple than it would have been for an un- 
 derstanding such as this master possessed to enter into a careful 
 analysis of the capacities of his forward pupil. 
 
 The instruction of the Normal School will therefore dwell on the 
 government of youth as of paramount importance; as that part of the 
 teacher's duty which demands the rarest union of qualities, which 
 most tries the temper, and I will add, when faithfully and judiciously 
 performed, is most important in its results. Give me the child whose 
 heart has embraced without violence the gentle lore of obedience, in 
 whom the sprightliness of youth has not encroached on deference for 
 authority, and I would rather have him for my son, though at the age 
 of twelve he should have his alphabet to learn, than be compelled to 
 struggle with the caprice of a self-willed, obstinate youth, whose bosom 
 has become a viper's nest of the unamiable passions, although in early 
 attainments he may be the wonder of the day. 
 
 There are many other topics connected with the teacher's duty, on 
 which it may be expected that instruction will be afforded in the Nor- 
 mal School. Among these is the all-important subject of direct in- 
 struction in morals and religion, the relations of teachers and parents, 
 of teachers and the higher school authorities, and the duties of teach- 
 ers to each other and to the community, and of the community to 
 them, as the members of a respectable profession. I am necessarily 
 prevented by the limits of the occasion from entering upon any of 
 these subjects. 
 
 4. In the last place, it is to be observed, that in aid of all the in- 
 struction and exercises within the limits of the Normal School, prop- 
 erly so called, there is to be established a common or district school, 
 as a school of practice, in which, under the direction of the principal 
 of the Normal School, the young teacher may have the benefit of ac- 
 tual exercise in the business of instruction. This, of course, is a very 
 interesting portion of the system; but I am obliged to dismiss it with 
 this simple mention. 
 
 Such then, briefly, are the nature and objects of a Normal School, 
 and such the manner in which it proposes to qualify teachers. We do 
 not expect that it will work miracles; we shall be satisfied if it does 
 good; and of this only we feel a reasonable degree of confidence, that 
 no young man or young woman can pass even three months in the 
 institution without leaving it better qualified for the business of in- 
 struction. We trust the result will be such as eventually to contribute 
 to the improvement of our schools. We have spared no pains, with the 
 means at our command, to secure in advance the confidence of an en- 
 lightened public. The talent, the services, and the distinguished char- 
 acter of the gentlemen to whom the schools already founded have been 
 intrusted, are a pledge to the community of what may be expected 
 from their labors in this cause. Among the fundamental principles 
 laid down by the Board of Education for the government of the Nor- 
 mal Schools, it has been provided that a portion of Scripture shall be 
 daily read; and it is their devout hope that a fervent spirit of prayer, 
 pervading the heart of both principal and pupils, may draw down the 
 Divine blessing on their pursuits. 
 
 I can not forbear, sir,* to express to you, on this occasion, the deep 
 sense which is felt by the Board of Education of the importance of 
 
 * Professor S. P. Newman
 
 192 oov. EVERETT'S ADDRESS AT BARRE. 
 
 the trust which they have confided to your hands. I have the pleasure 
 to assure you, that all their proceedings in reference to the school, and 
 your own connection with it, have been entirely unanimous, and that 
 a large measure of confidence is reposed both in your ability and dis- 
 position to fulfil their expectations. The reputation which you bring 
 to this place, acquired by a long course of faithful labor in a highly 
 responsible station elsewhere, (Bowdoin College,) is a sufficient guar- 
 anty to the public of the services which may be expected from you in 
 this new and untried position. On you and the highly respected prin- 
 cipal of the Normal School at Lexington, (Mr. Cyrus Pierce,) it will 
 depend at present, in no small degree, whether institutions of this 
 description shall win the public favor, and be incorporated into our 
 system of common school education. We are sensible of the deep re- 
 sponsibility which this consideration devolves upon you, and shall, at 
 all times, extend to you, to the utmost of our power, the support and 
 encouragement you may need. Should this effort succeed to improve 
 our schools by the increased qualifications of our teachers, you will 
 have the satisfaction of being the first in our country to engage in an 
 enterprise of the most eminent usefulness. Ages may pass away be- 
 fore an opportunity will present itself of working greater good than 
 will be effected by those in this generation, who shall lay the founda- 
 tions of decided improvements in popular education. We commend 
 you, sir, to the support of this enlightened community, and the care 
 of a watchful Providence. 
 
 To you, my young friends of either sex, who have entered yourselves 
 as pupils of the Normal School, we would say that the eyes of the 
 friends of education, in all parts of the commonwealth, will be anxious- 
 ly fixed upon you, and those who, with you, may be among the first 
 to take advantage of the means of improvement which this institution 
 affords. You are about to prepare yourselves, under great advantages, 
 for the important office of instruction. This momentous trust, which 
 hitherto, almost without exception, in this country, has been assumed 
 without specific preparation, will be approached by you, after having 
 had its principles carefully unfolded to you, with some opportunity of 
 putting them to practice, in the model school, which will form a part of 
 the institution. When you shall engage in the business of instruction, 
 the community will reasonably expect of you that you should exhibit 
 unusual fitness for the work. Let this thought engage you to enter 
 upon your studies with redoubled zeal. A failure on your part to meet 
 the public expectation, will have an injurious effect, for some time, on 
 this attempt to improve the qualifications of teachers, in institutions 
 expressly devoted to that object. On the other hand, your spirit and 
 devotion to the object you are pursuing, and your visible improvement 
 in the noble skill of aiding in the development of mind and the forma- 
 tion of character, while they will put you upon the path of acknowl- 
 edged usefulness and prosperity, will contribute essentially to the per- 
 manent adoption of Normal Schools, as a part of the Massachusetts 
 system of public education. May a higher motive than human appro- 
 bation animate your conduct, and the Divine blessing crown your 
 studies with success. 
 
 Permit me, fellow-citizens and friends, in bringing this address to a 
 close, to congratulate you on the establishment, in the bosom of this 
 community, of an institution destined, we trust, to be an instrument 
 of great good. We place it under the protection of an intelligent pub- 
 lic. Its organization is simple; its action will be wholly free from 
 parade and display; its fruits, we trust, will be seen in raising the 
 standard of common school education. This object, we confess, we 
 regard as one of paramount importance, second to no other not im- 
 mediately connected with the spiritual concerns of man. If there be
 
 oov. EVERETT'S ADDRESS AT BARRE. 193 
 
 any persons to whom the words "common schools" and "common 
 school education" convey an idea of disparagement and insignificance, 
 such persons are ignorant, not merely of the true character of our po- 
 litical system, but of the nature of man. I certainly intend nothing 
 derogatory to our higher seminaries of education, in town or in coun- 
 try. They are recognized by the constitution of the state. It is made 
 the duty of all magistrates to encourage and promote them, and they 
 are justly strong in the public favor. But whether we consider the 
 numbers who enjoy their benefit, the relative importance to the state 
 of an entire well-educated population, and of the services of those 
 who receive the adventages of an education at the higher seminaries, 
 taken in connection with the fact that a liberal education may be had 
 elsewhere, but that a common school education must be had at home 
 or not at all, no rational man, as it seems to me, can fail to perceive 
 the superior importance of the common schools. They give the keys 
 of knowledge to the mass of the people. The child learns more by his 
 fourth year, than the philosopher at any subsequent period of his life; 
 he learns to affix an intelligible sign to every outward object and in- 
 ward emotion, by a gentle impulse imparted from his lips to the air. 
 In like manner, I think it may with truth be said, that the branches of 
 knowledge taught in our common schools, when taught in a finished, 
 masterly manner, reading, in which I include the spelling of our 
 language, a firm, silghtly, legible hand-writing, and the elemental 
 rules of arithmetic, are of greater value than all the rest which is 
 taught at school. I am far from saying that nothing else can be taught 
 at our district schools; but the young person who brings these from 
 school can himself, in' his winter evenings, range over the entire field 
 of useful knowledge. Our common schools are important in the same 
 way as the common air, the common sunshine, the common rain, in- 
 valuable for their commonness. They are the corner-stone of that mu- 
 nicipal organization which is the characteristic feature of our social 
 system; they are the fountain of that wide-spread intelligence, which, 
 like a moral life, pervades the country; they are the nursery of that in- 
 quiring spirit to which we are indebted for the preservation of the 
 blessings of an inquiring, Protestant, spiritual faith. Established as 
 they were by special legislation in the infancy of the colony, while they 
 are kept up and supported with a liberality corresponding with the 
 growth of the country, no serious evil can befall us. Whatsoever other 
 calamities, external or internal, may overtake us, while the schools 
 are supported, they will furnish a perennial principle of restoration. 
 With her three thousand district schools, supported at the public ex- 
 pense, nothing but the irreversible decree of Omnipotence can bring 
 the beaming forehead of Massachusetts to the dust. Vicissitudes may 
 blight the foliage, but there will be vigor in the trunk, and life at the 
 root. Talent will constantly spring up on her barren hill-sides, and in 
 her secluded vales, and find an avenue, through her schools, to the 
 broad theatre of life, where great affairs are conducted by able men. 
 Other states may exceed her in fertility of soil, but the skillful labor 
 of her free citizens will clothe her plains with plenty. Other states 
 may greatly outnumber her, but her ingenuity will people her shady 
 glens and babbling waterfalls with half-reasoning engines, which will 
 accomplish the work of toiling myriads. Other states will far surpass 
 her in geographical domain; but the government of cultivated mind is 
 as boundless as the universe. Wheresoever on the surface of the 
 globe, and in the long line of coming ages, there is a reasonable being, 
 there is a legitimate subject of mental influence. From the humblest 
 village school, there may go forth a teacher who like Newton, shall 
 bind his temples with the stars of Orion's belt, with Herschel, light 
 
 M
 
 194 GOV. EVERETT'S ADDRESS AT BARRE. 
 
 up his cell with the beams of before undiscovered planets, with 
 Franklin, grasp the lightning. Columbus, fortified with a few sound 
 geographical principles, was, on the deck of his crazy caravel, more 
 truly the monarch of Castile and Arragon, than Ferdinand and Isabella, 
 enthroned beneath the golden vaults of the conquered Alhambra. And 
 Robinson, with the simple training of a rural pastor in England, when 
 he knelt on the shore of Delft Haven, and sent his little flock upon 
 their gospel errantry beyond the world of waters, exercised an in- 
 fluence over the destinies of the civilized world which will last to the 
 end of time.
 
 REMARKS 
 
 AT THE DEDICATION OF THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSE 
 AT BRIDGEWATER. 
 
 August 19, 1846. 
 
 The completion of a new edifice to accommodate the State 
 Normal School at Bridgewater was signalized by appropri- 
 ate exercises, on the 19th of August, 1846. Addresses were 
 made during the day by His Excellency, Governor Briggs, 
 Hon. William G. Bates, of Westfield, Amasa Walker, Esq., 
 of Brookfield, at the church, and in the new school-room. 
 After these addresses the company partook of a collation in 
 the Town Hall, on which occasion the health of the Secre- 
 tary of the Board of Education was given by the president 
 of the day, and received by the company with enthusiastic 
 applause. To this sentiment Mr. Mann responded as follows, 
 as reported in the Boston Mercantile Journal. 
 
 Mr. President: Among all the lights and shadows that have ever 
 crossed my path, this day's radiance is the brightest. Two years ago, 
 I would have been willing to compromise for ten years' work, as hard 
 as any I had ever performed, to have been insured that, at the end of 
 that period, I should see what our eyes this day behold. We now wit- 
 ness the completion of a new and beautiful Normal School-house for 
 the State Normal School at Bridgewater. One fortnight from tomor- 
 row, another house, as beautiful as this, is to be dedicated at West- 
 field, for the State Normal School at that place. West Newton was 
 already provided for by private munificence. Each Normal School 
 then will occupy a house, neat, commodious, and well adapted to its 
 wants; and the Principals of the schools will be relieved from the 
 annoyance of keeping a Normal School in an oft-Normal house. 
 
 I shall not even advert to the painful causes which have hastened 
 this most desirable consummation, since what was meant for evil 
 has resulted in so much good. Let me, however, say to you, as the 
 moral of this result, that it strengthens in my own mind what I have 
 always felt; and I hope it will strengthen, or create, in all your minds, 
 a repugnance to that sickly and cowardly sentiment of the poet, which 
 made him long 
 
 "For a lodge in some vast wilderness, 
 Some boundless contiguity of shade, 
 Where rumor of oppression and deceit, 
 Of unsuccessful or successful wars, 
 Might never reach him more." 
 
 There is oppression in the world which almost crushes the life out 
 of humanity. There is deceit, which not only ensnares the unwary, but 
 almost abolishes the security, and confidence, and delight, which ra- 
 tional and social beings ought to enjoy in their intercourse with each 
 other. There are wars, and the question whether they are right or 
 wrong, tortures the good man a thousand times more than any suc- 
 cesses or defeats of either belligerent. But the feeling which springs 
 up spontaneously in my mind, and which I hope springs up spontan- 
 eously in your minds, my friends, in view of the errors, and calamities, 
 and iniquities of the race, is, not to flee from the world, but to remain
 
 196 MB. MANN'S REMARKS AT BRIDGEWATER. 
 
 in it; not to hie away to forest solitudes or hermit cells, but to con- 
 front selfishness, and wickedness, and ignorance, at whatever personal 
 peril, and to subdue and extirpate them, or to die in the attempt. Had 
 it not been for a feeling like this among your friends, and the friends 
 of the sacred cause of education in which you have enlisted, you well 
 know that the Normal Schools of Massachusetts would have been put 
 down, and that this day never would have shone to gladden our hearts 
 and to reward our toils and sacrifices. Let no man who knows not 
 what has been suffered, what has been borne and forborne, to bring to 
 pass the present event, accuse me of an extravagance of joy. 
 
 Mr. President, I consider this event as marking an era in the prog- 
 ress of education, which, as we all know, is the progress of civiliza- 
 tion, on this western continent and throughout the world. It is the 
 completion of the first Normal School-house ever erected in Massa- 
 chusetts, in the Union, in this hemisphere. It belongs to that class 
 of events which may happen once, but are incapable of being repeated. 
 
 I believe Normal Schools to be a new instrumentality in the ad- 
 vancement of the race. I believe that, without them, Free Schools 
 themselves would be shorn of their strength and their healing power, 
 and would at length become mere charity schools, and thus die out 
 in fact and in form. Neither the art of printing, nor the trial by jury, 
 nor a free press, nor free suffrage, can long exist, to any beneficial 
 and salutary purpose, without schools for the training of teachers; 
 for, if the character and qualifications of teachers be allowed to de- 
 generate, the Free Schools will become pauper schools, and the pauper 
 schools will produce pauper souls, and the free press will become a 
 false and licentious press, and ignorant voters will become venal vot- 
 ers, and through the medium and guise of republican forms, an oligar- 
 chy of profligate and flagitious men will govern the land; nay, the 
 universal diffusion and ultimate triumph of all-glorious Christianity 
 itself must await the time when knowledge shall be diffused among 
 men through the instrumentality of good schools. Coiled up in this 
 institution, as in a spring, there is a vigor whose uncoiling may wheel 
 the spheres. 
 
 But this occasion brings to mind the past history of these schools, 
 not less than it awakens our hopes and convinces our judgment re- 
 specting their future success. 
 
 I hold, sir, in my hand, a paper, which contains the origin, the 
 source, the punctum saliens, of the Normal Schools of Massachusetts. 
 [Here Mr. Mann read a note from the Hon. Edmund Dwight, dated 
 March 10th, 1838, authorizing him, Mr. Mann, to say to the Legislature, 
 that the sum of ten thousand dollars would be given by an individual 
 for the preparation of teachers of Common Schools, provided the Leg- 
 islature would give an equal sum. The reading was received with great 
 applause.] 
 
 It will be observed, resumed Mr. Mann, that this note refers to a 
 conversation held on the evening previous to its date. The time, the 
 spot, the words of that conversation can never be erased from my 
 soul. This day, triumphant over the past, auspicious for the future, 
 then rose to my sight. By the auroral light of hope, I saw company 
 after company go forth from the bosom of these institutions, like 
 angel ministers, to spread abroad, over waste spiritual realms, the 
 power of knowledge and the delights of virtue. Thank God, the ene- 
 mies who have since risen up to oppose and malign us, did not cast 
 their hideous shadows across that beautiful scene. 
 
 The proposition made to the Legislature was accepted, almost with- 
 out opposition, in both branches; and on the third day of July, 1839, 
 the first Normal School, consisting of only three pupils, was opened
 
 MB. MANN'S REMARKS AT BRIDGEWATER. 197 
 
 at Lexington, under the care of a gentleman who now sits before me, 
 Mr. Cyrus Pierce, of Nantucket, then of island, but now of contin- 
 ental fame. 
 
 [This called forth great cheering:, and Mr. Mann said he should sit down to give Mr. 
 Pierce an opportunity to respond. Mr. Pierce arose under great embarrassment ; 
 starting at the sound of his name, and half doubting whether the eloquent Secretary 
 had not intended to name some other person. He soon recovered, however, and in a 
 very happy manner extricated himself from the "fix" in which the Secretary had 
 placed him. He spoke of his children, the pupils of the first Normal School, and of 
 the honorable competition which ought to exist between the several schools ; and to 
 the surprise, as well as regret, of all who heard him, he spoke of being admonished 
 by infirmities which he could not mistake, that it was time for him to retire from 
 the profession. The audience felt as if, for once in his life, this excellent teacher had 
 threatened to do wrong. He then told an amusing anecdote of a professor who re- 
 tained his office too long, and was toasted by the students in the words of Dr. Watts, 
 
 "The Rev. Dr. , Hush, my babe, lie still and slumber." And then he sat down 
 
 amidst the sincere plaudits of the company, who seemed to think he was not "so 
 plaguy old" as he wished to appear.] 
 
 I say, said Mr. Mann, on resuming, that, though the average number 
 of Mr. Pierce's school is now from sixty to eighty; and though this 
 school, at the present term, consists of one hundred pupils, yet the 
 first term of the first school opened with three pupils only. The truth 
 is, though it may seem a paradox to say so, the Normal Schools had 
 to come to prepare a way for themselves, and to show, by practical 
 demonstration, what they were able to accomplish. Like Christianity 
 itself, had they waited till the world at large called for them, or was 
 ready to receive them, they would never have come. 
 
 In September, 1839, two other Normal Schools were established: 
 one at Barre, in the county of Worcester, since removed to Westfield, 
 in the county of Hampden; and the other at this place, whose only re- 
 moval has been a constant moving onward and upward, to higher and 
 higher degrees of prosperity and usefulness. 
 
 In tracing down the history of these schools to the present time, 
 I prefer to bring into view, rather the agencies that have helped, than 
 the obstacles which have opposed them. 
 
 I say, then, that I believe Massachusetts to have been the only State 
 in the Union where Normal Schools could have been established; or 
 where, if established, they would have been allowed to continue. At 
 the time they were established, five or six thousand teachers were 
 annually engaged in our Common Schools; and probably nearly as 
 many more were looking forward to the same occupation. These in- 
 cumbents and expectants, together with their families and circles of 
 relatives and acquaintances, would probably have constituted the 
 greater portion of active influence on school affairs in the State; and 
 had they, as a body, yielded to the invidious appeals that were made to 
 them by a few agents and emissaries of evil, they might have extin- 
 guished the Normal Schools, as a whirlwind puts out a taper. I honor 
 the great body of Common School teachers in Massachusetts for the 
 magnanimity they have displayed on this subject. I know that many of 
 them have said, almost in so many words, and, what is nobler, they 
 have acted as they have said: "We are conscious of our deficiencies; 
 we are grateful for any means that will supply them, nay, we are 
 ready to retire from our places when better teachers can be found to 
 fill them. We derive, it is true, our daily bread from school-keeping, 
 but it is better that our bodies should be pinched with hunger than 
 that the souls of children should starve for want of mental nourish- 
 ment; and we should be unworthy of the husks which the swine do 
 eat, if we could prefer our own emolument or comfort to the intellec- 
 tual and moral culture of the rising generation. We give you our hand 
 and our heart for the glorious work of improving the schools of Mas- 
 sachusetts, while we scorn the baseness of the men who would appeal 
 to our love of gain, or of ease, to seduce us from the path of duty." 
 This statement does no more than justice to the noble conduct of the
 
 198 ME. MANN'S REMARKS AT BRIDGEWATER. 
 
 great body of teachers in Massachusetts. To be sure, there always 
 have been some who have opposed the Normal Schools, and who will, 
 probably, continue to oppose them as long as they live, lest they 
 themselves should be superseded by a class of competent teachers. 
 These are they who would arrest education where it is; because they 
 cannot keep up with it, or overtake it in its onward progress. But the 
 wheels of education are rolling on, and they who will not go with them 
 must go under them. 
 
 The Normal Schools were supposed by some to stand in an antago- 
 nistic relation to academies and select schools; and some teachers of 
 academies and select schools have opposed them. They declare that 
 they can make as good teachers as Normal Schools can. But, sir, 
 academies and select schools have existed in this State, in great num- 
 bers, for more than half a century. A generation of school-teachers 
 does not last, at the extent, more than three or four years; so that a 
 dozen generations of teachers have passed through our Public Schools 
 within the last fifty years. Now, if the academies and high schools 
 can supply an adequate number of school-teachers, why have they not 
 done it? We have waited half a century for them. Let them not com- 
 plain of us, because we are unwilling to wait half a century more. 
 Academies are good in their place; colleges are good in their place. 
 Both have done invaluable service to the cause of education. The 
 standard of intelligence is vastly higher now than it would have been 
 without their aid; but they have not provided a sufficiency of com- 
 petent teachers; and if they perform their appropriate duties hereafter, 
 as they have done heretofore, they cannot supply them; and I cannot 
 forbear, Mr. President, to express my firm conviction, that if the work 
 is to be left in their hands, we never can have a supply of competent 
 teachers for our Common Schools, without a perpetual Pentecost of 
 miraculous endowments. 
 
 But if any teacher of an academy had a right to be jealous of the 
 Normal Schools, it was a gentleman now before me, who, at the time 
 when the Bridgewater Normal School came into his town, and planted 
 itself by the path which led to his door, and offered to teach gratu- 
 itously such of the young men and women attending his school, as had 
 proposed to become teachers of Common Schools, instead of opposing 
 it, acted with a high and magnanimous regard to the great interests of 
 humanity. So far from opposing, he gave his voice, his vote, and his 
 purse, for the establishment of the school, whose benefits you, my 
 young friends, have since enjoyed. (Great applause.) Don't applaud 
 yet, said Mr. Mann, for I have better things to tell of him than this. In 
 the winter session of the Legislature of 1840, it is well known that a 
 powerful attack was made, in the House of Representatives, upon the 
 Board of Education, the Normal Schools, and all the improvements 
 which had then been commenced, and which have since produced such 
 beneficent and abundant fruits. It was proposed to abolish the Board 
 of Education, and to go back to the condition of things in 1837. It was 
 proposed to abolish the Normal Schools, and to throw back with in- 
 dignity, into the hands of Mr. Dwight, the money he had given for 
 their support. 
 
 That attack combined all the elements of opposition which selfish- 
 ness and intolerance had created, whether latent or patent. It availed 
 itself of the argument of expense. It appealed invidiously to the pride 
 of teachers. It menaced Prussian despotism as the natural conse- 
 quence of imitating Prussia in preparing teachers for schools. It fo- 
 mented political partisanship. It invoked religious bigotry. It united 
 them all into one phalanx, animated by various motives, but intent 
 upon a single object. The gentleman to whom I have referred was then 
 a member of the House of Representatives, and Chairman of the Com-
 
 MB. MANN'S REMAKKS AT BRIUCEWATER. 199 
 
 mittee on Education, and he, in company with Mr. Thomas A. Greene, 
 of New Bedford, made a minority report, and during the debate which 
 followed, he defended the Board of Education so ably, and vindicated 
 the necessity of Normal Schools and other improvements so convinc- 
 ingly, that their adversaries were foiled, and these institutions were 
 saved. The gentleman to whom I refer is the Hon. JOHN A. SHAW, now 
 Superintendent of schools in New Orleans. 
 
 [Prolonged cheers; and the pause made by Mr. Mann, afforded an opportunity to 
 Mr. Shaw, in his modest and unpretending; manner, to disclaim the active and effi- 
 cient agency which he had had in rescuing the Normal Schools from destruction before 
 they had had an opportunity to commend themselves to the public by their works ; 
 but all this only increased the animation of the company, who appeared never before 
 to have had a chance to pay off any portion of their debt of gratitude. After silence 
 was restored, Mr. Shaw said that every passing year enforced upon him the lesson 
 of the importance and value of experience in school-keeping. Long as he had taught, 
 he felt himself improved by the teachings of observation and practice ; and he must 
 therefore express his joy and gratitude at the establishment and the prosperity of the 
 school at that place, whatever might be the personal consequences to himself.] 
 
 Nor, continued Mr. Mann, is this the only instance of noble and gen- 
 erous conduct which we are bound this day to acknowledge. I see be- 
 fore me a gentleman who, though occupying a station in the education- 
 al world far above any of the calamities or the vicissitudes that can 
 befall the Common Schools, though, pecuniarily considered, it is a 
 matter of entire indifference to him whether the Common Schools 
 flourish or decline, yet, from the beginning, and especially in the 
 crisis to which I have just adverted, came to our rescue, and gave all 
 his influence, as a citizen and as a teacher, to the promotion of our 
 cause; and whom those who may resort hither, from year to year, so 
 long as this building shall stand, will have occasion to remember, not 
 only with warm emotions of the heart, but, during the wintry season 
 of the year, with warm sensations of the body also.* I refer to Mr. 
 GEO. B. EMERSON. 
 
 [Mr. Emerson was now warmly cheered, until he rose, and in a heartfelt address 
 of a few moments, expressed his interest in the school, and in the cause of education, 
 which he begged the young teachers not to consider as limited to this imperfect stage 
 of our being.] 
 
 These, said Mr. Mann, are some of the incidents of our early history. 
 The late events which have resulted in the generous donations of in- 
 dividuals, and in the patronage of the Legislature, for the erection of 
 this, and another edifice at Westfield, as a residence and a home for 
 the Normal Schools, these events, I shall consult my own feelings, 
 and perhaps I may add, the dignity and forbearance which belong to 
 a day of triumph, in passing by without remark. 
 
 [This part of the history, however, was not allowed to be lost. As soon as the Sec- 
 retary had taken his seat, the Rev. Mr. Waterston, who had been instrumental in get- 
 ting up the subscription to erect the two school-houses, arose, and eloquently com- 
 pleted the history. He stated, in brief, that the idea of providing suitable buildings 
 for the Normal Schools originated with some thirty or forty friends of popular edu- 
 cation, who, without distinction of sect or party, had met, in Boston, in the winter of 
 1844-5, to express their sympathy with Mr. Mann in the vexatious conflict which he 
 had so successfully maintained ; and who desired, in some suitable way, to express 
 their approbation of his course in the conduct of the great and difficult work of re- 
 forming our Common Schools. At this meeting, it was at first proposed to bestow 
 upon Mr. Mann some token evincive of the personal and public regard of its mem- 
 bers ; but, at a subsequent meeting, it was suggested that it would be far more grate- 
 ful and acceptable to him to furnish some substantial and efficient aid in carrying 
 forward the great work in which he had engaged, and in removing those obstacles 
 and hinderances both to his own success and to the progress of the cause, which noth- 
 ing but an expenditure of money could effect. No way seemed so well adapted to this 
 purpose as the placing of the Normal Schools upon a firm and lasting basis, by fur- 
 nishing them with suitable and permanent buildings ; and the persons present there- 
 upon pledged themselves to furnish $5000, and to ask the Legislature to furnish a 
 like sum for this important purpose. The grant was cheerfully made by the Legisla- 
 ture, whose good-will has since been further expressed by a liberal grant, to meet the 
 expenses of those temporary Normal Schools, called Teachers' Institutes. Mr. Mann, 
 who had not yet taken his seat, then continued as follows:] 
 
 *Mr. Emerson has furnished, at his own expense, the furnace by which the new 
 school-house is to be warmed.
 
 200 MR. MANN'S REMARKS AT BRIDGEWATER. 
 
 I have, my young friends, former and present pupils of the school, 
 but a single word more to say to you on this occasion. It is a word 
 of caution and admonition. You have enjoyed, or are enjoying, ad- 
 vantages superior to most of those engaged in our Common Schools. 
 Never pride yourselves upon these advantages. Think of them often, 
 but always as motives to greater diligence and exertion, not as points 
 of superiority. As you go forth, after having enjoyed the bounty of the 
 State, you will probably be subjected to a rigid examination. Submit 
 to it without complaint. More will sometimes be demanded of you 
 than is reasonable. Bear it meekly, and exhaust your time and 
 strength in performing your duties, rather than in vindicating your 
 rights. Be silent, even when you are misrepresented. Turn aside when 
 opposed, rather than confront opposition with resistance. Bear and 
 forbear, not defending yourselves, so much as trusting to your works 
 to defend you. Yet, in counseling you thus, I would not be understood 
 to be a total non-resistant, a perfectly passive, non-elastic sand-bag, 
 in society; but I would not have you resist until the blow be aimed, 
 not so much at you, as, through you, at the sacred cause of human 
 improvement, in which you are engaged, a point at which forbearance 
 would be allied to crime. 
 
 To the young ladies who are here teachers and those who are pre- 
 paring themselves to become teachers, I would say, that, if there be 
 any human being whom I ever envied, it is they. As I have seen tEem 
 go, day after day, and month after month, with inexhaustible cheerful- 
 ness and gentleness, to their obscure, unobserved, and I might almost 
 say, unrequited labors, I have thought that I would rather fill their 
 place, than be one in the proudest triumphal procession that ever re- 
 ceived the acclamations of a city, though I myself were the crowned 
 victor of the ceremonies. May heaven forgive them for the only sin 
 which, as I hope, they ever commit, that of tempting me to break the 
 commandment, by coveting the blissfulness and purity of their quiet 
 and secluded virtues.
 
 ADDRESS 
 
 DEDICATION OF THE BRIDGEWATER STATE NORMAL 
 SCHOOL-HOUSE, 
 
 BY WILLIAM G. BATES, 
 
 August 19th, 1846. 
 
 Gentlemen of the Board of Education, Teachers, and Friends: 
 
 The sagacious enactment of the Legislature of 1845, and the en- 
 lightened liberality of philanthropic individuals, placed at the disposal 
 of the Board of Education the means of erecting two edifices for the 
 accommodation of the State Normal Schools. One of those edifices is 
 now completed; and this day it is to be set apart to the uses for 
 which it was designed. The occasion has been deemed one of suffi- 
 cient importance to justify a public and joyful commemoration; and, 
 at the request of the other members of the Board, and by their ap- 
 pointment, I appear before you, to bear a part in the performances of 
 the day. We have assembled, then, to dedicate a school-house! The 
 executive authority of this ancient Commonwealth, the Board of Ed- 
 ucation, the wise and the learned from the different sections of the 
 State, and the friends of progressive improvement in the cause of ed- 
 ucation, without regard to conventional lines or state boundaries, have 
 convened to rejoice in the dedication of a building which henceforth 
 is to be appropriated to the education of those who are to instruct the 
 children of the State in the rudiments of learning. 
 
 "Is not this," methinks I hear an objector exclaim, "a trivial mat- 
 ter? Are there not other and more appropriate occasions of rejoicing? 
 Are there not bright days in our national calendar, events in our his- 
 tory, to fire the soul of song, and to swell the anthem of joy? Have 
 you no voice of praise for that recent consummation which has ex- 
 tended our institutions, in peaceful perpetuity, to the distant shores 
 of the Pacific? Give over, then, this inapposite attempt to dignify so 
 unimportant an event as that which has called us together this day." 
 
 Every nation has its own, its peculiar days of rejoicing. The birth 
 of a prince, the accession of a king, the yielding up of a charter, the 
 overthrow of a dynasty, have swelled the hearts of many an oppressed 
 and suffering people. Our own country has even nobler themes than 
 these. But, if it be the object of social life to increase our pleasures 
 here; if the cultivation of our moral powers is to minister to our en- 
 joyments hereafter; if the aim of political institutions is to secure to 
 a people the inalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of hap- 
 piness, there can be no more heart-cheering vision than to behold a 
 rich and powerful State solemnly pledging its wealth and its energies 
 to the promotion of a cause upon which all these interests depend. 
 Indeed, of all the events in our historic annals of which orators have 
 discoursed and poets have sung, there is not one, worthy of a lasting 
 commemoration, which is not intimately connected with the cause 
 which has convened us to-day. Take, for example, that ever-memorable 
 event, which stands out in our history as the brightest and the noblest, 
 since the great triumph of Columbus, and ask yourselves why we cele- 
 brate the anniversary of the landing of the Pilgrims. Is it that a few 
 adventurers succeeded in establishing a colony which has been
 
 202 DEDICATORY ADDRESS AT BRIDGEWATEB. 
 
 ripened, by subsequent wisdom, into this great empire? that, driven by 
 persecution from their native land, they fled to the solitude of a new 
 continent, and converted a refuge from present distress into an asylum 
 for the oppressed of every clime? The feelings which animated them 
 were nobler than these, and their plans more enduring. They came 
 hither to found a State! All their desires and their energies tended 
 to this one object. Danger could not appal, suffering could not deter 
 them from its pursuit. When they left the harbor of Delft-haven, and 
 while their frail bark staggered under the fearful billows, their breasts 
 were laboring for the development of those great principles of govern- 
 ment which were destined to win for them the gratitude of a world. 
 When they landed upon the rock of Plymouth, they stood upon the 
 territory of a civilized state; and the sun which woke the first morn- 
 ing of their occupancy, shone upon a regularly organized government. 
 
 Nor, amid the gloom which enshrouded them, and the dangers which 
 threatened to ingulf their infant colony, did they falter in the designs 
 which had their birth in suffering. Having elicited the great principle 
 of the capability of man for the duties of self-government, they set 
 forth, at once, to provide the means of demonstrating that capability; 
 and, in the midst of a mighty struggle for the very existence of their 
 colony, they provided by enactment, within the first quarter of a 
 century of its existence, for the future education of its children. 
 
 The first provision for public instruction in the colony of Massa- 
 chusetts Bay, was passed in the year 1642. Five years after, in 1647, 
 another act was passed, securing, still more effectually, the education 
 of the young; but in the year 1692, just two centuries after the discov- 
 ery of this continent, the means of diffusing the light of learning and 
 religion, not only throughout that continent, but throughout the world, 
 were provided in the enactments of the Pilgrim Fathers.* Other pa- 
 triots and other sages, before them, had labored earnestly for the dis- 
 semination of intelligence and, in the early ages, some of them had 
 fallen martyrs to their zeal in this noblest cause but it was reserved 
 for "the Fathers" to ingraft that great principle on the laws of a 
 country, as a maxim of government, that all the people of a State 
 should 6e educated by the State. 
 
 This provision is entitled "An Act for the settlement and support of 
 ministers and schoolmasters." "The Fathers" evidently considered 
 Learning to be the handmaid of Religion, and while, in the law, they 
 provided for the former, by making it the duty of the magistracy to 
 supply any want of the stated means of grace by the appointment of a 
 suitable pastor at the expense of the neglectful town, they secured the 
 promotion of learning by heavy penalties for each case of neglect. 
 
 But then, as now, there were enlightened men whose zeal and intel- 
 ligence were in advance of their age. The act of 1701,t after reciting 
 the former act, proceeds as follows: "The observance of which whole- 
 some and necessary law is shamefully neglected by divers towns, and 
 the penalty thereof not required, tending greatly to the nourishment 
 of ignorance and irreligion, whereof grievous complaint is made." It 
 then provides for the redress of these evils, and enacts that the penal- 
 ties for future neglect shall be doubled; that every grammar-master 
 shall be approved by the minister of the town and the ministers of two 
 adjoining towns, or any two of them; that no minister of any town 
 shall perform such services, as a teacher, as to discharge the town 
 from the performance of its duties under the act; and that justices of 
 the peace, and all grand-jurors, shall diligently inquire and true pre- 
 sentment make of all breaches and neglect of the same, that due pros- 
 ecution may be made against the offenders. 
 
 Province Laws, c. XIII. p. 245. tProvince Laws, c. LXXXIX. p. 871.
 
 DEDICATORY ADDRESS AT BRIDOEWATER. 203 
 
 Nor were they more zealous In providing the means of instruction 
 for the rising generation, than they were solicitous as to the charac- 
 ters of the teachers; and their wisdom, in this respect, far transcends 
 the legislation of modern days. We provide, in reference to our secur- 
 ity in the qualification of teachers, that they shall be examined by a 
 competent board of judges, and, if not found to be qualified, why, then, 
 that their employers shall be under no obligation to pay them for their 
 services. Under the operation of this law, a grossly incompetent 
 teacher, who has been rejected for the want of proper moral or literary 
 qualifications, may form the minds and morals of our children, accord- 
 ing to his own standard of character; and yet, if his employers are so 
 inclined, he may receive a reward for his work of evil. But even this 
 safeguard applies only to the public schools. In our academies, and in 
 the numerous private schools with which, unfortunately, our country 
 abounds, there is no legal check upon the injury which a bad man may 
 work upon the minds and hearts of those who, by misjudging parents, 
 may be committed to his charge. No matter how much he may lack 
 in intelligence or in morals; no matter how positively depraved he may 
 be in his sentiments or in his conduct; he is, nevertheless, a teacher 
 under the law, or rather in spite of the law, and may exert a most 
 deleterious influence upon the minds of those whose education should 
 be under its especial guardianship. 
 
 Not such were the views of those wise men who have transmitted to 
 us that glorious system, under the operation of which the hitherto dis- 
 cordant elements of government have moved on in unbroken harmony. 
 They considered the teacher as the former of the man; and that, to 
 secure a virtuous and an intelligent community, it was necessary, not 
 only to provide the means of good instruction, but to guard against 
 the influences of bad. Their opinions on this subject were fully and 
 forcibly expressed in the act of 1712, which is known as the "Refor- 
 mation Act."* Its preamble recites, that, "forasmuch as the well ed- 
 ucating and instructing of children and youth, in families and schools, 
 are a necessary means to propagate religion and good manners, and 
 the conversation and example of heads of families and schools having 
 great influence on those under their care and government, to an imi- 
 tation therof," no person "shall presume to set up or keep a school,'' 
 without the allowance and approbation of the proper authority; and, 
 the law continues, if any person "shall be so hardy" as to offend 
 against its provisions, he shall forfeit a heavy penalty, to be inflicted 
 as long as his school shall continue, and as often as he may be prose- 
 cuted therefor. 
 
 Such were the views and feelings of the Pilgrims. Such were the 
 objects at which they aimed, and the means by which those objects 
 were sought to be accomplished. And when we consider the wise adap- 
 tation of the means to the end, when we contemplate the sure and 
 rapid progress which has marked our course as a nation, the more 
 sure, and the more rapid, accordingly as we have adhered to and 
 maintained those principles which they established who shall say 
 that the first vision of a free and an independent republic did not 
 break upon their sight, while they were tossing upon the ocean in the 
 cabin of the May Flower? 
 
 If we are correct in the opinion which has been incidentally ex- 
 pressed, and which has obtained a general credence through the 
 world, that the security of our free institutions depends upon the en- 
 actment of the provisions for the universal education of the people, at 
 the expense of the State, it surely cannot be inappropriate to the pres- 
 ent occasion, nor can the occasion itself be trifling and unimportant, 
 
 Province Laws, c. CV. p. 398.
 
 204 DEDICATOBY ADDBE88 AT BRIDGEWATEE. 
 
 which leads us to consider the manner in which that provision affects 
 the people in relation to our government. If the consideration sub- 
 serves no other purpose than to renew our recollections of those whose 
 stout hands and whose stouter hearts provided for us this goodly land, 
 it is, at least, but a fitting tribute paid at the call of gratitude. But the 
 consideration may produce a more useful result; and, as Old Mortality, 
 among the tombs of the Covenanters, "considered himself as fulfilling 
 a sacred duty, while renewing to the eyes of posterity the decaying 
 emblems of the zeal and sufferings of their forefathers, and thereby 
 trimming, as it were, the beacon-light which was to warn future gen- 
 erations to defend their religion even unto blood," so we, in the con- 
 templation of this noblest of the monuments of the Pilgrims, may be 
 led to emulate them in their zeal, to catch the fire of their devotion, 
 and to resolve to hand down to future ages this splendid memorial of 
 their undying fame. 
 
 The country from which the Pilgrims fled is a monarchy. In it the 
 three essential modifications of government are arranged with so nice 
 an adaptation to the liberty of the subject, as to make the British 
 constitution the wonder of the world. There, is the freedom of the 
 press! There, is the trial by jury! There, every man's property is se- 
 cured to him under the provisions of the law, and every man's house 
 is his castle. There, the path to wealth is open to every traveler, and 
 honors and rewards are ready to be showered upon the successful and 
 the deserving. How sedulously they labor to promote their national 
 prosperity! And, to secure that object, how carefully they watch over 
 the welfare of those who may become their monarchs! The birth of a 
 royal infant is announced as a subject of national congratulation, and 
 the announcement is hailed with a response of national enthusiasm. 
 The most experienced and celebrated physicians watch over even its 
 healthful hours, and ladies of rank and fortune are proud to be its 
 nurses. Learning waits upon and calls forth the development of its 
 intellect, and science strengthens its powers by well-adapted and ju- 
 dicious exercise. Learned treatises and controversial publications dis- 
 cuss the means for the cultivation of all its faculties, and the whole 
 nation watches for its progress with more than a parental anxiety. 
 And why? Because this infant may be a component part of their own 
 government; and they know how much the happiness and welfare of 
 a people depend upon the virtue and intelligence of their rulers. 
 
 Nor is their zeal for the blessings of a good government expended 
 in their efforts for the education of the executive power only. Their 
 judicial and their legislative departments are equally the objects of 
 their fostering care. Of their judiciary, it is sufficient to remark, that 
 the exorbitant salaries of the office, and the pension which follows its 
 resignation, have ever called the highest talent from the bar to the 
 bench, and made the judges of England, from the earliest ages, the 
 true expounders of the law and the pure ministers of justice. 
 
 Of the Legislative branch, the House of Lords is composed princi- 
 pally of those who derive, from a long line of ancestry, the office of 
 hereditary rulers of the realm. And, to guard against the deteriora- 
 tions which inevitably follow the accident of birth, the most distin- 
 guished citizens of the nation are promoted to the peerage, to super- 
 add to the distinctions of rank the dignity of intelligence. 
 
 The remaining branch of the Legislature consists of that body of 
 men which is designed to represent the great interests of the people. 
 But so guarded is the election of the members of the House of Com- 
 mons by the controlling powers of the crown and the peers, and the 
 dictates of a cautious and wary policy, that the people of England de- 
 pend, for their immunities, rather upon the opinion of the higher es-
 
 DEDICATORY ADDRESS AT BRIDGEWATER. 205 
 
 tales of the realm, than upon the influence of their own voice in the 
 national councils. 
 
 I refer to these principles of British legislation with no view to the 
 consideration of their expediency and wisdom. I advert to them only 
 to show with what solicitude they endeavor to guard against the irrup- 
 tions of ignorance, and with what feelings they regard educational 
 training, even in a monarchical government. 
 
 If such is the policy of England, what should be that of the United 
 States! If such is the practice of a monarchy, what should be that of 
 a republic! If such are the feelings of a people where, although the 
 rights of man are secured, yet his interests are subordinate to the 
 rights of property, what should be the feelings of that people whose 
 system of government recognizes man as the very organ of its action, 
 and his interests as the choicest objects of its care! 
 
 When our fathers fled from religious persecution, to seek the "pure 
 shrine" of faith, they sought also the blessings of civil liberty. They 
 rejected the long-cherished doctrine of usurped agency, and gave back 
 to man his heaven-born birthright. They repudiated the cumbrous 
 machinery of a system which, while it protected his rights, pressed 
 like an incubus upon his interests, and they relied upon a scheme of 
 self-government founded upon his intelligence and virtue. And, truly, 
 it was the sublimest conception which ever broke upon the mind of 
 a patriotic statesman. Conceive, if you can, of an intelligent people, 
 "nursed up from brighter influences, with souls enlarged to the di- 
 mensions of spacious art and high knowledge," cognizant of their 
 rights, governed by their duties, demanding nothing wrong, yielding 
 ever to the right, just in all the relations of private life, and acting 
 upon these principles in all their foreign intercourse; and where is 
 the Utopia which is the abode of a more well-imagined happiness? 
 
 And yet, bright as the conception is, it is the home designed for us 
 by our heroic fathers. It is no Oceana, it is no Utopia. The realiza- 
 tion of this plan is in our own power; and our approach to it will be 
 proportionate to the ardor of our zeal and the warmth of our devotion. 
 
 Have we been true to our obligations in the performance of the 
 duties which have been assigned to us to perform? Have we imitated 
 even the zeal and the wisdom of a monarchy? 
 
 Who are our rulers? Are they those who claim a descent from a 
 long line of illustrious ancestors? Are they those who by their wealth 
 clothe themselves with the right to rule? Or are they those who pur- 
 chase the offices of the State as in the most venal of the days of the 
 Roman State? 
 
 Who are the persons, that, in this country, are to stand in the place 
 of the monarch? Every native-born male child in the Union is the 
 heir-apparent to the throne of this great empire. Who are to compose 
 our House of Lords? Every citizen of the age of thirty years, who 
 shall have resided within the United States for the space of nine 
 years, is eligible to that exalted station. Who are to constitute that 
 popular branch, which in England is denominated the House of Com- 
 mons? The age of twenty-five years, seven of which shall have been 
 passed within the limits of the Union, is a legal qualification for the 
 people's representative. These are the persons who together with the 
 judicial department, form the three constituent parts of the most com- 
 plex government upon earth. These are the persons to whom are in- 
 trusted those powers which are guarded with so much care by the 
 educational policy of a monarchy. 
 
 And now, let us ask if we rival the wisdom of this policy? Are the 
 youth, the future presidents, and senators, and representatives of this
 
 206 DEDICATORY ADDBES& AT BKIDGEWATEB. 
 
 country, thus carefully instructed in a knowledge of those duties 
 which they will and must be called upon to perform? Are they trained, 
 in their early years, according to the great laws of health, so as to 
 produce "a sound mind in a sound body?" Do the wise and the learned 
 watch over and guide their intellectual progress, and imbue their im- 
 pressible minds with the love of virtue? Or are they not, rather, suf- 
 fered "to come up," like neglected plants, ignorant of the relations of 
 civil life, and unknowing of those important trusts which are to be 
 committed to them? Who can well estimate the vast responsibilities 
 which rest upon the conduct of these rulers! How fraught may be 
 their conduct with good; how pregnant with evil! Their acts may de- 
 stroy the balance of this well-adjusted confederacy, and array brother 
 against brother in the strife of blood. Their conduct may embroil na- 
 tion with nation, and convert our smiling fields into the Golgothas of 
 battle. Their decision may change the industrial character of the 
 whole people, and turn thrift into idleness, and plenteousness into 
 famine. Their examples may exalt vice, debase virtue, and give re- 
 spectability and character even unto crime. And, on the other hand, 
 powerful to good, and strong against evil, they can unseal the hidden 
 springs of their country's prosperity, and read the nation's gratitude 
 in the nation's eyes. 
 
 But let us advance more directly to what is suggested by the oc- 
 casion, and contemplate this subject in its relation to our own State. 
 Whatever may be the fate of the government of which it forms a 
 component part, and whatever may be our feelings or our duties to- 
 ward it, yet, in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, our first civil 
 obligations were assumed, and in its cause shall our latest efforts be 
 made. 
 
 Like that of other States, the government of Massachusetts consists 
 of three departments. The Legislative, consisting of our Senate and 
 House of Representatives, enact those laws which are intended to 
 secure our rights and promote our welfare. The judicial department 
 declares what those laws are, and settles the conflicting rights of in- 
 dividuals under them. The Executive power carries into execution the 
 will of the people, as thus expressed and declared. We have adopted, 
 as a part of its system, the doctrine of universal suffrage; and practi- 
 cally, the avenues to office, as well the highest as the lowest, are open 
 to every citizen. Such is the theory of the government of Massa- 
 chusetts. Such is that system of laws and institutions, by which we 
 prosper, and under which we live. 
 
 No well-informed person will deny, not merely how important, but 
 how indispensable is a government of laws to the prosperity of a 
 people. But still, there are few who are aware of the extent of its in- 
 fluence, through all the relations and circumstances of life. Indeed, 
 there are thousands whose whole knowledge of its effects is derived 
 from the experience of others. They are not impleaded themselves, 
 nor do they implead their fellows. They are not charged with crime, 
 and, of course, feel no alarm at its undirected terrors. They know that 
 it is around them, with its invisible shield, and they inquire, not 
 whence it comes, or whither it goes. They regard it as they do the 
 sun that warms, and the air which surrounds them. They know that 
 the sun will shine, and that the atmosphere will breathe around them 
 the elements of life; and they seem to consider that man, in his im- 
 perfect institutions, is to rival the wisdom and the beneficence of the 
 Creator. When they walk abroad, they know that the arm of the law 
 is over them, to protect them from peril. They visit, without fear, the 
 most remote and sequestered scenes; for they feel that it will re- 
 strain the hand of violence, and blunt the steel of the assassin. They 
 repose in their habitations during the long hours of night; for the
 
 DEDICATORY ADDBES8 AT BRIDGEWATEB. 207 
 
 law makes their house their castle, and protects it, as well against 
 secret mischief as open aggression. They consider, in short, that their 
 property is protected by the nation's strength, and that millions of 
 bayonets are the sure guaranties for the preservation of their liberties. 
 
 There are, however, moral influences, resulting from the operatinos 
 of law, which are still more striking. How does it pervade the very 
 spirit of society, and control the whole conduct of men in their daily 
 intercourse! How does it strengthen the sentiment of justice in their 
 hearts, and induce them to do right, almost without volition! How it 
 extends even to the domestic relations restrains the excess of pa- 
 rental authority, and deepens the feelings of filial obedience! How it 
 binds the husband to the wife, in the most endearing relation, and 
 renders more indissoluble those holy ties which are the unspeakable 
 charm of social existence! And when, at last, they feel that they are 
 about to depart from those who are to live after them, and to leave 
 them to live on, without their natural protection, with what confidence 
 do they turn from the trusts of interested men to the laws and insti- 
 tutions of their country! 
 
 And yet, these laws and institutions, with all the momentous inter- 
 ests which grow up and flourish under them, depend for their exist- 
 ence upon these three co-ordinate departments of the government. 
 They sprang forth, at first, full-armed in wisdom, like Minerva from 
 the brain of power, but they cannot, like her, rely upon a native-born 
 immortality. They are the mere creations of legislative will, and the 
 power which made them can again destroy. Look at the affluence 
 which successful acquisition has concentrated in this, the richest of 
 the States. It is held only by a legal tenure. The law can tax it; the 
 law can appropriate it; and what shall protecl it from the inroads of 
 fraud, and the aggressions of violence, if the law were to withhold its 
 protecting arm? Our houses and our lands we hold, as we imagine, by 
 the securest of all tenures; but a single act of the Legislature of the 
 State may destroy the muniments of our title, and our respective por- 
 tions of "the great globe itself" may take to themselves the light 
 wings of the morning. 
 
 It may, perhaps, be conceded that our rulers should be both virtuous 
 and intelligent, and yet that the same necessity does not exist for a 
 virtuous and intelligent constituency. This supposition assumes that 
 the principles of legislation are so complex and intricate, that the peo- 
 ple are to choose others to do for them those governmental acts of 
 which they cannot perceive the wisdom. Such a doctrine is upheld in 
 other governments, in the other hemisphere; but it is repudiated by 
 the very principles of republicanism. As well might the legislative 
 power be delegated, in perpetuity, as well might the offices of our 
 rulers depend upon the accident of birth, as that the results of their 
 authority should rest upon any other foundation than the consent and 
 approval of the people governed. We employ a physician, indeed, to 
 do for us what we are presumed to be unable to do for ourselves, and 
 we submit ourselves, unarguing, to his guidance. "What he wills, un- 
 argued, we obey." But in matters of legislation, however complicated, 
 we are presumed to be the judges. We vote for a public officer be- 
 cause we know his opinions, and our vote, therefore, should be but the 
 true expression of our own; and we might, in ignorance of the healing 
 art, as properly administer remedies to a diseased patient, as, in ig- 
 norance of political information, thrust our nostrums into the body 
 politic. 
 
 And who that has watched our legislative history does not know that 
 the acts of our rulers are but the embodiment of the popular will? 
 Who does not know that no legislation can be permanent or useful
 
 208 DEDICATORY ADDBE88 AT BRIDGKWATER. 
 
 which does not rest upon the sentiment of an approving people? The 
 act may be wise in its inception and beneficent in its operation; but 
 it is the public sentiment alone which can give it vitality; and unless 
 the public mind can be made to perceive and approve its wisdom, it 
 will slumber, as though it were useless, until another law shall abro- 
 gate its provisions. 
 
 But, if it were granted that ignorant and vicious men will choose 
 wise and virtuous rulers; that those who cannot perceive the wisdom 
 of wise laws will yet acquiesce in their permanency; in short, that a 
 system of government founded upon the virtue and intelligence of the 
 people, and upheld by these conservative principles alone, has within 
 itself that miraculous efficacy of winning to it the support of ignor- 
 ance and vice still, let me ask whether, in the choice of wise and 
 virtuous rulers, we fulfill to the government all the duties of good 
 citizens? 
 
 Let any one, who is inclined to give an affirmative answer, go into 
 our courts of justice, and see how those rights of life, liberty, and 
 property, which the constitution upholds, depend as much upon their 
 administration as upon the laws themselves! How complicated are 
 the subpects which are presented at a judicial trial! How strangely 
 intermingled are questions of fact with the principles of law! How 
 subtle and astute are the arguments of those who often make the 
 worse appear the better reason! How profoundly logical are the rea- 
 sonings of the judge! 
 
 And then, too, how harrassing are often the questions of evidence! 
 The treacherous memory, the mistaken apprehensions, the corrupt 
 misstatements of witnesses, leave the truth in doubt. How adroitly 
 the opposing counsel labor through a long and searching examination 
 to unravel the web of error and destroy the equipoise of a suspended 
 judgment! Now all these nice questions of fact, these applications of 
 law, these arguments of counsel, these reasonings of the court, and 
 this weighing in the nicest of scales the conflicting evidence, are to 
 be settled and passed upon by a jury of twelve men, approved by the 
 people and coming from among the people! How momentous is often 
 the result of their opinions! Property, liberty, and life itself, hang 
 upon their verdicts; and yet how often is it that their verdict is 
 wrong! And is it not necessary that jurors should be intelligent? Go 
 to the litigant, who watches the progress of his cause with an inten- 
 sity of interest, and upon whose heart every circumstance of trial 
 tells, like the puncture of a nerve, and ask him if his rights are safe 
 in the hands of an ignorant jury. 
 
 Recently, in one of the counties of our own Commonwealth, an in- 
 competent juryman was observed to slumber during the progress of 
 an important trial. The fact was communicated by a party to his 
 counsel. "Let him sleep," was the reply; "his dreams will be as in- 
 telligent as his waking thoughts." "I believe it," said the party, as he 
 sat down, heartsick, in his seat; and the juror slumbered till his la- 
 borious breathing attracted the attention of the judges. 
 
 It is not, however, the unjust loss of property, of liberty, or even of 
 life itself, which alone should prompt us to labor for the promotion of 
 increased intelligence among those who may act upon our juries. 
 Every wrong adjudication has a more deleterious effect than the mere 
 loss of either of these rights, however valuable they may be to their 
 possessor. It weakens the confidence of man in the honesty of his 
 peers; it jeopards that feeling of security which is essential to indi- 
 vidual happiness; it impairs the strength of our reliance upon that 
 great conservative feature of a representative government; and, by 
 forcing upon the mind the remembrance of a wrong endured, it weak-
 
 DEDICATORY ADDRESS AT BRIDGEWATEB. 209 
 
 ens our desire to give permanency to those institutions which have 
 partially failed to answer the end of their creation. 
 
 But still, when the suffering litigant, under the influence of these 
 feelings, calls for increased intelligence and virtue in the jury-box, let 
 him reflect, that hbwever embarrassing, and arduous, and important 
 are the duties of a juror, they are not more important, and require no 
 more consideration, than those political duties which are performed 
 sometimes, almost without even a thought of duty. 
 
 There are other modes in which education ministers to the prosper- 
 ity and the security of the institutions of the State, to some of which 
 I can only refer, and to others I cannot even allude. 
 
 The more than three hundred flourishing towns and cities in our 
 Commonwealth have municipal duties, which education alone can en- 
 able them to perform. The annual election of their municipal officers, 
 the construction and repair of roads and bridges, the sanitary regula- 
 tions for the preservation of the public health, the adoption of pre- 
 cautionary measures against the commission of crime, the preventives 
 against, the remedy for, and the support of honest poverty, the regula- 
 tions for the security of individual property, the appropriations for 
 beneficent municipal objects, the applications of money for those in- 
 stitutions of learning, the sustenance of which the law has wisely 
 thrown upon them, and the appointment of persons to watch over these 
 nurseries of virtue and knowledge all these objects require the exer- 
 cise of those higher qualities, both of the mind and heart, without 
 which we are neither faithful to our trusts, just to ourselves, nor 
 mindful of our posterity. 
 
 Having thus far considered the necessity of popular education in a 
 popular government, and, to some extent, the manner in which it af- 
 fects the operation of this vast, wise, and complex system, let me ask 
 of you whether the people are equal to the responsibilities which have 
 been thrown upon them by the framers of our government. I do not 
 now refer to that great State, in one of the congressional districts of 
 which there is not a single newspaper, because its inhabitants cannot 
 read! nor to those constituent parts of our great confederacy, where 
 candidates for office advocate their own claims by oral addresses, be- 
 cause the ear is the only organ of communication between them and 
 their constituents! nor to those other sections of our Union, where 
 vice and ignorance reign triumphant over the institutions of the ballot, 
 and "fools rush in where angels fear to tread;" but here, in our own 
 venerated State, and in reference to our own beloved Massachusetts, 
 I ask of you, her citizens, if the people have arrived at that consum- 
 mation in the education of the young, when efforts for improvement 
 may safely cease. There is not, I trust, in all the mass of people with- 
 in her borders, a single individual who will give an affirmative answer. 
 They know that the offices and interests of our towns have again and 
 again depended upon a single vote! They know that more than once 
 the vote of a single individual has displaced or elevated the very high- 
 est of our officers! They know, too, that often the character of the 
 legislation of our Commonwealth has depended upon the votes of 
 those who never read, who never heard read, I might almost say, who 
 never heard of, the people's constitution! 
 
 Thus feeling, thus believing, there is not a man of them who would 
 consent to stay the march of improvement; and, if not for the sake of 
 education itself, if not for the sake of his children and of the people, 
 yet for the sake of those institutions which are perhaps our too con- 
 stant boast, he will look with eager desire for that period when the 
 will of the people shall be directed by intelligence and virtue. 
 
 N
 
 210 DEDICATORY ADDRESS AT BRIDGEWATER. 
 
 The question then arises, how are these hopes to be realized? How 
 is this people to be educated? How is every man, who assumes the 
 duties of the citizen, to be fitted for the performance of them? 
 
 Will you point me to the family relation, and affirm that those who 
 are the creators of 'the bo4y are also to be the educators of the mind 
 and heart? It is true that around the knees of the mother many a 
 youth is yet to receive what so many illustrious citizens have already 
 received those invaluable precepts which alone can form the man. 
 It is true that from the lips of many a father the child is to be in- 
 spired with those holy impulses which are to quicken his march along 
 the path of virtue. But not all parents are sufficiently capable, not 
 all have the requisite opportunity, for the performance of this great 
 duty. And besides, how true is the doctrine which has received the 
 approbation of the great orator of the age, that all the children of a 
 republic should be educated in the people's schools! 
 
 Will you point me to our colleges and our university? Alas! how 
 few of the children of our State receive the enlightenment of their in- 
 struction! Founded by the wisdom of the Pilgrims, and fostered by 
 their children, they are ever to be cherished by succeeding genera- 
 tions. But, though they may glid the eminences of society, they can 
 never irradiate the sequestered vales of life. They may stand, indeed, 
 as the great Bethesdas of healing, but there is a great multitude of 
 folk, halt, blind, and withered, who can never rejoice in the healing 
 of their waters. 
 
 Will you refer me to those academic institutions which shine as 
 lesser lights in our literary horizon? They have exercised, and are 
 destined still to exercise, an important office in the dissemination of 
 virtue and sound learning; but they can never rival in their useful- 
 ness the seminaries of the people. And besides, they are not free 
 schools. They have been, and must still be, supported by the price 
 paid for labor; and however useful they may be as places of prepar- 
 ation for the higher seminaries of learning, or for the acquisition of 
 an elegant or useful education by a large class of our citizens, they 
 can never form a link in that vast chain of intercommunication which 
 is to give an enkindling impulse to every citizen in the land. 
 
 There are in the State more than 200,000 children, between the ages 
 of 4 and 16 years. Of these, about 500 are supposed to be students of 
 our colleges and university, and about 12,000 to be members of the 
 various academical institutions. There are, then about 190,000 chil- 
 dren, who if educated at all, are to be educated in our Common 
 Schools. 
 
 And in view of the momentous interests which rest upon these in- 
 stitutions of the State, the question naturally occurs to us, Are they 
 adequate to the fulfillment of the designs of those who created, and of 
 those who fostered, and who still foster them? No one expects an af- 
 firmative answer. Every one admits that there, in the school-room, 
 our children are to be imbued with the knowledge and with the love 
 of duty; that there it is that their powers are to be trained, their views 
 expanded, and their hearts improved; but no one believes that those 
 by whom all these results are to be accomplished are competent to the 
 task. I might confidently appeal to the experience of those who, either 
 long ago or at a later period, have left the Common Schools, as to the 
 competency of their teachers. I might confidently refer to the very 
 teachers themselves. I might refer also to the opinions of those par- 
 ents whose children are now fitting themselves for the field of use- 
 fulness, or preparing for that harvest of evil which is sure to follow 
 the years of neglected childhood. But many a parent has never seen 
 the teacher of his child; and in this respect they rival the apathy of
 
 DEDICATORY ADDRESS AT BRIDGEWATER. 211 
 
 those ignorant citizens whose votes give authority to the voice which 
 speaks from the ballot. Recently, a little girl objected to join the 
 model school connected with one of our State Normal institutions. 
 "Why," said her father, "you will receive the instruction of your reg- 
 ular teachers, assisted by those Normal pupils, who will instruct you, 
 under the inspection and direction of the Normal teacher himself." "I 
 know that," she rejoined, "but I don't want to go there to be prac- 
 ticed upon!" How long have ignorance and immorality "practiced 
 upon" the forming minds of childhood! and while, with the keenness 
 of avarice, we have guarded the subordinate interests of property, to 
 what rash hands have we committeed the inappreciable interests of 
 the mind and heart! 
 
 Assuming the necessity, or even the desirableness of elevating the 
 standard of Common-School education, and adding to the qualificaTTons 
 of those teachers in whom is invested a charge of such vast responsi- 
 bility, let us refer to the modes which have been proposed for the ac- 
 complishment of these objects. 
 
 It has been thought advisable that the means for the education of 
 teachers should be provided in our colleges and universities. But no 
 one supposes that teachers can be educated there without some change, 
 both in the expenses and in the mode of teaching. A change in one 
 particular alone would be productive of no beneficial result. If, for in- 
 stance, the expenses should be diminished, and if, indeed, those per- 
 sons who propose to devote themselves to the business of teaching 
 were to be supported wholly at public expense, there would still re- 
 main the objection, that the course of studies pursued at these insti- 
 tutions, with a view to the learned professions, is not the one best 
 adapted for the creation of a sympathy with the mind of a child; and 
 on the other hand, if the required changes were made in the course 
 of instruction, there are few districts which would feel themselves 
 able to employ a teacher so expensively educated. 
 
 Suppose both these objections to be anticipated by a diminution of 
 the expense, and the creation of a department for the education of 
 teachers. That department would then be subordinate to the other 
 departments of the college, or those departments to the former; and, 
 in either case, disunion of feeling and collision of interests would im- 
 pair the usefulness of both. But, apart from this effect, the creation 
 of such a department for the purposes indicated, or, to obviate still 
 further the objection, the appropriation to them of all the departments 
 of the college, would be, in one case, to ingraft a Normal School upon 
 the institution of a college, and, in the other, to convert the college 
 itself into a Normal School. The same general views apply to the 
 use of our incorporated" academies, for the purposes indicated, and 
 their correctness has been fully verified by actual experiment. In the 
 exercise of that enlightened liberality which for a long time has char- 
 acterized the educational policy of the great State of New York, this 
 identical plan was resorted to as a system of means to qualify the 
 teachers of their Common Schools. An academy was selected in each 
 of the eight senatorial districts, upon which was ingrafted a teachers' 
 department. An ample appropriation was made for a library and ap- 
 paratus, and a further sum for the salary of an additionl instructor. 
 The system won to itself the confidence of the community. The 
 schools were well attended; the pupils were eagerly sought for as 
 instructors; and such was their success as to induce the Legislature to 
 make still further appropriations for the extension of the system. 
 
 But it is in the science of education as in the laws of nature and 
 the principles of art. One discovery or one improvement only pre- 
 pares us for another, until we look with a feeling of derision upon 
 those original developments which once commanded our unbounded
 
 212 DEDICATORY ADDRESS AT BRIDGEWATER. 
 
 admiration. Such, it would seem, was the progress of opinion as to 
 this reform upon the educational system of New York. Great even 
 as the advantages were which attended this provision, it was found 
 that the plan was only a vein in the vast mine of improvement; and 
 it was rightly supposed that, if the establishment of a department sub- 
 ordinate to other departments was attended with important results to 
 the greatest interests of the State, surely the endowment of an entire 
 institution for the same objects, having no rival aims, engrossed by no 
 partial pursuits, weakened by no incidental or collateral purposes, not, 
 like the mistletoe, insinuating its fibers into the substance of another 
 body, and depending upon it for a precarious, parasitical existence, but 
 striking its supporting roots deeply into the soil over which it was 
 destined to throw its healthful shade, would concentrate, more effec- 
 tually, the power of effort, and of course extend more widely and more 
 deeply the advancement of learning. 
 
 Accordingly, the system of combining teachers' seminaries with 
 academies has been abandoned. A Normal School has been estab- 
 lished, with an endowment worthy of the wealth and character of that 
 State. Already the effects of its establishment are visable, and the 
 people look forward to its future influence with a firmer belief than 
 the faith of prophecy. 
 
 We come to the consideration of the wisdom of that institution 
 which has been established in our own State which, in imitation of 
 our example, has been adopted by New York, and which has long 
 eixsted in other countries. Let us advert briefly to our own State 
 history of Normal Schools. 
 
 The law of 1837, creating the Board of Education, made it its duty 
 to submit to the Legislature such observations as experience and re- 
 flection might suggest upon the condition and efficiency of our system 
 of popular education, and the most practicable means of improving 
 and extending it. 
 
 In obedience to this call, the Board, in its First Annual Report, pre- 
 sented to the Legislature its views of the propriety of the establish- 
 ment of an institution for the education of teachers, with a well- 
 digested summary of the reasons in favor of such an institution; and 
 the summary concluded with the expression of a sanguine hope that 
 the resources of public or private liberality, applied to such an insti- 
 tution, would soon remedy the existing defects in the character of 
 the teacher. 
 
 This appeal to the liberality of individuals was promptly met by 
 one who places a proper estimate upon the usefulness of wealth. 
 Prompted by the importance of the call, Edmund Dwight (I mention 
 it for the hundredth time, because, upon an occasion like the present, 
 our duties would be incomplete without a recognition of the generosity 
 of the act) at once placed he sum of $10,000 conditionally at the dis- 
 posal of the Board, for the purpose indicated in their report. 
 
 The same Legislature, to which the report was made, accepted the 
 donation, fulfilled the condition of its acceptance, and placed at their 
 disposal a sum of equal amount, to be expended in qualifying teachers 
 of our Common Schools. In carrying out the expressed intention of 
 the Legislature, the Board established, at successive periods, three 
 institutions for the instruction of teachers in "the theory and prac- 
 tice" of school-teaching; and when the fund which had been placed 
 at their disposal was expended, the Legislature of 1842 appropriated 
 the further sum of $6000 annually, for three years, to secure their con- 
 tinuance. 
 
 Has this conduct, both of our Legislature and of the Board, proceed- 
 ed from the dictates of a wise policy?
 
 DEDICATORY ADDRESS AT BRIDGEWATEB. 213 
 
 To strip this representation of its illustrations, the propositions may 
 be presented thus: 
 
 The provision for the education of the people of the State, at the 
 expense of the State, is essential to its prosperity. That people can 
 only be educated in the Common Schools. Those schools are inade- 
 quate to the proper educational training of that people, by reason of 
 the want of a proper degree of attainment in the teachers. These 
 teachers cannot be educated at our colleges and our academies. No 
 other means are proposed for this purpose than those institutions in 
 which they are to be taught the rules and principles for harmoniously 
 unfolding the physical, the intellectual, and the moral nature of man. 
 And then recurs the question Is the establishment of such institu- 
 tions the dictate of a wise policy? 
 
 It is not necessary to sustain the affirmative by argument. It needs 
 none. The very statement is argument. Illustration cannot strengthen, 
 reason cannot enforce it. What! Here in Massachusetts, in the Old 
 Colony, "that mother of us all," shall we sit down gravely to discuss a 
 proposition of which even barbarian ignorance has perceived the truth? 
 For now, even now, when the skeptic cavils, and the cautious doubt, 
 the sultan of Turkey has spoken! and, in his zeal for the introduction 
 of the improvements of the age, he has followed an act of religious tol- 
 eration by the establishment of a Normal School. 
 
 France, too, has spoken; and her voice comes to us in tones at once 
 of encouragement and of warning. She has cultivated the intellect, but 
 she has corrupted the heart. She has awakened the susceptibilities of 
 the soul, but she has incited them to crime; and while she has shown 
 us, by the example of intellectual training, of what the system is cap- 
 able, she has admonished us to neglect not the improvement of those 
 other powers, the harmonious development of which is alone the edu- 
 cation of the man. 
 
 Prussia also has spoken; and when we contemplate the wonderful 
 effects which the operation of her Normal Schools, for a generation, 
 has wrought upon her people the more strikingly wonderful, from the 
 disparity which it has created between those who have enjoyed their 
 benefits, and that other and more teachable sex, which, by its exclusion, 
 has been cut off from a common sympathy we are led to prize the 
 more highly that beneficent provision of our own polity which declares 
 that all the people shall be educated. 
 
 But, more than all, and above all, Massachusetts has spoken; and 
 her voice sounds harmoniously with that of the great State of New 
 York. She has watched the rise and progress of these institutions with 
 a cautious dread of injudicious innovation, and yet with an earnest 
 zeal for well-considered improvement. She has seen her doubts of their 
 usefulness resolved by the light of experience, and she has incorporated 
 them into her educational policy. The three State Normal Schools are 
 now her recognized offspring, and until perfection shall have super- 
 seded the necessity of effort, she stands pledged to their support, by 
 her past history and her present fame. The institution at Newton is 
 Normal in its teachers, Normal in its accommodations, and Normal in 
 the results which it has produced and is still producing. The institu- 
 tion at Westfield will start forth on the 3d of September next, with the 
 means of renewed usefulness; and this day witnesses the commence- 
 ment of a new effort, which is to extend a benignant influence through 
 future ages. 
 
 And now, who will pronounce as unimportant and trifling the occas- 
 ion of our assembling? Let us draw within the circle of our contempla- 
 tion the prospective advantages which this institution promises, and 
 see if our imagination clothes with too bright a hue the visions of the 
 future.
 
 214 DEDICATORY ADDRESS AT BRIDGEWATER. 
 
 We behold its teachers working with the plastic hand of an artist up- 
 on the immortal mind. We behold them, not like the painter, who 
 makes the canvas glow with those delineations of genius which a few 
 years will obliterate; not like the sculptor, who fashions and works 
 out the features of greatness, the enduring marble of which the hand 
 of time will soon destroy; but we contemplate them forming, and fash- 
 ioning, and moulding beings who are to exist forever. Here they are to 
 discipline the intellect, to train the feelings, to curb the passions, to 
 inspire true motives of action, to inculcate pure principles of morality, 
 and to instill that deep feeling of religious obligation which superadds 
 to the precepts of philosophy the impulse of an enlightened conscience. 
 Here are to be taught those doctrines of relation, a knowledge of which 
 is essential to the security of political rights and the performance of 
 social duties. Here are to be drawn out, and developed, and expanded, 
 the illimitable faculties of a being formed in God's own image. Here, 
 in a word, man is to be EDUCATED. 
 
 If this was to be the ultimate object of the establishment of this in- 
 stitution, and the pupils, who shall thus be educated, were to go forth 
 only as future fathers and mothers, and citizens, what might we not 
 expect from their enlightened example! 
 
 But it has a more enlarged and extended purpose. The pupils who 
 shall carry from these walls those principles which enlightened wis- 
 dom can alone impart, are to enter, year by year, those ten thousand 
 seminaries, in which, day by day, are formed the hearts of the arbiters 
 of this nation's destiny. They are to transfuse those principles into 
 other minds. They are to multiply and extend those streams of improve- 
 ment, which, proceeding from this fountain, are destined to increase 
 as they roll, and to fertilize as they flow. 
 
 Let, then, those two great States which have committed themselves 
 to the fulfillment of this great effort, go on, hand in hand, with a 
 unity never to be dissevered. Let their example be for the imitation of 
 other States and the praise of all posterity. Then shall the hardest dif- 
 ficulties which beset the path of free governments smooth themselves 
 out before us, and then shall the blessings of free institutions be be- 
 stowed upon the people, like the all-dispensing bounty of the rain and 
 the sunshine.
 
 ADDRESS 
 
 DEDICATION OF THE WESTFIELD STATE NORMAL SCHOOL- 
 HOUSE, 
 
 BY EEV. HEMAN HUMPHREY, D. D., 
 
 September 3, 1846. 
 
 Friends and Patrons of Popular Education: 
 
 UNDER the smiles of a beneficent Providence, this beautiful edifice 
 has been reared and finished; and we are assembled to exchange our 
 mutual congratulations upon the occasion. It is now ready for the re- 
 ception of the Normal School, and it is fitting that, before its ample 
 accommodations are thrown open, it should be dedicated to the cause 
 for which its munificent benefactors designed it. 
 
 Next to the church, the school-house rose in the wildernesses of Ply- 
 mouth and Massachusetts Bay, under the saws and hammers of those 
 sturdy Christian adventurers, "of whom the world was not worthy." 
 Their deep and far-reaching policy was to educate their children for 
 both worlds; to prepare them, by early intellectual and moral training, 
 to glorify God here, and to enjoy him forever in his kingdom. By pro- 
 viding every facility in our power for the extension and thoroughness 
 of popular education, we are only following out the wise forecast of the 
 men who scarcely waited for the thawing off of the icy mail with 
 which they were clad when they landed, before they began to execute 
 their purpose, that every child, however poor, in their infant Common- 
 wealth, should receive at least what we now denominate a Common- 
 school education. 
 
 Their school-houses, indeed, were cheap and humble structures, 
 compared with the noble Grecian edifice which is henceforth to adorn 
 this prosperous village, and open its doors indiscriminately to all the 
 youth, far and near, who may wish to avail themselves of its advant- 
 ages. They had no schools of a higher order for the training of their 
 teachers; but they did what they could. It would be a shame and a sin, 
 if, with all our wealth, and all the experience and advance of two such 
 centuries as the past, we should content ourselves with the standard of 
 popular education as they left it, or as our fathers of the last genera- 
 tion left it. It is our duty to leave the first principles, and go on unto 
 perfection. 
 
 The instructions of those who taught us in the primary schools, 
 when we sat with our feet dangling upon the four-legged slabs, just 
 from the saw-mill, are not to be undervalued. Considering the dis- 
 advantages under which they labored, it is remarkable that they ac- 
 complished so much as many of them did. But the best of our primary 
 teachers have felt and do feel the want of a suitable education for 
 the discharge of their responsible duties; and there has for some time 
 been a growing conviction in the public mind, that teaching ought to 
 be elevated to the rank of a liberal profession, and that to meet the 
 demand we must have a new class of professional seminaries. It is 
 to supply this desideratum in our own State, that the Normal Schools 
 of West Newton, Bridgewater, and Westfield have been established by 
 individual and public munificence. It is confessedly an experiment 
 of very great importance, and every facility ought to be afforded for
 
 216 DR. HUMPHREY'S ADDRESS AT WESTFIELD. 
 
 testing its claims to public favor. In presenting my own thoughts on 
 the subject to this enlightened audience, I shall touch 
 
 Upon the urgent demand for better qualified teachers in our Com- 
 mon Schools; 
 
 Upon the reasons why those who are to be teachers should be edu- 
 cated with special reference to the profession; 
 
 Upon what is embraced in a good professional teacher's education; 
 and 
 
 Upon the adaptation of the Normal system of instruction to give 
 such education. 
 
 Each of these topics affords ample scope for an opening discourse; 
 and upon more than one of them I would gladly dwell much longer 
 than my limits will allow. 
 
 To glance at the first. The proposition is that there is an urgent 
 demand for better qualified teachers in our Common Schools. It is 
 an axiom in every trade and profession, that a man must first learn 
 the trade, must study his profession in other words, must be educated 
 for it before he commences. A blacksmith is no blacksmith at all 
 until he has learned how to smite the anvil and shoe horses. Before 
 a man sets up for a tailor, he must serve a regular apprenticeship. A 
 cabinet-maker must learn the use of tools before he can make sofas 
 and sideboards. The jeweler must know how to cut, and polish, and 
 set precious stones. The physician, the lawyer, the clergyman, the 
 college faculty, must all be educated for their respective professions, 
 to entitle them to public confidence. This is the general rule. Is the 
 schoolmaster an exception? Can he teach others what he has never 
 learned himself? Is it safe to confide the education of our children 
 to a mere tyro; to one who has never been trained himself in elemen- 
 tary studies? He may be very honest and very faithful; but can he 
 teach reading, or grammar, or arithmetic, or surveying, if he is a poor 
 reader of the plainest prose, and gets bewildered every day among the 
 tenses, and is sure to lose the points of compass, and find himself a 
 staring left-hand cipher at his wits' end, whenever he ventures into 
 the regions of fractions? 
 
 I have no disposition to depreciate the talents or the labors of our 
 primary teachers. In mental power and moral worth, they will not 
 suffer in comparison with any equally numerous class of men and 
 women in the community. The material is excellent. It is of the 
 genuine Saxon growth. The world cannot furnish a better. As a class, 
 our teachers are doing what they can to raise the standard of popular 
 education. They work hard. They do as well as they know how. In 
 these respects they are entitled to our confidence and our thanks. As 
 a class, I honor, and so far as I am able, will defend them. They have 
 laid the Commonwealth under lasting obligations of gratitude and en- 
 couragement; and if she had done more for them, they would have 
 done more for her. 
 
 But it cannot be concealed or disputed, that our schools are suffer- 
 ing for want of better qualified instructors. Very few of our teachers 
 have been systematically educated for the profession. By far the 
 greater number have never enjoyed the advantages of thorough pro- 
 fessional training at all. They have been left to educate themselves 
 as best they could, and that mainly by the process of experience in 
 teaching. It seems not, till lately, to have entered the minds of more 
 than a few, even of the enlightened friends of our Common Schools, 
 that teachers' seminaries are at all necessary. It had been taken for 
 granted that the demand, as in political economy, would create a 
 supply; and that any person who has received a good common educa- 
 tion himself must be competent to teach little children in a district
 
 DR. HUMPHREY'S ADDRESS AT WESTFIELD. 217 
 
 school. The consequence is, that while we have educated shoemakers, 
 and carpenters, and goldsmiths enough that is, men brought up to 
 their business we have but few educated schoolmasters. As juster 
 views are now taken of the subject, and are extending among the peo- 
 ple, the complaint is growing louder and louder, that nothing like a 
 supply of competent teachers can be had. After the most diligent in- 
 quiry, they cannot be found. Respectable districts, by scores and hun- 
 dreds, are obliged to take up with such as have no pretension to the 
 requisite qualifications. 
 
 On this subject the annual reports of school committees, from all 
 parts of the Commonwealth, are alarmingly instructive. I might quote 
 their complaints till sunset, that it is impossible to have good schools 
 for want of good teachers. Many who offer themselves for examin- 
 ation are deficient in every thing; in spelling, in reading, in penman- 
 ship, in geography, in grammar, in common arithmetic. There is not 
 a single branch which they are capable of teaching promptly and cor- 
 rectly. Many others are but little better qualified; and the majority 
 would be dismissed and advised to go back to their domestic and rural 
 employments, if competent instructors could be had. The demand for 
 such teachers is great, and it is increasing. 
 
 We will next inquire into the reasons why those who are to be 
 teachers should be educated with special reference to the profession. 
 Whatever a man undertakes, the importance of his knowing how to do 
 it, rises in proportion to the magnitude of the interests involved and 
 the difficulties to be overcome. In some cases, the first bungler that 
 comes along may be employed, where no better man offers, because, 
 if he fails, it is very little matter; but, in other cases, it would be mad- 
 ness to employ any but an experienced workman. You may let any 
 body hoe your potato-patch who is willing to undertake it; but the ship 
 in which you intend to circumnavigate the globe must be built by first- 
 rate workmen. 
 
 When you bring a teacher into one of your primary schools of forty 
 of fifty children, and put him in communication with their opening 
 and ductile minds, what is the task which he has before him? 
 
 In the first place, what is the material upon which he is to exercise 
 his skill; which he is to mold, and fashion, and polish? If it were a 
 coarse and vulgar substance, it might go into rough hands, and take 
 its chance. But it is something infinitely more precious and ductile 
 than the finest gold. It is the intelligent, the immortal mind, or, rath- 
 er, it is half a hundred such minds, sparkling around the teacher, and 
 all opening to his plastic touch. It is what shall I say? a substance of 
 the finest mold, that can be fashioned and chiseled like the Grecian 
 Apollo? No! it is a spiritual essence, fresh from the skies. It is a 
 mysterious emanation from the infinite Source of being and intelli- 
 gence, an immortal mind ever present, though always invisible, in the 
 school-room seeing, hearing, thinking, expanding; always ready to 
 take the slightest impression for good or for evil, and certain to be in- 
 fluenced every hour, one way or the other, by the teacher. What a 
 responsibility! What a task! 
 
 Consider the kind of substance upon which the schoolmaster is 
 either skillfully or unskillfully tracing the first lines that it receives, 
 after the invisible cipher of the nursery, and what the sketching upon 
 such a tablet ought to be. He might go down to the sea-shore, when 
 the tide is out, and write as rudely as he pleased, and the first refluent 
 wave would wash the surface just as smooth as the last ebb left it. 
 He might draw his awkward diagrams upon the drifted snow-bank, and 
 the first breath of air would whisk them away. He might write out 
 his lessons like a wise man or a fool, and it would make no difference; 
 the next hour would obliterate them all.
 
 218 DR. HUMPHREY'S ADDRESS AT WESTFIELD. 
 
 But it is not so in the school-house. Every tablet there is more dur- 
 able than brass. Every line that the teacher traces upon the mind 
 of the scholar is, as it were, "graven with the point of a diamond." 
 Rust will eat up the hardest metals; time and the elements will wear 
 out the deepest chiseling in marble; and if the painter could dip his 
 pencil in the rainbow, the colors would at length fade from the can- 
 vas. But the spirits, the impressible minds of that group of children, 
 in however humble circumstances, are immortal. When they have out- 
 lived the stars, they will only have entered upon the infancy of their 
 being. And there is reason to believe that no impression made upon 
 them will ever be obliterated. Forgotten, during shorter or longer per- 
 iods of time, many things may be; but the cipher, without the erasure 
 of a single line, in all probability remains, to be brought out by the 
 tests of a dying hour, or the trial of the last day. The schoolmaster 
 literally speaks, writes, teaches, paints, for eternity. They are im- 
 mortal beings, whose minds are as clay to the seal under his hand. 
 And who is sufficient for these things? 
 
 Just look at the case in another light. They are the children of a 
 hundred and thirty or forty thousand families, who, as they successive- 
 ly become old enough, are receiving their education in the Common 
 Schools of Massachusetts. At present, they are under tutors and gov- 
 ernors, and have no direct influence, one way or the other, upon the 
 great interests of the Commonwealth. But who are they? Go with 
 me from school to school, from town to town, and from county to 
 county, and let us inquire. On that little form directly in front of the 
 teacher, sits a distinguished and skillful physician. Just behind him 
 you see one of the prominent members of the General Court. On an- 
 other bench, behind the door, sits a professor of mathematics, biting 
 his pencil and puzzling over the rule of three. On the other side of 
 the room, that chubby boy is none other than the Secretary of State. 
 In the next school we find here a governor of the Commonwealth, 
 reading in tables of two syllables; there, from one of the poorest fam- 
 ilies of the district, an importing merchant, worth half a million of 
 dollars; and close by his side one of the shrewdest lawyers in the 
 county. Going on to the next school-house, in the remotest corner of 
 the town, we find a selectman, a sheriff, a professor of languages, and, 
 besides a number of enterprising and prosperous farmers and mechan- 
 ics, perhaps a representative to Congress. But we must not be partial 
 in our visits. Let us take the cars and go into another section of the 
 State, and see what we can find there. The very first boy we over- 
 take trudging along toward the village school-house, with his dinner- 
 basket in one hand, and his skates in the other, is the chief-justice of 
 the Commonwealth. We enter, and who should we find there but the 
 president of a great railroad company; also one of the richest bank- 
 ers in State-street; two or three clergymen, of as many different de- 
 nominations; a chemist, a town clerk, a judge of probate, and a great 
 civil engineer. In the next school we see a United States senator at 
 the blackboard; a physician just getting out of his a-b-abs; a brigadier- 
 general trying to make straight marks upon his pasteboard slate; an 
 honorable counselor digging out his first sentence in parsing, and half 
 a dozen school-teachers, some in "baker," some in "a-cat-may-look-on-a- 
 king," and some in "a-i-1, to be troubled." 
 
 But we are not through yet. In the very next school we visit it 
 may be in Boston, it may be in the obscurest mountain town of the 
 interior, it may be on the sea-board, or under the shadow of Wachusett 
 we find an associate judge of the Supreme Court, or an attorney-gen- 
 eral, or a foreign embassador, or, speaking in the past tense, a presi- 
 dent of the United States.
 
 DR. HUMPHREY'S ADDRESS AT WESTFIELD. 219 
 
 Thus, were we to visit all the primary schools of the Commonwealth, 
 we should be sure to find nearly all the ministers, lawyers, physicians, 
 judges, legislators, professors, and other teachers, merchants, manu- 
 facturers, and, in short, all the most intelligent, active, and useful 
 men of the next generation in these schools. We cannot now point 
 them out by name. We cannot tell who of them will be governors, 
 and judges, and merchant princes; but in winter, or summer, or both, 
 they are all there. They are receiving the rudiments of their edu- 
 cation under such teachers as we provide for them, and in the period 
 of life when the most lasting impressions are made. More, I will ven- 
 ture to say, is done during the first ten or twelve years, in the humble 
 district school-house, to give tone and shape to the popular mind, 
 than in all the years that follow. Bad habits of reading, or slovenly 
 habits of writing, or loose habits of reciting and thinking, which are 
 contracted there, will cling to most men as long as they live; while, on 
 the contrary, the permanent advantages of a good beginning under 
 competent instructors, are witnessed and acknowledged by all. It has 
 been so in Massachusetts from the beginning. 
 
 Her great men have commenced their education in the common 
 school-house. And "the thing that hath been is that which shall be, and 
 that which is done is that which shall be done, as one generation pass- 
 eth and another cometh." In less than half a century, all the profes- 
 sions in our noble State will be filled, all the offices will be held, all the 
 business will be done, and nearly all the property will be owned, by 
 the boys who first graduate at our Common Schools, and whose par- 
 ents are too poor to give them a better education. It will be so as long 
 as these schools are sustained and open to all: and they will do more or 
 less to elevate the moral and intellectual character of the people, as 
 the teachers are thoroughly or superficially educated. Every faithful 
 and well-qualified instructor in the humblest district school is a public 
 benefactor. But where shall the school committees look for a suffi- 
 cient number of such, till Teachers' Seminaries furnish them? 
 
 It is not so well considered as it should be, that education is both a 
 science and an art. Though not one of the exact sciences, it rests on 
 deep and complicated elementary principles, and calls for a more care- 
 ful study of the early susceptibilities and operations of the human 
 mind than any other science. Every child has, if I may so speak, three 
 natures a physical, a mental, and a moral, between which there are 
 mysterious sympathies and connections, that reciprocally govern and 
 are governed. He has organs of sense, which are the inlets of knowl- 
 edge, and without which he could not learn any thing, however skillful 
 the teacher. He would still have a mind, but it would be a prisoner, 
 groping hopelessly in a dungeon. He has perception, reason, memory, 
 and imagination. He can learn and apply rules, understand proposi- 
 tions, and in simple examples see the connection between premises and 
 conclusions. He can be stimulated and swayed by motives, and is pe- 
 culiarly alive to their influence. He is susceptible of a great variety of 
 opposite emotions of hope and fear; of joy and sorrow; of love and 
 hatred. But I need not enumerate. Every child in the primary school 
 has a moral as well as a rational nature has a conscience. He can dis- 
 cern between good and evil. He knows the difference between right and 
 wrong; between truth and falsehood. In short, he has within him all 
 the elements of high responsibility; all the noble faculties of an ac- 
 countable and immortal being. But these faculties are yet to be un- 
 folded, to be cultivated, to be educated. The understanding needs it. 
 The memory needs it. The imagination needs it. The conscience and 
 the heart need it. 
 
 This is what I mean by education as an art; and the art here, as in 
 most other cases, is founded upon the science. It is seizing upon the
 
 220 DB. HUMPHREY'S ADDRESS AT WESTFUXD. 
 
 elements and reducing them to order it is arranging and applying 
 fundamental principles. It is molding the mind, and stimulating it to 
 high and noble aims. It is drawing out its powers, teaching it its own 
 strength, and making it work, as the incumbent atmosphere does the 
 steam-engine. In fine, it is the art of educating the whole man, of 
 symmetrically cultivating all the powers and faculties of the pupil's 
 mind, and training him up to the love and practice of all the virtues. 
 In this view, education holds a high, if not the highest rank among 
 the liberal and useful arts. But it is no more intuitive than any of 
 them. The art of educating, as well as every other art, must be studied, 
 must be learned. Though it be not essential that every schoolmaster 
 should be a profound intellectual and moral philosopher, it is neces- 
 sary that he should understand what the motive power in the child's 
 mind is, and how to reach it. 
 
 It would be mere commonplace to add that no one can teach what he 
 does not understand himself. He may try; and when he gets fairly 
 swamped, he may look as wise as an owl upon a hollow tree. He may 
 blunder along over the recitation like a bewildered militia-man in an 
 enemy's country, and bless himself that he has got through some how 
 or other; but this is not teaching. It is mumbling and hesitating; and, 
 in the last resort, knocking a difficulty on the head as an impudent 
 intruder, or shying round it as if it lay coiled and hissing in his path, 
 like a serpent. It seems to be strangely overlooked, in many quarters, 
 even to this day, that a competent education for teaching embraces a 
 great deal more than a general and superficial knowledge of spelling, 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, and geography. But really it is 
 time for every body to understand the difference between smattering in 
 school, six hours a day, and teaching thoroughly, accurately, in all the 
 studies. Every branch should, if possible, be as familiar to the instruc- 
 tor as the first lessons in the child's reader. If it is not at his tongue's 
 end, he labors under very great embarrassment. He has no time to 
 study out the lessons as he goes along. He needs to be as sure and 
 prompt as a percussion-lock. He must be, in order to do full justice to 
 his school. 
 
 Just consider for a moment what is required of him, every day and 
 every hour. In the first place, the school is to be brought under strict 
 subordination before he can begin to teach. Half a hundred children, 
 often more, of all ages, are to be governed, or they will soon govern 
 him, as they do their parents at home. Even after his authority is 
 established, it requires the eyes of an Argus to keep them in subjec- 
 tion and close to their studies. This, of itself, would be a laborious task. 
 Let any one who doubts and theorizes, try it, and he will see. But it is 
 a trifle compared with what the sole teacher of a large district school 
 has to do. Look in upon him, and judge for yourselves. He must hear 
 from five to ten classes in as many different branches before the clock 
 strikes twelve, and must do it in the midst of constant interruptions. 
 Mr. A., may I go to the fire may I go out may I get some snow and 
 put into my ink may I go home and get my slate? Mr. A., will you 
 mend my pen will you show me how to do this sum? I have worked 
 upon it two hours, and it won't come right nohow. I wonder what such 
 hard sums were made for. Mr. A., Sam pinched me. Mr. A., Ben keeps 
 pulling my hair. Mr. A., Mr. A., Bill studies so loud that I can't get 
 my lesson. Mr. A., what time is it? Mother says I must go home at 
 three o'clock and do the chores. 
 
 These are a few specimens of the thousand and one questions and 
 other interruptions by which the teacher of a Common School is har- 
 assed from morning to night, till his patience is worn threadbare. 
 What, then, in the mean time, it is become of his recitations? The 
 classes must go on in spite of all this, if they are to read, and spell,
 
 DB. HUMPHREY'S ADDRESS AT WESTFIELD. 221 
 
 and recite at all. The sun will not stop for the pens to be mended, nor 
 for the tongues to cease. Woe to the master who cannot attend to more 
 than one or two things at once! If, when a class gets up to read, he is 
 obliged to take the book and follow them, line by line, to see whether 
 they call the words right and mind the stops, as I have sometimes my- 
 self witnessed, who will keep the school in order, and all the rest of 
 the machinery in gear and in motion? Poor man! how I pity him from 
 the bottom of my heart! and how I pity the school too! So, when he 
 calls up a class in grammar, or in arithmetic, if be is obliged to direct 
 his whole attention to the lesson; if the slightest transposition or 
 anomaly in the construction of a sentence sends him to his accidence 
 to puzzle it out, while the whole class is waiting, dubious of his suc- 
 cess; or if the nine digits, with their characteristic obstinancy, bring 
 him to a dead stand in some of the common rules, and oblige him to 
 adjourn the recitation over night, what, in the mean time, must be- 
 come of all the other exercises and interests of the school? If any 
 teacher in the world needs to have every thing by heart, it is the teach- 
 er of a common school. He has so many classes, so many branches, so 
 many wheels to keep in motion, so many things to divide his attention, 
 that, if he is not thoroughly educated himself, it is impossible for him 
 to do justice to those who are committed to his care. It may be no 
 fault of his that he is deficient in some, or even in all the branches of 
 popular education. He may never have been thoroughly educated him- 
 self. Considering his limited advantages, he may do better than could 
 have been expected; but such a man will feel his deficiencies, and the 
 school will suffer in spite of his best endeavors. 
 
 What, then, is to be done? Where and how are our schoolmasters and 
 schoolmistresses to be better educated? There is no want of the ma- 
 terial. We have young men and young women enough in Massachusetts 
 who would prove themselves worthy of the highest public confidence 
 as teachers if they could but be regularly trained to the profession. 
 But while all admit that there is a great demand for more thoroughly 
 qualified teachers in the public schools, some suppose that it can be 
 fully met by the colleges and academies of the State. I have no dispo- 
 sition to undervalue these seminaries. They are the glory of the Com- 
 monwealth. No one will dispute the ability of our colleges to give just 
 such an education as every schoolmaster wants. They are furnished 
 with the ablest instructors, and teach many things which are far in ad- 
 vance of what the public schools require. But the colleges have no 
 teachers' department, and do not pretend to qualify their graduates 
 and undergraduates for common schoolmasters. Some of them teach 
 the winter schools, to be sure; and it seems to be taken for granted, 
 that because they have studied Greek and Latin, and Conic Sections, 
 they must know all about the branches of Common-School education. 
 This is one of the best examples of non sequitur that I can think of. 
 Because a young man can read Demosthenes and calculate eclipses, he 
 must be eminently qualified to teach a primary school! It is no dis- 
 paragement to some of the best classical scholars to say, that they are 
 not fit for common schoolmasters. They are above the employment, but 
 not equal to it. They can educate teachers a great deal better than they 
 can teach the a-b-abs, and "When the sky falls, we shall catch larks." 
 Experience abundantly proves that many who go from college halls to 
 try their hand in district school-houses, are greatly surpassed by some 
 who never saw a college in their lives; and if it were the main object 
 of a collegiate education to furnish schoolmasters, every one must see 
 how very inadequate would be the supply. 
 
 The academies can do more than the colleges in educating teachers, 
 and they are entitled to a great deal of credit for what they have done; 
 but something more is wanted. While I cannot agree with those, on
 
 222 DR. HUMPHREY'S ADDRESS AT WESTFIELD. 
 
 the one hand, who speak disparagingly of our academies, as teachers' 
 seminaries, I am equally unable, on the other, to coincide with those 
 who think we need no other class of Teachers' Institutes. The truth, it 
 seems to me, lies between these two extremes. Let the academies do 
 what they can. There is room for their most strenuous endeavors, with- 
 out interfering at all with the recent movement on the part of benev- 
 olent individuals and the State in the same direction. If a sufficient 
 number of Teachers' Seminaries could be established to educate all 
 the schoolmasters and mistresses that are wanted, the case would be 
 different. But when we remember that there are more than three 
 thousand school districts in Massachusetts, requiring almost double 
 the number of teachers (including winter and summer schools), it 
 seems as if every one must see that the agency of the academies in 
 helping to furnish them cannot be dispensed with. Let those of them 
 which already have teachers' departments, make them still more thor- 
 ough, and let others come into the same arrangement. Still, there will 
 be ample room for another class of seminaries, conveniently located 
 in different parts of the Commonwealth, exclusively devoted to the 
 education of teachers, both male and female. 
 
 Our three State Normal Schools are just these seminaries. Their sole 
 object is to raise the standard of popular education by furnishing the 
 Public Schools with abler teachers than they now have, or can have, 
 without some such provision. Leaving to our excellent academies the 
 task of fitting young men for college, and for the various departments 
 of business, they propose to take as many promising youth of both 
 sexes as they can accommodate, and qualify them thoroughly for teach- 
 ing. This, and this only, is what the Normal Schools propose; and it 
 is too plain to need argument, that, with good accommodations and 
 able teachers, they can do more than the academies and high schools 
 in this particular department. They must do more to entitle themselves 
 to public confidence and patronage. 
 
 Are they, then just such Teachers' Seminaries as we want? Let us 
 visit them and see. The accommodations are ample, and all the ar- 
 rangements highly convenient. The buildings are new and handsome. 
 The grounds are inviting, and such ornaments as time alone can add, 
 will make them still more so. The locations are healthful, and far re- 
 moved from dangerous allurements. The principals are men who have 
 distinguished themselves as able and successful teachers in the Com- 
 mon Schools, and their assistants are selected with special regard to 
 the requisite qualifications. By the wise and liberal policy of the State, 
 tuition is free. Every branch of Common School education is taught, 
 and much more thoroughly taught, than, for the want of time, any of 
 these branches can be in our best academies. Let those who doubt it go 
 into one of these Normal Schools, and witness the drilling, and listen 
 to the recitations, for a single forenoon, and judge for themselves. No 
 scholar escapes: no one can be superficial or hesitate without being 
 made to feel it to the quick. The design is to make prompt and able 
 teachers, by giving line upon line, and precept upon precept; to make 
 them so familiar with the whole range of studies, that when they 
 come to take charge of the schools, they shall never be at a loss, never 
 keep a class waiting while they turn over books to refresh their 
 own memories. The object is, as far as practicable, to make every 
 teacher as true and quick as steel; and this cannot be done but by 
 severe drilling, by waking up the mind to its best efforts, and keeping 
 it wide awake from morning to night. To be a first-rate schoolmaster, 
 a man must be able to attend to twenty things at once. To this end, he 
 must be perfectly at home in all the studies, , as I have before said; 
 and I am satisfied there is no such place for getting armed and
 
 DB. HUMPHREY'S ADDRESS AT WESTFIELD. 223 
 
 equipped at all points, as in a good Normal School. If any branch is 
 superficially taught in these schools, it must be the fault of the prin- 
 cipal or his assistants; and if any incompetent or unfaithful instruc- 
 tor should ever be retained, it will be the fault of the Board of Ed- 
 ucation. 
 
 But something more is necessary to furnish the best class of teach- 
 ers, than the thorough instruction of which I have spoken, and much 
 more is actually done in the Normal Schools. The best methods of 
 teaching, and of the management and government of Common Schools, 
 are made prominent topics of familiar lectures and conversation. And 
 to make these instructions in the highest degree practical, each of 
 our Normal Schools has what is called a Model Primary School at- 
 tached to it, where, in turn, the Normal scholars have opportunity to 
 try their skill in teaching and governing, under the general superin- 
 tendence of the Principal. Besides all this, public sentiment demands 
 that the Bible should be made a text-book: and every Principal is ex- 
 pected to give moral lectures and religious instruction, weekly, if not 
 daily, in the school-room. While the Board, under whose control the 
 State has placed this and the other Normal Schools, would not coun- 
 tenance any mere sectarian obtrusion on the part of instructors, they 
 would not, I am persuaded, continue any one in his place who should 
 reject the Christian Scriptures, or omit to inculcate their divine pre- 
 cepts upon those who are to be the future teachers of our Common 
 Schools. Mere neutrality in religion on the part of any principal, were 
 absolute neutrality possible, would not be tolerated, I am sure, by the 
 present Board. And if 1 thought the day would ever come when the 
 high and eternal sanctions of the Christian religion should no longer 
 be held up in the Normal Schools, my fervent prayer would be, that 
 then "one stone might not be left upon another." 
 
 I have spoken thus far upon the direct agency which well-managed 
 Normal Schools must needs have in raising the standard of popular ed- 
 ucation through the teachers whom they educate; but if they succeed, 
 there will be an indirect influence, equally auspicious, if not more so. 
 The public expect, and have a right to expect, that they will send out 
 model teachers; not that all will be superior to those who have gone 
 before them ; but that some, that many will excel, in proportion to their 
 superior advantages; and that their better and more thorough methods 
 of instruction will be copied by other teachers. This is the order of na- 
 ture in the progress of all human improvements. The few who are most 
 highly endowed, or best instructed, are looked up to as models by the 
 masses in every community. The fortunate inventor of a labor-saving 
 machine, or the discoverer of some new principle of physical science, 
 is a public benefactor, even though he should not teach one in a 
 thousand the use of the machine or the application of the principle. 
 The man who invents a new and improved model of a steam-engine, 
 or builds a better water-wheel than any before in use, or brings out 
 from the power-looms a handsomer and more substantial fabric than 
 any other manufacturer, or makes a cheaper and better button, while 
 he fills his own pockets, virtually teaches a thousand others how to 
 do the same thing. The model, or the article manufactured, is before 
 them, and their own eyes and ingenuity do the rest. So it is in all the 
 useful and ornamental arts; so it is in agriculture; so it is in build- 
 ing bridges and making roads. A single turnpike, passing through a 
 section of country where the scraper had never been seen before, 
 will, in a short time, wonderfully improve all the cross-roads for miles 
 and miles on both sides of it. It is the model road for all the high- 
 way surveyors far and near. So with the agricultural school. Though 
 the pupils may be few in number, yet when they come to be scattered
 
 224 DB. HUMPHREY'S ADDRESS AT WESTFEELD. 
 
 abroad over the farming districts, they will not only teach others what 
 they have been taught themselves, but thousands will watch their im- 
 proved methods of cultivation, and profit by them. 
 
 The same thing is true in popular education. The public are benefit- 
 ted, both directly and indirectly, by every improved method of in- 
 struction. Though the teachers from the Normal Schools should, for 
 some years to come, bear but a small proportion to the whole number 
 of schoolmasters and mistresses in the Commonwealth, while they will 
 be raising up a class of teachers under their own improved and thor- 
 ough methods of instruction, just so far as they rise above the ordinary 
 level, their schools will become model schools for all the neighboring 
 districts. Every valuable improvement in teaching and governing will 
 in time be copied, and thus the indirect agency of the Normal Schools, 
 in raising the standard of general education, will be extended far be- 
 yond the limits of their direct and immediate influence. 
 
 I am aware that these anticipations may be regarded as quite too 
 sanguine by some who take a deep interest in the improvement of our 
 Public Schools. They may demand of us how much the Common 
 Schools have yet been benefitted by the Normal Seminaries, and be- 
 cause their expectations have not been answered, may set down the 
 experiment as but litle short of a failure. But they ought in fairness 
 to consider that there has not yet been time enough to test it. It was 
 commenced but seven years ago, and under several disadvantages. We 
 had no teachers who had themselves been trained up under the system. 
 When they began, they had much to learn, as well as every thing to 
 teach. And they had no suitable accommodations. It is only the last 
 year that the first school-house was built, and the other two are now 
 just finished. Teachers cannot be thoroughly educated in a few months 
 under the best system that ever was devised. A regular course requires 
 two or three years of close study. But few have enjoyed the advantages 
 of the system at all, and the most highly favored have not had time 
 to show what they can do since they left the schools and began to 
 teach. It would be quite unreasonable, therefore, to judge of the 
 adaptation of the Normal system to the wants of our Public Schools, 
 by what has already been accomplished. Give it a fair trial, and if it 
 does not meet the reasonable expectations of an enlightened public, 
 let it be abandoned. 
 
 The great dificfulty hitherto has been to keep the pupils long enough 
 in professional training. The Board have done what they could by 
 their recommendations and by-laws. The secretary and the principals 
 have exhausted their persuasions, I will not say in vain, but without 
 any thing like that degree of success which they have fairly earned. 
 We are obliged to confess, that in this respect we have been disap- 
 pointed. We did supose that fine accommodations, free tuition, and the 
 best instruction, would be sufficient inducements, not only to fill up 
 the schools, but to secure attendance for a reasonable length of time. 
 In this, I say, we have been disappointed. Many have remained but a 
 single term, but few have given themselves time for the whole course, 
 and the Normal Schools have been held answerable for their deficien- 
 cies. This is unreasonable. Nobody ever pretended that the new system 
 could work miracles that coming in at one door and going out at the 
 other would make good teachers. The Normal Schools claim no super- 
 natural advantages over other seminaries. Thorough training for any 
 profession is a slow and arduous process. The Board of Education are 
 extending the time as fast as public sentiment will sustain them; and 
 they hope to be able, within a reasonable period, to make it a condition 
 that those who enter shall remain long enough to reap all the sub- 
 stantial advantages which the system offers.
 
 DB. HUMPHREY'S ADDRESS AT WESTFIEXD. 225 
 
 But notwithstanding these disadvantages, those who have had the 
 best opportunities for judging and comparing, will bear us out in claim- 
 ing, that many of the teachers from the Normal Seminaries have dis- 
 tinguished themselves already in the primary schools, and are giving 
 still brighter promise, from year to year, of what may be expected 
 hereafter. Where they can be had, the normal trained teachers are 
 generally prefrred; and experience, with some exceptions, no doubt, 
 justifies the preference. 
 
 Let it not be said or surmised that this is a scheme to drive other 
 worthy teachers from the schools. It is rather to aid them and add to 
 their numbers. They cannot be spared. Not one district in ten could ob- 
 tain a teacher from a Normal School if ever so much disposed, and for 
 a long time yet to come the great majority must be trained elsewhere. 
 Let them be trained. Let the most strenuous efforts be made by other 
 seminaries to raise the standard of popular education, by furnishing 
 better qualified schoolmasters and mistresses than have yet been raised 
 up, and we will repoice in the highest measure of their success. Let a 
 competent number of well-educated teachers be provided, through what- 
 ever agency, and the Board will mingle their congratulations with all 
 who labor in the same noble cause. 
 
 Friends of popular education as I am sure you all are ministers, 
 laymen, parents, teachers, school committees, let me stir you up to 
 your duties. A nobler field for action, for educational labors and im- 
 provements than our own beloved Commonwealth furnishes, the sun 
 does not shine upon. A richer legacy than our religious institutions 
 and Common Schools never came down from a wise and pious ancestry. 
 Some things can be done up, and then dismissed as requiring no further 
 care or labor; but it is not so with education. Like household work, it 
 is always returning and never done. 
 
 We have none the less to do because our fathers did so much, nor 
 will our children be eased of the burden by our highest efforts to raise 
 the standard. All the toil is to be gone over again by each successive 
 generation. It is a circle which returns upon itself, and will continue 
 to return to the end of time. The procession of children coming upon 
 the stage has no end. Wait we ever so long, it will not pass by. When 
 we depart, they will still be coming, and in closer ranks than ever. 
 Those who are centuries behind will surely come, and the great busi- 
 ness of every generation will be to educate the children of the next. 
 What, therefore, our hands find to do, let us do it with our might. 
 
 Citizens of Westfield, we congratulate you upon your educational 
 enterprise and privileges. Few towns in the Comomnwealth have acted 
 upon a wiser forecast. Besides your primary schools, with doors wide 
 open to every child, however poor, you have one of the oldest and most 
 flourishing academies in the State; not waxing and waning, as many 
 do, but always flourishing under able teachers and a supervision which 
 forbids its decline. With these high advantages you might have rested 
 satisfied. But when the western Normal School was to be permanently 
 located, you entered into an honorable competition for the additional 
 facilities which it would bring to your doors. Favored by your natural 
 advantages, and entitling yourselves by liberal subscriptions to the 
 preference, you succeeded. The school which had been for some time 
 suspended was brought here, and reopened with temporary accommo- 
 dations, and now this new and beautiful edifice is to receive it. Much 
 will it depend on your co-operation with the Board and with the teach- 
 ers for its prosperity. Upon your aid in accommodating the scholars 
 
 o
 
 226 DB. HUMPHREY'S ADDRESS AT WESTFIELD. 
 
 from abroad on reasonable terms, and guarding them against those 
 moral dangers which so easily beset the young, we confidently rely. 
 You will not disappoint this expectation. You will cherish this semin- 
 ary as you do your schools and academy. To the cause of good learning 
 we dedicate it. To the care and benediction of Heaven we commend it. 
 May it more than answer the sanguine hopes of its projectors, in fur- 
 nishing teachers of a high order for many generations.
 
 ASSOCIATIONS AND AGENCIES 
 
 FOB THE 
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 In addition to the annual appropriation of seven thousand 
 dollars for the support of the State Normal Schools, Massa- 
 chusetts makes an annual contribution in aid of several as- 
 sociations of teachers, for their professional improvement, 
 and the advancement of education generally. 
 
 TEACHERS' INSTITUTES. 
 
 A Teachers' Institute, as the term is now used, is an as- 
 semblage of teachers for a period extending from one to 
 four weeks, for the purpose of reviewing the studies they 
 are to teach, and to witness, and to some extent practice, 
 the best methods of arranging and conducting the classes 
 of a school, as well as of obtaining the matured ideas of exper- 
 ienced teachers on topics of educational improvement. They 
 bear a close resemblance to the conferences of teachers, pro- 
 vided for in the school laws of Prussia and France. 
 
 Massachusetts* was the first state to afford legislative 
 encouragement to Teachers' Institutes. The sum of twenty- 
 five hundred dollars a year is placed at the disposal of the 
 Board of Education, to defray certain expenses incident to 
 this class of meetings. 
 
 Whenever "reasonable assurance" is given to the Board, 
 that a number of teachers of common schools, not less than 
 fifty, shall desire to assemble for the purpose of forming a 
 Teachers' Institute, and to remain in session for such period 
 of time as the Board shall determine ; the Board, by a com- 
 mittee, or by their secretary, or, in case of his inability, by 
 such person or persons as they may delegate, are to appoint 
 a time and place for a meeting, make suitable arrangements 
 therefor, and give due notice thereof. 
 
 The Board, or their committee or appointee, must engage 
 teachers and lecturers for each institute that may be called ; 
 provide rooms, fires, lights, attendance, and so forth; but, 
 for these purposes, they are not authorized to expend, on 
 any one institute, a greater sum than two hundred dollars. 
 By a regulation of the Board, the personal expenses of the 
 secretary of the Board, incurred in calling and attending 
 the institutes, may be defrayed from said sum of two hun- 
 dred dollars; but no extra allowance is made for his ser- 
 vices. The personal expenses of the members for travel, 
 board, and so forth, are to be defrayed by themselves. The 
 
 The following notices are taken from Mr. Mann's "Tenth Annual Report"
 
 228 IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 committee of the Board, their secretary, or, in his absence, 
 the person appointed by them or him, stands in the same re- 
 lation to the institute in which a teacher stands to his 
 school. 
 
 The instruction at the institutes is designed to be of such 
 a character as shall furnish a model for common school ex- 
 ercises, although the former will naturally partake more of 
 the oral method than the latter. Owing to the shortness of 
 the time during which the institutes are usually held, they 
 can do but little besides giving some practical skill some 
 knowledge of the art of teaching. For a mastery of prin- 
 ciples, or an indoctrination into the science of teaching, 
 Normal Schools must be the main and the only unfailing 
 reliance, in any system of common schools. 
 
 The evenings of the session are usually occupied by de- 
 bates, or by lecturers, who treat of any of the important 
 topics embraced in the vast range of common school inter- 
 ests. 
 
 COUNTY ASSOCIATIONS OF TEACHERS 
 
 Whenever any county association of teachers, and others, 
 shall hold semi-annual meetings of not less than two days 
 each, for the express purpose of promoting the interests of 
 common schools, such associations are entitled to receive 
 fifty dollars a year from the state. For obtaining this sum, 
 the president and secretary of the association much certify, 
 under oath, to the governor, that two such semi-annual 
 meetings have been held. The governor will then draw his 
 warrant on the treasurer of the commonwealth. 
 
 At the head of this class of associations, stands that of 
 Essex county, which was formed in August, 1830, and 
 which has held a semi-annual meeting every year to the 
 present time, and was never exerting a better influence on 
 the teachers themselves, or their schools, than now. Its ob- 
 ject is declared to be "the improvement of teachers and the 
 system of education generally." 
 
 STATE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION 
 
 The Massachusetts Teachers' Association was formed on 
 the 25th of November, 1845, at a meeting of more than two 
 hundred "practical teachers" from every section of the com- 
 monwealth, on the call of the Essex County Teachers' Asso- 
 ciation. The Association meets annually, and continues in 
 session two days for lectures and discussions on topics of 
 educational and professional improvement. In 1847, "a com- 
 mittee of publication" was appointed, under whose direction 
 the "Massachusetts Teacher" was commenced, in 1848, and
 
 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INSTRUCTION. 229 
 
 has since been issued monthly. The state appropriates one 
 hundred and fifty dollars annually in aid of the objects of 
 the association. 
 
 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 This institution had its origin at a meeting of teachers 
 and other friends of education, in Boston, on the 15th of 
 March, 1830. A committee then appointed, reported to a 
 convention, composed of several hundred persons, mostly 
 teachers, from eleven different states of the Union, which 
 met in the Representatives Hall, on the 19th of August, in 
 the same year, a constitution, which, with some alterations, 
 was adopted. The object set forth in the constitution is, 
 "the diffusion of useful knowledge in regard to education." 
 This object has been gained by the delivery of valuable lec- 
 tures, and the discussion of interesting topics relating to 
 popular education, at the annual meeting in August, which 
 usually continues for five or six days, and the subsequent 
 publication of the same in an annual volume, now amount- 
 ing to twenty. These lectures and papers have been pre- 
 pared by some of the most distinguished educators and lit- 
 erary men in our country ; and, at the time of the delivery, 
 and since, have done much to advance common education 
 and the improvement of teachers. Much of what we now 
 witness and rejoice in, as evidence of increased interest in 
 this all-embracing good cause, can be traced back to the 
 efforts of the members of this Institute, at their anniver- 
 sary, and in their own spheres of usefulness and labor at 
 home. 
 
 Well might President Wayland, in his introductory dis- 
 course, in 1830, say : "In the long train of her joyous anni- 
 versaries, New England has yet beheld no one more joyous 
 than this. We have assembled to-day, not to proclaim how 
 well our fathers have done, but to inquire how we may en- 
 able their sons to do better. We meet, not for the purpose of 
 empty pageant, nor yet of national rejoicing, but to deliber- 
 ate upon the most successful means of cultivating to its 
 highest perfection, that invaluable amount of intellect which 
 Divine Providence has committed to our hands. We meet to 
 give to each other the right hand of fellowship in carrying 
 forward this all-important work ; and here to leave our pro- 
 fessional pledge, that if each succeeding generation does not 
 act worthily, the guilt shall not rest upon those who are the 
 instructors of New England." In conclusion, he adds, the 
 teacher "has chosen a noble profession. What can be more 
 delightful to a philanthropic mind, than to behold intellec- 
 tual power increased a hundred-fold by our exertions, talent
 
 230 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
 developed by our assiduity, passions eradicated by our coun- 
 sel, and multitudes of men pouring abroad over society the 
 luster of a virtuous example, and becoming meet to be in- 
 heritors with the saints in light; and all in consequence of 
 the direction we have given them in youth. It becomes us, 
 then, to act worthily of our station. Let us, by all the means 
 in our power, second the efforts and the wishes of the pub- 
 lic. Let us see that the first steps in this course are taken 
 wisely. This country ought to be the best educated on the 
 face of the earth. By the blessing of Heaven, we can do 
 much toward the making of it so. God helping us, then, let 
 us make our mark upon the rising generation." 
 
 This spirit has characterized many of the eminent teach- 
 ers who have lectured before the Institute, and have made 
 the anniversary meetings seasons of rejoicing, and congrat- 
 ulation, and encouragement in the great work of school im- 
 provement. 
 
 The state has appropriated annually, since 1836, three 
 hundred dollars in aid of the publications, and other ob- 
 jects of the Association. The annual volume of proceedings 
 and lectures constitute a valuable part of the educational 
 literature of the country. Many of these lectures have been 
 re-published in England. 
 
 LECTURES AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE 
 OF INSTRUCTION from 1830 to 1847. Eighteen volumes. Bos- 
 ton: Ticknor. 
 
 These volumes embrace more than 150 lectures and es- 
 says, on a great variety of important topics, by some of the 
 ablest scholars and most successful teachers in the country. 
 
 CONTENTS. VOL. I, for 1830. Introductory Discourse, by President Wayland. Lec- 
 ture I. Physical Education, by John C. Warren, M. D. Lecture II. The Development of 
 the intellectual Faculties, and on Teaching Geography, by James G. Carter. Lecture 
 III. The Infant School System, by William Russell. Lecture IV. The Spelling of 
 Words, and a Rational Method of Teaching their Meaning, by Gideon F. Thayer. 
 Lecture V. Lyceums and Societies for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, by Nehe- 
 miah Cleaveland. Lecture VI. Practical Method of Teaching Rhetoric, by Samuel P. 
 Newman. Lecture VII. Geometry and Algebra, by F. J. Grund. Lecture VIII. The 
 Monitorial System of Instruction, by Henry K. Oliver. Lecture IX. Vocal Music, by 
 William C. Woodbridge. Lecture X. Linear Drawing, by Walter R. Johnson. Lecture 
 XI. Arithmetic, by Warren Colburn. Lecture XII. Classical Learning, by Cornelius 
 C. Felton. Lecture XIII. The Construction and Furnishings of School-Rooms and 
 School Apparatus, by William J. Adams. 
 
 VOL. II, for 1831. Introductory Lecture, by James Walker. Lecture I. Education of 
 Females, by George B. Emerson. Lecture II. Moral Education, by Jacob Abbott. Lec- 
 ture III. Usefulness of Lyceums, by S. C. Phillips. Lecture IV. Education of the Five 
 Senses, by William H. Brooks. Lecture V. The Means which may be employed to stim- 
 ulate the Student without the aid of Emulation, by John L. Parkhurst. Lecture VI. 
 Grammar, by Goold Brown. Lecture VII. Influence of Academies and High Schools on 
 Common Schools, by William C. Fowler. Lecture VIII. Natural History as a Branch 
 of Common Education, by Clement Durgin. Prize Essay on School-Houses, by W. A. 
 Alcott. 
 
 VOL. Ill, for 1832. Introductory Discourse, by Francis C. Gray. Lecture I. The best 
 Methods of Teaching the Living Languages, by George Ticknor. Lecture II. Some of 
 the Diseases of a Literary Life, by G. Hayward, M. D., Lecture III. The Utility of 
 Visible Illustrations, by Walter R. Johnson. Lecture IV. The Moral Influences of 
 Physical Science, by John Pierpont. Lecture V. Prize Essay, on the Teaching of Pen-
 
 EDUCATIONAL PERIODICALS. 231 
 
 manship. by B. B. Foster. Lecture VI. Nature and Means of Early Education, as de- 
 duced from Experience, by A. B. Alcott. Lecture VII. On Teaching Grammar and 
 Composition, by Asa Rand. 
 
 VOL. IV, for 1883. Introductory Lecture, by William Sullivan. Lecture I. On the 
 Importance of a Knowledge of the Principles of Physiology to Parents and Teachers, 
 by Edward Reynolds, M. D. Lecture II. The Classification of Schools, by Samuel M. 
 Burnside. Lecture III. Primary Education, by Gardner B. Perry. Lecture IV. Emu- 
 lation in Schools, by Leonard Withington. Lecture V. The best Method of Teaching 
 the Ancient Languages, by Alpheus S. Packard. Lecture VI. Jacotot's Method of In- 
 struction, by George W. Greene. Lecture VII. The best Method of Teaching Geog- 
 raphy, by W. C. Woodbridge. Lecture VIII. Necessity of Educating Teachers, by 
 Samuel R. Hall. Lecture IX. The Adaptation of Intellectual Philosophy to Instruc- 
 tion, by Abijah R. Baker. Lecture X. The best Mode of Teaching Natural Philosophy, 
 by Benjamin Hale. 
 
 VOL. V. 1834. Introductory Lecture, by Caleb Gushing. Lecture I. The best Mode 
 of Fixing the Attention of the Young, by Warren Burton. Lecture II. The Improve- 
 ment which may be made in the Condition of Common Schools, by Stephen Farley. 
 Lecture III. Duties of Parents in regard to the Schools where their Children are In- 
 structed, by Jacob Abbott. Lecture IV. Maternal Instruction and Management of In- 
 fant Schools, by Af. Af. Carll. Lecture V. Teaching the Elements of Mathematics, by 
 Thomas Sherwin. Lecture VI. The Dangerous Tendency to Innovations and Extremes 
 in Education, by Hubbard Winslow. Lecture VII. Union of Manual with Mental La- 
 bor, in a System of Education, by Beriah Green. Lecture VIII. The History and Uses 
 of Chemistry, by C. T. Jackson. Lecture IX. Natural History as a Study in Common 
 Schools, by A. A. Gould, M. D. Lecture X. Science of Government as a Branch of 
 Popular Education, by Joseph Story. 
 
 VOL. VI, for 1886. Introductory Lecture, by W. H. Furness. Lecture I. The Study 
 of the Classics, by A. Crosby. Lecture II. Education for an Agricultural People, by 
 Samuel Nott, Jr. Lecture III. Political Influence of Schoolmasters, by E. Washbum. 
 Lecture IV. State and Prospects of the German Population of this Country, by H. 
 Bokum. Lecture V. Religious Education, by R. Park. Lecture VI. Importance of an 
 Acquaintance with the Philosophy of the Mind to an Instructor, by J. Gregg. Lec- 
 ture VII. Ends of School Discipline, by Henry L. McKean. Lecture VIII. Importance 
 and Means of Cultivating the Social Affections among Pupils, by J. Blanchard. Lec- 
 ture IX. Meaning and Objects of Education, by T. B. Fox. Lecture X. Management 
 of a Common School, by T. Dwight, Jr. Lecture XI. Moral and Spiritual Culture in 
 Early Education, by R. C. Waterston. Lecture XII. Moral Uses of the Study of Nat- 
 ural History, by W. Channing, M. D. Lecture XIII. Schools of the Arts, by W. John- 
 son. 
 
 VOL. VII. for 1836 Lecture I. Education of the Blind, by Samuel G. Howe, M. D. 
 Lecture II. Thorough Teaching, by William H. Brooks. Lecture III. Physiology, or 
 "The House I live in," by William A. Alcott. Lecture IV. Incitements to Moral and 
 Intellectual Well-Doing, by J. H. Belcher. Lecture V. Duties of Female Teachers of 
 Common Schools, by Daniel Kimball. Lecture VI. Methods of Teaching Elocution in 
 Schools, by T. D. P. Stone. Lecture VII. Influence of Intellectual Action on Civiliza- 
 tion, by H. R. Cleaveland. Lecture VIII. School Discipline, by S. R. Hall. 
 
 VOL. VIII, for 1837. Introductory Discourse, by Rev. Elipha White. Lecture I. 
 Study of the Classics, by John Mulligan. Lecture II. Moral Education, by Joshua 
 Bates. Lecture III. Study of Natural History, by John Lewis Russell. Lecture IV. 
 Comparative Merits of Private and Public Schools, by Theodore Edson. Lecture V. 
 Elocution, by David Fosdick, Jr. Lecture VI. Relation between the Board of Trustees 
 and the Faculty of a University, &c., by Jasper Adams. Lecture VII. School Reform, 
 or Teachers' Seminaries, by Charles Brooks. Lecture VIII. Teaching of Composition 
 in Schools, by R. G. Parker. Lecture IX. Evils of the Present System of Primary In- 
 struction, by Thomas H. Palmer. Lecture X. Reading and Declamation, by William 
 Russell. 
 
 VOL. IX, for 1838. Lecture I. Literary Responsibility of Teachers, by Charles White. 
 Lecture II. The Head and the Heart ; or, The Relative Importance of Intellectual and 
 Moral Culture, by Elisha Bartlett. Lecture III. Vocal Music in Common Schools, by 
 Joseph Harrington, Jr. Lecture IV. Model Schools, by Thomas D. James. Lecture V. 
 Observations on the School System of Connecticut, by Denison Olmsted. Lecture VI. 
 Teaching of English Grammar, by R. G. Parker. Lecture VII. Mutual Duties of Par- 
 ents and Teachers, by David P. Page. Lecture VIII. Man, the Subject of Education, 
 by Samuel G. Goodrich. 
 
 VOL. X, for 1839. Introductory Discourse, The Education of a Free People, by 
 Robert Rantoul, Jr. Lecture I. Physiology of the Skin, by John G. Metcalf, M. D. 
 Lecture II. Mind and its Developments, by Emerson Davis. Lecture III. A Classic 
 Taste in our Common Schools, by Luther B. Lincoln. Lecture IV. Natural Theology 
 as a Study in Schools, by Henry A. Miles. Lecture V. Division of Labor in Instruc- 
 tion, by Thomas Gushing, Jr. Lecture VI. The Claims of our Age and Country upon 
 Teachers, by David Mack. Lecture VII. Progress of Moral Science, and its Applica- 
 tion to the Business of Practical Life, by Alexander H. Everett. Lecture VIII. The 
 Comparative Results of Education, by T. P. Rodman. Lecture IX. Physical Educa- 
 tion, by Abel L. Pierson, M. D. 
 
 VOL. II. NEW SERIES, for 1840. Lecture I. Intellectual Education in Harmony with 
 Moral and Physical, by Joshua Bates. Lecture II. Results to be aimed at in School 
 Instruction and Discipline, by T. Gushing, Jr. Lecture III. Duty of Visiting? Schools,
 
 232 EDUCATIONAL PERIODICALS. 
 
 by Thomas A. Greene. Lecture IV. Objects and Means of School Instruction, by A. B. 
 Muzzey. Lecture V. Courtesy, and its Connection with School Instruction, by G. F. 
 Thayer. Lecture VI. On the Brain and the Stomach, by Usher Parsons, M. D. Lecture 
 
 VII. Common Complaints made against Teachers, by Jacob Abbott. 
 
 VOL. XII, for 1841. Lecture I. Best Method of Preparing and Using Spelling 
 Books, by Horace Mann. Lecture II. Best Method of Exercising the Different Facul- 
 ties of the Mind, by Wm. B. Fowle. Lecture III. Education of the Laboring Classes, 
 by T. Parker. Lecture IV. Importance of the Natural Sciences in our System of Pop- 
 ular Education, by A. Gray. Lecture V. Moral Culture Essential to Intellectual Edu- 
 cation, by E. W. Robinson. Lecture VI. Simplicity of Character, as Affected by the 
 Common Systems of Education, by J. S. Dwight. Lecture VII. Use of the Globes in 
 Teaching Geography and Astronomy, by A. Fleming. Lecture VIII. Elementary Prin- 
 ciples of Constitutional Law, as a Branch of Education in Common Schools, by Ed- 
 ward A. Lawrence. 
 
 VOL. XIII, for 1842. Lecutre I. Moral Education, by George B. Emerson. Lecture 
 
 II. Universal Language, by Samuel G. Howe. Lecture III. The Girard College, by E. 
 
 C. Wines. Lecture IV. School Room, as an aid to Self-Education, by A. B. Muzzey. 
 Lecture V. Moral Responsibility of Teachers, by William H. Wood. Lecture VI. The 
 Teacher's Daily Preparation. 
 
 VOL. XIV, for 1843. Lecture I. The Bible in Common Schools, by Heman Humph- 
 rey, D. D. Lecture II. The Classification of Knowledge, by Solomon Adams. Lecture 
 
 III. Moral Dignity of the Teacher's Office, by Prof. 7. H. Agnew. Lecture IV. A 
 few of the "Hows" of Schoolkeeping, by Roger S. Howard. Lecture V. Advancement 
 in the Means and Methods of Public Instruction, by David P. Page. Lecture VI. 
 Reading, by C. Pierce. Lecture VII. Some of the Duties of the Faithful Teacher, by 
 Alfred Greenleaf. Lecture VIII. Some of the Defects of our Systems of Education, by 
 R. B. Hubbard. Lecture IX. Importance of our Common Schools, by S. J. May. 
 
 VOL. XV, for 1844. Lecture I. The Religious Element in Education, by Calvin E. 
 Stowe. Lecture II. Female Education, by William Russell. Lecture III. Some of the 
 Obstacles to the Greater Success of Common Schools, by Charles Northend. Lecture 
 
 IV. Some of the Dangers of Teachers, by Daniel P. Gattoup. Lecture V. Natural His- 
 tory as a Regular Classic in our Seminaries, by Charles Brooks. Lecture VI. Classical 
 Instruction, by A. H. Weld. Lecture VII. School Discipline, by Joseph Hale. Lecture 
 
 VIII. Methods of Teaching to Read, by Samuel S. Greene. Lecture IX. The Duty of 
 the American Teacher, by John N. Bellows. Lecture X. The Necessity of Education 
 in a Republican Form of Government, by Horace Mann. 
 
 VOL. XVI, for 1845. Lecture I. Dignity of the Teacher's Office, by Joel Hawes, 
 
 D. D. Address, The Formation and Excellence of the Female Character, by Joel 
 Hawes, D. D. Lecture II. The Duties of Examining Committees, by Prof. E. D. San- 
 born. Lecture III. The Perfect Teacher, by Denison Olmstead, L. L. D. Lecture IV. 
 Physiology, by Edward Jarvis, M. D. Lecture V. Intellectual Arithmetic, by F. A. 
 Adams. Lecture VI. County Teachers' Institutes, by Salem Town. Lecture VII. Geog- 
 raphy, by William B. Fowle. Lecture VIII. Vocal Music in Common Schools, by A. N. 
 Johnson. Lecture IX. History, by George S. HiUard. 
 
 VOL. XVII, for 1846. Journal of Proceedings. List of Officers. Annual Report. 
 Lecture I. Home Preparation for School, by Jason Whitman. Lecture II. The Influ- 
 ence of Moral upon Intellectual Improvement, by H. B. Hooker. Lecture III. The Es- 
 sentials of a Common School Education, and the conditions most favorable to their 
 Attainment, by Rufus Putnam. Lecture IV. The Education of the Faculties, and the 
 Proper Employment of Young Children, by Samuel J. May. Lecture V. The Obliga- 
 tion of Towns to Elevate the Character of our Common Schools, by Luther B. Lincoln. 
 Lecture VI. Importance of Cultivating Taste in Early Life, by Ariel Parish. Lecture 
 VII. On Phonotypy and Phonography, or Speech-Writing and Speech-Printing, by 
 Stephen P. Andrews. Lecture VIII. On the Study of the English Language, by Z>. 
 Huntington. 
 
 VOL. XVIII, for 1847. Journal of Proceedings. List of Officers. Lecture I. On the 
 Study of Language, by Hubbard Winslow. Lecture II. On the Appropriateness of 
 Studies to the State of Mental Development, by Thomas P. Rodman. 
 
 AGENTS OF THE BOARD OF EDUCATION 
 
 In 1850, the Board of Education were authorized to ap- 
 point two Agents to visit schools, deliver addresses, and in 
 other ways co-operate with their Secretary in his labors. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL PERIODICALS 
 
 Although the State has not granted aid to any Educa- 
 tional Journal, there has been one or more published in the 
 state since 1826. 
 
 On the 1st of January, 1826, the first number of the 
 American Journal of Education, the first periodical devoted
 
 EDUCATIONAL PERIODICALS. 233 
 
 to the subject, which had appeared in the English language, 
 was commenced, and with that title, and as the Annals of 
 Education, under which name it was published after 1830, 
 continued until 1839. Month after month, year after year, 
 this ably-conducted periodical spread before a limited num- 
 ber of minds, broader and more generous views of education 
 its nature, objects, and methods than had been before 
 entertained. To William Russell, William C. Woodbridge, 
 and Dr. William A. Alcott, are the friends of education 
 largely indebted, for their valuable services rendered amid 
 many discouragements, as editors of this periodical. Hardly 
 a number appeared for fifteen years in which the special 
 education of teachers was not advocated and enforced. The 
 following extract of the origin of this Journal, is taken from 
 a letter by William Russell, Esq. 
 
 "The Journal of Education had its origin in the mind of the late 
 Thomas B. Wait, of Boston, whose attention had been peculiarly at- 
 tracted to the subject of education, during his residence in Portland, 
 Maine, at the time when the first movements were there made for the 
 introduction of a public system of primary schools. Mr. Wait had re- 
 tired from business; but on the return of one of his sons from the 
 West, on whom he could devolve the active duties of publishing, he 
 applied to Mr. John Frost, now of Philadelphia, to edit the intended 
 periodical. Mr. Frost, however, was suddenly attacked with a pulmo- 
 nary disease, which compelled him to resort to the climate of the 
 West Indies for relief; and Mr. Wait made application to the late Dr. 
 Coffin, of Boston, then engaged in editing the Boston Medical Journal. 
 Dr. Coffin referred Mr. Wait to myself; and to this circumstance was 
 owing my subsequent connection with the Journal, as its editor, for 
 nearly three years. Early in the second year of that period, Mr. Wait, 
 finding the business conencted with publishing a periodical too bur- 
 densome, disposed of it to Mr. S. G. Goodrich, whose attention, ere 
 long, was attracted to more profitable branches of the business of pub- 
 lishing; and the Journal, through the agency of Mr. T. H. Carter, was 
 taken up by Messrs. Carter & Hendee, and, under the designation of 
 Annals of Education, was edited by Mr. William C. Woodbridge, as- 
 sisted by Dr. William A. Alcott. Subsequently the work was published 
 by Otis, Broaders, & Co., in whose hands it was discontinued in 1839." 
 
 In August, 1838, the first number of the Common School 
 Journal was published under the editorship of the Hon. 
 Horace Mann, during his continuance in the office of Secre- 
 tary of the Board of Education, until 1849, when it passed 
 into the hands of William B. Fowler, by whom it is still 
 edited and published at Boston. 
 
 In January, 1848, the Massachusetts Teacher was com- 
 menced under the editorial charge of a Committee, ap- 
 pointed by the Massachusetts Teachers' Association. Its 
 publication is still continued at Boston.
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 AMONG the earliest and most earnest advocates of legis- 
 lative provision for the professional training of teachers, 
 stands the name of Governor De Wit Clinton. In his mes- 
 sage to the Legislature in 1825, he recommends "to their 
 consideration, the education of competent teachers;" and 
 in 1826, he again adverts to the subject in the following lan- 
 guage : 
 
 "Our system of instruction, with all its numerous benefits, is still, 
 however, susceptible of improvement. Ten years of the life of a child 
 may now be spent in a common school. In two years the elements of 
 instruction may be acquired, and the remaining eight years must either 
 be spent in repetition or idleness, unless the teachers of common schools 
 are competent to instruct in the higher branches of knowledge. The 
 outlines of geography, algebra, mineralogy, agricultural chemistry, me- 
 chanical philosophy, surveying, geometry, astronomy, political econ- 
 omy and ethics, might be communicated in that period of time, by able 
 preceptors, without essential interference with the calls of domestic 
 industry. The vocation of a teacher in its influence on the character 
 and destiny of the rising and all future generations, has either not 
 been fully understood, or duly estimated. It is, or ought to be ranked 
 among the learned professions. With a full admission of the merits of 
 several who now officiate in that capacity, still it must be conceded 
 that the information of many of the instructors of our common schools 
 does not extend beyond rudimental education; that our expanding pop- 
 ulation requires constant accession to their numbers; and that to 
 realize these views, it is necessary that some new plan for obtaining 
 able teachers should be devised. I therefore recommend a seminary for 
 the education of teachers in those useful branches of knowledge which 
 are proper to engraft on elementary attainments. A compliance with 
 this recommendation will have the most benign influence on individual 
 happiness and social prosperity." 
 
 And again, in his message in 1828, Governor Clinton 
 urges the subject on the attention of the Legislature. 
 
 "It may be taken for granted, that the education of the body of 
 people can never attain the requisite perfection without competent in- 
 structors, well acquainted with the outlines of literature and the ele- 
 ments of science." He recommends with this view, "a law authorizing 
 the supervisors of each county to raise a sum not exceeding $2000, pro- 
 vided that the same sum is subscribed by individuals, for the erection 
 of a suitable edifice for a Monitorial High School, in the county town. 
 I can conceive of no reasonable objection to the adoption of a measure 
 so well calculated to raise the character of our school masters, and to 
 double the powers of our artizans by giving them a scientific educa- 
 tion." 
 
 In 1826, Hon. John C. Spencer, from the Literature Com- 
 mittee of the Senate, to whom the message of Governor
 
 236 NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 
 Clinton for that year had been referred, made a report, rec- 
 ommending among other plans for the improvement of 
 common schools, that the income of the "Literature Fund" 
 be divided among the academies of the State, not in refer- 
 ence to the number of classical students in each, but "to the 
 number of persons instructed in each, who shall have been 
 licensed as teachers of common schools by a proper board." 
 He thus introduces the subject : 
 
 "In the view which the committee have taken, our great reliance for 
 nurseries of teachers must be placed on our colleges and academies. If 
 they do not answer this purpose, they can be of very little use. That 
 they have not hitherto been more extensively useful in that respect is 
 owing to inherent defects in the system of studies pursued there. When 
 the heads of our colleges are apprised of the great want of teachers 
 which it is so completely in their power to relieve, if not supply, it is 
 but reasonable to expect that they will adopt a system by which young 
 men whose pursuits do not require a knowledge of classics, may avail 
 themselves of the talent and instruction in those institutions, suited to 
 their wants, without being compelled also to receive that which they 
 do not want, and for which they have neither time nor money." 
 
 "In 1827, Mr. Spencer, from the same Committee, reported a bill en- 
 titled 'An act to provide permanent funds for the annual appropriation 
 to common schools, to increase the Literature Fund, and to promote the 
 education of teachers,' by which the sum of $150,000 was added to the 
 Literature Fund. And the Regents of the University were required 
 annually to distribute the whole income of this fund among the several 
 incorporated academies and seminaries, which then were or might 
 there after become subject to their visitation, 'in proportion to the 
 number of pupils instructed in each academy or seminary for six 
 months during the preceding year, who shall have pursued classical 
 studies, or the higher branches of English education, or both.' In the 
 report accompanying this bill, which, on the 13th of April, "became 
 a law, the committee expressly observe, that their object in thus in- 
 creasing this fund is 'to promote the education of young men in 
 those studies which will prepare them for the business of instruc- 
 tion, which it is hoped may be accomplished to some extent, by offer- 
 in ignducements to the trustees of academies to educate pupils of 
 that description.' 'In vain will you have established a system of in- 
 struction; in vain will you appropriate money to educate the children 
 of the poor, if you do not provide persons competent to execute your 
 system, and to teach the pupils collected in the schools. And every 
 citizen who has paid attention to it and become acquainted prac- 
 tically with the situation of our schools, knows that the incompetency 
 of the great mass of teachers is a radical defect which impedes the 
 whole system, frustrates the benevolent designs of the Legislature, 
 and defeats the hopes and wishes of all who feel an interest In dis- 
 seminating the blessings of education.' 'Having undertaken a sys- 
 tem of public instruction, it is the solemn duty of the Legislature to 
 make that system as perfect as possible. We have no right to trifle 
 with the funds of our constituents, by applying them in a mode which 
 fails to attain the intended object. Competent teachers of common 
 schools must be provided; the academies of the State furnish the 
 means of making that provision. There are funds which may be safely 
 and properly applied to that object, and if there were none, a more 
 just, patriotic, and in its true sense, popular reason for taxation can- 
 ont be urged. Let us aid the efforts of meritorious citizens who have 
 devoted large portions of their means to the rearing of academies; let
 
 NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 237 
 
 us reward them by giving success to their efforts; let us sustain 
 seminaries that are falling into decay; let us revive the drooping 
 and animate the prosperous, by cheering rays of public beneficence; 
 and thus let us provide nurseries for the education of our children, 
 and for the instruction of teachers who will expand and widen and 
 deepen the great stream of education, until it shall reach our re- 
 motest borders, and prepare our posterity for the maintenance of the 
 glory and prosperity of their country.' " 
 
 The legal provision for the better education of teachers rested on 
 this basis until 1834, when an act was passed, by which the surplus 
 income of the Literature Fund over twelve thousand dollars was 
 placed at the disposal of the Regents of the University, to be by them 
 distributed to such academies, subject to their visitation as they 
 might select, and to be exclusively devoted to the education of teach- 
 ers for the common schools, in such manner and under such regula- 
 tions as they might prescribe. 
 
 In pursuance of the provisions of the act of 2d of May, 1834, author- 
 izing the Regents of the University to apply a part of the income to 
 the Literature Fund to the education of common school teachers, a 
 plan was reported on the 8th of January, 1835, by Gen. Dix, from the 
 committee appointed for that purpose, to the Regents with the view 
 of carrying into effect the intention of the act. This plan was approved 
 and adopted by the Regents; and one academy was selected in each 
 of the eight Senate districts, charged with the establishment of a De- 
 partment specially adapted to the instruction of teachers of common 
 schools. To support these departments, each academy received from 
 the Literature Fund, a sufficient sum to procure the necessary appar- 
 atus for the illustration of the various branches required to be taught; 
 the sum of $191 to be appropriated to the enlargement of the acad- 
 emical library; and an annual appropriation of $400 to meet the in- 
 creased expense which might devolve upon the institution in conse- 
 quence of the establishment of the teachers' department. 
 
 In his annual Report for 1836, the Superintendent (Gen. Dix,) again 
 adverts to the fact, that in the adoption of this system 'the Legislature 
 has merely provided for the more complete execution of a design long 
 entertained so far as respects the employment of the academies for 
 this purpose. The propriety of founding separate institutions,' he con- 
 tinues, 'upon the model of the seminaries for teachers in Prussia, was 
 for several years a subject of public discussion in this State. It was 
 contended, on the one hand, that such institutions would be more 
 likely to secure the object in view; and on the other, that it might be 
 as effectually and more readily accomplished through the organized 
 academies.' After again referring to the act of April 13, 1827, he con- 
 cludes : 
 
 "Thus although the plan of engrafting upon the academies, depart- 
 ments for the preparation of teachers, may not have been contemplat- 
 ed at the time, yet this measure is to be regarded only as a more 
 complete development of the design of the Legislature in passing the 
 act referred to." 
 
 "By the 8th section of the act of April 17, 1838, appropriating the in- 
 come of the United States Deposite Fund to the purposes of education, 
 &c. the sum of $28,000 was directed to be annually paid over to the 
 Literature Fund, and apportioned among the several academies of the 
 State; and by the 9th section, it was made the duty of the Regents of 
 the University 'to require every academy receiving a distributive share 
 of public money, under the preceding section equal to seven hundred 
 dollars per annum, to establish and maintain in such academy, a de- 
 partment for the instruction of common school teachers, under the dir-
 
 238 NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, 
 
 ection of the said Regents, as a condition of receiving the distributive 
 share of every such academy.' Under this provision eight academies, 
 in addition to those designated specially for this purpose by the Re- 
 gents, established departments for the education of teachers. 
 
 Desirous of knowing the practical operation of the departments thus 
 organized, the superintendent (MR. SPENCER) during the summer of 
 1840, commissioned the Rev. Dr. Potter of Union College, and D. H. 
 Little, Esq. of Cherry-Valley, to visit these institutions, and report the 
 result of their examinations to the department, accompanied by such 
 suggestions as they might deem expedient. Prof. Potter in his report, 
 after enumerating the various advantages and defects which had pre- 
 sented themselves to his observation in the course of his examination, 
 observes in conclusion: 
 
 'The principal evil connected with our present means of training 
 teachers, is, that they contribute to supply instructors for select rather 
 than for common schools; and that for want of special exercises, they 
 perform even that work imperfectly. I would suggest whether some 
 means might not be adopted for training a class of teachers, with 
 more especial reference to country common schools, and to primary 
 schools in villages and cities; teachers whose attainments should not 
 extend much beyond the common English branches, but whose minds 
 should be awakened by proper influence; who should be made familiar 
 by practice with the best modes of teaching; and who should come 
 under strong obligations to teach for at least two or three years. In 
 Prussia and France, normal schools are supported at the public ex- 
 pense; most of the pupils receive both board and tuition gratuitously; 
 but at the close of the course they give bonds to refund the whole 
 amount received, unless they teach under the direction of the govern- 
 ment for a certain number of years. That such schools, devoted ex- 
 clusively to the preparation of teaching, have some advantages over 
 any other method, is sufficiently apparent from the experience of 
 other nations: and it has occurred to me that, as supplementary to 
 our present system, the establishment of one in this State might be 
 eminently useful. If placed under proper auspices and located near 
 the Capitol, where it could enjoy the supervision of the Superintendent 
 of Common Schools, and be visited by the members of the Legislature, 
 it might contribute in many ways to raise the tone of instruction 
 throughout the State.' 
 
 From an examination of these reports, the Superintendent comes to 
 the conclusion that 'these departments ought not to be abandoned, but 
 sustained and encouraged, and the means of establishing a large num- 
 ber in other academies provided. They, with the other academies and 
 colleges of the State, furnish the supply of teachers indispensable to 
 the maintenance of our schools.' He recommends 'the extension of the 
 public patronage to all the academies in the State, to enable them 
 to establish teachers' departments; and in those counties where there 
 are no academies, the establishment of normal schools.' 'One model 
 school or more,' he thinks, 'might be advantageously established in 
 some central parts of the State, to which teachers, and those intend- 
 ing to be such, might repair to acquire the best methods of conducting 
 our common schools.' 
 
 By a resolution adopted by the Regents of the University, on the 4th 
 of May of the same year, eight additional academies were designated 
 for the establishment and maintenance of teachers' departments; and 
 the appropriation to each of the institutions in which such depart- 
 ments had been organized by the Regents, reduced to $300 per annum. 
 At this period, including the academies which were required, under the 
 act of 1838, to maintain such departments in consequence of the re-
 
 NEW TOEK STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 239 
 
 ceipt of a specified portion of the Literature Fund, the number of 
 academies in which departments for the education of teachers were 
 organized was twenty-three, and the number of students taught in 
 them about six hundred." 
 
 The above facts and extracts have been principally gath- 
 ered from a "Report of the Committee on Colleges, Acade- 
 mies, and Common Schools," to the House of Representa- 
 tives in 1844, of which Mr. Hulburd, of St. Lawrence, was 
 chairman, and the author of the able document referred to. 
 The Committee, on passing to the consideration of a State 
 Normal School, remark : 
 
 "From this recapitulation, it will appear that the principal reliance 
 of the friends and supporters of the common schools, for an adequate 
 supply of teachers, has, from a very early period, been upon the acade- 
 mies; that the inability of the latter to supply this demand, induced, 
 in 1827, an increase of $150,000 of the fund, applicable to their sup- 
 port; and this for the express purpose of enabling them to accomplish 
 this object; that the Regents of the University, the guardians of these 
 institutions, characterized this increase of the fund as an unwonted 
 and "extraordinary" act of liberality on the part of the State towards 
 them; explicitly recognized the condition, or rather the avowed expec- 
 tations on which it was granted; accepted the trust, and undertook to 
 perform those conditions, and to fulfill those expectations; that, to use 
 the language of one of the superintendents, 'the design of the law was 
 not sustained by the measures necessary to give it the form and ef- 
 fect of a system;' that to remedy this evil, one academy was specially 
 designated in each Senate district with an endowment of $500 to pro- 
 vide the necessary means and facilities of instruction, and an annual 
 appropriation of $400, for the maintenance of a department for the 
 education of teachers; and soon afterwards the sum of $28,000 added 
 to the Literature Fund from the avails of the U. S. Deposite Fund, 
 while eight additional academies were required to organize and main- 
 tain similar departments; that, finally, the number of these depart- 
 ments was augmented to twenty-three, and every exertion put forth 
 to secure the great results originally contemplated in their establish- 
 ment; and that in the judgement of successive superintendents of com- 
 mon schools, the Regents of the University and the most eminent and 
 practical friends of education throughout the state, these institutions, 
 whether considered in the aggregate or with reference to those spe- 
 cially designated, from time to time, for the performance of this im- 
 portant duty, of supplying the common schools with competent teach- 
 ers, have not succeeded in the accomplishment of that object. Having, 
 therefore, to revert again to the language of the superintendent before 
 referred to, 'proved inadequate to the ends proposed,' may not now 
 'a change of plan be insisted on without being open to the objection 
 of abandoning a system which has not been fairly tested?' And have 
 the academies any just reason to complain, if they are not longer per- 
 mitted to enjoy undiminished the liberal appropriations conferred up- 
 on them by the State for a specific object; an object which they have 
 not been able satisfactorily to accomplish?" 
 
 This committee haying satisfied themselves that all for- 
 mer legislation on this subject was inadequate, and having 
 examined, by a sub-committee, the Normal Schools of Mas- 
 sachusetts, and inquired into their operation in other coun- 
 tries, recommended the establishment of a Normal School
 
 240 NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 
 at Albany, "for the education and training of teachers for 
 common schools," and that the sum of $9,600 for the first 
 year, and $10,000 annually for five years thereafter, in ap- 
 propriations for its support. This recommendation was 
 adopted by an almost unanimous vote. 
 
 This institution is required to be located in the county of 
 Albany; and is to be under the supervision, management 
 and direction of the Superintendent of Common Schools and 
 the Regents of the University, who are authorized and re- 
 quired "from time to time to make all needful rules and 
 regulations ; to fix the number and compensation of teachers 
 and others to be employed therein ; to prescribe the prelim- 
 inary examination, and the terms and conditions on which 
 pupils shall be received and instructed therein the num- 
 ber of pupils from the respective cities and counties, con- 
 forming as nearly as may be to the ratio of population to 
 fix the location of the said school, and the terms and condi- 
 tions on which the grounds and buildings therefor shall be 
 rented, if the same shall not be provided by the corporation 
 of the city of Albany; and to provide in all things for the 
 good government and management of the said school." They 
 are required to appoint a board, consisting of five persons, 
 including the Superintendent of Common Schools, who are 
 to constitute an executive committee for the care, manage- 
 ment and government of the school, under the rules pre- 
 scribed by the Board of Regents. Such executive committee, 
 are to make full and detailed reports from time to time to 
 the Superintendent and Regents, and among other things to 
 recommend such rules and regulations as they may deem 
 proper for said schools. 
 
 The superintendent and Regents are required annually to 
 transmit to the Legislature an account of their proceedings 
 and expenditures, together with a detailed report from the 
 executive committee, relating to the progress, condition, 
 and prospects of the school. 
 
 The city of Albany tendered the use of a suitable build- 
 ing, free of rent, for the use of the institution, and the 
 school was organized and commenced the business of in- 
 struction in December, 1844, under the charge of David P. 
 Page, Esq., of Newburyport, Mass., as Principal. 
 
 The following members composed the Executive Com- 
 mittee, under which the institution was organized: Hon. 
 Samuel Young, State Superintendent, Rev. Alonzo Potter, 
 D. D., Rev. Wm. H. Campbell, Gideon Hawley and Francis 
 Dwight, Esqrs.
 
 NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 
 
 AT ALBANY. 
 
 THE Normal School for the state of New York, was es- 
 tablished by an act of the Legislature in 1844, "for the in- 
 struction and practice of Teachers of Common Schools, in 
 the science of Education and the art of Teaching." It was 
 first established for five years, as an experiment, and went 
 into operation on the 18th of December, 1844, in a building 
 provided gratuitously by the city of Albany, and temporar- 
 ily fitted up for that purpose. In 1848, an act was passed by 
 the Legislature "for the permanent establishment of the 
 State Normal School," appropriating $15,000 toward the 
 erection of a suitable building. The following year an addi- 
 tional appropriation of $10,000 was made for its comple- 
 tion. A large and commodious edifice (See Fig. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
 6,) containing a dwelling-house for the Principal, has 
 accordingly been erected on the corner of Lodge and 
 Howard streets, adjoining the State Geological and 
 Agricultural Rooms. To this building the school was 
 
 P
 
 242 NEW YORK STATE NOBMAI, SCHOOL. 
 
 removed on the 31st of July, 1849. At the expiration 
 of the term of five years for which this institution was 
 originally established, and in connection with the closing 
 exercises of the Summer Session ending September 27, 1849, 
 Samuel S. Randall, Esq., Deputy Superintendent of Common 
 Schools, pronounced an address in which the origin and 
 progress of the Normal School is thus graphically set forth : 
 
 For several years prior to 1844, the attention of the friends of Com- 
 mon School education in this state had been strongly directed to the 
 inadequacy of the existing agencies for the preparation of duly quali- 
 fied teachers for our elementary institutions of learning. Liberal en- 
 dowments had, from time to time, during a long series of years, been 
 bestowed upon the academies in different sections of the state, with 
 a view to the attainment of this object; but the practical inability of 
 these institutions to supply the demand thus made upon them with all 
 the resources at their command, soon became obvious and undeniable. 
 The establishment of Normal Schools for this special and exclusive 
 purpose in various portions of Europe, where popular education was 
 most flourishing, and in the adjoining state of Massachusetts, long 
 and honorably distinguished for her superior public and private 
 schools, and the manifest tendency of these institutions to elevate and 
 improve the qualifications and character of teachers, had begun to at- 
 tract the regard of many of our most distinguished statesmen. 
 
 On a winter's afternoon, early in the year 1844, in a retired apart- 
 ment of one of the public buildings in this city, might have been seen, 
 in earnest and prolonged consultation, several eminent individuals 
 whose names and services in the cause of education are now universal- 
 ly acknowledged. The elder of them was a man of striking and vener- 
 able appearance of commanding intellect and benignant mien. By 
 his side sat one in the prime and vigor of manhood, whose mental 
 faculties had long been disciplined in the school of virtuous activity, 
 and in every lineament of whose countenance appeared that resolute 
 determination and moral power, which seldom fails to exert a wide 
 influence upon the opinions and actions of men. The third in the 
 group was a young man of slight frame and pale, thoughtful visage; 
 upon whose delicate and slender form premature debility had palpably 
 set its seal; yet whose opinions seemed to be listened to by his asso- 
 ciates with the utmost deference and regard. The remaining figure 
 was that of a well-known scholar and divine, whose potent and bene- 
 ficial influence had long been felt in every department of the cause of 
 popular education, and whose energy, activity and zeal had already ac- 
 complished many salutary and much needed reforms in our system of 
 public instruction. 
 
 The subject of their consultation was the expediency and practica- 
 bility of incorporating upon the Common School system of this state 
 an efficient instrumentality for the education of teachers. The utility 
 of such a measure, and its importance to the present and prospective 
 interests of education, admitted, in the minds of these distinguished 
 men, of no doubt. The sole question was whether the public mind was 
 sufficiently prepared for its reception and adoption: whether an inno- 
 vation so great and striking, and involving as it necessarily must a 
 heavy and continued expenditure of the public money, might not be 
 strenuously and successfully resisted: and whether a premature and 
 unsuccessful attempt then to carry into execution a measure of such 
 vital importance, might not be attended with a disastrous influence 
 upon the future prospects of the cause of education. These consider- 
 ations after being duly weighed, were unanimously set aside by the in-
 
 NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 243 
 
 trepid spirits then in council; and it was determined that, backed by 
 the strong and decided recommendation of the head of the Common 
 School Department, immediate measures should be forthwith adopted 
 for the establishment of a STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. The men who thus 
 gave the first decided impetus to the great enterprise, whose gratifying 
 results are now before us, were SAMUEL YOUNG, CALVIN T. HULBIRD, 
 FRANCIS D WIGHT, and ALONZO POTTER. 
 
 Mr. Hulburd, the able and enlightened Chairman of the Committee 
 on Colleges, Academies and Common Schools, of the Assembly, visited 
 the Normal Schools of Massachusetts, and after a thorough examina- 
 tion of their merits and practical operations, submitted an elaborate 
 and eloquent report to the House, in favor of the immediate adoption 
 of this principle in our system of public instruction. The bill intro- 
 duced by him, and sustained in all its stages by his powerful influence 
 and indefatigable exertions, and the cooperation of the most zealous 
 friends of education throughout the state, became a law, and appro- 
 priated the sum of $10,000 annually for five successive years, for the 
 purpose of establishing and maintaining a State Normal School in this 
 city. The general control of the Institution was committed to the Re- 
 gents of the University, by whom an Executive Committee, consisting 
 of five persons, one of whom was to be the Superintendent of Common 
 Schools, was to be appointed, upon whom the direct management, dis- 
 cipline and course of instruction should devolve. 
 
 In pursuance of this provision, the Board of Regents, in June, 1844, 
 appointed a committee comprising the Hon. SAMUEL YOUNG, then Su- 
 perintendent of Common Schools, the Rev. ALONZO POTTER, Rev. WM. 
 H. CAMPBELL, Hon. GIDEON HAWLET, and FRANCIS DWIGHT, Esq. This 
 committee forthwith entered upon the execution of their responsible du- 
 ties; procured on very liberal and favorable terms from the city of 
 Albany the lease for five years of the spacious building in State street, 
 recently occupied by the Institution; prescribed the necessary rules 
 and regulations for the instruction, government and discipline of the 
 school, the course of study to be pursued, the appointment and selec- 
 tion of the pupils, &c., and procured the services of the late lamented 
 and distinguished Principal, then of Newburyport, Massachusetts, to- 
 gether with his colleague, Prof. Perkins, of Utica, the present Prin- 
 cipal, as teachers. On the 18th day of December, 1844, the school was 
 opened in the presence of a large concourse of citizens and strangers, 
 by an eloquent address from Col. YOUNG, and by other appropriate and 
 suitable exercises. Twenty-nine pupils, thirteen males and sixteen fe- 
 males, representing fourteen counties only, of both sexes were in at- 
 tendance, who, after listening to a brief but clear and explicit declara- 
 tion from Mr. PAGE, of his objects, views and wishes in the manage- 
 ment and direction of the high duties devolved upon him, entered at 
 once upon the course of studies prescribed for the school. Before the 
 close of the first term on the llth of March, 1845, the number of pupils 
 had increased to ninety-eight, comprising about an equal number of 
 each sex, and representing forty of the fifty-nine counties of the state. 
 During this term the musical department of the school was placed 
 under the charge of Prof. ILSLEY, of this city, and instruction in draw- 
 ing was imparted by Prof. J. B. HOWARD, of Rensselaer. 
 
 On the commencement of the second term, on the 9th of April, 1845, 
 170 pupils were in attendance, comprising a nearly equal proportion of 
 males and females, and representing every county in the state, with a 
 single exception. Of these pupils about nine-tenths had been previously 
 engaged in teaching during a longer or shorter period. The term closed 
 on the 28th of August, with a public examination and other suitable ex- 
 ercises, and thirty-four of the students received the certificate of the
 
 244 NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 
 Executive Committee and Board of Instruction, as in their judgment 
 well qualified in all essential respects, to teach any of the Common 
 Schools of the state. 
 
 On the 15th of October succeeding, the school re-opened with 180 pu- 
 pils, which was increased during the progress of the term to 198 from 
 every county in the state but one. The death of Mr. DWIGHT, which 
 took place on the 15th day of December, and the transfer of the Rev. 
 Dr. POTTER to the Episcopal Diocese of Pennsylvania, created vacancies 
 in the Executive Committee, which were supplied by the appointment 
 of the Hon. HARMANTJS BLEECKER, and the Hon. SAMUEL YOUNG, the lat- 
 ter gentleman having been succeeded in office of Superintendent of 
 Common Schools by the Hon. N. S. BENTON, of Herkimer. The sudden 
 death of Mr. Dwight, who had taken a deep interest in the prosperity 
 and success of the Institution, and had given to its minutest details the 
 benefits of his supervision and constant attention, cast a deep gloom 
 upon the inmates; and the peculiar circumstances under which it took 
 place were strikingly indicative of the vain and illusory nature of all 
 human expectations. For several weeks previous to his death, Mr. 
 Dwight had manifested much interest in devising appropriate means 
 for the celebration of the opening of the school, on the 18th of Decem- 
 ber. Alas! how little could he imagine that the long line of Normal 
 pupils, with the children of the various public schools of the city, to 
 whom also he had been a signal benefactor, and hundreds of his fellow- 
 citizens should, on that day, follow his lifeless remains to their long 
 home! 
 
 At the close of the third term, March 18, 1846, a public examination 
 was held, which continued during four successive days, and convinced 
 all who felt an interest in the Institution, that the work of preparation 
 for the teacher's life was, in all respects, thorough and complete. The 
 diploma of the Institution was conferred on forty-seven graduates. 
 During this and the preceding term a valuable addition had been made 
 to the Board of Instruction, by promoting to the charge of several of 
 the principal departments, those graduates of the Institution who now 
 so ably and successfully preside over these departments. The Experi- 
 mental School, organized at the commencement of the second term, was 
 placed under the general supervision of its present teacher, and has 
 proved an exceedingly valuable auxiliary in the practical preparation 
 of the pupils of the principal school for the discharge of their duty as 
 teachers. Two hundred and five pupils were in attendance at the com- 
 mencement of the fourth term, on the first Monday of May, 1846, of 
 whom sixty-three received a diploma at its close in September follow- 
 ing. During the fifth term, commencing on the second of November, 
 one hundred and seventy-eight pupils only appeared, forty-six of whom 
 graduated in March, 1847. At the commencement, however, of the sixth 
 term in May subsequently, two hundred and twenty-one pupils were in 
 attendance, of whom sixty-four received the diploma of the Institution 
 in September; and at the reopening of the school in November, two 
 hundred and five pupils appeared. Up to this period the number of 
 names entered on the Register of the school as pupils, including those 
 in attendance at the commencement of the seventh term, was seven 
 hundred and thirty-seven. Of these two hundred and fifty-four had re- 
 ceived their diploma as graduates, of which number two hundred and 
 twenty-two were actually engaged in teaching in the Common Schools 
 of the state; and the residue, with few exceptions, in the different 
 academies or in private schools. Of those who had left the school with- 
 out graduating, nearly all were engaged during a longer or shorter 
 period in teaching in the several Common Schools. 
 
 And now came that dark and gloomy period when the hitherto bril- 
 liant prospects of the Institution were overcast with deep clouds of
 
 NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 245 
 
 melancholy and despondency when that noble form and towering in- 
 tellect which, from the commencement of the great experiment in prog- 
 ress, had assiduously presided over and watched its development, was 
 suddenly struck down by the relentless hand of the great destroyer 
 when the bereaved and stricken flock, deprived of their revered and 
 beloved guide, teacher, friend, mournfully assembled in their accus- 
 tomed halls on that dreary and desolate January day at the commence- 
 ment of the year 1848, to pay the last sad obsequies to the remains of 
 their departed Principal. In the prime and vigor of his high faculties 
 in the meridian brightness of his lofty and noble career in the ma- 
 turity of his well-earned fame as "first among the foremost" of the 
 teachers of America, he passed away from among us, and sought his 
 eternal reward in that better land where the ills and the obstructions 
 of mortality are forever unknown; where the emancipated spirit, freed 
 from the clogs which here fetter its high action and retard its noblest 
 development, expands its illimitable energies in the congenial atmos- 
 phere of infinite knowledge and infinite love. It is not for me, on the 
 present occasion, to pronounce his eulogy, although I knew and loved 
 him well. That has already been done by an abler hand, and it only 
 remains to say that the impress which his masterly and well-trained 
 mind left upon the Institution, the child of his most sanguine hopes 
 and earnest efforts, and upon the interests of education generally 
 throughout the state, of which he was the indefatigable promoter, has 
 been of the most marked character, and will long consecrate his name 
 and memory. 
 
 Since this period the progress of the Institution, under the auspices 
 of its present enlightened Principal, and his devoted corps of assistants, 
 has been uniformly onward and upward. At the close of the seventh 
 term fifty pupils were graduated, and the eighth term opened with two 
 hundred and eight, of whom forty-six received their diploma at its 
 close. The ninth term opened on the first day of November last with 
 one hundred and seventy-five pupils, and at its close forty-three were 
 graduated; and the tenth term, which has now just closed, opened with 
 upward of two hundred pupils, of whom thirty-six are now about to 
 graduate. 
 
 The following account of the State Normal School is cop- 
 ied from the Annual Circular of the Executive Committee, 
 for 1850 : 
 
 "Each county in the state is entitled to send to the school a number 
 of pupils, (either male or female,) equal to twice the number of mem- 
 bers of the Assembly in such county. The pupils are appointed by the 
 county and town superintendents at a meeting called by the county 
 superintendent for that purpose. This meeting should be held and the 
 appointment made at least two weeks before the commencement of 
 each term, or as soon as information is received as to the number of 
 vacancies. A list of the vacancies for each term will be published in 
 the District School Journal, as early as the number of such vacancies 
 can be ascertained, usually before the close of the former term. 
 
 Pupils once admitted to the school will have the right to remain un- 
 til they graduate; unless they forfeit that right by voluntarily vacat- 
 ing their place, or by improper conduct. 
 
 Persons failing to receive appointments from their respective coun- 
 ties, should, after obtaining testimonials of a good moral character, 
 present themselves the first day of the term, for examination by the 
 Faculty. If such examination is satisfactory, they will receive an ap- 
 pointment from the Executive Committee, without regard to the par- 
 ticular county, provided any vacancies exist. In such case the pupil 
 will receive mileage.
 
 246 NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 
 By an act of the Legislature, passed April 11, 1849, "every teacher 
 shall be deemed a qualified teacher, who shall have in possession a 
 Diploma from the State Normal School." 
 
 QUALIFICATIONS OP APPLICANTS. Females sent to the school must be 
 sixteen years of age, and males eighteen. 
 
 The superintendents, in making their appointments, are urged to pay 
 no regard to the political opinions of applicants. The selections should 
 be made with reference to the moral worth and abilities of the candi- 
 dates. Decided preference ought to be given to those, who, in the judg- 
 ment of the superintendents, give the highest promise of becoming the 
 most efficient teachers of common schools. It is also desirable that 
 those only should be appointed who have already a good knowledge of 
 the common branches of study, and who intend to remain in the school 
 unjil they graduate. 
 
 ^ENTRANCE. All the pupils, on entering the school, are required to 
 sign the following declaration: 
 
 'We the subscribers hereby DECLARE, that it is our intention to devote 
 ourselves to the business of teaching district schools, and that our sole 
 object in resorting to this Normal School is the better to prepare our- 
 selves for that important duty.' 
 
 As this should be signed in good faith on the part of the pupils, they 
 should be made acquainted with its import before they are appointed. 
 It is expected of the superintendents, that they shall select such as will 
 sacredly fulfill their engagements in this particular. 
 
 Pupils on entering the school are subjected to a thorough examina- 
 tion, and are classified according to their previous attainments. The 
 time required to accomplish the course will depend upon the attain- 
 ments and talents of the pupil, varying from one to four terms. Very 
 few, however, can expect to graduate in one term. 
 
 PRIVILEGES OF THE PUPILS. All pupils receive their tuition free. They 
 are also furnished with the use of text-books without charge; though 
 if they already own the books of the course, they would do well to 
 bring them, together with such other books for reference as they may 
 possess. Moreover, they draw a small sum from the fund for the sup- 
 port of the school, to defray in part their expenses. 
 
 It is proposed to apportion the sum of $1,700 among the 256 pupils, 
 who may compose the school during the next term. 1. Each pupil shall 
 receive three cents a mile on the distance from his county town to the 
 city of Albany. 2. The remainder of the $1,700 shall then be divided 
 equally among the students in attendance. 
 
 The following list will show how much a student from each county 
 will receive, during the ensuing term: 
 
 Albany, $2.41; Allegany, $10.09; Broome, $6.76; Cattaraugus, $11.17; 
 Cayuga, $7.09; Chatauque, $12.49; Chemung, $8.35; Chenango, $5.41; 
 Clinton, $7.27; Columbia, $3.28; Cortland, $6.67; Delaware, $4.72; 
 Dutchess, $4.66; Erie, $10.93; Essex, $6.19; Franklin, $8.77; Fulton,. 
 $3.76; Genesee, $9.73; Greene, $3.43; Hamilton, $4.87; Herkimer, $4.81; 
 Jefferson, $7.21; Kings, $6.97; Lewis, $6.28; Livingston, $9.19; Mad- 
 ison, $5.44; Monroe, $8.98; Montgomery, $3.61; New-York, $6.85; Niag- 
 ara, $10.72; Oneida, $5.29; Onondaga, $6.40; Ontario, $8.26; Orange, 
 $5.44; Orleans, $10.12; Oswego, $7.21; Otsego, $4.39; Putnam, $5.59; 
 Queens, $7.63; Rensselaer, $2.59; Richmond, $7.32; Rockland, $6.07; 
 Saratoga, $4.78; Schenectady, $2.86; Schoharie, $3.07; Seneca, $7.54; 
 St. Lawrence, $8.59; Steuben, $8.89; Suffolk, $9.16; Sullivan, $5.80;
 
 NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 247 
 
 Tioga, $7.42; Tompkins, $7.31; Ulster, $4.15; Warren, $4.27; Washing- 
 ton, $3.85; Wayne, $7.84; Westchester, $6.46; Wyoming, $9.85; Yates, 
 $7.96. 
 
 It is proper to state, that if the number of pupils is less than 256, the 
 sum to be received will be proportionately increased. The above sched- 
 ule shows, therefore, the minimum sum to be received by each pupil. 
 His apportionment cannot be less than as above stated, and it may be 
 more. 
 
 This money will be paid at the close of the term. 
 
 APPARATUS. A well assorted apparatus has been procured sufficient- 
 ly extensive to illustrate all the important principles in Natural Phil- 
 osophy, Chemistry, and Human Physiology. Extraordinary facilities 
 for the study of Physiology are afforded by the Museum of the Med- 
 ical College, which is open at all hours for visitors. 
 
 LIBRARY. Besides an abundant supply of text-books upon all the 
 branches of the course of study, a well-selected miscellaneous library 
 has been procured, to which all the pupils may have access free of 
 charge. In the selection of this library, particular care has been exer- 
 cised to procure most of the recent works upon Education, as well as 
 several valuable standard works upon the Natural Sciences, History, 
 Mathematics, &c. The State library is also freely accessible to all. 
 
 TERMS AND VACATIONS. The year is divided into two terms, so as 
 to bring the vacations into April and October, the months for holding 
 the Teachers' Institutes. This also enables the pupils to take advantage 
 of the cheapness of traveling by the various means of water communi- 
 cation in the State, in going to and from the school. 
 
 The SUMMER TERM commences on the FIRST MONDAY IN MAY, and 
 continues TWENTY WEEKS, with an intermission of one week from the 
 first of July. 
 
 The WINTER TERM commences on the FIRST MONDAY IN NOVEMBER, 
 and continues TWENTY-TWO WEEKS, with an intermission from Christ- 
 mas to New Year's day inclusive. 
 
 PROMPT ATTENDANCE. As the school will open on Monday, it would 
 be for the advantage of the pupils, if they should reach Albany by the 
 Thursday or Friday preceding the day of opening. The Faculty can 
 then aid them in securing suitable places for boarding. 
 
 As the examinations of the pupils preparatory for classification will 
 commence on the first day of the term, it is exceedingly important that 
 all the pupils should report themselves on the first morning. Those who 
 arrive a day after the time, will subject not only the teachers to much 
 trouble, but themselves also to the rigors of a private examination. 
 After the first week, no student, except for the strongest reasons, shall 
 be allowed to enter the school. 
 
 PRICE OF BOARD. The price of board in respectable families, varies 
 from $1.50 to $2.00, exclusive of washing. Young gentlemen by taking 
 a room and boarding themselves, have sustained themselves at a lower 
 rate. This can better be done in the summer term. 
 
 The ladies and gentlemen are not allowed to board in the same fam- 
 ilies. Particular care is taken to be assured of the respectability of the 
 families who propose to take boarders, before they are recommended 
 to the pupils. 
 
 EXPERIMENTAL SCHOOL. Two spacious rooms in the building are ap- 
 propriated to the accommodation of the two departments of this school. 
 These two departments are under the immediate supervision of the 
 Permanent Teacher, who is a graduate of the Normal School.
 
 248 NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 
 The object of this school is to afford each Normal Pupil an oppor- 
 tunity of practising the methods of instruction and discipline inculcat- 
 ed at the Normal School, as well as to ascertain his 'aptness to teach,' 
 and to discharge the various other duties pertaining to the teacher's 
 responsible office. Each member of the graduating class is required to 
 spend at least two weeks in this department. 
 
 In the experimental School there are ninety-three pupils between the 
 ages of six and sixteen years. FIFTY-EIGHT of these are free pupils. The 
 free seats will be hereafter given exclusively to fatherless children, re- 
 siding in the city of Albany. This is in consideration of an appropria- 
 tion by the city to defray in part the expense of fitting up one of the 
 rooms of the school. The remaining THIRTY-FIVE pupils are charged $20 
 per year for tuition and use of books. This charge is made merely to 
 defray the expense of sustaining the school." 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY. The following is the course of study for the 
 School; and a thorough acquaintance with the whole of it, on the part 
 of the male pupils, is made a condition for graduating. 
 
 The School is divided into three classes, JUNIORS, MIDDLES and SEN- 
 IORS. These classes are arranged in divisions to suit the convenience 
 of recitation. 
 
 JUNIORS. 
 
 Reading and Elocution. 
 Spelling. 
 
 Orthography, Normal Chart. 
 
 Writing. 
 
 Geography and Outline Maps, (with Map 
 
 Drawing,) Mitchell. 
 
 Drawing, (begun.) 
 
 Intellectual Arithmetic Colburn. 
 
 Elementary Arithmetic, Perkins. 
 
 English Grammar, (begun,) Brown. 
 
 History of United States Willson. 
 
 Higher Arithmetic, (begun,) Perkins. 
 
 Elementary Algebra, (begun,) Perkins. 
 
 MIDDLES. 
 
 Reading and Elocution. 
 Spelling. 
 
 Orthography Normal Chart. 
 
 Writing. 
 
 Geography and Outline Maps, (with Map 
 
 Drawing,) Mitchell 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 Intellectual Arithmetic, Colburn. 
 
 English Grammar Brown. 
 
 History of United States Willson. 
 
 Higher Arithmetic Perkins. 
 
 Elementary Algebra Perkins. 
 
 Human Physiology, Cutter. 
 
 Geometry, (begun,) Perkins. 
 
 Perspective Drawing Lectures. 
 
 Mathematical Geography and Use of Globes. 
 
 The division of this class composed of the Juniors of the former 
 term, will not be required to review such studies as they have already 
 completed.
 
 NEW YOBK STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 249 
 
 SENIORS. 
 
 Higher Algebra, Chaps. VII. and VIII, (omit- 
 ting Multinominal Theorem and Recurring 
 
 Series,) Perkins. 
 
 Geometry, Six Books Perkins' Elements. 
 
 Plane Trigonometry, as contained in .... Dairies' Legendre. 
 
 Land Surveying, Davies. 
 
 Natural Philosophy, Olmstead. 
 
 Chemistry, with (Experimental Lectures,) . . Silliman. 
 
 Intellectual Philosophy Abercrombie. 
 
 Moral Philosophy, Wayland, abridged. 
 
 Rhetoric Lectures. 
 
 Constitutional Law, with select parts of the f Young's Science of 
 Statutes of this state, most intimately con--/ Government, Revised 
 nected with the rights and duties of citizens, [ Statutes. 
 
 Lectures, Theory 
 and Practice o f 
 Teaching, and 
 Experimental 
 School. 
 
 Elements of Astronomy " Lectures. 
 
 Lessons in Vocal Music, to be given to all. 
 
 The same course of study, omitting the Higher Algebra, Plane Trig- 
 onometry and Surveying, must be attained by females as a condition 
 of graduating. 
 
 Any of the pupils who desire further to pursue mathematics, can be 
 allowed to do so after completing the above course of study. 
 
 Art of Teaching,
 
 NORMAL SCHOOL 
 
 FOB 
 
 FEMALE TEACHERS IN THE CITY OF PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 In the Act "to provide for the education of children at the 
 public expense within the city and county of Philadelphia," 
 passed in 1818, it was made the duty of the Controllers, who 
 were intrusted with the administration of the schools, "to 
 establish a Model School, in order to qualify teachers for 
 the sectional schools, and for schools in others parts of the 
 state." One of the public schools, located in Chester street, 
 was accordingly organized as a Model School, under the di- 
 rection of Joseph Lancaster, whose system of school organ- 
 ization and instruction was introduced. This school was 
 used to some extent, as a pattern after which to conduct the 
 other schools, and as a school of practice to train the teach- 
 ers, and to some extent the monitors of the other schools, 
 up to 1836, when the system of Lancaster was modified so 
 far as to substitute an older class of females, graduates of 
 the school, as assistants, in the places of the monitors select- 
 ed from the pupils themselves. From this date the school in 
 Chester street did not differ materially from any other 
 school of the same grade until 1848, when on the solicitation 
 of the present accomplished and devoted Principal, and the 
 recommendation of a committee of the Controllers, it was 
 re-organized as a Normal School, according to the present 
 idea of such an institution. 
 
 The Normal School was opened on the 13th of January, 
 1848, by an Address from James J. Barclay, Esq., in which 
 he gave a brief history of the public schools of Philadelphia, 
 and of this new agency in the system, "which contemplates 
 the thorough training of the female teachers in those 
 branches of a good English education, and in such practical 
 exercises, as will discipline and develop the mind, adorn and 
 elevate the character, insure the best mode of imparting 
 knowledge, and of instructing children in their studies, es- 
 tablish uniformity in teaching, prevent fruitless experi- 
 ments, manifold mistakes, and irreparable loss of time, with 
 all their sad consequences to teachers and pupils." In ref- 
 erence to this last point, the Principal, in his Report for 
 1850, observes: 
 
 "How wide the difference, in point of usefulness as well 
 as happiness, between the teacher trained to a proper reali- 
 zation of her duty as an educator, conversant with the true
 
 252 NORMAL SCHOOLS FOB FEMALE TEACHERS IN PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 principles of her art, with ability to apply them, and one 
 with just knowledge sufficient to pass an examination and 
 secure a situation; discovering, when too late, her deficien- 
 cy, confined from day to day to the same round of unsuccess- 
 ful exertion, discouraged by the consciousness of her in- 
 competency, and humiliated by the irresistible conviction of 
 her want of integrity, in continuing to occupy a place for 
 which every day's experience proves her unfit. And, if 
 prompted by a sense of duty to her pupils, she attempts to 
 remove her deficiencies by study, her health yields to her 
 over-taxed strength, and she is compelled to abandon a pro- 
 fession, which, but for the want of proper training before 
 engaging in it, she would have ornamented, and the pursuit 
 of which would have added to her happiness, instead of 
 rendering her miserable." 
 
 The following account of the school is gathered from the 
 Reports of the Principal, for 1849 and 1850: 
 
 NUMBER OF PUPILS. The first term of the school was commenced 
 February 1st, 1848, with one hundred and six pupils; since which time 
 there have been admitted one hundred and fifty-five, exclusive of those 
 admitted at the end of the last term; consequently, the whole number 
 who have enjoyed the advantages of the school, is two hundred and 
 sixty-one. 
 
 The following statement will exhibit the number belonging to the 
 school at the beginning and end of each term, and also the admissions 
 and withdrawals during the year: 
 
 Attending school August 27th, 1849 143 
 
 Discontinued at the close of the term ending February 15th, 1850, 46 
 
 Remaining, 97 
 
 Admitted at the close of the term 53 
 
 Attending school February 18th, 1850 150 
 
 Discontinued at the close of the term ending July 26th, 1850, . . 40 
 
 Remaining 110 
 
 Admitted at the close of the term 40 
 
 Attending school, September 2d, 1850 150 
 
 Average number belonging to the school during the year, . . . 135 
 
 Average daily attendance, 128 
 
 ADMISSION OF PUPILS. Pupils are admitted twice a year, in February 
 and July. After evidence of sufficient age (15 years) is presented, the 
 whole test of the qualifications of candidates consists in determining 
 their proficiency in the branches prescribed for examination. Previous 
 to the last examination, the candidates were required to answer one 
 set of questions orally, and one in writing; the oral examination being 
 a guide in determining whether the written answers were given by 
 the candidate herself, or through the aid of some one sitting near her; 
 it being impracticable always to arrange them so as to prevent com- 
 munication. The general correspondence between the results of the 
 oral and written examination proved the double examination to be 
 unnecessary. Acting upon this conclusion, at the end of the last term,
 
 NORMAL SCHOOLS FOR FEMALE TEACHERS IN PHILADELPHIA. 253 
 
 the examination in orthography, definition of words, English gram- 
 mar, history of the United States, geography and arithmetic, was con- 
 ducted entirely in writing. 
 
 The method of conducting the examinations, as modified, by omit- 
 ting the oral part, is as follows: 
 
 Questions upon each subject are prepared by the teachers of the re- 
 spective branches, and submitted to the Principal, from which he se- 
 lects a sufficient number, to be used in conducting the examination. 
 
 To prevent any improper influence that might result from a knowl- 
 edge of the names of the candidates, a ticket having a number upon 
 it, is given to each; by which number the applicant is known during 
 the examination; her name not being communicated, until after the 
 decision is made as to her admission. 
 
 In determining the candidate's average of scholarship in any par- 
 ticular branch, the whole number of facts embraced in the answers to 
 the questions is used as a denominator, and the number answered 
 correctly as a numerator; and the part of 10 expressed by this fraction 
 gives the average. Thus, if the number of facts in a branch is forty, 
 and the candidate answers thirty-five correctly, the average is ob- 
 tained by taking 35/40 of 10, and is expressed by 8.75. 
 
 The several averages in each branch, being added together, and di- 
 vided by the number of subjects of examination, the general average 
 of each candidate is obtained. The lowest average of scholarship 
 which shall entitle the candidate to admission is then determined 
 upon. At the last examination, those having averages above 6 were 
 considered qualified for admission. 
 
 In pursuing the plan of examination thus indicated, although some 
 errors may occur, yet they can not be numerous or important. The 
 method leaves no room for partiality, as the averages indicating the 
 scholarship of the candidates must correspond with the written evi- 
 dinces, which are always preserved as vouchers for the accuracy of 
 the results. 
 
 Notwithstanding the small number of pupils admitted to the Normal 
 School, compared with the number of applicants, I am not aware of a 
 single instance in which a controller, director, teacher or parent, was 
 not satisfied with the propriety of the rejections, after having exam- 
 ined the written answers of the candidates. And, in every instance, I 
 have found the teachers more surprised at the deficiency exhibited by 
 their pupils, than disappointed that they were not admitted. The num- 
 ber of applicants, admissions and rejections, at each examination, 
 has been as follows: 
 
 Candidates Admitted Rejected 
 
 At the organization of the school, . . 156 106 50 
 
 Second examination, 50 40 16 
 
 Third " 67 35 32 
 
 Fourth " 58 27 31 
 
 Fifth " 100 53 47 
 
 Sixth " 79 40 39 
 
 Total 516 301 215 
 
 The number of admissions being but little more than 58 per cent of 
 the applicants. 
 
 The lowest age required of candidates for admission is fifteen years; 
 the average age of pupils admitted has been fifteen years and ten 
 months. 
 
 COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. In arranging the plan of instruction, a pri- 
 mary object is to keep the mind of the pupil constantly in contact
 
 254 NORMAL SCHOOLS FOR FEMALE TEACHERS IN PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 with subjects immediately or incidentally connected with the great 
 object of her training, and to habituate her to think in reference to 
 communicating her thoughts to others. In accomplishing this, the pu- 
 pil necessarily attains that mental discipline, essential to the forma- 
 tion of habits of exact investigation and quick discrimination, which 
 enable her readily to comprehend and acquire the knowledge of a 
 subject, as well as to illustrate it with perspicuity and clearness. 
 
 As the name imports, the Normal School is designed to be a pattern 
 school; the instruction, therefore, in all its departments, from the 
 most elementary to the highest, is adapted, as far as possible, to the 
 methods of teaching which are intended shall be pursued by its pupils. 
 
 It is a well-known fact that all children of natural endowments pos- 
 sess an innate desire to know; the eager inquisitiveness of children is 
 proverbial. Consequently, the conclusion is self-evident, that the busi- 
 ness of the elementary educator is to encourage this propensity. With 
 this view, the method of instruction pursued in the Normal School ex- 
 cludes altogether routine recitations, with the text book before the 
 teacher as a guide, and the pupils reciting from memory, that which 
 they have learned merely as a lesson. No teacher uses a text book 
 during the recitations; meeting the classes with a full knowledge of 
 the subject, and a perfect acquaintance with the widest range of inci- 
 dental facts which may present themselves in its discussion, she in- 
 vites inquiry; and questioning becomes as much the business of the 
 pupils as of the teacher. 
 
 At every stage of instruction, it is made a prominent object to imbue 
 pupils with a just sense of the importance of their relations as teach- 
 ers, and to cause them to realize, that the whole duty of a teacher 
 does not consist in hearing lessons; but that her business is thorough- 
 ly to develop all the intellectual and moral powers, and awaken and 
 call forth every talent that may be committed to her care. 
 
 Carefully watching the results of the training described, the pleas- 
 ing conclusion presents itself to my mind, that, as the methods of 
 teaching are good in the opinion of the pupils themselves, and as 
 mechanical modes give place to systems adapted to the development 
 of the faculties, so the interest of the pupils is awakened; illustrating 
 the important fact that, whether in schools or communities, the in- 
 terest excited in education is always in proportion as the system of 
 instruction is good, and efficiently carried out. 
 
 Infuse into the minds of the pupils of our schools that spirit which 
 prompts them to seek knowledge for the sake of itself, and they will 
 reach forward from elements to principles, from lower to higher 
 branches of study, until the mind's own food creates the desire for 
 more. It excites that spirit which constantly cries "give" the out- 
 bursting of that innate principle the spur to mental acquirement 
 the desire to know. 
 
 STUDIES. At the organization of the school, in the selection of sub- 
 jects of instruction, next to imparting a thorough knowledge of the 
 branches taught in the public schools, preference was given to those 
 branches best calculated for mental discipline, in connection with 
 their utility in the practical duties of the pupils in after life. All the 
 subjects embraced in the original plan of the school are now taught in 
 the regular exercises of each term. While the range of study is ex- 
 tended, so as to occupy the full period of the pupil's connection with 
 the school, it is sufficiently limited, to enable all of ordinary industry 
 and talents to complete it in the prescribed period, if the pupil is 
 possessed of sufficient knowledge at the time of her admission. 
 
 Theory and Practice of Teaching. Lectures on the Principles of 
 Education; embracing mental, moral and physical education. Also, in-
 
 NORMAL SCHOOLS FOB FEMALE TEACHERS IN PHILADELPHIA, 255 
 
 struction in school government, and teaching the elementary branches, 
 and practice in teaching. 
 
 Mathematics. Review of elementary arithmetic, and instruction in 
 higher arithmetic, algebra, geometry and elementary astronomy. 
 
 Grammar. Review of English grammar, and instruction in etymol- 
 ogy, rhetoric and elements of composition. 
 
 Reading. Instruction in English literature, and the art of reading. 
 " History. Review of geography and history of the United States, and 
 instruction in the history of America, history of England, and general 
 history of the world. 
 
 Writing. Instruction in plain and ornamental penmanship. 
 
 Drawing. Instruction in linear drawing, exercises in drawing from 
 models, and principles of perspective. 
 
 Music. Instruction in the elements and practice of vocal music. 
 
 Miscellaneous. Instruction in natural philosophy, chemistry and 
 physiology, is imparted entirely by lectures and examinations, by the 
 Principal. Instruction in the constitutions of the United States and 
 Pennsylvania, is given by the Principal and teacher of history. 
 
 In arranging the subjects and course of instruction, the aim is to 
 restrict them chiefly to such branches or subjects, as are essential to 
 a complete fulfillment of the duties of a teacher, under whatever cir- 
 cumstances she may be placed; and not only in the instruction, but in 
 every relation the pupil holds to the school, her future destination as 
 a teacher is kept prominently in view. 
 
 A very important feature of the exercises, is the recitation of the 
 pupils to each other; in which a free expression of opinion, in the way 
 of criticism, is encouraged; the modes of illustration being suggested 
 by the pupils themselves, to meet the particular cases under consider- 
 ation. This leads to originality of thought, and the application of 
 methods not attainable in any other way. Thus, from the very en- 
 trance of the pupil into the school, to the completion of her course of 
 study, practice in teaching is blended with positive instruction; and 
 the powers of the pupil to communicate her ideas to others, are suc- 
 cessfully cultivated; while exactness in the use of language becomes 
 habitual. The purpose of the school, being particularly to develop the 
 talents of the pupils as instructors, after a prescribed course of in- 
 struction on any topic is indicated by the .Principal or teacher of the 
 class, the recitations are left to be carried on by the pupils themselves. 
 
 The method of instruction is founded upon strictly inductive prin- 
 ciples; always proceeding from the known to the unknown. In pur- 
 suing this course much time is required, and the patience and skill of 
 the teacher are subjected to the severest test; while mere routine 
 teaching, or simply imparting positive instruction, so generally prac- 
 ticed because attended with less labor, is carefully avoided. In the 
 application of the first method, the mind being necessarily the active 
 agent in obtaining knowledge, is unfolded, while in the latter, by its 
 being the passive recipient, it is liable to be overburdened and the 
 memory only improved. If the positive knowledge acquired by the 
 inductive method is ever lost, the habit of thinking remains; and the 
 reasoning powers are developed and disciplined. 
 
 In inculcating general principles, the theories are reduced to prac- 
 tice; and the danger of forming theoretical teachers is thus avoided. 
 By applying principles, under circumstances where error is sure to 
 be pointed out, and corrected by the observation of class-mates and 
 teachers, every lesson becomes an exercise of thought and reason. 
 
 SCHOOLS OF PRACTICE. The schools of practice consist of a girls' 
 grammar school with 230 pupils, and two teachers, female principal
 
 256 NORMAL SCHOOLS FOR FEMALE TEACHERS IN PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 and assistant; and a boys' secondary school with 147 pupils, and two 
 female teachers, a female principal and assistant, in the same build- 
 ing with the Normal students. At least three pupils of the Normal 
 School are employed at one time, in teaching in each school. The 
 period occupied by the pupil-teacher is about four weeks in the term. 
 
 The pupil-teachers give instruction, under the immediate direction 
 of the principals of the schools of practice; whose duty it is to teach 
 with them and for them; to aid them by advice, suggestions and ex- 
 ample; in effect, to instruct the classes through them as aids not 
 as substitutes. To enable the principal to give her undivided attention 
 to the inexperienced pupil-teacher on first taking charge of a class, 
 those engaged in the school are changed at such intervals, as to leave 
 two experienced teachers occupied in teaching at one time; and on 
 the introduction of the third, the principal remains with her, until she 
 can manage the class alone; a new teacher is then substituted for the 
 one having been longest in practice. Before placing a pupil in charge 
 of a class, the principal of the school carefully informs her as to the 
 particular duties connected with its instruction and management. If 
 after a brief trial, the pupil-teacher is found deficient in ability, readily 
 to adapt herself to the circumstances of her new position, she is im- 
 mediately withdrawn, her deficiencies noted, and her instruction in 
 the Normal School directed to their removal. The duty of assigning 
 lessons is performed entirely by the principal; the pupils being pre- 
 viously examined, at the close of the exercise, upon the subject of reci- 
 tation. Thus making them immediately responsible to her, for their 
 progress in learning. 
 
 The successful management and instruction of the classes in the 
 schools of practice, depend to a great extent upon the principals of 
 these schools; and this success will be in proportion to the attention 
 given to the minutiae of the practical duties of the schools, with which 
 all experienced teachers are familiar; guarding the pupil-teacher from 
 falling into errors, instantly checking them when discovered, culti- 
 vating and bringing into exercise that tact required to arouse the dull, 
 to keep in check the restless, to secure the attention of the indolent, 
 and maintain a continued and uniform interest throughout the whole 
 class while reciting. 
 
 The position of the principal thus occupied, is peculiar in its char- 
 acter; requiring in a remarkable degree promptitude, patience and 
 industry; her duty being not merely to teach, but to impart through 
 others intellectual and moral instruction; to foster correct habits, and 
 cultivate and bring into action the powers of both teachers and pupils, 
 through the agency of the former. The character of these schools will 
 therefore depend entirely upon the manner in which the principals 
 perform their duties, whether they are really schools of practice, or 
 mere experimental schools, in which the pupil-teachers are left to 
 learn to correct errors, by first making them; wasting their own time 
 and that of their pupils, in attempts to discover methods instead of 
 putting them into practice. 
 
 In affording an opportunity to the Normal pupils to acquire practice 
 in teaching and discipline, the question may arise, whether the pupils 
 whom they teach have equal advantages with those taught entirely 
 by permanent teachers. The success of any school, depends in a great 
 measure upon the ability and tact of the principal in its general man- 
 agement. In a small school, where the instruction is all given by one 
 teacher, but little qualification is necessary, besides ability to teach 
 properly; but as the school becomes larger, the duties devolving upon 
 its head are so far extended in the general management and discipline, 
 as to render the ability to teach of comparatively little value, in the 
 absence of tact in school government. Therefore, as an increase in the
 
 NORMAL SCHOOLS FOB FEMALE TEACHERS IN PHILADELPHIA. 257 
 
 number of subordinate teachers becomes necessary, so, different qual- 
 ifications are requisite on the part of the principal; and while aptness 
 to teach is an indispensable qualification, it must be accompanied by 
 ability to control, and bring into exercise the best powers of the assis- 
 tant teachers, to insure the effective teaching of the whole school. In 
 substituting for permanent assistants, pupil-teachers who remain in 
 charge of the classes for a comparatively limited period, the tact of 
 the principal, and her skill in school government, form so important 
 an element in the success of the school, that no qualifications which 
 the pupil-teachers may possess, can compensate for their absence. 
 
 Under corresponding circumstances, young teachers will be more 
 thorough in their instruction, and accomplish more work than older 
 ones: the novelty of their position, their desire to gain the approba- 
 tion of those directing them, and of the pupils themselves; the great 
 pleasure derived from bringing into practice qualifications they are 
 conscious of possessing, are incentives to exertion, which contribute 
 largely to success. Again, the pupil-teachers are frequently found to 
 communicate in a manner more intelligible to the pupils than those 
 who are further removed by age; the difficulty of acquiring a knowl- 
 edge of a particular subject, being forgotten by the older teacher, 
 while not only the difficulty, but the proper means to overcome it, are 
 yet fresh in the memory of the younger ones. The zeal and energy of 
 the young teacher are imparted to her pupils; they exert themselves 
 more than if under a teacher less their equal in age. There is more 
 sympathy existing between the pupils and the young teachers; friend- 
 ships are formed, a desire to please is engendered, and the discipline 
 is maintained more by self-control than by forced obedience. The deep 
 interest manifested by the pupil-teacher in the progress of her schol- 
 ars, seldom fails to produce great exertion on the part of the latter, 
 and instances are not unfrequent, where the teacher and pupils emu- 
 late each other, in their efforts to promote one another's happiness. 
 If to all these, is added the watchful care of the principal, the results 
 can not be other than satisfactory. 
 
 The pupil-teachers, before meeting their classes, are required care- 
 fully to study the lessons to be recited during the day, that they may 
 add interest to the exercises, by imparting instruction on subjects in- 
 cidental to the lesson. The confidence of the class is thereby gained; 
 and finding that their instructor is not compelled to rely upon the text 
 book, they look upon her as the teacher, not the mere agent to compel 
 the recitation of the contents of the book. Thus, an interesting fact 
 or an appropriate narrative, introduced into the exercises, is often 
 found to give to the young teacher greater influence over the class, 
 than all the ordinary means of discipline. 
 
 The pupil-teacher, accustomed herself to rigid thoroughness, insists 
 upon it from habit, in the recitations of her pupils; the constant ex- 
 planation leads to inquiry, and this to thought; and in this manner the 
 foundation of correct education is laid. 
 
 While the general control of the school, and even much of the teach- 
 ing, devolve upon the principal, the pupil-teachers are made account- 
 able to her for the deportment of the pupils while under their care, and 
 also for their progress in learning. It is therefore made their duty to 
 report promptly to the principal all cases of misconduct, or neglect of 
 studies. 
 
 To render the mode of instruction pursued in the schools of practice, 
 conformable to the methods taught in the Normal School, the principal 
 of the latter devotes a portion of time daily, to the supervision of those 
 teaching in them. 
 
 Q
 
 258 NORMAL SCHOOLS FOR FEMALE TEACHERS IN PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 EXAMINATIONS. Written examinations of the pupils of the Normal 
 School are made quarterly, in all the regular branches in which in- 
 struction has been given during the term. As the pupil's continuance 
 in the school, her position in the class, or her promotion to a higher 
 one, depends upon these tests of scholarship, their results are looked 
 to with much anxiety. The intervals of their occurrence are not suf- 
 ficiently great to lessen their influence on the recitations of the pupils, 
 or the every-day discharge of duty; while their repetition is frequent 
 enough to afford sufficient means of estimating the improvement. The 
 results of these examinations, with the register of the daily recitations, 
 are preserved; affording a complete history of the pupil's standing and 
 progress, during the whole time of her connection with the school. 
 
 GRADUATING CLASSES. Twice a year certificates are granted to such 
 pupils as have completed the prescribed course of study, and were con- 
 sidered properly qualified to perform the duties of teachers in the 
 public schools. 
 
 In determining the pupil's claim to a certificate as a properly quali- 
 fied teacher, three leading requisites are considered, beside her moral 
 qualities: 
 
 1. Her knowledge of the branches to be taught. 
 
 2. Her ability to communicate what she knows. 
 
 3. Her general literary attainments. 
 
 Every teacher should be so thoroughly conversant with the branches 
 she professes to teach, as to be able to conduct the recitations with- 
 out the use of text books; as, in proportion to her ability to do this, 
 she will succeed in imparting to her pupils a knowledge of the subject, 
 instead of its mere definition the certain result of mere routine 
 teaching from text books. It is obvious that ability to illustrate the 
 subject of instruction, must depend entirely upon the teacher herself 
 being so familiarized with it, as readily to meet the pupils' difficulties 
 by prompt and clear illustrations. 
 
 Although a perfect acquaintance with the subjects proposed to be 
 taught, is essential to the teacher, yet, to possess knowledge without 
 ability to communicate it, would not constitute a qualified teacher; 
 while the greatest powers to impart, could not compensate for ignor- 
 ance of the branches proposed to be taught. 
 
 Thus, the perfect scholar may be an unsuccessful teacher, while the 
 perfect teacher must be a perfect scholar, at least to the extent of the 
 branches she teaches. The casual observer, or even the inattentive 
 child, does not fail to distinguish between the mystifying, misleading, 
 stultifying, and inefficient attempts of the mere scholar to teach, and 
 the developing, educating, and even creating power of the thorough 
 teacher. Adopting these views of the relative importance of scholar- 
 ship and aptness to teach, and their inseparable connection as essen- 
 tial qualifications in forming the perfect teacher, no certificate Is 
 granted to a pupil deficient in either. 
 
 As a test of the candidate's literary qualifications, the results of 
 every examination, from the time of her admission to the completion 
 of the full course of study, in connection with her daily recitations, are 
 considered. In estimating her ability to teach, and tact in school dis- 
 cipline, her performances in the schools of practice, occupying more 
 than one-sixth of the time of her pupilage in the Normal School, are 
 taken as a guide. 
 
 The moral character, industrious habits, and integrity of purpose of 
 the candidate, are determined from an acquaintance extending through 
 a period of time amply sufficient to arrive at a correct conclusion. 
 
 The following is a copy of the certificate given to graduates of the 
 Normal School:
 
 NORMAL SCHOOLS FOB FEMALE TEACHERS IN PHILADELPHIA, 259 
 
 NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 First School District of Pennsylvania. 
 
 THIS is TO CERTIFY, That has pursued and completed, in a satis- 
 factory manner, the course of study in the NORMAL SCHOOL, and is 
 deemed competent to impart instruction in the branches taught in the 
 Public Grammar Schools. 
 
 Principal. 
 
 By authority of the Controllers of Public Schools. 
 
 THIS CERTIFICATE is granted to , a pupil of the NORM:AL SCHOOL, 
 
 in testimony that her literary attainments, industrious habits, and in- 
 tegrity, qualify her to discharge properly all the duties of a Teacher. 
 
 President of the Board of Controllers. 
 Secretary. 
 
 Committee of the Normal School. 
 Philadelphia, 18 
 
 TEACHERS AND EXPENSE OF NORMAL SCHOOLS. The fol- 
 lowing statistics of the Normal School, and Model Schools, 
 or Schools of Practice are taken from the Report of the 
 Controllers, for 1850. 
 
 NOBMAL SCHOOLS located in Chester Street, above Race. 
 
 Number of Pupil Teachers Girls 136. Average attendance 129. 
 
 A. T. W. Wright, Principal 1,1,000 00 
 
 Mary E. Houpt, Teacher of Grammar, &c 300 00 
 
 Mary E. Brown, Teacher of Reading, &c. 300 00 
 
 Anna Vanarsdalen, Teacher of Arithmetic, &c., .... 300 00 
 Mary E. Tazewell, Teacher of History, &c. f .... 300 00 
 
 E. W. Mumford, Teacher of Drawing, 150 00 
 
 George Kingsley, Teacher of Music 150 00 
 
 MODEL SCHOOLS, Chester Street, above Race. 
 Girls' Grammar Schools. Total 230. Average attendance 200. 
 
 Sally F. Dawes, Principal $500 00 
 
 Mary Hunt, Assistant 250 00 
 
 Boys' Secondary Schools. Total 157. Average attendance 140. 
 
 Martha C. Brodie, Principal, $300 00 
 
 Margaret Bell, Assistant 20000 
 
 Total expense of the Normal School, . . $2,694 66 
 Model Schools, . . 2,38239 
 
 $5,077 05 
 
 The total expense of the Normal School to the city, ex- 
 clusive of the expense of the Model Schools, which would be 
 increased by their disconnection from it, can not exceed 
 $2,000, and for this sum, every Primary, Secondary, and 
 Grammar School, will derive benefits which could not be se- 
 cured by the direct expenditure of a much larger sum. The 
 Controllers bear the following testimony to the results of the 
 school for 1850 : "The Normal School has been in successful 
 operation through the year, and has fully met the expecta- 
 tions of its most sanguine friends. Already a number of the 
 pupils have been elected as teachers in several of our
 
 260 NORMAL SCHOOLS FOR FEMALE TEACHERS IN PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 schools; and from their efficiency and aptness to teach, we 
 may look to this school for a constant supply of teachers, 
 not only well instructed in the different branches taught in 
 our public schools, but capable also of imparting it to their 
 pupils." 
 
 The following statistics of the Public Schools of Phila- 
 delphia, are gathered from the "Thirty-second Annual Re- 
 port of the Controllers of the Public Schools of the City and 
 County of Philadelphia, composing the First School District 
 of Pennsylvania, for the year ending June 30, 1850." pp. 
 244. The whole document is highly creditable to the city, and 
 the Report of John S. Hart, LL. D., Principal of the High 
 School, as well as that of Dr. Wright, Principal of the Nor- 
 mal School, should be read and studied by every officer and 
 teacher connected with the administration and instruction 
 of Public Schools in every large city in our country. It must 
 lead to the establishment of a High School where it does not 
 now exist, and of a Normal School in each city, as Boston, 
 Providence, New York, Cincinnati, New Orleans, &c. 
 
 Population of First School District, in 1850 425,000 
 
 Number of Public Schools 256 
 
 Classification of the Schools, 
 
 High School for Boys, 1 
 
 Normal School, 1 
 
 Grammar Schools 53 
 
 Secondary Schools, 29 
 
 Primary Schools 132 
 
 District or unclassified Schools, 40 
 
 Number of Scholars, 
 
 Males 23,706 
 
 Females, 21,677 
 
 Total, 45.383 
 
 Number of Teachers, 
 
 Male, 81 
 
 Females 646 
 
 Total, 727 
 
 Average number of pupils to each Teacher 62 
 
 Amount expended during the year, for 
 
 Salaries and Teachers, $178,325 84 
 
 Books and Stationery, 36,213 07 
 
 Sites, Buildings and Furniture 40,906 63 
 
 Fuel, Furnaces and Stoves 13,422 72 
 
 Total expense for all School purposes, 332,433 21 
 
 Amount of current expenses, exclusive of houses and 
 
 furniture $291,52658 
 
 Average of current expense to each pupil 6 42 
 
 Average of expense for each pupil, exclusive of 
 
 books, &c., 5 67 
 
 Average expense of books and stationery to each pupil, 75
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 The following extracts from the Report of the Commis- 
 sioner of Public Schools for 1845, will show the steps which 
 were taken from 1843 to 1848, to improve the qualifications 
 for teachers, and make their labors more serviceable to the 
 schools. 
 
 BOOKS ON EDUCATION. 
 
 "As a permanent depository of the most valuable books and docu- 
 ments relating to schools, school systems, and particularly to the 
 practical departments of education, I have nearly completed arrange- 
 ments, to establish a library of education in every town, either to be 
 under the management of the school committee of the town, or of 
 some district or town library association, and in either case to be 
 accessible to teachers, parents, and all interested in the administra- 
 tion of the school system, or the work of the more complete, thorough 
 and practical education of the whole community. Each library will 
 contain about thirty bound volumes, and as many pamphlets. To these 
 libraries, the Legislature might from time to time hereafter, forward 
 all laws and documents relating to the public schools of this state, 
 and at a small annual expense, procure the most valuable books and 
 periodicals which should be published on the theory and practice of 
 teaching, and the official school documents of other states, and thus 
 keep up with the progress of improvement in every department of pop- 
 ular education." 
 
 MODEL, SCHOOLS. 
 
 "Whenever called upon by school committees, and especially in ref- 
 erence to schools which from their location might become, under good 
 teachers, models in all the essential features of arrangement, instruc- 
 tion and discipline, for other schools in their vicinity, I have felt that 
 I was rendering an essential service toward 'the improvement and bet- 
 ter management of the public schools,' by aiding in the employment 
 of such teachers. If but one good teacher could be permanently em- 
 ployed in each town, the direct and indirect influence of his teaching 
 and example would be soon felt in every school; and his influence 
 would be still more powerful and extensive if arrangements could be 
 made so as to facilitate the visitation of his school by other teachers, 
 or so as to allow of his making a circuit through the districts and 
 towns in his vicinity, and give familiar and practical lectures and 
 illustrations of his own methods of instruction. It is necessary to the 
 rapid progress of education that parents, committees and teachers, 
 should see and know what a good school is, and feel that 'as is the 
 teacher so is the school.' " 
 
 TEACHERS' INSTITUTE, AND ASSOCIATIONS. 
 
 "By Teachers' Associations as now generally used, is understood the 
 permanent organization of teachers among themselves; and by Teach- 
 ers' Institutes, a temporary meeting, under the appointment of them-
 
 262 EDUCATION OF TEACHERS IN RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 selves, or the school officer of the state, for professional improvement. 
 Teachers in every town have been urged to hold occasional meetings, 
 or even a single meeting, for the purpose of listening to practical lec- 
 tures and discussions, or what would in most cases be better, of hold- 
 ing familiar conversation together on topics connected with the ar- 
 rangement of schools, or methods of instruction now practised, or 
 recommended in the various periodicals or books which they have con- 
 sulted, and on the condition of their own schools. But something 
 more permanent and valuable than these occasional meetings, has 
 been aimed at by an organization of the teachers of the state, or at 
 least of a single county, into a Teachers' Institute, with a systematic 
 plan of operations from year to year, which shall afford to young and 
 inexperienced teachers an opportunity to review the studies they are 
 to teach, and to witness, and to some extent practice, the best meth- 
 ods of arranging and conducting the classes of a school, as well as of 
 obtaining the matured views of the best teachers and educators on all 
 the great topics of education, as brought out in public lectures, dis- 
 cussions and conversation. The attainments of solitary reading will 
 thus be quickened by the action of living mind. The acquisition of 
 one will be tested, by the experience and strictures of others. New 
 advances in any direction by one teacher, will become known, and 
 made the common property of the profession. Old and defective meth- 
 ods will be held up, exposed and corrected, while valuable hints will be 
 followed out and proved. The tendency to a dogmatical tone and spirit, 
 to one-sided and narrow views, to a monotony of character, which 
 every good teacher fears, and to which most professional teachers are 
 exposed, will be withstood and obviated. The sympathies of a common 
 pursuit, the interchange of ideas, the discussion of topics which con- 
 cern their common advancement, the necessity of extending their read- 
 ing and inquiries, and of cultivating the power and habit of written 
 and oral expression, all these things will attach teachers to each other, 
 elevate their own character and attainments, and the social and pecu- 
 niary estimate of the profession." 
 
 ITINERATING NORMAL SCHOOL AGENCY. 
 
 "With the co-operation of the Washington County Association, the 
 services of a well-qualified teacher were secured to visit every town 
 in that county, for the purpose, among other objects, of acting directly 
 on the schools as they were by plain, practical exposures of defective 
 methods, which impair the usefulness of the schools, and illustrations 
 of other methods which would make the schools immediately and 
 permanently better." 
 
 NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 
 "Although much can be done toward improving the existing quali- 
 fications of teachers, and elevating their social and pecuniary posi- 
 tion, by converting one or more district schools in each town and 
 county, into a model school, to which the young and inexperienced 
 teacher may resort for demonstrations of the best methods; or by 
 sending good teachers on missions of education throughout the schools 
 of a county; or by associations of teachers for mutual improvement, 
 still these agencies can not so rapidly supply, in any system of public 
 education, the place of one thoroughly-organized Normal School, or an 
 institution for the special training of teachers, modified to suit the 
 peculiar circumstances of the state, and the present condition of the 
 schools. With this conviction resting on my own mind, I have aimed 
 every where so to set forth the nature, necessity, and probable re- 
 sults of such an institution, as to prepare the public mind for some 
 legislative action toward the establishment of one such school, and in
 
 EDUCATION OF TEACHERS IN RHODE ISLAND. 263 
 
 the absence of that, to make it an object of associated effort and lib- 
 erality. I have good reason to believe that any movement on the part 
 of the state, would be met by the prompt co-operation of not a few 
 liberal-minded and liberal-handed friends of education, and the great 
 enterprise of preparing Rhode Island teachers for Rhode Island 
 schools, might soon be in successful operation." 
 
 ADDRESSES AND PUBLICATIONS ON THE SUBJECT OF EDUCATION. 
 
 The following extract from Remarks of the Commissioner 
 before the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, will exhibit 
 his mode of preparing the way for a broad, thorough and 
 liberal system of public instruction, by interesting all who 
 could be reached by the living voice or the printed page, in 
 the nature and means of education, the condition and wants 
 of the schools, and the best modes of introducing desirable 
 improvements. 
 
 "To this end public meetings have been held, not only in every town, 
 but in every village and neighborhood, more numerous and more sys- 
 tematic in their plan of operations than was ever attempted in any 
 other community, or than could have been carried out in the same time 
 in any state of greater territory, and with a population less concen- 
 trated in villages than this. More than eleven hundred meetings have 
 been held expressly to discuss topics connected with the public schools, 
 at which more than fifteen hundred addresses have been delivered. 
 One hundred and fifty of these meetings have continued through the 
 day and evening; upward of one hundred, through two evenings and 
 a day; fifty, through two days and three evenings; and twelve, includ- 
 ing the Teachers' institutes, through an entire week. In addition to 
 this class of meetings and addresses, upward of two hundred meetings 
 of teachers and parents have been held for lectures and discussions 
 on improved methods of teaching the studies ordinarily pursued in 
 public schools, and for exhibitions or public examinations of schools, 
 or of a class of pupils in certain studies, such as arithmetic, reading, 
 &c. These meetings have proved highly useful. Besides these various 
 meetings, experienced teachers have been employed to visit particular 
 towns and sections of the state, and converse freely with parents by 
 the way-side and the fire-side, on the condition and improvement of 
 the district school. By these various agencies it is believed that a 
 public meeting has been held within three miles of every home in 
 Rhode Island, except in sections of a few towns where an audience of 
 a dozen people could not be collected in a circuit of three or four 
 miles. 
 
 To the interest awakened by these addresses and by the sympathy 
 of numbers swayed by the same voice, and by the same ideas, must 
 be added the more permanent and thoughtful interest cultivated by 
 the reading of books, pamphlets, and tracts on the same topics at 
 home. More than sixteen thousand pamphlets and tracts, each con- 
 taining at least sixteen pages of educational matter, have been dis- 
 tributed gratuitously through the state; and in one year, not an al- 
 manac was sold in Rhode Island without at least sixteen pages of edu- 
 cational reading attached. This statement does not include the official 
 school documents published by the state, nor the Journal of the Insti- 
 tute, nor upward of twelve hundred bound volumes on schools and 
 school systems, and the theory and practice of teaching, which have 
 been purchased by teachers, or which have been added to public or 
 private libraries within the last four years. In addition to the printed 
 information thus disseminated, the columns of the different newspapers
 
 264 EDUCATION OF TEACHERS IN RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 published in the state have always been open to original and selected 
 articles on education, and to notices of school meetings." 
 
 The author of the Remarks above quoted was obliged, 
 from impaired health, to resign his office of Commissioner 
 of Public Schools, before he could organize these various 
 agencies into a complete and permanent system for the pro- 
 fessional training and improvement of the teachers of 
 Rhode Island. His plan contemplated a thoroughly-organ- 
 ized and equipped Normal School, and ultimately two Nor- 
 mal Schools one to be located in the city of Providence, 
 having a connection, under the auspices of the school com- 
 mittee, with a Public Grammar, Intermediate and Primary 
 School, or Schools of Observation and Practice, and also 
 with Brown University, under a distinct professorship, and 
 with access to libraries, apparatus, and courses of lectures, 
 so far as the same could be made available and the other 
 in the country. The Normal School at Providence was to re- 
 ceive two classes of pupils young men, whose previous 
 studies and talent fitted them for the charge of the most ad- 
 vanced classes in public schools in the cities and villages, 
 and the other for female teachers. The plan of a Normal 
 School in the country, was modeled in some of its features 
 after the institution of Verhli, at Kruitzlingen, in Switzer- 
 land, of which an account was published in the Journal of 
 the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, in 1846, and of 
 the Training School at Battersea, in England. In this school 
 the teachers were to support themselves in whole, or in part, 
 or at least the expense of board was to be reduced, after the 
 plan of the Seminary at Mount Holyoke, in Massachusetts. 
 In both institutions, the course of instruction was to em- 
 brace the principles of science as applied to the leading in- 
 dustrial pursuits of the people of the state; and in this de- 
 partment of the plan, the co-operation of the "Rhode Island 
 Society for the Encouragement of Domestic Industry," was 
 anticipated. No state in the Union possesses such facilities. 
 As was remarked by the Commissioner, in taking final leave 
 of the Legislature, and the Rhode Island Institute of In- 
 struction, in 1848 : 
 
 "Her territory is small, and every advance in one town or district, 
 can easily be known, seen and felt in every other. Her wealth is abun- 
 dant, more abundant, and more equally distributed, than in any other 
 state. Her population is concentrated in villages, which will admit 
 of the establishment of public schools of the highest grade. The oc- 
 cupations of the people are diverse, and this is at once an element of 
 power and safety. Commerce will give expansion; manufactures and 
 the mechanical arts will give activity, power, invention and skill; 
 and agriculture, the prudence and conservatism which should belong to 
 the intellectual character and habits of a people. Rhode Island has 
 a large city, to which the entire population of the state is brought by 
 business or pleasure every year, and which should impart a higher
 
 EDUCATION OF TEACHERS IN BHODE ISLAND. 265 
 
 tone of manners, intelligence and business, than can exist in a state 
 without a capital; and fortunately, Providence has set a noble example 
 to the rest of the state in her educational institutions, in the pro- 
 vision of her citizens for schools, libraries, and institutions for religion 
 and benevolence." 
 
 PROFESSORSHIP IN DIDACTICS IN BROWN UNIVERSITY. 
 
 In the reorganization of the course of instruction in 
 Brown University as presented in the Report of President 
 Wayland, on the 19th of July, 1850, provision is made for a 
 course in "Didactics, or the Theory and Practice of Teach- 
 ing." The following explanation is given in the Report. 
 
 "The course in Didactics is designed at present especially for the 
 benefit of teachers of common schools. There will be held two terms 
 a year in this department, of at least two months each. It shall be 
 the duty of the professor of Didactics to review with the class the 
 studies taught in common schools, and then to explain the manner 
 of communicating knowledge to others. The other professors in the 
 University will be expected to deliver to this class such lectures in 
 their several departments as may be desired by the Executive Board." 
 
 The course as thus explained, if entrusted to a competent 
 professor, will accomplish much good to a limited number 
 of teachers, who shall bring a suitable preparatory knowl- 
 edge, and be able to meet the expenses of a residence in 
 Providence. But unless greatly enlarged, and accompanied 
 with opportunities of observation and practice in the public 
 schools of the city, it will fall far short of meeting the wants 
 of the female teachers of the state, and much the larger por- 
 tion of the male teachers. It is to be hoped that the plan will 
 be so far extended, as to embrace a Normal School under the 
 auspices of the School Committee of Providence, and in con- 
 nection with a Grammar, Intermediate and Primary School, 
 as Schools of Practice, for female teachers, like that in suc- 
 cessful operation in Philadelphia.
 
 MICHIGAN. 
 
 The importance of making early and efficient provision 
 for a sufficient number of well-qualified teachers, was point- 
 ed out by the Superintendent of Public Instruction, in his 
 preliminary report to the Legislature, on the organization 
 of the system, in 1837. The subject was repeatedly present- 
 ed to the public in subsequent recommendations from the 
 same officer, until 1849, when the Legislature passed an act 
 to establish a State Normal School, "the exclusive purposes 
 of which shall be the instruction of persons, both male and 
 female, in the art of teaching, and in all the various branch- 
 es that pertain to a good common school education ; also to 
 give instruction in the mechanic arts and in the arts of hus- 
 bandry and agricultural chemistry, in the fundamental laws 
 of the United States, and in what regards the rights and 
 duties of citizens." 
 
 For the purpose of providing the necessary expenses of 
 building, books and apparatus, "ten sections of salt-spring 
 lands," were appropriated, as the "Normal School Fund;" 
 and to meet the salaries of the Principal and Assistants, the 
 Board of Education, to whom the management of the School 
 is intrusted, are authorized -"to locate fifteen sections of 
 salt-spring lands," as the "Normal School Endowment 
 Fund," the interest of which only can be applied to the 
 above purposes. 
 
 The school has been located in Ypsilanti, the citizens of 
 that beautiful village having tendered for the use of the 
 School an eligible lot of ground, a subscription of $13,500 
 toward a suitable building, and the payment of the salary 
 of the teacher of the Model School, to be composed of the 
 children of the village. The plan of the building has been de- 
 cided on, and is to be ready for the occupation of the School, 
 in the course of 1850.
 
 NORMAL SCHOOLS 
 
 IN 
 
 BRITISH PROVINCES. 
 
 NEW BBUNSWICK. 
 
 By an Act of the Provincial Legislature of New Bruns- 
 wick, in 1848, two Training Schools were established, one at 
 Fredericton, and the other at St. Johns, as an experiment, 
 for a period of two years. In 1850, the act was continued 
 in force two years longer, to give time to prepare a more 
 comprehensive measure for the education of teachers. In 
 1850, the school at Fredericton was united with that at St. 
 Johns, which is in successful operation under the charge of 
 Mr. E. H. Duval. 
 
 TJPPEB CANADA. 
 
 The Provincial Normal School for Upper Canada, was 
 established at Toronto, in 1846, and since its first organi- 
 zation has been under the immediate instruction of Profes- 
 sor J. B. Robertson, who was for many years one of the 
 chief Inspectors of Schools, in connection with the Board of 
 National Education for Ireland. In 1850, the Provincial 
 Legislature appropriated the sum of $60,000 for procuring 
 a site, and erecting buildings for the "Provincial Normal 
 and Model School." The September number of the Journal 
 of Education, published at Toronto, under the editorial 
 charge of Dr. Ryerson, and sent at the expense of the prov- 
 ince to every school district, contains the following notice: 
 
 "A site has been purchased, consisting of nearly eight acres of 
 ground, beautifully situated in a central part of the city of Toronto, 
 composing an entire square. This ground will afford facilities for a 
 bontanical garden the proper accompaniment of the Normal School 
 lectures in vegetable physiology; also for agricultural experiments on 
 a limited scale an appropriate illustration of the Normal School 
 course of instruction in agricultural chemistry and science. 
 
 The Council of Public Instruction has also advertised for designs and 
 plans for the Normal and Model School buildings, including rooms for 
 a school of art and design, offering liberal premiums, so as to insure 
 the contributions of the highest architectural science and skill in the 
 country." 
 
 Not one of the United States has made more progress in 
 the last ten years than the province of Upper Canada, in 
 carrying into successful operation a system of common 
 schools, under the auspices of the Rev. Egerton Ryerson, 
 D.D., chief superintendent of the department. Dr. Ryerson's
 
 268 NORMAL SCHOOLS IN BRITISH PROVINCES. 
 
 "Report on the Organization of a System of Elementary In- 
 struction for Upper Canada," in 1846, embodies the results 
 of nearly two years' observation on the practical workings 
 of schools and school systems in the different states of Eu- 
 rope, and is a valuable contribution to the literature of ed- 
 ucation.
 
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