UC-NRLP

$B EST 137

■iiiiiiiiiiiiii^

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2007 with funding from

IVIicrosoft Corporation

http://www.archive.org/details/farmmechanicsmacOOshearich

Farm Mechanics

MACHINERY AND ITS USE TO SAVE
HAND LABOR ON THE FARM

Including

Tools, Shop Work, Driving and Driven

Machines, Farm Waterworks, Care

and Repair of Farm Implements

By
HERBERT A. SHEARER

AGRICULTURIST
Author of "Farm Buildings with Plans and Descriptions"

ILLUSTRATED WITH THREE
HUNDRED ORIGINAL DRAWINGS

CHICAGO

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO.

Publishers

By Frederick J. Drake & Co.

Chicago

<H^

PREFACE

More mechanical knowledge is required on the farm
than in any other line of business. If a farmer is not
mechanically inclined, he is under the necessity of em-
ploying someone who is.

Some farms are supplied with a great many handy
contrivances to save labor. Farmers differ a great deal
in this respect. Some are natural mechanics, some
learn how to buy and how to operate the best farm ma-
chinery, while others are still living in the past.

Some farmers who make the least pretensions have
the best machinery and implements. They may not be
good mechanics, but they have an eye to the value of
labor saving tools.

The object of this book is to emphasize the impor-
tance of mechanics in modern farming ; to fit scores of
quick-acting machines into the daily routine of farm
work and thereby lift heavy loads from the shoulders
of men and women ; to increase the output at less cost
of hand labor and to improve the soil while producing
more abundantly than ever before ; to suggest the use
of suitable machines to manufacture high-priced nutri-
tious human foods from cheap farm by-products.*

Illustrations are used to explain principles rather
than to recommend any particular type or pattern of
machine.

The old is contrasted with the new and the merits of
both are expressed.

THE AUTHOR.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

PAGE

The Farm Shop with Tools for Working Wood and Iron 9

CHAPTER II
Farm Shop Work. . '. 50

CHAPTER III

Generating Mechanical Power to Drive Modern Farm

Machinery 74

CHAPTER IV
Driven Machines 100

CHAPTER V
Working the Soil 137

CHAPTER VI
Handling the Hay Crop 163

CHAPTER VII
Farm Conveyances 179

CHAPTER VIII
Miscellaneous Farm Conveniences 197

Index 241

FARM MECHANICS

CHAPTER I

THE FAEM SHOP WITH TOOLS FOR WORKING WOOD
AI^D IRON

FARM SHOP AND IMPLEMENT HOUSE

The workshop and shed to hold farm implements
should look as neat and attractive as the larger build-
ings. Farm implements are expensive. Farm machin-
ery is even more so. When such machinery is all prop-
erly housed and kept in repair the depreciation is esti-
mated at ten per cent a year. When the machines are
left to rust and weather in the rain and wind the loss is
simply ruinous.

More machinery is required on farms than formerly
and it costs more. Still it is not a question whether a
farmer can afford a machine. If he has sufficient work
for it he knows he cannot afford to get along without
it and he must have a shed to protect it from the
weather when not in use.

In the first place the implement shed should be large
enough to accommodate all of the farm implements
and machinery without crowding and it should be well
built and tight enough to keep out the wind and small
animals, including chickens and sparrows.

The perspective and plan shown herewith is twenty-
four feet in width and sixty feet in length.

FARM MECHANICS

THE FARM SHOP

•'-'-•-' J i. 4) fee

oi a> ^ O rr w
^;m ® ^ go

a^ > tH a 2'
^2o'S|9

.2ogStJ^

1 m o"

J o fl

H ^+j -a 03
aj .a 'ji ^ «s o

'O a ,d
,0 (3 OJ OJ o tfi

t! O

cujq

g s3 ® H be

a ;=3.2 >»

^A "^ <=> g ft
*H -^^^ t. 2 rt

<U fl fl ® = ^

•p!? t3 pQ '^ a; C5
(I OS a s OX3

FARM MECHANICS

The doorways provide headroom sufficient for the
highest machines, and the width when the double
doors are opened and the center post removed is nearly
twenty feet, which is sufficient for a binder in field
condition or a two-horse spring-tooth rake.

One end of the building looking toward the house is
intended for a machine shop to be partitioned off by
enclosing the first bent. This gives a room twenty feet
wide by twenty-four feet deep for a blacksmith shop

Figure 3. — Perspective View of Farm Implement Shed and Workshop.

and general repair -work. The next twenty feet is the
garage. The machine shop part of the building will be
arranged according to the mechanical inclination of
the farmer.

A real farm repair shop is a rather elaborate me-
chanical proposition. There is a good brick chimney
with a hood to carry off the smoke and gases from the
blacksmith fire and the chimney should have a separate
flue for a heating stove. Farm repair work is done
mostly during the winter months when a fire in the
shop is necessary for comfort and efficiency. A per-
son cannot work to advantage with cold fingers. Paint
requires moderate heat to work to advantage. Paint-

THE FARM SHOP

ing farm implements is a very important part of repair
work.

A good shop arrangement is to have an iron work-
bench across the shop window in the front or entrance
end of the building. In the far corner against the back
wall is a good place for a woodworking bench. It is
too mussy to have the blacksmith work and the carpen-
ter work mixed up.

'Figure 4. — Floor Plan of Farm Implement Shed, showing the
\^orkshop in one end of the building, handy to the implement storage
room.

Sometimes it is necessary to bring in a pair of horses
for shoeing, or to pull the shoes off. For this reason,
a tie rail bolted to the studding on the side of the shop
near the entrance is an extra convenience.

In a hot climate a sliding door is preferable because
the wind will not slam it shut. In cold climates, hinge
doors are better with a good sill and threshold to shut
against to keep out the cold. Sometimes the large door
contains a small door big enough to step through, but
not large enough to admit much cold, when it is being
opened and shut. Likewise a ceiling is needed in a cold
country, while in warmer sections, a roof is sufficient.
Farm shops, like other farm buildings, should con-

FARM MECHANICS

form to the climate, as well as convenience in doing
the work. A solid concrete floor is a great coinfort.
And it is easily kept clean.

The perspective and floor plan show the arrange-
ment of the doors, windows and chimney and the plac-
ing of the work benches, forge, anvil, toolbench and
drill press.

Figures 3 and 4 show the perspective and floor plan
of a farm shop and implement house 40x16 feet in size,
which is large enough for some farms.

SHOP TOOLS

Good tools are more important on a farm than in a
city workshop for the reason that a greater variety of
work is required.

Measuring Mechanical Work, — In using tools on the
farm the first rule should be accuracy. It is just as

Figure 5. — Caliper Rule. A handy slide caliper shop rule is made
with a slide marked in fractions of inches as shown in the drawing.
The diameter of a rivet, bolt or other round object may be taken
instantly. It is not so accurate as calipers for close measurements,
but it is a practical tool for farm use.

easy to work to one-sixteenth of an inch as to carelessly
lay off a piece of work so that the pieces won't go to-
gether right.

The handiest measuring tool ever invented is the old-
fashioned two-foot rule that folds up to six inches in
length to be carried in the pocket. Such rules to be
serviceable should be brass bound. The interior mark-
ing should be notched to sixteenths. The outside mark-

THE FARM SHOP

ing may be laid out in eighths. The finer marking on
the inside is protected by keeping the rule folded
together when not in use. The coarser marking out-
side does not suffer so much from wear. Figure 5
shows a 12-inch rule with a slide caliper jaw.

In using a two-foot rule to lay off work the forward
end should contain the small figures so that the work-
man is counting back on the rule but forward on the

Figure 6. — Small Pocket Oilstone. Shop oilstone in a box, 100-foot
measuring tapeline marked in inches, feet and rods.

work, and he has the end of the rule to scribe from. In
laying off a 16-foot pole the stick is first marked with
a knife point, or sharp scratchawl, and try square to
square one end. The work is then laid off from left
to right, starting from the left hand edge of the
square mark or first mark. The two-foot rule is laid
flat on top of the piece of wood. At the front end of
the rule the wood is marked with a sharp scratchawl
or the point of a knife blade by pressing the point
against the end of the rule at the time of marking. In
moving the rule forward the left end is placed exactly
over the left edge of the mark, so the new measurement

16 FARM MECHANICS

begins at the exact point where the other left off, and
so on the whole length of the stick. The final mark is
then made exactly sixteen feet from the first mark.

In sawing the ends the saw kerf is cut from the waste
ends of the stick. The saw cuts to the mark but does
not cut it out.

In using a rule carelessly a workman may gain one-
sixteenth of an inch every time he moves the rule,
which would mean half of an inch in laying off a 16-
foot pole, which would ruin it for carpenter work. If
the pole is afterwards used for staking fence posts, he
would gain one-half inch at each post, or a foot for
every twenty-four posts, a distance to bother consid-
erably in estimating acres. It is just as easy to meas-
ure exactly as it is to measure a little more or a little
less, and it marks the difference between right and
wrong.

WOODWORKING BENCH

In a farm workshop it is better to separate the wood-
working department as far as possible from the black-
smith shop. Working wood accumulates a great deal
of litter, shavings, blocks, and kindling wood, which
are in the way in the blacksmith shop, and a spark from
the anvil might set the shavings afire.

A woodworking bench. Figure 7, carpenter's bench,
it is usually called, needs a short leg vise with wide
jaws. The top of the vise should be flush with the top
of the bench, so the boards may be worked when lying
flat on the top of the bench. For the same reason the
bench dog should lower down flush when not needed
to hold the end of the board.

It is customary to make carpenter 's benches separate
from the shop, and large enough to stand alone, so they
may be moved out doors or into other buildings.

THE FARM SHOP

Figure 7. — Carpenter's Bench. A woodworking bench is 16' long,
3' 6" wide and 32" high. The height, to be particular, should be
the length of the leg of the man who uses it. Lincoln, when joking
with Stanton, gave it as his opinion that "a man's legs should be
just long enough to reach the ground." But that rule is not suffi-
ciently definite to satisfy carpenters, so they adopted the inside leg
measurement. They claim that the average carpenter is 5' 10"
tall and he wears a 32" leg.

Figure 8. — Carpenter's Trestle, or Saw-Bench. The top piec« is
4x6 and the legs are 2x4. There is sufficient spread of leg to prevent
it from toppling over, but the legs are not greatly in the way. It is
heavy enough to stand still while you slide a board along. It is 2
feet high.

FARM MECHANICS

Carpenter benches may be well made, or they may be
constructed in a hurry. So long as the top is true it

Figure 9. — Shave Horse. For shaping pieces of hardwood for
repair work. A good shave horse is about 8' long and the seat end
is the height of a chair. The head is carved on a hardwood stick
with three projections to grip different sized pieces to be worked.

Figure 10. — Compasses, Wooden Clamp and Cutting Pliers.

makes but little difference how the legs are attached,
so long as they are strong and enough of them. A car-
penter bench that is used for all kinds of work must be

THE FARM SHOP

solid enough to permit hammering, driving nails, etc.
Usually the top of the bench is straight, true and level
and it should be kept free from litter and extra tools.
Good carpenters prefer a tool rack separate from the
bench. It may stand on the floor or be attached to the

Figure 11. — Monkey-Wrenches are the handiest of all farm
wrenches, but they were never intended to hammer with. Two sizes
are needed — an eight-inch for small nuts and a much larger wrench,
to open two inches or more, to use when taking the disks off the
shafts of a disk harrow. A large pipe-wrench to hold the round
shaft makes a good companion tool for this work.

wall. Carpenter tools on a farm are not numerous,
but they should have a regular place, and laborers on
the farms should be encouraged to keep the tools where
they belong.

WOODWORKING TOOLS

Every farmer has an axe or two, some sort of a
handsaw and a nail hammer. It is astonishing what
jobs of repair work a handy farmer will do with such
a dearth of tools. But it is not necessary to worry
along without a good repair kit. Tools are cheap
enough.

Such woodworking tools as coarse and fine toothed
hand saws, a good square, a splendid assortment of
hammers and the different kinds of wrenches, screw
clamps, boring tools — in fact a complete assortment of
handy woodworking tools is an absolute necessity on a
well-managed farm.

FARM MECHANICS

The farm kit should contain two sizes of nail ham-
mers, see Figure 15, one suitable to drive small nails,
say up to eight penny, and the other for large nails and
spikes; a long thin-bladed handsaw, having nine teeth

Figure 12. — Hand Saw. This pattern, both for cross cut and rip
saw, has been adopted by all makers of fine saws. Nine teeth to
the inch is fine enough for most jobs on the farm.

Figure 13. — Keyhole Saw with point slim enough to start the cut
from a half-inch auger hole.

Figure 14. — Bramble Hook for trimming berry bushes and cleaning
out fence corners. It has a knife-edge with hooked sawteeth.

to the inch, for sawing boards and planks ; a shorter
handsaw, having ten teeth to the inch, for small work
and for pruning trees. A pruning saw should cut a
fine, smooth kerf, so the wound will not collect and hold
moisture.

THE FARM SHOP

Farmers ' handsaws are required to do a great many-
different kinds of work. For this reason, it is difficult
to keep them in good working condition, but if both
saws are jointed, set and filed by a good mechanic once
or twice a year, they may be kept in usable condition
the rest of the time by a handy farm workman, unless
extra building or special work is required.

Figure 15. — Nail Hammers. Two styles.
The upper hammer is made with a ball peen
and a round face. It is tempered to drive
small nails without slipping and shaped to
avoid dinging the wood. This hammer
should weigh 18 or 19 ounces, including the
handle. The lower hammer is heavier, has
a flat face and is intended for heavy work
such as driving spikes and fence staples.

A long-bladed ripsaw is also very useful, and what
is commonly termed a keyhole saw finds more use on
the farm than in a carpenter's shop in town. It is
necessary frequently to cut holes through partitions,
floors, etc., and at such times a keyhole saw works in
just right.

Handaxes are necessary for roughing certain pieces
of wood for repair jobs. Two sizes of handaxes for dif-
ferent kinds of work are very useful, also a wide blade

FARM MECHANICS

draw shave, Figure 16, and shave horse, Figure 9. A
steel square having one 24-ineh blade and one 18-ineh
is the best size. Such squares usually are heavy enough
to remain square after falling off the bench forty or
fifty times. A good deal depends upon the quality of
the steel.

I'l'l'l'liri'l'i'i'l'l'i'l'i'i'i'l'l'j'i'nii

Figure 17. — Try-Square With Six-Inch Blade. Wood, brass and
steel are the proper materials for a try-square. A double marking
gauge for scribing mortises is also shown.

Steel squares differ in the measuring marks, but the
kind to buy has one side spaced to sixteenths and the
other side to tenths or twelfths. The sixteenth^ inter-
est farmers generally, so that special attention should
be given this side of the square. The lumber rule on
some squares is useful, but the brace rules and mitre
calculations are not likely to interest farmers.

THE FARM SHOP

Screw-drivers should be mostly strong and heavy for
farm work. Three sizes of handled screw-drivers of
different lengths and sizes, also two or three brace bit
screw-drivers are needed. One or two bits may be
broken or twisted so the assortment is sometimes
exhausted before the screw is started.

Figure 18. — Heavy Hand Ax for Use on the Shop Chopping Block.
A beet topping knife is shown also.

Figure 19. — Heavy Screwdriver. The strongest and cheapest
screwdriver is made from a single bar of steel. The wooden handle
is made in two parts and riveted as shown.

Pinch bars and claw bars are very useful in a farm
tool kit. Farm mechanical work consists principally
in repairing implements, machinery, fences and build-
ings. Always a worn or broken part must be removed
before the repair can be made. A pinch bar twenty-
four inches long. Figure 21, with a cold chisel end, and
another bar eighteen inches long with a crooked claw
end, Figure 22, for pulling nails and spikes comes in

FARM MECHANICS

Figure 20. — (1) Ratchet Screwdriver. It does rapid work and
will last a generation if carefully used. (2) Auger-Bit of the Side
Cutter Type. A full set is needed. They are not for boring into old
wood. Running once against a nail ruins one of these bits.

Figure 21. — Handspike. A wooden handspike or pry is about seven
feet long by 3 inches thick at the prying end. In the North it is
usually made from a hickory or an ironwood or a dogwood sapling.
The bark is removed and the handle is worked round and smooth
on the shave horse. It is better to cut the poles in the winter when
the sap is in the roots. After the handspikes are finished they
should be covered deep with straw so they will season slowly to
prevent checking.

Figure 22.-

-Wrecking Bar for pulling nails and to pry broken parts
from other wreckage.

Figure 23. — Carpenter's Level. For practical farm work the level
should be 24" or 30" long. Wood is the most satisfactory material.
The best levels are made up of different layers of wood glued to-
gether to prevent warping or twisting. For this reason a good level
should be carefully laid away in a dry place immediately after using.

THE FARM SHOP

n ^ 1

Figure 24. — (1) Snips for cutting sheet metal. (2) Carpenter's
Level, iron stock.

Figure 25. — Wood-Boring Twist Drill Bit. Twist drills for wood
have longer points than drills for boring iron.

Figure 26. — Pod-Bit. The fastest boring gimlet bits are of this
pattern. They are made in sizes from %" to %" and are intended
for boring softwood.

Figure 27. — Auger-Bits. For smooth boring the lip bits are best.
The side cutters project beyond the cutting lips to cut the circle
ahead of the chips. For boring green wood the single-worm clears
better than the double-worm bit.

FARM MECHANICS

very handy. These two bars should be made of the best
octagon steel, seven-eighths of an inch in diameter.

Figure 28. — Extension Boring Bits. The cutting lips may be set
to bore holes from %" to 3" in diameter. They are used mostly in
softwood.

:^^

Figure 29. — Ship Auger. This shape auger is made with or with-
out a screw point. It will bore straighter in cross-grained wood
without a point.

Figure 30. — Long Ship Auger.

=^«RRW W RRWWRWRft>

Figure 31. — Bridge Auger. The long handle permits the workman
to stand erect whil« boring. The home made handle is welded onto
the shank of a ship auger.

A wooden carpenter's level, Figure 23, two feet
long, with a plumb glass near one end, is the most sat-
isfactory farm level, an instrument that is needed a
great many times during the year.

THE FARM SHOP

Good brace bits are scarce on farms. They are not
expensive, but farmers are careless about bits and
braces. Two sizes of braces are needed, a small brace
for small pod bits and twist drills, and a large ratchet
brace with a 6-inch crank radius for turning larger
bits.

Figure 32. — Carpenter's Jointer.

Figure 33.-

-Fore-Plane. This style plane is preferred to a regular
jointer for most farm work.

Twist drill bits will bore both wood and iron, and
they are not expensive up to three-eighths inch or one-
half inch. But for larger sizes from one-half inch to
one inch the finest lip wood boring bits will give the
best satisfaction. Extension bits are used for boring
holes larger than one inch. Two extension bits are bet-
ter than one bit with two lip cutters. They will bore
holes in soft wood in sizes from one inch to three inches.

FARM MECHANICS

Other cutting tools such as jack plane jointer and
smoothing plane, also an assortment of chisels, belong
to the farm equipment.

Figure 34. — Tool Box of Socket Chisels and Gouges. The chisels
are sized from y^" to 2" in width. The two chisels to the right-
show different patterns.

All cutting tools should be of the best design and the
best steel. If they are properly used and taken care of,
the different jobs of repair work can be handled
quickly and to great advantage.

FARM GRINDSTONE

A grindstone may be gritty without being coarse so
it will bite the steel easily and cut it away quickly. A
good stone is a very satisfactory farm implement, but
a greasy stone is a perpetual nuisance.

There are grindstones with frames too light. The
competition to manufacture and sell a grindstone for

THE FARM SHOP 29

farm use at the cheapest possible price has resulted in
turning out thousands of grindstone frames that pos-
sess very little stability.

Grindstones should be kept under cover; the best
stone will be injured by leaving it in the hot sun. The

Figure 35. — Grindstone. The speed of a grindstone varies with
the diameter of the stone. It should turn just fast enough to keep
a flow of water on the upper face surface. If the stone turns too
slow the water will run down ; if too fast, it will fly off.

sun draws the moisture out of the upper side and
leaves the lower side damp and soft so that in use the
stoiie soon becomes flat sided. The wet side freezes in
winter^ which is a disintegrating process.

The best stones, with good care, will become uneven
in time. The remedy is to true them with a quarter-

30 FARM MECHANICS

inch soft iron round rod used like a lathe tool 'over an
iron rest placed close to the stone on a level with the
center of the stone. The rod is held against the stone in
such a way as to cut away the high bumps and make the
stone truly round. The stone cuts away best when it is
dry. A small rod is better than a large rod. It digs
into the stone better and takes out a deeper bite. Large
power stones in machine shops are trued up in this way
frequently. Farm stones often are neglected until
they wabble so badly that it is difficult to grind any
tool to an edge. If the grindstone is turned by a belt
from an engine the work of truing may be done in a
few minutes. If the stone is turned by hand the work
of making it round takes longer and requires some
muscle, but it pays.

The face of a grindstone should be rounded slightly,
and it should be kept so by grinding the tools first on
one side of edge of the stone, then on the other, with
the cutting edge of the tool crosswise to the face of the
stone.

For safety and to prevent a sloppy waste of water
the stone should turn away from the operator.

The best way to keep a stone moist is by a trickle of
water from an overhead supply. Troughs of water
suspended under the stone are unsatisfactory, because
the water soon gets thick and unfit for use. Such
troughs are forgotten when the job is done, so that one
side of the stone hangs in the water. An overhead sup-
ply of water leaks away and no damage is done.

Grindstone frames are best made of wood 3'^x4''
thoroughly mortised together and well braced with
wooden braces and tied across with plenty of iron rods.
A good grindstone frame could be made of angle iron,
but manufacturers generally fail in the attempt.

THE FARM SHOP ' 31

There are good ball-bearing grindstone hangers on
the market, both for hand crank stones and for belt
use.

The belt is less in the way if it is brought up from
below. This is not difficult to do. A grindstone turns
slower than any other farm machine so a speed reduc-
ing jack may be bolted to the floor at the back of the
grindstone a little to one side to escape the drip. This
arrangement requires a shoi^t belt but it may have the
full face width of the pulley as the tight and loose pul-
leys are on the jack shaft.

Emery Grinders. — There are small emery wheels
made for grinding disks that work quickly and cut an

Figure 36. — Emery Grinder. The illustrations show two kinds of
grinding that double emery wheels are especially adapted to. To
grind a mowing-machine knife it is necessary to reverse. By placing
the rest opposite the center between the two wheels the bevel will
be the same on both sides, or edges, of the section.

even bevel all around. They are made in pairs and are
attached to the ends of a mandrel supported by a metal
stand which is bolted to a bench. The same rig is used
for sickle grinding and other farm jobs.

BLACKSMITH SHOP

The furniture in a blacksmith shop consists of forge,
anvil, half barrel, vise bench, drill press and tool rack.
A farm shop also has a heating stove, shave horse, a
woodworking bench, a good power driven grindstone
and a double emery grinder.

32 FARM MECHANICS

Forge, — The old-fashioned forge laid up with brick
in connection with an old-fashioned chimney is just as
popular as ever. The same old tuyer iron receives the
air blast from the same old style leather bellows, and
there is nothing more satisfactory. But there are mod-

Figure 37. — Portable Forges. The smaller forge is for light work
such as heating rivets for iron bridge construction. The larger
forge to the right is meant for blacksmith work.

ern portable forges, Figure 37, made of iron, that are
less artistic, cheaper, take up less room and answer
the purpose just about as well. The portable iron forge
has a small blower attached to the frame which feeds
oxygen into the fire. There are a good many different
sizes of portable forges. Most of them work well up to
their advertised capacity.

THE FARM SHOP

Generally, farm forges are not required to develop
a great amount of heat. Farmers do but little weld-
ing, most of the forge work on the farm being eon-
fined to repair work such as heating brace irons, so
they may be easily bent into the proper shape, or to
soften metal so that holes may be punched through it
easily.

Sharpening harrow teeth, drawing out plow points
and horseshoeing are about the heaviest forge jobs re-

Figure 38. — Anvil. The only satisfactory anvil is forged ©ut of
ingot steel with a power trip-hammer. It should weigh 140 pounds.

quired in a farm blacksmith shop, so that a medium size
forge will answer the purpose.

Anvil. — ^An anvil should weigh at least 120 pounds ;
140 is better. It should be set six feet from the center
of the fire to the center of the anvil. It should be
placed on a timber the size of the base of the anvil set
three feet in the ground. The top of the anvil should
be about thirty inches high. Holmstrom's rule is:
*^ Close the fist, stand erect with the arm hanging
down. The knuckles should just clear the face of the
anvil."

FARM MECHANICS

Bench and Vise, — The vise bench should be made
solid and it should face a good light. The bench win-
dow should look to the east or north if possible. It

Figure 39. — (1) Shoeing Tool Box. The four small compartments
are for horseshoe nails of different sizes. There may be a leather
loop for the paring knife. The low box end is for the shoeing ham-
mer, rasp, nippers and hoof knife. (2) Blacksmith Tool Rack.
Tongs, handled punches and cutters are hung on the iron rails.
Hammers are thrown on top. The lower platform is the shop
catch-all.

Figure 40. — Shoeing Knife. Good temper is the main qualifica-
tiop. All shoeing knives are practically the same shape, although
they may vary in size.

should be about four feet high and eight feet long,

with the window sill about six inches above the bench.

Two and one-half feet is the usual height for a

workbench above the floor. The best workbench tops

THE FARM SHOP

are made by bolting together 2x4 's with the edges up.
Hardwood makes the best bench, but good pine will
last for years. The top surface should be planed true
and smooth after the nuts are drawn tight.

Figure 41. — Horseshoeing Rasp and Wood Rasp. These are neces-
sary tools in the farm shop.

Figure 42. — Iron Work Bench. Solid is the first specification for
an iron shop bench. It should be three feet wide, not less than
eight feet long and about 32 inches high. The top is made of 2x4s
placed on edge and bolted together. The supports are 2x6 bolted
to the shop studding and braced back to the studding at the sill.
The front part of the bench is supported by iron legs made of gas-
pipe with threaded flanges at top and bottom. Heavy right angle
wrought iron lugs are used to fasten the top of the bench to the
studding. The foot of the vise leg is let into the floor of the shop
or into a solid wooden block sunk in the ground.

The bench vise should be heavy. A vise is used for
bending iron hot from the forge. Unless the jaws are
large, the hot iron is likely to heat the vise sufficiently
to draw the temper. Heavy jaws are solid enough to

FARM MECHANTCIS

support the iron when it is being hammered. Often
heavy hammers are used for this purpose. A heayy
vise holds the work solid, because it may be screwed

Figure 43. — Assortment of Files and Rasps needed in a farm shop.
(1) Slim three-cornered handsaw-file. (2) Common three-cornered
file suitable for filing a buck-saw. (3) Double-cut, or bastard, 10-
inch flat file. (4) Single-cut, or mill file, either 10 or 12 inches.
(5) Half-round 10-inch wood rasp. (6) Horseshoer's rasp.

Figure 44. — File Handle. Basswood makes the most satisfactory
file handles. They are fitted by carefully turning them onto the
file shank to take the right taper. There should be a handle for
each file. The handle should be the right size and fitted straight
with the file so the file will take the same angle to the work when
turned over.

THE FARM SHOP

Figure 45. — Nail Set. On all wooden surfaces to be painted nails
should be carefuly driven with a round peen nail hammer and the
heads sunk about one-eighth of an inch deep with a nail set.. The
holes may then be filled with putty and covered smoothly with paint.

Figure 46. — Cold-Chisel. There are more flat cold-chisels than
all other shapes. They are easily made in the farm shop and it is
good practice. They are usually made from octagon steel. Differ-
ent sizes are needed according to the work in hand. A piece of %"
steel 6" long makes a handy cold-chisel for repair work.

Figure 47. — Cape Cold-Chisel. It may be tapered both ways or one
way to a cutting edge, or one edge may be rounded.

Figure 48. — (1) Tinner's Punch. Made of octagon steel in sizes
to fit the rivets. The cutting end is flat and has sharp edges made
by roll filing. It should be about 7" long and from %" to %" in
diameter, according to the size of rivet and thickness of sheet metal
to be punched. (2) Prick Punch. Usually made rather short and
stocky. It may be i/^" or %" diameter and 4i^" to 5" long. (3)
Hot-Iron Punch." Made in many sizes and lengths. The taper
should be the same as the drawing.

FARM MECHANICS

SO much tighter than a light vise. A heavy vise will
hold light work, but a light vise will not hold heavy
work. Heavy vises cost more, but they are cheaper in

Figure 49. — (1) Blacksmith Vise. The old-fashioned leg vise is
the most satisfactory for the blacksmith shop. It should have 5"
jaws. (2) Power Post Drill. Belt power is practical for the post
drill in a farm shop. The hand crank may be easily attached when
needed.

the end and more satisfactory at all times. A leg vise
with five-inch jaws weighs about sixty pounds ; five and
one-half -inch jaws, eighty pounds. A machinist's vise

THE FARM SHOP 39

is made to bolt on top of the bench. It will answer for
blacksmith work on the farm, but is not as good as the
old-fashioned leg vise. A machinist's vise is very use-
ful in the garage, but it would hardly be necessary to
have two heavy vises. The pipe vise belongs on a
separate bench, which may be a plank bracketed
against the side of the room.

Drill-Press, — The most satisfactory drill-press for
use on a farm is the upright drill that bolts to a post.
There is usually a self feed which may be regulated
according to the work. The heavy flywheel keeps the
motion steady, and because there is no bench in the
way, wagon tires may be suspended from the drill
block, so they will hang free and true for drilling.
Often long pieces of straight iron are drilled with
holes spaced certain distances apart. It is easier to
pass them along when they lie flat side down on the
drill block. To use a drill properly and safely, the
chuck must run true. It is easy to break a drill when
it wabbles.

Most drills are made on the twist pattern, and it is
something of a trick to grind a twist drill, but anyone
can do it if he tackles the job with a determination to
do it right. In grinding a twist drill, use a new drill
for pattern. Grind the angles the same as the new
drill, and be careful to have the point in the center. A
little practice will make perfect.

Mechanics will say that no one except an expert
should attempt to grind a twist drill, but farmers who
are mechanically inclined are the best experts within
reach. It is up to a farmer to grind his own drills or
use them dull.

In drilling wrought iron either water or oil is re-
quired to cool the drill, but cast iron and brass are

FARM MECHANICS

drilled dry. Light work such as hoop -iron may be
drilled dry, but the cutting edge of the drill will last
longer even in light work if the drill is fed with oil or
water.

Figure 50. — (1) Electric Drill-Press. A small electric motor is
attached to the drill spindle. (2) Tram Points. Two steel points
are fitted with thumbscrew clamps to fasten them to a long wooden
bar. They are used to scribe circles too large for the compasses.
(3) Ratchet-Brace. Two braces, or bitstocks, are needed. A large
brace with a 6" radius for large bits and a small brace with a 3"
or 3^" radius for small bits.

In using drill-presses, some extra attachments come
in very handy, such as a screw clamp to hold short
pieces of metal. Before starting the drill, a center

THE FARM SHOP

punch is used to mark the center of the hole to be bored
and to start the drill in the right spot.

Figure 51. — Twist-Drills. Round shank for the post drill and
square taper shank for brace work. Brace drills are small, %" or

Figure 52.-

-Taper Reamer. Used to enlarge, or true, or taper a hole
that has been drilled or punched.

Figure 53. — ^Another style of Reamer.

Figure 54. — Countersink. This is the old style, blacksmith-made,
flat countersink. It will do quick work but not so smooth as the
fluted kind.

In doing particular work, the drill may be re-
centered when it starts wrong. This is done with a

FARM MECHANICS

small round-nosed cold chisel. If the work is not very
particular, the drill may be turned a little to one side
by slanting the piece to be drilled. This plan is only
a makeshift, however, the proper way being to block
the work level, so that the drill will meet it perpendicu-
larly. However, by starting carefully, the hole may be
bored exactly as required.

Iro7i Working Tools.— Forge tools for a farm shop
need not be numerous. Several pairs of tongs, one

Figure 55. — Machinist's Hammfers. A me-
dium weight should be selected for farm
repair work. It should be hung so the end
of the handle clears half an inch when the
face rests flat on the bench.

blacksmith hammer, one sledge, one hardy, one
wooden-handled cold chisel, one pair pincers, one par-
ing knife, one shoeing rasp, and one shoeing hammer
will do to begin with.

Monkey-wrenches come first in the wrench depart-
ment. The farmer needs three sizes, one may be quite
small, say six inches in length, one ten inches, and the
other large enough to span a two-inch nut. And there
should be an ironclad rule, never use a monkey-wrench
for a hammer. For work around plows, cultivators,
harvesters, and other farm machines, a case of S

THE FARM SHOP

Figure 56i — ^(1) Hardy. The anvil hardy is used more than any
other anvil tool except the blacksmith's hammer and tongs. (2) A
Cold-Shut Link that may be welded, riveted or simply pounded shut.

1 2 3

Figure 57. — Calipers: (1) A pair of tight-joint inside calipers.
(2) Its mate for taking outside dimensions. (3) A pair of spring-
jointed, screw-adjustment inside calipers for machinists' use.

Figure 58. — Blacksmith Tongs. Straight tongs made to hold %"
iron is the handiest size. Two or three pairs for larger sizes of iron
and one pair smaller come in handy.

FARM MECHANICS

wrenches will be greatly appreciated. Manufacturers
include wrenches with almost all farm machines, but
such wrenches are too cheap to be of much use.

For heavier work pipe-wrenches are absolutely
necessary. The reason for having so many wrenches is

Figure 59. — (1) Wire Splicer. The oval openings in the tool are
of different sizes. They are made to hold two wires, close together,
with ends projecting in opposite directions. Each end is wound
around the other wire. The ends are then notched with a three-
cornered file and broken off short and filed smooth. The splicing
tool should be thin, about %" or ^^", to bring the two twists close
together. This is especially necessary in making hoops for wooden
pails. (2) Blacksmith Shoeing Pincers, used to pull horseshoes.
They should close together to catch a nail by the head.

^(^

Figure 60. — (1) Cotter Pin Tool. Handy for inserting or remov-
ing all sorts of cotter keys. (2) Nest of S Wrenches of different
sizes. Farmers have never appreciated the value of light, handy
wrenches to fit all sorts of nuts and bolt heads closely.

to save time when in the field. It often happens that
men and horses stand idle waiting for what should be
a quick repair job.

For bench work a riveting hammer and a ball pene
machinist 's hammer are needed. A nest of S wrenches,
two rivet sets, cold chisels, round punches and several
files also are required.

THE FARM SHOP

The same twist drills up to three-eighths-inch will
do for iron as well as wood. However, if much drilling
is done, then round shank twist drills to fit the drill
chuck will work better. Farmers seldom drill holes in
iron larger than one-half inch. For particular work,
to get the exact size, reamers are used to finish the

Figure 61. — Hack Saw. One handle and a dozen blades. The
frame should be stiff enough either to push or pull the saw without
binding. The teeth may point either way to suit the work in hand.

Figure 62. — ^Powerful Bolt Cutter. It is intended for factory use.

holes after drilling. Screw holes in iron are counter-
sunk in the drill-press.

For small work, twist drills with square shanks for
brace use should range in sizes from one thirty-second
of an inch up to one-quarter inch, then every one-
sixteenth inch up to one-half inch.

For boring screw holes in wood the quickest work is
done with pod bits. Not many sizes are needed, but
they are cheap, so that a half dozen, ranging from one-
sixteenth to one-quarter inch or thereabouts, will be
found very useful. Pod bits belong to the wood de-

FARM MECHANICS

partment, but on account of being used principally for
screw sinking, they are just as useful in the iron work-
ing department as in the carpenter shop.

Sheet metal snips for cutting sheet metal properly
belong with the iron working tools. Snips are from
ten to fourteen inches in length. A medium size is
best for miscellaneous work. If kept in good working

Figure 63. — Cutting Nippers. For cutting the points from horse-
shoe nails after they are driven through the hoof to hold the shoe
in place. These nippers are hard tempered and should not be used
for any other purpose.

Figure 64. — Two Shapes of Steel Crowbars.

order twelve-inch snips will cut 18-gauge galvanized
or black iron. But a man would not care to do a great
deal of such heavy cutting.

Pipe-Fitting Tools. — Recent farm improvements re-
quire a few tools that rightfully belong to plumbers.
Every farm has some kind of water supply for domes-
tic use and for live-stock. A great many farm ma-
chines require pipe tools for repair work. Every year
more plumbing reaches the farm.

Plumbing work is no more difficult than other me-
chanical work, if the tools are at hand to meet the dif-

THE FARM SHOP

ferent requirements. One job of plumbing that used
to stand out as an impossibility was the soldering to-
gether of lead pipes, technically termed ''wiping a
joint.'' This operation has been discontinued. Every
possible connection required in farm plumbing is now
provided for in standardized fittings. Every pipe-fit-
ting or connection that conducts supply water or waste

Figure 65. — (1) Pipe Vise. Hinged to open for long pipes. (2)
Machinist's Vise. Made with a turntable to take any horizontal
angle. The pipe jaws are removable.

water nowadays screws together. Sizes are all made to
certain standards and the couplings are almost per-
fect, so that work formerly shrouded in mystery or
hidden under trade secrets is now open to every
schoolboy who has learned to read.

The necessary outfit to handle all the piping and
plumbing on the farm is not very expensive, probably
$25.00 will include every tool and all other appliances
necessary to put in all the piping needed to carry water
to the watering troughs and to supply hot and cold

FARM MECHANICS

water to the kitchen and the bathroom, together with
the waste pipes, ventilators and the sewer to the septic
tank. The same outfit of tools will answer for repair
work for a lifetime.

Farm water pipes usually are small. There may be
a two-inch suction pipe to the force pump, and the dis-

Figure 66. — Pipe Cutter. The most satisfactory pipe cutter has
three knife-edge roller cutters which follow each other around the
pipe. Some of these cutters have two flat face rollers and one cutter
roller to prevent raising a burr on the end of the pipe. The flat face
rollers iron out the burr and leave the freshly cut pipe the same size
clear to the end.

Figure 67. — Pipe-Wrench. This type of wrench is valuable for
working with the heavier farm implements. It is intended more for
holding than for turning. It is rather rough on nuts. Damaged
nuts show signs of careless work.

charge may be one and a half inch. But these pipes are
not likely to make trouble.

There should be a good pipe vise that will hold any
size pipe up to three inches. At least two pipe wrenches
are needed and they should be adjustable from one-
quarter-inch up to two-inch pipe.

We must remember that water pipe sizes mean in-
side measurements. One-inch pipe is about one and
one-quarter inches outside diameter. Three-quarter-

THE FARM SHOP 49

inch pipe is about one inch outside. Two-inch pipe will
carry four times as much water as one-inch pipe, under
the rule ^ ^ doubling the diameter increases the capacity
four times/'

The three-wheel pipe cutter works quickly and is
satisfactory for most jobs. Sometimes two of the knife

Figure 68. — A smaller sized wrench with wooden handle.

wheels are removed and rollers substituted to prevent
raising a burr on the end of the pipe.

Threading dies are made in standard sizes. A good
farm set consists of stock and dies to thread all the
different sizes of pipe from one-quarter inch to one
inch, inclusive. Not many pipes larger than inch are
threaded on the farm. They are cut to the proper
lengths in the farm shop and the threads are cut in
town.

CHAPTER II

FARM SHOP WORK
PROFITABLE HOME REPAIR WORK

Each farmer must be the judge in regard to the kind
of mechanical repair work that should be done at home
and the kind and amount of repair work that should
go to the shop in town. A great deal depends on the

Figure 69. — Logging Chain. One of the cleverest farm inventions
of any age is the logging chain. It is universally used in all lumber
camps and on every farm. It usually is from 16 to 20 feet in length,
with a round hook on one end for the slip hitch and a grab hook
on the other end that makes fast between any two links.

mechanical ability of the farmer or his helpers. How-
ever, the poorest farm mechanic can do *^ first aid^'
service to farm implements and machinery in the nick
of time, if he is so disposed. A great many farmers are
helpless in this respect because they want to be help-
less. It is so much easier to let it go than to go right at
it with a determination to fix it, and fix it right.

FARM SHOP WORK

On general principles, however, farm repair work
should not occupy a farmer 's time to the detriment of
growing crops or the proper care of live-stock. Farm-
ing is the business ; mechanical work is a side issue. At

Figure 70. — Neckyoke and Whiffletree Irons. Farmers can make
better neckyokes and whiffletrees than they can buy ready-made.
The irons may be bought separately and the wood selected piece by
piece.

Figure 71. — Measuring a Worn Skein for a New Boxing. The
pasteboard calipers are cut to fit the old skein sideways because it is
probably flattened on the bottom from wear.

the same time, a farmer so inclined can find time dur-
ing the year to look over every farm machine, every
implement and every hand tool on the farm. The
stupidest farm helper can clean the rust off of a
spade and rub the surface with an oily cloth, in which
some fine emery has been dusted. The emery will re-

FARM MECHANICS

move the rust and the oil will prevent it from further
rusting. Every laborer knows better than to use a
spade or shovel after a rivet head has given way so the
handle is not properly supported by the plate exten-
sions. There really is no excuse for using tools or ma-
chinery that are out of repair, but the extent to which

Figure 72. — Wooden Wagon Axles. Axle timber may be bought in
the rough or partly fitted to the skeins.

Figure 73. — Showing how to fit the irons on the forward end of
wagon reach.

m\\iui\iiiiMii mw

Figure 74.-

-Wire Splice. With a little practice wire may be wound
close enough to prevent slipping.

a farmer can profitably do his own repairing depends
on many contingencies. In every case he must decide
according to circumstances, always, however, with a
desire and determination to run his farm on business
principles.

Home-made Bolts, — The easiest way to make a bolt
is to cut a rod of round iron the proper length and run
a thread on each end. On one end the thread may be
just long enough to rivet the head, while the thread on

FARM SHOP WORK

the other end is made longer to accommodate the nut
and to take up slack. A farmer needs round iron in
sizes from one-fourth inch to five-eighths inch. He will
use more three-eighths and one-half inch than any-
other sizes. Blank nuts are made in standard sizes to

Parts to Make Bolt
(Nuts and Threaded Rod)

Rod
Rivited

Figure 75. — Emergency Bolts. A bolt may be made quickly with-
out a forge fire by cutting a short thread on one end for the head
and a longer thread on the other end for the nut.

Figure 76. — Rivets. A stock of soft iron rivets of different sizes and
lengths should be always kept on hand ready for immediate use.

fit any size of round iron. Have an assortment, in dif-
ferent sizes, of both the square and the hexagon nuts.
To make a bolt in the ordinary way requires weld-
ing, but for repair work in a hurry it is better to select
the proper iron and cut it to the required length
either with a cold chisel in the vise, or with a hardy
and a handled cold chisel over an anvil. The quickest

FARM MECHANICS

Figure 77. — Rivets.

Figure 78. — Rivet Set. This style of set is used for small rivets.
The size should be selected to fit the rivets closely. Larger rivets are
made to bug the work by means of a flat piece of steel with a hole
through it.

Figure 79. — ^Rivet Set.

Figure 80. — i(l) Coulter Clamp. Plow-beam clamps should be
made in the farm shop to fit each plow. (2) Garden Weeder. The
quickest hand killer of young weeds in the garden is a flat steel
blade that works horizontally half an inch below the surface of the
ground.

FARM SHOP WORK

Figure 81. — Stock and Dies. Taps and dies and stocks are best kept
in compartments in a case made for the purpose.

Figure 82. — Stock for Round Dies. The opening is turned true
and sized accurately to fit. The screw applies pressure to hold the
die by friction.

„/\AA/vAAA/\'V^/-v~^-v-<

=-v»,#^^s#^.A#>*^**^**^'»^>«'*^

Figure 83. — Taps and Dies. Standard threads are tapped into
blank nuts and corresponding threads are cut onto bolts with ac-
curacy and rapidity by using this style taps and dies. They may be
had in all sizes. The range for farm work should cut from M" to
%", inclusive.

FARM MECHANICS

way of cutting that mashes the rod the least is to be
preferred. The size of the rod will determine the man-
ner of cutting in most instances.

Figure 84. — Taper Tap for Blacksmith's Use.

"^^

Figure 85. — Machine Bolt and Carriage Bolt. The first is used
against iron and the second against wood, but this rule is not arbi-
trary. The rounded side of the nuts are turned in against wood ;
the flat side against washers or heavier iron. Use square head bolts
If you expect to take them out after the nuts have rusted on.

Figure 86. — Plow bolts and sickle bar bolts should be kept in
stock. Standard sizes and shapes are made for several different
makes of plows and machines.

Taps and dies are made to fit each size of rod. If the
thread on the bolt is cut with a solid, or round, plate
die, the corresponding tap is run clear through the
nut. In that case the nut will screw on the bolt easily,
possibly a little loose for some purposes. It is so in-
tended by the manufacturers to give the workman a

FARM SHOP WORK

little leeway. If it is desirable to have the nut screw
on the bolt very tight, then the tap is stopped before
the last thread enters the nut. A little practice soon

Figure 87.^Lag Screw. To set a lag screw in hardwood, bore a hole
the size of the screw shank as calipered between the threads.

Figure 88. — (1) Wagon-Box Irons, showing how to attach the box
and the rave to the cross-piece and to brace the side of the box to
hold it upright. There may be several of these braces on each side
of the wagon box. (2) U Bolt in Cement. A solid staple to be em-
bedded in concrete for a horse ring, door hinge, cow stanchion, etc.

FARM MECHANICS

qualifies a workman to fit a nut according to the place
the bolt is to occupy.

Generally it is desirable to have nuts fit very snug
on parts of machines that shake a good deal, and this
applies to almost all farm machinery and implements.

Ordinarily a horse rake is supposed to travel steadily
along like a cart, but the ground is rough and in practi-

Figure 89. — Wagon-Box Brace. It is offset to hold the rave and
to brace the sideboard at the rear and the front ends and some-
times in the middle of light wagon beds.

Figure 90. — Two Plow Clevises and a Plow Link.

cal use the nuts loosen almost as soon as haying com-
mences.

Some farmers make a practice of riveting bolt ends
to prevent nuts from working loose. When the bolts
have square heads, this practice is not objectionable,
because with two wrenches a nut. can be twisted off
over the riveting, but a great many bolts have round
heads and very short, square shanks. Theoretically,
the shanks are driven into the wood firm enough to
prevent the bolts from turning. Practically this

FARM SHOB WORK 59

theory is a delusion and a snare, as every farm boy can
testify.

Bolts are not manufactured in quantities in the farm
blacksmith shop. They can be made by machinery
cheaper, but so many times a bolt is needed on short
notice that the farm shop should have the necessary
tools and materials to supply the need quickly.

Forging Iron and Steel. — Iron and steel are com-
posed of the same properties, but differ chemically.
Steel also is finer grained than iron and it requires
different treatment. Iron should be forged at a light-
red or white heat. If forged at a dark-red heat the
iron generally will granulate or crack open and weaken
the metal. For a smooth finish the last forging may
be done at a dark-red heat, but the hammer must be
used lightly. The weight of the hammer as well as the
blows also must differ with the different size of iron
under heat. Small sizes should be treated with ham-
mer blows that are rather light, while for large sizes
the blows should be correspondingly heavy. If light
blows be given with a light hammer in forging heavy
iron the outside alone will be affected, thus causing
itneven tension and contrarywise strain in the iron.

Steel should never be heated above a yellow heat. If
heated to a white heat the steel will be burned. Steel
should never be forged at a dark-red heat. If this is
done it will cause considerable strain between the inner
and outer portions, which may cause it to crack while
forging. The weight of the hammer and the hammer
blows in forging of steel is vastly of more importance
than in forging iron. If the blow or the hammer is not
heavy enough to exert its force throughout the thick-
ness of the steel it will probably crack in the process of
hardening or tempering. If steel be properly forged it

60 FARM MECHANICS

will harden easily and naturally, but if improperly
forged the tempering will be very difficult — probably a
failure. The quality of a finished tool depends greatly
upon the correct heat and proper method used in forg-
ing and hardening it.

. Making Steel Tools. — Steel for tools should first be
annealed to even the density and prevent warping.
This is done by heating it to a dull cherry red in a slow
fire. A charcoal fire for this purpose is best because it
contains no sulphur or other injurious impurities.
After heating the piece of new steel all over as evenly
as possible it should be buried several inches deep in
powdered charcoal and left to cool. This completes the
annealing process. While working steel into proper
shape for tools, great care is required to prevent burn-
ing. It should be worked quickly and the process re-
peated as often as necessary. Practice is the only
recipe for speed.

When the tool is shaped as well as possible on the
anvil it is then finished with a file by clamping the new
tool in the vise, using single cut files. Bastard files are
too rough for tool steel. After the tool is shaped by
cross-filing and draw-filing to make it smooth it is some-
times polished by wrapping fine emery cloth around
the file. Oil is used with emery cloth to give the steel
a luster finish. Tempering is the last process in the
making of such tools as cold chisels, drills, dies,
punches, scratchawls, etc.

Tempering Steel Tools. — Good judgment is required
to get the right temper. Good eyesight is needed to
catch the color at the exact instant, and quick action to
plunge it into the water before it cools too much. Dies
are made very hard. The color of the steel at dipping
time should be a bright straw color. Cold chisels will

FARM SHOP WORK

Figure 91. — Blacksmith Hammers. Some smiths use a heavy ma-
chinist's hammer. But the flat peen is more useful when working
around the anvil and the leg vise.

62 FARM MECHANICS

break when being used if tempered too hard. If cold
chisels are to be used for cutting iron, the color should
be violet ; if the chisels are for cutting stone, purple is
the color. Drills for boring iron are tempered a dark
straw color at the cutting edge merging back into blue.
The water in the dipping tub should be warm, as steel
is likely to check or crack when it is tempered in cold
water.

Tool steel should be held in a perpendicular position
when it enters the water to cool all sides alike. Other-
wise the new tool might warp. It is better to dip
slowly, sometimes holding the point, or cutting edge, in
the water while permitting the shank to cool slowly
enough to remain soft. Some sizes of steel may be
tempered too hard at first and the temper immediately
drawn by permitting the heat of the shank to follow
down almost to the edge, then dip. This is done
quickly while watching the colors as they move to-
wards the point or edge.

Draw-filing. — Making six-sided and eight-sided
punches and scratchawls out of hexagon and octagon
tool steel is interesting work. The steel is cut to length
by filing a crease all around with a three-cornered file.
When it is sufficiently notched, the steel will break
straight across. To shape the tool and to draw out the
point the steel is heated in the forge to a dull cherry
red and hammered carefully to preserve the shape
along the taper. Special attention must be given to
the numerous corners. A scratchawl or small punch,
must be heated many times and hammered quickly be-
fore cooling. An old English shop adage reads:
' ^ Only one blacksmith ever went to the devil and that
was for pounding cold iron."

After the punch or scratchawl is roughed out on the

FARM SHOP WORK

anvil, it is fastened in the vise and finished by cross-
filing and draw-filing. Copper caps on the vise jaws
, will prevent indentations.

Draw-filing means grasping each end of the file and
moving it back and forth sidewise along the work. For

Figure 92. — Vise Jaw Guards. Soft auxiliary vise jaws are made of
sheet copper or galvanized iron.

Turn Piece M
while uding

ilMHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIHIIIIlliiliiiiiiiMiiinnifTni

Clamp Block,
in Vise

^""""""-"""■■"ITMnH

(61 DE VIEW)

i Bi&JL

Figure 93. — Roll Filing. To file a piece 6t steel round it is rolled by
one hand while the file is used by the other hand.

this purpose single-cut files are used. The smoothing
is done with a very fine single-cut file, or if very par-
ticular, a float file is used. Then the polish is rubbed
on with fine emery cloth and oil. The emery cloth is
wrapped around the file and the same motion is con-
tinued. With some little practice a very creditable

64 FARM MECHANICS

piece of work may be turned out. Such work is valu-
able because of the instruction. A good test of skill at
blacksmithing is making an octagon punch that tapers
true to the eye when finished.

Set-Screws, — It is customary to fasten a good many
gear wheels, cranks and pulleys to machinery shafts
by set-screws. There are two kinds of set-screws ; one
has a cone point, the other a cup end. Both screws are
hardened to sink into the shaft. A cup is supposed to
cut a ring and the point is supposed to sink into the
shaft to make a small hole sufficient to keep the wheel

Figure 94. — Machine-Bolt and Set-Screw. The bolt to the left is
used to clamp cylinder heads in place. The set-screw to the right is
the cup variety. The end is countersunk to form a cup with a
sharp rim.

from slipping. However, unless the cone-pointed screw
is countersunk into the shaft, it will not hold much of
a strain. The point is so small it will slip and cut a
groove around the shaft. To prevent this, the set-screw
may be countersunk by first marking the shaft with an
indentation of the point of the screw. Then the wheel *
or crank or collar may be removed and a hole drilled
into the shaft with a twist-drill the same size, or a
sixty-fourth smaller, than the set-screw. Then by
forcing the end of the set-screw into the drill hole, the
wheel is held solid.

The principal objection to set-screws is that they are ^
dangerous. The heads always project and are ready
to catch a coat sleeve when the shaft is revolving. In
all cases, set-screws should be as large as the hub will

FARM SHOP WORK 65

allow, and it is better to have them protected so it is im-
possible to catch anything to wind around the shaft.
Cup set-screws are not satisfactory except for very
light work. If necessary to use them, the ends may be
firmly fixed by cutting a ring with a sharp, diamond-
point cold chisel.

Setting the Handsaw. — Nine teeth to the inch is the
most satisfactory handsaw for all kinds of lumber.
Setting the teeth of this kind of saw is best done with
a hand lever set. The plunger pin should be care-
fully adjusted to bend the teeth just far enough to give
the necessary set. For general wcTrk a saw needs more
set than is needed for kiln-dried stuff. The teeth
should cut a kerf just wide enough to clear the blade.
Anything more is a waste of time and muscle. It is
better to work from both sides of the saw by first set-
ting one side the whole length of the blade. Then re-
verse the saw in the clamp and set the alternate teeth
in the same manner. There should be a good solid stop
between the handles of the set to insure equal pressure
against each sawtooth. The pin should be carefully
placed against each tooth at exactly the same spot
every time and the pressure should be the same for each
tooth.

The best saw-sets for fine tooth saws are automatic
so far as it is possible to make them so, but the skill
of the operator determines the quality of the work.
The reason for setting a saw before jointing is to leave
the flattened ends of the teeth square with the blade
after the jointing and filing is completed.

Jointing a Handsaw. — After the saw has been set it
must be jointed to square the teeth and to even them to
equal length, and to keep the saw straight on the cut-
ting edge. Some woodworkers give their saws a slight

FARM MECHANICS

camber, or belly, to correspond with the sway-back.
The camber facilitates cutting to the bottom in mitre-
box work without sawing into the bed piece of the box.
It also throws the greatest weight of the thrust upon
the middle teeth. A saw with even teeth cuts smoother,
runs truer and works faster than a saw filed by guess.
It is easy to file a saw when all of the teeth are the same

^Oldnic
r— R ivet to Prevent
5plltting of Block

Figure 95. — Saw Jointer. The wooden block is about two inches
square by 12" or 14" in length. The block is made true and scribed
carefully to have the ripsaw slot square, straight and true. The
file is set into a mortise square with the block.

length and all have the same set. Anyone can do a
good job of filing if the saw is made right to begin with,
but no one can put a saw in good working order with
a three-cornered file as his only tool.

Filing the Handsaw. — First comes the three-cor-
nered file. It should be just large enough to do the
work. There is no economy in buying larger files
thinking that each of the three corners will answer the
same purpose as a whole file of smaller size. In the
first place the small file is better controlled and will
do better work. In the second place the three corners
are needed to gum the bottoms of the divisions between

FARM SHOP WORK - 67

the teeth. There is much more wear on the corners
than on the sides of a saw-file. Also the corners of a
small file are more acute, which means a good deal in
the shape of the finished teeth.

After the saw is carefully set and jointed, clamp it
in the saw vise and file one side of the saw from heel
to point. Then reverse the saw in the saw clamp and
file the other side, being careful to keep the bevel of
each tooth the same. It is better to stop filing just be-
fore the tooth comes to a point. A triangular or dia-
mond shaped point will cut faster and leave a smoother
saw kerf and last longer than a needle point.

As the tooth of a crosscut saw is filed away from both
edges, it is necessary to make allowances when filing
the first side, otherwise some of the teeth will come to
a sharp point before the gumming is deep enough.

Using a Handsaw, — Anyone can saw a board square
both up and down and crossways by following a few
simple rules. Have the board supported on the level
by two 'v\rell made saw-benches 24'' high. Stand up
straight as possible and look down on both sides of
the saw blade. Use long even strokes and let the saw
play lightly and evenly through the saw cut.

Do not cut the mark out ; cut to it on the waste end,
or further end, if there are more pieces to be cut from
the board. The saw kerf is about 3/32" wide for a
nine-tooth saw set for unkilned lumber or dimension
stuff. If both saw kerfs are taken from one piece and
none from the next then one length will be 3/16"
shorter than the other.

For practice it is a good plan to make two marks
3/32" apart and cut between them. Use a sharp-
pointed scratchawl to make the marks. A penknife
blade is next best, but it must be held flat against the

68 FARM MECHANICS

blade of the square, otherwise it will crowd in or run
off at a tangent.

Setting a Circular Saw. — ^A good saw-set for a cir-
cular saw may be made out of an old worn-out flat file.
Heat the file in the forge fire to draw the temper and
anneal it by covering it with ashes. Smooth it on the
grindstone. Put it in the vise and file a notch in one
edge. The notch should be just wide enough to fit
loosely over the point of a sawtooth. The notch should
be just deep enough to reach down one-quarter of the
length of the tooth.

Make a saw-set gauge out of a piece of flat iron or
steel one inch wide and about four inches long. File a
notch into and parallel to one edge at one corner, about
one-sixteenth of an inch deep from the edge and about
half an inch long measuring from the end. With the
homemade saw-set bend the saw teeth outward until the
points just miss the iron gauge in the corner notch.
The edges of the gauge should be straight and parallel
and the notch should be parallel with the edge. In use
the edge of the gauge is laid against the side of the saw
so the projecting tooth reaches into the notch. One-
sixteenth of an inch may be too much set for a small
saw but it won't be too much for a 24-inch wood saw
working in green cord wood.

Jointing a Circular Saw. — Eun the saw at full speed.
Lay a 14-inch file flat on the top of the saw table at
right angles to the saw. Move the file slowly and care-
fully towards the saw until it ticks against the teeth.
Hold the file firmly by both ends until each sawtooth
ticks lightly against the file. A saw in good working
order needs very little jointing, but it should have at-
tention every time the saw is set and it should be done
after setting and before filing.

FARM SHOP WORK 69

Filing a Circular Saw, — The teeth of a crosscut cir-
cular saw point a little ahead. Sometimes they point
so nearly straight out from the center that you have to
look twice to determine which way the saw should run.
There are plenty of rules for the pitch of sawteeth, but
they are subject to many qualifications. What inter-
ests a farmer is a saw that will cut green poles and
crooked limbs into stove lengths with the least possible
delay. A saw 20 inches in diameter will cut a stick
eight inches through without turning it to finish the
cut. The front or cutting edges of the teeth of a 24-
inch crosscut circular saw for wood sawing should line
to a point a little back from the center. This may not
sound definite enough for best results, so the more par-
ticular farmers may use a straight edge. Select a
straight stick about half an inch square. Rest it on
top of or against the back of the saw mandrel and
shape the forward edges of the teeth on a line with the
upper side or rear side of the straight edge. The teeth
will stand at the proper pitch when the saw is new,
if it was designed for sawing green wood. If it works
right before being filed, then the width of the straight
edge may be made to conform to the original pitch and
kept for future use.

The gumming is done with the edge of the file while
filing the front edges of the teeth. It is finished with
the flat side of the file while filing the rear edges of
the teeth. The depth, or length, of the teeth should be
kept the same as the manufacturer designed them. A
wood saw works best when the front edges of the teeth
have but little bevel. The back edges should have
more slant. The teeth should have three-cornered or
diamond-shaped points. Needle points break off when
they come against knots or cross-grained hardwood.

FARM MECHANICS

Short teeth do no cutting. Single cut flat files are used
for circular saws. The file should fit the saw. It
should be about %'' wider than the length of the front
side of the teeth. The back edges require that the file
shall have some play to show part of the tooth while
the file is in motion. Large files are clumsy. The file
should be carefully selected.

How to Sharpen a Hoe. — It is quicker and more sat-
isfactory to file a hoe sharp than to grind it on the

Figure 96. — How to Sharpen a Hoe. Grinding a hoe is difficult,
but filing it sharp ani straight at the cutting edge is easy. If the
hoe chatters when held in the vise, spring a wooden block under the
blade. Use false vise jaws to prevent dinging the shank.

grindstone. The shank of the hoe must be held firmly
in the vise and there should be a solid block of wood
under the blade of the hoe, a little back from the edge;
to keep the file from chattering. A single cut flat file
is the best to use. It should be long enough to be
easily held in one position to make a smooth, even bevel
at the same angle to the face of the blade all the way
across. To make sure not to file a feather edge it is
better to joint the hoe to begin with, then to stop filing
just before reaching the edge. If the edge be left

FARM SHOP WORK 71

1/64'' thick it will wear longer and work more easily-
after having been used an hour or two than it will if
the edge be filed thin. This is especially noticeable
when the ground contains small stones. Hoes are
sharpened from the under side only. The inside of a
hoe blade should be straight clear to the edge. Hoes
should always have sharp corners. When working
around valuable plants you want to know exactly
where the corner of the hoe is when the blade is buried
out of sight in the ground.

Shoeing Farm Horses. — Farmers have no time or
inclination to make a business of shoeing horses, but
there are occasions when it is necessary to pull a shoe
or set a shoe and to do it quickly. Shoeing tools are not
numerous or expensive. They consist first of a tool box,
with a stiff iron handle made in the shape of a bale.
The box contains a shoeing hammer, hoof rasp, hoof
knife, or paring-knife, as it is usually called, and two
sizes of horseshoe-nails. Sometimes a foot pedestal is
used to set the horse's front foot on when the horse
wants to bear down too hard, but this pedestal is not
necessary in the farm shop.

There are flat-footed horses that <?annot work even
in summer without shoes. Common sense and shoeing
tools are the only requirements necessary to tack on a
plate without calks. Shoes to fit any foot may be pur-
chased at so much a pound.

A paring-knife is used to level the bottom of the
hoof so that it will have an even bearing on the shoe all
the way round. It is not desirable to pare the frog or
the braces in the bottom of a horse 's foot. If the foot
is well cupped, a little of the horny rim may be taken
off near the edges. Generally it is necessary to shorten
the toe. This is done partly with the hoof chisel and

72 FARM MECHANICS

rasp after the shoe is nailed fast. Sometimes one-
fourth of an inch is sufficient; at other times a horse's
hoof is very much improved by taking off one-half inch
or more of the toe growth either from the bottom or the
front or both.

Like all other mechanical work the shoeing of a
horse's foot should be studied and planned before
starting. A long toe is a bad leverage to overcome
when pulling a heavy load. At the same time, nature

Figure 97. — Tool Box for Field Use. The long open side is for
tools. On the other side of the center partition bolts, keys, screws,
nails, bits of wire, leather, tin, etc., are kept in the different
divisions.

intended that a horse should have considerable toe
length as a protection to the more tender parts of the
foot. And the pastern bone should play at the proper
angle.

Handy Tool Box, — ^A tool box with a high lengthwise
partition in the middle and a handle in the middle of
the top of the partition is the handiest tool box ever
used on a farm. At haying and harvest time it should
be fitted with the common tools required about haying
and harvest machinery. One side is partitioned into
square boxes to hold split wire keys, washers, bolts,
rivets, and a collection of wire nails, bits of copper

FARM SHOP WORK 73

wire, a leather punch, etc. On the other side of the
box is an assortment of wrenches, cold chisels, punches,
pliers and hammers. This tool box belongs in the
wagon that accompanies the outfit to the field.

Babbitting Boxings. — Babbitting boxings is one of
the repair jobs on the farm. Some men are careless
about oiling; sometimes sand cuts them out. Every
year some boxings need rebabbitting. The melting
ladle should be large enough to pour the largest box.
Usually a 5-inch bowl is about right. A large ladle

Figure 98. — ^Melting Ladle. Babbitting shaft boxing requires a
melting ladle. It should be about five inches across the bowl and
about three inches deep. That is a good size to heat in a forge fire.

will pour a small box but a small ladle won't pour a
large one. In cold weather the shaft and box should
be warmed to insure an even flow of metal. Pasteboard
is fitted against the shaft when pouring the cap or top
half of the box. Pasteboard is fitted around the shaft
at the ends of the box to keep the melted metal from
running out. Never use clay or putty, it is too mussy
and the babbitt is made rough and uneven at the edges.
Some skill is required to fit either wood or metal close
enough to prevent leaks and to do a neat job.

If the boxing is small, both top and bottom may be
poured at once by making holes through the dividing
pasteboard. The holes must be large enough to let the
melted metal through and small enough to break apart
easily when cold.

CHAPTER III

GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER TO DRIVE
MODERN FARM MACHINERY

At one time ninety-seven per cent of the population
of the United States got their living directly from till-
ing the soil, and the power used was oxen and manual
labor. At the present time probably not more than
thirty-five per cent of our people are actively engaged
in agricultural pursuits. And the power problem has
been transferred to horses, steam, gasoline, kerosene
and water power, with electricity as a power conveyor.

Fifty years ago a farmer was lucky if he owned a
single moldboard cast-iron plow that he could follow all
day on foot and turn over one, or at most, two acres.
The new traction engines are so powerful that it is
possible to plow sixty feet in width, and other ma-
chines have been invented to follow the tractor
throughout the planting and growing seasons to the
end of the harvest. The tractor is supplemented by
numerous smaller powers. All of which combine to
make it possible for one-third of the people to grow
enough to feed the whole American family and to ex-
port a surplus to Europe.

At the same time, the standard of living is very much
higher than it was when practically everyone worked
in the fields to grow and to harvest the food necessary
to live.

Farm machinery is expensive, but it is more expen-
sive to do without. Farmers who make the most money

GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 75

are the ones who use the greatest power and the best
machinery. Farmers who have a hard time of it are
the ones who use the old wheezy hand pump, the eight-
foot harrow and the walking plow. The few horses
they keep are small and the work worries them. The
owner sympathizes with his team and that worries him.
Worry is the commonest form of insanity.

3aOt=

Figure 99. — Flail, the oldest threshing machine, still used for
threshing pedigreed seeds to prevent mixing. The staff is seven or
eight feet long and the swiple is about three feet long by two and
one-half inches thick in the middle, tapering to one and one-half
inches at the ends. The staff and swiple are fastened together by
rawhide thongs.

Figure 100. — Bucket Yoke. It fits around the neck and over the
shoulders. Such human yokes have been used for ages to carry two
buckets of water, milk or other liquids. The buckets or pails should
nearly balance each other. They are steadied by hand to prevent
slopping.

At a famous plowing match held at Wheatland,
Illinois, two interesting facts were brought out. Boys
are not competing for furrow prizes and the walking
plow has gone out of fashion. The plowing at the
Wheatland plowing match was done by men with rid-
ing plows. Only one boy under eighteen years was
ready to measure his ability against competition. The
attendance of farmers and visitors numbered about
three thousand, which shows that general interest in
the old-fashioned plowing match is as keen as ever. A •
jumbo tractor on the grounds proved its ability to
draw a big crowd and eighteen plows at the same time.
It did its work well and without vulgar ostentation.
Lack of sufficient land to keep it busy was the tractor 's

FARM MECHANICS

only disappointment, but it reached out a strong right
arm and harrowed the furrows down fine, just to show
that it ** wasn't mad at nobody."

Modern farm methods are continually demanding
more power. Larger implements are being used and

Figure 101. — Well Sweep. The length
of the sweep is sufficient to lower the
bucket into the water and to raise it to
the coping at the top of the brickwork.
The rock on the short end of the sweep
is just heavy enough to balance the
bucket full of water.

heavier horses are required to pull them. A great deal
of farm work is done by engine power. Farm power is
profitable when it is employed to its full capacity in
manufacturing high-priced products. It may be
profitable also in preventing waste by working up
cheap materials into valuable by-products. The mod-
ern, well-managed farm is a factory and it should be

GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER

managed along progressive factory methods. In a
good dairy stable hay, straw, grains and other feeds
are manufactured into high-priced cream and butter.
Farming pays in proportion to the amount of work .
intelligently applied to this manner of increasing val-

Figure 102. — Wire Stretcher. A small block and tackle will
stretch a single barb-wire tight enough for a fence. By using two
wire snatches the ends of two wires may be strained together for
splicing.

Figure 103.-
double blocks,
height.

-Block and Tackle. The rope is threaded into two
There is a safety stop that holds the load at any

ues. It is difficult to make a profit growing and selling
grain. Grain may sell for more than the labor and
seed, but it takes so much vitality from the land that
depreciation of capital often is greater than the margin
of apparent profit. When grains are grown and fed to
live-stock on the farm, business methods demand better

FARM MECHANICS

buildings and more power, which means that the
farmer is employing auxiliary machinery and other
modern methods to enhance values.

In other manufacturing establishments raw mate-
rial is worked over into commercial products which
bring several times the amount of money paid for the
raw material.

Figure 104. — Farm Hoists. Two styles of farm elevating hoists
are shown in this illustration. Two very different lifting jobs are
also shown.

The principle is the same on the farm except that
when a farmer raises the raw material he sells it to
himself at a profit. When he feeds it to live-stock and
sells the live-stock he makes another profit. When the
manure is properly handled and returned to the soil
he is making another profit on a by-product.

Farming carried on in this way is a complicated
business which requires superior knowledge of business
methods and principles. In order to conduct the busi-

GENERATINO MECHANICAL POWER 79

ness of farming profitably the labor problem has to be
met. Good farm help is expensive. Poor farm help is
more expensive. While farm machinery also is ex-
pensive, it is cheaper than hand labor when the farmer
has sufficient work to justify the outlay. It is tiresome

Figure 105. — Two Powerful Winches. The one to the left is used
for pulling small stumps or roots in the process of clearing land.
The rope runs on and off the drum to maintain three or four laps
or turns. The winch to the right is used for hoisting well drilling
tools or to hang a beef animal. The rope winds on the drum in two
layers if necessary.

to have agricultural writers ding at us about the su-
perior acre returns of German farms. German hand-
made returns may be greater per acre, but one Ameri-
can farmhand, by the use of proper machinery, will
produce more food than a whole German family.

DOG CHURN

Even the dog works on some farms. A dog is a nui-
sance among dairy cattle, but he can be made to earn
his salt at churning time. All mechanism in connec-

FARM MECHANICS

tion with dog power must be light. It also is necessary
to eliminate the friction as much as possible.

The best way to make a dog power is to use a light
wooden sulky wheel for the revolving turn table. Next
best to the sulky wheel is a light buggy wheel. The
wheel is made fast to an upright iron shaft that is
stepped into an iron oil well at the bottom and inclined

Figure 106. — Dog Churn Power. A wheel keyed to an iron shaft
is placed at an angle as shown. The weight of the dog turns the
wheel and power is conveyed to the churn by a light rope belt. It is
necessary to confine the dog between stationary partitions built like
a stall over the wheel.

at an angle of about fifteen degrees to give the neces-
sary power. To steady the top of the shaft a light box-
ing is used, preferably a ballbearing bicycle race to re-
duce friction. Power is conveyed to the churn by
means of a grooved pulley on the top of the shaft. A
small, soft rope or heavy string belt runs from this
pulley to a similar pulley connected with the churn.

Dogs learn to like the work when fed immediately
after the churning is finished. Dogs have been known
to get on to the power wheel to call attention to their

GENERATINO MECHANICAL POWER 81

hungry condition. This calls to mind the necessity of
arranging a brake to stop the wheel to let the dog off.'
When the wheel is running light, the dog cannot let go.
A spring brake to wear against the iron tire of the
wheel is the most satisfactory. The brake may be
tripped and set against the tire automatically by a
small lever and weight attached to the underside of
the wheel. When the speed is too fast the weight
swings out and sets the brake. When the speed slack-
ens the weight drops back towards the center and re-
leases the brake. When the speed is about right the
weight swings between the two spring catches.

BULL TREADMILL

On dairy farms it is common to see a valuable pure
bred bull working a treadmill for exercise and to pump
water. Sometimes he turns the cream-separator, but
the motion is too unsteady for good results. Tread-
mills for this purpose are very simple. The mechan-
ism turns a grooved pulley which propels a rope pow-
er conveyor. The rope belt may be carried across the
yards in any direction and to almost any distance.
Bull treadmills consist of a framework of wood which
carries an endless apron supported on rollers. The
apron link chains pass around and turn two drumhead
sprocket-wheels at the upper end and an idler drum at
the lower end. The sprocket-wheel drum shaft is
geared to an auxiliary shaft which carries a grooved
pulley. A rope belt power conveyor runs in this groove
and carries power from the bull pen to the pump.

Bull tread powers usually have smooth inclined
lags, because a bull's steps on the tread power are
naturally uneven and irregular. This construction
gives an even straight tread to the travel surface. To

82 FARM MECHANICS

prevent slipping, soft wooden strips are nailed onto the
lags at the lower edges. Even incline tread blocks or
lags are also recommended for horses that are not shod
and for all animals with split hoofs. The traveling
apron of the power is placed on an incline and the
treads are carried around the two drums at the upper
and lower ends of the frame by means of endless

Figure 107. — Bull Tread Power. Treadmills have gone out of
fashion. Too much friction was the cause, but a mill like this is
valuable to exercise a pure bred bull. Some dairymen make him
pump water.

chains. There is a governor attachment which regu-
lates the speed and prevents the machinery from * ^ run-
ning away."

The simplest governor is made on the two-ball gov-
ernor principle with weights on opposite levers. The
governor is attached to two opposite spokes in the fly-
wheel. As the speed increases the weights move out-
ward because of their centrifugal force. This motion
operates a brake lever to retard or stop the flywheel.

GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 83

When the machine stops an opposite weight rests
against the flywheel until it starts in motion again, so
the apron cannot be moved until the brake is released.
This is necessary to get the animal on or off of the plat-
form while it is at rest to avoid accidents. The usual
incline is a rise of two feet in eight when power is
wanted. This pitch compels the bull to lift one-quarter
of his own weight and it may be too severe for a heavy
animal. The endless apron is an endless hill climb to
the bull. Treadmills are not economical of power be-
cause there are so many bearings to generate friction.

WINDMILLS

Wind power is the cheapest power we have. A wind-
mill properly proportioned to its work is a great help,
especially when it is attached to a good pump for the
purpose of lifting water into an elevated tank from
which it is piped under pressure for domestic purposes
and for watering live-stock.

You can have considerable patience with a windmill
if you only depend upon it for pumping water, pro-
vided you have a tank that will hold a week's supply to
be drawn during a dry, hot time when every animal on
the farm demands a double allowance of water. That
is the time when a farmer hates to attach himself to
the pump handle for the purpose of working up a
hickory breeze. That also is the time when the wind
neglects a fellow.

A good windmill is useful up to about one-third of its
rated capacity, which is the strongest argument for
buying a mill larger than at first seems necessary. Some
men have suffered at some time in their lives with the
delusion that they could tinker with a poorly con-
structed windmill and make it earn its oil. They have

84 FARM MECHANICS

never waked up to a full realization of their early de-
lusion. It is a positive fact that all windmills are not
lazy, deceitful nor wholly unreliable. When properly
constructed, rightly mounted and kept in good repair,
they are not prone to work in a crazy fashion when the
tank is full and loaf when it is empty. There are
thousands of windmills that have faithfully staid on
the job continuously twenty-four hours per day for
five or ten years at a stretch, all the time working for
nothing year after year without grumbling, except
when compelled to run without oil. At such times the
protest is loud and nerve racking.

A good windmill with suitable derrick, pump and
piping may cost $150. The yearly expense figures
something like this:

Interest on investment at 6% per annum. . .$ 9.00

Depreciation 10% 15.00

Oil 1.00

Eepairs 3.00

making a total of $28, which is less than $2.50 per
month for the work of elevating a constant supply of
water for the house, stable and barnyard.

ONE-MULE PUMP

A home-made device that is much used on live-stock
ranches in California is shown in the illustration.
This simple mechanism is a practical means for con-
verting circular mule motion into vertical reciprocat-
ing pump action. A solid post is set rather deep in the
ground about twelve feet from the well. This post is
the fulcrum support of the walking-beam. One end
of the walking-beam reaches to the center line of the
well, where it connects with the pump shaft. The

GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER

other end of the walking-beam is operated by a pit-
man shaft connecting with a crank wrist pin near the
ground. A round iron shaft similar to a horse-power
tumbling rod about ten or twelve feet in length and
one and a half inches in diameter is used to convey
power and motion to the pitman shaft.

JDETAIL'A"

iB?

Figure 108. — Mule Pump. A practical home-made power to pump
water for live-stock. It is used where the water-table is within
20 feet of the surface of the ground. The drawing shows a post
in the center which supports the walking-beam and acts as a fulcrum.
A mowing-machine wheel is keyed to one end of a round iron shaft.
The other end of this shaft turns in a boxing which is swiveled to a
short post as shown at B. See' also detail ''B.". The two plunger
shafts are shown at A A. The mule is hitched to the round iron
shaft near the traveling wheel by means of a round hook. As the
mule walks around in a circle the shaft revolves and operates the
crank B. There are side guys not shown in the drawing to keep the
walking-beam in position.

A mowing-machine wheel is keyed to the outer end
of the tumbling rod. At the crank end is a babbitted
boxing with a bolt attachment reaching down into the
top of a short post set solidly into the ground, directly
under the inner end of the walking-beam. This bolt
permits the boxing to revolve with a swivel motion.
Another swivel connects the upper end of the pitman
shaft with the walking-beam. The whiffletree is at-
tached to the tumbling rod by an iron hook. This hook
is held in place by two iron collars fastened to the

86 FARM MECHANICS

tumbling rod by means of keys or set-screws. The
mowing-machine drive wheel travels around in a cir-
cle behind the mule turning the shaft which works the
walking-beam and operates the pump. It would be
difficult to design another horse or mule power so
cheap and simple and effective. The mule grows wise
after a while, so it is necessary to use a blindfold, or he
will soldier on the job. With a little encouragement
from a whip occasionally a mule will walk around and
around for hours pulling the mowing-machine wheel
after him.

HORSEPOWER

One horsepower is a force sufficient to lift 33,000
pounds one foot high in one minute.

The term '^horsepower'' in popular use years ago
meant a collection of gear-wheels and long levers with
eight or ten horses solemnly marching around in a cir-
cle with a man perched on a platform in the center in
the capacity of umpire.

This was the old threshing-machine horsepower. It
was the first real success in pooling many different
farm power units to concentrate the combined effort
upon one important operation.

Not many horses are capable of raising 33,000
pounds one foot in one minute every minute for an
hour or a day. Some horses are natural-born slackers
with sufficient acumen to beat the umpire at his own
game. Some horses walk faster than others, also
horses vary in size and capacity for work. But during
a busy time each horse was counted as one horsepower,
and they were only eight or ten in number. And it so
developed that the threshing horsepower had limita-
tions which the separator outgrew.

GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER

The old threshing horsepower has been superseded
by steam engines and gasoline and kerosene power, but
horses are more important than ever.

Farm horses are larger and more powerful ; they are
better kept, better trained, and hitched to better ma-
chinery, because it pays. One man drives three 1,600,-
pound draft horses as fast as he used to drive two

Figure 109.-

-Horse Power, showing tlie manner of attacliing the
braced lever to the bull wheel.

1,000-pound general-purpose horses. The three draft-
ers make play of a heavy load, while the two light
horses worry themselves poor and accomplish little.
Modern farm machinery is heavier, it cuts wider and
digs deeper and does more thorough work. Modern
farm requirements go scientifically into the proper cul-
tivation and preparation of soil to increase fertility.
Old methods used up fertility until the land refused
to produce profitably.

88 FARM MECHANICS

Although the old familiar horsepower has been
greatly outclassed, it has not been discarded. There
are many small horsepowers in use for elevating grain,
baling hay, cutting straw for feed and bedding, grind-
ing feed and other light work where engine power is
not available.

WATER-POWER

Water-power is the most satisfactory of all kinds of
stationary farm power, when a steady stream of water
may be harnessed to a good water-wheel. It is not a
difficult engineering feat to throw a dam across a small
stream and take the water out into a penstock to sup-
ply water to a turbine water-wheel. In the first place
it is necessary to measure the flow of water to deter-
mine the size of water-wheel which may be used to ad-
vantage. In connection with the flow of water it is also
important to know the fall. Water is measured by
what is termed a * ^ weir. ' ' It is easily made by cutting
an oblong notch in a plank placed across the stream, as
a temporary dam which raises the water a few inches
to get a steady, even flow of water through the notch
so that calculations may be made in miner's inches.
The term * ^ miner 's inch ' ' is not accurate, but it comes
near enough for practical purposes. Measuring the
volume of water should be done during a dry time in
summer.

The fall of the stream is easily measured by means
of a carpenter 's level and a stake. The stake is driven
into the ground at a point downstream where water
may be delivered to the wheel and a tailrace established
to the best advantage. Sighting over the level to a
mark on the stake will show the amount of fall. When
a manufacturer of water-wheels has the amount of wa-

GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 89

ter and the fall, he can estimate the size and character
of wheel to supply. The penstock may be vertical or
placed on a slant. A galvanized pipe sufficient to carry
the necessary amount of water may be laid along the
bank, but it should be thoroughly well supported be-
cause a pipe full of water is heavy, and settling is
likely to break a joint.

Galvanized piping for a farm penstock is not nec-
essarily expensive. It may be made at any tin shop
and put together on the ground in sections. The only
difficult part about it is soldering the under side of
the joints, but generally it may be rolled a little to one
side until the bottom of the seam is reached.

The most satisfactory way to carry power from the
water-wheel to the farm buildings is by means of elec-
tricity. The dynamo may be coupled to the water-
wheel and wires carried any required distance.

The work of installing electric power machinery is
more a question of detail than mechanics or electrical
engineering. The different appliances are bought from
the manufacturer and placed where they are needed.
It is principally a question of expense and quantity of
electricity needed or developed. If the current is used
for power, then a motor is connected with the dynamo
and current from the dynamo drives the motor. A
dynamo may be connected with the water-wheel shaft
at the source of power and the motor may be placed in
the power-house or any of the other buildings.

The cost of farm waterworks depends principally
on the amount of power developed. Small machinery
may be had for a few hundred dollars, but large, pow-
erful machinery is expensive. If the stream is large
and considerable power is going to waste it might pay
to put in a larger plant and sell current to the neigh-

90 FARM MECHANICS

bors for electric lighting and for power purposes.
Standard machinery is manufactured for just such
plants.

The question of harnessing a stream on your own
land when you control both banks is a simple business
proposition. If anyone else can set up a plausible plea
of riparian rights, flood damage, interstate complica-
tions or interference with navigation, it then becomes
a question of litigation to be decided by some succeed-
ing generation.

STEAM BOILER AND ENGINE

Farm engines usually are of two different types,
steam engines and gasoline or oil engines. Steam sta-
tionary engines are used on dairy farms because steam
is the best known means of keeping a dairy clean and
sanitary. The boiler that furnishes power to run the
engine also supplies steam to heat water and steam for
sterilizing bottles, cans and other utensils.

For some unaccountable reason steam engines are
more reliable than gasoline engines. At the same time
they require more attention, that is, the boilers do.
Steam engines have been known to perform their tasks
year after year without balking and without repairs
or attention of any kind except to feed steam and oil
into the necessary parts, and occasionally repack the
stuffing boxes.

On the other hand, boilers require superintendence
to feed them with both fuel and water. The amount
of time varies greatly. If the boiler is very much
larger than the engine, that is, if the boiler is big
enough to furnish steam for two such engines, it will
furnish steam for one engine and only half try. This
means that the fireman can raise 40 or 60 pounds of

GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 91

steam and attend to his other work around the dairy
or barn.

Where steam boilers are required for heating water
and furnishing steam to scald cans and wash bottles,
the boiler should be several horsepower larger than the
engine requirements. There is no objection to this
except that a large boiler costs more than a smaller
one, and that more steam is generated than is actually-
required to run the engine. The kind of work re-
quired of a boiler and engine must determine the size
and general character of the installation.

Portable boilers and engines are not quite so satis-
factory as stationary, but there are a great many por-
table outfits that give good satisfaction, and there is
the advantage of moving them to the different parts of
the farm when power is required for certain purposes.

SMALL GASOLINE ENGINES

A gasoline engine of 2^^ horsepower is the most use-
ful size for a general purpose farm engine. It is con-
venient to run the pump, washing-machine, fanning-
mill, cream-separator, grindstone, and other similar
farm chores that have heretofore always been done by
human muscle. A small engine may be placed on a
low-down truck and moved from one building to an-
other by hand. One drive belt 20 or 30 feet long, mak-
ing a double belt reach of 12 or 15 feet, will answer
for each setting.

The engine once lined up to hitch onto the pulley of
any stationary machine is all that is necessary. When
the truck is once placed in proper position the wheels
may be blocked by a casting of concrete molded into a
depression in the ground in front and behind each

92 FARM MECHANICS

wheel. These blocks are permanent so that the truck
may be pulled to the same spot each time.

A gasoline engine for farm u§e is expected to run
by the hour without attention. For this reason it
should have a good, reliable hit and miss governor to
regulate the speed, as this type is the most economical
in fuel. It should have a magneto in addition to a

Figure 110. — Kerosene Farm Engine. This Is a very compact type
of engine with heavy flywheels. A longer base might sit steadier
on a wagon, but for stationary use on a solid concrete pier it gives
good service.

six-cell dry battery. It should be equipped with an
impulse starter, a device that eliminates all starting
troubles. The engine should be perfectly balanced so
as to insure smooth running, which adds materially to
the life of the engine. With a good, solid pump jack,
a 2^ horsepower engine will pump water until the
tank is full, whether it requires one hour or half a
day.

It is easily moved to the dairy" house to run the
separator. As the cream-separator chore comes along

GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 93

regularly every night and every morning, the engine
and truck would naturally remain inside of the dairy
house more than any other place. If the dairy house
is too small to let the engine in, then an addition is
necessary, for the engine must be kept under cover.
The engine house should have some artistic pretensions
and a coat of paint.

KEROSENE PORTABLE ENGINES

The kerosene engine is necessarily of the throttle
governor type in order to maintain approximately uni-
form high temperature at all times, so essential to the
proper combustion of kerosene fuel. Therefore, a kero-
sene engine of the hit-and-miss type should be avoided.
However, there are certain classes of work where a
throttle governor engine is at a decided disadvantage,
such as sawing wood, because a throttle governor en-
gine will not go from light load to full load as quickly
as will a hit-and-miss type, and consequently chokes
down much easier, causing considerable loss of time.

A general purpose portable kerosene engine is ad-
mirably suited to all work requiring considerable horse-
power and long hours of service with a fairly steady
load, such as tractor work, threshing, custom feed
grinding, irrigating and silo filling. There will be a
considerable saving in fuel bill over a gasoline engine
if the engine will really run with kerosene, or other
low-priced fuel, without being mixed with gasoline.

In choosing a kerosene engine, particular attention
should be paid to whether or not the engine can be run
on all loads without smoking. Unless this can be done,
liquid fuel is entering the cylinder which will cause ex-
cessive wear on the piston and rings. A good kerosene
engine should show as clean an exhaust as when operat-

94 FARM MECHANICS

ing on gasoline and should develop approximately as
much horsepower. Another feature is harmonizing the
fuel oil and the lubricating oil so that one will not
counteract the effects of the other.

PORTABLE FARM ENGINE AND TRUCK

A convenient arrangement for truck and portable
power for spraying, sawing wood and irrigation pump-
ing, is shown in the accompanying illustration. The
truck is low down, which keeps the machinery within

Figure 111. — (Portable Farm Engine. This engine is permanently
mounted on a low wheel truck wagon. The saw frame is detachable
and the same truck is used for spraying and other work.

reach. The wheels are well braced, which tends to
hold the outfit steady when the engine is running. The
saw table is detachable. When removed, the spraying
tank bolts on to the same truck frame ; also the elevated
table with the railing around it, where the men stand
to spray large apple trees, is bolted onto the wagon
bed.

Spraying never was properly done until the power-
ful engine and high pressure tanks were invented.
Spraying to be effective, should be fine as mist, which
requires a pressure of 150 pounds. There may be a

GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 95

number of attachments to a spraying outfit of this
kind. A pipe suspended under the frame with a noz-
zle for each row is used to spray potatoes, strawberry
vines and other low down crops that are grown in rows.
When not in use 'as a portable engine it is blocked
firmly into place to run the regular stationary farm
machinery.

HYDRAULIC RAM

The hydraulic ram is a machine that gets its power
from the momentum of running water. A ram consists
of a pipe of large diameter, an air chamber and an-
other pipe of small diameter, all connected by means of
valves to encourage the flow of water in two different
directions. A supply of running water with a fall of
at least two feet is run through a pipe several inches
in diameter reaching from above the dam to the hy-
draulic ram, where part of the flow enters the air
chamber of the ram. Near the foot of the large pipe,
or at what might be called the tailrace, is a peculiarly
constructed valve that closes when running water
starts to pass through it. When the large valve closes
the water stops suddenly, which causes a back-pressure
sufficient to lift a check-valve to admit a certain
amount of water from the large supply pipe into the
air-chamber of the ram.

After the flow of water is checked, the foot-valve
drops of its own weight, which again starts the flow
of water through the large pipe, and the process is
repeated a thousand or a million times, each time forc-
ing a little water through the check-valve into the air
chamber of the ram. The water is continually being
forced out into the small delivery pipe in a constant
stream because of the steady pressure of the impris-
oned air in the air-chamber which acts as a cushion.

FARM MECHANICS

This imprisoned air compresses after each kick and ex
pands between kicks in a manner intended to force a
more or less steady flow of water through the small
pipe. The air pressure is maintained by means of a
small valve that permits a little air to suck in with the
supply of water.

Figure 112. — Hydraulic Ram. The upper drawing shows how to
install the ram. The lower drawing is a detail section through th^
center of the ram. Water flows downhill through the supply pipe.
The intermittent action of the valve forces a portion of the water
through another valve into the air-chamber. Air pressure forces
this water out through delivery pipe. Another valve spills the waste
water over into the tailrace. An automatic air-valve intermittently
admits air into the air-chamber.

Water may be conveyed uphill to the house by this
means, sometimes to considerable distance. The size
of the ram and its power to lift water depends upon
the amount of water at the spring and the number of
feet of fall. In laying the small pipe, it should be
placed well down under ground to keep it cool in sum-
mer and to bury it beyond the reach of winter frost.
At the upper end where the water is delivered a stor-

GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 97

age tank with an overflow is necessary, so the water
can run away when not being drawn for use. A con-
stant supply through a ram demands a constant deliv-
ery. It is necessary to guard the water intake at the
dam. A fence protection around the supply pool to
keep live-stock or wild animals out is the first measure
of precaution. A fine screen surrounding the upper
end of the pipe that supplies water to the ram is neces-
sary to keep small trash from interfering with the
valves.

THE FARM TRACTOR

Farm tractors are becoming practical. Most the-
ories have had a try out, the junk pile has received
many failures and the fittest are about to survive.
Now, if the manufacturers will standardize the rating
and the important parts and improve their selling or-
ganizations the whole nation will profit. The success-
ful tractors usually have vertical engines with four
cylinders. They are likely to have straight spur trans-
mission gears, and a straight spur or chain drive, all
carefully protected from dust. And they will have
considerable surface bearing to avoid packing the soil.
Some tractors carry their weight mostly upon the drive
wheels — a principle that utilizes weight to increase
traction. Other tractors exert a great deal of energy
in forcing a small, narrow front steering-wheel through
the soft ground. Any farmer who has pushed a loaded
wheelbarrow knows what that means. Some kerosene
tractors require a large percentage of gasoline. The
driver may be as much to blame as the engine. But
it should be corrected.

Manufacturers should do more educational work and
talk less about the wonderfully marvelous and mar-
velously wonderful. Salesmen should study mechanics

FARM MECHANICS

instead of oratory. Tractor efficiency should be rated
practically instead of theoretically. The few actual

Figure 113. — Tractor Transmission Gear. Spur gears are the most
satisfactory for heavy work.

reports of performance have emanated from tests with
new machines in the hands of trained demonstrators.
Manufacturers include belt power work among the

GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER

virtues of farm tractors, and they enumerate many
light jobs, such as running a cream-separator, sawing
wood, pumping water and turning the fanning-mill.
Well, a farm tractor can do such work — yes. So can
an elephant push a bfeby carriage. If manufacturers

Figure 114. — Straight Transmission Gear, forward and chain drive
reverse, for traction engine.

would devise a practical means of using electricity as
an intermediary, and explain to farmers how a day's
energy may be stored in practical working batteries to
be paid out in a week, then we could understand why
we should run a 20 horsepower engine to operate a
cream-separator one hour at night and another hour in
the morning.

CHAPTER IV
DEIVEN MACHINES
FARM WATERWORKS

Every farm has its own water supply. Some are
very simple, others are quite elaborate. It is both
possible and practical for a farmer to have his own
tap water under pressure on the same plan as the city.
When good water is abundant within 75 feet of the
surface of the ground the farm supply may be had
cheaper and better than the city. Even deep well
pumping is practical with good machinery rightly in-
stalled. Farm waterworks should serve the house and
the watering troughs under a pressure of at least 40
pounds at the ground level. The system should also
include water for sprinkling the lawn and for irrigat-
ing the garden. If strawberries or other intensive
money crops are grown for market there should be
sufficient water in the pipes to save the crop in time of
drouth. These different uses should all be credited
to the farm waterworks system pro rata, according to
the amounts used by the different departments of the
farm. The books would then prove that the luxury of
hot and cold running water in the farmhouse costs less
than the average city family pays.

Three Systems of Water Storage. — The first plan
adopted for supplying water under pressure on farms
was the overhead tank. The water was lifted up into
the tank by a windmill and force pump. Because wind

100

DRIVEN MACHINES 101

power proved rather uncertain farlriers adopted the
gasoline engine, usually a two horsepower engine.

The second water storage plan was the air-tight steel
water-tank to be placed in the cellar or in a pit under-
ground. The same pump and power supplies the water
for this system, but it also requires an air-pump to sup-
ply pressure to force the water out of the tank.

The third plan forces the water out of the well by air
pressure, as it is needed for use. No water pump is
required in this system; the air-compressor takes its
place.

Suction-Pumps, — The word suction, when applied to
pumps, is a misnomer. The principle upon which such
pumps work is this : The pump piston drives the air
out of the pump cylinder which produces a vacuum.
The pressure of the atmosphere is about fifteen pounds
per square inch of surface. This pressure forces suffi-
cient water up through the so-called suction pipe to fill
the vacuum in the cylinder. The water is held in the
cylinder by foot-valves or clack-valves. As the piston
again descends into the cylinder it plunges into water
instead of air. A foot-valve in the bottom end of the
hollow piston opens while going down and closes to
hold and lift the water as the piston rises. Water
from the well is forced by atmospheric pressure to fol-
low the piston and the pump continues to lift water so
long as the joints remain air-tight. The size of piston
and length of stroke depend on the volume of water
required, the height to which it must be lifted and the
power available. A small power and a small cylinder
will lift a small quantity of water to a considerable
height. But increasing the volume of water requires a
larger pump and a great increase in the power to op-
erate it. The size of the delivery pipe has a good deal

1Q2

FIRM MECHANICS

Figure 115. — The Farm Pump. It superseded the iron-bound
bucket, the slimy old bucket, the malaria-lined bucket that hung
in the well, but it wore out the women. Oil was never wasted on its
creaking joints. Later it was fitted with a stuflSng-box and an air-
chamber, and the plunger was hitched to the windmill.

To the right are shown two kinds of post-hole diggers. The upper
digger is sometimes used to clear the fine earth out of the bottom
of a hole dug by the lower digger.

to do with the flow of water. When water is forced
through a small pipe at considerable velocity, there is a
good deal of friction. Often thje amount of water de-

DRIVEN MACHINES

103

livered is reduced because the discharge pipe is too
small. Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its
capacity four times. Square turns in the discharge
pipe are obstructions ; either the pipe must be larger
or there will be a diminished flow of water. Some
pump makers are particular to furnish easy round
bends instead of the ordinary right-angled elbows. A
great many pumps are working under unnecessary

Figure 116. — Hand Force-Pump. Showing two \yays of attaching
wooden handles to hand force-pumps.

handicaps, simply because either the supply pipe or
discharge pipe is not in proportion to the capacity of
the pump, or the arrangement of the pipes is faulty.
Rotary Pumps, — ^A twin-chamber rotary pump ad-
mits water at the bottom of the chamber and forces it
out through the top. Intermeshing cogs and rotary
cams revolve outward from the center at the bottom, as
shown by the arrows in Figure 118. The stream of
water is divided by the cams, as it enters the supply
pipe at the bottom, and half of the water is carried
each way around the outsides of the double chamber.
These streams of water meet at the top of the cham-
ber, where they unite to fill the discharge pipe. These

104

FARM MECHANICS

Figure 117. — Rotary Pump. Twin water-chamber rotary pumps
take water through the bottom and divide the supply, carrying half
of the stream around to the left and the other half to the right.
The two streams meet and are discharged at the top.

Figure 118.— Section of Rotary Pump.

DRIVEN MACHINES 105

pumps operate without air-chambers and supply water
in a continuous stream. They may be speeded up to
throw water under high pressure for fire fighting, but
for economy in ordinary use the speed is kept down to
200 revolutions, or thereabout. Eotary pumps are also
made with one single water chamber cylinder. The
pump head, or shaft, is placed a little off center. A
double end cam moves the water. Both ends of the
cam fit against the bore of the cylinder. It works
loosely back and forth through a slotted opening in the
pump head. As the shaft revolves the eccentric motion
of the double cam changes the sizes of the water-pock-
ets. The pockets are largest at the intake and smallest
at the discharge. Rotary pumps are comparatively
cheap, as regards first cost, but they are not economi-
cal of power. In places where the water-table is near
the surface of the ground they will throw water in a
very satisfactory manner. But they are more used in
refineries and factories for special work, such as pump-
ing oil and other heavy liquids.

Centrifugal Pumps. — The invention and improve-
ment of modern centrifugal pumps has made the lift-
ing of water in large quantities possible. These pumps
are constructed on the turbine principle. Water is
lifted in a continuous stream by a turbine wheel re-
volving under high speed. Water is admitted at the
center and discharged at the outside of the casing.
Centrifugal pumps work best at depths ranging from
twenty to sixty feet. Manufacturers claim that farm-
ers can afford to lift irrigation water sixty feet with a
centrifugal pump driven by a kerosene engine.

The illustrations show the principle upon which the
pump works and the most approved way of setting

106 FARM MECHANICS

pumps and engines. Centrifugal pumps usually are
set in dry wells a few feet above the water-table. While
these pumps have a certain amount of suction, it is
found that short supply pipes are much more efficient.
Where water is found in abundance within from 15 to
30 feet of the surface, and the wells may be so con-
structed that the pull-down, or the lowering of the

Figure 119. — Centrifugal Pump. This style of pump is used in
many places for irrigation. It runs at high speed, which varies
according to the size of the pump. It takes water at the center and
discharges it at the outside of the casing.

water while pumping is not excessive, then it is pos-
sible to lift water profitably to irrigate crops in the
humid sections. Irrigation in such cases, in the East, is
more in the nature of insurance against drouth. Valu-
able crops, such as potatoes and strawberries, may be
made to yield double, or better, by supplying plenty
of moisture at the critical time in crop development.
It is a new proposition in eastern farming that is likely
to develop in the near future.

DRIVEN MACHINES

107

Air Pressure Pump, — Instead of pumping water out
of the well some farmers pump air into the well to force
the water out. A double compartment cylindrical tank
is placed in the water in the well. These tanks are con-
nected with the farm water distributing system to be
carried in pipes to the house and to the stock stables.
Air under a pressure of from 50 to 100 pounds per

Check Vialve

(["Air Compressor G asoline En gine^

^Droln CocK ^To Water"

Distribution System^

Submerged Pump-

Figure 120. — Air Pressure Pump. Pumping water by air pressure
requires a large air container capable of resisting a pressure of 100
pounds per square inch. This illustration shows the pressure tank,
engine, air-compressor, well and submerged pump.

square inch is stored in a steel tank above ground.
Small gas-pipes connect this air pressure tank with
the air-chamber of the- air-water tank in the well. A
peculiar automatic valve regulates the air so that it
enters the compartment that is filled, or partly filled,
with water, and escapes from the empty one so the two
compartments work together alternately. That is, the
second chamber fills with water, while the first cham-
ber is being drawn upon. Then the first chamber
fills while the second is being emptied. This system

108 FARM MECHANICS

will work in a well as small as eight inches in diameter,
and to a depth of 140 feet. It might be made to work
at a greater depth, but it seems hardly practical to
do so for the reason that, after allowing for friction in
the pipes, 100 pounds of air pressure is necessary to
lift water 150 feet. An air tank of considerable size is
needed to provide storage for sufficient air to operate
the system without attention for several days. Care-
ful engineering figures are necessary to account for
the different depths of farm wells, and the various
amounts of water and power required. For instance :
The air tank already contains 1,000 gallons of air at
atmospheric pressure — then : Forcing 1,000 gallons of
atmospheric air into a 1,000-gallon tank will give a
working pressure of 15 pounds per square inch ; 2,000
gallons, 30 pounds ; 3,000 gallons, 45 pounds, and so on.
Therefore, a pressure of 100 pounds in a 1,000-gallon
tank (42 inches by 14 feet) would require 6,600 gallons
of free atmosphere, in addition to the original 1,000
gallons, and the tank would then contain 1,000 gallons
of compressed air under a working pressure of 100
pounds per square inch. A one cylinder compressor
6 inches by 6 inches, operating at a speed of 200 E.P.M.
would fill this tank to a working pressure of 100
pounds in about 50 minutes. One gallon of air will
deliver one gallon of water at the faucet. But the
air must have the same pressure as the water, ^nd there
must be no friction. Thus, one gallon of air under a
working pressure of forty-five pounds, will, theoretic-
ally, deliver one gallon of water to a height of 100 feet.
But it takes three gallons of free air to make one gal-
lon of compressed air at forty-five pounds pressure.
If the lift is 100 feet, then 1,000 gallons of air under a

DRIVEN MACHINES

109

pressure of forty-five pounds will theoretically deliver
1,000 gallons of water. Practically, the air tank would
have to be loaded to a very much greater pressure to

Figure 121. — (1) Single-Gear Pump Jack. This type of jack is
used for wells from 20 to 40 feet deep. (2) Double-Gear, or
Multiple-Gear Pump Jack. This is a rather powerful jack designed
for deep wells or for elevating water into a high water-tank.

secure the 1,000 gallons of water before losing the
elasticity of the compressed air. If one thousand gal-
lons of water is needed on the farm every day, then
the air pump would have to work about one hour each

110

FARM MECHANICS

Figure 122. — Post Pump Jack. This arrangement is used in fac-
tories when floor space is valuable. The wide-face driving-pulley is
shown to the left.

Figure 123. — Three Jacks for Different Purposes. At the left is a
reverse motion jack having the same speed turning either right or
left. The little jack in the center is for light work at high belt
speed. To the right is a powerful jack intended for slow speeds
such as hoisting or elevating grain.

morning. This may not be less expensive than pump-
ing the water directly, but it offers the advantage of
water fresh from the well. Pure air pumped into the
well tends to keep the water from becoming stale.

DRIVEN MACHINES 111

Pump Jacks and Speed Jacks. — Farm pumps and
speed-reducing jacks are partners in farm pumping.

Figure 124. — ^Speed Jack, for reducing speed between engine and
tumbling rod or to increase speed between tumbling rod and the
driven machine.

Figure 125. — The Speed Jack on the left is used either to reduce
or increase tumbling rod speed and to reverse the motion. The
Speed Jack on the right transfers power either from belt to tumbling
rod or reverse. It transforms high belt speed to low tumbling rod
speed, or vice versa.

Force-pumps should not run faster than forty strokes
per minute. Considerable power is required to move
the piston when the water is drawn from a deep well

112 FARM MECHANICS

and forced into an overhead tank. Jacks are manufac-
tured which bolt directly to the pump, and there are
pumps and jacks built together. A pump jack should
have good, solid gearing to reduce the speed. Spur-
gearing is the most satisfactory. Bevel-gears are waste-
ful of power when worked under heavy loads. Power
to drive a pump jack is applied to a pulley at least
twelve inches in diameter with a four-inch face when
belting is used. If a rope power conveyor is -used,
then pulleys of larger diameters are required to con-
vey the same amount of power.

Only general terms may be used in describing the
farm pump, because the conditions differ in each case.
Generally speaking, farmers fail to appreciate the
amount of power used, and they are more than likely
to buy a jack that is too light. Light machinery may
do the work, but it goes to pieces quicker, while a heavy
jack with solid connections will operate the pump year
in and year out without making trouble. For in-
creasing or reducing either speed or power some kind
of jack is needed. All farm machines have their best
speed. A certain number of revolutions per minute
will accomplish more and do better work than any
other speed. To apply power to advantage speed jacks
have been invented to adjust the inaccuracies between
driver and driven.

IRRIGATION BY PUMPING

The annual rainfall in the United States varies in
diflerei^t parts of the country from a few inches to a
few feet. Under natural conditions some soils get too
much moisture and some too little. Irrigation is em-
ployed to supply the deficiency and drainage, either

DRIVEN MACHINES

113

natural or artificial, carries off the excess. Irrigation
and drainage belong together. Irrigation fills the soil
with moisture and drainage empties it. Thus, a con-
dition is established that supplies valuable farm plants
with both air and moisture. In the drier portions of
the United States, nothing of value will grow without

Figure 126. — Centrifugal Pump Setting. When used for irriga-
tion, centrifugal pumps are set as close to the ground water as
practical.

irrigation. In the so-called humid districts deficiency
of moisture at the critical time reduces the yield and
destroys the profit. The value of irrigation has been
demonstrated in the West, and the practice is working
eastward.

Irrigation is the new handmaiden of prosperity. A
rainy season is a bountiful one. Irrigation supplies
the bounty without encouraging destructive fungus

114 FARM MECHANICS

diseases. Where water is abundant within easy reach,
pumping irrigation water is thoroughly practical.
Improvements in pumps in recent years have increased
their capacity and insured much greater reliability.
A centrifugal pump is recommended for depths down
to 75 feet ; beyond this depth the necessity of installing
more expensive machinery places the business of pump-
ing for irrigation on a different plane. A centrifugal
pump will throw more water with less machinery than
any other device, but like all other mechanical inven-
tions, it has its limitations. In figuring economical
pumping, the minimum quantity should be at least 100
gallons per minute, because time is an object, and irri-
gation, if done at all, should cover an area sufficient to
bring substantial returns. Centrifugal pumps should
be placed near the surface of the water in the well.
For this reason, a large, dry well is dug down to
the level of the water-table and the pump is solidly
bolted to a concrete foundation built on the bottom of
this well. A supply pipe may be extended any depth
below the pump, but the standing water surface in the
well should reach within a few feet of the pump. The
pump and supply must be so well balanced against
each other that the pull-down from pumping will not
lower the water-level in the well more than twenty feet
below the pump. The nearer the ground water is to
the pump the better.

The water well below the pump may be bored, or a
perforated well pipe may be driven; or several well
points may be connected. The kind of well must de-
pend upon the condition of the earth and the nature
of the water supply. Driven wells ^re more successful
when water is found in a stratum of coarse gravel.

DRIVEN MACHINES 115

Before buying irrigation machinery, it is a good
plan to test tlie water supply by temporary means.
Any good farm pump may be hitched to a gasoline en-
gine to determine if the water supply is lasting or not.
Permanent pumping machinery should deliver the wa-
ter on high ground. A main irrigation ditch may be
run across the upper end of the field. This ditch
should hold the water high enough so it may be tapped
at convenient places to run through the corrugations to
reach the roots of the plants to be benefited. There are
different systems of irrigation designed to fit different
soils. Corrugations are the cheapest and the most
satisfactory when soils are loose enough to permit the
water to soak into the soil sideways, as well as to sink
down. The water should penetrate the soil on both
sides of the corrugations for distances of several inches.
Corrugations should be straight and true and just far
enough apart so the irrigation water will soak across
and meet between. Some soils will wash or gully out
if the fall is too rapid. In such cases it may be neces-
sary to terrace the land by following the natural con-
tour around the ridges so the water may flow gently.
Where the fall is very slight, that is, where the ground
is so nearly level that it slopes away less than six inches
in a hundred feet, it becomes necessary. to prepare the
land by building checks and borders to confine the
water for a certain length of time. Then it is let out
into the next check. In the check and border system
the check bank on the lower side has an opening which
is closed during the soaking period with a canvas dam.
When the canvas is lifted the water flows through and
fills the next check. This system is more expensive,
and it requires more knowledge of irrigation to get it

116 FARM MECHANICS

started, and it is not likely to prove satisfactory in the
East.

For fruits and vegetables, what is known asi the fur-
row system of irrigation is the most practical. An or-
chard is irrigated by plowing furrows on each side of
each row of trees. The water is turned into these fur-
rows and it runs across the orchard like so many little
rivulets. Potatoes are irrigated on the same plan by
running water through between the rows after the po-
tatoes have been ridged by a double shovel-plow. This
plan also works well with strawberries. After the land
is prepared for irrigation, the expense of supplying
water to a fruit orchard, strawberry patch or potato
field is very little compared with the increi.se in yield.
In fact, there are seasons when one irrigation will save
the crop and produce an abundant yield, when other-
wise it would have been almost a total loss.

Overhead Spray Irrigation. — The most satisfactory
garden irrigation is the overhead spray system. Posts
are set ten feet apart in rows 50 feet apart. Water
pipes are laid on the tops of the posts and held loosely
in position by large staples. These water pipes are
perforated by drilling a line of small holes about three
feet apart in a straight line along one side of the pipe.
The holes are tapped and small brass nozzles are
screwed in. The overhead pipes are connected with
standpipes at the highest place, generally at the ends
of the rows. The pipe-lines are loosely coupled to the
standpipes to permit them to roll partly around to di-
rect the hundreds of spray nozzles as needed.

Six feet high is sufficient to throw a fine mist or
spray twenty-five feet, which is far enough to meet the
spray from the next row, so the ground will be com-

DRIVEN MACHINES

117

pletely covered. To do this the pipes are rolled from
one side to the other, through a 90 degree arc to throw
the spray on both sides. The pipes usually are laid
with a grade which follows down the slope of the land.
A fall of one foot in fifty is sufficient. Water is always
admitted at the upper end of each pipe-line to flow

25'

so-

SO'

Z5'

1 "•

1 -

— p

§!

1 •
i|

!±r-_

■ —

"200-

Li;

Figure 127. — Overhead Irrigation. Diagram showing the arrange-
ment of pipes for irrigating one acre of land. The pipes are sup-
ported on posts six feet high.

down by gravity, assisted by tank pressure. A pres-
sure of about forty pounds is needed to produce a fine
spray, and to send it across to meet the opposite jets.
The little brass nozzles are drilled with about a one-
eighth inch hollow. But the jet opening is small,
about No. 20 W. G. This gives a wire-drawn stream
that quickly vaporizes when it meets the resistance of
the atmosphere. When properly installed a fine misty
rain is created, which quickly takes the same tempera-

118 FARM MECHANICS

ture as the air, and settles so gently that the most
delicate plants are not injured.

Quantity of Water to Use. — Good judgment is neces-
sary in applying water to crops in regard to quantity,
as well as the time of making application. Generally
speaking, it is better to wait until the crop really needs
moisture. When the pump is started give the crop
plenty with the expectation that one irrigation will be
sufficient. Much depends upon the amount of moist-
ure in the soil ; also the kind of crop and weather con-
ditions enter into the problem. On sandy land that is
very dry where drainage is good, water may be per-
mitted to run in the corrugations for several days un-
til the ground is thoroughly soaked. When potatoes
are forming, or clover is putting down its big root sys-
tem, a great deal of water is needed. Irrigation suffi-
cient to make two inches of rainfall may be used to
advantage for such crops under ordinary farming con-
ditions. It is necessary after each irrigation to break
the soil crust by cultivation to prevent evaporation.
This is just as important after irrigation as it is after
a rain shower. Also any little pockets that hold water
must be carefully drained out, otherwise the crop will
be injured by standing water. We are not supposed
to have such pockets on land that has been prepared
for irrigation.

Kind of Crops to Irrigate. — Wheat, oats, barley, etc.,
may be helped with one irrigation from imminent fail-
ure to a wealth of production. But these rainfall
grain crops do not come under the general classifica-
tion that interests the regular irrigation farmer beyond
his diversity plans for producing considerable variety.
Fruits, roots, clover, alfalfa, vegetables and Indian
corn are money crops under irrigation. Certain seed

DRIVEN MACHINES 119

crops yield splendidly when watered. An apple or-
chard properly cared for and irrigated just at the right
time will pay from five hundred to a thousand dollars
per acre. Small fruits are just as valuable. These
successes account for the high prices of irrigated land.
In the East and in the great Middle West, valuable
crops are cut short or ruined by drouth when the fruit
or corn is forming. It makes no difference how much
rain comes along at other times in the year, if the roots
cannot find moisture at the critical time, the yield is
reduced often below the profit of raising and harvest-
ing the crop. Strawberry blossoms shrivel and die
in the blooming when rain fails. Irrigation is better
than rain for strawberries. Strawberries under irri-
gation may be made to yield more bushels than potatoes
-under humid conditions. One hundred bushels of
strawberries per acre sounds like a fairy tale, but it is
possible on rich land under irrigation.

The cost of pumping for irrigation, where the well
and machinery is used for no other purpose, must be
charged up to the crop. The items of expense are in-
terest on the first cost of the pumping machinery, de-
preciation, upkeep and running expenses. On East-
ern farms, however, where diversified farming is the
business, this expense may be divided among the dif-
ferent lines of work. Where live-stock is kept, it is
necessary to have a good, reliable water sup{)ly for
the animals. A reservoir on high ground so water may
be piped to the watering troughs and to the house is a
great convenience. Also the same engine that does the
pumping may be used for other work in connection
with the farm, so that the irrigation pump engine, in-
stead of lying idle ten or eleven months in the year,
may be utilized to advantage and made to earn its keep.

120

FARM MECHANICS

Well-water contains many impurities. For this rea-
son, it is likely to be valuable for crop growing pur-
poses in a wider sense than merely to supply moisture.
Well-water contains lime, and lime is beneficial to most
soils. It has been noticed that crops grow especially
well when irrigated from wells.

SUPPORT

Figure 128. — Power Transmission. Circular motion is converted
into reciprocating motion by the different lengths of the two pitman
cranks which cause the upper wheel to oscillate. Power is carried
to a distance by wires. To* reduce friction the wires are supported
by swinging hangers. Sometimes wooden rods are used instead of
wires to lessen expansion and contraction.

House and Barns Supplied from a Reservoir, — A
farm reservoir may sometimes be built very cheaply
by throwing a dam across a narrow hollow between two
hills, or ridges. On other farms, it is necessary to
scrape out a hole on the highest ground within reach.
For easy irrigation a reservoir is necessary, and it is
economical because the pump may work overtime and

DRIVEN MACHINES 121

supply enough water so the irrigation may be 'done
quickly and with sufficient water to make it effective.
When the cost of the reservoir can be charged up to
the different departments of the business, such as irri-
gation, live-stock and house use, the cost is divided and
the profits are multiplied.

Power Conveyor, — Circular motion is converted into
reciprocal motion to operate a pump at a distance from
the engine. The short jack crank oscillates the driving
pulley to move the conveyor wires back and forth. The
distance to which power may be carried is limited by
the expansion and contraction of the conveying wires.
Wooden rods are better under extremes of tempera-
ture. Where an engine is used night and morning in
the dairy house to run a cream separator, this kind of
power transmission may be worked to operate the
pump at the house. Light wire hangers will support
the line wires or rods. They should be about three
feet in length, made fast at top and bottom to prevent
wear. The spring of a No. 10 wire three feet long is
sufficient to swing the length of a pump stroke and the
friction is practically nothing.

ELECTRICITY ON THE FARM

Electric current in some sections may be purchased
from electric railways or city lighting plants. But the
great majority of farms are beyond the reach of high
tension transmission cables. In some places three or
four farmers may club together and buy a small light-
ing plant to supply their own premises with both light
and power. Unless an engineer is employed to run it
trouble is sure to follow, because one family does all of
the work and others share equally in the benefits. The
solution is for each farmer to install a small plant of

122

FARM MECHANICS

his own. The proposition is not so difficult as it sounds.
Two-horsepower plants are manufactured for this very
purpose. But there is more to it than buying a dy-
namo and a few lamp bulbs. A farm electric system
should supply power to run all of the light stationary
machinery about the farm, and that means storage

Figure 129. — Electric Power Plant. A practical farm generator
and storage battery, making a complete farm electric plant that will
develop and store electricity for instant use in any or all of the
farm buildings.

batteries, and the use of one or more small electric mo-
tors. There are several ways to arrange the plant,
but to save confusion it is better to study first the stor-
age battery plan and to start with an engine large
enough to pump water and run the dynamo at the same
time. It is a good way to do two jobs at once — ^you
store water enough in the supply tank to last twenty-
four or forty-eight hours, and at the same time you

DRIVEN MACHINES 123

store up sufficient electricity to run the cream-separa-
tor for a week. Electric power is the only power that
is steady enough to get all of the cream.

Refrigeration is a profitable way to use electric pow-
er. There are small automatic refrigerator machines
that maintain low temperatures to preserve food prod-
ucts. This branch of the work may be made profitable.
Laundry work on the farm was principally hand labor
until the small power washers and wringers were in-
vented. Now a small electric motor takes the blue out
of Monday, and the women wear smiles. Electric flat-
irons afford the greatest comfort on Tuesday. The
proper heat is maintained continually until the last
piece is ironed. Cooking by electricity is another great
success. Some women buy separate cooking utensils,
such as toasters, chafing dishes and coffee percolators.
Others invest in a regular electric cooking range at a
cost of fifty dollars and feel that the money was well
spent. It takes about 100 K.W.H. per month in hot
weather to cook by electricity for a family of four. In
winter, when heat is more of a luxury, the coal or wood
range will save half of the electric current. Dishwash-
ing by electricity is another labor-saver three times a
day. Vacuum cleaners run by electricity take the dust
and microbes out of floor rugs with less hand labor
than pushing a carpet sweeper. Incubators are better
heated by electricity than any other way. Brooders
come under the same class. Sewing-machines were op-
erated by electricity in sweatshops years ago — because
it paid. Farm women are now enjoying the same privi-
lege.

Electric lighting on the farm is the most spectacular,
if not the most interesting result of electric generation
in the country. This feature of the subject was some-

124 FARM MECHANICS

what overtaxed by talkative salesmen representing*
some of the pioneer manufacturers of electric lighting
plants, but the business has steadied down. Real elec-
tric generating machinery is being manufactured and
sold on its merits in small units.

Not many miles from Chicago there is an electric
lighting plant on a dairy farm that is giving satisfac-
tion. The stables are large and they are managed on
the plan of milking early in the morning and again in
the middle of the afternoon. The morning work re-
quires a great deal of light in the different stables,
more light than ordinary, because the milking is done
by machinery. The milking machine air-pump is
driven by electricity generated on the farm, the power
being supplied by a kerosene engine.

Electricity on this farm is used in units, separate
lines extending to the different buildings. The light-
ing plant is operated on what is known as the 32-volt
system ; the rating costs less to install than some others
and the maintenance is less than when a higher volt-
age is used. I noticed also that there are fewer parts
in connection with the plant than in other electric light
works that I have examined.

Technical knowledge of electricity and its behavior
under different circumstances is hardly necessary to a
farmer, because the manufacturers have simplified the
mechanics of electric power and lighting to such an ex-
tent that it is only necessary to use ordinary precau-
tion to run the plant to its capacity.

At the same time it is just as well to know something
about generators, switchboards and the meanings of
such terms and names as volt, ampere, battery poles,
voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat, discharge switch, under-

DRIVEN MACHINES 125

load circuit breaker, false fuse blocks, etc., because
familiarity with these names, and the parts they rep-
resent gives the person confidence in charging the bat-
teries. Such knowledge also supplies a reason for the
one principal battery precaution, which is not to use
out all of the electricity the batteries contain.

Those who have electric lighting plants on the farm
do not seem to feel the cost of running the plants, be-
cause they use the engine for other purposes. Gen-
erally manufacturers figure about 1 H.P. extra to run
a dynamo to supply from 25 to 50 lights. My experi-
ence with farm engines is that for ordinary farm work
such as driving the cream separator, working the pump
and grinding feed, a two-horse power engine is more
useful than any other size. Farmers who conduct
business in the usual way will need a three-horsepower
engine if they contemplate adding an electric lighting
system to the farm equipment.

Among the advantages of an electric lighting sys-
tem is the freedom from care on the part of the women.
There are no lamps to clean or broken chimneys to cut
a finger, so that when the system is properly installed
the only work the women have to do is to turn the
switches to throw the lights on or off as needed.

The expense in starting a farm electric light plant
may be a little more than some other installations, but
it seems to be more economical in service when figured
from a farmer's standpoint, taking into consideration
the fact that he is using power for generating electric-
ity that under ordinary farm management goes to
waste.

A three-horsepower engine will do the same amount
of work with the sarae amount of gasoline that a two-

126 FARM MECHANICS

horsepower engine will do. This statement may not
hold good when figured in fractions, but it will in farm
practice. Also when running a pump or cream sepa-
tor the engine is capable of doing a little extra work
so that the storage batteries may be c)iarged with very
little extra expense.

On one dairy farm a five-horsepower kerosene engine
is used to furnish power for various farm purposes.
The engine is belted to a direct-current generator of
the shunt-wound type. The generator is wired to an
electric storage battery of 88 ampere hour capacity.
The battery is composed of a number of separate cells.
The cells are grouped together in jars. These jars con-
tain the working parts of the batteries. As each jar
of the battery is complete in itself, any one jar may be
cut out or another added without affecting the other
units. The switchboard receives current either from
the battery or from the engine and generator direct.
There are a number of switches attached to the switch-
board, which may be manipulated to turn the current
in any direction desired.

Some provision should be made for the renewal of
electric lamps. Old lamps give less light than new
ones, and the manufacturers should meet customers on
some kind of a fair exchange basis. Tungsten lamps
are giving good satisfaction for farm use. These
lamps are economical of current, which means a reduc-
tion of power to supply the same amount of light. The
Mazda lamp is another valuable addition to the list of
electric lamps.

The Wisconsin Agriculturist publishes a list of 104
different uses for electricity on. farms. Many of the
electrical machines are used for special detail work
in dairies where cheese or butter is made in quantity.

DRIVEN MACHINES 127

Sugar plantations also require small units of power
that would not apply to ordinary farming. Some of
the work mentioned is extra heavy, such as threshing
and cutting ensilage. Other jobs sound trivial, but
they are all possible labor-savers. Here is the list :

*'Oat crushers, alfalfa mills, horse groomers, horse
clippers, hay cutters, clover cutters, corn shellers, en-
silage cutters, corn crackers, branding irons, currying
machines, feed grinders, flailing machines, live stock
food warmers, sheep shears, threshers, grain graders,
root cutters, bone grinders, hay hoists, clover hullers,
rice threshers, pea and bean hullers, gas-electric har-
vesters, hay balers, portable motors for running thresh-
ers, fanning-mills, grain elevators, buskers and shred-
ders, grain drying machines, binder motors, wheat and
corn grinders, milking machines, sterilizing milk, re-
frigeration, churns, cream-separators, butter workers,,
butter cutting-printing, milk cooling and circulating
pumps, milk clarifiers, cream ripeners, milk mixers,
butter tampers, milk shakers, curd grinders, pasteuri-
zers, bottle cleaners, bottle fillers, concrete mixers,
cider mills, cider presses, spraying machines, wood
splitters, auto trucks, incubators, hovers, telephones,
electric bells, ice cutters, fire alarms, electric vehicles,
electro cultures, water supply, pumping, water steril-
izers, fruit presses, blasting magnetos, lighting, inte-
rior telephones, vulcanizers, pocket flash lights, ice
breakers, grindstones, emery wheels, wood saws, drop
hammers, soldering irons, glue pots, cord wood saws,
egg testers, burglar alarms, bell ringing transformers,
devices for killing insects and pests, machine tools,
molasses heaters, vacuum cleaners, portable lamps to
attract insects, toasters, hot plates, grills, percolators,
flatirons, ranges, toilette articles, water heaters, fans,

128 FARM MECHANICS

egg boilers, heating pads, dishwashers, washing ma-
chines, curling irons, forge blowers. ' '

GASOLINE HOUSE LIGHTING

Gasoline gas for house lighting is manufactured in a
small generator by evaporating gasoline into gas and
mixing it with air, about 5 per cent gas and 95 per cent
air. We are all familiar with the little brass gasoline
torch heater that tinners and plumbers use to heat
their soldering irons. The principle is the same.

There are three systems of using gasoline gas for
farmhouse lighting purposes, the hollow wire, tube sys-
tem, and single lamp system.

The hollow wire system carries the liquid gasoline
through the circuit in a small pipe called a hollow wire.
Each lamp on the circuit takes a few drops of gasoline
as needed, converts it into gas, mixes the gas with the
proper amount of air and produces a fine brilliant
light. Each lamp has its own little generator and is
independent of all other lamps on the line.

The tube system of gasoline gas lighting is similar in
appearance, but the tubes are larger and look more like
regular gas pipes. In the tube system the gas is gener-
ated and mixed with air before it gets into the distri-
bution tube, so that lamps do not require separate gen-
erators.

In the separate lamp system each lamp is separate
and independent. Each lamp has a small supply of
gasoline in the base of the lamp and has a gas genera-
tor attached to the burner, which converts the gasoline
into gas, mixes it with the proper amount of air and
feeds it into the burner as required. Farm lanterns are
manufactured that work on this principle. They pro-
duce a brilliant light.

DRIVEN MACHINES 129

By investigating the different systems of gasoline gas
lighting in use in village stores and country homes any
farmer can select the system that fits into his home con-
ditions to the best advantage. In one farmhouse the
owner wanted gasoline gas street lamps on top of his
big concrete gateposts, and this was one reason why he
decided to adopt gasoline gas lighting and to use the
separate lamp system.

ACETYLENE GAS

Acetylene lighting plants are intended for country
use beyond the reach of city gas mains or electric
cables. Carbide comes in lump form in steel drums. It
is converted into gas by a generator that is fitted with
clock work to drop one or more lumps into water as gas
is needed to keep up the pressure. Acetylene gas is
said to be the purest of all illuminating gases. Experi-
ments in growing delicate plants in greenhouses lighted
with acetylene seem to prove this claim to be correct.

The light also is bright, clear and powerful. The
gas is explosive when mixed with air and confined, so
that precautions are necessary in regard to using lan-
terns or matches near the generators. The expense of
installing an acetylene plant in a farm home has pre-
vented its general use.

WOOD-SAW FRAMES

There are a number of makes of saw frames for use
on farms, some of which are very simple, while others
are quite elaborate. Provision usually is made for
dropping the end of the stick as it is cut. Sometimes
carriers are provided to elevate the blocks onto a pile.
Extension frames to hold both ends of the stick give
more or less trouble, because when the stick to be sawed

130 FARM MECHANICS

is crooked, it is almost impossible to prevent binding.
If a saw binds in the kerf, very often the uniform set
is pinched out of alignment, and there is some danger
of buckling the saw, so that for ordinary wood sawing
it is better to have the end of the stick project beyond
the jig. If the saw is sharp and has the right set and
the right motion, it will cut the stick off quickly and
run free while the end is dropping to the ground.

The quickest saw frames oscillate, being supported
on legs that are hinged to the bottom of the frame.
Oscillating frames work easier than sliding frames.
Sliding frames are sometimes provided with rollers,
but roller frames are not steady enough. For cross
sawing lumber V-shaped grooves are best. No matter
what the feeding device is, it should always be pro-
tected by a hood over the saw. The frame should fall
back of its own weight, bringing the hood with it, so
that the saw is always covered except when actually
engaged with the stick. Saw-mandrels vary in diame-
ter and length, but in construction they are much
alike. For wood sawing the shaft should be 1%'^ or
1%'' in diameter. The shaft runs in two babbitted
boxes firmly bolted to the saw frame. The frame itself
should be well made and well braced.

ROOT PULPER

There are root pulpers with concave knives which'
slice roots in such a way as to bend the slices and break
them into thousands of leafy shreds. The principle is
similar to bending a number of sheets of paper so that
each sheet will slide past the next one. Animals do
not chew roots when fed in large solid pieces. Cattle
choke trying to swallow them whole, but they will
munch shredded roots with apparent patience and evi-

DRIVEN MACHINES 131

dent satisfaction. American farmers are shy on roots.
They do not raise roots in quantities because it re-
quires a good deal of hand labor, but roots make a
juicy laxative and they are valuable as an appetizer
and they carry mineral. Pulped roots are safe to feed
and they offer the best mixing medium for crushed
grains and other concentrated foods.

FEED CRUSHER

Instead of grinding grain for feeding, we have what
is known as a crusher which operates on the roller-mill
principle. It breaks the grains into flour by crushing
instead of grinding. It has the advantage of doing
good work quickly. Our feed grinding is done in the
two-story corncrib and granary. It is one of the odd
jobs on the farm that every man likes. The grain is
fed automatically into the machine by means of the
grain spouts which lead the different kinds of grain
down from the overhead bins. The elevator buckets
carry the crushed feed back to one of the bins or into
the bagger. In either case it is not necessary to do any
lifting for the sacks are carried away on a bag truck.
We have no use for a scoop shovel except as a sort of
big dustpan to use. with the barn broom.

STUMP PULLER

Pulling stumps by machinery is a quick operation
compared with the old time methods of grubbing, chop-
ping, prying and burning that our forefathers had on
their hands. Modern stump pulling machines are
small affairs compared with the heavy, clumsy things
that were used a few years ago. Some of the new
stump pullers are guaranteed to clear an acre a day of

132 FARM MECHANICS

ordinary stumpage. This, of course, must be a rough
estimate, because stumps, like other things, vary in
numbers, size and condition of soundness. Some old
stumps may be removed easily while others hang to
the ground with wonderful tenacity.

There are two profits to follow the removal of stumps
from a partially cleared field. The work already put
on the land has in every case cost considerable labor to
get the trees and brush out of the way. The land is
partially unproductive so long as stumps remain. For
this reason, it is impossible to figure on the first cost
until the stumps are removed to complete the work and
to put the land in condition to raise machine made
crops. When the stumps are removed, the value of the
land either for selling or for farming purposes is in-
creased at once. Whether sold or farmed, the increas-
ing value is maintained by cropping the land and se-
curing additional revenue.

There are different ways of removing stumps, some
of which are easy while others are difficult and expen-
sive. One of the easiest ways is to bore a two-inch
auger hole diagonally down into the stump ; then fill
the auger hole with coal-oil and let it remain for some
weeks to soak into the wood. Large stumps may be
bored in different directions so the coal-oil will find its
way not only through the main part of the stumps
but down into the roots. This treatment requires that
the stumps should be somewhat dry. A stump that is
full of sap has no room for coal-oil, but after the sap
partially dries out, then coal oil will fill the pores of the
wood. After the stump is thoroughly saturated with
coal-oil, it will burn down to the ground, so that the
different large roots will be separated. Sometimes the
roots will burn below plow depth, but a good heavy

DRIVEN MACHINES 133

pair of horses with a grappling hook will remove the
separated roots.

Dynamite often is used to blow stumps to pieces, and
the work is not considered dangerous since the inven-
tion of safety devices. In some sections of the country
where firewood is valuable, dynamite has the advantage

Initial Position Finfll Position

Figure 130. — The Oldest Farm Hoist. The first invention for ele-
vating a heavy object was a tripod made of three poles tied together
at the top with thongs of bark or rawhide. When hunters were
lucky enough to kill a bear, the tripod elevator was erected over the
carcass with the lower ends of the poles spread well apart to lower
the apex. The gambrel was inserted under the hamstrings and at-
tached to the top of the tripod. As the skinning of the animal pro-
ceeded the feet of the tripod were moved closer together. By the
time the head was cut off the carcass would swing clear.

of saving the wood. An expert with dynamite will
blow a stump to pieces so thoroughly that the differ-
ent parts are easily worked into stove lengths. Pitch-
pine stumps have a chemical value that was not sus-
pected until some fellows got rich by operating a retort.

FARM ELEVATING MACHINERY

Many handy and a few heavy elevators are being
manufactured to replace human muscle. The simple
tripod beef gin was familiar to the early settlers and

134 FARM MECHANICS

it is still in use. When a heavy animal was killed for
butchering, the small ends of three poles were tied to-
gether to form a tripod over the carcass. The feet of
the tripod were placed wide apart to raise the apex
only a few feet above the animal. After the gambrel
was inserted and attached the feet of the tripod were
moved gradually closer together as the skinning pro-
ceeded, thus elevating the carcass to swing clear of the
ground.

Grain Elevators, — As a farm labor-saver, machinery
to elevate corn into the two-story concrib and grain
into the upper bins is one of the newer and more im-
portant farming inventions. With a modern two-story
corncrib having a driveway through the center, a con-
crete floor and a pit, it is easy to dump a load of grain
or ear corn by raising the front end of the wagon box
without using a shovel or corn fork. After the load is
dumped into the pit a boy can drive a horse around in a
cil'cle while the buckets carry the corn or small grain
and deliver it by spout into the different corncribs or
grain bins. There are several makes of powerful grain
elevating machines that will do the work easily and
quickly.

The first requisite is a building with storage over-
head, and a convenient place to work the machinery.
Some of the elevating machines are made portable and
some are stationary. Some of the portable machines
will work both ways. Usually stationary elevators are
placed in vertical position. Some portable elevators
may be operated either vertically or on an incline.
Such machines are adaptable to different situations, so
the corn may be carried up into the top story of a farm
grain warehouse or the apparatus may be hauled to the
railway station for chuting the grain or ear corn into

DRIVEN MACHINES

135

a car. It depends upon the use to be made of the ma-
chinery whether the strictly stationary or portable ele-
vator is required. To unload usually some kind of pit
or incline is needed with any kind of an elevator, so the
load may be dumped automatically quickly from the
wagon box to be distributed by carrying buckets at
leisure.

Figure 131. — Portable Grain Elevator Filling a Corncrib. The
same rig is taken to the railway to load box cars. The wagon is un-
loaded by a lifting jaclc. It costs from Ic to l%c per bushel to
shovel corn by hand, but the greatest saving is in time.

Some elevators are arranged to take grain slowly
from under the tailboard of a wagon box. The tailrod
is removed and the tailboard raised half an inch or an
inch, according to the capacity of the machinery. The
load pays out through the opening as the front of the
wagon is gradually raised, so the last grain will dis-
charge into the pit or elevator hopper of its own weight.
Technical building knowledge and skill is required to
properly connect the building and elevating machinery
so that the two will work smoothly together. There
are certain features about the building that must con-

136 FARM MECHANICS

form to the requirements and peculiarities of the ele-
vating machinery. The grain and ear corn are both
carried up to a point from which they will travel by
gravity to any part of the building. The building re-
quires great structural strength in some places, but the
material may be very light in others. Hence, the neces-
sity of understanding both building and machinery in
order to meet all of the necessary technical require-
ments.

CHAPTER V

WOEKING THE SOIL

IMPORTANCE OF PLOWING

Plowing is a mechanical operation that deals with
physics, chemistry, bacteriology and entomology. The
soil is the farmer 's laboratory ; his soil working imple-
ments are his mechanical laboratory appliances. A

Figure 132. — Heavy Disk Plow. A strong four-horse disk imple-
ment for breaking stumpy ground or to tear tough sod into bits be-
fore turning under with a moldboard.

high order of intelligence is required to merge one op-
eration into the next to take full advantage of the
assistance offered by nature. The object of plowing
and cultivation is to improve the mechanical condition
of the soil, to retain moisture, to kill insects and to pro-
vide a suitable home for the different kinds of soil bac-
teria.

There are aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, also nitro-
137 ,

138 FARM MECHANICS

gen-gathering bacteria and nitrifying bacteria which
are often loosely referred to as azotabacter species.
Few of us are on intimate terms with any of them, but
some of us have had formal introductions through ex-
periments and observation.

THE MECHANICS OF PLOWING

Walking Flow. — The draft of a walking plow may
be increased or diminished by the manner of hitch. It

Figure 133. — Sulky Plow. This is a popular type of riding plow.
It is fitted with a rolling coulter.

is necessary to find the direct line of draft between the
work performed and the propelling force. The clevis
in the two-horse doubletree, or the three-horse evener
and the adjusting clevis in the end of the plow-beam
with the connecting link will permit a limited adjust-
ment. The exact direction that this line takes will
prove out in operation. The walking plow should not
have a tendency to run either in or out, neither too
deep nor too shallow. For the proper adjustment as to
width and depth of furrow, the plow should follow the
line of draft in strict obedience to the pull so that it

WORKING THE SOIL

139

will keep to the furrow on level ground a distance of
several feet without guidance from the handles. In
making the adjustment it is first necessary to see that .

Figure 134. — Disk Plow. Less power is required to plow with a
disk, but it is a sort of cut and cover process. The disk digs
trenches narrow at the bottom. There are ridges between the little
trenches that are not worked.

Figure 135. — Three-Horse and Four-Horse Eveners. This kind of
evener hitches the horses closer to the load than some others and
they are easier to handle than the spread out kinds. The four-
horse rig requires the best horses in the middle.

the plow itself is in good working order. All cutting
edges such as share, coulter or jointer must be reason-
ably sharp and the land slip in condition as the makers
intended.

140 FARM MECHANICS

All plows should have a leather pocket on the side of
the beam to carry a file. A 12-inch bastard file with a
good handle is the most satisfactory implement for
sharpening the cutting edges of a plow in the fields. A
good deal depends on the character of the soil and its
condition of dryness, but generally speaking, it p^ys to
do a little filing after plowing a half mile of furrow.
If the horses are doing their duty, a little rest at the
end of the half mile is well earned. The plowman can
put in the time to advantage with the file and the next
half mile will go along merrily in consequence. No
farmer would continue to chop wood all day without
whetting his axe, but, unfortunately, plowmen often
work from morning till night without any attempt to
keep the cutting edges of their plows in good working
order.

Riding Plow. — The riding plow in lifting and turn-
ing the furrow slice depends a good deal on the wheels.
The action of the plow is that of a wedge with the
power pushing the point, the share and the moldboard
between the furrow slices and the land side and the
furrow bottom. There is the same friction between the
moldboard and the furrow slice as in the case of the
walking plow, but the wheels are intended to mate-
rially reduce the pressure on the furrow bottom and
against the land side. Plow wheels are intended to re-
lieve the draft in this respect because wheels roll much
easier than the plow bottom can slide with the weight
of the work on top. The track made in the bottom of
the furrow with the walking plow shows plainly the
heavy pressure of the furrow slice on the moldboard by
the mark of the slip. To appreciate the weight the
slip carries, an interesting experfment may be per-
formed by loading the walking plow with weights suf-

WORKING THE SOIL

141

ficient to make the same kind of a mark when the plow
is not turning a furrow.

One advantage in riding plows in addition to the
relief of such a load is less packing of the furrow bot-
tom. On certain soils when the moisture is just suffi-
cient to make the subsoil sticky, a certain portion of the
furrow bottom is cemented by plow pressure so that it

Figure 136. — Three-Section, Spike-Tooth Harrow. The harrow is
made straight, but the hitch is placed over to one side to give each
tooth a separate line of travel.

Figure 137. — Harrow Sled Long Enough to Hold a Four-Section
Harrow.

becomes impervious to the passage of moisture either
up or down. The track of a plow wheel is less in-
jurious.

Plow wheels should stand at the proper angle to the
pressure with especial reference to the work performed.
Wheels should be adjusted with an eye single to the
conditions existing in the furrow. Some wheel plows
apparently are especially built to run light like a
wagon above ground regardless of the underground
work required of them.

142

FARM MECHANICS

Axles should hang at right angles to the line of lift
so accurately as to cause the wheels to wear but lightly
on the ends of the hubs. Mistakes in adjustment show
in the necessity of keeping a supply of washers on hand
to replace the ones that quickly wear thin.

Figure 138. — Corn Cultivator. A one-row, riding-disk cultivator.
The ridges are smoothed by the spring* scrapers to leave an even
surface to prevent evaporation.

In this respect a good deal depends on the sand-bands
at the ends of the hubs. Plow wheels are constantly
lifting gritty earth and dropping it on the hubs. There
is only one successful way to keep sand out of the jour-
nals and that is by having the hubs, or hub ferrules,
extend well beyond the bearings. Plow wheel hub ex-
tensions should reach two inches beyond the journal
both at the large end of the hub and at the nut or linch-

WORKING THE SOIL 143

pin end. Some plow wheels cut so badly that farmers
consider oil a damage and they are permitted to run
dry. This is not only very wasteful of expensive iron
but the wheels soon wabble to such an extent that they
no longer guide the plow, in which case the draft may
be increased enormously.

Figure 139. — A Combination Riding and Walking Cultivator,
showing fenders attached to protect young plants the first time
through. The two bull tongues shown are for use in heavy soils
or when deeper digging is necessary.

Scotch Plows. — ^When the long, narrow Scotch sod
plows are exhibited at American agricultural fairs they
attract a good deal of attention and no small amount of
ridicule from American farmers because of the six or
seven inch furrows they are intended to turn. In this
country we are in too much of a hurry to spend all day
plowing three-fourths of an acre of ground. Intensive
farming is not so much of an object with us as the
quantity of land put under cultivation.

144 FARM MECHANICS

Those old-fashioned Scotch plows turn a furrow
about two-thirds of the way over, laying the sod surface
at an angle of about 45° to the bottom of the furrow.
The sharp comb cut by the coulter and share stands up-
right so that a sod field when plowed is marked in sharp
ridges six or seven inches apart, according to the width
of the furrow. Edges of sod show in the bottoms of
the corrugations between these little furrow ridges.

When the rains come the water is held in these
grooves and it finds its way down the whole depth of
the furrow slice carrying air with it and moistening ev-
ery particle of trash clear to the bottom of the furrow.
Sucli conditions are ideal for the work of the different
forms of bacteria to break down plant fibre contained
in the roots and trash and work it into humus, which
is in turn manipulated by other forms of soil bacteria
to produce soil water which is the only food of grow-
ing plants.

Jointer Plows, — ^American plow makers also have
recognized the necessity of mixing humus with soil in
the act of plowing. To facilitate the process and at the
same time turn a wide furrow, the jointer does fairly
good work when soil conditions are suitable. The
jointer is a little plow which takes the place of the
coulter and is attached to the plow-beam in the same
manner. The jointer turns a little furrow one inch
or two inches deep and the large plow following after
turns a twelve-inch or fourteen-inch furrow slice flat
over, throwing the little jointer furrow in the middle
of the furrow bottom in such a way that the big furrow
breaks over the smaller furrow.

If the work is well done, cracks as wide as a man's
hand and from three to five inches deep are left all over
the field. These cracks lead air and moisture to rot the

WORKING THE SOIL 143

trash below. This is a much quicker way of doing a
fairly good job of plowing. Such plows loosen the soil
and furnish the conditions required by nature; and
they may be operated with much less skill than the old-
fashioned narrow-furrowed Scotch plows.

Good plowing requires first that the soil be in proper
condition to plow, neither too dry nor too wet, but no
man can do good plowing without the proper kind of
plow to fit the soil he is working with.

PLOWING BY TRACTOR

Under present conditions farm tractors are not in-
tended to replace horse power entirely but to precede
horses to smooth the rough places that horses may fol-
low with the lighter machines to add the finishing
touches. Light tractors are being made, and they are
growing in popularity, but the real business of the
farm tractor is to do the heavy lugging — the work that
kills horses and delays seeding until the growing sea-
son has passed. The actual power best suited to the
individual farm can only be determined by the nature
of the land and the kind of farming.

In the Middle West where diversified farming is
practiced, the 8-16 and the 10-20 sizes seem to be the
most satisfactory, and this is without regard to the size
of the farm. The preponderance of heavy work will
naturally dictate the buying of a tractor heavier than
a 10-20. The amount of stationary work is a factor.
In certain communities heavy farm tractors are made
to earn dividends by running threshing machines after
harvest, silo fillers in the fall and limestone crushers
in the winter.

Here is a classified list of jobs the medium size farm
tractor is good for :

146 FARM MECHANICS

Clearing the Land— pulling up bushes by the roots,
tearing out hedges, pulling stumps, grubbing, pulling
stones.

Preparing Seed Bed and Seeding — plowing, disking,
crushing clods, pulling a land plane, rolling, packing,
drilling, harrowing.

Harvesting — mowing, pulling grain binders, pulling
potato digger.

Belt Work — hay baling, corn shelling, heavy pump-
ing for irrigation, grinding feed, threshing, clover
hulling, husking and shredding, silo filling, stone
crushing.

Road Work — grading, dragging, leveling, ditching,
hauling crops.

Miscellaneous — running portable sawmill, stretch-
ing wire fencing, ditch digging, manure spreading.

Generally speaking, however, the most important
farm tractor work is preparing the seed-bed thoroughly
and quickly while the soil and weather conditions are
the best. And the tractor's ability to work all day and
all night at such times is one of its best qualifications.

To plow one square mile, or 640 acres, with a walk-
ing plow turning a twelve-inch furrow, a man and
team must walk 5,280 miles. The gang-plow has al-
ways been considered a horse killer, and, when farmers
discovered that they could use oil power to save their
horses, many were quick to make the change.

It requires approximately 10 horsepower hours to
turn an acre of land with horses. At a speed of two
miles, a team with one plow in ten hours will turn two
acres. To deliver the two horsepower required to do
this work, they must travel 176 feet per minute and
exert a continuous pull of 375 pounds or 187.5 pounds
per horse.

WORKING THE SOIL 147

One horsepower equals a pull of 33,000 pounds,
moved one foot per minute. Two-mile speed equals
two times 5,280 or 10,560 feet per hour, or 176 feet per
minute. Sixty-six thousand divided by 176 equals 375
foot pounds pull per minute. One horsepower is ab-
sorbed in 88 feet of furrow.

Horse labor costs, according to Government figures,
121/^ cents per hour per horse. On this basis ten hours'
work will be $1.25, which is the average daily cost of
each horse. An average Illinois diversified farm of 160
acres would be approximately as follows : Fifty acres
of corn, 30 acres of oats and wheat, 20 acres of hay, 60
acres of rough land, pasture, orchard, building and
feed lots.

This average farm supports six work horses or mules
and one colt. According to figures taken from farm
work reports submitted by many different corn belt
farmers, the amount of horse-work necessary to do this
cropping would figure out as follows:

Fifty acres of corn land for plowing, disking, har-
rowing, planting, cultivating and harvesting would
amount to a total of 1,450 horsepower hours. Thirty
acres of wheat would require a total of 330 horsepower
hours. Twenty acres of hay would require 110 horse-
power hours. In round figures, 1,900 horsepower hours
at 121/^ cents would amount to $237.50.

Elaborate figures have been worked out theoretically
to show that this work can be done by an 8-16 farm
tractor in 27% days at a cost for kerosene fuel and
lubricating oil of $1.89 per day. Adding interest, re-
pairs and depreciation, brings this figure up to about
$4.00 per day, or a total of $111.00 for the job. No ac-
count is kept of man power in caring for either the
horses or the tractor. The actual man labor on the job,

148 FARM MECHANICS

however, figures 12% days less for the tractor than for
horses. We should remember that actual farm figures
are used for the cost of horse work. Such figures are
not available for tractor work.

The cost of plowing with a traction engine depends
upon so many factors that it is difficult to make any
definite statement. It depends upon the condition of
the ground, size of the tractor, the number of plows
pulled, and the amount of fuel used. An 8-16 horse-
power tractor, for instance, burning from 15 to 20 gal-
lons of low grade kerosene per ten hour day and using
one gallon of lubricating oil, costs about $1.90 per ten
hours work. Pulling two 14-inch plows and traveling
20 miles per day, the tractor will plow 5.6 acres at a
fuel and an oil cost of about. 30 cents per acre. Pulling
three 14-inch plows, it will turn 8.4 acres at a cost for
fuel and oil of about 20 cents an acre.

The kind and condition of soil is an important factor
in determining the tractor cost of plowing. Compari-
son between the average horse cost and the average
tractor cost suggests very interesting possibilities in
favor of tractor plowing under good management.

Aside from the actual cost in dollars we should also
remember that no horse gang can possibly do the qual-
ity of work that can be accomplished by an engine
gang. Anxiety to spare the team has cut a big slice off
the profits of many a farmer. He has often plowed late
on account of hard ground, and he has many times
allowed a field to remain unplowed on account of worn-
out teams. Under normal conditions, late plowing
never produces as good results as early plowing. Many
a farmer has fed and harnessed by the light of the lan-
tern, gone to the field and worked his team hard to take
advantage of the cool of the morning. With the ap-

WORKING THE SOIL 149

preach of the hot hours of midday, the vicious flies
sapping the vitality from his faithful team, he has
eased up on the work or quit the job.

In using the tractor for plowing, there are none of
these distressing conditions to be taken into considera-
tion, nothing to think of but the quality of work done.
It is possible to plow deep without thought of the added
burden. Deep plowing may or may not be advisable.
But where the soil will stand it, deep plowing at
the proper time of year, and when done with judg-
ment, holds moisture better and provides more plant
food.

The pull power required to plow different soils varies
from about three pounds per square inch of furrow for
light sand up to twenty pounds per square inch of
furrow for gumbo. The draft of a plow is generally
figured from clover sod, which averages about seven
pounds per square inch. Suppose a plow rig has two
14-inch bottoms, and the depth to be plowed is six
inches. A cross section of each plow is therefore 14 by
6 inches, or 84 square inches. Twice this for two bot-
toms is 168 square inches. Since, in sandy soil, the
pressure per square inch is three pounds, therefore 168
times 3 pounds equals 504 pounds, the draft in sandy
soil. 168 times 7 pounds equals 1,176 pounds, the draft
in clover sod. 168 times 8 pounds equals 1,344 pounds,
the draft in clay sod.

The success of crop growing depends upon the way
the seed-bed is prepared. The final preparation of the
seed-bed can never be thoroughly well done unless the
ground is properly plowed to begin with. It is not suf-
ficient to root the ground over or to crowd it to one side
but the plow must really turn the furrow slice in a uni-
form, systematic manner and lay it bottom side upper-

150 FARM MECHANICS

most to receive the beneficial action of the air, rain and
sunshine.

The moldboard of a plow must be smooth in order to
properly shed the earth freely to make an easy turn-
over. The shape of the shear and the forward part of
the moldboard is primarily that of a wedge, but the roll
or upper curve of the moldboard changes according to
soil texture and the width and depth of furrow to be
turned. Moldboards also differ in size and shape, ac-
cording to the kind of furrow to be turned. Sometimes
in certain soils a narrow solid furrow with, a comb
on the upper edge is preferable. In other soils a .
cracked or broken furrow slice works the best. When
working our lighter soils a wide furrow turned flat over
on top of a jointer furrow breaks the ground into frag-
ments with wide cracks or openings reaching several
inches down. Between these extremes there are many
modifications made for the particular type or texture
of the soil to be plowed. We can observe the effect that a
rough, or badly scratched, or poorly shaped moldboard
has on any kind of soil, especially when passing from
gravelly soils to clay. In soil that contains the right
amount of moisture, when a plow scours all the time,
the top of the furrow slice always has a glazed or shiny
appearance. This shows that the soil is slipping off
the moldboard easily. In places where the plow does
not scour the ground is pushed to one side and packed
or puddled on the underside instead of being lifted
and turned as it should be. A field plowed with a de-
fective moldboard will be full of these places. Such
ground cannot have the life to bring about a satis-
factory bacteria condition necessary to promote the
rapid plant growth that proper plowing gives it.

Cultivated sandy soils are becoming more acid year

WORKING THE SOIL 151

after year. We are using lime to correct the acidity,
but the use of lime requires better plowing and better
after cultivation to thoroughly mix the trash with the
earth to make soil conditions favorable to the different
kinds of soil bacteria. Unless we pay special attention
to the humus content of the soil we are likely to use
lime to dissolve out plant foods that are not needed by
the present crop, and, therefore, cannot be utilized.
This is what the old adage means which reads : * ' Lime
enricheth the father but impoverisheth the son. ' ' When
that was written the world had no proper tillage tools
and the importance of humus was not even dreamed of.

Not so many years ago farm plows were made of cast
iron. Then came the steel moldboard, which was sup-
posed to be the acme of perfection in plow making.
Steel would scour and turn the furrow in fluffy soils
where cast iron would just ropt along without turning
the ground at all. Later the art of molding steel was
studied and perfected until many grades and degrees
of hardness were produced and the shape of the mold-
board passed through a thousand changes. The idea
all the time was to make plows that would not only
scour but polish in all kinds of soil. At the same time
they must turn under all of the vegetable growth to
make humus, to kill weeds and to destroy troublesome
insects. Besides these requirements the soil must be
pulverized and laid loose to admit both air and mois-
ture. These experiments gradually led up to our pres-
ent high grade plows of hardened steel and what is
known as chilled steel.

Besides the hardness there are different shapes de-
signed for different soils so that a plow to work well on
one farm may need to be quite different from a plow to
do the best work in another neighborhood. The furrow

152 FARM MECHANICS

slice sliding over a perfect moldboard leaves the sur-
face of the upturned ground as even as the bottom of
the furrow. By using a modern plow carefully selected
to fit the soil, gravel, sandy, stony or muck soils, or silt
loams that contain silica, lime, iron and aluminum ox-
ide can be worked with the right plow to do the best
work possible if we use the necessary care and judg-
ment in making the selection.

One object of good plowing is to retain moisture
in the soil until the growing crop can make good use
of it.

The ease with which soils absorb, retain or lose mois-
ture, depends mostly on their texture, humus content,
physical condition, and surface slope or artificial drain-
age. It is to the extent that cultivation can modify
these factors that more soil water can be made available
to the growing crop. There are loose, open soils
through which water percolates as through a sieve, and
there are tight, gumbo soils which swell when the sur-
face is moistened and become practically waterproof.
Sandy soils take in water more readily than heavier
soils, hence less precaution is necessary to prevent
run-off.

Among the thousands of plows of many different
makes there are plenty of good ones. The first con-
sideration in making a selection is a reliable home
dealer who has a good business reputation and a thor-
ough knowledge of local soil from a mechanical stand-
point. The next consideration is the service the plow .
will give in proportion to the price.

DISK HARROW

For preparing land to receive the seed no other im-
plement will equal a double disk. These implements

WORKING THE SOIL 153

are made in various sizes and weights of frame. For
heavy land, where it is necessary to weight the disk
down, an extra heavy frame is necessary. It would
probably be advisable to get the extra strong frame for
any kind of land, because even in light sand there are
times when a disk may be used to advantage to kill
quackgrass or to chew up sod before plowing. In such
cases it is customary to load on a couple of sacks of
sand in addition to the weight of the driver. When a
disk is carrying 300 or 400 pounds besides its own
weight the racking strains which pull from different
directions have a tendency to warp or twist a light
frame out of shape. To keep a disk cultivator in good
working order it is necessary to go over it thoroughly
before doing heavy work. Bolts must be kept tight, all
braces examined occasionally, and the heavy nuts at
the ends of the disk shafts watched. They sometimes
loosen and give trouble. The greatest difficulty in run-
ning a disk harrow or cultivator is to keep the boxings
in good trim. Wooden boxes are provided with the
implement. It is a good plan to insist on having a full
set of eight extra boxes. These wooden boxes may be
made on the farm, but it sometimes is difficult to get
the right kind of wood. They should be made of hard
maple, bored according to size of shaft, and boiled in
a good quality of linseed oil. Iron boxings have never
been satisfactory on a disk implement. Wooden ones
make enough trouble, but wood has proved better than
iron. On most disk cultivators there are oil channels
leading to the boxings. These channels are large
enough to carry heavy oil. The lighter grades of cylin-
der oil work the best. It is difficult to cork these oil
channels tight enough i±o keep the sand out. Oil and
sand do not work well together in a bearing. The

154 FARM MECHANICS

manufacturers of these implements could improve the
oiling device by shortening the channel and building a
better housing for the oil entrance. It is quite a job to
take a disk apart to put in new boxings, but, like all
other repair work, the disk should be taken into the
shop, thoroughly cleaned, repaired, painted and oiled
in the winter time.

Some double disk cultivators have tongues and some
are made without. Whether the farmer wants a tongue
or not depends a good deal on the land. The only ad-
vantage is that a tongue will hold the disk from crowd-
ing onto the horses when it is running light along the
farm lanes or the sides of the fields with the disks set
straight. Horses have been ruined by having the
sharp disks run against them when going down hill.
Such accidents always are avoidable if a man realizes
the danger. Unfortunately, farm implements are often
used by men who do very little thinking. A spring
disk scraper got twisted on a root and was thrown
over the top of one of the disks so it scraped against the
back of the disk and continued to make a harsh, scrap-
ing noise until the proprietor went to see wliat was
wrong. The man driving the disk said he thought
something must be the matter with the cultivator, but
he couldn 't tell for the life of him what it was. When
farmers are up against such difficulties it is safer to
buy a disk with a tongue.

Harrow Cart. — A small two-wheel cart with a spring
seat overshadowed with a big umbrella is sometimes
called a ' * dude sulky. ' ' Many sensitive farmers trudge
along in the soft ground and dust behind their harrows
afraid of such old fogy ridicule. The hardest and most
tiresome and disagreeable job at seeding time is fol-
lowing a harrow on foot. Eiding a harrow cart in the

WORKING THE SOIL 155

field is conserving energy that may be applied to bet-
ter purposes after the day's work in the field is fin-
ished.

KNIFE-EDGE PULVERIZERS

A knife-edge weeder makes the best dust mulch pul-
verizer for orchard work or when preparing a seed-
bed for grain. These implements are sold under dif-
ferent names. It requires a stretch of imagination to
attach the word *^ harrow'' to these knife-edge weed-
ers. There is a central bar which is usually a hardwood
plank. The knives are bolted to the underside of the
plank and sloped backward and' outward from the
center to the right and left, so that the knife-edges
stand at an angle of about 45° to the line of draught.
This angle is just about sufficient to let tough weeds
slip off the edges instead of dragging along. If the
knives are sharp, they will cut tender weeds, but the
tough ones must be disposed of to prevent choking.
The proper use of the knife-edge weeder prevents
weeds from growing, but in farm practice, sometimes
rainy weather prevents the use of such a tool until the
weeds are well established. As a moisture retainer,
these knife-edge weeders are superior to almost any
other implement. They are made in widths of from
eight to twenty feet. The wide ones are jointed in the
middle to fit uneven ground.

CLOD CRUSHER

The farm land drag, float, or clod crusher is useful
under certain conditions on low spots that do not drain
properly. Such land must be plowed when the main
portion of the field is in proper condition, and the re-
sult often is that the low spots are so wet that the

156 FARM MECHANICS

ground packs into lumps that an ordinary harrow will
not break to pieces. Such lumps roll out between the
harrow teeth and remain on top of the ground to inter-
fere with cultivation. The clod crusher then rides
over the lumps and grinds them into powder. Unfor-
tunately, clod crushers often are depended on to rem-
edy faulty work on ordinary land that should receive
better treatment. Many times the clod crusher is a
poor remedy for poor tillage on naturally good land
that lacks humus.

Figure 140. — Land Float. Clod crushers and land floats belong
to the same tribe. Theoretically they are all outlaws, but some
practical farmers harbor one or more of them. Wet land, contain-
ing considerable clay, sometimes forms into lumps which should be
crushed.

As ordinarily made, the land float or clod crusher
consists of from ^Ye to eight planks, two inches thick
and ten or twelve inches wide, spiked together in saw-
tooth position, the edges of the planks being lapped
over each other like clapboards in house siding. The
planks are held in place with spikes driven through
into the crosspieces.

FARM ROLLER

Farm rollers are used to firm the soil. Sometimes
a seed-bed is worked up so thoroughly that the ground
is made too loose so the soil is too open and porous.
Seeds to germinate require that the soil grains shall fit
up closely against them. Good soil is impregnated
with soil moisture, or film moisture as it is often called,
because the moisture forms in a film around each little

WORKING THE SOIL 157

soil grain. In properly prepared soil this film moisture
comes in contact with the freshly sown seed. If the tem-
perature is right the seed swells and germination
starts. The swelling of the seed brings it in contact

Figure 141. — Iron Land Roller Made of Boiler Plate.

Figure 142. — Wooden Land Roller.

with more film moisture attached to other grains of soil
so the rootlet grows and pushes out into the soil in
search of moisture on its own account. A roller is val-
uable to press the particles of soil together to bring the
freshly sown seeds in direct contact with as many par-
ticles of soil as possible. Rolling land is a peculiar
operation, the value of which is not always understood.

158 FARM MECHANICS

The original idea was to benefit the soil by breaking the
lumps. It may be of some benefit on certain soils for
this purpose, but the land should always be harrowed
after rolling to form a dust mulch to prevent the evap-
oration of moisture. Land that has been rolled and left
overnight shows damp the next morning, which is suf-
ficient proof that moisture is coming to the surface and
is being dissipated into the atmosphere. In the so-
called humid sections of the country the great problem
is to retain moisture. Any farm implement that has a
tendency to dissipate soil moisture is a damage to the
farmer. Probably nine times out of ten a farm roller
is a damage to the crop it is intended to benefit because
of the manner in which it is used. It is the abuse, not
the proper use of a roller, that injures the crop.

CORN-PLANTER

Corn-planters are designed to plant two rows at
once. The width of rows may be adjusted from about
32 to 44 inches apart. When seed-corn is carefully
graded to size the dropping mechanism will feed out
the grains of corn regularly with very few skips. This
is one reason why most farmers plant corn in drills.
There are other cultural reasons which do not prop-
erly belong to this mechanical article. Hill dropping
is considerably more complicated and difficult. After
the feeding mechanism has been adjusted to the size
of seed kernels to be planted so it will drop four ker-
nels in a hill then the trip chain is tried out to see if
it is right at every joint. Dropping in hills is a very
careful mechanical proposition. An inch or two out
of line either way means a loss of corn in cultivating.

In setting the stakes to go and come by, a careful
measurement of the field is necessary in order to get

WORKING THE SOIL 15d

the stake lines on both sides of the field parallel. If
the ring stakes are driven accurately on the line, then
the first hill of corn must come at the same distance
from the line in each row. Likewise in starting back
from the far side of the field the first hill should meas-
ure exactly the same distance from the stake line as the
first hills on the opposite side of the field. This is
easily managed by counting the number of trips be-
tween the stake line and the first row of corn hills. If
the two lines of stakes on the opposite sides of the field
are exactly parallel it is not necessary to move either
line in order to get the proper distance to start drop-
ping, but it must be adjusted by measurement, other-
wise the corn hills will be dodged. If the corn hills are
to space three feet apart then the first row of hills
should come nine or twelve feet from the stake line.
Stakes may be measured and set a certain number of
inches from the line to make the distance come right.
This careful adjustment brings the hills in line in the
rows.

When the field is level or gently sloping +here is no
difficulty in making straight rows so far as check row-
ing is concerned. When the field is hilly another prob-
lem crops up. It is almost impossible to run corn rows
along the side of a hill and keep them straight. The
planter has a tendency to slide downhill. Also the dis-
tance across a field is greater where the rows pass over
a hill. To keep the rows straight under such conditions
allowance must be made for the stretch over the hill
as well as for the side thrust of the planter. Where a
chain marker is used it hangs downhill and a further
allowance must be made for that. A good driver will
skip an inch or so above the mark so that the rows will
be planted fairly straight. This means a good deal more

160 FARM MECHANICS

in check rowing than when the corn is planted in drills.
The greatest objection to hill planting is the crowding
of four corn plants into a space that should be occupied
by one plant.

A great many experiments have been tried to scat-
ter the seeds in the hill, so far without definite results,
except when considerable additional expense is in-
curred. However, a cone suspended below the end of
the dropping tube usually will scatter the seeds so
that no two seeds will touch each other. They may not
drop and scatter four or five inches apart, but these
little cones will help a good deal. They must be ac-
curately adjusted so the point of the cone will center
in the middle of the vertical delivery tube, and there
must be plenty of room all around the cone so the
corn seed kernels won't stick. The braces that hold
the cones in place for the same reason must be turned
edge up and supported in such a way as to leave
plenty of clearance. The idea is that four kernels of
corn drop together. They strike the cone and are scat-
tered in different directions. They naturally fly to
the outsides of the drill mark which scatters them as
wide apart as the width of the shoe that opens the drill.
The advantage of scattering seed grains in the hill has
been shown by accurate experiments conducted at dif-
ferent times by agricultural colleges.

GRAIN DRILL

To know exactly how much seed the grain drill is
using it is necessary to know how many acres are con-
tained in the field. Most drills have an attachment
that is supposed to measure how many acres and frac-
tions of acres the drill covers. Farmers know how
much grain each sack contains, so they can estimate as

WORKING THE SOIL 161

they go along, provided the drill register is correct. It
is better to provide a check on the drill indicator. Have
the "field measured, then drive stakes along one side,
indicating one acre, five acres and ten acres. When
the one-acre stake is reached the operator can estimate
very closely whether the drill is using more or less
seed than the indicator registers. When the five-acre
stake is reached another proof is available, and so on
across the field. Next in importance to the proper
working of the drill is straight rows. The only way to
avoid gaps is to drive straight. The only way to drive
straight is to sight over the wheel that follows the last
drill mark. Farmers sometimes like to ride on the
grain drill, which places the wheel sighting proposition
out of the question. A harrow cart may be hitched be-
hind the wheel of the grain drill, but it gives a side
draft. The only way to have straight rows and thor-
ough work is to walk behind the end of the drill. This
is the proper way to use a drill, anyway, because a tooth
may clog up any minute. Unless the operator is walk-
ing behind the drill he is not in position to see quickly
whether every tooth is working properly or not. It is
hard work to follow a drill all day long, but it pays at
harvest time. It costs just as much to raise a crop of
grain that only covers part of the ground, and it seems
too bad to miss the highest possible percentage to save
a little hard work at planting time.

SPECIAL CROP MACHINERY

Special crops require special implements. After
they are provided, the equipment must be kept busy
in order to make it pay. If a farmer produces five
acres of potatoes he needs a potato cutter, a planter, a
riding cultivator, a sprayer that works under high

162 FARM MECHANICS

pressure, a digger and a sorter. The same outfit will
answer for forty acres, which would reduce the per
acre cost considerably. No farmer can afford to grow
five acres of potatoes without the necessary machinery,
because hand labor is out of the question for work of
that kind.

On the right kind of soil, and within reach of the
right market, potatoes are money-makers. But they
must be grown every year because the price of pota-
toes fluctuates more than any other farm crop. Under
the right conditions potatoes grown for five years
with proper care and good management are sure to
make money. One year out of ^ye will break even, two
years will make a little money and the other two yearsi
will make big money. At the end of five years, with
good business management, the potato machinery will
be all paid for, and there will be a substantial profit.

WHEEL HOE

In growing onions and other truck crops, where the
rows are too close together for horse cultivation, the
wheel hoe is valuable. In fact, it is almost indispen-
sable when such crops are grown extensively. The best
wheel hoes have a number of attachments. "When the
seed-bed has been carefully prepared, and the soil is
fine and loose, the wheel hoe may be used as soon as
the young plants show above ground. Men who are
accustomed to operating a wheel hoe become expert.
They can work almost as close to the growing plants
with an implement of this kind as they can with an or-
dinary hand hoe. The wheel hoe, or hand cultivator,
works the ground on both sides of the row at once,
and it does it quickly, so that very little hand weeding
is necessary.

CHAPTER VI

HANDLING THE HAY CEOP
REVOLVING HAYRAKE ♦

About the first contrivance for raking hay by horse
power consisted of a stick eight or ten feet long with
double-end teeth running through it, and pointing in
two directions. These rakes were improved from time

Figure 143. — Grass Hook, for working around borders where the
lawn-mower is too clumsy,

to time, until they reached perfection for this kind of
tool. They have since been superseded by spring-
tooth horse rakes, except for certain purposes. For
pulling field peas, and some kinds of beans, the old
style revolving horse rake is still in use.

Improved revolving horse rakes have a center tim-
ber of hardwood about 4x6 inches in diameter. The
corners are rounded to facilitate sliding over the
ground. A rake twelve feet long will have about eigh-
teen double- end teeth. The teeth project about two
and one-half feet each way from the center timber.

163

164

FARM MECHANICS

Each tooth is rounded up, sled-runner fashion, at each
end so it will point forward and slide along over and
close to the ground without catching fast. There is
an iron pull rod, or long hook, attached to each end of
the center bar by means of a bolt that screws into the
center of the end of the wooden center shaft, thus
forming a gudgeon pin so the shaft can revolve. Two
handles are fastened by band iron straps to rounded

Figure 144. — Revolving Hayrake. The center piece is 4"x6"xl2'
long. The teeth are double enders 1%" square and 4' 6" long,
which allows 24" of rake tooth clear of the center timber. Every
stick in the rake is carefully selected. It is drawn by one horse.
If the center teeth stick into the ground either the horse must stop
instantly, or the rake must flop over, or there will be a repair job.
This invention has never been improved upon for pulling Canada
peas.

recesses or girdles cut around the center bar. These
girdles are just far enough apart for a man to walk
between and to operate the handles. Wooden, or iron
lugs, reach down from the handles with pins project-
ing from their sides to engage the rake teeth. Two
pins project from the left lug and three from the right.
Sometimes notches are made in the lugs instead of
pins. Notches are better ; they may be rounded up to
prevent catching when the rake revolves. As the rake
slides along, the driver holds the rake teeth in the
proper position by means of the handles. When suffi-
cient load has been gathered he engages the upper

HANDLING THE HAY CROP 165

notch in the right hand Ing, releases the left and raises
the other sufficient to point the teeth into the ground.
The pull of the horse turns the rake over and the man
grasps the teeth again with the handle lugs as before.
Unless the driver is careful the teeth may stick in the
ground and turn over before he is ready for it. It re-
quires a little experience to use such a rake to advan-

Figure 145. — Buck Rake. When hay is stacked in the field a four-
horse buck rake is the quickest way to bring the hay to the stack.
The buck rake shown is 16 feet wide and the 2x4 teeth are 11 feet
long. Two horses are hitched to each end and two drivers stand on
the ends of the buck rake to operate it. The load is pushed under
the horse fork, the horses are swung outward and the buck rake is
dragged backward.

tage. No better or cheaper way has ever been invented
for harvesting Canada peas. The only objections are
that it shells some of the riper pods and it gathers up a
certain amount of earth with the vines which makes
dusty threshing.

HAY-TEDDER

The hay-tedder is an English invention, which
has been adopted by farmers in rainy sections of

166 FARM MECHANICS

the United States. It is an energetic kicker that scat-
ters the hay swaths and drops the hay loosely to
dry between showers. Hay may be made quickly
by starting the tedder an hour behind the mowing
machine.

It is quite possible to cut timothy hay in the morn-
ing and put it in the mow in the afternoon, by shaking
it up thoroughly once or twice with the hay-tedder.
"When clover is mixed with the timothy, it is necessary
to leave it in the field until the next day, but the time
between cutting and mowing is shortened materially
by the use of the tedder.

Grass cut for hay may be kicked apart in the field
early during the wilting process without shattering the
leaves. If left too long, then the hay-tedder is a dam-
age because it kicks the leaves loose from the stems and
the most valuable feeding material is wasted. But
it is a good implement if rightly used. In catchy
weather it often means the difference between bright,
valuable hay and black, musty stuff, that is hardly fit
to feed.

Hay-tedders are expensive. Where two farmers
neighbor together the expense may be shared, because
the tedder does its work in two or three hours' time.
Careful farmers do not cut down much grass at one
time. The tedder scatters two mowing swaths at once.
In fact the mowing machine, hay-tedder and horserake
should all fit together for team work so they will fol-
low each other without skips or unnecessary laps. The
dividing board of the mowing-machine marks a path
for one of the horses to follow and it is difficult to keep
him out of it. But two horses pulHng a hay-tedder will
straddle the open strip between the swaths when the
tedder is twice the width of the cut.

HANDLING THE HAY CROP

167

HAY SKIDS

Hay slips, or hay skids, are used on the old smooth
fields in the eastern states. They are usually made of
seven-eighths-inch boards dressed preferably on one
side only. They are used smooth side to the ground to

Figure W6. — Hay Skid. This hay skid is 8 feet wide and 16 feet
long. It is made of %" lumber put together with 2" carriage bolts —
plenty of them. The round boltheads are countersunk into the
bottom of the skid and the nuts are drawn down tight on the cleats.
It makes a low-down, easy-pitching, hay-hauling device.

Figure 147. — Hay Sling. It takes no longer to hoist 500 pounds
of hay than 100 pounds if the rig is large and strong enough. Four
feet wide by ten feet in length is about right for handling hay
quickly. But the toggle must reach to the ends of the rack if used
on a wagon.

slip along easily. Rough side is up to better hold the
hay from slipping. The long runner boards are held
together by cross pieces made of inch boards twelve
inches wide and well nailed at each intersection with
nails well clinched. Small carriage bolts are better
than nails but the heads should be countersunk into the
bottom with the points up. They should be used with-

168

FARM MECHANICS

out washers and the ends of the bolts cut close to the
sunken nuts. The front end of the skid is rounded up
slightly^ sled runner fashion, as much as the boards
will bear, to avoid digging into the sod to destroy either
the grass roots or crowns of the plants. Hay usually is

Figure 148. — (1) Four-Tined Derrick Fork. (2) Pea Guard. An
extension guard to lift pea-vines high enough for the sickle is the
cleanest way to harvest Canada peas. The old-fashioned way of
pulling peas with a dull scythe has gone into oblivion. But the
heavy bearing varieties still persist in crawling on the ground. If
the vines are lifted and cut clean they can be raked into windrows
with a spring tooth hayrake. (3) Haystack Knife. This style of
hay-cutting knife is used almost universally on stacks and in hay-
mows. There is less use for hay-knives since farmers adopted power
hayforks to lift hay out of a mow as well as to put it in.

forked by hand from the windrows on to the skids.
Sometimes hay slings are placed on the skids and the
hay is forked on to the slings carefully in layers lapped
over each other in such a way as to hoist on to the stack
without spilling out at the sides. Four hundred to
eight hundred pounds makes a good load for one of

HANDLING THE HAY CROP

169

these skids, according to horse power and unevenness
of the ground. They save labor, as compared to wag-
ons, because there is no pitching up. All hoisting is

Figure 149. — Double Harpoon Hayfork. This is a large size fork
with extra long legs. For handling long hay that hangs together
well this fork is a great success. It may be handled as quickly as
a smaller fork and it carries a heavy load.

supposed to be done by horse power with the aid of a
hay derrick.

WESTERN HAY DERRICKS

Two derricks for stacking hay, that are used exten-
sively in the alfalfa districts of Idaho, are shown in
the illustration, Figure 151. The derrick to the left is

170 FARM MECHANICS

made with a square base of timbers which supports an
upright mast and a horizontal boom. The timber base
is sixteen feet square, made of five sticks of timber,
each piece being 8x8 inches square by 16 feet in length.
Two of the timbers rest flat on the ground and are
rounded up at the ends to facilitate moving the derrick
across the stubble ground or along the road to the next

Figure 150. — Six-Tined Grapple Hayfork. It is balanced to hang
as shown in the drawing when empty. It sinks into the hay easily
and dumps quickly when the clutch is released.

hayfield. These sleigh runner timbers are notched on
the upper side near each end and at the middle to re-
ceive the three cross timbers. The cross timbers also
are notched or recessed about a half inch deep to make
a sort of double mortise. The timbers are bound to-
gether at the intersections by iron U-clamps that pass
around both timbers and fasten through a flat iron
plate on top of the upper timbers. These flat plates or
bars have holes near the ends and the threaded ends of
the U-irons pass through these holes and the nuts are

HANDLING THE HAY CROP

171

screwed down tight. The sleigh runner timbers are re-
cessed diagonally across the bottom to fit the round
U-irons which are let into the bottoms oi the timbers
just enough to prevent scraping the earth when the

Figure 151. — Idaho Hay Derricks. Two styles of hay derricks are
used to stack alfalfa hay in Idaho. The drawing to the left shows
the one most in use because it is easier made and easier to move.
The derrick to the right usually is made larger and more powerful.
Wire cable is generally used with both derricks because rope wears
out quickly. They are similar in operation but different in construc-
tion. The base of each is 16 feet square and the high ends of the
booms reach up nearly 40 feet. A single hayfork -'ope, oi wire cable,
is used ; it is about 65 feet long. The reach is sufficient to drop the
hay in the center of a stack 24 feet wide.

derrick is being moved. These iron U-clamp fasteners
are much stronger and better than bolts through the
timbers.

There are timber braces fitted acrass the corners
which, are bolted through the outside timbers to brace

172

FARM MECHANICS

the frame against a diamond tendency when moving
the derrick. There is considerable strain when passing
over uneven ground. It is better to make the frame so

Figure 152. — Hay Carrier Carriage. Powerful carriers are part
of the new barn. The track is double and the wheels run on both
tracks to stand a side pull and to start quickly and run steadily
when the clutch is released.

solid that it cannot get out of square. The mast is a
stick of timber 8 inches square and 20 or 24 feet long.
This mast is securely fastened solid to the center of

HANDLING THE HAY CROP 173

the frame by having the bottom end mortised into the
center cross timber at the middle and it is braced solid
and held perpendicular to the framework by 4''x4''
wooden braces at the corners. These braces are notched
at the top ends to fit the corners of the mast and
are beveled at the bottom ends to fit flat on top of
the timbers. They are held in place by bolts and by
strap iron or band iron bands. These bands are drilled
with holes and are spiked through into the timbers

Figure 153. — (1) Hayfork Hitch. A whiffletree pulley doubles the
speed of the fork. The knot in the rope gives double power to start
the load. (2) Rafter Grapple, for attaching an extra pulley to any
part of the barn roof.

with four-inch or five-inch wire nails. Holes are drilled
through the band iron the right size and at the proper
places for the nails. The mast is made round at the
top and is fitted with a heavy welded iron ring or band
to prevent splitting. The boom is usually about 30
feet long. Farmers prefer a round pole when they can
get it. It is attached to the top of the mast by an iron
stirrup made by a blacksmith. This stirrup is made
to fit loosely half way around the boom one-third of the
way up from the big end, which makes the small end
of the boom project 20 feet out from the upper end
of the mast. The iron stirrup is made heavy and

174

FARM MECHANICS

strong. It has a round iron gudgeon ly^'' in diameter
that reaches down into the top of the mast about 18
inches. The shoulder of the stirrup is supported by a
square, flat iron plate which rests on and covers the
top of the mast and has the corners turned down. • It is
made large to shed water and protect the top of the
mast. This plate has a hole one and a half inches in
diameter in the center through which the stirrup

Figure 154. — -Hay Rope Pulleys. The housing of the pulley to the
left prevents the rope from running off the sheaves.

gudgeon passes as it enters the top of the mast. A farm
chain, or logging chain, is fastened to the large end of
the boom by passing the chain around the boom and
engaging the round hook. The grab hook end of the
chain is passed around the timber below and is hooked
back to give it the right length, which doubles the part
of the chain within reach of the man in charge. This
double end of the chain is lengthened or shortened to
elevate the outer end of the boom to fit the stack. The
small outer end of the boom is thus raised as the stack
goes up.

HANDLING THE HAY CROP 175

An ordinary horse fork and tackle is used to hoist the
hay. Three single pulleys are attached, one to the
outer end of the boom, one near the top of the mast,
and the other at the bottom of the mast so that the rope
passes easily and freely through the three pulleys and
at the same time permits the boom to swing around as
the fork goes up from the wagon rack over the stack.
This swinging movement is regulated by tilting the
derrick towards the stack so that the boom swings over

Figure 155. — Gambrel Whiffletree, for use in hoisting hay to pre-
vent entanglements. It is also handy when cultivating around
fruit-trees.

the stack by its own weight or by the weight of the hay
on the horse fork. Usually a wire truss is rigged over
the boom to stiffen it. The wire is attached to the boom
at both ends and the middle of the wire is sprung up to
rest on a bridge placed over the stirrup.

Farmers like this simple form of hay derrick because
it is cheaply made and it may be easily moved because
it is not heavy. It is automatic and it is about as cheap
as any good derrick and it is the most satisfactory for
ordinary use. The base is large enough to make it solid
and steady when in use. Before moving the point of
the boom is lowered to a level position so that the der-

176 FARM MECHANICS

rick is not top-heavy. There is little danger of upset-
ting upon ordinary farm lands. Also the width of 16
feet will pass along country roads without meeting
serious obstacles. Hay slings usually are made too
narrow and too short. The ordinary little hay sling is
prone to tip sideways and spill the hay. It is respon-
sible for a great deal of profanity. The hay derrick
shown to the right is somewhat different in construc-
tion, but is quite similar in action. The base is the

Figure 156. — Cable Hay Stacker. The wire cable is supported by
the two bipods and is secured at each end by snubbing stakes. Two
single-cable collars are clamped to the cable to prevent the bipods
from slipping in at the top. Two double-cable clamps hold the
ends of the cables to form stake loops.

same but the mast turns on a gudgeon stepped into an
iron socket mortised into the center timber.

The wire hoisting cable is threaded differently, as
shown in the drawing. This style of derrick is made
larger, sometimes the peak reaches up 40' above the
base. The extra large ones are awkward to move but
they build fine big stacks.

CALIFORNIA HAY RICKER

In the West hay is often put up in long ricks in-
stead of stacks. One of my jobs in California was to
put up 2,700 acres of wild hay in the Sacramento Val-

HANDLING THE HAY CROP

177

ley. I made four rickers and eight buck rakes similar
to the ones shown in the illustrations. Each rieker was
operated by a crew of eight men. Four men drove two
buck rakes. There were two on the rick, one at the

Figure 157. — California Hay Rieker, for putting either wild hay
or alfalfa quickly in ricks. It is used in connection with home-
made buck rakes. This rieker works against the end of the rick
and is backed away each time to start a new bench. The upright
is made of light poles or 2x4s braced as shown. It should be 28 or
30 feet high. Iron stakes hold the bottom, while guy wires steady
the top.

fork and one to drive the hoisting rig. Ten mowing
machines did most of the cutting but I hired eight more
machines towards the last, as the latest grass was get-
ting too ripe. The crop measured more than 2,100
tons and it was all put in ricks, stacks and barns with-
out a drop of rain on it. I should add that rain sel-

178 FARM MECHANICS

dom falls in the lower Sacramento Valley during the
haying season in the months of May and June. This
refers to wild hay, which is made up of burr clover,
wild oats and volunteer wheat and barley.

Alfalfa is cut from five to seven times in the hot in-
terior valleys, so that if a farmer is rash enough to
plant alfalfa under irrigation his haying thereafter
will reach from one rainy season to the next.

CHAPTER VII

FAEM CONVEYANCES

STONE-BOAT

One of the most useful and one of the least orna-
mental conveyances on a farm is the stone-boat. It is
a low-down handy rig for moving heavy commodities
in summer as well as in winter. No other sleigh or
wagon will equal a stone-boat for carrying plows or

Figure 158. — Stone-Boat. Stump logs are selected for the planks.
The bend of the planks is the natural curve of the large roots. The
sawing is done by band saw cutting from two directions.

harrows from one field to another. It is handy to tote
bags of seed to supply the grain drill, to haul a barrel
of water, feed for the hogs, and a great many other
chores.

When the country was new, sawmills made a business
of sawing stone-boat plank. Trees for stone-boat staves
were cut close to the ground and the natural crooks of
the roots were used for the noses of sleigh runners and
for stone-boats. But cast-iron noses are now manufac-
tured with recesses to receive the ends of straight ordi-
nary hardwood planks. These cast-iron ends are

179

180

FARM MECHANICS

rounded up in front to make the necessary nose crook.
The front plank cross piece is bolted well towards the
front ends of the runner planks. Usually there are two
other hardwood plank cross pieces, one near the rear
end and the other about one-third of the way back from
the front. Placing the cross pieces in this way gives
room between to stand a barrel.

The cross pieces are bolted through from the bottom
up. Round-headed bolts are used and they are counter-

Figure 159. — Wheelbarrow. This factory-made wheelbarrow is the
only pattern worth bothering with. It is cheap and answers the
purpose better than the heavier ones with removable side wings.

sunk, to come flush with the bottom of the sliding
planks. The nuts are countersunk into the cross
pieces by boring holes about one-quarter inch deep.
The holes are a little larger than the cornerwise
diameter of the nuts. No washers are used, and
the nuts are screwed down tight into the plank.
The ends of the bolts are cut off even and filed
smooth. The nuts are placed sharp corner side down
and are left nearly flush on top or even with the sur-
face of the cross pieces. In using a stone-boat, nobody
wants a projection to catch any part of the load.

Regular double-tree clevises are attached to the
corners of the old-fashioned stone-boat and the side

FARM CONVEYANCES 181

chains are brought together to a ring and are just about
long enough to form an equilateral triangle with the
front end of the stone-boat. Cast-iron fronts usually
have a projection in the center for the clevis hitch.

OXEN ON A NEW ENGLAND FARM

One of the most interesting experiences on a New
England farm is to get acquainted with the manner in
which oxen are pressed into farm service. One reason
why oxen have never gone out of fashion in New Eng-
land is the fact that they are patient enough to plow
stony ground without smashing the plow.

A great deal of New England farm land has been re-
claimed by removing a portion of the surface stone.
In the processes of freezing and thawing and cultiva-
tion, stones from underneath keep working up to the
surface so that it requires considerable skill to do the
necessary plowing and cultivating. Oxen ease the
plowpoint over or around a rock so it can immediately
dip in again to the full depth of the furrow. A good
yoke of cattle well trained are gentle as well as strong
and powerful.

Oxen are cheaper than horses to begin with and
they are valuable for beef when they are not needed
any longer as work animals. The Holstein breed seems
to have the preference for oxen with New England
farmers. The necessary harness for a pair of cattle
consists of an ox yoke with a ringbolt through the cen-
ter of the yoke, midway between the two oxen. A
heavy iron ring about five inches in diameter, made of
round iron, hangs from the ring bolt. There are two
oxbows to hold the yoke in place on the necks of the
cattle. A logging chain with a round hook on one end

182 FARM MECHANICS

and a grab hook on the other end completes the yoking
outfit.

The round hook of the chain is hitched into the ring
in the plow clevis. The chain is passed through the
large iron ring in the oxbow and is doubled back to get
the right length. The grab hook is so constructed that
it fits over one link of the chain flatwise so that the next
link standing crosswise prevents it from slipping.

The mechanism of a logging chain is extremely sim-
ple, positive in action and especially well adapted to
the use for which it is intended. The best mechanical
inventions often pass without notice because of their
simplicity. Farmers have used logging chains for gen-
erations with hooks made on this plan without realiz-
ing that they were profiting by a high grade invention
that embodies superior merit.

In yoking oxen to a wagon the hitch is equally sim-
ple. The end of the wagon tongue is placed in the ring
in the ox yoke, the round hook engages with a draw-
bolt under the hammer strap bar. The small grab hook
is passed through the large yoke ring and is brought
back and engaged with a chain link at the proper dis-
tance to stretch the chain taut.

The process of yoking oxen and hitching them to a
wagon is one of the most interesting performances on
a farm. The off ox works on the off side, or far side
from the driver. He usually is the larger of the two
and the more intelligent. The near (pronounced
n-i-g-h) ox is nearest to the driver who walks to the left.
Old plows turned the furrow to the right so the driver
could walk on hard ground. In this way the awkward-
ness and ignorance of the near ox is played against the
docility and superior intelligence of the off ox. In
yoking the two together the yoke is first placed on the

FARM CONVEYANCES 183

neck of the off ox and the near ox is invited to come
under. This expression is so apt that a great many-
years ago it became a classic in the hands of able writ-
ers to suggest submission or slavery termed '^coming
under the yoke." Coming under the yoke, however,
for the New England ox, in these days of abundant
feeding, is no hardship. The oxen are large and power-
ful and the work they have to do is just about sufficient
to give them the needed exercise to enjoy their alfalfa
hay and feed of oats or corn.

TRAVOY

One of the first implements used by farm settlers in
the timbered sections of the United States and Canada,
was a three-cornered sled made from the fork of a tree.
This rough sled, in the French speaking settlements,
was called a ^^travoy." Whether it was of Indian or
French invention is not known ; probably both Indians
and French settlers used travoys for moving logs in the
woods before American history was much written. The
legs or runners of a travoy are about five feet long.
There is a bunk which extends crossways from one run-
ner to the other, about half or two-thirds of the way
back from the turned-up nose. This bunk is fastened
to the runners by means of wooden pins and U-
shaped bows fitted into grooves cut around the upper
half of the bunk near the ends. Just back of the
turned up nose is another cross piece in the shape of a
stout wooden pin or iron bolt that is passed through an
auger hole extending through both legs from side to
side of the travoy. The underside of the crotch is
hollowed out in front of the bolt to make room to pass
the logging chain through so it comes out in front un-
der the turned up nose.

184

FARM MECHANICS

The front of the travoy is turned up, sled runner
fashion, by hewing the wood with an axe to give it the
proper shape. Travoys are used to haul logs from a
thick woods to the skidways. The manner of using a
travoy is interesting. It is hauled by a yoke of cattle
or a team of horses to the place where the log lies in the
woods. The round hook end of the logging chain is
thrown over the butt end of the log and pulled back
under the log then around the bunk just inside of the

Figure 160. — Travoy.

A log-hauling sled made from the fork of a
tree.

runner and hooked fast upon itself. The travoy is then
leaned over against the log, the grab hook end of the
chain is brought over the log and over the travoy and
straightened out at right angles to the log. The cattle
are hitched to the end of the logging chain and started.
This kind of a hitch rolls the log over on top of the
bunk on the travoy. The cattle are then unhitched.
The grab hook end of the chain thus released is passed
down and around under the other end of the bunk from
behind. The chain is then passed over the bolt near
the nose of the travoy and pulled down through the
opening and out in front from under the nose. The

FARM CONVEYANCES

185

small grab hook of the logging chain is then passed
through the clevis, in the doubletree, if horses are
used, or the ring in the yoke if cattle are used, and
hitched back to the proper length. A little experience
is necessary to regulate the length of the chain to give
the proper pull. The chain should be short enough so
the pull lifts a little. It is generally conceded by
woodsmen that a short hitch moves a log easier than a
long hitch. However, there is a medium. There are
limitations which experience only can determine. A
travoy is useful in dense woods where there is a good
deal of undergrowth or where there are places so
rough that bobsleighs cannot be used to advantage.

LINCHPIN FARM WAGONS

In some parts of the country the wheels of handy
wagons about the farm are held on axle journals by

Figure 161. — Cross Reach Wagon. This wagon is coupled for a
trailer, but it works just as well when used with a tongue and
horses as a handy farm wagon. The bunks are made rigid and
parallel by means of a double reach. There are two king bolts to
permit both axles to turn. Either end is front.

means of linchpins in the old-fashioned manner. There
are iron hub-bands on both ends of the hubs which pro-
ject several inches beyond the wood. This is the best
protection against sand to prevent it from working into
the wheel boxing that has ever been invented. Sand

186

FARM MECHANICS

from the felloes scatters down onto these iron bands
and rolls. off to the ground. There is a hole through
each band on the outer ends of the hubs to pass the
linchpin through so that before taking off a wheel to
oil the journal it must first be turned so the hole comes
directly over the linchpin. To pry out the linchpin the
drawbolt is used. Old-fashioned drawbolts were made

Figure 162. — Wagon Brake. The hounds are tilted up to show the
brake beam and the manner of attaching it. The brake lever is
fastened to the forward side of the rear bolster and turns up along-
side of the bolster stake. The brake rod reaches from the upper end
of the lever elbow to the foot ratchet at the front end of the wagon
box.

Figure 163.— Bolster Spring.

with a chisel shaped end tapered from both sides to a
thickness of about an eighth of an inch. This thin
wedge end of the drawbolt is placed under the end of
the linchpin. The lower side of the hub-band forms a
fulcrum to pry the pin up through the hole in the up-
per side of the sand-band projection. The linchpin has
a hook on the outer side of the upper end so the lever
is transferred to the top of the sand-band when another
pry lifts the pin clear out of the hole in the end of the
iaxle so the wheel may be removed and grease applied

FARM CONVEYANCES 187

to the axle. The drawbolt on a linchpin wagon usu-
ally has a head made in the form of the jaws of a
wrench. The wrench is the right size to fit the nuts on

Figure 164. — Wagon Seat Figure 165. — Hollow Malle*

Spring. The metal block fits able Iron Bolster Stake to hold

over the top of the bolster a higher wooden stake when

stake. necessary.

the wagon brace irons so that the drawbolt answers
three purposes.

SAND-BANDS

Many parts of farm machinery require projecting
sand-bands to protect the journals from sand and dust.
Most farms have some sandy fields or ridges. Some
farms are all sand or sandy loam. Even dust from clay
is injurious to machinery. There is more or less grit
in the finest clay. The most important parts of farm
machinery are supposed to be protected by oil-cups
containing cotton waste to strain the oil, together with
covers in the shape of metal caps. These are necessary
protections and they help, but they are not adequate
for all conditions. It is not easy to keep sand out of
bearings on machinery that shakes a good deal.
Wooden plugs gather sand and dust. When a plug is
pulled the sand drops into the oil hole. Farm ma-
chinery that is properly designed protects itself from
sand and dust. In buying a machine this particular
feature should appeal to the farmers more than it

188

FARM MECHANICS

does. Leather caps are a nuisance. They are a sort
of patchwork to finish the job that the manufacturer
commences. A man who is provident enough to sup-
ply himself with good working tools and is suflSciently

Figure 166. — Sand Caps. Not one manufacturer in a hundred
knows how to keep sand out of an axle bearing. Still it is one of the
simplest tricks in mechanics. The only protection an axle needs is
long ferrules that reach out three or four inches beyond the hub at
both ends. Old-fashioned Linchpin farm wagons were built on this
principle. The hubs held narrow rings instead of skeins, but they
wore for years.

careful to take care of them, usually is particular about
the appearance as well as the usefulness of his tools,
machinery and implements.

BOBSLEIGHS

On Northern farms bobsleighs are as important in
the winter time as a farm wagon in summer. There are
different ways of putting bobsleighs together accord-
ing to the use required of them. When using heavy
bobsleighs for road work, farmers favor the bolster
reach to connect the front and rear sleighs. With this
attachment the horses may be turned around against
the rear sled. The front bolster fits into a recessed

FARM CONVEYANCES 189

plate bolted to the bench plank of the front sleigh.
This plate is a combination of wearing plate and circle
and must be kept oiled to turn easily under a heavy
load. It not only facilitates turning, but it prevents
the bolster from catching on the raves or on the up-
turned nose of the front bob when turning short.

The heavy hardwood plank reach that connects the
two bolsters is put through a mortise through the front
bolster and is fastened rigidly by an extra large king-
bolt. The reach plays back and forth rather loosely
through a similar mortise in the other bolster on the
rear sleigh. The rear hounds connect with the reach
by means of a link and pin. This link pushes up
through mortise holes in the reach and is fastened with
a wooden pin or key on top of the reach. Sometimes
the hounds are taken away and the reach is fastened
with pins before and behind the rear bolster. This
reach hitch is not recommended except for light road
work. These two ways of attaching the rear sled neces-
sitate different ways of fastening the rear bolster to
the sled. When the rear bolster is required to do the
pulling, it is attached to the sled by double eyebolts
which permit the necessary rocking motion and allows
the nose of the rear sled to bob up and down freely.
This is an advantage when a long box bed is used, be-
cause the bolster is made to fit the box closely and is not
continually oscillating and wearing. Eye-bolts pro-
vide for this natural movement of the sled. Light
pleasure bobs are attached to the box with eyebolts
without bolster stakes. The light passenger riding seat
box is bound together with iron braces and side irons
so it does not need bolsters to hold the sides together.

Bobsleighs for use in the woods are hitched together
quite differently. The old-fashioned reach with a staple

190 . FARM MECHANICS

in the rear bench of the first sled and a clevis in the end
of the reach is the old-fashioned rig for rough roads in
the woods. Such sleighs are fitted with bunks instead
of bolsters. Bunks are usually cut from good hard-
wood trees, hewed out with an axe and bored for round

Figure 167.— Bobsleighs, Showing Three Kinds of Coupling. The
upper sleighs are coupled on the old-fashioned short reach plan ex-
cept that the reach is not mortised into the roller. It is gained in
a quarter of an inch and fastened by an iron strap with a plate and
nuts on the under side. The bobs in the center show the bolster
reach, principally used for road work. The bottom pair are coupled
by cross chains for short turning around trees and stumps in the
woods.

stakes. Log bunks for easy loading do. not project
beyond the raves. With this kind of a rig, a farmer can
fasten two logging chains to the reach, carry the grab
hook ends out and under and around the log and back
again over the sleighs, and then hitch the horses to the
two chains and roll the log up over a couple of skids
and on to the bunks without doing any damage to the

FARM CONVEYANCES 191

bobsleighs. Bobsleighs hitched together with an old-
fashioned reach and provided with wide heavy raves
will climb over logs, pitch down into root holes, and
weave their way in and out among trees better than any
other sled contrivance, and they turn short enough for
such roads. The shortest turning rig, however, is the
cross chain reach shown in Figure 167.

MAKING A FARM CART

A two-wheeled cart large enough to carry a barrel of
cider is a great convenience on a farm. The front
wheels of a buggy are about the right size and usually
are strong enough for cart purposes. A one-inch iron
axle will be stiff enough if it is reinforced at the square
bends. The axle is bent down near the hubs at right
angles and carried across to support the floor of the
cart box about one foot from the ground. The distance
from the ground should be just sufficient so that when
the cart is tipped back the hind end will rest on the
ground with the bottom boards at an easy slant to roll
a barrel or milk can into the bottom of the box. Under
the back end of the cart platform is a good, stout bar of
hardwood framed into the sidepieces. All of the wood-
work about the cart is well braced with iron. The floor
of the cart is better when made of narrow matched
hardwood flooring about seven-eighths of an inch thick
fastened with bolts. It should be well supported by
cross pieces underneath. In fact the principal part of
the box is the underneath part of the frame.

Sidepieces of the box are wide and are bolted to the
vertical parts of the axle and braced in different direc-
tions to keep the frame solid, square and firm. The
sides of the box are permanently fastened but both
tailboard and front board are held in place by cleats

192 FARM MECHANICS

and rods and are removable so that long scantling or
lumber may be carried on the cart bottom. The ends
of the box may be quickly put in place again when it
is necessary to use them.

To hold a cart box together, four rods are necessary,
two across the front and two behind. They are made
like tailboard rods in wagon boxes. There is always
some kind of tongue or handle bar in front of the farm
cart conveniently arranged for either pulling or push-

Figure 168. — Farm Cart. The axle need not be heavier than %",
The hind axle of a light buggy works the best. It is bent down and
spliced and welded under the box. The cart should be made narrow
to prevent overloading. The box should be low enough to rest the
back end on the ground at an angle of about 35° for easy loading.

ing. If a breast bar is used it handles better when sup-
ported by two curved projecting shafts or pieces of
bent wood, preferably the bent up extended ends of the
bedpieces. The handle bar should be about three feet
from the ground.

COLT-BREAKING SULKY

A pair of shafts that look a good deal too long, an
axle, two wheels and a whiffletree are the principal
parts of a colt-breaking sulky. The shafts are so long
that a colt can kick his best without reaching anything
behind. The principal danger is that he may come
down with one hind leg over the shaft. It is a question
with horsemen whether it is better to first start a colt

FARM CONVEYANCES

193

alongside of an old, steady horse. But it is generally
conceded that in no case should a colt be made fast in
such a way that he could kick himself loose. Different
farmers have different ideas in regard to training colts,
but these breaking carts with extra long shafts are very
much used in some parts of the country. The shafts
are heavy enough so that the colts may be tied down to
make kicking impossible. A rope or heavy strap reach-

Figure 169. — Colt-Breaking Sulky. The axle and hind wheels of
a light wagon, two strong straight-grained shafts about 4 feet too
long, a whiffletree and a spring seat are the principal parts of a colt
breaking sulky. The shafts and seat are thoroughly well bolted and
clipped to the axle and braced against all possible maneuvers of the
colt. The traces are made so long that the colt cannot reach any-
thing to kick, and he is prevented from kicking by a strap reaching
from one shaft up over his hips and down to the other shaft. In
this rig the colt is compelled to go ahead because he cannot turn
around. The axle should be longer than standard to prevent up-
setting when the colt turns a corner at high speed.

ing from one shaft to the other over the coitus hips will
keep its hind feet pretty close to the ground. Any rig
used in connection with a colt should be strong enough
to withstand any strain that the colt may decide to put
upon it. If the colt breaks something or breaks loose,
it takes him a long time to forget the scare. Farm boys
make these breaking carts by using wheels and hind
axles of a worn-out buggy. This is well enough if the
wheels are strong and shafts thoroughly bolted and
braced. It is easy to make a mistake with a colt. To
prevent accidents it is much better to have the harness
and wagon amply strong.

CHAPTEE VIII

MISCELLANEOUS FAEM CONVENIENCES

FARM OFFICE

Business farming requires an office. Business callers
feel sensitive about talking farm or live-stock affairs

Figure 170. — Perspective View of Two-Story Corn Crib. The side of
the building is cut away to show the elevating machinery.

before several members of the family. But they are
quite at ease when alone with the farmer in his office.
A farm office may be small but it should contain a

194

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES

195

desk or table, two or three chairs, book shelves for
books, drawers for government bulletins and a cabinet
to hold glassware and chemicals for making soil tests

Figure 171. — Floor Plans of Two-Story Corn Crib. The first
floor shows the driveway with corn cribs at the sides and the
second floor plan shows the grain bins over the center driveway,
with location of the downspouts, stairway, etc.

and a good magnifying glass for examining seeds be-
fore planting. A good glass is also valuable in tracing
the destructive work of many kinds of insect pests.

19G

FARM MECHANICS

The office is the proper place for making germina-
tion tests of various farm seeds. Seventy degrees of
heat is necessary for the best results in seed testing.
For this reason, as well as for comfort while working,
the heating problem should receive its share of atten-

232 Lineal
Feet of Wall

6.G.B

-53-5"
2l49fo Lin.
Feet of Wall.

l902/foLi(i.
Feet of Wolf.

Figure 172. — Economy of Round Barn. The diagrams show that
the popular 36'x80' cow stable and the commonest size of round
barn have about the same capacity. Each barn will stable forty
cows, but the round barn has room for a silo in the center. Both
barns have feed overhead in the shape of hay and straw, but the
round feed room saves steps.

Figure 173. — Concrete Farm Scale Base and Pit.

tion. Many times it so happens that a farmer has a
few minutes just before mealtime that he could devote
to office work if the room be warm enough.

Neatly printed letter-heads and envelopes are im-
portant. The sheets of paper should be eight 'and a
half by eleven inches in size, pure white and of good
quality. The printing should be plain black and of

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES

197

RIDGE BOARD SHOULD IXTEHB BACK INTO
3ARH8rE£T. £'^^- rafters )

S2'xt" COLLAR BEAM

BARM WALL

Figure 174, — ^Top View of the Hay-Track Roof Extension, showing
the ridgeboard and supporting jack-rafters.

3-0' .. - a'-o"

WAY-TR,

BARGE
BOARD U

Figure 175. — Side view showing plan for building a Hayfork Hood
to project from peak of a storage barn. The jack-rafters form a
brace to support the end of the hay-track beam.

198

FARM MECHANICS

round medium-sized letters that may be easily read.
Fancy lettering and flourishes are out of place on busi-
ness stationery.

Detail of
Door
Latching
Hechanism

Figure 176. — Slaughter House. The house should be twelve feet
wide. It may be any length to provide storage, but 12x12 makes a
good beef skinning floor. The windlass shaft should be ten feet
above the floor, which requires twelve-foot studding. The wheel is
eight feet in diameter and the winding drum is about ten inches.
The animal is killed on the incline outside of the building and it lies
limp against the revolving door. The door catch is sprung back and
the carcass rolls down onto the concrete skinning floor.

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES

199

Halftone illustration of farm animals or buildings
are better used on separate advertising sheets that may
be folded in with the letters when wanted.

Figure 177. — ^Rule of Six, Eight and Ten. Diagram showing how
to stake the foundation of a farm building so the excavation can be
made clear out to the corners without undermining the stakes.

Figure 178.-

-Roof Truss built strong enough to support the roof of a
farm garage without center posts.

200

FARM MECHANICS

Typewriters are so common that a hand-written let-
ter is seldom seen among business correspondence. A
busy farmer is not likely to acquire much speed with a
typewriter, but his son or daughter may. One great

Figure 179. — Design of Roof Truss Intended to Span a Farm Garage.

Figure 180. — ^Roof Pitches, Mow capacity of the different roof
pitches is given above the plates in figures.

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES

201

advantage is the making of carbon copies. Every let-
ter received is then filed in a letter case in alphabetical
order and a carbon copy of each answer is pinned to it
for future reference.

The cost of furnishing a farm ofiSce will depend upon
the inclinations of the man. A cheap kitchen table

Figure 181. — Double Corn Crib. Two cribs may be roofed this
way as cheaply as to roof the two cribs separately. A storeroom is
provided overhead and the bracing prevents the cribs from sagging.

may be used instead of an expensive mahogany desk.
A new typewriter costs from fifty to ninety dollars, but
a rebuilt machine that will do good work may be ob-
tained for twenty.

A useful magnifying glass with legs may be bought
for a dollar or two. Or considerable money may be in-
vested in a high-powered microscope.

SPEED INDICATOR

The speed requirements of machines are given by
the manufacturers. It is up to the farmer to determine

202

FARM MECHANICS

the size of pulleys and the speed of intermediate shafts
between his engine and the machine to be driven. A
speed indicator is held against the end of a shaft at
the center. The indicator pin then revolves with the

Figure 182. — Speed Timers. Two styles. The point is held against
the center of the shaft to be tested. The number of revolutions per
minute is shown in figures on the face of the dial. The indicator
is timed to the second hand of a watch.

shaft and the number of revolutions per minute are
counted by timing the pointer on the dial with the sec-
ond hand of a watch.

Figure 183. — Building Bracket. Made of 2x4 pieces put together
at right angles with diagonal braces. The supporting leg fits be-
tween the four diagonal braces.

SOIL TOOLS

Soil moisture often is the limiting factor in crop
raising. Soil moisture may be measured by analysis.

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES

203

Figure 184. — Diagram showing how to cut a plank on a band-
saw to form a curved rafter. The two pieces of the plank are spiked
together as shown in the lower drawing. This makes a curved rafter
without waste of material.

Figure 185. — Breeding Crate for Hogs. The illustration shows the
manner of construction.

204

FARM MECHANICS

The first step is to obtain samples at different depths.
This is done accurately and quickly with a good soil
auger. Other paraphernalia is required to make a

Figure 186. — Soil Auger. Scientific farming demands that soils
shall be tested for moisture. A long handled auger is used to bring
samples of soil to the surface. The samples are weighed, the water
evaporated and the soil reweighed to determine the amount of
moisture.

Figure 187. — Post Hole Diggers. Two patterns of the same kind
of digger are shown. The first has iron handles, the lower has
wooden handles.

Figure 188. — Hoes and Weeders. The hang of a hoe affects its
working. The upper hoe shows about the easiest working angle
between the blade and the handle. The difference between a hoe and
a weeder is that the hoe is intended to strike into the ground to
loosen the soil, while the blade of the weeder is intended to work
parallel with the surface of the soil to cut young weeds.

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES

205

careful analysis of the sample, but a farmer of experi-
ence will make a mud ball and form a very good esti-
mate of the amount of water in it.

Figure 189.— M|inure Hook and Potato Diggers.

g-^HT

Figure 190. — Spud. Certain vegetables are gron^n for crop and
for seed. The green plants are thinned with a spud for sale, leaving
the best to ripen for seed. It is also used to dig tough weeds, espe-
cially those having tap roots.

Figure 191. — (1) Corn Cutting Knife. (2) Asparagus Knife.

FENCE-MAKING TOOLS

Sliding Field Gate. — Each farm field should have
a gate, not necessarily expensive, but it should be
reasonably convenient. Farm field gates should be

206

FARM MECHANICS

Figure 192. — .(1) Plumb-Bob and Plumb-Line. The line is paid
out about 6 feet from the spool and given a half hitch. It may then
be hung over the wire and the spool will balance the bob. (2) Bipod.
The legs of a fence bipod are cut 6 feet long. The bolt is put
through 6 inches from the top ends. By the aid of the plummet the
upl)er wire is strung plumb over the barb-wire in the furrow and
4' 6" above grade. The lower parts of the posts are set against the "
barb-wire and the upper faces of the posts at the top are set even
with the upper wire. This plan not only places the posts in line,
both at the top and bottom, but it regulates the height.

~^ 3"

-^g\ -Q ROUND STEEL

SPlKt FOU TWISTING BRACE WIRES

-7-0

SCOOP FOR, REMOVING STONES

4-0"

-?cx::ta&on steteu

CROW-5AR.

Figure 193. — Fence Tools. The upper tool is a round steel pin to
twist heavy brace wires. The scoop is for working stones out of
post-holes. ' The steel crowbar is for working around the stones to
loosen them.

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 207

made sixteen feet long, which will allow for a clear
opening about fourteen feet wide. The cheapest way
to make a good farm gate is to use a 10-inch board for
the bottom, 8-inch for the board next to the bottom and
three 6-inch boards above that. The space between
the bottom board and next board is two inches. This
narrow space prevents hogs from lifting the gate with
their noses. The spaces widen toward the top, so that
the gate when finished is five feet high. If colts run the
fields then a bar is needed along the top of the gate.
Six cross pieces 1 inch by 6 inches are used to hold

Figure 194. — Fence Pliers. This is a heavy fence tool made to puU
fence staples and to stretch, cut and splice wire.

the gate together. These cross pieces are bolted through
at each intersection. Also a slanting brace is used on
the front half of the gate to keep it from racking and
this brace is put on with bolts. Two posts are set at
each end of the gate. The front posts hold the front
end of the gate between them, and the rear posts the
same. There is a cross piece which reaches from one
of the rear posts to the other to slide the gate and
hold it off the ground. A similar cross piece holds the
front end of the gate up from the ground. Sometimes
a swivel roller is attached to the rear cross piece to roll
the gate if it is to be used a good deal. A plain, simple
sliding gate is all that is necessary for fields some dis-
tance from the barn.

208 FARM MECHANICS

CORN SHOCK HORSE

A convenient corn shocking horse is made with a
pole cut from a straight tree. The pole is about six
inches through at the butt and tapers to a small end.
About twenty feet is a good length. There are two legs
which hold the large end of the pole up about 40'' from
the ground. These legs are well spread apart at the
bottom. Two feet back from the legs is a horizontal
hole about one and one-quarter inches in diameter to
hold the crossbar. This crossbar may be an old broom

Figure 195. — Corn Horse. When corn is cut by hand there is no
better shocking device than the old-style corn horse. It is almost as
handy when setting up the corn sheaves from the corn binder.

handle. The pole and the crossbar mark the four divi-
sions of a corn shock. Corn is cut and stood up in each
corner, usually nine hills in a corner, giving thirty-six
hills to a shock. Corn planted in rows is counted up to
make about the same amount of corn to the shock. Of
course a heavy or light crop must determine the num-
ber of rows or hills. When enough corn is cut for a
shock it is tied with two bands, the crossbar is pulled
out and the corn horse is dragged along to the next
stand.

HUSKING-PIN

Hand buskers for dividing the cornhusks at the tips
of the ears are made of wood, bone or steel. Wooden
husking-pins are made of ironwood, eucalyptus, second
growth hickory, or some other tough hardwood. The

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES

209

Figure 196. — Brick Trowel.

14 ID

Figure 197. — Plastering Trowel.

h20 concrete^

rt<imt>ed onders or araYt)

Figure 198. — Concrete Hog Wallow, showing draii^ pipe.

Figure 199. — Concrete Center Alley for Hog House. The upper
illustration represents the wooden template used to form the center
of the hog house floor.

210

FARM MECHANICS

Str^w Top-^

Concrete PoerfJiS^^^^^^
Wire Mesh Filled with STrflW^

Figure 200. — Sanitary Pig-Pen. One of the most satisfactory far-
rowing houses is constructed of concrete posts 6" square and 6"
square mesh hog fencing and straw. The posts are set to make far-
rowing pens 8' wide and 16' deep from front to back. Woven wire
is stretched and fastened to both sides of the posts at the sides and
back of each pen. Straw is stuffed in between the two wire nets,
thus making partitions of straw 6" thick and 42" high. Fence wire
is stretched over the top and straw piled on deep enough to shed
rain. The front of the pens face the south and are closed by wooden
gates. In the spring the pigs are turned out on pasture, the straw
roof is, hauled to the fields for manure and the straw partitions
burned out. The sun shines into the skeleton pens all summer so
that all mischievous bacteria are killed and the hog-lice are burned
or starved. The next fall concrete floors may be laid in the pens,
the partitions restuffed with straw and covered with another straw
roof. In a colder climate I would cover the whole top with a straw
roof. Sufficient ventilation would work through the straw partitions
and the front gate. In very cold weather add a thin layer of straw
to the gate.

Figure 201. — Concrete Wall Mold. Wooden molds for shaping a
concrete wall may be made as shown. If the "wall is to be low — 2'
or less — the mold will stay in place without bolting or wiring the
sides together. The form is made level by first leveling the 2"x6"
stringers that support the form.

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES

211

pin is about four inches long, five-eighths of an inch
thick and it is shaped like a lead-pencil with a rather
long point. A recessed girdle is cut around the barrel
of the pin and a leather finger ring fits into and around
this girdle. Generally the leather ring fits the larger

Figure 202. — Husking-Pin. The leather finger ring is looped into the
recess in the wooden pin.

Figure 203. — Harness Punch. The hollow punch points are of
different sizes.

Figure 204. — Belt Punch. Two or three sizes should be kept in the
tool box. Belt holes should be small to hold the lace tight. The
smooth running of belts depends a good deal on the lacing. Holes
punch better against the end of a hickory block or other fine grained
hardwood.

finger to hold the pin in the right position while per-
mitting it to turn to wear the point all around alike.
Bone husking-pins are generally flat with a hole
through the center to hold the leather finger ring. Steel
husking-pins are shaped differently and have teeth to
catch and tear the husks apart.

212

FARM MECHANICS

PAINT BRUSHES

Paint brushes may be left in the paint for a year
without apparent injury. The paint should be deep
enough to nearly bury the bristles. Pour a little boiled
linseed oil over the top to form a skin to keep the air
out. It is cheaper to buy a new brush than to clean the
paint out of one that has been used.

ttB. Clove Hitch

Lflshjng Running Knot

Figure 205. — 'Knots. The simple principles of knot tying as
practiced on farms are here represented.

Figure 206. — Sheepshank, two half hitches in a rope to take up
slack. The rope may be folded upon itself as many times as neces-
sary.

Figure 207. — ^Marline Spike. Used for splicing ropes, tying rose
knots, etc.

FRUIT PICKING

Apples are handled as carefully as eggs by men
who understand the business of getting high prices.

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 213

Picking boxes for apples have bothered orchard men
more than any other part of the business. It is so
difficult to get help to handle apples without bruising
that many inventions have been tried to lessen the dam-
age. In western New York a tray with vertical ends
and slanting sides has been adopted by grape growers
as the most convenient tray for grapes. Apple growers
are adopting the same tray. It is made of three-

Figure 208. — Fruit-Picking Tray. It is used for picking grapes
and other fruits. The California lug box has vertical sides and is
the same size top and bottom. Otherwise the construction is
similar.

eighths-inch lumber cut 30 inches long for the sides,
using two strips for each side. The bottom is 30 inches
long and three-eighths of an inch thick, made in one
piece. The ends are seven-eighths of an inch thick cut
to a bevel so the top edge of the end piece is fourteen
inches long and the bottom edge is ten inches long. The
depth of the end piece is eight inches. Hand cleats
are nailed on the outsides of the end pieces so as to pro-
ject one-half inch above the top. These cleats not only
serve to lift and carry the trays, but when they are
loaded on a wagon the bottoms fit in between the cleats
to hold them from slipping endways. In piling these

214

FARM MECHANICS

picking boxes empty, one end is slipped outward over
the cleat until the other end drops down. This permits
half nesting when the boxes are piled up for storage or
when loaded ou wagons to move to the orchard.

Figure 209. — Fruit Thinning Nippers. Three styles of apple-stem
cutters are shown. They are also used for picking grapes and
other fruits.

Apples are picked into the trays from the trees. The
trays are loaded on to wagons or stone-boats and
hauled to the packing shed, where the apples are rolled
out gently over the sloping sides of the crates on to the
cushioned bottom of the sorting table. Orchard men

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 215

should have crates enough to keep the pickers busy-
without emptying until they are hauled to the packing
shed. The use of such trays or crates save handling
the apples over several times. The less apples are
handled the fewer bruises are made.

Figure 210. — Apple Picking Ladder. When apples are picked and
placed in bushel trays a ladder on wheels with shelves is convenient
for holding the trays.

In California similar trays are used, but they have
straight sides and are called lug boxes. Eastern fruit
men prefer the sloping sides because they may be
emptied easily, quickly and gently.

FRUIT PICKING LADDERS

Commercial orchards are pruned to keep the bear-
ing fruit spurs as near the ground as possible, so that

216 FARM MECHANICS

ladders used at picking time are not so long as they
used to be.

The illustration shows one of. the most convenient
picking ladders. It is a double ladder with shelves to
hold picking trays supported by two wheels and two
legs. The wheels which are used to support one side

Figure 211. — Stepladder and Apple-Picking Bag. This ladder has
only three feet, but the bottom of the ladder is made wide to pre-
vent upsetting. This bag is useful when picking scattering apples
on the outer or upper branches. Picking bags carelessly used are the
cause of many bruised apples.

Figure 212. — Tree Pruners. The best made pruners are the
cheapest. This long handled pruner is made of fine tool steel from
the cutting parts clear to the outer ends of the wooden handles. A
positive stop prevents the handles from coming together. Small
one-hand pruning nippers are made for clean cutting. The blades
of both pruners should work towards the tree trunk so the hook will
mash the bark on the discarded portion of the limb.

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 217

of the frame are usually old buggy wheels. A hind
axle together with the wheels works about right. The
ladder frame is about eight feet high with ladder steps
going up from each side. These steps also form the
support for the shelves. Picking trays or boxes are
placed on the shelves, so the latter will hold eight or
ten bushels of apples, and may be wheeled directly to
the packing shed if the distance is not too great.

Step-ladders from six to ten feet long are more con-
venient to get up into the middle of the tree than al-
most any other kind of ladder. Commercial apple

Figure 213. — Shears. The first pair is used for sheep shearing.
The second is intended for cutting grass around the edges of walks
and flower beds.

trees have open tops to admit sunshine. For this rea-
son, straight ladders are not much used. It is neces-
sary to have ladders built so they will support them-
selves. Sometimes only one leg is used in front of a
step-ladder and sometimes ladders are wide at the bot-
tom and taper to a point at the top. The kind of lad-
der to use depends upon the size of the trees and the
manner in which they have been pruned. Usually it
is better to have several kinds of ladders of different
sizes and lengths. Pickers then have no occasion to
wait for each other.

FEEDING RACKS

Special racks for the feeding of alfalfa hay to hogs
are built with slatted sides hinged at the top so they
will swing in when the hogs crowd their noses through

218

FARM MECHANICS

to get the hay. This movement drops the hay down
within reach. Alfalfa hay is especially valuable as a
winter feed for breeding stock. Sows may be wintered

Figure 214. — Horse Feeding Rack. This is a barnyard hay feeder
for horses and colts. The diagonal boarding braces each corner post
and leaves large openings at the sides. Horses shy at small hay
holes. The top boards and the top rail are 2x4s for strength. The
bottom is floored to save the chaff.

Figure 215. — Corner Post Detail of Horse Feeding Rack. A 2x6
is spiked into the edge of a 2x4, making a corner post 6" across.
The side boarding is cut even with the corner of the post and the
open corner is filled with a two-inch quarter-round as shown.

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES

219

on alfalfa with one ear of corn a day and come out in
the spring in fit condition to suckle a fine litter of pigs.
Alfalfa is a strong protein feed. It furnishes the

Figure 216. — Automatic Hog Feeder. The little building is 8 ' xl2 '
on the ground and it is 10' high to the plates. The crushed grain
is shoveled in from behind and it feeds down hopper fashion as fast
as the hogs eat it. The floor is made of matched lumber. It should
stand on a dry concrete floor.

Figure 217. — Sheep Feeding Rack. The hay bottom and grain
trough sides slope together at 45° angles. The boarding is made
tight to hold chaff and grain from wasting.

muscle-forming substances necessary for the young
litter by causing a copious flow of milk. One ear of
corn a day is sufficient to keep the sow in good condi-

220

FARM MECHANICS

tion without laying on too much fat. When shoats
are fed in the winter for fattening, alfalfa hay helps
them to grow. In connection with grain it increases
the weight rapidly without adding a great deal of ex-
pense to the ration. Alfalfa in every instance is in-
tended as a roughage, as an appetizer and as a protein
feed. Fat must be added by the use of corn, kaffir corn.

Figure 218. — Rack Base and Sides. The 2x4s are halved at the
ends and put together at right angles. These frames are placed 3'
apart and covered with matched flooring. Light braces should be
nailed across these frames a few inches up from the ground. The
1x4 pickets are placed 7" apart in the clear, so the sheep can get
their heads through to feed. These picketed frames are bolted to
the base and framed around the top. If the rack is more than 9'
long there should be a center tie or partition. Twelve feet is a good
length to make the racks.

Canada peas, barley or other grains. Alfalfa hay is
intended to take the place of summer pasture in winter
more than as a fattening ration.

SPLIT-LOG ROAD DRAG

The only low cost road grader of value is the split-
log road drag. It should be exactly what the name im-
plies. It should be made from a light log about eight
inches in diameter split through the middle with a saw.
Plenty of road drags are made of timbers instead of
split logs, but the real principle is lost because such

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES

221

drags are too heavy and clumsy. They cannot be
quickly adjusted to the varying road conditions met
with while in use.

Figure 219. — Hog Trough. In a winter hog house the feed trough
is placed next to the alley or passageway. A cement trough is best.
A drop gate is hinged over the trough so it can be swung in while
putting feed in the trough. The same gate is opened up level to
admit hogs to the pen.

The illustration shows the right way of making a
road drag, and the manner in which it is drawn along
at an angle to the roadway so as to move the earth
from the sides towards the center, but illustrations are

222

FARM MECHANICS

Figure 220. — Reinforced Hog Trougii. The section of hog trough
to the left is reinforced with chicken wire, one-inch mesh. The
trough to the right is reinforced with seven %" rods — three in the
bottom and two in each side.

Xio\}^

Figure 221. — Double Poultry Feeding Trough with Partition in the
Center.

Figure 222. — 'Poultry Feeder with Metal or Crockery Receptacle.

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 223

useless for showing how to operate them to do good
work. The eccentricities of a split-log road drag may
be learned in one lesson by riding it over a mile or two
of country road shortly after the frost has left the
ground in the spring of the year. It will be noticed
that the front half of the road drag presents the flat
side of the split log to the work of shaving off the lumps
while the other half log levels and smooths and pud-

Figure 223. — Split-Log Road Drag. The front edge is shod with
a steel plate to do the cutting and the round side of the rear log
grinds the loosened earth fine and presses it into the wagon tracks
and water holes.

dies the loosened moist earth by means of the rounded
side. Puddling makes earth waterproof. The front,
or cutting edge, is faced with steel. The ridges and
humps are cut and shoved straight ahead or to one
side to fill holes and ruts. This is done by the driver,
who shifts his weight from one end to the other, and
from front to back of his standing platform to dis-
tribute the earth to the best advantage. The rounded
side of the rear half log presses the soft earth into place
and leaves the surface smooth.

Unfortunately, the habit of using narrow tired wag-
ons on country roads has become almost universal in

224 FARM MECHANICS

the United States. To add to their destructive propen-
sities, all wagons in some parts of the country have the
same width of tread so that each wheel follows in paths
made by other wheels, until they cut ruts of consider-
able depth. These little narrow ditches hold water so
that it cannot run off into the drains at the sides of the
roadway. When a rut gets started, each passing wheel
squeezes out the muddy water, or if the wheel be re-
volving at a speed faster than a walk it throws the
water, and the water carries part of the roadway with
it so that small ruts are made large and deep ruts

Figure 224. — Heavy Breaking Plow, used for road work and other
tough jobs.

are made deeper. In some limited sections road rules
demand that wagons shall have wide tires and have
shorter front axles, so that with the wide tires and the
uneven treads the wheels act as rollers instead of rut
makers. It is difficult to introduce such requirements
into every farm section. In the meantime the evils of
narrow tires may be overcome to a certain extent by
the persistent and proper use of the split-log road drag.
These drags are most effectual in the springtime when
the frost is coming out of the ground. During the
muddy season the roads get worked up into ruts and
mire holes, which, if taken in time, may be filled by
running lengthwise of the road with the drag when the
earth is still soft. When the ground shows dry on top

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 225

and is still soft and wet underneath is the time the
drags do the best work by scraping the drier hummocks
into the low places where the earth settles hard as it
dries.

A well rounded, smooth road does not get muddy in
the summer time. Summer rains usually come with a
dash. Considerable water falls in a short time, and
the very act of falling with force first lays the dust,
then packs the surface. The smooth packed surface
acts like a roof, and almost before the rain stops falling
all surface water is drained off to the sides so that an
inch down under the surface the roadbed is as hard as
it was before the rain. That is the reason why split log
road drags used persistently in the spring and occa-
sionally later in the season will preserve good roads all
summer. It is very much better to follow each summer
rain with the road drag, but it is not so necessary as
immediate attention at the proper time in spring. Be-
sides, farmers are so busy during the summer months
that they find it difficult to spend the time. In some
sections of the middle West one man is hired to do the
dragging at so much per trip over the road. He makes
his calculations accordingly and is prepared to do the
dragging at all seasons when needed. This plan usu-
ally works out the best because one man then makes it
his business and he gets paid for the amount of work
performed. This man should live at the far end of the
road division so that he can smooth his own pathway
leading to town.

STEEL ROAD DRAG

Manufacturers are making road drags of steel with
tempered blades adjustable to any angle by simply
moving the lever until the dog engages in the proper

226

FARM MECHANICS

notch. Some of these machines are made with blades
reversible, so that the other side can be used for cut-
ting when the first edge is worn. For summer use the
steel drag works very well, but it lacks the smoothing
action of a well balanced log drag.

SEED HOUSE AND BARN TRUCKS

Bag trucks for handling bags of grain and seeds
should be heavy. Bag truck wheels should be eight
inches in diameter with a three-inch face. The steel

Figure 225. — Barn Trucks. The platform truck is made to move
boxed apples and other fruit. The bag truck is well proportioned
and strong, but is not full ironed.

bar or shoe that lifts and carries the bag should be
twenty-two inches in length. That means that the bot-
tom of the truck in front is twenty-two inches wide.
The wheels run behind this bar so the hubs do not pro-
ject to catch against standing bags or door frames. The
length of truck handles from the steel lift bar to the
top end of the hand crook is four feet, six inches. In

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES

227

buying bag trucks it is better to get the heavy solid
kind that will not upset. The light ones are a great
nuisance when running them over uneven floors. The

"V- •

Figure 226. — Farm Gate Post with Copper Mail Box.

wheels are too narrow and too close together and the
trucks tip over under slight provocation. Platform
trucks for use in moving boxes of apples or crates of

228

FARM MECHANICS

potatoes or bags of seed in the seed house or warehouse
also should be heavy. The most approved platform
truck, the kind that market men use, is made with a
frame four feet in length by two feet in width. The
frame is made of good solid hardwood put together

Figure 227. — Concrete Post Supporting a Waterproof Clothes Line
Reel Box.

with mortise and tenon. The cross pieces or stiles
are three-quarters of an inch lower than the side pieces
or rails, which space is filled with hardwood flooring
boards firmly bolted to the cross pieces so they come up
flush with the side timbers. The top of the platform
should be sixteen inches up from the floor. There are

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES

229

two standards in front which carry a woodfen crossbar
over the front end of the truck. This crossbar is used
for a handle to push or pull the truck. The height of
the handle-bar from the floor is three feet. Rear wheels
are five inches in diameter and work
on a swivel so they turn in any direc-
tion like a castor. The two front
wheels carry the main weight. They
are twelve inches in diameter with a
three-inch face. The wheels are bored
to fit a one-inch steel axle and have
wide boxings bolted to the main tim-
bers of the truck frame. Like the
two-wheel bag truck, the wheels of
the platform truck are under the
frame so they do not project out in
the way, which is a great advantage
when the truck is being used in a
crowded place.

^=tir

HOME CANNING OUTFIT

There

small

outfits

are small canning uutiit» Figure 228.-
manuf actured and sold for farm use ^^'^^. waiter. The

. . _ cage IS poised by a

that work on the factory principle, counterweight, it

TTi • ^ 1.1 4.1!: f X- • is guided by a rope

For canning vegetables, the heating is belt which runs on
done under pressure because a great tlJe top and bottom,
deal of heat is necessary to destroy
the bacteria that spoil vegetables in the cans. Steam
under pressure is a good deal hotter than boiling water.
There is considerable work in using a canning outfit,
but it gets the canning out of the way quickly. Extra
help may be employed for a few days to do the canning
on the same principle that farmers employ extra help
at threshing time and do it all up at once. Of course.

230

FARM MECHANICS

fruits and vegetables keep coming along at different
times in the summer, but the fall fruit canning may
be done at two or three sittings arranged a week or two

Figure 229. — Clothes Line Tightener. This device is made of No. 9
wire bent as shown in the illustration.

Figure 230. — Goat Stall. Milch goats are milked on a raised
platform. Feed is placed in the manger. The opening in the side
of the manger is a stanchion to hold them steady.

apart and enough fruit packed away in the cellar to
last a big family a whole year. Canning machinery is
simple and inexpensive. These outfits may be bought
from $10 up. Probably a $20 or $25 canner would

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES

231

be large enough for a large family, or a dozen dif-
ferent families if it could be run on a co-operative
plan.

Figure 231. — Horse Clippers. Hand clippers are shown to the
left. The flexible shaft clipper to the right may be turned by hand
for clipping a few horses or shearing a few sheep, but for real busi-
ness it should be driven by an electric motor.

ELECTRIC TOWEL

The *'air towel'' is sanitary, as well as an economical
method of drying the hands. A foot pedal closes a quick-

232 FARM MECHANICS

acting switch, thereby putting into operation a blower
that forces air through an electric heating devise so
arranged as to distribute the warmed air to all parts
of the hands at the same time. The supply of hot air
continues as long as the foot pedal is depressed. The
hands are thoroughly dried in thirty seconds.

STALLS FOR MILCH GOATS

Milch goats are not fastened with stanchions like
cows. The front of the manger is boarded tight with
the exception of a round hole about two feet high and
a slit in the boards reaching from the round opening to

Figure 232. — Hog Catching Plook. The wooden handle fits loosely
into the iron socket. As soon as the hog's hind leg is engaged the
wooden handle is removed and the rope held taut.

within a few inches of the floor. The round hole is
made large enough so that the goat puts her head
through to reach the feed, and the slit is narrow enough
so she cannot back up to pull the feed out into the stall.
This is a device to save fodder.

STABLE HELPS

Overhead tracks have made feed carriers possible.
Litter or feed carriers and manure carriers run on the
same kind of a track, the only difference is in size and
shape of the car and the manner in which the contents
are unloaded. Manure carriers and litter carriers have
a continuous track that runs along over the manure
gutters and overhead lengthwise of the feed alleys.
There are a number of different kinds of carriers man-

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES

233

uf actured, all of which seem to do good service. The
object is to save labor in doing the necessary work
about dairy stables. To get the greatest possible profit
from cows, it is absolutely necessary that the stable

Figure 233. — Bull Nose-Chain. Cross bulls may be turned out to
pasture with some degree of safety by snapping a chain like this
into the nose-ring. The chain should be just long enough to swing
and wrap around the bull's front legs when he is running. Also the
length is intended to drag the ring where he will step on it with
his front feet. There is some danger of pulling the nose ring out.

Figure 234. — Manure Carriers. There are two kinds of manure
carriers in general use. The principal difference is the elevator
attachment for hoisting when the spreader stands too high for the
usual level dump.

should be kept clean and sanitary, also that the cows
shall be properly fed several times a day. Different
kinds of feed are given at the different feeding periods.
It is impossible to have all the different kinds of food
stored in sufficient quantities within easy reach of the
cows. Hence, the necessity of installing some mechani-

234

FARM MECHANICS

cal arrangement to fetch and carry. The only floor
carrier in use in dairy stables is a truck for silage.
Not in every stable is this the case. Sometimes a feed
carrier is run directly to the silo. It
depends a good deal on the floor what
kind of a carrier is best for silage.
The advantage of an overhead track
is .that it is always free from litter.
Where floor trucks are used, it is
necessary to keep the floor bare of
obstruction. This is not considered
a disadvantage because the floor
should be kept clean anyway.

HOUSE PLUMBING

When water is pumped by a,n en-
gine and stored for use in a tank to
be delivered under pressure in the
house, then the additional cost of hot
and cold water and the necessary sink
and bath room flxtures is compara-
tively small. Modem plumbing fix-
tures fit so perfectly and go together
"^ so easily that the cost of installing

Figure 235.— Cow housc plumbing in the country has

stanchion. Wooden , x'n j j I'l^i

cow stanchions been materially reduced, while the
^mfortabie^for the dangers from noxious gases have been
oSIs! ^^ *^^ ''''''' entirely eliminated. Open ventilator
pipes carry the poisonous gases up
through the roof of the house to float harmlessly away
in the atmosphere. Septic tanks take care of the sew-
erage better than the sewer systems in some towns.
Plumbing fixtures may be cheap or expensive, accord-
ing to the wishes and pocketbook of the owner. The

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES

235

cheaper grades are just as useful, but there are expen-
sive outfits that are very much more ornamental.

FARM SEPTIC TANK

Supplying water under pressure in the farmhouse
demands a septic tank to get rid of the waste. A septic
tank is a scientific receptacle to take the poison out of

CPA/IJ^J'

Figure 236. — Frame for Holding Record Sheets in a Dairy Stable.

Figure 237. — Loading Shute for Hogs. This loading shute is made
portable and may be moved like a wheelbarrow.

sewerage. It is a simple affair consisting of two under-
ground compartments, made water-tight, with a sewer
pipe to lead the waste water from the house into the
first compartment and a drain to carry the denatured
sewerage away from the second compartment. The
first compartment is open to the atmosphere, through a
ventilator, but the second compartment is made as

236

FARM MECHANICS

nearly air-tight as possible. The scientific working of a
septic tank depends upon the destructive work of two
kinds of microscopic life known as aerobic and anarobic
forms of bacteria. Sewerage in the first tank is worked
over by aerobic bacteria, the kind that require a small
amount of oxygen in order to live and carry on their

Figure 238. — Brass Valves. Two kinds of globe valves are used in
farm waterworks. The straight valve shown to the left and the
right angle valve to the right. Either one may be fitted with a long
shank to reach above ground when pipes are laid deep to prevent
freezing.

work. The second compartment is inhabited by anaero-
bic bacteria, or forms of microscopic life that work
practically without air. The principles of construc-
tion require that a septic tank shall be large enough to
contain two days ' supply of sewerage in each compart-
ment; thus, requiring four days for the sewerage to
enter and leave the tank.

Estimating 75 gallons daily of sewerage for each in-
habitant of the house and four persons to a family, the
septic tank should be large enough to hold 600 gallons,

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES

237

three hundred gallons in each compartment, which
would require a tank about four feet in width and six
feet in length and four feet in depth. These figures
embrace more cubic feet of tank than necessary to meet
the foregoing requirements. It is a good plan to leave
a margin of safety.

It is usual to lay a vitrified sewer, four inches in
diameter, from below the bottom of the cellar to the

\ 'Jl L \ -.%,-;.//';'•••'*»*.•'/.' '. ♦•P H g;;^%v* ' -'<^/j:'^%;.*«;:^'';X. •f '.-! I

' l^yi^ff^^;'^\</f}^/^if\///y/p^^'*^^^^^^^

Figure 239. — Septic Tank, a double antiseptic process for purifying
sewerage.

septic tank, giving it a fall of one-eighth inch in ten
feet. The sewer enters the tank at the top of the stand-
ing liquid and delivers the fresh sewerage from the
house through an elbow and a leg of pipe that reaches
to within about six inches of the bottom of the tank.
The reason for this is to admit fresh sewerage without
disturbing the scum on the surface of the liquid in the
tank. The scum is a protection for the bacteria. It
helps them to carry on their work of destruction. The
same principle applies to the second compartment.
The liquid from the first compartment is carried over
into the second compartment by means of a bent pipe

238 FARM MECHANICS

in the form of a siphon which fills up gradually and
empties automatically when the liquid in the first com-
partment rises to a certain level. The discharging
siphon leg should be the shortest. The liquid from the
second compartment is discharged into the drain in the
same manner. There are special valves made for the
final discharge, but they are not necessary. The bot-
tom of the tank is dug deep enough to hold sewerage
from two to four feet in depth. The top surface of the
liquid in the tank is held down to a level of at least six
inches below the bottom of the cellar. So there is no
possible chance of the house sewer filling and backing
up towards the house. Usually the vitrified sewer pipe
is four inches in diameter, the septic tank siphons for
a small tank are three inches in diameter and the final
discharge pipe is three inches in diameter, with a rapid
fall for the first ten feet after leaving the tank.

Septic tanks should be made of concrete, water-
proofed on the inside to prevent the possibility of seep-
age. Septic tank tops are made of reinforced concrete
with manhole openings. Also the manhole covers are
made of reinforced concrete, either beveled to fit the
openings or made considerably larger than the open-
ing, so that they sit down flat on the top surface of the
tank. These covers are always deep enough down in
the ground so that when covered over the earth holds
them in place.

In laying vitrified sewer it is absolutely necessary to
calk each joint with okum or lead, or okum reinforced
with cement. It is almost impossible to make a joint
tight with cement alone, although it can be done by an
expert. Each length of the sewer pipe should be given
a uniform grade. The vitrified sewer is trapped out-
side of the building with an ordinary S-trap ventilated,

MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 239

which leaves the sewer open to the atmosphere and pre-
vents the possibility of back-pressure that might drive
the poisonous gases from the decomposing sewerage
through the sewer back into the house. In this way, the
septic tank is made entirely separate from the house
plumbing, except that the two systems are connected at
this outside trap.

It is sometimes recommended that the waste water
from the second compartment shall be distributed
through a series of drains made with three-inch or
four-inch drain tile and that the outlet of this set of
drains shall empty into or connect with a regularly
organized field drainage system. Generally speaking,
the final discharge of liquid from a septic tank that is
properly constructed is inoffensive and harmless. How-
ever, it is better to use every possible precaution to pre-
serve the health of the family, and it is better to dis-
pose of the final waste in such a way as to prevent any
farm animal from drinking it.

While manholes are built into septic tanks for the
purpose of examination, in practice they are seldom
required. If the tanks are properly built and rightly
proportioned to the sewerage requirements they will
take care of the waste water from the house year after
year without attention. Should any accidents occur,
they are more likely to be caused by a leakage in the
vitrified sewer than from any other cause. Manufac-
turers of plumbing supplies furnish the siphons to-
gether with instructions for placing them properly in
the concrete walls. Some firms supply advertising
matter from which to work out the actual size and pro-
portions of the different compartments and all connec-
tions. The making of a septic tank is simple when the
principle is once understood*

INDEX

PAGE

Acetylene gas 129

Air pressure pump 107

Anvil 33

Apple-picking bag • 216

ladder 215

Asparagus knife 205

Auger, ship 26

Auger-bit 24, 25

Automatic hog feeder .* 219

Axles, wagon , 52

Babbitting boxings 73

Barn trucks 226

Belt punch 211

work 146

Bench and vise 34

Bench for iron work 35

for woodworking 16

Bipod 206

Bits, extension boring 26

Bit, twist-drill, for wood-boring 25

Blacksmith hammers 61

shop 31

Block and tackle 77

Bobsleighs . . . • 188

Boiler, steam 90

Bolster spring 186

stake 187

Bolt cutter 45

Bolts, carriage and machine 56

emergency 53

home-made 52

plow and sickle bar 56

Boxings, babbitting 73

Brace, wagon-box 58

Bramble hook 20

Brass valves 236

Breeding crate for hogs 203

Brick trowel , 209

241

242 INDEX

PAGE

Bridge auger 26

Bucket yoke 75

Buck rake 165

Building bracket 202

Bull nose-chain 233

treadmill 81

Cable hay stacker 176

California hay ricker 176

Calipers 43

Caliper rule 14

Canning outfit 229

Carpenter 's bench 17

trestle 17

Cart, two-wheel 191

Centrifugal pumps 105

Chain, logging '. 50

Chisels and gouges 28

Circular saw, filing 69

jointing 68

setting 68

Clearing land by tractor 146

Clevises, plow 58

Clod crusher 155

Clothes line reel box, concrete 228

Clothes line tightener 230

Cold-chisel 37

Colt-breaking sulkey 192

Compasses 18

Concrete center alley for hog house 209

farm scale base and pit 196

hog wallow 209

wall mold 210

Conveniences, miscellaneous farm 194

Conveyances, farm 179

Corn crib, double 201

two-story 194

Corn cultivator 142

planter 158

shock horse 208

Cotter pin tool 44

Coulter clamp 54

Countersink 41

Cow stanchion 234

Crop machinery, special 161

Crops, kind of, to irrigate 118

Crowbars 46

INDEX 243

PAGE

Cultivator, combination 143

corn 142

Cutting nippers 46

Derrick fork 168

Dies and taps 55

Diggers, potato ^. 205

Disk harrow 152

plow 137

Dog churn , 79

power 80

Draw-filing 62

Drawing-knife 22

Drill, grain 160

power post 38

Drill-press 39

electric 40

Driven machines 100

Dumbwaiter 229

Economy of plowing by tractor 146

Electricity on the farm 121, 127

Electric lighting 123

Electric power plant 122

towel 231

Elevating machinery 133

Elevator, grain 134

Emery grinders 31

Engine and truck, portable 94

Engine, gasoline 91

kerosene .' 92

steam 90

Eveners for three- and four -horse teams 139

Extension boring bits 26

Farm conveniences 194

conveyances 179

office 194

shop and implement house 9

shop work 50

tractor 97

waterworks 89, 100

Feed crusher 131

Feeding racks 217

Fence-making tools 205, 206

Fence pliers 207

File handle 36

Files and rasps 36

244 INDEX

PAGE

Filing hand saw 56

roll 63

Flail 75

Fore-plane h. 27

Forge 32

Forges, portable 32

Forging iron and steel 59

Fruit picking 212

ladders 215

tray 213

Fruit-thinning nippers 214

Gambrel whiffletree 173

Garage 10

Garden weeder 54

Gas, acetylene 129

Gasoline engine s 91

house lightning 128

Gate, sliding field 205

Gatepost with copper mailbox 227

Gauge, double-marking 22

Generating mechanical power 74

Goat stall 230

Grain drill 160

elevator 134

elevator, portable 135

Grass hook 163

Grindstone 28

Hacksaw 45

Hammers, blacksmith 61

machinist 's 42

Hand axe 23

Hand saw 19, 65

filing 66

jointing 65

setting 65

using 67

Handspike 24

Hardy 43

Harness punch 211

Harrow cart . . : 154

disk 152

sled 141

spike-tooth 141

Harvesting by tractor 146

Hay carrier carriage 172

Hay crop, handling < 163

INDEX 245

PAGE

Hay derricks, Idaho 171

Western 169

Hayf ord, double harpoon 169

grapple 170

hitch 173

hood 197

Hayrake, revolving 163

Hay ricker, California 176

Hay rope pulleys 174

Hay skids 167

Hay sling 167

Hay stacker, cable 176

Haystack knife 168

Hay-tedder 165

Hay-track roof extension 197

Hoe, how to sharpen 70

wheel 162

Hoes and weeders * 204

Hog catching hook 232

Hog feeder, automatic 219

trough • 221

trough, re-inf orced 222

wallow, concrete 209

Hoist, oldest farm 133

Hoists 78

Home repair work, profitable 50

Horse clippers 231

Horse feeding rack , 218

Horsepower 86

House plumbing 234

Husking-pin 208

Hydraulic ram 95

Idaho hay derricks 171

Implement shed 10

shed and work shop 12

Iron, forging . . 59

Irons for neckyoke and whifletree 51

Iron roller 157

Iron working tools 42

Irrigation 112

by pumping 112

overhead spray 116

Jointer, carpenter ^s 27

Jointer plows 144

Jointing hand saw 65

Kerosene engine 92

246 INDEX

PAGE

Keyhole saw 20

Knife, asparagus 205

corn cutting 205

haystack 168

Knots , 212

Lag screw 57

Land float 156

Level, carpenter 's 24

iron stock 25

Lighting, gasoline 128

Linchpin farm wagons 185

Link, cold-shut ; . . 43

plow 58

Loading chute for hogs 235

Logging chain ' 50

Machines, driven 100

Machinist *s hammers 42

vise 47

Manure carriers 233

Marline spike 212

Measuring mechanical work 14

Mechanical power, generating 74

Mechanics of plowing 138

Melting ladle 73

Monkey-wrench 19

Mule pump 84

Nail hammers 21

Nail set 37

Office, farm 194

Oilstone 15

Overhead spray irrigation 116

Oxen 181

Paint brushes 212

Pea guard 168

Picking fruit 212

Pig-pen, sanitary 210

Pincers , 44

Pipe cutter 48

Pipe-fitting tools 46

Pipe vise ! 47

wrench 48

Plastering trowel 209

Pliers .^. 18

Plow, heavy-breaking .' ..v-» 224

riding 140

walking 138

INDEX 247

PAGE

Plowing by tractor 145

importance of 137

mechanics of 138

Plows, jointer 144

Scotch 143

Plumb-bob and plumb-line " 206

Plumbing, house 234

Pod-bit 25

Portable farm engine 94

Post-hole diggers 204

Poultry feeding trough 222

Power conveyor 121

Power, generating mechanical 75

Power post drill 38

Power transmission 120

Pulverizers 155

Pump, air pressure 107

centrifugal 105

mule 84

jack 109

jacks and speed jacks Ill

rotary 103

suction 101

Punches 37

Quantity of water to use in irrigation 118

Backs, feeding 217

sheep feeding 219

Eaf ter grapple 173

Easp 35

Easps and files 36

Eatchet-brace 40

Eefrigeration 123

Eeservoir for supplying water to farm buildings 120

Eevolving hayrake 163

Eiding plow 140

Eipsaw 21

Eivets 53

Eivet set 54

Eoad drag, split-log 220

steel 225

Eoad work 146

EoUer 156

EoU filing 63

Eoof pitches 200

truss 199

Eoot pulper 130

248 INDEX

PAGE

Eotary pumps 103

Eound barn, economy of 196

Rule of six, eight and ten 199

Sand bands 187

caps 188

Sanitary pig-pen ■. 210

Saw, hack 45

Scotch plows 143

Screwdriver 23

ratchet 24

Seed house trucks 226

Septic tank 235

Set-screws 64

Shave horse 18

Shears .' 217

Sheep feeding rack 219

Sheepshank 212

Ship auger 26

Shoeing horses 71

knife 34

tool box - 34

Shop, garage and implement shed 10

Shop tools 14

Slaughter house 198

Sliding field gate 205

Snips, sheet metal 25

Soil auger 204

tools 202

Soil, working the 137

Speed indicator 201

jacks Ill

Split-log road drag 220 "

Spud 205

Stable helps . 232

Stall for milch goats 232

Steam boiler and engine 90

Steel, forging 59

road drag 225

square 22

tools, making 60

Stepladder 216

Stock for dies 55

Stone-boat '. . . ; 179

Stump puller 131

Suction pumps 101

INDEX 249

PAGE

Sulkey, colt-breaking 192

S wrenches 44

Tapeline 15

Taper reamer 41

tap 56

Taps and dies 55

Tempering steel tools 60

Tongs 43

Tool box for field use 72

handy 72

Tool rack, blacksmith 34

Tools for fence-making 205

for woodworking 19

for working iron 42

pipe-fitting 46

soil 202

Tractor economy 146

farm 97

transmission gear 98

used in plowing 145

uses for, on farm 146

Tram points 40

Travoy 183

Treadmill, bull 81

Tree pruners 216

Trowel, brick 209

plastering 209

Trucks, barn .'. 226

Try-square 22

Twist-drills 25, 41

IT bolt in cement 57

Uses of electricity on farm 126

Valves, brass 236

Vise 38

Wagon-box irons 57

Wagon brakes 186

seat spring 187

Walking plow 138

Water-power 88

Water storage 100

Waterworks, farm 100

WeU sweep 76

Wheelbarrow 180

Wheel hoe 162

Winches 79

Windmills 83

250 INDEX

PAGE

Wire splice 52

splicer 44

stretcher 77

Wooden clamp 18

roller 157

Wood-saw frames 129

Woodworking bench 16

tools 19

Working the soil 137

Wrecking bar , , , , , • , 24

DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS

♦Title I Style | Price

Electrical Books

Electrical Tables and Engineering

Data *Lea. $1.50

Electrical Tables and Engineering

Data ♦Cloth 1.00

Motion Picture Operation *Lea. 1.50

Motion Picture Operation * Cloth 1.00

Alternating Current Lea. 1.50

Alternating Current Cloth 1.00

Wiring Diagrams and Descrip-
tions *Lea. 1.50

Wiring Diagrams and Descrip-
tions ....*Cloth 1.00

Armature and Magnet Winding. .*Lea. 1.50

Armature and Magnet Winding. .* Cloth 1.00

Modern Electric Illumination .... *Lea. 1.50

Modern Electric Illumination *Cloth 1.00

Modern Electrical Construction .. *Lea. 1.50

Modern Electrical Construction. .* Cloth 1.00

Electricians^ Operating and Test-
ing Manual *Lea. 1.50

Electricians' Operating and Test-
ing Manual *Cloth 1.00

Drake's Electrical Dictionary Lea. 1.50

Drake's Electrical Dictionary Cloth 1.00

Electric Motors, Direct and Alter-
nating *Lea. 1.50

Electric Motors, Direct and Alter-
nating *Cloth 1.00

Electrical Measurements and Me-
ter Testing Lea. 1.50

NOTE. — New Books and Revised Editions are marked*

DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS

♦Title

i Style

Price

Electrical Books — Continued

Electrical Measurements and Me-

ter Testing ,

Cloth $1.00

Drake's Telephone Handbook

Lea.

1.50

Drake's Telephone Handbook

Cloth

1.00

Elementary Electricity, Up-to-

Date

♦Cloth

1.25

Electricity Made Simple

♦Cloth

1.00

Easy Electrical Experiments

♦Cloth

1.00

Wireless Telegraph and Telephone

Handbook

Cloth

1.00

Telegraphy, Self-taught

Cloth

1.00

Dynamo-Electric Machines

Cloth

1.50

Electro-Plating Handbook

Lea.

1.50

Electro-Plating Handbook

Cloth

1.00

Modern American Telephony. . . .

Lea.

2.00

Handy Vest-Pocket Electrical Dic-

tionary

Lea.

.50

Handy Vest-Pocket Electrical Dic-

tionary

Cloth

.25

Storage Batteries

Cloth

.50

Elevators — Hydraulic and Electric Cloth

1.00

How to Become a Successful Mo-

torman

Lea.

1.50

Motorman's Practical Air Brake

Instructor

Lea.

1.50

Electric Railway Troubles

Cloth

1.50

ri/^fVi

2.50
3.50

Electrical Railroading

Lea.

s are ma

NOTE. — New Books and Revised Edition

rked*

DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS

* Title I Style | Price

Automobile Books

Brookes' Automobile Handbook . . *Lea. $2.00

Automobile Starting and Light-
ing *Lea. 1.50

Automobile Starting and Light-
ing *Cloth LOO

Ford Motor Car and Truck and

Tractor Attachments *Lea. 1.50

Ford Motor Car and Truck and

Tractor Attachments *Cloth 1.00

Automobile Catechism and Repair

Manual *Lea. 1.25

Practical Gas and Oil Engine

Handbook *Lea. 1.50

Practical Gas and Oil Engine

Handbook *Cloth 1.00

Farm Books

Farm Buildings, With Plans and

Descriptions *Cloth $1.00

Farm Mechanics *Cloth 1.00

Traction Farming and Traction

Engineering *Cloth 1.50

Farm Engines and How to Run

Them Cloth 1.00

Shop Practice Books

Twentieth Century Machine Shop

Practice Cloth $2.00

Practical Mechanical Drawing. . . . Cloth 2.00

Sheet Metal Workers' Manual ... *Lea. 2.00

Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cut-
ting *Lea. 1.50

Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cut-
ting *Cloth 1.00

20th Century Toolsmith and Steel-
worker Cloth 1.50

Pattern Making and Foundry

Practice Lea. 1.50

Modern Blacksmithing, Horse-
shoeing and Wagon Making . . . Cloth 1.00

NOTE. — New Books and Revised Editions are marked*

DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS

♦Title 1 Style |

Price

Steam Engineering Books

Swingle's Handbook for Steam

Engineers and Electricians *Lea.

$3.00

Steam Boilers, Construction, Care

and Operation *Lea.

1.50

Complete Examination Questions

and Answers for Marine and

Stationary Engineers *Lea.

1.50

Swingle's Catechism of Steam,

Gas and Electrical Engineering.* Lea.

1.50

The Steam Turbine, Its Care and

Operation Cloth

1.00

Calculation of Horse Power Made

Easy Cloth

.75

Railroad Books

Modern Locomotive Engineering. *Lea.

$3.00

Locomotive Fireman's Boiler In-

structor *Lea.

1.50

Locomotive Engine Breakdowns

and How to Repair Them *Lea.

1.50

Operation of Trains and Station

•Work *Lea.

2.00

Construction and Maintenance of

Railway Roadbed and Track. . . Lea.

2.00

First, Second and Third Year

Standard Examination Ques-

tions and Answers for Locomo-

tive Firemen *Lea.

2.00

Complete Air Brake Examination

Questions and Answers *Lea.

2.00

Westinghouse Air Brake System. Cloth

2.00

New York Air Brake System Cloth

2.00

Walschaert Valve Gear Break-

downs Cloth

1.00

NOTE. — New Books and Revised Editions are marked*

DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS

* Title ,_ I Style | Price

Carpentry and Building Books

Modern Carpentry. Two volumes . Cloth $2.00

Modem Carpentry. Vol. I Cloth 1.00

Modern Carpentry. Vol. II Cloth 1.00

The Steel Square. Two volumes. . Cloth 2.00

The Steel Square. Vol. I Cloth 1.00

The Steel Square. Vol. II Cloth 1.00

A. B. C. of the Steel Square Cloth .50

Common Sense Stair Building and

Handrailing Cloth 1.00

Modern Estimator and Contrac-
tor's Guide *Cloth 1.50

Light and Heavy Timber Framing

Made Easy Cloth 2.00

Builders' Architectural Drawing

Self-taught • Cloth 2.00

Easy Steps to Architecture Cloth 1.50

Five Orders of Architecture Cloth 1.50

Builders' and Contractors' Guide Cloth 1.50

Practical Bungalows and Cottages* Cloth 1.00

Low Cost American Homes *Cloth 1.00

Practical Cabinet Maker and Fur-
niture Designer Cloth 2.00

Practical Wood Carving Cloth 1.50

Home Furniture Making Cloth .60

Concretes, Cements, Mortars, Plas-
ters and Stuccos Cloth 1.50

Practical Steel Construction Cloth .75

20th Century Bricklayer and Ma-
son's Assistant Cloth 1.50

Practical Bricklaying Self-taught. Cloth 1.00

Practical Stonemasonry Cloth 1.00

Practical Up-to-date Plumbing Cloth 1.50

Hot Water Heating, Steam and

Gas Fitting Cloth 1.50

Practical Handbook for Mill-
wrights Cloth 2.00

Boat Building for Amateurs Cloth 1.00

NOTE. — New Books and Revised Editions are marked*

DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS \

*Title

1 Style 1 Price |

Painting Books

Art of Sign Painting

♦Cloth .*fi.^-on 1

Scene Painting and Bulletin Art . .

♦Cloth

3.00

"A Show at" Sho'Cards

Cloth

3.00

Strong's Book of Designs

♦Lea.

3.00

Signist's Modern Book of Alpha-
bets

Cloth

1.50

Amateur Artist

Cloth

1.00

Modern Painter's Cyclopedia

Cloth

1,50

Red Book Series of Trade School
Manuals —

1. Exterior Painting, Wood,
Iron and Brick

Cloth

.60

2. Interior Painting, Water and
Oil Colors

Cloth

.60

3. Colors

Cloth

.60

4. Graining and Marbling

Cloth

.60

5. Carriage Painting

Cloth

.60

6. The Wood Finisher

Cloth

.60

New Hardwood Finishing

Cloth

1.00

Automobile Painting

♦Cloth

1.25

Estimates, Costs and Profits —
House Painting and Interior
Decorating ..'...

♦Cloth 1.00

IS are marked*

NOTE. — New Books and Revised Edition

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW

AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS

WILL BE ASSESSED FOR 'FAILURE TO REH-URN
THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO 50 CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY
OVERDUE.

DEC 4 1934

13 1^41

na«<^R^"g^

JUL 3119^^

REC'D LD

JUL :{ 1 1959

-^i

'^1^64^

HAR30'64-vP«

J0!aQl976

i J^ 6IB. ^^ . v ^ lb ri

F'3. CiB.Fra 1 6 -?H