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Farm Mechanics 
 
 MACHINERY AND ITS USE TO SAVE 
 HAND LABOR ON THE FARM 
 
 Including 
 
 Tools, Shop Work, Driving and Driven 
 
 Machines, Farm Waterworks, Care 
 
 and Repair of Farm Implements 
 
 By 
 HERBERT A. SHEARER 
 
 AGRICULTURIST 
 Author of "Farm Buildings with Plans and Descriptions" 
 
 ILLUSTRATED WITH THREE 
 HUNDRED ORIGINAL DRAWINGS 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO. 
 
 Publishers 
 
s^ 
 
 Copyright 1918 
 
 By Frederick J. Drake & Co. 
 
 Chicago 
 
 <H^ 
 
 
PREFACE 
 
 More mechanical knowledge is required on the farm 
 than in any other line of business. If a farmer is not 
 mechanically inclined, he is under the necessity of em- 
 ploying someone who is. 
 
 Some farms are supplied with a great many handy 
 contrivances to save labor. Farmers differ a great deal 
 in this respect. Some are natural mechanics, some 
 learn how to buy and how to operate the best farm ma- 
 chinery, while others are still living in the past. 
 
 Some farmers who make the least pretensions have 
 the best machinery and implements. They may not be 
 good mechanics, but they have an eye to the value of 
 labor saving tools. 
 
 The object of this book is to emphasize the impor- 
 tance of mechanics in modern farming ; to fit scores of 
 quick-acting machines into the daily routine of farm 
 work and thereby lift heavy loads from the shoulders 
 of men and women ; to increase the output at less cost 
 of hand labor and to improve the soil while producing 
 more abundantly than ever before ; to suggest the use 
 of suitable machines to manufacture high-priced nutri- 
 tious human foods from cheap farm by-products.* 
 
 Illustrations are used to explain principles rather 
 than to recommend any particular type or pattern of 
 machine. 
 
 The old is contrasted with the new and the merits of 
 both are expressed. 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Farm Shop with Tools for Working Wood and Iron 9 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 Farm Shop Work. . '. 50 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 Generating Mechanical Power to Drive Modern Farm 
 
 Machinery 74 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 Driven Machines 100 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 Working the Soil 137 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 Handling the Hay Crop 163 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 Farm Conveyances 179 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 Miscellaneous Farm Conveniences 197 
 
 Index 241 
 
FARM MECHANICS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE FAEM SHOP WITH TOOLS FOR WORKING WOOD 
 AI^D IRON 
 
 FARM SHOP AND IMPLEMENT HOUSE 
 
 The workshop and shed to hold farm implements 
 should look as neat and attractive as the larger build- 
 ings. Farm implements are expensive. Farm machin- 
 ery is even more so. When such machinery is all prop- 
 erly housed and kept in repair the depreciation is esti- 
 mated at ten per cent a year. When the machines are 
 left to rust and weather in the rain and wind the loss is 
 simply ruinous. 
 
 More machinery is required on farms than formerly 
 and it costs more. Still it is not a question whether a 
 farmer can afford a machine. If he has sufficient work 
 for it he knows he cannot afford to get along without 
 it and he must have a shed to protect it from the 
 weather when not in use. 
 
 In the first place the implement shed should be large 
 enough to accommodate all of the farm implements 
 and machinery without crowding and it should be well 
 built and tight enough to keep out the wind and small 
 animals, including chickens and sparrows. 
 
 The perspective and plan shown herewith is twenty- 
 four feet in width and sixty feet in length. 
 
 9 
 
10 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
THE FARM SHOP 
 
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 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 The doorways provide headroom sufficient for the 
 highest machines, and the width when the double 
 doors are opened and the center post removed is nearly 
 twenty feet, which is sufficient for a binder in field 
 condition or a two-horse spring-tooth rake. 
 
 One end of the building looking toward the house is 
 intended for a machine shop to be partitioned off by 
 enclosing the first bent. This gives a room twenty feet 
 wide by twenty-four feet deep for a blacksmith shop 
 
 Figure 3. — Perspective View of Farm Implement Shed and Workshop. 
 
 and general repair -work. The next twenty feet is the 
 garage. The machine shop part of the building will be 
 arranged according to the mechanical inclination of 
 the farmer. 
 
 A real farm repair shop is a rather elaborate me- 
 chanical proposition. There is a good brick chimney 
 with a hood to carry off the smoke and gases from the 
 blacksmith fire and the chimney should have a separate 
 flue for a heating stove. Farm repair work is done 
 mostly during the winter months when a fire in the 
 shop is necessary for comfort and efficiency. A per- 
 son cannot work to advantage with cold fingers. Paint 
 requires moderate heat to work to advantage. Paint- 
 
THE FARM SHOP 
 
 13 
 
 ing farm implements is a very important part of repair 
 work. 
 
 A good shop arrangement is to have an iron work- 
 bench across the shop window in the front or entrance 
 end of the building. In the far corner against the back 
 wall is a good place for a woodworking bench. It is 
 too mussy to have the blacksmith work and the carpen- 
 ter work mixed up. 
 
 'Figure 4. — Floor Plan of Farm Implement Shed, showing the 
 \^orkshop in one end of the building, handy to the implement storage 
 room. 
 
 Sometimes it is necessary to bring in a pair of horses 
 for shoeing, or to pull the shoes off. For this reason, 
 a tie rail bolted to the studding on the side of the shop 
 near the entrance is an extra convenience. 
 
 In a hot climate a sliding door is preferable because 
 the wind will not slam it shut. In cold climates, hinge 
 doors are better with a good sill and threshold to shut 
 against to keep out the cold. Sometimes the large door 
 contains a small door big enough to step through, but 
 not large enough to admit much cold, when it is being 
 opened and shut. Likewise a ceiling is needed in a cold 
 country, while in warmer sections, a roof is sufficient. 
 Farm shops, like other farm buildings, should con- 
 
14 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 form to the climate, as well as convenience in doing 
 the work. A solid concrete floor is a great coinfort. 
 And it is easily kept clean. 
 
 The perspective and floor plan show the arrange- 
 ment of the doors, windows and chimney and the plac- 
 ing of the work benches, forge, anvil, toolbench and 
 drill press. 
 
 Figures 3 and 4 show the perspective and floor plan 
 of a farm shop and implement house 40x16 feet in size, 
 which is large enough for some farms. 
 
 SHOP TOOLS 
 
 Good tools are more important on a farm than in a 
 city workshop for the reason that a greater variety of 
 work is required. 
 
 Measuring Mechanical Work, — In using tools on the 
 farm the first rule should be accuracy. It is just as 
 
 Figure 5. — Caliper Rule. A handy slide caliper shop rule is made 
 with a slide marked in fractions of inches as shown in the drawing. 
 The diameter of a rivet, bolt or other round object may be taken 
 instantly. It is not so accurate as calipers for close measurements, 
 but it is a practical tool for farm use. 
 
 easy to work to one-sixteenth of an inch as to carelessly 
 lay off a piece of work so that the pieces won't go to- 
 gether right. 
 
 The handiest measuring tool ever invented is the old- 
 fashioned two-foot rule that folds up to six inches in 
 length to be carried in the pocket. Such rules to be 
 serviceable should be brass bound. The interior mark- 
 ing should be notched to sixteenths. The outside mark- 
 
THE FARM SHOP 
 
 15 
 
 ing may be laid out in eighths. The finer marking on 
 the inside is protected by keeping the rule folded 
 together when not in use. The coarser marking out- 
 side does not suffer so much from wear. Figure 5 
 shows a 12-inch rule with a slide caliper jaw. 
 
 In using a two-foot rule to lay off work the forward 
 end should contain the small figures so that the work- 
 man is counting back on the rule but forward on the 
 
 Figure 6. — Small Pocket Oilstone. Shop oilstone in a box, 100-foot 
 measuring tapeline marked in inches, feet and rods. 
 
 work, and he has the end of the rule to scribe from. In 
 laying off a 16-foot pole the stick is first marked with 
 a knife point, or sharp scratchawl, and try square to 
 square one end. The work is then laid off from left 
 to right, starting from the left hand edge of the 
 square mark or first mark. The two-foot rule is laid 
 flat on top of the piece of wood. At the front end of 
 the rule the wood is marked with a sharp scratchawl 
 or the point of a knife blade by pressing the point 
 against the end of the rule at the time of marking. In 
 moving the rule forward the left end is placed exactly 
 over the left edge of the mark, so the new measurement 
 
16 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 begins at the exact point where the other left off, and 
 so on the whole length of the stick. The final mark is 
 then made exactly sixteen feet from the first mark. 
 
 In sawing the ends the saw kerf is cut from the waste 
 ends of the stick. The saw cuts to the mark but does 
 not cut it out. 
 
 In using a rule carelessly a workman may gain one- 
 sixteenth of an inch every time he moves the rule, 
 which would mean half of an inch in laying off a 16- 
 foot pole, which would ruin it for carpenter work. If 
 the pole is afterwards used for staking fence posts, he 
 would gain one-half inch at each post, or a foot for 
 every twenty-four posts, a distance to bother consid- 
 erably in estimating acres. It is just as easy to meas- 
 ure exactly as it is to measure a little more or a little 
 less, and it marks the difference between right and 
 wrong. 
 
 WOODWORKING BENCH 
 
 In a farm workshop it is better to separate the wood- 
 working department as far as possible from the black- 
 smith shop. Working wood accumulates a great deal 
 of litter, shavings, blocks, and kindling wood, which 
 are in the way in the blacksmith shop, and a spark from 
 the anvil might set the shavings afire. 
 
 A woodworking bench. Figure 7, carpenter's bench, 
 it is usually called, needs a short leg vise with wide 
 jaws. The top of the vise should be flush with the top 
 of the bench, so the boards may be worked when lying 
 flat on the top of the bench. For the same reason the 
 bench dog should lower down flush when not needed 
 to hold the end of the board. 
 
 It is customary to make carpenter 's benches separate 
 from the shop, and large enough to stand alone, so they 
 may be moved out doors or into other buildings. 
 
THE FARM SHOP 
 
 17 
 
 Figure 7. — Carpenter's Bench. A woodworking bench is 16' long, 
 3' 6" wide and 32" high. The height, to be particular, should be 
 the length of the leg of the man who uses it. Lincoln, when joking 
 with Stanton, gave it as his opinion that "a man's legs should be 
 just long enough to reach the ground." But that rule is not suffi- 
 ciently definite to satisfy carpenters, so they adopted the inside leg 
 measurement. They claim that the average carpenter is 5' 10" 
 tall and he wears a 32" leg. 
 
 Figure 8. — Carpenter's Trestle, or Saw-Bench. The top piec« is 
 4x6 and the legs are 2x4. There is sufficient spread of leg to prevent 
 it from toppling over, but the legs are not greatly in the way. It is 
 heavy enough to stand still while you slide a board along. It is 2 
 feet high. 
 
18 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 Carpenter benches may be well made, or they may be 
 constructed in a hurry. So long as the top is true it 
 
 Figure 9. — Shave Horse. For shaping pieces of hardwood for 
 repair work. A good shave horse is about 8' long and the seat end 
 is the height of a chair. The head is carved on a hardwood stick 
 with three projections to grip different sized pieces to be worked. 
 
 Figure 10. — Compasses, Wooden Clamp and Cutting Pliers. 
 
 makes but little difference how the legs are attached, 
 so long as they are strong and enough of them. A car- 
 penter bench that is used for all kinds of work must be 
 
THE FARM SHOP 
 
 19 
 
 solid enough to permit hammering, driving nails, etc. 
 Usually the top of the bench is straight, true and level 
 and it should be kept free from litter and extra tools. 
 Good carpenters prefer a tool rack separate from the 
 bench. It may stand on the floor or be attached to the 
 
 Figure 11. — Monkey-Wrenches are the handiest of all farm 
 wrenches, but they were never intended to hammer with. Two sizes 
 are needed — an eight-inch for small nuts and a much larger wrench, 
 to open two inches or more, to use when taking the disks off the 
 shafts of a disk harrow. A large pipe-wrench to hold the round 
 shaft makes a good companion tool for this work. 
 
 wall. Carpenter tools on a farm are not numerous, 
 but they should have a regular place, and laborers on 
 the farms should be encouraged to keep the tools where 
 they belong. 
 
 WOODWORKING TOOLS 
 
 Every farmer has an axe or two, some sort of a 
 handsaw and a nail hammer. It is astonishing what 
 jobs of repair work a handy farmer will do with such 
 a dearth of tools. But it is not necessary to worry 
 along without a good repair kit. Tools are cheap 
 enough. 
 
 Such woodworking tools as coarse and fine toothed 
 hand saws, a good square, a splendid assortment of 
 hammers and the different kinds of wrenches, screw 
 clamps, boring tools — in fact a complete assortment of 
 handy woodworking tools is an absolute necessity on a 
 well-managed farm. 
 
20 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 The farm kit should contain two sizes of nail ham- 
 mers, see Figure 15, one suitable to drive small nails, 
 say up to eight penny, and the other for large nails and 
 spikes; a long thin-bladed handsaw, having nine teeth 
 
 Figure 12. — Hand Saw. This pattern, both for cross cut and rip 
 saw, has been adopted by all makers of fine saws. Nine teeth to 
 the inch is fine enough for most jobs on the farm. 
 
 Figure 13. — Keyhole Saw with point slim enough to start the cut 
 from a half-inch auger hole. 
 
 Figure 14. — Bramble Hook for trimming berry bushes and cleaning 
 out fence corners. It has a knife-edge with hooked sawteeth. 
 
 to the inch, for sawing boards and planks ; a shorter 
 handsaw, having ten teeth to the inch, for small work 
 and for pruning trees. A pruning saw should cut a 
 fine, smooth kerf, so the wound will not collect and hold 
 moisture. 
 
THE FARM SHOP 
 
 21 
 
 Farmers ' handsaws are required to do a great many- 
 different kinds of work. For this reason, it is difficult 
 to keep them in good working condition, but if both 
 saws are jointed, set and filed by a good mechanic once 
 or twice a year, they may be kept in usable condition 
 the rest of the time by a handy farm workman, unless 
 extra building or special work is required. 
 
 Figure 15. — Nail Hammers. Two styles. 
 The upper hammer is made with a ball peen 
 and a round face. It is tempered to drive 
 small nails without slipping and shaped to 
 avoid dinging the wood. This hammer 
 should weigh 18 or 19 ounces, including the 
 handle. The lower hammer is heavier, has 
 a flat face and is intended for heavy work 
 such as driving spikes and fence staples. 
 
 A long-bladed ripsaw is also very useful, and what 
 is commonly termed a keyhole saw finds more use on 
 the farm than in a carpenter's shop in town. It is 
 necessary frequently to cut holes through partitions, 
 floors, etc., and at such times a keyhole saw works in 
 just right. 
 
 Handaxes are necessary for roughing certain pieces 
 of wood for repair jobs. Two sizes of handaxes for dif- 
 ferent kinds of work are very useful, also a wide blade 
 
22 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 draw shave, Figure 16, and shave horse, Figure 9. A 
 steel square having one 24-ineh blade and one 18-ineh 
 is the best size. Such squares usually are heavy enough 
 to remain square after falling off the bench forty or 
 fifty times. A good deal depends upon the quality of 
 the steel. 
 
 I'l'l'l'liri'l'i'i'l'l'i'l'i'i'i'l'l'j'i'nii 
 
 Figure 17. — Try-Square With Six-Inch Blade. Wood, brass and 
 steel are the proper materials for a try-square. A double marking 
 gauge for scribing mortises is also shown. 
 
 Steel squares differ in the measuring marks, but the 
 kind to buy has one side spaced to sixteenths and the 
 other side to tenths or twelfths. The sixteenth^ inter- 
 est farmers generally, so that special attention should 
 be given this side of the square. The lumber rule on 
 some squares is useful, but the brace rules and mitre 
 calculations are not likely to interest farmers. 
 
THE FARM SHOP 
 
 23 
 
 Screw-drivers should be mostly strong and heavy for 
 farm work. Three sizes of handled screw-drivers of 
 different lengths and sizes, also two or three brace bit 
 screw-drivers are needed. One or two bits may be 
 broken or twisted so the assortment is sometimes 
 exhausted before the screw is started. 
 
 Figure 18. — Heavy Hand Ax for Use on the Shop Chopping Block. 
 A beet topping knife is shown also. 
 
 Figure 19. — Heavy Screwdriver. The strongest and cheapest 
 screwdriver is made from a single bar of steel. The wooden handle 
 is made in two parts and riveted as shown. 
 
 Pinch bars and claw bars are very useful in a farm 
 tool kit. Farm mechanical work consists principally 
 in repairing implements, machinery, fences and build- 
 ings. Always a worn or broken part must be removed 
 before the repair can be made. A pinch bar twenty- 
 four inches long. Figure 21, with a cold chisel end, and 
 another bar eighteen inches long with a crooked claw 
 end, Figure 22, for pulling nails and spikes comes in 
 
24 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 Figure 20. — (1) Ratchet Screwdriver. It does rapid work and 
 will last a generation if carefully used. (2) Auger-Bit of the Side 
 Cutter Type. A full set is needed. They are not for boring into old 
 wood. Running once against a nail ruins one of these bits. 
 
 Figure 21. — Handspike. A wooden handspike or pry is about seven 
 feet long by 3 inches thick at the prying end. In the North it is 
 usually made from a hickory or an ironwood or a dogwood sapling. 
 The bark is removed and the handle is worked round and smooth 
 on the shave horse. It is better to cut the poles in the winter when 
 the sap is in the roots. After the handspikes are finished they 
 should be covered deep with straw so they will season slowly to 
 prevent checking. 
 
 Figure 22.- 
 
 -Wrecking Bar for pulling nails and to pry broken parts 
 from other wreckage. 
 
 Figure 23. — Carpenter's Level. For practical farm work the level 
 should be 24" or 30" long. Wood is the most satisfactory material. 
 The best levels are made up of different layers of wood glued to- 
 gether to prevent warping or twisting. For this reason a good level 
 should be carefully laid away in a dry place immediately after using. 
 
THE FARM SHOP 
 
 25 
 
 n ^ 1 
 
 Figure 24. — (1) Snips for cutting sheet metal. (2) Carpenter's 
 Level, iron stock. 
 
 Figure 25. — Wood-Boring Twist Drill Bit. Twist drills for wood 
 have longer points than drills for boring iron. 
 
 Figure 26. — Pod-Bit. The fastest boring gimlet bits are of this 
 pattern. They are made in sizes from %" to %" and are intended 
 for boring softwood. 
 
 Figure 27. — Auger-Bits. For smooth boring the lip bits are best. 
 The side cutters project beyond the cutting lips to cut the circle 
 ahead of the chips. For boring green wood the single-worm clears 
 better than the double-worm bit. 
 
26 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 very handy. These two bars should be made of the best 
 octagon steel, seven-eighths of an inch in diameter. 
 
 Figure 28. — Extension Boring Bits. The cutting lips may be set 
 to bore holes from %" to 3" in diameter. They are used mostly in 
 softwood. 
 
 :^^ 
 
 Figure 29. — Ship Auger. This shape auger is made with or with- 
 out a screw point. It will bore straighter in cross-grained wood 
 without a point. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Figure 30. — Long Ship Auger. 
 
 =^«RRW W RRWWRWRft> 
 
 Figure 31. — Bridge Auger. The long handle permits the workman 
 to stand erect whil« boring. The home made handle is welded onto 
 the shank of a ship auger. 
 
 A wooden carpenter's level, Figure 23, two feet 
 long, with a plumb glass near one end, is the most sat- 
 isfactory farm level, an instrument that is needed a 
 great many times during the year. 
 
THE FARM SHOP 
 
 27 
 
 Good brace bits are scarce on farms. They are not 
 expensive, but farmers are careless about bits and 
 braces. Two sizes of braces are needed, a small brace 
 for small pod bits and twist drills, and a large ratchet 
 brace with a 6-inch crank radius for turning larger 
 bits. 
 
 Figure 32. — Carpenter's Jointer. 
 
 Figure 33.- 
 
 -Fore-Plane. This style plane is preferred to a regular 
 jointer for most farm work. 
 
 Twist drill bits will bore both wood and iron, and 
 they are not expensive up to three-eighths inch or one- 
 half inch. But for larger sizes from one-half inch to 
 one inch the finest lip wood boring bits will give the 
 best satisfaction. Extension bits are used for boring 
 holes larger than one inch. Two extension bits are bet- 
 ter than one bit with two lip cutters. They will bore 
 holes in soft wood in sizes from one inch to three inches. 
 
28 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 Other cutting tools such as jack plane jointer and 
 smoothing plane, also an assortment of chisels, belong 
 to the farm equipment. 
 
 Figure 34. — Tool Box of Socket Chisels and Gouges. The chisels 
 are sized from y^" to 2" in width. The two chisels to the right- 
 show different patterns. 
 
 All cutting tools should be of the best design and the 
 best steel. If they are properly used and taken care of, 
 the different jobs of repair work can be handled 
 quickly and to great advantage. 
 
 FARM GRINDSTONE 
 
 A grindstone may be gritty without being coarse so 
 it will bite the steel easily and cut it away quickly. A 
 good stone is a very satisfactory farm implement, but 
 a greasy stone is a perpetual nuisance. 
 
 There are grindstones with frames too light. The 
 competition to manufacture and sell a grindstone for 
 
THE FARM SHOP 29 
 
 farm use at the cheapest possible price has resulted in 
 turning out thousands of grindstone frames that pos- 
 sess very little stability. 
 
 Grindstones should be kept under cover; the best 
 stone will be injured by leaving it in the hot sun. The 
 
 Figure 35. — Grindstone. The speed of a grindstone varies with 
 the diameter of the stone. It should turn just fast enough to keep 
 a flow of water on the upper face surface. If the stone turns too 
 slow the water will run down ; if too fast, it will fly off. 
 
 sun draws the moisture out of the upper side and 
 leaves the lower side damp and soft so that in use the 
 stoiie soon becomes flat sided. The wet side freezes in 
 winter^ which is a disintegrating process. 
 
 The best stones, with good care, will become uneven 
 in time. The remedy is to true them with a quarter- 
 
30 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 inch soft iron round rod used like a lathe tool 'over an 
 iron rest placed close to the stone on a level with the 
 center of the stone. The rod is held against the stone in 
 such a way as to cut away the high bumps and make the 
 stone truly round. The stone cuts away best when it is 
 dry. A small rod is better than a large rod. It digs 
 into the stone better and takes out a deeper bite. Large 
 power stones in machine shops are trued up in this way 
 frequently. Farm stones often are neglected until 
 they wabble so badly that it is difficult to grind any 
 tool to an edge. If the grindstone is turned by a belt 
 from an engine the work of truing may be done in a 
 few minutes. If the stone is turned by hand the work 
 of making it round takes longer and requires some 
 muscle, but it pays. 
 
 The face of a grindstone should be rounded slightly, 
 and it should be kept so by grinding the tools first on 
 one side of edge of the stone, then on the other, with 
 the cutting edge of the tool crosswise to the face of the 
 stone. 
 
 For safety and to prevent a sloppy waste of water 
 the stone should turn away from the operator. 
 
 The best way to keep a stone moist is by a trickle of 
 water from an overhead supply. Troughs of water 
 suspended under the stone are unsatisfactory, because 
 the water soon gets thick and unfit for use. Such 
 troughs are forgotten when the job is done, so that one 
 side of the stone hangs in the water. An overhead sup- 
 ply of water leaks away and no damage is done. 
 
 Grindstone frames are best made of wood 3'^x4'' 
 thoroughly mortised together and well braced with 
 wooden braces and tied across with plenty of iron rods. 
 A good grindstone frame could be made of angle iron, 
 but manufacturers generally fail in the attempt. 
 
THE FARM SHOP ' 31 
 
 There are good ball-bearing grindstone hangers on 
 the market, both for hand crank stones and for belt 
 use. 
 
 The belt is less in the way if it is brought up from 
 below. This is not difficult to do. A grindstone turns 
 slower than any other farm machine so a speed reduc- 
 ing jack may be bolted to the floor at the back of the 
 grindstone a little to one side to escape the drip. This 
 arrangement requires a shoi^t belt but it may have the 
 full face width of the pulley as the tight and loose pul- 
 leys are on the jack shaft. 
 
 Emery Grinders. — There are small emery wheels 
 made for grinding disks that work quickly and cut an 
 
 Figure 36. — Emery Grinder. The illustrations show two kinds of 
 grinding that double emery wheels are especially adapted to. To 
 grind a mowing-machine knife it is necessary to reverse. By placing 
 the rest opposite the center between the two wheels the bevel will 
 be the same on both sides, or edges, of the section. 
 
 even bevel all around. They are made in pairs and are 
 attached to the ends of a mandrel supported by a metal 
 stand which is bolted to a bench. The same rig is used 
 for sickle grinding and other farm jobs. 
 
 BLACKSMITH SHOP 
 
 The furniture in a blacksmith shop consists of forge, 
 anvil, half barrel, vise bench, drill press and tool rack. 
 A farm shop also has a heating stove, shave horse, a 
 woodworking bench, a good power driven grindstone 
 and a double emery grinder. 
 
32 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 Forge, — The old-fashioned forge laid up with brick 
 in connection with an old-fashioned chimney is just as 
 popular as ever. The same old tuyer iron receives the 
 air blast from the same old style leather bellows, and 
 there is nothing more satisfactory. But there are mod- 
 
 Figure 37. — Portable Forges. The smaller forge is for light work 
 such as heating rivets for iron bridge construction. The larger 
 forge to the right is meant for blacksmith work. 
 
 ern portable forges, Figure 37, made of iron, that are 
 less artistic, cheaper, take up less room and answer 
 the purpose just about as well. The portable iron forge 
 has a small blower attached to the frame which feeds 
 oxygen into the fire. There are a good many different 
 sizes of portable forges. Most of them work well up to 
 their advertised capacity. 
 
THE FARM SHOP 
 
 33 
 
 Generally, farm forges are not required to develop 
 a great amount of heat. Farmers do but little weld- 
 ing, most of the forge work on the farm being eon- 
 fined to repair work such as heating brace irons, so 
 they may be easily bent into the proper shape, or to 
 soften metal so that holes may be punched through it 
 easily. 
 
 Sharpening harrow teeth, drawing out plow points 
 and horseshoeing are about the heaviest forge jobs re- 
 
 Figure 38. — Anvil. The only satisfactory anvil is forged ©ut of 
 ingot steel with a power trip-hammer. It should weigh 140 pounds. 
 
 quired in a farm blacksmith shop, so that a medium size 
 forge will answer the purpose. 
 
 Anvil. — ^An anvil should weigh at least 120 pounds ; 
 140 is better. It should be set six feet from the center 
 of the fire to the center of the anvil. It should be 
 placed on a timber the size of the base of the anvil set 
 three feet in the ground. The top of the anvil should 
 be about thirty inches high. Holmstrom's rule is: 
 *^ Close the fist, stand erect with the arm hanging 
 down. The knuckles should just clear the face of the 
 anvil." 
 
34 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 Bench and Vise, — The vise bench should be made 
 solid and it should face a good light. The bench win- 
 dow should look to the east or north if possible. It 
 
 Figure 39. — (1) Shoeing Tool Box. The four small compartments 
 are for horseshoe nails of different sizes. There may be a leather 
 loop for the paring knife. The low box end is for the shoeing ham- 
 mer, rasp, nippers and hoof knife. (2) Blacksmith Tool Rack. 
 Tongs, handled punches and cutters are hung on the iron rails. 
 Hammers are thrown on top. The lower platform is the shop 
 catch-all. 
 
 Figure 40. — Shoeing Knife. Good temper is the main qualifica- 
 tiop. All shoeing knives are practically the same shape, although 
 they may vary in size. 
 
 should be about four feet high and eight feet long, 
 
 with the window sill about six inches above the bench. 
 
 Two and one-half feet is the usual height for a 
 
 workbench above the floor. The best workbench tops 
 
THE FARM SHOP 
 
 35 
 
 are made by bolting together 2x4 's with the edges up. 
 Hardwood makes the best bench, but good pine will 
 last for years. The top surface should be planed true 
 and smooth after the nuts are drawn tight. 
 
 Figure 41. — Horseshoeing Rasp and Wood Rasp. These are neces- 
 sary tools in the farm shop. 
 
 Figure 42. — Iron Work Bench. Solid is the first specification for 
 an iron shop bench. It should be three feet wide, not less than 
 eight feet long and about 32 inches high. The top is made of 2x4s 
 placed on edge and bolted together. The supports are 2x6 bolted 
 to the shop studding and braced back to the studding at the sill. 
 The front part of the bench is supported by iron legs made of gas- 
 pipe with threaded flanges at top and bottom. Heavy right angle 
 wrought iron lugs are used to fasten the top of the bench to the 
 studding. The foot of the vise leg is let into the floor of the shop 
 or into a solid wooden block sunk in the ground. 
 
 The bench vise should be heavy. A vise is used for 
 bending iron hot from the forge. Unless the jaws are 
 large, the hot iron is likely to heat the vise sufficiently 
 to draw the temper. Heavy jaws are solid enough to 
 
86 
 
 FARM MECHANTCIS 
 
 support the iron when it is being hammered. Often 
 heavy hammers are used for this purpose. A heayy 
 vise holds the work solid, because it may be screwed 
 
 I 
 
 Figure 43. — Assortment of Files and Rasps needed in a farm shop. 
 (1) Slim three-cornered handsaw-file. (2) Common three-cornered 
 file suitable for filing a buck-saw. (3) Double-cut, or bastard, 10- 
 inch flat file. (4) Single-cut, or mill file, either 10 or 12 inches. 
 (5) Half-round 10-inch wood rasp. (6) Horseshoer's rasp. 
 
 Figure 44. — File Handle. Basswood makes the most satisfactory 
 file handles. They are fitted by carefully turning them onto the 
 file shank to take the right taper. There should be a handle for 
 each file. The handle should be the right size and fitted straight 
 with the file so the file will take the same angle to the work when 
 turned over. 
 
THE FARM SHOP 
 
 37 
 
 Figure 45. — Nail Set. On all wooden surfaces to be painted nails 
 should be carefuly driven with a round peen nail hammer and the 
 heads sunk about one-eighth of an inch deep with a nail set.. The 
 holes may then be filled with putty and covered smoothly with paint. 
 
 Figure 46. — Cold-Chisel. There are more flat cold-chisels than 
 all other shapes. They are easily made in the farm shop and it is 
 good practice. They are usually made from octagon steel. Differ- 
 ent sizes are needed according to the work in hand. A piece of %" 
 steel 6" long makes a handy cold-chisel for repair work. 
 
 Figure 47. — Cape Cold-Chisel. It may be tapered both ways or one 
 way to a cutting edge, or one edge may be rounded. 
 
 Figure 48. — (1) Tinner's Punch. Made of octagon steel in sizes 
 to fit the rivets. The cutting end is flat and has sharp edges made 
 by roll filing. It should be about 7" long and from %" to %" in 
 diameter, according to the size of rivet and thickness of sheet metal 
 to be punched. (2) Prick Punch. Usually made rather short and 
 stocky. It may be i/^" or %" diameter and 4i^" to 5" long. (3) 
 Hot-Iron Punch." Made in many sizes and lengths. The taper 
 should be the same as the drawing. 
 
38 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 SO much tighter than a light vise. A heavy vise will 
 hold light work, but a light vise will not hold heavy 
 work. Heavy vises cost more, but they are cheaper in 
 
 Figure 49. — (1) Blacksmith Vise. The old-fashioned leg vise is 
 the most satisfactory for the blacksmith shop. It should have 5" 
 jaws. (2) Power Post Drill. Belt power is practical for the post 
 drill in a farm shop. The hand crank may be easily attached when 
 needed. 
 
 the end and more satisfactory at all times. A leg vise 
 with five-inch jaws weighs about sixty pounds ; five and 
 one-half -inch jaws, eighty pounds. A machinist's vise 
 
THE FARM SHOP 39 
 
 is made to bolt on top of the bench. It will answer for 
 blacksmith work on the farm, but is not as good as the 
 old-fashioned leg vise. A machinist's vise is very use- 
 ful in the garage, but it would hardly be necessary to 
 have two heavy vises. The pipe vise belongs on a 
 separate bench, which may be a plank bracketed 
 against the side of the room. 
 
 Drill-Press, — The most satisfactory drill-press for 
 use on a farm is the upright drill that bolts to a post. 
 There is usually a self feed which may be regulated 
 according to the work. The heavy flywheel keeps the 
 motion steady, and because there is no bench in the 
 way, wagon tires may be suspended from the drill 
 block, so they will hang free and true for drilling. 
 Often long pieces of straight iron are drilled with 
 holes spaced certain distances apart. It is easier to 
 pass them along when they lie flat side down on the 
 drill block. To use a drill properly and safely, the 
 chuck must run true. It is easy to break a drill when 
 it wabbles. 
 
 Most drills are made on the twist pattern, and it is 
 something of a trick to grind a twist drill, but anyone 
 can do it if he tackles the job with a determination to 
 do it right. In grinding a twist drill, use a new drill 
 for pattern. Grind the angles the same as the new 
 drill, and be careful to have the point in the center. A 
 little practice will make perfect. 
 
 Mechanics will say that no one except an expert 
 should attempt to grind a twist drill, but farmers who 
 are mechanically inclined are the best experts within 
 reach. It is up to a farmer to grind his own drills or 
 use them dull. 
 
 In drilling wrought iron either water or oil is re- 
 quired to cool the drill, but cast iron and brass are 
 
40 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 drilled dry. Light work such as hoop -iron may be 
 drilled dry, but the cutting edge of the drill will last 
 longer even in light work if the drill is fed with oil or 
 water. 
 
 Figure 50. — (1) Electric Drill-Press. A small electric motor is 
 attached to the drill spindle. (2) Tram Points. Two steel points 
 are fitted with thumbscrew clamps to fasten them to a long wooden 
 bar. They are used to scribe circles too large for the compasses. 
 (3) Ratchet-Brace. Two braces, or bitstocks, are needed. A large 
 brace with a 6" radius for large bits and a small brace with a 3" 
 or 3^" radius for small bits. 
 
 In using drill-presses, some extra attachments come 
 in very handy, such as a screw clamp to hold short 
 pieces of metal. Before starting the drill, a center 
 
THE FARM SHOP 
 
 41 
 
 punch is used to mark the center of the hole to be bored 
 and to start the drill in the right spot. 
 
 Figure 51. — Twist-Drills. Round shank for the post drill and 
 square taper shank for brace work. Brace drills are small, %" or 
 
 Figure 52.- 
 
 -Taper Reamer. Used to enlarge, or true, or taper a hole 
 that has been drilled or punched. 
 
 Figure 53. — ^Another style of Reamer. 
 
 Figure 54. — Countersink. This is the old style, blacksmith-made, 
 flat countersink. It will do quick work but not so smooth as the 
 fluted kind. 
 
 In doing particular work, the drill may be re- 
 centered when it starts wrong. This is done with a 
 
42 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 small round-nosed cold chisel. If the work is not very 
 particular, the drill may be turned a little to one side 
 by slanting the piece to be drilled. This plan is only 
 a makeshift, however, the proper way being to block 
 the work level, so that the drill will meet it perpendicu- 
 larly. However, by starting carefully, the hole may be 
 bored exactly as required. 
 
 Iro7i Working Tools.— Forge tools for a farm shop 
 need not be numerous. Several pairs of tongs, one 
 
 Figure 55. — Machinist's Hammfers. A me- 
 dium weight should be selected for farm 
 repair work. It should be hung so the end 
 of the handle clears half an inch when the 
 face rests flat on the bench. 
 
 s 
 
 blacksmith hammer, one sledge, one hardy, one 
 wooden-handled cold chisel, one pair pincers, one par- 
 ing knife, one shoeing rasp, and one shoeing hammer 
 will do to begin with. 
 
 Monkey-wrenches come first in the wrench depart- 
 ment. The farmer needs three sizes, one may be quite 
 small, say six inches in length, one ten inches, and the 
 other large enough to span a two-inch nut. And there 
 should be an ironclad rule, never use a monkey-wrench 
 for a hammer. For work around plows, cultivators, 
 harvesters, and other farm machines, a case of S 
 
THE FARM SHOP 
 
 43 
 
 Figure 56i — ^(1) Hardy. The anvil hardy is used more than any 
 other anvil tool except the blacksmith's hammer and tongs. (2) A 
 Cold-Shut Link that may be welded, riveted or simply pounded shut. 
 
 1 2 3 
 
 Figure 57. — Calipers: (1) A pair of tight-joint inside calipers. 
 (2) Its mate for taking outside dimensions. (3) A pair of spring- 
 jointed, screw-adjustment inside calipers for machinists' use. 
 
 Figure 58. — Blacksmith Tongs. Straight tongs made to hold %" 
 iron is the handiest size. Two or three pairs for larger sizes of iron 
 and one pair smaller come in handy. 
 
44 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 wrenches will be greatly appreciated. Manufacturers 
 include wrenches with almost all farm machines, but 
 such wrenches are too cheap to be of much use. 
 
 For heavier work pipe-wrenches are absolutely 
 necessary. The reason for having so many wrenches is 
 
 Figure 59. — (1) Wire Splicer. The oval openings in the tool are 
 of different sizes. They are made to hold two wires, close together, 
 with ends projecting in opposite directions. Each end is wound 
 around the other wire. The ends are then notched with a three- 
 cornered file and broken off short and filed smooth. The splicing 
 tool should be thin, about %" or ^^", to bring the two twists close 
 together. This is especially necessary in making hoops for wooden 
 pails. (2) Blacksmith Shoeing Pincers, used to pull horseshoes. 
 They should close together to catch a nail by the head. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^(^ 
 
 Figure 60. — (1) Cotter Pin Tool. Handy for inserting or remov- 
 ing all sorts of cotter keys. (2) Nest of S Wrenches of different 
 sizes. Farmers have never appreciated the value of light, handy 
 wrenches to fit all sorts of nuts and bolt heads closely. 
 
 to save time when in the field. It often happens that 
 men and horses stand idle waiting for what should be 
 a quick repair job. 
 
 For bench work a riveting hammer and a ball pene 
 machinist 's hammer are needed. A nest of S wrenches, 
 two rivet sets, cold chisels, round punches and several 
 files also are required. 
 
THE FARM SHOP 
 
 45 
 
 The same twist drills up to three-eighths-inch will 
 do for iron as well as wood. However, if much drilling 
 is done, then round shank twist drills to fit the drill 
 chuck will work better. Farmers seldom drill holes in 
 iron larger than one-half inch. For particular work, 
 to get the exact size, reamers are used to finish the 
 
 Figure 61. — Hack Saw. One handle and a dozen blades. The 
 frame should be stiff enough either to push or pull the saw without 
 binding. The teeth may point either way to suit the work in hand. 
 
 Figure 62. — ^Powerful Bolt Cutter. It is intended for factory use. 
 
 holes after drilling. Screw holes in iron are counter- 
 sunk in the drill-press. 
 
 For small work, twist drills with square shanks for 
 brace use should range in sizes from one thirty-second 
 of an inch up to one-quarter inch, then every one- 
 sixteenth inch up to one-half inch. 
 
 For boring screw holes in wood the quickest work is 
 done with pod bits. Not many sizes are needed, but 
 they are cheap, so that a half dozen, ranging from one- 
 sixteenth to one-quarter inch or thereabouts, will be 
 found very useful. Pod bits belong to the wood de- 
 
46 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 partment, but on account of being used principally for 
 screw sinking, they are just as useful in the iron work- 
 ing department as in the carpenter shop. 
 
 Sheet metal snips for cutting sheet metal properly 
 belong with the iron working tools. Snips are from 
 ten to fourteen inches in length. A medium size is 
 best for miscellaneous work. If kept in good working 
 
 Figure 63. — Cutting Nippers. For cutting the points from horse- 
 shoe nails after they are driven through the hoof to hold the shoe 
 in place. These nippers are hard tempered and should not be used 
 for any other purpose. 
 
 Figure 64. — Two Shapes of Steel Crowbars. 
 
 order twelve-inch snips will cut 18-gauge galvanized 
 or black iron. But a man would not care to do a great 
 deal of such heavy cutting. 
 
 Pipe-Fitting Tools. — Recent farm improvements re- 
 quire a few tools that rightfully belong to plumbers. 
 Every farm has some kind of water supply for domes- 
 tic use and for live-stock. A great many farm ma- 
 chines require pipe tools for repair work. Every year 
 more plumbing reaches the farm. 
 
 Plumbing work is no more difficult than other me- 
 chanical work, if the tools are at hand to meet the dif- 
 
THE FARM SHOP 
 
 47 
 
 ferent requirements. One job of plumbing that used 
 to stand out as an impossibility was the soldering to- 
 gether of lead pipes, technically termed ''wiping a 
 joint.'' This operation has been discontinued. Every 
 possible connection required in farm plumbing is now 
 provided for in standardized fittings. Every pipe-fit- 
 ting or connection that conducts supply water or waste 
 
 Figure 65. — (1) Pipe Vise. Hinged to open for long pipes. (2) 
 Machinist's Vise. Made with a turntable to take any horizontal 
 angle. The pipe jaws are removable. 
 
 water nowadays screws together. Sizes are all made to 
 certain standards and the couplings are almost per- 
 fect, so that work formerly shrouded in mystery or 
 hidden under trade secrets is now open to every 
 schoolboy who has learned to read. 
 
 The necessary outfit to handle all the piping and 
 plumbing on the farm is not very expensive, probably 
 $25.00 will include every tool and all other appliances 
 necessary to put in all the piping needed to carry water 
 to the watering troughs and to supply hot and cold 
 
48 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 water to the kitchen and the bathroom, together with 
 the waste pipes, ventilators and the sewer to the septic 
 tank. The same outfit of tools will answer for repair 
 work for a lifetime. 
 
 Farm water pipes usually are small. There may be 
 a two-inch suction pipe to the force pump, and the dis- 
 
 Figure 66. — Pipe Cutter. The most satisfactory pipe cutter has 
 three knife-edge roller cutters which follow each other around the 
 pipe. Some of these cutters have two flat face rollers and one cutter 
 roller to prevent raising a burr on the end of the pipe. The flat face 
 rollers iron out the burr and leave the freshly cut pipe the same size 
 clear to the end. 
 
 Figure 67. — Pipe-Wrench. This type of wrench is valuable for 
 working with the heavier farm implements. It is intended more for 
 holding than for turning. It is rather rough on nuts. Damaged 
 nuts show signs of careless work. 
 
 charge may be one and a half inch. But these pipes are 
 not likely to make trouble. 
 
 There should be a good pipe vise that will hold any 
 size pipe up to three inches. At least two pipe wrenches 
 are needed and they should be adjustable from one- 
 quarter-inch up to two-inch pipe. 
 
 We must remember that water pipe sizes mean in- 
 side measurements. One-inch pipe is about one and 
 one-quarter inches outside diameter. Three-quarter- 
 
THE FARM SHOP 49 
 
 inch pipe is about one inch outside. Two-inch pipe will 
 carry four times as much water as one-inch pipe, under 
 the rule ^ ^ doubling the diameter increases the capacity 
 four times/' 
 
 The three-wheel pipe cutter works quickly and is 
 satisfactory for most jobs. Sometimes two of the knife 
 
 Figure 68. — A smaller sized wrench with wooden handle. 
 
 wheels are removed and rollers substituted to prevent 
 raising a burr on the end of the pipe. 
 
 Threading dies are made in standard sizes. A good 
 farm set consists of stock and dies to thread all the 
 different sizes of pipe from one-quarter inch to one 
 inch, inclusive. Not many pipes larger than inch are 
 threaded on the farm. They are cut to the proper 
 lengths in the farm shop and the threads are cut in 
 town. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 FARM SHOP WORK 
 PROFITABLE HOME REPAIR WORK 
 
 Each farmer must be the judge in regard to the kind 
 of mechanical repair work that should be done at home 
 and the kind and amount of repair work that should 
 go to the shop in town. A great deal depends on the 
 
 Figure 69. — Logging Chain. One of the cleverest farm inventions 
 of any age is the logging chain. It is universally used in all lumber 
 camps and on every farm. It usually is from 16 to 20 feet in length, 
 with a round hook on one end for the slip hitch and a grab hook 
 on the other end that makes fast between any two links. 
 
 mechanical ability of the farmer or his helpers. How- 
 ever, the poorest farm mechanic can do *^ first aid^' 
 service to farm implements and machinery in the nick 
 of time, if he is so disposed. A great many farmers are 
 helpless in this respect because they want to be help- 
 less. It is so much easier to let it go than to go right at 
 it with a determination to fix it, and fix it right. 
 
 50 
 
FARM SHOP WORK 
 
 51 
 
 On general principles, however, farm repair work 
 should not occupy a farmer 's time to the detriment of 
 growing crops or the proper care of live-stock. Farm- 
 ing is the business ; mechanical work is a side issue. At 
 
 Figure 70. — Neckyoke and Whiffletree Irons. Farmers can make 
 better neckyokes and whiffletrees than they can buy ready-made. 
 The irons may be bought separately and the wood selected piece by 
 piece. 
 
 Figure 71. — Measuring a Worn Skein for a New Boxing. The 
 pasteboard calipers are cut to fit the old skein sideways because it is 
 probably flattened on the bottom from wear. 
 
 the same time, a farmer so inclined can find time dur- 
 ing the year to look over every farm machine, every 
 implement and every hand tool on the farm. The 
 stupidest farm helper can clean the rust off of a 
 spade and rub the surface with an oily cloth, in which 
 some fine emery has been dusted. The emery will re- 
 
52 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 move the rust and the oil will prevent it from further 
 rusting. Every laborer knows better than to use a 
 spade or shovel after a rivet head has given way so the 
 handle is not properly supported by the plate exten- 
 sions. There really is no excuse for using tools or ma- 
 chinery that are out of repair, but the extent to which 
 
 Figure 72. — Wooden Wagon Axles. Axle timber may be bought in 
 the rough or partly fitted to the skeins. 
 
 IT 
 
 Figure 73. — Showing how to fit the irons on the forward end of 
 wagon reach. 
 
 m\\iui\iiiiMii mw 
 
 w^ 
 
 Figure 74.- 
 
 -Wire Splice. With a little practice wire may be wound 
 close enough to prevent slipping. 
 
 a farmer can profitably do his own repairing depends 
 on many contingencies. In every case he must decide 
 according to circumstances, always, however, with a 
 desire and determination to run his farm on business 
 principles. 
 
 Home-made Bolts, — The easiest way to make a bolt 
 is to cut a rod of round iron the proper length and run 
 a thread on each end. On one end the thread may be 
 just long enough to rivet the head, while the thread on 
 
FARM SHOP WORK 
 
 53 
 
 the other end is made longer to accommodate the nut 
 and to take up slack. A farmer needs round iron in 
 sizes from one-fourth inch to five-eighths inch. He will 
 use more three-eighths and one-half inch than any- 
 other sizes. Blank nuts are made in standard sizes to 
 
 Parts to Make Bolt 
 (Nuts and Threaded Rod) 
 
 Rod 
 Rivited 
 
 Figure 75. — Emergency Bolts. A bolt may be made quickly with- 
 out a forge fire by cutting a short thread on one end for the head 
 and a longer thread on the other end for the nut. 
 
 Figure 76. — Rivets. A stock of soft iron rivets of different sizes and 
 lengths should be always kept on hand ready for immediate use. 
 
 fit any size of round iron. Have an assortment, in dif- 
 ferent sizes, of both the square and the hexagon nuts. 
 To make a bolt in the ordinary way requires weld- 
 ing, but for repair work in a hurry it is better to select 
 the proper iron and cut it to the required length 
 either with a cold chisel in the vise, or with a hardy 
 and a handled cold chisel over an anvil. The quickest 
 
54 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 Figure 77. — Rivets. 
 
 Figure 78. — Rivet Set. This style of set is used for small rivets. 
 The size should be selected to fit the rivets closely. Larger rivets are 
 made to bug the work by means of a flat piece of steel with a hole 
 through it. 
 
 Figure 79. — ^Rivet Set. 
 
 Figure 80. — i(l) Coulter Clamp. Plow-beam clamps should be 
 made in the farm shop to fit each plow. (2) Garden Weeder. The 
 quickest hand killer of young weeds in the garden is a flat steel 
 blade that works horizontally half an inch below the surface of the 
 ground. 
 
FARM SHOP WORK 
 
 Figure 81. — Stock and Dies. Taps and dies and stocks are best kept 
 in compartments in a case made for the purpose. 
 
 Figure 82. — Stock for Round Dies. The opening is turned true 
 and sized accurately to fit. The screw applies pressure to hold the 
 die by friction. 
 
 „/\AA/vAAA/\'V^/-v~^-v-< 
 
 
 =-v»,#^^s#^.A#>*^**^**^'»^>«'*^ 
 
 Figure 83. — Taps and Dies. Standard threads are tapped into 
 blank nuts and corresponding threads are cut onto bolts with ac- 
 curacy and rapidity by using this style taps and dies. They may be 
 had in all sizes. The range for farm work should cut from M" to 
 %", inclusive. 
 
56 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 way of cutting that mashes the rod the least is to be 
 preferred. The size of the rod will determine the man- 
 ner of cutting in most instances. 
 
 Figure 84. — Taper Tap for Blacksmith's Use. 
 
 "^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Figure 85. — Machine Bolt and Carriage Bolt. The first is used 
 against iron and the second against wood, but this rule is not arbi- 
 trary. The rounded side of the nuts are turned in against wood ; 
 the flat side against washers or heavier iron. Use square head bolts 
 If you expect to take them out after the nuts have rusted on. 
 
 Figure 86. — Plow bolts and sickle bar bolts should be kept in 
 stock. Standard sizes and shapes are made for several different 
 makes of plows and machines. 
 
 Taps and dies are made to fit each size of rod. If the 
 thread on the bolt is cut with a solid, or round, plate 
 die, the corresponding tap is run clear through the 
 nut. In that case the nut will screw on the bolt easily, 
 possibly a little loose for some purposes. It is so in- 
 tended by the manufacturers to give the workman a 
 
FARM SHOP WORK 
 
 57 
 
 little leeway. If it is desirable to have the nut screw 
 on the bolt very tight, then the tap is stopped before 
 the last thread enters the nut. A little practice soon 
 
 Figure 87.^Lag Screw. To set a lag screw in hardwood, bore a hole 
 the size of the screw shank as calipered between the threads. 
 
 Figure 88. — (1) Wagon-Box Irons, showing how to attach the box 
 and the rave to the cross-piece and to brace the side of the box to 
 hold it upright. There may be several of these braces on each side 
 of the wagon box. (2) U Bolt in Cement. A solid staple to be em- 
 bedded in concrete for a horse ring, door hinge, cow stanchion, etc. 
 
58 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 qualifies a workman to fit a nut according to the place 
 the bolt is to occupy. 
 
 Generally it is desirable to have nuts fit very snug 
 on parts of machines that shake a good deal, and this 
 applies to almost all farm machinery and implements. 
 
 Ordinarily a horse rake is supposed to travel steadily 
 along like a cart, but the ground is rough and in practi- 
 
 Figure 89. — Wagon-Box Brace. It is offset to hold the rave and 
 to brace the sideboard at the rear and the front ends and some- 
 times in the middle of light wagon beds. 
 
 Figure 90. — Two Plow Clevises and a Plow Link. 
 
 cal use the nuts loosen almost as soon as haying com- 
 mences. 
 
 Some farmers make a practice of riveting bolt ends 
 to prevent nuts from working loose. When the bolts 
 have square heads, this practice is not objectionable, 
 because with two wrenches a nut. can be twisted off 
 over the riveting, but a great many bolts have round 
 heads and very short, square shanks. Theoretically, 
 the shanks are driven into the wood firm enough to 
 prevent the bolts from turning. Practically this 
 
FARM SHOB WORK 59 
 
 theory is a delusion and a snare, as every farm boy can 
 testify. 
 
 Bolts are not manufactured in quantities in the farm 
 blacksmith shop. They can be made by machinery 
 cheaper, but so many times a bolt is needed on short 
 notice that the farm shop should have the necessary 
 tools and materials to supply the need quickly. 
 
 Forging Iron and Steel. — Iron and steel are com- 
 posed of the same properties, but differ chemically. 
 Steel also is finer grained than iron and it requires 
 different treatment. Iron should be forged at a light- 
 red or white heat. If forged at a dark-red heat the 
 iron generally will granulate or crack open and weaken 
 the metal. For a smooth finish the last forging may 
 be done at a dark-red heat, but the hammer must be 
 used lightly. The weight of the hammer as well as the 
 blows also must differ with the different size of iron 
 under heat. Small sizes should be treated with ham- 
 mer blows that are rather light, while for large sizes 
 the blows should be correspondingly heavy. If light 
 blows be given with a light hammer in forging heavy 
 iron the outside alone will be affected, thus causing 
 itneven tension and contrarywise strain in the iron. 
 
 Steel should never be heated above a yellow heat. If 
 heated to a white heat the steel will be burned. Steel 
 should never be forged at a dark-red heat. If this is 
 done it will cause considerable strain between the inner 
 and outer portions, which may cause it to crack while 
 forging. The weight of the hammer and the hammer 
 blows in forging of steel is vastly of more importance 
 than in forging iron. If the blow or the hammer is not 
 heavy enough to exert its force throughout the thick- 
 ness of the steel it will probably crack in the process of 
 hardening or tempering. If steel be properly forged it 
 
60 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 will harden easily and naturally, but if improperly 
 forged the tempering will be very difficult — probably a 
 failure. The quality of a finished tool depends greatly 
 upon the correct heat and proper method used in forg- 
 ing and hardening it. 
 
 . Making Steel Tools. — Steel for tools should first be 
 annealed to even the density and prevent warping. 
 This is done by heating it to a dull cherry red in a slow 
 fire. A charcoal fire for this purpose is best because it 
 contains no sulphur or other injurious impurities. 
 After heating the piece of new steel all over as evenly 
 as possible it should be buried several inches deep in 
 powdered charcoal and left to cool. This completes the 
 annealing process. While working steel into proper 
 shape for tools, great care is required to prevent burn- 
 ing. It should be worked quickly and the process re- 
 peated as often as necessary. Practice is the only 
 recipe for speed. 
 
 When the tool is shaped as well as possible on the 
 anvil it is then finished with a file by clamping the new 
 tool in the vise, using single cut files. Bastard files are 
 too rough for tool steel. After the tool is shaped by 
 cross-filing and draw-filing to make it smooth it is some- 
 times polished by wrapping fine emery cloth around 
 the file. Oil is used with emery cloth to give the steel 
 a luster finish. Tempering is the last process in the 
 making of such tools as cold chisels, drills, dies, 
 punches, scratchawls, etc. 
 
 Tempering Steel Tools. — Good judgment is required 
 to get the right temper. Good eyesight is needed to 
 catch the color at the exact instant, and quick action to 
 plunge it into the water before it cools too much. Dies 
 are made very hard. The color of the steel at dipping 
 time should be a bright straw color. Cold chisels will 
 
FARM SHOP WORK 
 
 61 
 
 Figure 91. — Blacksmith Hammers. Some smiths use a heavy ma- 
 chinist's hammer. But the flat peen is more useful when working 
 around the anvil and the leg vise. 
 
62 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 break when being used if tempered too hard. If cold 
 chisels are to be used for cutting iron, the color should 
 be violet ; if the chisels are for cutting stone, purple is 
 the color. Drills for boring iron are tempered a dark 
 straw color at the cutting edge merging back into blue. 
 The water in the dipping tub should be warm, as steel 
 is likely to check or crack when it is tempered in cold 
 water. 
 
 Tool steel should be held in a perpendicular position 
 when it enters the water to cool all sides alike. Other- 
 wise the new tool might warp. It is better to dip 
 slowly, sometimes holding the point, or cutting edge, in 
 the water while permitting the shank to cool slowly 
 enough to remain soft. Some sizes of steel may be 
 tempered too hard at first and the temper immediately 
 drawn by permitting the heat of the shank to follow 
 down almost to the edge, then dip. This is done 
 quickly while watching the colors as they move to- 
 wards the point or edge. 
 
 Draw-filing. — Making six-sided and eight-sided 
 punches and scratchawls out of hexagon and octagon 
 tool steel is interesting work. The steel is cut to length 
 by filing a crease all around with a three-cornered file. 
 When it is sufficiently notched, the steel will break 
 straight across. To shape the tool and to draw out the 
 point the steel is heated in the forge to a dull cherry 
 red and hammered carefully to preserve the shape 
 along the taper. Special attention must be given to 
 the numerous corners. A scratchawl or small punch, 
 must be heated many times and hammered quickly be- 
 fore cooling. An old English shop adage reads: 
 ' ^ Only one blacksmith ever went to the devil and that 
 was for pounding cold iron." 
 
 After the punch or scratchawl is roughed out on the 
 
FARM SHOP WORK 
 
 63 
 
 anvil, it is fastened in the vise and finished by cross- 
 filing and draw-filing. Copper caps on the vise jaws 
 , will prevent indentations. 
 
 Draw-filing means grasping each end of the file and 
 moving it back and forth sidewise along the work. For 
 
 Figure 92. — Vise Jaw Guards. Soft auxiliary vise jaws are made of 
 sheet copper or galvanized iron. 
 
 Turn Piece M 
 while uding 
 
 "7 
 
 ilMHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIHIIIIlliiliiiiiiiMiiinnifTni 
 
 Clamp Block, 
 in Vise 
 
 ^""""""-"""■■"ITMnH 
 
 (61 DE VIEW) 
 
 i Bi&JL 
 
 Figure 93. — Roll Filing. To file a piece 6t steel round it is rolled by 
 one hand while the file is used by the other hand. 
 
 this purpose single-cut files are used. The smoothing 
 is done with a very fine single-cut file, or if very par- 
 ticular, a float file is used. Then the polish is rubbed 
 on with fine emery cloth and oil. The emery cloth is 
 wrapped around the file and the same motion is con- 
 tinued. With some little practice a very creditable 
 
64 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 piece of work may be turned out. Such work is valu- 
 able because of the instruction. A good test of skill at 
 blacksmithing is making an octagon punch that tapers 
 true to the eye when finished. 
 
 Set-Screws, — It is customary to fasten a good many 
 gear wheels, cranks and pulleys to machinery shafts 
 by set-screws. There are two kinds of set-screws ; one 
 has a cone point, the other a cup end. Both screws are 
 hardened to sink into the shaft. A cup is supposed to 
 cut a ring and the point is supposed to sink into the 
 shaft to make a small hole sufficient to keep the wheel 
 
 Figure 94. — Machine-Bolt and Set-Screw. The bolt to the left is 
 used to clamp cylinder heads in place. The set-screw to the right is 
 the cup variety. The end is countersunk to form a cup with a 
 sharp rim. 
 
 from slipping. However, unless the cone-pointed screw 
 is countersunk into the shaft, it will not hold much of 
 a strain. The point is so small it will slip and cut a 
 groove around the shaft. To prevent this, the set-screw 
 may be countersunk by first marking the shaft with an 
 indentation of the point of the screw. Then the wheel * 
 or crank or collar may be removed and a hole drilled 
 into the shaft with a twist-drill the same size, or a 
 sixty-fourth smaller, than the set-screw. Then by 
 forcing the end of the set-screw into the drill hole, the 
 wheel is held solid. 
 
 The principal objection to set-screws is that they are ^ 
 dangerous. The heads always project and are ready 
 to catch a coat sleeve when the shaft is revolving. In 
 all cases, set-screws should be as large as the hub will 
 
FARM SHOP WORK 65 
 
 allow, and it is better to have them protected so it is im- 
 possible to catch anything to wind around the shaft. 
 Cup set-screws are not satisfactory except for very 
 light work. If necessary to use them, the ends may be 
 firmly fixed by cutting a ring with a sharp, diamond- 
 point cold chisel. 
 
 Setting the Handsaw. — Nine teeth to the inch is the 
 most satisfactory handsaw for all kinds of lumber. 
 Setting the teeth of this kind of saw is best done with 
 a hand lever set. The plunger pin should be care- 
 fully adjusted to bend the teeth just far enough to give 
 the necessary set. For general wcTrk a saw needs more 
 set than is needed for kiln-dried stuff. The teeth 
 should cut a kerf just wide enough to clear the blade. 
 Anything more is a waste of time and muscle. It is 
 better to work from both sides of the saw by first set- 
 ting one side the whole length of the blade. Then re- 
 verse the saw in the clamp and set the alternate teeth 
 in the same manner. There should be a good solid stop 
 between the handles of the set to insure equal pressure 
 against each sawtooth. The pin should be carefully 
 placed against each tooth at exactly the same spot 
 every time and the pressure should be the same for each 
 tooth. 
 
 The best saw-sets for fine tooth saws are automatic 
 so far as it is possible to make them so, but the skill 
 of the operator determines the quality of the work. 
 The reason for setting a saw before jointing is to leave 
 the flattened ends of the teeth square with the blade 
 after the jointing and filing is completed. 
 
 Jointing a Handsaw. — After the saw has been set it 
 must be jointed to square the teeth and to even them to 
 equal length, and to keep the saw straight on the cut- 
 ting edge. Some woodworkers give their saws a slight 
 
66 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 camber, or belly, to correspond with the sway-back. 
 The camber facilitates cutting to the bottom in mitre- 
 box work without sawing into the bed piece of the box. 
 It also throws the greatest weight of the thrust upon 
 the middle teeth. A saw with even teeth cuts smoother, 
 runs truer and works faster than a saw filed by guess. 
 It is easy to file a saw when all of the teeth are the same 
 
 ^Oldnic 
 r— R ivet to Prevent 
 5plltting of Block 
 
 Figure 95. — Saw Jointer. The wooden block is about two inches 
 square by 12" or 14" in length. The block is made true and scribed 
 carefully to have the ripsaw slot square, straight and true. The 
 file is set into a mortise square with the block. 
 
 length and all have the same set. Anyone can do a 
 good job of filing if the saw is made right to begin with, 
 but no one can put a saw in good working order with 
 a three-cornered file as his only tool. 
 
 Filing the Handsaw. — First comes the three-cor- 
 nered file. It should be just large enough to do the 
 work. There is no economy in buying larger files 
 thinking that each of the three corners will answer the 
 same purpose as a whole file of smaller size. In the 
 first place the small file is better controlled and will 
 do better work. In the second place the three corners 
 are needed to gum the bottoms of the divisions between 
 
FARM SHOP WORK - 67 
 
 the teeth. There is much more wear on the corners 
 than on the sides of a saw-file. Also the corners of a 
 small file are more acute, which means a good deal in 
 the shape of the finished teeth. 
 
 After the saw is carefully set and jointed, clamp it 
 in the saw vise and file one side of the saw from heel 
 to point. Then reverse the saw in the saw clamp and 
 file the other side, being careful to keep the bevel of 
 each tooth the same. It is better to stop filing just be- 
 fore the tooth comes to a point. A triangular or dia- 
 mond shaped point will cut faster and leave a smoother 
 saw kerf and last longer than a needle point. 
 
 As the tooth of a crosscut saw is filed away from both 
 edges, it is necessary to make allowances when filing 
 the first side, otherwise some of the teeth will come to 
 a sharp point before the gumming is deep enough. 
 
 Using a Handsaw, — Anyone can saw a board square 
 both up and down and crossways by following a few 
 simple rules. Have the board supported on the level 
 by two 'v\rell made saw-benches 24'' high. Stand up 
 straight as possible and look down on both sides of 
 the saw blade. Use long even strokes and let the saw 
 play lightly and evenly through the saw cut. 
 
 Do not cut the mark out ; cut to it on the waste end, 
 or further end, if there are more pieces to be cut from 
 the board. The saw kerf is about 3/32" wide for a 
 nine-tooth saw set for unkilned lumber or dimension 
 stuff. If both saw kerfs are taken from one piece and 
 none from the next then one length will be 3/16" 
 shorter than the other. 
 
 For practice it is a good plan to make two marks 
 3/32" apart and cut between them. Use a sharp- 
 pointed scratchawl to make the marks. A penknife 
 blade is next best, but it must be held flat against the 
 
68 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 blade of the square, otherwise it will crowd in or run 
 off at a tangent. 
 
 Setting a Circular Saw. — ^A good saw-set for a cir- 
 cular saw may be made out of an old worn-out flat file. 
 Heat the file in the forge fire to draw the temper and 
 anneal it by covering it with ashes. Smooth it on the 
 grindstone. Put it in the vise and file a notch in one 
 edge. The notch should be just wide enough to fit 
 loosely over the point of a sawtooth. The notch should 
 be just deep enough to reach down one-quarter of the 
 length of the tooth. 
 
 Make a saw-set gauge out of a piece of flat iron or 
 steel one inch wide and about four inches long. File a 
 notch into and parallel to one edge at one corner, about 
 one-sixteenth of an inch deep from the edge and about 
 half an inch long measuring from the end. With the 
 homemade saw-set bend the saw teeth outward until the 
 points just miss the iron gauge in the corner notch. 
 The edges of the gauge should be straight and parallel 
 and the notch should be parallel with the edge. In use 
 the edge of the gauge is laid against the side of the saw 
 so the projecting tooth reaches into the notch. One- 
 sixteenth of an inch may be too much set for a small 
 saw but it won't be too much for a 24-inch wood saw 
 working in green cord wood. 
 
 Jointing a Circular Saw. — Eun the saw at full speed. 
 Lay a 14-inch file flat on the top of the saw table at 
 right angles to the saw. Move the file slowly and care- 
 fully towards the saw until it ticks against the teeth. 
 Hold the file firmly by both ends until each sawtooth 
 ticks lightly against the file. A saw in good working 
 order needs very little jointing, but it should have at- 
 tention every time the saw is set and it should be done 
 after setting and before filing. 
 
FARM SHOP WORK 69 
 
 Filing a Circular Saw, — The teeth of a crosscut cir- 
 cular saw point a little ahead. Sometimes they point 
 so nearly straight out from the center that you have to 
 look twice to determine which way the saw should run. 
 There are plenty of rules for the pitch of sawteeth, but 
 they are subject to many qualifications. What inter- 
 ests a farmer is a saw that will cut green poles and 
 crooked limbs into stove lengths with the least possible 
 delay. A saw 20 inches in diameter will cut a stick 
 eight inches through without turning it to finish the 
 cut. The front or cutting edges of the teeth of a 24- 
 inch crosscut circular saw for wood sawing should line 
 to a point a little back from the center. This may not 
 sound definite enough for best results, so the more par- 
 ticular farmers may use a straight edge. Select a 
 straight stick about half an inch square. Rest it on 
 top of or against the back of the saw mandrel and 
 shape the forward edges of the teeth on a line with the 
 upper side or rear side of the straight edge. The teeth 
 will stand at the proper pitch when the saw is new, 
 if it was designed for sawing green wood. If it works 
 right before being filed, then the width of the straight 
 edge may be made to conform to the original pitch and 
 kept for future use. 
 
 The gumming is done with the edge of the file while 
 filing the front edges of the teeth. It is finished with 
 the flat side of the file while filing the rear edges of 
 the teeth. The depth, or length, of the teeth should be 
 kept the same as the manufacturer designed them. A 
 wood saw works best when the front edges of the teeth 
 have but little bevel. The back edges should have 
 more slant. The teeth should have three-cornered or 
 diamond-shaped points. Needle points break off when 
 they come against knots or cross-grained hardwood. 
 
70 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 Short teeth do no cutting. Single cut flat files are used 
 for circular saws. The file should fit the saw. It 
 should be about %'' wider than the length of the front 
 side of the teeth. The back edges require that the file 
 shall have some play to show part of the tooth while 
 the file is in motion. Large files are clumsy. The file 
 should be carefully selected. 
 
 How to Sharpen a Hoe. — It is quicker and more sat- 
 isfactory to file a hoe sharp than to grind it on the 
 
 Figure 96. — How to Sharpen a Hoe. Grinding a hoe is difficult, 
 but filing it sharp ani straight at the cutting edge is easy. If the 
 hoe chatters when held in the vise, spring a wooden block under the 
 blade. Use false vise jaws to prevent dinging the shank. 
 
 grindstone. The shank of the hoe must be held firmly 
 in the vise and there should be a solid block of wood 
 under the blade of the hoe, a little back from the edge; 
 to keep the file from chattering. A single cut flat file 
 is the best to use. It should be long enough to be 
 easily held in one position to make a smooth, even bevel 
 at the same angle to the face of the blade all the way 
 across. To make sure not to file a feather edge it is 
 better to joint the hoe to begin with, then to stop filing 
 just before reaching the edge. If the edge be left 
 
FARM SHOP WORK 71 
 
 1/64'' thick it will wear longer and work more easily- 
 after having been used an hour or two than it will if 
 the edge be filed thin. This is especially noticeable 
 when the ground contains small stones. Hoes are 
 sharpened from the under side only. The inside of a 
 hoe blade should be straight clear to the edge. Hoes 
 should always have sharp corners. When working 
 around valuable plants you want to know exactly 
 where the corner of the hoe is when the blade is buried 
 out of sight in the ground. 
 
 Shoeing Farm Horses. — Farmers have no time or 
 inclination to make a business of shoeing horses, but 
 there are occasions when it is necessary to pull a shoe 
 or set a shoe and to do it quickly. Shoeing tools are not 
 numerous or expensive. They consist first of a tool box, 
 with a stiff iron handle made in the shape of a bale. 
 The box contains a shoeing hammer, hoof rasp, hoof 
 knife, or paring-knife, as it is usually called, and two 
 sizes of horseshoe-nails. Sometimes a foot pedestal is 
 used to set the horse's front foot on when the horse 
 wants to bear down too hard, but this pedestal is not 
 necessary in the farm shop. 
 
 There are flat-footed horses that <?annot work even 
 in summer without shoes. Common sense and shoeing 
 tools are the only requirements necessary to tack on a 
 plate without calks. Shoes to fit any foot may be pur- 
 chased at so much a pound. 
 
 A paring-knife is used to level the bottom of the 
 hoof so that it will have an even bearing on the shoe all 
 the way round. It is not desirable to pare the frog or 
 the braces in the bottom of a horse 's foot. If the foot 
 is well cupped, a little of the horny rim may be taken 
 off near the edges. Generally it is necessary to shorten 
 the toe. This is done partly with the hoof chisel and 
 
72 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 rasp after the shoe is nailed fast. Sometimes one- 
 fourth of an inch is sufficient; at other times a horse's 
 hoof is very much improved by taking off one-half inch 
 or more of the toe growth either from the bottom or the 
 front or both. 
 
 Like all other mechanical work the shoeing of a 
 horse's foot should be studied and planned before 
 starting. A long toe is a bad leverage to overcome 
 when pulling a heavy load. At the same time, nature 
 
 Figure 97. — Tool Box for Field Use. The long open side is for 
 tools. On the other side of the center partition bolts, keys, screws, 
 nails, bits of wire, leather, tin, etc., are kept in the different 
 divisions. 
 
 intended that a horse should have considerable toe 
 length as a protection to the more tender parts of the 
 foot. And the pastern bone should play at the proper 
 angle. 
 
 Handy Tool Box, — ^A tool box with a high lengthwise 
 partition in the middle and a handle in the middle of 
 the top of the partition is the handiest tool box ever 
 used on a farm. At haying and harvest time it should 
 be fitted with the common tools required about haying 
 and harvest machinery. One side is partitioned into 
 square boxes to hold split wire keys, washers, bolts, 
 rivets, and a collection of wire nails, bits of copper 
 
FARM SHOP WORK 73 
 
 wire, a leather punch, etc. On the other side of the 
 box is an assortment of wrenches, cold chisels, punches, 
 pliers and hammers. This tool box belongs in the 
 wagon that accompanies the outfit to the field. 
 
 Babbitting Boxings. — Babbitting boxings is one of 
 the repair jobs on the farm. Some men are careless 
 about oiling; sometimes sand cuts them out. Every 
 year some boxings need rebabbitting. The melting 
 ladle should be large enough to pour the largest box. 
 Usually a 5-inch bowl is about right. A large ladle 
 
 Figure 98. — ^Melting Ladle. Babbitting shaft boxing requires a 
 melting ladle. It should be about five inches across the bowl and 
 about three inches deep. That is a good size to heat in a forge fire. 
 
 will pour a small box but a small ladle won't pour a 
 large one. In cold weather the shaft and box should 
 be warmed to insure an even flow of metal. Pasteboard 
 is fitted against the shaft when pouring the cap or top 
 half of the box. Pasteboard is fitted around the shaft 
 at the ends of the box to keep the melted metal from 
 running out. Never use clay or putty, it is too mussy 
 and the babbitt is made rough and uneven at the edges. 
 Some skill is required to fit either wood or metal close 
 enough to prevent leaks and to do a neat job. 
 
 If the boxing is small, both top and bottom may be 
 poured at once by making holes through the dividing 
 pasteboard. The holes must be large enough to let the 
 melted metal through and small enough to break apart 
 easily when cold. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER TO DRIVE 
 MODERN FARM MACHINERY 
 
 At one time ninety-seven per cent of the population 
 of the United States got their living directly from till- 
 ing the soil, and the power used was oxen and manual 
 labor. At the present time probably not more than 
 thirty-five per cent of our people are actively engaged 
 in agricultural pursuits. And the power problem has 
 been transferred to horses, steam, gasoline, kerosene 
 and water power, with electricity as a power conveyor. 
 
 Fifty years ago a farmer was lucky if he owned a 
 single moldboard cast-iron plow that he could follow all 
 day on foot and turn over one, or at most, two acres. 
 The new traction engines are so powerful that it is 
 possible to plow sixty feet in width, and other ma- 
 chines have been invented to follow the tractor 
 throughout the planting and growing seasons to the 
 end of the harvest. The tractor is supplemented by 
 numerous smaller powers. All of which combine to 
 make it possible for one-third of the people to grow 
 enough to feed the whole American family and to ex- 
 port a surplus to Europe. 
 
 At the same time, the standard of living is very much 
 higher than it was when practically everyone worked 
 in the fields to grow and to harvest the food necessary 
 to live. 
 
 Farm machinery is expensive, but it is more expen- 
 sive to do without. Farmers who make the most money 
 
 74 
 
GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 75 
 
 are the ones who use the greatest power and the best 
 machinery. Farmers who have a hard time of it are 
 the ones who use the old wheezy hand pump, the eight- 
 foot harrow and the walking plow. The few horses 
 they keep are small and the work worries them. The 
 owner sympathizes with his team and that worries him. 
 Worry is the commonest form of insanity. 
 
 3aOt= 
 
 Figure 99. — Flail, the oldest threshing machine, still used for 
 threshing pedigreed seeds to prevent mixing. The staff is seven or 
 eight feet long and the swiple is about three feet long by two and 
 one-half inches thick in the middle, tapering to one and one-half 
 inches at the ends. The staff and swiple are fastened together by 
 rawhide thongs. 
 
 Figure 100. — Bucket Yoke. It fits around the neck and over the 
 shoulders. Such human yokes have been used for ages to carry two 
 buckets of water, milk or other liquids. The buckets or pails should 
 nearly balance each other. They are steadied by hand to prevent 
 slopping. 
 
 At a famous plowing match held at Wheatland, 
 Illinois, two interesting facts were brought out. Boys 
 are not competing for furrow prizes and the walking 
 plow has gone out of fashion. The plowing at the 
 Wheatland plowing match was done by men with rid- 
 ing plows. Only one boy under eighteen years was 
 ready to measure his ability against competition. The 
 attendance of farmers and visitors numbered about 
 three thousand, which shows that general interest in 
 the old-fashioned plowing match is as keen as ever. A • 
 jumbo tractor on the grounds proved its ability to 
 draw a big crowd and eighteen plows at the same time. 
 It did its work well and without vulgar ostentation. 
 Lack of sufficient land to keep it busy was the tractor 's 
 
76 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 only disappointment, but it reached out a strong right 
 arm and harrowed the furrows down fine, just to show 
 that it ** wasn't mad at nobody." 
 
 Modern farm methods are continually demanding 
 more power. Larger implements are being used and 
 
 Figure 101. — Well Sweep. The length 
 of the sweep is sufficient to lower the 
 bucket into the water and to raise it to 
 the coping at the top of the brickwork. 
 The rock on the short end of the sweep 
 is just heavy enough to balance the 
 bucket full of water. 
 
 heavier horses are required to pull them. A great deal 
 of farm work is done by engine power. Farm power is 
 profitable when it is employed to its full capacity in 
 manufacturing high-priced products. It may be 
 profitable also in preventing waste by working up 
 cheap materials into valuable by-products. The mod- 
 ern, well-managed farm is a factory and it should be 
 
GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 
 
 77 
 
 managed along progressive factory methods. In a 
 good dairy stable hay, straw, grains and other feeds 
 are manufactured into high-priced cream and butter. 
 Farming pays in proportion to the amount of work . 
 intelligently applied to this manner of increasing val- 
 
 Figure 102. — Wire Stretcher. A small block and tackle will 
 stretch a single barb-wire tight enough for a fence. By using two 
 wire snatches the ends of two wires may be strained together for 
 splicing. 
 
 Figure 103.- 
 double blocks, 
 height. 
 
 -Block and Tackle. The rope is threaded into two 
 There is a safety stop that holds the load at any 
 
 ues. It is difficult to make a profit growing and selling 
 grain. Grain may sell for more than the labor and 
 seed, but it takes so much vitality from the land that 
 depreciation of capital often is greater than the margin 
 of apparent profit. When grains are grown and fed to 
 live-stock on the farm, business methods demand better 
 
78 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 buildings and more power, which means that the 
 farmer is employing auxiliary machinery and other 
 modern methods to enhance values. 
 
 In other manufacturing establishments raw mate- 
 rial is worked over into commercial products which 
 bring several times the amount of money paid for the 
 raw material. 
 
 Figure 104. — Farm Hoists. Two styles of farm elevating hoists 
 are shown in this illustration. Two very different lifting jobs are 
 also shown. 
 
 The principle is the same on the farm except that 
 when a farmer raises the raw material he sells it to 
 himself at a profit. When he feeds it to live-stock and 
 sells the live-stock he makes another profit. When the 
 manure is properly handled and returned to the soil 
 he is making another profit on a by-product. 
 
 Farming carried on in this way is a complicated 
 business which requires superior knowledge of business 
 methods and principles. In order to conduct the busi- 
 
GENERATINO MECHANICAL POWER 79 
 
 ness of farming profitably the labor problem has to be 
 met. Good farm help is expensive. Poor farm help is 
 more expensive. While farm machinery also is ex- 
 pensive, it is cheaper than hand labor when the farmer 
 has sufficient work to justify the outlay. It is tiresome 
 
 Figure 105. — Two Powerful Winches. The one to the left is used 
 for pulling small stumps or roots in the process of clearing land. 
 The rope runs on and off the drum to maintain three or four laps 
 or turns. The winch to the right is used for hoisting well drilling 
 tools or to hang a beef animal. The rope winds on the drum in two 
 layers if necessary. 
 
 to have agricultural writers ding at us about the su- 
 perior acre returns of German farms. German hand- 
 made returns may be greater per acre, but one Ameri- 
 can farmhand, by the use of proper machinery, will 
 produce more food than a whole German family. 
 
 DOG CHURN 
 
 Even the dog works on some farms. A dog is a nui- 
 sance among dairy cattle, but he can be made to earn 
 his salt at churning time. All mechanism in connec- 
 
80 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 tion with dog power must be light. It also is necessary 
 to eliminate the friction as much as possible. 
 
 The best way to make a dog power is to use a light 
 wooden sulky wheel for the revolving turn table. Next 
 best to the sulky wheel is a light buggy wheel. The 
 wheel is made fast to an upright iron shaft that is 
 stepped into an iron oil well at the bottom and inclined 
 
 Figure 106. — Dog Churn Power. A wheel keyed to an iron shaft 
 is placed at an angle as shown. The weight of the dog turns the 
 wheel and power is conveyed to the churn by a light rope belt. It is 
 necessary to confine the dog between stationary partitions built like 
 a stall over the wheel. 
 
 at an angle of about fifteen degrees to give the neces- 
 sary power. To steady the top of the shaft a light box- 
 ing is used, preferably a ballbearing bicycle race to re- 
 duce friction. Power is conveyed to the churn by 
 means of a grooved pulley on the top of the shaft. A 
 small, soft rope or heavy string belt runs from this 
 pulley to a similar pulley connected with the churn. 
 
 Dogs learn to like the work when fed immediately 
 after the churning is finished. Dogs have been known 
 to get on to the power wheel to call attention to their 
 
GENERATINO MECHANICAL POWER 81 
 
 hungry condition. This calls to mind the necessity of 
 arranging a brake to stop the wheel to let the dog off.' 
 When the wheel is running light, the dog cannot let go. 
 A spring brake to wear against the iron tire of the 
 wheel is the most satisfactory. The brake may be 
 tripped and set against the tire automatically by a 
 small lever and weight attached to the underside of 
 the wheel. When the speed is too fast the weight 
 swings out and sets the brake. When the speed slack- 
 ens the weight drops back towards the center and re- 
 leases the brake. When the speed is about right the 
 weight swings between the two spring catches. 
 
 BULL TREADMILL 
 
 On dairy farms it is common to see a valuable pure 
 bred bull working a treadmill for exercise and to pump 
 water. Sometimes he turns the cream-separator, but 
 the motion is too unsteady for good results. Tread- 
 mills for this purpose are very simple. The mechan- 
 ism turns a grooved pulley which propels a rope pow- 
 er conveyor. The rope belt may be carried across the 
 yards in any direction and to almost any distance. 
 Bull treadmills consist of a framework of wood which 
 carries an endless apron supported on rollers. The 
 apron link chains pass around and turn two drumhead 
 sprocket-wheels at the upper end and an idler drum at 
 the lower end. The sprocket-wheel drum shaft is 
 geared to an auxiliary shaft which carries a grooved 
 pulley. A rope belt power conveyor runs in this groove 
 and carries power from the bull pen to the pump. 
 
 Bull tread powers usually have smooth inclined 
 lags, because a bull's steps on the tread power are 
 naturally uneven and irregular. This construction 
 gives an even straight tread to the travel surface. To 
 
82 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 prevent slipping, soft wooden strips are nailed onto the 
 lags at the lower edges. Even incline tread blocks or 
 lags are also recommended for horses that are not shod 
 and for all animals with split hoofs. The traveling 
 apron of the power is placed on an incline and the 
 treads are carried around the two drums at the upper 
 and lower ends of the frame by means of endless 
 
 Figure 107. — Bull Tread Power. Treadmills have gone out of 
 fashion. Too much friction was the cause, but a mill like this is 
 valuable to exercise a pure bred bull. Some dairymen make him 
 pump water. 
 
 chains. There is a governor attachment which regu- 
 lates the speed and prevents the machinery from * ^ run- 
 ning away." 
 
 The simplest governor is made on the two-ball gov- 
 ernor principle with weights on opposite levers. The 
 governor is attached to two opposite spokes in the fly- 
 wheel. As the speed increases the weights move out- 
 ward because of their centrifugal force. This motion 
 operates a brake lever to retard or stop the flywheel. 
 
GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 83 
 
 When the machine stops an opposite weight rests 
 against the flywheel until it starts in motion again, so 
 the apron cannot be moved until the brake is released. 
 This is necessary to get the animal on or off of the plat- 
 form while it is at rest to avoid accidents. The usual 
 incline is a rise of two feet in eight when power is 
 wanted. This pitch compels the bull to lift one-quarter 
 of his own weight and it may be too severe for a heavy 
 animal. The endless apron is an endless hill climb to 
 the bull. Treadmills are not economical of power be- 
 cause there are so many bearings to generate friction. 
 
 WINDMILLS 
 
 Wind power is the cheapest power we have. A wind- 
 mill properly proportioned to its work is a great help, 
 especially when it is attached to a good pump for the 
 purpose of lifting water into an elevated tank from 
 which it is piped under pressure for domestic purposes 
 and for watering live-stock. 
 
 You can have considerable patience with a windmill 
 if you only depend upon it for pumping water, pro- 
 vided you have a tank that will hold a week's supply to 
 be drawn during a dry, hot time when every animal on 
 the farm demands a double allowance of water. That 
 is the time when a farmer hates to attach himself to 
 the pump handle for the purpose of working up a 
 hickory breeze. That also is the time when the wind 
 neglects a fellow. 
 
 A good windmill is useful up to about one-third of its 
 rated capacity, which is the strongest argument for 
 buying a mill larger than at first seems necessary. Some 
 men have suffered at some time in their lives with the 
 delusion that they could tinker with a poorly con- 
 structed windmill and make it earn its oil. They have 
 
84 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 never waked up to a full realization of their early de- 
 lusion. It is a positive fact that all windmills are not 
 lazy, deceitful nor wholly unreliable. When properly 
 constructed, rightly mounted and kept in good repair, 
 they are not prone to work in a crazy fashion when the 
 tank is full and loaf when it is empty. There are 
 thousands of windmills that have faithfully staid on 
 the job continuously twenty-four hours per day for 
 five or ten years at a stretch, all the time working for 
 nothing year after year without grumbling, except 
 when compelled to run without oil. At such times the 
 protest is loud and nerve racking. 
 
 A good windmill with suitable derrick, pump and 
 piping may cost $150. The yearly expense figures 
 something like this: 
 
 Interest on investment at 6% per annum. . .$ 9.00 
 
 Depreciation 10% 15.00 
 
 Oil 1.00 
 
 Eepairs 3.00 
 
 making a total of $28, which is less than $2.50 per 
 month for the work of elevating a constant supply of 
 water for the house, stable and barnyard. 
 
 ONE-MULE PUMP 
 
 A home-made device that is much used on live-stock 
 ranches in California is shown in the illustration. 
 This simple mechanism is a practical means for con- 
 verting circular mule motion into vertical reciprocat- 
 ing pump action. A solid post is set rather deep in the 
 ground about twelve feet from the well. This post is 
 the fulcrum support of the walking-beam. One end 
 of the walking-beam reaches to the center line of the 
 well, where it connects with the pump shaft. The 
 
GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 
 
 85 
 
 other end of the walking-beam is operated by a pit- 
 man shaft connecting with a crank wrist pin near the 
 ground. A round iron shaft similar to a horse-power 
 tumbling rod about ten or twelve feet in length and 
 one and a half inches in diameter is used to convey 
 power and motion to the pitman shaft. 
 
 JDETAIL'A" 
 
 iB? 
 
 Figure 108. — Mule Pump. A practical home-made power to pump 
 water for live-stock. It is used where the water-table is within 
 20 feet of the surface of the ground. The drawing shows a post 
 in the center which supports the walking-beam and acts as a fulcrum. 
 A mowing-machine wheel is keyed to one end of a round iron shaft. 
 The other end of this shaft turns in a boxing which is swiveled to a 
 short post as shown at B. See' also detail ''B.". The two plunger 
 shafts are shown at A A. The mule is hitched to the round iron 
 shaft near the traveling wheel by means of a round hook. As the 
 mule walks around in a circle the shaft revolves and operates the 
 crank B. There are side guys not shown in the drawing to keep the 
 walking-beam in position. 
 
 A mowing-machine wheel is keyed to the outer end 
 of the tumbling rod. At the crank end is a babbitted 
 boxing with a bolt attachment reaching down into the 
 top of a short post set solidly into the ground, directly 
 under the inner end of the walking-beam. This bolt 
 permits the boxing to revolve with a swivel motion. 
 Another swivel connects the upper end of the pitman 
 shaft with the walking-beam. The whiffletree is at- 
 tached to the tumbling rod by an iron hook. This hook 
 is held in place by two iron collars fastened to the 
 
86 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 tumbling rod by means of keys or set-screws. The 
 mowing-machine drive wheel travels around in a cir- 
 cle behind the mule turning the shaft which works the 
 walking-beam and operates the pump. It would be 
 difficult to design another horse or mule power so 
 cheap and simple and effective. The mule grows wise 
 after a while, so it is necessary to use a blindfold, or he 
 will soldier on the job. With a little encouragement 
 from a whip occasionally a mule will walk around and 
 around for hours pulling the mowing-machine wheel 
 after him. 
 
 HORSEPOWER 
 
 One horsepower is a force sufficient to lift 33,000 
 pounds one foot high in one minute. 
 
 The term '^horsepower'' in popular use years ago 
 meant a collection of gear-wheels and long levers with 
 eight or ten horses solemnly marching around in a cir- 
 cle with a man perched on a platform in the center in 
 the capacity of umpire. 
 
 This was the old threshing-machine horsepower. It 
 was the first real success in pooling many different 
 farm power units to concentrate the combined effort 
 upon one important operation. 
 
 Not many horses are capable of raising 33,000 
 pounds one foot in one minute every minute for an 
 hour or a day. Some horses are natural-born slackers 
 with sufficient acumen to beat the umpire at his own 
 game. Some horses walk faster than others, also 
 horses vary in size and capacity for work. But during 
 a busy time each horse was counted as one horsepower, 
 and they were only eight or ten in number. And it so 
 developed that the threshing horsepower had limita- 
 tions which the separator outgrew. 
 
GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 
 
 87 
 
 The old threshing horsepower has been superseded 
 by steam engines and gasoline and kerosene power, but 
 horses are more important than ever. 
 
 Farm horses are larger and more powerful ; they are 
 better kept, better trained, and hitched to better ma- 
 chinery, because it pays. One man drives three 1,600,- 
 pound draft horses as fast as he used to drive two 
 
 Figure 109.- 
 
 -Horse Power, showing tlie manner of attacliing the 
 braced lever to the bull wheel. 
 
 1,000-pound general-purpose horses. The three draft- 
 ers make play of a heavy load, while the two light 
 horses worry themselves poor and accomplish little. 
 Modern farm machinery is heavier, it cuts wider and 
 digs deeper and does more thorough work. Modern 
 farm requirements go scientifically into the proper cul- 
 tivation and preparation of soil to increase fertility. 
 Old methods used up fertility until the land refused 
 to produce profitably. 
 
88 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 Although the old familiar horsepower has been 
 greatly outclassed, it has not been discarded. There 
 are many small horsepowers in use for elevating grain, 
 baling hay, cutting straw for feed and bedding, grind- 
 ing feed and other light work where engine power is 
 not available. 
 
 WATER-POWER 
 
 Water-power is the most satisfactory of all kinds of 
 stationary farm power, when a steady stream of water 
 may be harnessed to a good water-wheel. It is not a 
 difficult engineering feat to throw a dam across a small 
 stream and take the water out into a penstock to sup- 
 ply water to a turbine water-wheel. In the first place 
 it is necessary to measure the flow of water to deter- 
 mine the size of water-wheel which may be used to ad- 
 vantage. In connection with the flow of water it is also 
 important to know the fall. Water is measured by 
 what is termed a * ^ weir. ' ' It is easily made by cutting 
 an oblong notch in a plank placed across the stream, as 
 a temporary dam which raises the water a few inches 
 to get a steady, even flow of water through the notch 
 so that calculations may be made in miner's inches. 
 The term * ^ miner 's inch ' ' is not accurate, but it comes 
 near enough for practical purposes. Measuring the 
 volume of water should be done during a dry time in 
 summer. 
 
 The fall of the stream is easily measured by means 
 of a carpenter 's level and a stake. The stake is driven 
 into the ground at a point downstream where water 
 may be delivered to the wheel and a tailrace established 
 to the best advantage. Sighting over the level to a 
 mark on the stake will show the amount of fall. When 
 a manufacturer of water-wheels has the amount of wa- 
 
GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 89 
 
 ter and the fall, he can estimate the size and character 
 of wheel to supply. The penstock may be vertical or 
 placed on a slant. A galvanized pipe sufficient to carry 
 the necessary amount of water may be laid along the 
 bank, but it should be thoroughly well supported be- 
 cause a pipe full of water is heavy, and settling is 
 likely to break a joint. 
 
 Galvanized piping for a farm penstock is not nec- 
 essarily expensive. It may be made at any tin shop 
 and put together on the ground in sections. The only 
 difficult part about it is soldering the under side of 
 the joints, but generally it may be rolled a little to one 
 side until the bottom of the seam is reached. 
 
 The most satisfactory way to carry power from the 
 water-wheel to the farm buildings is by means of elec- 
 tricity. The dynamo may be coupled to the water- 
 wheel and wires carried any required distance. 
 
 The work of installing electric power machinery is 
 more a question of detail than mechanics or electrical 
 engineering. The different appliances are bought from 
 the manufacturer and placed where they are needed. 
 It is principally a question of expense and quantity of 
 electricity needed or developed. If the current is used 
 for power, then a motor is connected with the dynamo 
 and current from the dynamo drives the motor. A 
 dynamo may be connected with the water-wheel shaft 
 at the source of power and the motor may be placed in 
 the power-house or any of the other buildings. 
 
 The cost of farm waterworks depends principally 
 on the amount of power developed. Small machinery 
 may be had for a few hundred dollars, but large, pow- 
 erful machinery is expensive. If the stream is large 
 and considerable power is going to waste it might pay 
 to put in a larger plant and sell current to the neigh- 
 
90 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 bors for electric lighting and for power purposes. 
 Standard machinery is manufactured for just such 
 plants. 
 
 The question of harnessing a stream on your own 
 land when you control both banks is a simple business 
 proposition. If anyone else can set up a plausible plea 
 of riparian rights, flood damage, interstate complica- 
 tions or interference with navigation, it then becomes 
 a question of litigation to be decided by some succeed- 
 ing generation. 
 
 STEAM BOILER AND ENGINE 
 
 Farm engines usually are of two different types, 
 steam engines and gasoline or oil engines. Steam sta- 
 tionary engines are used on dairy farms because steam 
 is the best known means of keeping a dairy clean and 
 sanitary. The boiler that furnishes power to run the 
 engine also supplies steam to heat water and steam for 
 sterilizing bottles, cans and other utensils. 
 
 For some unaccountable reason steam engines are 
 more reliable than gasoline engines. At the same time 
 they require more attention, that is, the boilers do. 
 Steam engines have been known to perform their tasks 
 year after year without balking and without repairs 
 or attention of any kind except to feed steam and oil 
 into the necessary parts, and occasionally repack the 
 stuffing boxes. 
 
 On the other hand, boilers require superintendence 
 to feed them with both fuel and water. The amount 
 of time varies greatly. If the boiler is very much 
 larger than the engine, that is, if the boiler is big 
 enough to furnish steam for two such engines, it will 
 furnish steam for one engine and only half try. This 
 means that the fireman can raise 40 or 60 pounds of 
 
GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 91 
 
 steam and attend to his other work around the dairy 
 or barn. 
 
 Where steam boilers are required for heating water 
 and furnishing steam to scald cans and wash bottles, 
 the boiler should be several horsepower larger than the 
 engine requirements. There is no objection to this 
 except that a large boiler costs more than a smaller 
 one, and that more steam is generated than is actually- 
 required to run the engine. The kind of work re- 
 quired of a boiler and engine must determine the size 
 and general character of the installation. 
 
 Portable boilers and engines are not quite so satis- 
 factory as stationary, but there are a great many por- 
 table outfits that give good satisfaction, and there is 
 the advantage of moving them to the different parts of 
 the farm when power is required for certain purposes. 
 
 SMALL GASOLINE ENGINES 
 
 A gasoline engine of 2^^ horsepower is the most use- 
 ful size for a general purpose farm engine. It is con- 
 venient to run the pump, washing-machine, fanning- 
 mill, cream-separator, grindstone, and other similar 
 farm chores that have heretofore always been done by 
 human muscle. A small engine may be placed on a 
 low-down truck and moved from one building to an- 
 other by hand. One drive belt 20 or 30 feet long, mak- 
 ing a double belt reach of 12 or 15 feet, will answer 
 for each setting. 
 
 The engine once lined up to hitch onto the pulley of 
 any stationary machine is all that is necessary. When 
 the truck is once placed in proper position the wheels 
 may be blocked by a casting of concrete molded into a 
 depression in the ground in front and behind each 
 
92 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 wheel. These blocks are permanent so that the truck 
 may be pulled to the same spot each time. 
 
 A gasoline engine for farm u§e is expected to run 
 by the hour without attention. For this reason it 
 should have a good, reliable hit and miss governor to 
 regulate the speed, as this type is the most economical 
 in fuel. It should have a magneto in addition to a 
 
 Figure 110. — Kerosene Farm Engine. This Is a very compact type 
 of engine with heavy flywheels. A longer base might sit steadier 
 on a wagon, but for stationary use on a solid concrete pier it gives 
 good service. 
 
 six-cell dry battery. It should be equipped with an 
 impulse starter, a device that eliminates all starting 
 troubles. The engine should be perfectly balanced so 
 as to insure smooth running, which adds materially to 
 the life of the engine. With a good, solid pump jack, 
 a 2^ horsepower engine will pump water until the 
 tank is full, whether it requires one hour or half a 
 day. 
 
 It is easily moved to the dairy" house to run the 
 separator. As the cream-separator chore comes along 
 
GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 93 
 
 regularly every night and every morning, the engine 
 and truck would naturally remain inside of the dairy 
 house more than any other place. If the dairy house 
 is too small to let the engine in, then an addition is 
 necessary, for the engine must be kept under cover. 
 The engine house should have some artistic pretensions 
 and a coat of paint. 
 
 KEROSENE PORTABLE ENGINES 
 
 The kerosene engine is necessarily of the throttle 
 governor type in order to maintain approximately uni- 
 form high temperature at all times, so essential to the 
 proper combustion of kerosene fuel. Therefore, a kero- 
 sene engine of the hit-and-miss type should be avoided. 
 However, there are certain classes of work where a 
 throttle governor engine is at a decided disadvantage, 
 such as sawing wood, because a throttle governor en- 
 gine will not go from light load to full load as quickly 
 as will a hit-and-miss type, and consequently chokes 
 down much easier, causing considerable loss of time. 
 
 A general purpose portable kerosene engine is ad- 
 mirably suited to all work requiring considerable horse- 
 power and long hours of service with a fairly steady 
 load, such as tractor work, threshing, custom feed 
 grinding, irrigating and silo filling. There will be a 
 considerable saving in fuel bill over a gasoline engine 
 if the engine will really run with kerosene, or other 
 low-priced fuel, without being mixed with gasoline. 
 
 In choosing a kerosene engine, particular attention 
 should be paid to whether or not the engine can be run 
 on all loads without smoking. Unless this can be done, 
 liquid fuel is entering the cylinder which will cause ex- 
 cessive wear on the piston and rings. A good kerosene 
 engine should show as clean an exhaust as when operat- 
 
94 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 ing on gasoline and should develop approximately as 
 much horsepower. Another feature is harmonizing the 
 fuel oil and the lubricating oil so that one will not 
 counteract the effects of the other. 
 
 PORTABLE FARM ENGINE AND TRUCK 
 
 A convenient arrangement for truck and portable 
 power for spraying, sawing wood and irrigation pump- 
 ing, is shown in the accompanying illustration. The 
 truck is low down, which keeps the machinery within 
 
 Figure 111. — (Portable Farm Engine. This engine is permanently 
 mounted on a low wheel truck wagon. The saw frame is detachable 
 and the same truck is used for spraying and other work. 
 
 reach. The wheels are well braced, which tends to 
 hold the outfit steady when the engine is running. The 
 saw table is detachable. When removed, the spraying 
 tank bolts on to the same truck frame ; also the elevated 
 table with the railing around it, where the men stand 
 to spray large apple trees, is bolted onto the wagon 
 bed. 
 
 Spraying never was properly done until the power- 
 ful engine and high pressure tanks were invented. 
 Spraying to be effective, should be fine as mist, which 
 requires a pressure of 150 pounds. There may be a 
 
GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 95 
 
 number of attachments to a spraying outfit of this 
 kind. A pipe suspended under the frame with a noz- 
 zle for each row is used to spray potatoes, strawberry 
 vines and other low down crops that are grown in rows. 
 When not in use 'as a portable engine it is blocked 
 firmly into place to run the regular stationary farm 
 machinery. 
 
 HYDRAULIC RAM 
 
 The hydraulic ram is a machine that gets its power 
 from the momentum of running water. A ram consists 
 of a pipe of large diameter, an air chamber and an- 
 other pipe of small diameter, all connected by means of 
 valves to encourage the flow of water in two different 
 directions. A supply of running water with a fall of 
 at least two feet is run through a pipe several inches 
 in diameter reaching from above the dam to the hy- 
 draulic ram, where part of the flow enters the air 
 chamber of the ram. Near the foot of the large pipe, 
 or at what might be called the tailrace, is a peculiarly 
 constructed valve that closes when running water 
 starts to pass through it. When the large valve closes 
 the water stops suddenly, which causes a back-pressure 
 sufficient to lift a check-valve to admit a certain 
 amount of water from the large supply pipe into the 
 air-chamber of the ram. 
 
 After the flow of water is checked, the foot-valve 
 drops of its own weight, which again starts the flow 
 of water through the large pipe, and the process is 
 repeated a thousand or a million times, each time forc- 
 ing a little water through the check-valve into the air 
 chamber of the ram. The water is continually being 
 forced out into the small delivery pipe in a constant 
 stream because of the steady pressure of the impris- 
 oned air in the air-chamber which acts as a cushion. 
 
96 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 This imprisoned air compresses after each kick and ex 
 pands between kicks in a manner intended to force a 
 more or less steady flow of water through the small 
 pipe. The air pressure is maintained by means of a 
 small valve that permits a little air to suck in with the 
 supply of water. 
 
 Figure 112. — Hydraulic Ram. The upper drawing shows how to 
 install the ram. The lower drawing is a detail section through th^ 
 center of the ram. Water flows downhill through the supply pipe. 
 The intermittent action of the valve forces a portion of the water 
 through another valve into the air-chamber. Air pressure forces 
 this water out through delivery pipe. Another valve spills the waste 
 water over into the tailrace. An automatic air-valve intermittently 
 admits air into the air-chamber. 
 
 Water may be conveyed uphill to the house by this 
 means, sometimes to considerable distance. The size 
 of the ram and its power to lift water depends upon 
 the amount of water at the spring and the number of 
 feet of fall. In laying the small pipe, it should be 
 placed well down under ground to keep it cool in sum- 
 mer and to bury it beyond the reach of winter frost. 
 At the upper end where the water is delivered a stor- 
 
GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 97 
 
 age tank with an overflow is necessary, so the water 
 can run away when not being drawn for use. A con- 
 stant supply through a ram demands a constant deliv- 
 ery. It is necessary to guard the water intake at the 
 dam. A fence protection around the supply pool to 
 keep live-stock or wild animals out is the first measure 
 of precaution. A fine screen surrounding the upper 
 end of the pipe that supplies water to the ram is neces- 
 sary to keep small trash from interfering with the 
 valves. 
 
 THE FARM TRACTOR 
 
 Farm tractors are becoming practical. Most the- 
 ories have had a try out, the junk pile has received 
 many failures and the fittest are about to survive. 
 Now, if the manufacturers will standardize the rating 
 and the important parts and improve their selling or- 
 ganizations the whole nation will profit. The success- 
 ful tractors usually have vertical engines with four 
 cylinders. They are likely to have straight spur trans- 
 mission gears, and a straight spur or chain drive, all 
 carefully protected from dust. And they will have 
 considerable surface bearing to avoid packing the soil. 
 Some tractors carry their weight mostly upon the drive 
 wheels — a principle that utilizes weight to increase 
 traction. Other tractors exert a great deal of energy 
 in forcing a small, narrow front steering-wheel through 
 the soft ground. Any farmer who has pushed a loaded 
 wheelbarrow knows what that means. Some kerosene 
 tractors require a large percentage of gasoline. The 
 driver may be as much to blame as the engine. But 
 it should be corrected. 
 
 Manufacturers should do more educational work and 
 talk less about the wonderfully marvelous and mar- 
 velously wonderful. Salesmen should study mechanics 
 
98 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 instead of oratory. Tractor efficiency should be rated 
 practically instead of theoretically. The few actual 
 
 Figure 113. — Tractor Transmission Gear. Spur gears are the most 
 satisfactory for heavy work. 
 
 reports of performance have emanated from tests with 
 new machines in the hands of trained demonstrators. 
 Manufacturers include belt power work among the 
 
GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER 
 
 99 
 
 virtues of farm tractors, and they enumerate many 
 light jobs, such as running a cream-separator, sawing 
 wood, pumping water and turning the fanning-mill. 
 Well, a farm tractor can do such work — yes. So can 
 an elephant push a bfeby carriage. If manufacturers 
 
 Figure 114. — Straight Transmission Gear, forward and chain drive 
 reverse, for traction engine. 
 
 would devise a practical means of using electricity as 
 an intermediary, and explain to farmers how a day's 
 energy may be stored in practical working batteries to 
 be paid out in a week, then we could understand why 
 we should run a 20 horsepower engine to operate a 
 cream-separator one hour at night and another hour in 
 the morning. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 DEIVEN MACHINES 
 FARM WATERWORKS 
 
 Every farm has its own water supply. Some are 
 very simple, others are quite elaborate. It is both 
 possible and practical for a farmer to have his own 
 tap water under pressure on the same plan as the city. 
 When good water is abundant within 75 feet of the 
 surface of the ground the farm supply may be had 
 cheaper and better than the city. Even deep well 
 pumping is practical with good machinery rightly in- 
 stalled. Farm waterworks should serve the house and 
 the watering troughs under a pressure of at least 40 
 pounds at the ground level. The system should also 
 include water for sprinkling the lawn and for irrigat- 
 ing the garden. If strawberries or other intensive 
 money crops are grown for market there should be 
 sufficient water in the pipes to save the crop in time of 
 drouth. These different uses should all be credited 
 to the farm waterworks system pro rata, according to 
 the amounts used by the different departments of the 
 farm. The books would then prove that the luxury of 
 hot and cold running water in the farmhouse costs less 
 than the average city family pays. 
 
 Three Systems of Water Storage. — The first plan 
 adopted for supplying water under pressure on farms 
 was the overhead tank. The water was lifted up into 
 the tank by a windmill and force pump. Because wind 
 
 100 
 
DRIVEN MACHINES 101 
 
 power proved rather uncertain farlriers adopted the 
 gasoline engine, usually a two horsepower engine. 
 
 The second water storage plan was the air-tight steel 
 water-tank to be placed in the cellar or in a pit under- 
 ground. The same pump and power supplies the water 
 for this system, but it also requires an air-pump to sup- 
 ply pressure to force the water out of the tank. 
 
 The third plan forces the water out of the well by air 
 pressure, as it is needed for use. No water pump is 
 required in this system; the air-compressor takes its 
 place. 
 
 Suction-Pumps, — The word suction, when applied to 
 pumps, is a misnomer. The principle upon which such 
 pumps work is this : The pump piston drives the air 
 out of the pump cylinder which produces a vacuum. 
 The pressure of the atmosphere is about fifteen pounds 
 per square inch of surface. This pressure forces suffi- 
 cient water up through the so-called suction pipe to fill 
 the vacuum in the cylinder. The water is held in the 
 cylinder by foot-valves or clack-valves. As the piston 
 again descends into the cylinder it plunges into water 
 instead of air. A foot-valve in the bottom end of the 
 hollow piston opens while going down and closes to 
 hold and lift the water as the piston rises. Water 
 from the well is forced by atmospheric pressure to fol- 
 low the piston and the pump continues to lift water so 
 long as the joints remain air-tight. The size of piston 
 and length of stroke depend on the volume of water 
 required, the height to which it must be lifted and the 
 power available. A small power and a small cylinder 
 will lift a small quantity of water to a considerable 
 height. But increasing the volume of water requires a 
 larger pump and a great increase in the power to op- 
 erate it. The size of the delivery pipe has a good deal 
 
1Q2 
 
 FIRM MECHANICS 
 
 Figure 115. — The Farm Pump. It superseded the iron-bound 
 bucket, the slimy old bucket, the malaria-lined bucket that hung 
 in the well, but it wore out the women. Oil was never wasted on its 
 creaking joints. Later it was fitted with a stuflSng-box and an air- 
 chamber, and the plunger was hitched to the windmill. 
 
 To the right are shown two kinds of post-hole diggers. The upper 
 digger is sometimes used to clear the fine earth out of the bottom 
 of a hole dug by the lower digger. 
 
 to do with the flow of water. When water is forced 
 through a small pipe at considerable velocity, there is a 
 good deal of friction. Often thje amount of water de- 
 
DRIVEN MACHINES 
 
 103 
 
 livered is reduced because the discharge pipe is too 
 small. Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its 
 capacity four times. Square turns in the discharge 
 pipe are obstructions ; either the pipe must be larger 
 or there will be a diminished flow of water. Some 
 pump makers are particular to furnish easy round 
 bends instead of the ordinary right-angled elbows. A 
 great many pumps are working under unnecessary 
 
 Figure 116. — Hand Force-Pump. Showing two \yays of attaching 
 wooden handles to hand force-pumps. 
 
 handicaps, simply because either the supply pipe or 
 discharge pipe is not in proportion to the capacity of 
 the pump, or the arrangement of the pipes is faulty. 
 Rotary Pumps, — ^A twin-chamber rotary pump ad- 
 mits water at the bottom of the chamber and forces it 
 out through the top. Intermeshing cogs and rotary 
 cams revolve outward from the center at the bottom, as 
 shown by the arrows in Figure 118. The stream of 
 water is divided by the cams, as it enters the supply 
 pipe at the bottom, and half of the water is carried 
 each way around the outsides of the double chamber. 
 These streams of water meet at the top of the cham- 
 ber, where they unite to fill the discharge pipe. These 
 
104 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 Figure 117. — Rotary Pump. Twin water-chamber rotary pumps 
 take water through the bottom and divide the supply, carrying half 
 of the stream around to the left and the other half to the right. 
 The two streams meet and are discharged at the top. 
 
 Figure 118.— Section of Rotary Pump. 
 
DRIVEN MACHINES 105 
 
 pumps operate without air-chambers and supply water 
 in a continuous stream. They may be speeded up to 
 throw water under high pressure for fire fighting, but 
 for economy in ordinary use the speed is kept down to 
 200 revolutions, or thereabout. Eotary pumps are also 
 made with one single water chamber cylinder. The 
 pump head, or shaft, is placed a little off center. A 
 double end cam moves the water. Both ends of the 
 cam fit against the bore of the cylinder. It works 
 loosely back and forth through a slotted opening in the 
 pump head. As the shaft revolves the eccentric motion 
 of the double cam changes the sizes of the water-pock- 
 ets. The pockets are largest at the intake and smallest 
 at the discharge. Rotary pumps are comparatively 
 cheap, as regards first cost, but they are not economi- 
 cal of power. In places where the water-table is near 
 the surface of the ground they will throw water in a 
 very satisfactory manner. But they are more used in 
 refineries and factories for special work, such as pump- 
 ing oil and other heavy liquids. 
 
 Centrifugal Pumps. — The invention and improve- 
 ment of modern centrifugal pumps has made the lift- 
 ing of water in large quantities possible. These pumps 
 are constructed on the turbine principle. Water is 
 lifted in a continuous stream by a turbine wheel re- 
 volving under high speed. Water is admitted at the 
 center and discharged at the outside of the casing. 
 Centrifugal pumps work best at depths ranging from 
 twenty to sixty feet. Manufacturers claim that farm- 
 ers can afford to lift irrigation water sixty feet with a 
 centrifugal pump driven by a kerosene engine. 
 
 The illustrations show the principle upon which the 
 pump works and the most approved way of setting 
 
106 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 pumps and engines. Centrifugal pumps usually are 
 set in dry wells a few feet above the water-table. While 
 these pumps have a certain amount of suction, it is 
 found that short supply pipes are much more efficient. 
 Where water is found in abundance within from 15 to 
 30 feet of the surface, and the wells may be so con- 
 structed that the pull-down, or the lowering of the 
 
 Figure 119. — Centrifugal Pump. This style of pump is used in 
 many places for irrigation. It runs at high speed, which varies 
 according to the size of the pump. It takes water at the center and 
 discharges it at the outside of the casing. 
 
 water while pumping is not excessive, then it is pos- 
 sible to lift water profitably to irrigate crops in the 
 humid sections. Irrigation in such cases, in the East, is 
 more in the nature of insurance against drouth. Valu- 
 able crops, such as potatoes and strawberries, may be 
 made to yield double, or better, by supplying plenty 
 of moisture at the critical time in crop development. 
 It is a new proposition in eastern farming that is likely 
 to develop in the near future. 
 
DRIVEN MACHINES 
 
 107 
 
 Air Pressure Pump, — Instead of pumping water out 
 of the well some farmers pump air into the well to force 
 the water out. A double compartment cylindrical tank 
 is placed in the water in the well. These tanks are con- 
 nected with the farm water distributing system to be 
 carried in pipes to the house and to the stock stables. 
 Air under a pressure of from 50 to 100 pounds per 
 
 Check Vialve 
 
 (["Air Compressor G asoline En gine^ 
 
 ^Droln CocK ^To Water" 
 
 Distribution System^ 
 
 Submerged Pump- 
 
 Figure 120. — Air Pressure Pump. Pumping water by air pressure 
 requires a large air container capable of resisting a pressure of 100 
 pounds per square inch. This illustration shows the pressure tank, 
 engine, air-compressor, well and submerged pump. 
 
 square inch is stored in a steel tank above ground. 
 Small gas-pipes connect this air pressure tank with 
 the air-chamber of the- air-water tank in the well. A 
 peculiar automatic valve regulates the air so that it 
 enters the compartment that is filled, or partly filled, 
 with water, and escapes from the empty one so the two 
 compartments work together alternately. That is, the 
 second chamber fills with water, while the first cham- 
 ber is being drawn upon. Then the first chamber 
 fills while the second is being emptied. This system 
 
108 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 will work in a well as small as eight inches in diameter, 
 and to a depth of 140 feet. It might be made to work 
 at a greater depth, but it seems hardly practical to 
 do so for the reason that, after allowing for friction in 
 the pipes, 100 pounds of air pressure is necessary to 
 lift water 150 feet. An air tank of considerable size is 
 needed to provide storage for sufficient air to operate 
 the system without attention for several days. Care- 
 ful engineering figures are necessary to account for 
 the different depths of farm wells, and the various 
 amounts of water and power required. For instance : 
 The air tank already contains 1,000 gallons of air at 
 atmospheric pressure — then : Forcing 1,000 gallons of 
 atmospheric air into a 1,000-gallon tank will give a 
 working pressure of 15 pounds per square inch ; 2,000 
 gallons, 30 pounds ; 3,000 gallons, 45 pounds, and so on. 
 Therefore, a pressure of 100 pounds in a 1,000-gallon 
 tank (42 inches by 14 feet) would require 6,600 gallons 
 of free atmosphere, in addition to the original 1,000 
 gallons, and the tank would then contain 1,000 gallons 
 of compressed air under a working pressure of 100 
 pounds per square inch. A one cylinder compressor 
 6 inches by 6 inches, operating at a speed of 200 E.P.M. 
 would fill this tank to a working pressure of 100 
 pounds in about 50 minutes. One gallon of air will 
 deliver one gallon of water at the faucet. But the 
 air must have the same pressure as the water, ^nd there 
 must be no friction. Thus, one gallon of air under a 
 working pressure of forty-five pounds, will, theoretic- 
 ally, deliver one gallon of water to a height of 100 feet. 
 But it takes three gallons of free air to make one gal- 
 lon of compressed air at forty-five pounds pressure. 
 If the lift is 100 feet, then 1,000 gallons of air under a 
 
DRIVEN MACHINES 
 
 109 
 
 pressure of forty-five pounds will theoretically deliver 
 1,000 gallons of water. Practically, the air tank would 
 have to be loaded to a very much greater pressure to 
 
 Figure 121. — (1) Single-Gear Pump Jack. This type of jack is 
 used for wells from 20 to 40 feet deep. (2) Double-Gear, or 
 Multiple-Gear Pump Jack. This is a rather powerful jack designed 
 for deep wells or for elevating water into a high water-tank. 
 
 secure the 1,000 gallons of water before losing the 
 elasticity of the compressed air. If one thousand gal- 
 lons of water is needed on the farm every day, then 
 the air pump would have to work about one hour each 
 
110 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 Figure 122. — Post Pump Jack. This arrangement is used in fac- 
 tories when floor space is valuable. The wide-face driving-pulley is 
 shown to the left. 
 
 Figure 123. — Three Jacks for Different Purposes. At the left is a 
 reverse motion jack having the same speed turning either right or 
 left. The little jack in the center is for light work at high belt 
 speed. To the right is a powerful jack intended for slow speeds 
 such as hoisting or elevating grain. 
 
 morning. This may not be less expensive than pump- 
 ing the water directly, but it offers the advantage of 
 water fresh from the well. Pure air pumped into the 
 well tends to keep the water from becoming stale. 
 
DRIVEN MACHINES 111 
 
 Pump Jacks and Speed Jacks. — Farm pumps and 
 speed-reducing jacks are partners in farm pumping. 
 
 Figure 124. — ^Speed Jack, for reducing speed between engine and 
 tumbling rod or to increase speed between tumbling rod and the 
 driven machine. 
 
 Figure 125. — The Speed Jack on the left is used either to reduce 
 or increase tumbling rod speed and to reverse the motion. The 
 Speed Jack on the right transfers power either from belt to tumbling 
 rod or reverse. It transforms high belt speed to low tumbling rod 
 speed, or vice versa. 
 
 Force-pumps should not run faster than forty strokes 
 per minute. Considerable power is required to move 
 the piston when the water is drawn from a deep well 
 
112 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 and forced into an overhead tank. Jacks are manufac- 
 tured which bolt directly to the pump, and there are 
 pumps and jacks built together. A pump jack should 
 have good, solid gearing to reduce the speed. Spur- 
 gearing is the most satisfactory. Bevel-gears are waste- 
 ful of power when worked under heavy loads. Power 
 to drive a pump jack is applied to a pulley at least 
 twelve inches in diameter with a four-inch face when 
 belting is used. If a rope power conveyor is -used, 
 then pulleys of larger diameters are required to con- 
 vey the same amount of power. 
 
 Only general terms may be used in describing the 
 farm pump, because the conditions differ in each case. 
 Generally speaking, farmers fail to appreciate the 
 amount of power used, and they are more than likely 
 to buy a jack that is too light. Light machinery may 
 do the work, but it goes to pieces quicker, while a heavy 
 jack with solid connections will operate the pump year 
 in and year out without making trouble. For in- 
 creasing or reducing either speed or power some kind 
 of jack is needed. All farm machines have their best 
 speed. A certain number of revolutions per minute 
 will accomplish more and do better work than any 
 other speed. To apply power to advantage speed jacks 
 have been invented to adjust the inaccuracies between 
 driver and driven. 
 
 IRRIGATION BY PUMPING 
 
 The annual rainfall in the United States varies in 
 diflerei^t parts of the country from a few inches to a 
 few feet. Under natural conditions some soils get too 
 much moisture and some too little. Irrigation is em- 
 ployed to supply the deficiency and drainage, either 
 
DRIVEN MACHINES 
 
 113 
 
 natural or artificial, carries off the excess. Irrigation 
 and drainage belong together. Irrigation fills the soil 
 with moisture and drainage empties it. Thus, a con- 
 dition is established that supplies valuable farm plants 
 with both air and moisture. In the drier portions of 
 the United States, nothing of value will grow without 
 
 Figure 126. — Centrifugal Pump Setting. When used for irriga- 
 tion, centrifugal pumps are set as close to the ground water as 
 practical. 
 
 irrigation. In the so-called humid districts deficiency 
 of moisture at the critical time reduces the yield and 
 destroys the profit. The value of irrigation has been 
 demonstrated in the West, and the practice is working 
 eastward. 
 
 Irrigation is the new handmaiden of prosperity. A 
 rainy season is a bountiful one. Irrigation supplies 
 the bounty without encouraging destructive fungus 
 
114 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 diseases. Where water is abundant within easy reach, 
 pumping irrigation water is thoroughly practical. 
 Improvements in pumps in recent years have increased 
 their capacity and insured much greater reliability. 
 A centrifugal pump is recommended for depths down 
 to 75 feet ; beyond this depth the necessity of installing 
 more expensive machinery places the business of pump- 
 ing for irrigation on a different plane. A centrifugal 
 pump will throw more water with less machinery than 
 any other device, but like all other mechanical inven- 
 tions, it has its limitations. In figuring economical 
 pumping, the minimum quantity should be at least 100 
 gallons per minute, because time is an object, and irri- 
 gation, if done at all, should cover an area sufficient to 
 bring substantial returns. Centrifugal pumps should 
 be placed near the surface of the water in the well. 
 For this reason, a large, dry well is dug down to 
 the level of the water-table and the pump is solidly 
 bolted to a concrete foundation built on the bottom of 
 this well. A supply pipe may be extended any depth 
 below the pump, but the standing water surface in the 
 well should reach within a few feet of the pump. The 
 pump and supply must be so well balanced against 
 each other that the pull-down from pumping will not 
 lower the water-level in the well more than twenty feet 
 below the pump. The nearer the ground water is to 
 the pump the better. 
 
 The water well below the pump may be bored, or a 
 perforated well pipe may be driven; or several well 
 points may be connected. The kind of well must de- 
 pend upon the condition of the earth and the nature 
 of the water supply. Driven wells ^re more successful 
 when water is found in a stratum of coarse gravel. 
 
DRIVEN MACHINES 115 
 
 Before buying irrigation machinery, it is a good 
 plan to test tlie water supply by temporary means. 
 Any good farm pump may be hitched to a gasoline en- 
 gine to determine if the water supply is lasting or not. 
 Permanent pumping machinery should deliver the wa- 
 ter on high ground. A main irrigation ditch may be 
 run across the upper end of the field. This ditch 
 should hold the water high enough so it may be tapped 
 at convenient places to run through the corrugations to 
 reach the roots of the plants to be benefited. There are 
 different systems of irrigation designed to fit different 
 soils. Corrugations are the cheapest and the most 
 satisfactory when soils are loose enough to permit the 
 water to soak into the soil sideways, as well as to sink 
 down. The water should penetrate the soil on both 
 sides of the corrugations for distances of several inches. 
 Corrugations should be straight and true and just far 
 enough apart so the irrigation water will soak across 
 and meet between. Some soils will wash or gully out 
 if the fall is too rapid. In such cases it may be neces- 
 sary to terrace the land by following the natural con- 
 tour around the ridges so the water may flow gently. 
 Where the fall is very slight, that is, where the ground 
 is so nearly level that it slopes away less than six inches 
 in a hundred feet, it becomes necessary. to prepare the 
 land by building checks and borders to confine the 
 water for a certain length of time. Then it is let out 
 into the next check. In the check and border system 
 the check bank on the lower side has an opening which 
 is closed during the soaking period with a canvas dam. 
 When the canvas is lifted the water flows through and 
 fills the next check. This system is more expensive, 
 and it requires more knowledge of irrigation to get it 
 
116 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 started, and it is not likely to prove satisfactory in the 
 East. 
 
 For fruits and vegetables, what is known asi the fur- 
 row system of irrigation is the most practical. An or- 
 chard is irrigated by plowing furrows on each side of 
 each row of trees. The water is turned into these fur- 
 rows and it runs across the orchard like so many little 
 rivulets. Potatoes are irrigated on the same plan by 
 running water through between the rows after the po- 
 tatoes have been ridged by a double shovel-plow. This 
 plan also works well with strawberries. After the land 
 is prepared for irrigation, the expense of supplying 
 water to a fruit orchard, strawberry patch or potato 
 field is very little compared with the increi.se in yield. 
 In fact, there are seasons when one irrigation will save 
 the crop and produce an abundant yield, when other- 
 wise it would have been almost a total loss. 
 
 Overhead Spray Irrigation. — The most satisfactory 
 garden irrigation is the overhead spray system. Posts 
 are set ten feet apart in rows 50 feet apart. Water 
 pipes are laid on the tops of the posts and held loosely 
 in position by large staples. These water pipes are 
 perforated by drilling a line of small holes about three 
 feet apart in a straight line along one side of the pipe. 
 The holes are tapped and small brass nozzles are 
 screwed in. The overhead pipes are connected with 
 standpipes at the highest place, generally at the ends 
 of the rows. The pipe-lines are loosely coupled to the 
 standpipes to permit them to roll partly around to di- 
 rect the hundreds of spray nozzles as needed. 
 
 Six feet high is sufficient to throw a fine mist or 
 spray twenty-five feet, which is far enough to meet the 
 spray from the next row, so the ground will be com- 
 
DRIVEN MACHINES 
 
 117 
 
 pletely covered. To do this the pipes are rolled from 
 one side to the other, through a 90 degree arc to throw 
 the spray on both sides. The pipes usually are laid 
 with a grade which follows down the slope of the land. 
 A fall of one foot in fifty is sufficient. Water is always 
 admitted at the upper end of each pipe-line to flow 
 
 25' 
 
 so- 
 
 so- 
 
 SO' 
 
 Z5' 
 
 1 "• 
 
 1 - 
 
 
 H 
 
 — p 
 
 §! 
 
 1 • 
 i| 
 
 !±r-_ 
 
 ■ — 
 
 "200- 
 
 
 
 Li; 
 
 Figure 127. — Overhead Irrigation. Diagram showing the arrange- 
 ment of pipes for irrigating one acre of land. The pipes are sup- 
 ported on posts six feet high. 
 
 down by gravity, assisted by tank pressure. A pres- 
 sure of about forty pounds is needed to produce a fine 
 spray, and to send it across to meet the opposite jets. 
 The little brass nozzles are drilled with about a one- 
 eighth inch hollow. But the jet opening is small, 
 about No. 20 W. G. This gives a wire-drawn stream 
 that quickly vaporizes when it meets the resistance of 
 the atmosphere. When properly installed a fine misty 
 rain is created, which quickly takes the same tempera- 
 
118 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 ture as the air, and settles so gently that the most 
 delicate plants are not injured. 
 
 Quantity of Water to Use. — Good judgment is neces- 
 sary in applying water to crops in regard to quantity, 
 as well as the time of making application. Generally 
 speaking, it is better to wait until the crop really needs 
 moisture. When the pump is started give the crop 
 plenty with the expectation that one irrigation will be 
 sufficient. Much depends upon the amount of moist- 
 ure in the soil ; also the kind of crop and weather con- 
 ditions enter into the problem. On sandy land that is 
 very dry where drainage is good, water may be per- 
 mitted to run in the corrugations for several days un- 
 til the ground is thoroughly soaked. When potatoes 
 are forming, or clover is putting down its big root sys- 
 tem, a great deal of water is needed. Irrigation suffi- 
 cient to make two inches of rainfall may be used to 
 advantage for such crops under ordinary farming con- 
 ditions. It is necessary after each irrigation to break 
 the soil crust by cultivation to prevent evaporation. 
 This is just as important after irrigation as it is after 
 a rain shower. Also any little pockets that hold water 
 must be carefully drained out, otherwise the crop will 
 be injured by standing water. We are not supposed 
 to have such pockets on land that has been prepared 
 for irrigation. 
 
 Kind of Crops to Irrigate. — Wheat, oats, barley, etc., 
 may be helped with one irrigation from imminent fail- 
 ure to a wealth of production. But these rainfall 
 grain crops do not come under the general classifica- 
 tion that interests the regular irrigation farmer beyond 
 his diversity plans for producing considerable variety. 
 Fruits, roots, clover, alfalfa, vegetables and Indian 
 corn are money crops under irrigation. Certain seed 
 
DRIVEN MACHINES 119 
 
 crops yield splendidly when watered. An apple or- 
 chard properly cared for and irrigated just at the right 
 time will pay from five hundred to a thousand dollars 
 per acre. Small fruits are just as valuable. These 
 successes account for the high prices of irrigated land. 
 In the East and in the great Middle West, valuable 
 crops are cut short or ruined by drouth when the fruit 
 or corn is forming. It makes no difference how much 
 rain comes along at other times in the year, if the roots 
 cannot find moisture at the critical time, the yield is 
 reduced often below the profit of raising and harvest- 
 ing the crop. Strawberry blossoms shrivel and die 
 in the blooming when rain fails. Irrigation is better 
 than rain for strawberries. Strawberries under irri- 
 gation may be made to yield more bushels than potatoes 
 -under humid conditions. One hundred bushels of 
 strawberries per acre sounds like a fairy tale, but it is 
 possible on rich land under irrigation. 
 
 The cost of pumping for irrigation, where the well 
 and machinery is used for no other purpose, must be 
 charged up to the crop. The items of expense are in- 
 terest on the first cost of the pumping machinery, de- 
 preciation, upkeep and running expenses. On East- 
 ern farms, however, where diversified farming is the 
 business, this expense may be divided among the dif- 
 ferent lines of work. Where live-stock is kept, it is 
 necessary to have a good, reliable water sup{)ly for 
 the animals. A reservoir on high ground so water may 
 be piped to the watering troughs and to the house is a 
 great convenience. Also the same engine that does the 
 pumping may be used for other work in connection 
 with the farm, so that the irrigation pump engine, in- 
 stead of lying idle ten or eleven months in the year, 
 may be utilized to advantage and made to earn its keep. 
 
120 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 Well-water contains many impurities. For this rea- 
 son, it is likely to be valuable for crop growing pur- 
 poses in a wider sense than merely to supply moisture. 
 Well-water contains lime, and lime is beneficial to most 
 soils. It has been noticed that crops grow especially 
 well when irrigated from wells. 
 
 SUPPORT 
 
 Figure 128. — Power Transmission. Circular motion is converted 
 into reciprocating motion by the different lengths of the two pitman 
 cranks which cause the upper wheel to oscillate. Power is carried 
 to a distance by wires. To* reduce friction the wires are supported 
 by swinging hangers. Sometimes wooden rods are used instead of 
 wires to lessen expansion and contraction. 
 
 House and Barns Supplied from a Reservoir, — A 
 farm reservoir may sometimes be built very cheaply 
 by throwing a dam across a narrow hollow between two 
 hills, or ridges. On other farms, it is necessary to 
 scrape out a hole on the highest ground within reach. 
 For easy irrigation a reservoir is necessary, and it is 
 economical because the pump may work overtime and 
 
DRIVEN MACHINES 121 
 
 supply enough water so the irrigation may be 'done 
 quickly and with sufficient water to make it effective. 
 When the cost of the reservoir can be charged up to 
 the different departments of the business, such as irri- 
 gation, live-stock and house use, the cost is divided and 
 the profits are multiplied. 
 
 Power Conveyor, — Circular motion is converted into 
 reciprocal motion to operate a pump at a distance from 
 the engine. The short jack crank oscillates the driving 
 pulley to move the conveyor wires back and forth. The 
 distance to which power may be carried is limited by 
 the expansion and contraction of the conveying wires. 
 Wooden rods are better under extremes of tempera- 
 ture. Where an engine is used night and morning in 
 the dairy house to run a cream separator, this kind of 
 power transmission may be worked to operate the 
 pump at the house. Light wire hangers will support 
 the line wires or rods. They should be about three 
 feet in length, made fast at top and bottom to prevent 
 wear. The spring of a No. 10 wire three feet long is 
 sufficient to swing the length of a pump stroke and the 
 friction is practically nothing. 
 
 ELECTRICITY ON THE FARM 
 
 Electric current in some sections may be purchased 
 from electric railways or city lighting plants. But the 
 great majority of farms are beyond the reach of high 
 tension transmission cables. In some places three or 
 four farmers may club together and buy a small light- 
 ing plant to supply their own premises with both light 
 and power. Unless an engineer is employed to run it 
 trouble is sure to follow, because one family does all of 
 the work and others share equally in the benefits. The 
 solution is for each farmer to install a small plant of 
 
122 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 his own. The proposition is not so difficult as it sounds. 
 Two-horsepower plants are manufactured for this very 
 purpose. But there is more to it than buying a dy- 
 namo and a few lamp bulbs. A farm electric system 
 should supply power to run all of the light stationary 
 machinery about the farm, and that means storage 
 
 Figure 129. — Electric Power Plant. A practical farm generator 
 and storage battery, making a complete farm electric plant that will 
 develop and store electricity for instant use in any or all of the 
 farm buildings. 
 
 batteries, and the use of one or more small electric mo- 
 tors. There are several ways to arrange the plant, 
 but to save confusion it is better to study first the stor- 
 age battery plan and to start with an engine large 
 enough to pump water and run the dynamo at the same 
 time. It is a good way to do two jobs at once — ^you 
 store water enough in the supply tank to last twenty- 
 four or forty-eight hours, and at the same time you 
 
DRIVEN MACHINES 123 
 
 store up sufficient electricity to run the cream-separa- 
 tor for a week. Electric power is the only power that 
 is steady enough to get all of the cream. 
 
 Refrigeration is a profitable way to use electric pow- 
 er. There are small automatic refrigerator machines 
 that maintain low temperatures to preserve food prod- 
 ucts. This branch of the work may be made profitable. 
 Laundry work on the farm was principally hand labor 
 until the small power washers and wringers were in- 
 vented. Now a small electric motor takes the blue out 
 of Monday, and the women wear smiles. Electric flat- 
 irons afford the greatest comfort on Tuesday. The 
 proper heat is maintained continually until the last 
 piece is ironed. Cooking by electricity is another great 
 success. Some women buy separate cooking utensils, 
 such as toasters, chafing dishes and coffee percolators. 
 Others invest in a regular electric cooking range at a 
 cost of fifty dollars and feel that the money was well 
 spent. It takes about 100 K.W.H. per month in hot 
 weather to cook by electricity for a family of four. In 
 winter, when heat is more of a luxury, the coal or wood 
 range will save half of the electric current. Dishwash- 
 ing by electricity is another labor-saver three times a 
 day. Vacuum cleaners run by electricity take the dust 
 and microbes out of floor rugs with less hand labor 
 than pushing a carpet sweeper. Incubators are better 
 heated by electricity than any other way. Brooders 
 come under the same class. Sewing-machines were op- 
 erated by electricity in sweatshops years ago — because 
 it paid. Farm women are now enjoying the same privi- 
 lege. 
 
 Electric lighting on the farm is the most spectacular, 
 if not the most interesting result of electric generation 
 in the country. This feature of the subject was some- 
 
124 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 what overtaxed by talkative salesmen representing* 
 some of the pioneer manufacturers of electric lighting 
 plants, but the business has steadied down. Real elec- 
 tric generating machinery is being manufactured and 
 sold on its merits in small units. 
 
 Not many miles from Chicago there is an electric 
 lighting plant on a dairy farm that is giving satisfac- 
 tion. The stables are large and they are managed on 
 the plan of milking early in the morning and again in 
 the middle of the afternoon. The morning work re- 
 quires a great deal of light in the different stables, 
 more light than ordinary, because the milking is done 
 by machinery. The milking machine air-pump is 
 driven by electricity generated on the farm, the power 
 being supplied by a kerosene engine. 
 
 Electricity on this farm is used in units, separate 
 lines extending to the different buildings. The light- 
 ing plant is operated on what is known as the 32-volt 
 system ; the rating costs less to install than some others 
 and the maintenance is less than when a higher volt- 
 age is used. I noticed also that there are fewer parts 
 in connection with the plant than in other electric light 
 works that I have examined. 
 
 Technical knowledge of electricity and its behavior 
 under different circumstances is hardly necessary to a 
 farmer, because the manufacturers have simplified the 
 mechanics of electric power and lighting to such an ex- 
 tent that it is only necessary to use ordinary precau- 
 tion to run the plant to its capacity. 
 
 At the same time it is just as well to know something 
 about generators, switchboards and the meanings of 
 such terms and names as volt, ampere, battery poles, 
 voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat, discharge switch, under- 
 
DRIVEN MACHINES 125 
 
 load circuit breaker, false fuse blocks, etc., because 
 familiarity with these names, and the parts they rep- 
 resent gives the person confidence in charging the bat- 
 teries. Such knowledge also supplies a reason for the 
 one principal battery precaution, which is not to use 
 out all of the electricity the batteries contain. 
 
 Those who have electric lighting plants on the farm 
 do not seem to feel the cost of running the plants, be- 
 cause they use the engine for other purposes. Gen- 
 erally manufacturers figure about 1 H.P. extra to run 
 a dynamo to supply from 25 to 50 lights. My experi- 
 ence with farm engines is that for ordinary farm work 
 such as driving the cream separator, working the pump 
 and grinding feed, a two-horse power engine is more 
 useful than any other size. Farmers who conduct 
 business in the usual way will need a three-horsepower 
 engine if they contemplate adding an electric lighting 
 system to the farm equipment. 
 
 Among the advantages of an electric lighting sys- 
 tem is the freedom from care on the part of the women. 
 There are no lamps to clean or broken chimneys to cut 
 a finger, so that when the system is properly installed 
 the only work the women have to do is to turn the 
 switches to throw the lights on or off as needed. 
 
 The expense in starting a farm electric light plant 
 may be a little more than some other installations, but 
 it seems to be more economical in service when figured 
 from a farmer's standpoint, taking into consideration 
 the fact that he is using power for generating electric- 
 ity that under ordinary farm management goes to 
 waste. 
 
 A three-horsepower engine will do the same amount 
 of work with the sarae amount of gasoline that a two- 
 
126 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 horsepower engine will do. This statement may not 
 hold good when figured in fractions, but it will in farm 
 practice. Also when running a pump or cream sepa- 
 tor the engine is capable of doing a little extra work 
 so that the storage batteries may be c)iarged with very 
 little extra expense. 
 
 On one dairy farm a five-horsepower kerosene engine 
 is used to furnish power for various farm purposes. 
 The engine is belted to a direct-current generator of 
 the shunt-wound type. The generator is wired to an 
 electric storage battery of 88 ampere hour capacity. 
 The battery is composed of a number of separate cells. 
 The cells are grouped together in jars. These jars con- 
 tain the working parts of the batteries. As each jar 
 of the battery is complete in itself, any one jar may be 
 cut out or another added without affecting the other 
 units. The switchboard receives current either from 
 the battery or from the engine and generator direct. 
 There are a number of switches attached to the switch- 
 board, which may be manipulated to turn the current 
 in any direction desired. 
 
 Some provision should be made for the renewal of 
 electric lamps. Old lamps give less light than new 
 ones, and the manufacturers should meet customers on 
 some kind of a fair exchange basis. Tungsten lamps 
 are giving good satisfaction for farm use. These 
 lamps are economical of current, which means a reduc- 
 tion of power to supply the same amount of light. The 
 Mazda lamp is another valuable addition to the list of 
 electric lamps. 
 
 The Wisconsin Agriculturist publishes a list of 104 
 different uses for electricity on. farms. Many of the 
 electrical machines are used for special detail work 
 in dairies where cheese or butter is made in quantity. 
 
DRIVEN MACHINES 127 
 
 Sugar plantations also require small units of power 
 that would not apply to ordinary farming. Some of 
 the work mentioned is extra heavy, such as threshing 
 and cutting ensilage. Other jobs sound trivial, but 
 they are all possible labor-savers. Here is the list : 
 
 *'Oat crushers, alfalfa mills, horse groomers, horse 
 clippers, hay cutters, clover cutters, corn shellers, en- 
 silage cutters, corn crackers, branding irons, currying 
 machines, feed grinders, flailing machines, live stock 
 food warmers, sheep shears, threshers, grain graders, 
 root cutters, bone grinders, hay hoists, clover hullers, 
 rice threshers, pea and bean hullers, gas-electric har- 
 vesters, hay balers, portable motors for running thresh- 
 ers, fanning-mills, grain elevators, buskers and shred- 
 ders, grain drying machines, binder motors, wheat and 
 corn grinders, milking machines, sterilizing milk, re- 
 frigeration, churns, cream-separators, butter workers,, 
 butter cutting-printing, milk cooling and circulating 
 pumps, milk clarifiers, cream ripeners, milk mixers, 
 butter tampers, milk shakers, curd grinders, pasteuri- 
 zers, bottle cleaners, bottle fillers, concrete mixers, 
 cider mills, cider presses, spraying machines, wood 
 splitters, auto trucks, incubators, hovers, telephones, 
 electric bells, ice cutters, fire alarms, electric vehicles, 
 electro cultures, water supply, pumping, water steril- 
 izers, fruit presses, blasting magnetos, lighting, inte- 
 rior telephones, vulcanizers, pocket flash lights, ice 
 breakers, grindstones, emery wheels, wood saws, drop 
 hammers, soldering irons, glue pots, cord wood saws, 
 egg testers, burglar alarms, bell ringing transformers, 
 devices for killing insects and pests, machine tools, 
 molasses heaters, vacuum cleaners, portable lamps to 
 attract insects, toasters, hot plates, grills, percolators, 
 flatirons, ranges, toilette articles, water heaters, fans, 
 
128 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 egg boilers, heating pads, dishwashers, washing ma- 
 chines, curling irons, forge blowers. ' ' 
 
 GASOLINE HOUSE LIGHTING 
 
 Gasoline gas for house lighting is manufactured in a 
 small generator by evaporating gasoline into gas and 
 mixing it with air, about 5 per cent gas and 95 per cent 
 air. We are all familiar with the little brass gasoline 
 torch heater that tinners and plumbers use to heat 
 their soldering irons. The principle is the same. 
 
 There are three systems of using gasoline gas for 
 farmhouse lighting purposes, the hollow wire, tube sys- 
 tem, and single lamp system. 
 
 The hollow wire system carries the liquid gasoline 
 through the circuit in a small pipe called a hollow wire. 
 Each lamp on the circuit takes a few drops of gasoline 
 as needed, converts it into gas, mixes the gas with the 
 proper amount of air and produces a fine brilliant 
 light. Each lamp has its own little generator and is 
 independent of all other lamps on the line. 
 
 The tube system of gasoline gas lighting is similar in 
 appearance, but the tubes are larger and look more like 
 regular gas pipes. In the tube system the gas is gener- 
 ated and mixed with air before it gets into the distri- 
 bution tube, so that lamps do not require separate gen- 
 erators. 
 
 In the separate lamp system each lamp is separate 
 and independent. Each lamp has a small supply of 
 gasoline in the base of the lamp and has a gas genera- 
 tor attached to the burner, which converts the gasoline 
 into gas, mixes it with the proper amount of air and 
 feeds it into the burner as required. Farm lanterns are 
 manufactured that work on this principle. They pro- 
 duce a brilliant light. 
 
DRIVEN MACHINES 129 
 
 By investigating the different systems of gasoline gas 
 lighting in use in village stores and country homes any 
 farmer can select the system that fits into his home con- 
 ditions to the best advantage. In one farmhouse the 
 owner wanted gasoline gas street lamps on top of his 
 big concrete gateposts, and this was one reason why he 
 decided to adopt gasoline gas lighting and to use the 
 separate lamp system. 
 
 ACETYLENE GAS 
 
 Acetylene lighting plants are intended for country 
 use beyond the reach of city gas mains or electric 
 cables. Carbide comes in lump form in steel drums. It 
 is converted into gas by a generator that is fitted with 
 clock work to drop one or more lumps into water as gas 
 is needed to keep up the pressure. Acetylene gas is 
 said to be the purest of all illuminating gases. Experi- 
 ments in growing delicate plants in greenhouses lighted 
 with acetylene seem to prove this claim to be correct. 
 
 The light also is bright, clear and powerful. The 
 gas is explosive when mixed with air and confined, so 
 that precautions are necessary in regard to using lan- 
 terns or matches near the generators. The expense of 
 installing an acetylene plant in a farm home has pre- 
 vented its general use. 
 
 WOOD-SAW FRAMES 
 
 There are a number of makes of saw frames for use 
 on farms, some of which are very simple, while others 
 are quite elaborate. Provision usually is made for 
 dropping the end of the stick as it is cut. Sometimes 
 carriers are provided to elevate the blocks onto a pile. 
 Extension frames to hold both ends of the stick give 
 more or less trouble, because when the stick to be sawed 
 
130 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 is crooked, it is almost impossible to prevent binding. 
 If a saw binds in the kerf, very often the uniform set 
 is pinched out of alignment, and there is some danger 
 of buckling the saw, so that for ordinary wood sawing 
 it is better to have the end of the stick project beyond 
 the jig. If the saw is sharp and has the right set and 
 the right motion, it will cut the stick off quickly and 
 run free while the end is dropping to the ground. 
 
 The quickest saw frames oscillate, being supported 
 on legs that are hinged to the bottom of the frame. 
 Oscillating frames work easier than sliding frames. 
 Sliding frames are sometimes provided with rollers, 
 but roller frames are not steady enough. For cross 
 sawing lumber V-shaped grooves are best. No matter 
 what the feeding device is, it should always be pro- 
 tected by a hood over the saw. The frame should fall 
 back of its own weight, bringing the hood with it, so 
 that the saw is always covered except when actually 
 engaged with the stick. Saw-mandrels vary in diame- 
 ter and length, but in construction they are much 
 alike. For wood sawing the shaft should be 1%'^ or 
 1%'' in diameter. The shaft runs in two babbitted 
 boxes firmly bolted to the saw frame. The frame itself 
 should be well made and well braced. 
 
 ROOT PULPER 
 
 There are root pulpers with concave knives which' 
 slice roots in such a way as to bend the slices and break 
 them into thousands of leafy shreds. The principle is 
 similar to bending a number of sheets of paper so that 
 each sheet will slide past the next one. Animals do 
 not chew roots when fed in large solid pieces. Cattle 
 choke trying to swallow them whole, but they will 
 munch shredded roots with apparent patience and evi- 
 
DRIVEN MACHINES 131 
 
 dent satisfaction. American farmers are shy on roots. 
 They do not raise roots in quantities because it re- 
 quires a good deal of hand labor, but roots make a 
 juicy laxative and they are valuable as an appetizer 
 and they carry mineral. Pulped roots are safe to feed 
 and they offer the best mixing medium for crushed 
 grains and other concentrated foods. 
 
 FEED CRUSHER 
 
 Instead of grinding grain for feeding, we have what 
 is known as a crusher which operates on the roller-mill 
 principle. It breaks the grains into flour by crushing 
 instead of grinding. It has the advantage of doing 
 good work quickly. Our feed grinding is done in the 
 two-story corncrib and granary. It is one of the odd 
 jobs on the farm that every man likes. The grain is 
 fed automatically into the machine by means of the 
 grain spouts which lead the different kinds of grain 
 down from the overhead bins. The elevator buckets 
 carry the crushed feed back to one of the bins or into 
 the bagger. In either case it is not necessary to do any 
 lifting for the sacks are carried away on a bag truck. 
 We have no use for a scoop shovel except as a sort of 
 big dustpan to use. with the barn broom. 
 
 STUMP PULLER 
 
 Pulling stumps by machinery is a quick operation 
 compared with the old time methods of grubbing, chop- 
 ping, prying and burning that our forefathers had on 
 their hands. Modern stump pulling machines are 
 small affairs compared with the heavy, clumsy things 
 that were used a few years ago. Some of the new 
 stump pullers are guaranteed to clear an acre a day of 
 
132 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 ordinary stumpage. This, of course, must be a rough 
 estimate, because stumps, like other things, vary in 
 numbers, size and condition of soundness. Some old 
 stumps may be removed easily while others hang to 
 the ground with wonderful tenacity. 
 
 There are two profits to follow the removal of stumps 
 from a partially cleared field. The work already put 
 on the land has in every case cost considerable labor to 
 get the trees and brush out of the way. The land is 
 partially unproductive so long as stumps remain. For 
 this reason, it is impossible to figure on the first cost 
 until the stumps are removed to complete the work and 
 to put the land in condition to raise machine made 
 crops. When the stumps are removed, the value of the 
 land either for selling or for farming purposes is in- 
 creased at once. Whether sold or farmed, the increas- 
 ing value is maintained by cropping the land and se- 
 curing additional revenue. 
 
 There are different ways of removing stumps, some 
 of which are easy while others are difficult and expen- 
 sive. One of the easiest ways is to bore a two-inch 
 auger hole diagonally down into the stump ; then fill 
 the auger hole with coal-oil and let it remain for some 
 weeks to soak into the wood. Large stumps may be 
 bored in different directions so the coal-oil will find its 
 way not only through the main part of the stumps 
 but down into the roots. This treatment requires that 
 the stumps should be somewhat dry. A stump that is 
 full of sap has no room for coal-oil, but after the sap 
 partially dries out, then coal oil will fill the pores of the 
 wood. After the stump is thoroughly saturated with 
 coal-oil, it will burn down to the ground, so that the 
 different large roots will be separated. Sometimes the 
 roots will burn below plow depth, but a good heavy 
 
DRIVEN MACHINES 133 
 
 pair of horses with a grappling hook will remove the 
 separated roots. 
 
 Dynamite often is used to blow stumps to pieces, and 
 the work is not considered dangerous since the inven- 
 tion of safety devices. In some sections of the country 
 where firewood is valuable, dynamite has the advantage 
 
 Initial Position Finfll Position 
 
 Figure 130. — The Oldest Farm Hoist. The first invention for ele- 
 vating a heavy object was a tripod made of three poles tied together 
 at the top with thongs of bark or rawhide. When hunters were 
 lucky enough to kill a bear, the tripod elevator was erected over the 
 carcass with the lower ends of the poles spread well apart to lower 
 the apex. The gambrel was inserted under the hamstrings and at- 
 tached to the top of the tripod. As the skinning of the animal pro- 
 ceeded the feet of the tripod were moved closer together. By the 
 time the head was cut off the carcass would swing clear. 
 
 of saving the wood. An expert with dynamite will 
 blow a stump to pieces so thoroughly that the differ- 
 ent parts are easily worked into stove lengths. Pitch- 
 pine stumps have a chemical value that was not sus- 
 pected until some fellows got rich by operating a retort. 
 
 FARM ELEVATING MACHINERY 
 
 Many handy and a few heavy elevators are being 
 manufactured to replace human muscle. The simple 
 tripod beef gin was familiar to the early settlers and 
 
134 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 it is still in use. When a heavy animal was killed for 
 butchering, the small ends of three poles were tied to- 
 gether to form a tripod over the carcass. The feet of 
 the tripod were placed wide apart to raise the apex 
 only a few feet above the animal. After the gambrel 
 was inserted and attached the feet of the tripod were 
 moved gradually closer together as the skinning pro- 
 ceeded, thus elevating the carcass to swing clear of the 
 ground. 
 
 Grain Elevators, — As a farm labor-saver, machinery 
 to elevate corn into the two-story concrib and grain 
 into the upper bins is one of the newer and more im- 
 portant farming inventions. With a modern two-story 
 corncrib having a driveway through the center, a con- 
 crete floor and a pit, it is easy to dump a load of grain 
 or ear corn by raising the front end of the wagon box 
 without using a shovel or corn fork. After the load is 
 dumped into the pit a boy can drive a horse around in a 
 cil'cle while the buckets carry the corn or small grain 
 and deliver it by spout into the different corncribs or 
 grain bins. There are several makes of powerful grain 
 elevating machines that will do the work easily and 
 quickly. 
 
 The first requisite is a building with storage over- 
 head, and a convenient place to work the machinery. 
 Some of the elevating machines are made portable and 
 some are stationary. Some of the portable machines 
 will work both ways. Usually stationary elevators are 
 placed in vertical position. Some portable elevators 
 may be operated either vertically or on an incline. 
 Such machines are adaptable to different situations, so 
 the corn may be carried up into the top story of a farm 
 grain warehouse or the apparatus may be hauled to the 
 railway station for chuting the grain or ear corn into 
 
DRIVEN MACHINES 
 
 135 
 
 a car. It depends upon the use to be made of the ma- 
 chinery whether the strictly stationary or portable ele- 
 vator is required. To unload usually some kind of pit 
 or incline is needed with any kind of an elevator, so the 
 load may be dumped automatically quickly from the 
 wagon box to be distributed by carrying buckets at 
 leisure. 
 
 Figure 131. — Portable Grain Elevator Filling a Corncrib. The 
 same rig is taken to the railway to load box cars. The wagon is un- 
 loaded by a lifting jaclc. It costs from Ic to l%c per bushel to 
 shovel corn by hand, but the greatest saving is in time. 
 
 Some elevators are arranged to take grain slowly 
 from under the tailboard of a wagon box. The tailrod 
 is removed and the tailboard raised half an inch or an 
 inch, according to the capacity of the machinery. The 
 load pays out through the opening as the front of the 
 wagon is gradually raised, so the last grain will dis- 
 charge into the pit or elevator hopper of its own weight. 
 Technical building knowledge and skill is required to 
 properly connect the building and elevating machinery 
 so that the two will work smoothly together. There 
 are certain features about the building that must con- 
 
136 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 form to the requirements and peculiarities of the ele- 
 vating machinery. The grain and ear corn are both 
 carried up to a point from which they will travel by 
 gravity to any part of the building. The building re- 
 quires great structural strength in some places, but the 
 material may be very light in others. Hence, the neces- 
 sity of understanding both building and machinery in 
 order to meet all of the necessary technical require- 
 ments. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 WOEKING THE SOIL 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF PLOWING 
 
 Plowing is a mechanical operation that deals with 
 physics, chemistry, bacteriology and entomology. The 
 soil is the farmer 's laboratory ; his soil working imple- 
 ments are his mechanical laboratory appliances. A 
 
 Figure 132. — Heavy Disk Plow. A strong four-horse disk imple- 
 ment for breaking stumpy ground or to tear tough sod into bits be- 
 fore turning under with a moldboard. 
 
 high order of intelligence is required to merge one op- 
 eration into the next to take full advantage of the 
 assistance offered by nature. The object of plowing 
 and cultivation is to improve the mechanical condition 
 of the soil, to retain moisture, to kill insects and to pro- 
 vide a suitable home for the different kinds of soil bac- 
 teria. 
 
 There are aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, also nitro- 
 137 , 
 
138 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 gen-gathering bacteria and nitrifying bacteria which 
 are often loosely referred to as azotabacter species. 
 Few of us are on intimate terms with any of them, but 
 some of us have had formal introductions through ex- 
 periments and observation. 
 
 THE MECHANICS OF PLOWING 
 
 Walking Flow. — The draft of a walking plow may 
 be increased or diminished by the manner of hitch. It 
 
 Figure 133. — Sulky Plow. This is a popular type of riding plow. 
 It is fitted with a rolling coulter. 
 
 is necessary to find the direct line of draft between the 
 work performed and the propelling force. The clevis 
 in the two-horse doubletree, or the three-horse evener 
 and the adjusting clevis in the end of the plow-beam 
 with the connecting link will permit a limited adjust- 
 ment. The exact direction that this line takes will 
 prove out in operation. The walking plow should not 
 have a tendency to run either in or out, neither too 
 deep nor too shallow. For the proper adjustment as to 
 width and depth of furrow, the plow should follow the 
 line of draft in strict obedience to the pull so that it 
 
WORKING THE SOIL 
 
 139 
 
 will keep to the furrow on level ground a distance of 
 several feet without guidance from the handles. In 
 making the adjustment it is first necessary to see that . 
 
 Figure 134. — Disk Plow. Less power is required to plow with a 
 disk, but it is a sort of cut and cover process. The disk digs 
 trenches narrow at the bottom. There are ridges between the little 
 trenches that are not worked. 
 
 Figure 135. — Three-Horse and Four-Horse Eveners. This kind of 
 evener hitches the horses closer to the load than some others and 
 they are easier to handle than the spread out kinds. The four- 
 horse rig requires the best horses in the middle. 
 
 the plow itself is in good working order. All cutting 
 edges such as share, coulter or jointer must be reason- 
 ably sharp and the land slip in condition as the makers 
 intended. 
 
140 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 All plows should have a leather pocket on the side of 
 the beam to carry a file. A 12-inch bastard file with a 
 good handle is the most satisfactory implement for 
 sharpening the cutting edges of a plow in the fields. A 
 good deal depends on the character of the soil and its 
 condition of dryness, but generally speaking, it p^ys to 
 do a little filing after plowing a half mile of furrow. 
 If the horses are doing their duty, a little rest at the 
 end of the half mile is well earned. The plowman can 
 put in the time to advantage with the file and the next 
 half mile will go along merrily in consequence. No 
 farmer would continue to chop wood all day without 
 whetting his axe, but, unfortunately, plowmen often 
 work from morning till night without any attempt to 
 keep the cutting edges of their plows in good working 
 order. 
 
 Riding Plow. — The riding plow in lifting and turn- 
 ing the furrow slice depends a good deal on the wheels. 
 The action of the plow is that of a wedge with the 
 power pushing the point, the share and the moldboard 
 between the furrow slices and the land side and the 
 furrow bottom. There is the same friction between the 
 moldboard and the furrow slice as in the case of the 
 walking plow, but the wheels are intended to mate- 
 rially reduce the pressure on the furrow bottom and 
 against the land side. Plow wheels are intended to re- 
 lieve the draft in this respect because wheels roll much 
 easier than the plow bottom can slide with the weight 
 of the work on top. The track made in the bottom of 
 the furrow with the walking plow shows plainly the 
 heavy pressure of the furrow slice on the moldboard by 
 the mark of the slip. To appreciate the weight the 
 slip carries, an interesting experfment may be per- 
 formed by loading the walking plow with weights suf- 
 
WORKING THE SOIL 
 
 141 
 
 ficient to make the same kind of a mark when the plow 
 is not turning a furrow. 
 
 One advantage in riding plows in addition to the 
 relief of such a load is less packing of the furrow bot- 
 tom. On certain soils when the moisture is just suffi- 
 cient to make the subsoil sticky, a certain portion of the 
 furrow bottom is cemented by plow pressure so that it 
 
 Figure 136. — Three-Section, Spike-Tooth Harrow. The harrow is 
 made straight, but the hitch is placed over to one side to give each 
 tooth a separate line of travel. 
 
 Figure 137. — Harrow Sled Long Enough to Hold a Four-Section 
 Harrow. 
 
 becomes impervious to the passage of moisture either 
 up or down. The track of a plow wheel is less in- 
 jurious. 
 
 Plow wheels should stand at the proper angle to the 
 pressure with especial reference to the work performed. 
 Wheels should be adjusted with an eye single to the 
 conditions existing in the furrow. Some wheel plows 
 apparently are especially built to run light like a 
 wagon above ground regardless of the underground 
 work required of them. 
 
142 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 Axles should hang at right angles to the line of lift 
 so accurately as to cause the wheels to wear but lightly 
 on the ends of the hubs. Mistakes in adjustment show 
 in the necessity of keeping a supply of washers on hand 
 to replace the ones that quickly wear thin. 
 
 Figure 138. — Corn Cultivator. A one-row, riding-disk cultivator. 
 The ridges are smoothed by the spring* scrapers to leave an even 
 surface to prevent evaporation. 
 
 In this respect a good deal depends on the sand-bands 
 at the ends of the hubs. Plow wheels are constantly 
 lifting gritty earth and dropping it on the hubs. There 
 is only one successful way to keep sand out of the jour- 
 nals and that is by having the hubs, or hub ferrules, 
 extend well beyond the bearings. Plow wheel hub ex- 
 tensions should reach two inches beyond the journal 
 both at the large end of the hub and at the nut or linch- 
 
WORKING THE SOIL 143 
 
 pin end. Some plow wheels cut so badly that farmers 
 consider oil a damage and they are permitted to run 
 dry. This is not only very wasteful of expensive iron 
 but the wheels soon wabble to such an extent that they 
 no longer guide the plow, in which case the draft may 
 be increased enormously. 
 
 Figure 139. — A Combination Riding and Walking Cultivator, 
 showing fenders attached to protect young plants the first time 
 through. The two bull tongues shown are for use in heavy soils 
 or when deeper digging is necessary. 
 
 Scotch Plows. — ^When the long, narrow Scotch sod 
 plows are exhibited at American agricultural fairs they 
 attract a good deal of attention and no small amount of 
 ridicule from American farmers because of the six or 
 seven inch furrows they are intended to turn. In this 
 country we are in too much of a hurry to spend all day 
 plowing three-fourths of an acre of ground. Intensive 
 farming is not so much of an object with us as the 
 quantity of land put under cultivation. 
 
144 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 Those old-fashioned Scotch plows turn a furrow 
 about two-thirds of the way over, laying the sod surface 
 at an angle of about 45° to the bottom of the furrow. 
 The sharp comb cut by the coulter and share stands up- 
 right so that a sod field when plowed is marked in sharp 
 ridges six or seven inches apart, according to the width 
 of the furrow. Edges of sod show in the bottoms of 
 the corrugations between these little furrow ridges. 
 
 When the rains come the water is held in these 
 grooves and it finds its way down the whole depth of 
 the furrow slice carrying air with it and moistening ev- 
 ery particle of trash clear to the bottom of the furrow. 
 Sucli conditions are ideal for the work of the different 
 forms of bacteria to break down plant fibre contained 
 in the roots and trash and work it into humus, which 
 is in turn manipulated by other forms of soil bacteria 
 to produce soil water which is the only food of grow- 
 ing plants. 
 
 Jointer Plows, — ^American plow makers also have 
 recognized the necessity of mixing humus with soil in 
 the act of plowing. To facilitate the process and at the 
 same time turn a wide furrow, the jointer does fairly 
 good work when soil conditions are suitable. The 
 jointer is a little plow which takes the place of the 
 coulter and is attached to the plow-beam in the same 
 manner. The jointer turns a little furrow one inch 
 or two inches deep and the large plow following after 
 turns a twelve-inch or fourteen-inch furrow slice flat 
 over, throwing the little jointer furrow in the middle 
 of the furrow bottom in such a way that the big furrow 
 breaks over the smaller furrow. 
 
 If the work is well done, cracks as wide as a man's 
 hand and from three to five inches deep are left all over 
 the field. These cracks lead air and moisture to rot the 
 
WORKING THE SOIL 143 
 
 trash below. This is a much quicker way of doing a 
 fairly good job of plowing. Such plows loosen the soil 
 and furnish the conditions required by nature; and 
 they may be operated with much less skill than the old- 
 fashioned narrow-furrowed Scotch plows. 
 
 Good plowing requires first that the soil be in proper 
 condition to plow, neither too dry nor too wet, but no 
 man can do good plowing without the proper kind of 
 plow to fit the soil he is working with. 
 
 PLOWING BY TRACTOR 
 
 Under present conditions farm tractors are not in- 
 tended to replace horse power entirely but to precede 
 horses to smooth the rough places that horses may fol- 
 low with the lighter machines to add the finishing 
 touches. Light tractors are being made, and they are 
 growing in popularity, but the real business of the 
 farm tractor is to do the heavy lugging — the work that 
 kills horses and delays seeding until the growing sea- 
 son has passed. The actual power best suited to the 
 individual farm can only be determined by the nature 
 of the land and the kind of farming. 
 
 In the Middle West where diversified farming is 
 practiced, the 8-16 and the 10-20 sizes seem to be the 
 most satisfactory, and this is without regard to the size 
 of the farm. The preponderance of heavy work will 
 naturally dictate the buying of a tractor heavier than 
 a 10-20. The amount of stationary work is a factor. 
 In certain communities heavy farm tractors are made 
 to earn dividends by running threshing machines after 
 harvest, silo fillers in the fall and limestone crushers 
 in the winter. 
 
 Here is a classified list of jobs the medium size farm 
 tractor is good for : 
 
146 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 Clearing the Land— pulling up bushes by the roots, 
 tearing out hedges, pulling stumps, grubbing, pulling 
 stones. 
 
 Preparing Seed Bed and Seeding — plowing, disking, 
 crushing clods, pulling a land plane, rolling, packing, 
 drilling, harrowing. 
 
 Harvesting — mowing, pulling grain binders, pulling 
 potato digger. 
 
 Belt Work — hay baling, corn shelling, heavy pump- 
 ing for irrigation, grinding feed, threshing, clover 
 hulling, husking and shredding, silo filling, stone 
 crushing. 
 
 Road Work — grading, dragging, leveling, ditching, 
 hauling crops. 
 
 Miscellaneous — running portable sawmill, stretch- 
 ing wire fencing, ditch digging, manure spreading. 
 
 Generally speaking, however, the most important 
 farm tractor work is preparing the seed-bed thoroughly 
 and quickly while the soil and weather conditions are 
 the best. And the tractor's ability to work all day and 
 all night at such times is one of its best qualifications. 
 
 To plow one square mile, or 640 acres, with a walk- 
 ing plow turning a twelve-inch furrow, a man and 
 team must walk 5,280 miles. The gang-plow has al- 
 ways been considered a horse killer, and, when farmers 
 discovered that they could use oil power to save their 
 horses, many were quick to make the change. 
 
 It requires approximately 10 horsepower hours to 
 turn an acre of land with horses. At a speed of two 
 miles, a team with one plow in ten hours will turn two 
 acres. To deliver the two horsepower required to do 
 this work, they must travel 176 feet per minute and 
 exert a continuous pull of 375 pounds or 187.5 pounds 
 per horse. 
 
WORKING THE SOIL 147 
 
 One horsepower equals a pull of 33,000 pounds, 
 moved one foot per minute. Two-mile speed equals 
 two times 5,280 or 10,560 feet per hour, or 176 feet per 
 minute. Sixty-six thousand divided by 176 equals 375 
 foot pounds pull per minute. One horsepower is ab- 
 sorbed in 88 feet of furrow. 
 
 Horse labor costs, according to Government figures, 
 121/^ cents per hour per horse. On this basis ten hours' 
 work will be $1.25, which is the average daily cost of 
 each horse. An average Illinois diversified farm of 160 
 acres would be approximately as follows : Fifty acres 
 of corn, 30 acres of oats and wheat, 20 acres of hay, 60 
 acres of rough land, pasture, orchard, building and 
 feed lots. 
 
 This average farm supports six work horses or mules 
 and one colt. According to figures taken from farm 
 work reports submitted by many different corn belt 
 farmers, the amount of horse-work necessary to do this 
 cropping would figure out as follows: 
 
 Fifty acres of corn land for plowing, disking, har- 
 rowing, planting, cultivating and harvesting would 
 amount to a total of 1,450 horsepower hours. Thirty 
 acres of wheat would require a total of 330 horsepower 
 hours. Twenty acres of hay would require 110 horse- 
 power hours. In round figures, 1,900 horsepower hours 
 at 121/^ cents would amount to $237.50. 
 
 Elaborate figures have been worked out theoretically 
 to show that this work can be done by an 8-16 farm 
 tractor in 27% days at a cost for kerosene fuel and 
 lubricating oil of $1.89 per day. Adding interest, re- 
 pairs and depreciation, brings this figure up to about 
 $4.00 per day, or a total of $111.00 for the job. No ac- 
 count is kept of man power in caring for either the 
 horses or the tractor. The actual man labor on the job, 
 
148 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 however, figures 12% days less for the tractor than for 
 horses. We should remember that actual farm figures 
 are used for the cost of horse work. Such figures are 
 not available for tractor work. 
 
 The cost of plowing with a traction engine depends 
 upon so many factors that it is difficult to make any 
 definite statement. It depends upon the condition of 
 the ground, size of the tractor, the number of plows 
 pulled, and the amount of fuel used. An 8-16 horse- 
 power tractor, for instance, burning from 15 to 20 gal- 
 lons of low grade kerosene per ten hour day and using 
 one gallon of lubricating oil, costs about $1.90 per ten 
 hours work. Pulling two 14-inch plows and traveling 
 20 miles per day, the tractor will plow 5.6 acres at a 
 fuel and an oil cost of about. 30 cents per acre. Pulling 
 three 14-inch plows, it will turn 8.4 acres at a cost for 
 fuel and oil of about 20 cents an acre. 
 
 The kind and condition of soil is an important factor 
 in determining the tractor cost of plowing. Compari- 
 son between the average horse cost and the average 
 tractor cost suggests very interesting possibilities in 
 favor of tractor plowing under good management. 
 
 Aside from the actual cost in dollars we should also 
 remember that no horse gang can possibly do the qual- 
 ity of work that can be accomplished by an engine 
 gang. Anxiety to spare the team has cut a big slice off 
 the profits of many a farmer. He has often plowed late 
 on account of hard ground, and he has many times 
 allowed a field to remain unplowed on account of worn- 
 out teams. Under normal conditions, late plowing 
 never produces as good results as early plowing. Many 
 a farmer has fed and harnessed by the light of the lan- 
 tern, gone to the field and worked his team hard to take 
 advantage of the cool of the morning. With the ap- 
 
WORKING THE SOIL 149 
 
 preach of the hot hours of midday, the vicious flies 
 sapping the vitality from his faithful team, he has 
 eased up on the work or quit the job. 
 
 In using the tractor for plowing, there are none of 
 these distressing conditions to be taken into considera- 
 tion, nothing to think of but the quality of work done. 
 It is possible to plow deep without thought of the added 
 burden. Deep plowing may or may not be advisable. 
 But where the soil will stand it, deep plowing at 
 the proper time of year, and when done with judg- 
 ment, holds moisture better and provides more plant 
 food. 
 
 The pull power required to plow different soils varies 
 from about three pounds per square inch of furrow for 
 light sand up to twenty pounds per square inch of 
 furrow for gumbo. The draft of a plow is generally 
 figured from clover sod, which averages about seven 
 pounds per square inch. Suppose a plow rig has two 
 14-inch bottoms, and the depth to be plowed is six 
 inches. A cross section of each plow is therefore 14 by 
 6 inches, or 84 square inches. Twice this for two bot- 
 toms is 168 square inches. Since, in sandy soil, the 
 pressure per square inch is three pounds, therefore 168 
 times 3 pounds equals 504 pounds, the draft in sandy 
 soil. 168 times 7 pounds equals 1,176 pounds, the draft 
 in clover sod. 168 times 8 pounds equals 1,344 pounds, 
 the draft in clay sod. 
 
 The success of crop growing depends upon the way 
 the seed-bed is prepared. The final preparation of the 
 seed-bed can never be thoroughly well done unless the 
 ground is properly plowed to begin with. It is not suf- 
 ficient to root the ground over or to crowd it to one side 
 but the plow must really turn the furrow slice in a uni- 
 form, systematic manner and lay it bottom side upper- 
 
150 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 most to receive the beneficial action of the air, rain and 
 sunshine. 
 
 The moldboard of a plow must be smooth in order to 
 properly shed the earth freely to make an easy turn- 
 over. The shape of the shear and the forward part of 
 the moldboard is primarily that of a wedge, but the roll 
 or upper curve of the moldboard changes according to 
 soil texture and the width and depth of furrow to be 
 turned. Moldboards also differ in size and shape, ac- 
 cording to the kind of furrow to be turned. Sometimes 
 in certain soils a narrow solid furrow with, a comb 
 on the upper edge is preferable. In other soils a . 
 cracked or broken furrow slice works the best. When 
 working our lighter soils a wide furrow turned flat over 
 on top of a jointer furrow breaks the ground into frag- 
 ments with wide cracks or openings reaching several 
 inches down. Between these extremes there are many 
 modifications made for the particular type or texture 
 of the soil to be plowed. We can observe the effect that a 
 rough, or badly scratched, or poorly shaped moldboard 
 has on any kind of soil, especially when passing from 
 gravelly soils to clay. In soil that contains the right 
 amount of moisture, when a plow scours all the time, 
 the top of the furrow slice always has a glazed or shiny 
 appearance. This shows that the soil is slipping off 
 the moldboard easily. In places where the plow does 
 not scour the ground is pushed to one side and packed 
 or puddled on the underside instead of being lifted 
 and turned as it should be. A field plowed with a de- 
 fective moldboard will be full of these places. Such 
 ground cannot have the life to bring about a satis- 
 factory bacteria condition necessary to promote the 
 rapid plant growth that proper plowing gives it. 
 
 Cultivated sandy soils are becoming more acid year 
 
WORKING THE SOIL 151 
 
 after year. We are using lime to correct the acidity, 
 but the use of lime requires better plowing and better 
 after cultivation to thoroughly mix the trash with the 
 earth to make soil conditions favorable to the different 
 kinds of soil bacteria. Unless we pay special attention 
 to the humus content of the soil we are likely to use 
 lime to dissolve out plant foods that are not needed by 
 the present crop, and, therefore, cannot be utilized. 
 This is what the old adage means which reads : * ' Lime 
 enricheth the father but impoverisheth the son. ' ' When 
 that was written the world had no proper tillage tools 
 and the importance of humus was not even dreamed of. 
 
 Not so many years ago farm plows were made of cast 
 iron. Then came the steel moldboard, which was sup- 
 posed to be the acme of perfection in plow making. 
 Steel would scour and turn the furrow in fluffy soils 
 where cast iron would just ropt along without turning 
 the ground at all. Later the art of molding steel was 
 studied and perfected until many grades and degrees 
 of hardness were produced and the shape of the mold- 
 board passed through a thousand changes. The idea 
 all the time was to make plows that would not only 
 scour but polish in all kinds of soil. At the same time 
 they must turn under all of the vegetable growth to 
 make humus, to kill weeds and to destroy troublesome 
 insects. Besides these requirements the soil must be 
 pulverized and laid loose to admit both air and mois- 
 ture. These experiments gradually led up to our pres- 
 ent high grade plows of hardened steel and what is 
 known as chilled steel. 
 
 Besides the hardness there are different shapes de- 
 signed for different soils so that a plow to work well on 
 one farm may need to be quite different from a plow to 
 do the best work in another neighborhood. The furrow 
 
152 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 slice sliding over a perfect moldboard leaves the sur- 
 face of the upturned ground as even as the bottom of 
 the furrow. By using a modern plow carefully selected 
 to fit the soil, gravel, sandy, stony or muck soils, or silt 
 loams that contain silica, lime, iron and aluminum ox- 
 ide can be worked with the right plow to do the best 
 work possible if we use the necessary care and judg- 
 ment in making the selection. 
 
 One object of good plowing is to retain moisture 
 in the soil until the growing crop can make good use 
 of it. 
 
 The ease with which soils absorb, retain or lose mois- 
 ture, depends mostly on their texture, humus content, 
 physical condition, and surface slope or artificial drain- 
 age. It is to the extent that cultivation can modify 
 these factors that more soil water can be made available 
 to the growing crop. There are loose, open soils 
 through which water percolates as through a sieve, and 
 there are tight, gumbo soils which swell when the sur- 
 face is moistened and become practically waterproof. 
 Sandy soils take in water more readily than heavier 
 soils, hence less precaution is necessary to prevent 
 run-off. 
 
 Among the thousands of plows of many different 
 makes there are plenty of good ones. The first con- 
 sideration in making a selection is a reliable home 
 dealer who has a good business reputation and a thor- 
 ough knowledge of local soil from a mechanical stand- 
 point. The next consideration is the service the plow . 
 will give in proportion to the price. 
 
 DISK HARROW 
 
 For preparing land to receive the seed no other im- 
 plement will equal a double disk. These implements 
 
WORKING THE SOIL 153 
 
 are made in various sizes and weights of frame. For 
 heavy land, where it is necessary to weight the disk 
 down, an extra heavy frame is necessary. It would 
 probably be advisable to get the extra strong frame for 
 any kind of land, because even in light sand there are 
 times when a disk may be used to advantage to kill 
 quackgrass or to chew up sod before plowing. In such 
 cases it is customary to load on a couple of sacks of 
 sand in addition to the weight of the driver. When a 
 disk is carrying 300 or 400 pounds besides its own 
 weight the racking strains which pull from different 
 directions have a tendency to warp or twist a light 
 frame out of shape. To keep a disk cultivator in good 
 working order it is necessary to go over it thoroughly 
 before doing heavy work. Bolts must be kept tight, all 
 braces examined occasionally, and the heavy nuts at 
 the ends of the disk shafts watched. They sometimes 
 loosen and give trouble. The greatest difficulty in run- 
 ning a disk harrow or cultivator is to keep the boxings 
 in good trim. Wooden boxes are provided with the 
 implement. It is a good plan to insist on having a full 
 set of eight extra boxes. These wooden boxes may be 
 made on the farm, but it sometimes is difficult to get 
 the right kind of wood. They should be made of hard 
 maple, bored according to size of shaft, and boiled in 
 a good quality of linseed oil. Iron boxings have never 
 been satisfactory on a disk implement. Wooden ones 
 make enough trouble, but wood has proved better than 
 iron. On most disk cultivators there are oil channels 
 leading to the boxings. These channels are large 
 enough to carry heavy oil. The lighter grades of cylin- 
 der oil work the best. It is difficult to cork these oil 
 channels tight enough i±o keep the sand out. Oil and 
 sand do not work well together in a bearing. The 
 
154 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 manufacturers of these implements could improve the 
 oiling device by shortening the channel and building a 
 better housing for the oil entrance. It is quite a job to 
 take a disk apart to put in new boxings, but, like all 
 other repair work, the disk should be taken into the 
 shop, thoroughly cleaned, repaired, painted and oiled 
 in the winter time. 
 
 Some double disk cultivators have tongues and some 
 are made without. Whether the farmer wants a tongue 
 or not depends a good deal on the land. The only ad- 
 vantage is that a tongue will hold the disk from crowd- 
 ing onto the horses when it is running light along the 
 farm lanes or the sides of the fields with the disks set 
 straight. Horses have been ruined by having the 
 sharp disks run against them when going down hill. 
 Such accidents always are avoidable if a man realizes 
 the danger. Unfortunately, farm implements are often 
 used by men who do very little thinking. A spring 
 disk scraper got twisted on a root and was thrown 
 over the top of one of the disks so it scraped against the 
 back of the disk and continued to make a harsh, scrap- 
 ing noise until the proprietor went to see wliat was 
 wrong. The man driving the disk said he thought 
 something must be the matter with the cultivator, but 
 he couldn 't tell for the life of him what it was. When 
 farmers are up against such difficulties it is safer to 
 buy a disk with a tongue. 
 
 Harrow Cart. — A small two-wheel cart with a spring 
 seat overshadowed with a big umbrella is sometimes 
 called a ' * dude sulky. ' ' Many sensitive farmers trudge 
 along in the soft ground and dust behind their harrows 
 afraid of such old fogy ridicule. The hardest and most 
 tiresome and disagreeable job at seeding time is fol- 
 lowing a harrow on foot. Eiding a harrow cart in the 
 
WORKING THE SOIL 155 
 
 field is conserving energy that may be applied to bet- 
 ter purposes after the day's work in the field is fin- 
 ished. 
 
 KNIFE-EDGE PULVERIZERS 
 
 A knife-edge weeder makes the best dust mulch pul- 
 verizer for orchard work or when preparing a seed- 
 bed for grain. These implements are sold under dif- 
 ferent names. It requires a stretch of imagination to 
 attach the word *^ harrow'' to these knife-edge weed- 
 ers. There is a central bar which is usually a hardwood 
 plank. The knives are bolted to the underside of the 
 plank and sloped backward and' outward from the 
 center to the right and left, so that the knife-edges 
 stand at an angle of about 45° to the line of draught. 
 This angle is just about sufficient to let tough weeds 
 slip off the edges instead of dragging along. If the 
 knives are sharp, they will cut tender weeds, but the 
 tough ones must be disposed of to prevent choking. 
 The proper use of the knife-edge weeder prevents 
 weeds from growing, but in farm practice, sometimes 
 rainy weather prevents the use of such a tool until the 
 weeds are well established. As a moisture retainer, 
 these knife-edge weeders are superior to almost any 
 other implement. They are made in widths of from 
 eight to twenty feet. The wide ones are jointed in the 
 middle to fit uneven ground. 
 
 CLOD CRUSHER 
 
 The farm land drag, float, or clod crusher is useful 
 under certain conditions on low spots that do not drain 
 properly. Such land must be plowed when the main 
 portion of the field is in proper condition, and the re- 
 sult often is that the low spots are so wet that the 
 
156 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 ground packs into lumps that an ordinary harrow will 
 not break to pieces. Such lumps roll out between the 
 harrow teeth and remain on top of the ground to inter- 
 fere with cultivation. The clod crusher then rides 
 over the lumps and grinds them into powder. Unfor- 
 tunately, clod crushers often are depended on to rem- 
 edy faulty work on ordinary land that should receive 
 better treatment. Many times the clod crusher is a 
 poor remedy for poor tillage on naturally good land 
 that lacks humus. 
 
 Figure 140. — Land Float. Clod crushers and land floats belong 
 to the same tribe. Theoretically they are all outlaws, but some 
 practical farmers harbor one or more of them. Wet land, contain- 
 ing considerable clay, sometimes forms into lumps which should be 
 crushed. 
 
 As ordinarily made, the land float or clod crusher 
 consists of from ^Ye to eight planks, two inches thick 
 and ten or twelve inches wide, spiked together in saw- 
 tooth position, the edges of the planks being lapped 
 over each other like clapboards in house siding. The 
 planks are held in place with spikes driven through 
 into the crosspieces. 
 
 FARM ROLLER 
 
 Farm rollers are used to firm the soil. Sometimes 
 a seed-bed is worked up so thoroughly that the ground 
 is made too loose so the soil is too open and porous. 
 Seeds to germinate require that the soil grains shall fit 
 up closely against them. Good soil is impregnated 
 with soil moisture, or film moisture as it is often called, 
 because the moisture forms in a film around each little 
 
WORKING THE SOIL 157 
 
 soil grain. In properly prepared soil this film moisture 
 comes in contact with the freshly sown seed. If the tem- 
 perature is right the seed swells and germination 
 starts. The swelling of the seed brings it in contact 
 
 Figure 141. — Iron Land Roller Made of Boiler Plate. 
 
 Figure 142. — Wooden Land Roller. 
 
 with more film moisture attached to other grains of soil 
 so the rootlet grows and pushes out into the soil in 
 search of moisture on its own account. A roller is val- 
 uable to press the particles of soil together to bring the 
 freshly sown seeds in direct contact with as many par- 
 ticles of soil as possible. Rolling land is a peculiar 
 operation, the value of which is not always understood. 
 
158 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 The original idea was to benefit the soil by breaking the 
 lumps. It may be of some benefit on certain soils for 
 this purpose, but the land should always be harrowed 
 after rolling to form a dust mulch to prevent the evap- 
 oration of moisture. Land that has been rolled and left 
 overnight shows damp the next morning, which is suf- 
 ficient proof that moisture is coming to the surface and 
 is being dissipated into the atmosphere. In the so- 
 called humid sections of the country the great problem 
 is to retain moisture. Any farm implement that has a 
 tendency to dissipate soil moisture is a damage to the 
 farmer. Probably nine times out of ten a farm roller 
 is a damage to the crop it is intended to benefit because 
 of the manner in which it is used. It is the abuse, not 
 the proper use of a roller, that injures the crop. 
 
 CORN-PLANTER 
 
 Corn-planters are designed to plant two rows at 
 once. The width of rows may be adjusted from about 
 32 to 44 inches apart. When seed-corn is carefully 
 graded to size the dropping mechanism will feed out 
 the grains of corn regularly with very few skips. This 
 is one reason why most farmers plant corn in drills. 
 There are other cultural reasons which do not prop- 
 erly belong to this mechanical article. Hill dropping 
 is considerably more complicated and difficult. After 
 the feeding mechanism has been adjusted to the size 
 of seed kernels to be planted so it will drop four ker- 
 nels in a hill then the trip chain is tried out to see if 
 it is right at every joint. Dropping in hills is a very 
 careful mechanical proposition. An inch or two out 
 of line either way means a loss of corn in cultivating. 
 
 In setting the stakes to go and come by, a careful 
 measurement of the field is necessary in order to get 
 
WORKING THE SOIL 15d 
 
 the stake lines on both sides of the field parallel. If 
 the ring stakes are driven accurately on the line, then 
 the first hill of corn must come at the same distance 
 from the line in each row. Likewise in starting back 
 from the far side of the field the first hill should meas- 
 ure exactly the same distance from the stake line as the 
 first hills on the opposite side of the field. This is 
 easily managed by counting the number of trips be- 
 tween the stake line and the first row of corn hills. If 
 the two lines of stakes on the opposite sides of the field 
 are exactly parallel it is not necessary to move either 
 line in order to get the proper distance to start drop- 
 ping, but it must be adjusted by measurement, other- 
 wise the corn hills will be dodged. If the corn hills are 
 to space three feet apart then the first row of hills 
 should come nine or twelve feet from the stake line. 
 Stakes may be measured and set a certain number of 
 inches from the line to make the distance come right. 
 This careful adjustment brings the hills in line in the 
 rows. 
 
 When the field is level or gently sloping +here is no 
 difficulty in making straight rows so far as check row- 
 ing is concerned. When the field is hilly another prob- 
 lem crops up. It is almost impossible to run corn rows 
 along the side of a hill and keep them straight. The 
 planter has a tendency to slide downhill. Also the dis- 
 tance across a field is greater where the rows pass over 
 a hill. To keep the rows straight under such conditions 
 allowance must be made for the stretch over the hill 
 as well as for the side thrust of the planter. Where a 
 chain marker is used it hangs downhill and a further 
 allowance must be made for that. A good driver will 
 skip an inch or so above the mark so that the rows will 
 be planted fairly straight. This means a good deal more 
 
160 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 in check rowing than when the corn is planted in drills. 
 The greatest objection to hill planting is the crowding 
 of four corn plants into a space that should be occupied 
 by one plant. 
 
 A great many experiments have been tried to scat- 
 ter the seeds in the hill, so far without definite results, 
 except when considerable additional expense is in- 
 curred. However, a cone suspended below the end of 
 the dropping tube usually will scatter the seeds so 
 that no two seeds will touch each other. They may not 
 drop and scatter four or five inches apart, but these 
 little cones will help a good deal. They must be ac- 
 curately adjusted so the point of the cone will center 
 in the middle of the vertical delivery tube, and there 
 must be plenty of room all around the cone so the 
 corn seed kernels won't stick. The braces that hold 
 the cones in place for the same reason must be turned 
 edge up and supported in such a way as to leave 
 plenty of clearance. The idea is that four kernels of 
 corn drop together. They strike the cone and are scat- 
 tered in different directions. They naturally fly to 
 the outsides of the drill mark which scatters them as 
 wide apart as the width of the shoe that opens the drill. 
 The advantage of scattering seed grains in the hill has 
 been shown by accurate experiments conducted at dif- 
 ferent times by agricultural colleges. 
 
 GRAIN DRILL 
 
 To know exactly how much seed the grain drill is 
 using it is necessary to know how many acres are con- 
 tained in the field. Most drills have an attachment 
 that is supposed to measure how many acres and frac- 
 tions of acres the drill covers. Farmers know how 
 much grain each sack contains, so they can estimate as 
 
WORKING THE SOIL 161 
 
 they go along, provided the drill register is correct. It 
 is better to provide a check on the drill indicator. Have 
 the "field measured, then drive stakes along one side, 
 indicating one acre, five acres and ten acres. When 
 the one-acre stake is reached the operator can estimate 
 very closely whether the drill is using more or less 
 seed than the indicator registers. When the five-acre 
 stake is reached another proof is available, and so on 
 across the field. Next in importance to the proper 
 working of the drill is straight rows. The only way to 
 avoid gaps is to drive straight. The only way to drive 
 straight is to sight over the wheel that follows the last 
 drill mark. Farmers sometimes like to ride on the 
 grain drill, which places the wheel sighting proposition 
 out of the question. A harrow cart may be hitched be- 
 hind the wheel of the grain drill, but it gives a side 
 draft. The only way to have straight rows and thor- 
 ough work is to walk behind the end of the drill. This 
 is the proper way to use a drill, anyway, because a tooth 
 may clog up any minute. Unless the operator is walk- 
 ing behind the drill he is not in position to see quickly 
 whether every tooth is working properly or not. It is 
 hard work to follow a drill all day long, but it pays at 
 harvest time. It costs just as much to raise a crop of 
 grain that only covers part of the ground, and it seems 
 too bad to miss the highest possible percentage to save 
 a little hard work at planting time. 
 
 SPECIAL CROP MACHINERY 
 
 Special crops require special implements. After 
 they are provided, the equipment must be kept busy 
 in order to make it pay. If a farmer produces five 
 acres of potatoes he needs a potato cutter, a planter, a 
 riding cultivator, a sprayer that works under high 
 
162 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 pressure, a digger and a sorter. The same outfit will 
 answer for forty acres, which would reduce the per 
 acre cost considerably. No farmer can afford to grow 
 five acres of potatoes without the necessary machinery, 
 because hand labor is out of the question for work of 
 that kind. 
 
 On the right kind of soil, and within reach of the 
 right market, potatoes are money-makers. But they 
 must be grown every year because the price of pota- 
 toes fluctuates more than any other farm crop. Under 
 the right conditions potatoes grown for five years 
 with proper care and good management are sure to 
 make money. One year out of ^ye will break even, two 
 years will make a little money and the other two yearsi 
 will make big money. At the end of five years, with 
 good business management, the potato machinery will 
 be all paid for, and there will be a substantial profit. 
 
 WHEEL HOE 
 
 In growing onions and other truck crops, where the 
 rows are too close together for horse cultivation, the 
 wheel hoe is valuable. In fact, it is almost indispen- 
 sable when such crops are grown extensively. The best 
 wheel hoes have a number of attachments. "When the 
 seed-bed has been carefully prepared, and the soil is 
 fine and loose, the wheel hoe may be used as soon as 
 the young plants show above ground. Men who are 
 accustomed to operating a wheel hoe become expert. 
 They can work almost as close to the growing plants 
 with an implement of this kind as they can with an or- 
 dinary hand hoe. The wheel hoe, or hand cultivator, 
 works the ground on both sides of the row at once, 
 and it does it quickly, so that very little hand weeding 
 is necessary. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 HANDLING THE HAY CEOP 
 REVOLVING HAYRAKE ♦ 
 
 About the first contrivance for raking hay by horse 
 power consisted of a stick eight or ten feet long with 
 double-end teeth running through it, and pointing in 
 two directions. These rakes were improved from time 
 
 Figure 143. — Grass Hook, for working around borders where the 
 lawn-mower is too clumsy, 
 
 to time, until they reached perfection for this kind of 
 tool. They have since been superseded by spring- 
 tooth horse rakes, except for certain purposes. For 
 pulling field peas, and some kinds of beans, the old 
 style revolving horse rake is still in use. 
 
 Improved revolving horse rakes have a center tim- 
 ber of hardwood about 4x6 inches in diameter. The 
 corners are rounded to facilitate sliding over the 
 ground. A rake twelve feet long will have about eigh- 
 teen double- end teeth. The teeth project about two 
 and one-half feet each way from the center timber. 
 
 163 
 
164 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 Each tooth is rounded up, sled-runner fashion, at each 
 end so it will point forward and slide along over and 
 close to the ground without catching fast. There is 
 an iron pull rod, or long hook, attached to each end of 
 the center bar by means of a bolt that screws into the 
 center of the end of the wooden center shaft, thus 
 forming a gudgeon pin so the shaft can revolve. Two 
 handles are fastened by band iron straps to rounded 
 
 Figure 144. — Revolving Hayrake. The center piece is 4"x6"xl2' 
 long. The teeth are double enders 1%" square and 4' 6" long, 
 which allows 24" of rake tooth clear of the center timber. Every 
 stick in the rake is carefully selected. It is drawn by one horse. 
 If the center teeth stick into the ground either the horse must stop 
 instantly, or the rake must flop over, or there will be a repair job. 
 This invention has never been improved upon for pulling Canada 
 peas. 
 
 recesses or girdles cut around the center bar. These 
 girdles are just far enough apart for a man to walk 
 between and to operate the handles. Wooden, or iron 
 lugs, reach down from the handles with pins project- 
 ing from their sides to engage the rake teeth. Two 
 pins project from the left lug and three from the right. 
 Sometimes notches are made in the lugs instead of 
 pins. Notches are better ; they may be rounded up to 
 prevent catching when the rake revolves. As the rake 
 slides along, the driver holds the rake teeth in the 
 proper position by means of the handles. When suffi- 
 cient load has been gathered he engages the upper 
 
HANDLING THE HAY CROP 165 
 
 notch in the right hand Ing, releases the left and raises 
 the other sufficient to point the teeth into the ground. 
 The pull of the horse turns the rake over and the man 
 grasps the teeth again with the handle lugs as before. 
 Unless the driver is careful the teeth may stick in the 
 ground and turn over before he is ready for it. It re- 
 quires a little experience to use such a rake to advan- 
 
 Figure 145. — Buck Rake. When hay is stacked in the field a four- 
 horse buck rake is the quickest way to bring the hay to the stack. 
 The buck rake shown is 16 feet wide and the 2x4 teeth are 11 feet 
 long. Two horses are hitched to each end and two drivers stand on 
 the ends of the buck rake to operate it. The load is pushed under 
 the horse fork, the horses are swung outward and the buck rake is 
 dragged backward. 
 
 tage. No better or cheaper way has ever been invented 
 for harvesting Canada peas. The only objections are 
 that it shells some of the riper pods and it gathers up a 
 certain amount of earth with the vines which makes 
 dusty threshing. 
 
 HAY-TEDDER 
 
 The hay-tedder is an English invention, which 
 has been adopted by farmers in rainy sections of 
 
166 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 the United States. It is an energetic kicker that scat- 
 ters the hay swaths and drops the hay loosely to 
 dry between showers. Hay may be made quickly 
 by starting the tedder an hour behind the mowing 
 machine. 
 
 It is quite possible to cut timothy hay in the morn- 
 ing and put it in the mow in the afternoon, by shaking 
 it up thoroughly once or twice with the hay-tedder. 
 "When clover is mixed with the timothy, it is necessary 
 to leave it in the field until the next day, but the time 
 between cutting and mowing is shortened materially 
 by the use of the tedder. 
 
 Grass cut for hay may be kicked apart in the field 
 early during the wilting process without shattering the 
 leaves. If left too long, then the hay-tedder is a dam- 
 age because it kicks the leaves loose from the stems and 
 the most valuable feeding material is wasted. But 
 it is a good implement if rightly used. In catchy 
 weather it often means the difference between bright, 
 valuable hay and black, musty stuff, that is hardly fit 
 to feed. 
 
 Hay-tedders are expensive. Where two farmers 
 neighbor together the expense may be shared, because 
 the tedder does its work in two or three hours' time. 
 Careful farmers do not cut down much grass at one 
 time. The tedder scatters two mowing swaths at once. 
 In fact the mowing machine, hay-tedder and horserake 
 should all fit together for team work so they will fol- 
 low each other without skips or unnecessary laps. The 
 dividing board of the mowing-machine marks a path 
 for one of the horses to follow and it is difficult to keep 
 him out of it. But two horses pulHng a hay-tedder will 
 straddle the open strip between the swaths when the 
 tedder is twice the width of the cut. 
 
HANDLING THE HAY CROP 
 
 167 
 
 HAY SKIDS 
 
 Hay slips, or hay skids, are used on the old smooth 
 fields in the eastern states. They are usually made of 
 seven-eighths-inch boards dressed preferably on one 
 side only. They are used smooth side to the ground to 
 
 Figure W6. — Hay Skid. This hay skid is 8 feet wide and 16 feet 
 long. It is made of %" lumber put together with 2" carriage bolts — 
 plenty of them. The round boltheads are countersunk into the 
 bottom of the skid and the nuts are drawn down tight on the cleats. 
 It makes a low-down, easy-pitching, hay-hauling device. 
 
 Figure 147. — Hay Sling. It takes no longer to hoist 500 pounds 
 of hay than 100 pounds if the rig is large and strong enough. Four 
 feet wide by ten feet in length is about right for handling hay 
 quickly. But the toggle must reach to the ends of the rack if used 
 on a wagon. 
 
 slip along easily. Rough side is up to better hold the 
 hay from slipping. The long runner boards are held 
 together by cross pieces made of inch boards twelve 
 inches wide and well nailed at each intersection with 
 nails well clinched. Small carriage bolts are better 
 than nails but the heads should be countersunk into the 
 bottom with the points up. They should be used with- 
 
168 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 out washers and the ends of the bolts cut close to the 
 sunken nuts. The front end of the skid is rounded up 
 slightly^ sled runner fashion, as much as the boards 
 will bear, to avoid digging into the sod to destroy either 
 the grass roots or crowns of the plants. Hay usually is 
 
 Figure 148. — (1) Four-Tined Derrick Fork. (2) Pea Guard. An 
 extension guard to lift pea-vines high enough for the sickle is the 
 cleanest way to harvest Canada peas. The old-fashioned way of 
 pulling peas with a dull scythe has gone into oblivion. But the 
 heavy bearing varieties still persist in crawling on the ground. If 
 the vines are lifted and cut clean they can be raked into windrows 
 with a spring tooth hayrake. (3) Haystack Knife. This style of 
 hay-cutting knife is used almost universally on stacks and in hay- 
 mows. There is less use for hay-knives since farmers adopted power 
 hayforks to lift hay out of a mow as well as to put it in. 
 
 forked by hand from the windrows on to the skids. 
 Sometimes hay slings are placed on the skids and the 
 hay is forked on to the slings carefully in layers lapped 
 over each other in such a way as to hoist on to the stack 
 without spilling out at the sides. Four hundred to 
 eight hundred pounds makes a good load for one of 
 
HANDLING THE HAY CROP 
 
 169 
 
 these skids, according to horse power and unevenness 
 of the ground. They save labor, as compared to wag- 
 ons, because there is no pitching up. All hoisting is 
 
 Figure 149. — Double Harpoon Hayfork. This is a large size fork 
 with extra long legs. For handling long hay that hangs together 
 well this fork is a great success. It may be handled as quickly as 
 a smaller fork and it carries a heavy load. 
 
 supposed to be done by horse power with the aid of a 
 hay derrick. 
 
 WESTERN HAY DERRICKS 
 
 Two derricks for stacking hay, that are used exten- 
 sively in the alfalfa districts of Idaho, are shown in 
 the illustration, Figure 151. The derrick to the left is 
 
170 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 made with a square base of timbers which supports an 
 upright mast and a horizontal boom. The timber base 
 is sixteen feet square, made of five sticks of timber, 
 each piece being 8x8 inches square by 16 feet in length. 
 Two of the timbers rest flat on the ground and are 
 rounded up at the ends to facilitate moving the derrick 
 across the stubble ground or along the road to the next 
 
 Figure 150. — Six-Tined Grapple Hayfork. It is balanced to hang 
 as shown in the drawing when empty. It sinks into the hay easily 
 and dumps quickly when the clutch is released. 
 
 hayfield. These sleigh runner timbers are notched on 
 the upper side near each end and at the middle to re- 
 ceive the three cross timbers. The cross timbers also 
 are notched or recessed about a half inch deep to make 
 a sort of double mortise. The timbers are bound to- 
 gether at the intersections by iron U-clamps that pass 
 around both timbers and fasten through a flat iron 
 plate on top of the upper timbers. These flat plates or 
 bars have holes near the ends and the threaded ends of 
 the U-irons pass through these holes and the nuts are 
 
HANDLING THE HAY CROP 
 
 171 
 
 screwed down tight. The sleigh runner timbers are re- 
 cessed diagonally across the bottom to fit the round 
 U-irons which are let into the bottoms oi the timbers 
 just enough to prevent scraping the earth when the 
 
 Figure 151. — Idaho Hay Derricks. Two styles of hay derricks are 
 used to stack alfalfa hay in Idaho. The drawing to the left shows 
 the one most in use because it is easier made and easier to move. 
 The derrick to the right usually is made larger and more powerful. 
 Wire cable is generally used with both derricks because rope wears 
 out quickly. They are similar in operation but different in construc- 
 tion. The base of each is 16 feet square and the high ends of the 
 booms reach up nearly 40 feet. A single hayfork -'ope, oi wire cable, 
 is used ; it is about 65 feet long. The reach is sufficient to drop the 
 hay in the center of a stack 24 feet wide. 
 
 derrick is being moved. These iron U-clamp fasteners 
 are much stronger and better than bolts through the 
 timbers. 
 
 There are timber braces fitted acrass the corners 
 which, are bolted through the outside timbers to brace 
 
172 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 the frame against a diamond tendency when moving 
 the derrick. There is considerable strain when passing 
 over uneven ground. It is better to make the frame so 
 
 Figure 152. — Hay Carrier Carriage. Powerful carriers are part 
 of the new barn. The track is double and the wheels run on both 
 tracks to stand a side pull and to start quickly and run steadily 
 when the clutch is released. 
 
 solid that it cannot get out of square. The mast is a 
 stick of timber 8 inches square and 20 or 24 feet long. 
 This mast is securely fastened solid to the center of 
 
HANDLING THE HAY CROP 173 
 
 the frame by having the bottom end mortised into the 
 center cross timber at the middle and it is braced solid 
 and held perpendicular to the framework by 4''x4'' 
 wooden braces at the corners. These braces are notched 
 at the top ends to fit the corners of the mast and 
 are beveled at the bottom ends to fit flat on top of 
 the timbers. They are held in place by bolts and by 
 strap iron or band iron bands. These bands are drilled 
 with holes and are spiked through into the timbers 
 
 Figure 153. — (1) Hayfork Hitch. A whiffletree pulley doubles the 
 speed of the fork. The knot in the rope gives double power to start 
 the load. (2) Rafter Grapple, for attaching an extra pulley to any 
 part of the barn roof. 
 
 with four-inch or five-inch wire nails. Holes are drilled 
 through the band iron the right size and at the proper 
 places for the nails. The mast is made round at the 
 top and is fitted with a heavy welded iron ring or band 
 to prevent splitting. The boom is usually about 30 
 feet long. Farmers prefer a round pole when they can 
 get it. It is attached to the top of the mast by an iron 
 stirrup made by a blacksmith. This stirrup is made 
 to fit loosely half way around the boom one-third of the 
 way up from the big end, which makes the small end 
 of the boom project 20 feet out from the upper end 
 of the mast. The iron stirrup is made heavy and 
 
174 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 strong. It has a round iron gudgeon ly^'' in diameter 
 that reaches down into the top of the mast about 18 
 inches. The shoulder of the stirrup is supported by a 
 square, flat iron plate which rests on and covers the 
 top of the mast and has the corners turned down. • It is 
 made large to shed water and protect the top of the 
 mast. This plate has a hole one and a half inches in 
 diameter in the center through which the stirrup 
 
 Figure 154. — -Hay Rope Pulleys. The housing of the pulley to the 
 left prevents the rope from running off the sheaves. 
 
 gudgeon passes as it enters the top of the mast. A farm 
 chain, or logging chain, is fastened to the large end of 
 the boom by passing the chain around the boom and 
 engaging the round hook. The grab hook end of the 
 chain is passed around the timber below and is hooked 
 back to give it the right length, which doubles the part 
 of the chain within reach of the man in charge. This 
 double end of the chain is lengthened or shortened to 
 elevate the outer end of the boom to fit the stack. The 
 small outer end of the boom is thus raised as the stack 
 goes up. 
 
HANDLING THE HAY CROP 175 
 
 An ordinary horse fork and tackle is used to hoist the 
 hay. Three single pulleys are attached, one to the 
 outer end of the boom, one near the top of the mast, 
 and the other at the bottom of the mast so that the rope 
 passes easily and freely through the three pulleys and 
 at the same time permits the boom to swing around as 
 the fork goes up from the wagon rack over the stack. 
 This swinging movement is regulated by tilting the 
 derrick towards the stack so that the boom swings over 
 
 Figure 155. — Gambrel Whiffletree, for use in hoisting hay to pre- 
 vent entanglements. It is also handy when cultivating around 
 fruit-trees. 
 
 the stack by its own weight or by the weight of the hay 
 on the horse fork. Usually a wire truss is rigged over 
 the boom to stiffen it. The wire is attached to the boom 
 at both ends and the middle of the wire is sprung up to 
 rest on a bridge placed over the stirrup. 
 
 Farmers like this simple form of hay derrick because 
 it is cheaply made and it may be easily moved because 
 it is not heavy. It is automatic and it is about as cheap 
 as any good derrick and it is the most satisfactory for 
 ordinary use. The base is large enough to make it solid 
 and steady when in use. Before moving the point of 
 the boom is lowered to a level position so that the der- 
 
176 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 rick is not top-heavy. There is little danger of upset- 
 ting upon ordinary farm lands. Also the width of 16 
 feet will pass along country roads without meeting 
 serious obstacles. Hay slings usually are made too 
 narrow and too short. The ordinary little hay sling is 
 prone to tip sideways and spill the hay. It is respon- 
 sible for a great deal of profanity. The hay derrick 
 shown to the right is somewhat different in construc- 
 tion, but is quite similar in action. The base is the 
 
 Figure 156. — Cable Hay Stacker. The wire cable is supported by 
 the two bipods and is secured at each end by snubbing stakes. Two 
 single-cable collars are clamped to the cable to prevent the bipods 
 from slipping in at the top. Two double-cable clamps hold the 
 ends of the cables to form stake loops. 
 
 same but the mast turns on a gudgeon stepped into an 
 iron socket mortised into the center timber. 
 
 The wire hoisting cable is threaded differently, as 
 shown in the drawing. This style of derrick is made 
 larger, sometimes the peak reaches up 40' above the 
 base. The extra large ones are awkward to move but 
 they build fine big stacks. 
 
 CALIFORNIA HAY RICKER 
 
 In the West hay is often put up in long ricks in- 
 stead of stacks. One of my jobs in California was to 
 put up 2,700 acres of wild hay in the Sacramento Val- 
 
HANDLING THE HAY CROP 
 
 177 
 
 ley. I made four rickers and eight buck rakes similar 
 to the ones shown in the illustrations. Each rieker was 
 operated by a crew of eight men. Four men drove two 
 buck rakes. There were two on the rick, one at the 
 
 Figure 157. — California Hay Rieker, for putting either wild hay 
 or alfalfa quickly in ricks. It is used in connection with home- 
 made buck rakes. This rieker works against the end of the rick 
 and is backed away each time to start a new bench. The upright 
 is made of light poles or 2x4s braced as shown. It should be 28 or 
 30 feet high. Iron stakes hold the bottom, while guy wires steady 
 the top. 
 
 fork and one to drive the hoisting rig. Ten mowing 
 machines did most of the cutting but I hired eight more 
 machines towards the last, as the latest grass was get- 
 ting too ripe. The crop measured more than 2,100 
 tons and it was all put in ricks, stacks and barns with- 
 out a drop of rain on it. I should add that rain sel- 
 
178 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 dom falls in the lower Sacramento Valley during the 
 haying season in the months of May and June. This 
 refers to wild hay, which is made up of burr clover, 
 wild oats and volunteer wheat and barley. 
 
 Alfalfa is cut from five to seven times in the hot in- 
 terior valleys, so that if a farmer is rash enough to 
 plant alfalfa under irrigation his haying thereafter 
 will reach from one rainy season to the next. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 FAEM CONVEYANCES 
 
 STONE-BOAT 
 
 One of the most useful and one of the least orna- 
 mental conveyances on a farm is the stone-boat. It is 
 a low-down handy rig for moving heavy commodities 
 in summer as well as in winter. No other sleigh or 
 wagon will equal a stone-boat for carrying plows or 
 
 Figure 158. — Stone-Boat. Stump logs are selected for the planks. 
 The bend of the planks is the natural curve of the large roots. The 
 sawing is done by band saw cutting from two directions. 
 
 harrows from one field to another. It is handy to tote 
 bags of seed to supply the grain drill, to haul a barrel 
 of water, feed for the hogs, and a great many other 
 chores. 
 
 When the country was new, sawmills made a business 
 of sawing stone-boat plank. Trees for stone-boat staves 
 were cut close to the ground and the natural crooks of 
 the roots were used for the noses of sleigh runners and 
 for stone-boats. But cast-iron noses are now manufac- 
 tured with recesses to receive the ends of straight ordi- 
 nary hardwood planks. These cast-iron ends are 
 
 179 
 
180 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 rounded up in front to make the necessary nose crook. 
 The front plank cross piece is bolted well towards the 
 front ends of the runner planks. Usually there are two 
 other hardwood plank cross pieces, one near the rear 
 end and the other about one-third of the way back from 
 the front. Placing the cross pieces in this way gives 
 room between to stand a barrel. 
 
 The cross pieces are bolted through from the bottom 
 up. Round-headed bolts are used and they are counter- 
 
 Figure 159. — Wheelbarrow. This factory-made wheelbarrow is the 
 only pattern worth bothering with. It is cheap and answers the 
 purpose better than the heavier ones with removable side wings. 
 
 sunk, to come flush with the bottom of the sliding 
 planks. The nuts are countersunk into the cross 
 pieces by boring holes about one-quarter inch deep. 
 The holes are a little larger than the cornerwise 
 diameter of the nuts. No washers are used, and 
 the nuts are screwed down tight into the plank. 
 The ends of the bolts are cut off even and filed 
 smooth. The nuts are placed sharp corner side down 
 and are left nearly flush on top or even with the sur- 
 face of the cross pieces. In using a stone-boat, nobody 
 wants a projection to catch any part of the load. 
 
 Regular double-tree clevises are attached to the 
 corners of the old-fashioned stone-boat and the side 
 
FARM CONVEYANCES 181 
 
 chains are brought together to a ring and are just about 
 long enough to form an equilateral triangle with the 
 front end of the stone-boat. Cast-iron fronts usually 
 have a projection in the center for the clevis hitch. 
 
 OXEN ON A NEW ENGLAND FARM 
 
 One of the most interesting experiences on a New 
 England farm is to get acquainted with the manner in 
 which oxen are pressed into farm service. One reason 
 why oxen have never gone out of fashion in New Eng- 
 land is the fact that they are patient enough to plow 
 stony ground without smashing the plow. 
 
 A great deal of New England farm land has been re- 
 claimed by removing a portion of the surface stone. 
 In the processes of freezing and thawing and cultiva- 
 tion, stones from underneath keep working up to the 
 surface so that it requires considerable skill to do the 
 necessary plowing and cultivating. Oxen ease the 
 plowpoint over or around a rock so it can immediately 
 dip in again to the full depth of the furrow. A good 
 yoke of cattle well trained are gentle as well as strong 
 and powerful. 
 
 Oxen are cheaper than horses to begin with and 
 they are valuable for beef when they are not needed 
 any longer as work animals. The Holstein breed seems 
 to have the preference for oxen with New England 
 farmers. The necessary harness for a pair of cattle 
 consists of an ox yoke with a ringbolt through the cen- 
 ter of the yoke, midway between the two oxen. A 
 heavy iron ring about five inches in diameter, made of 
 round iron, hangs from the ring bolt. There are two 
 oxbows to hold the yoke in place on the necks of the 
 cattle. A logging chain with a round hook on one end 
 
182 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 and a grab hook on the other end completes the yoking 
 outfit. 
 
 The round hook of the chain is hitched into the ring 
 in the plow clevis. The chain is passed through the 
 large iron ring in the oxbow and is doubled back to get 
 the right length. The grab hook is so constructed that 
 it fits over one link of the chain flatwise so that the next 
 link standing crosswise prevents it from slipping. 
 
 The mechanism of a logging chain is extremely sim- 
 ple, positive in action and especially well adapted to 
 the use for which it is intended. The best mechanical 
 inventions often pass without notice because of their 
 simplicity. Farmers have used logging chains for gen- 
 erations with hooks made on this plan without realiz- 
 ing that they were profiting by a high grade invention 
 that embodies superior merit. 
 
 In yoking oxen to a wagon the hitch is equally sim- 
 ple. The end of the wagon tongue is placed in the ring 
 in the ox yoke, the round hook engages with a draw- 
 bolt under the hammer strap bar. The small grab hook 
 is passed through the large yoke ring and is brought 
 back and engaged with a chain link at the proper dis- 
 tance to stretch the chain taut. 
 
 The process of yoking oxen and hitching them to a 
 wagon is one of the most interesting performances on 
 a farm. The off ox works on the off side, or far side 
 from the driver. He usually is the larger of the two 
 and the more intelligent. The near (pronounced 
 n-i-g-h) ox is nearest to the driver who walks to the left. 
 Old plows turned the furrow to the right so the driver 
 could walk on hard ground. In this way the awkward- 
 ness and ignorance of the near ox is played against the 
 docility and superior intelligence of the off ox. In 
 yoking the two together the yoke is first placed on the 
 
FARM CONVEYANCES 183 
 
 neck of the off ox and the near ox is invited to come 
 under. This expression is so apt that a great many- 
 years ago it became a classic in the hands of able writ- 
 ers to suggest submission or slavery termed '^coming 
 under the yoke." Coming under the yoke, however, 
 for the New England ox, in these days of abundant 
 feeding, is no hardship. The oxen are large and power- 
 ful and the work they have to do is just about sufficient 
 to give them the needed exercise to enjoy their alfalfa 
 hay and feed of oats or corn. 
 
 TRAVOY 
 
 One of the first implements used by farm settlers in 
 the timbered sections of the United States and Canada, 
 was a three-cornered sled made from the fork of a tree. 
 This rough sled, in the French speaking settlements, 
 was called a ^^travoy." Whether it was of Indian or 
 French invention is not known ; probably both Indians 
 and French settlers used travoys for moving logs in the 
 woods before American history was much written. The 
 legs or runners of a travoy are about five feet long. 
 There is a bunk which extends crossways from one run- 
 ner to the other, about half or two-thirds of the way 
 back from the turned-up nose. This bunk is fastened 
 to the runners by means of wooden pins and U- 
 shaped bows fitted into grooves cut around the upper 
 half of the bunk near the ends. Just back of the 
 turned up nose is another cross piece in the shape of a 
 stout wooden pin or iron bolt that is passed through an 
 auger hole extending through both legs from side to 
 side of the travoy. The underside of the crotch is 
 hollowed out in front of the bolt to make room to pass 
 the logging chain through so it comes out in front un- 
 der the turned up nose. 
 
184 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 The front of the travoy is turned up, sled runner 
 fashion, by hewing the wood with an axe to give it the 
 proper shape. Travoys are used to haul logs from a 
 thick woods to the skidways. The manner of using a 
 travoy is interesting. It is hauled by a yoke of cattle 
 or a team of horses to the place where the log lies in the 
 woods. The round hook end of the logging chain is 
 thrown over the butt end of the log and pulled back 
 under the log then around the bunk just inside of the 
 
 Figure 160. — Travoy. 
 
 A log-hauling sled made from the fork of a 
 tree. 
 
 runner and hooked fast upon itself. The travoy is then 
 leaned over against the log, the grab hook end of the 
 chain is brought over the log and over the travoy and 
 straightened out at right angles to the log. The cattle 
 are hitched to the end of the logging chain and started. 
 This kind of a hitch rolls the log over on top of the 
 bunk on the travoy. The cattle are then unhitched. 
 The grab hook end of the chain thus released is passed 
 down and around under the other end of the bunk from 
 behind. The chain is then passed over the bolt near 
 the nose of the travoy and pulled down through the 
 opening and out in front from under the nose. The 
 
FARM CONVEYANCES 
 
 185 
 
 small grab hook of the logging chain is then passed 
 through the clevis, in the doubletree, if horses are 
 used, or the ring in the yoke if cattle are used, and 
 hitched back to the proper length. A little experience 
 is necessary to regulate the length of the chain to give 
 the proper pull. The chain should be short enough so 
 the pull lifts a little. It is generally conceded by 
 woodsmen that a short hitch moves a log easier than a 
 long hitch. However, there is a medium. There are 
 limitations which experience only can determine. A 
 travoy is useful in dense woods where there is a good 
 deal of undergrowth or where there are places so 
 rough that bobsleighs cannot be used to advantage. 
 
 LINCHPIN FARM WAGONS 
 
 In some parts of the country the wheels of handy 
 wagons about the farm are held on axle journals by 
 
 Figure 161. — Cross Reach Wagon. This wagon is coupled for a 
 trailer, but it works just as well when used with a tongue and 
 horses as a handy farm wagon. The bunks are made rigid and 
 parallel by means of a double reach. There are two king bolts to 
 permit both axles to turn. Either end is front. 
 
 means of linchpins in the old-fashioned manner. There 
 are iron hub-bands on both ends of the hubs which pro- 
 ject several inches beyond the wood. This is the best 
 protection against sand to prevent it from working into 
 the wheel boxing that has ever been invented. Sand 
 
186 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 from the felloes scatters down onto these iron bands 
 and rolls. off to the ground. There is a hole through 
 each band on the outer ends of the hubs to pass the 
 linchpin through so that before taking off a wheel to 
 oil the journal it must first be turned so the hole comes 
 directly over the linchpin. To pry out the linchpin the 
 drawbolt is used. Old-fashioned drawbolts were made 
 
 Figure 162. — Wagon Brake. The hounds are tilted up to show the 
 brake beam and the manner of attaching it. The brake lever is 
 fastened to the forward side of the rear bolster and turns up along- 
 side of the bolster stake. The brake rod reaches from the upper end 
 of the lever elbow to the foot ratchet at the front end of the wagon 
 box. 
 
 Figure 163.— Bolster Spring. 
 
 with a chisel shaped end tapered from both sides to a 
 thickness of about an eighth of an inch. This thin 
 wedge end of the drawbolt is placed under the end of 
 the linchpin. The lower side of the hub-band forms a 
 fulcrum to pry the pin up through the hole in the up- 
 per side of the sand-band projection. The linchpin has 
 a hook on the outer side of the upper end so the lever 
 is transferred to the top of the sand-band when another 
 pry lifts the pin clear out of the hole in the end of the 
 iaxle so the wheel may be removed and grease applied 
 
FARM CONVEYANCES 187 
 
 to the axle. The drawbolt on a linchpin wagon usu- 
 ally has a head made in the form of the jaws of a 
 wrench. The wrench is the right size to fit the nuts on 
 
 Figure 164. — Wagon Seat Figure 165. — Hollow Malle* 
 
 Spring. The metal block fits able Iron Bolster Stake to hold 
 
 over the top of the bolster a higher wooden stake when 
 
 stake. necessary. 
 
 the wagon brace irons so that the drawbolt answers 
 three purposes. 
 
 SAND-BANDS 
 
 Many parts of farm machinery require projecting 
 sand-bands to protect the journals from sand and dust. 
 Most farms have some sandy fields or ridges. Some 
 farms are all sand or sandy loam. Even dust from clay 
 is injurious to machinery. There is more or less grit 
 in the finest clay. The most important parts of farm 
 machinery are supposed to be protected by oil-cups 
 containing cotton waste to strain the oil, together with 
 covers in the shape of metal caps. These are necessary 
 protections and they help, but they are not adequate 
 for all conditions. It is not easy to keep sand out of 
 bearings on machinery that shakes a good deal. 
 Wooden plugs gather sand and dust. When a plug is 
 pulled the sand drops into the oil hole. Farm ma- 
 chinery that is properly designed protects itself from 
 sand and dust. In buying a machine this particular 
 feature should appeal to the farmers more than it 
 
188 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 does. Leather caps are a nuisance. They are a sort 
 of patchwork to finish the job that the manufacturer 
 commences. A man who is provident enough to sup- 
 ply himself with good working tools and is suflSciently 
 
 Figure 166. — Sand Caps. Not one manufacturer in a hundred 
 knows how to keep sand out of an axle bearing. Still it is one of the 
 simplest tricks in mechanics. The only protection an axle needs is 
 long ferrules that reach out three or four inches beyond the hub at 
 both ends. Old-fashioned Linchpin farm wagons were built on this 
 principle. The hubs held narrow rings instead of skeins, but they 
 wore for years. 
 
 careful to take care of them, usually is particular about 
 the appearance as well as the usefulness of his tools, 
 machinery and implements. 
 
 BOBSLEIGHS 
 
 On Northern farms bobsleighs are as important in 
 the winter time as a farm wagon in summer. There are 
 different ways of putting bobsleighs together accord- 
 ing to the use required of them. When using heavy 
 bobsleighs for road work, farmers favor the bolster 
 reach to connect the front and rear sleighs. With this 
 attachment the horses may be turned around against 
 the rear sled. The front bolster fits into a recessed 
 
FARM CONVEYANCES 189 
 
 plate bolted to the bench plank of the front sleigh. 
 This plate is a combination of wearing plate and circle 
 and must be kept oiled to turn easily under a heavy 
 load. It not only facilitates turning, but it prevents 
 the bolster from catching on the raves or on the up- 
 turned nose of the front bob when turning short. 
 
 The heavy hardwood plank reach that connects the 
 two bolsters is put through a mortise through the front 
 bolster and is fastened rigidly by an extra large king- 
 bolt. The reach plays back and forth rather loosely 
 through a similar mortise in the other bolster on the 
 rear sleigh. The rear hounds connect with the reach 
 by means of a link and pin. This link pushes up 
 through mortise holes in the reach and is fastened with 
 a wooden pin or key on top of the reach. Sometimes 
 the hounds are taken away and the reach is fastened 
 with pins before and behind the rear bolster. This 
 reach hitch is not recommended except for light road 
 work. These two ways of attaching the rear sled neces- 
 sitate different ways of fastening the rear bolster to 
 the sled. When the rear bolster is required to do the 
 pulling, it is attached to the sled by double eyebolts 
 which permit the necessary rocking motion and allows 
 the nose of the rear sled to bob up and down freely. 
 This is an advantage when a long box bed is used, be- 
 cause the bolster is made to fit the box closely and is not 
 continually oscillating and wearing. Eye-bolts pro- 
 vide for this natural movement of the sled. Light 
 pleasure bobs are attached to the box with eyebolts 
 without bolster stakes. The light passenger riding seat 
 box is bound together with iron braces and side irons 
 so it does not need bolsters to hold the sides together. 
 
 Bobsleighs for use in the woods are hitched together 
 quite differently. The old-fashioned reach with a staple 
 
190 . FARM MECHANICS 
 
 in the rear bench of the first sled and a clevis in the end 
 of the reach is the old-fashioned rig for rough roads in 
 the woods. Such sleighs are fitted with bunks instead 
 of bolsters. Bunks are usually cut from good hard- 
 wood trees, hewed out with an axe and bored for round 
 
 Figure 167.— Bobsleighs, Showing Three Kinds of Coupling. The 
 upper sleighs are coupled on the old-fashioned short reach plan ex- 
 cept that the reach is not mortised into the roller. It is gained in 
 a quarter of an inch and fastened by an iron strap with a plate and 
 nuts on the under side. The bobs in the center show the bolster 
 reach, principally used for road work. The bottom pair are coupled 
 by cross chains for short turning around trees and stumps in the 
 woods. 
 
 stakes. Log bunks for easy loading do. not project 
 beyond the raves. With this kind of a rig, a farmer can 
 fasten two logging chains to the reach, carry the grab 
 hook ends out and under and around the log and back 
 again over the sleighs, and then hitch the horses to the 
 two chains and roll the log up over a couple of skids 
 and on to the bunks without doing any damage to the 
 
FARM CONVEYANCES 191 
 
 bobsleighs. Bobsleighs hitched together with an old- 
 fashioned reach and provided with wide heavy raves 
 will climb over logs, pitch down into root holes, and 
 weave their way in and out among trees better than any 
 other sled contrivance, and they turn short enough for 
 such roads. The shortest turning rig, however, is the 
 cross chain reach shown in Figure 167. 
 
 MAKING A FARM CART 
 
 A two-wheeled cart large enough to carry a barrel of 
 cider is a great convenience on a farm. The front 
 wheels of a buggy are about the right size and usually 
 are strong enough for cart purposes. A one-inch iron 
 axle will be stiff enough if it is reinforced at the square 
 bends. The axle is bent down near the hubs at right 
 angles and carried across to support the floor of the 
 cart box about one foot from the ground. The distance 
 from the ground should be just sufficient so that when 
 the cart is tipped back the hind end will rest on the 
 ground with the bottom boards at an easy slant to roll 
 a barrel or milk can into the bottom of the box. Under 
 the back end of the cart platform is a good, stout bar of 
 hardwood framed into the sidepieces. All of the wood- 
 work about the cart is well braced with iron. The floor 
 of the cart is better when made of narrow matched 
 hardwood flooring about seven-eighths of an inch thick 
 fastened with bolts. It should be well supported by 
 cross pieces underneath. In fact the principal part of 
 the box is the underneath part of the frame. 
 
 Sidepieces of the box are wide and are bolted to the 
 vertical parts of the axle and braced in different direc- 
 tions to keep the frame solid, square and firm. The 
 sides of the box are permanently fastened but both 
 tailboard and front board are held in place by cleats 
 
192 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 and rods and are removable so that long scantling or 
 lumber may be carried on the cart bottom. The ends 
 of the box may be quickly put in place again when it 
 is necessary to use them. 
 
 To hold a cart box together, four rods are necessary, 
 two across the front and two behind. They are made 
 like tailboard rods in wagon boxes. There is always 
 some kind of tongue or handle bar in front of the farm 
 cart conveniently arranged for either pulling or push- 
 
 Figure 168. — Farm Cart. The axle need not be heavier than %", 
 The hind axle of a light buggy works the best. It is bent down and 
 spliced and welded under the box. The cart should be made narrow 
 to prevent overloading. The box should be low enough to rest the 
 back end on the ground at an angle of about 35° for easy loading. 
 
 ing. If a breast bar is used it handles better when sup- 
 ported by two curved projecting shafts or pieces of 
 bent wood, preferably the bent up extended ends of the 
 bedpieces. The handle bar should be about three feet 
 from the ground. 
 
 COLT-BREAKING SULKY 
 
 A pair of shafts that look a good deal too long, an 
 axle, two wheels and a whiffletree are the principal 
 parts of a colt-breaking sulky. The shafts are so long 
 that a colt can kick his best without reaching anything 
 behind. The principal danger is that he may come 
 down with one hind leg over the shaft. It is a question 
 with horsemen whether it is better to first start a colt 
 
FARM CONVEYANCES 
 
 193 
 
 alongside of an old, steady horse. But it is generally 
 conceded that in no case should a colt be made fast in 
 such a way that he could kick himself loose. Different 
 farmers have different ideas in regard to training colts, 
 but these breaking carts with extra long shafts are very 
 much used in some parts of the country. The shafts 
 are heavy enough so that the colts may be tied down to 
 make kicking impossible. A rope or heavy strap reach- 
 
 Figure 169. — Colt-Breaking Sulky. The axle and hind wheels of 
 a light wagon, two strong straight-grained shafts about 4 feet too 
 long, a whiffletree and a spring seat are the principal parts of a colt 
 breaking sulky. The shafts and seat are thoroughly well bolted and 
 clipped to the axle and braced against all possible maneuvers of the 
 colt. The traces are made so long that the colt cannot reach any- 
 thing to kick, and he is prevented from kicking by a strap reaching 
 from one shaft up over his hips and down to the other shaft. In 
 this rig the colt is compelled to go ahead because he cannot turn 
 around. The axle should be longer than standard to prevent up- 
 setting when the colt turns a corner at high speed. 
 
 ing from one shaft to the other over the coitus hips will 
 keep its hind feet pretty close to the ground. Any rig 
 used in connection with a colt should be strong enough 
 to withstand any strain that the colt may decide to put 
 upon it. If the colt breaks something or breaks loose, 
 it takes him a long time to forget the scare. Farm boys 
 make these breaking carts by using wheels and hind 
 axles of a worn-out buggy. This is well enough if the 
 wheels are strong and shafts thoroughly bolted and 
 braced. It is easy to make a mistake with a colt. To 
 prevent accidents it is much better to have the harness 
 and wagon amply strong. 
 
CHAPTEE VIII 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS FAEM CONVENIENCES 
 
 FARM OFFICE 
 
 Business farming requires an office. Business callers 
 feel sensitive about talking farm or live-stock affairs 
 
 Figure 170. — Perspective View of Two-Story Corn Crib. The side of 
 the building is cut away to show the elevating machinery. 
 
 before several members of the family. But they are 
 quite at ease when alone with the farmer in his office. 
 A farm office may be small but it should contain a 
 
 194 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 
 
 195 
 
 desk or table, two or three chairs, book shelves for 
 books, drawers for government bulletins and a cabinet 
 to hold glassware and chemicals for making soil tests 
 
 Figure 171. — Floor Plans of Two-Story Corn Crib. The first 
 floor shows the driveway with corn cribs at the sides and the 
 second floor plan shows the grain bins over the center driveway, 
 with location of the downspouts, stairway, etc. 
 
 and a good magnifying glass for examining seeds be- 
 fore planting. A good glass is also valuable in tracing 
 the destructive work of many kinds of insect pests. 
 
19G 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 The office is the proper place for making germina- 
 tion tests of various farm seeds. Seventy degrees of 
 heat is necessary for the best results in seed testing. 
 For this reason, as well as for comfort while working, 
 the heating problem should receive its share of atten- 
 
 232 Lineal 
 Feet of Wall 
 
 6.G.B 
 
 -53-5" 
 2l49fo Lin. 
 Feet of Wall. 
 
 l902/foLi(i. 
 Feet of Wolf. 
 
 Figure 172. — Economy of Round Barn. The diagrams show that 
 the popular 36'x80' cow stable and the commonest size of round 
 barn have about the same capacity. Each barn will stable forty 
 cows, but the round barn has room for a silo in the center. Both 
 barns have feed overhead in the shape of hay and straw, but the 
 round feed room saves steps. 
 
 Figure 173. — Concrete Farm Scale Base and Pit. 
 
 tion. Many times it so happens that a farmer has a 
 few minutes just before mealtime that he could devote 
 to office work if the room be warm enough. 
 
 Neatly printed letter-heads and envelopes are im- 
 portant. The sheets of paper should be eight 'and a 
 half by eleven inches in size, pure white and of good 
 quality. The printing should be plain black and of 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 
 
 197 
 
 RIDGE BOARD SHOULD IXTEHB BACK INTO 
 3ARH8rE£T. £'^^- rafters ) 
 
 S2'xt" COLLAR BEAM 
 
 BARM WALL 
 
 Figure 174, — ^Top View of the Hay-Track Roof Extension, showing 
 the ridgeboard and supporting jack-rafters. 
 
 3-0' .. - a'-o" 
 
 WAY-TR, 
 
 BARGE 
 BOARD U 
 
 Figure 175. — Side view showing plan for building a Hayfork Hood 
 to project from peak of a storage barn. The jack-rafters form a 
 brace to support the end of the hay-track beam. 
 
198 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 round medium-sized letters that may be easily read. 
 Fancy lettering and flourishes are out of place on busi- 
 ness stationery. 
 
 Detail of 
 Door 
 Latching 
 Hechanism 
 
 Figure 176. — Slaughter House. The house should be twelve feet 
 wide. It may be any length to provide storage, but 12x12 makes a 
 good beef skinning floor. The windlass shaft should be ten feet 
 above the floor, which requires twelve-foot studding. The wheel is 
 eight feet in diameter and the winding drum is about ten inches. 
 The animal is killed on the incline outside of the building and it lies 
 limp against the revolving door. The door catch is sprung back and 
 the carcass rolls down onto the concrete skinning floor. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 
 
 199 
 
 Halftone illustration of farm animals or buildings 
 are better used on separate advertising sheets that may 
 be folded in with the letters when wanted. 
 
 Figure 177. — ^Rule of Six, Eight and Ten. Diagram showing how 
 to stake the foundation of a farm building so the excavation can be 
 made clear out to the corners without undermining the stakes. 
 
 Figure 178.- 
 
 -Roof Truss built strong enough to support the roof of a 
 farm garage without center posts. 
 
200 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 Typewriters are so common that a hand-written let- 
 ter is seldom seen among business correspondence. A 
 busy farmer is not likely to acquire much speed with a 
 typewriter, but his son or daughter may. One great 
 
 Figure 179. — Design of Roof Truss Intended to Span a Farm Garage. 
 
 Figure 180. — ^Roof Pitches, Mow capacity of the different roof 
 pitches is given above the plates in figures. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 
 
 201 
 
 advantage is the making of carbon copies. Every let- 
 ter received is then filed in a letter case in alphabetical 
 order and a carbon copy of each answer is pinned to it 
 for future reference. 
 
 The cost of furnishing a farm ofiSce will depend upon 
 the inclinations of the man. A cheap kitchen table 
 
 Figure 181. — Double Corn Crib. Two cribs may be roofed this 
 way as cheaply as to roof the two cribs separately. A storeroom is 
 provided overhead and the bracing prevents the cribs from sagging. 
 
 may be used instead of an expensive mahogany desk. 
 A new typewriter costs from fifty to ninety dollars, but 
 a rebuilt machine that will do good work may be ob- 
 tained for twenty. 
 
 A useful magnifying glass with legs may be bought 
 for a dollar or two. Or considerable money may be in- 
 vested in a high-powered microscope. 
 
 SPEED INDICATOR 
 
 The speed requirements of machines are given by 
 the manufacturers. It is up to the farmer to determine 
 
202 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 the size of pulleys and the speed of intermediate shafts 
 between his engine and the machine to be driven. A 
 speed indicator is held against the end of a shaft at 
 the center. The indicator pin then revolves with the 
 
 Figure 182. — Speed Timers. Two styles. The point is held against 
 the center of the shaft to be tested. The number of revolutions per 
 minute is shown in figures on the face of the dial. The indicator 
 is timed to the second hand of a watch. 
 
 shaft and the number of revolutions per minute are 
 counted by timing the pointer on the dial with the sec- 
 ond hand of a watch. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Figure 183. — Building Bracket. Made of 2x4 pieces put together 
 at right angles with diagonal braces. The supporting leg fits be- 
 tween the four diagonal braces. 
 
 SOIL TOOLS 
 
 Soil moisture often is the limiting factor in crop 
 raising. Soil moisture may be measured by analysis. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 
 
 203 
 
 Figure 184. — Diagram showing how to cut a plank on a band- 
 saw to form a curved rafter. The two pieces of the plank are spiked 
 together as shown in the lower drawing. This makes a curved rafter 
 without waste of material. 
 
 Figure 185. — Breeding Crate for Hogs. The illustration shows the 
 manner of construction. 
 
204 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 The first step is to obtain samples at different depths. 
 This is done accurately and quickly with a good soil 
 auger. Other paraphernalia is required to make a 
 
 Figure 186. — Soil Auger. Scientific farming demands that soils 
 shall be tested for moisture. A long handled auger is used to bring 
 samples of soil to the surface. The samples are weighed, the water 
 evaporated and the soil reweighed to determine the amount of 
 moisture. 
 
 Figure 187. — Post Hole Diggers. Two patterns of the same kind 
 of digger are shown. The first has iron handles, the lower has 
 wooden handles. 
 
 Figure 188. — Hoes and Weeders. The hang of a hoe affects its 
 working. The upper hoe shows about the easiest working angle 
 between the blade and the handle. The difference between a hoe and 
 a weeder is that the hoe is intended to strike into the ground to 
 loosen the soil, while the blade of the weeder is intended to work 
 parallel with the surface of the soil to cut young weeds. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 
 
 205 
 
 careful analysis of the sample, but a farmer of experi- 
 ence will make a mud ball and form a very good esti- 
 mate of the amount of water in it. 
 
 Figure 189.— M|inure Hook and Potato Diggers. 
 
 g-^HT 
 
 Figure 190. — Spud. Certain vegetables are gron^n for crop and 
 for seed. The green plants are thinned with a spud for sale, leaving 
 the best to ripen for seed. It is also used to dig tough weeds, espe- 
 cially those having tap roots. 
 
 Figure 191. — (1) Corn Cutting Knife. (2) Asparagus Knife. 
 
 FENCE-MAKING TOOLS 
 
 Sliding Field Gate. — Each farm field should have 
 a gate, not necessarily expensive, but it should be 
 reasonably convenient. Farm field gates should be 
 
206 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 Figure 192. — .(1) Plumb-Bob and Plumb-Line. The line is paid 
 out about 6 feet from the spool and given a half hitch. It may then 
 be hung over the wire and the spool will balance the bob. (2) Bipod. 
 The legs of a fence bipod are cut 6 feet long. The bolt is put 
 through 6 inches from the top ends. By the aid of the plummet the 
 upl)er wire is strung plumb over the barb-wire in the furrow and 
 4' 6" above grade. The lower parts of the posts are set against the " 
 barb-wire and the upper faces of the posts at the top are set even 
 with the upper wire. This plan not only places the posts in line, 
 both at the top and bottom, but it regulates the height. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ~^ 3" 
 
 -^g\ -Q ROUND STEEL 
 
 SPlKt FOU TWISTING BRACE WIRES 
 
 -7-0 
 
 SCOOP FOR, REMOVING STONES 
 
 4-0" 
 
 -?cx::ta&on steteu 
 
 CROW-5AR. 
 
 Figure 193. — Fence Tools. The upper tool is a round steel pin to 
 twist heavy brace wires. The scoop is for working stones out of 
 post-holes. ' The steel crowbar is for working around the stones to 
 loosen them. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 207 
 
 made sixteen feet long, which will allow for a clear 
 opening about fourteen feet wide. The cheapest way 
 to make a good farm gate is to use a 10-inch board for 
 the bottom, 8-inch for the board next to the bottom and 
 three 6-inch boards above that. The space between 
 the bottom board and next board is two inches. This 
 narrow space prevents hogs from lifting the gate with 
 their noses. The spaces widen toward the top, so that 
 the gate when finished is five feet high. If colts run the 
 fields then a bar is needed along the top of the gate. 
 Six cross pieces 1 inch by 6 inches are used to hold 
 
 Figure 194. — Fence Pliers. This is a heavy fence tool made to puU 
 fence staples and to stretch, cut and splice wire. 
 
 the gate together. These cross pieces are bolted through 
 at each intersection. Also a slanting brace is used on 
 the front half of the gate to keep it from racking and 
 this brace is put on with bolts. Two posts are set at 
 each end of the gate. The front posts hold the front 
 end of the gate between them, and the rear posts the 
 same. There is a cross piece which reaches from one 
 of the rear posts to the other to slide the gate and 
 hold it off the ground. A similar cross piece holds the 
 front end of the gate up from the ground. Sometimes 
 a swivel roller is attached to the rear cross piece to roll 
 the gate if it is to be used a good deal. A plain, simple 
 sliding gate is all that is necessary for fields some dis- 
 tance from the barn. 
 
208 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 CORN SHOCK HORSE 
 
 A convenient corn shocking horse is made with a 
 pole cut from a straight tree. The pole is about six 
 inches through at the butt and tapers to a small end. 
 About twenty feet is a good length. There are two legs 
 which hold the large end of the pole up about 40'' from 
 the ground. These legs are well spread apart at the 
 bottom. Two feet back from the legs is a horizontal 
 hole about one and one-quarter inches in diameter to 
 hold the crossbar. This crossbar may be an old broom 
 
 Figure 195. — Corn Horse. When corn is cut by hand there is no 
 better shocking device than the old-style corn horse. It is almost as 
 handy when setting up the corn sheaves from the corn binder. 
 
 handle. The pole and the crossbar mark the four divi- 
 sions of a corn shock. Corn is cut and stood up in each 
 corner, usually nine hills in a corner, giving thirty-six 
 hills to a shock. Corn planted in rows is counted up to 
 make about the same amount of corn to the shock. Of 
 course a heavy or light crop must determine the num- 
 ber of rows or hills. When enough corn is cut for a 
 shock it is tied with two bands, the crossbar is pulled 
 out and the corn horse is dragged along to the next 
 stand. 
 
 HUSKING-PIN 
 
 Hand buskers for dividing the cornhusks at the tips 
 of the ears are made of wood, bone or steel. Wooden 
 husking-pins are made of ironwood, eucalyptus, second 
 growth hickory, or some other tough hardwood. The 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 
 
 209 
 
 Figure 196. — Brick Trowel. 
 
 14 ID 
 
 Figure 197. — Plastering Trowel. 
 
 h20 concrete^ 
 
 rt<imt>ed onders or araYt) 
 
 Figure 198. — Concrete Hog Wallow, showing draii^ pipe. 
 
 Figure 199. — Concrete Center Alley for Hog House. The upper 
 illustration represents the wooden template used to form the center 
 of the hog house floor. 
 
210 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 Str^w Top-^ 
 
 Concrete PoerfJiS^^^^^^ 
 Wire Mesh Filled with STrflW^ 
 
 Figure 200. — Sanitary Pig-Pen. One of the most satisfactory far- 
 rowing houses is constructed of concrete posts 6" square and 6" 
 square mesh hog fencing and straw. The posts are set to make far- 
 rowing pens 8' wide and 16' deep from front to back. Woven wire 
 is stretched and fastened to both sides of the posts at the sides and 
 back of each pen. Straw is stuffed in between the two wire nets, 
 thus making partitions of straw 6" thick and 42" high. Fence wire 
 is stretched over the top and straw piled on deep enough to shed 
 rain. The front of the pens face the south and are closed by wooden 
 gates. In the spring the pigs are turned out on pasture, the straw 
 roof is, hauled to the fields for manure and the straw partitions 
 burned out. The sun shines into the skeleton pens all summer so 
 that all mischievous bacteria are killed and the hog-lice are burned 
 or starved. The next fall concrete floors may be laid in the pens, 
 the partitions restuffed with straw and covered with another straw 
 roof. In a colder climate I would cover the whole top with a straw 
 roof. Sufficient ventilation would work through the straw partitions 
 and the front gate. In very cold weather add a thin layer of straw 
 to the gate. 
 
 Figure 201. — Concrete Wall Mold. Wooden molds for shaping a 
 concrete wall may be made as shown. If the "wall is to be low — 2' 
 or less — the mold will stay in place without bolting or wiring the 
 sides together. The form is made level by first leveling the 2"x6" 
 stringers that support the form. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 
 
 211 
 
 pin is about four inches long, five-eighths of an inch 
 thick and it is shaped like a lead-pencil with a rather 
 long point. A recessed girdle is cut around the barrel 
 of the pin and a leather finger ring fits into and around 
 this girdle. Generally the leather ring fits the larger 
 
 Figure 202. — Husking-Pin. The leather finger ring is looped into the 
 recess in the wooden pin. 
 
 Figure 203. — Harness Punch. The hollow punch points are of 
 different sizes. 
 
 Figure 204. — Belt Punch. Two or three sizes should be kept in the 
 tool box. Belt holes should be small to hold the lace tight. The 
 smooth running of belts depends a good deal on the lacing. Holes 
 punch better against the end of a hickory block or other fine grained 
 hardwood. 
 
 finger to hold the pin in the right position while per- 
 mitting it to turn to wear the point all around alike. 
 Bone husking-pins are generally flat with a hole 
 through the center to hold the leather finger ring. Steel 
 husking-pins are shaped differently and have teeth to 
 catch and tear the husks apart. 
 
212 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 PAINT BRUSHES 
 
 Paint brushes may be left in the paint for a year 
 without apparent injury. The paint should be deep 
 enough to nearly bury the bristles. Pour a little boiled 
 linseed oil over the top to form a skin to keep the air 
 out. It is cheaper to buy a new brush than to clean the 
 paint out of one that has been used. 
 
 ttB. Clove Hitch 
 
 Lflshjng Running Knot 
 
 Figure 205. — 'Knots. The simple principles of knot tying as 
 practiced on farms are here represented. 
 
 Figure 206. — Sheepshank, two half hitches in a rope to take up 
 slack. The rope may be folded upon itself as many times as neces- 
 sary. 
 
 Figure 207. — ^Marline Spike. Used for splicing ropes, tying rose 
 knots, etc. 
 
 FRUIT PICKING 
 
 Apples are handled as carefully as eggs by men 
 who understand the business of getting high prices. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 213 
 
 Picking boxes for apples have bothered orchard men 
 more than any other part of the business. It is so 
 difficult to get help to handle apples without bruising 
 that many inventions have been tried to lessen the dam- 
 age. In western New York a tray with vertical ends 
 and slanting sides has been adopted by grape growers 
 as the most convenient tray for grapes. Apple growers 
 are adopting the same tray. It is made of three- 
 
 Figure 208. — Fruit-Picking Tray. It is used for picking grapes 
 and other fruits. The California lug box has vertical sides and is 
 the same size top and bottom. Otherwise the construction is 
 similar. 
 
 eighths-inch lumber cut 30 inches long for the sides, 
 using two strips for each side. The bottom is 30 inches 
 long and three-eighths of an inch thick, made in one 
 piece. The ends are seven-eighths of an inch thick cut 
 to a bevel so the top edge of the end piece is fourteen 
 inches long and the bottom edge is ten inches long. The 
 depth of the end piece is eight inches. Hand cleats 
 are nailed on the outsides of the end pieces so as to pro- 
 ject one-half inch above the top. These cleats not only 
 serve to lift and carry the trays, but when they are 
 loaded on a wagon the bottoms fit in between the cleats 
 to hold them from slipping endways. In piling these 
 
214 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 picking boxes empty, one end is slipped outward over 
 the cleat until the other end drops down. This permits 
 half nesting when the boxes are piled up for storage or 
 when loaded ou wagons to move to the orchard. 
 
 Figure 209. — Fruit Thinning Nippers. Three styles of apple-stem 
 cutters are shown. They are also used for picking grapes and 
 other fruits. 
 
 Apples are picked into the trays from the trees. The 
 trays are loaded on to wagons or stone-boats and 
 hauled to the packing shed, where the apples are rolled 
 out gently over the sloping sides of the crates on to the 
 cushioned bottom of the sorting table. Orchard men 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 215 
 
 should have crates enough to keep the pickers busy- 
 without emptying until they are hauled to the packing 
 shed. The use of such trays or crates save handling 
 the apples over several times. The less apples are 
 handled the fewer bruises are made. 
 
 Figure 210. — Apple Picking Ladder. When apples are picked and 
 placed in bushel trays a ladder on wheels with shelves is convenient 
 for holding the trays. 
 
 In California similar trays are used, but they have 
 straight sides and are called lug boxes. Eastern fruit 
 men prefer the sloping sides because they may be 
 emptied easily, quickly and gently. 
 
 FRUIT PICKING LADDERS 
 
 Commercial orchards are pruned to keep the bear- 
 ing fruit spurs as near the ground as possible, so that 
 
216 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 ladders used at picking time are not so long as they 
 used to be. 
 
 The illustration shows one of. the most convenient 
 picking ladders. It is a double ladder with shelves to 
 hold picking trays supported by two wheels and two 
 legs. The wheels which are used to support one side 
 
 Figure 211. — Stepladder and Apple-Picking Bag. This ladder has 
 only three feet, but the bottom of the ladder is made wide to pre- 
 vent upsetting. This bag is useful when picking scattering apples 
 on the outer or upper branches. Picking bags carelessly used are the 
 cause of many bruised apples. 
 
 Figure 212. — Tree Pruners. The best made pruners are the 
 cheapest. This long handled pruner is made of fine tool steel from 
 the cutting parts clear to the outer ends of the wooden handles. A 
 positive stop prevents the handles from coming together. Small 
 one-hand pruning nippers are made for clean cutting. The blades 
 of both pruners should work towards the tree trunk so the hook will 
 mash the bark on the discarded portion of the limb. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 217 
 
 of the frame are usually old buggy wheels. A hind 
 axle together with the wheels works about right. The 
 ladder frame is about eight feet high with ladder steps 
 going up from each side. These steps also form the 
 support for the shelves. Picking trays or boxes are 
 placed on the shelves, so the latter will hold eight or 
 ten bushels of apples, and may be wheeled directly to 
 the packing shed if the distance is not too great. 
 
 Step-ladders from six to ten feet long are more con- 
 venient to get up into the middle of the tree than al- 
 most any other kind of ladder. Commercial apple 
 
 Figure 213. — Shears. The first pair is used for sheep shearing. 
 The second is intended for cutting grass around the edges of walks 
 and flower beds. 
 
 trees have open tops to admit sunshine. For this rea- 
 son, straight ladders are not much used. It is neces- 
 sary to have ladders built so they will support them- 
 selves. Sometimes only one leg is used in front of a 
 step-ladder and sometimes ladders are wide at the bot- 
 tom and taper to a point at the top. The kind of lad- 
 der to use depends upon the size of the trees and the 
 manner in which they have been pruned. Usually it 
 is better to have several kinds of ladders of different 
 sizes and lengths. Pickers then have no occasion to 
 wait for each other. 
 
 FEEDING RACKS 
 
 Special racks for the feeding of alfalfa hay to hogs 
 are built with slatted sides hinged at the top so they 
 will swing in when the hogs crowd their noses through 
 
218 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 to get the hay. This movement drops the hay down 
 within reach. Alfalfa hay is especially valuable as a 
 winter feed for breeding stock. Sows may be wintered 
 
 Figure 214. — Horse Feeding Rack. This is a barnyard hay feeder 
 for horses and colts. The diagonal boarding braces each corner post 
 and leaves large openings at the sides. Horses shy at small hay 
 holes. The top boards and the top rail are 2x4s for strength. The 
 bottom is floored to save the chaff. 
 
 Figure 215. — Corner Post Detail of Horse Feeding Rack. A 2x6 
 is spiked into the edge of a 2x4, making a corner post 6" across. 
 The side boarding is cut even with the corner of the post and the 
 open corner is filled with a two-inch quarter-round as shown. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 
 
 219 
 
 on alfalfa with one ear of corn a day and come out in 
 the spring in fit condition to suckle a fine litter of pigs. 
 Alfalfa is a strong protein feed. It furnishes the 
 
 Figure 216. — Automatic Hog Feeder. The little building is 8 ' xl2 ' 
 on the ground and it is 10' high to the plates. The crushed grain 
 is shoveled in from behind and it feeds down hopper fashion as fast 
 as the hogs eat it. The floor is made of matched lumber. It should 
 stand on a dry concrete floor. 
 
 Figure 217. — Sheep Feeding Rack. The hay bottom and grain 
 trough sides slope together at 45° angles. The boarding is made 
 tight to hold chaff and grain from wasting. 
 
 muscle-forming substances necessary for the young 
 litter by causing a copious flow of milk. One ear of 
 corn a day is sufficient to keep the sow in good condi- 
 
220 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 tion without laying on too much fat. When shoats 
 are fed in the winter for fattening, alfalfa hay helps 
 them to grow. In connection with grain it increases 
 the weight rapidly without adding a great deal of ex- 
 pense to the ration. Alfalfa in every instance is in- 
 tended as a roughage, as an appetizer and as a protein 
 feed. Fat must be added by the use of corn, kaffir corn. 
 
 Figure 218. — Rack Base and Sides. The 2x4s are halved at the 
 ends and put together at right angles. These frames are placed 3' 
 apart and covered with matched flooring. Light braces should be 
 nailed across these frames a few inches up from the ground. The 
 1x4 pickets are placed 7" apart in the clear, so the sheep can get 
 their heads through to feed. These picketed frames are bolted to 
 the base and framed around the top. If the rack is more than 9' 
 long there should be a center tie or partition. Twelve feet is a good 
 length to make the racks. 
 
 Canada peas, barley or other grains. Alfalfa hay is 
 intended to take the place of summer pasture in winter 
 more than as a fattening ration. 
 
 SPLIT-LOG ROAD DRAG 
 
 The only low cost road grader of value is the split- 
 log road drag. It should be exactly what the name im- 
 plies. It should be made from a light log about eight 
 inches in diameter split through the middle with a saw. 
 Plenty of road drags are made of timbers instead of 
 split logs, but the real principle is lost because such 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 
 
 221 
 
 drags are too heavy and clumsy. They cannot be 
 quickly adjusted to the varying road conditions met 
 with while in use. 
 
 Figure 219. — Hog Trough. In a winter hog house the feed trough 
 is placed next to the alley or passageway. A cement trough is best. 
 A drop gate is hinged over the trough so it can be swung in while 
 putting feed in the trough. The same gate is opened up level to 
 admit hogs to the pen. 
 
 The illustration shows the right way of making a 
 road drag, and the manner in which it is drawn along 
 at an angle to the roadway so as to move the earth 
 from the sides towards the center, but illustrations are 
 
222 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 Figure 220. — Reinforced Hog Trougii. The section of hog trough 
 to the left is reinforced with chicken wire, one-inch mesh. The 
 trough to the right is reinforced with seven %" rods — three in the 
 bottom and two in each side. 
 
 Xio\}^ 
 
 Figure 221. — Double Poultry Feeding Trough with Partition in the 
 Center. 
 
 Figure 222. — 'Poultry Feeder with Metal or Crockery Receptacle. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 223 
 
 useless for showing how to operate them to do good 
 work. The eccentricities of a split-log road drag may 
 be learned in one lesson by riding it over a mile or two 
 of country road shortly after the frost has left the 
 ground in the spring of the year. It will be noticed 
 that the front half of the road drag presents the flat 
 side of the split log to the work of shaving off the lumps 
 while the other half log levels and smooths and pud- 
 
 Figure 223. — Split-Log Road Drag. The front edge is shod with 
 a steel plate to do the cutting and the round side of the rear log 
 grinds the loosened earth fine and presses it into the wagon tracks 
 and water holes. 
 
 dies the loosened moist earth by means of the rounded 
 side. Puddling makes earth waterproof. The front, 
 or cutting edge, is faced with steel. The ridges and 
 humps are cut and shoved straight ahead or to one 
 side to fill holes and ruts. This is done by the driver, 
 who shifts his weight from one end to the other, and 
 from front to back of his standing platform to dis- 
 tribute the earth to the best advantage. The rounded 
 side of the rear half log presses the soft earth into place 
 and leaves the surface smooth. 
 
 Unfortunately, the habit of using narrow tired wag- 
 ons on country roads has become almost universal in 
 
224 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 the United States. To add to their destructive propen- 
 sities, all wagons in some parts of the country have the 
 same width of tread so that each wheel follows in paths 
 made by other wheels, until they cut ruts of consider- 
 able depth. These little narrow ditches hold water so 
 that it cannot run off into the drains at the sides of the 
 roadway. When a rut gets started, each passing wheel 
 squeezes out the muddy water, or if the wheel be re- 
 volving at a speed faster than a walk it throws the 
 water, and the water carries part of the roadway with 
 it so that small ruts are made large and deep ruts 
 
 Figure 224. — Heavy Breaking Plow, used for road work and other 
 tough jobs. 
 
 are made deeper. In some limited sections road rules 
 demand that wagons shall have wide tires and have 
 shorter front axles, so that with the wide tires and the 
 uneven treads the wheels act as rollers instead of rut 
 makers. It is difficult to introduce such requirements 
 into every farm section. In the meantime the evils of 
 narrow tires may be overcome to a certain extent by 
 the persistent and proper use of the split-log road drag. 
 These drags are most effectual in the springtime when 
 the frost is coming out of the ground. During the 
 muddy season the roads get worked up into ruts and 
 mire holes, which, if taken in time, may be filled by 
 running lengthwise of the road with the drag when the 
 earth is still soft. When the ground shows dry on top 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 225 
 
 and is still soft and wet underneath is the time the 
 drags do the best work by scraping the drier hummocks 
 into the low places where the earth settles hard as it 
 dries. 
 
 A well rounded, smooth road does not get muddy in 
 the summer time. Summer rains usually come with a 
 dash. Considerable water falls in a short time, and 
 the very act of falling with force first lays the dust, 
 then packs the surface. The smooth packed surface 
 acts like a roof, and almost before the rain stops falling 
 all surface water is drained off to the sides so that an 
 inch down under the surface the roadbed is as hard as 
 it was before the rain. That is the reason why split log 
 road drags used persistently in the spring and occa- 
 sionally later in the season will preserve good roads all 
 summer. It is very much better to follow each summer 
 rain with the road drag, but it is not so necessary as 
 immediate attention at the proper time in spring. Be- 
 sides, farmers are so busy during the summer months 
 that they find it difficult to spend the time. In some 
 sections of the middle West one man is hired to do the 
 dragging at so much per trip over the road. He makes 
 his calculations accordingly and is prepared to do the 
 dragging at all seasons when needed. This plan usu- 
 ally works out the best because one man then makes it 
 his business and he gets paid for the amount of work 
 performed. This man should live at the far end of the 
 road division so that he can smooth his own pathway 
 leading to town. 
 
 STEEL ROAD DRAG 
 
 Manufacturers are making road drags of steel with 
 tempered blades adjustable to any angle by simply 
 moving the lever until the dog engages in the proper 
 
226 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 notch. Some of these machines are made with blades 
 reversible, so that the other side can be used for cut- 
 ting when the first edge is worn. For summer use the 
 steel drag works very well, but it lacks the smoothing 
 action of a well balanced log drag. 
 
 SEED HOUSE AND BARN TRUCKS 
 
 Bag trucks for handling bags of grain and seeds 
 should be heavy. Bag truck wheels should be eight 
 inches in diameter with a three-inch face. The steel 
 
 Figure 225. — Barn Trucks. The platform truck is made to move 
 boxed apples and other fruit. The bag truck is well proportioned 
 and strong, but is not full ironed. 
 
 bar or shoe that lifts and carries the bag should be 
 twenty-two inches in length. That means that the bot- 
 tom of the truck in front is twenty-two inches wide. 
 The wheels run behind this bar so the hubs do not pro- 
 ject to catch against standing bags or door frames. The 
 length of truck handles from the steel lift bar to the 
 top end of the hand crook is four feet, six inches. In 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 
 
 227 
 
 buying bag trucks it is better to get the heavy solid 
 kind that will not upset. The light ones are a great 
 nuisance when running them over uneven floors. The 
 
 "V- • 
 
 
 
 Figure 226. — Farm Gate Post with Copper Mail Box. 
 
 wheels are too narrow and too close together and the 
 trucks tip over under slight provocation. Platform 
 trucks for use in moving boxes of apples or crates of 
 
228 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 potatoes or bags of seed in the seed house or warehouse 
 also should be heavy. The most approved platform 
 truck, the kind that market men use, is made with a 
 frame four feet in length by two feet in width. The 
 frame is made of good solid hardwood put together 
 
 Figure 227. — Concrete Post Supporting a Waterproof Clothes Line 
 Reel Box. 
 
 with mortise and tenon. The cross pieces or stiles 
 are three-quarters of an inch lower than the side pieces 
 or rails, which space is filled with hardwood flooring 
 boards firmly bolted to the cross pieces so they come up 
 flush with the side timbers. The top of the platform 
 should be sixteen inches up from the floor. There are 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 
 
 229 
 
 two standards in front which carry a woodfen crossbar 
 over the front end of the truck. This crossbar is used 
 for a handle to push or pull the truck. The height of 
 the handle-bar from the floor is three feet. Rear wheels 
 are five inches in diameter and work 
 on a swivel so they turn in any direc- 
 tion like a castor. The two front 
 wheels carry the main weight. They 
 are twelve inches in diameter with a 
 three-inch face. The wheels are bored 
 to fit a one-inch steel axle and have 
 wide boxings bolted to the main tim- 
 bers of the truck frame. Like the 
 two-wheel bag truck, the wheels of 
 the platform truck are under the 
 frame so they do not project out in 
 the way, which is a great advantage 
 when the truck is being used in a 
 crowded place. 
 
 ^=tir 
 
 HOME CANNING OUTFIT 
 
 There 
 
 small 
 
 outfits 
 
 I 
 
 are small canning uutiit» Figure 228.- 
 manuf actured and sold for farm use ^^'^^. waiter. The 
 
 . . _ cage IS poised by a 
 
 that work on the factory principle, counterweight, it 
 
 TTi • ^ 1.1 4.1!: f X- • is guided by a rope 
 
 For canning vegetables, the heating is belt which runs on 
 done under pressure because a great tlJe top and bottom, 
 deal of heat is necessary to destroy 
 the bacteria that spoil vegetables in the cans. Steam 
 under pressure is a good deal hotter than boiling water. 
 There is considerable work in using a canning outfit, 
 but it gets the canning out of the way quickly. Extra 
 help may be employed for a few days to do the canning 
 on the same principle that farmers employ extra help 
 at threshing time and do it all up at once. Of course. 
 
230 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 fruits and vegetables keep coming along at different 
 times in the summer, but the fall fruit canning may 
 be done at two or three sittings arranged a week or two 
 
 W^ 
 
 Figure 229. — Clothes Line Tightener. This device is made of No. 9 
 wire bent as shown in the illustration. 
 
 Figure 230. — Goat Stall. Milch goats are milked on a raised 
 platform. Feed is placed in the manger. The opening in the side 
 of the manger is a stanchion to hold them steady. 
 
 apart and enough fruit packed away in the cellar to 
 last a big family a whole year. Canning machinery is 
 simple and inexpensive. These outfits may be bought 
 from $10 up. Probably a $20 or $25 canner would 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 
 
 231 
 
 be large enough for a large family, or a dozen dif- 
 ferent families if it could be run on a co-operative 
 plan. 
 
 Figure 231. — Horse Clippers. Hand clippers are shown to the 
 left. The flexible shaft clipper to the right may be turned by hand 
 for clipping a few horses or shearing a few sheep, but for real busi- 
 ness it should be driven by an electric motor. 
 
 ELECTRIC TOWEL 
 
 The *'air towel'' is sanitary, as well as an economical 
 method of drying the hands. A foot pedal closes a quick- 
 
232 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 acting switch, thereby putting into operation a blower 
 that forces air through an electric heating devise so 
 arranged as to distribute the warmed air to all parts 
 of the hands at the same time. The supply of hot air 
 continues as long as the foot pedal is depressed. The 
 hands are thoroughly dried in thirty seconds. 
 
 STALLS FOR MILCH GOATS 
 
 Milch goats are not fastened with stanchions like 
 cows. The front of the manger is boarded tight with 
 the exception of a round hole about two feet high and 
 a slit in the boards reaching from the round opening to 
 
 Figure 232. — Hog Catching Plook. The wooden handle fits loosely 
 into the iron socket. As soon as the hog's hind leg is engaged the 
 wooden handle is removed and the rope held taut. 
 
 within a few inches of the floor. The round hole is 
 made large enough so that the goat puts her head 
 through to reach the feed, and the slit is narrow enough 
 so she cannot back up to pull the feed out into the stall. 
 This is a device to save fodder. 
 
 STABLE HELPS 
 
 Overhead tracks have made feed carriers possible. 
 Litter or feed carriers and manure carriers run on the 
 same kind of a track, the only difference is in size and 
 shape of the car and the manner in which the contents 
 are unloaded. Manure carriers and litter carriers have 
 a continuous track that runs along over the manure 
 gutters and overhead lengthwise of the feed alleys. 
 There are a number of different kinds of carriers man- 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 
 
 233 
 
 uf actured, all of which seem to do good service. The 
 object is to save labor in doing the necessary work 
 about dairy stables. To get the greatest possible profit 
 from cows, it is absolutely necessary that the stable 
 
 Figure 233. — Bull Nose-Chain. Cross bulls may be turned out to 
 pasture with some degree of safety by snapping a chain like this 
 into the nose-ring. The chain should be just long enough to swing 
 and wrap around the bull's front legs when he is running. Also the 
 length is intended to drag the ring where he will step on it with 
 his front feet. There is some danger of pulling the nose ring out. 
 
 Figure 234. — Manure Carriers. There are two kinds of manure 
 carriers in general use. The principal difference is the elevator 
 attachment for hoisting when the spreader stands too high for the 
 usual level dump. 
 
 should be kept clean and sanitary, also that the cows 
 shall be properly fed several times a day. Different 
 kinds of feed are given at the different feeding periods. 
 It is impossible to have all the different kinds of food 
 stored in sufficient quantities within easy reach of the 
 cows. Hence, the necessity of installing some mechani- 
 
234 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 cal arrangement to fetch and carry. The only floor 
 carrier in use in dairy stables is a truck for silage. 
 Not in every stable is this the case. Sometimes a feed 
 carrier is run directly to the silo. It 
 depends a good deal on the floor what 
 kind of a carrier is best for silage. 
 The advantage of an overhead track 
 is .that it is always free from litter. 
 Where floor trucks are used, it is 
 necessary to keep the floor bare of 
 obstruction. This is not considered 
 a disadvantage because the floor 
 should be kept clean anyway. 
 
 HOUSE PLUMBING 
 
 When water is pumped by a,n en- 
 gine and stored for use in a tank to 
 be delivered under pressure in the 
 house, then the additional cost of hot 
 and cold water and the necessary sink 
 and bath room flxtures is compara- 
 tively small. Modem plumbing fix- 
 tures fit so perfectly and go together 
 "^ so easily that the cost of installing 
 
 Figure 235.— Cow housc plumbing in the country has 
 
 stanchion. Wooden , x'n j j I'l^i 
 
 cow stanchions been materially reduced, while the 
 ^mfortabie^for the dangers from noxious gases have been 
 oSIs! ^^ *^^ ''''''' entirely eliminated. Open ventilator 
 pipes carry the poisonous gases up 
 through the roof of the house to float harmlessly away 
 in the atmosphere. Septic tanks take care of the sew- 
 erage better than the sewer systems in some towns. 
 Plumbing fixtures may be cheap or expensive, accord- 
 ing to the wishes and pocketbook of the owner. The 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 
 
 235 
 
 cheaper grades are just as useful, but there are expen- 
 sive outfits that are very much more ornamental. 
 
 FARM SEPTIC TANK 
 
 Supplying water under pressure in the farmhouse 
 demands a septic tank to get rid of the waste. A septic 
 tank is a scientific receptacle to take the poison out of 
 
 CPA/IJ^J' 
 
 HI 
 
 Figure 236. — Frame for Holding Record Sheets in a Dairy Stable. 
 
 Figure 237. — Loading Shute for Hogs. This loading shute is made 
 portable and may be moved like a wheelbarrow. 
 
 sewerage. It is a simple affair consisting of two under- 
 ground compartments, made water-tight, with a sewer 
 pipe to lead the waste water from the house into the 
 first compartment and a drain to carry the denatured 
 sewerage away from the second compartment. The 
 first compartment is open to the atmosphere, through a 
 ventilator, but the second compartment is made as 
 
236 
 
 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 nearly air-tight as possible. The scientific working of a 
 septic tank depends upon the destructive work of two 
 kinds of microscopic life known as aerobic and anarobic 
 forms of bacteria. Sewerage in the first tank is worked 
 over by aerobic bacteria, the kind that require a small 
 amount of oxygen in order to live and carry on their 
 
 Figure 238. — Brass Valves. Two kinds of globe valves are used in 
 farm waterworks. The straight valve shown to the left and the 
 right angle valve to the right. Either one may be fitted with a long 
 shank to reach above ground when pipes are laid deep to prevent 
 freezing. 
 
 work. The second compartment is inhabited by anaero- 
 bic bacteria, or forms of microscopic life that work 
 practically without air. The principles of construc- 
 tion require that a septic tank shall be large enough to 
 contain two days ' supply of sewerage in each compart- 
 ment; thus, requiring four days for the sewerage to 
 enter and leave the tank. 
 
 Estimating 75 gallons daily of sewerage for each in- 
 habitant of the house and four persons to a family, the 
 septic tank should be large enough to hold 600 gallons, 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 
 
 237 
 
 three hundred gallons in each compartment, which 
 would require a tank about four feet in width and six 
 feet in length and four feet in depth. These figures 
 embrace more cubic feet of tank than necessary to meet 
 the foregoing requirements. It is a good plan to leave 
 a margin of safety. 
 
 It is usual to lay a vitrified sewer, four inches in 
 diameter, from below the bottom of the cellar to the 
 
 
 \ 'Jl L \ -.%,-;.//';'•••'*»*.•'/.' '. ♦•P H g;;^%v* ' -'<^/j:'^%;.*«;:^'';X. •f '.-! I 
 
 ' l^yi^ff^^;'^\</f}^/^if\///y/p^^'*^^^^^^^ 
 
 Figure 239. — Septic Tank, a double antiseptic process for purifying 
 sewerage. 
 
 septic tank, giving it a fall of one-eighth inch in ten 
 feet. The sewer enters the tank at the top of the stand- 
 ing liquid and delivers the fresh sewerage from the 
 house through an elbow and a leg of pipe that reaches 
 to within about six inches of the bottom of the tank. 
 The reason for this is to admit fresh sewerage without 
 disturbing the scum on the surface of the liquid in the 
 tank. The scum is a protection for the bacteria. It 
 helps them to carry on their work of destruction. The 
 same principle applies to the second compartment. 
 The liquid from the first compartment is carried over 
 into the second compartment by means of a bent pipe 
 
238 FARM MECHANICS 
 
 in the form of a siphon which fills up gradually and 
 empties automatically when the liquid in the first com- 
 partment rises to a certain level. The discharging 
 siphon leg should be the shortest. The liquid from the 
 second compartment is discharged into the drain in the 
 same manner. There are special valves made for the 
 final discharge, but they are not necessary. The bot- 
 tom of the tank is dug deep enough to hold sewerage 
 from two to four feet in depth. The top surface of the 
 liquid in the tank is held down to a level of at least six 
 inches below the bottom of the cellar. So there is no 
 possible chance of the house sewer filling and backing 
 up towards the house. Usually the vitrified sewer pipe 
 is four inches in diameter, the septic tank siphons for 
 a small tank are three inches in diameter and the final 
 discharge pipe is three inches in diameter, with a rapid 
 fall for the first ten feet after leaving the tank. 
 
 Septic tanks should be made of concrete, water- 
 proofed on the inside to prevent the possibility of seep- 
 age. Septic tank tops are made of reinforced concrete 
 with manhole openings. Also the manhole covers are 
 made of reinforced concrete, either beveled to fit the 
 openings or made considerably larger than the open- 
 ing, so that they sit down flat on the top surface of the 
 tank. These covers are always deep enough down in 
 the ground so that when covered over the earth holds 
 them in place. 
 
 In laying vitrified sewer it is absolutely necessary to 
 calk each joint with okum or lead, or okum reinforced 
 with cement. It is almost impossible to make a joint 
 tight with cement alone, although it can be done by an 
 expert. Each length of the sewer pipe should be given 
 a uniform grade. The vitrified sewer is trapped out- 
 side of the building with an ordinary S-trap ventilated, 
 
MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES 239 
 
 which leaves the sewer open to the atmosphere and pre- 
 vents the possibility of back-pressure that might drive 
 the poisonous gases from the decomposing sewerage 
 through the sewer back into the house. In this way, the 
 septic tank is made entirely separate from the house 
 plumbing, except that the two systems are connected at 
 this outside trap. 
 
 It is sometimes recommended that the waste water 
 from the second compartment shall be distributed 
 through a series of drains made with three-inch or 
 four-inch drain tile and that the outlet of this set of 
 drains shall empty into or connect with a regularly 
 organized field drainage system. Generally speaking, 
 the final discharge of liquid from a septic tank that is 
 properly constructed is inoffensive and harmless. How- 
 ever, it is better to use every possible precaution to pre- 
 serve the health of the family, and it is better to dis- 
 pose of the final waste in such a way as to prevent any 
 farm animal from drinking it. 
 
 While manholes are built into septic tanks for the 
 purpose of examination, in practice they are seldom 
 required. If the tanks are properly built and rightly 
 proportioned to the sewerage requirements they will 
 take care of the waste water from the house year after 
 year without attention. Should any accidents occur, 
 they are more likely to be caused by a leakage in the 
 vitrified sewer than from any other cause. Manufac- 
 turers of plumbing supplies furnish the siphons to- 
 gether with instructions for placing them properly in 
 the concrete walls. Some firms supply advertising 
 matter from which to work out the actual size and pro- 
 portions of the different compartments and all connec- 
 tions. The making of a septic tank is simple when the 
 principle is once understood* 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Acetylene gas 129 
 
 Air pressure pump 107 
 
 Anvil 33 
 
 Apple-picking bag • 216 
 
 ladder 215 
 
 Asparagus knife 205 
 
 Auger, ship 26 
 
 Auger-bit 24, 25 
 
 Automatic hog feeder .* 219 
 
 Axles, wagon , 52 
 
 Babbitting boxings 73 
 
 Barn trucks 226 
 
 Belt punch 211 
 
 work 146 
 
 Bench and vise 34 
 
 Bench for iron work 35 
 
 for woodworking 16 
 
 Bipod 206 
 
 Bits, extension boring 26 
 
 Bit, twist-drill, for wood-boring 25 
 
 Blacksmith hammers 61 
 
 shop 31 
 
 Block and tackle 77 
 
 Bobsleighs . . . • 188 
 
 Boiler, steam 90 
 
 Bolster spring 186 
 
 stake 187 
 
 Bolt cutter 45 
 
 Bolts, carriage and machine 56 
 
 emergency 53 
 
 home-made 52 
 
 plow and sickle bar 56 
 
 Boxings, babbitting 73 
 
 Brace, wagon-box 58 
 
 Bramble hook 20 
 
 Brass valves 236 
 
 Breeding crate for hogs 203 
 
 Brick trowel , 209 
 
 241 
 
242 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bridge auger 26 
 
 Bucket yoke 75 
 
 Buck rake 165 
 
 Building bracket 202 
 
 Bull nose-chain 233 
 
 treadmill 81 
 
 Cable hay stacker 176 
 
 California hay ricker 176 
 
 Calipers 43 
 
 Caliper rule 14 
 
 Canning outfit 229 
 
 Carpenter 's bench 17 
 
 trestle 17 
 
 Cart, two-wheel 191 
 
 Centrifugal pumps 105 
 
 Chain, logging '. 50 
 
 Chisels and gouges 28 
 
 Circular saw, filing 69 
 
 jointing 68 
 
 setting 68 
 
 Clearing land by tractor 146 
 
 Clevises, plow 58 
 
 Clod crusher 155 
 
 Clothes line reel box, concrete 228 
 
 Clothes line tightener 230 
 
 Cold-chisel 37 
 
 Colt-breaking sulkey 192 
 
 Compasses 18 
 
 Concrete center alley for hog house 209 
 
 farm scale base and pit 196 
 
 hog wallow 209 
 
 wall mold 210 
 
 Conveniences, miscellaneous farm 194 
 
 Conveyances, farm 179 
 
 Corn crib, double 201 
 
 two-story 194 
 
 Corn cultivator 142 
 
 planter 158 
 
 shock horse 208 
 
 Cotter pin tool 44 
 
 Coulter clamp 54 
 
 Countersink 41 
 
 Cow stanchion 234 
 
 Crop machinery, special 161 
 
 Crops, kind of, to irrigate 118 
 
 Crowbars 46 
 
INDEX 243 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Cultivator, combination 143 
 
 corn 142 
 
 Cutting nippers 46 
 
 Derrick fork 168 
 
 Dies and taps 55 
 
 Diggers, potato ^. 205 
 
 Disk harrow 152 
 
 plow 137 
 
 Dog churn , 79 
 
 power 80 
 
 Draw-filing 62 
 
 Drawing-knife 22 
 
 Drill, grain 160 
 
 power post 38 
 
 Drill-press 39 
 
 electric 40 
 
 Driven machines 100 
 
 Dumbwaiter 229 
 
 Economy of plowing by tractor 146 
 
 Electricity on the farm 121, 127 
 
 Electric lighting 123 
 
 Electric power plant 122 
 
 towel 231 
 
 Elevating machinery 133 
 
 Elevator, grain 134 
 
 Emery grinders 31 
 
 Engine and truck, portable 94 
 
 Engine, gasoline 91 
 
 kerosene .' 92 
 
 steam 90 
 
 Eveners for three- and four -horse teams 139 
 
 Extension boring bits 26 
 
 Farm conveniences 194 
 
 conveyances 179 
 
 office 194 
 
 shop and implement house 9 
 
 shop work 50 
 
 tractor 97 
 
 waterworks 89, 100 
 
 Feed crusher 131 
 
 Feeding racks 217 
 
 Fence-making tools 205, 206 
 
 Fence pliers 207 
 
 File handle 36 
 
 Files and rasps 36 
 
244 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Filing hand saw 56 
 
 roll 63 
 
 Flail 75 
 
 Fore-plane h. 27 
 
 Forge 32 
 
 Forges, portable 32 
 
 Forging iron and steel 59 
 
 Fruit picking 212 
 
 ladders 215 
 
 tray 213 
 
 Fruit-thinning nippers 214 
 
 Gambrel whiffletree 173 
 
 Garage 10 
 
 Garden weeder 54 
 
 Gas, acetylene 129 
 
 Gasoline engine s 91 
 
 house lightning 128 
 
 Gate, sliding field 205 
 
 Gatepost with copper mailbox 227 
 
 Gauge, double-marking 22 
 
 Generating mechanical power 74 
 
 Goat stall 230 
 
 Grain drill 160 
 
 elevator 134 
 
 elevator, portable 135 
 
 Grass hook 163 
 
 Grindstone 28 
 
 Hacksaw 45 
 
 Hammers, blacksmith 61 
 
 machinist 's 42 
 
 Hand axe 23 
 
 Hand saw 19, 65 
 
 filing 66 
 
 jointing 65 
 
 setting 65 
 
 using 67 
 
 Handspike 24 
 
 Hardy 43 
 
 Harness punch 211 
 
 Harrow cart . . : 154 
 
 disk 152 
 
 sled 141 
 
 spike-tooth 141 
 
 Harvesting by tractor 146 
 
 Hay carrier carriage 172 
 
 Hay crop, handling < 163 
 
INDEX 245 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Hay derricks, Idaho 171 
 
 Western 169 
 
 Hayf ord, double harpoon 169 
 
 grapple 170 
 
 hitch 173 
 
 hood 197 
 
 Hayrake, revolving 163 
 
 Hay ricker, California 176 
 
 Hay rope pulleys 174 
 
 Hay skids 167 
 
 Hay sling 167 
 
 Hay stacker, cable 176 
 
 Haystack knife 168 
 
 Hay-tedder 165 
 
 Hay-track roof extension 197 
 
 Hoe, how to sharpen 70 
 
 wheel 162 
 
 Hoes and weeders * 204 
 
 Hog catching hook 232 
 
 Hog feeder, automatic 219 
 
 trough • 221 
 
 trough, re-inf orced 222 
 
 wallow, concrete 209 
 
 Hoist, oldest farm 133 
 
 Hoists 78 
 
 Home repair work, profitable 50 
 
 Horse clippers 231 
 
 Horse feeding rack , 218 
 
 Horsepower 86 
 
 House plumbing 234 
 
 Husking-pin 208 
 
 Hydraulic ram 95 
 
 Idaho hay derricks 171 
 
 Implement shed 10 
 
 shed and work shop 12 
 
 Iron, forging . . 59 
 
 Irons for neckyoke and whifletree 51 
 
 Iron roller 157 
 
 Iron working tools 42 
 
 Irrigation 112 
 
 by pumping 112 
 
 overhead spray 116 
 
 Jointer, carpenter ^s 27 
 
 Jointer plows 144 
 
 Jointing hand saw 65 
 
 Kerosene engine 92 
 
246 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Keyhole saw 20 
 
 Knife, asparagus 205 
 
 corn cutting 205 
 
 haystack 168 
 
 Knots , 212 
 
 Lag screw 57 
 
 Land float 156 
 
 Level, carpenter 's 24 
 
 iron stock 25 
 
 Lighting, gasoline 128 
 
 Linchpin farm wagons 185 
 
 Link, cold-shut ; . . 43 
 
 plow 58 
 
 Loading chute for hogs 235 
 
 Logging chain ' 50 
 
 Machines, driven 100 
 
 Machinist *s hammers 42 
 
 vise 47 
 
 Manure carriers 233 
 
 Marline spike 212 
 
 Measuring mechanical work 14 
 
 Mechanical power, generating 74 
 
 Mechanics of plowing 138 
 
 Melting ladle 73 
 
 Monkey-wrench 19 
 
 Mule pump 84 
 
 Nail hammers 21 
 
 Nail set 37 
 
 Office, farm 194 
 
 Oilstone 15 
 
 Overhead spray irrigation 116 
 
 Oxen 181 
 
 Paint brushes 212 
 
 Pea guard 168 
 
 Picking fruit 212 
 
 Pig-pen, sanitary 210 
 
 Pincers , 44 
 
 Pipe cutter 48 
 
 Pipe-fitting tools 46 
 
 Pipe vise ! 47 
 
 wrench 48 
 
 Plastering trowel 209 
 
 Pliers .^. 18 
 
 Plow, heavy-breaking .' ..v-» 224 
 
 riding 140 
 
 walking 138 
 
INDEX 247 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Plowing by tractor 145 
 
 importance of 137 
 
 mechanics of 138 
 
 Plows, jointer 144 
 
 Scotch 143 
 
 Plumb-bob and plumb-line " 206 
 
 Plumbing, house 234 
 
 Pod-bit 25 
 
 Portable farm engine 94 
 
 Post-hole diggers 204 
 
 Poultry feeding trough 222 
 
 Power conveyor 121 
 
 Power, generating mechanical 75 
 
 Power post drill 38 
 
 Power transmission 120 
 
 Pulverizers 155 
 
 Pump, air pressure 107 
 
 centrifugal 105 
 
 mule 84 
 
 jack 109 
 
 jacks and speed jacks Ill 
 
 rotary 103 
 
 suction 101 
 
 Punches 37 
 
 Quantity of water to use in irrigation 118 
 
 Backs, feeding 217 
 
 sheep feeding 219 
 
 Eaf ter grapple 173 
 
 Easp 35 
 
 Easps and files 36 
 
 Eatchet-brace 40 
 
 Eefrigeration 123 
 
 Eeservoir for supplying water to farm buildings 120 
 
 Eevolving hayrake 163 
 
 Eiding plow 140 
 
 Eipsaw 21 
 
 Eivets 53 
 
 Eivet set 54 
 
 Eoad drag, split-log 220 
 
 steel 225 
 
 Eoad work 146 
 
 EoUer 156 
 
 EoU filing 63 
 
 Eoof pitches 200 
 
 truss 199 
 
 Eoot pulper 130 
 
248 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Eotary pumps 103 
 
 Eound barn, economy of 196 
 
 Rule of six, eight and ten 199 
 
 Sand bands 187 
 
 caps 188 
 
 Sanitary pig-pen ■. 210 
 
 Saw, hack 45 
 
 Scotch plows 143 
 
 Screwdriver 23 
 
 ratchet 24 
 
 Seed house trucks 226 
 
 Septic tank 235 
 
 Set-screws 64 
 
 Shave horse 18 
 
 Shears .' 217 
 
 Sheep feeding rack 219 
 
 Sheepshank 212 
 
 Ship auger 26 
 
 Shoeing horses 71 
 
 knife 34 
 
 tool box - 34 
 
 Shop, garage and implement shed 10 
 
 Shop tools 14 
 
 Slaughter house 198 
 
 Sliding field gate 205 
 
 Snips, sheet metal 25 
 
 Soil auger 204 
 
 tools 202 
 
 Soil, working the 137 
 
 Speed indicator 201 
 
 jacks Ill 
 
 Split-log road drag 220 " 
 
 Spud 205 
 
 Stable helps . 232 
 
 Stall for milch goats 232 
 
 Steam boiler and engine 90 
 
 Steel, forging 59 
 
 road drag 225 
 
 square 22 
 
 tools, making 60 
 
 Stepladder 216 
 
 Stock for dies 55 
 
 Stone-boat '. . . ; 179 
 
 Stump puller 131 
 
 Suction pumps 101 
 
INDEX 249 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Sulkey, colt-breaking 192 
 
 S wrenches 44 
 
 Tapeline 15 
 
 Taper reamer 41 
 
 tap 56 
 
 Taps and dies 55 
 
 Tempering steel tools 60 
 
 Tongs 43 
 
 Tool box for field use 72 
 
 handy 72 
 
 Tool rack, blacksmith 34 
 
 Tools for fence-making 205 
 
 for woodworking 19 
 
 for working iron 42 
 
 pipe-fitting 46 
 
 soil 202 
 
 Tractor economy 146 
 
 farm 97 
 
 transmission gear 98 
 
 used in plowing 145 
 
 uses for, on farm 146 
 
 Tram points 40 
 
 Travoy 183 
 
 Treadmill, bull 81 
 
 Tree pruners 216 
 
 Trowel, brick 209 
 
 plastering 209 
 
 Trucks, barn .'. 226 
 
 Try-square 22 
 
 Twist-drills 25, 41 
 
 IT bolt in cement 57 
 
 Uses of electricity on farm 126 
 
 Valves, brass 236 
 
 Vise 38 
 
 Wagon-box irons 57 
 
 Wagon brakes 186 
 
 seat spring 187 
 
 Walking plow 138 
 
 Water-power 88 
 
 Water storage 100 
 
 Waterworks, farm 100 
 
 WeU sweep 76 
 
 Wheelbarrow 180 
 
 Wheel hoe 162 
 
 Winches 79 
 
 Windmills 83 
 
250 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Wire splice 52 
 
 splicer 44 
 
 stretcher 77 
 
 Wooden clamp 18 
 
 roller 157 
 
 Wood-saw frames 129 
 
 Woodworking bench 16 
 
 tools 19 
 
 Working the soil 137 
 
 Wrecking bar , , , , , • , 24 
 
DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS 
 
 ♦Title I Style | Price 
 
 Electrical Books 
 
 Electrical Tables and Engineering 
 
 Data *Lea. $1.50 
 
 Electrical Tables and Engineering 
 
 Data ♦Cloth 1.00 
 
 Motion Picture Operation *Lea. 1.50 
 
 Motion Picture Operation * Cloth 1.00 
 
 Alternating Current Lea. 1.50 
 
 Alternating Current Cloth 1.00 
 
 Wiring Diagrams and Descrip- 
 tions *Lea. 1.50 
 
 Wiring Diagrams and Descrip- 
 tions ....*Cloth 1.00 
 
 Armature and Magnet Winding. .*Lea. 1.50 
 
 Armature and Magnet Winding. .* Cloth 1.00 
 
 Modern Electric Illumination .... *Lea. 1.50 
 
 Modern Electric Illumination *Cloth 1.00 
 
 Modern Electrical Construction .. *Lea. 1.50 
 
 Modern Electrical Construction. .* Cloth 1.00 
 
 Electricians^ Operating and Test- 
 ing Manual *Lea. 1.50 
 
 Electricians' Operating and Test- 
 ing Manual *Cloth 1.00 
 
 Drake's Electrical Dictionary Lea. 1.50 
 
 Drake's Electrical Dictionary Cloth 1.00 
 
 Electric Motors, Direct and Alter- 
 nating *Lea. 1.50 
 
 Electric Motors, Direct and Alter- 
 nating *Cloth 1.00 
 
 Electrical Measurements and Me- 
 ter Testing Lea. 1.50 
 
 NOTE. — New Books and Revised Editions are marked* 
 
DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS 
 
 ♦Title 
 
 i Style 
 
 Price 
 
 Electrical Books — Continued 
 
 
 Electrical Measurements and Me- 
 
 
 
 ter Testing , 
 
 Cloth $1.00 
 
 Drake's Telephone Handbook 
 
 Lea. 
 
 1.50 
 
 Drake's Telephone Handbook 
 
 Cloth 
 
 1.00 
 
 Elementary Electricity, Up-to- 
 
 
 
 Date 
 
 ♦Cloth 
 
 1.25 
 
 Electricity Made Simple 
 
 ♦Cloth 
 
 1.00 
 
 Easy Electrical Experiments 
 
 ♦Cloth 
 
 1.00 
 
 Wireless Telegraph and Telephone 
 
 
 
 Handbook 
 
 Cloth 
 
 1.00 
 
 Telegraphy, Self-taught 
 
 Cloth 
 
 1.00 
 
 Dynamo-Electric Machines 
 
 Cloth 
 
 1.50 
 
 Electro-Plating Handbook 
 
 Lea. 
 
 1.50 
 
 Electro-Plating Handbook 
 
 Cloth 
 
 1.00 
 
 Modern American Telephony. . . . 
 
 Lea. 
 
 2.00 
 
 Handy Vest-Pocket Electrical Dic- 
 
 
 
 tionary 
 
 Lea. 
 
 .50 
 
 Handy Vest-Pocket Electrical Dic- 
 
 
 
 tionary 
 
 Cloth 
 
 .25 
 
 Storage Batteries 
 
 Cloth 
 
 .50 
 
 Elevators — Hydraulic and Electric Cloth 
 
 1.00 
 
 How to Become a Successful Mo- 
 
 
 
 torman 
 
 Lea. 
 
 1.50 
 
 Motorman's Practical Air Brake 
 
 
 
 Instructor 
 
 Lea. 
 
 1.50 
 
 Electric Railway Troubles 
 
 Cloth 
 
 1.50 
 
 
 ri/^fVi 
 
 2.50 
 3.50 
 
 Electrical Railroading 
 
 Lea. 
 
 s are ma 
 
 NOTE. — New Books and Revised Edition 
 
 rked* 
 
DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS 
 
 * Title I Style | Price 
 
 Automobile Books 
 
 Brookes' Automobile Handbook . . *Lea. $2.00 
 
 Automobile Starting and Light- 
 ing *Lea. 1.50 
 
 Automobile Starting and Light- 
 ing *Cloth LOO 
 
 Ford Motor Car and Truck and 
 
 Tractor Attachments *Lea. 1.50 
 
 Ford Motor Car and Truck and 
 
 Tractor Attachments *Cloth 1.00 
 
 Automobile Catechism and Repair 
 
 Manual *Lea. 1.25 
 
 Practical Gas and Oil Engine 
 
 Handbook *Lea. 1.50 
 
 Practical Gas and Oil Engine 
 
 Handbook *Cloth 1.00 
 
 Farm Books 
 
 Farm Buildings, With Plans and 
 
 Descriptions *Cloth $1.00 
 
 Farm Mechanics *Cloth 1.00 
 
 Traction Farming and Traction 
 
 Engineering *Cloth 1.50 
 
 Farm Engines and How to Run 
 
 Them Cloth 1.00 
 
 Shop Practice Books 
 
 Twentieth Century Machine Shop 
 
 Practice Cloth $2.00 
 
 Practical Mechanical Drawing. . . . Cloth 2.00 
 
 Sheet Metal Workers' Manual ... *Lea. 2.00 
 
 Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cut- 
 ting *Lea. 1.50 
 
 Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cut- 
 ting *Cloth 1.00 
 
 20th Century Toolsmith and Steel- 
 worker Cloth 1.50 
 
 Pattern Making and Foundry 
 
 Practice Lea. 1.50 
 
 Modern Blacksmithing, Horse- 
 shoeing and Wagon Making . . . Cloth 1.00 
 
 NOTE. — New Books and Revised Editions are marked* 
 
DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS 
 
 ♦Title 1 Style | 
 
 Price 
 
 Steam Engineering Books 
 
 
 Swingle's Handbook for Steam 
 
 
 Engineers and Electricians *Lea. 
 
 $3.00 
 
 Steam Boilers, Construction, Care 
 
 
 and Operation *Lea. 
 
 1.50 
 
 Complete Examination Questions 
 
 
 and Answers for Marine and 
 
 
 Stationary Engineers *Lea. 
 
 1.50 
 
 Swingle's Catechism of Steam, 
 
 
 Gas and Electrical Engineering.* Lea. 
 
 1.50 
 
 The Steam Turbine, Its Care and 
 
 
 Operation Cloth 
 
 1.00 
 
 Calculation of Horse Power Made 
 
 
 Easy Cloth 
 
 .75 
 
 Railroad Books 
 
 
 Modern Locomotive Engineering. *Lea. 
 
 $3.00 
 
 Locomotive Fireman's Boiler In- 
 
 
 structor *Lea. 
 
 1.50 
 
 Locomotive Engine Breakdowns 
 
 
 and How to Repair Them *Lea. 
 
 1.50 
 
 Operation of Trains and Station 
 
 
 •Work *Lea. 
 
 2.00 
 
 Construction and Maintenance of 
 
 
 Railway Roadbed and Track. . . Lea. 
 
 2.00 
 
 First, Second and Third Year 
 
 
 Standard Examination Ques- 
 
 
 tions and Answers for Locomo- 
 
 
 tive Firemen *Lea. 
 
 2.00 
 
 Complete Air Brake Examination 
 
 
 Questions and Answers *Lea. 
 
 2.00 
 
 Westinghouse Air Brake System. Cloth 
 
 2.00 
 
 New York Air Brake System Cloth 
 
 2.00 
 
 Walschaert Valve Gear Break- 
 
 
 downs Cloth 
 
 1.00 
 
 NOTE. — New Books and Revised Editions are marked* 
 
DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS 
 
 * Title ,_ I Style | Price 
 
 Carpentry and Building Books 
 
 Modern Carpentry. Two volumes . Cloth $2.00 
 
 Modem Carpentry. Vol. I Cloth 1.00 
 
 Modern Carpentry. Vol. II Cloth 1.00 
 
 The Steel Square. Two volumes. . Cloth 2.00 
 
 The Steel Square. Vol. I Cloth 1.00 
 
 The Steel Square. Vol. II Cloth 1.00 
 
 A. B. C. of the Steel Square Cloth .50 
 
 Common Sense Stair Building and 
 
 Handrailing Cloth 1.00 
 
 Modern Estimator and Contrac- 
 tor's Guide *Cloth 1.50 
 
 Light and Heavy Timber Framing 
 
 Made Easy Cloth 2.00 
 
 Builders' Architectural Drawing 
 
 Self-taught • Cloth 2.00 
 
 Easy Steps to Architecture Cloth 1.50 
 
 Five Orders of Architecture Cloth 1.50 
 
 Builders' and Contractors' Guide Cloth 1.50 
 
 Practical Bungalows and Cottages* Cloth 1.00 
 
 Low Cost American Homes *Cloth 1.00 
 
 Practical Cabinet Maker and Fur- 
 niture Designer Cloth 2.00 
 
 Practical Wood Carving Cloth 1.50 
 
 Home Furniture Making Cloth .60 
 
 Concretes, Cements, Mortars, Plas- 
 ters and Stuccos Cloth 1.50 
 
 Practical Steel Construction Cloth .75 
 
 20th Century Bricklayer and Ma- 
 son's Assistant Cloth 1.50 
 
 Practical Bricklaying Self-taught. Cloth 1.00 
 
 Practical Stonemasonry Cloth 1.00 
 
 Practical Up-to-date Plumbing Cloth 1.50 
 
 Hot Water Heating, Steam and 
 
 Gas Fitting Cloth 1.50 
 
 Practical Handbook for Mill- 
 wrights Cloth 2.00 
 
 Boat Building for Amateurs Cloth 1.00 
 
 NOTE. — New Books and Revised Editions are marked* 
 
DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS \ 
 
 *Title 
 
 1 Style 1 Price | 
 
 Painting Books 
 
 
 
 Art of Sign Painting 
 
 ♦Cloth .*fi.^-on 1 
 
 Scene Painting and Bulletin Art . . 
 
 ♦Cloth 
 
 3.00 
 
 "A Show at" Sho'Cards 
 
 Cloth 
 
 3.00 
 
 Strong's Book of Designs 
 
 ♦Lea. 
 
 3.00 
 
 Signist's Modern Book of Alpha- 
 bets 
 
 Cloth 
 
 1.50 
 
 Amateur Artist 
 
 Cloth 
 
 1.00 
 
 Modern Painter's Cyclopedia 
 
 Cloth 
 
 1,50 
 
 Red Book Series of Trade School 
 Manuals — 
 
 
 
 1. Exterior Painting, Wood, 
 Iron and Brick 
 
 Cloth 
 
 .60 
 
 2. Interior Painting, Water and 
 Oil Colors 
 
 Cloth 
 
 .60 
 
 3. Colors 
 
 Cloth 
 
 .60 
 
 4. Graining and Marbling 
 
 Cloth 
 
 .60 
 
 5. Carriage Painting 
 
 Cloth 
 
 .60 
 
 6. The Wood Finisher 
 
 Cloth 
 
 .60 
 
 New Hardwood Finishing 
 
 Cloth 
 
 1.00 
 
 Automobile Painting 
 
 ♦Cloth 
 
 1.25 
 
 Estimates, Costs and Profits — 
 House Painting and Interior 
 Decorating ..'... 
 
 ♦Cloth 1.00 
 
 IS are marked* 
 
 NOTE. — New Books and Revised Edition 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS 
 
 WILL BE ASSESSED FOR 'FAILURE TO REH-URN 
 THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY 
 WILL INCREASE TO 50 CENTS ON THE FOURTH 
 DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY 
 OVERDUE. 
 
 DEC 4 1934 
 
 13 1^41 
 
 na«<^R^"g^ 
 
 JUL 3119^^ 
 
 REC'D LD 
 
 JUL :{ 1 1959 
 
 -^i 
 
 '^1^64^ 
 
 HAR30'64-vP« 
 
 J0!aQl976 
 
 i J^ 6IB. ^^ . v ^ lb ri 
 
 F'3. CiB.Fra 1 6 -?H