4 3 * . - ... . " LONDOK Printed by A. SPOTTISWOODE, New- Street- Square. A JBemento of Affection TO THE REV. JABEZ BUNTING, A.M. - TO THE REV. JOSEPH TAYLOR, AND TO THE MEMORY OF THE LAMENTED REV. RICHARD WATSON, THE GENERAL SECRETARIES OF THE WESLEYAN MISSIONARY SOCIETY IN 1818, WHEN THE WRITER OF THESE PAGES WAS ORDAINED AS A MISSIONARY TO THE EAST. INTRODUCTION. PERHAPS Christians in general do not sufficiently consider that the Bible is an Eastern book, and that many of its obscurities do not arise in any intention of the sacred writers, but in the customs, manners, rites, ceremonies, and supersti- tions which by them are alluded to. Should these collections produce a similar effect on other minds that they have on my own, then will many be led to glorify God in the highest for His revealed system of purity and truth. I am not so weak as to suppose I have succeeded in casting light on all the obscurities I have contended with; but that I have, in many instances, attained that object, few candid minds will deny. For many years I lived in habits of comparative intimacy with the Hindoos, and mixed with them in their joyous and sorrowful scenes ; and whatever I heard or saw, which promoted the object of my heart, was immediately noted down, and on my return home written at length, so that, on my arrival in this country, the manuscript had only to be copied in the order and books of the Old and New Testaments. I think it will be conceded, that no man who had not resided many years amongst the people, and who had n>t a tolerable knowledge of their language and various usages, could have written this book ; and therefore I hope my readers will give me that degree of confidence which is necessary for the full enjoyment of the work. Some of my friends, either to excite my caution or my fears, have told me not to expect much mercy from the Reviewers; but my reply has been, there is nothing political or sectarian in A 3 VI INTRODUCTION. these papers ; that they relate to a book which is the common property of us all, and surely we ought all to feel pleasure in seeing its various and delightful truths illustrated and confirmed. The allusions to the abominations of heathenism in holy writ are exceedingly numerous ; and no wonder, for most of the writers had extensive intercourse with the idolaters. Look at Moses nurtured in the palace of heathen royalty ; he " was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians *," and the people he had to lead and govern were constantly inclined to the superstitions and impurities of heathenism. Who, then, can be surprised at the broad, the awful denun- ciations against that system as found in the first five books of the Holy Scriptures ? Joshua, the pious and heroic successor of Moses, had to guide the same people through the land of the heathen, and in his book there are many affecting details of the contests and transactions they had with the idolaters. The book of Judges contains some fearful accounts of the impiety of the Israelites, of their subjugation or slavery to the heathen at six different periods. The book of Ruth is named after a heathen woman who was married to a son of Naomi. The first and second books of Samuel relate to the heathen chieftain Goliath, to the fall of the god Dagon, to Saul and the witch of Endor, and various battles with the idolaters. The books of Kings contain many appalling instances of the intercourse which existed betwixt backsliding Israel and the vile idolaters. Here we have Solomon and the heathen daughter of Pharaoh; here we have an account of his attachment to pagan women, and of his fall into idolatry. Here also we have the glaring wickedness of Jeroboam in making the golden calves; and the wretched Baasha, who continued the system; and here the abominable Ahab and * Acts vii. 22. INTRODUCTION. vil the audacious Jezebel, who were succeeded by their hea- thenish son Ahaziab, who sent to enquire of the idol Baal- zebub, whether he should recover from his sickness. The book of Ezra describes the return of the Jews from their seventy years' inglorious captivity amongst the heathen. Nehemiah is believed to have been born in Babylon. Esther was the queen of the heathen Ahasuerus of Persia. Job lived amongst the heathen, and the Psalms have many allusions to that system. Isaiah was most particular in his descriptions, and uncompromising in his denunciations against idols. Jeremiah, who was a prisoner to a heathen king, makes frequent reference to paganism ; and Ezekiel, who was a captive in Babylon, is most daring in his disclosures and threatenings. See the faithful, the noble Daniel, and his office in the capital of Assyria; and look at Jonah, in the idolatrous city of Nineveh, and his subsequent voyage amongst the heathen mariners. Reflect on the minor prophets, and their vivid accounts of Israel and her idols ; and who can be surprised at the numerous illustrations found in these pages of the same system as exists in the East at this day ? I submit, we are not to look at the supposed site of paradise, or at the holy land, for the primitive locality of the present human family, but to Ararat.* Is it not reasonable to sup- pose that Noah and his family would remain for many years at no great distance from the spot where they first settled ? And when they did remove, would it not be towards the most fruitful countries ? Who built the splendid cities of Babylon and Nineveh? did not Ashur, and probably the other sons and descendants of Noah ? f Who were the first to study astrology as a guide to find out the good or evil supposed to be produced by the heavenly bodies? Who were the first to propitiate them in reference to their salutary or malignant influences on the destinies of men ? Does not * For observations on Ararat, Taurus, Caucasus, and Himalaya, see p. 462. of this work; also on Isaiah xiv. 13, 14-. f Gen. x. 11. A 4- Vlii INTRODUCTION. the mind instantly revert to the builders and occupiers of Babylon, to their dispersion over the earth, and the con- sequent carrying away of their superstitions, though then veiled in different languages. It has been well observed, " Whoever were the first planters of India, it could not have been planted till long after- Persia and Elam had been suffi- ciently cultivated, and a considerable number of ages after Assyria and the countries adjoining Ararat had been planted. This is so apparent from Scripture and the nature of things, that it will not admit of a dispute" * " As, then, Abraham, &c., the fathers of the Hebrew nation, came originally from near to India "f, can we suppose the customs and manners, the sciences and figures of speech, would not be preserved ? But what were the idols worshipped by the Jews? The leading deities were exactly the same as those of India at this day. Calmet suggests that the Chiun of Amos is the same as the Chiven or Siva of the Hindoos. He is joined with the sanguinary Moloch, who corresponds with the blood- thirsty Kali or Patrakaly, an incarnation of the consort of Siva. In the fragments to Calmet J it is said, " It will, no doubt, be observed, that the Chiun of Amos is a term used many ages after the events to which the prophet refers, which are thus connected with the history of Balaam , and that the term in Numbers is not Chiun, but Baal Peor. Those who know the meaning of the word Peor, will im- mediately see it is the same as the 4>AAo$ of the Greeks, the Priapus of the Romans, the Osiris of the Egyptians, and the Lingam of the Hindoos. But I will now give an extract from an Essay on the Identity of the Gods served by the Jews, with those of Assyria, India, and other nations. || " The Jews worshipped the Assyrian deity, SUCCOTH- * See Universal History, vol. xx. 71. f See Calmet, vol. iv. 670. \. No. 537. Numb. xxii. || See Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, page 87. article VI. by the Rev. Joseph Roberts, C.M.R.A.8. INTRODUCTION. IX BENOTH, under the name of ASHTORETH or ASTARTE ; and it is said *, that this ' god or goddess was both masculine and feminine.' The SIVA of India is both male and female ; his right side being of the former, and his left of the latter sexf ; and his wife assumed both appearances, as circumstances might require. " ' The Babylonians called SUCCOTH-BENOTH, MYLITTA, signifying Mother. 1 J The wife of SJ(VA, and she only (as far as I know), is called MATH A, or Mother* " Amongst the Assyrians, ' the daughters or women once in their lives had to make a sacrifice of virtue to that goddess, SUCCOTH-BENOTH.' And LEMPRIERE says of her : ' A surname of Venus, among the Assyrians, in whose temples all the women were obliged to prostitute themselves to strangers.' The wife of SIVA, amongst many other names, is called VALI or BALI, under which appellation she assumed the form of a girl of twelve years of age. And in Madura, Balane, and other places, beautiful virgins used to go to the temple once in their lives, to offer themselves in honour of the goddess. The story was, that a god had converse with them. In all the temples of SIVA and his consort (where it can be afforded), women are kept to dance and sing before the idols. " Amongst the Assyrians and others, e the votaries of the above-named goddess worship sometimes in the dress of men, and at other times in that of women." || The dancing-girls of many of the temples on the continent of India, at the feast called Mdnampu, do the same thing. When the god and goddess go out to hunt, they are equipped and mounted as * Universal History. f MAURICE makes the following quotation from Proclus: " Zew; dparjv -ytvtTO' T^IVQ d^poro^ tTrXero vvfj,^. JUPITER is a man : JUPITER is also an immortal maid. Vol. iv. 707. Universal History. Ibid. || Ibid. TYERMAN and BENNET say of the Festival of Cama : " There were boys, dressed as girls, dancing in the streets to the sound of jingling, jarring, and ear-piercing instruments." X INTRODUCTION. men ; and at the conclusion of the great feast of S/VA they assume the dress of Panddrams, and thus go from house to house to ask alms. " The Babylonian or Assyrian goddess was drawn or supported by lions.* The wife of SfvA, under the name of BHADRA-KALI, has the same animal appropriated to her use. " c SUCCOTH-BENOTH, the same with the Syrian goddess, the same as ASTARTE of the Phoenicians and the DECERTO of Ascalon.' The worship paid to this goddess came originally! from Assyria and Babylonia. ASTARTE is always joined with BAAL; and is called a god in Scripture, having no particular word for expressing a goddess f. LUCIAN thinks ASTARTE to be the Moon. { " The wife of SfvA, under the name of SACTI, placed a representation of the crescent moon on the head of her husband, under the following circumstances. When once engaged in amorous sports, he by accident broke her arm- ring^ which she immediately tied on his dishevelled lock of hair as the crescent moon. He, however, having laughed at her, she turned away her face, and changed the crescent into the full moon. The crescent is common to both, and is assumed as circumstances may require. See particularly on Isai. Ixv. 11. " ' SHACH, or SACA, another god or goddess, partly the same with MYLITTA (SUCCOTH-BENOTH), the Syrian god- dess." || * Universal History. f Ibid. J See CALMET in loco ; also, his Plates xvi. figures 12, 13, 14. ; and xix. figures 1. and 2.; where the horns, or rather the crescent moon, may be seen on the head. The following is a translation of the passage from the Kunna Purdna : " Let us place on our heads the feet of SACTI, who when she put on SivA's dishevelled lock of hair the crescent moon, her arm-ring, which had been broken in amorous dalliance, the cimetar-armed SIVA looked significantly ; at which she averted her face with shame, and changed it into the full moon." || Universal History. INTRODUCTION. XI " The wife of SIVA is also known here under the name of SATTI ; but in Sanskrit, SAKTI. " ' The festival of SACA was held for five days every year ; during which time, servants commanded their masters, and wore a kind of royal garment, called Zogani.' * " The festival of the wife of SIVA continues nine days, or rather nights, and is called Nava Rdttiri, i. e. nine nights : three of these, however, are for SARASVATI f , and the other six for SAKTI. On this occasion, those who have not been accustomed to eat flesh, or drink intoxicating liquors, do so freely. All restraints are now thrown off; and scenes of the most sickening kind wind up the ceremonies. No young female of respectable character will dare to show herself in public. Servants assume the airs and practices of their masters; school-boys, dressed in gay apparel J, go from house to house, to dance and sing songs in honour of SAKTI : gam- bling, fighting of cocks and of rams, with other rude and ludicrous performances, fill up this indecent festival. " ' SALAMBO, a goddess ; the same as ASTARTE ; eternally roaming up and down a mountain.' " Is it not rather striking, that the wife of SIVA is also known by the name of SILAMBU ; arid that this name also signifies a mountain. Another of her names is PARVATI, meaning she who was born in a mountain. She is called daughter of the mountain; and sometimes the mountain nymph, who cap- tivated SivA from a course of ascetic austerities. " ' The Babylonians and Assyrians worshipped what by the Greeks and Romans was termed aAAo of the Greeks, the PRIAPUS of the Romans, and the LINGAM of the Hindoos (worshipped now in the temples* of the East); we see some of the most striking coincidences, which never could have been the result of any thing but the identity of their origin." Looking, therefore, at the primitive locality of the present human family ; at the five books of Moses ! at the book of Joshua ! of Judges ! of Ruth ! and the Psalms ! and Isaiah ! and Jeremiah ! and Ezekiel ! and Daniel ! and Jonah ! and the minor prophets ; viewing the remarkable identity of the two leading deities (male or female) of the Assyrians, the Egyptians, the Jews, the Hindoos, the Greeks, and Romans ; we may surely expect to meet with many vivid illustrations of the sacred volume in the languages, customs, and super- stitions of the East. On some subjects I have written with considerable plain- ness ; but, for prudential reasons, have been obliged to conceal the worst. Would that the whole could be safely disclosed ! then would the people of these realms arise from their le- thargy, and cry for the spiritual and mental emancipation of * In the Universal History, it is said of a temple in Egypt : " Near the temple was a lake, in the midst of which stood a stone altar j and every day, many people swam to the altar in the midst of the lake, to perform their devotions." This is a correct description of vast numbers of Hindoo temples, and of the way in which men go to the stone altar in the middle of the tank, to perform their devotions. XIV INTRODUCTION. the Oriental slave. The time has gone by for the flippant philosophers of France and England to talk about the " vir- tuous Hindoo and his venerable system of ethics;" we have looked into the vile arcana, and dragged (so far as we dare) the monster to the light. Great Britain has acted nobly to the West ; she has laid a train for the destruction of slavery arid vice in her own and other STATES ! her story will find a place in the literature of every nation ; her fame will have an echo in every age and clime ; but let her now look at the East ! and say, has she not there the most glorious field for her benevolent, her spiritual ! achievements ? As to the origin of the various resemblances found in this volume, I am free to confess I do not think they have been derived from the written word of our Scriptures, but from oral communications ; and that they have been moulded into their present shape by the political and theological notions of the people by whom they were received. It has been my object as much as possible to avoid con- troversy ; hence I have left the reader to compare this with other commentaries ; and doubt not, in general, he will be led to right conclusions. Some of the articles are, perhaps, too brief, but no STUDENT will be long without ascertaining the meaning. In very many instances I preserve the Tamul idiom, but in general have distinguished it by inverted commas ; there are, however, some sentences without that distinction, which may lead the reader to suppose they are my own composition, when they are nothing more than the literal rendering of an Eastern phrase. I am conscious that my English is not always so pure and national as it ought to be ; but my numerous years of absence and foreign associations must be my apology. Should Providence again take me to those distant regions, I shall, at all convenient opportunities, pursue the same course, and doubt not to make many additional discoveries to instruct and interest my own mind. INTRODUCTION. XV If it be laudable in a great nation to expend thousands in the exploring of unknown regions, in tracing out the course or source of a river, or the limits of a sea ; how much more so to illustrate that book which refers to the regions beyond, to that bourn whence no traveller returns ! It is true that ail those doctrines which relate to our present and future hap- piness are sufficiently comprehensive ; but is the intelligent, the immortal mind of man to be satisfied with that, when the rest is within his grasp? Man has ransacked and delved into the crumbling remains of antiquity: he has sailed through rivers and seas " unknown to song ;" he has become "the inhabitant of every clime;" his ambitious soul has ventured all for the breath of fame : and is this fair, this glorious field, so worthy of all his loftier powers, to remain comparatively unexplored ? Happy shall I be, if in accordance with the wishes of the society to which I have the honour to belong, to be employed in this sublime pursuit ; and happy shall I be to render up my breath in illustrating that volume which has been my solace and delight in sorrow's darkest hour. Now " Unto him that loved us, and washed us from our sins in his own blood, and hath made us kings and priests unto God and his Father ; to him be glory and dominion for ever and ever. Amen." JOSEPH ROBERTS. Faversham, Kent, January, 1835. PASSAGES OF SCRIPTURE ILLUSTRATED. GENESIS. Chap. Verse. Page Chap. Verse Page Chap. Verse Page xxiv. 11. - 27 xli. 43. - 47 i. 20. 1 47. - 27 44. - 48 ii. 7, 1 57. - 28 xlii. 15. - 48 8. 1 59. - 28 37. - 48 16. _ ^ 60. - 29 xliii. 7. - 48 18. - 3 63. - 29 18. - 49 20. - 3 XXV. 6. - 29 19. - 49 23. - 5 18. - 29 29. - 50 ill. 4. 5 21. - 30 xliv. 14. - 50 5. 8 28. - 30 18. - 50 7. - 8 30. - 30 21. - 51 15. 8 xxvi. 15. - 31 xlv. 2. - 51 16. - 10 xxvii. 17. - 31 14, 15. - 51 iv. 3. - 10 27. - 32 17. - 52 4. - 11 41. - 32 xlvi. 4. - 52 7. - 11 44. - 32 6. - 52 13. - 12 xxviii. 18. - 33 34. - 53 14. - 12 xxix. 1. - 33 xlvii. 26. - 53 15. - 12 7. - 33 xlviii. 16. - 53 vi. 4. - 12 14. - 34 xlix. 3. - 53 17. - 13 19. - 34 10. - 54 vii. 11. - 14 26. - 34 12. - 54 viii. 13. - 14 35. - 35 22. - 54 ix. 13. - 14 XXX. 20. - 35 24. - 55 22. - 15 30. - 36 25. - 56 X. xi. 29. 9. 7. - 16 - 16 - 16 xxxi. 32. 2. 35. - 36 - 36 - 37 3, 4, 5. 9. 13 14.16. 19.2 21.22. 27. 3. [-56 xiii. 7. - 17 38. - 37 1. 10. - 60 xiv. 14. - 18 40. - 37 26. - 60 17. - 18 46. - 37 22. - 19 53. - 38 EXODUS. 23. - 20 55. - 38 i. 14. - 61 xv. 17, 18. - 20 xxxii. 18. - 39 16. - 61 xvi. 2. - 21 19. - 40 21. - 61 xviii. 1. - 21 xxxiii. 3. - 41 ii. 5. - 62 2. - 21 10. - 41 9. - 62 4. - 22 14. - 42 iii. 2. - 63 27. - 22 15. - 42 5. - 63 xix. 19. - 22 xxxiv. 30. - 42 vi. 9. - 63 26. - 22 XXXV. 2. - 42 vii. 1. - 63 XX. 15. - 23 4. - 43 viii. 9. - 64 16. - 23 xxxvi. 6. - 43 20. 64 xxi. 6. - 24 xxxvii. 3. - 43 ix. 8. - 64 8. - 24 35. - 44 X. 2. - 65 9. - 24 xxxviii. 14. - 44 11. - 65 16. - 25 28. - 44 21. - 65 21. - 25 xxxix. 6. - 44 22, 23. - 66 xx ii. 2. - 25 xl. 20. - 45 26. - 69 5. - 26 27. - 45 28. - 69 xxiii. 7. - 26 xli. 40. - 46 xi. 2. - 69 15. - 26 42. - 46 xii. 2. - 71 XV111 PASSAGES OF SCRIPTURE ILLUSTRATED. Chap. Verse Page Chap. Verse Page Chap. Verse Page xii. 11. - 72 xxiii. 22. - 94 xxviii. 4. - 124 xiii. 18. - 72 xxiv. 2. - 94 5. - 125 21. - 72 xxvi. 31. - 94 6. - 125 XV. 25. - 73 xxvii. 28. - 95 13. - 126 xvi. 16. - 73 27. - 126 xix. 4. - 74 NUMBERS. 30. - 126 15. - 74 V. 'J. - 96 xxix. 17. - 127 XX. 5. - 74 17. - 96 23. - 128 26. - 75 21. - 96 XXX. 14. - 128 xxii. 5. - 75 vi. 19. - 97 19. - 129 18. - 75 26. - 97 xxxii. 2. - 129 26. - 76 x. 31. - 97 5. - 129 27. - 76 xi. 5. - 97 7. - 130 xxiii. 4. - 76 6. - 98 10. - 130 8. - 76 8. - 99 15. - 130 13. - 77 12. - 99 36. - 130 19. - 77 20. - 99 42. - 130 28. - 78 22. - 99 xxxiii. 14. - 181 XXV. 6. - 78 xii. 14. - 100 xxvii 19. - 78 xiii. 32. - 101 | JOSHUA. xxviii . 22. - 78 xiv. 9. - 101 ii. 11. - 133 29. - 79 xxi. 8. - 101 18. - 133 33. - 79 xxii. 4. - 102 vi. 4. - 133 42. - 79 6. - KVJ vii. 6. - 134 xxix. 7. - 79 xxiii. 1. - 102 ix. 11. - 134 23. - 80 21. - 103 X. 12. - 134 XXX. 18,19. - 80 xxiv. 21. - 103 19. - 136 23. - 80 xxv. 2. - 103 21. - 136 25. - 80 xxxi. 50. - 104 24. - 137 xl. 10. - 81 xxxiii. 55. - 104 xxiii. 7. - 137 27. - 82 13. - 137 DEUTERONOMY. xxiv. 32. - 137 LEVITICUS. i. 44. - 106 i. 15. - 83 iii. 11. - 106 JUDGES* ii. IS. - 83 iv. 16. - 106 i. 7. - 139 iv. 4. - 83 19. - 108 iii. 21. - 139 22. - 83 v. 22. - 108 iv. 3. - 140 V. 2. - 83 vi. 7. - 109 10. - 140 7. - 84 vii. 20. - 109 viii. 7. - 141 vi. 13. - 84 xi. 10. - 110 18. - 141 vii. 13, - 84 19. - Ill ix. 8. - 141 viii. 31. - 85 xii. 31. - Ill 33. - 142 xi. 33. - 85 xiii. 5. - 112 X. 8. - 142 xii. 2. - 85 6. - 114 xi. 40. - 142 xiii. 45. - 86 xv. 6. - 114 xii. 3. - 143 xiv. 10. - 87 8. - 115 14. - 143 xvi. 6. - 87 xviii. 10. - 115 xiii. 5. - 144 10. - 87 11. - 115 xiv. 16. - 149 29. - 88 xx. 5. - 118 XV. 8. - 149 xviii . 25. - 89 19. - 118 xvi. 7. - 150 xix. 14. - 89 xxi. 6. - 119 19. - 150 19. - 8 12, 13. - 119 23. - 151 27. - 90 23. - 121 xix. 8. - 153 28. - 9 xxv. 4. - 121 xxi. 19. - 154 29. - 9 13. - 122 32. - 9 xxvi. 8. - 122 RUTH. xxi. 13. - 9 xxvii. 15. - 123 i. 11. - 155 18. - 9 17. - 124 17. - 155 xxiii. 1 4. - 9 xxviii. 3. - 124 iii. 2. - 155 PASSAGES OF SCRIPTURE ILLUSTRATED. XIX Chap. Verse Page Chap. Verse Page Chap. Verse Page iii. 7. - 156 iii. 14. - 183 xxi. 27. - 216 9. - 156 iv. 5. - 183 xxii. 16. - 216 iv. ]. - 157 V. 1. - 184 7. - 158 xii. 4. - 184 2 KINGS. xiii. 6. - 184 i. 2. - 217 1 SAMUEL. 17. - 184 ii. 11. - 219 i. 6. - 161 39. - 185 23. - 22O 12. - 161 xiv. 2. - 185 iii. 11. - 222 ii. 5. - 161 7. - 186 iv. 29. 31. - 222 24. - 162 17. - 186 42. - 223 81. - 162 24. - 187 V. 18. - 223 vi. 5. - 162 XV. 30. - 188 27. - 223 7. - 164 xvi. 13. - 188 vi. 25. - 225 vii. 6. - 165 xvii. 8. - 188 32. - 226 viii. ix. 6. 7. - 165 - 166 xviii. 19. 25. - 189 - 190 ix. xxiii. 28. \ 30. J - 226 10. - 166 32. - 190 xiv. 9. - 227 15. - 166 xix. 29. - 190 xvii. 10,11. - 228 X. 27. - 166 XX. 1. - 190 17. - 228 xiv. 14. - 166 xxi. 12. - 191 37. - 230 26. - 167 xxii. 41. - 192 xviii. 20. - 230 41. - 167 27. - 231 42. - 167 1 KINGS. xix. 3. - 231 XV. 9. - 168 i. 2. - 193 26. - 231 xvi. 23. - 168 14. - 193 28. - 232 xvii. 18. - 168 16. - 194 xxii. 17. - 232 40. - 169 ii. 16. - 194 xxiii 5. - 232 43. - 169 34. - 194 7. - 233 44. - 169 38. - 195 11. - 234 55. - 170 iii. 7. - 195 XXV. 16. - 234 xviii. 6. - 170 25. - 196 10. - 170 26. - 197 1 CHRONICLES. xix. 24. - 171 v. 9. - 197 X. 9. - 236 XX. 3. 5. - 172 - 172 vi. viii. 18. 66. - 198 - 198 xviii. xxii. 9, 10. 19. - 236 - 237 xxi. xxiii. 9. 19. - 173 - 173 X. xii. 1. 32. - 199 - 203 xxvi. xxix. 13,14,15,16. 24. - 237 - 238 xxiv. 3. - 173 xiii. 2. - 203 14. 16. - 174 - 174 6. 31. - 204 - 204 2 CHRONICLES. XXV. 5. 10. - 174 - 176 xiv. XV. 6. 13. - 205 - 205 xiv. xvi. 5. 14. - 240 - 240 16. - 176 xvii. 4. - 206 xxi. 19. - 241 29. - 176 12. - 206 xxxii 8. - 249 35. - 177 xviii. 5. - 207 xxvi. 11. - 177 9. - 208 EZRA. 19. - 177 10. - 208 V. 7. - 250 20. - 178 27. - 208 ix. 3. - 250 xxvii. 12. - 178 41. - 210 6. - 250 xxviii . 2. - 178 42. - 211 8. - 251 20. - 179 46. - 211 X. 1. - 251 23. - 179 xix. 18. - 212 9. - 251 24, 25. - 180 19. - 212 XXX. 16. - 180 XX. 10. - 213 NEHEMIAH. 21. - 181 23. - 214 ii. 2. - 252 xxi. 2. - 214 7. - 252 2 SAMUEL. 4. - 215 iv. 3. - 253 i. 12. - 182 8. - 215 21. - 253 ii. 5. - 182 10. - 216 V. 13. - 253 a 2 XX PASSAGES OF SCRIPTURE ILLUSTRATED. Chap. Verse Page Chap. V.;se Page Chap. Verse Page V. 14. - 254 xix. 16. - 279 XXXVJ. 3. - 311 ix. 37. - 254 17. - 279 xxxvii. 7. - 311 20. - 279 22. - 311 ESTHER. 24. - 280 xxxviii. 3. - 311 ;, 9. - 255 26. - 280 16. - 312 12. - 255 28. - 281 34, 35. - 312 V. 9. - 255 xx. 16. - 281 39. - 312 ix. 19. - 256 17. - 282 xxxix. 13. - 312 23. - 282 26. - 313 JOB. xxi. 15. - 283 xii. 19. - 313 j. 1. - 257 24. - 283 20. - 313 10. - 263 xxii. 6. - 283 27. - 313 ii. 7. - 263 7. - 283 xlii. 10. - 313 9. - 264 xxiii. 11. - 284 11. - 314 10. - 264 xxiv. 9. - 284 15. - 315 11. - 265 16. 284 12. - 265 21. - 285 PSALMS. 13. - 265 24. - 285 i. 3. - 316 Hi. 3. - 266 xxviii. - 285 ii. 9. - 316 21. - 266 4. - 296 vi. 2. - 316 ir. 9. - 267 5. - 296 8. - 316 15. - 267 6. - 296 vii. 14. - 317 V. 7. - 267 7,8. - 25)7 viii. 6. - 317 21. - 268 9. - 298 X. 5. - 317 23. - 269 10. - 299 15. - 317 25. - 269 11. - 299 xi. 6. - 318 26. - 269 12. - 300 xii. 6. - 318 ri. 2. - 270 14. - 300 xiv. 4. - 318 12. - 270 15,16,17,1 xvi. 7. - 318 15. - 270 18, 19. J 300 xvii. 2. - 319 28. - 270 20. - 301 10. - 319 vii. 2. - 270 22. - 301 11. - 319 10. - 271 23. - 301 xviii. 5. - 320 12. - 271 25. - 301 XX. 5. - 320 ix. 18. - 271 xxix. 4. - 303 xxii. 6. - 321 25. - 272 6. - 303 7. - 321 X. 10. - 272 7. - 304 10. - 321 xii. 2. - 272 8,9. - 304 12. - 321 4. - 273 15. - 504 14. - 322 5. - 273 20. - 305 21. - 322 7. - 274 22. - 305 xxiii. 2. - 322 xiii. 15. - 274 xxx. 2. - 305 4. - 323 24. - 274 3,4. '- 305 5. - 323 26. - 275 16. - 306 xxvii. 5. - 324 27. - 275 20. - 306 12. - 324 xiv. 4. - 275 22. - 306 xxix. 9. - 324 7. - 276 27. - 306 10. - 324 19. - 276 29. - S07 xxx. 5. - 325 XV. 7. - 276 31. - 307 9. - 325 16. - 276 xxxi. 1. - 308 xxxi. 3. - 326 xvi. 3. - 277 22. - 308 8. - 326 9. - 277 32. - 308 12. - 327 10. - 277 36. - 309 xxxii. 7. - 327 12. - 277 38. - 309 xxxiv. 8. - 328 xvii. 1. - 277 39. - 309 XXXV. 5. - 328 14. - 278 xxxii. 5. - 310 21. - 328 xviii. 4. - 278 xxxiii. 6. - 310 xxxvi. 8. - 329 16. 278 16. - 310 11. - 329 17. - 278 xxxiv. 7. - 310 xxxvii. 6. - 329 PASSAGES OF SCRIPTURE ILLUSTRATED. XXI Chap. Verse Page Chap. Verse Page Chap. Verse Page xxxvii. 35. - 329 cii. 11. - 351 XXV. 11. - 376 xxxix. 5. - 330 cv. 26. - 352 17. - 377 11. - 330 30. - 352 19. - 377 xl. 6. - 330 cix. 9, 10. - 353 xxvi. 11. - 377 9. - 331 ex. 1. - 353 17. - 377 xli. 9. - 331 cxii. 10. .. 354 25. - 378 xlii. 1. - 331 cxiii. 9. - 354 xxvii. 6. - 378 7. - 331 cxix. 82. - 354 10. - 378 11. - 332 83. - 354 17. - 378 xlv. 8. - 332 103. - 355 19. - 379 xlvi. 5. - 332 136. - 355 22. - 379 xlviii. 6. - 333 cxxi. 6. - 355 xxviii. 3. - 379 Iv. 6. - 333 cxxii. 2. - 356 XXX. 4. - 380 8. - 333 cxxiii. 2. - 356 10. - 380 Ivi. 8. - 834 cxxiv. 7. - 357 17. - 380 Ivii. 8. - 334 cxxvi. 2. - 357 Iviii. 3, 4. 4. - 334 - 335 cxxvii. 5. 4,5. - 357 - 358 ECCLESIASTES. i. fi. _ Ql 5, 6. 8. - 335 - 337 cxxviii cxxix. . 3. 3. - 358 - 358 ii. 14. - 381 lix. 9. - 337 6. - 358 V. 12. - 381 Ix. Ixii. 4. 3. - 337 - 337 cxxxii 9. 17. - 359 - 859 vi. vii. 7. 10. - 382 - 382 Ixiv. 3. - 338 cxxxvii. 5. - 359 13. - 383 Ixv. 1. - 338 cxxxviii. 6. - 359 25. - 383 13. - 338 cxl. 3. - 359 ix. 4. - 383 Ixviii. 21. - 338 cxli. 5. - 360 11. - 383 25. - 339 6. - 360 12. - 384 Ixix. 9. - 339 cxlii. 7. - 361 X. 7. - 384 14. - 339 cxliv. 12. - 361 * 16. - 384 31. - 339 cxlviii 9, 10. 13. - 361 XI. 1. - 385 Ixxi. Ixxii. 11. 9. - 340 - 340 cl. 3, 4,5. - 362 xii. 4. 11. - 385 - 385 Ixxiv. Ixxv. 11. 5. - 340 - 341 i. PROVERBS. 6. - 363 SOLOMON'S SONG. Ixxvii. 2. - 342 iii. 8. - 364 i. 7. - 386 10. - 343 iv. 13. - 365 ii. 5. - 386 Ixxviii. 2. - 343 V. 19. - 366 7. - 387 64. - 343 vi. 5. - 366 14. - 387 66. - 344 13. - 366 iv. 3. - 388 Ixxx. 4. - 344 27. - 367 V. 12. - 388 5. - 344 vii. 10. - 367 vi. 4. - 389 13. - 344 X. 11. - 367 vii. 9. - 389 Ixxxi. 10. - 345 xi. 22. - 367 viii. 6. - 389 Ixxxiii 13. - 345 29. - 368 Ixxxiv. 10. - 345 xiv. 13. - 368 ISAIAH. Ixxxv. 10. - ?A7 xvi. 15. - 368 i. 3. - 390 Ixxxvii . 2. - 347 xvii. 18. - 368 18. - 390 7. - 347 xviii. 10. - 369 ii. 6. - 392 Ixxxix . 1. - 348 18. - 370 8. - 393 14. - 348 xix. 12. - 371 20, 21. - 393 xc. 9. - 348 XX.' 10. - 371 iii. 15. - 395 14. - 349 29. - 372 16. - 396 xci. 1. - 349 xxi. 4. - 372 17. - 396 5, 6. - 349 9. - 372 18. - 397 xcii. 10. - 350 xxiii. 5. - 374 19. - 397 12. - 351 6 7,8. - 374 20. - 398 14. - 351 XXV. 3. - 375 21. - 399 cii. 3. - 351 7. - 375 22. - 400 XX11 PASSAGES OF SCRIPTURE ILLUSTRATED. Chap. Verse Page Chap. Verse Page Chap. Verse Page iii. 23. - 400 xlv. 10. - 436 ix. 2. - 469 24. - 401 20. - 436 26. - 470 V. 18. - 401 xlvi. 1. - 439 xi. 12. - 471 23. - 402 3. - 439 xii. 2. - 471 vii. 18. - 402 7. - 439 9. - 471 20. - 403 xlvii. 2. - 440 xiii. 4. 6, 7. - 472 viii. 14. - 404 13. - 440 18. - 472 ix. 3. - 404 xlix. 15. - 445 xiv. 2. - 473 6. - 404 16. - 445 4. - 473 20. - 405 22. - 446 XV. 7. - 474 X. 32. - 405 23. - 446 9. - 474 xi. 4. - 405 li. 8. - 447 10. - 474 6. - 405 20. - 447 xvi. 7. - 474 xiii. 2. - 406 Iii. 1. - 447 xvii. 6. - 475 7. - 406 2. - 447 8. - 475 8. - 406 7. - 448 xviii. 6. - 476 16. - 406 9. - 448 17. - 476 21. - 407 10. - 448 XX. 9. - 476 22. - 409 11. - 449 15. - 476 xiv. 12. - 410 15. - 449 xxii. 24. - 477 13, 14. - 413 liv. 12. - 450 xxiii. 1. - 477 19. - 414 Iv. 12, 13. - 450 25. - 477 23. - 415 Ivi. 3. - 450 xxiv. 6. - 478 xvi. 2. - 415 10. - 451 xxv. 10. - 478 4. - 416 Ivii. 6. - 451 xxxi. 19. - 478 11. - 416 Iviii. 9. - 453 xxxiv. 3. - 479 xviii. 1. - 416 10. - 453 xli. 8. - 479 2. - 417 lix. 5. - 453 xlii. 2. - 479 5. - 419 11. - 454 xliv. 17. - 479 7. - 419 15. - 454 xlvi. 11. - 480 xxi. 5. - 420 Ix. 4. 455 1. 38. - 480 8. - 420 7. - 456 li. 14. - 481 9. - 421 8. - 457 27. - 481 xxii. 17. - 423 11. - 457 42. - 482 18. - 423 13. - 457 Hi. 11. - 482 22. - 424 14. - 457 21. - 482 23. - 424 16. - 458 xxv. 10, 11. - 425 Ixi. 3. - 458 LAMENTATIONS. xxviii. 15. - 425 10. . 458 i. 1. - 483 xxix. 4. - 425 ixii. 4. - 459 11. - 483 XXX. 14. - 426 5. - 459 17. . 484 22. - 426 Ixiv. 5. - 459 ii. 1. - 484 24. - 427 Ixv. 4,5. - 460 15. - 484 29. - 427 11. - 460 iii. 7. - 485 32. - 428 20. - 464 15. - 485 xxxii. 2. - 429 22. - 464 v. 12. - 485 xxxiii. It. - 429 Ixvi. 17. - 465 16. - 486 xxxiv. 11. - 429 xxxviii. 12. - 430 JEREMIAH. EZEKIEL. 17. - 430 ii. 13. - 466 iv. 4. - 487 xl. 11. - 431 37. - 466 15. - 487 12. - 432 iv. 17. - 467 vi. 4. - 488 15. - 433 30. - 467 vii. 10, 11. - 488 xlii. 2. - 433 31. - 468 viii. 17. - 488 14. - 433 V. 8. - 468 xiii. 4. - 493 19. - 434 vi. 24. - 468 18. - 493 xliii. 24. - 435 viii. 7. - 469 xvi. 4. - 494 xliv. 3. - 435 20. - 469 xix. 8. - 494 20. - 435 ix. I. - 469 xxi. 6. - 494 PASSAGES OF SCRIPTURE ILLUSTRATED. XX111 Chap. Verse Page Chap. Verse Page Chap. Verse Page xxi. 14. - 495 ix. 1. - 517 XV. 2. - 543 21. - 495 28. - 543 xxii. 12. - 496 JONAH. xviii. 6. - 543 30. - 496 i. 5. - 520 21. - 544 xxiii. 14. - 496 7. - 520 xix. 6. - 544 xxiv. 17. - 497 iv. 6. - 521 24. - 544 XXV. xxvii. xxviii. 4. 6. 13. 2. - 497 - 497 - 497 - 498 iv. vi. MlCAH. 7. 4. 7. - 523 - 523 - 523 XX. xxi. xxii. xxiii. 11. 8. 9. 33. - 544 - 545 - 545 - 546 xxix. xxxii. 24. 18. 3. - 498 - 498 - 498 vii. 3. 19. - 524 - 524 xxiv. XXV. 37. 28. 6. - 553 - 553 - 554 xxxiii. 32. - 498 HABAKKUK. xxvi. 18. - 554 xxxix. 11. - 499 ii. 11. - 525 xl. 16. - 499 MARK. xliii. 2. - 499 ZEPHANIAH. i. 3. - 555 xlviii. 23. - 500 i. 12. - 52 iii. 25. - 555 ii. 14. - 526 iv. 24. - 555 DANIEL. vi. 11. - 556 i. 2. - 501 HAGGAI. 13. - 556 ii. 4. - 501 i. 6. - 527 21. - 556 iv. 25. - 501 viii. 6. - 557 V. 12. - 501 ZECHARIAH. 24. - 557 27. - 502 iii. 2. - 528 X. 46. - 558 vi. 23. - 502 iv. 10. - 528 xiv. 35. - 558 vii. 15. - 503 viii. 7. - 529 51. - 559 xii. 3. - 529 XV. 40. - 559 HoSEA. xiii. 9. - 530 iii. 2. - 504 xiv. 20. - 531 LUKE. iv. 16. - 504 i. 78. - 561 vi. 4. - 504 MALACHI. ii. 44. - 561 9. - 505 i. 13. - 532 iv. 23. - 561 viii. 8. - 505 ii. 3. - 532 V. 5. - 561 ix. 14. - 505 iii. 14. - 532 vii. 3. - 562 X. 7. - 506 45. - 563 8. - 506 MATTHEW. ix. 59. - 563 10. - 506 ii. 11. - 534 X. 18. - 563 12. - 507 iii. 11. - 534 xii. 2. - 564 xi. 4. - 507 v. 2. - 534 xiv. 19. - 564 xiv. 5. - 508 29. - 535 xvi. 3. - 564 vi. 3. - 535 22. - 565 JOEL. 5. - 535 xix. 5. - 565 i. 7. - 509 26. - 536 40. - 566 ii. 6. - 509 27. - 536 xxi. 18. - 566 vii. 6. - 537 xxiii. 31. - 566 AMOS. 9. - 537 48. - 567 i. 13. - 510 18. - 537 ii. 6. - 510 27. - 537 JOHN. 7. - 511 viii. 20. - 538 i. 1. - 568 iii. 2. - 511 ix. 15. - 538 32. - 568 5. - 512 16. - 539 iii. 3. - 569 12. - 512 17. - 539 8. - 569 iv. 2. - 512 X. 12. - 539 16. - 569 V. 8. - 513 xi. 29. - 539 vi. 27. - 570 19. - 515 xii. 27. - 539 68. - 570 26. - 515 xiii. 25. - 540 vii, 3. - 571 vi. 4. - 516 44. - 541 38. - 571 9,10. - 5J6 xiv. 26. - 542 xi. 31. - 571 XXIV PASSAGES OF SCRIPTURE ILLUSTRATED. Chap. Verse Page Chap. Verse Page xii. 3. - 572 1 CORINTHIANS. xiii. 38. - 572 i. 28. - 581 xiv. 2. - 572 iii. 9. - 581 zvi. 28. - 575 V. 6. - 582 xxi. 5. - 575 X. 25. 28. - 582 7. - 575 * 2 CORINTHIANS. ACTS. V. 1. - 583 iv. 34, 35. - 576 xii. 2. - 583 ix. 17. - 576 X. 23. - 576 GALATIANS. xiv. 13. - 577 ii. 9. - 585 xxi. 11. - 578 iii. 24. - 585 21. - 578 iv. 3. - 585 40. - 578 15. - 586 xxii. 3. - 579 vi. 7. - 586 ROMANS. PHILIPPIANS. iii. 13. - 580 iii. 2. - 587 xiv. 2. - 580 19. - 587 Chap. Verse 7. HEBREWS. 37. 6. JAMIS. 13. 2 PETER. 10. ] JOHN. 16. JUDE. 12. Page - 588 - 588 - 588 - 589 - 590 - 590 - 591 REVELATIONS. i. 12. - 591 xxi. 8. - 592 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE SACRED SCRIPTURES. CHAP. I. Verse 20. " The moving creature that hath LIFE." JL HE Hebrew has for life, soul ; and the Orientals believe that the vital principle in animals will never die ; and when the life or soul has departed from one body, it is said to enter into and to animate some other body. II. 7." The Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into Ms nostrils the breath of life ; and man became a living soul. Those of the Easura faith believe that Sattee produced Siva and his goddess ; Vishnoo and Lechimy ; also Brahma, and the goddess Sarusuvathe : but that all souls come from Brahma. 8. " The Lord God planted a garden eastward in Eden." Ft may be of but little importance to us, at this day, to 2 GENESIS. know where the garden of Eden was situated; and, perhaps, it is now impossible to identify its site. Some have fixed it in China ; others in Arabia, or Palestine : some have said it was on the banks of the Ganges; and others, in the island of Ceylon. The word Paradise, by which it is generally de- signated, is not Greek, but signifies, according to Dr. Clarke, in Arabic, agarden, a vineyard, and also the place of 'the blessed. It is a well-known fact, that, by all the inhabitants of the East, Ceylon is considered one of the most sacred spots on earth ; and the Arabians and Persians believe it was the Paradise. Though the names Adam's bridge and Adam's peak, may not stamp with certainty the traditions concerning it; yet they show at least what has been, and still is, the popular opinion. It is, however, only fair to infer that the site chosen for the " place of the blessed," would be the most eligible that could be fixed on, not only in relation to the other parts of our globe, but also to universal nature ; as its climate and pro- ductions would, in a great measure, depend on this. It is therefore as probable that it would be situated near to the Equator, as in any other place ; for, after all deductions for the devastations made either by the fall, or the flood ; the fairy scenes that there break upon our view; the profuse and unaided gifts of nature, joined with the fewness of the wants of the inhabitants, may lead us to conclude that we have found out as probable a spot for the abode of the first happy pair, as can any where else be pointed out. 16. "Of every tree in the garden thou niayesl. freely eat." The margin reads, "eating thou shalt eat;" and this is truly Oriental. Does a man who is under the care of a phy- sician, feel doubtful whether or not he ought to eat some kind of food, which has been recommended to him ; and does he ask, " Shall I partake of this ? Should it be approved of by the physician, he will reply, " Fear not ; Posikavea, posika lam, Eating you may eat." GENESIS. 3 18. " It is not good that the man should be alone." In the book called the Scanda Purana *, it is said, " By marrying a woman of a superior disposition, charity is pro- moted, penance is maintained, felicity in the celestial world is secured ; the happiness of this world is acquired : and there is nothing difficult to obtain." 18. " An help meet for him." This is the polite way of speaking of a wife in the East, though it must be confessed that they associate with this term too much of the idea of a servant. Does an aged per- son advise a young friend to get married ; he will not say, " Seek for a wife," but " Try to procure a thunive, a help meet." A man who repines at his single state, says, " I have not any female help in my house." A widower says, " Ah ! my children, I have now no female help" A man, wishing to say something to his wife, will address her as follows: " My help meet, hear what I am going to say." It is worthy of observation, that the margin has for help meet, " as before him ; " and this gives a proper view of her condition, for she literally has to stand before her husband to serve him on all occasions, and especially when he takes his food ; she being then his servant. Say to a woman, " Leave thy husband ! " she will reply, " No, no ; I will stand before him." 20. " And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field." " It is well known, that the names affixed to the different animals, in Scripture, always express some prominent feature * The Scanda Purana is one of the most sacred works of the Hindoos, and is regularly read through once a year in the temples of Siva. It con- tains some most curious allusions to, and illustrations of, antiquity, and may have been written about 1500 years ago, though it professes to de- tail events which occurred many thousands of years ago. It is now in course of translation for the Royal Asiatic Society. B 2 4 GENESIS. and essential characteristic of the creature to which they are applied." Dr. A. Clarke. It is an interesting fact, that nearly all the animals among the Hindoos, have names given to them, which either allude to their shape, or their habits. Hence, the Horse is called the " thought," which means he is as quick as thought. Also, the " leaping one ; " " the learned or trained one ; " " he who causes dimness, " i. e. by swiftness ; " the mad one ; " " the runner in circles ; " " he with the mane ; " " the triangle face ;" " the hot one ; " " the shot arrow ; " " the driver of the wind ; " " the driven swiftness." The Lion is called, " the king of beasts ; " " the victorious one ; " " he with claws." The Tiger is, " the springer ;" " the spotted one ;" " the beautiful one." The Elephant, " the moun- tain with hands;" "the slothful one;" " the roarer;" "he whose mouth hangs down;' " the tusker ;" " he who drinks two ways" (through the trunk and mouth) ; " the warrior ;" "he whose hands has a hole in it" (alluding to the pro- boscis); when in love, " the mad one;" " he with the large foot;" "the pie-bald one."* The Ox, or Cow in youth, " the happy one." Madu, "the teated one." The Cat, " tiger of the house ; " " the sleeper." The Dog is, " he who lives by the scent ;" "he who vomits;" "the hero;*' "the idle one." The Sheep is named, "the timid one;" "the leaper." The Alligator is called, "he who conceals himself;" " he who comes from eggs." The Bear, " the triangle step- ped one." The Monkey, " the thief! " " he who never diesf ;" " he who lives in the branches." The Hog, " he who dwells in the forest;" "the hot one;" "the angry;" " the tusked one ; " " the ground tearer." The Jackal, " he of tricks, or cunning;" " the envious one." The Turtle, " the stone-bodied * These animals are sometimes thus marked. In travelling through the Batticaloa district, in 1821, I saw one of that description. He was feed- ing in the long grass ; and after giving a look at me and my companions, he resumed his employment. t The natives believe that, except when killed by man or some animal, ihe monkey never dies. GENESIS. 5 one ; " " he who comes from eggs ;" " he who conceals his members." The Ass, " he with the large mouth." The Deer, " the small mouthed one." Birds are generally called, " the sickness faced ones" (mean- ing the sickness of birds generally appears first in the face or head) ; " those who come from eggs." The Arrows, " the givers of omens." The Crow is, " the receiver of offerings" (alluding to those who fast on the Saturday in honour of Sanne Saturn, who give part of their rice to the crows). The Ka- Ka, " he with the iron beak." The Peacock, " he whose riches or pleasures are in feathers." The Eagle, " he who flies aloft;" "the flesh eater." The Pigeon, " the stone eater." The Serpent, "he who walks on his belly;" " the secret one;" "he of tricks ;" " he who fears a noise ;" " he who has a jacket " (alluding to his slipping off the skin); "he who has eyes for ears, or he who hears by his eyes;" " the coiled one;" " the circle." 23. " She shall be called WOMAN." The term WOMAN in the original is the feminine form of the term translated man, and may properly be defined she- man; and it is a striking coincidence, that, in the Tamul language, manuthan is man, but manutfie is woman, or female man ; the e being the feminine termination. III. 4. . " There were giants in the earth in those days ; and also after that, when the sons of God came in unto GENESIS. 13 the daughters of men, and they bare children to them, the same became mighty men, which were of old." The Hindoos say that giants were generated in the following manner: Brahma, the god (he who was also called Kdsipar), had two daughters ; the one called Athe, and the other called Tithe ; from the former came the gods, but from the latter the giants. Those giants or demi- gods were " nine cubits in height, and performed the most astonishing works : " and such is the opinion of the people, that wherever there has been a great effort of nature, whether in an earthquake, or a volcano, they say it w r as produced by the giants. But leaving these notions out of the question, it is a fact, that in some of the stupendous works of art which still remain, it is impossible to account for the way in which some of the ponderous masses of stone were brought together, as the people do not at this day possess any machines of suf- ficient power to remove them. Another general opinion, in reference to the stature of man, is, that in every age he is becoming less ; and will do so until he become a prey to the most insignificant animals. 17. " Behold I, even I, do bring a flood of waters upon the earth." That the Hindoos have an account of the deluge, all who are acquainted with Eastern literature must admit. The translations by Sir William Jones from the Bhagavat, and other authorities, fully settle the matter. In the first volume of the Asiatic Researches may be seen the opinions on this subject. In aTamul book, also, called Bagavatham, which, I doubt not, is translated from the Sanscrit book Bhagavat, it is said, that one called Satyavdthan, (i. e. the true-faced one) in the first age, which was called Kreathd, did one morning, after he arose, and after he had performed his ablutions and devotions, 14 GENESIS. go to the place of the god, Vishnoo, and said the Treatlia age and the flood are now come : what advice do you give to me ? Then Vishnoo took a lotus leaf, like unto his own navel, and placed Satyavathan thereon. After this, Vishnoo as- sumed the form of a fish, to support and steer the leaf. The flood came, and in three and three quarters ndliki, i. e. one hour and a half, the whole world was covered with water, and all living creatures were destroyed. When the waters were dried up, seven kinds of appearances (living creatures) came. In the third age, Satyavathan was united to the navel of Vishnoo. In that ancient book, the Scanda Purana, it is said, " The town of Kanchu is celebrated, because, when the flood was upon the earth after the death of a Brahma (one of his deaths or incarnations), he, assuming the shape of a frog, escaped from the flood by catching hold of the branch of a mango- VII. 11. " The windows of heaven were opened." The margin has " the flood-gates of heaven were opened." In the East, when the rain falls in torrents, the people say, u the heavens are broken." VIII. 13. " Noah removed the covering of the ark." The native vessels in India have not decks like those in Europe, but strong laths are put on, which are well tied together, and then thatched over with cocoa-nut leaves, which can be removed at any time without difficulty. It can scarcely be believed, that so slight a covering will be a defence from the rain and sea; but, generally speaking, it is so. Some of these vessels carry upwards of two hundred tons. IX. 13. " I do set my bow in the cloud." The rainbow is the bow with which Indran, the king of GENESIS. 15 heaven, fought his foes. With it, having lightning for its string, he conquered the Assurs. Scandan, the son of Siva, was once injuring the holy mountains, by tearing up the forests, and destroying the animals ; when the gods, hearing of his proceedings (not knowing he was the son of Siva), went and fought with him ; but Scandan seized the bow of the king of heaven, and conquered them all. A king once wrote to another sovereign, ordering him to deliver up the keys of his fortress : but the latter asked, " What ! has he got the bow of the king of heaven ? " When preparations are making for a marriage, or any other feast, passers-by, on seeing the arrangements, say, " Ah ! here is the rainbow ! " meaning, there is something to follow. 22. " And Ham saw the nakedness of his father." Calmet says, " Ham or Cham DH? brown, swarthy, black, deep black." Dr. Hales says, " Ham signifies burnt or black." The Tamul for Ham is Cam, and the Sanscrit is " Cham." Cama or Chama is the Hindoo god of love. Cama signifies " lechery, lasciviousness, an object of desire." This god is the author of all sensual desires. The most impure work in the East commences with an invocation to him. Vish- noo, by many Oriental scholars, is believed to be the same as Noah. Cama is the son of Vishnoo ! Whilst reading the following, keep in mind the meaning of his name, " burnt or black ; " also the object of his visit. Cama once went into the presence of Siva without permission, and that at the time when he was lost in divine contemplation. The intruder, wishing to excite lascivious feelings, let fly one of his arrows. The god, enraged, sentjlre from his frontal eye, and burnt him to ashes ; and ever after that he was in- visible to all but his wife. The regions of the South were appointed to Ham and his 16 GENESIS. posterity, and the South wind is the chariot of Chama or Cama. Job says (xxxvii. 17.)> "Thy garments are warm by the south wind," and great virtues are attributed to it- " It brings heat to the body ; " and many of the sages and kings, who wished to lead a chaste life, complained of its power. " It gives a clear voice, brings joy, and is good for marriages ; " and it is a fact, that during the continuance of this wind, nearly all marriages are made. Calmet and his editors believe that Ammon, or Hammon, was a deification of Ham.* 29. " The days of Noah were nine hundred and fifty years." In asking the age of a child or a man, the enquiry is not how many years, but, " Days how many ? " In speaking of a man who will die soon " Ah ! in five years his days will be gone. That young man has grey hairs ; to him how many days ? he has seen twenty-six years." X. 9. "A mighty hunter before the Lord." It is said of great heroes, also of those who are very zealous in their devotions, " they are mighty before the gods!" XL 7. " Confound their language." The people of the East have nothing which corresponds with the scriptural account of the confusion of tongues. They say there were originally eighteen languages ; and it may be worth while to preserve their names. Arigam, A'runam, Ka- li ngam, Konisigam, Kamaposum, Konagnum, Kosalam, Peesavagam, Cingaleese, Sinther, Chinese, Moorish, Teera- vudam, Tulavam, Papparam, Mathagam, Maradam, Pan- gam. They also have eighteen kinds of books. * See Deut. iv. 16. Lingam. GENESIS. 17 XIII. 7. "And there was a strife between the herd- men of Abram's cattle, and the herdmen of Lot's cattle. 26. 20. And the herdmen of Gerar did strive with Isaac's herdmen, saying, The water is ours." How often have I been reminded of the strife of the herd- men of the Scriptures, by seeing, oil a distant plain, a number of shepherds or husbandmen struggling together respecting some of the same causes which promoted strife in the patri- archal age. The fields are not, as in England, enclosed by fences ; there is simply a ridge which divides one from another. Hence the cattle belonging to one person find no difficulty in straying into the field of another, and the shepherds them- selves have so little principle, that they gladly take advantage of it. Nothing is more common than for a man, when the sun has gone down, thus to injure his neighbour. The time when most disputes take place, is when the paddy, or rice, has been newly cut, as the grass left amongst the stubble is then long and green. The herdmen at that time become very tenacious, and woe to the ox, if within reach of stick or stone, until he shall get into his own field. Then the men of the other party start up on seeing their cattle beaten, and begin to swear, and declare how often the others have done the same thing. They now approach each other, vociferating the most opprobrious epithets : the hands swiftly move about in every direction ; one pretends to take up a stone, or spits on the ground in token of contempt; and then comes the contest the long hair is soon dishevelled, and the weaker fall beneath their antagonists. Then begins the beating, biting, and scratching, till in their cruel rage they have nearly destroyed some of the party. The next business is with the magistrate : all are clamorous for justice ; and great must be his patience, and great his discernment, to find out the truth* Another common cause of strife is that which took place between the herdmen of Gerar and those of Isaac. Water 18 GENESIS. is at all times very precious in the East, but especially in the dry season , as the tanks are then nearly exhausted, and what remains is scarcely fit for use. At that time recourse must be had to the wells ; which are often made at the expense or labour of five, ten, or twenty people. Here, then, is the cause of contention. One man has numerous herds* ; he gets there Jirst, and almost exhausts the well; the others come, and, seeing what is done, begin the affray. But the most common cause of quarrel is when the owners of the well have to irri- gate their lands from the same source. To prevent these contests, they have generally each an appointed time for watering their lands ; or, it may be, that those who get there first, shall have the privilege : but where there is so little integrity, it is no wonder there should be so much strife. XIV. 14. "Servants born in his own house." Abram had trained his three hundred and eighteen ser- vants to arms, and with them he rescued his brother Lot, and brought back his " goods, and the women also, and the people." To Englishmen it may appear strange that Abram should have so many servants, and that they were born in his own house. Many Hindoos in North Ceylon once possessed num- bers of slaves, who were all born on their own grounds. I know a man who once had nearly one thousand of his fellow creatures. Not that they always worked for him, or were dependent upon him ; they were the descendants of his slaves, and were, in the strongest sense of the word, his vassals. Neither were they descended from men of other nations, but from Hindoos only ; and some of them from the same caste as their master. 17. 5IT7-] GENESIS. V CA 5 ^ilpQ^ Job, who is supposed to have lived between three and four thousand years ago, alludes (as in the marginal reference) to them in chapters xxxii. and xxxviii. Jacob began and went on with his sons according to their age ; consequently the order could not correspond with that of the zodiac. With the people of the East, astronomy is a most interest- ing and important science, as it involves much of their system of theology, as well as astrology, which is supposed to bear on all the affairs of life. No wonder, then, that they should often refer to the planetary system, as the fruitful source of all their pleasures, or of all their pains. The good or eviFstar, under which a person has been born, is believed to be the certain regulator of future life. Thus, men of good or evil disposi- tions are often compared to the planets or signs with which they are supposed to correspond. Many of the ancient kings of India, from some fancied cor- respondency of temper or disposition, were named after the signs of the zodiac, either by their parents, or posterity. There was a king called Kumban, whose name signifies Aquarius. The great sovereign of Pandium was also named Meenam, i. e. the sign Pisces. The king Kadakkiyan means Cancer, and Singam, Leo, is affixed to vast numbers of the names of the sovereigns of the East. One of the names of the god Ra- man is Sagittarius ; and, what is rather strange, his sister Asa- mugge is called Aries. The wife of a celebrated hermit was named Macha-Kenthe, Pisces : and females are often called Virgo. In the book called Pe'erapothaga-Santherothium, an account is given of a king called Anguvesaran, who had six sons and six daughters, to whom he gave the names of the twelve signs of the zodiac. When a number of people are seated in a circle, it is com- mon to say of them, " Ah ! there they are like the twelve signs of the zodiac." Should a mother have twins, she is believed to have been 58 GENESIS. under the influence of Gemini ! An unfortunate person is often called Saniyan, i. e. Saturn. When a child is born un- der the influence of a malignant planet, the father endeavours to counteract its power by giving to his child the name of a superior constellation. On some occasions, however, he will not give the whole of the name of the predominant sign, but will simply choose one in common use, which has for its first letter that of the name of the friendly sign. For instance, suppose an infant to be born under Scorpio when he is in his evil moods, should Leo be the ruling power, the name of the child will begin with the letter L. An aged man at the point of death calls together his child- ren, and beginning with the eldest, he gently notices his fail- ings, his seniority, and consequent power over the rest ; and advises him not to oppress them. He then goes through the others, alludes to their failings, and shows how to avoid them. With these facts before us, we are not surprised at the con- duct of Jacob in alluding to the twelve signs, and to the cor- responding dispositions of his sons. I am, however, of opinion, that it is unwise to insist upon the perfect resemblance of each son to one of the signs. How is Gemini to be made out ? to do this would require thirteen sons; or to adopt the plan of Dr. Hales, and make Dan stand for Libra and Scorpio. How also does Virgo, a female, cor- respond with the individual assigned to her ? I think, there- fore, it has been an error to force the similitude ; the more so, because sufficient has been said to show that Jacob did refer to the zodiacal signs. Of Reuben it is said, " unstable as water," which is supposed to refer to the sign Aquarius. And this cer- tainly includes the Eastern idea of that element. A son at the funeral pile of his father breaks an earthen ves- sel, which has been filled with water. It sinks into the ground, and cannot be gathered up again. Many of their allusions in reference to uncertainty or instability are borrowed from wa- ter. Of the promises of a faithless man it is said, " O write GENESIS. ,59 them in water" i. e. the characters may soon be formed on the surface, but not a trace will be left behind. Judah, "as an old lion; who shall rouse him up?" This probably refers to the sign Leo. Zebulon, " an haven of ships." In the Eastern zodiac, Virgo is represented as sitting in a ship, with a lighted lamp in her right hand, and an ear of corn in her left ; which may refer to the assistance the light would give to find the way. and the ear of corn to the value and importance of her cargo. Issachar, "a strong ass." Supposed to be Taurus, which is the principal beast of burden in the East. Dan, "judgment, or the judge." "Shall judge his people." " A serpent by the way that biteth the horse heels." The first part of his character appears to refer to the sign Libra, the emblem of justice ; but the latter to Scorpio. The scorpion is a most cautious reptile in taking its prey ; it goes slowly along, with its claws nearly closed. When within reach, it seizes its prey with great force, and its powerful sting is soon shot into the victim. The whole of the conduct of Dan and his tribe shows the portrait drawn by his father to have been very accurate. " Gad, a troop," probably Sagittarius. " Out of Asher his bread shall be fat shall yield royal dainties." I know of nothing among the signs which could be considered as a royal dainty except the crab, and only then when the sove- reign lived far inland. It may, therefore, allude to Cancer. Naphtali, " a hind let loose." This may refer to the ram. " Joseph is a fruitful bough." This may allude to the sign Pisces, as great fecundity in the East is often compared to the great increase of fish. That Jacob had this idea in his mind, in reference to the sons of Joseph, is most certain ; for he said, when blessing the lads, let them grow (as in the margin) " as fishes do increase." It is rather singular that the grandchildren should be blessed first. Perhaps it would be no very great stretch to suppose that Manasseh and Ephraim refer to Gemini. 60 GENESIS. " Benjamin shall ravin as a wolf." It does not follow from this that there was a wolf in the zodiac. Benjamin was to get his food violently like a wolf. In the Eastern zodiac, Capri- cornus is represented as a sea monster, with its mouth open, showing a frightful set of teeth. Looking at the conduct of that fierce tribe, the comparison is not inapplicable. (See 2 Kings xxiii. 5.) L. 10. "And they came to the threshing-floor of Atad ; there they mourned with a very great and very sore lamentation." It seems to be very unlikely that the funeral procession should remain at a thresh ing-floor, as the place would be rendered most impure. The word Atad is said to mean a "bramble, or thorn;" which conveys a correct idea of the places where the dead are buried, and also of the probable place where they would rest. 26. "Joseph was put into a coffin." The people of the East do not in general put their dead into a coffin ; they simply fold up the corpse in a mat. When dying, the head is always placed towards the south, and in the grave also in the same direction. When a person is very ill, should another ask how he is, he will reply, "Ah ! his head is towards the south ;" meaning there is no hope. Some Yogees or Sanyasis (holy men) are buried in a sepul- chre, some in a sitting position, and are covered with salt. It is customary to put a large stone, or a block of wood, on the breast ; and a person stands upon it, to press it down. The reason assigned for this is, that it prevents evil spirits from doing any injury to the deceased. 61 EXODUS. CHAP. I. verse 14-. " Made their lives bitter." Of a bad man it is said, " He makes the lives of his ser- vants bitter." Also, " Ah ! the fellow : the heart of his wife is made bitter." " My soul is bitter." " My heart is like the bitter tree." 16. " When ye do the office of a midwife to the He- brew women, and see them upon the stools." The females of the East are not accouched as their sex in England. Instead of reclining on a couch or a bed, they sit on a stool about sixteen inches in height, or the rice mortar turned upside down, or on a bagjilled with sand. Sometimes they do not use any of the articles alluded to, but stand up- right, having a rope fastened to the roof, by which they pull themselves up and down, to produce a more speedy delivery. In the forty-sixth plate of Calmet, which is taken from "an ornamented basso relievo on a sepulchral urn," is represented a mother who has just been accouched. She is seated on a chair, and appears to be much exhausted. There are four female attendants, two of whom seem to be busy about the child. These facts, then, illustrate the word stool, which has caused so many doubts and learned disquisitions. 21. " And it came to pass, because the mid wives feared God, that he made them houses." Who made them houses ? God ; for He " dealt well with" them, because they "feared" Him, and "saved the men children alive." Midwives in the East are taken from the lowest classes of 62 EXODUS. society. By their profession, they are liable to be in a con- stant state of uncleanness. After they have performed the functions of their office, they cannot enter the house of an- other, except on duty, until Jive days shall have elapsed from the time they were so engaged. They are not allowed to dwell near to the houses of the other classes of society ; their habitations (or rather those of their owners, for they are generally slaves) are always in some lonely or retired place; and though they are of such import- ance, they are shunned, except when needed. That their profession, both among the Hebrews and the Egyptians, would make them unclean, there cannot be a doubt ; and that they would in consequence be avoided, and to a certain extent despised, is most probable. But though they were thus unclean and degraded, they " feared" God, and He "dealt well with" them, and gave them establishments, and caused them to prosper and become respectable amongst those who had treated them as contemptible and unclean. II. 5. " The daughter of Pharaoh came down to wash herself at the river, and her maidens walked along by the river side." All this is very natural. Wherever there is a river, or a tank, which is known to be free from alligators, there females go in companies to some retired place to bathe. There are so many ceremonies, and so many causes for defilement, amongst the Hindoos, that the duty has often to be at- tended to. In the Scanda Purana, the beautiful daughter of Mongaly is described as going to the river with her maidens to bathe. I 9. " Take this child away, and nurse it for me." Thus the mother of Moses was made the nurse of her own child, the cruel order of Pharaoh was defeated, and a de- liverer prepared for the people of God. " The god Chrishna, in his incarnation, was the son of Vasu- EXODUS. 63 Thevan. His uncle Kanchan said, { Should my brother ever have a male child, I will destroy it.' When Chrishna was born, the father gave him to a shepherdess, who tenderly nursed him. The uncle, in process of time, became acquainted with the fact, and tried in every possible way to accomplish his cruel object ; and on one occasion, when he was pursuing him, they came near to the sea, which made a way for Chrishna to escape. He afterwards killed his uncle." III. 2. " Appeared unto him in a flame of fire." The god Siva is often described as assuming the appear- ance of fire. On one occasion he took the form of a fiery pillar, which was so high that the gods could not find its summit, and so deep that they could not discover its found- ation. 5. " Put off thy shoes from off thy feet; for the place whereon thou standest is holy ground." No heathen would presume to go on holy ground, or enter a temple, or any other sacred place, without first taking off his sandals. Even native Christians, on entering a church or chapel, generally do the same thing. No respectable man would enter the house of another with- out having first taken off his sandals, which are generally left at the door, or taken inside by a servant. VI. 9. " Anguish of spirit." The Hebrew has, for anguish, " shortness or straitness." Of a man in deep distress it is said, " Ah ! his mind is made strait, very narrow, pressed into a small compass." Thus did the Egyptians make strait the spirit of the child- ren of Israel. VII. 1. " I have made thee a god to Pharaoh." A man who is afraid to go into the presence of a king, or a governor, or a great man, will seek an interview with the 6* EXODUS. minister, or some principal character ; and should he be much alarmed, it will be said, " Fear not, friend ; I will make you as a god to the king." " What ! are you afraid of the collector? fear not; you will be as a god to him." " Yes, yes ; that up- start was once much afraid of the great ones; but now he is like a god amongst them." VIII. 9. " Moses said to Pharaoh, Glory over me ; when shall I entreat for thee, and for thy servants, and for thy people, to destroy the frogs from thee and thy houses?" The Margin has, for " glory," " honour," and for " over me," " against me." Pharaoh had besought Moses to pray that the Lord might take away the frogs, and Moses wished the king to have the honour or glory (in preference to himself) of appointing a time when he should thus pray to the Lord to take them away. This was not only complimentary to Pharaoh, but it would have a strong tendency to convince him that the Lord had heard the prayer of Moses, because he himself had appointed the time. The Tamul translation * has this, " Let the honour be to you (or over me) to appoint a time when I shall pray." 20. _ Stand before Pharaoh." How simple ! how beautiful ! The king, according to custom, was in the morning to go to the water, and the pro- phet of the Lord was to STAND before him ; first, to attract his attention ; and secondly, to deliver the message of Jehovah. IX. 8. " Take to you handfuls of ashes of the furnace, and let Moses sprinkle it toward the heaven." * Which is made from the original ; and the genius of the language is every way more suited to the Hebrew, than ours. And nearly all the Orientalisms in the marginal references of the English Bible are inserted in the text of the Tamul translation. EXODUS. 65 When the magicians pronounce an imprecation on an indi- vidual, a village, or a country, they take ashes of cows' dung (or from a common fire), and throw them in the air, saying to the objects of their displeasure, such a sickness, or such a curse, shall surely come upon you. X. 2. " Tell in the ears of thy son." When advice, or information, or reproof, is given, it is said, " It was told in his ears." " Why should I go again ? I have told it in his ears a thousand times ; he will not hear." 11. " They were driven out from Pharaoh's presence." Amongst natives of rank, when a person is very impor- tunate or troublesome, when he presses for something which the former are not willing to grant, he is told to begone. Should he still persist, the servants are called, and the order is given, " Drive that fellow out." He is then seized by the neck, or taken by the hands, and dragged from the premises; he all the time screaming and bawling as if they were taking his life. Thus to be driven out is the greatest indignity which can be offered, and nothing but the most violent rage will induce a superior to have recourse to it. 21. " Stretch out thine hand toward heaven." When the magicians deliver their predictions, they stretch forth the right hand towards heaven, to show that they have power, and that God favours them. " That there may be darkness even darkness which may be felt." Margin, "That one may feel dark- ness." The Tamul translation has this, " darkness which causeth to feel ; " /. e. so dark that a man is obliged to feel for his way, and until he shall have so felt, he cannot proceed. Thus the darkness was so great, that their eyes were not of any use ; they were obliged to grope for their way. F 66 EXODUS. 22, 23. " And Moses stretched forth his hand toward heaven, and there was a thick darkness in all the land of Egypt three days: they saw not one another, neither rose any from his place for three days : but all the children of Israel had light in their dwellings." Historians give us several reasons for the origin of the Jewish feast of lights, showing that they are unable to decide from what circumstance it was derived. One says, " the Jews lighted lamps in their synagogues, and at the doors of their houses, because the good fortune of restoring the temple to its ancient use appeared to the Jews as a new day ; " or " be- cause this happiness befel them when least expected; and they looked on it as a new light ; " or because, " when they were employed in cleansing the temple, after it had been profaned by the Greeks, they found there only one small phial of oil, sealed up by the high-priest, which would hardly suffice to keep in the lamps so much as one night, but God permitted that it should last several days, till they had time to make more ; in memory of which the Jews lighted up several lamps in their synagogues, and at the doors of their houses ; " or to commemorate the death of Nebuchadonosor's cruel ge- neral, Holofernes, who was slain by Judith, 650 years before Christ.* Now, where there is so much doubt amongst those who have the credit of being competent judges, may we not be allowed to think for ourselves ? All the reasons assigned appear to be far too modern, be- cause other nations of great antiquity have also a feast of lights ; and it is fair to suppose that an institution so singular would have its origin in some single event, which took place at a very remote period, and that it was established to per- petuate the memory of that transaction. The story of the small phial of oil lasting so many nights, carries with it too much of the obstrusive marvellous to merit * See Josephus, Calmet, Leo of Modcna, and Dr. A. Clarke. EXODUS. 67 much attention. May, therefore, the feast of lights not have been derived from the miraculously lighted houses of the Israelites, in the universal darkness of Egypt ? " When the Egyptians met to sacrifice to Minerva at Sais, they hung up by night a great number of lamps, filled with oil mixed with salt, round every house, the wick swimming on the surface ; these burned during the whole night, and the festival was thence named the lighting of lamps. The Egyptians, who were not present at the solemnity, observed the same ceremonies wherever they happened to be ; lamps were lighted that night, not only at Sais, but throughout all Egypt. The reasons for using these illuminations, and paying so great respect to this night, were kept secret ! " * " The feast was kept when they sacrificed to Minerva, the goddess of war, who sprang, armed and full grown, from her father's brain." But the Chinese also have a feast of lamps, which led M. de Guignes to think that the first inhabitants emigrated from Egypt. " On this occasion, every city and village, the shores of the sea, and the banks of the rivers, are hung with painted lanterns, of various shapes and sizes, some of them being seen in the windows of the poorest houses. A Chinese, it has been said, knows not why, nor makes any enquiries wherefore, these things are. It is an ancient custom, and that is enough for him. The inscriptions on these lanterns would seem to point out its origin to be religious. The most common run Tien- tee San- sheai, Vaulin, Chin-tsai : Oh ! heaven, earth, the three limits, and thousand intelligences, hail ! " The feast of lights, observed amongst the Hindoos, is held at the same time as that of the Jews, and is called Carti lei-Fella- Jcedu, the lighting up of the November lamps. In that night, thousands of lamps may be seen sparkling about the streets, temples, schools, doors of houses, gardens, fields, rivers, public places : hence November is called the month of lamps. * See Herodotus, Euterpe 62 ; also Universal History, Edition of 1747, vol.i. p. 476.; Maillet, and others. F 2 68 EXODUS. " When were you born ? " " In the month of lamps." " My friend, I cannot pay you now, but you shall have it in the month of lamps," are sayings in common use. Some believe this feast was instituted in honour of Scandan (Carticeya of Bengal), the god of war ! because in this month he was born from the frontal eye of Siva : and it is worthy of notice, that this month is called after him, and that its sym- bolical sign is the scorpion ! Others, however, believe it had its origin in the destruction of the cruel giant Maha-Velli, alias Bali. That monster had greatly oppressed mankind, and, in consequence of his having received the gift of immortality from the Supreme, no one could destroy him. At last the god Vishnoo determined to try his power, and, having assumed the dress and appearance of a Brahmin, went to the giant with a humble petition to be allowed to possess one foot of land in his dominions. After a pause, the request was granted ; when immediately Velle*, his priest, appeared, and objected to the grant, saying, " If the Brahmin gain that, he will soon have the whole of your dominions ;" but the word having gone forth, it could not be recalled. The giant, therefore, began to pour water on the ground as a confirmation of his promise ; but the priest assumed the form of a beetle, and entered the spout of the vessel to hinder the water from running: the Brahmin, however, re- moved the beetle by thrusting a straw into the spout, which at the same time put out one of its eyes. The water then ran freely on the ground, and the agreement was conjtrmed. The god then arose from the shape of the humble Brahmin to the high bearing of his own majesty : the giant was astounded, and conquered, and sentenced to dwell for ever in the lower regions : but before he took his departure, he begged to be allowed to visit the world once a year, and that men should be ordered to place lamps in every direction, to enable him to take a view of his former dominions. Here, then, we see, amongst the Israelites ! the Egyptians ! * The Hindoo name of the planet Venus. EXODUS. 69 the Chinese ! and the Hindoos ! a feast of lights ! The origin amongst the Egyptians was kept secret, which seems to point at their universal darkness, and at the lights in the houses of the Israelites. At the time they kept it, " they sacrificed to the deity of war. The Hindoos have it in honour of the god of war" or in memory of the destruction of the cruel giant Maha Bali ! If we look, therefore, at the miraculous lights in Egyptian darkness, or at the war in which the Supreme Being was concerned, or at the destruction of the cruel and monstrous Pharaoh, we see leading facts, which, after the lapse of so many ages, and in the absence of regular records, would necessarily be obscured by the superstitions, traditions, and usages of such different nations in these remote years. 26. " Not an hoof be left behind." Showing that the whole of their cattle also should go with them that not one should be left behind. The Hindoos, instead of saying not a hoof; say " not a tail ! " Should a person have given some cattle to another to keep in a distant part of the country, and should they have been destroyed by wild beasts or by sickness, the servant will say, when the owner enquires after them, " There is not a tail left." " Where are those numerous herds given to you by your father ? " Alas ! I have not a tail left." A bridegroom, not having received the property he expected with his bride, on being asked, " How much did you get ? " will answer, " Not a tail" 28. " Take heed to thyself; see my face no more." Has a servant, an agent, or an officer, deeply offended his superior, he will say to him, " Take care never to see my face again ; for on the day you do that, evil shall come upon you." " Begone, and in future never look in this face," pointing to his own. XL 2. " Let every man borrow of his neighbour, and F3 70 EXODUS. every woman of her neighbour, jewels of silver, and jewels of gold." Dr. Boothroyd, instead of borrow, translates " ask." Dr. A. Clarke says, " request, demand, require." The Israelites wished to go three days' journey into the wilderness, that they might hold a feast unto the Lord. When the Orientals go to their sacred festivals, they always put on their best jewels. Not to appear before the gods in such a way, they consider would be disgraceful to themselves and displeasing to the deities. A person, whose clothes or jewels are indifferent, will BORROW of his richer neighbours ; and nothing is more common than to see poor people stand- ing before the temples, or engaged in sacred ceremonies, well adorned with jewels. The almost pauper bride or bride- groom at a marriage may often be seen decked with gems of the most costly kind, which have been BORROWED for the oc- casion. It fully accords, therefore, with the idea of what is due at a sacred or social feast, to be thus adorned in their best attire. Under these circumstances, it would be perfectly easy to BORROW of the Egyptians their jewels, as they themselves, in their festivals, would doubtless wear the same things. It is also recorded, the Lord gave them " favour in the sight of the Egyptians." It does not appear to have been fully known to the Hebrews, that they were going finally to leave Egypt : they might ex- pect to return ; and it is almost certain that, if their oppressors had known they were not to return, they would not have LENT them their jewels. The Lord, however, did say to Moses, in chap. iii. 1 1., that He would " bring forth the children of Israel out of Egypt," and that they should worship Him upon that mountain ; but whether Moses fully understood Him is not certain. But the Lord knew ! certainly He did. And as a father, or a mas- ter, who saw his children, or slaves, deprive each other of their rightful pay (as the Egyptians did the Israelites), had a EXODUS. 71 right to give to the injured what they had been unjustly de- prived of: so the Lord, in whose hands are all things, who daily takes from one, and gives to another ; and who builds up, or destroys, the families of the earth ; would have an un- doubted right to give to the Hebrews that property of which the Egyptians had so unjustly and cruelly deprived them. XII. 2. " This month shall be unto you the beginning of months : it shall be the first month of the year to you." The beginning of the year, both amongst the Jews, and the nations of Europe, appears always to have been distinguished by some particular feast or custom. Yesterday, April the eleventh, 1830, was the first day of the Hindoo new year, which was ushered in at three o'clock, p. M. The name of the month is Sitteri, and its sign in the zodiac is Meadum, the Ram. According to the Sas- trems, this sign is the most important amongst the twelve, and when the sun enters it the new year has begun. It is worthy of notice, that the first month of the Jewish year answers to part of our March, and April, and comes near the commencement of the Hindoo year. On the first day of the year, the people go from house to house to congratulate each other. " Ah ! may you live a hun- dred years ! this year may riches flow into your house ! no weeping all joy." When they have found a fortunate hour, they invite each other to a feast. All are dressed in their best robes, and they go along the roads with the greatest glee. Numbers go to the temples to offer gifts, and worship the gods. Some weep, and cry aloud, because a relation or a friend has died during the past year. No merchant, or tradesman, will make a bargain on that day, until he shall have found the lucky hour ; and then, should it even be midnight, the business must be transacted. People playing at rude games may be seen in every direc- tion ; and many a feat is performed that day, which serves for F 4 72 EXODUS. a cause of triumph till the next new year shall come. One of their favourite amusements is to break cocoa-nuts. A person places a nut on the ground, and any individual is at liberty to dash another upon it : should he succeed in breaking the former, he carries it off; if he fail, he loses his own. 11. Thus shall ye eat it; with your loins girded, your shoes on your feet, and your staff in your hand." When people take a journey, they have always their loins well girded, as they believe that they can walk much faster and to a greater distance. Before the palankeen bear- ers take up their load, they assist each other to make tight a part of the sali or robe round the loins. When men are about to enter into an arduous undertaking, bystanders say, " Tie your loins well up" (Luke xii. 35. Eph. vi. 4. 1 Pet. i. 13.) The sect called Urechamanar, who are Sanyasis or Yogees, eat their food standing, having their sandals on their feet, and a staff, or a bunch of peacock feathers, in their hands. (See Perreya Purana.) XIII. 18. "Went up harnessed out of the land of Egypt." The Margin has " by five in a rank," and the Tamul translation has it, " Went up by ranks." 21. "By day in a pillar of a cloud, to lead them the way ; and by night in a pillar of fire, to give them light to go by day and night." From this it appears that the children of Israel travelled partly by night and partly by day, which is the favourite way of travelling in the East. Thus, a person who starts at two A. M. can walk till eight, and again starting at four p. M., can travel till eight. Those who journey in this way have always lighted torches to keep off the wild beasts. The Lord, as a guide and defence, went before Israel as a EXODUS. 73 " pillar of fire." It is recorded in the Scanda Purana, that the triad were once disputing about their superior powers ; when Siva assumed the appearance of a pillar ofjlre. Brama took the form of a swan to find out its top, but could not. He, however, declared, when he came down, that he had seen it ; and for this falsehood no offerings and no temples are de- dicated to him. Vishnoo changed himself into a boar, and by his tusk and snout descended into the lower regions, but could not find out the foundation: he therefore ascended, and gave praise to Siva, who was still standing as a pillar ofjlre. XV. 25. " The Lord shewed him a tree, which when he had cast into the waters, the waters were made sweet." This water, which was bitter or brackish (Dr. Shaw says the latter), was thus made sweet by the casting in of the tree. Some suppose it was a bitter wood, such as quassia, which corrected the water. Water is often brackish in the neighbourhood of salt pans or the sea, and the natives correct it by throwing in it the wood called Perm-Nelli, Phylanthus Emblica. Should the water be very bad, they line the well with planks cut out of this tree. In swampy grounds, or when there has not been rain for a long time, the water is often muddy, and very unwholesome. But Providence has again been bountiful by giving to the people the Teatta Maram, Strychnos Potatorum. All who live in the neighbourhood of such water, or who have to travel where it is, always carry a supply of the nuts of this tree. They grind one or two of them on the side of an earthen vessel : the water is then poured in, and the im- purities soon subside. XVI. 16. " For every man." Hebrew has this, " By the poll or head." 74 EXODUS. A man, when offering money to the people to induce them to do something for him, says, " To every head, I will give one fanam." In time of sickness or sorrow, it is said, " Ah ! to every head there is now trouble." " Alas ! there is nothing left for any head" " Yes, yes, he is a good master : to every head he has givena cow. " " What did you pay your coo- lies ? " " To every head one fanam. " XIX. 4. "I bear you on eagles' wings." Thus did Jehovah deliver and support his people. " Ah ! how great was their danger ! the enemies fought and pre- vailed, but the God came (Maga Vishnoo) and took them on his wings." " O that god would come, and take me on his wings ! " says the man who is in great trouble. 15. When people fast, when an atoning sacrifice has to be made, when the ubatheasum, or priestly instruction, is whis- pered in the ear, when the Scanda Purana or Pulliar Purana is heard read (which takes up twenty-one days), or when medicine is taken, the Hindoos abstain in the same way. XX. 5. " Visiting the iniquity of the father." It is universally believed that children suffer for the ini- quities of their ancestors, through many generations. "I wonder why Tamban's son was born a cripple?" "You wonder ! why, that is a strange thing ; have you not heard what a vile man his grandfather was ? " " Have you heard that Valen has had a son, and that he is born blind ? " " I did not hear of it, but this is another proof of the sins of a former birth." "What a wicked wretch that Venasi is ! alas for his posterity, great will be their sufferings." " Evil one, why are you going on in this way ; have you no pity for your seed ?" " Alas ! alas ! I am now suffering for the sins of my fathers." When men enjoy many blessings, it is common to say of them, " Yes, yes, they are enjoying the good deeds of their EXODUS. 75 fathers." " The prosperity of my house arises from the vir- tues of my forefathers." In the Scanda Purana it is recorded, " The soul is subject to births, deaths, and sufferings. It may be born on the earth, or in the sea. It may also appear in ether, fire, or air. Souls may be born as men, as beasts or birds, as grass or trees, as mountains or gods." By these we are reminded of the question, " Who did sin, this man or his parents, that he was born blind ? " " Jesus answered, Neither hath this man sinned, nor his parents." 26. " Neither shalt thou go up by steps unto mine altar." Some of the altars are said to be from ten to fifteen feet in height; consequently the priests have to ascend by steps. XXII. 5. Shall put in his beast, and shall feed in another man's field." Nothing is more common than for people to drive their cattle into the fields of others ; nay, they are so unprincipled as often to let them go amongst the tender corn. Passers by see this, but make not the least effort to turn them out. 18. " Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live." Amongst the Hindoos there are females who profess to tell to tell where things are, which have been lost, or by whom they have been stolen. They also affect to deal with familiar spirits. One great qualification for this, is to have a peculiar eye, especially if like that of the cat. Women often declare that they are possessed with a devil. They then rage and tear themselves in the most dreadful way. They do not, like the Sibyls, write their prophecies on leaves, to be scattered by the winds ; but all their incoherent declar- ations are most carefully remembered. 76 EXODUS. 26. " If thou at all take thy neighbour's raiment to pledge, thou shalt deliver it unto him by that the sun goeth down : " 27. " For that is his covering only, it is his raiment for his skin: wherein shall he sleep? and it shall come to pass, when he crieth unto me, that I will hear; for I am gracious." The clothes which the Orientals wear by day, serve them as bed-clothes for the night. Does a man wish to retire to rest, he needs not to trouble himself about the curtains, he requires not the bed-steps, he does not examine whether his bolsters or pillows are in order, he is not very particular about the adjustment of his sheets and counterpane ; he throws a mat on the floor, places his little travelling bag or turban for a pillow, takes off his cloth (which is generally about nine yards long), puts one end under him ; then covers his feet, and folds the rest round his body, leaving the upper end to cover his face. Thus may be seen coolies in the morning, stretched side by side, having, during the night, defied all the stings of their foes, the musquitos. XXIII. 4. " If thou meet thine enemy's ox, or his ass, going astray, thou shalt surely bring it back to him again." Amongst the Hindoos, malice often finds its victim in a dumb animal. If the wretch cannot revenge himself on the man, he will on his beast. The miscreant watches till the cattle go astray, or the owner shall be out of the way, when he pounces upon the innocent ox or cow, and cuts off the tail. Hence may be seen, in every village, cattle which thus pro- claim the diabolical passions of man. 8. " The gift blindeth the wise." Hebrew, " seeing." The Tamul has it blindeth the sight" EXODUS. 77 13. " Make no mention of the name of other gods, neither let it be heard out of thy mouth. " The heathen attach great importance to the mentioning of the names of their gods. They do not generally pray as we do ; but in time of difficulty or danger, repeat the name of their god, which is believed to have great power, carrying with it the nature of a charm which nothing can resist. To be able to articulate the name of Siva, in the hour of death, is believed to be the password into heaven. " Let him but do this ; then, as the lightning strikes the palmirah tree, so his sins, and the power of the metempsychosis shall be destroyed. " " Nay, should he not be able to mention the names of his gods, let them but be whispered in his ears, and heaven is secure." No wonder, then, that the Israelites should be forbidden to mention the names of other gods. 19. _ The first of the first fruits of thy land, thou shalt bring into the house of the Lord." The heathen generally give to their gods a part of thejirst produce of all fruit trees, and of the various kinds of grain, also the^rs^ milk given by a cow. 19. "Thou shalt not seethe a kid in his mother's milk." Cudworth, as quoted by Dr. A. Clarke, says, on this passage, " It was a custom of the ancient heathen when they had gathered in all their fruits, to take a kid and boil it in the milk of its dam; and then in a magical way to go about, and besprinkle with it all their trees and fields, gardens and orchards." " Spencer also informs us, that the Zabei used this kind of magical milk to sprinkle their trees and fields, in order to make them fruitful." It is a custom among the Hindoos to boil rice and milk, 78 EXODUS. with which they sprinkle their trees and gardens, in order to make them fruitful. On the first day of the new year also the house is sprinkled in the same way ; and a part of what is left is sometimes kept till the next year. 28. " I will send hornets before thee, which shall drive out the Hivite, the Canaanite, and the Hittite." The goddess of Siva sent hornets to destroy the giants. XXV. 6. " Oil for the light, spices for anointing oil, and for sweet incense." These are all used in the temples, and are supplied by the people. The anointing oil is chiefly for the lingam, but it is also used for the god Pulliar and others. XXVII. 19. " All the vessels of the tabernacle shall be made of brass." All the utensils of the temples are made of the same metal. Thus the lamps used before the idols and other places, those vessels used for conveying water, or sacred fire, are always, in those temples that I have known, made of brass. XXVIII. 22. " Thou shalt make upon the breastplate." Some of the breastplates worn by the idols (when taken out in procession) are exceedingly valuable and beautiful ; they are suspended from the neck by chains made of gold. I once saw one which was worn by the goddess Parvati, which had in its centre the largest and most perfect emerald that I had ever seen, and was studded with very valuable brilliants and rubies; the pearls which were pendant from it were exceedingly costly. But breastplates are also worn by men of rank, and have generally been given by the sovereign, for services performed for the state. (Isa. lix. 17. Eph. vi. 14-. 1 Thess. v. 8. Rev. ix. 9. 17.) EXODUS. 79 29. " Aaron when he goeth in unto the holy place." The Hindoo temples have a holy place*, which has a dome top to it. Its name signifies the principal or original place ; into it none but the priest can go, and when he enters and performs the poosy., or ceremonial worship, he rings a bell which is carried in his left hand. (Verse 34.) 33. " Upon the hem of it, thou shalt make pome- granates." This fruit is plentiful, and grateful to the taste ; and a re- presentation of it may be seen in temples, on pillars, friezes, or painted on the drapery which clothes the cars. The only object is ornament. 42. " Consecrate them, and sanctify them, that they may minister unto me, in the priests' office." The Hebrew has for " consecrate," " fill their hands." See also Judges xvii. 5. 12. and 1 Kings xiiL 33. and many other places where the word " consecrate " is in the margin rendered t6 jfill the hand" Is it not a remarkable fact that the word Kai-Reppi, which signifies, in Tamul, to consecrate a priest, also means to Jill the hand? When a layman meets a priest, he puts his hands together as an act of reverence, and the priest stretches out his right hand, as if full of something, and says, " Blessings." XXIX. 7- " Take the anointing oil, and pour it upon his head, and anoint him." * In one of the large plates (No. 37.) illustrating the Researches of Belzoni in Egypt and Nubia, by John Murray, Albemarle-street, there is given a view of the temple at Erments, with a dome top, which corre- sponds exactly with the holy place of the temples of the Hindoos. In reference to the representations given in the plates contained in Bel- zoni's Researches, I am of opinion that they principally refer to India; which I may, perhaps, hereafter attempt to prove. 80 EXODUS. When a priest is consecrated, water is poured upon his head, and also perfumed oils. 23. " One cake of oiled bread." The natives, on festive occasions, eat cakes made of the flour of rice, which are fried in fresh cocoa-nut oil. XXX. 18. & 19. "Thou shalt make a laver of brass to wash withal shalt put it between the taber- nacle of the congregation and the altar, and thou shalt put water therein. Aaron and his sons shall wash their hands and their feet thereat." In the vestibule of a heathen temple is kept a large brass laver filled with water. In it the priest washes his hands and feet before he enters into the holy place. 25. "The art of the apothecary." The Hebrew has this "perfumer." In all large temples there is a man whose chief business it is to distil sweet waters from flowers, and to extract oil from wood, flowers, and other substances. His name is the Thile- Karan. 23. " Sweet cinnamon." Whence did the Israelites procure this (at that time) rare and valuable spice? We know it was formerly found in Arabia, though now believed to be extinct. Whence did they get their numerous spices ? Have not the Eastern Isles been always most famous for such articles ? Has any island ever been so celebrated for cinnamon as Ceylon * ? Is it not also at this day more valuable and more plentiful than that of any other country ? It was never brought hither by specu- lators or cultivators. It is indigenous to the soil. Were the ancients unacquainted with Ceylon ? Facts, his- tory, and tradition go to say they were not. The theology of * Many authors believe Taprobane, t. e. Ceylon, was the place. EXODUS. 81 Egypt is strongly related to that of India, and was probably either derived from it, or they both came from one common source. Whither did Solomon's ships go on their three years' voy- age ? To the African Isles ? Were those places ever cele- brated (in comparison with the Eastern archipelago) for the articles transported by the ships ? Where did they procure their ivory ? or, as the margin has it, " elephants' teeth." It is well known that the Eastern Isles abound with elephants, and that those of Ceylon are the most prized of any in the East. Did the ships sail to the continent of Africa for them ? Where did they procure their apes, their peacocks, their ebony, their precious stones, their silver and gold ? In what parts of the world are they so plentiful as in those alluded to ? Ceylon abounds in precious stones, peacocks, and ebony ; and Java and Sumatra* abound in apes and gold. There cannot be a doubt that Solomon's ships did sail to India ; and if so, would they not touch at such a valuable island as Ceylon ?f XL. 10." Most holy." Heb. Holiness of holinesses." The Tamul translation has it " holiness to holiness.'* * An old East India captain showed me a piece of what he called virgin gold, which was washed down a mountain in Sumatra, called Golconda. f In Pliny's notices of Ceylon, as quoted by Philalethes (noticed also in the Universal History), mention is made of one Annius Plocamus (a free man), who farmed the customs in the Red Sea, having been blown in a violent tempest off the coast of Arabia : he was unexpectedly driven, after a passage of fifteen days, to the port of Hippuros, in the Island of Taprobane (Ceylon) ; but the situation of the port is difficult to trace. The word hippuros, or hipporus, is probably composed of two Greek words, hippos, a horse, and orus, a mountain, which is the exact translation of the name of the place called Kuthre-Malli, i. e. horse-mountain, which lies on the N. W. coast of Ceylon. (See Madras Gazette, Sept. 16. 1830.) In the neighbourhood of that place are numerous architectural remains, as pillars and tumuli, which go to corroborate the tradition that it was once a famous city ; and that there the princess, named Alii, alias Abbi-Arasani, whose marriage with Arjuna, one of the five Pandavas, is the subject of a very popular drama, called Alli-Arasani-Nadagam, i.e. the comedy of the Princess Alii Arasani. 82 EXODUS. 27. "Sweet incense." Heb. "The incense of sweet spices." The sweet incense used in the Hindoo temples is composed of the following articles: Frankincense, Kungelium (two kinds of rosin), Sarsaparilla, Periploca Indica, Curcuma Ze- doria, Cyperus Tixtilis, Kondo Sange-Lingam, of which the Materia Medica says, "This is a sweet-smelling yellow- coloured root, with which the natives prepare a fragrant lini- ment for the head." Also the root of the lime tree. 83 LEVITICUS, CHAP. I. verse 15. " Wring off his head." Hebrew, " Pinch off the head with the nail." The Hindoos, in offering a fowl, always eut off the head. II. 13. " And every oblation of thy meat offering shalt thou season with salt." Dean Spencer, as quoted by D'Oly and Mant, says, " Many of the ceremonial laws of the Hebrews have reference to the idolatrous opinions of the neighbouring nations and their corresponding rites, for they were given in opposition to them." The preceding verse, and the one now transcribed, may be of the description alluded to. The heathen never use salt in any of their offerings. The Hebrews offered bullocks and heifers; but a Hindoo would as soon offer his child as a heifer. Neither can any female be offered by the heathen. IV. 4. " Shall lay his hand upon the bullock's head." It is a fact that when a man makes an offering of a goat or a ram, he puts one leg over it (as on horseback), puts his hand on the head, while the priest repeats the mantherams or prayers ; after which the head is struck off at one blow. 22. " Hath sinned through ignorance." It is truly amusing to hear a man after he has been detected in a crime, declare it was all arreyamey, all ignorance. The thief before the judge says, " Forgive me, my lord, it was done in ignorance ; my lord, let ignorance plead for mercy." V. 2." If a soul touch any unclean thing, whether it be G 2 84 LEVITICUS. a carcase of an unclean beast, or a carcase of un- clean cattle he shall be unclean." Should a person of high caste touch those who are of low caste, or the dead body of any animal, he is unclean, and must go through the prescribed ceremonies, before he can be pure. A man of the Saiva, and some other sects, by touching a dog, pig, ass, or buffalo, becomes unclean. 7. If he be not able to bring a lamb." Hebrew, " His hand cannot reach to the sufficiency of a lamb." The Tamul has this, " to his hand a lamb if not" VI. 13. " The fire shall ever be burning." The fire used in the great sacrifice of the Yagam must be taken from the fire of some former offering of the same kind, or produced afresh by the rubbing together of two pieces of wood; any other would amount to that which is called " strange fire." Lev. x. 1. A lamp is continually burning in the temple ; but should it by accident be extinguished, it is relighted by fire procured in the way alluded to, or in an emergency from the house of a high caste man, which, however, has to be made holy before used for sacred purposes. The sacrifice called Yagam is very expensive*, and be- lieved to be most effectual in procuring the things desired by the offerers. From the fire of this offering, the individual who makes it takes a portion, which is sacredly kept to light his funeral pile. VII. 13. " Shall offer for his offering leavened bread." The cakes, or bread, offered in the ceremonies of the Hindoos, are always unleavened. For domestic purposes, on Some years ago Rama Swamy Aiyar made the offering of the Yagam, at Sedambaram, which cost 20,000 pieces of gold. LEVITICUS. 85 the contrary, leaven is procured by allowing a little of the dough to become sour. VIII. 31. " Boil the flesh at the door of the taber- nacle there eat it." The Hindoos would almost as soon eat the flesh of a living animal as that which has been boiled. It is always roasted, or made into curry, or prepared with spices. They are astonished at Englishmen eating a boiled fowl, or boiled fish. They say the natural scent of the animal cannot thus be taken away. The Moormen tell, as a very wonderful thing, that boiled flesh is sold at Mecca. XI. 33. " And every earthen vessel whereinto any of them falleth shall be unclean, and ye shall break it." This refers to any unclean or dead animal falling into or touching an earthen vessel. Most of the cooking utensils of the Hindoos are of earthen ware. Should an unclean, or dead animal, or insect, touch or fall into them, they must be broken. Nay, should a person of low caste get a look at the cooking vessels of a Brahmin, or one of the Saiva sect, they will immediately be broken; and no small portion of abuse be poured upon the offending individual. Should an unfortunate dog, in his prowlings, find his way into the kitchen, and begin to lick the vessels,, woe be to him ! for he will not only have hard words, but hard blows ; and then follows the breaking of the vessels. On this account, the Brahmins, and others, conceal their earthen ware when not in use. XII. 2. " If a woman have conceived seed, and born a man-child, then she shall be unclean seven days." 4. " She shall then continue in the blood of her purifying, three and thirty days : she shall touch no hallowed thing, nor come into the sanctuary, until G 3 86 LEVITICUS. the days of her purifying be fulfilled." 5. " If she bear a maid child, then she shall be unclean two weeks. 6. " When the days of her purifying are fulfilled she shall bring a burnt offering." After the birth of a child, the mother of the Brahmin caste is unclean eleven days ; of the royal family, sixteen ; of the merchant caste, twenty-one ; of the Vellalah and other castes, thirty-one days. No difference is made in the time of purification for a male or female child. As were the Hebrew women, so are these; they cannot touch any hallowed thing, nor even the vessels used for domestic purposes. When the days of her purification are over, she takes or sends an offering to the temple. XIII. 4-5. " The leper shall put a covering upon his upper lip." The prophet Ezekiel, in reference to the death of his wife, was ordered not to "cry," neither to cover the lips; (the margin has " upper lip "). The prophet Micah (iii. 7. de- scribes the confusion and sorrow of those who had by their wickedness offended the Lord. "Then shall the seers be ashamed, and the diviners confounded : yea, they shall all cover their lips, for there is no answer of God." Margin again has, " upper lip." All these passages refer to the sorrow of those concerned. A person in deep distress puts his hand over his mouth, and hangs down his head, as if looking on the ground. When a man suddenly claps his hand on his mouth, it denotes great sorrow or surprise. To put the fingers in a line with the nose, conveys the idea of silence and submission. " Why is your hand on your mouth ? " " Not for joy. " "But why?" " My son, my son, my wicked son! He has gone with the evil ones to the distant country." " Ah, friend, why is your hand there ? " - " Alas, the tigers got LEVITICUS. 87 amongst my cattle last night, and great is the slaughter." " The king is angry with Raman his hand is now on his mouth." " I may well put my hand on my mouth ; I have been taken by the neck, and driven from the presence of my lord. My requests have all been denied." Job xxi. 5. XIV. 10. " One log of oil." Mr. Benson says, " A log is a measure containing about six eggs." The Tamul translation has, for log, Aldku, i. e. the eighth of a measure. The Eastern measure contains one quart, which, according to this, gives the one eighth of a log. XVI. 6. " Make an atonement for himself, and for his house." The Hindoos make offerings for each other ; thus a husband for his wife, or a brother for his brother. Should a person at a distance be in doubtful circumstances, his friends will make an offering for him. Whilst Kasinaden was being tried for his life, before the Supreme Court, his mother was making offerings for him at the different temples ; and, after his ac- quittal, he employed two days in making additional ones, before he returned to his house. A father in the offerings for his family mentions the names of the different members. It is, however, more common for the priest to do this ; and when he presents them, he repeats the name of the individual, as, " In the name of Muttoo." 10. " Let him go for a scape goat." When a person is sick, he vows on his recovery ta set a goat at liberty, in honour of his deity. Having selected a suitable one from his flocks, he makes a slit in the ear, or ties a yellow string * round its neck, and lets it go whithersoever it pleases. Whoever sees the animal knows it to be a Nate-kadi, * " The high priest fastened a long fillet, or a narrow piece of scarlet, to the head of the scape goat." Calmet. G 4 88 LEVITICUS. the vowed goat, and no person will molest it. Sometimes two goats are thus made sacred ; but one of them will be offered soon, and the other kept for a future sacrifice. But it is not merely in time of sickness that they have re- course to this practice ; for does a man wish to procure a situation, he makes a similar vow. Has a person heard that there are treasures concealed in any place, he vows to Virava (should he find the prize) to set a goat at liberty, in honour of his name. When a person has committed what he con- siders a great sin, he does the same thing ; but, in addition to other ceremonies, he sprinkles the animal with water, puts his hands upon it, and prays to be forgiven. In large flocks there is generally a he goat, or ram, sacred to the deity, which will never be either sold or killed. The object is to prevent evil coming on the rest of the flock. In former years it was customary to liberate a bull, in the same way, and for the same purpose, with this exception, that he could never be offered in sacrifice. He wandered about as he pleased, and no one would molest him.* From this practice has arisen the proverb, which is applied to a young man who does as he pleases, or to whom no one will give his daughter ; " Ah ! he is the temple bull, or the vowed goat." A rude or wanton fellow sometimes boasts (putting his right hand on his breast), " I am the bull of the temple ; " meaning he is a privileged character, no one has a right to interrupt him. Sometimes peacocks, or the domestic cocks, are also made sacred to the deity. 29. " Ye shall afflict your souls." Dr. Boothroyd translates the above, " Ye shall humble your souls," which I have no doubt is the true meaning. The Hindoos believe self-torture to be an effectual way of propitiating their deities, and of acquiring future happiness. * Bishop Heber mentions having seen several of these sacred bulls in Bengal. LEVITICUS. 89 In the sacred Scanda Purana, it is said, " There is nothing greater than penance, there is nothing equal to it ; there is no treasure worth seeking in comparison with it. If I must say it, to penance penance itself is the (only) comparison/ 7 With such an authority, can it be wondered that the heathen attach great merit to voluntary afflictions ? Hence may be seen some with the right arm pointed towards heaven, like a stiff and fruitless branch ; others swinging, with hooks in their flesh, on a lofty pole; others walking on sharp points in their sandals, or fretting away life in a thousand useless and cruel ceremonies. XVIII. 25. " The land itself vomiteth out her inha- bitants." When the small-pox or cholera morbus carried off such multitudes, the village or town where they lived was said to have vomited them out. " Alas, alas ! the country has vomited its thousands." Should a person, who goes to visit another, not be received, he says, " Ah, sir, do you vomit me from your presence ? " XIX. 14. " Thou shalt not curse the deaf, nor put a stumbling block before the blind." The Hindoos say abuse not the deaf; make not a hole be- fore the blind, nor exasperate the dumb. Boys, and indeed men, take great pleasure in abusing the deaf, in a voice high enough for the afflicted person to catch now and then a word. To the blind, they pretend to offer presents, or lead them astray. To provoke the dumb, boys scratch their own noses ; and it is astonishing to see the anger thus produced. 19. "Thou shalt not sow thy field with mingled seed." Deut. xxii. 9. " Thou shalt not sow thy vineyard with divers seeds." 90 LEVITICUS. Large fields may be seen in the East, which are sown with two kinds of seeds. Thus Ellu or Gingelly and the Green Gram are often mixed, and sown together : also the Tinne and KurraJcen in the same way. One kind requires much water, the other but little ; so that whether there be a scarcity or an abundance of rain, the farmer is almost sure to have a crop. Another reason is, there may be a doubt as to which kind the land is most adapted ; and therefore recourse is had to this plan. Some plants also require shade, and therefore they sow such to- gether as thus agree.* In gathering, this method makes but little difference, as they simply lop off the heads of those alluded to. The object of the prohibition to the Israelites may have been to induce them fully to trust in the providence of God, and not to make provision for a dry or wet season, by sowing their fields with mingled seed. 27. " Ye shall not round the corners of your heads." Historians inform us that the ancient heathens were in the habit of shaving their heads, so as to leave a tuft on the crown in honour of some deity. The Hindoos often dedicate their children to the gods, in order to secure their protection ; and they vow that the hair of the child shall be sacred to the deity till he shall arrive at a certain age. Hence the custom of shaving the whole of the hair off, in hot weather, is in those cases dispensed with, as * Bishop Heber says, of Monghyr, vol. i. 294., " They get three crops in succession every year from the same lands, beginning with Indian corn, then sowing rice, between which, when it is grown to a certain height, they dibble in pulse, which rises to maturity after the rice is reaped." Again, page 305., " Abdullah enquired of the Bishop, whether a mixture of seeds was not forbidden in the Purana? An old man answered, with a good deal of warmth, that they were poor people, and could not dispute, but he believed the doctrine to be a gloss of Budha: striking his staff with much anger on the ground at the name of the Heresiarch." LEVITICUS. 91 the sacred tuft on the crown is allowed to remain till the age of ten or eleven years. But it is not merely the practice of those who have been dedicated to the gods ; for the priests and people generally shave completely round the head, leaving only the tuft on the crown. See on Jeremiah ix. 26. 28. ' " Nor print any marks upon you." The heathen print marks on their bodies (by puncturing the skin), so as to represent birds, trees, and the gods they serve. Some also, especially the sacred females of the tem- ples, have representations on their arms of a highly offensive nature. All Hindoos have a black spot, or some other mark, on their foreheads. And the true followers of Siva rub holy ashes every morning on the knees, loins, navel, arms, shoul- ders, brow, and crown of the head. 29. " Do not prostitute thy daughter to cause her to be a whore." Parents, in consequence of a vow or some other circum- stance, often dedicate their daughters to the gods. They are sent to the temple, at the age of eight or ten years, to be ini- tiated into the art of dancing before the deities, and of singing songs in honour of their exploits. From that period these dancing girls remain in some sacred building near the temple ; and when they arrive at maturity (the parents being made acquainted with the fact), a feast is made, and the poor girl is given into the embraces of some influential man of the establishment. Practices of the most disgusting nature then take place, and the young victim becomes a prostitute for life. 32. "Thou shalt rise up before the hoary head, and honour the face of the old man." When an aged man enters a room or public place, the 92 LEVITICUS. young arise from their seats, and show him reverence. " The sayings of the old are like ambrosia." XXL 13. "And he shall take a wife in her virginity." So the priests here marry virgins only. Should they have had two or three wives, it is of no consequence ; the next must also be a virgin. 18. "For whatever man he be that hath a blemish, he shall not approach ; a blind man, or a lame, or he that hath a flat nose, or any thing superfluous." Even those of the seed of Aaron who had any personal defect were not allowed to take a part in the offerings of the Lord. The priesthood amongst the Hindoos is hereditary, but a deformed person cannot perform a ceremony in the temple ; he may, however, prepare the flowers, fruits, oils, and cakes for the offerings, and also sprinkle the premises with holy water. The child of a priest being deformed at the birth will not be consecrated. A priest having lost an eye or a tooth, or being deficient in any member or organ, or who has not a wife, cannot perform the ceremony called Teevasam, for the manes of departed friends. Neither will his incantations, or prayers, or magical ceremonies have any effect.* XXIII. 14?. " Ye shall eat neither bread, nor parched corn, nor green ears, until the self-same day that ye have brought an offering unto your God." Thus were the Israelites, before they enjoyed the fruits of the earth, to present a part of them to the Lord. Harvest, * By law, a u crook-backed" person cannot sit in the council; and the son of a king, if deformed, would not be allowed to reign. All persons with deficient or superfluous members are believed to be suffering under the sins of a former birth. LEVITICUS. 93 in all ages, appears to have been a time of sacred or profane festivity. The Hindoos look forward to the reaping time with great delight ; and when the corn is ready for the sickle, a fortu- nate day is selected, and the farmer, with his priest and ser- vants, joyfully go to commence the harvest. A favourite and often-tried corner of the field is pointed out as the place where the reapers are to commence their operations. The servants, knowing the place, previously take a cocoa-nut, plantains, areca-nuts, and beetle leaves to the spot ; and one of the party brings a dish covered with white cloth, in which there is a cocoa-nut and some rice. An image of the god Pulliar is then made of cow-dung : and the fruits they have brought, with incense, are offered to the idol. The master then goes and reaps a little, and the servants spring forward to their work. The priest has all the offerings as a reward for the ceremonies ; and after a certain quantity of the corn has been reaped, the farmer and his servants take it up, and proceed to the family residence. Within his gate is a vessel filled with water, on which are mango leaves and a cocoa-nut : around this he moves once from left to right, and the corn is given into the hands of the mistress, who deposits it in the assigned place. The next time they go to the field a larger quantity is reaped and immediately thrashed, and a few parrahs are sent to the temple. After these duties have been attended to, they make merry amongst themselves. In a, fortunate hour, the new rice is boiled in a vessel, which has been rubbed with holy ashes, and when ready is placed before the master with large quan- tities of curries. He mixes altogether, and offers it to a lighted lamp, and after having tasted it three times, with two fingers and a thumb, he sits down, and prepares to distribute to his guests. They all sit in rows on the ground, and after having finished their repast, the fragments are buried in the garden. Before the visiters retire they each say some pleasant 94. LEVITICUS. thing to their host, as, " My lord, may the gods ever keep you." " May we ever have the pleasure of eating from your hands." 22. " When ye reap the harvest of your land, thou shalt not make clean riddance of the corners of thy field neither shalt thou gather any gleaning." Fields in the East, instead of hedges, have ridges. In the corners they cannot easily work with the plough, and there- fore prepare that part with a man-vetty, i. e. an earth cutter, or large kind of hoe. The corn in these corners is seldom very productive, as the ridge for some time conceals it from the sun and other sources of nourishment, and the rice also, in the vicinity, soon springing up, injures it by the shade. Under these circumstances, the people think but little of the corners, and were a person to be very particular, he would have the name of a stingy fellow. From this view, it appears probable, that the command was given, in order to induce the owner to leave the little which was produced in the corners for the poor. No farmer will allow any of his family to glean in the fields, the pittance left is always considered the property of the poor. In carrying the sheaves all that falls is taken up by the gleaners.* XXIV. 2. " To cause the lamps to burn continually." The lamp kept before the idols is never allowed to go out. XXVI. 31. "I will not smell the savour of your sweet odours." 1 Sam. xxvi. 19. " Accept an offering;" the Hebrew has, for offering, "smell." Gen. viii. 21. Amos v. 21. Eph. v. 2. * Should they be opposed, they curse their opposers, and say, " May this rice soon be parched," alluding to the custom of scattering parched rice in the funeral procession. They therefore pray that the rice may soon have to be parched for the funeral of the owner. LEVITICUS. 95 The Hindoos believe that odoriferous spices and drugs are most acceptable to the gods. Hence they are much used in all the services of the temples. But offerings which are destitute of scent, also, are said to give a sweet smell to the gods ; thus, of a man who has made large presents to the temple, it is said, the gods have had a fine smell from his offerings. XXVII. 28. " No devoted thing that a man shall de- vote unto the Lord, of all that he hath, both of man and beast, and of the fields of his possession, shall be sold or redeemed. " Whatever has been devoted to the gods can never be sold, redeemed, or applied to any other purpose. In every village, there are chroniclers of strange events, of the visitations of the gods on men who did not act fairly and truly with their devoted things. There is a story gene- rally received of " a deranged man, who in a lucid interval made a vow that he would give his gold beads to the temple of Siva, and he became quite well. After this he refused to perform his vow, and he died. " " Another person, who was very ill of a fever, devoted a goat to the gods, and immediately became well ; but some time after, he refused the gift, and his fever returned. " When a child becomes sick, the parents forthwith enquire, " Have we given all the things we devoted to the gods ? " The medical man also, (when the disease baffles his skill ! ) en- quires, " Have you given all the things you devoted to the gods?" 96 NUMBERS. CHAP. V. verse 2. " Whosoever is defiled by the dead." All who attend a funeral procession, or ceremony, become unclean, and before they return to their houses must wash their persons and their clothes.* Neither those in the sacred office, nor of any other caste, can, under these circumstances, attend to any religious cere- monies. They cannot marry, nor be present at any festivity, nor touch a sacred book. A person on hearing of the death of a son, or other relative, immediately becomes unclean. The Brahmins are unclean twelve days ; those of the royal family, sixteen days ; the merchants, twenty-two ; and all other castes, thirty-two days. 17. " And the priest shall take holy water. " A woman who was accused of adultery was to drink the water, and to say Amen ! to the curses which were pronounced by the priest. Thus, if she were guilty, the water gave effect to the curse. Verse 24. The Hindoos in a court of justice, after having repeated the formulary, drink holy water, which is administered by the priest, to confirm their oath.f 21. " Thy thigh to rot, and thy belly to swell." The people often curse each other by saying, " Ah, thy belly shall become large ; " meaning they shall have the dropsy or some other complaint to cause the enlargement. * Females never attend funeral processions in the East. f This water is brought from the Granges, or made sacred by the priests. NUMBERS. 97 VI. 19. " The priest shall take the sodden shoulder of the ram." The heathen in their sacrifices do not offer boiled flesh, either to gods or devils. It is always roasted or prepared with spices. The cakes offered to Pulliar are made ready by putting them on a cloth over the mouth of a vessel full of boiling water. 26. " The Lord lift up His countenance upon thee. " " As I came along the road, I met Raman, and he lifted up his face upon me; but I knew not the end;" which means he looked pleasantly. Does a man complain of another who has ceased to look kindly upon him, he says, " Ah ! my friend, you no longer lift up your countenance upon me." X. 31. " Thou mayest be to us instead of eyes." An aged father says to his son, who wishes to go to some other village, " My son, leave me not in my old age ; you are now my eyes." " You are on the look-out for me, your eyes are sharp." It is said of a good servant, " he is eyes to his master." XI. 5. " We remember the fish which we did eat in Egypt freely ; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlic." To an Englishman the loss of these articles would not give much concern, and he is almost surprised at the Israel- ites repining at their loss, as at the loss of great delicacies. The people of the East do not in general eat flesh, nor even fish, so that when they can procure it they consider it a delicacy. Cucumbers are eaten in abundance in hot weather, and melons are most delicious and plentiful. I have never seen leeks in the East, and I am doubtful whether they are to be found. But whether or not, there H 98 NUMBERS. is much difference of opinion as to the translation of the word. D'Oyly and Mant have a quotation to this effect : " Whe- ther the following word, rendered leeks, have that signifi- cation, may be doubted. Some think it was the lotus which is a water plant, a kind of water-lily, which the Egyptians used to eat during the heats of summer." In the Universal History (vol. i. 486.) it is said, that those " Egyptians who dwelt in the marshes fed on several plants, which annually grow, particularly the lotus, of which they made a sort of bread." Of the Arabs, also (in the same work), it is recorded " They make a drink of the Egyptian lotus, which is very good for inward heat.* The Tamul name of the lotus is the Tamari. The Ma- teria Medica, under the article Nelumbium Speciosum, says, this plant is the true lotus of the Egyptians, and the Nymphea Nilufer of Sir William Jones. Its beautiful and fragrant flower is sacred to Lechimy, the goddess of Maga Vishnoo. It has a bulbous root, and is highly esteemed as an article of food. As it grows in tanks, it can only be had in the hottest weather, when the water is dried up ; and, in this, we see a most gracious provision in allowing it to be taken when most required. Its cooling qualities are celebrated all over India, and the Materia Medica says of it, " This is an excel- lent root, and is also prescribed medicinally, as cooling and demulcent." The natives eat it boiled, or in curry, or make it into flour for gruels. I am, therefore, of opinion, that it was the lotus of Egypt respecting which the Israelites were murmuring. 6. " Our soul is dried." In great hunger or thirst the people say, " Our soul is with- ered." " More than this, sir, I cannot do; my spirit is withered * Savary, in his Letters on Egypt, says, " The root is eaten by the inha- bitants who live near the Lake Menzala." Vol. viii. NUMBERS. 99 within me." " What ! when a man's soul is withered, is he not to complain ?" 8. " Gathered it, and ground it in mills, or beat it in a mortar, and baked it in pans." The Eastern mill consists of two circular stones, about eighteen inches in diameter, and three inches thick. The top stone has a handle in it, and works round a pivot, which has a hole connected with it to admit the corn. The mortar also is much used to make rice flour. It is a block of wood, about twenty inches high and ten inches in diameter, having a hole scooped out in the centre. The pes- tle is a stick of about four feet long, made of iron wood, having an iron hoop fixed to the end. 12. " Have I conceived all this people? have I be- gotten them?" Is a man requested to provide food for a great number of people, and does he object to it ? he asks, " What ! have I begotten them ? Did they proceed from me ? Are they my seed ? " 20. " Until it come out at your nostrils." What does this mean ? Is it not a figurative expression to show that they were to eat till fully satisfied ? Bishop Patrick says, " till you be glutted and cloyed with it." Is it not a striking illustration that this figure of speech is used at this day to convey the same meaning ? A host says to his guests, " Now, friends, eat mookamattam, to the nose," literally, to eat till they are full up to the nose. " O, sir, how can I eat any more ? I am full to the nose, I have no more room." Of a glutton, it is said, " That fellow always fills up to the nose ! " 22. " Shall all the fish of the sea be gathered together for them?" H 2 100 NUMBERS. It is said of a man with a voracious appetite : a He eat ! ay, ay, the fish of the seven oceans would not satisfy him." " Give the creature the beasts of the seven deserts, and he will devour them all." XII. 14. " If her father had but spit on her face, should she not be ashamed ?" Miriam had greatly offended God, and, therefore, she was to be as a daughter, whose father had spit in her face. In Deuteronomy xxv. 9. the widow was to spit in the face of her late husband's brother, if he refused to marry her. And Job (xxx. 10.) in his great misery says, of his enemies, they " spare not to spit in my face ; " and in reference to our Saviour, they did " spit in his face." The most contemptuous, the most exasperating and de- grading action, which one man can do to another is to spit in his face. A person receiving this insult is at once worked up to the highest pitch of anger, and nothing but the rank or power of the individual will prevent him from seeking instant revenge. Indeed, such is the enormity attached to this offence, that it is seldom had recourse to, except in ex- treme cases. A master, whose slave has deeply offended him, will not beat him (for that would defile him), but he spits in his face. When his anger is at the greatest height, he will not even condescend to do that, but order a fellow-servant, or some one near, to spit in his face. Is a person too respectable for this indignity; then the offended individual will spit on the ground. Schoolmasters, also, when very angry with a scholar, do not, as in England, begin to beat him, but spit in his face, or order some one else to do it. When the kingfisher makes a noise, they who hear it spit on the ground, to prevent the evil which is supposed to follow. When a child becomes greatly alarmed, the father or mother NUMBERS. 101 immediately spit in its face to remove the fear.* To a person making use of offensive language, bystanders say, " Spit in Us facer XIII. 32. "A land that eateth up the inhabitants." Of a very unhealthy place it is said, " That evil country eats up all the people." " We cannot remain in these parts, the land is eating us up." " / go to that place ! never ! it will eat me up." Of England it is said, in reference to her victories, " She has eaten up all countries." XIV. 9. " Their defence." Hebrew, shadow." A poor man says of his rich friend, " He is my shadow ; " i. e. he is my defence. " My shadow is gone ; " meaning, he has lost his defence. " Alas ! those poor people have lost their shadow." XXI. 8. " Make thee a fiery serpent set it upon a pole." It is said in the Scanda Purana, that in the town of Kanche, i. e. Conjeveram, there was a pillar, round which if a person bitten by a serpent walked three times, and earnestly looked at it, he would be cured. * Holman, the blind traveller, says, " Mothers in Russia, for fear of your casting an evil eye upon their children, will, before they allow you to see them, desire you to turn from them, and spit three times on the ground, with a view to eject the evil spirit ; or, if you happen to have seen them without this precaution, the mother turns round and does it." Vol. i. 256. Mungo Park says, " They had not travelled far before the attendants in- sisted upon stopping, to prepare a saphic or charm, to ensure a good journey : this was done by muttering a few sentences, and spitting upon a stone, which was laid upon the ground. The same ceremony was repeated three times, after which the negroes proceeded with the greatest con- fidence." Mungo Park also says of the Mandingoes, when the child's head is shaved, for the first time, " The priest whispers a few sentences in the ear, and spits three times into its face." When a similar operation is per- formed for a Hindoo child, the Brahmin (or another person) spits three times in the child's face, to keep off the evil spirits. H 3 102 NUMBERS. In another account it is recorded there were eight pillars of this description, and that they were put there by a great Rishi, or saint. XXII. 4. " Now shall this company lick up all that are around about us, as the ox licketh up the grass." A native gentleman, who has many people depending upon him, says, " Yes, they are all grazing upon me." " If I am not careful, they will soon graze up all I have." Of people who have got all they can out of one rich man, and who are seeking after another, " Yes, yes, they have done grazing there, and are now looking out for another place." <; These bulls are grazing in every direction." 6. " Come now curse me this people." The Orientals, in their wars, have always their magicians with them to curse their enemies, and to mutter incantations for their destruction. Sometimes they secretly convey a potent charm amongst the opposing troops, to cause their de- struction.* XXIII. 1. " Balaam said unto Balak, Build me here seven altars, and prepare me here seven oxen and seven rams." 3. " Balaam said unto Balak, Stand by thy burnt-offering, and I will go ; peradventure the Lord will come to meet me, and whatsoever he sheweth me, I will tell thee ; and he went to an high place." Before a king goes to battle, he makes a sacrifice to the goddess of the royal family (whose name is Veerma-Kali), to ascertain what will be the result of the approaching conflict, and to enable him to curse his enemies. In front of the temple are made seven altars, near to which * In our late war with the Burmese, the generals had several magicians, who were much engaged in cursing our troops; but, as they did not succeed, a number of witches were brought for the same purpose. NUMBERS. 103 are seven vessels filled with water, upon each of which are mango leaves, and a cocoa-nut with its tuft on. Near to each altar is a hole containing fire. The victims, which may be seven, or fourteen, or twenty-one, consisting of buffalos, or rams, or cocks, are brought forward. A strong man strikes off the head of the victim at one blow, and the carcass is thrown into the hole of fire, with prayers and incantations. The priest then goes into the temple, and offers incense, and after some time returns in a frantic manner, declaring what will be the result of the battle. Should the answer received be favourable, he takes a portion of ashes from each hole, and, throwing them in the direction of the enemy, pronounces upon them the most terrible imprecations. The number seven also is generally attended to by the poor, in their offerings ; or, if they cannot do that, they have an odd number. Thus, seven areca-nuts, or limes, or plantains, or beetle-leaves, or seven measures of rice, will be presented. In the month of September, nearly all families have an offering called Maliyum, for deceased relations, which con- sists of seven balls, made of sugar and plantains, which are afterwards given to the cow, or thrown into the well. 21. " The shout of a king is among them." When people pass along the road, if they hear a great noise of joy or triumph, they say, " This is like the shout of a king." " What a noise there was in your village last evening ! why, it was like the shout of a king." XXIV. 21. " Thou puttest thy nest in a rock." A man who has concealed himself, when sought for by an officer, or his friends, is said to be " in the hole of the rock." " I wonder in what nest that pigeon has concealed itself." XXV. 2. They called the people unto the sacrifices of their gods." The anxiety which the Moabites manifested to have the 104 NUMBERS. Israelites to join them in the worship of their gods may be seen exemplified every day in the conduct of the modern heathen, in reference to their strong wish to have the English present at their great festivals. The object appears to be to increase the admiration and zeal of the multitude, and the priests declare that the English make great offerings. I have no doubt money has often been given by the English to assist in defraying the expenses, and that in this way much harm has been done to Christianity. XXXI. 50. " We have, therefore, brought an ob- lation for the Lord, what every man hath gotten of jewels, of gold, chains, and bracelets, rings, ear-rings, tablets, to make an atonement for our souls before the Lord." There is not a man in a thousand who does not wear an ear-ring or a finger-ring, for without such an ornament a person would be classed amongst the most unfortunate of his race. Some time ago a large sacrifice was made for the purpose of removing the cholera morbus, when vast numbers came together with their oblations. The people seemed to take the greatest pleasure in presenting their ear-rings, finger-rings^ bracelets, and other ornaments, because they were dearer to them than money, and consequently were believed to be more efficacious in appeasing the gods. When people are sick, they vow to give a valuable jewel to their god on being restored. XXXIII. 55. Pricks in your eyes, and thorns in your sides." 2 Cor. xii. 7. People in the East, in consequence of their light clothing, of the exposed state of their feet, and the narrowness of the paths, have a great dread of thorns. Those who carry the palankeen, or who travel in groups, often cry aloud, Mullu, mullu! A thorn, a thorn! The sufferer soon throws himself NUMBERS. 105 on the earth, and some one, famous for his skill, extracts the thorn. Does a person see something of a distressing nature, he says, " That was a thorn in my eyes." A father says of his bad son, " He is to me as a thorn." " His vile expressions were like thorns in my body." A person going to live in an unhealthy place, or where there are quarrelsome people, is said to be going " to the thorny desert." 106 DEUTERONOMY. CHAP. I. verse 44. " Came out against you, and chased you as bees do." It is said of numerous armies that they are like bees ; and of a multitude, who go to chastise a few, " Yes, they came upon us as bees." To a person who has provoked a man of numerous connections, " Yes, you will have them as bees upon you." Of any thing which has come suddenly, and in great numbers, " Alas, these things come as bees upon us." III. 11. " For only Og, king of Bashan, remained of the remnant of giants ; behold, his bedstead was a bedstead of iron, is it not in Rabbath of the children of Ammon ? Nine cubits was the length thereof, and four cubits the breadth of it, after the cubit of a man." This is a very curious account of a giant king : his bedstead was made of IRON, and we are able to ascertain its exact length, nine cubits, i. e. " after the cubit of a man." This alludes to the Eastern mode of measuring from the tip of the middle finger to the elbow, which will be found to be in general eighteen inches. Thus his bedstead was thirteen feet six inches in length, and six feet in breadth. The hawkers of cloth very seldom carry with them a yard wand ; they simply measure from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger, counting two lengths of that for a yard. IV. 16. " Lest ye corrupt yourselves, and make you a graven image, the similitude of any figure, the like- ness of male or female." " Such as Baal Peor, and the Roman Priapus, Ashteroth or Astarte." Dr. A. Clarke. The prophet Ezekiel says, in his address to Jerusalem (xvi. DEUTERONOMY. 107 17.), " Thou hast also taken thy fair jewels of my gold, and of my silver, which I had given thee, and madest to thyself images of men, and didst commit whoredom with them." The margin has for images of men, " image of a male; " and the Vulgate has it, " imagines masculinas" Calmet says, " Probably the prophet might have intended, in this passage, an allusion to those obscene figures, which were carried in the ceremonies of Tammuz or Adonis." " Origen believed Baal Peor to be Priapus, or the idol of turpitude ; " and St. Jerome says, " This idol was represented in the same obscene manner as Priapus." The image made and worshipped by the Jews corresponds with the Baal Peor of Assyria, the Lingam of India, the Osiris of Egypt, the "The wife of thy bosom.'* (Gen. xvi. 5. 2 Sam. xii. 3. Ps. Ixxxix. 50. Luke xvi. 22. John i. 18. and xiii. 23.) These, and many other passages, show how much the term bosom is used in the Scriptures, and that it generally denotes something of great value or security, affection and happiness. Any thing which is valuable or dear to a person is said to be madeyilla, i. e. in his bosom. When a husband wishes to express himself affectionately to his wife, he says, " Come hither, thou wife of my bosom." Is she dead, " Ah ! I have lost the wife of my bosom." In the Scanda Purana, the god- dess of Vishnoo is said to rest in the bosom of the god " Vish- noo, whose bosom is the abode of Lechimy." To a father it is said respecting a bad son, "Notwithstand- ing this, you press him to your bosom ;" and of a flatterer, " He would cause the child to fall from the bosom of its mother." (See on Luke xvi. 22.) XV. 6. " Thou shalt lend unto many nations." From the numerous allusions, in the sacred writings, to the subject of lending and of usury, it is easy to perceive that this was a very common practice amongst the ancients of the East. There are thousands at this day who live on the DEUTERONOMY. 115 interest of a very small capital, and thousands who make im- mense fortunes by nothing but lending. So soon as a man has saved a small sum, instead of locking it up in his box, it goes out to interest at the rate of twelve, and sometimes twenty, per cent. People of great property, on account of their anxiety to put out every farthing, often leave themselves in considerable difficulty. Children are taught, in early life, the importance of this plan : hence, striplings may be heard to boast they have such and such sums out at interest. This propensity often places government in circumstances of great loss in reference to their shroffs, or native treasurers. They lend out money from the chest to a great amount, merely to gain the interest. " Ah ! you shall lend money to many people," is one of the blessings pronounced on a youthful pair. When a person acquires a new situation, when a man is prosperous, it is said, " He will lend to many people ; " which means, he will be rich, and have much influence. 8. " Thou shalt open thine hand wide unto him." Of a liberal man, it is said, " He has an open hand." " That man's hand is so open, all will soon be gone." When a poor man asks a favour of a rich man, in the presence of another, the by-standers will say, " Open your hand wide to him." A person who has been refused a favour, says, on his return, " Alas ! he would not open his hand ; no, not a little." XVIII. 10. "There shall not. be found among you an enchanter." Sorcery is the fruitful source of numerous evils in the East. Charms and counter-charms call for the ingenuity, the pro- perty, the hopes, and fears of thousands. They are often used to effect the most diabolical purposes, and many a se- duction is attributed to their supernatural power. 11. " Or a consulter with familiar spirits." i 2 116 DEUTERONOMY. The prophet Isaiah gives a description of the voice of a familiar spirit, and of its proceeding like a whisper from the dust. " Thou shalt be brought down, and shalt speak out of the ground, and thy speech shall be low out of the dust, and thy voice shall be as of one that hath a familiar spirit, out of the ground, and thy speech shall whisper out of the dust." Isa. xxix. 4. The Margin has, for whisper, " peep or chirp." (Lev. xix. 31. 1 Sam. xxviii. 7.) The deluded Hindoos, in great emergencies, have recourse to familiar spirits, for the purpose of knowing how they may avoid the evil which is expected, or has in part already come. In the distraction of their minds, they run to the " consulter with familiar spirits," make known their desperate case, and entreat him to lend his assistance. Those " wizards that peep and that mutter," and who seek " for the living to the dead," (Isa. viii. 19.) are generally frightful in their persons, and dis- gusting in their manners. See the aged impostor, with a staff* in his hand: his person bent by years; his wild, piercing, cat-like eye ; a scowling, searching look ; a clotted beard ; a toothless mouth ; dishevelled hair ; a mumbling unearthly voice ; his more than half-naked body, covered with ashes ; a wild unsteady gait, joined with the other insignia of his office; give a fearful influence to his infernal profession. A man who is in distress, and who has resolved to consult with a familiar spirit, sends for two magicians : the one is called the Mantheravdthe, i. e. he who repeats the incantations ; the other, the Anjanam-Pdrkeravan, i. e. he who looks, and who answers to the questions of the former. His hand is rubbed with the Anjanam, which is made of the burnt bones of the sloth, and the skull of a virgin ; and when the cere- monies have commenced, he looks steadily into his hand, and can never wink or take off his eyes till all shall be finished. On the ground are placed rice, cocoa nuts, plantains, areca nuts, beetel leaves, milk, camphor, and frankincense. The chief magician then, with a loud voice, begins to invoke the nine gods Ammon, Pulliar, Scandan, Aiyenar, lyaner, Vee- DEUTERONOMY. 117 rapatteran, Anjana, Anuman, Viraver. He then falls to the earth (as do all present) nine times, and begins to whisper and " mutter," whilst his face is in the " dust," and he who looks in the hand " peeps " and stares for the beings who have to appear. All then stand up, and the first wizard asks the se- cond, " What do you see? " He replies, " My hand is cracked, has opened, and I see on the ground." " What else do you see?" "All around me is light come, Pulliar, come." " He comes ! he comes ! " (His person, shape, and dress, are then described.) The other eight gods are now entreated to appear ; and as they approach, the second person says, " They come ! they come ! " and they are invited to be seated in the places prepared for them. The first magician then enquires of the assembled gods, what is the cause of the affliction, adversity, or danger, of the person for whom the ceremonies have been instituted ? He who "peeps" in the hand then replies, and mentions the name of the evil spirit, who has produced all the mischief. The malignant troubler is summoned to appear, and to de- part ; but should he refuse, he is bound, and carried off by the gods. Is it not probable that Saul and the woman who had " a familiar spirit at Endor," were engaged in a similar way ? Saul was in great distress, for the Lord would neither answer him "by dreams, nor by Urim, nor by prophets;" and being wound up to desperation, he determined to consult " with familar spirits." He took " TWO men " with him, who were probably qualified like the TWO used by the Hindoos. From the fear which the woman showed, it is probable her incant- ations had not exactly answered her expectations, because " she cried with a loud voice " when she saw Samuel, proving that she did not expect to see him, and that, therefore, he was sent by some other power. Saul enquired, " What sawest thou ? " which agrees with the question proposed by the first magician to his assistant, as to what he saw through i 3 118 DEUTERONOMY. the crack of his hand in the earth. The witch then replied to Saul, " I saw gods ascending out of the earth," which na- turally reminds us of the nine gods which are believed to ascend after the incantations of the wizard. Saul then asked, " What form is he of?" and the witch said he was old, and covered with a mantle, which also finds a parallel in the de- scription of " the shape and dress " given of Pulliar by the second magician. * I am, therefore, of opinion, that God allowed Samuel to come to Saul, or sent him ; and that the witch was con- founded and terrified at the result of her incantations. XX. v. "What man is there that hath built a new house, and hath not dedicated it ? " Dr. A. Clarke says, " it is evident that it was a custom in Israel to dedicate a new house to God." The title of the thirtieth Psalm is " A Psalm or song at the dedication of the house of David." The Hindoos never occupy a new house without having first made offerings and prayers to the god Pulliar (Ganesa) for protection and prosperity. 19. "Thou shalt not destroy the trees thereof by forcing an axe against them, for thou mayest eat of them." Can it be a matter of surprise that the Orientals have a great aversion to cut down any tree which bears fruit, when it is known that they principally live on vegetable produc- tions? Ask a man to cut down a cocoa-nut or palmirah tree, and he will say (except when in want, or to oblige a great person), " What ! . destroy that which gives me food ? from which I have thatch for my house to defend me from the sun and the rain ? which gives me oil for my lamp, a ladle * Saul had also fasted ; " he had eaten no bread all the day, nor all the night;" which corresponds with the practice of the Hindoos, as they always fast before they consult the familiar spirit. DEUTERONOMY. 119 for my kitchen, and charcoal for my fire ? from which I have sugar for my board, baskets for my fruits, a bucket for my well, a mat for my bed, a pouch for my betel leaf, leaves for my books, a fence for my yard, and a broom for my house ? Destroy such a tree ! Go to some needy wretch who has pledged his last jewel, and who is anxious to eat his last meal." XXI. 6. "And all the elders of that city, that are next unto the slain man, shall wash their hands." (Matt, xxvii. 24.) When a great man refuses to grant a favour to a friend or relation, the latter asks, " What ! are you going to wash your hands of me?" "Ah! he has washed his hands of all his relations ; " which means, he will not have any thing more to do with them ; he is entirely free, and will not be accountable for them. Hence the Tamul proverb, Avon elldtilum kai kalwoi nitkeran, i. e. " He has washed his hands of all." 12, 13. "Then thou shalt bring her home to thine house, and she shall shave her head, and pare her nails ; and she shall put the raiment of her captivity from off her, and shall remain in thine house, and bewail her father and her mother a full month." The margin has, instead of pare Tier nails, " OR SUFFER TO GROW ; " which is, I doubt not, the true meaning. This woman was a prisoner of war, and was about to become the wife of the man who had taken her captive. Having thus been taken from her native land, having had to leave her earliest and dearest connections, and now to become the wife of a foreigner, and an enemy, she would naturally be overwhelmed with grief. To acquire a better view of her state, let any woman consider herself in similar circumstances. She accompanies her husband, or father, to the battle ; the enemy becomes victorious, and she is carried off by the hand of a ruthless i 4 12 o DEUTERONOMY. stranger, and obliged to submit to his desires. Poignant in- deed would be the sorrow of her mind. The poor captive was to " shave her head " in token of her distress, which is a custom in all parts of the East at this day. A son on the death of his father, or a woman on the decease of her husband, has the HEAD SHAVED in token of sorrow. * To shave the head, also, is a punishment inflicted on females for certain crimes, The fair captive, then, as a sign of her misery, was to shave her head, because her father or mother was among the slain, or in consequence of having become a prisoner of war. It showed her sorrow ; and, as in the case of the chief of Antanguin (see note), was a token of her sub- mission. (See also Job i. 20. See on 2 Chronicles, xvi. 14. Isa. vii. 20. and xviii. 2.) But this poor woman was to suffer her nails to grow, as an additional emblem of her distress. That it does not mean she was to PARE her nails, as the text has it, is established by the custom in the East, of allowing them to grow, when in sorrow. The marginal reading, therefore, would have been * Ellis, in his Polynesian Researches, says, " We observed many of the people at this place with their hair either cut, or shaved close, on both sides of their heads, while it was left very long in the middle, from the forehead to the back of the head. On our enquiring the reason of this, they informed us that, according to the custom of their country, they had cut their hair in the manner we perceived, on account of their chief, who had been sick, and who they had heard was dead." The missionary Young, in Africa, says, under date Feb. 10. 1828, " Since the death of Islambie, a chief, almost all the people of this tribe, both small and great, have shaved their heads, which is a custom among them when any of their great chiefs die." Copland, also, in his history of Madagascar, says, " In mourning for the dead, the Madagasses shave their heads." " The chief Antanguin came to the camp with his head and beard shaved, in token of submission." Dr. Finlayson, in his mission to Siam and Cochin China, says, at the death of a king, " All ranks, and both sexes, shave the head ; and this cere- mony is repeated a third time." Porcet, also, in his journey to Abyssinia, says, on the death of " Prince Basilius, all persons mourned, which is per- formed by shaving the head" Capt. Harkness, M.R.A.S., in his account of the " singular race on the Neilgherry hills," says, " As a mark of mourning, all the family cut their hair more or less, according to the sex or degree of the deceased." P. 97. The Greeks did the same thing. DEUTERONOMY. 121 - much better for the text. When people, either in the church or state, are performing penance, or are in captivity, or dis- grace, or prison, or are devotees, they suffer their nails to grow ; and some may be seen, as were those of the monarch of Babylon, in his sorrow, " like birds' claws, 7 * literally folding round the ends of the fingers, or shooting through the backs of their hands. But when men fast, which is sometimes done for one or two years *, or when husbands fast during their wives' first pregnancy, they suffer their nails to grow ; also a female, when in sorrow from other causes, does not " pare her nails " until she has performed the ceremony called Antherette. 23. " But thou shalt in any wise bury him that day." An Englishman is astonished in the East, to see how soon after death the corpse is buried. Hence a new comer, on hearing of the death of a servant, or native officer, who died in the morning, and who is to be interred in the evening, is almost disposed to interfere with what is to him apparently a barbarous practice. When the cholera prevails, it is truly appalling to see a man in one hour in health, and the next carried to his long home. The reason assigned for this haste is the heat of the climate. XXV. 4. " Thou shalt not muzzle the ox, when he treadeth out the corn." The custom of thrashing corn by the trampling of bullocks still prevails in the East. The floor is made in the open air, of cows' dung and clay. In its centre a post is driven into the ground, and the corn is placed in order around it ; and the bullocks, being fastened to the post, begin to move in the circle, enjoying themselves, as they work, by eating the corn. * They then only eat once in twenty-four hours. 122 DEUTERONOMY. 13. Thou shalt not have in thy bag divers weights, a great and a small." The prophet Micah also speaks of " the bag of deceitful weights." As in former times, so now, much of the business in the East is transacted by travelling merchants. Hence all kinds of spices, and other articles, are taken from one village to another by the Moors, who are, in those regions, what the Jews are in the West. The pedlar comes to your door, and vociferates the names of his wares ; and, so soon as he catches your eye, begins to exhibit his very cheap, and valuable articles. Have you agreed as to the price, he then produces the BAG of " divers weights," and after fumbling some time in it, he draws forth the weight by which he has to sell ; but, should he have to purchase any thing of you, he will select a heavier weight. The man who is not cheated by this trader, and his " bag of divers weights," must be blessed with more keenness than most of his fellows.* XXVI. 8. "With a mighty hand and with an out- stretched arm." (Deut. iv. 34.) When a man stretches out his arm, it shows that he is not afraid, and the action says to all who are with him, " Be not afraid." People in the East, for the sake of social intercourse, and mutual defence from wild beasts, and other dangers, always travel in companies. These parties have always a head man, who has either assumed that office, or who has been elected, on account of his courage or size. He is the first to cross a river, to rush into a thicket, or face the foe. He goes before the party with a fearless step and aspect. Should a wild beast start from his lair, he immediately stretches forth his arm, in an angle of about forty-five degrees, * Government has done a great deal to put a stop to these impositions ; but in former times, under the native governments, we may easily imagine what would be the state of the case. DEUTERONOMY. 123 and thus giving his fingers and head a shake, says, with asto- nishing confidence, to all around him, " Fear not." It is com- mon to hear travellers in the evening, after their journey, in talking over the dangers of the day, say, " Ah ! when I saw the tiger, how much I was afraid ! but so soon as Kanden stretched out his arm, I was filled with courage." In a native vessel at sea, should the passengers become afraid, the captain (or some other person) stretches forth his arm which says to all, " Pia-paddtha, Fear not." Thus, in their distress, should no one do this, they say, " Alas ! alas ! no one stretches forth his arm" But this motion, also, is equivalent to a solemn promise ; and in almost every bazaar or market, traders may be seen stretching forth the arm, to show they will abide by the bar- gain. A friend saying to another, " Believe not that fellow, his promises may be written in water ; " the reply will be, " He will not deceive, because he gave the a-pi-attam." * Thus did the Lord Jehovah cheer and guide his people Israel from the land of their captivity, through the sea, and the wilderness, to the land of promise. (See on Gen. xiv. 22.) XXVII. 15. " Graven or molten image." The images of the Hindoos are generally made of copper or stone, but some are of silver or gold. It is not easy to find out the difference betwixt the graven and molten image, except the first mean that which has been produced by the chisel from stone, and the second that which has been cast in a mould by the action of fire. These images, however, have all of them to be graven, or filed, before they are con- secrated.f * From a, the negative (as in Greek), piam y fear, and attam, the hand ; f. e. the hand without doubt or fear. )- Images made of stone are never taken out in procession. That of the lingam is generally made of black granite. 12* DEUTERONOMY. 17. , " Cursed be he that removeth his neighbour's landmark." (Job xxiv. 2.) Fields in the East have not fences or hedges, as in England, but a ridge, a stone, or a post ; and, consequently, it is not very difficult to encroach on the property of another. Should a man not be very careful, his neighbour will take away a little every year, and keep pushing his ridge into the other's ground. Disputes of the most serious nature often occur on this account, and call for the greatest diligence and ac- tivity of the authorities. An injured man repeats to his aggressor the proverb, " The serpent shall bite him, who steps over the ridge," i. e. he who goes beyond the landmark. XXVIII. 3. " Blessed shalt thou be in the city, and blessed shalt thou be in the field." Benedictions similar to these are pronounced by a father, or a priest, on a youthful couple, or when a man is about to enter on a new employment. " Thy fields shall give thee rice, and thy gardens fruits. Thy house shall be established, and thy trade shall prosper." 4. " Blessed shall be the fruit of thy body, and the fruit of thy ground, and the fruit of thy cattle, the increase of thy kine, and the flocks of thy sheep." The wordpallam, which signifies fruit, has always a prefix, to show what kind of fruit is meant ; thus, munthera-pallam signifies grape-fruit ; mam-pallam, mango-fruit; vdli-pallam, plantain-fruit. Children are also called fruit, having only the prefix pidli, child, which at once shows what kind is meant. A father playing with his children, says, " Ah ! what kind of fruit is so pleasant as pulli-pallam (child-fruit)?" A mother lamenting DEUTERONOMY. 125 the death of her infant, exclaims, " Alas ! alas ! my womb- fruit is gone ; my child-fruit is torn from me." The riddle, " The fruit without a kernel, what fruit is that ?" refers to the fruit of the womb. Brahmins, in blessing their followers, say, " The blessings of children are yours." The Sanyasi, in giving a female the holy ashes, says aloud, " You will bring forth a male child." When a youth pays reverence to the priest by touching his feet, the words of the verse are often literally pronounced over him. 5. " Blessed shall be thy basket, and thy store." Heb. " dough or kneading trough" Eastern farmers have large baskets made of palmirah leaves, or other materials, for the purpose of keeping their grain : they will contain from one hundred to one hundred and fifty parrahs. These baskets, then, were to be blessed ; they were not to be injured by animals, nor robbed by man. But corn is also kept in a store which is made of sticks and clay, in a circular form. This little building is always ele- vated, to keep the grain from the damp, and is situated near to the house. When beggars have been relieved, they often say, " Ah ! may the place where you make ready your food ever be blessed." " May the rice-pot ever prosper." Thus, that which corresponds with the " kneading trough " of the He- brews, has also its benediction. 6. c * Blessed shalt thou be when thou comest in, and blessed shalt thou be when thou goest out." This blessing is especially pronounced on those who live by travelling with their wares, or on those who go to sea, An aged man says to a person who is taking leave of him, "" In departing, blessings will go with you ; and in returning, they will accompany you." 126 DEUTERONOMY. 13. The Lord shall make thee the head, and not the tail." The prophet Isaiah (chap. ix. 14.) says, The Lord will cut off from Israel head and tail:" meaning, no doubt, those who were high, and those who were low. It is amusing to hear men of rank in the East speak of their dependants as tails. Has a servant not obeyed his master, the former asks, " Who are you ? are you the head or tail ? " Should a person begin to partake of food before those of high caste, it is asked, " What ! is the tail to begin to wag before the head ?" A husband, when angry with his wife, enquires, " What are you ? are you the head or the tail? " 27. " Smite thee with the itch." This is a complaint which is far more common, and more formidable, than in England. Those who live on bad food, or reside in the vicinity of a swamp, are the most subject to it. See the poor object with a small piece of cloth round his loins, a staff in his hand, his body " from the sole of his foot unto his crown " literally covered with sores, an imploring piteous look, a weak tremulous voice, and bowing to the earth to excite your charity. 30. " Thou shalt betroth a wife, and another man shall lie with her; thou shalt build an house, and thou shalt not dwell therein ; thou shalt plant a vineyard, and shalt not gather the grapes thereof." All these terrible denunciations (except the last) are in common use amongst the Hindoos. The youth who is be- trothed to a young female, considers her as his wife ; and should another gain possession of her, the offence will be un- pardonable. It is one of the curses in common use to say, " Thy wife shall another take away." " Your wife ! chee, chee." " Thy gardens, thy fields, thy house, will soon be- come as charcoal." DEUTERONOMY. 127 XXIX. 17. " Ye have seen their abominations, and their idols." Hebrew has, for idols, " dungy gods ! " Calmet supposes it was in derision that Beel-Zebub, or rather Zebul, was called the " god of ordure /' and Dr. A. Clarke says of " Baal- Zebul, the dung god, a title expressive of the utmost contempt." The " dungy gods" here alluded to, were seen by the Israelites, in their journey from Egypt, among " the nations " through which they " passed." The question is, Are we to understand this offensive appellation as an epithet of con- tempt ; or as a description of the origin, nature, or mode of worship of the idol ? The prophet Malachi, in reproving the priests for their idolatry, in having " married the daughter of a strange god" (ii. !!.)*> an d by consequence, no doubt, partaking with the people in their ceremonies, says, " I will spread dung upon your faces, even the dung of your solemn feasts" Why say, " dung of solemn feasts ? " The god Ptdlidr, corresponding with the Ganesa of Ben- gal, is, for all domestic offerings, made of cow-dung.-^ In every house, when ceremonies are performed, whether for shaving the child's head for the first time, giving it rice, or a name, or teaching the alphabet the first t;me, or for a great * The marginal reference to Ezra, chap. ix. 1, 2., shows what is meant by being married to the daughter of a strange god. " The Levites have not separated themselves from the people of the lands, doing according to their abominations, even of the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Jebus- ites, the Ammonites, the Moabites, the Egyptians, and the Amorites. For they have taken of their daughters for themselves, and for their sons ; so that the holy seed have mingled themselves with the people of those lands." Here then we find the Levites, and others, had literally married the daughters of a " strange god," and joined in the abominations of the people. f In the temples he is made of brass and other metals. This god is said to have come from the ordure of the goddess Parvati. 128 DEUTERONOMY. variety of other objects, an image made of cows 1 dung is used. Farmers, before they plough or reap their fields, soldiers be- fore they go to battle, merchants before they enter into new speculations, men or women before they commence new en- gagements, or relations, attend to the same thing. The holy ashes used by the heathen to rub their foreheads and bodies are the ashes of burnt cows' dung. For all sacred and purifying purposes, cows 1 dung is used to smear the floor of the temple, house, or place of ceremony. Men of high caste have the place where they sit, while eating, smeared in the same way, to remove the defilement and sanctify the place. When the corpse has been taken from a house, the floor is also smeared for a similar object. In many of the most sacred ceremonies, a composition of the following articles (all from the cow) are regularly used ; dung, its urine, milk, curds, and ghee. The Israelites had come from Egypt, where was worshipped the apis, or consecrated bull, connected with which all things were sacred ; and it is a melancholy fact that, the children of the patriarchs did imitate the idolaters in all their abomin- ations. 23. " The whole land thereof is brimstone." When a place is noted for being unhealthy, or the land very unfruitful, it is called a kenthaga poomy, a place or country of brimstone. Trincomalee, and some other places, have gained this appellation on account of the heat and ste- rility of the soils. XXX. 14. " The word is very nigh unto thee, in thy mouth." Does a person pretend that he cannot understand another, that he must make additional enquiries, it will be said, " Do not understand ? In thy mouth are the words." Should a child at school be troublesome to the master, he will peevishly ex- DEUTERONOMY. 129 claim. In thy mouth are the words ; meaning the enquiry was unnecessary, that the subject was well understood. 19. " I call heaven and earth to record." , In solemn oaths, people point to the clouds, to the earth, to the grass, to the herbs, to the trees, as witnesses to the truth of what they have said. " O ye clouds above ! have I not said the truth ? Ah ! well do you know it : speak to this, unbeliever." " Ah ! these trees can bear testimony to my veracity." When mariners are at sea, they appeal to it, or to Varuna the god. In storms, they say to the water, " O mother ! be calm." XXXII. 2. " My doctrine shall drop as the rain as the small rain upon the tender herb." Oriental writers often speak of beautiful language as drop- ping upon the hearers. The Hebrew has for " prophesy " in Micah, ii. 6. " drop." The same word is used for drops of rain, for tears, or for the dew dropping from flowers. When a man has received consolation from another, he says, " his words were like rain upon the scorched corn." Of a beauti- ful speaker, and an appropriate subject, " Ah ! his speech is like the honey rain, upon the pandal bower of sugar." 5. " Their spot is not the spot of his children." Dr. Adam Clarke is, I believe, correct in supposing this alludes to the spot which idolaters have on the forehead*, to show what deity they serve. The worshippers of Siva have a spot on the brow, in a line with the nose, made of the ashes of cow's dung. The followers of Vishnoo have yellow marks, others have vermilion, and some black. * Which had not worshipped the beast ; neither had received his mark upon their foreheads. (Rev. xx. 4.) K 130 DEUTERONOMY. 7. " Ask thy father, and he will shew thee ; thy elders, and they will tell thee." Language of this description is often used, by way of con- tempt, to young people, or to those who make great pretensions. To say thus, " Go, ask the aged ; they will tell thee," has a surprising effect on an assuming young man. 10. "In the waste-howling wilderness kept him as the apple of his eye." (Zech. ii. 8.) Where the wild beasts are, is called the place of howling. Thus relations, when their friends are on a journey, say, " Ah ! they are now in the place of howling." " My friend, go not through the howling desert." Precious things are spoken of as being the apple of the eye. Affectionate husbands say to their wives, "En Jean mulli" i. e. "apple of my eye." Of a beloved child, in relation to his parents, it is said, " He is the apple of their eye." 15. "Thou art waxen fat thou art grown thick." (Job xv. 27.) This does not appear to mean that Jeshurun had become fat in person, but fat or proud in spirit. Thus, of people who have risen from obscurity, and who conduct themselves proudly, it is said, " They have become fat.' 9 To hear, " how fat that man is now," might lead a stranger to suppose it was meant so literally ; whereas the individual alluded to may be as meagre as one of Pharaoh's lean cattle. 36. " Their power is gone." The Hebrew has, for power, their hand is gone," which agrees exactly with the Tamul idea. "His hand is now gone." " His hand fails." " The strength of his hand is gone." 42. "I will make mine arrows drunk with blood." DEUTERONOMY. 131 This figure of speech is often used in Hindoo books ; and heroes are made to say of the foe, " My sword shall soon be matham, i. e. drunk, or mad, with his blood." XXXIII. 14. "Precious things put forth by the moon." The moon, amongst the Hindoos, is spoken of in the mas- culine ! gender, and is believed to have a most favourable in- fluence on all fruits and vegetables used by man. " Whilst the sun burns, the moon cools." From the time of the new moon, to its becoming full, all plants and all kinds of young grain are said to gain more strength than at any other period. In places where the young rice plants have failed, the farmer says, "I must put down some plants there in the new moon*-," from an idea that they will derive much nourishment from it. Before the time of reaping it is often said, " The moon will bring forth the ears." f In the Purana it is written that " rain is produced by the moon; viewing it, say, May rain be produced." The beams of the moon are often called amutham (ambrosia) ; and people who have had the fever during the day, or those who have been much exposed to the heat of the sun, go outside for some time in the evening to look steadfastly on the moon, which, they say, has a very cooling effect on the body.J The people of the East, in very remote antiquity, were also acquainted with the influence of the moon on the sea. Thus, in that ancient book, the Scanda Purana, mention is made of the restoration to life of the king of the Assurs by the supreme Siva, to whom he had offered himself as a sacrifice. When * Some of the people think the sap of trees rises according to the in- crease or waning of the moon. f Not the " Harvest Moon." The reaping time is in February and March. J Query, do the gardeners, farmers, and even physicians, pay sufficient attention to this ? K 2 132 DEUTERONOMY. his subjects saw him alive again, they " cried aloud, Our king is come ; our king is come :" and their minds, swelling like the ocean, on seeing the full moon, they shouted, " O king, prosper, prosper." They believe the moon causes the sea to flow or swell, and that the sun makes it ebb or subside. (See on Psalm cxxi. 6.) 133 JOSHUA. CHAP. II. verse 11. " Our hearts did melt ; neither did there remain any more courage in any man." In the book called Scanda Purana, it is said, that Sooran, the demi-god, who was at the head of the Assurs, enquired of Velle, their Gooroo, " What is your object in coming hither ? my very bones melt, so that I am not myself; my whole mind is fixed on you : my feet cannot urge me forward." 18. " Thou shalt bind this line of scarlet thread." The scarlet thread, in this instance, might be nothing more than a sign : it is, however, sacred among the Hindoos. When the devotees hear the history of the god Pulliar, which takes up twenty-one days, a scarlet thread is tied round the right arm, which shows that they are engaged in a sacred duty, and that during that period " they will not commit sin." When the priest whispers the ubatheasam in the ear of a youth, it is tied in the same way, to denote the same thing. On the day of marriage, the scarlet thread is bound round the right wrist, but is taken off on the fourth day. When a person learns to fence, or goes into battle, the thread is fixed round the right arm or right ankle. The priest also sometimes binds it round the wrist of a person in the article of death. It is called kdpu, which signifies guard or protector, and is applied, also, in the same sense to bracelets, armlets, or ank- lets. A person having on the scarlet thread will not be in- terrupted ; and during the period he will neither shave nor bathe, and will endeavour to be very moral. (Gen. xxxviii. 28.) VI. 4. "Ye shall compass the city seven times, and the priests shall blow with the trumpets." K 3 JOSHUA. No heathen priest would blow a trumpet, or any other wind instrument, as that service is performed by a particular caste. For a priest to touch any thing with his lips which has been near the mouth of another, would at once make him unclean. For the sacrifice of the ydgam, seven priests are especially required. A man who has been long absent from his temple goes round it, on his return, seven times from the left to the right. When devotees have a particular favour to ask of the gods, they walk round three or seven times, with their hands clasped before them. VII. 6. " And Joshua rent his clothes, and fell to the earth upon his face before the ark of the Lord, until the even tide, he and the elders of Israel, and put dust upon their heads." (Job ii. 12.) Joshua and the elders of Israel were in great distress, be- cause they had been defeated by the men of Ai, and because they saw in that a token of the divine displeasure. They therefore fell prostrate before the ark of the Lord, and put dust on their heads as an emblem of their sorrow. (1 Sam. iv. 12. 2 Sam. i. 2. Neh. ix. 1.) How often is the mind affectingly thrown back on this ancient custom by similar scenes at this day. See the poor object bereft of wife, children, property, friends ; or suffering under some deep affliction of body : he sits on the ground, with his eyes fixed thereon, a dirty rag round his loins, his arms folded, his jewels laid aside, his hair dishevelled and covered with dusty and bitterly bemoaning his condition, saying, lyo ! iyo! iyo! "Alas! alas! alas!" IX. 11. "Take victuals with you for the journey." The Hebrew has " in the hand." When people are directed to take any thing with them, it is always said un-kailea, " in your hand take." X. 12. "Sun, stand thou still upon Gibeon; and JOSHUA. 135 thou moon, in the valley of Ajalon." (Hab. iii. 11.) In the Scanda Parana it is recorded of the demi-god Sooran, that when he heard of the death of his brother, he " was plunged into a sea of grief, he fell from his throne on the earth, and cried out like the roaring of thunder. The earth and the sea began to quake, the infernal Yama trembled, the god of fire was bereft of power, the god of wind was troubled, and the sun and moon ran off astounded at the scene." When the sun stood still over Gibeon, and the moon over Ajalon, a great battle was being fought betwixt five kings on the one side, and Joshua and the Gibeonites on the other. In the book called Paratham, there is an account of a battle which was fought betwixt five princes on the one hand, and one hundred on the other ; on which occasion the light of the sun was concealed, for the purpose of allowing the one party to conquer the other. " In the regions of Attanap-Oor lived two kings, who were brothers. The one had one hundred sons, but the other had only five. He with the large family, finding great difficulty in providing for them, wickedly endeavoured to despoil his brother and five children, in order that his own sons might reign in their stead. After many false accusations for the purpose of seeking a quarrel : a relation of the one hundred princes slew one of their five cousins. The father, on hearing of the death of his son, became enraged, and said, Before the morrow's sun shall set, I will slay the murderer, or cast myself into the fire. The message being sent to the offenders, they prepared for the contest The murderer was a giant, being four cubits taller than the rest of his fellows, and therefore would be easily distinguished by the bereaved father, who would forthwith direct all his energies against him. They therefore, after due consultation, resolved to dig a hole in the ground four cubits deep, and cause the giant to stand in it, so that he might not be distinguished from the rest. The day came on which the father was either to kill K 4 136 JOSHUA. the murderer 1 , or cast himself into the fire ; his vow had gone forth, and either the one or the other must be accomplished. The contest began, and long was it continued, but all to no purpose, for the giant could not be found out. The case became desperate, for the princes had not only lost a brother, but had the melancholy prospect of losing their beloved father, whose vow could not be broken. At that time the god Vishnoo, in his incarnation of Chrishna, knowing their cause was a just one, took his shield and placed it before the sun, which caused instant darkness. The one hundred princes and the giant, thinking the sun had set, said, ' The old man has not accomplished his purpose : let us now go see him burn himself,' and came with triumph to the scene, when in a moment the four brothers arose and despatched the giant on the spot. Then the one hundred princes began to abuse the father and his four sons, saying, * The vow was to kill him before the sun went down, but you have broken it ; ' they then greatly reviled them, and were about to slay them, when the god took off his shield from the sun, and showed the full blaze of day. The favoured ones then slew the one hundred princes, took their cities, and made the inhabitants their slaves." 19. "Smite the hindmost." The Hebrew has for this, " Cut off the tail." Servants, dependants, or courtiers, always follow their superiors. Should one of them cease to serve or follow his master or patron, having gained his end*, another, on seeing this, asks, " Where is your tail? " The tail has been long in my way, I have cut it off." 21. -"None moved his tongue against any of the children of Israel." * A man wishing to gain a favour of a great man, will follow him for days or weeks as a dependant, stooping to the most humble offices till he shall have gained his end. JOSHUA. 137 When a person speaks of the fear to which his enemy is reduced, he says, " Ah ! he dares not now to shake his tongue against me." " He hurt you ! the fellow will not shake his tongue against you." 24. " Put your feet upon the necks of these kings." This in the East is a favourite way of triumphing over a fallen foe. In the history of the battles of the gods, or giants, particular mention is made of the closing scene, how the conquerors went and trampled on their enemies. When people are disputing, should one be a little pressed, and the other begin to triumph, the former will say, " I will tread upon thy neck, and after that beat thee." A low-caste man insulting one who is high, is sure to hear some one say to the offended individual, " Put your feet on his neck." (See on Isa. xviii. 2. 7.) XXIII. 7. " Neither make mention of the name of their gods, nor cause to swear by them." (Jer. xii. 16.) The heathen, when accused of a crime, or when making a solemn promise, swear by their gods. Siva-Ane, by Siva, is very binding upon his followers. 13. " Thorns in your eyes." " What ! " says a wife to her angry husband, "am I a thorn in your eyes ?" "Alas ! alas ! he has seen another ; I am now a thorn in his eyes." " Were I not a thorn in his eyes, his anger would not burn so long." " My old friend Tamban never looks at my house now, because it gives thorns to his eyes." XXIV. 32. '! The bones of Joseph, which the children of Israel brought up out of Egypt." The bodies of nearly all respectable Hindoos are burned after death. Should a person of rank die in a place too far 138 JOSHUA. off to bring his body home, then the bones and ashes which remain on the funeral pile, will be put in a new earthen vessel and taken to his friends, in order to be buried in a sacred place. But those, whose relations can afford it, take the cal- cined bones, and throw them into the Ganges, to secure, with certainty, their future happiness. (See on Amos vi. 10.) 139 JUDGES. CHAP. I. verse 7. " Threescore and ten kings* having their thumbs and their great toes cut off." The Hebrew has this, "the thumbs of their hands and of their feet." The Hindoos call the thumb the peria-viril, the great fin- ger of the hand, and the large toe is named the great finger of the foot. This punishment was exceedingly common in ancient times, and was inflicted principally on those who had committed some flagrant offence with their hands and their feet.* Thus, those convicted of forgery, or numerous thefts, had their thumbs cut off. The practice is abolished, but its memory will remain, as it is now one of the scarecrows of the nursery and domestic life : " If you steal any more, I will cut off your thumbs." " Let me find out the thief, and I will soon have his thumbs." III. 21. " Took the dagger from his right thigh." This may appear an inconvenient and strange place for the dagger : but the Malays, and others, generally carry the Jcreese, which in shape is like the sickle, though much smaller, concealed under the waist-cloth, an equally inconvenient place, or under the kerchief, or turban, round the back of the head. A small kreese may also be concealed in the long hair, f * Nearly all dangers and afflictions are believed to proceed from, or cleave to, the hands or the feet. Thus, the feet must in some way or other move for the accomplishment of evil, and the hands will have their part to perform. In consequence of this, a father, in blessing his children, or a priest the people, says, " May God keep your hands and your feet." " Ah ! my child, may the gods keep thy hands and feet from evil." -|- Some years ago the Kandians, by stratagem, laid hold of some English and Hindoo soldiers, and treated them with great barbarity. A party of Malays determined to have revenge. They therefore affected to desert the 140 JUDGES. IV. 3. "He had nine hundred chariots of iron." (Chap. i. 19. Josh. xvii. 16. 18.) From the ancient writings of this people, it is evident, that kings and heroes often fought in chariots of iron, or of other metals. Some of those cars are said to have been large enough to accommodate fifty warriors. As may be supposed, elephants were principally used to draw them, and the con- cussion, when the vehicles met, joined with the choler and feats of the combatants, often afforded the historian a subject for using words of a thundering sound, and at the same time appropriate meaning.* 10. "Ten thousand men at his feet" (Exod. xi. 8. 1 Kings xx. 10.) See the marginal reading of those passages. (Isa. xli. 2. also 1 Sam. xxv. 27.) The phrase " men at his feet " did not, I believe, refer to any particular class of soldiers, but applied to ALL, whether they fought in chariots, on horses, or on foot. This form of speech is used in Eastern books to show how many obey or serve under the general. It may be taken from the action of a slave being prostrate at the feet of his master, denoting submis- sion or obedience. In this way devotees, when addressing the gods, always speak of themselves as being at their feet. When the Orientals speak of his Majesty of Britain, they often allude to the millions who are at his feet. The govern- ors, generals, or judges in the East, are said to have the people of such countries, or armies, or districts, at their feet. Nay, it is common for masters, and people of small possessions to speak of their domestics as being at their British lines, and went over to the Kandians. The chiefs of that nation held a council, and the Malays were sent for (who had previously agreed on a signal for the destruction of the chiefs) j after some time the sign was given, and in an instant the kreese was drawn from every man's waist, and plunged into the breasts of all who did not submit. * The Hindoo writers equal any thing I have seen taken from Greek or Latin authors, in the selection of words to suit the noise of the action described. JUDGES. feet. It is therefore heard every day, for " I will send my servant, " en-kal-adiyila, " those at my feet." VIII. 7. " I will tear your flesh with the thorns of the wilderness, and with briers." Thus did Gideon threaten the inhabitants of Zeba and Zalmunna ; and thus do masters, fathers, and schoolmasters swear they will punish those who have offended them. To see the force of the figure, it must be kept in mind that the people are almost in a state of nudity. To tear a man's naked body, therefore, with briars and thorns, would be no small pu- nishment. See poor travellers sometimes, who, in consequence of a wild beast or some other cause, have to rush into the thicket ; before they can get out again, in consequence of thorns, they are literally covered with blood. There have been instances where a master, in his anger, has taken the jagged edge of the palmirah branch, to tear the naked body of his slave, and nothing can be more common than to threaten it shall be done to those who have given offence. People also often menace each other with the repetition of the old punishment of tying the naked body in a bundle of thorns, and rolling it on the ground.* 18. " Each one resembled the children of a king." Of a person who is beautiful or of a fair complexion, who is courageous and stately in his gait, it is said, " He is like the son of a king." " He is as the son of Manmathon (Cupid). " He is the son of a god." IX. 8. " They said unto the olive tree, reign thou * Disappointed lovers sometimes vow they will ride (as a child does on a stick for his horse) on the jagged edge of the palmirah branch to punish the obdurate female. One of the weapons mentioned in the history of Arachandron is made of sharp points j and one of the punishments in the Hindoo hell is de- scribed as having the body torn with iron thorns. H2 JUDGES. The people of the East are exceedingly addicted to apologues, and use them to convey instructions or reproof, which with them could scarcely be done so well in any other way. Has a man been told a secret, he says, in repeating it, for instance, " A tree told me this morning, that Kandan offered a large bribe to the Modeliar, to get Muttoo turned out of his situation." Does a man of low caste wish to unite his son in marriage to the daughter of one who is high, the latter will say, " Have you heard that the pumpkin wants to be married to the plantain tree ? " Is a wife steril, " The cocoa-nut tree in Viraver's garden does not bear any fruit." Has a woman had children by improper intercourse, it is said of her husband's garden, " Ah, the palmirah trees are now giving cocoa-nuts." Has a man given his daughter in marriage to another who uses her unkindly, he says, " I have planted the sugar-cane by the side of the margossa (bitter) tree. IX. 33. - " As thou shalt find occasion." The Hebrew has, " As thine hand shall find." ( 1 Sam. x. 7. margin.) In asking a favour, it is common, to say, " You must not deny me, sir ; but as your hand finds opportunity, so you must assist me." " Well, my friend, when I have the opportunity of the hand, I will assist you." " The man has assisted me according to the opportunity of his hand ; what can he do more ? " X. 8. " Oppressed the children." The Hebrew has, " crushed." Of a severe master it is said, " He crushes his servants." " Ah ! my lord, crush me not." " When will the king cease to crush his people ? " XI. 40. " The daughters of Israel went yearly to lament the daughter of Jephthah." JUDGES. 143 Some suppose the above not to be a correct translation ; and others believe that the daughter of Jephthah did not suffer. It is, however, a custom in all parts of the East to lament once a year (on the anniversary of the death of a relation), and to go to the place where the deceased was buried, or burned, or where the ashes may be deposited. XII. 3. " I put my life in my hands." The Ephraimites had found fault with Jephthah because he did not call them to war against the Ammonites, but he vindicated himself, and addressed them in the language of the verse, as a proof of his courage, and that he had been exposed to danger. The Hindoos use the same figure ; and the idea appears to be taken from a man carrying some- thing very precious in his hands, and that under cir- cumstances of great danger. When a son who has been long absent returns home, his father says, " My son has returned from the far country with his life in his hand ; " which means, he has passed through many dangers. " Last night, as I went home through the place of evil spirits, I put my life in my hands." " The other day, in passing through the forest, I put my life in my hands, for the beasts were near to me in every direction." " Danger ! truly so ; I put my life in my bosom." " O that divine doctor ! my son was at the point of death, but he brought his life in his hand." 14. " He had forty sons." To an Englishman, this may appear almost incredible, but we have a great number of similar cases. A man of pro- perty has as many wives as he thinks proper to support ; and such is the state of morals, that he finds no difficulty in pro- curing them. I have known men who have had, in each of the neighbouring villages, a wife or concubine. Santhera- sega, Modeliar of Oodeputty, who has been dead about thirty years, had two wives and six concubines, who bare to him JUDGES. thirty children. The old man is described as being of large stature, and as having indulged in strong kinds of food.* XIII. 5. " Thou shalt conceive, and bear a son, and no razor shall come on his head." This command was given to the wife of Manoah, the father of Samson, who had previously been steril. Hannah, the mother of Samuel, was also steril, " and she vowed a vow, and said, O Lord of hosts, if thou wilt indeed look on the affliction of thine handmaid, and remember me, and not forget thine handmaid, but will give unto thine handmaid a man child, then I will give him unto the Lord all the days of his life, and there shall no razor come upon his head." (Numbers vi. 5. Acts xviii. 18.) All who are married in the East, have an intense desire for children. It is considered disgraceful, and a mark of the dis- pleasure of the gods, to have a childless house. Under these circumstances, husbands and wives perform expensive cere- monies ; and vow, that should the gods favour them with a son, " no razor shall come upon his head," (z. e. excepting " the corners,") until he shall be ten or twelve years of age. In all schools, boys may be seen with elf-locks of ten or twelve years standing, giving a testimony to the solicitude, * A friend of mine in Manilla knew a man who was the father of forty children. Lieut.- Colonel Johnson says (in his Travels through Persia) of the king, " The number of his children I could not exactly ascertain : it is generally agreed that he has at least sixty boys and sixty girls living ; and many persons add, that there are an equal number deceased, so that their total number must have been two hundred and forty. He has already given in marriage twelve of his daughters ; and about twenty-five of the elder of his sons are governors of the principal provinces and cities of the empire. Preparations of fire-works, &c. were at this time making at the palace to celebrate the nuptials of one of his sons, which were to take place in about three weeks. " Some of the king's elder sons, besides their commands of provinces and cities, which all of them possess, are in confidential situations about his person or household : the present monarch appears to be about forty-five years of age, and has reigned twenty years." P. 132. JUDGES. 145 superstition, and affection of the parents, and a memorial of the favour of their deities. Nearly every nation of antiquity makes its boast of having produced some one, who, in strength or valour, corresponded with Hercules, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena. Many ingenious and learned men have endeavoured to prove that the Samson of the Israelites was the great prototype of the Theban Hercules, and of all his imitators. In this opinion I am disposed to concur ; and have been much interested to find, that the Hercules of the East affords many striking coincidences with the hero of the Jews. Some, in reading the following account, may suppose I have something like a concealed opinion, that Samson performed some of his exploits in India and Ceylon. I am, however, nearly con- vinced he did not travel so far (though it would not have been a long journey), and, therefore, where localities, and traditions, and facts fix themselves on some spot as the scene of his operations, I think it may be inferred, that the historian or poet has thus transferred the adventures of his hero, to identify him with his own nation. In the early part of the last century, some of the learned and indefatigable Danish Missionaries, who labored in Tran- quebar and other parts of India, published a work in the Malabar language, in which they express their opinion, that the Ramar of India and the Samson of the Scriptures are one person.* * According to the calculations of the lamented Bentley, of Calcutta, Ramar was born 961 years before Christ. In reference to the birth of Samson; Usher, Calmet, and many others, believe he was born about 1156 years before Christ. In these accounts, then, formed with no in- tention to identify the individuals, and upon such different data, we only find a difference of 195 years ! It has been clearly proved that the history of Ramar was not composed (from its various sources) till the year A. D. 295 ; consequently after the lapse of so many ages, changes of names and places, events and fiction would be introduced. Besides, as Samson was born 195 years before the Indian Ramar, this gives full time and scope for transplanting the leading features of his character into their own soil. L 146 JUDGES. The following are some of the principal events in the his- tory of Ramar. The name of .his father was Tasather, and that of his mother Kosali. She had been steril sixty thou- sand years, when a divine Rishi appeared to the unhappy couple, and directed them to call a hermit, who lived in the wilderness, and to make the sacrifice of a kid called the put- tra-yagam*, in order to procure children. They complied ; and whilst they were making the offering, a celestial being arose from the flames with rice in his hand, and gave it to the mother of the future Ramar. At the sight they were greatly afraid, and fell to the ground. While Ramar was young, he was greatly delighted in going to the camp. A certain king had a beautiful daughter, who was promised in marriage to the man who could break a certain bow ; which feat was performed by Ramar. He is famed for slaying a lion and two giants; also multitudes of his enemies ; for throwing down hills, and tearing up the forests. His beautiful wife Seethe was stolen by Ravenan, the giant king of Ceylon, and taken to his island. Ramar then sent the monkey called Anuman to search for his wife, who soon found her, but was discovered by the giant king. Anu- man was seized, and brought into the presence of his majesty of Lanca, when the order was given to cut the monkey down ; but the brother of the king having expostulated with him, an order was given to tie oiled rags around his tail, to set them on fire, and let him go. This being done, the monkey went into the fields and gardens, set them on fire, and the whole coun- try was desolated. Compare this with the history of Samson. His mother, like Ramar's, was steril. They both made an offering to procure a child ; they were mutually afraid at what they saw during the sacrifice; they both succeeded in their desires. " Manoah' s wife was barren." " Manoah took a kid and offered it." " Manoah and his wife looked on it, and fell on their faces to the ground." The woman bare a son, and called his name Samson." * Literally, the sacrifice for children. I I JUDGES. 147 Samson, in youth, slew a lion, which "roared against him." So Ramar. The Jewish hero went " down to Tim- nath," and fell in love with a woman of that country, and married her. When Ramar was going to another country, he saw the fascinating Seethe, fell in love with her, and mar- ried her. Samson lost his wife through the bad faith of her father, and this was the cause of burning the fields with firebrands tied to the tails of foxes. Ramar's wife was stolen from him, which was the cause of the firebrand being tied round the tail of the monkey Anuman, and which set fire to the fields, gardens, and forests of Ravenari. Samson was bound by the men of Judah, and delivered to the Philistines. So Ramar was bound by Mily Ravenan, and taken into the lower regions, to be offered to Kali. Samson was sore athirst at Ramath ! " God clave an hollow place there came water thereout." " He called the name En-hakkore, which is in Lehi unto this day." " The well of the implorer : this name he gave to the spot where the water rose, in order to perpetuate the bounty of God in affording him this miraculous supply. " Dr. A. C. Houbi- gant, according to Mr. Benson, renders " Then God clave the rock which was in Lehi, and there came water from thence ; which fountain is in Lehi unto this day," " conse- quently not in the jaw-bone of the ass." When Ramar came to Lanca (Ceylon) to fight and destroy his cruel foes, who had carried off his beloved wife Seethe, he and his army were in great distress for water. He then struck the rock with his arrow, which opened, and gave an abundance of water.* * This well is still in existence, and is the most extraordinary chasm I have ever seen ; and is known by the name of the Puttoor Well. 1 am aware that many extraordinary appearances in the formation of the earth are, without sufficient foundation, attributed to volcanic fires ; but how this place could have been formed, except by some such effort of nature, I am utterly at a loss to know. For miles around the stones have the appearance of scoria, and there are little ridges having all the marks of being acted L 2 148 JUDGES. But, in addition to these resemblances, there are collateral customs connected with the history of Samson, which serve to identify the whole. When he went to Timnath to be married, he made "a feast, for so used the young men to do." So here the bride- groom makes a great feast before he takes off the bride, and generally at her house, when numerous guests are bidden. Samson's feast continued seven days : here it ends on the eighth. They began to puzzle each other with riddles. " If ye declare it within seven days 1 will give thirty sheets and thirty changes of garments." So here riddles are told ; and those who explain them get the forfeit, which may be a robe, or a cloth for the waist. When the young men had found out Samson's riddle, he was convinced his wife had told them, and said, "If ye had not ploughed with my heifer, ye had not found out my riddle." The wife here is also called Kedare, i. e. heifer; which means one who has not had upon by fire. In walking over one place, with my friend Dr. R., we were particularly struck with the impression of a Palmirah tree being regularly made in the scoria. The well itself is about one hundred and thirty feet deep, and may be about twenty by thirty feet square, On one occasion when I visited it (from an idea that the water at the bottom would be different to that at the top) I corked an empty bottle, and let it down to the bottom of the well, and upon drawing it up again found it full of salt water. Thinking there might have been something in the bottle, I procured another, but the water was exactly the same ; and it gave the same quantity of salt as sea water. The ground is hollow for miles in the vicinity. Bamboos have been tied together, and fastened one to the end of each other, and thrust under the shelvings of the well, but no side has been found. The water rises and falls daily ; but more in the wet moonsoon than at any other time. Its distance is about seven miles from the sea, and the whole country to the shore is covered with half-formed scoria. The well is sacred; and a regular heathen festival is kept near it every year, when the devotees bathe in its waters. Sir E. Barnes erected a steam-engine to pump out the water to irrigate the land, but either the water or the land was bad, as they only reaped the same quantity of rice that they cast into the ground : the engine has been taken down. JUDGES. 149 a child. " He has a beautiful heifer," or " She is in calf," are expressions applied to a man's wife. I think, therefore, as the mothers of Samson and Ramar were previously barren ; as they both made an offering of a kid to procure a child ; as they mutually saw a celestial being, and were afraid ; as the two heroes are proved to have been born at no great distance of time from each other, by calcu- lations formed on different data, by different persons, and for different purposes ; as both were famed in early life for their exploits with the lion, and the destruction of their enemies ; as the loss of a wife was the principal cause of their future achievements ; as the fields of both their enemies were de- stroyed by binding some combustibles round the tail of an animal ; as they both were in " sore thirst," and were relieved by a miraculous supply of water ; as the customs, amusements, and forms of expressions in the marriage feasts agree in both cases; I am of opinion that these two personages are strictly one, and that the Jewish Samson was the great original of the Indian Ramar. (See on 2 Kings ii. 23.) XIV. 16. "I have not told it my father nor my mo- ther, and shall I tell it thee ?" In all parts of the world, I believe, people are pretty much alike as to their capability of keeping secrets. The Hindoos, however, improperly reflect upon the female sex in their pro- verb, " To a woman tell not a secret" That secret must be great indeed which will prevent a son or daughter from telling it to the father or mother. The greatest proof of confidence is to say, " I have told you what I have not revealed to my father." In proof of the great affection one has for another, it is said, " He has told things to him that he would not have related to his parents." " My friend, do tell me the secret."" Tell you ? yes, when I have told my parents." XV. 8. " He smote them hip and thigh " L 3 150 JUDGES. This is not to be understood literally, nor that " his leg or thigh was against their hip." It is a proverbial form of speech, used when people have been completely beaten, and may have been taken from a man who is entirely at the mercy of an- other, when his thigh is broken, or hip out of joint. Of a man who has been severely beaten, " Ah ! they smote him thigh and loins." " Alas ! alas ! as I was coming from the temple last night, some people caught me, and smote my thigh and loins." Has a man lost a good situation through folly, it is said, " The fellow is an ass, he has broken his loins, and will never be good for any thing." XVI. 7. " If they bind me with seven green withs, that were never dried." People in England would be much surprised to see what powerful ropes are made from the withes of shrubs or trees. Whilst they are in a green state, they are stronger than any other ropes that are made in the country. Wild elephants, or buffaloes just caught, generally have their legs bound with green withes. * 19. " She made him sleep upon her knees." Verse 21. " Put out his eyes he did grind in the prison house." It is very amusing to see a full-grown son, or a husband asleep on his mother's or wife's knees. The plan is as follows : the female sits cross-legged on the carpet or mat, and the man having laid himself down, puts his head in her lap, and she gently taps, strokes, sings, and soothes him to sleep. To put out the eyes was a punishment inflicted for all great offences which were committed by the eyes; hence the saying, when a man looks improperly on a woman, * I once saw a tremendous elephant which had just been caught, thus bound with " green withes. JUDGES. 151 " You shall have your eyes put out." * "I will tie camphor to your eyes" (which is said to destroy the sight). The mills in the East consist of two stones, about twenty inches in diameter, and three inches thick, and the corn is put through a hole in the centre. The employment is given to females or slaves, which shows the degradation to which Sampson was reduced. 23. " Then the lords of the Philistines gathered them together, for to offer a great sacrifice unto Dagon their god, and to rejoice : for they said, Our god hath delivered Samson our enemy into our hand." Nearly all learned men agree, that the Dagon f of the Philistines is the same as the Vishnoo of the Hindoos ; the lower part of the former was in the shape of a fish. The first incarnation of Vishnoo was that of a fish, which shape he assumed to regain one of the lost Vedams. In 1 Samuel v. 4. we have a most interesting account of the destruction of Dagon, through the temerity of the Philistines ; they having placed the ark of the Lord in the temple of the idol. " When they arose early on the morrow morning, behold, Dagon was fallen upon his face to the ground, before the ark of the Lord ; and the head of Dagon, and both the palms of his hands, were cut off upon the THRESHOLD, only Dagon was left to him." For Dagon, the margin has, " the fishy part!" Before I proceed, I think it necessary to state, that Ramar, the Indian Samson, was the next incarnation of Vishnoo, who corresponds with the Dagon of the Philistines. Dagon was destroyed 1141 years before Christ, and Ramar, the next incarnation of Vishnoo, according to Bentley, was born 961 years before Christ, giving a period of 180 * Some years ago the females of the Rajah of Tanjore were bathing in a tank, when a Brahmin ascended a tree to get a sight of them ; the king hearing of this, ordered one of his eyes to be pulled out. f The Burmese have a large temple, called the Dag or Dagon Pagoda. L 4 152 JUDGES. years from his destruction, to his seventh incarnation as Ramar. From the time that Dagon fell on the threshold it became a sacred place, for, from that period, " Neither the priests of Dagon, nor any that come into Dagon's house, tread on the THRESHOLD of Dagon unto this day." The THRESHOLDS of the temples and the houses of the Hindoos are sacred to this day. The god Vattu or Vattuma, who is believed to be a son of Vishnoo's, is said to recline, and live in the threshold, changing his position every month. This god was said to have been produced by an illicit in- tercourse betwixt Vishnoo (when he was a dwarf) and a woman of the race of the Assurs. His offering consists of plantains, flowers, beetel leaves, areca nuts, saffron, and cocoa nuts. On the day the door-frame and threshold of a new house or temple are fixed, the Vattuma Santhe is of- fered. The Hindoos have a very solemn oath connected with the threshold of the temple. Is a man accused of a great crime ? he goes to the temple, makes his prosrations, and then approaches the threshold ; he pauses then steps over it, declaring at the same time that he is not guilty of the crime laid to his charge. It is therefore very common to ask a person who denies anything that he is suspected to have done, " Will you step over the threshold of the temple?" The Lord, in his severe denunciations, by the prophet Ze- phaniah, against the Jews for their idolatry, says, " In the same day also will I punish all those who LEAP on the THRESHOLD ; " from which it appears that they also used thus to take an oath, or to perform some other heathenish ceremonies. But the threshold is also sacred in private houses : it is not propitious for a person to remain on it, neither to eat, sneeze, yawn, nor spit whilst there. Should they do so, the people in the house will throw water upon them to prevent the evil. I must not forget to notice the pointed observations of the prophet Ezekiel on the same subject. He beheld that " the JUDGES. 153 glory of the God of Israel went up from the cherub, and stood over the threshold of the house." In the preceding chapter the prophet gives a fearful description of the idolatry of Israel, and that the glory of the Lord had gone from the cherub, in contempt of their idolatry, or to indicate its nature, shows that he is gone to the threshold, and is about to depart from them. When the glory of God was about to return to the temple, the sin of Israel hindered it, and the prophet exhorted them to repentance, and the Lord reproved them for " setting their threshold by his thresholds." " They have even defiled my holy name by their abominations." At length the judg- ments of the Lord were denounced against Moab, Ammon, and Assyria. For the prophet Zephaniah says, " Nettles and salt-pits" shall be amongst them, that Nineveh shall be like a wilderness, that flocks shall be in the midst of her, and that " desolation shall be in the thresholds" Considering the united opinion of many learned men as to the identity of Dagon and the Indian Vishnoo ; looking also at the time when Dagon was destroyed before the ark (only one hundred and eighty years previous to his next incarnation of Ramar) ; the humiliation of the deity in being broken to pieces on his own threshold ; the consternation of the priests and people ; their refraining thenceforward to tread on the threshold ; the denunciations of the Lord against those " who leap on the threshold ; " his great displeasure against those also who impiously had set their thresholds by his ; the cir- cumstance of the threshold being a SACRED place amongst the Hindoos ; that a deity is believed to dwell in it ; that a very solemn oath is taken by stepping over it : I am of opinion that all these allusions, ceremonies, and denunciations, have their origin in the falling of Dagon before the ark of the Lord on the threshold of his own temple. XIX. 8. " Until afternoon." Hebrew, " till the day declined." In this way also do our people speak, when the sun has 154 JUDGES. passed the meridian; "1 shall not go till the sun decline ;" " I must not go till the declining time." XXI. 19. " On the east side." The Hebrew has this, " toward the sun-rising." Does a person ask the way to a place which lies towards the east, he will be told to go to the rising place, to the rising sh/. If to the west, walk for the departed place, the gone down place. 155 RUTH. CHAP. I. verse 11. > " Are there yet any more sons in my womb ? " So said Naorni to the widows of her sons who were follow- ing her. When a mother has lost her son, should his widow only come occasionally to see her, the mother will be dis- pleased, and affect to be greatly surprised when she does come. " Do I again see you ? " " Is it possible ? " " Are there any more sons in my womb ? " But the mother-in-law also uses this form of expression when she does not wish to see the widow. 17. Where thou diest, will I die." The dreadful practice of widows burning themselves on the funeral pile with the dead bodies of their husbands, has made the declaration of the text familiar to the native mind. Hence a wife, when her husband is sick, should he be in danger, will say, " Ah ! if he die, I also will die ; I will go with him ; yes, my body, thou also shalt be a corpse." A slave, also, to a good master, makes use of the same language. Husbands sometimes boast of the affection of their wives, and compare them to the Eastern stork, which if it lose its mate in the night is said immediately to shriek and die. III. 2. " Behold he winnoweth barley to-night in the threshing-floor." In these regions much of the agricultural labour is per- formed in the night. The sun is so hot, and so pernicious, that the farmers endeavour, as much as possible, to avoid its power. Hence numbers plough and irrigate their fields and gardens long after the sun has gone down, or before it rises in the morning. The wind is also generally stronger in the night, which might induce Boaz to prefer that season. 156 RUTH. From the next two verses we learn that he took his supper there, and slept among the barley. Corn in the East is not kept in stacks, but after being reaped is, in a few days, thrashed on the spot. The thrashing-floor is a circle of about forty feet in diameter, and consists generally of clay, and cowdung, with- out wall or fence. Under these circumstances, it is necessary for some of the people to sleep near the corn, till all shall have been thrashed and taken home. 7. . " She came softly, and uncovered his feet, and laid her down." Margin, to the fourth verse, " lift up the clothes that are on his feet." All inferiors, all servants, sleep at the feet of their master. It is no uncommon thing for those who have a great favour to procure, to go to the house of the rich, and sleep with the head at his door, or in the verandah. Thus, when he arises in the morning he finds the suppliant at his door. Should a master wish to dismiss his servants, they often say, " My lord, turn us not away ; how many years have we slept at your feet?" King Arechanan was once placed in great difficulty by his implacable enemy Tirriyothanan. The king, in his distress, resolved to lie down and sleep at the feet of Chrishna. The enemy also went for the same object, but slept at the head of the deity. In the morning when Chrishna awoke, he found the rivals in their different places, and each earnestly re- questing his favour. After hearing both sides, the preference was given to Arechanan, because he had displayed the most humility, he having slept at the feet of the deity. 9. "I am Ruth, thine handmaid ; spread therefore thy skirt over thine handmaid." The prophet Ezekiel, in describing the Jewish church as an exposed infant, mentions the care of God in bringing her up with great tenderness, and then, at the proper time, marrying her ; which is expressed in the same way as the RUTH. 157 request of Ruth : " I spread my skirt over thee " " and thou becamest mine." Dr. A. Clarke says, " Even to the present day, when a Jew marries a woman, he throws the skirt or end of his talith over her, to signify that he has taken her under his protection." I have been delighted, at the marriage ceremonies of the Hindoos, to see amongst them the same interesting custom. The bride is seated on a throne, surrounded by matrons, having on her veil, her gayest robes, and most valuable jewels. After the thali has been tied round her neck, the bridegroom approaches her with a silken skirt (purchased by himself), and folds it round her several times over the rest of her clothes.* A common way of saying, he has married her, is, " he has given her the koori" has spread the skirt over her. There are, however, those who throw a long robe over the shoulders of the bride, instead of putting on the skirt. An angry husband sometimes says to his wife, " Give me back my skirt," meaning, he wishes to have the marriage compact dissolved. So the mother in law, should the daughter not treat her respectfully, says, " My son gave this woman the koori skirt, and has made her respectable, but she neg- lects me." The request of Ruth, therefore, amounted to nothing more than that Boaz should marry her. IV. 1. " Then went Boaz up to the gate, and sat him down there ; and behold the kinsman of whom Boaz spake, came by : unto whom he said, Ho, such a one ! turn aside, sit down here." (Gen. xxiii. 10.) The word gate is often used in Scripture, to denote the place of public assemblies where justice is administered. This definition of the word gate in its first sense, agrees exactly with the usages of the Hindoos. People, therefore, * This part of the ceremony often produces powerful emotions on all present. The parents, on both sides, then give their benedictions. 158 RUTH. who understand it literally, as meaning always a gate fixed in the walls of the city, do not comprehend its meaning. At the entrance of every town or village, there is a public building, called a rest house*, where travellers remain, and where people assemble to hear the news, or talk over the affairs of the place. There may be seen many a Boaz asking for the advice of his relations and friends, and many an Abraham as he sat " at the gate of his city," bargaining " for the field," and " the cave of Machpelah," in which to bury his beloved Sarah. 7. " Now this was the manner in former time in Israel, concerning redeeming and concerning chang- ing, for to confirm all things : a man plucked off his shoe, and gave it to his neighbour : and this was a testimony in Israel." Verse 8. " Therefore the kinsman said unto Boaz, buy it for thee So he drew off his shoe." The simple object, therefore, in taking off the shoe was to confirm the bargain : it was the testimony or memorial of the compact. In Deuteronomy it is mentioned that the brother of a deceased husband shall marry the widow, but should he refuse, then the widow is to " go up to the gate unto the elders and say, My husband's brother refuseth to raise up unto his brother a name in Israel ; he will not perform the duty of my husband's brother." Then the elders were to call the man, and if he persisted in his refusal, the woman was to come forward " and loose his shoe from off his foot, and spit in his face ; was to answer and say, So shall it be done unto that man that will not build up his brother's house." From that time the man was disgraced, and whenever his person or establishment was spoken of, it was contemptuously called " the house of him that hath his shoe loosed." To be spit at in the face is the most degrading ceremony a * In general, a building without walls, the roof being supported on pillars. RUTH. 159 man can submit to. This was done by the widow to her hus- band's brother, and she CONFIRMED his ignominy by taking off his shoe. But this taking off the SHOE (as we shall here- after see) may also allude to the DEATH of her husband, whose SHOES were taken off and of no further use to him. And as she said when she had taken off the SHOE from her husband's brother's foot, " thus shall it be done unto that man that will not build up his brother's house," may mean, he also shall soon follow his brother, and have his SHOES taken off his feet in death. When Ramar had to go to reside in the desert for four- teen years, his brother Parathan was very unwilling for him to go ; and tried, in every possible way, to dissuade him from his purpose. But Ramar persisted in his resolution, having fully made up his mind to take his departure. When the brother, seeing that his entreaties were in vain, said, " Since you are determined to go, promise me faithfully to return." Then Ramar, having made the promise, gave his SHOES to Parathan as a CONFIRMATION of his vow. Does a priest, a father, or a respectable friend resolve to go on a pilgrimage to some distant country ; some one will per- haps say, " Ah ! he will never return, he intends to remain in those holy places." Should he deny it, then they say, " Give us your SHOES as a witness of your promise," and having done so, never will he break it.* * Sir Frederick Henniker says, in reference to the difficulty he had in persuading some people to descend into the crocodile mummy pits, in con- sequence of some men having lost their lives there, " Our guides, as if preparing for certain death, took leave of their children ; the father took the turban from his own head and put it on that of his son ; or put him in his place by giving him his shoes!! 'a dead man's shoes.' " I doubt not these shoes were a pledge of their return, or to be kept as a memorial of their death. Tyerman and Bennet say of the termagants, in Benares, " If domestic or other business call off' one of the combatants before the affair is duly settled, she coolly thrusts her shoe under her basket, and leaves both on the spot to signify that she is not satisfied." Vol. ii. 331. I should say, as a pledge that she will return. 160 RUTH. An affectionate widow never parts with her late husband's SHOES : they are placed near to her when she sleeps, she kisses and puts her head upon them, and nearly every time after BATHING, she goes to look at them. These, therefore, are the " TESTIMONY," the melancholy CONFIRMATION of her husband's death. 161 1 SAMUEL. CHAP. I. verse 6.-" The Lord had shut up her womb." The same form of speech is used to denote a similar state. It is, however, principally applied to those who have ceased to bear children. 12. " She continued praying before the Lord." Hannah, the wife of Elkanah, was steril, but she had an intense desire to be the mother of a " man child," and she went to the " temple of the Lord " to vow, if he would give her one, that she would "give him unto the Lord all the days of his life there shall no razor come upon his head." How often do we witness a similar scene. See the afflicted wife prostrate in the dust before the temple of her god : she earnestly entreats the deity to give unto her a " male child." " Ah ! then will my husband love me then will my neigh- bours cease to reproach me Ah ! my god, a male child, a male child he shall be called by thy name * and sacred shall be his hair."* II. 5. " They that were full have hired out themselves for bread." * When mothers lose their children also (by death), they go before the temple, and make their vows and prayers to the gods in the same way. Not long ago, when walking near a temple (which was partly concealed from my view by its sacred shrubs and flowers), I heard the plaintive voice of some one in distress ; I softly approached the spot, and saw a female on the ground : her long hair was dishevelled, and her person covered with dust : near to her was an infant asleep on the ground. Not wishing to disturb her, I paused, when a man of the village came near ; I pointed to her, and enquired, why is she in sorrow ? He replied, " Ah, sir, that poor woman has lost all her children except the one you see, and she fears that will be taken also ; and therefore, in her distress, she has come before the gods to pour out her complaint, and make her solemn vows." M 162 1 SAMUEL. A man of high caste, or one who was once in affluence, will almost as soon die as work for food ; and, generally speaking, such is the pity felt for those people, that there are always some who will give a trifle to supply their wants. It is a phrase indicative of great misery to say, " The once rich man is now hiring himself out for conjee " (gruel). 24-. My sons." This affectionate form of speech may be heard in the mouth of every father. Thus, it is not common to mention the name, but my eldest, my youngest son (or some other epi- thet to designate the one he wants). " My sons, listen to the voice of your father." In passing through a village, a man or woman maybe heard in every corner bawling out, "Maganea," i. e. O son, or " Magalea," O daughter, " come hither; I want you." 31. " Not be an old man in thine house." People, in cursing each other, say, " In thy family may there never be an old man," meaning, may all die in youth. " Alas ! alas ! there has not been an old man in that family for many generations." VI. 5. "Ye shall make images of your emerods, and images of your mice that mar the land." This command was given by the heathen priests and di- viners to the Philistines, who were smitten with emerods, and whose land was nearly destroyed by the mice. It is a remarkable fact, that when the Hindoos are afflicted in any particular member (or in the person generally), they make an image to represent the afflicted part, and send it to the temple of Kanda Swamy, the Scandan of Bengal, in order to get relieved from their trouble. The temple of Kattaragam (sacred to Scandan) is famous, in ALL parts of the East, for the cures which have been per- formed by the deity there. Hence may be seen pilgrims at 1 SAMUEL. 163 its shrine, suffering under every kind of disease, who have walked, or have been carried, from an immense distance. The images presented are generally made of silver, and I have seven of them in my possession*, which were offerings in the famous temple al- ready mentioned. The first represents a boy with a large belly, which has probably been presented by the parents for their child labouring under that (very common) com- plaint. The second is that of an infant, probably sent by a mother, who had a sick infant, or who, being herself in a state of preg- nancy, had some fears respecting the future.f The third is, I suppose, intended to repre- sent an old man, who may have made a vow in his sickness, that he would present an image of silver to the temple, should he recover. But, strange to say, not only images of living beings are presented, but represent- ations of things in common use. Thus, the other four of the seven are, first, the head of a spear, or arrow, which may have been given by some one during the Kandian war, and which may represent that which actually gave the death wound to some British soldier. It is, however, possible, though not very probable, that it was given by a native sportsman, to ensure success in the chase. * Given to me by the Rev. J. M* Kenny, Ceylon. f These rude representations are fac-similes of the originals M 2 J64 1 SAMUEL. The next is a model of a native hut, which I suppose was given by some poor man who was about to build one,or who could not rest in the one he had, on account of evil spirits, or the menaces of some of his neighbours. The third is a still; no doubt pre- sented by some one who was about to commence the distillation of arrack, and who, at the same time, gave a model of a pair of bellows. But images of the eyes, the ears, the mouth, and the nose, are also presented, and for the same purpose. With these facts before us, we ac- quire a clearer view of what was in- tended by the priests and diviners of the Philistines, in ordering to be made images of the emerods which had so dreadfully afflicted their persons; and of the mice, which had marred the land. 7. " Take two milch kine, on which there hath come no yoke." These were employed to take home the ark of the Lord. It is more than probable that it was not a common thing to employ cows for drawing burdens, especially when they had sucking calves. The providence of God was seen in this ar- rangement, as the mothers actually took the road which led from their calves, and thus showed that they were influenced by a superior power. Cows in the East (except those that are steril) are never used for domestic purposes. Of people who are proverbially wicked, it is figuratively said, " They are so vile that they even put cows into the yoke." When a person is requested to do that which is improper, he asks, " Can I put a cow into the plough ?" 1 SAMUEL. 165 VII. 6. "They gathered together to Mizpeh, and drew water, and poured it out before the Lord, and fasted on that day, and said, there we have sinned against the Lord." Samuel had been reproving the people for their sins, and exhorting them to repent, and come to Mizpeh to fast and pray, and confess their sins. They complied with his direc- tions, and in CONFIRMATION of their solemn vows, they poured out water before the Lord, to show that their words and pro- mises had gone forth, and were " as water spilt on the ground, which cannot be gathered up again." To pour water on the ground is a very ancient way of taking a solemn oath in the East. When the god Vishnoo, in the disguise of a dwarf, requested the giant Maha-Ville (Bali*) to grant him one step of his kingdom, the favour was conceded, and CONFIRMED by Maha-Ville pouring out "water before the dwarf. But in that ancient work, the Scanda Purana, where the account is given of the marriage of the god Siva with Parvati, it is said of the father, " He placed the hand of the goddess Parvati, genetress of the world, in the hand of Parama Easu- ran (Siva), and, POURING OUT THE WATER, said, " I give her with a joyful heart." This, therefore, was also done in CON- FIRMATION of the compact. The children of Israel, in their misery, came before the Lord : they wept, they fasted, and prayed, and made their solemn vows ; and, in CONFIRMATION of their promises, they "poured out water before the Lord!" VIII. 6. "The thing displeased Samuel." Hebrew, " was evil in the eyes of Samuel." When any thing gives displeasure to another, it is said to be evil in his eyes. " This thing is evil in his sight." " Alas ! my lord, I am evil in your sight / " * Of the splendid ruins of. Maha-Balli-poor. M 3 166 l SAMUEL. IX. 7. "There is not a present to bring to the man of God." A present always precedes the man who has to ask a fa- vour. Those who come on a complimentary visit, or to ask a favour, always present a lime*, or a nosegay, with a graceful bow, to propitiate their benefactor. 10." Well said." Hebrew. " Thy word is good." When 1 you give orders, or advice, or warnings, or promises, those who hear you keep saying, at the close of every sen- tence, " Nallathu," good, good. 15. " The Lord had told Samuel in his ear." The priests have a remarkable custom of whispering some- thing in the ear of those who are to be initiated. When a boy has reached the age of eight, he is eligible to have the Uba- theasum whispered in his right ear. The communication is generally made in the Grandam language, which, of course, is not understood: they do, however, sometimes speak in familiar speech ; but it will never be repeated, for the priest assures him, should he do this, his head will split in two. This ceremony is believed to have the power of a charm, and to possess talismanic influence. It is sometimes very expen- sive, but the benefits are believed to be so great as to warrant the expense. X. 27. -"He held his peace." Hebrew, "He was as though he had been deaf." This figure is also used to denote silence. XIV. 14." Within, as it were, an half acre of land, which a yoke of oxen might plough." Dr. A. Clarke says, " The ancients measured land by the quantum which a yoke of oxen might plough." The same * Precious stones were formerly put into the limes, as a genteel way of giving a present or a bribe. 1 SAMUEL. 167 mode of speaking is still used by this people. Thus, in de- scribing a man's possessions, they convey an idea of their extent by saying, "How many yoke of oxen will be required to keep the fields in order ?" * 26. " And when the people were come into the wood, behold, the honey dropped." Bees, in the East, are not, as in England, kept in hives : they are all in a wild state. The forests literally -flow with honey ; large combs may be seen hanging on the trees as you pass along, full of honey. Hence this article is cheap and plentiful, and is much used by the Vedahs to preserve the flesh of animals they catch in the chase. The ancient poets take great pleasure in speaking of the value of milk and honey. 41. "Saul said unto the Lord God of Israel, Give a perfect lot." 42. "Cast lots between me and Jonathan my son." (1 Chron. xxvi. 14, 15, 16. Prov. xviii. 18. Jonah i. 7. Matt, xxvii. 35.) To cast lots where human wisdom was either not able, or not allowed to decide, appears to have been the custom of all antiquity. The Hindoos often settle their disputes by casting lots. On particular occasions they do it opposite to the temple ; and before they begin, they appeal to their gods, that they may show the right. " Let justice be shown," " Show the innocent," and such-like appeals, are often made. But some- times they cast the lot in the rest-house or a private dwelling. Should there be a dispute betwixt two people respecting the possession of any given article, the name of each will be writ- * The Eastern farmers who wish to have a good crop, plough their fields eight and ten times over. Having made their furrows lengthwise, they then cross them. The corn is also covered by the plough instead of the harrow. M 4 168 1 SAMUEL. ten on separate pieces of olah, and thrown into a vessel half full of water. A person who is chosen by mutual agreement takes out an olah, and he whose name is inscribed thereon is in the right. See on 1 Chron. xxvi. 14, 15, 16. -XV. 9." The best of the sheep the fatlings and the lambs." The margin has, instead of " fatlings " of the " second sort" This curious way of designating the quality of animals finds an exact parallel amongst the Hindoos. They do not usu- ally compare, as we do, by good, better, best ; but first, second, or third sort. An animal of the finest proportions is said to be of the first sort ; the next, of the second ; and the last, the third. All the productions of art and nature are compared, as to their value, in the same way. They tell us there are three kinds of fruit they prefer to all others : first, gold ; second, precious stones ; and third, land. XVI. 23. " David took an harp, and played with his hand ; so Saul was refreshed, and was well." Several kinds of diseases are believed to be removed or alleviated by music ; and devils and evil spirits are (with the addition of charms) ejected in the same way. Thus, to a person suffering under the possession of a fiend, a man beats a small tambourine, and sings songs respecting the wife of Siva. Those who are deranged, also, are said to be much benefited by music. XVII. 18. "Look how thy brethren fare, and take their pledge." The sons of Jesse were serving in the army of Saul ; and as he probably had not heard from them for some time, he sent their brother David to take a present to the captain, to induce him to be kind to his sons ; also to bring a pledge, or token, from his sons themselves, to assure him that they were well. A person in a distant country sends to those who 1 SAMUEL. 169 are interested in his welfare a ring, a lock of hair, or a piece of his nail. This is his "pledge" of health and prosperity. A man who has returned from a far country, in calling upon an old friend (should he not be at home), will leave a handkerchief as a token, to testify that he had called. 40. " His sling was in his hand, and he drew near to the Philistine." David was a keeper of sheep, and required a sling, not only to keep off the enemies of his flock, but also to chastise any of his charge which might go astray. Shepherds in the East (especially on the continent) carry a sling and stones for the same purpose. 43. "The Philistine said unto David, Am I a dog, that thou comest to me with staves ? And the Philistine cursed David by his gods." Men of high caste will not strike those who are of low caste with the hand, because the touch would defile them : they therefore beat them with a stick or some other weapon. Hence to offer to strike any person with a stick is very provoking, and the person so struck will ask, " Am I a dog?" When a man wishes to make another angry, he pretends to be looking for a stick, which will produce a similar question and feeling. Sometimes, however, they only repeat the proverb, " Take up a stick, and the dog will run off." As did the Philistine, so do these people curse each other by their gods. The imprecations are generally of such a kind as it would be improper to repeat. The extremes of filth- iness, of sin and hell, are put under contribution, to furnish epithets and allusions for their execrations. 44. "I will give thy flesh unto the fowls of the air and to the beasts of the field." The rhodomontade of Goliath is still the favourite way of terrifying an enemy. " Begone, or I will give thy flesh to 170 1 SAMUEL. the jackalls." "The crows shall soon have thy carcase." " Yes, the teeth of the dogs shall soon have hold of thee." " The eagles are ready." 55. "Whose son is this youth?" (Chap. x. 11. xvi. 18. xx. 27. xxii. 7. Num. xxiii. 18. and Judges v. 12.) It is a favourite way of addressing a person by saying, " You are the son of such a person," or, " Is he not the son of such a man ?" How Saul could have forgotten David is impossible to account for. When a person has to ask a num- ber of questions, though he know well the name of the indi- vidual he has to address, he often begins by asking, " Whose son are you ?" Many people never go by their proper name : they are known by the son of such a person, as Nellindderin Maggan, i. e. the son of Nellindder. XVIII. 6. "To meet king Saul with tabrets with instruments of MUSIC." Has a long absent son returned, is a person coming who has performed some great exploit, are the bride and bride- groom with their attendants expected; then, those in the house go forth with tabrets and pipes to meet them, and greet them, and conduct them on the way. When a great man is expected, the people of the village always send the tabrets and pipes to meet him. It is amusing to see with what earnestness and vehemence they blow their instruments, or beat their tom-toms, and stamp along the road. 10. "The evil spirit." Nearly all diseases, and accidents, and misery, are attri- buted to the power of evil spirits. There are evil spirits for infants, others for youth, and many for old age. That which is so troublesome to the youth of both sexes is called Mogani, 1 SAMUEL. 171 which bears some relation to the English notion of a fairy. The elves of ancient Britain, so famous for their midnight revelries, have a numerous sisterhood, of equal renown for their orgies, in the East. The fairies, like those of our native land, are believed to be subject to passion, pain, and death. In general they are supposed to be extremely beautiful ; but when on an evil errand they assume the most terrific shapes, having dishevelled hair, a dirty face, large teeth, and wounds in their legs. In their hands they carry a vulkJcu-mdru y i. e. a broom, and are arrayed in black garments. But when they go on an expedition of love, they are dressed in white or scarlet, and have great pleasure in their intercourse with the youth of both sexes when asleep : lascivious dreams in early life are always attributed to their influence.' Does a young person look delicate ; the parents or friends immediately suspect the fairy is troubling them, and have recourse to a charm or adchara?n, which is bound round the wrist or waist. Some of these sylvan beings love to dwell in the jungle, trees, and rivers. They can assume either sex. XIX. 24. " He stripped off his clothes also and prophesied and lay down naked." (Exod. xxxii. 25.) " Moses saw that the people were naked ; for Aaron had made them naked unto their shame." (2 Sam. vi. 20. Isa. xx. 2. Micah i. 8.) It is supposed the term naked in these and many other passages, means either to take off all the upper garments, or to be in a defenceless condition. That it does so in some of them I do not doubt, but that it does so in all I cannot believe. The nature of the idolatry and the practices arising from it, in which the Israelites were engaged, probably demanded that shameless conduct in its votaries. In those lascivious rites arising from the Satte-Poosy, those engaged are always naked. There are also vast numbers of devotees who walk about entirely destitute of 172 l SAMUEL. clothes. Not long ago one of them entered the town of Jaffna, and walked about the streets in that condition, till taken up by the authorities, and removed to the place from whence he came. When a person is requested to submit to any thing shameful, he says, " I would rather gojiaked than suffer that." * XX. 3. " There is but a step between me and death." Men in great danger say, " I have stretched my head to the gate of the pit." " Another step and the point is gained." " Fear not one step more." 5. " To-morrow is the new moon, and I should not fail to sit with the king." (Deut. iv. 19.) " And lest thou lift thine eyes unto heaven, and when thou seest the sun and the moon." (Deut. xvii. 3. Amos viii. 5.) It appears to have been customary for David to dine with the king on the first day of the new moon ; which may have arisen from the circumstance of some of their solemn sacri- fices falling on that day. But the heathen and the Jews (who copied them) also paid honour to the moon, from a belief that she had great influence over the affairs of men. The Jews, as mentioned by the prophet Amos, were anxious that the new moon should be gone, that they might " sell corn." There was not a command for them to refrain from doing business on that day, which shows it was a custom of their own invention, arising from some opinion or super- stition, which made it unfortunate or improper to sell their corn at that period. The merchants will not, except under particular circum- stances, purchase stock during the first fifteen days of the * M. Savary, in his Letters on Egypt, vol. i. 237., informs us, that many of the Santons " go entirely naked through the cities." " In the market stood a saint quite naked." See Henniker's Travels in Egypt, p, 90. See on Isa. chap. Ixv. 4. : and note on John xiv. 2. 1 SAMUEL. 173 new moon , they do, however, vend their goods to all who will buy. On seeing the new moon for the first time the people present their hands, in the form of adoration, in the same way as to their gods. XXI. 9. "The sword of Goliath the Philistine, whom thou slewest in the valley of Elah ; behold it is here wrapped in a cloth." All things which are valuable or sacred, or which have been acquired at great expense or trouble, are always folded in a cloth. XXIII. 19. "Doth not David hide himself with us in strong holds, in the wood, in the hill of Hachilah, which is on the south of Jeshimon ? " The margin has, for south, " on the right hand." " The Hebrews express the east, west, north, and south, by words which signify before, behind, left, and right, according to the situation of a man with his face turned towards the south." In the same way do the Hindoos speak on this subject; the north is shown by the left, the south by the right hand, the face being considered to be towards the east. When the situation of any thing is spoken of, it is always mentioned in connection with the cardinal points. Often, when people wish to give intelligence respecting any thing, they begin by asking a question which conveys the information required. Thus the situation of poor David was described by asking a question. " Have not the elephants been ravaging the fields of Tamban last night ? " is a question asked when such a circumstance has taken place. XXIV. 3. " Saul went in to cover his feet." The Hindoos say for this, " He has gone to the open place," or " He has gone to the tank," or " He has gone for the two things." m i SAMUEL. j4 t After whom is the king of Israel come out ? after whom dost thou pursue ? after a dead dog ?" It is highly contemptible arid provoking to compare a man to a dead dog. Has a servant offended his master ; he will say, " Stand there and be like a dead dog to me." Does a creditor press much for his money; the debtor will say, " Bring your bond, and then he is a dead dog to me." " I care as much for that fellow as for a dead dog." " I will tell you what that fellow is worth ; a dead dog ! " 16. Saul lifted up his voice and wept." When a man in great sorrow is spoken of, it is said, " Ah, how he did lift up his voice and weep." " Alas, how great is their trouble, they are all lifting up the voice." XXV. 5. " Go to Nabal and greet him in my name." Job. xxix. 8. " The aged arose and stood up." Acts xxviii. 10. " Who also honoured me with many honours." In the Old and New Testaments we have some striking examples of what may be termed good breeding. Look at the patriarchs and others in their renunciation of self, their anxiety to please, to show respect to the aged, the learned, the dignified, or those of the sacerdotal character : listen to their affecting eulogies and their touching appeals, and then say, have we not in them some of the most pleasing instances of gentility and good breeding ? On their great anniversary festivals, the Hindoos always send to " greet" each other. Has a son or daughter got married ; has a " male child " been born ; has prosperity attended the merchant in his pursuits ; does a traveller pass through a town or village where some of his friends or acquaintances reside : then, those concerned send greeting expressive of their joy, and best wishes for future prosperity. See them on receiving company. A servant, or friend, stands at the gate to watch for the approach of the guests, and 1 SAMUEL. 175 to give notice to the master of the house. When they approach the premises the host goes out to meet them, and bows and expresses'his joy at seeing them ; he then puts his arm over their shoulders, or takes them by the hand, and conducts them into the house. When they retire also, he always accompanies them to the gate, and expresses the great joy he has had in their company. Before people take their food they always wash their hands, feet, and mouth; and when they sit down, they take their places according to rank and seniority. Should any man presume to sit down " in the highest " place when he has not a title to it, he will be sure (as in the parable) to hear the master say to him, in respect to " a more honourable man," " Give this man place ; " and then, " with shame," he will be compelled " to take the lowest " place. In supplying the guests, the chief person present is always served the first, and generally by the hands of the host him- self. They are also particular as to the order of serving up their viands and condiments ; to set on the table certain articles first would be there considered as much out of place as it is in England to set on the dessert before the more substantial dishes. Epicures at home would smile, and pout the lip, at the vegetable feast of a Saiva man. His first course consists of pulse, green gram, rice, and ghee, or butter ; the second, of numerous curries, and pickles made of half-ripe fruits, veget- ables, and spices ; the third, an acid kind of broth ; the fourth, curds, honey, and rice; the fifth, a rich supply of mellow fruits. From this humble repast the guests arise with more pleasure, and at less expense of health, than the luxurious Englishman does from his half-medicated meal, to which science is now the footman, and a few French terms its fashionable vocabulary. When the visiters have taken what they require, the prin- cipal person arises from his seat, and all present follow his example. 176 1 SAMUEL. 10. " Who is David? and who is the son of Jesse?" When a man has gained some ascendancy over others, or when he assumes authority which is offensive to some one present, it will be enquired, by way of contempt, as Nabal did respecting David, " Who is he? and whose son is he?" 16. " They were a wall unto us." This was said of David and his men, who had been kind unto the servants of Nabal, and had probably been a defence to them whilst they had been in the wilderness tending their sheep. And the same figure is also used amongst us, in reference to those who have been a defence to others. " Ah ! my friend ; you have been a mathil, i. e. a wall, unto me." " Alas ! my wall is fallen," means, the friend is dead, or be- come weak. " What care I for that jackal! ? I have a good wall before me." * 29. " The soul of my lord shall be bound in the bundle of life." Any thing which is important or valuable is called a kattu, i. e. " a bundle, a pack, or bale." A young man who is enamoured of a female, is said to be " bound up in the kattu, bundle, of love." Of a just judge the people say, " he is bound up in the bundle of justice." When a man is very strict in reference to his caste, " he is bound up in the bundle of high caste." When a person is spoken to respecting the vanities or impurities of his system, he often replies, " Talk not to me, I am bound up in the bundle of my reli- gion." " Why do those people act so ? Because they are bound up in the bundle of desire." David, therefore, was * An artful treacherous man is called a jackall : this animal is very much Jike the fox of England in his habits and appearance. I have been told they often catch the crab by putting their tail into its hole, which the crea- ture immediately seizes, in hope of food : the jackall then drags it out and devours it. 1 SAMUEL. 177 to be bound up in the bundle of life nothing was to harm him. 35. "I have hearkened to thy voice, and have accepted thy person." Gen. xix. 21. " I have accepted thee." The Hebrew has, " accepted thy face." Job xlii. 8. " Him will I accept." Hebrew, " his face or per- son," Verse 9. " The face of Job." Does a person ask a favour of his superior; it will not be, in general, said in reply, "I grant your request;" or, "You shall have your desire:" but, Nan un muggatti parttain, "I have seen thy face." Has a man greatly offended another, and does he plead for mercy ; the person to whom offence has been given will say, " I have seen thy face ; " which means, that he is pardoned. Should a friend 'enquire, " Well, what punish- ment do you intend to inflict on that fellow ? " he will reply, " I have seen his face." In applying for help, should there be a denial, the applicant will ask, " In whose face shall I now look ? " When a man has nearly lost all hope, he says, " For the sake of the face of God grant me my request." XXVI. 11. His bolster and the cruse of water." Thus did Saul sleep, with his head on the bolster, and a vessel of water by his side ; and in this way do all Eastern travellers sleep at this day. The bolster is round, about eight inches in diameter, and twenty in length. In travelling, it is carried rolled up in the mat on which the owner sleeps. In a hot climate, a draught of water is very refreshing in the night ; hence a vessel filled with water is always near where a person sleeps. 19. " Accept an offering." The Hebrew has, for ac- cept, " smell." Valuable gifts are said to have a pleasant smell. A man, also, of great property, " has an agreeable smell." " Why are you taking this small present to the great man ? it has not N 178 1 SAMUEL. a good smell." " Alas ! I have been with my gifts to the Modeliar, but he will not smell of them ; " which means, he will not accept them. 20. " The king of Israel is come out to seek a flea." Thus did David compare himself to a flea, to show his in- significance before the king. When a man of rank devotes his time and talents to the acquirement of any thing which is not of much value, it is asked, " Why does he trouble himself so much about a flea ? " In asking a favour, should it be denied, it will be said, " Ah ! my lord, this is as a flea to you." " Our head man gave me this ring the other day, but now he wishes to have it again ; what is this ? it is but a flea." When poor relations are troublesome, the rich say, " As the flea bites the long-haired dog, so are you always biting me." Should an opulent man be reduced to poverty his FRIENDS forsake him, and the people say, " Yes, the same day the dog dies the fleas leave him." XXVII. 12. Utterly to abhor." The Hebrew has for abhor, " stink." It is said of a man who is hated by another, " Ah ! how he stinks in his nose." When a person comes amongst those he dislikes, he exclaims, " What a stink ! " It is indeed a bitter sarcasm for a man to rise from company and say, " I must be off, there is a stink here."* XXVIIL 2. - Therefore will I make thee keeper of mine head." The head is always spoken of as the principal part of the body, and when a man places great confidence in another, he * This mode of speaking is had recourse to when addressing those of inferior castes. There was in a certain cutchery an officer taken from the fisher caste, which is lower than most others. A high caste man went to the cutchery for a stamp, when the officer told him to get out of his way, that he was very busy. " Yes," said the man of caste, " I will get out of your way ; I smell fish ! " 1 SAMUEL. 179 says, " I will make him the keeper of my life or head." An injured man expostulating with another, to whom he has been kind, asks, " Why is this ? have I not been the keeper of your life." A good brother is called, " the life-keeping brother." But any thing valuable also is spoken of as being on the head. 20. " Then Saul fell straightway all along on the earth." When people are under the influence of great sorrow or fear they always do the same thing, and roll themselves along, making bitter lamentations. And when men have escaped great danger, they roll themselves on the earth to the distance of a quarter of a mile, after the car of the temple, in per- formance of their vow. 23. " He refused, and said, I will not eat." Saul, no doubt, on account of his sorrow and fear, refused to eat, as do others under similar circumstances at this day. But when people are angry also they decline taking their food. Should the wife not bring the dinner to her lord ! at the pro- per time, or should it not be properly prepared, he declares he will not partake of it, and that he has made up his mind to die of hunger. She entreats him by the love she bears for him, she touches his feet with her hands, and strokes his chin, but no ! he has made up his mind ; die he will. " She shall have no more trouble." The afflicted woman then runs to call the mother or sisters of her inexorable lord, who has de- termined to commit suicide by starvation. They all come round him, but his eyes are fixed on the ground, and there are the viands just as left by his weeping wife. Then com- mence their tender entreaties, backed by the eloquence of tears ; the mother, the sisters, the wife, all beseech him to take a little, and then the matron, from whose hand he has N 2 180 1 SAMUEL. often been fed before, puts a little into his mouth, and it is merely to please them he begins to eat.* 24 & 25. "The woman had a fat calf in the house, and she hasted and killed it, and took flour and kneaded it. And she brought it before Saul." This calf was killed, dressed, cooked, and eaten in as short a time as possible ; which might be called for from the neces- sity of the guest. But it is evident from other passages that it was a custom to kill, cook, and eat an animal in a very short time. The heat of the climate certainly prevents flesh from being kept many hours, but there is no need to put the animal on the fire whilst its flesh is still warm. The people affect to be disgusted with us for keeping fowls six or eight hours before they are cooked, and say we are fond of eating chettareyche> i. e. dead flesh. There are some Englishmen who become so accustomed to these things, that they have the chicken grilled, and on their table, which a quarter of an hour before was playing in their yard. XXX. 16. " Eating, and drinking, and dancing." This is said of the Amalekites, after they had spoiled Zik- lag. Parkhurst says, under ^n on the above, also on 1 Kings, xii. 32., " It plainly denotes dancing round in circles ; " and he believes the word " is applied to the celebration of religious feasts, whether in honour of the true God, or of idols," and he cites several passages in support of his opinion. When the heathen worship their demon gods, they dance in circles round the sacrifices, throw themselves into the most violent contortions : the arms, head, and legs, appear as if they were in convulsions. They throw themselves suddenly on the ground, then jump up and again join in the circular dance. * Some husbands will not for years eat any thing brought by their wives. 1 SAMUEL. 181 21. " He saluted them." Hebrew, " asked them how they did." It is in the East, as in England, a common mode of salu- tation to enquire after the health. They do not, however, answer in the same unhesitating way. When a man has per- fectly recovered from a fit of sickness, he will not say, " I am quite well," because he would think that like boasting, and be afraid of a relapse ; he would, therefore, say, 6t I am a little better not quite so ill as I was:" sometimes, when the question is asked, he will reply, " Can you not see for your- self? what answer can I give?" To say you look well, or have become stout, is very annoying.* * A short time after my arrival in Ceylon a very stout Brahmin paid me a visit, and on my saying he looked remarkably well, he fell into a great rage and left the room, I explained to him afterwards that I did not mean any offence, and he said it was very unfortunate to be addressed in such language. N 3 182 2 SAMUEL. CHAP. I. verse 12. " They mourned and wept and fasted until even, for Saul and for Jonathan his son." Thus did David, and those who were with him, weep and fast until the evening, because the " mighty were fallen," and because " the weapons of war " had " perished." When a father or mother " falls on the ground," the chil- dren have stated periods when they weep and fast in memory of their dead. On the day of the full moon, those who have lost their mothers fast until the sun come to the meridian, and in the evening they take milk and fruit. For a father, the sons fast on the new moon in the same way as for the mother.* II. 5. " Blessed be ye of the Lord, that ye have shewed this kindness unto your lord, even unto Saul, and have buried him." The bodies of Saul and his sons were BURNT by the men of Jabesh-gilead. Two of the thirty-two charities of the Hin- doos are, to burn the bodies of those whose relations cannot do it, and to pay for the beating of the tom-toms to the place of burning. It is therefore considered a work of great merit to perform the funeral rites for a respectable stranger, or for those whose relations are not able to meet the expenses. * Fasts are exceedingly numerous amongst the Hindoos, and they often keep them with great rigour : numbers abstain three days every month. On the first, they do not eat till three o'clock P.M.; on the second, at night ; and on the third, not till the evening : some also watch during the whole of the last night. The Mahometans make a great merit of fasting (as they term it) forty days and forty nights : many of them take only just suf- ficient to sustain life. Thus, in the beginning, a man will be well looking; but, in the end, little better than a skeleton. 2 SAMUEL. 183 Hence may be seen the funerals of those who have lived in poverty, or who have seen better days, conducted with great pomp, because the reward is great to him who advances the money, and because he receives great praise from the people.* III. 14-. "Deliver me my wife Michal, which I es- poused." (Matt. i. 18.) Girls are espoused at the age of six and ten years of age, though they are not generally married till they are twelve or thirteen. Before they are fully betrothed, the register of their birth is examined, and the astrologer casts the nativity ; and should the planets under which the parties are born occupy friendly mansions, the espousals will soon be finished : if, however, they are in opposing houses, nothing will induce the parties to agree. After the espousals, should the young man die, it will be very difficult to procure her another suitor, because it will be feared there is something unfortunate about her, and that he who espouses her again may meet a similar fate. IV. 5. "Came about the heat of the day to the house of Ishbosheth, who lay on a bed at noon." It is exceedingly common for people to recline on their couches in the heat of the day. Hence, often, when you call on a person at that time, the answer is, " The master is asleep."f * Rama Swamy, once a rich merchant, died in extreme poverty ; but his funeral rites were conducted with great splendour at the expense of an individual. f Captain Basil Hall speaks of the inhabitants of South America having the same custom. The old Romish missionaries in China used to take their siesta with a metal ball in the hand, which was allowed to project over the couch ; beneath was a brass dish, so that as soon as the individual was asleep the fingers naturally relaxed their grasp, and let the ball fall, and the noise made awoke him from his slumbers. N 4 18 4 2 SAMUEL, y. i. "We are thy bone and thy flesh." A child, in addressing his father or mother, or those of the same caste, often asks, " Am I not your blood ? Am I not your eyes?"* XII. 4-. "Took the poor man's lamb." This alludes to Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah, who was taken by David from her husband. In speaking of a similar occurrence, the Hindoos say, " Ah ! that bull has taken away the poor man's cow." The injured man says, " My cow has gone to the jungle." When the child is weaned, the father says, " My cow has ceased to give milk." A husband says of a good-tempered wife, "My cow has not any horns." Of a virago it is said, " Ah ! she has large horns." XIII. 6. " Amnon lay down, and made himself sick." The Asiatics are certainly the most expert creatures I have seen in feigning themselves sick. Thus, those who wish to get off work, or any duty, complain they have a pain here, and another there : they affect to pant for breath, roll their eyes, as if in agony ; and, should you touch them, they shriek out, as if you were killing them. The sepoys, and those who are servants in the Govern- ment offices, give great trouble to their superiors by ever and anon complaining they are sick ; and it requires great discern- ment to find out whether they are so, or are merely affecting it. Their general object is either to attend a marriage or some religious festival. 17. "He called his servant that ministered unto him." Eastern masters do not keep their servants at the distance usual in England. The affairs of the family, the news of the day, and the little incidents of life, are mutually dis- * The observation of the Indian chwf, when his children were all de- stroyed, is not a little affecting : " Not a drop of Logan's blood flows in the veins of any human creature." 2 SAMUEL. ^ to the different chiefs of the districts through which he may have to travel. W T ere it not for this, there would often be a difficulty in getting sup- plies, and there would generally be a great delay ; the officers would be insolent and overbearing, and the purveyors would demand thrice the sum the articles were worth. The letters in question are generally in duplicate, so that one precedes the traveller, and the other is in his possession. Thus, when he arrives at the choultry or rest-house, there will always be people to receive him, who are ready to furnish him with sup- plies, and coolies to help him on his journey. Sometimes they declare they are in the greatest want ; they cannot get rice, they have neither fish nor fowls, and are brought to the lowest ebb of misery. NEHEMIAH. 253 IV. 3.* "Even that which they build, if a fox go up, he shall even break down their stone wall." When men deride the workmanship of a mason, they say, " Che ! why, if a dog or a jackal run against that wall, it will fall." " A wall ! why, it will not keep out the jackals." 21. " From the rising of the morning till the stars appeared." Thus did the people labour from the earliest dawn till the latest glimpse of evening light. " Well, Tamby, have you found your cattle?" " Found them? no ! and I wandered from the rising east, till the stars appeared." " At what time do you intend to leave the temple ? " (t Not till the stars appear." " When do you expect the guests ? " " Imme- diately when the stars appear." V. 13. "I shook my lap, and said, So God shake out every man from his house, and from his labour, that performeth not this promise ; even thus be he shaken out, and emptied." When men or women curse each other, they shake the lap, *. e. their cloth, or robe, and say, " It shall be so with thee." Does a man begin to shake his salt, or waistcloth, in the presence of another, the other will say, " Why do you shake your cloth here ? go to some other place." " What ! can you shake your lap here ? do it not, do it not." " Yes, yes ; it is all true enough ; this misery has come upon me through that wretched man shaking his cloth in my presence." The natives always carry a pouch, made of the leaf of the cocoa, or other trees, in their lap ; in one part of which they keep their money, and in another their areca-nut, betel leaf, and tobacco. It is amusing to see how careful they are, never to have that pouch EMPTY ; for they have an idea, that so long as a single coin shall be found in it (or any of the other arti- cles alluded to), the ATTRACTION will be so great, that the con- tents of the pouch will not be long without companions. See the Englishman who wants any thing out of a pouch or bag; 254 NEHEMIAH. if he cannot soon find the article he requires, he shakes out the whole : not so the Hindoo ; he will fumble and grope for an hour, rather than shake out the whole. " Do that ! why, who knows how long the pouch would remain empty ? " It is therefore evident, that to shake the lap conveyed with it the idea of a curse. 14. " I and my brethren have not eaten the bread of the governor." Nehemiah did not eat that bread which properly belonged to him as the governor. When the Orientals say they eat the rice of a person, it denotes they are under obligations to him. People who have formerly been employed by you often come and say, " Ah, my lord, how long it is since I had the pleasure of eating your rice." Those who are in the service of the government, are said to eat the rice of the king. A servant who is requested to injure his master, says, "No, no; have I not eaten his rice for many days ?" Of a person who has been faithful to a superior it is said, " Yes, yes ; he has eaten his rice, or he would not have been so true to him." IX. 37. "Whom thou hast set over us, because of our sins." These people attribute all their losses and afflictions to their SINS. Has a man lost his wife or child, he says, " En- pavatm-nemityam, for the sake of my sins, this evil has come upon me." "Why, friend, do you live in this strange land?" " Because of my sins." No people can refer more to SIN as the source of their misery, and yet none appear more anxious to commit it. " The sins of my ancestors, the sins of my ancestors, are in this habitation," says the old sinner, who wishes to escape the sight of his own. 255 ESTHER. CHAP. I. verse 9. " Vashti the queen made a feast for the women." Females, in the East, never have their feasts in the same room as the men, because it would be highly indecorous to- wards their LORDS, and they would not be able to go to those lengths of merriment as when alone. On meeting, they em- brace, and SMELL each other ; and after they are seated, comes the betel leaf, the chunam, and the areca-nuts. Have their LORDS given them any new jewels or robes ; they are soon mentioned, as a proof of the favour they are in ; and after they have finished their food, shroots* and scandal become the order of the day. 12. "Therefore was the king very wroth, and his anger burned in him." Gen. xliv. 18. When a person is speaking to you, on almost any subject, he keeps saying every moment, " Be not angry, my lord ; " or, " Let not your anger burn." Judah said to Joseph, " Let not thine anger burn." " Go not near that man ; his anger is on fire." " Well, well, what is the matter with that fellow?" "Not much; some one has put the torch to his anger." " Go, throw some water on that fire, or it will not soon be out." V. 9. " Then went Haman forth that day joyful, and with a glad heart : but when Haman saw Mor- decai in the king's gate, that he stood not up, nor moved for him, he was full of indignation against Mordecai." This is, indeed, a graphic sketch of Eastern manners. The colours are so lively and so fresh, that they might have been but the work of yesterday. See the native gentleman at the * Nearly all the females smoke tobacco. 256 ESTHER. head of his courtly train : he moves along in pompous guise, and all who see him arise from their seats, take off their san- dals, and humbly move in reverence to him. To some he gives a graceful wave of the hand ; to others not a word nor a look. Should there be one who neither stands up nor moves to him, his name and place of abode will be enquired after, and the first opportunity eagerly embraced to glut his revenge. The case of Muttoo-Chadde-Appa, Modeliar of the Dutch Governor Van de GraafPs gate, is illustrative of this disposi- tion. A Moorman of high bearing and great riches had pur- chased the rent of the pearl fishery of the bay of Ondachy, and, in consequence, was a person of great influence amongst the people. The proud Modeliar was one day passing along the road, where was seated on his carpet the renter of the pearl fishery. He arose not, moved not to him, when passing by, and the Modeliar's soul was fired with indignation. He forthwith resolved upon his ruin, and, by deeply-formed intrigues, too well succeeded. The rent was taken from the Moorman ; the money he had advanced to the headmen, the of- ficers, the boatmen, the divers * and others, was lost ; his estates were sold ; and, to make up the deficiency, he himself was disposed of by auction for four hundred and twenty-five rix- dollars, and the Modeliar became the purchaser. IX. 19. "Sending portions one to another." On the first of the Hindoo month of July, also on the first day of the new moon of their October, the people send por- tions of cakes, preserves, fruits, oil, and clothes one to another. * Men have to dive for the oysters which contain the pearls. 25' JOB. CHAP. I. verse 1. " There was a man in the land of Uz, whose name was Job, and that man was PERFECT and upright, and one that feared God, and eschewed evil." The Hindoos have an account of a PERFECT man, called Ara-Chandran, who was sovereign of a large kingdom, and whose history has furnished materials for a beautiful and po- pular drama.* Indran, the king of heaven, and the assembled gods and genii, were once disputing as to whether a PERFECT man could be found on the earth. At last, a divine sage said, " There is one, and his name is Ara-Chandran; at which an EVIL GENIUS, called Fisumd-Mitaran, started up, and determined to try all his malignant powers on the holy monarch. He therefore sent two priests to the perfect Ara-Chandran, to request him to grant a large sum of money to enable them to offer burnt-offerings to the gods. On their wishes being com- plied with, they returned to the evil genius, and mentioned the piety, and the readiness with which their demands had been granted. Disappointed in this, he went himself to the king, and told him that the heap of gold required for the sa- crifices must be as high as a man could throw a stone out of a sling ! when standing on the back of an elephant. The good man acceded to the demand, and said, " Take it now ; " but the genius replied, " I will leave it in your possession till it be required." He then went away and created numerous cruel beasts to ravage and destroy the kingdom of Ara-Chandran. The inhabitants, on seeing the devastation made by the savage animals, went to their sovereign to request him to join with * I only give the principal facts of the history. S 258 JOB. them to go out to hunt and destroy them. He, therefore, and his queen, went forth to the chase ; and after they had made great havoc amongst their foes, the king, through fatigue, laid down and slept on the ground. When he awoke, he said, " I have had a dream, in which I lost my riches, my country, my wife, and child : " at which she replied, " Siva (the supreme) will not allow this evil to come upon us ; he will take care of us." Shortly after this, the evil genius sent two courtesans to the good man, and charged them to use all their arts to induce him to utter a falsehood, or in any way to cause him to sin. They accordingly went to their task, and danced and sang before Ara-Chandran in the most fascinating manner. He then gave them some money, and told them to depart ; but they refused, stating, they had been so captivated with his person they wished to have further intercourse with him: at which he became exceedingly angry, and ordered them to be dismissed from his presence. They then returned to the genius, and told him they had been used exceedingly ill, that their clothes had been torn, that they had been beaten with SANDALS ! and driven from the presence of Ara-Chan- dran. Enraged at this, he went to the king, and enquired why he had treated the females with so much indignity. The good man replied, " They came and danced before me : I re- warded them ; and because they made improper intimations, I turned them away." The genius then replied, " This is all false ; I do not believe you. Give me instantly the money for the sacrifices ; also your fortress and dominions, according to your promise." The king then replied, " I never made any such promise : " at which the genius responded, " You did, you did." Permission was then given for him to take possession of all the good man's property: after which he went again, and demanded the money for the sacrifices. Ara- Chandran said, " How can I do this ? You have taken my all ; the gold is in the fortress ; what can I do more ?" The genius replied, The whole of that is mine; I will have the money for the offerings to the gods in ADDITION, or you have JOB. 259 uttered a falsehood. The king, knowing the power of the genius, became greatly embarrassed, and at last promised to pay that also : asking only for forty days to be allowed to collect the amount. The genius then enquired, " Whither will you go?" he replied, " To Kasi" (on the Ganges). A dwarf was then called, and directed to accompany Ara-Chan- dran on his journey, to afflict him in every possible way, and to compel him to utter a falsehood. The king, his wife, and child, accompanied by Nat-Chestran, the dwarf, commenced their travels. They had not gone far, before the dwarf began to exercise his malignant power : sometimes he forced them to remain for a long time in the burning sun ; then, if they came near a shade, he ordered them to push on ; again he pretended he could not walk any further, and demanded the money without any delay. The king asked, " How can I pay the money in this desert ? forty days have not yet elapsed ; give me the time, and you shall have the full amount." But the dwarf determined to spend as much of the time as possible on the journey, that the good man might not be able to keep his word : he therefore said, " I cannot walk any fur- ther, you must now carry me." After this, the genius sent a fiend to make a river of fire to alarm and impede the travel- lers in their progress ; at the sight of which they became greatly distressed, and the dwarf asked, " Have you brought me hither to be destroyed ? give me the money and I will be gone." Ara-Chandran asked, " Can this be a trial from Siva ? at no time have I seen any thing like this. Ah ! what shall I do ? " His wife then arose and went towards the river of fire, and said, " Follow me." No sooner had she entered, than her purity quenched the flames, 'and they all went through unhurt. Again the dwarf began to trouble them, saying, " I cannot proceed ; I cannot walk : only say you did NOT make the promise to the genius, and I will go." The good man exclaimed, " Ah ! king of Kasi, I never, even in a DREAM, uttered a falsehood; I will give the gold." They then came within the limits of Kasi, and saw its towering s 2 260 JOB. flag-staff, at which the dwarf said, " We are now at the end of our journey ; give me the money." Ara-Chandran was oready troubled, and knew not what to do ; at which his wife said, " O king, sell me and the child to pay the evil genius, and should there be any deficiency, you can borrow the sum at interest." The good man was now plunged into the deep- est sorrow, and said, " What shall I do ? what shall I do ? my tali-vtihe, my tali-vithe* t my fate, my fate !" The queen, however, persisted in her resolution, and at last prevailed on him to offer her for sale. He then published, this woman and child are to be sold. A Brahmin, on hearing this, came up and enquired, " What is the price ? and what can she do?" Ara-Chandran replied, " She can separate pearls, and is well acquainted with the nature of precious stones." At which the Brahmin said, " I want a slave to sweep and smear my house ; to pound my paddy, and prepare my curry and rice." The king said, " Only teach her, and she will soon learn." When he heard that her price was to be a heap of gold so high as a man could throw a stone from a sling when standing on the back of an elephant, he treated them with derision, and asked, " What ! am I to give so much for such a blockhead ? if you will take forty thousand pieces of gold, you may have them." The bargain was therefore made, and the money given to the dwarf; who then said, " Recol- lect, this is for my wages, and not for the genius." After dis- puting some time, they went before the civil authorities, by whom the case was decided in favour of the dwarf. Ara- Chandran again exclaimed, " Ah ! why is this ? why have these things come upon me ?" The dwarf, seeing his misery, said, " Only utter a SMALL falsehood, and I will let you go." "No," said he, "I will pay the money;" and then pro- claimed himself in the streets, saying, " I am to be sold, who will buy me?" On hearing this, a Pariah f came and asked, " What is your price ? " The king replied, " A heap of gold so high as a man can sling a stone, when standing on the * See on Deut. v. 2. and note. t The lowest caste. JOB. 261 back of an elephant." The amount was paid, and handed to the dwarf with a request from Ara-Chandran to forgive him any offence he might have committed. The agent of the evil genius returned to him, and produced the money, saying, " You will never conquer that man, he has given me more than you demanded;" but the genius said, " I will yet pre- vail, he shall still utter a falsehood." The Pariah then ordered the king his slave to go to the place of burning, and remain there as a watchman, to take the toll from those who came to burn their dead. For each corpse he was to receive one cubit of cloth, one pice* in money, and a quarter of a measure of rice ; the latter of which was to be his own perquisite. The Brahmin who purchased the wife and the child was angry one day, and asked, " Why is this boy here idle?" and he sent him into the jungle to cut firewood. As the child went to his task, a poisonous serpent bit him, and he died : on hearing of which, the mother was in great misery, and requested her master to allow her to go and perform the fune- ral ceremonies. He, however, said, " Finish your work, and then you may go." After that she went to the spot, found the body of her son, and placed him in her lap, saying, " Ah ! my child, have the birds been your musicians ?f have they lamented you? Have the beasts been your companions? Has the grass been your couch ? Have the stones been your pillow ? Has the fire-fly been your lamp ? " and again she gave vent to her sorrow. After this, she took the corpse to the place of burning, and was making ready the funeral pile, when a man came up, and asked, " Who is this ? What fellow is here, trying to cheat me of my fee ? " She replied, " I am a destitute woman : for charity, allow me to burn the body." He then said, "Give me your tali (marriage jewel), and you may do it." At which she exclaimed, " This was tied on by my husband : has it come to this, that a Pariah asks me for * A small copper coin, f Alluding to the funeral rites, s 3 262 JOB. it? O Siva, has it come to this?" and she wept aloud. Then the watchman asked, " Who are you ?" To which she replied, " I am the wife of the king Ara-Chandran : we lost our kingdom ; I was sold to a Brahmin ; this our child was bitten by a serpent, and is dead." He then said, " For my reward, the rice, I mind not, but the cloth and the money I must have. Go to your master, and procure them, and you shall then burn the body." Accordingly she departed ; and when she came near the house of her master, the evil genius had sent a fiend to strangle the child of the king of Kasi, and place it in her way. On seeing the dead body, she took it in her arms, from an idea that it might be her own. At that crisis, the soldiers of the king of Kasi, who were in search of the murderer of the child, came, and seeing her in that condition, concluded she was the culprit. They took her and the corpse to their master, who immediately said, " Take her to the place of burning, and order the Pariah who is stationed there to strike off her head." She was taken to the place, and just as the watchman was about to despatch her, the god Siva came and seized the sword. At that instant the evil genius also appeared, and said to the watchman, "O Ara- Chandran, forgive me all the evil I have done to you. I return your fortress, your riches, your dominions, and all the merit of your penance." Then Siva was delighted : he re- stored to life the child which had been bitten by a serpent, also the child of the king of Kasi, and said to Ara-Chandran and his queen, " Return to your dominions, and there reign till you come to me." But the king replied, " My wife has been the slave of a Brahmin; I have been the slave of a Pariah : how can we return ? All will treat us with dis- respect." The god rejoined, I was the Brahmin who bought your wife ; I was the Pariah who purchased you : therefore there is no dishonour. Go rule your kingdom." They then praised Siva, and joyfully returned to their own country. Whatever may be the origin of this Indian story, it is wor- thy of notice, that in this, as well as in the history of Job, the JOB. 263 subject was a PERFECT man ; that in both cases he was very rich ; that his character had occupied the attention of " the sons of God," the " adversary," and the Lord, or the king of heaven, the assembled gods and evil genii; that "burnt offer- ings" were connected with the beginning of Job's sufferings, and also with those of Ara-Chandran ; that an evil spirit and a malignant dwarf were the instruments employed in the trial ; that both Job and Ara-Chandran lost all their earthly posses- sions; that they had both much personal suffering; that in both cases the wife was concerned (though in different ways) ; that as the troublers of Job had to propitiate him, so the evil genius had the same to do to Ara-Chandran ; that both were restored to their former prosperity ; and lastly, the Supreme, in both instances, was the source from whom their blessings came. 10. "Hast not thou made an hedge about him?" (Chap. iii. 23.) It is said of a man who cannot be injured, " Why attempt to hurt him ? is there not a hedge about him ? " " You can- not get at the fellow, he has a strong hedge about him." " Yes, yes; the Modeliar has become his hedge." II. 7. " Satan smote Job with sore boils from the sole of his foot unto his crown." Respectable people have the greatest possible dread and disgust at boils, and all cutaneous diseases. Here, then, we see the princely Job the victim of a loathsome disorder, sitting amongst the ashes and broken earthen vessels, the impure refuse of the kitchen and other places. See the poor neglected object who is labouring under similar diseases at this day, from the head to the foot ; he is covered with scales and blotches, around his loins is a scanty rag, he wanders from one lonely place to another, and when he sees you stretches out a hand towards you, and another to his sores , and piteously implores help. s 4 264- JOB. 9. Curse God, and die." Some suppose this ought to be bless God and die ; but Job would not have reproved his wife for such advice, except she meant it ironically. It is a fact, that when the heathen have to pass through much suffering, they often ask, " Shall we make an offering to the gods for this ? " i. c. Shall we offer our devotions, our gratitude, for afflictions ? Job was a servant of the true God, but his wife might have been a heathen ; and then the advice, in its most literal acceptation, would be perfectly in character. Nothing is more common than for the heathen, under certain circum- stances, to curse their gods. Hear the man who has made expensive offerings to his deity in hope of gaining some great blessing, and who has been disappointed, and he will pour out all his imprecations on the god whose good offices have (as he believes) been prevented by some superior deity. A man in reduced circumstances says, " Yes, yes ; my god has lost his eyes ; they are put out ; he cannot look after my affairs." " Yes," said an extremely rich devotee (V. Chetty), of the supreme god Siva, after he had lost his property ; " shall I serve him any more ? What ! make offerings to him ? No, no ; he is the lowest of all gods." With these facts before us, it is not difficult to believe that Job's wife actually meant what she said. 10. " Thou speakest as one of the foolish women speaketh." It is not easy to know to whom Job alludes by " the foolish women;" but in all parts of the East, females are spoken of as being much inferior to man in wisdom; and nearly all their sages have proudly descanted on the ignorance of women. In the Hindoo book called the Kurral, it is said, " All women are ignorant." In other works it is said, " Ignorance is a woman's jewel." Female wisdom is from the evil one." "The feminine qualities are four; ignorance, fear, shame, JOB. and impunity." " To a woman disclose not a secret." " Talk not to me in that way ; it is all female wisdom." 11. Now when Job's three friends heard of all this evil that was come upon him, they came every one from his own place for they had made an appointment together to come to mourn with him, and to comfort him." Has a man fallen into some great calamity, his friends immediately go to his house to comfort him. Thus, to the house of mourning for the dead may be seen numbers of people going daily, studying to find out some source of comfort for their afflicted friend. " Whither are you going?" " As a comforter to my friend in sorrow." " How great is his distress ! he will not listen to the voice of the comforters." 12. They sprinkled dust upon their heads toward heaven." In this way, also, do men and women act when they are in deep sorrow, or when they participate in that of others. See on Joshua vji. 6. 13. "They sat down with him upon the ground seven days and seven nights, and none spake a word unto him, for they saw that his grief was very great." Those who go to sympathise with the afflicted, are often silent for hours together. As there were seven days for mourning in the Scriptures*, so here ; and the seventh is always the greatest. The chief mourner, during the whole of these days, will never speak, except when it is absolutely necessary. When a visiter comes in, he simply looks and bows down his head. * Gen.l. 10.; 1 Sam. xxxi. 13. j 1 Chron. x. 12. A wedding, also, has seven clays of festivity. 266 JOB. jjL 3 < Let the day perish wherein I was born, and the night in which it was said, There is a man child conceived." Dr. Boothroyd prefers, " Perish the day in which I was barn ; the night it was said, Lo ! a man child." Dr. A. Clarke thinks the word conceive, " should be taken in the sense of being born ; " and the Tamui translation takes the same view. When a male child is born, the midwife goes outside the house, and says aloud three times, " A male child, a male child, a male child is lorn ! " 21. " Dig for it more than for hid treasures." We are constantly hearing of treasures which have been, or are about to be, discovered. Sometimes you may see a large space of ground which has been completely turned up, or an old foundation, or ruin, entirely demolished, in hopes of finding the hidden gold. A man has found a small coin, has heard a tradition, or has had a dream, and off he goes to his toil. Perhaps he has been seen on the spot, or he has consulted a soothsayer ; the report gets out ; and then come the needy, the old, and the young, a motley group, all full of anxiety to join in the spoil. Some have iron instruments, others have sticks, and some use their fingers to scratch up the ground. At last some of them begin to look at each other with considerable suspicion, as if all were not right, and each seems to wish he had not come on so foolish an errand, and then steal off as quietly as they can. I once knew a deep tank made completely dry (by immense labour), in the hope of finding great treasures, which were said to have been cast in during the ancient wars. Passing near one day, when they had nearly finished their work, and their hopes had considerably moderated, I went up to the sanguine owner (whose face immediately began to show its chagrin), and enquired, "Why are you taking so much trouble to empty that tank?" He replied, as calmly as he could, JOB. 267 " We are "merely cleaning it out." Poor man ! I believe he found nothing but stones, and bones, and a few copper coins. " Dig for it more than for hid treasures " finds a practical illustration in the East, and is a figure of common use in the language. IV. 9. " By the blast of God they perish, and by the breath of his nostrils are they consumed." The margin has " by his anger." When people are angry, they distend their nostrils and blow with great force : the action may be taken from some animals, which when angry blow violently through their noses. Of a man who is much given to anger it is said, " That fellow is always blowing through his nose." " You may blow through your nose for a thousand years, it will never injure me." " Go not near the breath of his nostrils, he will injure you." 15. "The hair of my flesh stood up." This refers to the great fear of Job ; but the same effect is often ascribed to great joy. Thus, in Hindoo books, in de- scribing the ecstasy of gods or men, it is often said, "The hair of their flesh stood erect." A father says to his long absent child, " My son, not having seen your lotus face for so long, my hair stands up with joy." V. 7. "As the sparks fly upward." Hebrew, " Sons of the burning coal." Job. xxxviii. 32. " Arcturus with his sons." The word SON, amongst the Hindoos, is applied to man and all kinds of animal life. Men of ignoble parentage are called sons of the koddekal, i. e. the mechanics. When animals, reptiles, or insects, are troublesome, they are called passdsinudia maggal, sons of the devil ; or vease-maggal, sons of the prostitute, or of the treacherous ones. See the plough- 268 JOB. man at his occupation ; should the bullocks prove restive, he immediately vociferates the epithets alluded to. Listen to the almost breathless cow-herd who is running after some of his refractory kine, to bring them to the fold, and he abuses them in the most coarse and indelicate language. The man, also, who for the first time discovers the white ants destroying his property, bawls out with all his might, " Ah ! vease-maggal, sons of the prostitute." 21. "Thou shall be hid from the scourge of the tongue : neither shalt thou be afraid of destruction when it cometh." Dr. A. Clarke says, " the Targum refers this to the incant- ations of Balaam ; from the injury by the tongue of Balaam thou shalt be hidden." The people live in great fear of the scourge of the tongue, and that independent of an incantation, because they believe the tongues of some men have the power of inflicting a dreadful curse on any object which has incurred their displeasure. Thus, many of the evils of life are believed to come from nci-vooru, the curse or the scourge of the tongue. " Have you heard what Kandan's tongue has done for Muttoo? " " No ! what has happened ? " " Why, some time ago, Kandan promised on his next voyage to bring Muttoo a cargo of rice, but he did not keep his word; Kandan, therefore, became very angry, and said, ' I shall not be surprised at hearing of thy vessel being wrecked/ Muttoo again sailed without caring for Kandan's tongue ; but, lo ! his vessel has been knocked to pieces on the rocks, and I saw him this morning on his way home, beating his head and exclaiming, ' Ah ! this na-vooru, na-vooru, this evil tongue, this evil tongue, my vessel has gone to pieces on the rocks.' " But the tongues of some men are believed to possess malignant power, not merely in imprecations, but also in their blessings and praises. " The other day, when I and some others were sitting with our friend the Doctor, one of his daughters came to speak to her father; as she was delivering JOB. 269 her message, one of the party exclaimed, ' What a beautiful set of teeth ! J and from that moment they began to decay." " Alas ! alas ! poor old Murager purchased a fine milch cow yesterday, and was driving her along the road this morning, on his way home, when, behold, a fellow met them and said, 6 Ah, what large teats ! ' The cow broke from the string, she rushed on the hedge, and a stake ran through her udder." " Ah, what a miserable man is Valen ; a few days ago, as his wife was nursing the infant, he said, c How comely art thou, my fawn ! ' when immediately a cancer made its appearance in her breast, from which she can never recover." 23. "The beasts of the field shall be at peace with thee." In a country where wild beasts are so numerous and so fierce, and where the natives have so few means of defence, can it be a matter of surprise that people on a journey are always under the influence of great fear? The father says to his son, when he is about to depart; "Fear not; the beasts will be thy friends." The dealer in charms says, when giving one of his potent spells, " Be not afraid, young man ; this shall make the cruel beasts respect thee." 25. "Thou shalt know, also, that thy seed shall be great, and thine offspring as the grass of the earth." When a priest, or an aged person, blesses a young couple, he says, " Your children shall be as the grass arruga-pillu (Agrostis Linearis). Yes ; you shall twine, and bind your- selves together, like the grass." 26 " Thou shalt come to thy grave in a full age." Great is the desire of the men of the East to see a good old age. Thus the beggars, when relieved, often bless you, and say, " Ah ! my lord, may you live a thousand years." " Live, live, till the shakings of age." 270 JOB. VI. 2. "O that my grief were throughly weighed, and my calamity laid in the balances together ! " " Ah ! my lord, could you weigh my poverty, I am sure you would relieve me." " The sorrows of that man's soul, who can weigh them?" "Alas! if my sorrows could be weighed, then would pity be shown unto me." 12. " Is my strength the strength of stones ? or is my flesh of brass ? " Is a servant ordered to do a thing for which he has not strength; to undergo great hardships; he asks, "Is my strength as iron ? Am I a stone ?" 15. " My brethren have dealt deceitfully as a brook, and as the stream of brooks they pass away." This probably refers to those brooks which are dried up in the hot weather. Of a man who cannot get any more money or help from another, and, in consequence, forsakes him, " Ah ! yes ; that man is like the water-fowl, which immediately takes its de- parture when the tank becomes dry." " The true friend is like the water-plants ; they never leave their place." 28. "Now, therefore, be content, look upon me; for it is evident unto you if I lie." When a person is accused of uttering a falsehood, he says, " Look in my face, and you will soon see I am innocent." " My face will tell you the truth." When the countenance does not indicate guilt, it is said, "Ah ! his face does not say so." " The man's face does not contain the witness of guilt." VII. 2. " As a servant earnestly desireth the shadow, and as an hireling looketh for the reward of his work." The people of the East measure time by the length of their shadow. Hence, if you ask a man what o'clock it is, he im- JOB. 271 mediately goes in the sun, stands erect, then looking where his shadow terminates, he measures the length with his feet, and tells you nearly the time. Thus they earnestly desire THE shadow which indicates the time for leaving their work. A person wishing to leave his toil, says, " How long my shadow is in coming." " Why did you not come sooner ?" " Be- cause I waited for my shadow." 10. "He shall return no more to his house, neither shall his place know him any more." Inanimate objects are often spoken of as if they knew their owners. A man who has sold his field, says, " That will not know me any more." Does a field not produce good crops, it is said, " That field does not know its owner." Has a man been long absent from his home, he asks, when entering the door, "Ah ! do you know me?" Does he, after this, walk through his garden and grounds, the servants say, "Ah ! how pleased these are to see you." Has a person been unfortu- nate at sea, it is said, " The sea does not know him." 12. : " Am I a sea, or a whale, that thou settest a watch over me ? " Some suppose this alludes to the sea overflowing its banks. But the Orientals also believe that the sea is the dwelling- place of many of their spiritual enemies. Hence they have a deity to watch the shore, whose name is Kali. Numerous enemies, also, are compared to the sea, and wicked chiefs who oppress the people to a temingalam, i. e. a whale. " Ah ! that whale, who can escape him ?" IX. 18. " He will not suffer me to take my breath." Of a cruel master it is said, "When his servants stop to take their breath, he abuses them." " The man grudges me my breath." "What! can I work without taking my breath? " " The toil is always upon me: I have not time for breathing." 272 JOB. 25. My days are swifter than a post." 66 Ah ! my days are like an arrow." " What is my time ? ' tis like the wind." " 'T 4 is like cotton spread in the strong wind." " See that falling leaf; that is life." " 'T is but as a snap of the finger." " Am I not like a flower ?" " Yes ; 't is a stream." " A neer-mulle, i. e. a bubble ! how softly it glides along ! how beautiful its colours ! but how soon it dis- appears." X. 10. "Hast thou not poured me out as milk, and curdled me like cheese ? " Much philological learning has been brought to the ex- planation of this passage. In the preceding verse, Job is speaking of his DEATH. " Wilt thou bring me unto dust again?" But what has the pouring out of milk to do with death ? The people of the East pour milk on their heads after per- forming the funeral obsequies. Has a father a profligate son, one he never expects to reclaim, he says, in reference to him, " Ah ! I have poured milk upon my head," z. e. " I have done with him ; he is as one dead to me." " And curdled me like cheese." The cheese of the East is little better than curds : and these also are used at the funeral ceremonies. XII. 2. " No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom shall die with you." The people of the East take great pleasure in irony, and some of their satirical sayings are very cutting. When a sage intimates that he has superior wisdom, or when he is disposed to rally another for his meagre attainments, he says, " Yes, yes; you are the man!" Your wisdom is like the sea." "You found it in dreams." "When you die, whither will wisdom go?" "You have ALL wisdom?" "When gone, alas ! what will become of wisdom ?" O the Nyani ! O the philosopher!" JOB. 273 4. "I am as one mocked of his neighbour, who calleth upon God, and he answereth him : the just upright man is laughed to scorn*" Though Job, in his distress, cried unto the Lord, his neigh- bours mocked him, and laughed him to scorn ; showing their own impiety, and belief that God would not answer him. Sometimes, when a heathen (who is supposed to be forsaken of the gods) performs a penance or religious austerity, others will mock him, and say, " Fast for me also ; yes, perform the poosy for me, and you shall have all you want." Should a man, who is suffering under the punishment due to his crimes, cry to the gods for help, those who are near reply (for the gods\ " Yes, we are here ; what do you want ? we will help you." " When the gods come, tell them I am gone home ; I could not remain any longer." Thus was the just, the upright Job laughed to scorn when he called upon God. 5. " He that is ready to slip with his feet is as a lamp despised in the thought of him that is at ease." D'Oyley and Mant quote from Caryl and Poole as follows : " A despised lamp is of the same signification with a smoking fire-brand ; which last is a proverb for that which is almost spent, and therefore despised and thrown away as useless." In view of these observations, it is worthy of notice, that of a man who is much despised, or who is very contemptible, it is said, " That fellow is like the half consumed fire-brand of the funeral pile." Job, by his enemies, was counted as a despised lamp. When a person is sick unto death, it is said, " His lamp is going out." After death, " His lamp has gone out." When a person is indisposed, should a lamp give a dim light, the people of the house will become much alarmed, as they think it a bad sign. A lamp, therefore, which burns dimly (as did that of Job) will be lightly esteemed. 274 JOB. 7. But ask now the beasts, and they shall teach thee ; and the fowls of the air, and they shall tell thee." He who refuses instruction, or who will not be convinced, is told to ask the cattle, enquire of the birds, and they will give thee wisdom. XIII. 15. "Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." When a master chastises an affectionate slave, or tells him to leave his service, he says, " My lord, though you slay me, yet will I trust in you : " Does a husband beat his wife, she exclaims, " My husband, though you kill me, I will not let you go." " Kill me, my lord, if you please, but I will not leave you : I trust in you." " Oh ! beat me not ; do I not trust in you?" " What an affectionate wife that is : though her husband cut her to pieces, yet she trusts in him." " The fellow is always beating her, yet she confides in him." * 24. " Wherefore hidest thou thy face ?" Job, in his distress, makes this pathetic enquiry of the Lord. Should a great man become displeased with a person to whom he has been previously kind, he will, when he sees him approaching, avert his face, or conceal it with his hand, which shows at once what is the state of the case. The poor man then mourns, and complains, and asks, " Ah ! why does he hide his face?" The wife says to her offended husband, " Why do you hide your face ?" The son to his father, Hide not your face from your son." * Married females in the East are in a state of great degradation, for men of every rank hesitate not to beat them on the most frivolous occa- sions. The late king of Kandy, when on his passage in H. M.'s Ship, Cornwallis, commanded by Captain O'Brien, to Madras, was so unmer- ciful to his wives, that the officer in charge was obliged to remonstrate with his gracious Majesty. Should a husband, on coming home, not find his food ready, or not made to his taste, he immediately commences a brutal attack upon his wife. Should he, however, be afraid of that, he sets on and breaks all the cooking utensils, and cuts down the plantain trees, or beats the children. JOB. 275 26. " Thou writest bitter things against me." " Ah ! the things that man has written against me to the Judge, are all kassapu, all bitter." " Oh ! that is a bitter, bitter fault." " Who will make this bitterness sweet?" 27. "Thou puttest my feet also in the stocks, and lookest narrowly unto all my paths : thou settest a print upon the heels of my feet." The punishment of the stocks has been common in the East from the most remote antiquity, as is seen in all their records. But whether the stocks were formerly like clogs, or as those of the present day, it is impossible to say. Those now in use differ from those in England, as the unfortunate culprit has to lie with his back on the ground, having his feet fast in one pair, and his hands in another. Thus, all he can do is to writhe his body ; his arms and legs being so fast, that he cannot possibly move them. A man placed in great diffi- culty, says, " Alas ! I am now in the stocks." " I have put my boy in the tulungu" i. e. stocks ; which means he is confined, or sent to the school. To a young man of roving habits it is said, " You must have your feet in the stocks," i. e. get mar- ried. " Alas ! alas ! I am now in the stocks ; the guards are around my path, and a seal is put upon my feet." XIV. 4. "Who can bring a clean thing out of an unclean ? " The following are common sayings: " Who can turn a black crow into a white crane ?" " Who can make the bitter fruit sweet?" " Who can make straight the tail of the dog?" T 2 276 JOB. "If you give the serpent sweet things, will his poison depart?" 7. " There is hope of a tree, if it be cut down, that it will sprout again, and that the tender branch thereof will not cease." Trees here appear to be more tenacious of life than'in Eng- land. See them blown down ; yet from the roots fresh shoots spring up. See them sometimes at such an angle (through storms) that their branches nearly touch the ground, and yet they keep that position, and continue to bear fruit. Those trees, also, which have actually been cut down, after a few showers, soon begin to send forth the " tender branch." The plantain tree, after it has borne fruit once, is cut down ; but from its roots another springs up, which, in its turn, also gives fruit, and is then cut down, to make way for another. Thus, in reference to this tree, it may be truly said, Cut it down, but " the tender branch thereof will not cease." 19. " The waters wear the stones." Is a man found fault with because he makes slow progress in his undertaking, he says, " Never mind ; the water which runs so softly will, in time, wear away the stones." XV. 7. "Art thou the first man that was born?" When a majority of people agree on any subject, should an individual pertinaciously oppose them, it will be asked, " What ! were you born before all others ?" " Yes, yes ; he is the first man : no wonder he has so much wisdom ! " " Sa- lam to theJZrst ! man." 16. " How much more abominable and filthy is man, which drinketh iniquity like water." Of a man who wallows in sin it is said, " He lives on it." " That wretch eats and drinks injustice." " Truly, that wretch lives on awa-suttam, un cleanness." JOB. 277 XVI. 3. "Shall vain words have an end?" The Hebrew has " words of voind" " His promise ! 't is only wind." " His words are all wind." " The wind has taken away his words." " Breath, breath ; all breath ! " 9. " Mine enemy sharpeneth his eyes upon me." " Has not the cruel man been sharpening his eyes upon me ? " " His eyes are like arrows : they pierce my life." " Truly, his cutting eyes are always upon me." " Yes, yes ; the eyes of the serpent." 10. "They have gaped upon me with their mouth; they have smitten me upon the cheek." Here is another living picture of Eastern manners. See the exasperated man ; he opens his mouth like a wild beast, shows his teeth, then suddenly snaps them together. Again he pretends to make another snatch, and growls like a tiger. Should he not dare to come near, he moves his hand, as if striking you on the cheek, and says, " I will beat thy kan- nan, i. e. cheek, thou low-caste fellow." 12. "He hath also taken me by my neck, and shaken me to pieces." This is a favourite way of showing contempt or superiority, and is finished by thrusting the face on the ground. XVII. 1. " The graves are ready for me." A man far advanced in years, or one who is in deep afflic- tion, says, " The place of burning is near to me, and the wood is laid together for my funeral pile." " How are you, my friend ?" " How am I ? I will tell you. Go, order them to get the wood together to burn this body." A father some- times says of his wicked sons, " Yes ; I know they desire my death ; they have been preparing for the funeral ; they are ready to WASH me : the bier is at hand, and the wood is pre- T 3 278 JOB. pared." " Why do you all look so anxious ? I am not ready for the washing." 14. "I have said to corruption, Thou art my father ; to the worm, Thou art my mother, and my sister." Those who retire from the world to spend their lives in a de- sert place, for the purpose of performing religious austerities, often exclaim to the beasts, " Yes ; you are my relations, you are my parents ; these are my companions and friends." XVIII. 4. " He teareth himself in his anger : shall the earth be forsaken for thee?" " Foolish man, why are you so angry ? Will your anger pull down the mountain, or take a single hair from the head of your enemy ?" " This evil is only felt in your own heart and house : it is your OWN destruction." 16. " Above shall his branch be cut off." (Isa. xxx. 17.) " Till ye be left as a beacon on the top of a mountain." Hebrew, a tree bereft of branches. ( Jer. xi. 16. Ezek. xix. 10.) Man is often described as a tree, and his destruction by the cutting off of the branches. " Alas ! alas ! he is like a tree whose branches have been struck by the lightning." " He is a tree killed by the shepherds ; " which alludes to the prac- tice (in dry weather when the grass is burned up) of climbing the trees to lop off the branches and leaves for the use of the flocks and cattle. " His branches and shoots are destroyed ; " which means, himself and family. " I know all his branches and bunches; " meaning all his connections. (See on Luke xxiii. 31.) 17. " He shall have no name in the street." " What kind of a man is Ramar ?" " I will tell you : his name is in every street ; " which means, he is a person of great fame. " Ah ! my lord, only grant me this favour, and your name shall be in every street" " Who does not wish his JOB. 279 name to be in the streets ?" " Wretch, where is thy name ? What dog of the street will acknowledge thee ?" " From generation to generation shall his name be in the streets." " Where is thy name written in stone ? No ; it is written in XIX. 16. - " I called my servant, and he gave me no answer ; I entreated him with my mouth." When a man becomes reduced in the world, his slaves no longer obey him : he calls, but they answer not ; he looks, and they laugh at him. Hence the verse Kandalum, Paysar Alitalum, Varar Kavi-Kavi-Endar. " Though I call, he comes not ; though he sees, he answers not; or I am engaged, engaged, says he." 17. " My breath is strange to my wife, though I en- treated her for the children's sake of mine own body." It is not often that husbands, in these regions, condescend to entreat their wives, but they are sometimes (as when sick or in any way dependent) obliged to humble themselves. He then says, " My wife's breath is not now as mine." " For the sake of your children listen to my words." Nothing is more provoking to a woman than to say she has the breath of a man. 20. " I am escaped with the skin of my teeth." I suppose the above words have given rise to the old English saying, " He has escaped with the skin of his teeth ;" which denotes he has had great difficulty in avoiding the danger. But have the teeth ! any skin ? It was formerly a custom among the heathen kings to knock out the teeth of their prisoners, or those who had offended 280 JOB. them; and to this practice the Psalmist seems to allude : " Thou hast broken the teeth of the ungodly ; " and," Break their teeth, O God ! in their mouth." Those who had been thus treated said, " We have escaped with the murasu," i. e. the gums of our teeth. When a man is angry with another, he says, " Take care ; I will knock thy teeth out. Thou shalt only have thy gums left." " What ! " asks the person thus threatened, " am I thy slave, to have my teeth knocked out ? " But the teeth are always spoken of as being very valuable ; and by them the people often estimate the worth of any blessing. " Ah ! the king might have granted me that favour ; his teeth would not have fallen out on that account." " Would his gums have been left, if he had told me that secret ? " " Yes, yes ; take care, or you will lose your pearls," (teeth). " See the miserable man ; the sickness has left him his gums only." 24. " Graven with an iron pen and lead in the rock for ever." This probably refers to the ancient practice of writing on stone (by means of an iron instrument) those events which were to be conveyed to posterity. The fact, also, of lead being used, may allude to the fixing of the stone by means of that metal. In all parts of the East are to be found records thus written, many of which have never been deciphered, as they are in languages not now understood. It is proverbial to say, " The words of the wise are written on stone." " Learning for the young is like a writing in stone." 26. " And though after my skin, worms destroy this body, yet in my flesh shall I see God." (Job xxiv. 20.) Though worms be not in the original, I believe the trans- lators have acted wisely in supplying the word for the text. Dr. Mason Goode translates it, After the disease hath de- JOB. 281 stroyed." But the opinion of the Orientals, as expressed in their ancient writings, and also in those of the present day, is, that worms do exist in the skin and in all parts of the body, and that they principally cause its destruction. They say the life is first destroyed by them, and afterwards the body. A man who is very ill, often exclaims, " Ah ! my body is but a nest for worms ; they have paths in all parts of my frame." " Ah ! these worms are continually eating my flesh." In the ancient medical work called Kurru-Ndtich-Sooteram, written by the celebrated Agattiyar^ it is said, " The human body contains eighteen kinds of worms: of 1. the skin; 2. the flesh ; 3. the bones ; 4. the blood ; 5. (producing) wind ; 6. the excrement ; 7. the urine ; 8. intestines ; 9. o-Trep/xa ; 1 0. abscess ; 11. sores (generally ) ; 12. leprosy ; 13. itch ; 1 4. cancer; 15. mouth; 16. teeth; 17. skull; and 18. the hair." Is it not a fact that the medical men of England have only of late years discovered that animalcules exist in some of these parts alluded to ? and perhaps they may do well also to enquire whether old Agattiyar be not correct in some of his other opinions. 28. " The root of the matter is found in me." " What is the ROOT of his conversation ?" " Is his root right ?" " We cannot find out his root ?" " Ah ! he has a good root." XX. 16." The viper's tongue shall slay him." (Matt. iii. 7. Rom. iii. 13.) In a country where serpents lurk in every path, and where such numbers of people lose their lives from their bite, can it be a matter of wonder that they are greatly afraid of them, and that their language abounds with figures taken from the destructive power of that reptile ? Some modern writers have asserted, that there are very few of them which have poi- sonous qualities. It is said that some travellers take occasional 282 JOB. journeys of several months into Italy, Greece, and Egypt, that they may have an opportunity of writing a book " for the gratification of their friends ; " and that it is necessary to contradict, or alter a little, the descriptions of their pre- decessors, in order to find a sale, or to ensure a modicum of popularity. There may be something like scandal in these observations ; but I am quite sure they are not without force in reference to some who have favoured the world with their sketches of the East. To say there are many serpents whose bite is not FATAL, is correct ; but to assert that there are many whose bite is not poisonous, is nonsense. Perhaps the most harmless of all the tribe is the rat-snake ; but its bite always produces giddiness in the head, and a great degree of deadness in the part where the wound has been inflicted. Apologising for this digression, I observe, that when a man is enraged with another, and yet dare not make a personal attack upon him, he says, " The viper shall bite thee." " From whom art thou ? the race of vipers ? " " Yes, yes ; the poison of the puddeyan-pdmbo, i. e. the beaver-serpent, is in thy mouth." " What ! serpent, art thou going to bite me ? Chee, Chee ! I will break thy teeth." 17. " The rivers, the floods, the brooks of honey and butter." Is a man about to leave his native place to reside in another country, in hope of becoming rich ; people say to him, " We suppose there are rivers of ghee, and honey, and milk, in the town where you are going to live !" 23. About to fill his belly." A man here does not, as in England, say he has eaten plen- tifully, or he has not taken any thing to eat ; but he has well filled his belly, or " to his belly there is nothing." Thus, the beggar at your door stoops a little, then puts his hands on the abdomen, and exclaims, " My lord, for my belly nothing, for my belly nothing ! " JOB. 283 XXI. 15. "What profit should we have if we pray unto him ? " The heathen sometimes ask us, " Why should we pray to your God ? is there any thing to be gained by it ? When we go to our own temples, we have often fruit given to us ; but when we come to yours, nothing is offered : give us something, and we will pray to him." On one of these occasions, a by- stander repeated a favourite proverb, " Do you ask for pay when requested to eat sugar-cane?" which silenced the jester. 24?. " His breasts are full of milk." The margin has, for breasts, "milk-pails" Of a man who is very rich, it is common to say, " His chat- fees (vessels) are full of milk." But of a good king or gover- nor it is said, " He nourishes like the king whose breasts are full of milk." " Yes ; he so rules, that the breasts of the god- dess of the earth are full of milk." XXII. 6. "Stripped the naked of their clothing." This proverbial form of speech is used when a man drags from another that which is his last resource. " Why do you take this tax from the naked ?" " What ! take a cloth from the naked ? Is there no shame ? " How often, also, do we see a man seize another by the cloth on the public road, and swear, if he will not instantly pay his debt, he shall be left naked. 7. " Thou hast not given water to the weary to drink." It is one of the thirty-two charities of the Hindoos, " to have water ready for the traveller to drink." Hence, on the public roads, in front of the houses of charitable people, may be seen vessels filled with water, for the use of all who pass that way. But respectable men do not drink there : they go inside, and say, " Conjum-taneer" a little water ; and it is given to them. 284 JOB. XXIII. 11. "My foot hath held his steps: his way have I kept." When a man follows another in a path so closely as almost to touch the feet of him who goes before, it is said, " His feet hath laid hold of his steps," intimating that the men are so near to each other, that the feet of him who follows, like unto the fingers of a man's hands, seize the feet of him who goes before. Thus, the devoted disciple of a gooroo, or the man who closely pursues another, is said to take hold of the steps of him who goes before. Perhaps the figure may be taken from the great adroitness that the natives of the East have in seizing hold of any thing with their toes ! See a man walking along the road : he sees something on the ground which he wishes to pick up ; but he does not stoop, as an Englishman. No ! he takes it up between his first and second toes. Look at tailors, shoe- makers, or sailors : when they want to twist a cord, they do not tie it to a nail, or ask another person to take hold. No ; they make one end fast to the great toe, and perform the other operation with the hands. But the most remarkable illustration of this practice was in the case of Alypulle, the Kandian chief, who was beheaded near Kandy. When he arrived at the place where he was to be executed, he looked around for some time for a small shrub; and, on seeing one, he seized it with his toes, in order to be firm while the executioner did his office. XXIV. 9. They pluck the fatherless from the breast." It used to be said of the cruel king of Kandy, that he would not allow the infant to suck its mother's breast. Of a wicked woman it is said, " She will not allow her own child to suck her." O the savage husband ! he snatches the child from his wife's breast." 16. "In the dark they dig through houses." Nearly all the houses in the East are made of unburnt JOB. 285 bricks, so that there is very little difficulty in making a hole sufficiently large to admit the human body. No wonder, then, that this is the general way of robbing houses. Thus, in the morning, when the inmates awake, they see daylight through a hole in the wall, and immediately know what has been done. 21. " He evil entreateth the barren that beareth not." It is considered to be very disgraceful for a married woman not to have children ; and the evil treatment they receive from their own husbands and others is most shameful. Nothing can be more common than for a poor woman of that de- scription, when she has given offence to another, to be addressed by the term malady, i. e. barren. " Go, barren one, get out of my sight." " Chee ! she cannot have a child." 24. " They are exalted for a little while, but are gone and brought low ; they are taken out of the way, as all other, and cut off as the tops of the ears of corn." Wicked men and tyrants may be prosperous for a season, but they will eventually be like the long stubble, having had the ears lopped off. This alludes to the custom, in the East, of taking off the ears of the corn, and leaving the straw, as before, standing on the ground. The grain called kurrakan is gathered by simply taking off the ears ; and rice, where the water still remains in the fields, is gathered in the same way. The proud oppressor, then, in the end, shall be like the long straw standing in its place, having "the ears" cut off, and carried away. XXVIII. Some believe this chapter refers to mining; others to navigation ; but I think it will appear to allude to IRRIGATION, and to those stupendous works formed by man for the accom- plishment of that noble object. The aim of Job is to show the infinite superiority of the wisdom and power of God, as 286 JOB. displayed in His works, to that of the utmost stretch of man, as seen in the noblest productions of his genius and power. The ARTIFICIAL lake Mceris in Egypt is amongst the best and the greatest trophies of human art : unlike those magnificent monuments on the plains of Giza, which speak only to the reckless and profligate application of IMMENSE resources to works of no utility ; for Mceris, " THE SEA WHICH MAN HATH MADE," was a boon of astonishing mag- nitude, and would have continued to be so, had not the barbarians of after ages suffered some of its minor works to go to decay. Herodotus, the father of historians, who lived 484? years be- fore Christ, in speaking of the labyrinth, says, " Wonderful as this is, the lake Mceris, near which it stands, is still more extraordinary ; the circumference of this is three thousand six hundred stadia, which is the length of Egypt about the coast. This lake stretches itself from North to South, and in its deepest parts is two hundred cubits : it is ENTIRELY THE PRODUCE OF HUMAN INDUSTRY; which, indeed, the work itself testifies ; for in its centre may be seen two pyramids, each of which is two hundred cubits above, and as many be- neath the water; upon the summit of each is a colossal statue of marble in a sitting attitude. The waters of the lake are not supplied by springs ; the ground which it occu- pies is, of itself, remarkably dry, but it communicates by a SECRET CHANNEL with the Nile i for six months the lake empties itself into the Nile, and the remaining six the Nile supplies the lake." * Here, then, we have an artificial lake, which, in the time of Herodotus, measured four hundred and fifty miles in circum- ference, and, in some places, three hundred feet deep, made for the purpose of preventing the inundations of the Nile, and also to be applied to agricultural purposes when the waters of the river were below the level of the adjacent lands. * See Euterpe, 149. JOB. 287 According to M. Savary, both Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, and Pliny, nearly agree with Herodotus as to the extent of the lake ; and, therefore, we of modern times ought surely to pay some deference to such authority. The same traveller informs us, " The lake at present is only about fifty leagues in circumference ; but this diminution does not prove that He- rodotus and Pliny were deceived. Examine the map, and you will perceive that the CHAIN OF MOUNTAINS on the left of the Nile, CONTINUED almost from the Cataracts to Fayoum, SUDDENLY departs towards Lybia, and returning eastwards FORMS AN IMMENSE BASIN, though lower than the bed of the river. This land was formerly covered by barren sands, because the stream, impeded by downs and rocks, could not water them. A king, named Mceris, perfectly acquainted with the disposition of the lands, conceived one of the noblest projects that ever entered the mind of man, which he had the glory to execute. He resolved to change this desert into a useful lake ; and when swarms of men assembled had dug and cleared the soil in various places, he cut a canal forty leagues in length, and three hundred feet wide ! to introduce the waters of the Nile. This grand canal, which is STILL entire, is known by the name of Bahu-Youseph, the river of Joseph. It begins near Tarout Eccherif, and ends at Bir- quet Caroun, and must have cost IMMENSE sums, being in MANY parts CUT THROUGH THE ROCK ! To relieve Egypt from the superfluous waters, which, in these distant ages, re- mained too long on the lands, then much lower than at pre- sent, and occasioned sterility, was not sufficient : this great prince rendered them useful to AGRICULTURE by cutting two other canals from the lake to the river, and digging near their mouths SLUICES, which were SHUT during the INCREASE of the Nile, when the water entering through the canal of Joseph, collected in the VAST circumference of the lake Mceris, where they were BOUNDED BY MOUNDS and MOUNTAINS ! When the Nile DECREASED, these SLUICES were OPENED, and a body of water near eighty leagues in circumference, and 288 JOB. thirty feet HIGHER than the usual level of the river, formed a second inundation, directed at mil ; one part was returned to the Nile, for the purpose of NAVIGATION ; another branched into innumerable RIVULETS, watered the FIELDS, and gave fertility even to SANDY HILLS.* This work, the most stu- pendous and useful the earth ever contained, united every advantage, and SUPPLIED the deficiencies of a low inundation by RETAINING water, which would have uselessly been ex- pended in the sea. It was still more highly beneficial when the increase was too great, by receiving that injurious super- fluity which would have prevented seed time. Fearful lest this ARTIFICIAL sea might BREAK its BOUNDS and occasion dreadful RAVAGES, a CANAL was CUT THROUGH the MOUNTAIN, by which the superabundant waters were discharged among the Lybian sands. History knows not a work so glorious, nor is it wonderful that antiquity esteems it above the pyra- mids and labyrinth ; for, with the grandeur of the enterprise, it included the happiness of the people. " Thus, the Egyptians, who detested the kings by whom they were forced to remove mountains that pyramids might be raised, blessed the memory of Mceris, and his name is ever- lasting. This lake has nearly lost all its advantages; the barbarians, in whose hands Egypt has remained for twelve centuries, have destroyed or suffered most of its monuments to perish. The lake Mareotis is dry, the canal of Alexandria is no longer navigable, and Mceris is only fifty leagues in cir- cumference. Were the rivulets and the canal of Joseph cleansed, in which the mud is very deep, the ancient MOUNDS repaired, and the SLUICES restored, this lake might again serve the same purposes, might prevent the evils of a too * " The canal of Joseph, having its source in Thebais, carried the waters of the Nile, when they began to INCREASE, to the lake Mceris, where being retained on one side by MOUNTAINS, and, on the other by MOUNDS AND SLUICES, dug on the canals of Bouch and Tamieh, they EQUALLED the height of the inundation, i. e. were nearly thirty feet higher than the level of the river!" JOB. 289 great, and supply the defects of a too feeble, inundation ; might extend, as formerly, from Nesle and Arsinoe to the Lybian mountains ; and show the astonished traveller the ' SEA WHICH MAN HAD MADE.' " Here, then, we have a wonderful instance of the WISDOM and POWER of MAN. In Sale's Preliminary Discourse to the Koran*, it is said that Abd-Shems, surnamed Saba, having built the city, from him called Saba, and afterward Marab, made a vast MOUND, or DAM, to serve as a basin or reservoir to receive the water which came down from the MOUNTAINS, not only for the use of the inhabitants, and for watering their lands, but also to keep the country they had subjected, in greater awe, by being masters of the water. This BUILDING stood like a MOUNTAIN above their city, and was by them esteemed so strong, that they were under no apprehension of its ever failing. The water rose almost to the height of one hundred and twenty feet, and was kept in on every side by a work so solid that many of the inhabitants had their houses built upon it. Every family received a portion of this water, distributed by aque- ducts. But at length, God, being highly displeased at their great pride and insolence, and resolving to humble and dis- perse them, sent a mighty flood, which broke down the MOUND by night, while the inhabitants were asleep, and car- ried away the whole city, with the neighbouring towns and people. This terrible inundation happened about the time of Alexander the Great, and swept away eight tribes from their habitations ; so that it became proverbial to say of people who were carried off by their enemies, or destroyed by disease, " They are gone and scattered like Saba." Dean Prideaux says, in reference to the presidency of the temple, " It was formerly in the possession of Abu-Gab- shan, of the tribe of the Cozaites, who were of the ancient See the thirty-fourth chapter of the Koran, also, under the name of Al-Arem, Universal History of Arabia, Sir William Jones's Discourse on the Arabs. 290 JOB. race of the Arabs, descended from Joktan, and formerly had their dwelling in Yamen, or Arabia Felix, till, being driven thence by an inundation from the breaking down of the banks of the lake Aram, which destroyed their country, they came and settled in the valley of Marry, not far from Mecca, and from thence they were called Cozaites, which signifyeth the cutting off, because, by this remove, they were cut off from the rest of their kindred." Bishop Lowth says, "The immense works made by the ancient kings of Egypt for receiving the waters of the Nile, when it overflowed, for such uses, are well known. But there never was a more stupendous work of this kind than the reser- voir of Saba, or Merab, in Arabia Felix. According to the tra- ditions of the country, it was the work of Balk is, that queen of Sheba ! who visited Solomon. It was a VAST lake, formed by the collection of the waters of a torrent in a valley, where at a NARROW pass BETWEEN two MOUNTAINS, a very high MOLE or DAM was BUILT ! The water of the lake so formed was nearly twenty fathoms deep, and there were three SLUICES ! at different heights, by which, at whatever height the lake stood, the plain below might be watered. By CONDUITS and CANALS from these SLUICES, water was constantly distributed in due proportions, to the SEVERAL lands, so that the whole country, for many miles, became a perfect paradise. The city of Saba, or Merab, was situated immediately BELOW the great dam : a great flood came and raised the lake above its usual height, the DAM gave way in the middle of the night ; the waters burst forth at once, and overwhelmed the whole city with the neigh- bouring towns and people. The remains of eight tribes were forced to abandon their dwellings, and the beautiful valley became a morass and a desert. This fatal catastrophe hap- pened long before the time of Mohammed, who mentions it in the thirty-fourth chapter of the Koran." This, then, is an- other instance of the amazing ingenuity and strength of man. But these gigantic works are not confined to antiquity, to Egypt, or Arabia; they may be found scattered over the con- tinent of India at this day. JOB. 291 Bishop Heber says*, " The emperors of Delhi showed favour in many ways to Ajmeer, but in none more than in a noble freshwater lake which they made just ABOVE the city, by damming up the gore of an extensive valley, and convey- ing different small rills into it. The result is, that there is now a fine sheet of water four miles, and during the rains six miles, in circumference ; sufficient in industrious hands to give fertility to all the neighbourhood. As it is, it affords the means of irrigation to a large district on its banks ; supplies abundance of excellent water to the citizens of Ajmeer ; is full of fish ; and would, if there were any boats, be an excellent place for sailing." These works are of such importance, that the Indian go- vernments have regular English engineer officers to superin- tend and keep them in repair. With one of these gentlemen, Captain C., I had the pleasure of being acquainted, who gave me the following information. Question. " What is the cir- cumference of the largest ARTIFICIAL lake you have seen?" Answer. " Thirty miles. The most common size is from one to two miles." Q. "What is the greatest depth?" A. " Sixty feet." Q. " What is the general height, length, and angle of the MOUNDS ? " A. " The largest mound I have seen is fifty-four feet in height, at the base one hundred and thirty feet broad, and thirty feet at the top. It is faced on the inner side with loose stones of about three tons weight, at a slope of two and a half base for one in height ; but the outer slope is three of base for one in height. The largest mound is twelve miles in length, about thirty feet in height, about one hundred and twenty feet thick at the base, and twenty- four at the top." Q. " Is the water given in fixed quantities to the cultivators ? " A. " In every village there is a man whose duty it is to distribute the water ; which, however, is the cause of innumerable disputes, excepting in old tanks f, where * Vol. ii. p. 442. f The English call these artificial lakes tanks, but the natives call them kullams. u 2 292 JOB. it has been well settled by long custom. Should a tank have to water MANY villages, then each will have a SLUICE to itself. The disputes are referred to the Tahsildar, or head of a divi- sion, and ultimately to the collector." Q. " How are they filled with water? and what is the general length of the canals ? " A. " They are filled either by natural nullahs that flow into them, or by small artificial nullahs, carried to a distance of three or four miles, so as to conduct the rain-water into them, or by canals from the rivers ; in which last case the canals water a great quantity of land directly before they reach the tank. The largest agricultural ! canal I have seen is Jifty-four miles in length" Q. " Where are those you mentioned in the vicinity of mountains? and how are they constructed ? " A. " As there are numerous ranges of hills in the peninsula, a great many tanks are formed by UNITING two HILLS, and thereby STOPPING up the stream that ISSUED from BETWEEN them. The principal one of this sort that I have seen is the Vearyasa-Samuteram*, in the S.W. corner of the district of Cuddapah. The stream dammed up is about thirty yards broad. One end of the MOUND RESTS on a steep ROCKY hill, the other on a gradual ROCKY SLOPE. There are several very large tanks of this description in the district of Cuddapah ; the largest is at Cummum, north of Cuddapah. There are also some still larger in Mysore : that called, by Hyder Ally, Moottee-Talao, not far from Mysore, I have heard is the deepest tank in India." Q. " What is the annual expenditure of the tanks to government?" A. " The annual expenditure of REPAIRING and IMPROVING works of irrigation in this presidency (Madras) is nine or ten lacs, or ^100,000." Q. "What revenue does the government de- rive from them ? " A. Probably about two crore of rupees, or two millions of money ; but I have not been able to obtain an official return. The largest revenue from any SINGLE work with which I am acquainted, is 90,000 rupees, or * Literally, the sea. JOB. 293 ,000! " Q. " What sum would be sufficient to construct the largest tank you have seen ? " A. " About three lacs, or <^30,000." Q. " How are engineer officers stationed in reference to these works ? " A. " There are three divisions in that part of the presidency in which ARTIFICIAL works of irrigation are situated. In each is a civil engineer (as he is called) and an assistant ; all of whom are officers of the corps of engineers. These divisions are the northern, centre, and southern, forming the eastern half of the peninsula; the western division, situated between the western Ghauts and the sea, contains no works of this sort." But the ARTIFICIAL LAKES of Ceylon, also, are works of astonishing magnitude; and many marvellous legends are repeated respecting the kings and giants who carried them into effect. " The monarch Theakkam, in forming a large MOUND, found that every morning a great part of it was thrown down. His mind was extremely perplexed ; and one night he had a dream, in which it was revealed to him that a child must be sacrificed before he could accomplish his object. He mentioned the circumstance to his wife, but she refused to consent : he then told the affair to his sister, who said, ( Why should the people be ruined ?' and she gave her son to be buried alive in the mound, from which time it never failed ! " The importance the natives attach to these works may be seen in all their literature, both ancient and modern. In a book of fate which I translated, and which has been printed by the Royal Asiatic Society, the question, " Is it good to make the mound or embankment ? " occurs in eight different places ; and, " Is it good to make the tunnel ? is it good to make the channels ?" the same number of times. The artificial lake of Minere (in Ceylon) is from FIFTEEN to TWENTY MILES in circumference*, and the MOUND at the top is SIXTY feet broad. The MOUND of the lake of Kandelle is TWENTY feet high, and the TUNNEL at the base nearly TWO * I generally follow Dr. Davy. u 3 294 JOB. HUNDRED feet through. It extends, in a straight line, from a ROCKY hillock at one extremity, to a high ledge at the other, and is a mile and one third long. " The celebrated giant's tank would hold, if in good repair, water sufficient to supply all the surrounding fields to an immense extent."* But the Peedeeval tank is, I believe, the largest in Ceylon. With these facts before us, gathered from men of different ages, countries, and professions, we are prepared to contem- plate the eloquent Job, and the dignified subject of his en- quiries. Arabia Petraea is believed to have been the residence of that holy man; and Petra, the Joktheelf of the Scriptures, was its capital. Saba (where was situated the artificial lake alluded to by Mahomet Sale, Sir William Jones, Bishop Lowth, Prideaux, and others, the mound of which gave way, and which carried off the inhabitants by night) was in Yamen, or Yemen, in Arabia Felix, and was built by Abd-Shems, third in de- scent from Joktan, who was the son of Eber. J Sir William Jones, in his Discourse on the Arabs, says, it is " certain that the people of Yemen very soon fell into the common but fatal error of [ADORING THE SUN and the firmament ; for even the third from Yoktan (or Joktan), who was consequently as old as Nahor, took the surname Abdu-Shams (as above) or the servant of the sun." The compilers of the Universal History, and Calmet, also, inform us, " The Sabei were possessed of a very considerable territory in the Southern and best part of the Peninsula. Saba, its CAPITAL, according to the ancient geographers, stood upon a hill at no very considerable distance from the Red Sea, being a large, opulent, and strong city ; " and Dr. Adam, in his Ancient and Modern Geography, says, " that amongst the different states of Arabia, the Sabei were the most dis- tinguished." By the assistance of these historical facts, we have a more certain knowledge of the SABEANS, who destroyed the servants * See Bertolacci. f Jos. xv. 38. 2 Kings xiv. 7. J Gen. x. 25. JOB. 295 of Job with the edge of the sword ; of the object of their worship, and of his solemn declaration, " If I BEHELD THE SUN when it shined, or my MOUTH hath KISSED my hands ; " of his powerful description of a flood, where he MIGHT have been uttering a PROPHECY against his proud and cruel neighbours of Saba : for he says, in the latter part of the twenty-seventh chapter, apparently in reference to those who, according to Sale and others, built their houses upon the mound of the lake of Saba, " He buildeth his house as a moth, and as a booth that the keeper maketh : " and again, describing their destruction by the breaking of the em- bankment ; " The rich man shall lie down, but he shall not be gathered ; he openeth his eyes, and he is not. Terrors take hold on him as WATERS ; a TEMPEST stealeth him away in the NIGHT. The East wind carrieth him away, and he departeth ; and as a storm hurleth him out of his place." " The floods shall clap their hands at him." Connecting these descriptions with the CIRCUMSTANCES of Job, to the natural allusion of his mind to a desolating flood, to his almost certain knowledge of the wonderful lake of his neigh- bours of Saba, and the Mceris of Egypt ; to the men of Saba, who killed his servants, and carried off his property ; we are led to roam at no GREAT distance from the scenes where that eloquent and holy man sat down among the ashes, and where the Lord blessed his latter end more than his beginning. But these wonderful artificial lakes and reservoirs assist us also to understand the localities of Petreea or Joktheel, Kirjath Sepher and Edom, on the rock, the valley, the upper springs and the nether springs ; of the " land of brooks, of water, of fountains, and DEPTHS* ! that spring out of valleys and hills." (Deut. viii. 7.) ; of the figure, " The Lord hath broken forth upon mine enemies before me as the BREACH of waters," (2 Sam. v. 20.) ; of the king of Assyria, who with his hosts * Dr. Adam Clarke supposes depths to allude to reservoirs filled by the rains ! U 4- 296 JOB, "stood by the conduit of the UPPER pool," (2 Kings xviii. 1 7.); of Hezekiah, who " made a pool, and a conduit, and brought water into the city," (2 Kings xx. 20.) ; of Job xxx. where he says, " They came upon me as a wide BREAKING in of waters, in the desolation, they ROLLED themselves upon me;" of Him " who hath divided a watercourse for the overflowing of waters, or a way for the lightning of thunder " (Job xxxviii. 25.); of the Psalmist, where he says, " Thou didst cleave the FOUNTAINS ! and the flood ; thou driedst up mighty rivers," (Psalm Ixxiv. 15.); "Thou earnest them away as with a FLOOD, they are as ASLEEP ! in the morning they [are like grass which groweth up," (Psalm xcv. 4-.); " In His hands are the DEEP places of the earth, the STRENGTH of the HILLS is his also," (Psalm xc. 5.); and " Let the floods clap their hands, and let the HILLS be joyful together," (Psalm xcviii. 8.). 4. " The flood breaketh out from the inhabitant ; even the waters forgotten of the foot : they are dried up, they are gone away from men." The mighty flood which man had dammed up, by joining together MOUNTAINS and HILLS, and thus forming an immense basin, had broken down by its weight the gigantic MOUND ; had rolled " away from men," and gone into the desert places. The waters of the lake are now " forgotten of the foot, they are dried up;" for the feet of men in walking there think of them no more. 5. " As for the earth, out of it cometh bread ; and un- der it is turned up as it were fire." By the agency of the water collected by man in his noble works, the earth gave its bread, and furnished also some com- bustible matter for its preparation. 6." The stones of it are the place of sapphires." The STONES which form and bind together the MOUNDS and hills are taken from the exact places where sapphires are JOB. 297 found. For Jameson informs us that, " The geognostic si- tuation of the sapphire is in alluvial soil, in the vicinity of rocks*, belonging to the secondary floetz trap formation, and imbedded in gneiss." In reference to its geographic situation the same writer says, it is found particularly beautiful in Asia, in the Capelan mountains, in Persia, and the Island of Cey- lon. Dr. Davy states that " The sapphire occurs in consider- able abundance in the granitic alluvion of Matura and Saffragam (in Ceylon)." Thus, the STONES of which the MOUND is formed, are the true geognostic situation where the sapphire is found ; and there can be no doubt that the work- men, in hewing and detaching the masses from the rocks, and in joining them to the mountains, did, by this secondary kind of mining, often find the precious sapphire. " And it hath dust of gold." The same mineralogist states (and it is a well known fact), " that in Asia the sand of many rivers affords gold," and it is washed down in great quantities from the mountains on the west coast of Sumatra, where it is after- wards found in the beds of rivers. 7. " There is a path which no fowl knoweth, and which the vulture's eye hath not seen." 8. " The lion's whelps have not trodden it, nor the fierce lion passed by it." What is that PATH which is UNKNOWN to the birds, and which the wild beasts will not enter ? Herodotus says, the lake Mceris " communicated by a SECRET CHANNEL with the Nile." What is it but the TUNNEL which forms a PATH for the rushing water, through the base of the MOUND ? Davy says of one he saw in Ceylon, " The water, passing through the EMBANKMENT, appears on the other side, gushing out into a NOBLE stream, through two apertures formed by a transverse mass of rock, supported by three perpendicular masses ; " and of another seen by him, " the water rushing out in a con- * Arabia Petraea ! 298 JOB. siderable volume, with GREAT force dashes amongst the rocks beneath." Bertolacci * considers these openings for letting out the waters, to be the same as those in the lakes of Italy, known by the name of the condottori. He says, also, " That which led both the Romans and Ceylonese to use this pecu- liar manner of giving an egress to the waters of the lakes was, apparently, the expediency of having at all times the same supply requisite for cultivation ; so that this supply should never fail to the fields, as long as any water remained in the lakes. Upon this plan it can be obtained without ever em- ploying the labour of man, even where from the DEFECT of rains, or other causes, the lakes are brought, by a constant discharge, under their ordinary level ; for, being placed horizontally, so very low as the under part of the bed of the lake, the TUNNEL ! has the advantage of always discharging a sufficient quantity of water, as long as there is any in the lake itself; and the passage can never be encumbered by leaves or branches of trees floating on its surface ; which would not be the case were the PASSAGE made in any other manner." This PATH ! then, the fowl knoweth not : it is concealed from the keen ken of the vulture's eye ! the lion's whelps have not dared to enter it ! nor the fierce lion, when in pursuit of his prey, presumed to pass near it.f 9. " He putteth forth his hand upon the rock ; he overturned! the mountains by the roots." There is something peculiarly dignified in this language ; describing man as putting his hand upon the rocks and tearing them from their beds ; and again, as overturning the mountains by the roots. He places his hand upon the rocks to take away the stones ! for his noble mound ! some of which * See History of Ceylon. t The Septuagint alone, a Latin Bible printed in Geneva, and some of the Continental translations, have not lion's whelps , but " the boasting high sons of the fierce animal." The venerable Mr. Benson and other com- mentators explain it by " the sons of the wild, or cruel, or arrogant beast*" JOB. 299 are several tons in weight : nay, so large are some of the stones in the Giant's Tank, that no one can ascertain by what means they were placed there. Davy says of some he saw, they were " twelve feet by four ; " and where the work was required to be very strong, " the stones were nicely adapted to each other ; or, to use the technical phrase, rabbited together." Near the lake of Kandelly in Ceylon), " is an IMMENSE hollow, intersected by steep ridges of quartz : and it appears to have been the spot from whence the stones ! of the embankment ! had been taken. They are of the same kind as the adjoining rock." Hence even the appearance of the insulated ridges of quartz rock may be accounted for, on the supposition that the more valuable gneiss * only was quarried. How emphatically, then, may it be said of man (and that without any poetic licence), who detaches, squares, and re- moves such ponderous masses ; " he putteth forth his hand upon the rock ! " and in joining together his MOUNDS ! to the mountains ! by immense excavations, " he overturneth the mountains by the roots ! " 10. " He cutteth out rivers among the rocks ; and his eye seeth every precious thing." Savary informs us, the canal Bahr Joseph " must have cost immense sums, being in MANY parts CUT THROUGH ! the ROCK ! " Bishop Heber also states that the lake of Ajmeer is formed " by damming up the gore ! of an extensive valley, and conveying different small rills ! into it." Thus, in making his rivers and rivulets through the rocks, in order to convey the water to its destined place, he at the same time sees " every precious thing : " because his work lies in the geognostic situation of those valuable gems. 11. " He bindeth the floods from overflowing, and the thing that is hid bringeth he forth to light." * The geological place of the sapphire* 300 JOB. The floods which he has collected in his glorious works which flow through that PATH, unknown to the fowls of the air ! or the fearless beasts of the desert ! he by his majestic mounds BINDS ! together, so that they cannot OVERFLOW or " weep " the bounds he has established. And thus, again, the precious stones are brought from the mountain, and con- veyed through the streams, and brought to the light of day ! 12. " But where shall wisdom be found ? and where is the place of understanding ? " Job seems now to have found his resting-place : he has boldly glanced at the triumphant productions of the WISDOM and PROWESS of man ; but with dignity now asks " Where shall wisdom be found ? " Man has reared to himself the most stately structures ; his name floats in the memory of ages : but is true wisdom to be found in these, the triumphs of his ge- nius and power ? No ; the desolating hand of time hath seized them for her own ; " they are carried downward by the flood, and lost in following years." " Where shall wisdom be found?" 14. " The depth saith, It is not in me: and the sea saith, It is not with me." " The depth *," tne abyss, which man has made to receive the rolling flood, says, " It is not in me ; " nay, the unfathom- able sea responds, " It is not with me. " 15, 16, 17, 18, 19. " It cannot be gotten for gold, neither shall silver be weighed for the price thereof. It cannot be valued with the gold of Ophir, with the precious onyx, or the sapphire. The gold and the crystal cannot equal it : and the exchange of it shall not be for jewels of fine gold. No mention shall be made of coral, or of pearls : for the price of wisdom is above rubies. The topaz of Ethiopia Septuagint. JOB. 301 shall not equal it, neither shall it be valued with pure gold." Foolish man would estimate the worth of wisdom by gold, or the precious onyx * ; by the sapphire, or the ruby ; by the topaz, or pearls, or coral; but "neither shall it be valued" by them. 20. " Whence, then, cometh wisdom ? " Again the fearless enquirer brings us to the tribunal : man has made a PATH ! which is concealed from the fowls that fly, and the beasts that rove ! but the WISDOM of the Lord is hid ! from the eyes of ALL living. Puny man has the temerity to try to find out the wisdom and secrets of the Almighty ; his daring mind would make a bound into eter- nity : but " hitherto shalt thou come, and no further." 22. " Destruction and death," Produced by the devastating flood, have conveyed the tidings of the futility ! of the wisdom of man. 23. " God understandeth the way thereof, and he know- eth the place thereof." 24. " For he looketh to the ends of the earth, and seeth under the whole heaven." He knows the PATH ! of wisdom ; he is well acquainted with the place ! thereof; he can look into the most SECRET ! places, for he " seeth under the whole heaven ! " 25. " To make the weight for the winds ! and he WEIGHETH ! the waters by measure." 26. "He made a decree for the RAIN ! and a WAY for the LIGHTNING of the thunder ! " Here is majesty, indeed ! Man has regulated his MOUNDS * The onyx is found in Arabia ! There are pearl banks on the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf. The topaz is found in a small island of the Red Sea. The ruby is found, not only in the sand of rivers, but also im- bedded in gneiss. 302 JOB. so as to be a WEIGHT for the winds, in order that they may not be BROKEN down, and he gives out his water " by MEA- SURE ! " But, what has Jehovah done ? He has BALANCED this ponderous earth on which we live, and all the glorious orbs of heaven ; he has placed his MOUNDS, as barriers against the mighty ocean ; and he sends forth the water of his CLOUDS to the whole earth "by MEASURE." The works of man (v.26.) may be destroyed, but God has " made a DECREE for the RAIN," it cannot destroy HIS EVERLASTING MOUNDS ; and he has made a PATH, for the gleaming lightnings of his thunder. Looking, therefore, at the account of the lake Mreris, as given by Herodotus, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, M. Savary, and others ; at its vast extent, which led it to be called " the sea which man hath made;" at its use to irrigate the lands; at the " rivulets" the " canals" the " rocks" and " mountains" that were cut through; at the mountains and mounds by which the waters were retained ; viewing also the astonishing lake or reservoir of Saba, its situation in Arabia ! its breaking down the mounds, its sweeping away the inhabitants in the night 9 as described by Mahomet ! by Bishop Lowth, Dean Prideaux, Sir William Jones, and the authors of the Universal History : looking also at the mighty works of the same de- scription of India and Ceylon as noticed by Bishop Heber, by Captain C. of the engineers, by Dr. Davy, by Bertolacci, and many others : reflecting also on the mountains ! thus ex- cavated and joined together ; at the rocks that were separated, and at the precious stones that were found (that being their true geognostic situation) at the aqueducts and rivers; at the various allusions of Holy Writ to such mighty achievements ;. at the residence of Job, Arabia ; at Saba ! and the Sabeans, who killed his servants ; at his almost certain knowledge of the lake Mreris in Egypt ; at the flood which " breaketh out from the inhabitant; " at the stones of the mound being " the place of sapphires ; " at the " path which no fowl knoweth, and which the vulture's eye hath not seen : " at man, who to form these gigantic structures puts " his hand upon the rock," JOB. SOS and who " overturneth the mountains by the roots," and who cuts out his " rivers among the rocks," and thus sees the " precious thing ; " at his skill in thus binding the floods with his mounds so that they cannot overflow ; at the bold in- terrogation of Job, in view of these performances, " Where shall wisdom be found ? " at his reference to the works of Jehovah His mounds for " a weight for the winds," His giving forth the waters of his clouds " by measure," His " decree for the rain," and His path ! for the lightnings ! of His thunder ! we see a delightful and self-evident illustration of this sublime chapter of the holy and eloquent Job. And with him we gladly join in his pious conclusion " Behold, the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom ; and to depart from evil is understanding." XXIX. 4. "As I was in the days of my youth, when the secret of God was upon my tabernacle." (Psalm xxv. 14. The secret of the Lord is with them that fear him. Proverbs iii. 32. His secret is with the righteous.) Job was reverting to the time of his prosperity, as is seen in the preceding verse, " when his candle shined upon my head, and when by his light I walked through darkness ; " " when my children were about me, when I washed my steps with butter." The Psalmist also is speaking of the prosperity of those who fear the Lord. To say the secret of the king is with such a person, is a strong way of describing the intimacy which exists betwixt them. " Take care how you accuse him to the great man, because his secret is with him." "Friendly! yes, indeed: why, his secret is with him." " Alas ! alas ! his secret is no longer with me ; his lamp no longer shines in my heart. " 6. " When I washed my steps with butter." (Psalm Ixv. 11,12. Thy paths drop fatness. They drop upon the pastures of the wilderness.) 304. JOB. These are figurative expressions to denote great prosperity. " The man is so rich, he washes himself with ney? i. e. cla- rified butter. " Oh, the charitable man, milk and honey ac- company his feet. " So great was the profusion, " the honey caused the feet to slip" (in the paths), the creepers danced, the trees nodded their heads, and milk, from the dwellings of the cattle, flowed in streams through the streets. Scanda Purana. 7. When I went out to the gate through the city, when I prepared my seat in the street." This intimates that Job was a judge amongst his people, as the courts of justice in former times were kept in such situ- ations. Who has not seen a great man or a saint thus having his seat prepared in the street ? There he goes under a shady tree, or under a verandah, or in a rest-house, with his servant following him, having a mat or a tiger's skin, or that of some other animal under his arm. The seat is prepared, and the cross-legged sage sits to hear and answer questions. 8, 9. " The young men saw me and hid themselves ; and the aged arose and stood up. The princes re- frained talking, and laid their hand on their mouth." What a graphic scene is this ! When a man of rank passes a crowd, the young people and children conceal them- selves behind their seniors, and the aged always arise from their seats. See the man in a court of justice, who is listening to the address of the judge, and his hand is placed on his mouth.* 15. "I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the lame." * To place the hand on the mouth also denotes astonishment ; and Major Laing says,>hen he was at Toma, in Africa, a woman was so much surprised at the sight of a white man, that she " did not stir a muscle till the whole had passed, when she gave a loud halloo of astonishment, and covered her mouth with both her hands." JOB. 305 The man who bestows great charities is said to be the eyes of the blind, and the feet of the cripples. " True, my lord, I am blind ; but you are my eyes." " Ah ! sir, shall I not love my eyes ? " " O king," says the lame man, " are you not my staff? " " Alas ! alas ! our eyes have gone, " say the blind when their benefactor is dead. But when a person confides in the wisdom of another, he says, " He is my eyes." " I have two good eyes in the temple." 20. " My bow was renewed in my hand." This figure is much used in their poetry. " The bow is bent in his hand." "See the strong bow; it is bent to kill thee." 22. " My speech dropped." Of a man who speaks with great euphony, it is said, " His words come, tule tule yaka, i. e. drop by drop. XXX. 2. " Whereto might the strength of their hands profit me, in whom old age was perished." The Tamul translation has this, " as the strength of the hands being gone by old age." Of a man who has become weak in consequence of age, it is said, " Ah ! by reason of old age, the strength of his hands has departed from, him." " It is true he is an old man, but the strength of his hand has not perished." But this mode of expression also refers to a man's circumstances. Thus, when a person has lost his property, it is said, " the strength of his hands has gone." " Poor man ! he has not any strength in his hands." 3, 4. " For want and famine they were solitary ; flee- ing into the wilderness. Who cut up mallows by the bushes, and juniper roots for their meat." This describes the ignoble state of the parents of those children by whom Job was now held in derision. x 306 JOB. In the book called Sintha-Manni, there is an account of some princesses, who once had their rice, like jasmine flowers, given them on golden plates ; but now they had to go with potsherds, to beg for the leaves from the hedges for their daily food. A rich man brought to poverty sometimes asks, " What care I ? Can I not go into the desert and live on roots and leaves ? " It is a fact that numbers do thus live, especially the Vedahs, and those who have retired from men. 16. " The days of affliction have taken hold of me." " Why are you so dejected ? my friend." Because the kettakdlam, i. e. the ruinous time, has caught me." 20. "1 stand up, and thou regardest me not." It is extremely mortifying, when a man stands up, not to be noticed. A native gentleman had a case which he wished to bring before the notice of the king of Tanjore, and asked my advice how to act. I recommended him to go to the capital, and wait upon his majesty. On his return, he informed me he had not stated his case to the king ; and, upon my blaming him, he asked " What could I do ? I went to a place where I knew he would have to pass ; and when he came near, I stood up ; but he regarded me not." 22. " Thou liftest me up to the wind." This figure is probably taken from the custom of an angry man, who takes any light substance and throws it into the wind, saying to his antagonist, " Thus shall it be with thee." 27. " My bowels boiled, and rested not." (Psa. xxii. 14. jj,^ being parasitical, cannot live with- out the other. CXXIX. 3. " The plowers plowed upon my back." " The enemies of Israel cut their backs, as the plowers cut the soil." Dr. Boothroyd. When a man is in much trouble through oppressors, he says, How they plough me and turn me up ! All are now ploughing me. Begone ! have you not already turned me up?" " Alas ! alas ! my enemies, nay, my children, are now ploughing me." 6. " Let them be as the grass which withereth." Ah ! that wretched family shall soon be as withered PSALMS. 359 grass." " Go, vile one, for soon wilt thou be as parched grass." CXXXII. 9. Let thy priests be clothed with right- eousness." " See that excellent man ; he wears the garments of justice and charity." 17." Make the horn to bud." " Yes, that man will flourish ; already his horn has begun to appear it is growing." CXXXVII. 5. " If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right hand forget her cunning." In the Hindoo book, Scanda-Purana, it is written, " Singa- Muggam, on seeing that, his heart throbbed, the tears flowed, and his hands and feet forgot their cunning." " Yes; if I lose thee, if I forget thee, it will be like the losing, like the forgetting of these eyes and arms." CXXXVIII. 6. " The proud he knoweth afar off." (Ps. cxxxix. 2.) This is truly Oriental : "Nan avari veggu tooratila arrika-rain, i. e. I know him afar off. Let him be at a great distance ; allow him to conduct his plans with the greatest secrecy ; yet, I compass his path, I am close to him. You pretend to describe the fellow to me : I know him well ; there is no need to go near to him, for I can recognise him at the greatest distance. See how he carries his head ; look at his gait ; who can mistake his proud bearing?" " How does your brother conduct himself?" " I cannot tell, for he knows me afar off" CXL. 3. They have sharpened their tongues like a serpent." This is an exact description of the way in which a serpent darts out his tongue before he inflicts the wound. See him ; A A 4 360 PSALMS. his head is erect, and his piercing eye is wildly and fiercely fixed on the object ; the tongue rapidly appears and disappears, as if by that process it would be sharpened for the contest. Thus were the enemies of David making sharp their tongues for his destruction. CXLI. 5. " Let the righteous smite me, it shall be a kindness : and let him reprove me, it shall be an excellent oil, which shall not break my head." Certain oils are said to have a most salutary effect on the head ; hence in fevers, or any other complaints which affect the head, the medical men always recommend oil. I have known people who were deranged, cured in a very short time by nothing more than the application of a peculiar kind of oil to the head. There are, however, other kinds which are believed (when thus applied) to produce delirium. Thus the reproofs of the righteous were compared to excellent oil, which produced a most salutary effect on the head. So com- mon is this practice of anointing the head, that all who can afford it do it every week. But, strange as it may appear, the crown of the head is the place selected for chastisement. Thus owners of slaves, or husbands, or schoolmasters, beat the heads of the offenders with their knuckles. Should an urchin come late to school, or forget his lesson, the pedagogue says to some of the other boys, " Go, beat his head." " Begone, fellow ! or I will beat thy head." Should a man be thus chastised by an inferior, he quotes the old proverb " If my head is to be beaten, let it be done with the fingers that have rings on ; " meaning a man of rank. " Yes, yes ; let a holy man smite my head : and what of that ? 't is an excellent oil." " My master has been beating my head, but it has been good oil for me." 6. " When their judges are overthrown in stony places." Ainsworth, " Their judges are thrown down by the rock PSALMS. 361 sides." In 2 Chronicles xxv. 12. it is recorded that the children of Judah took ten thousand captives, " and brought them unto the top of the rock, and cast them down from the top of the rock, that they were all broken in pieces." It was a custom in all parts of the East thus to despatch criminals, by casting them down a precipice : the Tarpeian rock affords a similar instance. But who were these judges ? probably those of the " men that work iniquity," as mentioned in the 4-th verse. In the 5th verse he speaks of the salutary nature of the reproofs of the RIGHTEOUS, but in the 7th he seems to refer to the cruel results of having UNRIGHTEOUS judges ; for in consequence of their SMITINGS, he says, " Our bones are scattered at the grave's mouth, as when one cutteth and cleaveth wood ; " i. e. their bones were like the fragments and chips scattered on the earth, left by the hewers of wood. Therefore these judges were to be " overthrown in stony places." CXLII. 7. " Bring my soul out of prison." These people speak of afflictions, difficulties, and sorrows, as so many prisons. " lyo iniha marryil eppo vuttu pome ? " i. e. " Alas ! when will this imprisonment go ? " exclaims the man in his difficulties. CXLIV. 12. " That our sons may be as plants our daughters may be as corner stones polished after the similitude of a palace." Of a man who has a hopeful and beautiful family, it is said, " His sons are like shoots (springing up from the parent stock), and his daughters are like carved work and precious stones." CXLVIII. 9, 10. 13. "Mountains, and all hills, fruitful trees, and all cedars : Beasts, and all cattle ; creeping things, and flying fowl : praise the name of the Lord." 362 PSALMS. Those who are unacquainted with Oriental literature some- times affect to smile at the addresses which are made in Scrip- ture to animate and inanimate nature. " How ridiculous," say they, " to talk about the mountains skipping like rams, and the little hills like lambs ! " but they know not that this is according to the figurative and luxuriant genius of the people of the East. The proprietor of lands, forests, orchards, and gardens, often exclaims, when walking amongst them in time of .drought, " Ah ! trees, plants, and flowers, tanks and cattle, birds and fish, and all living creatures, sing praises to the gods, and rain shall be given to you." CL. 3, 4, 5. " Praise him with the sound of the trumpet: praise him with the psaltery and harp. Praise him with the timbrel and dance : praise him with stringed instruments and organs. Praise him upon the loud cymbals." Instruments of music were used in the worship of the Most High God : and the Hindoos, in singing praises, and per- forming religious ceremonies to their deities, always have the same accompaniments. Thus the trumpet and the " high sounding cymbals," the timbrels (which correspond partly with the tambourine), the harp, *"03D kinnor (also called kinnora in Tamul !) is a stringed instrument, played with the fingers : and may be heard in all their temples at the time of service. The devotee engaged in making offerings often exclaims, " Praise him, O ye musicians ! praise him ; praise the Swamy : " and great is their enthusiasm ; their eyes, their heads, their tongues, their hands, their legs, are all engaged. At a marriage, or when a great man gives a feast, the guests go to the players on instruments, and say, " Praise the noble host, praise the bride and the groom ; praise aloud, O cymbals ! give forth the voice, ye trumpets ; strike up the harp and the timbrel; praise him in the song; serve him, serve him." 363 PROVERBS. CHAP. I. verse 6. " To understand a proverb and the interpretation." The people of the East look upon the acquirements of antiquity as being every way superior to those of modern times : thus their noblest works of art and their sciences are indebted to antiquity for their invention and per- fection. Instead, therefore, of their minds being enlight- ened and excited by the splendid productions of modern genius, they are ever reverting to the wisdom of their forefathers, and sighing over the loss of many of their occult sciences. We, on the other hand, by contemplating the im- posing achievements of the present age, are in danger of looking with contempt on antiquity, and of pursuing with thoughtless avidity the novelties and speculations of modern inventions. Solomon could repeat " three thousand proverbs, and his songs were a thousand and five ; " and many of the philoso- phers of the present age in the East have scarcely any other wisdom. Listen to two men engaged in argument : should he who is on the point of being foiled, quote an apposite proverb against his antagonist, an advantage is considered as having been gained, which scarcely any thing can counteract. See a man who is pondering over some difficulty : his reason cannot decide as to the course he ought to pursue, when, perhaps, some one repeats a palla-mulle, i. e. an old saying: : the whole of his doubts are at once removed, and he starts with vigour in the prescribed course. " Young man, talk not to me with INFANT wisdom, what are the sayings of the ancients ! you ought to obey your parents. Listen ! < The father and the mother are the first 364 PROVERBS. deities a child has to acknowledge. Is it not said, c Children who obey willingly are as ambrosia to the gods ? ' " " Were you my friend, you would not act thus ; because, as the proverb says, ' True friends have but one soul in two bodies.'" * u I am told you have been trying to ruin me ; c but will the moon be injured by the barking of a dog ? '" " You have become proud, and conduct yourself like the upstart who must ' carry his silk umbrella to keep off the sun ! at midnight ! ' " " You talk about your hopes of some coming good : what say the ancients ? * EXPECTATION is the mid-day dream of life.'" " Cease to be indolent, for, as our fathers said, ' Idleness is the rust of the mind.' " " That you have been guilty of many crimes I cannot doubt, as the proverb says, ' Will there be smoke without fire ? ' f Your wife has, I fear, led you astray, but she will be your ruin : what said the men of antiquity ? * As is the affection of a file for the iron, of a parasitical plant for the tree which supports it; so is the affection of a violent woman for her husband : she is like Yama (the deity of death), who eats and destroys without appearing to do so.'" With these specimens, the English reader may form a toler- able idea of the importance which is attached to proverbs. III. 8. " Shall be health to thy navel." The navel of an infant is often very clumsily managed in the East : hence it is no uncommon thing to see that part greatly enlarged, and diseased. The fear of the Lord, there- fore, would be as medicine and health to the navel, causing it to grow and prosper. Strange as it may appear, the navel is often spoken of as a criterion of prosperity ; and Solomon appears to have had the same idea, for he mentions this health of the navel as being the result of trusting in the Lord, and of acknowledging Him in all our ways. He says in the next * Diogenes Laertius relates that Aristotle once made a similar observ- ation, f This proverb is common in several other languages. PROVERBS. 365 verse, " Honour the Lord with thy substance, and with the first fruits of all thine increase : so shall thy barns be filled with plenty, and thy presses shall burst out with new wine." And this reference to the navel, as being connected with earthly prosperity, is common at this day. Has a person arisen from poverty to affluence, it is said, " His navel has grown much larger." Should he insult the man from whom he has derived his prosperity, the latter will ask, " Who made your navel to grow?" IV. 13. " Take fast hold] of instruction; let her not go : keep her ; for she is thy life." It is said of the fixed will or purpose of those who take fast hold of learning or any other thing, " Ah ! they are like the hand of the monkey in the shell of the cocoa-nut ; it will not let go the rice." " On the banks of a broad river there was once a very large herd of monkeys, which greatly injured the fields and gardens of the inhabitants. Several consultations were held as to the best way of getting rid of those troublesome ma- rauders : to take their lives was altogether contrary to the religious prejudices of the people ; and to take them in traps was almost impossible, as the monkeys never approached any place without well examining the ground. At last it was determined to procure a sufficient number of cocoa-nuts ; to make in each a small hole, and fill them with rice. These were strewed on the ground, and the people retired to watch the success of their plan. The offenders soon went to the place, and seeing the rice (their favourite food) in the nuts, they began to eat the few grains scattered about on the ground : but these only exciting their appetite, they each thrust a HAND through the small hole into the nut, which was soon clasped full of rice. The HAND now became so enlarged that it could not be withdrawn without losing its booty : to leave such a dainty was more than the monkey could consent to : the people therefore came forward, and 366 PROVERBS. soon seized their foes, as the cocoa-nut attached to the hand prevented them from getting quickly out of the way. They were, therefore, all made prisoners, and ferried across the river, and left to seek their food in the wilderness." " Take fast hold of instruction ; let her not go ; keep her ; for she is thy life." V. 19. " Let her be as the loving hind." The hind is celebrated for affection to her mate ; hence a man, in speaking of his wife, often calls her by that name. " My hind, my hind ! where is my hind ? " " Alas ! my hind has fallen ; the arrow has pierced her life." VI. 5. " Deliver thyself as a roe from the hand of the hunter, and as a bird from the hand of the fowler." Does a man complain of his numerous enemies, it will be said, " Leap away, friend, as the deer from the snare." " Fly off, fly off, as the bird from the fowler/' " Go slily to the place ; and then, should you see the snare, fly away like a bird." 13. " He speaketh with his feet, he teacheth with his fingers." It should be remembered, that when people are in their houses, they do not wear sandals ; consequently their feet and toes are exposed. When guests wish to speak with each other, so as not to be observed by the host, they convey their meaning by the feet and toes. Does a person wish to leave a room in company with another, he lifts up one of his feet ; and should the other refuse, he also lifts up a foot, and then suddenly puts it down on the ground. " He teacheth with his fingers." When merchants wish to make a bargain in the presence of others, without making known their terms, they sit on the ground, have a piece of cloth thrown over the lap, and then put each a hand under, and thus speak with the fingers ! When the Brahmins convey PROVERBS. 367 religious mysteries to their disciples, they teach with their fingers, having the hands concealed in the folds of their robes. 27. " Can a man take fire in his bosom ?" When an individual denies a crime of which he has been accused, it will be asked, " Will you put fire in your bosom ?" " I am innocent, I am innocent ; in proof of which I will put fire in my bosom." Does a man boast he will do that which is imposible, another will say, " He is going to put fire in his bosom without being burned." VII. 10. " The attire of an harlot." Females of that class are generally dressed in scarlet ! have their robes wound tightly round their bodies ; their eye- lids and finger nails are painted or stained ; and they wear numerous ornaments. (2 Kings ix. 30.) See on Isa. iii. 16. and following verses. X. 11. "The mouth of a righteous man is a well of life : but violence covereth the mouth of the wicked." " The language of a holy man is like a well with good springs : thousands may be refreshed there." " The words of a bad man are like the springs of the sea ; though very strong they are not sweet." " Violence covereth the mouth of the wicked." To cover the mouth is the sign of sorrow : thus, they who act violently will sooner or later reap the fruits thereof. They will have to cover their mouth in token of sorrow for the past, and in anticipation of the future. XL 22. " As a jewel of gold in a swine's snout, so is a fair woman which is without discretion." Nearly all the females of the East wear a jewel of gold in their nostrils, or in the septum of the nose ; and some of them are exceedingly beautiful, and of great value. The Oriental lady looks with as much pleasure on the gem which ADORNS 368 PROVERBS. her nose, as any of her sex in England do upon those which deck their ears. But as is that splendid jewel in the snout of a swine, so is beauty in a woman without discretion. She may have the ornament, her mien may be graceful, and her person attractive ; but without the matchless jewel of virtue, she is like the swine with a gem in his nose, wallowing in the mire. " The most beautiful ornament of a woman is virtue/' Tamul proverb. 29. " Shall inherit the wind." This form of expression is still used in India. "I understand Kandan will give a large dowry with his daughter ; she will, therefore, be a good bargain for your son." " You are cor- rect, my friend; she is to inherit the wind." " I once had extensive lands for my portion ; but now I inherit the wind." " I know you would like to have hold of my property ; but you may take the wind." XIV. 13. " In laughter the heart is sorrowful." Few people are such adepts at disguising their feelings as those of this country, for they can laugh or weep as cir- cumstances require. Joab, no doubt, looked very pleasantly when he went to Amasa to kiss him, but his hand was ready to smite the unsuspecting victim to the ground. When they fawn and laugh, their hearts are often most fertile in plots against you. XVI. 15. " In the light of the king's countenance is life ; and his favour is as a cloud of the latter rain." Poets often speak of the generosity of the great as the clouds full of rain, but the uncharitable are like the clouds without rain. " O the benevolent man ! he is like the fruitful rain ; ever giving, but never receiving." XVII. 18. "A man void of understanding striketh hands." (xxii. 26. " Be not thou one of them that PROVERBS. 369 strike hands, or of them that are sureties for debts." " He that hateth suretiship is sure.") The Hindoo proverb says, " Muninddr muneruka-kaduvar, i. e. He who stands BEFORE may have to pay." This, therefore, is the idea of a surety : he stands BEFORE the debtor, and covenants with the creditor for the payment of the money : he, therefore, who stands before, is literally betwixt the contending parties. In this respect " was Jesus made a surety " for us : he stood BEFORE, and became our j,e again r 17. " Like one that taketh a dog by the ears." " Why meddle with that matter ? " " Will a rat seize a cat by the ears ?" "I will break thy bones, thou low caste." " No doubt about that ; I suppose in the same way as the rat which seized my cat last night : begone, or I will give thee a bite," 578 PROVERBS. 25. " There are seven abominations in his heart." The number seven is often used to denote MANY. " If we have rain, we shall have a crop of seven years." " My friend, I came to see you seven times, but the servants always said teen-tingarar" i. e. he is eating. " I will never speak to that fellow again ; he has treated me with contempt these seven times." " You stupid ass, I have told you seven times." " The wind is fair, and the dhony is ready for sea." " I cannot believe you ; I have already been on board seven times." XXVII. 6. Faithful are the wounds of a friend ; but the kisses of an enemy are deceitful." " Begone ! wretch : you cannot deceive me. I am more afraid of your smiles than the reproaches of my friend. I know the serpent get out of my way." " Ah ! " says the stranger, " the trees of my own village are better to me than the friends of this place." 10. " Thine own friend, and thy father's friend, for- sake not; neither go into thy brother's house in the day of thy calamity : for better is a neighbour that is near than a brother far off." The respect which children often show for the companions and friends of their father is very striking. See a man in distress ; he goes to the sons of his deceased friend : he repeats numerous instances of the assistance he had from their father ; he is quite sure were he now alive his requests would be granted. A person in great difficulty seldom seeks for relief from his own brothers or relations : no, he will tell his story to any one, suffer almost any thing rather than apply to near relations. Widows, too, will go for assistance to strangers, in preference to the relations of their late husbands. 17. " Iron sharpeneth iron." " As iron eats iron (alluding to the file), so do men eat each other." PROVERBS. 379 19. " As in water face answereth to face, so the heart of man to man." The Hindoos do not appear to have had mirrors made of silvered glass until they became acquainted with Europeans ; but they had them of burnished metal and other articles. Many even at this day pour water into a vessel which they use for the same purpose. " His friendship for me is like my body and its shadow in the sun, which never separate." 22. " Though thou shouldest bray a fool in a mortar yet will not his foolishness depart from him." Dr. Boothroyd says, " that is, no correction, however severe, will cure him." Large mortars are used in the East for the purpose of separating the rice from the husk. When a considerable quantity has to be prepared, the mortar is placed outside the door, and two women, with each a pestle of five feet long, begin the work. They strike in rotation, as blacksmiths do on the anvil. Cruel as it is, this is a punishment of the state : the poor victim is thrust into the mortar and beaten with the pestle. The late king of Kandy compelled one of the wives of his rebellious chiefs thus to beat her own infant to death. Hence the saying, " Though you beat that loose woman in a mortar, she will not leave her ways:" which means, though you chastise her ever so much, she will never improve. XXVIII. 3. " Like a sweeping rain which leaveth no food." To feel the force of this passage a person should see the rains which sometimes fall in the East. For many months together we are occasionally without a single drop of rain, and then it comes down as if the heavens were breaking up, and the earth were about to be dissolved. The ground, which had become cracked by the drought, suddenly swells; the foundations of houses sink, or partially remove from their 380 PROVERBS. place ; men and beasts flee for shelter ; vegetables, trees, blossoms, fruits are destroyed ; and when the waters go off, there is scarcely any thing left for the food of man or beast. The torrents which fell on the continent of India and North Ceylon in May, 1827, were a fearful illustration of the " sweeping rain which leaveth no food." XXX. 4. " Who hath ascended up into heaven, or descended ? who hath gathered the wind in his fists?" " Yes, you are full of confidence, you are quite sure, you know all about it : have you just returned from the heavens ? " " Truly, he has just finished his journey from above: listen, listen, to this divine messenger." " Our friend is about to do wonderful things, he has already caught the wind ; he has seized it with his hand." 10. " Accuse not a servant unto his master." Whatever crimes your servants commit, no one will tell you of them, except those who wish to gain your favour. But let them once fall, then people in every direction come to expose their villany. 17. " The eye the ravens of the valley shall pick it out" In the East, in consequence of the superstitions of hea- thenism, numerous human bodies are exposed to become the prey of birds and wild beasts ; and it is worthy of being recorded, that the EYE is the part first selected by the former, as their favourite portion. It is, however, considered to be a great misfortune to be left without sepulchral rites ; and it is no uncommon imprecation to hear, " Ah ! the crows shall one day pick out thy EYES." " Yes, the lizards shall lay their eggs in thy SOCKETS." 381 ECCLESIASTES. CHAP. I. verse 6. " The wind returneth again accord- ing to its circuits." The earth is believed to be one vast plain, having boun- daries of a circular shape ; and the wind is said to move around this circle, according to the direction of Vata-Riyana, the king or god of wind. To that deity sacrifices are oifered when a vessel is launched ; also by sailors when at sea. II. 14. " The wise man's eyes are in his head." " See that fool: where are his eyes? in the nape of his neck ! V. 12. " The abundance of the rich will not suffer him to sleep." In many parts of the East there are not any banks, or public offices, in which the affluent can deposit their riches : conse- quently the property has to be kept in the house, or concealed in some secret place. Under these circumstances, it is no wonder that a man having great wealth should live in constant dread of having it stolen. There are those who have large treasures concealed in their houses, or gardens, or fields, and the fact being known they are closely watched, whenever they pay special attention to any particular object, or place. The late king of Kandy, after he was taken prisoner, and on his voyage to Madras, was much concerned about some of his concealed treasures, and yet he would not tell where they were.* So great is the anxiety of some, arising from the jewels and gold they keep in their frail houses, that they literally watch a great part of the night, and sleep in the day, that their golden deity may not be taken from them. * " See Reminiscences relative to the late King of Kandy when on his voyage to Madras, by William Granville, Esq., of his Majesty's Ceylon Civil Service. 382 ECCLESIASTES. I knew a man who had nearly all his wealth in gold pagodas, which he kept in a large chest in his bed-room : neither in body nor in mind did he ever wander far from the precious treasure ; his abundance hindered him from sleeping ; and for a time it seemed as if it would hinder him from dying ; for when that fatal moment came, he several times, when apparently gone, again opened his eyes, and again gave ANOTHER look at the chest ; and one of the LAST offices of his hands, was to make an attempt to feel for the key under his pillow ! VI. 7. " All the labour of man is for his mouth." " My friend," says the sage, to the diligent and successful merchant, " why are you so anxious to have riches ? Know you not that all this exertion is for the support of one single span of the belly ? " " Tamby, you and your people work very hard ; why do you do so ? " The man will look at you for a moment, and then putting his fingers on his navel, say, " It is all for the belly." VII. 10. " What is the cause that the former days were better than these ?" The Hindoos have four ages, which nearly correspond with the golden, silver, brazen, and iron ages of the western heathen. In the first age, called Kretha, they say the corn sprang up spontaneously, and required no attention ; in the second, named Treatha, the justice of kings and the blessings of the righteous caused it to v grow ; in the third, called Tu- vara, rain produced it : but in this, the fourth age, called Kally, many works have to be done to cause it to grow. " Our fathers," say they, " had three harvests in the year : the trees also gave an abundance of fruit. Where is now the cheapness of provisions ? the abundance of fish ? the fruit- ful flocks ? the rivers of milk ? the plenty of water ? Where the pleasures ? Where the docility of animals ? Where the righteousness, the truth, and affection ? Where the riches, the peace, the plenty ? Where the mighty men ? Where the chaste ECCLESIASTES. 383 and beautiful mothers, with their fifteen or sixteen children ? Alas ! alas ! they are all fled." 13. " Who can make that straight, which he hath made crooked?" " My lord, it is of no use trying to reform that fellow ; his ways are crooked : should you by force make him a little straight, he will relapse into his former state." " If you make straight the tail of the dog, will it remain so ?" 25. "I applied mine heart to know, and to search, and to seek out wisdom." The margin has instead of applied, " I and mine heart compassed," i. e. en- circled, went round it. According to Dr. Adam Clarke, " I made a circuit ; I circumscribed the ground I was to traverse ; and all within my circuit I was determined to know." In English we say, " I studied the subject," but in Eastern idiom, it is, " I went ROUND it." " Have you studied gram- mar ?" Yes, suite suite" round and round. " That man is well acquainted with magic, for to my knowledge he has been round and round it : nay more, I am told he has COM- PASSED ALL the sciences." IX. 4. "A living dog is better than a dead lion." " A living sheep is better than a dead cow." " Why do you grieve so for the loss of your eldest son ? Should the best fruit-bearing tree in your garden fall, then that which REMAINS is the best." 11. The race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong." Should a man of high caste fail in his efforts, and another, who is low, succeed ; they say, " If a man be fortunate, what can be done ? Can poverty or disgrace take away the hairs of the head ? Though a man be a hero, what can he do 384 ECCLESIASTES. against fate ? In what man there is wisdom or strength, we cannot tell; for ALL sometimes fail." 12. " Man also knoweth not his time: as the fishes that are taken in an evil net." " Alas ! alas ! trouble has come suddenly upon me ; I am caught as fishes in the net." " We are all of us to be caught as fishes in the net." X. 7. "I have seen servants upon horses, and princes walking as servants." In all ages and nations, we read or hear of complaints against those who have arisen from obscurity to respectability or rank in the state. It is not so modern as some suppose for servants and inferiors to imitate their superiors ; and though some would like to see a return of the " good old times ! " when a man's vest and jerkin would have to be regulated by his rank, such things are doubtless best left to themselves. The Hindoos are most tenacious in their adherence to caste, and should any one, through property or circumstances, be elevated in society, he will always be looked upon with secret contempt. Their proverb is, " He who once walked on the ground, is now in his palankeen ; and he who was in his pa- lankeen, is now on the ground." 16. " Woe to thee, O land ! when thy princes eat in the morning." It is considered to be most gross, most disgraceful, and ruinous to eat EARLY in the morning : of such an one it is said, " Ah ! that fellow was born with his belly." " The beast eats on his bed ! " " Before the water awakes, that creature begins to take his food," which alludes to the notion that water in the well sleeps in the night. " He only eats and sleeps pandy-pole? i. e. as a pig. " How can we pros- per? he no sooner awakes than he cries, teen! teen!" food ! food ! ECCLESIASTES. 385 XL 1. " Cast thy bread upon the waters : for thou shalt find it after many days." I believe Dr. Adam Clarke is right in supposing that this alludes to the sowing of rice. The Tamul translation has it, " Cast thy food upon the waters, and the profit thereof shall be found after many days." Rice fields are so made as to receive and retain the rains of the wet monsoon, or to be watered from the tanks or artificial lakes. The rice prospers the most when the ground, at the time of sowing, is in the state of mud, or covered with a little water. In some lands, the water is allowed FIRST to overflow the whole, and then the roots are just stuck into the mud, leaving the blades to float on the surface. In reaping time, as the water often remains, the farmer simply lops off the ears. See on Job xxiv. 24. 4. " He that observeth the wind shall not sow ; and he that regardeth the clouds shall not reap." Dr. Boothroyd has this " observeth the wind, and is afraid it will blow away his seed, will never sow : and that is afraid of rain will not reap." The favourite proverb on this subject is, " Enne, chey^ chedtu; enndmadt, ckey, vellanmy : " i. e. " In merchandise consider well ; but in agriculture not at all." XII. 11. " The words of the wise are as goads and as nails." It is said, " The words of that judge are quite certain; they are like the driven nails." " I have heard all he has to say, and the effect on my mind is like a nail driven home." " What a speaker ! all his words are nails ; who will draw them out again?" c c 386 SOLOMON'S SONG. CHAP. I. verse 7. "Tell me, O thou whom my soul loveth, where thou feedest, where thou makest thy flock to rest at noon." Before noon, the shepherds and their flocks may be seen slowly moving towards some shady banyan, or other tree, where they recline during the heat of the day. The sheep sleep, or lazily chew the cud ; and the shepherds plait pouches, mats, or baskets, or in dreamy musings while away their time. II. 5. " Stay me with flagons, comfort me with apples: for I am sick of love." Dr. Boothroyd : " Support me with cordials; support me with citrons : for still I languish with love." Dr. A. Clarke : " The versions in general understand some kind of ointments or perfumes by the first term," i. e. flagons. " Comfort me with apples:" they had not apples as we in England; it is, therefore, probable the citron or the orange (both of which are believed to be good for the complaint alluded to) is the fruit meant. " I am sick of love." Is it not amusing to see parents and physicians treating this affection as a DISEASE of a very serious nature ? It is called the Cdma-Cdckal, i. e. Cupid's fever, which is said to be produced by a wound inflicted by one of his five arrows. When a young man or woman becomes languid, looks thin, refuses food, seeks retirement, and neglects duties, the father and mother hold grave consultations; they apply to the medical man, and he furnishes them with medicines, which are forthwith to be be administered to relieve the poor patient. SOLOMON'S SONG. 387 I believe the " versions in general " are right in supposing " ointments or perfumes" are meant instead of flagons, because they are still considered to be most efficacious in removing the COMPLAINT. Thus, when the fever is most distressing, the sufferer is washed with rose water, rubbed with perfumed oils, and the dust of sandal wood. The margin has, instead of com- fort, " straw me with apples;" which probably means the citrons were to be put near to him, as it is believed they imbibe the heat, and consequently lessen the fever. It is also thought to be highly beneficial for the young sufferer to sleep on the tender leaves of the plaintain tree (banana), or the lotus flowers ; and if, in addition, strings of pearls are tied to dif- ferent parts of the body, there is reason to hope the patient will do well. 7. "I charge you that ye stir not up, nor awake my love." Here again the custom illustrates the passage ; it would be considered barbarous in the extreme to awake a person out of his sleep. How often, in going to the house of a native, you are saluted with "Nittera-kulla-kardr" i.e. u He sleeps." Ask them, to arouse him : the reply is, " Kooddtha" i. e. " I cannot." Indeed, to request such a thing shows at once that you are a griffin.* " Only think of that ignorant Englishman : he went to the house of our chief, and being told he was asleep, he said he must see him, and actually made such a noise as to awake him ; and then laughed at what he had done." 14. " O my dove, that art in the clefts of the rock, in the secret places of the stairs, let me see thy coun- tenance, let me hear thy voice ; for sweet is thy voice, and thy countenance is comely." The Tamul translation has, instead of " countenance/' " form : " " Thy form is comely." Dr. Boothroyd says * The term applied to new comers, cc 2 388 SOLOMON'S SONG. " stairs" is certainly improper; but may there not be here an allusion to the ancient custom of building towers in the East, for the purpose of accommodating doves ? I have seen one which had stairs inside (probably to enable a person to ascend and watch for the approach of strangers) ; on the outside were numerous holes, in regular order, where the doves concealed themselves and brought up their young. It is common to call a female by the name of dove, but it refers more to secrecy than beauty. The mother of Ramar said it was necessary for him to go to the desert, but she did not mention the reason to her husband ; upon which he said, by way of persuading her to tell him, " Oh ! my dove, am I a stranger ? " IV. 3. " Thy lips are like a thread of scarlet." Beautiful lips are in this country compared to coral. " Ah ! my child, come hither with your coral lips." V. 12. " His eyes are as the eyes of doves by the rivers of waters, washed with milk, and fitly set." Hebrew, for fitly set, " sitting in fulness;" that is, " fitly placed and set as a precious stone in the foil of a ring." " See that youth, what a beautiful eye he has ! it is like a sapphire set in silver ;" which means, the metal represents the white and the blue, the other part of the eye. The eyes of their more sacred idols are made of precious stones. " Washed with milk." Though people thus wash them- selves after a funeral, the custom is also spoken of by way of figure, as a matter of great joy. " Oh ! yes, they are a happy pair ; they wash themselves with milk." " The joy is as great as being bathed in milk." But some do thus actually wash their bodies three or four times a month, and the effect is said to be cooling and pleasing. I suppose, however, it arises as much from an idea of luxury, as any other cause. The residence of the god Vishnoo is said to be surrounded by a SEA of MILK, which may also be another reason to induce the devotee thus to bathe himself. SOLOMON'S SONG. 389 VI. 4. " Thou art beautiful, O, my love, as Tirzah." This and the next chapters give an idea of what were the notions of beauty in the bride ; she was like the city of Tirzah belonging to the tribe of Ephraim. A handsome Hindoo female is compared to the sacred city of Seedambaram. The following, also, are signs of beauty in an Eastern woman : her skin is the colour of gold ; her hands, nails, and soles of the feet are of a reddish hue ; her legs must be free from hair, and her gait like the stately swan. Her feet are small, like the beautiful lotus ; her waist is slender as the lightning ; her arms are short, and her fingers resemble the five petals of the kantha flower ; her breasts are like the young cocoa-nut, and her neck is as the trunk of the areca tree. Her mouth is like the ambal flower, and her lips as coral ; her teeth are like beautiful pearls ; her nose is high and lifted up, like that of the cameleon (when raised to snuff the wind); her eyes are like the sting of a wasp, and the karungu-vally flower ; her brows are like the bow, and nicely separated ; and her hair is as the black cloud. VII. 9. " Causing the lips of those that are asleep to speak." When a person speaks in his sleep, he is believed to be under the influence of a spirit, and therefore recourse is had to charms, to remove its power. When a man speaks in a confused way, it is said, " Listen to that fellow ; he mumbles like one in his sleep." VIII. 6. " Set me as a seal upon thine heart, as a seal upon thine arm." When a husband is going to a distant country, the wife says to him, " Ah ! place me as a seal upon thy heart," i. e. let me be impressed on thy affections, as the seal leaves its impression upon the wax. " Let not your arms embrace another ; let me only be sealed there :" " for love is strong as death, jealousy is cruel as the grave." cc 3 390 ISAIAH. CHAP. I. verse 3. " The ox knoweth his owner Israel doth not know." " Ah ! my children, my cows and my sheep know me well ; but you cease to acknowledge me." " Alas ! alas ! my cattle know me better than my wife : I will go live with them, for their love is sincere to me. I will not remain any longer in such a family ; henceforth the affectionate cattle shall be my companions, they shall be my children." 18. " Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be as white as snow ; though they be red like crimson, they shall be as wool." (See on Ezek. xxiii. 14.) This, by many, is believed to refer to the strength of the colour and to the difficulty of discharging it : and though I do not presume to contradict that opinion, it may perhaps be suggested to have an additional meaning. Dr. Adam Clarke says, " Some copies have OOEO ke-shanim, "like crimson garments." The iniquities of Israel had become very great. In the 10th verse, the rulers are addressed as if of Sodom and Gomorrah ; and in the 21st, it is said the faithful city had become a HARLOT. In the 29th, " They shall be ashamed of the oaks which ye have desired, and ye shall be confounded for the gardens that ye have chosen." Is it not certain that these references to Sodom, to a harlot, and the gardens, allude to the wicked- ness, the idolatry, and the union which Israel had formed with the heathen ? For what purposes were the gardens or groves used, of which the frequenters were to be ashamed ? No doubt, for the same as those in the East at the present day. The courtesans of the temples receive those in the groves, who are ashamed to go to their houses. Those wretched ISAIAH. 391 females are called Soli-killikal, i. e. parrots of the GROVE. " That wicked youth is always gathering flowers in the grove." " Thou hideous wretch ! no one will marry thee ; thou art not fit for the grove." (See on chap. Ixvi. 17.) Scarlet, or crimson, was the favourite colour of the ancient heathen prostitutes. ' (Jer. iv. 30.) " And when thou art spoiled, what wilt thou do ? Though thou clothest thyself with CRIMSON, though thou deckest thee with ornaments of gold, though thou rentest thy face with painting, in vain shalt thou make thyself fair ; thy lovers will despise thee." This is an exact description of the dress and other modes of allurement used by a female of the same character at this day. ( Rev. xvii. 4.) " The woman was arrayed in purple and SCARLET colour, and decked with gold and precious stones and pearls ; having a golden cup in her hand, full of abominations and filthiness of her fornication : And upon her forehead was a name written, Mystery, Babylon The Great, The Mother Of HARLOTS And Abominations Of The Earth." In that most vivid description by Ezekiel (chap, xxii.) of the idolatries of Samaria and Jerusalem, they are represented as two HARLOTS, and there such disclosures are made as convey a most frightful picture of the depravity of the people. " She increased her whoredoms : for when she saw men pourtrayed upon the wall, the IMAGES of the Chaldeans pourtrayed with VERMILION." * Her paramours, also, were " exceeding in DYED attire upon their heads." The SACRED prostitutes of the temples always have their garments of scarlet, crimson, or vermilion. Parkhurst says, " *)fc^ Sisir occurs not as a verb, and the IDEAL meaning is uncertain ; but as a noun, vermilion, a very beautiful red colour. So the Seventy, pAro;. Pliny informs us that this, which the Greeks call piX-rov, was found in silver mines, * On the walls of the heathen temples, the most offensive figures are pourtrayed in the same way. In the vestibule of one I once entered, there were men and women pourtrayed in every possible position. c c 4- 392 ISAIAH. in the form of reddish sand, and was much used by the Romans in his time, as a PAINT, and formerly applied to SACRED ! pur- poses." Calmet. " Verrius, quoted in Pliny, tells us, that on high festival days there was a ceremony, and a kind of prodigality in painting the face of JUPITER with VERMILION ! " The " ideal meaning (says Parkhurst) was uncertain," and yet the colour was greatly used by the ancient idolaters, and is equally so by those of the present day ; and I think it more than probable, that the ideal meaning of this time is the same as that of antiquity. " Quicksilver and sulphur unite in cer- tain proportions, and form the paint called vermilion." Siva, the supreme, claims quicksilver as his property ; and in the medical books it is called Siva's o-Trepfto. Sulphur is the pro- perty of the goddess Parvati, the consort of Siva, and it is called her o-Tre^a. These two, joined together, form the sathe- li?igam, i. e. vermilion ! The ideal meaning, therefore, is not doubtful. Looking, then, at this FAVOURITE COLOUR of ancient and modern idolaters, at the individuals by whom worn, at the meaning attached to it, and the ideas excited; considering, also, the abominable UNION which Israel formed with the heathen, and at the term whoring as applied in the Scriptures to the Israelites for following strange gods ; we probably gain an additional idea, which is worthy of being retained, of those Jewish sins which were as scarlet, but which, if repented of, were to be white as snow. II. 6. " Thou hast forsaken thy people, the house of Jacob, because they be replenished from the East, and are soothsayers like the Philistines." Margin, " more than the East." Dr. Boothroyd " because they are filled with diviners from the East." What ! were the descendants of Jacob re- plenished in their heathenish pursuits from the idolatrous East ? So says the prophet ! In an essay on the sacred Isles of the West, by Captain Wilford, he says, " This passage I conceive to allude to ISAIAH. 393 Hindoos, from the very forcible expression of, from the East, from beyond the East, or from the remotest parts of the East. The prophet did not mean the Chaldeans, who were well known to him, as he repeatedly takes notice of them." From what part could they be so well replenished ? Is it not in our nature to consider any article the most genuine, which is imported in a direct way from the place where it is produced ? The East still continues to send her diviners and jugglers to all the contiguous isles and nations. 8. " Their land also is full of idols." This is a true and literal description of India : the traveller cannot proceed a MILE, through an inhabited country, without seeing idols and vestiges of idolatry in every direction. See their vessels, their implements of husbandry, their houses, their furniture, their ornaments, their sacred trees, their DOMESTIC and public temples ; and they all declare that the land is full of idols. 20, 21. " In that day a man shall cast his idols of silver, and his idols of gold, which they made each one for himself to worship, to the moles and to the bats; to go into the clefts of the rocks, and into the tops of the ragged rocks." This, no doubt, refers to the total destruction of idolatry. " To the bats" (Favals), those of the smaller species; as the larger are eaten by the Hindoos, and were also used as an article of food by the Assyrians. The East may be termed the country of bats ; they hang by hundreds and thousands in caves, ruins, and under the roofs of large buildings. To enter such places, especially after rain, is MOST offensive. I have lived in rooms where it was sickening to remain, on account of the smell produced by those creatures, and whence it was almost impossible to expel them. What from the appearance of the creature, its sunken diminutive eye, its short legs (with which it cannot walk), its leather-like wings, its ISAIAH. half hairy oily skin, its offensive ordure ever and anon dropping on the ground, its time for food and sport ; darkness, " when evil spirits also range abroad," makes it one of the most dis- gusting creatures to the people of the East. No wonder, then, that its name is used by the Hindoos (as by the prophet) for an epithet of contempt. When a house ceases to please the inha- bitants, on account of being haunted ! they say (and also do) give it to the bats. " Alas ! alas ! my wife and children are dead ; my houses, my buildings, are all given to the bats." " The bats are now the possessors of the once splendid mansions of royalty." People ask, when passing a tenantless house, " Why is this habitation given to the bats ? " " Go, mis- creant, go, or I will give thee to the bats." " The old magician has been swearing we shall all be given to the bats." But why are MOLES associated with bats? what is there about THEM to cause them to be so offensive ? They are, I believe, never spoken of with contempt ; nor is there an allusion, like that of the text, ever made to them. The word translated mole is confessedly of uncertain meaning. Calmet " Idols shall be thrown to the moles. " But the original word here is not CHOLED, but, as it stands in the printed copies, in two words, r\T\D "1DH CHAPHAR PHARUT. Since, then, the word CHAPHAR explicitly means to sink, and this is its proper idea, why not accept it here also, and dismiss the mole from this passage, considering CHAPHAR PHARUT as a duplication, an emphatical augmentation of the original idea? sinks, deep sinks ; the deepest of cavities. Dr. Harris and others say, some understand not an animal, but " a deep sink or subter- ranean vault." Where, then, many learned men differ, may we not think for ourselves ? especially as we have facts and verbal allusions to countenance another opinion. The Tamul translation of the word in Isaiah, which we render mole, is MOON-CHEURU, a disgusting animal, which the English call musk rat, though it differs much from the Sorex moschatus of Dr. Pallas, and also from the Mus zibethicus of M. Sarrazin. The Orientals have a great abhorrence of this creature, and ISAIAH. 395 neither cats nor dogs will bite it, so offensive is the odour. The serpent, which lives on rats, is afraid or disgusted with this animal ; for, on seeing it, it immediately gets out of the way. It has something of the shape and appearance of a mole ; its eyes are small, its nose is elongated, its skin and hair appear as if full of mange ; like the bat, it also delights in darkness, as it then seeks for food, and other enjoyments ; it loves to dwell in vaults, caves, sinks, or amongst rubbish. Wherever you find the bat, there in general will be found the moon-cheuru, for it is said to be attracted by the ordure of the former : so strong is its odour, that in PASSING through a room it leaves a stench behind, and in simply WALKING OVER A BOTTLE it will spoil that which it contains. The people say it is not generated according to the usual course of nature, but produced by FILTH. Call a man moon-cheuru, and if he dare, and can, he will instantly knock you down. " Get out of my way, thou abominable moon-cheuru ; I smell thee : go live with that filthy creature, it is thy relation. Didst thou not come into the world in the same way as the moon-cheuru? Po, po," i. e. go, go. The exasperation produced by such observations amounts al- most to madness. Since, then, several learned men believe the English word MOLE is not the proper rendering of the original, as there is not a natural association betwixt the mole and the bat ; since there is a companionship and similarity betwixt the moon-cheuru and the bat ; as they are both referred to for epithets of contempt and RUIN; as the LEARNED Danish (and other) translators of the Scriptures (in Tamul) have selected that animal, as the one meant by the prophet ; I also think it probable the moon-cheuru, and not the mole, is the one intended. (See on Isa. xxx. 22.) III. 15. " Grind the faces of the poor." " Ah ! my lord, do not thus crush my face : alas ! alas ! my nose and other features will soon be rubbed away. Is my face to be made quite flat with grinding ? My heart is squeezed, my heart is squeezed. That head man has been grinding the faces of all his people." 396 ISAIAH. 16. Moreover the Lord saith, Because the daughters of Zion are haughty, and walk with stretch ed-forth necks, and wanton eyes, walking and mincing as they go, and making a tinkling with their feet." In this, and the next eight verses, we have an accurate de- scription of the ornaments and manners of a Hindoo dancing girl. These females are given by their parents, when they are about seven years of age, to the temples, for the purposes of being taught to sing the praises of the gods ; of dancing before them, during some of their services, or when taken out in procession ; and to be given to the embraces of the priests and people. Near the temples and the topes, i. c. groves, are houses built for their accommodation, and there they are allowed to receive their paramours. When they become too old for the duties of their profession, their business is to train the young ones for their diabolical services and pleasures. " Walk with stretched-forth necks." When the females dance, they stretch forth their necks, and hold them awry, as if their heads were about to fall off their shoulders. " And wanton eyes." The margin, " deceiving with their eyes." As the votaries glide along, they roll their eyes (which are painted), and cast wanton glances on those around. " Walking and mincing ; " margin, " tripping nicely." Some parts of the dance consist of a tripping or mincing step, which they call tatte-tatte. The left foot is put first, and the inside of the right keeps following the heel of the former. " Making a tinkling with their feet." This sound is made by the orna- ments which are worn round their ankles. The first is a large silver curb, like that which is attached to a bridle ; the second is of the same kind, but surrounded by a great number of small BELLS ; the third resembles a bracelet ; and the fourth is a convex hoop, about two inches deep. 17. " Therefore the Lord will smite with a scab the crown of the head of the daughters of Zion, and the Lord will discover their secret parts." ISAIAH. 397 The long and beautiful hair in which they took so much pride was to be destroyed by the scab, and they were to be exposed to the public gaze, in allusion to the barbarous custom of some of the Eastern conquerors. 18. " In that day the Lord will take away the bravery of their tinkling ornaments about their feet, and their cauls, and their round tires like the moon." " Tinkling ornaments," i. e. those which have been de- scribed. " Cauls ; " margin, " net works." The caul is a strap, or girdle, about four inches long, which is placed on the top of the head, and which extends to the brow in a line with the nose. The one I have examined is made of gold, and has many joints; it contains forty-five rubies and nine pearls, which give it a net- work appearance. " Round tires like the moon." The shape of an ornament like the crescent moon is a great favourite in all parts of the East. In Judges viii. 21. it is said that Gideon " took away the ornaments that were on their camels' necks;" but in the Septuagint, the words ornaments is rendered, like the moon; so also in the margin of the English Bible. The crescent is worn by Parvati and Siva, from whom proceed the LINGAM, and the principal impurities of the system. No dancing girl is in full dress without her round tires like the moon. 19. " The chains, and the bracelets, and the mufflers." These consist, first, of one most beautifully worked, with a pendent ornament for the neck ; there is also a profusion of others, which go round the same part, and rest on the bosom. In making curious chains, the goldsmiths of England do not surpass those of the East. The Trichinopoly chains are greatly valued by the fair of our own country. The " bracelets " are large ornaments for the wrists, in which are sometimes enclosed small BELLS. The mufflers are, so far as I can judge, not for the face, but for the breasts. 398 ISAIAH. 20. " The bonnets and the ornaments of the legs, and the head -bands, and the tablets, and the ear-rings." " Bonnets." I cannot find an article of dress which cor- responds with this ; and in some translations it is rendered DIADEMS. Dr. Boothroyd has, I believe, given the proper word, TIRES, which is confirmed by the Tamul translation, ornaments for the head. The principal one is made of gold, and crowns the top of the head like a skull-cap. It is beau- tifully engraved in circles, and is sometimes studded with precious stones, and is connected with another oval ornament which touches the caul. " Ornaments of the LEGS." We have not any CUSTOM which illustrates the articles alluded to, for nothing of the kind is worn on any other part of the leg (excepting the toes), than those described in the sixteenth verse. If we give credit to other translators, it ought to have been rendered, "ornaments of the ARMS:" thus the German, the Dutch, the Danish, the Portuguese, and Tamul trans- lations, have ARMS instead of legs. The Septuagint has it, ^XiScovaj ; and according to Schrevelius, ARMILLA, i. e. a bracelet or jewel worn on the left arm, and given to foot soldiers, " was also worn by WOMEN." The same ornaments are also worn here on both ARMS, just above the elbows, and are generally made of silver or gold, to correspond with those round the wrists. " Head-bands." A gold girdle, most curiously worked, which is studded with rubies and beautiful pearls. It sur- rounds the head like a girdle or belt, and serves to bind and connect some other parts of the ornaments of the head. " Tablets ;" margin, " houses of the souls" Bishop Lowth, " perfume boxes ;" but this I greatly doubt, for perfume boxes are not common.* When the APPARENT etymology of a word is contradicted by custom, there is reason to doubt its accuracy ; but when the etymology and the custom agree, there is good reason for accepting the interpretation. " Houses * Ladies of rank have servants, whose business it is to carry the incense and other perfumes. ISAIAH. 399 of the soul" Is there any thing which corresponds with these in the dress of an Eastern female? There is! The dancing girls, the wives of the pandarams, and MANY other women, wear an ornament resembling a house, and sometimes a temple which contains an image, corresponding with the 4>aAAo of the Greeks, and the priapus of the Romans. The following are representations of two in my possession. (See on Deut. iv. 16.) I think it, therefore, more than probable, that these were what the prophet alluded to by " houses of the soul" * " The ear-rings." Dr. Boothroyd says, " Schroeder has proved that O^nbil does not signify ear-rings, but the images of serpents, which were worm as charms, to secure from, and to drive away evils." But would the dress of an Eastern female be complete without EAR-RINGS ? Certainly not May not the signification, " images of serpents," rather refer to the devices of serpents which are made on the ear-rings, and used for the purposes alluded to ? 21. " The rings and nose jewels." " Rings." These are worn on the first, third, and fourth fingers. " Nose jewels." From the septum, or middle filament, is a pendant which sometimes contains three rubies * These ornaments are generally made of silver or gold, and are some- times highly embellished with precious stones. 400 ISAIAH. and one pearl ; and it nearly touches the upper lip. The left nostril is pierced, and contains a ring about an inch in diameter; another lies flat on the nose, and occasionally consists of a fine pearl surrounded with rubies. 22. " The changeable suits of apparel, and the mantles, and the wimples, and the crisping-pins." The Eastern ladies take great pride in having many changes of apparel, because their fashions NEVER alter. Thus, the rich brocades worn by their grandmothers, are equally fash- ionable for themselves. " The mantles." A loose robe which is gracefully crossed on the bosom. " Wimples." Probably the fine muslin which is sometimes thrown over the head and body. " Crisping-pins." This has been translated the " little purses," or CLASPS ! When the dancing girl is in full dress, half her long hair is folded in a knot on the top of the head, and the other half hangs down her back in three tails. To keep these from unbraiding, a small clasp ! or gold hoop, curiously worked, is placed at the end of each tail.* 23. " The glasses, and the fine linen, and the hoods, and the vails." I have seen a dress in which were six pieces of silvered glass, about an inch square : but this may mean something bright or burnished, to assist in dressing. The Tamul word Kan-dde, translated " looking-glass," conveys no such meaning. It is derived from Kan the eye, and Ade to play. Dr. Adam Clarke says, the word which in Exod. xxxviii. 8. is translated " looking glass," ought to be " mirror." " Fine linen." Perhaps muslin of the most delicate tex- ture, which was formerly so famous in all parts of the world. " The hoods." I cannot find any thing which agrees with these. " Veils." When Rebekah saw Isaac for the first time, " she took a vail and covered herself;" and from that time to the present the custom has not varied. * See the Egyptian dancing girl in the sixty-second plate of Calmet. ISAIAH. 401 24. " And it shall come to pass, that instead of sweet smell, there shall be stink ; and instead of a girdle, a rent : and instead of well-set hair, baldness ; and instead of a stomacher, a girding of sackcloth ; and burning, instead of beauty." " Sweet smell." No one ever enters a company without being well perfumed ; and in addition to various scents and oils, they are adorned with numerous garlands made of the most odoriferous flowers. " A girdle." Probably that which goes round the waist, which serves to keep the garments from falling whilst the girls are dancing. It is sometimes made of silver. " Well-set hair." No ladies pay more attention to the dressing of the hair than do these ; for as they never wear caps, they take great delight in this their natural ornament. " Baldness," in a woman, makes her most contemptible ; and formerly, to shave their head was a most degrading punishment. " Stomacher." I once saw a dress beautifully plaited and stiffened for the front> but I do not think it common. Here, then, we have a strong proof of the accurate observ- ations of Isaiah in reference to the Jewish ladies ; he had seen their motions, and enumerated their ornaments : and here we have a most melancholy picture of the fallen state of " the daughters of Zion." V. 18. "Woe unto them that draw iniquity with cords of vanity, and sin as it were with a cart rope." Dr. Boothroyd " Woe to them who draw out iniquity as a long cable, and sin as the thick traces of a wain." Some think this metaphor is derived from rope-making; others that SIN and INIQUITY denote the punishment. Dr. Adam Clarke believes the prophet refers to IDOL SACRIFICES. " The victims they offered were splendidly decked out for the sacrifice. Their horns and hoofs were often gilded, and their heads dressed out with fillets and garlands. The cords of vanity D D 402 ISAIAH. may refer to the silken strings by which they were led to the altar; some of which were unusually thick." But may not the passage allude to the immense cables with which the heathen draw their sacred cars ? In these very large vehicles, the gods are placed when taken out in pro- cession, and sometimes five hundred men and upwards draw that iniquity with long cables. To do this is a work of great merit ; hence men of the first respectability join in the service. 23. " Which justify the wicked for reward." (Job xv.34. " Fire shall consume the tabernacles of bribery.") Not a man in a thousand would hesitate to give or receive a bribe when there was the least chance of its being kept secret. Nearly all the situations which are at the disposal of native chiefs, are acquired by ki-cooli/ 9 i. e. the reward of the hand : and yet there are numerous proverbs against this system. In the book called Vdnan-Kovi there is a sentiment like that contained in the quotation from Job ; for there a young female is described " as living in the desert, which was as HOT as the house of him who takes bribes." VII. 18. " And it shall come to pass in that day, that the Lord shall hiss for the fly that is in the utter- most part of the rivers of Egypt, and for the bee that is in the land of Assyria." Some commentators think " this metaphor is taken from the practice of those that keep bees ; who draw them out of their hives into the fields, and lead them back again, HI. " To make smooth, as the head stripped of its hair, occurs (Ezra ix. 3.) literally, And I made my head smooth from hair. Isa. 1. 6. I gave my cheeks to those who made them smooth ; namely, by plucking off the hair, which according to the Eastern notion was, and still is, an indignity of the highest kind." The learned Lexicographer thinks the passage in Isaiah translated " peeled " refers to the same thing. Dr. A. Clarke says " PEELED SMOOTHED either relating to the practice of the Egyptian priests, who made their bodies smooth by SHAVING off their hair, or rather to the country's being made smooth, perfectly plain, and level, by the overflow- ing of the Nile." The Tamul translation has, instead of " peeled," " shaved ;" which I believe to be the true meaning. Parkhurst is right in saying to pluck off the hair (or shave), is a great indignity in the East. To say the king has SIRITU, or SAVARITU, i. e. SHAVED his enemies, shows at once they have been com- pletely in his power. " The boasting foe says he will SHAVE us all : but let him take care of his own hair." " Yes, wretch, I will shave thee." (See PARTICULARLY on Isa. vii. 20.) " In the same day shall the Lord SHAVE with a razor that is hired," &,c. (Also on Deut. xxi. 12, 13., and 2 Chronicles xvi. 14.) 4. " Meted out." " I will mete out the valley of Suc- coth." Dr. A. Clarke : " Dividing and METING out signify possession." The definition of the learned Doctor is in exact accordance with the Eastern notion : thus the British ISAIAH. 419 have ALLATU, *. e. MEASURED India, means they have sub- dued, portioned out, taken possession of it. The idea seems to be taken from the practice of dividing the land of a con- quered foe, and giving it out for the possession and enjoy- ment of strangers ; or even to those whose real property it was. 5. " Trodden down." Joshua called the captains of his army, and said, " Come near ; put your feet upon the necks of these kings. And they came near, and put their feet upon the necks of them." Look, also, at the exciting lan- guage of the great deliverer (chap. Ixiii. 3.) : " I will tread them in mine anger, and trample them in my fury." (Ps. cxix. 118. Isa. xiv. 19.; xxv. 10. ; xxviii. 3. and 18. Lam. i. 15. Dan. viii. 13. Mic. vii. 10. Luke xxi. 24. Heb. x. 29.) In the wars of the gods and giants, frequent mention is made of the savage triumph of the conquerors, who trampled on the bodies of the vanquished. Thus Vishnoo stood on the body of the demon he had conquered ; and thus do those who overcome others at this day. " Get out of my way, contemptible fellow, or I will TREAD upon thee." " My feet shall soon press thy neck." " Thou art not good enough for me to tread upon." " Trodden down." 7. "In that time shall the present be brought unto the Lord of Hosts of a people scattered and peeled." 6. This completes the degradation of the vanquished. They were now to be presented as SLAVES to the conqueror ; al- luding to the custom of presenting prisoners of war as slaves to the victors. See, then, the gradation of their misery ; they were, 1. To be SCATTERED, L e. conquered, dispersed; 2. Were to be SHAVED, as a token of their captivity ; 3. They and their lands were to be meted out, divided, and taken pos- session of; 4. Were to be TRODDEN under foot, to denote their misery ; and, 5. To complete the picture, were to be presented as SLAVES to the conquerors. E E 2 420 ISAIAH. XXI. 5. " Arise, ye princes, and anoint the shield/' (Hab. i. 16. " They sacrifice unto their net, and burn incense unto their drag.") Strange as it may appear, the Hindoos make offerings to their weapons of war, and to those used in hunting. Fishermen offer incense to the bag in which they carry their fish, and also to the net ; thus, whilst the incense is burning, they hold the different implements in the smoke. They also, when able, sacrifice a sheep or a fowl, which is said to make the ceremony more acceptable to Varuna, the god of the sea. Should the tackle thus consecrated not prove successful, they conclude some part of the ceremony has not been properly performed, and therefore must be repeated. But, in addition to this, they often call for their magicians to bless the waters, and to intercede for prosperity. Nor is this sacrificing to implements and weapons confined to fishermen, hunters, and warriors ; for even artisans do the same thing to their tools ; as also do students and scholars to their books. Thus at the feast called nava-ratere, i. e. the nine nights, carpenters, masons, goldsmiths, weavers, and all other tradesmen may be seen offering to their tools. Ask them a reason, and they say the incense and ceremonies are acceptable to Sarusa-pathi, the beautiful goddess of Brahma.* 8. " And he cried, A lion : my lord." The margin has this, cried " AS a lion." The Tamul translation also has this, as a lion ; and no- thing can be more common than to say of a man who has a loud voice, or of one who makes a great noise, orou, singam, pole, sattam, pannu-kerar, i. e. he makes a noise like a lion. * Tyerman and Bennet, in their travels in a more remote province of India, met with a similar usage : they say, " This is the day on which the Hindoos pay divine honours to the implements of their various trades, the files and hammers of the smiths, the chisels and saws of the carpenters, the diamond of the glazier, the crucible of the goldsmith. Thus do they resemble those of old, who sacrificed to their net, and burnt incense to their drag." ISAIAH. 421 Thus did the man in the watchtower cry aloud like a lion. 9. " Babylon is fallen, is fallen." This is a prophecy, and yet speaks as if the event to which it relates had been already accomplished. In Jeremiah, also, li. 8., it is said, " Babylon is suddenly fallen and destroyed." David says, " Thou hast smitten all mine enemies." Dr. A. Clarke says, " That is, thou wilt smite ! " He speaks in full confidence of God's interference, and knows that he shall as surely have the victory as if he had it already. In these selec- tions the PAST tense is used instead of the FUTURE. He who came from Edom with dyed garments from Bozrah, is made to say, " I will stain all my raiment." Dr. A. Clarke has, " And I have stained." In this instance, therefore, the FUTURE is used for the PAST. (Ps. Ixix.) : " Let their table become a snare before them ; and that which should have been for their welfare, let it become a trap. Let their eyes be darkened, that they see not ; and make their loins continually to shake. Pour out thine indignation upon them, and let thy wrathful anger take hold of them. Let their habitation be desolate ; and let none dwell in their tents." Dr. Boothroyd renders these imprecations in the future, because he believes the whole to refer to judgments that SHOULD fall on the enemy. Dr. A. Clarke says, " The execrations here, and in the following verses, should be read in the FUTURE tense, because they are PREDICTIVE, and not in the IMPERATIVE mood, as if they were the offspring of the Psalmist's resentment." It is common in Eastern speech, in order to show the CER- TAINTY of any thing which SHALL be done, to speak of it as having been ALREADY accomplished. Thus the Psalmist, in speaking of the iniquities^ of bad men as having already re- ceived their reward, evidently alludes to the CERTAINTY of future punishment. It is therefore of the first importance to know in what tense the verb is meant, as that alone will give a true view of the intention of the writer. E E 3 422 ISAIAH. In the Tamul language the PAST tense is often elegantly used for the FUTURE : thus, in the Nan-nool (the Native grammar) this distinction is beautifully illustrated. Does a note require to be taken to another place in a very short time, the mes- senger, on being charged not to loiter on the way, replies, " Nan vanthu vuttain" i. e. "I have already RETURNED :" whereas he has not taken a single step of his journey. " My friend," asks the priest, " when do you intend to go to the sacred place and perform your vows?" " Nan poye van-thain" i. e. " I have been and returned," which means he is going immediately. " Carpenter, if you are not quick in finishing that car, the gods will be angry with you." " My lord, the work is already done ; " when perhaps some months will have to elapse before the work can be finished.* But they also use the PAST for the FUTURE, to denote CERTAINTY as well as SPEED. Do the ants begin to run about with their eggs in their mouth, it is said, " maUy-pay-yattu" it has rained, though a single drop has not fallen on the ground. The meaning is, the sign is so CERTAIN, that all doubt is removed. " Why does that man go to the village ? Does he not know the cholera is sweeping as a besom ? Alas ! alas ! avoon-chetu ponan ,- he is already dead ;" which means, he will certainly die.f Should the friends of a young man en- quire whether he may go to sea ; the soothsayer says (if the signs are unfavourable), " He is already drowned." But the FUTURE is also used instead of the past, as in the case of the deliverer from Bozrah : " I will stain," for " I have stained." Should a man refuse to obey an officer, and * When Messrs. Tyerman and Bennet told King Pomare of Tahite, that they wished to have the model of a canoe, he replied, " It is made long ago ;" meaning, that it should certainly and immediately be done. Vol. i. p. 123. f The people of the East believe the cholera to be infectious, and I think the same : but when due precautions are taken, there is scarcely any cause for fear. I have known a whole village depopulated ; but am per- suaded it would not have been the case, had more attention been paid to cleanliness, and to the modes in which the sick were attended to, and their dead buried. ISAIAH. 423 I quire, " Where is the order of the king?" the reply is, He WILL command," which strongly intimates it has been done, and that other consequences will follow. (1 Sam. iii. 13. See margin, 1 Kings iii. 13.; also vi. 1., and xv. 25. 2 Kings viii. 16. Dan. ii. 28. ; also iii. 29. ; for all of which see marginal readings. See Dr. A. Clarke on Matt. iii. 17. also xxvi. 28., blood is shed, for WILL be shed.) XXII. 17. " The Lord will carry thee away with a mighty captivity, and will surely cover thee." (Es- ther vii. 8. 2 Sam. xix. 4. Ps. Ixix. 7. and Ixxiii. 6. Prov. x. 6. Jer. iii. 25. Ezek. vii. 18.) To be covered is a sign of mourning, of degradation, and inferiority. People in great sorrow cover their faces with their robes ; thus may be seen the weeping mother and sorrow-struck father : they cover themselves from the sight of others, to conceal their dejection and tears. But when people are ashamed, also, they cover their heads and faces. For a man to say he will cover another, intimates superiority, and shows that he will put him to confusion. " Yes, the man who was brought up and nourished by the Modeliar, is now greater than his benefactor, for he COVERS him." " Look at that parasitical banyan tree ; when it first began to grow on the other tree, it was a very small plant, but it has been al- lowed to nourish, and now it COVERS the parent stock." Thus, those who were to be carried into captivity, were to be COVERED, in token of their sorrow, degradation, and inferiority. 18. " He will surely violently turn, and toss thee like a ball, into a large country : there shalt thou die." The Hebrew has, instead of " large country," " land large of spaces." This figure, violently to turn thee, appears to be taken from the custom of a conqueror who rolls on the ground the person he has vanquished : hence it is common to say, " I E E 4 424 ISAIAH. will roll thee," for " I will triumph over thee." " You roll me, fellow ! I will roll you and turn you upside down." Does a man overcome another in argument, the bystanders say, " Ah ! how he has rolled him." " Nay, nay, you have not rolled me yet." But to say, you shall be rolled, means also, you shall die ; which seems to be implied in the threatened cap- tivity, for " there shall thou die." 22. " And the key of the house of David will I lay upon his shoulder." How much was I delighted when I first saw the people, especially the Moors, going along the streets with each his key on his shoulder. The handle is generally made of brass (though sometimes of silver), and is often nicely worked in a device of filigree. The way it is carried is to have the corner of a kerchief tied to the ring ; the key is then placed on the shoulder, and the kerchief hangs down in front. At other times they have a bunch of large keys, and then they have half on one side of the shoulder and half on the other. For a man thus to march along with a large key on his shoulder, shows at once that he is a person of conse- quence. " Raman is in great favour with the Modeliar, for he now carries the key." " Whose key have you got on your shoulder?" " I shall carry my key on my own shoulder." The key of the house of David was to be on the shoulder of Eliakim, who was a type of him who had the " govern- ment " " upon his shoulder ; " " the mighty God, the ever- lasting Father, the Prince of peace." 23. "I will fasten him as a nail in a sure place." (Ezra ix. 8.) When a man in power has given a situation to another, it is said of the favoured individual, " He is fastened as a nail." " Yes, his situation is fixed, he will not be moved." " What ! has Tamban lost his glory ? I thought he had been fastened as a nail." ISAIAH. 425 XXV. 10, 11. " Moab shall be trodden down under him, even as straw is trodden down for the dunghill. And he shall spread forth his hands in the midst of them, as he that swimmeth." (The margin has, instead of " trodden down," " or threshed in Mad- menah") Dr. A. Clarke, has " for the dunghill," " under the wheels of the car." This may allude to their ancient cars of war, under which Moab was to be crushed, or under her own heathen cars, in which the gods were taken out in procession. To spread forth the hands, as a person when swimming, may refer to the involuntary stretching forth of the limbs, when the body was crushed with the weight of the car ; or to the custom of those who, when they go before the car in pro- cession, prostrate themselves on the ground, and spread out their hands and legs as if swimming ; till they have measured the full distance the car has to go, by throwing themselves on the earth at the length of every six feet, and by motions as if in the act of swimming. The whole of this is done as a penance for sin, or in compliance with a vow made in sickness or despair. XXVIII. 15. " We have made a covenant with death." Of those who have often had a narrow escape from death, it is said, " Those fellows have entered into an agreement with death." " They have made a friendship ; death injure them ! chee, chee, they understand each other." XXIX. 4. " And thou shalt be brought down, and shalt speak out of the ground, and thy speech shall be low, out of the dust, and thy voice shall be, as of one that hath a familiar spirit, out of the ground, and thy speech shall whisper out of the dust." The whole of this refers to the way in which wizards pro- fess to hold communications with evil or departed spirits. (See on Deut. xviii. 11.) 426 ISAIAH. XXX. H. "And he shall break it as the breaking of the potter's vessel that is broken in pieces ; he shall not spare : so that there shall not be found in the bursting of it a sherd to take fire from the hearth, or to take water withal out of the pit." This solemn threatening refers to the Jews for their wicked reliance " in the shadow of Egypt :" they were to be reduced to the greatest straits for thus trusting in the heathen. It is pro- verbial to say of those who have been robbed, and left in des- titute circumstances, " They have not even a potsherd, not a broken chatty in their possession." To appreciate this idea, it must be remembered that nearly all their cooking utensils, all their domestic vessels, are made of earthenware ; so that not to have a potsherd, a fragment left, shows the greatest misery. Even Job, in all his poverty and wretchedness, was not so des- titute, for he had " a potsherd to scrape himself withal." " A sherd to take fire from the hearth." This allusion may be seen illustrated every morning in the East. Should the good woman's fire have been extinguished in the night, she takes a potsherd in the morning, and goes to her neighbour for a little fire to rekindle her own ; and as she goes along, she may be seen every now and then blowing the burning ember, lest it should go out. They were not to have a sherd, out of which they could drink a little water. Not having pumps, they are obliged to have something to take water from the well or tank. Of a very poor country it is said, " In those parts there is not a sherd out of which you can drink a little water." " The wretchedness of the people is so great, they have not a sherd with which to take water from the tank." 22. " Ye shall defile also the covering of thy graven images of silver, and the ornament of thy molten images of gold : thou shalt cast them away as a men- struous cloth; thou shalt say unto it, Get thee hence." By this passage we are strongly reminded of the idols, ISAIAH. 427 which were to be cast unto the moles and the bats: the offensive allusions in both places are nearly related, and show with what sovereign contempt the gods were to be treated. The indecent reference may be heard in every street and bazar, from the mouths of people of every class, and even children, who, so far from being reproved, are only laughed at. When females quarrel, they often call each other toomy-cheely^ and, strange to say, men do the same thing. Thus were the " images of gold " to be cast away, " as a menstruous cloth," saying, " Get thee hence." , 24. " Shall eat clean provender, which hath been winnowed with the shovel and with the fan." Those who form their opinion of the latter article by an English FAN, will entertain a very erroneous notion. That of the East is made of the fibrous part of the palmirah or cocoa tree leaves; it measures about a yard each way, and is of the annexed shape. Thus may be seen the farmer wafting away the chaff from the corn, having the round part of the fan in his hand : and thus may be seen the females in the morning, tossing in the air the husk from their rice. (See on Jer. xv. 7.) 29. " Ye shall have a song, as in the night when a holy solemnity is kept." (Job xxxv. 1 0. " Who giveth songs in the night." Psa. xlii. 8. ; Ixxvii. 6.) Music is considered far more enchanting at night than at any other period ; "it gives cheerfulness to darkness, and pleasure to the heart." Their favourite proverb is, " the DAY SONG is like the flower of the gourd," i. e. devoid of smell. Nothing is more common than for adults to sing themselves to sleep : thus, as they recline, they beat a tabret and chant the praises of their gods, till through heaviness they can t scarcely articulate a word. At other times the mother or wife gently taps the instrument, and in soft tones lulls the in- 428 ISAIAH. dividual to repose. In the night, should they not be able to sleep, they have again recourse to the same charm, and not until they shall have fairly gone off in fresh slumbers, will their companions have any rest. Hence in passing through a village or town at midnight, may be heard people at their nightly song, to grace the festive scene, to beguile away their time, to charm their fears, or to procure refreshing sleep. The Jews then were to be delivered from the proud Assyrian's yoke, and again to have their pleasant song in the night. S2. " And in every place where the grounded staff shall pass, which the Lord shall lay upon him, it shall be with tabrets and harps : and in battles of shaking will he fight with it." (The margin has, in- stead of " every place where the grounded staff shall pass," " every passing of the rod founded :" and, instead of " lay upon him," " cause to rest upon him.") Dr. Boothroyd has, " And wherever shall pass the rod of correction." Dr. Adam Clarke, " The rod of his correction." The following is a free translation of the Tamul version : " It shall come to pass in all places, after the great battle against the fixed (grounded) sceptre, the Lord will give rest ; therefore shall it be celebrated with tabrets and harps." Whose staff or sceptre was this ? Jehovah's. It was " grounded, " rooted, strongly fixed. Who were to fight against this sceptre? The proud Assyrians, " in battles of shaking." What was to be the result of the contest ? The Tamul says, " The Lord will give rest." How would the feelings of the emancipated Jews be shown ? By songs and musical instruments. They were to have " a holy solem- nity," and their nightly song, and to go forth with tabrets and harps, in joyful exultation over the fallen foe. A place was prepared for the wicked monarch, the " son of the morn- ing ;" he was now to be " cut down to the ground," and to " be brought down to hell, to the sides of the pit." " For ISAIAH. 429 Tophet is ordained of old, yea, for the king it is prepared ; he hath made it deep and large : the pile thereof is fire and much wood (Boothroyd, fiery pyre) : the breath of the Lord, like a stream of brimstone, doth kindle it." Have we here any allusion to the immense sacrifices of the Assurs, in which the pits were said to be miles in depth ; where they offered hecatombs of animals, and into which many of their chiefs heroically sprang, and were destroyed, or restored by the supreme god of their mythology ? XXXII. 2. An hiding-place from the wind as rivers of water in a dry place." " Ah ! that benevolent man, he has long been my shelter from the wind ; he is a river to the dry country." XXXIII. 11. "Ye shall conceive chaff; ye shall bring forth stubble." When married females quarrel, they often say, " Yes, thy womb shall give children, but they shall all be as chaff." " Yes, barren one, you may have a child, but it will be blind and dumb." " True, true, you will bring forth a pdmbu- vethe," i. e. a generation of serpents. k XXXIV. 11. But the cormorant and the bittern shall possess it ; the owl also and the raven shall dwell in it : and he shall stretch out upon it the line of confusion, and the stones of emptiness." This passage refers to the DESOLATION of the enemies of God. Their splendid palaces were to be overgrown with thorns, and dragons were to find there their habitation ; and the owl also, " the fearful bird of night," was there to have her dwelling- place. (See on Chap. xiii. 21.) " He shall stretch out upon it the line of confusion, and the stones of emptiness." This is confessedly a very difficult passage : Dr. Boothroyd trans- lates, " He shall stretch over her the line of desolation, and let fall the plummet of emptiness." The Tamul translation 430 ISAIAH. has it, " Upon that he will hold (stretch) the thread of the open place, and the hanging of emptiness." Does not this refer to the spider, which was also to occupy the forsaken mansions of the great ! There was she to stretch out her thread and hanging of emptiness. It accords well with Ori- ental sentiments to associate the spider with ruins and neg- lected places: hence the expressive couplet on desolation, quoted by Dr. A. Clarke (from Sir Wm. Jones), on Zeph. ii. 14. :] " The spider holds the veil in the palace of Caesar : the owl stands sentinel in the watchtower of Afrasiab." (See on Zeph. ii. 14.) XXXVIII. 12. "Mine age is departed, and is re- moved from me as a shepherd's tent." The shepherds of the East are often obliged to remove their flocks to distant places to find pasturage ; hence their habitations are exceedingly light, in order to be the more easily removed. The " lodge in a garden of cucumbers," and the frail resting-place of the shepherd, greatly resemble each other. 17. " Thou hast cast all my sins behind thy back." Jeroboam preferred " molten images" to the true God, and therefore the Lord said unto him by Ahijah, thou " hast cast me behind thy back." The Levites said of the children of Israel, they " rebelled against thee, and cast thy law behind their backs." The Lord said of the wicked cities of Samaria and Jerusalem, " Thou hast forgotten me, and cast me behind thy back." This metaphor, to cast behind the back, is in common use, and has sometimes a very offensive sig- nification. The expression is used to denote the most com- plete and contemptuous rejection of a person or thing. " The king has cast his minister behind his back," i. e. fully removed him, treated him with sovereign contempt. " Alas ! alas ! he has thrown my petition behind his back ; all my efforts are defeated." " Yes, man, I have forgiven you ; all your ISAIAH. 431 crimes are behind my back : but take care not to offend me again." XL. 1 1. " He shall feed his flock like a shepherd ; he shall gather the lambs with his arm, and carry them in his bosom, and shall gently lead those that are with young." The shepherds of antiquity were " an abomination unto the Egyptians," and so they are among the Hindoos : and as the Egyptians would not eat with the Hebrews, so neither will the various castes of India eat with their shepherds. The pastoral office in the East is far more responsible than in England, and it is only by looking at it in its various relations and peculiarities, as it exists there, that we gain a correct view of many passages of Scripture. Flocks at home are generally in fine fields, surrounded by hedges or fences ; but there they are generally in the wilderness, and were it not for the shep- herds would go astray, and be exposed to the wild beasts. As the sons of Jacob had to go to a great distance to feed their flocks, so still they are often absent for one and two months together, in the place where there is plenty of pastu- rage. In their removals, it is an interesting sight to see the shepherds carrying the lambs in their bosoms, and also to witness how gently they " lead those that are with young." Another interesting fact is the relationship which exists be- twixt the pastor and his flock ; for being so much together, they acquire a friendly feeling : hence the sheep " know his voice, and a stranger will they not follow." Does he wish to remove to another place, he goes to such a distance as that they can hear his voice, and then he imitates the noise made by a sheep, and immediately they may be seen bounding along to the spot where he is. Thus " he goeth before them, and the sheep follow him, for they know his voice." But another way of leading a flock, especially where there are goats, is to take the branch of a tree and keep showing it to them, which causes them to run along more cheerfully. He also calleth 432 ISAIAH. " his own sheep by name," and it is interesting to notice how appropriate the names are to the animals. Thus, should a sheep or a cow have a bad temper (or any other failing), it will be called the angry one, the malicious, or sulky, or wandering one ; the killer of her young, the fiend ; the mad one, the jumper, the limper, the dwarf, the barren, the fruitful, the short, the fat, the long, the tricky one. The cows also are named after some of their goddesses, particularly after the wives of Siva, Vishnoo, and Scandan ; thus Lechymy, Parvati, and Valle, maybe heard in every herd. To bulls are given the names of men and devils ; as Vyraven, Pulliar, Mathan, &c. Before the sun shall have gained his meridian, the shepherds seek out a shady place, where they may make their flocks " to rest at noon." As the shepherd who mounted the throne of Israel carried his sling and his stone, so these generally have the same missiles by which they correct the wanderers, and keep off their foes : hence the dog is scarcely ever used in the tending or guiding of flocks. As was Jacob, so here the shepherds are often remunerated in kind, and therefore have not any other wages (except now and then a little cloth or rice); hence, often, a certain number of the rams are given as pay, and to this also the Patriarch may allude : " The rams of thy flock have I not eaten." In most of these particulars we see illustrations of Him who " is the Shepherd, the stone of Israel," who laid prostrate the " roaring lion " of hell, and who keeps us in safety, so that the foe cannot pluck us out of his hand. 12. " Who hath measured the waters in the hollow of his hand, and meted out heaven with the span ; and comprehended the dust of the earth in a mea- sure ; and weighed the mountains in scales, and the hills in a balance." Here we have a vivid illustration of the dignified and gor- geous imagery of the East. " What man can take up the waters of the unknown dark ocean in his hands ? " " Whose ISAIAH. 433 fingers are long enough to span the'arch of heaven ? " " Who can bring together all the dust of the earth in measure?" " Who can weigh the hills and mountains in scales ? " These figures largely show the insignificance of man. 15. " Behold, the nations are as a drop of a bucket, and are counted as the small dust of the balance : behold, he taketh up the isles as a very little thing." Here we have another allusion to the majesty of Jehovah, who is infinite in all his perfections. Dr. Boothroyd has, " Behold, the islands he taketh up as an atom." The Tamul translation has it ANU, i. e. atom ; which is in harmony with the figure, " The nations are as a drop," and " small dust;" and the islands are like an atom in his hands. XLII. 2. " He shall not cry, nor lift up, nor cause his voice to be heard in the street." (Matt. xii. 19.) When two or more people go along the streets, they speak in such a loud voice, that all who pass may hear. Has a person gained or lost a cause in a court of justice, he voci- ferates his story again and again to his companions, as he goes along the road. This practice may have arisen from the custom of the superior walking the first, which makes it necessary for him to speak in a loud voice, that those who are in the rear may hear his observations. Men of a boisterous temper, who wish to raise a clamour, or those who are the leaders in any exploit, always bawl aloud when they talk tp their companions, as they go along the road. 14. "I will destroy and devour at once." The He- brew has, instead of devour i swallow, or sup up. (Hab. i. 9. " They shall come all for violence : their faces shall SUP up as the East wind." Gen. xli. 6. " And, behold, seven thin ears, and blasted with the East wind." Exod. x. 13. "The Lord brought an East wind upon the land all that day, and all F F 434- ISAIAH. that night; and when it was morning, the East wind brought the locusts." (Ezek. xvii. 10. "When the East wind toucheth it, it shall wither." Jonah iv. 8.) The words devour, swallow, or sup, as used by Isaiah, and Habakkuk, evidently allude to the same thing. Jehovah had refrained himself, but now he was about to come forth and utterly destroy his enemies. When a king wishes to con- vey an idea that he will completely destroy his foes, he says, I will MULLUNGA-VAIN, *. e. " swallow them up." Habak- kuk says of the Chaldeans, " Their faces shall sup up, as the East wind." Of a man who has a savage face, it is said, " He has a MULLUNGERA-MUGGAM, a devouring face." " Look at that fellow's face, you may see he could swallow you." But the Chaldeans are compared to the destructive EAST wind ; and, it is a fact, that the same wind is spoken of in similar terms in all parts of the East. Its name is ALLIK- KERA-KATTU, i. e. the destroying wind, and so sure as it shall blow for any length of time, will vegetation be destroyed, How this is produced is, perhaps, amongst the inexplicable mysteries of nature. Its destructive qualities on vegetable nature in England are well known, and yet it would appear that not one time in a thousand can it blow in an uninter-* rupted current from the distant East, because there are always, so far as I have been able to observe, counter cur-, rents. Another fact is, that, however far East you may travel, it is still the same wind L which brings destruction. The allusion, therefore, in Genesis (and other places) is illustrated by the continued malignity of that wind. 19. " Who is blind, but my servant ? Or deaf, as my messenger that I sent ? " I think we are to understand this as alluding to the AGENT employed by the Lord, i. e. he was so absorbed with his message as to be blind and deaf to all other attractions. When the Yogee affects to deliver a message from the gods, ISAIAH, 433 or when he speaks of futurity, he is as one who is blind and deaf; and so insensible is he to external things, that what- ever sights may pass before his vision, and whatever sounds may fall upon his ear, he appears to be altogether insensible to their power. The people say he is so full of the deity as, to be unconscious of passing scenes. XLIII. 24. " Thou hast bought me no sweet cane." Dr. Boothroyd has " sweet reed." Tamul, (t sweet bark !" This probably means cinnamon, as we know that " sweet bark" was used by Moses in the service of the sanctuary; and it is in connection with the sacrifices of the Most High that it is here mentioned by the prophet. XLIV. 3. " I will pour water upon him that i thirsty." This probably alludes to the way in which people bathe. They do not in general, as in England, plunge into a stream or river, but go near a well or tank ; and then, with a little vessel, pour water on their heads and bodies. See the man, who is weary, he calls for his neighbour, or servant, or wife, to accompany him to the well ; he then takes off his clothes (excepting a small strip round his loins), sits on his hams, and the individual who assists begins to " POUR water " ijpon him, till he be refreshed, and exclaims, POTH^M, i. e. sufficient. In this way his body is invigorated, his thirst quenched, and he is made ready for his food. 20. " He feedeth on ashes : a deceived heart hath turned him aside, that he cannot deliver his soul, nor say, Is there not a lie in my right hand?" " That wicked fellow has now to eat olust or ashes." " Begone, wretch ! for soon wilt thou have to feed on dust." The man who is accused of a great crime, takes dust, or ashes, in his mouth, and thus swears that he is innocent, F F 2 436 ISAIAH. The idea seems to be, if I am guilty, may my mouth soon be filled with earth as in death. " A lie in my right hand." " The right hand is the abode of truth." The idols are often made with the RIGHT hand lifted up, to show that they are truth ; and men thus swear, by lifting up the RIGHT hand. In the ninth and twentieth verses (inclusive) of this chapter, we have an admirable disquisition on the absurdity of idolatry ; and neither can the maker of idols nor their worshippers say, there is " not a lie in my right hand." XLV. 10. " Woe unto him that saith unto his father, What begettest thou? or to the woman, What hast thou brought forth ? " Dr. Boothroyd has, " to a mother, what dost thou bring forth ?" Unnatural as is this language, yet children often use it to their parents. Listen to a son who has been chided by his father for bad conduct, " Why did you beget me ? Did I ask you ? Why reprove me for evil ? Whose fault is it ? Had you not begotten me, should I have been here?" The father replies, " Alas ! for the day in which I became thy parent." The mother says, " Why did I bear this dog ? Have I given birth to a monkey ? Yes ! I am the mother of this ass." 20. " Pray unto a god that cannot save." Most of the prayers of the Hindoos consist in vain repe- titions ; but they also have some prayers replete with good sentiments. The following (which partakes also of the nature of an amulet} is addressed to the supreme Siva, and is taken from the book called Purramothara-Kandam. " May Siva, who is at the head of all things, wisdom personified, the faultless incantation, the atom of atoms, and at the same time towering mountains, who is the be- ginning of all souls, suffer no evil to happen us in this world ! May he who, taking the form of water, provides food for the ISAIAH. 437 preservation of all the lives in the world, that they suffer not, protect me, that I fall not into rivers formed by rains, and from all the congregated watery clouds, on the summits of lofty mountains ! May Siva, who, at the end of the Yuga, reduces all worlds to ashes with divine fire ; and who, while the goddess Parvati beats the cymbal, dances to it, preserve me from evil in the forest and from powerful winds ! May Siva, who has three pure eyes and four shining faces, whose hands hold the bounding deer and the battle-axe, who grants requests and dispels fear, who has four arms, and whose body shines like lightning, protect me in the Eastern quarter ! May Akora-monti (one of Siva's faces) the formidable, in whose hands are the deer, battle-axe, trident, elephant hook, skull of Brahma, and the drum, who has four faces and three eyes with a black body, protect me in the Southern quarter ! May Sacti-yosathi (another of his faces), who while bearing in his two hands the female deer and the string of beads, raises them to dispel fears and grant prayers, and who has four faces and three eyes, protect me on the Western side ! May Vama-deva (his left face), who has four arms, and whose hands are employed in dispelling fear and grant- ing requests, who bears the deer and the battle-axe dipped in blood, who has four faces and three eyes and a gold- coloured body, protect me on the North side ! May Eesana- deva (light splendour, another face), who bears in his hands the rope, elephant hook, trident, symbols of granting re- quests and dispelling fear, chank, deer, beads, and drum, who has four large moon-like faces, protect toward the sky ! May Siva, whose matted knot of hair is adorned with the crescent moon ! * protect my head ; the god who is author of the vedas, my eyes, my ears, my face ; may he who recited the excellent vedas, protect my tongue ; the azure-necked god, my neck; the bow-armed Siva, my hands, my arms, and shoulders ; may he who made Maha-mearu f his bow protect * See Introduction on the Crescent or Horns, f The mountain of the celestials. FF 3 *38 ISAIAH. my breast ; the god who burnt Cama, my belly ; the father of Ganesa, my sides, my navel, my waist, my knees, my ancles, and ruddy feet ! In the first watch of the day, Ma- Jteasuram protect and keep me from evil;! During the second watch, may the incomparable Varna-deva, the three-eyed god, who bears the battle-axe, protect me ! In the first watch of the NIGHT, may the crescent-crested god protect me ! During the second, the lord of the Ganges ; the third, the god with the lock of matted hair ; and the fourth, the conscrt of the goddess ! May Ruttera-moorte, who kicked Yama, always protect me ! May Sangren (the destroyer), who is head of all, protect the interior ; the immovable protect the sides ; Parusapathi, the middle ; and in all other places, may Satha-Siva, whom it is difficult to conceive, protect me ! When I stand, may the gods of the world protect; when I go, may he whose body is free from impurity, protect me ; when I sit, may the incomparable keep me ; when I walk, may Eesuran, author of the vedas, protect me; when I sleep, may Siva, the independent, protect me ! Journeying by night, may Ruttera protect me; travelling over hills, may Rut- tera-moorte, who burnt the three cities, protect me ! May Veera-pattara, who in the close of the age*, laughs and dances so that all the andas f shake again, wholly protect me ! When enemies come, may the battle-axe in the hand of Siva, whose left side! is Pdrvati 9 and who, having a chariot to which long-maned horses are harnessed, with elephants, and other forces, destroy them all and grant me victory ! May the three-pronged trident, which may be compared to Athi-seda, as if by bearing the earth, with the sea and its polling waves, his heads had all been worn away but three, defend me from robbers and kill them ! May the bow of Siva kill all shaggy-maned lions, and other wild beasts ! "He who revolves this amulet of Sivaf in his mind will be * The end of the four ages; after which, there is a fresh creation. f- Systems or worlds. \ All the names invoked refer to Siva. ISAIAH. 439 saved from the five * sins, his enemies will perish, and Yama, the god of death, will fear and do him service. Therefore receive this." XL VI. 1. " Their idols were upon the beasts." This probably refers to the idols which were CARRIED by the beasts ; though the deities are generally considered to be of such a sacred nature as to be fit only to be carried by men. But many of the cattle of the heathen have the shapes of idols traced on their skins, something in the same way as the tattooing of the New Zealanders. Some people have the soolam or trident of Siva formed on the near fore leg : mer- chants have a representation of Libra; and the fishermen trace a boat on the side of the animal. Those cows that belong to a Pandaram have the following figure on A the far fore leg, and those that are sacred to Siva ' * have the Tamul letter S branded in the skin, and some have the representations of the different wea- pons of the gods, which indicate to whom they are con- secrated. 3. _. Which are borne by me from the belly, which are carried from the womb." " True, this fiendish son was borne from my belly. Ten long moons did I carry him in my womb." "Is it for this I have carried him so long in my womb ? My fate ! my fate ! alas ! my fate ! " 7. "They bear him upon the shoulder, they carry him, and set him in his place." This alludes to the way in which the heathen carry out their idols in procession at the time of their great festivals, and during the periods of general sickness. (See on Amos v. 26. * 1. Murder; 2. Falsehood; 3. Theft; 4. Drunkenness; 5. The insult- ing of a Priest (some copies for the fifth have adultery), F F 4 440 ISAIAH. XLVII. 2. " Take the millstones, and grind [meal : make bare the leg, uncover the thigh, pass over the rivers." To grind flour in the East is the work of servants or slaves, and to make it by pounding with a pestle and mortar k the office of female servants or slaves. There being but few bridges, those who are in a low condition are obliged to ford the rivers ; hence may be seen large companies going the opposite banks, who have been obliged to " make bai the leg" and to " uncover the thigh." Thus were th< " tender and delicate" daughters of Babylon, who hadbeei nurtured on a throne, to be reduced to the condition of menials, and to cross the rivers as people of the lowest degree. 13. " Let now the astrologers, the star gazei the monthly prognosticates, stand up, and save thee from these things that shall come upoi thee." (Dan. ii. 2.) " The king commanded t< call the magicians, and the astrologers, and th( sorcerers, and the Chaldeans, for to show the kinj his dreams." (Chap. ii. 27. ; iv. 7.) Babylon, the capital of Assyria, was the cradle of idolat and all the occult sciences ; and her name stands emblazonec on the page of history, both sacred and profane. She h gone ! but her memory remains in the impurity and devilisi of Eastern heathenism. " The astrologers" and " pr ticators" which she gave to India, are still in existence ; anc the following is a translation of their prognostications as aj peared in the Hindoo Almanack for 1829* : u Puthan, i. e. Mercury, is this year the General, the Kinj and the Minister; and Sanne, i.e. Saturn, is at the head of days Felle, i. e. Venus or Jupiter (as the planet may be situated) 3 * That is, a part of it : the whole is not fit to meet the public eye. ISAIAH. presides over all edible things; but Mercury over buying and selling, and also over the clouds. The fire-raining cloud governs.* The rains will extend to three hundred yosani. f Thirteen parts out of the seventeen of this year will be good, and out of the same proportion five parts of all kinds of grain will be prosperous. Of the weather, thirteen parts out of seventeen will be cool ; and of the grass, fifteen out of the same proportion will be plentiful. Of the winds, there will be nine parts good ; of the prosperity of the soul, the same number ; but of the king's cruelty there will be eleven parts (to suffer). Of anger, merit, and sin, there will be five parts. Of sickness, there are eleven parts ; and of curing by cere- monies, there are three. Of deaths, there are fifteen ; but of births only seven. Of adversities, there are seven : of fear of thieves, nine ; and of their destruction, three. Of the fear of fire, and also (by the power of) its ceremonies, there are three. The Good and Evil of the Year. ** Because Mercury is king, there will be justice; the small grains will increase ; and because he is the minister, there will be prosperity for the nobles : but as the king and the minister are one planet, there will be suffering in the world through thieves and fire. As the general is also Mercury, the clouds will be driven away ; and as Saturn is at the head of days, young plants will be tolerable. Because Venus presides over the grain, there will be plenty of rain ; and as Mercury is over the corn, the price will be reasonable. As the moon is over edible things, they will be cheap ; and as Saturn is over all edible things which are black in colour, * There are seven kinds of clouds: " 1. The samvartam, which rains precious stones ; 2. The avartdm, which gives rain ; 3. The poodakala- vartam, which rains gold ; 4. The sangdritam, which rains flowers ; 5. The tooronam, which rains sand; 6. The kalmuge, which rains stones; 7. The neelvarunan ; i. e. the fiery rain." See the Sathur-Agarathe^ f Two thousand rods make one call, and four calls make one yosani, consequently a yosani extends to eight thousand rods. 442 ISAIAH. they also will be cheap. The profit of the fiery cloud will be partial rains. From the first of April to the tenth of September, Veyalan^ i. e. Jupiter, is in Kanne, i. e. Virgo, therefore there will be plenty of rain, and clothes will be cheap. From that period to the end of the year Jupiter will be in the Tulld, i. e. Libra, consequently those things which have to be weighed will be dear ; but those which have to be measured will be cheap. From the first of October till the end of the year, as Venus goes before the sun, there will be plenteous rains ; and as thejirst day of the year falls on Mercury's day (Wednesday) there will be much wind. Because the year was born in the night, there will be good times ; and as Verutchcyam^ i. e. Scorpion, governed the day, the price of corn will be middling. " Mantha-keeni is the goddess of the year ; her music is irattume ; her umbrella is made of five kinds of gold; her riding animal is the lion ; her garlands are made of the punni-poo, i. e. the Calophillum Inophyllium (Materia Medica) ; her clothes are white ; her jewels are made of rubies ; her food is rice; her eating dish is of gold: and she comes lifting up her face from the 'west! For the merchants and other castes, there will be health ; for the brahmins, sickness ; for the kings, death." (After this, follows an account of the eclipses of the year ; and also an enumeration of the good or evil of being born under the twenty-seven lunar mansions.* 66 Those who are born under, 1. Aswine (three stars in the head of Aries), have of the first four months of the year, two parts out of seventeen good ; of the second four months, one part good : but the last four months are evil. 2. Those born under Bharani (three stars in the tail of Aries), the first four months (when the mansion governs), five parts good; the next four months, two are good ; and the last four have four parts good. 3. Those born under Critica (six of the Pleiads in Taurus) have, for the first eight months, evil; and in the * I adopt the order and orthography of Sir William Jones. . ISAIAH. 443 ext four months, there is one part good. 4. Hohini (five stars in the head and neck of Taurus) : those born under this influence have for the first four months, three parts good ; of the second, one good ; and of the third, four parts are good. 5. Mrigasiras (three stars in or near the feet of Gemini) : the first four months, six parts good ; the second, two good ; and the third four months, two parts good. 6. Ardra (one star in the knee of Gemini) : the first four months, one part good ; the second and third four months, not good. 7. Pu- narvasu (four stars in the heads, breast, and shoulder of Gemini) : the first four months, Jour parts good ; the second, only one; but the third, have three parts good. 8. Pushya (three stars in the body and claws of Cancer) : the first four months, seven parts good ; the second, two ; and the last, one part good. 9. Aflesha (five stars in the face and mane of Leo) : the first four months, two parts are good ; the second four, evil; but the third four, have Jour parts good. 10. Magha (five stars in the leg and haunch of Leo) : the first four months, five parts good ; the second, one part ; but the last, have four parts good. 11. Purvap (two stars in the tail of Leo) : the first four months, nothing ! the second two are good; andt he last four months are evil. 12. Utturap (two stars in the arm and zone of Virgo) : the first and last four months have three parts good; but the second are evil. 13. Hasta (five stars near the head) : the first four months, six parts good ; but the last eight months have only one part good. 14. Chitra (one star in the spike) : the first four months, one part good ; the second, two ; and the last have four parts good. 15. Sivati (one star in the north scale of Libra) : the first four months, four parts good ; the second, evil; the last have two parts good. 16. Visacha (four stars beyond the one in Libra) : the first four months have seven parts good ; the second have one ; but the last four have three of them good. 17. Anuradha (four stars in the body of Scorpio) : the first eight months have two parts good; but the last have three good. 18, Jyesht-ha (three 444 ISAIAH. stars in the tail of Scorpio) : the first four months have Jvoe parts good ; the second, evil ; the last have four parts good. 19. Mula (eleven stars in the leg of Sagittarius to the point of the arrow) : the first four months, evil ; the second four, one part good ; but the last have five of them good. 20. Purvashara (two stars in the leg of Sagittarius) : the first four months, three parts good ; and the last eight months have two of them good. 21. Uttarashara (two stars in the horn of Capricornus, or sea monster) : the first five months, six parts good ; but the last eight months are evil. 22. Stravana (three stars in the tail) : the first eight months have one part good ; but the last have three parts good. 23. Dhanishta (four stars in the arm of Aquarius) : the first four months, five parts good ; the second, two ; but the last have only one part good. 24. Satabhisha (many stars in the stream): the first four months have seven parts good ; and the last eight months have four parts good. 25. Purvalhadrapada (two stars in Pisces, i e. the first fish) : the first and last four months, two parts good ; but the second have only one part good. 26. Uttrarabhadrapada (two stars in the cord) : the first four months, five parts are good ; the second have two ; but the last are evil. 27. Ireavathe (thirty-two stars in the second fish and cord) : the first eight months are evil ; but the last four have three parts good." The next part of the work is devoted to the influence of the SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC, over those born under their government. The different months of the year are called by the names of the signs : thus April is named Aries, and so on, through the rest of the months and signs. The days and nights are divided into watches. A table is also given of the months, weeks, days, stars, and phases of the moon, to show how they stand related. Here, then, we have enough of mystery and science to de- lude and agitate the mind, which has not better principles for its support. "Let the star gazers and monthly prognos- ticators stand up and save thee." ISAIAH. 445 XLIX. 15. " Can a woman forget her sucking child, that she should not have compassion on the son of her womb ?" This question is asked when a person doubts of finding mercy, where there is every reason to expect it. Does an individual express surprise at seeing a mother pay attention to an infant which is deformed, or supposed to be possessed by a devil ; it is asked, can a woman forget her sucking child? Is a woman in great haste to return home, it is enquired, " What, have you a sucking child in the house ? The cub of the monkey is as dear to its dam, as gold is to 16. " Behold, I have graven thee upon the palms of my hands ; thy walls are continually before me." It is common to make punctures on the arms, and wrists, in memory of visiting any holy place, or to represent the deity to whom the individual is consecrated : thus, a god, a temple, a peacock, or some indecent object is described ; but I never saw or heard of any thing of the kind being en- graved on the PALMS of the HANDS. The palms of the hands are, however, believed to have written on them the fate of the individual ; and, from this, it is common to say, in reference to men or things, they are written on the palms of his hands. " I wonder why Raman has taken Seethe for his wife?" " Why wonder? She was written on the palms of his hands." " Fear not," says the old soothsayer, looking into the hands of the anxious youth, " she is written here, thou shalt have her." " Alas ! alas ! the old deceiver told me her name was written on my palms, but she has gone, and the writing is erased." " Give up that pursuit ? Never ! it is written on the palms of my hands." " Ah ! my friend, you have long since forgotten me.'> " Forgotten you ! Never, for your walls are ever before me." " Ah ! my father, I am now in the distant country, but your 446 ISAIAH. walls are always in my sight." " Ah ! when shall I again visit my favourite temple ; the walls are continually before 22. " They shall bring thy sons in their arms, and thy daughters shall be carried upon their shoul- ders." Hebrew has instead of arms, bosom. Children of both sexes are carried on the shoulders. Thus may be seen the father carrying his son, the little fellow being astride on the shoulder, having, with his hands, hold of his father's head. Girls, however, sit on the shoul- der, as if on a chair, their legs hanging in front, whilst they also with their hands lay hold of the head. In going to, or returning from, heathen festivals, thousands of parents and their children may be thus seen marching along with joy. In this way shall the Gentiles bring their sons, and their daughters to Jehovah : kings shall then be " nursing fa- thers," and queens " nursing mothers." 23. "They shall bow down to thee with their face toward the earth, and lick up the dust of thy feet." (Ps. Ixxii. 9. Micah vii. 17.) Thus were those who had been enemies to Jehovah to bow down and acknowledge his majesty. They were to " lick up the dust," which is a figurative expression to denote submis- sion and adoration. " Boasting vain fellow ! the king your friend ! he your companion ! You will not have even the dust of his feet given you for food." " The minister give you that office? he will not give you the dust of his feet." " Alas ! alas ! for me, I expected his favour ; I depended on his word ; but I have not gained the dust of his feet." " I will not remain longer in this country ; I will leave you, and go to reside with the king." " With the king ! Why the dust of his feet will not be given you for a reward." " Could I but see that holy man ! I would eat the dust of his feet." So great then is to be the humility and veneration of kings and queens, ISAIAH. 447 in reference to the Most High, that they will bow down before him, and lick up the dust of his feet. LI. 8. " For the moth shall eat them up like a gar- ment.'^ As the fashions of the garments of the Orientals never change, they have large stores of them ; but they have no little difficulty in preserving them from moths: which circumstance may have occasioned their profuse use of perfumes. 20. " Thy sons have fainted, they lie at the head of all the streets." What a graphic picture we have here of an Eastern city or town in time of famine ! See the squalid objects : in their despair, they rush forth, throw themselves down in the streets, and there remain till they die, or are relieved. They have scarcely a rag left to defend them from the heat of the sun, or the dew of the night ; and they court death as a blessing. Ask them why they lie there, they reply, to die : tell them to get out of the way, and they answer not again ; and so great is their indifference, that many of them would literally be crushed to death, rather than make the least effort to preserve life. LIL 1 . " Put on thy beautiful garments, O Jeru- salem!" Jerusalem had long been afflicted by her foes, but the time of her deliverance was at hand, and in token of that she was to deck herself in her glorious attire. At the time of famine, sickness, or sorrow, the people clothe themselves in their meanest apparel, and their ornaments are laid aside : but on the return of prosperity, they array themselves in their most " beautiful garments." 2. " Shake thyself from the dust ; arise, and sit down, O Jerusalem : loose thyself from the bands of thy neck, O captive daughter of Zion." 448 ISAIAH. See the poor prisoners ; see mothers bereft of their children, or wives of their husbands ; they roll themselves in the dust, and there make their bitter lamentations. The holy city had figuratively been in the dust, but she was now to arise, to take the shackles from her neck, and to sit down in the place pre- pared for her. 7. " How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of him that bringeth good tidings." (Rom. x. 15.) Small feet are considered beautiful in all parts of the East. The feet of kings and holy people are spoken of in prefer- ence to the other parts of the body. His majesty of the Burmese empire is always mentioned as the " golden feet." " My messsenger will soon return ; he will bring me good tidings ; his feet will be glorious." " Ah ! when will the feet of my priest return this way ; how glorious is their place." " Are you in health ?" asks the holy man. " Yes ; by the glory of your feet," is the reply. " Ah ! Swamy, it is a happy circumstance for me that your feet have entered my house." 9. " Break forth into joy, sing together, ye waste places of Jerusalem." In this strain do the heathen poets on joyful occasions exhort the hills and dales, the forests and rivers, to praise their gods. 10. " The Lord hath made bare his holy arm in the eyes of all the nations." The right arm or shoulder is always alluded to as the place of strength : with that the warrior wields his sword, and slays his foes. The metaphor appears to allude to a man who is preparing for the battle : he takes the robe from his right arm, that being thus uncovered, " made bare," it may the more easily perform its office. " Tell your boasting master to get ready his army, for our king has shown his shoulder," i. e. uncovered it. " Alas ! I have ISAIAH. 449 heard that the mighty sovereign of the neighbouring king- dom has pointed to his shoulder," i. e. he is ready to come against us. See two men disputing ; should one of them point to his right arm and shoulder, the other will immedi- ately fall into a rage, as he knows it amounts to a challenge, and says, in effect, " I am thy superior." Thus may be seen men at a distance, when defying each other, slapping each his right hand or shoulder. Jehovah, in reference to the nations of the earth, " hath made bare his holy arm." " And all the ends of the earth shall see the salvation of our God." 11. "Be ye clean that bear the vessels of the Lord." When the heathen priests carry their sacred vessels from one place to another, their persons are previously cleansed from impurity by ablutions and other ceremonies. Under any other circumstance no priest would dare to touch a holy vessel. 15. "So shall he sprinkle many nations; the kings shall shut their mouths at him." At an Eastern feast a person stands near the entrance with a silver vessel of the annexed shape, which is full of rose-water, or some other perfumed liquid, with which he sprinkles the guests as they approach, as if from a watering pan. The ob- ject is to show they are now the king's or the great man's guests : they are in his favour and under his protection. So shall the eternal Son of God sprinkle many nations, and admit them into his presence in token of their purification, and of his protection and favour. The kings of the earth shall no longer rebel against him ; but " shall shut their mouths " to denote their submission and respect. G G 450 ISAIAH. LIV. 12. " And I will make thy windows of agates, and thy gates of carbuncles, and all thy borders of pleasant stones." (Rev. xxi. 18. 21.) This figurative way of speaking is in exact keeping with the Eastern notions of magnificence : thus the abodes of the gods, or distant kings, are described as having pillars of red coral ; rooms made of crystal ; ruby doors ; thrones of the nine precious stones ; walls of gold, surrounded by emerald rivers. Such passages, therefore, are not to be received literally, but as being indicative of great splendour and unri- valled prosperity. LV. 12, 13. "The mountains and the hills shall break forth before you into singing, and all the trees of the field shall clap their hands. Instead of the thorn, shall come up the fir tree ; and in- stead of the briar, shall come up the myrtle tree." Here we have another specimen of the fervid and splendid imagery of Eastern language. Some people affect to despise the hyperboles, the parables, and high-toned allusions of such a style ; but they ought to recollect they arise as much from the climate, the genius, and customs of the people, as do our more plain and sober effusions from opposite circum- stances. When the god Ramar was going to the desert, it was said to him, " The trees will watch for you ; they will say, he is come, he is come ; and the white flowers will clap their hands. The leaves, as they shake, will say come, come ; and the thorny places will be changed into gardens of flowers." LVI. 3. " Neither let the eunuch say, Behold, I am a dry tree." People without posterity, of both sexes, are called dry trees ; which, strictly speaking, means they are dead, having neither sap, nor leaves, nor fruit. ISAIAH. 451 10. " Sleeping, lying down, loving to slumber." The margin reads, " or dreaming, or talking in their sleep." The Tamul translation has it the same as the margin. To a man who talks incoherently, it is asked, " Why do you talk in your sleep?" "Why are you always saying, give, give ?" " Take no notice of that fellow ; it is mere sleep-talk." " Poor dolt ! he has the custom of talking in his sleep ; listen, and you will hear all his secrets." LVII. 6. " Among the smooth stones of the stream is thy portion ; they are thy lot, even to them hast thou poured a drink offering, thou hast offered a meat offering. Should I receive comfort in these?" In this chapter there are some striking allusions to the nature of that idolatry into which the Jews had fallen. That a prominent feature of that system was obscenity is most manifest, both from the testimony of profane and sacred writers ; and several commentators misunderstand various passages, when, in a sweeping way they declare, that the epithet " whoredoms " and kindred terms in general signify only idolatry. There can be no doubt that the worship of idols is generally implied, but the offensive practices alluded to are nearly always included therein. In the third verse, it is said, " Draw near hither, ye sons of the sorceress, the seed of the adulterer and whore;" and in the next there is a description of the disgusting conduct of people of a loose character : " Against whom do ye sport yourselves? Against whom make ye a wide mouth, and draw out the tongue ? Enflaming yourselves with idols under every green tree. Among the smooth stones of the stream is thy portion." Some suppose allusion is here made to the large stones called BairuAoj or Ban-uAia, but I do not think so. The Salam-stone, in its rough state, is worshipped by the Hindoos ; its general size is that of a nutmeg. Its name in G G 2 452 ISAIAH. the Sathur-Agarathe is Sala-Kiramam ; from Salam, to have sexual intercourse, and Kiramam, a stone. Professor Jame- son calls it the Salamstone ; and Werner, the Salenstein ; this, he says, is the Indian name for this gem. " It occurs principally in the Peninsula of India, and is so hard as to scratch all other minerals, except diamond. Its specific gravity is not determined. It is translucent, and exhibits a particular kind of opalescence in two directly opposite places." This description, as might have been expected, is very correct, but it involves more than that able mineralogist was himself aware of. The formation of the stone is said to have taken place when Siva and Vishnoo, under different sexes, had un- lawful intercourse. The worm Vacliara-tanthe is said to live in the stone.* It is a fact, that all the stones I have seen have the appearance of having had something inside, and this is the " particular [ kind of opalescence in two directly opposite places," noticed by the learned Professor. Some have this stone fastened to a particular part of the body, to preserve them from witchcraft. The Pandarams, the sect of Vishnoo, and some of the followers of Siva, wor- ship it in their houses and other places. Having smeared a place with the ordure of the cow, the devotee presents in- cense, flowers, fruits, and cakes. Look then at the ORIGIN of this stone : read the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth verses, and then say, have we not found a probable illustration of " the smooth stones of the stream," to which the profligate Jews had made their offerings ? For the Salam- stone, is literally the stone of the brook or river (not valley), and it is identified with the same gross system of idolatry as that which prevailed in ancient Assyria, to whose kings or those of Egypt (Hosea xii. 1.), the Jews had sent messengers to form an unholy alliance, instead of trusting in the Lord their God. * See the book Scanda Purana, where the scene is described in the plainest terms. ISAIAH. 453 LVIII. 9. " Then shalt thou call, and the Lord shall answer ; thou shalt cry, and he shall say, here I am. If thou take away from the midst of thee the yoke, the putting forth of the finger, and speaking vanity." This chapter commences with, " Cry aloud, spare not, lift up thy voice like a trumpet, and show my people their trans- gression, and the house of Jacob their sins." After this, the people are severely reproved for their hypocrisy, "ye fast for strife and debate, and smite with the fist of wicked- ness ; " and then they are exhorted to cease from their oppres- sions, " to undo the heavy burthens and to let the oppressed go free, and that ye break every yoke." It appears they were tyrants under the garb of sanctity, and in contempt for the injured, they took delight in "putting forth of the finger, and speaking vanity." See that boasting tyrant, when addressing his humbled antagonist, he scowls and storms " like the raging sea," and then lifts up the fore-finger of the right hand to the height of his head, and moves it up and down, to show that punishment of a still higher nature shall be the award of the victim of his wrath. 10. " And if thou draw out thy soul to the hungry, and satisfy the afflicted soul, then shall thy light rise in obscurity, and thy darkness be as the noon-day." Has a person in reference to temporal circumstances been in great difficulty, has he been delivered, then is he compared to a man in a dark place who suddenly finds a light, which enables him to walk with pleasure and safety in his appointed way. " True, true, I was in darkness, but the light has come ; it shines around me ; there is no shade." * LIX. 5. " They hatch cockatrice eggs, and weave the spider's web : he that eateth of their eggs dieth, and * Meaning, it is noon ; because in standing erect in the sun, at that time, there is not any shadow. G G 3 454 ISAIAH. that which is crushed breaketh out into a viper." The margin has, instead of cockatrice, " or adders" So far as the strength of the poison is concerned, I believe there is scarcely any difference betwixt the oviparous and the viviparous serpents.* The eggs of the former are generally deposited in heaps of stones, in old walls, or holes in dry places; and under some circumstances (like those of the large lizard), are soft and yielding to the touch. The pliability of the shell MAY be the result of being newly laid, as I have seen some shells as hard as those of other eggs. It is said of the plans of a decidedly wicked and talented man, " That wretch ! he hatches serpent's eggs." " Beware of the fellow, his eggs are nearly hatched." " Ah ! my friend, touch not that affair, meddle not with that matter ; there is a serpent in the shell." " Interfere not, interfere not, young serpents are coming forth." " I have been long absent from my home, and on my return I thought that I should have much enjoyment, but on opening a basket to procure some cakes, I found they were all serpents," meaning, instead of plea- sure, he had found pain on his return. " I touch it ! No, no ; the last time I did so the shell broke, and a young ser- pent gave me a bite, which has poisoned my whole frame." 11. " We roar all like bears." In parturition those animals are said to make a tremendous noise : hence people in poignant sorrow say, " We roar like bears." " Heard you not the widow's cry last night ? the noise was like that of a she bear." " What is the fellow roar- ing about ? he is like a she bear." 15. " Yea, truth faileth ; and he that departeth from evil maketh himself a prey." The margin has, in- stead of " maketh himself a prey, " or is accounted mad." * The remarks of the editor of Calmet on this subject are worthy of attention. Vol. iv. p. 670. ISAIAH. 455 In the preceding verses, the wickedness of the abandoned Jews is strongly portrayed ; and when they began to confess their sins and repent, as in the ninth and fourteenth verses inclusive, they were by some, as in the margin, " ac- counted mad," in consequence of their change of views and conduct. It is an amusing fact, that when the heathen be- come very attentive to the directions of their own religion ; when they rigidly perform the prescribed austerities ; " when they sell themselves to the gods, and appear like men of ano- ther world," they are " accounted mad " by their neighbours. On the other hand, should a man begin to deride the na- tional faith ; should he never go near the temples, and laugh at idols and outward ceremonies, the people again exclaim, " The fellow is mad ! " But, above all, should a person embrace Christianity, the general story is, the poor fellow has gone mad. " Have you heard Suppiyan has become a Christian?" " No ; but I have heard that he has become a madman." LX. 4. " Lift up thine eyes round about ; and see, all they gather themselves together, they come to see thee : thy sons shall come from far, and thy daughters shall be nursed at thy side." " Thy daughters shall be nursed at thy side." Some be- lieve this alludes to the common custom of parents carry- ing their children astride on the hip. But how can this be considered a privilege, as is the evident meaning in the text ? What does it matter whether they are carried on the hip or the shoulder ? The opinion of the Rev. Joseph Benson, as expressed in his valuable Commentary, is exceed- ingly judicious : they " shall have their education isoith thee, from their infancy ; there, where the sincere milk of the word is to be had." The Tamul translation takes the same view : " in thy place," in thy lot, or near to thee. They were to be well trained in all holy doctrines and duties. What does this chapter refer to ? Is it not to the flourishing condition of the church of Jesus Christ in the conversion of the Gen- G G 4 456 ISAIAH. tiles ? The metaphor appears to be taken from parents who have marriageable daughters; who have been so well brought up ; who have never wandered from one place to another ; who have been secluded from society, and had a virtuous training, so that their fame has reached distant countries, and induced the young men of those regions to come and solicit their hand in marriage. To follow up the figure : in those days of spiritual prosperity to the Church, her sons shall come from far, and desire an intimate union with her ; having heard of her fame, " they gather themselves together," and come like " doves to their windows." 7. " All the flocks of Kedar shall be gathered to- gether unto thee ; the rams of Nebaioth shall minister unto thee." Here we have unquestionably another metaphor, to illustrate the prosperity and influence of the church amongst the heathen. I think, therefore, it is trifling with the text, to suppose it alludes to a literal possession of the " rams of Nebaioth," " the flocks of Kedar," or the " dromedaries of Midian." I believe it refers to the people of those countries, who are spoken of in the passage, under the names of the animals for which their localities were most famous. This mode of speech is perfectly Oriental, and may often be heard in common conversation. Thus, for instance, the district of Mulliteevo is famous for its numerous buffaloes ; hence the people of that place, when they go to another town, are often, by way of pleasantry, called buffaloes. The district of Poonareen abounds with the wild hog ; and it excites a smile to call one of its inhabitants the pandy^ i. e. pig of Poonareen. The islands opposite North Ceylon are noted for shells, and when the islanders come to the towns, it is asked, should a person 1 wish to have a little merriment at their expense, " Why do these shells of the islands come hither ? " Batti- cotta is celebrated for having numerous men who are expert in digging tanks : hence all the people, as circumstances ISAIAH. may require, are humorously called OTTAR, i. e. diggers. I think, therefore, the figure is descriptive of the glory of the church in the acquisition of the PEOPLE of Midian, Ephah ; of Sheba, of Kedar, and Nebaioth. 8. " Who are these that fly as a cloud ?" (Heb. xii. 1. " Cloud of witnesses.") Of any thing on an extensive scale of great multitudes, it is said, " Ah ! they are as a cloud." " As a cloud did it appear to my eyes." 11. " Therefore thy gates shall be open continually: they shall not be shut day nor night : that men may bring unto thee the forces of the Gentiles." Dr. Boothroyd says, " That they may bring to thee the wealth of the nations." Of a wealthy man who is continually adding to his stores, it is said, " His gates neither day nor night, AKO-RAT-TIRAM, are closed." Also it is said of a charit- able king, " His gates are always open." So in those days of glorious accession to the church, " Her doors shall be open continually, and day and night shall the Gentiles be gathered into her pale." 13. " I will make the place of my feet glorious." (See on Chap. lii. 7.) Nearly all Hindoo books commence with an invocation to the feet of some deity. Thus those which are dedicated to science, history, or poetry, are sacred to the feet of Ganesa (the elephant-faced deity), whilst some on war are in honour of the feet of Scandan, the god of war ; and those on love are sacred to the feet of Manmathon, i. e. Cama, the Oriental Cupid. 1 4. " The sons also of them that afflicted thee shall come bending unto thee ; and all they that despised thee shall bow themselves down at the soles of thy feet." " Come bending unto thee." Who in the East has not 458 ISAIAH. seen the humble suppliant come BENDING to ask forgive- ness or to entreat a favour ? See him go stooping along, with his hands spread out, till he come near his superior, and then, as in the next words, he bows himself down at his feet. 16. " Thou shalt also suck the milk of the Gentiles." The people of the East take great delight in having plenty of milk, and those who have that article in abundance are in fact rich, as they must have numerous herds of cattle." LXI. 3. " The oil of joy for mourning." Perfumed oils are very expensive, and are believed to possess MANY virtues. Except for medicinal purposes they are used only on joyous occasions. " My friend, why are you so dejected ? the gods shall give you PARE-MALATIYALUM," i. e. precious or odoriferous ointment. 10. "I will greatly rejoice in the Lord; my soul shall be joyful in my God, for he hath clothed me with the garments of salvation ; he hath covered me with the robe of righteousness, as a bridegroom decketh himself with ornaments, and as a bride adorneth herself with her jewels." It would be considered unfortunate in the extreme for a bride to be married without having on numerous jewels : hence the poorest females, those who have not a farthing in the world, may be seen on such occasions literally covered with jewels. The plan is this: the neighbours and friends of the poor girl lend their ornaments, in order to make a splendid show ; and I have not known an instance (except when lost) of their not being returned ; which may be con- sidered a remarkable fact amongst people who are not very famed for honesty. But the bridegroom also has numerous ear-rings, neck-rings, chains, breast- plates, and finger-rings. " I will greatly rejoice as a bridegroom." " You ISAIAH. 459 appear to be very happy, Chinnan?" "Indeed lam happy ; and it is like the joy of a kafle-ydnum," i. e. marriage. " Ah ! my heart has a wedding to-day," says the man who is in great pleasure. " Have you heard of the joy of old Kandan ? " " No, why is he so happy?" 3D Meni, as it occurs in Isaiah Ixv. 11., " The goddess Meni is the moon! her worship was popular in Palestine, and among the Hebrews. Meni is probably Astarte, and Venus Celestis, honoured among the Phoenicians and Carthaginians." Parkhurst has " *}, Meni, a name or attribute under which the idolatrous Jews worshipped the material heavens." We find other traces of this attribute, Meni 9 among the idolaters. The Arabians worshipped the idol Mona, in order to obtain seasonable showers** Festus relates that the Salentines, a people of Italy, threw a horse alive into the fire, in honour of Jupiter Menzan, i. e. Jupiter *}, Meni." " His name in Greek, was M^v, Men." " We see, also, the god Men, or Lunus, on several medals of the towns of Lydia, Pisidia, and Phrygia. On a medal of Antiochus, struck in Pisidia, the god Lunus hath a spear in one hand, and holds a victory in the other, and hath a cock, a symbol of the RISING SUN, at his feet." The Rev. Thos. Hartwell Home, on Isaiah Ixv. 11., says, 66 Gad is unquestionably joined with Meni (or the Moon), and both are names of idols." "Ye have deserted Jehovah, And have forgotten my holy mountain ; Who set in order a table for Gad, And fill out a libation to Meni." Bishop LowtWs Version. It is an interesting fact (in reference to this passage) that the idolaters of the East have a deity of the same name, MENI, in whom, or her daughter, all the attributes and sym- bols alluded to find a parallel. Let it be well impressed on the reader's mind what it was the Jews were accused of * The people of the East believe that rain is produced by the moon ! 462 ISAIAH. having forsaken : " my holy MOUNTAIN !" alluding to Mom Moriah, on which God's house was built. In that learned work the Sanscrit Dictionary, printed at Calcutta, is the fol- lowing article : " Meni ! the wife of the Hima-laya MOUN- TAIN!" and signifies, "to me any one, not comparable or equal." Her name, in Tamul, is Meni. She was the mother of Parvati, the wife of the god Siva. " The sacred MOUN- TAIN Maga-Meru, is the daughter of the Hima-laya, and is more honoured than the mother." In addition to the ob- servations on Isa,xiv. 13, 14., and the note (which see), are the following on the Hima-laya, taken from the dictionary alluded to: " The Hima-laya range of mountains, which bound India on the north, and separate it from Tartary, the Imaus and Emodus of the ancients, giving rise to the Ganges ! the Indus ! Bramnputra ! and many other considerable rivers, and containing elevations which have been calculated to exceed the Cordilleras. In mythology, the MOUNTAIN is PERSONIFIED ! as the husband of Meni, and the father of Gunga or the Ganges, and Durga, or Uma in her descent as Parvati, the MOUNTAIN nymph, to captivate Siva, and with- draw him from a course of ascetic austerities, practised in those regions." But what are the mountains Imaus and Emodus, said to be the same as the Hima-laya range? " Imaus, a large mountain of Scythia, which is PART of mount Taurus." " Emodus, a mountain of India. Plin" " Imaus is a PART of Mount Taurus." " Taurus, the largest mountain of Asia as to extent. One of its extremities is in Caria, and it extends not only as far as the most eastern extremities of ASIA, but it also branches in several parts, and runs far into the north ! Mount Taurus was known by SE- VERAL names, particularly in DIFFERENT countries. Between the Hyrcanian and Euxine seas, by that of Caucasus ! " " Caucasus is the name of a series of mountains, of which Ararat ! is a part ; and another part of Caucasus is named Taurus." " This immense range is constantly called in Sanscrit, Himachel, or Snowy Mountain, and Himalaya, or ISAIAH. 463 the Abode of Snow."* Here then we have a remarkable identity in the sublime and sacred heights of the Imaus, the Emodus, the Taurus, the Caucasus, the Ararat, the Kilasu, the Maga-Meru, and the Hima-laya, of ancient and modern, of Eastern and Western heathenism ; and here we have an- other deplorable instance of the profanity of the Jews, who forsook the " HOLY MOUNTAIN" of Jehovah for " MENI ! " the wife of the PERSONIFIED HIMALAYA, the mother of the Idess Parvati, whose emblem is the crescent moon ! 66 Prepare for that troop," " Gad." The Tamul trans- lation has this, " prepare a feast." In the fragments to Calmet (108.) it is said, " We see how Gad and Meni ter- minate in the sun and moon." In this conclusion I cheerfully join with the learned editor. The word Gad signifies good for- tune, fecundity, plenty ; the sun is the great source of plenty, the moon also is believed to bring forth innumerable " precious things ;" and here again we see the great orbs of night and day shine forth in Siva, the supreme lord of those HOLY MOUN- TAINS, and in his consort Parvati ; i. e. Meni, for the sun is believed to be his right eye, and the moon his left, and in his temples, his cars, in the houses of his worshippers may be seen a representation of the sun and the crescent moon. it allusion is also made to those who " furnish the drink )fFering unto that NUMBER," i. e. " MENI." In general, Irink offerings are not presented to the gods f of the Hindoos ; * See Lempriere and Calmet, and the Sanscrit dictionary under Emodus, Imaus, Taurus, Caucasus, or Hyma-laya. f There are, however, four demons to whom arrack and toddy and other itoxicating articles are offered. 464 ISAIAH. but to Kali, an incarnation of Parvati, the daughter of Mcni, arrack and toddy are offered. That the heathen have taken their ideas of the gods de- scending or dwelling in the Hima-laya, or the Taurus, or Caucasus, from events ALLUDED to in the sacred Scrip- tures, I cannot doubt, and perhaps there is no single event which led mankind, in the EARLIEST ages, to reverence and almost adore those sublime heights of created nature, more than the ark of Noah having rested on " the mountains of Ararat," which form a PART of the glorious Taurus, and Caucasus of the West, and the Hima-laya of the East. In all these searchings, our minds revert to Him, " who rideth upon a swift cloud," who " toucheth the hills and they smoke." 20. " There shall be no more thence an infant of days, nor an old man that hath not filled his days; for the child shall die an hundred years old." From the 17th verse to the end of this chapter, there is I an evident allusion to ANOTHER state of things, whether it refer to the Millennium, to the complete conversion of the Jews, or to the happiness of the Gospel dispensation, I cannot say. That there is not a reference " to the future world," is manifest from the 21st and 22d verses. The Hindoos believe the next age, i. c. the Kreatha, will be the happy one. " In those days people will be in youth, at the age of one hundred years ! " 22. " For as the days of a tree are the days of my people." (Ps. xcii. 12.) The people of the East have a particular desire for long life ; hence one of their best and most acceptable wishes is, " May you live a thousand years." " May you live as long as the Aali-tree" i. e. the Banyan or Ficus Indica. I never saw a tree of that description dead, except when struck by lightning. And to cut one down would, in the estimation of ISAIAH. 465 a Hindoo, be almost as great a sin as the taking of life. I do not think this tree will die of itself, because it continues to let fall its own supporters, and will march over acres of land if not interrupted. Under its gigantic branches the beasts of the forest screen themselves from the heat of the sun ; and under its sacred shade may be seen the most valued temples of the Hindoos. LXVI. 17. " They that sanctify themselves, and purify themselves in the gardens, behind one tree, in the midst, eating swine's flesh, and the abomin- ation, and the mouse, shall be consumed together, saith the Lord." The margin has, instead of " be- hind one tree, in the midst ; " " or, one after an- other." Dr. Boothroyd translates it, " They who sanctify and purify themselves in the gardens, after the rites of Achad." The Tamul translation has this, " in the midst of the groves.'* (See on Chap. i. 18. where it may be seen for what purposes the groves were used.) Bishop Lowth, and the Rev. Thos Hartwell Home, believe that Adad, a Syrian deity, is here alluded to ; and that it is after his rites that the Jews went into the gardens. " Adad is supposed to be the sun." * Kim- chi says on these words, " Behind one in the midst," that he understands it " of a large fish pond, placed in the middle of their gardens." This criticism I consider to be most excellent. The objects for which the groves were used ren- dered it necessary to have some place where the votaries could PURIFY themselves ; thus, in the midst of the topes there is generally a well or a tank, where the individuals perform their ablutions. Were it prudent to write with plainness on the marginal reading it would utterly astonish and appal the English reader. * Here again we have a resemblance to the unholy Siva and his lasci- vious rites. H H 466 JEREMIAH. CHAP. II. verse 13. " For my people have committed two evils : they have forsaken me, the fountain of living waters ; and hewed them out cisterns, broken cisterns, that can hold no water." In Eastern language, " living water" signifies springing water, that which bubbles up. The people had forsaken Je- liovah, the never-failing spring, for the small quantity which could be contained in a cistern ; nay, in broken cisterns, which would let out the water as fast as they received it. When people forsake a good situation for that which is bad, it is sakl, " Yes ; the stork which lived on the borders of the lake, where there was a never-failing supply of water, and con- stant food, has gone to dwell on the brink of a well," i. e. where there is no fish, and where the water cannot be had. 37. " Yea, thou shalt go forth from him, and thine hands upon thine head ; for the Lord hath rejected thy confidences, and thou shalt not prosper in them. (2 Sam. xiii. 19. " Tamar laid her hand on her head, and went on crying.") Impenitent Jerusalem was to be punished for revolting against God ; and, as a token of her misery, she was to go forth with her HANDS ON HER HEAD." Tamar " laid her hand on her head," as a sign of her degradation and sorrow. When people are in great distress, they put their hands on their head, the fingers being clasped on the top of the crown. Should a man who is plunged into wretchedness meet a friend, he immediately puts his hands on his head, to illustrate his circumstances. When a person hears of the death of a relation or friend, he forthwith clasps his hands on his head. JEREMIAH. 467 When boys have been punished at school, they run home with their hands on the same place. Parents are much dis- pleased and alarmed, when they see their children with their hands in that position ; because they look upon it not merely as a sign of grief, but as an emblem of bad fortune. Thus of those who had trusted in Egypt and Assyria, it was said, " Thou shalt be ashamed " of them : and they were to go- forth with their hands on their head, in token of their degra- dation and misery. IV 17. " As keepers of a field are they against her round about." Fields in the East have not fences to keep off cattle and other marauders, but only low embankments ; hence, were there not keepers, they would be exposed to all kinds of depredations. These men wander about the ridges, or spend their time in plaiting baskets or pouches for areka nuts and betel leaf; or tend a few sheep. At night they sleep in a small stall, about six feet by four, which stands on four legs, and is thatched with leaves. The whole affair is so light, that it can be removed in its COMPLETE state to any other part, by two men ; or be taken to pieces in a few minutes, and re- moved and put together, by ONE man. The frail fabric illus- trates the " lodge in a garden of cucumbers." 30. " And when thou art spoiled, what wilt thou do ? Though thou clothest thyself with crimson, though thou deckest thee with ornaments of gold, though thou rentest thy face with painting, in vain shalt thou make thyself fair ; thy lovers will despise thee ; they will seek thy life." The Hebrew has, instead of face, " eyes." This is a minute description of an Eastern courtesan. In Ezekiel xxiii. 40., similar language is used : " For whom thou didst wash thyself, paintedst thine eyes, and deckedst thyself with ornaments, and satest upon a stately bed." Jezebel also H H 2 468 JEREMIAH. " painted her face, and tired her head, and looked out at a window." She was the patroness of a most impure system, and the term " whoredoms," as applied to her, may be safely used in the most obvious sense. The females alluded to adorn themselves with those ornaments which have been de- scribed in the 3d chapter of Isaiah ; and having bathed, they rub their bodies with saffron, to make themselves fair ; and then put on their CRIMSON robes. One kind of paint with which they tint their eyelids is made of a nut called kaduki, which is first burned to a powder, then mixed with castor oil ; after which it is set on fire, and that which drops from it is the paint referred to. Another kind is made of the juice of limes, indigo, and saffron. In these allusions we see again the hateful and loathsome state of Jerusalem. 31. " For I have heard a voice as of a woman in travail, and the anguish as of her that bringeth forth her first child." In cases of great difficulty or sorrow, the above figure is often used. V. 8. " They were as fed horses in the morning : every one neighed after his neighbour's wife." The same term is used in the East to denote a similar thing. It is said, " Listen to that evil man, he is always neighing." " O that wicked one, he is like the horse in his phrensy." " The men of that family are all neighers." Heathenism is ever true to itself; impurity is its inseparable companion. VI. 24. " Our hands wax feeble." When a person is hungry, or weary, or when he hears bad news, it is said, " His hands have become weak." " His hands have turned cold." JEREMIAH. 469 VIII. 7. Yea, the stork in the heaven knoweth her appointed times but my people know not." Should a husband be fond of roving from his house, and remaining in other places, his wife says, " The storks know their time and place, but my husband does not know." " In the rain neither the Koku nor other birds will depart from their nestlings : but my husband is always leaving us." "Ah ! my wicked son ! would that he, as the stork, knew his ap- pointed time and place ! " 20. " The harvest is past, the summer is ended." Has a man lost a good situation, it is said, " His harvest is past." Is a person amassing much money, it is said, " He is gathering in his harvest." IX. 1. " Oh ! that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears." The margin has, instead of " Oh ! that my head were waters," " who will give my head." The marginal reading intimates the head was exhausted, the fountain was dry. People in prospect of great misery, ask, " Have we waters in our heads for that grief? " " That my sorrows may not dry up, these eyes are always weeping." 2. " Oh ! that I had in the wilderness a lodging-place of wayfaring men." People in the East, on their journeys to other towns or countries, are obliged to travel through the most lonely wilds. Hence the native sovereigns, or opulent men, erect what are called rest-houses, or choultries, where the travellers or pil- grims reside for the night. It is in the wilderness where the devotees and ascetics live retired from men : there, either for life, or for a short period, they perform their austerities, and live in cynical contempt of man. When a father is angry with his family, he often exclaims, " If I had but a shade in the wilderness, then should I be happy : I will become a pil- H H 3 470 JEREMIAH. grim, and leave you." Nor is this mere empty declamation to alarm his family ; for numbers in every town and village thus leave their homes, and are never heard of more. There are, however, many who remain absent for a few months or years, and then return. Under these circumstances, it is no wonder, when a father or husband threatens his family he will retire to the kdtu, i. e. wilderness, that they become greatly alarmed. But men who have been reduced in their circum- stances become so mortified, that they also retire from their homes, and wander about all their future lives as pilgrims. " Alas ! alas ! I will retire to the jungle, and live with wil< beasts," says the broken-hearted widow. " Oh for a lodge in some vast wilderness, Some boundless contiguity of shade." COWPER. 26. " Egypt, and Judah, and Edom, and the children of Ammon and Moab, and all that are in the utmost corners, that dwell in the wilderness : for all these nations are uncircumcised, and all the house of Israel are uncircumcised in the heart." The mar- gin renders, " in the utmost corners," " cut off into corners," OR, " having the corners of their hair polled." Dr. Boothroyd, " Egypt, and Judah, and Edom, and the children of Ammon and Moab, and all those who CUT SHORT THE HAIR." See also the marginal reading on chap. xxv. 23., " Having the corners of the hair polled ; " and on chap. xlix. 32., "That have the corners of their hair polled." Who were those idolaters, against whom the denunciations were made, for polling their heads in honour of false gods ? Those of Egypt, Edom, Ammon, Moab, Dedan, Tema, Buz, and JUDAH ! It is the custom of the heathen of the vast regions of India, China, and Ceylon, to shave round the head, leaving only a tuft on the crown. The Chinese allow JEREMIAH. 471 the tuft to grow into a long tail, which hangs down the back.* " The children of AMMON." It is a striking fact that there is a cruel goddess in India called AMMON, to whom, in some births, human sacrifices were offered. Hence many temples at this day go by her name. How appalling to find the wretched Jews so often associated with the heathen ; by their practices they were " uneircumcised in the heart" and fit objects for the wrath of Jehovah. (See on Levit. xix. 27.) XL 12. " Then shall the cities of Judah, and inha- bitants of Jerusalem, go and cry unto the gods unto whom they offer incense." In the temple of Siva incense is offered to the lingam six times in twenty-four hours. In other temples the number of times varies. XII. 2. " Thou hast planted them, yea, they have > taken root : they grow ; yea, they bring forth fruit : thou art near in their mouth, and far from their reins." Does a man who has been elevated in society by another cease to respect his patron ; it is said, " Ah, my lord, the tree which you planted has taken root : in his mouth you are near ; but in his heart you are afar off." 9. " Mine heritage is unto me as a speckled bird." The margin has it, instead of " speckled bird," " or having talons." Dr. Boothroyd, " Ravenous birds." The context confirms this rendering, and also the marginal reading, " talons." Considering the NUMEROUS birds of prey in the East, it is no wonder that there are so many allusions in the Scriptures to * Herodotus informs us, that the Arabs shave or cut their hair round in this way ; and that the Macians, a people of Libya, cut their hair round, so as to leave a tuft on the top of the head. See Rev. T. Hartwell Home's Introduction, vol. i. p. 362. H H 4 472 JEREMIAH. their ravenous propensities. Of a ferocious man it is said, " That fellow is in every place with his talons." " What ! wretch, have you come hither to snatch with your talons?" " Alas ! alas ! how many has this disease snatched away in its talons ? " " True, true, even my own children have now got talons." XIII. 4-. " Take the girdle that thou hast got, which is upon thy loins, and arise, go to Euphrates and hide it there in a hole of the rock." 6. " And it came to pass after many days that the Lord said unto me, arise, go to Euphrates, and take the girdle from thence, which I commanded thee to hide there." 7. " Then I went to Euphrates and digged, and took the girdle from the place where I had hid it, and behold the girdle was marred ; it was profit- able for nothing." The girdle of the Orientals is sometimes made of silver or gold, or embroidered silk, or highly dyed muslin. Its uses are, to keep the lower garments fast to the loins, to strengthen the body, and to command respect. Chiefs have numerous folds of muslin round that part, and they march along with great pomp, thus enlarged in their size. That, therefore, which was of so much use, and which indicated the dignity of the wearer, was to be marred, typifying the degradation of the Jews in their approaching captivity. The Hindoos have a custom of burying certain articles by the side of a tank or river, in order to inflict or prefigure evil in reference to cer- tain obnoxious individuals who are thus placed under the ban. Thus eggs, human hair, thread, a ball of saffron, or a little of the earth on which the devoted person has had his feet, are BURIED in the situations alluded to. 18. " Say unto the king and to the queen, humble yourselves, sit down ; for your principalities shall come down, even the crown of your glory. The JEREMIAH. 473 margin has, instead of " principalities," " or head tires." This again alludes to the threatened judgments which were to befall the people and their rulers. Dr. Boothroyd has, instead of " principalities," " the diadem of your glory." Of a proud man who treats another with contempt it is said, " Ah ! his turban will soon fall." " Yes, imperious upstart ! thy head-dress will soon come down." " Have you heard of the proud wife of Kandan ?" '* No." " Her head orna- ments have fallen ; she is humbled." "Ah," says the bereaved father, over the dead body of his son, " my crown is fallen ! my crown is fallen." When men quarrel, it is common for the one to say to the other, " I will beat thee till thy turban fall." When they fight, the great object of the combatants is to pull off each other's turban or head-dress ; because it shows that the individual is then disgraced and humbled. The feelings of a man who has his turban knocked off his head, are probably something like those which are produced by the knocking off of a man's wig. For the turban to FALL off the head by ACCIDENT is considered to be a very bad omen. Jehoiakim and his queen were to have their " head tires " brought down ; they were to be humbled on account of their sins. XIV. 2. " Judah mourneth and the gates thereof languish." " Have you heard that the wife of Muttoo and all the lildren have died of the cholera? Alas, the poor old man left alone, and the gales are in sorrow even they pity 4. " Because the ground is chapt, for there was no rain in the earth, the ploughmen were ashamed, they covered their heads." This refers to a drought which was to take place in Judah. At such times, in the East, the ground is " chapt;" large 474 JEREMIAH. fissures meet your eye in every direction, and the husbandmen are then ashamed and put to confusion : they know not what to do : to plough the land under such circumstances is of no use ; and, therefore, they are obliged to wait till it shall rain. Thus, should the rains be later than usual, the people are daily looking for them, and after one night's fall, the farmers may be seen in every direction working in their fields with the greatest glee, in the full hope of soon casting in the seed. XV. 7. " I will fan them with a fan." (Matt. iii. 12.) When the cholera or any other pestilence rages, it is said, " Alas ! this sickness has fanned the people away." " Truly they have been suddenly fanned from the earth." See on Isa. xxx. 24. 9. " Her sun is gone down while it was yet day/' (Amos viii. 9.) Of a person who is dead, it is said, " He is set," and of one dying, " He is setting." Should a beautiful young man or woman be reduced by sickness, it is said, " He is like the evening ! which is occupying the place of the morning !" 10. " Woe is me, my mother, that thou hast borne me!" When a man is in great trouble, he often exclaims, " Alas ! alas ! my mother, why did you bear me ? " XVI. 7. " Neither shall men tear themselves for them in mourning, to comfort them for the dead." The margin has, instead of " tear themselves," " or break bread for them." (Ezek. xxiv. 17. " Eat not the bread of men." 2 Sam. iii. 35.) " The people came to cause David to eat meat, while it was yet JEREMIAH. 475 I day." This was when David lamented the death of Abner. D'Oyley and Mant say, " Friends were wont to come, after e funeral was over, to comfort those who had buried the dead, and send in provisions to make a feast, it being sup- posed that they themselves were so sorrowful as not to be able to think of their necessary food." After the corpse has been consumed on the funeral pile or buried, the relations of the deceased prepare and send a fine kind of gruel (made of the Palmirah killunga) to the funeral house. At the anniversary of a funeral, the relations of the deceased meet to eat together, and give food to the poor. Hence great numbers on these occasions get plenty of pro- visions. XVII. 6. " Shall inhabit the parched places in the wilderness, in a salt land, not inhabited." Nothing can be more desolate and solitary than the salt plains of the East. Not a shrub, not a tree, to cheer the eye ; even birds and beasts seem affrighted at the scene. What with the silence of these solitudes, the absence of shade, of water, of vegetable and animal life, the traveller moves on with renewed speed to escape from such dreary wastes. Idolatrous Judah had trusted in idols ; her sin was written " with a pen of iron ; " it could not be erased ; and for thus trusting in them, and in man, she was to dwell in " the parched places," the " salt land," which was " not inha- bited." 8. " As a tree planted by the waters, and that spread- eth out her roots by the river, and shall not see when heat cometh." To appreciate the beauty of this allusion, it is necessary to think of a parched desert, where there is scarcely a green leaf to relieve the eye. In the midst of that waste is per- 476 JEREMIAH. haps a tank, a well, or a stream, and near to the water's will be seen plants, and shrubs, and trees covered with th< most beautiful foliage. So shall be the man who puts his trust in Jehovah." XVIII. 6. " As the clay is in the potter's hand." It is said of an obedient son, " He is like wax; you r shape him any way you please ; you may send him hithe and thither, this way or that way, all will be right." 17. " I will show them the back, and not the face.' (Chap. ii. 27.) Nothing exasperates a person more, when he goes to another, than for the individual thus visited to arise and tui his back to the visiter. To see a man thus erect with his back towards another has a striking effect on the mind. In the face of the man thus insulted is chagrin and confusion ; in the other, contempt and triumph. After a pause, the figure who shows his back moves forward, leaving the other to in- dulge in spleen and imprecations. XX. 9. " His word was in mine heart, as a burning fire shut up in my bones." Of awful language it is said, " It burns up my eral, i. e. my liver." Does a man see acts of oppression, he says, when speaking of them, " My bowels burned to see those sights." " Fire, fire, a fire is in my heart," says the man who is half frantic in grief. 15. " Cursed be the man who brought tidings to my father, saying, A man child is born unto thee : making him very glad." (Job iii. 1, 2. and 3.) I have already noticed the great anxiety of the people of the East to have male children. At the time of parturition the husband waits in an adjoining room or the garden ; and so soon as the affair shall be over, should the little stranger JEREMIAH. 477 be a son, the midwife rushes outside, and beats the thatch on the roof three times, and exclaims aloud, " A male child ! a male child ! a male child is born !" Should the infant be a female, not a word is said, and the father knows what is the state of the case. When a person conducts himself in an unmanly way, the people ask, " Did they beat the roof for you ? Was it not said to your father, A male child is born ?" XXII. 24. " As I live, saith the Lord, though Coniah the son of Jehoiakim, king of Judah, were the signet upon my right hand, yet would I pluck thee thence. (Haggai ii. 23. " O Zerubbabel I will make thee as a signet") The SIGNET is always worn on the little finger of the right hand. Things which are dear are spoken of as that orna- ment. " O my child, you are as my signet." " We are like the ring-seal, and the impression ;" meaning, the child re- sembles the father. " Never will I see him more ; were he my signet, I would throw him away." " I do that ? rather would I throw away my ring-seal." XXIII. 1. " The pastors that destroy and scatter the sheep." The heathen priests are never called pastors ; the term would be a disgrace to them, as the occupation is only fol- lowed by the lowest orders of the people. 25. "I have heard what the prophets said, that pro- phecy lies in my name, saying, I have dreamed, I have dreamed." Exactly in the same way do the heathen priests and de- votees impose on the people at this day. Have they some profitable speculation which requires the sanction of the gods, they affect to have had a visit from them, and they generally manage to relate some secret transaction (as a 478 JEREMIAH. proof) which the individual concerned supposed was only known to himself. XXIV. 6. " For I will set mine eyes upon them for good." The eye is spoken of as the source, and also as the cause, of a blessing. Thus, has a person been sick, and is he asked, how did you recover ? he replies, " The gods fixed their eyes upon me." Does a man promise a favour, he says, " I will place my eyes upon you." Does he refuse, he says, " I will not put my eyes on you." - XXV. 10. " I will take from them the light the candle." The people of the East, who can afford it, have always a lamp burning in their room the whole of the night. It is one of their greatest comforts ; because, should they not be able to sleep, they can then look about them, and amuse themselves. " Evil spirits are kept away, as they do not like the light !" Lechymy, the beautiful goddess, also takes pleasure in seeing the rooms lighted up. But that which is of the MOST im- portance is, the light keeps off the serpents and other poison- ous reptiles. XXXI. 19. I^repented; and after that I was in- structed ; I smote upon my thigh ; I was ashamed." (Ezek. xxi. 12. " Cry and howl, son of man : smite therefore upon thy thigh.") It appears to have been the custom, when a person was in sorrow, to smite his thigh. Is it not interesting to know that the people of the East, when in similar circumstances, do the same thing at this day ? See the bereaved father ; he smites his right thigh, and cries aloud, " lyol lyo /" alas ! alas !* * " Achilles saw it, smote his thigh, and said." COWPER. JEREMIAH. 479 XXXIV. 3. " And thou shalt not escape out of his hand, but shalt surely be taken and delivered into his hand ; and thine eyes shall behold the eyes of the king of Babylon." To say, your eyes shall see the eyes of another, implies pleasure or pain. Thus, to comfort one who greatly desires to see another, but who fears he shall not have that pleasure, it is said, " Fear not, your eyes shall see his eyes." But, should a person have committed some crime, it is said to him, in order to make him afraid, " Yes ; your eyes shall see his eyes," t. e. of the person who has been injured, and who has power to inflict punishment. XLI. 8. " Slay us not ; for we have treasures in the field, of wheat, and of barley, of oil, and of honey." This refers to stores they had concealed, as is clear from the mentioning of "the oil and honey." During the time of the Kandian war many prisoners received lenient treat- ment ; because of the assurance that they had treasures hid in the field, and that they should be the property of their keepers. In some cases there can be no doubt there were large sums thus acquired by certain individuals. XLI I. 2. " Let, we beseech thee, our supplication be accepted before thee." The margin has this, " Let our supplication FALL before thee." " O my lord," says the suppliant, " let my prayers be pro- strate at your feet." " O forget not my requests, but let them ever surround your feet." " Allow my supplications to lie before you." " Ah ! give but a small place for my prayers." "At your feet, my lord, at your feet, my lord, are all my requests." XLIV. 17. " To burn incense unto the queen of heaven." (Deut. xvii. 3. " Or moon, or any of the host of heaven.") 480 JEREMIAH. When the new moon is first seen, the people present their hands in the same form of adoration, and take off the turban, as they do to other gods. If a person have a favourite son or wife, or any friend with whom he thinks himself fortunate, he will call for one of them on that night, and, after looking at the new moon, will steadfastly look at the face of the individual. But if there be no person of that description present, he will look at his white cloth, or a piece of gold. In the temple of Siva, when the poosy to the lingam is going on, an offering of incense is presented to a representation of the sun and moon.* Siva wears the crescent on his head ; and Parvati, his consort, wea the sun and moon. Sometimes, however, these emblems worn mutually. An ornament, in imitation of the new m is also placed on the left side of the head of a courtesan the temple ; and another, representing the sun, on the right. Similar figures are also described over the doors of houses, each bearing a relative position. After a marriage ceremony is performed, the bride and bridegroom worship Arunthuthe, i. e. the star Beta in Ursa Major. XL VI. 11. "In vain shalt thou use many medicines, for thou shalt not be cured." Physicians in England would be perfectly astonished at the numerous kinds of medicine which are administered to a patient. The people themselves are unwilling to take one kind for long together, and I have known a sick woman swallow ten different sorts in one day. Should a patient, when about to take his medicine, scatter or spill the least quantity, nothing will induce him to take the rest ; it is a bad omen ; he must have the nostrum changed. L. 38. " They are mad upon their idols." Fully to understand this passage, a person must see the phrensy of the heathen when they get a sight of their idols. * On the SUNDAY, those who are afflicted with the ophthalmia worship the sun ! Thus, JEREMIAH. 481 5, when the gods are taken out in procession, the mul- ;itudes shout, and the priests mutter and rave. The gestures ire all distorted, and the devotees are affected with alternate sorrow or joy. LI. 14?, " The Lord of Hosts hath sworn by him- self." Siva is said to swear by himself, En-ani, i. e. my oath, inferior gods swear by their superiors. 27. " Cause the horses to come up as the rough cater- pillars." " I will fill thee with men as with cater- pillars." me think locusts are meant, instead of caterpillars ; and reason assigned is, that they " have the appearance of I horses and horsemen." Others translate, " bristled locusts." There are bristled caterpillars in the East, which at certain seasons are extremely numerous and annoying. They creep along in troops like soldiers, are covered with stiff hairs or bristles, which are so painful to the touch, and so powerful in their effects, as not to be entirely removed for many days. Should one be swallowed, it will cause death : hence people, at the particular season when they are numerous, are very cau- tious in examining their water vessels, lest any should have fallen in. In the year 1826, a family at Manipy had to arise early in the morning to go to their work, and they therefore prepared their rice the evening before. They were up before daylight, and took their food : in the course of a short time they were all ill, and some of them died during the day. The rice chatty was examined, and there were found the remains e micutty, the rough caterpillar.* "' * Dr. Hawkesworth says, of those he saw in the West Indies, " their >odies were thick set with hairs, and they were ranging on the leaves side >y side, like files of soldiers, to the number of twenty or thirty together. When we touched them, we found their bodies had the qualities of I I 482 JEREMIAH. 42. " The sea is come up upon Babylon : she is vered with the multitude of the waves thereof." This metaphor is in common use to show the OVERWHELMING j power of an enemy. " Tippoo Saib went down upon his foes, like the sea he swept them all away." " True, true, the British troops went like the sea upon Bhurtpore, the forts have been carried away." LII. 11. " Then he put out the eyes of Zedekiah, and the king of Babylon bound him in chains, and ricd him to Babylon." (1 Sam. xi. 2. Judges xvi. 28.) The barbarous practice of putting out the eyes of great offenders was common in the East. Some had their eyes j lucked out by hooks, but others had the sight destroyed by powerful drugs. Here, then, we have the accomplishment of the predictions against the Jews : they had wantonly sported with God's mercy, they had outraged all their principles, and had literally dared, by their conduct, Jehovah to do His worst. To their sorrow, they had now to sit down and " weep by the rivers of) Babylon," whilst they lamented over their far-distant Zion. -I 21. " The thickness thereof was four fingers." In the same way do the people of the East speak of anyj thing which is less in measure than a SPAN. " What height! are your pepper vines ? " " About two fingers." " Wh< the rice becomes five fingers in height we shall want moi rain." That which is less than a finger is spoken of as a grail of rice : the next gradation is an ellu, i. e. gingelly seed ; next is a mustard seed ; and the last an ami, i.e. an atom. 483 LAMENTATIONS. CHAP. I. verse 1 . " How doth the city sit solitary that was full of people ! how is she become as a widow ! " Jerusalem had been sacked by a ruthless'foe, and her sons ad been carried off to Babylon. " As a widow." When husband dies, the solitary widow takes off her marriage ewel, and other ornaments; her head is shaved! and she its down in the dust to bewail her lamentable condition. In tie book Scanda Purana, it is said, after the splendid city f Kupera had been plundered by the cruel Assurs, " the ity, deprived of its riches by the pillage of the Assurs, re- embled the WIDOW !" Jerusalem became as a widow in her oneliness bemoaning her departed lord. 11. " All her people sigh, they seek bread : they have given their pleasant things for meat." What a melancholy picture have we here ! the captives, it ippears, had been allowed, or they had concealed, some of :heir " pleasant things," their jewels, and were now obliged ;o part with them for food. What a view we also have here >f the cruelty of the vile Babylonians ! The people of the East retain their little valuables, such as jewels and rich robes, ;o the last extremity. To part with that, which has, perhaps, Deen a kind of heir-loom in the family, is like parting vith life. Have they sold the last wreck of their other pro- Derty ; are they on the verge of death ; the emaciated mem- Ders of the family are called together, and some one under- akes the heart-rending task of proposing such a bracelet, )r armlet, or anklet, or earring, or the pendant of the fore- icad, to be sold. For a moment all are silent, till the mother i i 2 484 LAMENTATIONS. or daughters burst into tears, and then the contending feelings of hunger, and love for their " pleasant things," alternately prevail. In general, the conclusion is, to pledge, and not to sell, their much-loved ornaments ; but such is the ra- pacity of those who have money, and such the extreme penury of those who have once fallen, they seldom regain them.* 17. " Zion spreadeth forth her hands, and there is none to comfort her." What a irraphic view we have here of a person in distress ! See that poor widow looking at the dead body of her husband; as the people take it from the house : she spreads forth her hands to their utmost extent, and piteously bewails her condition. The last allusion in the verse is very common. II. 1. " Remembered not his footstool." Those who are in favour with the king, or those who obey him, are called his footstool. But the figure is also used ill a degrading sense. Thus, do two men quarrel, one says to the other, " I will make thee my footstool." " Ah ! my lord, be not angry with me, how long have I been your footstool?" " I be that fellow's footstool ! Never ! Was he not footstool to my father ? " 15. " All that pass by clap their hands." The vulgar, the low triumph of a victorious party, in the East, is extremely galling ; there is nothing like moderation or * Numbers give their jewels to others to keep for them, and never see them more. I recollect a person came to the mission house, and broughtj a large casket of jewels for me to keep in our iron chest. The valuable gems were shown to me one by one ; but I declined receiving them, because- I had heard that the person was greatly indebted to the government, and was led to suspect the object was to defraud the creditor. They wert then taken to another person, who received them, decamped to a distant part of the country, and the whole of the property was lost, both to the individual and the creditors. LAMENTATIONS. 485 forbearance in the victors. No, they have recourse to every contemptuous and brutal method to degrade their fallen foe. Has one party triumphed over another in a court of law, or in some personal conflict, the conquerors shout aloud, " Aha ! aha ! fallen, fallen ;" and then go close to the vanquished, and " clap their hands." III. 7. (( He hath made my chain heavy." This figure is taken from a prisoner having a heavy chain to I drag as he goes along. Husbands sometimes speak of their 1 wives as a chain. Thus, is a man invited to a distant country ; j he asks, in reply, " How can I come ? my wife has made my ! chain heavy." " My husband, my husband, you shall not go ; my weeping shall make your chain heavy." A man in great trouble asks, who will break this sangale ? i. e. chain. " My chain, my chain ! who will break this chain ?" "Have you heard Viravar's chain is broken ? He is dead ! Who will make another chain for him ? " 15. " Hath filled me with bitterness." " Wicked, wicked son," says the disappointed mother, " I expected to have had pleasure from thee, but thou hast given me Jcasapu" i. e. bitterness. " Shall I go to his house to live on bitterness ?" " Who can make this bitter- ness sweet?" V. 12. " Princes are hanged up by their hand." No punishment is more common than this in the East, especially for slaves and refractory children. Thus, has a master an obstinate slave ; has he committed some great of- fence with his hands ; several men are called, who tie the offender's hands, and hoist him to the roof, till he beg for forgiveness. Schoolboys, who are in the habit of playing truant, are also thus punished. To tell a man you will hang him by the hands, is extremely provoking. See, then, the ii 3 486 LAMENTATIONS. lamentable condition of the princes in Babylon, they were " hanged up by their hands," as common slaves. 16. " The crown is fallen from our head." Has a man lost his property, his honour, his beauty, or his happiness, he says, " My crown has fallen ;" does a father or grandfather reprove his sons for bad conduct, he asks, " Has my crown fallen ?" 487 EZEKIEL. CHAP. IV. verse 4. " Lie thou also upon thy left side." It is more than probable,, something is alluded to here which we cannot understand. When a person is sick, he will not lie on his RIGHT side, because that would be a bad omen : should he in his agony, or when asleep, turn on that side, his attendants will immediately again place him on the left side. After people have taken their food, they generally sleep a little, but they are careful to repose on the left side, " be- cause the food digests better." It is impossible to say what is the origin of this practice : it may have arisen from the cir- cumstance that the RIGHT side " is of the masculine gender," and the left feminine, as is the case with the supreme Siva. Females are directed to recline on the right side, and many curious stories are told, in reference to them, which are not worth repeating. 15. "Lo, I have given thee cow's dung for man's dung, and thou shalt prepare thy bread therewith." In some places, firewood being very scarce, the people gather cow dung, make it into cakes, and dry it in the sun, after which it is ready for fuel. Those who are accustomed to have their food prepared in this way, prefer it to any other : they tell you it is sweeter and more holy, as the fuel comes from their sacred animal. The other allusion in this verse, and in chap. iv. 12., is often made use of when people are angry with each other. Has some one stolen a person's fuel, he says in his rage, " Ah ! that wretch shall get ready his food" as described in iv. 12. Does a wife ask her husband for firewood, he will (should he be angry) reply to her as above. i i 488 EZEKIEL. VI. 4. " Your images shall be broken." Heb. " Sun images." (See on 2 Chron. xiv. 5.) VII. 10, 11. "Behold the day; behold, it is come; the morning is gone forth ; the rod hath blos- somed, pride hath budded. Violence is risen up into a rod of wickedness." This alludes to the punishment of the children of Israel ; and Jehovah, through his servant, addresses the people in Eastern language : " The morning is gone forth." Their wickedness, their violence, had grown into a rod to punish them. This idea is implied in the Tamul translation also. * Yes, wretch, the rod has long been growing for thee, 't is now ready, they may now cut it." " True, true, the man's past crimes are as so many rods for him." VIII. 17. " Is it a light thing to the house of Judah that they commit the abominations which they commit here ? for they have filled the land with violence, and have returned to provoke me to anger : and, lo, they put the branch to their nose." The last allusion in this verse is very curious, and deserves minute consideration. " They put the branch to their nose" The whole of this chapter refers to the different kinds of idolatry practised by the Jews ! Hence there is a reference to the heathenism of Egypt, Persia, and Phoenicia. Here were the daughters of Zion, the descendants of those who had witnessed sue sublime instances of the peerless majesty, the never-failing goodness, of Jehovah, " weeping for Tammuz," the Adonis of Western mythology, a beautiful youth, who was the favourite of Venus. He was killed by a wild boar, at which his paramour was greatly DISTRESSED, and an un- holy festival was instituted to perpetuate his memory, when females under certain circumstances transgressed the bounds of modesty. In the third chapter of Isaiah we have a la- mentable account of the INDECENCY and HEATHENISH practices EZEKIEL. 489 of the daughters of Zion." All the ornaments which were worn by the lascivious female idolaters were adopted by them. The " NOSE JEWELS " were exclusively HEATHEN, both in their origin and in the thing signified ; for we do not find in any other part of holy writ the least allusion to that appen- dage of heathenism ; excepting that of Solomon, where he says, " As a jewel of gold in a swine's snout, so is a fair woman without discretion." And in this case we see the ornament is associated with the swine and the woman of indecent con- duct. I believe Dr. A. Clarke is mistaken when he says nose jewels are referred to in Gen. xxiv. 47. ; as " the ear- ring upon her face," or the " golden earring of half a shekel weight," in verse 22., means, as in the margin, a " jewel for the forehead," an ornament still worn, in the East, on the forehead or brow. (See on Gen. xxiv. 4? 7.) Again, Ezekiel xvi. 12. The text is, "I put a jewel on thy forehead ;" whereas the margin has, " nose :" but I think the former is preferable ; because, in that account, the Jewish Church is described as an infant, which had been taken up and adorned by one who had found her in that helpless condition. Now, if the ornament had been heathenish, would the prophet have represented the infant church as wearing it ? Before I give the ORIGIN of the " NOSE JEWEL," it may be well to notice the different kinds. Some are in the shape of a swan, others of a serpent, and others of a flower. These ire fixed to the LEFT nostril. The rings are put into the )tum or middle filament of the nose. The jewels have two ics, both of which are indicative of a distinct object. The irst is Nate-Kaddan, which signifies " the obligation or ibt a person is under by a vow ; " the second name is MooJca- n addi, literally nose-impediment or hinderance, i. e. to sick- less or death ; and it is worthy of notice, that the word iddi is nearly the same as tadde, the word for stick or >ranch. In the one case, therefore, it denotes the obligation person is under by a vow to perform some service or duty to a god ; and, in the other, to the protection which is gained 490 EZEKIEL. from sickness. Dr. Boothroycl, in his translation, leaves out " BRANCH " altogether : " Lo, they send forth a scornful noise through their nostrils." In the Hindoo book called Pdga-Vatham, the following account is given of the ORIGIN of the nose-ring : "In the desert of Taru was a mango tree, which only produced one mango in twelve years ; and a very celebrated hermit or dervise used always to take and eat that fruit. There was a king called Kanjan, and his sister Tavage, who went to hunt in that desert ; when the king, seeing the single fruit, took an arrow and shot it off, and then gave it to his sister to eat. Soon after that the hermit came to seek for his fruit, but finding it gone he became very angry, and pronounced the following curse : ' He who shot off that fruit shall be killed by the child of the woman who ate it.' Some time after that, Kanjan the king gave his sister Tavage in marriage to Vasu-Teavan ; and as Kanjan knew the curse which the great hermit had pro- nounced upon him who had shot off the single fruit, he de- termined to take measures to prevent its accomplishment. He, therefore, knowing the state of his sister, sent a guard to seize the husband, and then to kill the child, lest it should one day kill him. He continued to do so till he had de- stroyed seven children. But the eighth was the incarnation of Vishnoo, called Chrishna, and no sooner was that child born, than the chains with which the sister's husband were bound fell off, and he heard a voice from an invisible being, saying, ' Take the child which is now born unto thee to the village of shepherds, to one Asothy, who has just had a female child, and leave it with her ; but take her daughter, whose name is Poothany, and bring her to thy wife.' With this information the husband of Tavage was quite delighted, and ran to tell the news to his wife. She immediately con- sented to the proposal, and forthwith bored a hole in the NOSE of her infant, and put a RING into it, as an impediment and a sign. The BLOOD which came from the wound was as a sacrifice to prevent him from falling into the hands of his EZEKIEL. 491 enemies. After this, the father took the child to the village of shepherds : gave it in charge to Asothy, and brought away her child to his wife. The king Kanjan, having heard that his sister had had another child, went and took the female infant called Poothany from his sister, and when about to kill it, the child spake (it being a spirit), and said, He who will kill thee is being brought up in the village of shepherds ; why then are you going to kill me ?' and it vanished out of his sight. Kanjan, the king, then determined to take other measures to accomplish his purpose; he therefore called a female devil, who lived in the tank called Nachu-Pogi, and told her to go and act as a nurse to the child, and thus by her poisonous milk destroy the infant. She accordingly went, and did as com- manded ; but when she began to give milk to the child, it took her life. When, therefore, he grew up, and became Chrishna, he went and slew his uncle Kanjan, the king, who shot off the mango fruit with his arrow." Now, then, let us look at the application of this story. When parents have lost their first three children, they con- clude " some evil one" has carried them off, and immediately on the birth of a fourth they take measures to prevent that from being taken in the same way. So soon as it is born, the midwife takes it to a fan, or winnow, on which ashes have been spread, and then bores a hole in the RIGHT nostril, and puts in the nose-ring, which is to act as an impediment " to the evil one," who has taken off the other children. This, there- fore, when PROPERLY done, is believed to be a preventive against death, till the child shall be married. When the time has come to take off the nose-ring, the, parents of the youth take him, and dress his hair on the RIGHT side of his head, with great neatness ; but that on the LEFT, is put into disorder ; the eyelids of his RIGHT eye are painted black, and he is sent to the houses of seven neighbours, to ask for alms to give to the Brahmins. When the youth has returned from the seven houses, the family immediately go to the temple, and THERE take off the ring, which, with the alms 492 EZEKIEL. that were received, are given to the officiating Brahmin. They then return to their house, in front of which is planted a young plantain tree (banana) which has never borne fruit. Over the threshold is placed the pestle / and the youth who has had the ring taken from his nose, walks three times round the tree alluded to, from left to right, and then rushes into the house, taking care not to touch the threshold or pestle. After he has entered, he is placed near a full vessel of water, in which are mango leaves. A married woman then takes a salver, on which are chunam and saffron, which when mixed with water has the colour of blood. A lighted wick is then floated on the surface of that which represents blood, and she waves it three times before him. The youth then retires, and the woman spits three times on the ground; and the imitation blood is thrown into the back yard. Near the plantain tree, in front of the house, is a man, who, so soon as the ceremonies have been performed, cuts it down, knocks at the door three times, which is then opened, and he enters (not having looked back) ; and the same ceremonies which have been performed for the youth are now repeated for him. Let us now look at Adonis : he was a beautiful youth, be- loved by Venus, which induced Mars (also her lover) to send a wild boar to destroy him. In memory of that event, the RIVER Adonis is said to run blood. " Ran purple to the sea suffused with blood." MILTON.* Look, then, at the destruction of the children by the king Kanjam ; see the nose-jewel to prevent future death : at the blood as an offering, at the way in which the youth goes to ask alms, when the ring is to be taken off, his hair on the left side, which is the feminine, being in disorder, as a sign of grief; at the representation, again, of blood by mixing the saffron and chunam, and at the woman, who is the principal performer ; we see certain coincidences which * Maundrell notices this circumstance : the water is supposed to have been stained with the red earth, or ochre. EZEKIEL. 493 seem to point at the death of Adonis and the sorrow of the females. I am, therefore, of opinion, that to " put the branch to their nose," was the idolatrous practice of boring a child's nose and putting a ring therein, to dedicate it to an idol ; and, therefore, to show it was under its protection, rather than that of Jehovah. XIII. 4. " O Israel, thy prophets are like the foxes in the deserts." (Ps. Ixiii. 10.) " They shall be a portion for foxes." In the above passages, Dr. Boothroyd, instead of foxes, translates " jackals," and I think it by far the best rendering. These animals are exceedingly numerous in the East, and are remarkably CUNNING and VORACIOUS. I suppose the reason why they are called the lion's provider is, because they yell so much when they have scent of prey, that the noble beast, hearing the sound, goes to the spot and satisfies his hunger. They often hunt in packs, and I have had from twenty to thirty following me (taking care to conceal them- selves in the low jungle) for an hour together. They will not, in general, dare to attack man : but, let him be helpless or dead, and they have no hesitation. Thus our grave-yards are often disturbed by these animals ; and, after they have once tasted of human flesh, they (as well as many other crea- tures) are said to prefer it to any other. Their CUNNING is proverbial : thus, a man of plots and schemes is called a nareyaU) i. e. a jackal. " Ah ! only give that fellow a tail, and he will make a capital jackal." " Begone, low caste, or I will give thee to the jackals." 18. " And say, Thus saith the Lord God, Woe to the women that sew pillows to all armholes, and make kerchiefs upon the head of every stature to hunt souls." The margin has, instead of " armholes," " elbows." 494 EZEKIEL. The marginal reading is undoubtedly the best. Rich people have a great variety of pillows and bolsters to support themselves in various positions when they wish to take their ease. Some are long and round, and are stuffed till they are quite hard ; whilst others are short and soft, to suit the con- venience. The verse refers to females of a loose character, and Parkhurst is right when he says, " These false prophet- esses decoyed men into their gardens, where probably some impure rites of worship were performed." The pillows were used for the vilest purposes, and the kerchiefs were used as an affectation of shame. XVI. 4. " Thou wast not salted." The Hindoos do not wash their new-born infants in salt : but before the Brahmin names the child he puts a little salt into its mouth. XIX. 8. " Then the nations set against him on every side from the provinces, and spread their net over him : he was taken in their pit." (Lam. iv. 20.) These figures are derived from the way in which wild beasts are hunted and taken. When large and deep pits have been formed in paths, where it is known the animals must go, the people assemble on every side where the victims are, and begin to shout, to beat on instruments, and rush among the trees. The creatures become alarmed, and run towards the place where they know is an opening ; and then fall into the deep pits which are prepared for them. Even elephants are some- times caught in this way ; and the agony, the rage, they mani- fest when thus entrapped, is most affecting. The nets and ropes are then thrown over them, and when they are suf- ficiently entangled, a way is made for them to walk out. XXI. 6. " The breaking of thy loins." It is said, when a man's strength is reduced, " Alas ! that poor fellow's loins are broken." EZEKIEL. 495 I4, t Thou, therefore, "son of man, prophesy, and smite thine hands together." " SMITE THINE HANDS TOGETHER." To smite the hands together, in the East, amounts to an OATH ! In the 1 7th verse, the Lord says, in reference to Jerusalem, " I will also smite mine hands together, and I will cause my fury to rest : I the Lord have said." By the solemn smiting of the hands it was shown the word had gone forth, and would not be recalled. When a priest delivers a message to the people, when he relates any thing which he professes to have received from the gods, he smites his hands together, and says, " TRUE." Does a Pandarum, or other kind of religious mendicant, consider himself to be insulted, he smites his hands against the individuals, and pronounces his imprecations upon them, crying aloud, " True, true, it will all come upon you." Should a person, when speaking of any thing which is certain to happen, be doubted by others, he will immediately smite his hands. " Have you heard that Muttoo has been killed by a tiger ? " " No ! nor do I believe it." The relater will then (if true) smite together his hands, which at once confirms the fact. " Those men cannot escape for any great length of time, because the king has smitten his hands ;" meaning, he has sworn to have them taken. Jehovah did smite His hands together against Jerusalem. 21. " For the king of Babylon stood at the parting of the way, at the head of the two ways, to use divi- nation: he made his arrows bright, he consulted with images." The margin has, instead of " parting," " mother ; " which accords with the Tamul : " Mo- ther way." In former times it was customary to decide important affairs by shooting arrows. Thus, should three princes pro- pose for the daughter of a king, and should he be in doubt to whom he ought to give her, he will write the name of each prince on an arrow, and then shoot them altogether or sepa- 496 EZEKIEL. rately from the bow, and the man whose name is on the most distant arrow, will be the husband of the princess. XXII. 12. " In thee have they taken gifts to shed blood : thou hast taken usury and increase, and thou hast greedily gained of thy neighbours by extortion." There is surely no part of the world worse than the East for usury and extortion. A rich man will think nothing of demanding twenty per cent, for his precious loan. Does a person wish to buy or sell an article ; does he want to avoid any office or duty, or to gain a situation, or place any person under an obligation ; he cannot think of doing the one or the other, without giving himself into the hands of the extortioner. 30. "I sought for a man among them, that should make up the hedge, and stand in the gap before me for the land." A man having lost all his children, and in complaining of his forlorn condition, says, " Alas ! I have not any one to stand in the gate ; my enemies can now enter when they please, to tear and devour me." " In the gate, in the gate no one stands." XXIII. 14-. "She saw men portrayed upon the wah 1 , ' ( the images of the Chaldeans portrayed with vermilion." The nature of those images, and the practices, may be seen from the context, and the portraying was of the colour of VERMILION. (See on Isa. i. 18.-) In the Hindoo temples and vestibules, figures of the most revolting descriptions are portrayed on the walls : there the sexes are painted in such a way as few men of discretion would dare'to describe. In some temples there are stone figures in such positions as hell itself could only have suggested : and, recollect, these are the places where men, women, and children, assemble for WORSHIP. EZEKIEL. 497 XXIV. 17. " Forbear to cry, make no mourning for the dead, bind the tire of thine head upon thee, and put on thy shoes upon thy feet, and cover not thy lips, and eat not the bread of men." This refers to mourning for the dead, arid the prophet was forbidden to use any symbol of sorrow on the death of his wife. At a funeral ceremony the tires and turbans are taken off, and the sandals are laid aside. Thus nobles, who wear the most costly turbans, are seen walking with their heads uncovered, and those who had on beautiful sandals are bare- foot. But the prophet was to PUT ON his tire and sandals, to indicate he was not mourning for the dead. XXV. 4. " They shall eat thy fruit, and they shall drink thy milk." The people of the East take great pleasure in eating fruit and drinking milk. Hence thousands never take any other food to their breakfast. " Pdlhm, Pallamum" i. e. milk and fruit they greatly desire. 6. " Thou hast clapped thine hands, and stamped with thy feet." We have seen under Lam. ii. 15., how and when the Ori- entals clap their hands ; and they are equally given to stamp with their feet when they triumph over a fallen foe. The way is, to make a sudden jump with their foot on the ground.* XXVII. 13. " Vessels of brass in thy market." The domestic utensils of the Orientals are nearly always brass: and to these they often refer, as a sign of pro- perty. " He is a rich man ; his house is full of brass vessels." " Begone ! fellow, I have more brass in my house than would purchase all thy property." " The miserable man has not a brass dish in his house." * I have often seen the natives of the Mozambique thus dance and STAMP with their feet, when singing their WAR ! songs. K K 498 EZEKIEL. XXVIII. 2. " Say unto the prince of Tyrus, Thus saith the Lord God ; Because thine heart is lifted up, and thou hast said, I am a god, I sit in the seat of God, in the midst of the seas." Origen thought the guardian angel of the city was in- tended. It has been exceedingly common in all ages in the East for great saints or devotees to assume the airs and to demand the homage which is paid to a deity. Hence numbers who are celebrated for sanctity are always addressed by the title of Swamy, i. e. God. 24. " There shall be no more a pricking briar unto the house of Israel." Enemies are often compared to thorns and thistles. " Ah ! how this thorn goads me," says the man of his foe. When a man's adversaries are dead, he says, " This is now a desert without thorns." " Ah ! as our father is dead, we are to our enemies like a jungle without thorns." XXIX. 18. " Every shoulder was peeled." What an illustration of this passage we have in those who have not been accustomed to carry the palankeen ! During the first day the skin is literally peeled k off. To prevent the pole from galling the shoulder the Coolies have cushions or a piece of the plantain tree put under the pole. The shoulders of those who assisted at the siege against Tyre were PEELED by hard labour. XXXII. 3. " They shall bring thee up in my net." When a person has been caught by the stratagem of an- other, it is said, " He is caught in his net." " He is like a deer caught in the net." Has a man escaped : " The fellow has broken the net." " Catch him in your net ! will you catch the lightning?" XXXIII. 32. " Thou art unto them as a very lovely song of one that hath a pleasant voice." EZEKIEL. "Gone! gone!" says the bereaved admirer: " she was indeed like a sweet voice to my ear." " I hear not the sweet song ?" " Where is my music ?" " The song of the night ! the song of the night ! has left me." XXXIX. 11. "I will give unto Gog a place there of graves in Israel, the valley of the passengers on the east of the sea : and it shall stop the noses of the passengers : and there shall they bury Gog." This refers to the dreadful stench which should arise from the dead bodies of Gog. The Tamul translation has it, " cause to STOP the noses." The moment people smell any thing offensive, they immediately press the nostrils together with their fingers. They say of a bad smell it has STOPPED my nose ; which means the nose is so full of that, it is not sensible of any other smell. The figure is much used in re- ference to the decayed oysters at the pearl fishery. XL. 16. " Upon each post were palm trees." Calmet says, " Probably pilasters, representing palm trees, the trunks forming the shafts arid the branches the capitals." The favourite capital in eastern architecture is a represent- ation of the fruit of the plantain-tree (Musa-paradisiaca) before it has broken its sheath, and is called the Vali-potte. On all festive occasions which call for extraordinary show, the people procure two LIVING trees of the description alluded to, and plant one on each side of the door post : then from one to the other, they suspend festoons of mango leaves, cocoa-nut leaves, and the flowers of the t/idlam. The musa is sacred to the goddess Lechymy. XLIII. 2. Behold the glory of the God of Israel came from the way of the East." Dr. Gray says, " Under the particulars detailed by Ezekiel we often discover the economy of a spiritual temple which K K 2 500 EZEKIEL. should again be filled with the glory of the Lord coming from the East." When we consider the various allusions to the East in Holy Writ ; at the comparisons to the sun, in reference to divine illuminations ; reflecting on the homage paid to the great orb of day by all the heavenly bodies ; looking at the idea of the Orientals, " that the face is always towards the East," i. e. it is the eastern part of the body ; at the phrases, " not turn to the right or the left," i. e. neither to the north nor to the south ; we get a new view of many interesting passages of Scripture. XLVIII. 23." Benjamin shall have a portion." Mar- gin, instead of " a," " one." In the Tamul it is the same, thus, Oru manuthan, lite ray ONE man always one, which we render a. 501 DANIEL. CHAP. I. verse 2. " lie brought the vessels into the treasure house of his god." In all heathen temples there is a place for the sacred jewels and other treasures. The ornaments of the idols are sometimes of GREAT value. I have seen the small crown, breast-plate, and necklaces of one idol worth more than 400/. II. 4. " O king, live for ever." These words are not addressed to the ears of royalty MERELY. Has a man been greatly favoured by another, he says, " Ah! may you never die." " So good a man ought never to die." " May you live for ever." " Will death come to such a man as this ?" " Live, live, for ever." IV. 25. " They shall wet thee with the dew of heaven." This was one of the miseries of Nebuchadnezzar, and a much greater one than the people in England imagine. .Think of the state of the body and pores after being twelve hours in a blazing] sun, and then think on such a dew falling as will saturate all the clothes ; and a tolerable view is gained of the great reverse, and the effect it must have on the human frame. Of a wretched man it is said, " The sun falls on his head by day, and the dew by night." " He is scorched by the sun and made wet by the dew." V. 12. " Dissolving of doubts." The margin (Chald.) has instead of " doubts," " knots." A very difficult subject is called a mudiche, a knot ! Thus the explaining of a riddle is called " untying the K K 3 502 DANIEL. knot." Of a talented man it is said, " Ah ! he is very clever, he can tie or untie any knot." Of a dream, it is asked, " who can loose this knot?" Of any mysteries, or of deep plans, it is asked, " Ah ! who can untie these knots?" " How difficult that passage was, but he soon unravelled the knot." 27. " Thou art weighed in the balances, and art found wanting." This striking form of speech is much used in the East at this day. Thus, should two men be disputing respecting the moral character of a third person, one will say, I know the fellow well, " I have weighed him, and he is found wanting." " He found wanting ! you are much lighter than he." "What! miscreant, do you wish to weigh against me?" " Thou art but as one part in a thousand." " Begone ! fel- low, or I will soon weigh thee." " Yes, yes, there is no doubt about it : you have weighed me ; I am much lighter than you." " What kind of times are these? the slaves are weighing their masters." " Yes, the low castes have become very clever, they are weighing their superiors." " What ! woman, do you call in question the authority of your husband : are YOU qualified to weigh him ?" " The judge has been weighing the prisoners, and they are all wanting." VI. 23. " No manner of hurt was found upon hii because he believed in his God." The Orientals have an. idea, that in WHATEVER a mi BELIEVES, whether in reference to the existence or noi existence of evil or danger in regard to himself, that, so will his condition be regulated. In walking once with a learned Brahmin, through a grove of cocoa-trees ; I enquired, Why are you not afraid of those nuts falling on your head, and killing you on the spot ? " Because I have only to BELIEVE they will not fall, and all is safe," was his reply. DANIEL. 503 I VII. 15. " I Daniel was grieved in my spirit in the midst of my body, and the visions of my head troubled me." Margin (Chald.) " sheath." " Sheath ; " this is a very curious expression when applied to such a subject, but it is perfectly natural. When a person has swooned, the people say, " His life has gone into its URI," /. e. SHEATH, meaning some particular place into which the life is supposed to retire and conceal itself from the sight. Has a man been wounded by a serpent, and should he appear to be dead, it is often said, " Fear not, his life has merely gone into its SHEATH." When a person's eyes are much sunken by sick- ness, the people say, " Alas ! his eyes have gone into their sheath." " Well, my friend, when did you arrive ? " "I came just as the sun was going into its sheath," i.e. going down. " I am happy to hear that the king has put his anger and his sword into the sheath." K K 4? 504 HOSEA. CHAP. III. verse 2. " So I bought her to me for fifteen pieces of silver/' Slavery has been common in the East from the most re- mote antiquity; but its form in general is very mild: hence masters and slaves are more like companions than those be- twixt whom such a relationship exists. If the latter can tell a good story and flatter their lords, they may almost do as they please. A good high-caste female slave may be had for 60 Rds, i. e. 4/. 1 05. ; whereas a low-caste can be purchased for 20 Rds, I/. 105. A high-caste male slave will fetch 31. but one of an inferior degree only half that IV. 16. "For Israel slideth back as a back-sliding heifer." By a reference to the 14th and 15th verses it will be seen that this denotes the loose conduct of the daughters of Israel, and exactly in this way do people speak of the same class of females. VI. 4. " O Ephraim, what shall I do unto thee ? for your goodness is as a morning cloud, and as the early dew it goeth away." * During the time the Right Honourable Sir Alexander Johnston was chief justice of Ceylon, a government regulation was made, which will soon cause slavery to be extinct in that island. By the proposal of numerous inhabitants to the Prince Regent, that children born after the 12th of August, 1816, should be emancipated ; and by the government regulation, No. 8. dated the 17th April, 1821, it is decided, " All female children of female slaves, born on and after the 24th of April, 1821, being the day of celebrating His Majesty's birthday, are declared free :" thus, in a short time, even from that regulation, there would not have been a single slave in Ceylon. HOSEA. 505 " Early dew." " What, is this prosperity ? what, this pleasure ? Ah ! what are my riches, and what my glory ? Alas ! 'tis like the dew, which flies off at the sight of the morning sun." " My son, my son, be not too confident ; for life is like the dew." 9. " Murder in the way by consent." The margin has, instead of " by consent," " with one shoulder." (Zeph.iii. 9. "To serve him with one consent.") Margin has instead of " consent," " shoulder." The Hindoos for the SAME thing say, " with one HAND." Thus, those people with " ONE HAND " have gone to the judge, i. e. with one consent. " Those wretches with one hand are doing evil." " If the Coolies do their duty with one hand, the work will soon be finished." " Why have they not accomplished their object? because they did not go about it with one hand." VIII. 8. " Israel is swallowed up : now shall they be among the Gentiles as a vessel wherein is no pleasure." (Jer. xlviii. 38. "I have broken Moab like a vessel wherein is no pleasure.") I believe this refers *to an EARTHEN vessel, and not to one made of skin. People often compare each other to an UPPU- PANUM, i. e. literally a salt vessel ; because after it has con- tained salt it is most fragile, the least thing will break it to pieces. " What are you, sir ? an uppu-panum," a salt vessel. " Look at that poor salt vessel, if you touch him he will fall to pieces." IX. 14. " Give them a miscarrying womb and dry breasts." When men curse females, or when the latter curse each other, they often invoke the gods thus to injure the objects of their anger. 506 HOSEA. X. 7. ' "As for Samaria, her king is cut off as the foam upon the water." " Those sons of fiends are now gone as the neer-molle" i. e. the bubble. " Alas ! my race is cut off: it has dis- appeared like the bubble." " Yes, those people were only bubbles ; they have all gone." 8. " The high places of Aven, the sin of Israel, shall be destroyed : the thorn and the thistle shall come up on their altars." (Gen. iii. 18.) Has a man by fraud gained possession of another person's land, then the imprecation is uttered, " Thorns and thistles shall ever grow there !" " He get rice from his land ! Never ! he will have thorns and thistles." " Yes, yes, the rice shall be as thorns in his bowels." 10. " It is in my desire that I should chastise them; and the people shall be gathered against them, when they shall bind themselves in their two furrows." The margin has, instead of " they shall bind them- selves in their two furrows," " I shall bind them for their two transgressions: OR in their two habitations." The figure of the above verse and those of the context are AGRICULTURAL. Does it not refer to Israel joining herself to the idolaters, as the oxen were joined together in the furrows ? " Two FURROWS." A furrow, according to the English idea, is a small trench made for the reception of the seed, going in a straight line from one side of the field to the other. But this is not a proper description of a furrow in the East, because the farmers of those parts plough in circles. Thus, the square w HOSEA. 507 represents the field : they therefore begin at the west, and plough in circles towards the east. The places 1. and 2. within the circles are called SALT. Now then for the appli- cation of the figure. When two inveterate enemies have become friends, the people say, " They are ploughing in two SALI," i. e. they are acting in perfect accordance, or they could not thus plough ; for if one went one way and another took another direction, how could they agree ? " True it is, true it is, Arrow-Muggam and Chinny Tamby are ploughing toge- ther in their two salts ; whoever expected to see such foes act together ? " " Never, never again will those fellows plough together in their two furrows ; they are sworn foes." Israel was bound together in the furrows with the idolaters of " Beth-aven," but " the thorn and the thistle " were to " come up on their altars," and she was exhorted " to seek the Lord." 12. " Rain righteousness among you." It is said of a good king, " What a blessing he is to the land, he is always RAINING justice upon us." " You talk to me about the MERIT of remaining with such a master : he is always RAINING blessings upon him." A son after the decease of his father asks, " Where is now the RAIN of love ? alas ! I am withered and dry." The figure is also used sarcastically, "Yes, indeed you are a very good friend, you are always RAINING favours upon me." XL 4. "I drew them with cords of a man, with bands of love." Here we have another figure to show the affection of Jehovah for backsliding Israel. An affectionate wife says of a good husband, " He has bound me with the cords of love." " Ah ! woman, have you not drawn me with the cords of love ? " " True, true, I was once drawn by the cords of love, but they are now all broken." 508 HOSEA. XIV. 5. " Cast forth his roots as Lebanon." A priest or aged man in blessing a newly married couple often says, " Ah ! may your roots shoot forth like the ARUGA- PILLU " (Agrostis Linearis). This beautiful grass puts forth NUMEROUS roots, and is highly valued for the feeding of cattle. 509 JOEL. CHAP. I. verse 7. " Barked my fig tree." The skin of a man is sometimes spoken of as the bark of a tree. Thus it is said of those who have been severely flogged, " Their backs are like the margossa tree stripped of its bark : " which alludes to the custom of taking off the bark o that tree for medicinal purposes. II. 6. " All faces shall gather blackness." The mar- gin has, for " blackness," " pot." The Tamul translation has, " All faces shall wither, or shrivel." Thus of a man in great poverty it is said, " His face is shrivelled." It is very provoking to tell a person his face is like the KARE-CHATTE, i. e. the earthen vessel in which the rice is boiled. The " pot " may allude to such an utensil, it being made black with the smoke. 510 AMOS. CHAP. I. verse 13. " They have ripped up the women with child." Margin for " ripped," " divided the mountains." It was common in the ancient wars thus to treat women, but in general the Orientals are very kind to their wives in the state alluded to. Nay even to animals in that condition they are very tender : a man to beat his cow when in calf, would be called a great sinner ; and to kill a goat or a sheep when with young, is altogether out of the question. The Hindoo hunters will not destroy wild animals when in that state. The term in the margin is applied to that condition. " In the tenth moon the child fell from the mountain." II. 6. " They sold the righteous for silver, and the poor for a pair of shoes." (Ps. Ix. 8. " Over Edom will I cast out my shoe.") (Chap. viii. 6.) The shoes or rather SANDALS have the least honour of any- thing which is worn by man, because they belong to the feet, and are comparatively of little value. Nothing is more dis- graceful than to be beaten with the sandals : thus when one man intends to exasperate another, he begins to take off a sandal as if going to strike him. To spit in the face is not a greater indignity than this. 'When a person wishes to insult another in reference to the price of any article, he says, " I will give you my sandals for it." " That fellow is not worth the value of my sandals," " Who are you, sir ? you are not worthy to carry my sandals ; " which alludes to the custom of a rich man always having a servant with him to carry his sandals; i.e. when he chooses to walk bare foot.* " Over Matt. iii. 11. " Whose shoes I am not worthy to bear." AMOS. 511 Edom will I cast out my shoe : " so contemptible and so easy was it to be conquered. 7. " That pant after the dust of the earth on the head of the poor, and turn aside the way of the meek : and a man and his father will go in unto the same maid, to profane my holy name." Who were those that thus oppressed the poor, who sold them for a pair of shoes, arid panted " after the dust of the earth ? " They were the judges and the princes of the people. The Tamul translation has it, " To the injury of the poor they eagerly took the dust of the earth ; " literally, they gnawed the earth as a dog does a bone. " Dust of the earth." What does this mean ? I believe it alludes to the lands of the poor, of which they had been deprived by the judges and princes. Nothing is more common in eastern language than for a man to call his fields and gardens his MAN ; i. e. his dust, his earth. " That man has gnawed away my dust or sand." " Ah ! the fellow ! by degrees he has taken away all that poor man's earth." " The cruel wretch ! he is ever trying to take away the dust of the poor." In consequence of there not being fences in the East, landowners often encroach on each other's possessions. On the latter part of the verse and the next to it I dare not write. The heathenism, the devilism, described by Amos, is still the same. Who did these things ? the princes, the judges, and the people ofjudah. III. 2. " You only have I known of all the families of the earth : therefore I will punish you for all your iniquities." In eastern language, to say you know a person, means you APPROVE of him. Thus should a man be well acquainted with two brothers, and should he not approve of one of them, he will say, " I do not know him." But of him he loves, he says, " Ah ! I know him well." Jehovah had known, i. e. approved of Israel, but because of their abominations he had determined to punish them. 512 AMOS. 5. Shall one take up a snare from the earth, and have taken nothing at all?" I do not believe there is a reference here to any particular kind of trap. The Tamul translation has it, " will the snare be taken if there is nothing in it?" Mr. Benson says, " It is not usual for the fowler or hunter to take up the snares he has laid till he has taken something in them !" 12. " As the shepherd taketh out of the mouth of the lion two legs, or a piece of an ear ; so shall the children of Israel be taken out that dwell in Samaria in the corner of a bed." The Tamul translation has this, " In the place of the bed if one conceal himself," /. c. in the place or corner where the bed is, if a person conceal himself under it, he shall be taken out ; and so shall the children of Israel who have concealed themselves in Samaria be taken out ; and so difficult shall it be for them to escape that it will be as easy to take the prey from the mouth of the lion. IV. 2. " The Lord God hath sworn by his holiness, that, lo, the days shall come upon you, that he will take you away with hooks, and your posterity with fish hooks." I am at a loss to know why there is a distinction betwixt " HOOKS" and " FISH HOOKS." I think it fanciful to explain it by saying it means " two modes of fishing." The Tamul translation has, instead of " HOOKS," Jcuradu, i. e. pincers, and it ought to be known that these were formerly much used in punishments. In the Hindoo hells this instrument is spoken of as being used to torture the inhabitants. A man in his rage says, " I will tear thee with pincers." " Alas ! alas ! I have been dragged away with pincers." " Ah ! the severity of these troubles they are like pincers." But it is said that HOOKS also were formerly used to stick into cri- minals when taken to the place of execution ; and there is . AMOS. 513 thing very doubtful about this, because devotees often have large HOOKS fastened into their flesh, by which they are hoisted up on a long pole. " Your posterity with fish- hooks :" this figure is used in the East to show how people DRAW each other to any given place. Thus does a man wish to have a large party at some feast or ceremony he is going to make, he persuades a great man to say he will honour him with his company ; and then he says to others, you are invited to meet such an illustrious guest, which causes numbers to come to the occasion. The man of rank in that case is called the fish hook ; because, through him, the guests are CAUGHT. V. 8. " Seek him that maketh the seven stars and Orion, and turneth the shadow of death into the morning, and maketh the day dark with night The Lord is his name." In the preceding verses Israel is solemnly warned not to seek for idols ; but for Him who made the starry heavens : " the Lord is his name.' 7 It is probable by the allusion to " the seven stars," that a reference also is intended to that worship which was offered to them. These stars are by some supposed to be the Pleiades. Amongst the Hindoos six of them bear the name of Scan dan, the son of the supreme Siva; because they are said to have been six VIRGINS who suckled the hero who destroyed the Assurs. One of the Pleiades is not respected, because she was considered to be the servant of the rest. Lempriere says, " The Greeks believed those stars to be the seven daughters of Atlas ; and they all, except Merope, who married Sisyphus, king of Corinth, had some of the immortal gods for their suitors. On that ac- count, therefore, Merope's star is dim and obscure among the rest, because she married a mortal." But the " seven stars" or Orion may allude to the seven planets, after which the seven days of the week have their name. And connected with the NAMES of the days of the L L 514 AMOS. week there is a remarkable coincidence betwixt the East and the West. Some antiquarians look to the Saxon mythology for the derivation of the names of our days : but I submit that this is not looking to the most correct source. It is surely more natural to look to the Greeks and Romans, from whom the Saxons, in all probability, derived their ideas ; and who, in order to meet the popular notions, gave to the days names of their OWN deities, to whom similar attributes had been as- signed. The first day of the week amongst the Hindoos is called Nitu-kilamy, i. e. Sun-day ! This orb is " the right eye" of the supreme Siva. Those who are afflicted with oph- thalmia worship that luminary on Sunday. " The Romans called this day Dies Soils, because it was dedicated to the worship of the Sun."* The second is Tingle, i. e. Moon-day, which planet is believed to be the left eye of Siva, and represents Parvati, his wife ; which, by the way, goes to confirm the old opinion, that " The sun is the husband of the moon." The Romans dedicated this day to the moon, and it was called DIES LUN^E. The third Hindoo day is Sevi 9 i.e. Mars day; for the name of the same planet, which we also call Mars, is given to it. " This day was called by the Romans DIES MARTIS, from its having been dedicated to Mars!" The fourth Hindoo day is Puthan, i. e. the name of the planet we call Mercury : he was at the head of all kinds of learning, and his name in Tamul implies NEWS ! " The Romans dedicated Wednesday to Mercury, from which cause it was called DIES MERCURII, FERIA QUARTA." The fifth Hindoo day is Veydlen, which is the name of the planet we call Jupiter ! He was the priest and counsellor of the gods. " The Romans called Thursday DIES Jovis." " The thun- derer Jupiter ;" which probably refers to the day in which he taught the gods to conquer the Assurs. The sixth Hindoo day is called Velle, which is the name of the planet * For the names of the Roman days, I am indebted to that curious work the Clavis Calendaria, by John Brady. I am under great obligations to Henry Wreight, Esq. for free access to his valuable library. AMOS. 515 we call Venus ! " The Romans dedicated this day to Venus." Amongst the Orientals, however, that planet is of the mas- culine gender ; he was the priest and counsellor of the wicked Assurs. The seventh Hindoo day is Sanne, i. e. the name of the planet we called Saturn ! " The seventh day amongst the Romans was dedicated to Saturn, and called in honour of him DIES SATURNI, FERIA SEPTIMA." Who can account for these resemblances amongst nations so REMOTE except on the ground of one common origin ? * From the importance, therefore, which was attached to the seven planets, some of which were objects of worship, it is probable that they, under the name of the " seven stars" OR Orion, are alluded to by the prophet. The children of Israel, therefore, were not to trust in idols, nor to venerate the stars and planets, but the great Creator : " The Lord is his name." " Maketh the day dark with night." This probably refers to an eclipse of the sun, when the day is made dark by the concealment of his light Again, the infinity of his power is alluded to, for he " calleth for the waters of the sea, and poureth them out upon the face of the earth." 19. " Leaned his hand on the wall, and a serpent bit him." How extremely natural is this ! for serpents love to dwell in old walls : there they live in security, and there they deposit their eggs. t26. " But ye have borne the tabernacle of your Moloch and Chiun your images, the star of your god." I believe with Calmet that this Chiun is the Siva of the ndoos ; because his name is often written and pronounced in the same way, and because of the associations in this verse with Moloch and the " star of your god ; " also because of * By what names did the Assyrians and Egyptians call their days ? L L 2 516 AMOS. the reference in the preceding verse to the Israelites in the wilderness, in which Calmet believes allusion is made to those events. He says, " It will no doubt be observed that the Chiven of Amos is a term used many ages after the events to which the prophet refers, which are those connected with the history of Balaam, and the term in Numbers is not Chiven, but Baal Peor." We find Israel joined himself unto Baal Peor, which was the Priapus of the Romans, and the Lingam of the Hindoo Siva. This Chiun and his family are more carried out in the cars and tabernacles than all the other gods put together : thus in time of sickness or any other public calamity, they are always taken out in procession. " The star of your god." The Ardra of Sir William Jones in the knee of Gemini is called Siva's star, and is painted on the car when the deity is taken out in procession. The Septuagint, however, has it'Paipav, and the Acts of the Apostles 'Pg//,pav. " Ye took up the tabernacle of Moloch* and the star of your god Remphan." (See on Isaiah xlvi. 7., also Deut. iv. 16.) VI. 4. " That lie upon beds of ivory, and stretch themselves upon their couches." Ivory is so plentiful in the East, it is no wonder that the sovereigns had their beds made principally of that article. But why is there a distinction made in reference to BEDS and COUCHES ? I believe the latter word refers to the swinging cot, as the Tamul translation also implies. In the houses of the voluptuous these cots are always found, and many are the stories in ancient books of kings and queens who were swinging together in their cots. When a man affects great delicacy as to the place where he sleeps, it is common to say, " You had better have a swinging cot." 9, 10. " And it shall come to pass, if there remain ten men in one house, that they shall die. And a man's * Moloch corresponds with Kali or Durga, an incarnation of Parvate the wife of Siva. AMOS. 517 uncle shall take him up, and he that burneth him, to bring out the bones out of the house, and shall say unto him that is by the sides of the house. Is there yet any with thee ? and he shall say, No. Then shall he say, Hold thy tongue : for we may not make mention of the name of the Lord." These verses and the context refer to the mortality which should result from the pestilence and famine (in consequence of the sins of the people) ; and to the BURNING ! of the bodies. The number " TEN " probably refers to MANY, as that is a common expression in the East to denote many. I believe the whole alludes to the custom of burning human bodies, and to that of gathering up the half-calcined bones, and to the putting them into an earthen or other vessel, and then to the carrying back these fragments to the house or into some OUT BUILDING, where they are kept till conveyed to a sacred place. In India this is done by a son or a near relation ; but in case there is not one near akin, then any person who is going to the place (as to the Ganges) can take the frag- ments of bones and thus perform the last rites. Dr. Booth royd takes the same view as to the PLACE where the bones have to be kept till they are removed, because he translates " a side room of the house." " Hold thy tongue," finds a forcible illustration in chap. viii. 3., where it is mentioned that there were " dead in every place ; " and where it is said, they were to " cast them forth with silence." When the cholera or any other pestilence has carried off MANY of the people, the relations cease to weep or speak ; they ask, " What is the use of wailing?" 't is over, " hold thy tongue." IX. 1 . " I saw the Lord standing upon the altar." 2. " Though they dig into hell, thence shall mine hand take them ; though they climb up to heaven, thence will I bring them down." 3. " And though they hide themselves in the top of Carmel, I will L L 3 518 AMOS. search and take them out thence ; and though they be hid from my sight in the bottom of the sea, thence will I command the serpent, and he shall bite them." 4. " And though they go into captivity before their enemies, thence will I command the sword, and it shall slay them." What altar is this upon which Jehovah was standing? Dr. A. Clarke says, " As this is a continuation of the prece- ding prophecy, the altar here may be one of those either at Dan or Beer-Sheba." See, then, the Divine Majesty trampling on their most sacred places. In these verses we have some most pointed allusions to the idolatry of the Assyrians, which had been adopted by the Jews; and as the triad of the Hindoos was, I believe, taken from that mother nation of idolaters, I think it refers to the celebrated dispute for supre- macy amongst the three gods. Siva assumed the form of a pillar of fire ; and Vishnoo went DOWN to the lower regions, called the seventh world, to find out its foundation, but could not: then Brahma assumed the form of a swan, and soared height above height, but could not find out its summit. But Jehovah could drag them from the depths and bring them down from the heights. Though they concealed themselves in Carmel or the sacred mount Mearu or Hima-laya, as did the two gods of the triad, yet could his hand bring them forth. " Though they be hid from my sight in the bottom of the sea ! thence will I command the serpent ! and he shall bite them ;" for THERE (in the sea) the second deity resided, and rode on the SERPENT ! dthe-sealshan with his thousand heads * : " and though they go into captivity," as did the gods, yet the Lord could find them out. For (v. 5.) " The Lord God of Hosts is He that toucheth the land, and it shall melt ; " not like Siva's pillar of fire : for He by a touch could melt the * In that valuable work on " The Worship of the Serpent," by the Rev. John Bathurst Dean, he says, " The chronicles and histories of the gods and heroes of Japan, are full of fabulous stories of this animal. They be- lieve that it dwells at the bottom of the sea as its proper element. They represent it in their books as a huge, long, four-footed snake." Page 73. AMOS. 519 earth, and cause all that dwell therein to " mourn." For he, the Supreme (v. 6.) } " Buildeth his stories " (Hebrew, ascensions) into the loftiest regions of his eternal mansion : his throne is not the SACRED HIMALAYA. " He cometh forth out of his place, and will come down and TREAD upon the HIGH places of the EARTH ; and the MOUNTAINS shall be molten under him, and the valleys shall be cleft as wax before the fire." v. 6. He " calleth for the waters of the sea, and poureth them out upon the face of the earth." Not like the fabled Ganges flowing from the head of Siva, the SEA obeys his high behest. " The Lord is his name." Here is grandeur ! Human language cannot heighten the scene, and the mind recoils into its own littleness. " A God, a God, appears ! A God, a God, the vocal hills reply ! The rocks proclaim the approaching Deity." Pope's Messiah. LL 4 520 JONAH. CHAP. I. verse 5. " Then the mariners were afraid, and cried every man unto his god." Here again we are at home (to speak royally) : never was there a more natural description of the conduct of a heathen crew, in a storm, than this. No sooner does danger come, than one begins to beat his head, and cry aloud, Siva, Siva ; another piteously shrieks, and beats his breast, and says, Vishnoo; and a third strikes his thigh, and shouts with all his might, Varuna. Thus do they cry to their gods, instead of doing their duty. More than once have I been in these circum- stances, and never can I forget the horror and helplessness of the poor idolaters. 7. " And they said every one to his fellow, Come, and let us cast lots, that we may know for whose cause this evil is upon us." 15. "The sea ceased from her raging." 16. "Offered a sacrifice unto the Lord, and made vows." In a storm, the heathen mariners always conclude that there is some one on board who has committed a great crime, and they begin to enquire, "Who is the sinner?" Some time ago, a number of native vessels left the roads of Nega- patam, at the same hour, for Point Pedro, in the Island of Ceylon : they had not been long at sea before it was perceived that one of them could not make any way ; she rolled and pitched and veered about in every direction ; but the other vessels went on beautifully before the wind. The captain and his crew began to LOOK ! at the passengers, and, at last, fixed their eyes upon a poor woman, who was crouched in a corner of the hold ; they enquired into her condition, and found she was in a state of impurity : " Let down the canoe," JONAH. 521 ras the order, " and take this woman ashore : " in vain she lonstrated, she was compelled to enter, and was soon landed >n the beach. " After this the vessel sailed as well as any )ther !" When the storm rages, they make vows to their Is ; one will go on a pilgrimage to some holy place, lother will perform a penance, and a third will make a valuable present to his favourite temple. " Offered a sacri- ice:" this is generally done when they get safe to shore, but have been on board when they have offered cocoa nuts and ler articles with the greatest earnestness. To interfere dth them is not always prudent ; because, were it not for the tope they have from such offerings, they would cease to work vessel. IV. 6. " And the Lord God prepared a gourd, and made it to come up over Jonah, that it might be a shadow over his head, to deliver him from his grief." The margin has instead of " gourd," " Kikajon, or Palmecrist ! " Dr. A. Clarke asks, " But what was the Kikajon ? the ;st judges say the ricinus or Palma-Christi, from which we jt what is vulgarly called castor oil." The Tamul trans- lation has, instead of " gourd," Amanaku, i. e. the Palma- Christi ! It is believed, also, the verb is in the preterperfect ;nse HAD prepared, which may be another instance of the verb as illustrated under Isa. xxi. 9. The Palma-Christi is most abundant in the East, and I have had it in my own garden to the height of fourteen feet. The growth is very rapid, v. 7. " God prepared a worm when the morning rose the next day, and it smote the gourd that it withered," i. e. the Palma-Christi till it withered. This tree, in the course of a VERY short period, produces the " rough caterpillar," respecting which, I have written under Jer. li. 27., and in one night (where the caterpillars are abundant) will they strip the tree of its leaves, and thus take away the shade. But there is another worm in the East, called the kuruttu- 522 JONAH. pjdlu, i.e. blind worm, SAID to be produced by the dew; it begins its devastations at what is called the cabbage part of the palm, and soon destroys the tree. v. 8. " God prepared a vehement east wind." I have already written on that parching, life-destroying wind. But the margin has it, or " SILENT," which probably means CALM. Thus when there is a lull of an easterly wind, and the sun pours his fierce rays on the head of the poor traveller, it seems as if life must depart : birds and beasts pant ; there is the silence of death, and nature seems ready to expire. 523 MICAH. CHAP. I. verse 7. " And all the graven images thereof shall be beaten to pieces, and all the hires thereof shall be burned with the fire, and all the idols thereof will I lay desolate : for she gathered it of the hire of an harlot, and they shall return to the hire of an harlot." Here again we have unalloyed and rampant heathenism : the " sacred " courtezans of the temple give a part of their hire towards the repairing and beautifying of the building ; and, also, to purchase idols, or carry on the festivals. At the annual festival of Scandan, which continues twenty-four days, the females alluded to defray the expenses of the last day from the proceeds of their own wickedness. IV. 4. " They shall sit every man under his vine and under his fig tree." The people of the East have great pleasure in sitting or lounging under their tamarind or mango trees in the grove. Thus, in the heat of the day, they while away their time in playing with their children, in taking up the fruit, or smoking their much-loved shroot. VI.7. " Rivers of oil." Allusions are often made in the Scriptures to the value of oil ; and to appreciate them, it should be recollected, that oil ONLY is used to light the houses, and also, for anointing the body, and MANY medicinal purposes. " Have you heard of the charity of Venase ? Why he has given a RIVER of oil to the temple; and Muttoo has given a RIVER of ghee." " Milk ! why that farmer has RIVERS of it ; and the Mode- liar has a SEA." 524 MICAH. VII. 3. " That they may do evil with both hands." We have seen that to do a thing with ONE hand, signifies earnestness, and a oneness of consent. Whenever a person has to receive a thing from a superior, he must put out BOTH hands ; for not to do so, would be a mark of great disrespect. " Alas ! I went to that man with both hands (*. e. held them out to him), but he turned me away." " The greedy wretch eats with both hands," meaning, he is a glutton ; be- cause all respectable and decent people eat with the right hand ONLY. 19. " Cast all their sins into the depths of the sea." When a devotee believes the guilt of his transgressions has been removed, whether by prayers or austerities, he says, " My sins have all fallen into the sea." 525 HABAKKUK. CHAP. II. verse 11. " For the stone shall cry out of the wall, and the beam out of the timber shall an- swer it." The margin has instead of " answer it," " or witness against." When a man denies what he has solemnly promised, the person who complains of his perfidy, says, " The place where you stood shall witness against you." " A beautiful princess was once enjoying herself in a fragrant grove, when a noble prince passed that way ; she became enamoured of his per- son, and he solemnly promised to return and marry her. When he left her, she wept bitterly, and said, 6 Ah ! should he not return, this tali tree (pandanus odoratissima] shall WITNESS against him. Yes, the birds shall be my wit- 526 ZEPHANIAH. CHAP. I. verse 12. " And it shall come to pass at that time, that I will search Jerusalem with candles, and punish the men that are settled on their lees ; that say in their heart, The Lord will not do good, neither will he do evil." The margin has in place of " settled," " curded or thickened." The Tamul translation has this, '* dregs stirred up," i. e. sediment shaken together well thickened. Of people who are in great straights, of those who are a strange compound of good and evil, of things which are difficult to understand, it is said, " Ah ! this is all kidlumbin-vandal^ i. e. stirred up dregs. This appears to have been the state of the Jews, and they wanted to show that the Lord would neither do good nor evil; that in him was not any distinct character; and that he would not regard them in their thickened and mixed condition ; that though they were joined to the heathen, it was not of any consequence. " I will search Jerusalem with candles : " thus were they mistaken in their false hopes. Does a man declare his innocence of any crime, the accusers say, " We will search thee with lamps." " Yes, yes, I will look into that affair with lamps." " What ! have your lamps gone out ? You see I am not guilty." II. 14?. " The cormorant and the bittern shall lodge in the upper lintels." In the margin, instead of " lintels," we have " knops or chapiters." The Tamul translation has, " lodge in the sickeram" that is, the peak, the crown. The retired water fowls were to perch on the mansions of the Ethiopians and the Assyrians, to show the desertion and utter desolation of their once pleasant homes. "Alas ! the koJcu (a water fowl) is now living in the house of the Modeliar." (See on Isaiah, chap, xxxiv. 1 1.) 527 HAGGAI. CHAP. I. verse 6. " Put it into a bag with holes." The Orientals, in general, keep their money in earthen vessels : hence, when a man's riches go faster than he can account for, or when he has missed some, he says, " The money pot has got holes." 528 ZECHARIAH. CHAP. III. verse 2. " Is not this a brand plucked out of the fire ?" (Amos iv. 11. " Ye were as a fire- brand plucked out of the burning.) (Jude 23.) When a man has had a VERY narrow escape from danger or from death, he is called a firebrand ! Thus, when the cholera rages, should only one in a family escape, he is named " the firebrand." When a person talks of selling his pro- perty in consequence of not having an heir, people say, " Sell it not, there will be yet a firebrand to inherit it." " Alas ! alas ! my relations are all dead, I am a firebrand." IV. 10. " They shall rejoice, and shall see the plum- met in the hand of Zerubbabel with those seven ; they are the eyes of the Lord, which run to and fro through the whole earth." The margin has, in- stead of " they shall rejoice," " or since the seven eyes of the Lord shall." (iii. 9. " Seven eyes.") Dr. Boothroyd says, these eyes represent "the perfect oversight and providence of God," which I doubt not is the true meaning. It is a curious fact that the sun which shines seven times in the course of the week, is spoken of as the " seven eyes " of the deity, because there is an eye for each day. Thus, the Sunday, the " first eye " of God shines, and so on through the rest of the days. In the 9th verse mention is made of laying the foundation stone of a temple for Jehovah, and again in the 10th verse it is asked, " Who hath despised the day of small things?" saying it is ONLY the foundation, this is a small beginning : fear not, for the " seven eyes " of the Lord are over the work. His good providence shall accomplish the whole, because he has an eye for each day of ZECHARIAH. 529 the week. Has a man suffered a great evil, has an antagonist triumphed over another, either in a court of justice or any other way, he says, in talking about his misfortunes, " God has lost his eyes, or I should not have fallen into this trouble."* "Well, friend, how is this ? I hear you have gained the day." " True, true, the eyes of God were upon me." Should there not have been rain for some time, the people say, " God has no eyes in these days," i. e. he does not take care of us. In the book Neethe-veanpd it is said, " To all there are two eyes ; to the learned there are three ; to the givers of alms there are SEVEN eyes (alluding to each day) ; but to those who through penance have received gracious gifts, there are innu- merable eyes." VIII. 7. " From the east country, and from the west country." The margin has, instead of " west coun- try," " country of the going down of the sun." The form in the margin is exceedingly common; thus people do not always say, We are to go to the east or west, but " to the side where is the going down," or " to the side where is the ascending place." " In what direction are you going ? " " To the place of the going down." XII. 3. " And in that day will I make Jerusalem a burdensome stone for all people." Thus was Jerusalem at last to crush her enemies ; she was icn to have the ascendency. " Alas ! alas ! my enemy is now as a mountain upon me ; he will crush me to atoms." 6. Judah was to be like " a hearth of fire among the wood." Of one who conquers all, it is said, " He is like fire amongst straw." Jerusalem was again to be inhabited. The people were to " look upon " Him " whom they had pierced." * This is in good keeping with, " Curse God, and die." M M 530 ZECHARIAH. XIII. 9. " Refine them as silver is refined, and will try them as gold is tried." The people of the East try the QUALITY of gold by the TOUCH. Thus, they have a small stone on which they first rub a needle of KNOWN quality : they then take the article they wish to try, and rub it near to the mark left by the other, and by comparing the two, they judge of the value of that which they " try." In those regions there are not any MARKS by which we can judge of the STANDARD, except in the way alluded to. Under such circumstances, there cannot be any wonder that there is much which is NOT " fine gold ; " and such is the skill of some of the goldsmiths, they often deceive the most practised eye. The grand secret of ALCHYMY, by which other metals could be transmuted into gold, has never been FULLY ! divulged, but multitudes believe that certain individuals have this knowledge. Nor was that invaluable acquirement confined to the Hindoos ; for " Diocletian caused a diligent enquiry to be made for all the ancient books which treated of the admirable art of making gold and silver, and without pity committed them to the flames, apprehensive, as we are assured, lest the opulence of the Egyptians should inspire them with confidence to rebel against the empire." " The conquest of Egypt by the Arabs diffused that vain science over the globe." * Numbers in the East waste their entire property in trying to acquire this wonderful secret. Not long ago a party of the " gold makers," having heard of a very charitable man, went to him and said they had heard of his good deeds, and in order to enable him to be more benevolent, they offered, at a trifling expense, to make him a large quantity of gold. The kind- hearted creature was delighted at the thought, and furnished the required materials, amongst which, it must be observed, was a considerable quantity of gold. The time came for making the precious metal, and the whole was cast into the crucible, * Gibbon's Roman Empire, vol. L p. 19. ZECHARIAH. 531 the impostors taking care to put in an extra quantity of gold. When it was nearly ready, the alchemists threw in some stalks of an unknown plant, and pronounced certain incant- ations : after which the contents were turned out, and there the astonished man saw a great deal more gold than he had advanced. Such an opportunity was not to be lost ; he therefore begged them to make him a much larger quantity, and after some objections the knaves consented, taking good care immediately to decamp with the whole amount. An ARMENIAN gentleman, who died at the age of 82, as is recorded in the Madras Gazette of July 22. 1830, had expended the whole of his property, amounting to 30,000 pagodas, in search of the philosopher's stone, but left the world a beggar. " With crucible and furnace, bursting on his trunk, His last remains of blissful fervour sunk." XIV. 20. " In that day, shall there be upon the bells of the horses, Holiness unto the Lord." Round the necks of horses, elephants, bullocks, and buf- faloes, bells are tied, for three reasons : first, to have the pleasure of hearing them ; secondly, should the cattle stray, they can easily be found ; and, thirdly, to frighten off the wild beasts. M M 2 532 MALACHI. CHAP. I. verse 1 3. " Ye said also, Behold, what a weari- ness is it ! and ye have snuffed at it, saith the Lord of Hosts." The margin has, instead of " and ye have snuffed at it," " or whereas ye might have blown it away." The marginal reading is, I doubt not, the best. The Jews had complained of the " WEARI NESS" of their duties : they were tired of making offerings, and those they did offer, were " polluted," or *' lame," or " blind ; " whereas, instead of those duties being burdensome, they were so LIGHT, that they might have BLOWN them away. Does a person com- plain of his numerous labours or duties, another will ask, " What are they ? why, a breath will blow them away." " Alas ! I have many things to attend to." " Fie on you for talking so ; if you BLOW on them they will go." II. 3. "I will corrupt your seed, and spread dung upon your faces, even the dung of your solemn feasts." In the llth verse of this chapter, allusion is again made to the heathenism of Judah : they had " married the daughter of a strange god." " Dung upon your faces." What can this refer to ? Probably to the custom of the IDOLATERS, of spreading the ashes of COW-DUNG on their FACES, and to the marginal reference of Deut. xxix. 17. " Dungy gods," on which see the remarks. III. 14?. " Ye have said, It is vain to serve God: and what profit is it that we have kept his ordinance, and that we have walked mournfully before the MALACHL 533 I Lord of Hosts?" The margin for "mournfully," has, "in black." ere we have another instance of the base ingratitude of the people : " It is vain to serve God." " In black." " My friend, why has your face become so black ? " " Alas ! my sorrow, my sorrow ; therefore my face is full of blackness." " Yes, my sorrows are chased away, like dew before the sun, and my face no longer gathers blackness." MM 3 53* MATTHEW. CHAP. II. verse 11. " They saw the young child with Mary his mother, and fell down and worshipped him : and when they had opened their treasures, they presented unto him gifts." The birth of a son is always a time of great festivity in the East ; hence the relations come together, to congratulate the happy parents, and to present their gifts to the little stranger. Some bring the silver anklets ; others, the brace- lets, or ear-rings, or silver cord for the loins. Others, how- ever, take gold, and a variety of needful articles. The wise men did not make presents, as a matter of charity, but to show their affection and respect. When the infant son of a king is shown, the people make their obeisance to him. III. 11. " Whose shoes I am not worthy to bear." A respectable man never goes out without his servant or attendant ; thus, he has always some one to talk with, and to do any thing he may require. When the ground is smooth, or where there is soft grass to walk on, the sandals are taken off, and the servant carries them in his hand. The devoted, the humble John, did not consider himself worthy to bear the sandals of his divine Master. V. 2. " He opened his mouth, and taught them, saying." Some have made impertinent observations respecting this mode of expression ; he opened his mouth. When the Hin- doos speak of a king, or a priest, or the gods, as giving in- structions or commands, they use the same form of speech. MATTHEW. 535 Jut the word which is used to denote the opening of a door, or of any thing which requires to be unfolded, is never ap- plied to the opening of the mouth of a beautiful or dignified speaker. For of that action in him, they say, his mouth mallara-kurrathu, i. e. blossomed ; the flower unfolded itself: and there were its fair tints, and promised fruits. So the Re- deemer opened his mouth, and taught them, saying. 29. " And if thy right eye offend thee, pluck it out." This metaphor is in common use at this day ; hence people say of any thing which is valuable, It is like my vallutha- kan" i. e. right eye ! " Yes, yes, that child is the right eye of his father." " I can never give up that lady ; she is my right eye." " That fellow forsake his sins ? never ; they are his right eye." " True, true ; I will pull out my right eye." VI. 3. " Let not thy left hand know what thy right hand doeth." The right hand always dispenses gifts, because " it is more honourable than the other ; " the left hand, therefore, was to be unacquainted with the charities of the other, i. e. there was to be no ostentation ; to be perfect secrecy. The Hin- doos say of things which are not to be revealed, " The left ear is not to hear that which went into the right, nor the right to be acquainted with that which was heard by the left." 5. " When thou prayest, thou shalt not be as the hypocrites are ; for they love to pray, standing in the synagogues and in the corners of the streets, that they may be seen of men." False religion has ever been fond of show ; hence its de- votees have assumed a greater appearance of sanctity to make up the deficiency of real worth. Perhaps few systems are so replete with the show of religion as Hindooism. Its M M 4 536 MATTHEW. votaries may be seen in every street with uplifted hands, or bespattered bodies; there they are standing before every temple, making their prostrations or repeating their prayers. Nor are the Mahometans, with all their boasting, a whit the better. See them, when the sun is going down, spreading their garments on the ground, on which they are about to kneel, and say their prayers. They bow down to the earth, and touch it with their forehead ; and then arise, putting their hands above their heads, with the fingers pointing to the clouds ; and now they bring them lower, in a supplicating position, and all the time keep muttering their prayers ; again they kneel, and again touch the earth with their forehead, and all this, without paying any apparent attention to those who pass that way. 26. " Behold the fowls of the air : for they sow not, neither do they reap, nor gather into barns; yet your heavenly Father feedeth them." Does a person who has lost his situation complain, from a fear of the future ; it is said to him, by way of comfort, " Look at the birds and beasts, have they any situations ? Do they sow or reap ? Who sustains the frog in the stone ? or the germ in the egg ? or the foetus in the womb ? or the worm which the wasp encloses in its house of clay ? Does not the .Lord support all these ? and will he not help you ? " 27. Which of you by taking thought, can add one cubit to his stature ?" This form of speech is sometimes used to humble those of high pretensions ; thus, a man of low caste, who has be- come rich, and who assumes authority over his better born, though poor neighbours, will be asked, " What ! has your money made you a cubit higher ?" /. e. in the scale of being. Is a man ambitious of rising in society ; a person who wishes to annoy him, puts his finger on his elbow, and, showing that part to the tip of the middle finger, asks, " Friend, will you MATTHEW. 537 Ier rise thus much (a cubit), after all your cares?" " Yes, s, the low caste thinks himself a cubit taller, because he has got the favour of the king." VII. 6. " Give not that which is holy unto the dogs, neither cast ye your pearls before swine." Similar language is used to those who speak on subjects of a highly sacred nature before people of gross minds. " What, are silk tassels to be tied to the broom ? Will you give a beautiful flower to a monkey ? Who would cast rubies into a heap of rubbish ? What, are you giving ambrosia to a dog?" 9. " If his son ask bread, will he give him a stone ? " " What father, when his son asks for sugar cane, will give him the poison fruit ? If he ask a fish, will he give him a serpent." This may allude to the eel, which is so much like the serpent. Some have said, on the parallel passage in Luke : " If he shall ask an egg, will he offer him a scorpion ? " " This expression is used, because the white scorpion is like an egg." They might as well have said, it is like a whale. 18. " A good tree cannot bring forth evil fruit" When people converse on the good qualities of an obe- lient son, it is asked, " Will the seed of the water-melon >roduce the fruit of the bitter pavatta-kotti ?" meaning, the father is good, and therefore the son is the same. A profligate >n always leads the people to suspect the father or grandfather ras not what he ought to have been. " You talk to me ibout that family : I know them well ; the tree is bad, and the uit is the same." 27. " The rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house ; and it fell : and great was the fall of it." 538 MATTHEW. The rains, and floods, and winds of an Eastern monsoon give a striking illustration of the above passage. When people in those regions speak of the strength of a house, it is not by saying, it will last so many years, but " It will out- stand the rains : it will not be injured by the floods." Houses built of the best materials and having deep foundations, in a few years often yield to the rains of a monsoon. At first, a small crack appears in some angle, which gradually becomes larger, till the whole building lumbers to the ground. And who can wonder at this, when he considers the state of the earth ? For several months there is not a drop of rain, and the burning sun has loosened the ground ; when at once the torrents descend, the chapped earth suddenly swells, and the foundations are moved by the change. The house founded upon a rock can alone stand the rains and floods of a wet monsoon. VIII. 20. " The foxes have holes, and the birds of the air have nests ; but the Son of Man hath not where to lay his he ad." Listen to that poor man who is stating his case to a rich man ; he pathetically laments his forlorn condition, and says, " Ah ! sir, even the birds have their nests, but I have not so much as they." IX. 15. "Can the children of the bridechamber mourn, as long as the bridegroom is with them ? " Does a man look sorry when he ought to rejoice, has he become rich, has he been greatly honoured, has a dear friend come to see him, has he become the father of a male child, and does he still appear dejected, it is asked, " What, do people weep in the house of marriage ? Is it a funeral or a wedding you are going to celebrate ? " Does a person go to cheer his friend, he says, on entering the house, " I am come this day to the house of marriage." MATTHEW. 539 16. " No man putteth a piece of new cloth unto an old garment." The Hindoos say of things which will not agree, " Will unburnt clay join itself to that which has been burnt?" 17. " Neither do men put new wine into old bottles : else the bottles break, and the wine runneth out." The Eastern bottle called turunthe, is made of the raw hide of an animal, consequently, when any fermenting liquor is put into it, the skin being comparatively green, distends itself to the swelling of the liquor. But, should the bottle have been previously stretched by the same process, then it must burst if put to a second trial, because it cannot yield to the new pressure of fermentation. X. 12. " When ye come into an house, salute it." When the priests or pandarams go into a house they some- times sing a verse of blessings; at other times the priest stretches out his right hand, and says aloud, " aservatham" i. e. blessing. XI. 29. " Take my yoke upon you, and learn of me." A Hindoo sage says to his disciples, " En, tandi, pin, pattu" i. e. follow my staff. " What ! do you wish to learn ? " " Yes ! " " Then take this staff and follow me." " I told that dunce to take my staff, but he has gone after another." XII. 27. " If I by Beelzebub cast out devils, by whom do your children cast them out ? " The universal opinion in the East is, that devils have the power to enter into and take possession of men, in the same sense as we understand it to have been the case, as described by the Sacred Writers. I have often seen the poor objects who were believed to be under demoniacal influence, and certainly, in some instances, I found it no easy matter to account for their conduct on natural principles. I have seen them writhe 540 MATTHEW. and tear themselves in the most frantic manner ; they burst asunder the cords with which they were bound, and fell on the ground as if dead. At one time they are silent, and again most vociferous ; they dash with fury amongst the people, and loudly pronounce their imprecations. But no sooner does the exorcist come forward, than the victim becomes the sub- ject of new emotions ; he stares, talks incoherently, sighs, and falls on the ground ; and in the course of an hour is as calm as any who are around him. Those men who profess to eject devils are frightful looking creatures, and are seldom associated with, except in the discharge of their official duties. It is a fact, that they affect to eject the evil spirits by their prince of devils* Females are much more subject to those affections than men; and Friday is the day of all others on which they are most liable to be attacked. I am fully of opinion that nearly all their possessions would be removed by medicine, or by arguments of a more tangible nature. Not long ago, a young female was said to be under the influence of an evil spirit, but the father, being an unbeliever! took a large broom and began to beat his daughter in the most unmerciful manner. After some time the spirit cried aloud, " Do not beat me, do not beat me" and took its departure ! There is a fiend called poothani, which is said to take great delight in entering little children; but the herb called pa-maruta is then administered with great success ! XIII. 25. " But while men slept, his enemy came and sowed tares among the wheat." Strange as it may appear, this is still literally done in the East. See that lurking villain, watching for the time when his neighbour shall plough his field; he carefully marks the period when the work has been finished, and goes in the night following, and casts in what the natives call the pandi- * See on 2 Kings, chap. i. 2. MATTHEW. 541 i. e. pig paddy ; this being of rapid growth, springs up fore the good seed, and scatters itself before the other can reaped, so that the poor owner of the field will be for rears before he can get rid of the troublesome weed. But lere is another noisome plant which these wretches cast into the ground of those they hate, called perum-pirandi, which is more destructive to vegetation than any other plant. Has a man purchased a field out of the hands of another, the of- fended person says, " I will plant the perum-pirandi in his grounds." 44. The kingdom of heaven is like unto treasure hid in a field." (Prov. ii. 4. Job iii. 21.*) No practice was more common than that of hiding treasures in a field or garden, because the people had not any place of safety in which to deposit their riches, and because their rapacious rulers were sure to find some pretext for accusation against them, in order to get their money. Hence men of great property affected poverty, and walked about in mean apparel, in order to deceive their neighbours, and hence came the practice of hiding their treasures in the earth. In the book of fate called Sagd-Thevan Sasteram, the following ques- tion occurs many times, " Will the buried things be found ?" There can be no doubt that there are immense treasures buried in the East at this day. Not long ago a toddy drawer ascended a palmirah tree to lop off the upper branches, when one of them in falling stuck in the ground. On taking out that branch, he^saw something yellow ; he looked, and found an earthen vessel full of gold coins and other articles. I rescued three of the coins from the crucible of the goldsmith, and what was my surprise to find on one of them in ancient Greek characters, konob-obryza. f About two years * I am aware the first passage probably refers to a mine. f How could these coins have come to North Ceylon ? I should say, from all the circumstances of the case, they must have come long before the passage by the Cape of Good Hope was found out : it is probable, 54-2 MATTHEW. ago an immense hoard was found at Putlam, which must have been buried for several ages. XIV. 26. " They were troubled, saying, It is a spirit." (Mark vi. 49.) " They supposed it had been a spirit, and cried out." The Hindoos have to do with so many demons, gods, and demigods, it is no wonder they live in constant dread of their power. There is not a hamlet without a tree, or some secret place, in which evil spirits are not believed to dwell. Hence the people live in constant fear of those sprites of darkness, and nothing but the most pressing necessity will induce a man to go abroad after the sun has gone down. See the un- happy wight who is obliged to go out in the dark ; he repeats his incantations and touches his amulets, he seizes a firebrand to keep off the foes, and begins his journey. He goes on with gentle step, he listens, and again repeats his prayers ; should he hear the rustling of a leaf, or the moaning of some living animal, he gives himself up for lost. Has he worked himself up into a state of artificial courage, he begins to sing and bawl aloud, " to keep his spirits up." But, after all his efforts, his heart will not beat with its wonted ease till he shall have gained a place of safety. I was once sitting, after sun-set, under a large banyan tree, (jicus religiosa), when a native soldier passed that way. He saw me in the shade, and immediately began to cry aloud, and beat his breast, and ran off in the greatest consternation. That man had conducted himself bravely in the Kandian war, but his courage fled when in the presence of a supposed spirit. On another occasion, having to go to some islands to distribute tracts, and having determined when to return, I therefore, they came by the Red Sea or the Persian Gulf. The coins are, I believe, in the possession of Sir Edward Barnes, and I should like much to have them examined by a person who is thoroughly versed in such matters. MATTHEW. 543 directed my servant to bring my pony to a certain point of land, where I intended to disembark. Accordingly, when I had finished my work, I returned in a little canoe, and saw my pony and the boy in the distance. But the sun having gone down, the unfortunate fellow, seeing us indistinctly, thought we were spirits .- he mounted the pony and galloped off with all speed, leaving me to my meditations on a deso- late beach. " They were troubled, saying, It is a spirit." XV. 2. " They wash not their hands, when they eat bread." No Hindoo of good caste will eat till he have washed his hands. Thus, however numerous a company may be, the guests never commence eating till they have performed that necessary ablution. 28. " O woman." The sex, on all common occasions, are always addressed with this distinctive appellation. Thus, people in going along the road, should they have to speak to a female, say, manushe, i. e. woman, hear me. The term sometimes is expressive of affection ; but, generally, it is intended to convey an in- timation of weakness and contempt. XVIII. 6. " Better for him that a millstone were hanged about his neck." It was a favourite punishment in ancient times, to tie a large stone round the neck of a criminal, and then to cast him into the sea or deep waters. Thus, Appa-Murte, a man of rank, was destroyed in this way, for changing his religion, Budhism, for Hindooism. The punishment is called sala-paruchy. The millstones in the East are not more than twenty inches in diameter, and three inches thick, so that there would not be that difficulty which some have supposed in thus despatching criminals. It is common, when a person is much oppressed, to say, " I 544 MATTHEW. had rather have a stone tied about my neck, and be thrown into the sea, than thus suffer." A wife says to her husband, " Rather than beat me thus, tie a stone round my neck, and throw me into the tank." 21. " Till seven times." This number is in common use, to show a thing has been often done. " Have I not told you seven times to fetch water and wash my feet ? " " Seven times have I been to the temple, but still my requests are not granted." " Seven times have I requested the father to give me the hand of his daughter, but he refused me : and, therefore, will not ask him again." " Have I not forgiven you seven times, and how shall I forgive you again ?" XIX. 6. " They are no more twain, but one flesh." Of a happy couple it is said, " They have one life and one body." If they are not happy, " Ah ! they are like the knife and the victim" " They are like the dog and the cat, or the crow and the bow, or the kite and the serperit." 24. " It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God." This metaphor finds a parallel in the proverb which is quoted to show the difficulty of accomplishing any thing. " Just as soon will an elephant pass through the spout of a kettle." " Ah ! the old sinner, he finds it no easy thing to die ; his life is lingering, lingering ; it cannot escape ; 't is like the elephant trying to get through the spout of a kettle." * XX. 1 1 . They murmured." Pay a man ever so liberally, he will still murmur ; he looks * For a man to die a lingering death is a sure sign amongst the Hindoos that he has been a great profligate : whereas those who easily breathe away their souls are believed to be favoured of the gods. MATTHEW. 545 at the money and then at your face, and says, " POTHATHU," f. e. not sufficient. He tells you a long story about what he has done and suffered, about the great expense he has been at to oblige you, and he entreats you for a little more. I ask any Englishman who has been in India, if he ever met with a Hindoo who was not at ALL times ready to MURMUR. XXI. 8. " Spread their garments in the way." Campbell is right, " Spread their MANTLES in the way." The people of the East have a robe which corresponds with the mantle of an English lady. Its name is SALVI, and how often may it he seen spread on the ground where men of rank have to walk. I was not a little surprised soon after my arrival in the East, when going to visit a native gentleman, to find the path through the garden covered with white garments. I hesitated, but was told it was for " my respect" I must walk ON them to show I accepted the honour. XXII. 9. " Go ye therefore into the highways, and as many as ye shall find bid to the marriage." It is as common in the East for a rich man to give a feast to the poor, and the maimed, and the blind, as it is in England for a nobleman to entertain men of his own degree. Thus, does he wish to gain some temporal or spiritual blessing, he orders his head servant to prepare a feast for one or two hundred poor guests. Messengers are then despatched into the streets and lanes to inform the indigent, that on such a day rice and curry will be given to all who are there at the appointed time. Long before the hour the visiters may be seen bending their steps towards the house of the RASA * : there goes the old man who is scarcely able to move his palsied limbs, he talks to himself about better days; and there the despised widow moves with a hesitating step ; there the sanydsi or panddrum boldly brushes along and scowls upon all who * The King. N N 546 MATTHEW. offer the least impediment to his progress ; there objects suffering under every possible disease of our nature congregate together, without a single kindred association, excepting the one which occupies their expectations. The food is ready, the guests sit in rows on the grass (Luke ix. 14-.), and the servants begin to hand out the portions in order. Such is the hunger of some they cannot stay to let the mess get cool, and thus have to suffer the consequences of their impatience ; others, upon whom disease or age has made a fatal inroad, can scarcely taste the provision ; some are of high caste who growl as they eat at those of lower grades, for having pre- sumed to come near them ; and others, on account of the high blood which flows in their veins, are allowed to take a portion to their homes. What a motley scene is that, and what a strange contrariety in their talk, some are bawling out for more food though they are already gorged to the full : others are talking about another feast which is to be given in such a village, and others who have got a sight of the host? are loudly applauding his princely generosity. He is de- lighted to hear their flattery ; it all falls sweetly on his feelings, for the higher the tone, the greater the relish. He has gained his object, taramum, i. e. charity has been attended to ; he has been exhilarated with adulation, he has got a " name in the street" (Job xviii. 17.) and the gods have been propitiated. XXIII. 33. " How can ye escape the damnation of hell ? " Mark ix. 43. The fire that never shall be quenched." " Their worm dieth not." The Hindoos have seven hells.* The first is the place of darkness and mud ; into it go those who rob and defraud their neighbours : its name is allal. The second called ra- wrum is full of poison and bad vapours. There also are * " Shall burn unto the lowest hell," Deut. xxxii. 22. If we read this " loiuest hades," it is still a striking expression. Calmet says, " As the Jews acknowledge seven degrees of torments in hell, so do the Mussulmans seven gates." Alcoran, chap, of the Stone. MATTHEW. 54-7 serpents of the worst description, who are continually biting their victims. Those who kill their masters or who afflict the righteous go to that place. The third is called Jcum- pepdgam : those who eat any thing which has had life ! go to that place. The fourth, named koodasdlam is the place of burning sand, and is occupied by those who have injured the Brahmins. The name of the fifth is senthutanum, i. e. the sleepless hell, and the place of worms : those who refuse to relieve the wretched, have their portion there. The sixth, puttie, is the place of blood, brains, and flesh: those who commit a rape abide in that place. The seventh, called mdputhe, is the hell of fire, and is occupied by those who have had carnal knowledge of such relations as are forbidden in the Hindoo law. Some of the punishments are as follows : Adulterers have to embrace pillars of fire ; some have boiling lead poured down their throats, others have to drink blood and urine. Some are changed into worms and eat others, and then are eaten themselves ; others have to hang by their feet, and have red hot wires put into their ears. Some are continually pierced with darts and spears, and have their eyes plucked out, whilst others have to eat serpents and ordure. Some have to be roasted and others fried in oil, whilst others have to be torn with iron thorns and to be tor- mented by Yama* and his friends. This is indeed a fearful description, but it excites very little influence on the minds of the Hindoos, f The following account is taken from the Scanda Purana. It relates to Yama the infernal deity, and a youth called Markandar, who could not be taken to the lower regions on account of his great devotion to the supreme Siva. The young devotee was to have died at the age of sixteen years, and then to have become the property of Yama. At that period, therefore, the king of death and hell sent a messenger * Yama, the god of hell, corresponds with the Pluto or Minos of the western heathen. f For Virgil's description of hell, see En. vi. 268. N N 2 548 MATTHEW. who went " through the sky like a cloud," to fetch Mar- kandar, but having found him at his devotions at the feet of Param-Easuran*, he was afraid to venture near to him. He was excited with fiery rage as he looked at him, and yet, as a lion that dares not pounce on his prey, he retired from the place, and returned to the lower regions, and worshipping at the feet of Yama, said, " O king, Markandar delights in Param-Easuran, and is continually employed in repeating his praises ; he is unsullied in his heart, and remains at Benares : being afraid to approach him, I have returned without him." This said, Yama, like fat cast into the fire, was enraged, and reproved the messenger, saying, " Is he the endless Siva?" and calling his clerks, he enquired, " Tell me what is the appointed time of Markandar, who is performing poosy at Benares at the feet of the invisible Param-Easuran?" When two of them, called Sittar and Kuttar, having looked at their olaf accounts answered him thus: "The frontal-eyed Param- Easuran formerly prescribed for him sixteen years, and that term expired yesterday ; but as he was performing poosy\, he is still alive. Whether Rishis, who have done great pe- nances, or holy sages, can any of them surpass the decree of fate ? He is ripe for heaven, hell is not for him." At this Yama became very angry, and calling for his minister, Kalan, said, " Go, bring the life of Markandar, who is in Benares." He came to the earth ; and going to the place where he was, looked at his poosy, and his object in doing it ; but fearing, he thought to himself, how shall I approach him ? He, there- fore, went and stood so as to be seen by him, and made obeisance; at which Markandar asked, "Who are you?" He replied, " Sir, I am Kalan, the minister of Yama who takes the lives from this world. The sixteen years which Param-Easuran allotted to you expired yesterday : you must * Another name for Siva. j- The book made of palmyra, or cocoa, or talipot leaves. J Worship or offerings. Hermits or ascetics. MATTHEW. 549 now come with me to the southern regions. It will not avail for you to attempt to oppose this : death happens even to the god Brahma, not to such as you merely ; as creating and preserving are allotted to others, so destroying is the office of Yama by the law of the director. I call you away : moreover, knowing that you perform poosy to Siva, our king is very desirous of seeing you. The ignorant call him cruel, but he apportions to souls penalties according to their deserts ; therefore the great call him the arbitrator ; you need not fear ; if you come with me, our king will come and meet you, speak kindly to you, and conduct you to Swarga." Having heard these things, Mar- kandar replied, " Listen, Kalan : the devotees of Siva go neither to Swarga nor to Yama's world ; they go to the place of Siva ; I am his servant, and therefore shall not go to the places first mentioned : be thou gone, begone :" this he spake with a voice like thunder ; and Kalan instantly departed. He then went and worshipped Yama, and told him what had taken place, at which the god, with fluttering mind, and perspiring body, and eyes shedding fire in his rage, ordered the male buffalo * to be brought ; and mounting it, he, with umbrella and banner by his side, and attended by his soldiers, departed. Arriving at Benares with his red knot of hair, black body, eyes burning with rage, holding his rope (or snare), and having in his hand a club and a trident, he came and stood before Markandar. He, on seeing Yama, continued his praises incessantly at the feet of Param-Easuran. Yama said to him, " Sir, what is your thought ; what are you doing ? Can you set aside fate and the decree of Param-Easuran ? You appear to be wholly ignorant of the power of fate. All are subject to births and deaths. Is it necessary for me to tell you this ? are you aiming to overcome fate ? Moreover, will thepoosy you are performing at the feet of Param-Easuran, besides expiating your sin, also free you from my rope ? Though you were able to count the sands on the sea-shore, * His riding beast. N N 3 550 MATTHEW. and the stars in the sky, could you count even the Teyvend- therar which have come within my grasp ; of gods and As- surs, who have died ? If the great Vishnoo, and Brahma, and myself, are subject to births and deaths, is it necessary to say that you also are liable to them ? In consequence of my formerly strewing fragrant flowers, and performing poosy, Param-Easuran granted me the rope, the trident, the battle axe, and the club, in order to execute this office. Though the inferior gods should protect thee, or even though the di- vinities should attempt, or whatever powerful beings should defend thee, would I go without seizing thy life ? Child, do not be distressed, even the lives of the devotees of Siva I take, and carry away, as soon as their term is expired : now then come you with me," said Yama. Markandar replied, " Listen, Yama : there is no death to the servants of Siva, and if there be they go not to your region, but to Cailasa. I will tell you what Siva's servants are ; listen, whether they be Yogees, or whether they be entered into the state of house- holders, they obtain heaven. They hold you in no esteem, nor regard the gods, nor do they esteem Brahma nor Vishnoo. The Veda says, that to regard such as adhere to Param-Easuran, and serve him as different from Param- Easuran himself, is the result of ignorance; is this untrue? Not only the spotless in heart, but such as have suppressed their sensual desires, such as have wholly relinquished their hold of worldly things, such as are never in power, such whose disposition is to do good, such as covet not the least thing, who can declare the qualities of such ? You have never considered the difference in these, but accounted all alike ; and you have a bad design against my soul : this design will issue in evil to your own soul and to your govern- ment. Moreover, it is in order to disgust me, that you say these things : you know not what is coming upon you, sim- pleton ! simpleton ! begone ! begone ! " As soon as he heard this, Yama, with eyes reddening like fire, replied, " Thou assumest an authoritative tone in order to terrify me, thou MATTHEW. 551 foolish fellow: dost thou think I cannot take thy soul ?" roared he, like thunder; and seeing if he waited longer it would not avail, he went in front of Markandar, and cast his rope over his neck. Though he cast the noose and drew it up, Markandar departed not from the feet of Param- Easuran ; then the gods in perplexity exclaimed, " Alas ! the youth is dead !" Before Markandar, whose mind con- tinued steadfast even when the rope fell on his neck, appeared Siva, who said, " Fear not, I will relieve thy dis- tress ; " and angry at Yama, asked, " Is it right for him with pride to cast his rope and draw it, so as to distress such a one ? " and then with his foot gave Yama a kick, who roared and died. By the shock of his fall, Brahma and all the gods were frightened ; the sea brake through its limits ; the andam wall was shattered to pieces ; the earth split : Yama's attendants and buffalo, who stood on one side, fell dead (will not such as associate with the evil perish with them ?). Then Param-Easuran, as Markandar praised him with this Sanscrit verse, " We have Param-Easuran, what can Yama do by coming hither?" replied, " Child, since you have rendered praise and poosy to me, I grant you always to remain as a youth of sixteen years;" after which, Param-Easuran, the Yama of Yama*, disappeared in the Siva-lingam, which Markandar had worshipped. Had our lord a partiality for Markandar and a prejudice against Yama? No; if the learned examine the affair it will appear just. Then Markandar, having wor- shipped the Siva-lingam went into the temple, and adored the feet of Param-Easuran ; and as he remained there, rivers of joy flowed from his eyes ; and after staying a few days, he resolved to pay homage to the temples, in which Siva, the bull rider, remains, f So Markandar worshipped in the places sacred to Siva, and praising him and remaining there, be- came a living possessor of beatitude. Now, children, he is in the sky ; and in the sights and minds of those acquainted with this history can any one comprehend these his deeds ? If * Destroyer of the destroyer. t The bull is sacred to him. K N 4 552 MATTHEW. you look at the time, during which Brahma sleeps, who came and was born in the navel lotus of Vishnoo, how great is it ? But even the Kalpas, during which Markandar has seen him die again and again (are numberless), yet he still survives. In consequence of the death of Yama, the souls on the great serpent-borne earth being exempt from death, greatly multi- plied ; on account of which, being unable to sustain the weight, the goddess Earth fell at the feet of her lord Vishnoo, and made complaint. When Vishnoo, Brahma, and Indran went to Cailasa to the black-necked Param-Easuran, and humbly worshipped him, Vishnoo and Brahma rendered him intense praises ; and on Param-Easuran asking what they wanted, Vishnoo replied, " Brahma, the lotus king, and the rest perform their respective offices thus far : Swamy, accord- ing to your direction ; and your humble servant, Swamy, by your grace, executes the office of preserving as well as I am able. But an untoward event has occurred, which please hear me to relate. Swamy, for slighting you, Yama is dead, the world is in consequence filled with life, so that the god- dess Earth who sustains it is oppressed ; yet while thus the goddess earth is in pain with the weight of all these lives, if all lives still continue to be born, and there be no doubt, what will avail my protection ? Swamy, there is no one for the office of destroying; I beg you not to bear in mind Yama's evil deeds, but restore him to life." To this Param- Easuran condescended, and replied, " Yama! arise! " and Yama, who had died, arose, and came, and humbly wor- shipping Param-Easuran said, " Having been touched by your foot, I am blessed," and praised him. Param-Easuran rejoined, " Yama ! listen ! go not into the presence of such as wear sacred ashes and beads ; neither regard my ser- vants as men on the earth, but know that they are myself. If you see them, reverently worship them. To others, who by thought, word, or deed, perform virtuous or sinful actions give Swarga, or Naraga, according to their deserts." Having thus instructed him, he said, " Go with thy troops ; " and immediately Yama humbly worshipped him ; mounted his MATTHEW. 553 buffalo ; and, his armies attending him, departed to his own kingdom. Perhaps this subject ought not to be concluded without saying, that in the existence of a future place of punishment ; in the belief of the Hindoos, in the seven divisions and dif- ferent awards of misery assigned to the guilty ; in the person of a chief called Yama (corresponding with Minos), and his numerous assistants ; in the person of the supreme Siva ; in the all-preserving power of innocence and devotion, as seen in the case of the youth Markandar and his future happiness ; we discover an agreement with the general opinion of nations, ancient and modern, barbarous and civilised, which serves to illustrate and confirm the scriptural account of future rewards and punishments. 37. " How often would I have gathered thy children together, even as a hen gathereth her chickens under her wings." The Psalmist says, " Hide me under the shadow of thy wings." " The children of men put their trust under the shadow of thy wings." (Ps.lvii. 1. Ixi. 4. Ixiii. 7. xci. 4. See on Isa. i. 18. Jer. xlviii. 40. xlix. 22.) The word WING prima- rily signifies PROTECTION, and not comfort, as some have sup- posed. They appear to have gained that idea from the com- fort which chickens have under the wing of the hen. In the East, hawks, kites, and other birds of prey are continually on the wing ; hence it is difficult to rear chickens, because at every moment they are in danger of being pounced on and carried off. Hence the eye of the mother is continually looking up to watch the foes, and no sooner does she see them skimming along, than she gives a scream, and the brood for PROTEC- TION run UNDER her WINGS. XXIV. 28. " Wheresoever the carcass is there will the eagles be gathered together." It has often appeared to me that the sight and scent of birds of prey in the East are keener than those of the same 554 MATTHEW. species in England. Any garbage thrown from the kitchen/oi in the wilderness, will soon attract these winged scavengei Should there be a dead elephant or any other beast in the jungle, vast numbers of ravenous birds and animals hasten the spot. The eagles, kites, and crows begin to tear at tl carcass and attack each other, and the jackals snap at theii feathered rivals ; thus, though there is enough for all, they each try to hinder the other from eating. There can be no doubt that birds of prey are very useful in the East, they carry off the putrid matter which would otherwise infec the air. Hence Europeans do not often destroy such birds and in the city of Calcutta there is a law to protect them fr being injured. XXV. 6. " At midnight there was a cry made, hold, the bridegroom cometh ; go ye out to meet him." An Eastern wedding is always celebrated in the night , for though the fortunate hour for performing some parts of the ceremony may be in the day^ yet the festivities of the scene will not take place till night. When the bridegroom goc forth to the house of the bride, or when he returns to his owi habitation or to that of his father, he is always accompanu by numerous friends and dependents, who carry lamps an< torches. When he approaches either house the inmates rus t)ut to meet him, and greet him with their best wishes an< congratulations. The path is covered with " garments" lamps like fire flies sparkle in every direction. XXVI. 18. " My time is at hand." When a man believes himself to be near death, he says " Go tell the priest I am going on my journey, my time is hand." When dead, it is said of him, " His time has he has fallen." 555 MARK. CHAP. I. verse 3. " Prepare ye the way of the Lord." When a man of rank has to pass through a town or vil- lage, a messenger is despatched to tell the people io prepare the way, and to await his orders. Hence may be seen some sweeping the road, others who " spread their garments in the way," and some who are cutting " down branches from the trees" (Matt. xxi. 8.), to form arches and festoons where the great man has to pass. III. 25. " If a house be divided against itself that house cannot stand." " As the fire produced by rubbing together two pieces of bamboo will burn and destroy that ^wood from whence it came, so the contentions of a family will destroy those from whom they come." " Can the tiger and the deer exist to- gether?" " Will serpents and frogs take pleasure in each other's company?"* " What, do serpents and kites love each other ?"f IV. 24. " With what measure ye mete it shall be measured to you." The Hindoo proverb on this subject is, Tan, tan, seythu * In the wet monsoon millions of frogs occupy the fields and gardens, and then it is the serpents have plenty of food : people in England would be surprised at the agility with which the latter catch the former. f The kite, called MALLE-KANNE, will carry off nearly any serpent in the East ; this bird, when the wings are extended, measures, to my know- ledge, six feet five inches ; he seizes the serpent with his talons just behind the head, and then flies aloft and bills the head of the reptile till he has made a hole in it, which produces death ; he then retires to a tree to enjoy his repast. So soon as the serpents hear the whining cry of the kite or eagle, they begin to make a hissing, clapping noise : this may be heard in old buildings or walls. 556 MARK. vinne tanuku, i. e. What he himself has done, shall be done to him again. It is quoted, both in reference to actions which are good or evil : thus, a man having acted kindly towards another will receive a similar favour from others. VI. 11. " Shake off the dust under your feet for a testimony against them." When a person is made angry by another, he says, " I will shake thee off as I do the dust from my sandals." " I have washed my feet ; never more shall they tread that place." 13. "Anointed with oil many that were sick, and healed them." The people of the East give a decided preference to ex- ternal applications ; hence, when they are directed to " eat" or " drink" medicine, they ask, can they not have something to apply outside ? For almost every complaint a man will smear his body with bruised leaves, or saffron, or ashes of certain woods, or OILS ; and he professes to derive more benefit from them than from those medicines which are taken internally : at all events, he knows they cannot do him so much harm. It ought to be observed, that they do not attach any miraculous effects to the being " anointed with oil." 21. " Herod on his birth-day made a supper." (John xii. 2. " They made him a supper." Rev. iii. 20. " I will come into him and will sup with him.") The Orientals have nearly all their great feasts in the even- ing: thus, to give a supper is far more common than a dinner. Those evening festivals have a very imposing effect : what with the torches and lamps, the splendid dresses, jewels, processions, the bowers, the flowers, and tht music, a kind of enchantment takes hold of the feelings, and the mind is half bewildered in the scenes. MARK. 557 VIII. 6. " He took the seven loaves and gave thanks." Before the Hindoos eat their food, they take a little in their fingers, and lift it to the height of the forehead, and in thought offer it to Siva. And in the same way they offer their rice and fruits to the gods, and then eat them. The ceremony is called Siva-Purethe, i. e. agreeable to Siva. It is considered disgraceful not to attend to it, and only " low or vile people" neglect it. The sect of Vishnoo put a little of the food to the forehead as above, and think on the name of Nariyanan (one of the names of their deity). In general the people do not return THANKS ; but those of the Saiva sect, after having washed their hands, repeat a mantheram or prayer. 24. "I see men as trees walking." So said the blind man of Bethsaida to whom our Saviour gave sight. To " see men as TREES walking" is a singular form of expression. Perhaps this man was not BORN blind ; and therefore compared men to trees moving about, of which his vision had still a distinct recollection ; or could he allude to the custom of the Eastern hunters, who tie branches to their bodies until they resemble a tree, by which they can walk into the midst of a flock of wild animals or birds, and single out any they please? The sportsman having in the forest changed himself into the appearance of a tree goes gently to the skirts ; and so soon as he sees the game, he watches till their heads are turned FROM him, and then moves on till he is in the midst of them, and is then sure of his object. And this is a custom of great antiquity ; for in the Scanda Purana there is the following question : " Is it like the hunter, who to deceive and ensnare the birds that warble in the forest ties shrubs about him ?" When the Moomen have their festivals they sometimes so disguise them- selves with branches as to resemble trees. " I see men as trees walking." 558 MARK. X. 46. " Blind Bartimeus, the son of Timeus, sat by the highway side begging." Here again the picture is teeming with life. See that blind man seated under a shady tree " by the highway side," he has occupied the place from infancy. Travellers who are accustomed to pass that way always expect to see the blind beggar ; and were he not there they would have a sense of dis- comfort, and anxiously enquire after the cause. So soon as he hears the sound of a footstep he begins to cry aloud, " The blind! the blind! remember the blind!" He knows almost every man's voice, and has always some question to ask i reference to the family at home. Should a stranger be pass- ing he enquires, Ath-dr, i. e. Who is that ? Those who cannot walk are carried to their wonted place, as was the man who was " laid daily at the gate of the temple, which is called Beautiful, to ask alms of them that entered into the temple." Some cripples are carried about in a basket by two men, who have a share of the alms. Sometimes they have tre- mendous quarrels, as the bearers take too great a share of the money or provisions, which induces the lame man to use his tongue : they, however, generally get the victory by threat- ening to leave the poor fellow to get home as well as he can. Some of the blind mendicants have not the patience to remain in one place ; hence they get a person to lead them, and here again they have a constant source of quarrel in the suspicions of the one and rogueries of the other. The guide falls into a passion, and abuses the beggar, tells him he is cursed of the gods, and pretends to take his departure : the blind man retorts, and calls him a low caste, a servant of beg- gars, and tells him he shall not have any more of his rice. They both having expended all their hard words be- come a little calmer ; and after a few mutual expostulations, once more approximate, and trudge off' in pursuit of their calling. I MARK. 559 XIV. 35. " Fell on the ground and prayed." How often are we reminded of this by the way in which the heathen worship their gods ! they fall prostrate before the temples and repeat their prayers. In our own chapels and school rooms natives sometimes prostrate themselves at the time of prayer. 51. " A certain young man having a linen cloth cast about his naked body." The majority of the people in the East are dressed in the same way ; a single piece of cotton cast round their loins is all they wear, and all they desire. XV. 40. " James the less." Numbers of people in every village are known by some designation, which is taken from their size or dispo- sition ; thus, Chinny Tamby is a common name, and, there- fore, they add something to it to show what Chinny Tamby they mean. Thus the less, the great one, the stout, the de- formed, the black, the fair, the high, the low caste, the igno- rant, or the wise. A person having long arms is always known by the name of the " proboscis-armed one," alluding to the trunk of an elephant. He with a large head is called the " ox-headed one;" a large mouth, the " oyster-mouthed one;" if large ears, the "umbrella-eared one;" and so on: to every pos- sible defect they attach a significant allusion ; and, should the unfortunate individual give offence, the opprobrious epi- thet will be immediately repeated. I knew a white man, who never went by any other name than the "ass!" another, who talked through his nose, was called, " the snuffler ! " another, who was fond of cheroots, " the smoker ! " In short, every Englishman has an Oriental appendage to his name ; and were our countrymen aware how narrowly they are watched, and how appropriately designated, they would per- haps be a little more careful of their conduct. See ten or 560 MARK. a dozen natives assembled, one of them says, Let us have a little fun ; recollect, I am such a gentleman, i. e. he will personate that individual : another says, Good ; I will be Mr. Such-a-one : they then affect to be seated at the table, and make such observations and allusions as draw forth roars of laughter at the expense of those who are, in most respects, their superiors. 561 LUKE. CHAP. I. verse 78. " The dayspring from on high." A king's minister once said of the daughter of Pandeyan, after she had been in great trouble on account of the danger in which her husband had been placed, " She had seen the great ocean of darkness, but now she saw the rising sun, the dayspring appeared." II. 44. " They, supposing him to have been in the company, went a day's journey." We are assisted in our view on this subject by the large companies which go to and return from the heathen festivals. Ten or twenty thousand sometimes come together to one ceremony, and it is almost impossible for friends and rela- tions to keep together ; hence, in going home, though they cannot find each other in the way, they do not give themselves any trouble, as they consider it to be a matter of course to be thus separated. IV. 23. Physician, heal thyself." In the same way do the people recriminate on each other. " You teach me to reform my life ! go, reform your own." " Doctor, go heal yourself, and you shall then heal me." " Yes, yes, the fellow can cure all but his own wife and him- self." V. 5. " We have toiled all the night, and have taken nothing." In general, the fishermen of the East prefer the NIGHT to any other time for fishing. Before the sun has gone down o o 562 LUKE. they push off their canoes or catta-marams* 9 each carrying a lighted torch, and, in the course of a few hours, may be seen out at sea, or on the rivers, like an illuminated city. They swing the lights about over the sides of the boat, which the fish no sooner see than they come to the place, and then the men cast in the hook or the spear, as circum- stances may require. They have many amusing sayings about the folly of the fish in being thus attracted by the glare of a torch. VII. 3. " He sent unto him the elders of the Jews, beseeching him." (Verse 19. "John calling unto him two of his disciples, sent them to Jesus, saying, Art thou he that should come ? ") This is the oriental way of making an enquiry or a propi- tiation. Does a man wish to know something about another, he will not go himself, because that might injure him in his future operations ; he calls for two or three confidential friends, states what he wants to ascertain, and tells them how to proceed. They perhaps first go to some neighbour to gain all the information they can, and then go to the man himself, but do not at once tell him their errand : no, no, they TRY the ground, and make sure of their object, before they disclose their purposes. Should they, however, be in doubt, they have the adroitness to conceal their plans; and if asked what they want, they simply reply " CHUMA," i. e. nothing ; they only came to say SALAM, " had not seen the honoured individual for a long time, and therefore wished to set their eyes on him." When a person desires to gain a favour, as did the centurion, he sends an elder, a respectable person, to state his case, and there is generally an under- standing that the messenger, if he succeed, shall share in the benefit. If flattery, humiliations, and importunities can do any thing, he is sure to gain the point. * Three trees lashed together. LUKE. 563 45. " This woman, since the time I came in, hath not ceased to kiss my feet." See that poor woman whose husband has committed some crime, for which he is to be taken to the magistrate ; she rushes to the injured individual, she casts herself down and begins to kiss his feet; she touches them with her nose, her eyes, her ears, and forehead, her long hair is dishevelled, and she beseeches the feet of the offended man to forgive her husband. " Ah ! my lord, the gods will then forgive you." " My husband will in future be your slave, my children will love you, the people will praise you ; forgive, forgive, my lord." (See on John xii. 3.) IX. 59. " Suffer me first to go and bury my fa- ther." It is considered exceedingly desirable for children to be with their parents when they die ; they then hear their last re- quests and commands, and also can perform the funeral rites, in such a way as none but themselves can do. It is just be- fore death, also, that the father m entions his property ; espe- cially that part which he has concealed in his house, gardens, or fields. It is, therefore, a ver^ common saying, " When I have buried my father, I will do this or that." Should a young man be requested to do that which is not agreeable to his father, he says, " Let me first perform the funeral rites, and then I will do it." X. 18. "I beheld Satan as lightning fall from heaven." Very sublime allusions are often made in Tamul poetry to the velocity and power of lightning. The bow with which Indran, the king of heaven, fought his enemies, had lightning for its string. Of the movements of the gods, " They sprang, they darted like lightning." Those who are struck by lightning are believed to be favoured of the gods. o o 2 a4 LUKE. XII. 2. " There is nothing covered, that shall not be revealed ; neither hid, that shall not be known." " The goddess of the earth will only conceal things for a season, the time will come when she will make all things known." " Your secrets must all come out : is there any thino- large enough to cover the mouth of the world ? " " True, true, that which is known to one person only is a secret, but that which is known to two ! is not so." " All thy secrets are known to another! " XIV. 19. "I have bought five yoke of oxen, and I go to prove them." This was not such a trifling affair as some have supposed, for it should be remembered it is with oxen only the Orientals perform all their agricultural labours. Such a thing as a horse in a plough or cart, amongst the natives, I never saw. A bullock unaccustomed to the yoke is of no use ; they there- fore take the greatest precaution in making such purchases, and they will never close the bargain till they have PROVED them in the field.* Nor will the good man trust to his own judgment, he will have his neighbours and friends to assist him. The animals will be tried in ploughing softly, deeply, strongly, and they will be put on all the required paces, and then sent home. When he who wishes to purchase is fully satisfied, he will fix a day for settling the amount and for fetching the animals away. Five good yoke of oxen from the opposite coast cost from 60/. to 70/. XVI. 3. "I cannot dig ; to beg I am ashamed." How often are we reminded of this passage by beggars when we tell them to work. They can scarcely believe their ears ; and the religious mendicants, who swarm in every part of the East, look upon you with the most sovereign contempt when you give them such advice. " I work ! why I never have done such a thing ; I am not able." " Surely, my lord, you are not in earnest ; you are joking with me." * The bargain alluded to in the verse was probably not closed. LUKE. 565 22. " Abraham's bosom." How offensive to good taste, and to the FIGURE of the text, is the notion of some painters, who represent Lazarus in heaven as reposing in the bosom of the patriarch. Such attempts have a tendency to lessen that veneration arid awe which we owe to subjects of so sacred a nature. This world is the legitimate field for the painter, but let him not presume to desecrate with his pencil the scenes beyond. A beloved son, though at a distance, is still said to be in the BOSOM of his parents. " The king is indeed very fond of that man, he keeps him in his bosom." " Yes, the servant is a great favourite with his master, he has a place in his bosom." " Why, Mutoo> do you never intend to allow your son to go out of your bosom ? " The ideas implied by the term bosom are intense affection, security, and comfort. But objects of endearment are sometimes spoken of as being in the HEAD. " He not fond of his wife ! he keeps her in his head." " My husband, you are ever in my head." " Yes, beloved, you are in my eye; my eye is your resting place."* XIX. 5. " To-day I must abide at thy house." Zaccheus did not appear to have seen our Saviour before, but he would not be surprised when it was said, " I must abide at thy house." Hospitality may almost be called a sacred rite in all parts of the East ; and, were it no so, what would become of travellers and pilgrims ? In general there are no places for public entertainment, for the rest houses and choultries are seldom more than open places to shelter passengers from the sun and rain. View the stranger pass- ing through a village, he sees a respectable house, and having found out the master, he stands before him, and puts out his right hand, and says, paratheasi, i. e. a pilgrim or traveller : he is then requested to be seated, and is asked, whence he came, and whither he is going ? His temporal wants are supplied, and when inclined he pursues his journey. * See on Deuteronomy xiii. 6. O O 3 566 LUKE. 40. " If these should hold their peace, the stones would immediately cry out." Has a man been greatly favoured by another, he says, 66 Ah ! if I ever forget him the stones will cause me to stumble." " I cease to recollect his goodness ! then will the stones make me to stumble and die." The idea appears to be, they will arise up and cause him to fall. XXL 18. " But there shall not an hair of your head perish." (Matt. x. 30.) " Well, friend, have you heard that Chinnan has gone to the judge to complain against you ?" " Let him go, not a hair of this head will be spoiled by that." " I advise you to take care, for the Vedan has sworn to ruin you." u He ! the jackal cannot pull out a single hair." " What care I for thy anger? thou canst not pull out one hair." ^ " He injure my son ! let him touch a single hair/' XXIII. 31. " If they do these things in a green tree, what shall be done in the dry ?" The venerable Mr. Wesley has caught the idea when he says on this passage, " The Jews compare a good man to a green tree, and a bad man to a dead one." Thus still an abandoned character, a decided profligate, is called a PATTA- MARAM, i. e. a dried or a dead tree. " Why water that tree?" "Your money, your influence is all wasted there: cease, cease to attend to that dead tree." " The tree is dead, there are no leaves, it will never more give blossoms nor fruit, it is only fit for the fire/' A spendthrift or one who has been unfortunate says, " I am a patta-maram, I have been struck by the lightning."* A good man is compared * In palmyra or cocoa groves many trees may be seen that have been struck and destroyed by the lightning. I once saw six trees struck and set on fire in an instant ; and though I was some hundreds of yards from the spot, the lightning appeared to fall at my feet. Even the majestic banyan has, sometimes, many of his giant arms withered at a single glance. I LUKE. 567 a TALITA-MARAM, 2. e. a tree which has " spreading shady anches." People may repose there during the heat of the day : they have defence and comfort. Jesus was the " green tree " under whom the Jews might have reposed. If, then, they did such things to the " green tree," what would be done to themselves, the dry, the leafless trees of the desert? The lightnings of heaven did strike them; the Roman eagles did pounce on them ; thousands were cut to the ground, and thousands went as slaves to the land of the con- querors. 48. " And all the people that came together to that sight, beholding the things which were done, smote their breasts, and returned." Grief is often far more violent in the East than in England. The frantic mother, bereaved of her son, or the wife bereft of her husband, BEATS her BREAST as if she intended to burst a passage to her vitals. I have sometimes been amazed at the blows which in their agony they thus inflict upon them- selves. " Alas ! alas ! that amma (i. e. lady) will never cease to beat her breasts." o 4s 568 JOHN. CHAP. I. verse 1. The Word was God." Some think Ao'yoj, which is rendered " word," ought not to have been translated, but to have been given as a proper name of our Saviour. Thus he would have been called the Logos instead of the " Word." I do not undertake to dispute the opinion ; but I state it as a remarkable fact, that in one of the . sacred books of the Hindoos Scandan the SON of the supreme Siva is callrd tlu; WORD. It is said that when Scandan was questioning Brahma respecting the FOUR VEDAS, the latter did not give a correct answer, which led Scandan to check him, saying, " Enough, stop, what is the meaning of the first WORD, that with which thou didst begin ? And the god WHO is THAT WORD ! as out of one of his six faces, smiled." See Scanda Purana. The word which Scandan, the son of the supreme, alludes to, is KUDILI. The supreme is also called OM*, which WORD no one pretends to explain, f 32. "I saw the Spirit descending from heaven like a dove." The dove in the East is not celebrated for innocence ; hence the heathen do not take a favourable view of this pas- sage. The manne-pra, i. e. speckled dove, is spoken of as being full of cunning. " Who has stolen my book ? I sup- pose the manne~prd" " Why has that man gone to her house ? Alas ! as the speckled dove," i. e. for an evil purpose. * O, pronounced as in home. \ When the priest presents the lighted lamp to the idol, he moves it in such a way as to trace or form the letters which compose the word OH. No strict Hindoo will repeat the word. JOHN. 569 III. 3. " Except a man be born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God." When a Brahmin youth has the sacred string put on him for the first time he is said to be born again ; but when put on the second time, Iru-purappali, he is twice born : it is to him the second birth, and he can now perform all the cere- monies of his religion. 8. " The wind bloweth where it listeth, and thou hearest the sound thereof, but canst not tell whence it cometh, and whither it goeth." When a man is unhappy because he does not understand his circumstances, when things come upon him which cannot be accounted for by himself or by others, it is asked, " Do you know whence cometh the wind ?" " You say you know not how this matter will end : do you know in what quarter the present wind will blow the next moment ? " 16. " God so loved the world, that he gave his only- begotten Son." The Jews were angry with Christ because he said, " that God was his FATHER, making himself EQUAL with God." Here, then, as a SON, they understood him as making himself EQUAL to the Father. He says of himself, as a SON, in another place, " I and my Father are one." The Jews un- derstood him to speak of himself as the SON of GOD, " be- cause that thou, being a man, makest thyself God." If, there- fore, he had spoken of himself as a son of God, in reference to his mere human generation, they would not have been angry with him. I make these observations and allusions to in- troduce some curious, and, as I think, important passages from the Scanda Purana. After the gods had been much op- pressed by their cruel enemies, the Assurs (who were demi- gods of immense power), they went to the supreme Siva and said, " Swamy, we entreat you to grant a SON, to arise from yourself, to whom, like yourself) shall belong neither 570 JOHN. BEGINNING, middle, nor end, shape, nor want of shape." Remark, that though he was to be a SON ! he was, also, to be without BEGINNING ! Again, it is recorded in another place in the same work, " Shapeless, yet possessing shape, and without BEGINNING. Being one, yet not one, but many" Parvati, the consort of Siva*, enquired of him, " What are the powers of Scandan your SON ?" to whom he replied, " He is my own ENERGY : between myself and him there is no difference ; like myself, he is omnipresent, and though but an infant, he is not only omniscient, but able to bestow divine wisdom, and the bliss that results from it, on all who desire it." This son was the energy of Siva, he was a part! of himself, and, therefore, was without beginning.^ Notice, also, the object for which this SON sprang from Siva : it was to destroy the fiendish Assurs, who were the ENEMIES of the gods ; and he accomplished that object, for he ex- tirpated them all. VI. 27." Him hath God the Father sealed." (2 Cor. i. 22. Eph. i. 13. iv. 30.. Rev. vii. 4.) The holy ashes which are rubbed on the foreheads of the heathen are called " the seal of Siva." The Brahmins are named " the seals of the gods." Should a man refuse to worship, to reverence a priest, it is said to him, " Ah ! can you do so ? has he not the seal of God ?" 68. " To whom shall we go ? thou hast the words of eternal life." The gods, in their complaints to Siva against their enemies, said, " Except yourself, who is there of whom we can implore help ? As the crow flies again and again ROUND THE MAST OF * Scandan, the son of Siva, was not produced by sexual intercourse ; he sprang from the frontal eye of his father. Minerva had not a mother, she came from the head of Jupiter. f " Siva is eternal," Scandan is a part of Siva, therefore Scandan is eter- nal ! JOHN. 571 THE VESSEL IN THE ROLLING SEA*, so Swamy, whenever afflic- tions come, with the exception of Cailasum-)*, we have no other place of refuge : except yourself, there is no one can remove our distress. We could eat poison, we could leap into the raging fire, but the distress inflicted by our enemies we can- not endure, we cannot endure." Scanda Purana. VII. 3. " His brethren." In eastern language it is common to apply the word brother or sister to those relations who have no right to it in England. Thus, cousins are called " brothers ; " i. e. the sons of brothers are called brothers ; but a daughter, though she would be called sister by her cousins, yet her children would not be addressed in the same way, but " machan" i. e. cousin, would be their proper title. The name sister, which Abraham gave to his wife, is still given to the same degree of relationship. Gen. xx. 12. " She is the daughter of my father, but not the daughter of my mother." 38. " Out of his belly shall flow rivers of living water." It is said of divine sages, of great gooroos, " Ah ! in their heads are kept the rivers of life, or life-giving rivers." The figure in reference to them is, I doubt not, taken from Siva, as the Ganges is said to flow from his head. XL 31. " She goeth unto the grave to weep." An affectionate widow goes occasionally to the place of burning, or where her husband is interred, to weep there. Fridays and Sundays are the especial days for such a visit. Should the white ants have made their nests there, she pours milk on them. * This passage is very curious. Can there be any allusion to the " raven which went forth to and fro until the waters were dried up from off the earth ?" f The abode of Siva. 572 JOHN. XII. S. " Then took Mary a pound of ointment of spikenard, very costly, and anointed the feet of Jesus, and wiped his feet with her hair." When a great priest is going on a pilgrimage to a distant country, or when he has returned, or when he is about to die, then either a man or a woman can perform the following ceremony : the individual who makes the offering, on coming near the holy man, prostrates himself at his feet, he then washes them with scented or holy water, strews flowers over them, and kisses them. (See on Luke vii. 45.) XIII. 38. " The cock shall not crow till thou hast denied me thrice." It is very common for people to regulate their time in the night by the crowing of the cock : thus, "I did not leave the temple till the Scima-koli" i. e. midnight cock. " I left my home at the Vudeya-koli," i. e. the morning cock. The people attach a high value to those birds which crow with the greatest regularity ; and some of them keep the time with astonishing precision. XIV. 2. " In my Father's house are many mansions." (2 Cor. xii. 2. " Caught up to the third heaven.") The Jews believed there were seven heavens *, and the Hindoos have the same opinion ; for Brahma, in endea- vouring to find out the summit of the pillar of fire, soared into the " seventh heaven." f The latter people also have four especial degrees of bliss : the first is called Sara-logo, God's world ; the second, Sameeba, near to God ; the third, Sari bam, God's image; the fourth, Sayutcheyam, to be united to or absorbed in him. " To the first degree of bliss, go those who have made a * 1. The velum, or curtain; 2. The firmament, or expanse; 3. The clouds, or ether; 4. The habitation; 5. The dwelling-place; 6. The fixed residence; 7. The araboth. Dr. A. C. f They have, however, many heavens, but the seventh is the place of eminence. JOHN. 573 pilgrimage to a holy place, or who have paid for the lights of a temple, or who have used holy ashes or holy water, or those who wear sacred beads, or who praise the gods, or those who honour Brahmins, or who perform poosy to Siva, or those who use the five letters, i. e. a, e, i, o, u, for invocations, or who perform the thirty-two charities.* In that state there is great happiness ; there are the five books ; there beautiful females, who dance and sing ; there no work, no sickness, no sorrow ; there the water is like ambrosia, and there all the wishes are satisfied. In the second degree of happiness, go those who are called Keerikdrar, i. e. workers ; who perform the Yagam, or who take holy waters (from the Ganges) to distant countries ; or those who place iron pins on their heads, so as to make it impossible for them to sleep in a recumbent position : those who fast much, or who roll after the car, or who walk on fire, or who tie thorns on their body, or who in any way mortify their persons. Their happiness consists chiefly in praising God, and their holiness cannot be expressed. In the third state go the Yogees ; those who are ignorant of the sex, who never shave or cut the hair, or pare the nails, who * The following is a list of the charities: " 1. To have a room for beggars where they may repose; 2. To give food to teachers; 3. To give food to the six sects ; 4. To give food to the cow ; 5. To give food to those who are in prison; 6. To give alms in general; 7. To give eatables; 8. To give rice at the funeral anniversaries of those relations who are incapable of doing it ; 9. To burn the bodies of those whose relatives cannot afford to bear the expenses; 10. To pay for the beating of drums to the place of burning; 11. To assist a woman in childbirth; 12. To bring up children; 13. To give milk to a child ; 14. To give holy ashes ; 15. To give medicine to the sick; 16. To pay the washerman for those who are incapable; 17. To pay the barber; 18. To give a mirror; 19. To give an olah for the orifice in the ear; 20. To give medicine for the eyes; 21. To give oil for the head; 22. To give ; 23. To relieve a distressed person; 24. To have water by the road-side for travellers to quench their thirst; 25. To build a rest house; 26. To dig a tank; 27. To plant a grove; 28. To put up a post for the cow to rub itself against; 29. To give food to animals in general ; 30. To set at liberty a bull, i. e. for sacred purposes ; 31. To save life by giving money; 32. To assist a poor virgin in getting married." See the Sathur-Agarathe. 574- JOHN. never speak, who wander about the earth from the left to the right, who live in a constant state of abstraction on divine sub- jects, who eat nauseous food, who live in the desert, who go about in nakedness.* In this world they gain the image of God, and in the other, they are his servants and messengers. To the fourth degree of happiness go the Nyane, literally, philosophers : they are the highest kind of ascetics, and are perfect stoics : " they pay no respect to temples, to cere- monies, to tanks, to works, to castes ; they have no sweets, no bitters, no sorrows, no joys, no sickness, no health, no heat, no cold ; they hate the world, and the world hates them they have no friends, and they know no enemies ; they live am are dead, they are dead and yet live. After this world tin are free from births and deaths ; they are absorbed in tl deity, which is supreme bliss." f The Hindoos also believe there is a glorious city situat on a lofty mountain in the heavenly world. : The walls form a square, are made of solid gold, and are beautified with precious stones. The gates are large, and are ever open to the good ; and there stand the guards, there the light is as if produced by ten millions of suns ; there lives the supreme Siva, and from his head flows a sacred river. There an the five trees, which give whatsoever is asked of them : their names are Arechanthanum, Katpagam, Santhanam, Paresa- tham, and the Mantharam. There are also four other trees in the celestial mountain. To go to the mount of Siva sig- nifies to go to the heavenly world. In reviewing this account the mind can scarcely fail to be struck with the following particulars : The seven heavens * Bishop Heber says, of some he saw near Umeer, " Those grim and ghastly Yogees, with their hair in elf-knots, and their faces covered with chalk, sitting naked, and hideous, like so many ghoules amid the tombs and ruined houses." Vol. ii. 416. See on 1 Sam. xix. 24. and Isa. Ixv. 4. -f- Those who gain the other degrees of bliss may lose them, as they are subject to births and deaths. Heb. xii. 22. Rev. iii. 12. also xxi. 10. JOHN. 575 of the Jews, the Hindoos, and the Mahometans * ; the hea - venly city; its situation a mountain, Rev. xxi. 10.; its guards, Rev. xxi. 1 2. ; its materials, its shape, four-square, Rev. xxi. 16.; its light, Rev. xxi. 23.; its river, Rev.xxii. 2.; its trees, Rev. xxii. 2. 14.; and the supreme Siva. XVI. 28. " The Father." The worshippers of Siva or Vishnoo call their god Father, when they appeal to him on any solemn occasion. A goddess is called Mother. XXI. 5. " Children." Thus did the risen Saviour address himself to his disciples. In this way, also, do spiritual guides, and men of learning, and aged men, address their disciples or dependents* In the Scanda Purana, it is said, P 2 S8Q ROMANS. CHAP. III. verse 13. " They have used deceit ; the poison of asps is under their lips." Of a deceitful man, of one who speaks in smooth language, it is said, " Ah ! at the tip of his tongue is ambrosia, but under it is poison." XIV. 2. " For one believeth that he may eat all things : another, who is weak, eateth herbs." Thousands of Hindoos never (to their knowledge) taste of any thing which has had animal life; and to eat an egg would be as repugnant to their feelings as to eat flesh, because it contains the germ of life. They live on herbs, roots, fruit, grain, milk, butter, and honey. They appear to be as strong and as healthy as those who live on flesh, and they avoid the "sin" of taking life. They believe that all who take life for the purpose of food will assuredly go to one of the seven hells.* * It has a distressing effect on their minds to show them, through a microscope, the animalcules which exist in the water they drink ; for they are convinced by this they must often destroy life. 581 1 CORINTHIANS. CHAP. I. verse 28. " And base things of the world, and things which are despised, hath God chosen ; yea, and things which are not, to bring to nought things that are." Esdras vi. 56, 57. " As for the other people which also come of Adam, thou hast said that they are nothing." " And things which are not." The venerable Mr. Wesley says, " The Jews frequently called the Gentiles ' them that are notj in such supreme contempt did they hold them/' When a man of rank amongst the Hindoos speaks of low caste per- sons, of notorious profligates, or of those whom he despises, he calls them alld-tha-varkul, i. e. those who are not. The term does not refer to life or existence, but to a quality or dispo- sition, and is applied to those who are vile and abominable in all things. " My son, my son, go not amongst them who are not" " Alas ! alas ! those people are all alld-tha+varkul" When wicked men prosper, it is said, " This is the time for those who are not." " Have you heard that those who are not are now acting righteously?" Vulgar and indecent ex- pressions are also called " words that are not." To address men in the phrase " are not" is provoking beyond measure ; their eyes will soon brighten, and their tongue and hands begin to move at the individual who thus insults them. The Lord did select the " base things of the world, and things which are despised hath God chosen ; yea, and things which are not, to bring to nought things that are." III. 9. " Ye are God's building." (Heb iii. 6. 1 Pet. ii. 5.) It is said of him who is a great favourite with the king, What can injure him ? he is the king's palace" p p 3 582 1 CORINTHIANS. V. 6. "A little leaven leaveneth the whole lump." (Lukexiii. 21.) This is said of the man who corrupts others ; also of a bad servant ; " the more sour the leaven, the better the bread." When a mother has to administer nauseous medicine, she says, " My child, take it ; do you not know the more sour the leaven, the better the bread ?" Meaning, because the potion or powder is offensive it will produce better effects. X. 25. 28. " Whatsoever is sold in the shambles, that eat, asking no question for conscience sake." " If any man say unto you, This is offered in sacrifice unto idols, eat not for his sake that showed it, and for conscience sake ; for the earth is the Lord's, and the fulness thereof." These verses refer to articles of food which had been pre- sented to the idols, and were afterwards sent to the shambles to be sold. The heathen make large presents to the temples of grain, fruit, milk, and other eatables, and therefore the priests send what they do not require to the market to be sold. The fruit called plantain (banana) may be known as having been offered to idols by having a small piece pinched off one end ; and the other articles have generally some sign by which they may be known. It is however impossible at all times to ascertain the fact, and I doubt not that most Englishmen have at one time or another eaten things which have been offered to idols. The apostle is very particular in his directions to the Christian converts (v. 27.)- " If an y f them that believe not bid you to a feast, and ye be disposed to go, whatsoever is set before you, eat, asking no questions for conscience sake." We see the converts were not forbidden to go to a feast, i. e. a family, not a religious festival ; but the phrase, " if ye be disposed to go," shows there were doubts and hesitations as to whether they ought to go. The moment they found the food had been offered to idols they were to " eat not." 583 2 CORINTHIANS. CHAP. V. verse 1. " Earthly house." The Hindoos call the body a vuduthe, i. e. a lodging place ; it is occupied for a season, and then to be left : but they speak of heaven as a vudu, a house, a home. In the book called Viyirakeya-sathagam is a colloquy betwixt the MIND and the WILL. The former says to the latter, " Thou appearest not as the servant of Siva (who withholds not his feet from us), nor executest his commands, nor approachest unto the /wme, difficult to obtain. The perishable property called wealth brings various kinds of sorrow. Thinking of the earth as our home thou becomest earth ! O stupid WILL S devoid of shame ; this is the vuduthe (i. e. the lodging place), this is not our home. If you ask, is it proper so to care for it ? earth is indeed the place for this : but the divine feet of him who adorned himself with serpents is the refuge for all souls." XII. 2. "I knew a man in Christ above fourteen years ago." Macknight says, " That the apostle speaks of himself here is evident from verses 6. and 7." This is the Eastern way in which a man modestly speaks of himself. Has an indi- vidual performed a great exploit which he does not like to mention in plain terms as having been done by himself, he simply says in relating the affair, " I know the man who did it." Ndn-arevain, i. e. I know. Do people express their pleasure or surprise in the presence of a person at some work which has been accomplished by himself, and should they enquire, " who is the man," he will say, " I know him : " he will not say he is the man, because some would p p 4 584 2 CORINTHIANS. perhaps not be disposed to believe him ; and the slight inti- mation conveyed in the terms / know him is quite sufficient to convince others he is the fortunate individual. Should a person receive a favour from an unknown hand, he will make many enquiries ; and when he thinks he has found him out, he will go to him and talk on the subject, and then, should he be right, the individual will say, " I know him." But in this way also the people praise themselves, by saying, " I know a man who performed such a penance : I am acquainted with one who gave such gifts to the temples : I know one who performed an extraordinary fast, or went on such a dan- gerous pilgrimage." 585 GALATIANS. CHAP. II. verse 9. " James, Cephas, and John, who seemed to be pillars." " Pillars," i. e. " the principal supporters and defenders of the Gospel." It is said of those who have done much to support a temple, or who are zealous in its religious cere- monies, " They are the pillars of black stone * belonging to the temple." III. 24?. " Wherefore the law was our schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ, that we might be justified by faith." The Hindoos have some books which they call school- master, etdsariyan, or rather schoolmaster book, meaning they will teach science without the help of a master. When a man who was fomerly in poverty has learned how to procure a comfortable living, he says, " Ah ! my adversity was my teacher ; it has guided me into this." IV. 3. " The adoption of sons." The following question occurs eight times in the book of fate called Saga-thevan-sasteram, " Is it good to adopt the child and give it saffron water ? " When a man does not wish to put away his wife, or take another because she has not had a child, the plan is to adopt the son of some other person. In selecting the individual, they prefer, if possible, to have the child of a relation, as the family estates are not then alienated, and there is more mutual attachment. But the * Black granite. Nearly all their sacred edifices are built of that stone ; and I have been in one, the flat roof of which was supported by nearly a thousand noble pillars of the same material. 536 GALATIANS. chief reason for adoption being so common in the East, is to have a son to perform the funeral rites and the annual cere- monies ; indeed it is believed by many of the learned, that a person who dies without a son cannot go to heaven.* When a man is going to adopt a child as his son, it is said he is about to give the manjel-necr, i. e. saffron water. The ceremony is as follows : The relations on both sides are called together, and the head man of the village is officially present to give validity to the transaction. He who adopts puts his hand on the head of the child, and says, " This is mine." The saffron water is then given, and the name of the boy is inserted in the village book. He has now a son and heir, and an agent to perform all the funeral rites.f 15. "Ye would have plucked out your own eyes." ' Ah ! how great was her love for him ; had he asked her, she would have given him her own eyes." " Dearer, dearer than my own eyes." VI. 7. " Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap." (Job iv. 8. " They that plough iniquity, and sow wickedness, reap the same." Hosea x. 13.) The Tamul proverb on this subject is " virtti-aruppdn" i. e. he reaps what he sowed. " Ah ! the wretch, he cast in cruelties, and is now reaping them." " Yes, yes, he has a large harvest ; his lies have produced fruit." i4 Go, go to thy harvest, fiend." * It is said in the Dattaka-Mimansa, " Heaven awaits not one who is destitute of a son." f The Greeks and Romans also adopted the sons of others for similar reasons. The ceremony was performed in the presence of the magistrate, or some man of rank. 58' PHILIPPIANS. CHAP. III. verse 2. " Beware of dogs." The champion of Gath enquired of David, " Am I a dog?" And David, when pursued by the infatuated and cruel Saul, asked, " After whom dost thou pursue ? after a dead dog." The term NI, i. e. dog, is an expression of sovereign contempt for the faithless, the ignoble, and the outcasts. " Never more will I go to the house of that dog." " You call me a dog ! then (running at him) I will bite thee." " Here, dog, are some bones for thee." " Yes, yes, he will be a dog in the next birth."* 19. Whose god is their belly." When a pandarum is reproved and told to serve the gods, he exclaims, " What ! is not the belly the god ? " "I will tell you all about him, his god is in his belly." " Belly, belly, nothing to the belly," bawls the beggar at your door. * A Hindoo was once beating his dog most unmercifully, but when he was reminded his grandfather (alluding to the metempsychosis) might be in the animal, he immediately desisted. The Pariah dog is much like the jackal in his appearance and habits: they abound in every village ; for there is scarcely a family without a dog to bark at you as you pass the door : the whelps are never destroyed. Hence the British government in large towns have always one or two days in a year for killing dogs. At that time the low castes, the Malays, and the Africans, parade the streets, or lurk in the corners with large bludgeons, to kill the stray animals, and may be seen dragging them by the legs to the office of the magistrate, where they receive a few fanams as a reward. 588 1 TIMOTHY. CHAP. VI. verse 7. " We brought nothing into this world, and it is certain we can carry nothing out." (Ps.xlix. 17.) " My friend, why are you so anxious after this world ? How much did you bring into it? How much will you take out?" "Ah! my son, be charitable to all; recollect, you brought nothing into the world, and be assured you will take nothing out." " That wretch would like to carry his money and lands into the other world." " Tamby, did you bring these fields into the world with you ? No ; and they will remain when you are gone." HEBREWS. CHAP. XL verse 37. " They were sawn asunder." This dreadful punishment is said to have formerly existed in India; but, like many other cruelties, it has, I believe, en- tirely disappeared. After all that has been said to the con- trary, the people of the East owe much to Britain. XII. 6. " For whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth, and scourgeth every son whom he receiveth." It is said of a truly good father, when he is obliged to punish his son, " Adikam, oru ki; Anikam y oru ki" One hand, chastises ; One hand, embraces. Showing, that though he is obliged to inflict punishment with one hand, yet in his heart he embraces him with the other. 589 JAMES. CHAP. IV. verse 13. " We will go into such a city, and continue there a year, and buy, and sell, and get gain." The merchants of the East have ever been famous for their trading peregrinations; and often are we reminded of the "company of Ishmaelites (who) came from Gilead, with their camels bearing spicery, and balm, and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt." * See the young adventurer ; he has received a certain sum from his father, and goes to another town, where he has relations or friends, and he cautiously commences his business ; he never loses sight of frugality, and should he, in the course of a few years, have gained a competency, he returns to his native place, there to husband out his days. But should he not prosper he goes to another town, for his affairs are so arranged in reference to rents and other matters, he finds no difficulty in removing. But another trader will not thus settle; he carries in two or three bags various spices (which are needed by every family), and gums, and drugs, or cloth and silk, and muslins, or jewels, or precious stones, and after a year or so he returns with the proceeds of his journey. * Gen. xxxvii. 25. 590 2 PETER. CHAP. III. verse 10. " But the day of the Lord will come as a thief in the night; in the which the heavens shall pass away with a great noise, and the elements shall melt with fervent heat; the earth also, and the works that are therein, shall be burned up. The Hindoos call the present age the Kali-yugam> which is the last and the worst; the Kreathd-yugam, the age of innocence and universal happiness, is fast approaching. But there must first be a general destruction of the present state of things. The lightnings and rains of brimstone will blast and burn up all created things ; the sun will fall like the red lotus, and the moon like the white ; the stars will drop like the illupi flowers, and then shall the end be. See Scanda Purana and Koorma Purana. 1 JOHN. CHAP. II. verse 16. " The lust of the flesh, and the lust of the eyes, and the pride of life." Christians speak of their enemies as being threefold, the world, the fash, and the devil. In the Scanda Purana it is recorded, " The soul is entangled in three kinds of snares ; it has no beginning, and is infinite." The snares are, " women, gold, and the earth." 591 JUDE. VERSE 12. "Clouds they are without water; trees whose fruit withereth." (Proverbs xxv. 14. " Like clouds and wind without rain.") " Alas, alas, my days of pleasure have passed away, my prosperity has gone, and I am now like the white cloud " (i. e. without rain). " Poor Kandan has lost all his property, and he is now like the cloud without a womb." (" From the womb of the morning thou hast the dew of thy youth." Psalm ex. 3.) " Trees whose fruit withereth." " That wretch is like the poison tree/' " You resemble the male palmyra tree, which bears no fruit." " Who will go near that fellow ? he is like the fruit-bearing palmyra in the place of burning*, no one will ascend it." REVELATIONS. CHAP. I. verse 12. " I saw seven golden candlesticks." The lamps in temples and houses are always in unequal num- bers. In giving areca nuts, or beetle leaves, care is always taken to deal out an uneven number. In calling a medical man one, or three, or Jive messengers will be sent, and, in taking the medicine, the hours of one, three, five, seven, nine, or eleven will be selected. The Brahmins in giving a feast always take care to have an unequal number of guests, f * Where the bodies are consumed on the funeral pile, f The gods delight in an uneven number." See the 8th Eclogue of Virgil. 592 REVELATIONS. XXI. 8. " All liars shall have their part in the lake which burneth with fire and brimstone." More systematic, more determined liars, than the people of the East, cannot in my opinion be found in the world. They often utter falsehoods without any apparent reason, and even when truth would be an advantage, they will not tell it. Reprove them, and they appeal to Brahma as an excuse, because he said he had found out the summit of the pillar of fire when he had not, or because some of the other gods uttered falsehoods, or, " it was their ignorance or fate ! " Yet, strange to say, some of their works and sayings represent a falsehood as almost the unpardonable sin. Take the fol- lowing for an example : " The sin of killing a Brahmin is as great as that of kill- ing a hundred cows ; and the sin of killing a hundred cows is as great as that of killing a woman; the sin of killing one hundred women is as great as that of killing a child in the womb ; and the sin of killing one hundred in the womb is as great as that of telling a lie ! " * * They sometimes reverse these comparisons. INDEX TO THE SUBJECTS. A. ABOMINABLE branch explained practices alluded to - Adam, Dr., quoted Addressing second person as the third - Adjure thee - - - Adoption, custom of Affectionate chastisement - Afflict the soul to merit heaven Age departed as a shepherd's tent Aged men, how treated - Ahab refuses to eat - Albinos - Alchymy, secret of, not fully divulged Altars, seven - - Am I a dog? " illustrated Amulet of Siva Anger, to burn shown by distention of nostrils to smoke Animalcules in water, when seen through a mi- croscope, distressing to the Hindoos Animals, abusive epithets applied to eaten immediately after being killed - with young not killed Apologues - Appropriate words like apples of gold Aprons of fig leaves - Ara-Chandran, story of Arabian ship at Trincomalee Arabs shave their heads Ark and native vessels of India Arm, break, phrase of made bare Page Isa. xiv. 9. 414 Amos, ii. 7. 511 294 Gen. iv. 15. 12 1 Kings, xxii. 16. 216 Gal. iv. 3. 585 Heb. xii. 6. 588 Lev- xv 29. 88 Isa. xxxviii. 12. 430 Lev. xix. 32. 91 1 Kings, xxi. 4. 215 224 Zech. xiii. 9. 530 Num. xxiii. 1. 102 1 Sam. xvii. 4<3. 169 Isa. xlv. 20. 436 Esth. i. 12. 255 Job, iv. 9. 267 Ps. Ixxx. 4. 344 (Note.) 580 Job, v. 7. 267 1 Sam. xxviii. 24. 180 Amos, i. 13. 510 Judges, ix. 8. 141 Prov. xxv. 11. 376 Gen. iii. 7. 8 Job, i. 1. 257 (Note.) 324 (Note.) 471 Gen. viii. 13. 14 Ps. x. 15. 317 Isa. Iii. 10. 448 594 INDEX. Arrows drunk with blood divining by Art of flying very difficult Ashes used in imprecations to eat Astonishment, mode of showing, in Africa Astrologers, prognosticates, and soothsayers Atonements, mutual B. Baal and Siva compared Baal Peor, Siva Lingam, and the *oAAoy Baal Zebub and god Vyraver compared Calmet's plate Back, to show, exasperating effect Backsliding heifer explained Bags with holes Baldhead, epithet of contempt Baldeus alluded to Baldness in a lady most disgraceful Banners, when carried Banyan tree described Barefoot, when walk Barns, Sir Edward, alluded to Barren mother keeps a house Baskets for grain Bathing, method of Bears, account of roaring of embrace of Beasts of burden teach Beauty compared to a moth signs of Beckoning with the hand Beds made of ivory corner out of, to be taken Beggars' feast described Bells on elephants Belly to swell, curse of god of - to fill Belzoni's plates referred to Bending posture of a suppliant Bentley of Calcutta quoted Bertolacci quoted Page Deut. xxxii. 42. 130 Ezek. xxi. 21. 495 Ps. Iv. 6. 333 Exod. ix. 8. 64 Isa. xliv. 20, 435 (Note.) 304 Isa. xlvii. 13. 440 Lev. xvi. 6. 87 1 Kings, xviii. 27. 208 106 1 Kings, i. 2. 217 (Note.) 219 Jer. xviii. 17. 476 Hos. iv. 16. 504 IIa<-;ii, i. 6. 527 2 Kings, ii. 23. 220 330 Isa. iii. 24. 401 Ps. xx. 5. 320 Isa. Ixv. 22. 464 2 Sam. xv. 30. 188 (Note.) 148 Ps. cxiii. 9. 354 Deut. xxviii. 5. 125 Isa. xliv. 3. 43 2 Sam. xvii. 8. 88 Isa. lix. 11. 454 (Note.) 188 Gen. xlv. 17. 52 Job, xii. 7. 274 Ps. xxxix. 11. 330 Sol.'s Song, vi. 4. 389 Acts, xxi. 40. 578 Amos, vi. 4. 516 iii. 12. 512 Matt. xxii. 9. 545 Zech. xiv. 20. 531 Num. v. 21. 96 Phil. iii. 19. 587 Job, xx. 23. 282 (Note.) 79 Isa. Ix. 14. 457 (Note.) 145 298 INDEX. 595 Page Birds of prey - - Jer. xii. 9. 471 have their nests - - Matt. viii. 20. 538 Birth of a male child, customs of - - Job, iii. 3. 266 Birth-day feast - - Gen. xl. 20. 45 Birth-place of the Queen of Sheba - - (Note.) 199 Bishops Patrick and Pococke quoted - - Gen. xli. 40. 46 Bless, this never done to the gods or a superior 1 Kings, viii. 66. 198 Blessing sons and daughters '- - Gen. xxxi. 55. 38 Bodies, human, buried in salt - (Note,) 205 Body made of clay - Job, xxxiii. 6. 310 Boiled flesh not eaten - Lev. viii. 31. 85 not offered in sacrifice - - Num. vi. 19. 97 Boils and sores - - Job, ii. 7. 263 Bolster and cruse - ISam.xxvi.ll. 177 " Bone of thy bone" - 2 Sam. v. 1. 18^ Bones of Joseph - - Jos. xxiv. 32. 137 of the dead carried to a sacred place - Amos, vi. 9. 516 burnt on altars - 1 Kings, xiii. 2. 203 vexed - Ps. vi. 2. 316 Bosom, to recline in - Luke, xvi. 22. 565 Bottle, eastern - Matt. ix. 17. 539 in the smoke - Ps. cxix. 83. 354 Bound in two furrows - - Hosea, x. 10. 506 Bowels, to yearn - - 1 Kings, iii. 26. 197 boiling - Job, xxx. 27. 306 like a harp - Isa. xvi. 11. 416 Bowing to the ground, custom of - Gen. xxxiii. 3. 41 Bowing wall . - - Ps. Ixii. 3. 337 Bowshot - Gen. xxi. 16. 25 Boy of yesterday - - 1 Kings, iii. 7. 195 Brahmin, offended - (Note.) 181 Branch to the nose - Ezek. viii. 17. 488 Bread of the governor - Neh. v. 14. 254 cast on the waters - - Ecc. xi. 1. 385 Breakfast, what - Ezek. xxv. 4. 497 Breasts, to smite Luke, xxiii. 48. 567 Breastplates described - Exod. xxviii. 22. 78 Breath, strange, to my wife - - Job, xix. 17. 279 Brethren, term of, illustrated - John, vii. 3. 571 Brevity of human life - Job, ix. 25. 272 Bribery, frequency of - Isa. v. 23. 402 Bribing, peculiar mode of - (Note.) 166 Bride leaving father's house - Gen. xxiv. 59. 28 and her jewels - Isa. Ixi. 10. 458 Bridegroom at midnight - Matt. xxv. 6. 554 2 596 INDEX. Brother, term of, to whom applied Brought up at the feet Bruce quoted ... Budha, date of birth calculated Buffaloes ... Builded by her, explained Bundle of life, explained Buried soon after death in his own house by the side of a saint Burmese have magicians to curse the enemy Burning for the dead C. Caldcleugh quoted Calves, sacrificed to Captain Basil Hall, R. N. quoted C;i|)tivity, scriptural meaning Cardinal points, how described Carved work, taste for Cast behind, explained Cattle .turned into the fields of others iiKiiining, custom of quality of, how described Ceylon, Pliny's notice of government abolish the swearing by father Chains and bracelets Chariots of iron Charities of the Hindoos, how many Charity of burying the dead Charm for a serpent Chased as bees Chickens under the wing Chief speaker Child, to divide Jesus in the company Childbirth Children of concubines, how treated come to the birth fatherless - compared to arrows dashed to pieces as chaff vile language of to whom the term applied Acts, ix. 17. xxii. 3. (Note.) (Note.) Gen. xvi. 2. 1 Sam. xxv. 29. Deut. xxi. 23. 1 Kings, ii. 34. xiii. 31. (Note.) 2 Chron. xvi. 14. Page 576 579 342 191 18 21 176 121 194 204 102 240 (Note.) 375 I Kings, xii. 32. 203 (Note.) 46 Job, xlii. 10. 313 1 Sam. xxiii. 19. 173 1 Kings, vi. 18. 198 Isa. xxxviii. 17. 430 Exod. xxii. 5. 75 xxiii. 4. 76 1 Sam. xv. 9. 168 (Note.) 81 (Note.) 38 Isa. iii. 19. 397 Judges, iv. 3. 140 (Note.) 573 2 Sam. ii. 5. 182 Ps. Iviii. 5 & 6. 335 Deut. i. 44. 106 Matt, xxiii. 37. 553 Gen. xliv. 18. 50 1 Kings, iii. 25. 196 Luke, ii. 44. 561 Lev. xii. 2. 86 Gen. xxv. 6. 29 2 Kings, xix. 3. 231 Ps. cix. 9. 353 cxxvii. 4. 558 Isa. xiii. 16. 406 xxxiii. 11. 429 xlv. 10. 436 John, xxi. 5. 575 INDEX. 597 Chinese bride jewel for forehead Chiun of Amos, and Siva of Hindoos Cholera believed to be infectious compared to a fan or winnow Cinnamon, whence procured Clap hands, custom of - Clean thing out of unclean Clouds, how many kinds Coal, quenched - Coats of many colours ... Coffins, not common - - Colloquy between the mind and the will Communing with servants Compliments - Concubines, when taken Congratulations Consecrate, scriptural meaning Consumed by drought - Contempt, how shown Cooking utensils, how made unclean Copland quoted Cords of love - Cormorant, bittern, and line of confusion in lintels - Corners of fields unproductive of hair, by whom polled Courtesans - - Covenant, how made ceremony of - with eyes, what ... Covered, scriptural meaning Covering on upper lip Cows, when milked after calving not used for the yoke dung for fuel - - Crops, three in a year - Crow round the mast - - Crowing of the cock - Cubit of a man explained . . - added Cucumbers, how eaten Cultivators, how paid Custom of sleeping in the lap of looking in the face to ascertain truth Customs,- wonderful power of Cut off like tops of corn Page (Note.) 28 Amos, v. 26. 515 (Note.} 422 Jer. xv. 7. 474 Exod. xxx. 23. 80 Lam. ii. 15. 484 Job, xiv. 4. 275 (Note.) 441 2 Sam. xiv. 7. 186 Gen. xxxvii. 3. 43 1.26. 60 2 Cor. v. 1. 583 Gen. xliii. 19. 49 2 Sam. xiv. 17. 186 Gen. xxi. 9. 24 1 Chron. xviii. 9. 236 Exod. xxviii. 42. 79 Gen. xxxi. 40. 37 Ps. x. 5. 317 Lev. xi. 33. 85 (Note.) 120 Hos. xi. 4. 507 Isa. xxxiv. 11. 429 Zeph. ii. 14. 526 Lev. xxiii. 22. 94 Jer. ix. 26. 470 iv. 30. 467 Gen. xv. 17. 20 xxxi. 46. 37 Job, xxxi. 1. 308 Isa. xxii. 17. 423 Lev. xiii. 45. 86 (Note.) 24 1 Sam. vi. 7. 164 Ezek. iv. 15. 487 (Note.) 90 John, vi. 68, 570 xiii. 38. 572 Deut. iii. 11. 106 Matt vi. 27. 536 Num. xi. 5. 97 Gen. xlvii. 26. 53 Jud. xvi. 19. 150 Job, vi. 28. 270 Acts, xxi. 21. 578 Job, xxiv. 24. 285 598 INDEX. Page D. Dagger, how carried - Judges, iii. 21. 139 Dagon pagoda of the Burmese - (Note.) 151 and Vishnoo compared - - Judges, xvi. 23. 151 Dance of natives of Mozambique - (Note.) 497 Darkness felt - Exod. x. 21. 65 as noonday - - - Isa. Iviii. 10. 453 Daughters, youngest, when given in marriage - Gen. xxix. 26. 34 called brandies - - xlix. 22. 55 not cause to be a prostitute - Exod. xix. 29. 91 nursed at thy side - - Isa. Ix. 4. 455 Day, high, explained - - Gen. xxix. 7. 33 Days, month of - xxix. 14. 34 " how many ?" - 1 Kings, ii. 38. 195 like smoke - Ps. cii. 3. 351 like a shadow 11. 351 of the week, same names as amongst Himloos, Romans, and English - 514 Day spring - - Luke, i. 78. 561 I Ka\:> Isa. xi. 4. 405 Matt. v. 2. 534 Job, xvi. 10. 277 Gen. xxiv. 57. 28 Hosea, vi. 9. 505 (Note.) 7 1 Sam. xvi. 23. 168 xviii. 6. 170 (Note.) 248 Isa. xxx. 29. 427 Ps. Ivii. 8. 334 Deut. xxv. 4. 121 Deut. xii. 13. 119 1 Sam. xix. 24. 171 Job, xxii. 6. 283 (Note.) 574 Job, xviii. 17. 278 Isa. Ivi. 3. 450 Gen. ii. 20. 3 xxix. 35. 35 Isa. Ix. 7. 456 Eccl. ii. 14. 381 Ps. xxxii. 7. 327 Gen. xlv. 15. 51 2 Sam. xxii. 41. 192 (Note.) 192 INDEX. 609 Page Neck, to take by - - Job, xvi. 12. 277 Neighed like horses - - Jer. v. 8. 468 Nest, term of, applied to a family - Isa. xvi. 2. 415 Net to be brought in - Ezek. xxxii. 3. 498 New year, customs of - Exod. xii. 2. 71 house dedicated - - Deut. xx. 5. 118 moon, ceremonies of - - - 1 Sam. xx. 5. 172 superstitions - - Jer. xliv. 17. 479 Newly-married couple - Hosea, xiv. 5. 508 Night, customs of, and notions respecting - Ps. xvi. 7. 318 By-names, or nicknames - - Mark, xv. 40. 559 " Noonday devil " - Ps. xci. 5. 349 flocks in the shade - Sol. Song, i. 7. 386 Nose stopped - - Ezek.xxxix.il. 499 Number seven - Rev. i. 12. 591 Nursing of Moses ... Exod. ii. 9. 62 O. Oaths, frequency of - 1 Kings, xviii. 10. 208 solemn - - Deut. xxx. 19. 129 cheapness of - 1 Kings, xxi. 10. 216 Obscene object of worship - - Deut. iv. 16. 106 Observers of the wind will not sow - - Ecc. xi. 4. 385 Offensive allusion - - Isa. xxx. 22. 426 language of Rab-shakeh - 2 Kings, xviii. 27. 231 to tell a person he looks well - 1 Sam. xxx. 21. 181 Offerings of Cain noticed - - Gen. iv. 3. 10 made to the drag, net, and weapons of war ... Isa. xxi. 5. 420 Offspring as grass - Job, v. 25. 269 Og, the giant - Deut. iii. 11. 106 Oil used in the temples - - Exod. xxv. 6. 78 not break the head explained - Ps. cxli. 5. 360 of joy for mourning - - Isa. Ixi. 3. 458 Oiled bread - Exod. xxix. 23. 80 Old age greatly desired - Job, v. 26. 269 strength departed xxx. 2. 305 OM not repeated by a strict Hindoo - (Note.) 568 Ominous tc shake the lap - Neh. v. 13. 253 One ear not to know the secret of the other - Matt. vi. 3. 535 Open the hand explained - Deut. xv. 8. 1 15 Orientals fall on the ground to propitiate - Gen. xliv. 14. 50 believe the clouds take water from the sea - (Note.) 332 Origin of the Oriental illustrations - Introduction 14 Original languages, how many - Gen. xi. 7. 16 R R 610 INDEX. Orm's history quoted Ornaments worn by females d for agricultural pursuits knoweth owner Oxen to purchase, an important transaction P. la of Hamiseram Pains of parturition, cause of Palmistry ... Pan, r rs to - Parable, open mouth in Paradise, location of, unknown Parathan, story from Park, Mungo, quoted " Part in David " Parturition, pain of Pasturage, ^ncn. figurative way of speaking Peace with the l> Peacocks in the East " Peeled " i-xplaiiu-d - People trembling in the rain to eat up 1 Vrfumers attached to the large temples Perfumes lavishly used - - ( Phrase, " every one shall slay me " " hunter before the Lord " " go, and come again " " kiss the Son " Pilasters of palm trees Pilgrims how treated Pillar of fire of temple Pillows under arm-holes Place of feet glorious Pleasureless vessel - Pledge to bring explained Pleiades - Ploughing, mode of Politeness of Abraham Poll of head Pomegranates - Poor deprived of their lands Porcet quoted - Porcupine and English hedgehog compared Portions, sending one to another (Note.) IMI. iii. 16. 1 Kings, xix. 19. Isa. i. 3. Luke, xiv. 19. (Note.) Gen. iii. 16. Isa. xlix. 16. ( \,.le.) Ps. l\\\iii. -J. Page 19 396 212 390 564 577 10 445 408 Gen. ii. 8. 1 135 (Note.) 38 2 Sam. xx. 1. 190 Isa. xiii. 8. 406 Ps. xxiii. 2. 322 Job, v. 23. 269 xxxix. 13. 312 Isa. xviii. 2. 417 Ezra, x. 9. 251 Ps. xiv. 4. 318 Exod. xxx. 25. 80 Ps. xiv. 8. 332 Gen. iv. 14. 12 x. 9. 16 xxii. 5. 26 xli. 40. 46 Isa. xl. 16. 499 Luke, xix. 5. 565 Exod. xiii. 18. 72 Gal. ii. 9. 585 Ezek. xiii. 18. 493 Isa. Ix. 13. 457 Hos. viii. 8. 505 1 Sam. xvii. 18. 168 Amos, v. 8. 513 (Note.) 167 Gen. xxiii. 7. 26 Exod. xvi. 16. 73 xxviii. 33. 79 Amos, ii. 7. 511 (Note.) 120 (Note.) 336 Est. ix. 19. 256 INDEX- Pottage, to sell for Power of confidence Praise on instruments of music Prayer, heathen, specimen of what profit of - - Prelate, alluded to Presence, to be driven from - - - Presents, to make if not received, distressing to donors precede the offerer Prideaux quoted Profligates compared to bulls Proud knoweth afar off Proverbs, great importance of Punishment of a Brahmin of suspending by the hands of being sawn asunder R. Race not to the swift Raiment used to sleep in Rain of love - Rainbow, weapon of the King of heaven Rams of flock not eaten Ravages of wild boars - Ravens and crows select the eye for food bring food - Reap, what sown Reaping time - - Religious processions madness - Respect for the father's friend Respects, how many different ways of showing Retort on teachers - - Returned from heaven Revenge taken by some Malays Rhinoceros noticed - - Riches have wings - cannot be taken to the other world hinder from sleeping Riddles, the delight taken in specimens of - Right Hon. Sir A. Johnstone, and slavery in Ceylon -,'*.--'- Righteousness and light compared and peace kiss each other R R 2 611 Gen. xxv. 30. Page 30 Dan. i. 23. 502 Ps. cl. 3. 362 Isa. xlv. 20. 436 Job, xxi. 15. (Note.) Exod. x. 11. 283 233 65 Gen.xxxii. 18. 39 xxxiii. 10. 41 I Sam. ix. 7. 166 289 Ps. xxii. 12. 321 cxxxviii. 6. 359 Prov. i. .6. 363 (Note.) Lam. v. 12. 151 485 Heb. xi. 27. 588 Ecc. ix. 11. 383 Ex. xxii. 26- 76 Hos.x. 12. 507 Gen. ix. 13, 14 xxxi. 38. 37 Ps. Ixxx. 13. 344 Prov. xxx. 17. 380 1 Kings, xvii. 4. 206 Gal. vi. 7. 586 Lev. xxiii. 14. 92 Ps. Ixviii. 25. 339 Isa.lix. 15. 454 Prov. xxvii. 10. 378 (Note.) 41 Luke, iv. 23. 561 Prov. xxx. 4. 380 (Note.) 139 Ps. xxii. 2L 322 Prov. xxiii. 5. 374 1 Tim. vi. 7. 588 Ecc. v. 12, 381 1 Kings, x. l f 199 (Note.) 203 504 Ps. xxxvii. 6. 329 Ixxxv. 10. 347 612 INDEX. Ivi.'ht hand and Mile, place of honour - Most High Rin-.: from finder given as a mark of favour and noM- .i 1 ... Rivers in the head ... of oil - - Rock, graven in of office - of pi: " Roll upon us " explained h mi.sMonurie* in China, how sleep in the day ... Rough caterpillars, poisonous qualities of Round corners of beard 8. Sacked city, compared to a widow Sacred vessels made of brass persons called gods Sacrifice, heathen, great cost of - of a young girl - - Sala-paruc-liN - Salt not u.sed in heathen offerings plain* described - Salutation of priests - SaiiiMm and Ramar compared Sandals, to beat with, indignity of - Sap of trees supposed to rise and fall with moon ism on a low caste man on Baal - Satyrs alluded to Scape-goat alluded to - Scattered, scriptural meaning of Sea, dwelling-place of spiritual enemies Sealeth up the hand Seals of the gods - Searching with lamps Seat prepared in the streets of honour, right hand Secrets revealed - not told to a father - of God Seed mingled, not to sow Serpent, legends and opinions respecting fiery - - Ps. Ixxiv. 11. Kxvii. 10. Isa. Hi. 81. John, vii.38. Mieuh, Job, xix. 24. I-N iv.29. I'-, \\iii. !. . \ii. H>. ( it ii. \liii. 18. (Note.) Jer. 1:. ' Page :JM 348 46 399 571 280 188 481 Lam. i. I. 483 1.x. M|. xxvii. 19. 78 K/<-k. \ \\iii. -i. 498 (N< 84 (Not< .) 111 Matt, xviii. 6. 543 Lev. ii. 13. 83 ,Ier. xvii. (i. 475 Matt. \. 12. 539 Jud. xiii. :>. 144 Amos, ii. . " Snuffed at it " explained - Mai. i. 13. Softly, to walk - 1 Kin- , \xi.27. Son, eyes of the father - Num. x. 31, rnal - ... John, iii. Hi. Sons and daughters burnt in fin- - - Dent. \ii. :J1. comforting a father - <>rn. \\\\ii. 35. like plants - Ps. cxliv. 1-.'. yet in the womb - - Ruth, i. 11. how addressed - - 1 Sam. ii. 21. Sore ran in the night explained - - Ps. Ixxvii. 2. Sorrow weighed - Job, vi. 2. spoken of as a storm - Ps. Iv. 8. Sorrows of hull ... xviii. 5. Soul escaped as a bird cxxiv. 7. dried - ... Num. xi. 6. consumed - - - - 2 Sam. xiii. 39. Sound of rain - - 1 Kings, xviii. 11. South wind, chariot of Indian Cupid - Gen. ix. 22. Span the heavens ... Isa. xl. 12. Spirits, evil, great fear of - Matt. xiv. 26. Spot of children ... Deut. xxxii. 5. Spread out the hands, custom of Lam. i. 17. Springs of affection ... p s . Ixxxvii. 7. Sprinkling with perfumed water, custom of - Isa. Iii. 15. Staff to charm off serpents - - (JVbfe.) " Stand before Pharaoh" - Exod. viii. 20. Steps, wash with butter - Job, xxix. 6. to compass - - Ps. xvii. 11. Steril females, how treated - Job, xxiv. 21. Stocks described ... xiii. 27. Stone of Israel explained - Gen. xlix. 21. burdensome - Zech. xii. 3. frog in - Matt. vi. 26. Story of Siru Tondan - - - Gen. xxii. 2. INDEX. 615 Story of son of Vasu Theavan a musician - monkeys ferried across a river Veera-inaran Vea Veyather - Strangers, how treated - Stretch out the arm explained Strife about water - Striking affinity betwixt the demi-gods of India, Greece, and Rome Studied " round and round " Stumbling-block - Sucking child Sun and moon objects of worship power to smite - images described - stand thou still - Suppers, custom of Supplication at the feet Suretyship, prevalence of Swearing by self - life passing through the fire Sweeping rain - Sweet smells acceptable to the gods Sworn by Himself T. Tail, name of, to whom given cut off, explained - of dog, who can make straight ? Talking aloud in the streets Tares, sowing of, explained " Taste and see " explained Tear flesh as with briar " Tears, take care of" for food like a river ... water the plants of science Teeth, skin of, explained to gnash with - Temples of Egypt and India, resemblances of - when not go to where built - vessels, by whom removed Tender father explained Page Exod. ii. 9. 62 Job, xxx. 31. 307 Prov. iv. 13. 365 1 Kings, x. 1. 199 xiii. 6. 204 Job, xxxi. 32. 308 Deut. xxvi. 8. 122 Gen. xiii. 7. 17 (Note.) 411 Ecc. vii. 25. 383 Isa. viii. 14. 404 xlix. 15. 445 Deut. iv. 19. 108 Ps. cxxi. 6. 355 2 Chron. xiv. 5. 240 Jos. x. 12. 135 Mark, vi. 21. 556 Jer. xiii. 2. 479 Prov. xvii. 18. 368 Gen. xli. 44. 48 xiii. 15. 48 2 Kings, xvii. 17. 229 Prov. xxviii. 3. 379 Lev. xxvi. 31. 94 Jer. li. 14. 481 Deut. xxviii. 13. 126 Jos. x. 19. 136 Ecc. vii. 13. 383 Isa. xiii. 2. 433 Matt. xiii. 25. 540 Ps. xxxiv. 8. 328 Jud. viii. 7. 141 Ps. Ivi. 8. 334 Ixxx. 5. 344 cxix. 136. 355 cxxvi. 5. 357 Job, xix. 20. 279 Ps. cxii. 10. 354 (Introd. Note.) 13 Gen. xxxi. 35. 37 (Note.) 205 Isa. lii. 11. 449 Gen. xli. 43. 47 616 INDEX. Tenses of verbs, how changed - Jsa. xxi. !>. 1->1 Tent door sitting, custom of - - (ien. xviii. 1. ; | Term "My lord" \\iii.l.j. -^ when used - xliii. v?i). 50 "stink" - 1 Sam. xxvii. 12. 178 Termagants of the I ... Prov. xxi. 9. :*?> The bullock that hath horns and hoofs - Ps. Ixix. 31. tree- by the waters - Jer. xvii. 8. 475 man who had forty sons - Jud. xii. 14. 1 43 Thief detect. .1 - (Xote.) 50 Thi-,'h, t< smite, custom of - Jer. \\\i. 19. 478 " Tilings wljii-!, - 1 Cor. i 581 Thorns in \oui - - - Num. \\xiii. .V>. 104 Threatening to roll a person - I a. \\ii. Is. Threefold ,-ord - 1 John, ii. Hi. .,'.>() Thn-hin--Hoor - (ien. 1. 10. 60 Threshold of Dagon - .lud. \. 152 to sit at, explained - I'-. l\\\iv. 10. Thumbs and toes cut off - .Jud. i. |;w Thunder, - Ps. xxi Tidings of the mouth - 2 Sam. xviii. 25. 190 taken to the idols - - 1 Chron. x. 9. 236 of a mule child - Jer. \\. \:,. 476 Time of \\inno\s ing barley - Ruth, iii. >. 155 to breathe - Job, ix. 18. 271 Tip of Cupid's arrows, what - (Note.) :& Tippoo Saib alluded to - Jer. li. 42. 482 Tobacco, Eastern females love - - (Note.) 255 " To know a person," scriptural meaning - Amos, iii. 2. 511 Told in the ear - 1 Sam. ix. 15. Ki(> Tongue, evil power of - - Job, v. 21. 268 of deceit - - Rom. iii. 13. >o Tooth, temple of - 2 Sam. xxi. 12. 191 Tower, the Lord compared to Prov. xviii. 10. 369 Treasure hid in field - Matt. xiii. 44. 541 Treasure-room of a temple - - Dan. i. 2. 501 Treasures in the field - Jer. xli. 8. 479 concealed, how seek for - - Job, iii. 21. 266 Treatment of the deaf and blind - - Lev. xix. 14. 89 Trees in heaven ... Gen. iii. 5. 8 unwillingness to cut down - Deut. xx. 19. 118 reproductiveness - - Job, xiv. 7. 276 laughing - - Ps. Ixv. 13. 338 clap their hands - Isa. Iv. 12. 450 blasted by lightning - - (Note.) 566 " Trodden down," scriptural meaning - Isa. xviii. 2. 419 INDEX. 617 U. Turban, to knock off taken off at funerals Twins, how distinguished " Two sticks " Tyerman and Bennet quoted Uncleanness how contracted Unhappy couple Usurers, exactions of Vanquished presented as slaves Vegetables only : eaten by thousands Veil, eastern Vessels, brass, without weight of temples, holy of brass, sign of riches Vile practices Virgins only : married by priests sleep with the aged Voice of weeping Voracious appetite Vows of heathen sailors W. Walls of temples, offensive figures on Wandering birds Wash hands Water, by whom drawn made sweet by the tree with the foot explained to pour out, a solemn oath to pour on the hands wears the stones given to travellers spout at sea described "living" Way prepared Waxen fat Weaning, custom of Wears crimes on his head Weep, voice of Weighed and found wanting Page Jer. xiii. 18. 472 Ezek. xxiv. 17. 497 Gen. xxxviii. 28. 44 1 Kings, xvii. 12. 206 420 Lev. v. 2. 83 Matt. xix. 6. 544 Ezek. xxii. 12. 496 Isa. xviii. 7. 419 Rom. xiv. 2. 580 Gen. xx. 16. 23 2 Kings, xxv. 16. 234 1 Chron. xxii. 19. 237 Ezek. xxvii. 13. 497 Isa. Ixvi. 17. 465 Lev. xxl 13. 92 1 Kings, i. 2. 193 Ps. vi. 8. 316 Num. xi. 22. 100 Jon. i. 7. 521 (Note.-) 391 Isa. xvi. 2. 415 Deut. xxi. 6. 119 Gen. xxiv. 11. 27 Exod. xv. 25. 73 Deut. xi. 10. 110 1 Sam. vii. 6. 165 2 Kings, iii. 11. 222 Job, xiv. 19. 276 xxii. 7. 283 Ps. xlii. 7. 331 Jer. ii. 13. 466 Mark, i. 3. 555 Deut. xxxii. 15. 130 Gen. xxi. 8. 24 Job, xxxi. 36. 309 Gen. xiv. 2. 51 Dan. v. 27. 502 s s 618 INDEX. Weights, false and true, in one bag Wells, custom of filling up used as places of concealment Wicked as green bay tree Wife called a " help meet " for a son sought for by a mother when stcril, customs of of bosom given to another, a curse bowing to her husband compared to a vine like the hind ;t- ;i M-il as a chain \\ ild beasts taken in pits Wind, inherit in. \\xvii. Gen. ii. 18. \\i. ->l. xxv. 21. Deut. xiii. 6. \.\viii. 30. 1 Kings, i. Hi. 1*>. ex \\iii. 3. IW. v. 19. Sol. Song, viii. . John, iii. s. Isa. liv. 12. Exod. xxii. 18. Gen. xxvii. 17. (Note.) Prov. xvfil. 18. Gen. ii. 23. Jon. i. 7. Gen. xlix. 25. Job, ii. 10. 1 Kings, i. 14. 2 Chr. xxxii. ^. Ps. cxix. 103. Ecc. xii. 11. Luke, xvi. 3. Neh. ix. 37. Job, xix. 26. 2 Kings, xxii. 17. (Note.) Deut. v. 22. Page- 371 31 189 329 3 25 36 lit I -^ I'M 866 3s<> 485 I'M 3