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 CYCLOPAEDIA 
 
 OP 
 
 COMMERCE, 
 
 MERCANTILE LAW, 
 
 FINANCE, COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 AND NAVIGATION : 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM WATERSTON, 
 
 MERCANTILE AGENT AND ACCOUNTANT. 
 
 CORRECTED AND IMPROVED, 
 WITH A SUPPLEMENT, 
 
 BY 
 
 P. L. SIMMONDS, 
 
 AUTHOR OF "A DICTIONARY OF TRADE PRODUCTS, ETC." 
 
 EDITOR OF "DR. URe's PHILOSOPHY OF MANUFACTURES, 
 
 AND " HISTORY OF THE COTTON MANUFACTURE." 
 
 LONDON: 
 HENET a. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. 
 
 1863. 
 
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PREFACE. 
 
 "Wateeston's Cyclopaedia of Commeece is in my estimation 
 one of the most reliable, authentic, and complete of the portable 
 works of reference at present before the public, whether regard 
 be had to the descriptive articles of places and Trade Products, 
 or to those on Finance, Law, Shipping, and Commerce. Various 
 important changes have however taken place in Manufactures and 
 Commerce, Colonization and Legislation, since the work was first 
 published twenty years ago. Many new trade articles, such as 
 alpaca, mohair, guano, gutta percha, vegetable wax, &c. have 
 been introduced and risen into considerable importance, and 
 he general commerce of the United Kingdom and other countries 
 has vastly increased. Various important alterations have been 
 made in the boundaries and divisions of States in Europe, Asia, 
 and America; Emigration and Colonization have been largely 
 extended; new and important manufacturing industries have 
 sprung up, and old ones raised to a position scarcely dreamt 
 of in former years. The textile manufactures alone have 
 become gigantic in their several features of raw material, capital, 
 machinery, and labour employed. Navigation, especially aided by 
 steam,, has been greatly extended and facilitated. The gold dis- 
 coveries of California, British Columbia, and Australia, have had 
 a great effect on Commerce and Colonization. International Ex- 
 hibitions have been held from time to time in various countries, 
 where exhibitors have competed with each other in the production 
 of novelties and articles of excellence. These and numerous other 
 influencing causes, and among them the extensive adoption of free- 
 trade measures, have widely extended the range of Commerce and 
 led to a great development of manufactures and raw products in 
 this and other countries of Europe. 
 
 The original work was placed in my hands with the view that 
 I should revise and bring down the information to the present 
 time. In a stereotyped work it is often difficult to expunge and 
 re-write the information of the several articles. A supplement 
 therefore appeared the best mode of accomplishing the desired 
 object, and this has accordingly been adopted for such articles 
 
 235114 
 
ACC 2 ACC 
 
 tional acceptance, but if he do so, he will be held to have made his election. To 
 preserve the responsibility of drawers and indorsers entire, notice of a condition to 
 an acceptance should be immediately sent them. By 1 and 2 Geo. IV. c 78, the 
 acceptance of inland bills must be in writing on the bill. This applies to bills which 
 are both drawn and accepted within any one of the three divisions of the empire. 
 A similar rule applies to all bills, whether foreign or inland, in Scotland. Foreign 
 bills in England and Ireland may be accepted verbally, or by a writing apart. A 
 notification that the bill has " been presented " or " seen," or a statement that " it 
 shall meet with due honour," is sufficient. By custom, the drawee is allowed twenty- 
 four hours, or till next day, to consider whether he shall accept, unless the post 
 leave in the interim. If acceptance be refused or delayed, a protest should be taken, 
 — in any part of the empire in the case of a foreign bill, and in Scotland in the 
 case of either an inland or foreign bill ; and notice should immediately be trans- 
 mitted to any party liable, intimating the non-acceptance, and that recourse is to 
 be had against him. In Scotland, though acceptance must be made by signature 
 on the bill to give it the legal privileges, an action against the drawee may be 
 grounded on a separate engagement to accept, especially if a third party has ad- 
 vanced money on it ; and if the drawee has funds of the drawer in his hands, 
 presentment and protest for non-acceptance with notice, will operate as an assigna- 
 tion of them. [Assignment.] Acceptance cannot be withdrawn after the bill is 
 returned to the holder. 
 
 A bill may be accepted by procuration, but the holder is not bound to tako 
 such acceptance, unless a clear and express authority from the principal be pro- 
 duced. Acceptance is held a recognition of the drawer's signature, so as to preclude 
 the acceptor from pleading against an onerous holder that it is forged ; but it is 
 not held an admission of an indorser's signature, though the acceptor must be con- 
 sidered bound to notice any condition attached to an indorsement. In England, 
 a collateral undertaking may be constituted by a second acceptance, that is, an en- 
 gagement to pay the bill if it is not honoured by the first acceptor. In Scotland, a 
 second acceptor is primarily liable with the first, and thus one who signs a bill with 
 a view of being a cautioner merely, will be liable as a principal acceptor. The 
 payee, by accepting, transfers the debt from the drawer's shoulders to his own : he 
 is thenceforth considered the party liable ; and after the bill is in circulation, when 
 it is paid, it is presumed to be with the acceptor's funds. Although the bill were not 
 drawn for value, the acceptor is presumed to have had value for it, and he can only 
 redargue the presumption by evidence, which in Scotland must be written, unless 
 it be admitted by the party on oath that there was no value. 
 
 Acceptance for Honour or Supra Protest is an engagement to pay the bill if not 
 paid by the drawee, entered on after it is protested against the latter for non- 
 acceptance. It is performed by a party who professes to be under no obligation to 
 accept, and for the purpose of preventing the bill from being returned dishonoured. 
 It may be by a third party, in the absence of, or on the refusal of the drawee, or 
 it may be by the drawee himself, who refuses to accept the draft of the drawer, 
 but accepts for the honour of an indorser. The drawee may even refuse to 
 accept the bill absolutely, and may then, after protest, accept for honour of the 
 drawer. The acceptor for honour only renders himself liable in a recourse, in case 
 of non-payment by the proper party, and so the bill should be presented to the 
 drawee for payment when it falls due, notwithstanding his refusal to accept it. 
 The acceptor for honour has recourse against the person for whose honour he has 
 accepted, and succeeds to whatever claim that person may have against the drawee. 
 Uiayley on Bills, 171-215. Chittv on Bills, 307-383. Thomson on Bills, 329-368.) 
 [Accommodation Bill. Bill. Notice. Presentment. Protest.] 
 
 ACCOMMODATION, a significant term applied by merchants to the credit fabri- 
 cated by means of a bill of exchange, drawn solely for the purpose of being dis- 
 counted, and not sanctioned by an actual sale of goods. Such a bill is called an 
 accommodation bill, also a wind bill, a kite, or a fictitious bill. Accommodation bills 
 are of various kinds. The following description of one may suffice : — A being in 
 want of £100, requests B to accept a bill drawn at two months, which B there- 
 fore, on the face of it, is bound to pay ; it is understood, however, that A will 
 take care either to discharge the bill himself, or to furnish B with the means of 
 paying it. # A obtains ready money for the bill on the joint credit of the two parties. 
 A fulfils his promise of paying it when due, and thus concludes the transaction. 
 In general, accommodation bill transactions are carried on for the joint benefit of 
 the parties, by means of cross acceptances, or bills mutually drawn, accepted and 
 exchanged ; and where two names are not enough, others are obtained sufficient to 
 
ACC 3 ACC 
 
 give currency to the bills. The payment of these bills is, among needy men, pro- 
 vided for by their again reciprocally drawing upon each other ; and this is repeated 
 until the system of expedients failing, bankruptcy sooner or later overtakes the 
 principal parties, and, not unfrequently, all who are brought within the circle of 
 their operations. The loss of credit which the use of accommodation paper, when 
 once perceived, generally occasions, — -the expense of stamps, and higher rates of dis- 
 count, and particularly the double liability for the sums for which cross acceptances 
 are given, should deter the respectable merchant from having recourse to this dan- 
 gerous expedient. But it must be admitted, at the same time, that where, from 
 some unexpected event, or commercial revulsion, a merchant is unable to bring his 
 commodities to a fair market so as to meet his payments, his credit may be saved 
 by the temporary assistance of friends, through the medium of bills, and he may be 
 enabled to hold his goods till some proper opportunity of sale presents itself ; and 
 (although such contingencies cannot be too anxiously guarded against) there are 
 perhaps few who have transacted business long and extensively, who have not, 
 iticular times, received support in this way. 
 It is sometimes said that real bills represent real capital, while accommodation bills are a species 
 of false and delusive wealth, which supply only an imaginary capital ; but this supposition, Sir 
 Thornton remarks, is ' ' one by which more than justice is done to one of these species of bills, and 
 something less than justice to the other." 4i The notes given in consequence of a real sale of 
 goods cannot be considered as on that account certainly representing any actual property. Sup- 
 pose that A sells £100 worth of goods to B at six months' credit, and takes a bill at six months 
 for it ; and tbat B, within a month after, sells the same goods at a like credit to C, taking a like 
 bill, and again that C, after another month, sells them to D, taking a like bill, and so on ; there 
 may then, at the end of six months, be six bills of £100 each existing at the same time; and 
 every one of these may possibly have been discounted. Of all these bills, then, one only represents 
 any actual property."" " In order to justify the supposition that a real bill (as it is called) repre- 
 sents actual property, there ought to be some power in the bill-holder to prevent the property 
 which the bill represents from being turned to other purposes than that of paying the bill in 
 question. No such power exists ; neither the man who holds the real bill, nor the man who dis- 
 counts it, has any property in the specific goods for which it was given: he as much trusts to the 
 ability to" pay of tlie giver of the bill, as the holder of any fictitious bill does. The fictitious 
 bill may, in many cases, be a bill given by a person having a large and known capital, a part of 
 which, the fictitious bill may be said, in that case, to represent." 
 
 '• We come next to some points in which they differ. First, The fictitious note, or note of 
 accommodation, is liable to the objection that it professes to be what it is not. This objection, 
 however, lies only against those fictittous bills which are passed as real. In many cases, it is 
 sufficiently obvious what they are. Secondly, The fictitious bill is in general less likely to be 
 punctually paid than the real one. There is a general presumption that the dealer in fictitious 
 bills is a man who is a more adventurous speculator than he who carefully abstains from them. 
 It follows, thirdly, That fictitious bills, besides being less safe, are less subject to limitation as to 
 their quantity. The extent of a man's actual sales forms some limit to the amount of his real notes ; 
 and as it is highly desirable in commerce, that credit should be dealt out to all persons in some 
 sort of regular and due proportion, the measure of a man's actual sales, certified by the appear- 
 ance of his bills, drawn in virtue of those sales, is some rule in the case, though a very imperfect 
 o ie in many respects." 
 
 " A bill of accommodation is evidently in substance the same as any common promissory note ; 
 and even better, in this respect, — that there is but one security to the promissory note, whereas, 
 in the case of the bill of accommodation there are two. So much jealousy subsists lest traders 
 should push their means of raising money too far, that paper, the same in its general nature with 
 that which is given, being the only paper which can be given by men out of business, is deemed 
 somewhat discreditable when coming from a merchant." " Bills of exchange are drawn upon 
 London to a great amount, from all parts, not only of Great Britain, but of the world; and the 
 grounds on which they have been drawn in a great degree elude observation. A large proportion 
 of them, no doubt, partakes of the nature of bills of accommodation. They have, however, in 
 general, that shape communicated to them, whatever it may be, which is thought likely to render 
 them discountable ; and it is not difficult to make use of some real, and, at the same time of many 
 seeming transactions of commerce, as a ground for drawing, and as a means of multiplying such 
 bills." The operation of drawing and redrawing bills may obviously be carried on betwixt mer- 
 chants in London and others abroad, " partly for the purpose of raiding money, and partly for 
 that of profiting by a small turn in the exchange. Transactions which are the converse to this, 
 are on the other hand entered into by those who happen to possess ready money. They remit, if 
 the exchange seems to favour their remittance, and draw in consequence of having remitted. To 
 determine what bills are fictitious or bills of accommodation, and what are real, is often a point 
 of difficulty. Even the drawers and remitters themselves frequently either do not know, or do 
 nit take the trouble to reflect whether the bills ought more properly to be considered as of the one 
 aba or of the other ; and the private discounter or banker to whom they are offered, still more 
 frequently finds the credit of the bills to be the only rule which it is possible to follow in judging 
 whether he ought to discount them." {Thornton on Paper Credit, c. 2.) 
 
 Law as to Accommodation Bills. — These documents differ in no respect from the 
 form of ordinary bills : their legal effect, however, is different as respects parties 
 between whom they do not represent a real debt. The drawer is generally the per- 
 son accommodated, the acceptor not being indebted to him, but merely putting his 
 name on the bill, to give it currency in the market ;— if he have to retire it, there- 
 fore, the drawer becomes his creditor. That the paper is merely an accommoda- 
 
ACC 4 ACI 
 
 t;on bill, as between any two parties who appear on it, cannot, however, be a defence 
 against a third who has givou value for it, and even though he knew it to be an 
 accommodation bill when he took it, he has the ordinary means of obtaining pay- 
 ment. A person who appears as debtor on a bill or note, is always presumed to 
 have had value, and in a question with the immediate creditor, he must prove want 
 of value by evidence ; in Scotland, the evidence must be writ or oath. In a purely 
 accommodation bill, the drawer is not entitled to notice of dishonour, the use of 
 notice being to enable the drawer to take precautions for his safety and indemni- 
 fication, if he has funds in the drawee's hands ; but it can never be safe to omit 
 notice, for if the drawer had at any time, from the period of drawing to that of 
 acceptance, funds in the drawee's hands, he is entitled to notice. [Bill. Accept- 
 ance. Notice.] 
 
 ACCOUNT, a term applied generally to a computation, reckoning, or statement 
 of any thing by numbers. 
 
 Account-Current is a statement of the transactions betwixt two parties, drawn out chrono- 
 logically in a plain circumstantial manner, and disposed in the form of debtor and creditor on 
 opposite pages. 
 
 Account Sales is a document giving a detailed statement of the sale of goods. It exhibits the 
 quantities and values of the goods sold, the attendant charges, and the net proceeds. 
 
 Account of Charge and Discharge in some respects resembles an account-current, but 
 differs considerably in form, as instead of charging the several sums at the time they are received, 
 the whole articles with which the party is intrusted are charged at once on one side, while the 
 other side, or discharge, shows the manner in which he has accounted for the same. " The 
 svstem of accounting by charge and discharge is the old exchequer practice, a remnant of the times 
 when the only accounting parties were debtors to the king, or stewards and bailiffs to tlieir lords ; 
 and the system is applicable only to accounts of a similar nature ; such as debtors to their creditors, 
 agents to their principals, trustees to their cestui que trusts, or the like ; in all which, one party 
 only is the accountant, and the other a creditor." (Cory on Accounts.) 
 
 Merchants usually prefix the initials E. E. (for Errors Excepted) to their signature to accounts ; 
 but the omission of these letters forms no bar to the subsequent correction of errors. 
 
 Cross accounts, when of long standing and complicated, are fruitful sources of disputes. In Eng- 
 land, such disputes ar i either referred to arbitration, or made the subject of a bill in Chancery, 
 which used to be settled by masters, but since 1852, transferred to the equity judges and as- 
 sisted by extra clerks. In Scotland, where there is no establishment of particular persona for 
 the purpose of settling disputed accounts, the business is in general left to the ordinary courts, 
 by whom (or by the parties, subject to their approval) a person is selected from the practicing 
 accountants to investigate and report upon the details. [Book-keeping. B ;ok-Debt.] 
 
 ACETIC ACID, formerly called radical vinegar, is the sour part of vinegar, and 
 that to which its peculiar and valuable properties are owing. It is obtained, 1st, 
 By the fermentation of saccharine matter. Idly, By the distillation of wood. The 
 product of the former constitutes, when diluted, the common vinegar, which abroad is 
 made from wine, and in this country from an infusion of malt, termed wort. Revenue 
 proof vinegar, termed by the maker No. 24, is calculated to contain 5 per cent, of 
 pure acetic acid. Sp. gr. 1*0085. The acetic acid from wood is obtained by the de- 
 structive distillation of the dried branches of trees in hollow iron cylinders. The hard 
 woods, such as oak, ash, birch, and beech, are alone used ; and the average product 
 of crude acid from 8 cwts. of wood is 35 gallons. This acid, formerly called pyro- 
 ligneaus acid, is now largely employed, when purified, for almost all the purposes 
 to which acetic acid or common vinegar is applied. Acetic acid, when pure, 
 is fluid (except at a low temperature, when it crystallizes), volatile, and colour- 
 less, of an exceedingly pungent smell, and very acid taste. In this state it is used 
 in chemical investigations. In a less pure state, it is employed for preparing acetate 
 or sugar of lead, acetate of copper or verdigris, and acetate of alumina, largely 
 used by calico-printers and dyers as a mordant. In the form of pyroligneous acid 
 it is employed to preserve meat, and in the state of vinegar it is applied to a 
 variety of purposes too well known to require notice. (Brande's Chemistry, Qc.) 
 Acetic acid is frequently contaminated with sulphuric acid, which, however, is 
 readily detected by the addition of the acetate or sugar of lead, when an insoluble 
 sulphate is precipitated should any sulphuric acid be present. [Vinegar.] 
 
 ACIDS, a most important class of chemical compounds. According to Dr 
 Ure, they are distinguished by the following general properties : — 1. Their taste is 
 for the most part sour ; and in the stronger species it is acrid and corrosive. 
 2. They generally combine with water in every proportion, with a condensation of 
 volume and evolution of heat. 3. With a few exceptions, they are volatilized or 
 decomposed at a moderate heat. 4. They usually change the purple colours of 
 vegetables to a bright red. 5. They unite in definite proportions with the alkalis, 
 earths, and metallic oxides, and form the important class of salts. This may be 
 reckoned their characteristic and indispensable property. There is, however, no 
 
ACK 5 ACT 
 
 single acidifying principle, nor absolute criterion of power among the different 
 varieties Acids are derived from all the kingdoms of nature, and except in the few 
 particulars above named, they vary greatly in their properties. Some are gaseous 
 in form others are fluid or solid. Most of them are colourless ; some are inodorous ; 
 while others are pungent. The most important, in a commercial point of view, 
 are the Acetic, Benzoic, Boracic, Citric, Gallic, Muriatic, Nitric, Nitro-munatic, 
 Nitrous, Oxalic, Prussic, Sulphuric, Sulphurous, and Tartaric ; an account of 
 which will be found under these several heads. 
 
 ACKER WOOD, a fancy wood of a cinnamon colour. 
 
 ACORUS or SWEET FLAG, a medicinal plant {Calamus aromattcus), found 
 in moist situations in many parts of Europe and Asia, It was formerly imported 
 from the Levant, but is now obtained equally good from marshes near Norwich 
 It is slightly aromatic, and is occasionally used as a stimulant. The part employed 
 is the dried creeping stem, improperly termed root, which should be chosen tough, 
 cleared from fibres, and free from worms— to which it is very subject. 
 ACQUITTANCE. [Receipt.] . 
 
 ACRE, a measure of land. The imperial standard acre contains 4 roods, 160 
 square perches, 4840 square yards, or 10 square chains ; and 640 acres make 1 
 4iare mile. 1 Scots acre = P2612 imp. acre ; or 134 Scots acres = 169 imp. acres 
 nearly. 30^ Irish acres = 49 imp. acres. 1 imp. acre = '4047 French hectare ; or 
 42 acres =17 hectares nearly. , 
 
 \CTS OF BANKRUPTCY, in the law of England and Ireland, are those 
 acts or events which the law takes as a criterion that a tradesman is bankrupt. 
 « Ufa of bankruptcy," says Lord Henley, "may be divided into two classes : 1st, 
 Tho*e acts which, being in themselves indifferent or equivocal, derive their charac- 
 ter from the intent with which they are done ; and, 2d, Those which are in them- 
 soIvps substantive acts of bankruptcy, and where the intent is perfectly immaterial 
 (\7) Those of the first class are ranged in the bankrupts' act (12 Sc 13 Vict, 
 c 106) as follows- 1st, " If any such trader shall depart this realm, or, 2d, being 
 out of this realm, shall remain abroad." The departure, or remaining abroad, must 
 be with the intent of delaying creditors, and, if the intent is not shewn, the fact 
 that they have been delaved is immaterial. "As where one goes abroad to avoid a 
 crimiuarprocess, or a writ de excommunicato capiendo: or a process to enforce a 
 dutv, as a decree to execute a conveyance : or if he goes abroad with the know- 
 ledge and consent of his creditors" {Henley's B. L. 17). " In some cases where the 
 traoler has gone abroad, under circumstances which render it highly improbable 
 that he would return to this country, exgr. where he had committed murder, it will 
 be inferred that he must have intended to delay his creditors, such being the neces- 
 sary consequence of his behaviour" {Smith's Mercantile L. 472). The alternative act 
 of remaining abroad was inserted in the last statute to prevent one who had gone 
 abroad with different views, from remaining absent, on hearing that his afiairs were 
 embarrassed, without being liable to the consequence of having committed an act ot 
 bankruptcy ; 3d, " or depart from his dwelling-house." Here, as in the former case, 
 the intent to delay is the material circumstance, and where a creditor left his house, 
 thongh under a false apprehension that officers who called had authority to arrest 
 him, when they had not, it was an act of bankruptcy {Exp. Bamford, lb08 ; lo 
 Fem 449) ; 4th, " or otherwise absent himself." This embraces most of those at- 
 tempts to keep out of the way of a creditor, which do not come withm the previous 
 more narrow definitions. The intent to delay is necessary. The absenting does not 
 require to be from the dwelling-house, or even the principal place of business. A 
 trader," says Mr Smith, " may commit an act of bankruptcy, by absenting himselt 
 from his own regular place of business, in which a man would be expected to be, 
 or from some other place where he expected to meet those to whom he was indebted ; 
 fur instance, the Royal Exchange, in order to delay his creditors. But the mere 
 fact of a trader's absenting himself from a place at which, though he had once trans- 
 acted business there, it did not appear that he had any business to transact at the 
 time of his staving away from it, and at which, therefore, he would not, in the 
 ordinary course of things, be expected to be present, will not warrant a jury in 
 concluding that he had committed an act of bankruptcy, by absenting himselt, m 
 order to delay creditors. But no case, it is said, has yet gone the length of deciding 
 that where the appointment was to meet a creditor at his, the creditor a, and _the 
 debtor breaks that appointment, such conduct amounts to an act of bankruptcy ( 4 / 6). 
 5th, " Or begin to keep his house," that is, if he begin to seclude himselt, so 
 as to prevent his creditors from communicating with him, as, by retiring trom 
 his shop to his parlour, or by closing the doors and windows ot his place ot 
 
ACT G ACT 
 
 business. Formerly the ouly admitted evidence of keeping house, was proof 
 of directions to deny access to a creditor, and of access denied accordingly. The 
 seclusion may now, however, be shown by other unequivocal facts, and it is not 
 necessary when a direction to deny access is proved, to prove that it was obeyed. 
 Where the conduct of the individual is, however, otherwise equivocal, evidence 
 of denial will be required. Where a trader bade his servant tell any creditor 
 who might call that he was not at home, and on a creditor calling he was so told, 
 though the debtor was at home and ill, and might have validly excused him- 
 self on that ground, it was laid down that a jury might find it to be an act of 
 bankruptcy (Lazarus v. Waithman, 1821 ; 5 Moore 313). On the other hand, if a 
 creditor is simply denied access, the circumstance may be explained away on the 
 ground of illness or engagement. " A mere direction by a trader to deny him to a 
 creditor, if he do no further act indicative of keeping house, such, for instance, as 
 secluding himself, is not, per se, an act of bankruptcy : neither, on the other hand, 
 is a denial, if he did not order it" {Smith's Mercantile L. 475). A denial in a 
 friend's house, or on board a ship, may be an act of bankruptcy. A denial on a 
 Sunday was held not to be so, though that day had been agreed on between the 
 debtor and creditor for settling the account {Exp. Preston, 1813; 2 V. and B. 311). 
 
 6th, a Or suffer himself to be arrested for any debt not due ;" 7th, " or yield 
 himself to prison ;" 8th, " or suffer himself to be outlawed ;" 9th, " or procure 
 himself to be arrested ;" 10/A, " or his goods, money, or chattels, to be attached, 
 sequestered, or taken in execution ;" 11th, " or make, or cause to be made, 
 either within this realm or elsewhere, any fraudulent grant or conveyance of any 
 of his lands, tenements, goods, or chattels, or make or cause to be made any fraud- 
 ulent surrender of any of his copyhold lands or tenements, or make or cause to be 
 made any fraudulent gift, delivery, or transfer, of any of his goods or chattels." Deeds 
 of the description here enumerated are divided into two kinds : 1st, " those which 
 are void at common law, or under the statute of fraudulent conveyances, 13 Elizabeth, 
 c. 5 ; and2rf, those which are considered fraudulent, as being in contravention of the 
 policy of the bankrupt law, either by adopting a mode of distribution of the insol- 
 vent's property, different from that which the bankrupt law points out, or (which 
 will embrace the consideration of the secondof the above acts of bankruptcy) by being 
 a preference of one or more creditors in fraud of the others" (Henley's B. L. 26 ). 
 Those of the former kind are frauds in their own nature. The other class consists 
 of acts, which, were they not performed by a trader, would not be held as frauds. 
 These are, 1st. an assignment or disposal of the whole of the trader' 's property. Al- 
 though the rule contemplated the defrauding of creditors by such an act, yet it is 
 not the less an act of bankruptcy, though made in favour of the creditors themselves 
 as a body. But the advantages of deeds of composition having been experienced 
 for some time in Scotland, the rule was restricted by 6 Geo. IV. c. 16, § 4, which en- 
 acts, that a trust-deed for the benefit of all the creditors of a trader, shall not be 
 considered an act of bankruptcy, unless a commission or flat issue within six months. 
 [Composition Contract.] A creditor who has executed or been privy to, or has acted 
 under, a general conveyance to creditors, cannot afterwards challenge it as an act of 
 bankruptcy. The character of the act, it has been held, is not saved by the circum- 
 stance that the deed is only to be executed on certain conditions, as, if the trustees 
 think fit, or if a commission of bankruptcy do not issue within a certain time. An 
 exception of a very small portion of his property will not save a general disposal of 
 a trader's effects from being an act of bankruptcy. The second kind of disposal 
 contrary to the spirit of the bankrupt laws is one giving an unfair preference to 
 any particular creditor. A merchant in solvent circumstances is always entitled to 
 follow his own choice in the routine in which he may pay his creditors, and therefore 
 it is only when it is done in contemplation of bankruptcy, and with the view of making 
 an unequal distribution of the estate which is to become bankrupt, that such a pre- 
 ference constitutes an act of bankruptcy. It does not appear that the act will be 
 one of bankruptcy however closely bankruptcy follow it, unless it was contemplated. 
 Thus, where one purchased goods on October 8, for exportation, but finding that he 
 must stop payment, and could not make use of the goods, returned them on October 
 16, and stopped payment next day, but expected, that, as he had to receive remit- 
 tances from abroad which would enable him to pay in full, his creditors would give 
 him time, but they refusing, he was made bankrupt on November 2 ; this was held 
 not to be an act of bankruptcy (Fidgeon v. Sharp, 10th May 1814, 1 Marsh. 196). To 
 constitute an act of bankruptcy, the assignment must be voluntary. " Therefore 
 
 )ayment or delivery under the threat or apprehension (however unfounded) either 
 ■imiuLil or civil process is valid : or where the trader acts from the mere 
 
 a payino 
 of a cri 
 
ACT 7 ADA 
 
 importunity of the creditor, or, as in Smith v. Payne (6 T. R. 152), where the 
 creditor knowing it was in vain to ask for money, pressed the trader to let him 
 have goods to the amount of his debt" {.Henley's B. L. 33). 
 
 The following are the acts of bankruptcy which possess that character indepen- 
 dently of the intention of the bankrupt : 1st, Where a trader arrested for debt, or on 
 any attachment for non-payment of money, lies in prison twenty-one days on that 
 or any other similar commitment, or having been arrested for any other cause lies 
 for twenty-one days in prison after a detainer of debt is lodged against him and 
 not discharged (12 & 13 Vict. c. 106, § 69). " The debt must be a real subsisting 
 legal debt; a mere equitable demand is not sufficient; a penalty due to the crown is" 
 {Smith's Mercantile L. 486). The day of arrest is included in computing the period 
 which is not considered as completed until the expiry of the last of the twenty-one. 
 In case of bail,the time is computed from the date of surrender in discharge of it,"un- 
 less the surrender were merely pro forma, the defendant never having been out of 
 custody since the arrest, in which case the time runs from the arrest, as it will, if ho 
 have, in consequence of sickness, been kept part of the time at his own house, or have 
 had the benefit of day rules during the period. But where he had been suffered to 
 go at large after the arrest, the time was computed from his return into custody" 
 Ub. 486). 2d, Escaping from an imprisonment of the above character. The 
 escape must not be constructive, but real. Sd, A trader may voluntarily become 
 bankrapt by filing in the secretary of bankrupts' office a declaration of insolvency, 
 attested by an attorney or solicitor. A memorandum issued from the office then 
 becomes a warrant for advertising the bankruptcy in the Gazette. No fiat, however, 
 can is?ue on the act beyond two calendar months after insertion of the advertisement, 
 or if the advertisement have not been inserted within eight days after the filing of 
 the declaration (1 2 & 13 Vict. c. 106, § 69). By the immediately following section 
 it is enacted, " That no commission [Fiat] under which the adjudication shall be 
 grounded on the act of bankruptcy, being the filing of such declaration, shall be 
 deemed invali 1 by reason of such declaration having been concerted or agreed 
 upon between the bankrupt and any creditor or other person." 4th, Compound- 
 ing with the petitioning creditor, i.e. paying to the person who struck the docket, 
 or enabling him to obtain a larger proportion of dividend than the other credi- 
 tors. The favoured creditor forfeits his debt, and must refund. 
 
 By ihe act for partially abolishing imprisonment for debt, and for the relief of 
 insolvent debtors ( 1 & 2 Vict. c. 110), the filing of a petition for discharge, under the 
 aot by a person in actual custody, is an act of bankruptcy from the date at which he 
 took "that step, and if a fiat be taken out before the time appointed by the court and 
 advertised for the hearing of the petition, or if it be taken out within two months 
 after the date at which the order to that effect was issued by the court, the provi- 
 sional assignee in terms of the act is divested, but not otherwise (§ 39). By the 
 same statute, it is an act of bankruptcy, if a creditor or creditors, to the amouut 
 requisite to authorize a petition for bankruptcy, having filed affidavits of their 
 debts in the court of bankruptcy, the debtor do not pay them, or find security 
 within twenty-one days (§ 8). 
 
 Act of Bankruptcy by a Member of Parliament. — By 12 & 13 Vict. c. 106, § 9, 
 If a member of parliament who U a trader commit any of the acts which are acts 
 of bankruptcy in the case of ordinary traders, a commission may issue in the usual 
 manner, but the member is not liable to arrest. By § 66, a creditor or creditors of 
 the legal amount [Bankruptcy] may file affidavit of the debt in any of the courts 
 tminster, and sue out a summons, with a copy of which the member of 
 parliament may be served ; and if he do not satisfy the creditor by payment or 
 compounding, or enter into a bond with two sureties to pay any sum that may bo 
 recovered against him with costs, and enter appearance to the action within one 
 calendar month after service of the summons, au act of bankruptcy is committed 
 by him. By § 11, if a trading member of parliament disobey any order to pay 
 money in the course of an action in a court of equity, the creditor may apply to the 
 court to fix a peremptory day for the payment, and if the debtor, being served with 
 the order eight days before the day appointed for payment, neglect to pay, he is to 
 be held as having committed an act of bankruptcy from the time of service. 
 
 In Ireland by the bankrupt statute 6 Wm. IV. c. 14, § 19-27, the acts of bank- 
 ruptcy of previous English statutes were enacted there, with this addition to the 
 act thee in force, that the words " situate in England or Ireland or elsewhere" 
 follow the words "or make or cause to be made any fraudulent surrender of any of 
 his copvhold lands or tenements." [Assignees. Bankruptcy. Commissioners.] 
 
 ADAMANTINE SPAR, or COMMON CORUNDUM STONE, is, with the 
 
ADE 8 ADU 
 
 exception of diamond, the hardest substance known. Sp. gr. 4. It contains about 
 90 per cent, of alumine, with a little iron and silica, and is generally of a pale gray 
 or greenish colour, but sometimes of red and brown tints. It is found in India, 
 China, and in some parts of Europe. The Indian variety is considerably whiter 
 than the Chinese, and is usually deemed the purest. In the East it is used for 
 polishing steel and cutting gems,but the European lapidaries prefer diamond powder. 
 
 ADEN, a seaport of Arabia, lying in 12° 52' N., 44° 59' E. about 100 miles E. 
 of the entrance to the Red Sea. It was acquired by the East India Company 
 in the year 1838, partly to facilitate the steam-navigation of that sea. The town 
 is advantageously situated upon a noble promontory, which forms two bays, in the 
 westernmost of which, or "Back Bay," a place has been selected for the formation 
 of a coal depot. This bay is accessible and sheltered, and at low water is nearly 
 twenty feet in depth, within about thirty yards from the shore. 
 
 Aden was formerly the most opulent city in Arabia; and during the twelfth, thirteenth, and 
 fourteenth centuries, was an important emporium in the European trade with India. It after- 
 wards declined ; and latterly, the town and its once imposing fortifications have been nearly a 
 heap of ruins, inhabited by a miserable population of 600, composed of Jews, Banians, Arabs, and 
 Samalkies. Under the protection of the Company, however, there can be little doubt that it 
 will again acquire much of its former consideration. Its local position and harbour give it a decided 
 advantage over the ports of the Red Sea, by enabling vessels to perform several trips to and from 
 India dazing the year ; whereas the nature of the winds within the Straits of Bab el Mandeb are 
 such, that more than one can seldom, if ever, be effected by a native vessel. The monopolizing 
 spirit of the Egyptian government, at present, operates unfavourably upon British commerce 
 with the countries adjoining the Red Sea ; but it is considered likely, notwithstanding, that the 
 rich products of Abyssinia, and of the neighbouring parts of Africa, consisting of gold-dust, ivory, 
 coffee, gums, frankincense, hides, and sheep, will soon find their way to Aden, to form a return 
 for the silks, cotton piece-goods, iron, and rice, which will be imported from Britain and India. 
 To facilitate the sale of British and Indian goods throughout Arabia, it fortunately happens that the 
 road leading to the interior is the nearest to the richest part of Yemen, and from which the 
 celebrated coffee can be more easily conveyed to Aden than to Mocha. At present, it is the 
 chief mart for the gums brought from Africa by the Somaulies. 
 
 ADJUSTMENT, in Marine Insurance, a calculation of the sums to which the 
 insured is entitled from the respective underwriters, on a loss occasioned by any of 
 the risks insured against, generally prepared by a professional person, indorsed on 
 the policy, and signed by the several underwriters. It is compared to a note of 
 hand, being presumptive against them, and not requiring the consideration to bo 
 proved by the holder, but admitting of a valid defence being raised and proved by 
 the underwriter. [Insurance (Marine). Loss. Policy. 1 
 
 ADMEASUREMENT. [Tonnage.] 
 
 AD VALOREM (Lat.), according to the value. This term is used in commerce 
 chiefly in reference to those duties (hence called ad valorem duties), which are 
 levied on commodities at certain rates per cent, on their value. 
 
 ADVANCE commonly denotes money paid on the security of property consigned 
 or deposited. Merchants frequently advance from one-half to two-thirds of the 
 value of goods consigned to them on receiving invoice, bill of lading, &c. [Bill. 
 Principal and Agent. Sale. Proof in Bankruptcy, &c] 
 
 ADVENTURE, a term sometimes used to express a shipment by a merchant on 
 his own account. A joint adventure is where the shipment is made by two or more 
 parties on joint account. [Joint Adventure.] 
 
 ADVERTISEMENTS ill any newspaper, periodical or literary work, were 
 each subject to a stamp-duty of Is. 6d., when printed and published in Great 
 Britain; and of Is. in Ireland. 3 & 4 Wm. TV. c. 23 (Juno 28, 1833). The 
 revenue derived from advertisements amounted in 1839 to £125,026; of which, 
 England, £101,357 ; Scotland, £13,928; Ireland, £9741. 
 
 By 6 <& 7 Wm. IV. c. GG, a penalty of £50 is imposed on persons advertising foreign or other 
 illegal lotteries, but by an Act of 1853 (16 & 17 Viot. c. 63) such duties are abolished. By § 8, 
 a stamp duty of one penny is charged on scrip certificates. By another Act of last session, the 
 16 <fc 17 Vict. c. 33, no person, within the limits of the police district of London is allowed to 
 carry about on any carriage, or on horseback, or on foot, in any thoroughfare or public place 
 to the obstruction or annoyance of the inhabitants or passengers, any picture, placard, notice 
 or advertisement, whether written, printed or painted upon or pasted or attached to any part 
 of such carriage, or any board or otherwise. Penalty, 40s, or one month's imprisonment 
 
 ADVICE, in commercial language, means information communicated by letter. 
 The term is used chiefly in reference to bills of exchange. 
 
 " Bills are sometimes made payable • as per advice ;' at other times, ' without further advice,' 
 ' Poth. pi. 36, 169) ; and generally without any of these words. In the former case the drawee may 
 not, but in the latter he may, pay before he has received advice." (Chitty on Bills.) [Notiok ] 
 
 ADULTERATION is the deceitful mixture with any commodity of substances 
 
AFF 9 AFF 
 
 of a different or baser nature. Adulteration is a fraud at common law. There are, 
 however, statutes which afford a remedy in the greater number of cases ; and it is 
 most expedient to proceed under these, more especially when they vest a summary 
 jurisdiction in justices of the peace or other subordinate authorities. A full account 
 of the statutes will be found in " Burn's Justice of the Peace." 
 
 AFFIDAVIT, a statement of the truth of a fact, given on oath, for which, since 
 the passing of 5 & 6 Wm. IV. c. 62, declarations have been in several instances 
 substituted. An affidavit must be made before some one who has authority to take it. 
 When in reference to a suit iu court, it ought to be made before the court in which 
 the cause lies, or a commissioner authorized by it, and so an affidavit befefce a Master 
 in Chancery will not be effectual in the Queen's Bench, smdvice versa. Affidavits are 
 generally used to certify the service of process, or some other procedure in a court 
 of justice, or in support of motions, or in opposition to them. The first step prepara- 
 tory to an adjudication of bankruptcy, is for the petitioning creditor to make affi- 
 davit of the amount of the debt, and of his belief that the debtor has become bank- 
 rupt ; and affidavits are otherwise extensively employed, in the bankrupt codes of the 
 three kingdoms. By 5 & 6 Wm. IV. c. 62, § 13, it is unlawful " for any justice 
 of peace, or other person, to administer, or cause, or allow to be administered, or 
 to receive, or cause, or cause or allow to be received, any oath, affidavit, or solemn 
 affirmation, touching any matter or thing whereof such justice, or other person, hath 
 not jurisdiction or cognisance, by some statute in force at the time being." The 
 illegality is not to apply to oaths, connected with the preservation of the peace and 
 the punishment of delinquents, or with proceedings before parliament, or with the 
 requisites for the validity of deeds to be used in foreign countries. By § 2 of the statute 
 just quoted, various public officers are enumerated, in the business of which declara- 
 tions may, by authority of the Treasury, be substituted for oaths and affidavits. By 
 § 11, a declaration is substituted for an oath in taking out a patent. 
 
 Affidavits are not indigenous to the law of Scotland, and hence voluntary affidavits 
 before judges are not evidence unless appointed by the bankrupt and other statutes. 
 Form of Deposition to prove a debt in an English Bankruptcy. 
 
 At the Court of Bankruptcy, 
 London, 3d January 1840. 
 A B being sworn and examined, the day and year, and at the place above mentioned, upon his 
 oath suith, that C D, the person against" whom this prosecution of bankruptcy is awarded and 
 issued, was at and before the date and suing forth of the same, and still is justly and truly indebted 
 unto this deponent [and E F, his partner], in the sum of £100 [in words'], for goods sold and 
 delivered, for which said sum of £100, or any part thereof, he, this deponent, hath not [nor 
 hath his said partner], nor any other person, to his [their] use, to his knowledge or belief, received 
 any security or satisfaction whatsoever. A B. 
 
 Form of Affidavit to the verity of a claim under a Sequestration in Scotland. 
 
 At Edinburgh, the third day of January, eighteen hundred and forty years. 
 In presence of A, one of her Majesty's Justices of the Peace for the city of Edinburgh, appeared 
 B [or " B, one of the partners of B & Co." as the case may be], who being solemnly sworn, 
 depones, that C is justly indebted, and resting owing, to him [or " to the company of which the 
 deponent is a partner"], the sum of £100 [in words], according to the account hereto annexed. 
 Depones that no part of the said. sum is paid or compensated, nor does the deponent [or " nor 
 deponent, or any of the partners of the said company"] hold any other person than 
 the said C bound for the debt, or any security for the same, or any part thereof [except as stated 
 in said account, or as the case may be]. All which is truth, as the "deponent shall answer to God. 
 
 B 
 A. J. P. 
 
 AFFIRMATION is the solemn asseveration made by Quakers and Moravians in 
 cases where an oath is required from others. The form prescribed is as follows : — 
 " I, A B, do solemnly, sincerely, and truly declare and affirm." This privilege 
 was first allowed by "the act 7 &*8 Wm. III. c. 34 ; but it was confined to civil 
 cases until the year 1828 when (9 Geo. IV. c. 32) it was extended to criminal cases. 
 A false affirmation subjects the offender to all the penalties of perjury. By 3 & 4 
 Wm. IV. c. 82, the privilege was extended to the denomination called Separatists, 
 and by 1 & 2 Vict. c. 77, to all persons who have been Quakers or Moravians, and 
 who retain conscientious objections to oaths. 
 
 AFFREIGHTMENT, in the law of shipping, is the contract by which a vessel, 
 or the use of it, or the use of some part of it, is let out on hire. The contract is of 
 two kinds, charter-party and general ship, or ship on general freight. The contract 
 does not require to be in writing, but if it be so it must be duly stamped. The 
 obligations generally expressed, and always understood, on the part of the ship- 
 master, are, that the vessel must be seaworthy, provided with all necessaries, and 
 > wa v fit for the voyage undertaken. The crew also must be sufficient in num- 
 ber and ability. Where such is the wage, he must have a pilot on board. The 
 
AGA 10 AGI 
 
 vessel must be at the port ready to receive goods, for a reasonable period, and must 
 sail at the appointed time, weather and tide permitting. She must be properly 
 navigated, and also directed to her port of destination by the usual and approved 
 course. If she deviate unnecessarily, the master and owners are responsible if loss 
 be occasioned, though it should be by the act of God or the king's enemies. The 
 master must not incur risk by sailing with contraband goods on board, or without 
 the proper papers. He must use every effort to convey the cargo in safety. Where 
 he cannot proceed in his own ship, he must forthwith adopt such means as 
 may be best suited to preserve the safety and value of all the property committed 
 to his charge. " Transshipment," " for the place of destination, if it be practicable, 
 is the first object, because that is in furtherance of the original purpose ; if that be 
 impracticable, return or a safe deposit may be expedient. The merchant should be 
 consulted if possible. A sale is the last thing the master should think of, because 
 it can be only justified by that necessity which supersedes all human laws. If he 
 sell without necessity, his owners, as well as himself, will be answerable to the 
 merchant ; and they will be equally answerable if he place the goods at the disposal 
 of a Vice- Admiralty Court in a British colony, and they are sold under an order of 
 the court, such court having no authority to order a sale. And the persons who 
 buy under such circumstances will not acquire a title as against the merchant, but 
 must answer to him for the value of the goods." {Abbot, 243, 244.) On his arrival 
 the master must report his ship and crew, exhibit his manifest, and deliver the 
 cargo to the consignee [Bill of Lading] on payment of charges. [Freight.] 
 
 The obligation on the part of the freighter or merchant, is to furnish a sufficient 
 cargo — if he have covenanted for a full one, he must provide it though it exceed 
 what was specified as the burthen of the ship, becoming liable in compensation for 
 any portion not occupied. This compensation for the freight of cargo stipulated 
 for, but not supplied, is called dead freight. Certain days are generally specified, 
 during which the merchant is entitled to delay the vessel in loading and unloading ; 
 these are termed " Lay-days." A specific sum is in some cases covenanted to be 
 paid, should the vessel be longer detained, and if a rate is not agreed upon, a 
 charge may be made of the nature of damages. [Demurrage.] Before receiving 
 delivery of the cargo, the merchant must pay the freight. {Abbot, 162-425. Smith's 
 Mercantile L., 239-261.) 
 
 AGAL-AGAL, a glutinous substance obtained from a seaweed in the Philippine 
 Islands. It is much used in China for gumming silks and paper. S 
 
 AGARIC (Boletus), a fungus growing on trees. Two species of boletus are 
 known under the same name. The B. pini laricis, or male agaric of druggists, 
 was at one time employed as a purgative, but it is now in disuse. The B. ignarius, 
 called female agaric, was formerly valued as a styptic, but is at present chiefly used 
 for preparing the tinder or touchwood called on the continent amadou, and in this 
 country German tinder. It is found in most countries, and particularly in the 
 Highlands of Scotland, on the trunks of old ash and other trees. That which grows 
 upon the oak, however, is most esteemed. 
 
 AGATE (Ger. Achat), popularly called Scotch pebble, is a well-known stone used 
 in jewellery and in the arts. It is one of the modifications of form under which 
 silica is found in almost a state of purity. The siliceous particles are not arranged 
 so as to produce the transparency of rock crystal, but a translucent, sometimes 
 almost opaque substance, with a resinous or waxy fracture ; and a variety of shades 
 of colour are produced by a minute quantity of iron, for the beauty of which, to- 
 gether with the high polish they are capable of receiving, agates are highly prized 
 as ornaments. Agates are usually met with in that variety of the trap rocks called 
 amygdaloid or mandelstein ; they are also found as loose pebbles in the beds of 
 rivers or in gravel, but in these cases they have been derived from the disintegra- 
 tion of amygdaloids. They vary in size from that of a pin head to a foot in diameter, 
 but those of one, two, or three 'inches are the most common. They are found in 
 the river Achates, now the Drillo, in Sicily, whence it is said they derive their 
 name ; but the principal supply is procured from Oberstein, in Germany. They also 
 occur in many parts of Scotland, especially in the Isle of Skye, and at Kinnoull 
 near Perth. The stones known by the names of Carnelian, Calcedony, Onyx, Sar- 
 donyx, Mocha-stone, Blood-stone, Chrysoprase, and Plasma, are closely allied to 
 Agate, and in chemical composition they are not distinguishable, except in tho 
 case of the Chrysoprase, by its colouring matter. 
 
 AGENT. [Principal and Agent.] 
 
 AGIO, a term applied in some parts of the continent to the premium or per 
 centage allowed on a better sort of money when it is given in exchange for an in- 
 
AHM ] 1 ALC 
 
 fcrior kind. Thus, at Hamburg, when 100 marks banco are exchangeable for 120 
 marks currency, the agio on banco is said to be 20 per cent. ; it being always reckoned 
 upon the more valuable money. In France, again, where payments can be demanded 
 only in silver coin, a small premium is sometimes paid by the receiver in order to 
 obtain gold coin ; this premium is called the agio on gold. 
 
 When the per centage, or difference, is considered, with regard to the inferior 
 sort of money, it is called discount. Thus, when 100 dollars in bank-notes are 
 exchangeable for only 90 dollars in coin, the discount on the paper is said to be 
 10 per cent. 
 
 AHM, AAM, or OHM, a German wine measure, varying in different places. 
 In Dantzic, it contains 33 ; in Hamburg, 31j| ; in Hanover, 34| ; and in Rotter- 
 dam, 33| imp. galls, nearly. 
 
 ALABASTER (It. Alabastro, Fr. Albatre), a species of gypsum resembling 
 marble, but softer, takes a duller polish, and when pure is much whiter and semi- 
 transparent. Some stones, however, of a veined and coloured appearance, and 
 also certain transparent and yellow ones of a sparry nature, are termed alabasters. 
 It ia used for small statues, lamps, vases, and other ornaments. The finest is 
 found near Volterra,in Tuscany. It is also procured in Staffordshire, Derbyshire, 
 and in great abundance on the shores of the Bristol Channel, between Watchet and 
 Minehead, where it is manufactured into toys and ornaments. 
 
 ALBATA, British Plate or German Silver, a compound of tin, copper, and 
 nickel, now extensively used in this country in the manufacture of a variety 
 of articles which were formerly plated or made entirely of silver. Albata goods 
 do not look so well as those plated, when the latter are entirely new, but they pos- 
 sess superior durability. Birmingham and Sheffield are the principal seats of this 
 manufacture. 
 
 ALCOHOL (Fr. Esprit de Vin. Ger. Weingeist. It. Spirito divino), is a liquid 
 which forms the intoxicating principle of fermented liquors. It is by the distilla- 
 tion of such liquors that ardent spirits are obtained, and they receive the names 
 of brandy, rum, gin, or whisky, according to the nature of the substance employed, 
 but in every case consist almost entirely of three ingredients, viz. alcohol, water, 
 and a little oil or resin, to which they owe their flavour and colour. When these 
 liquids are redistilled, the first portion that comes over is a fine light, transparent 
 fluid, known in commerce by the name of rectified spirits. When as highly recti- 
 fied as possible, the specific gravity of the liquid obtained does not appear to 
 be less than '820, and is generally more. Alcohol cannot, by this process, be 
 deprived of the whole of the water with which it is combined ; but by redistil- 
 lation with hot muriate of lime, it is procured of the specific gravity '791 at 68°, 
 or 796 at 60° Fahrenheit. In this state it is the strongest that can at present be 
 produced, and it is therefore called pure or absolute alcohol. The alcohol of 
 commerce or spirit of wine, is never so strong as this ; its specific gravity is seldom 
 under "837. In this state it is fragrant, limpid, colourless, volatile, inflammable, 
 and of a pungent agreeable taste. It has never been frozen. At 173^° it boils. It 
 combines with water in every degree ; and the proportion of it present in common 
 spirits is best judged of by their specific gravity, and is usually ascertained by 
 "Sikes' Hydrometer." The specific gravity of what is called pure alcohol being 
 •796 at 60° Fahrenheit, and that of water l'OOO, it follows, that the lighter a 
 spirit is the stronger is it. What in this country is called proof spirits, was under- 
 stood to be a mixture of equal bulks of alcohol and water ; but this is not the 
 it contains 52-100 parts of its weight of water. When spirits are weaker 
 than this, they are said to be under proof; when stronger, to be above proof: 
 thus, " 10 under proof" signifies that every 100 gallons of that spirit would require 
 to have 10 gallons of water abstracted from it to bring it up to proof ; and " 10 over 
 proof," that every 100 gallons contains too little water by 10 gallons. Philoso- 
 phers, however, are not yet agreed upon absolute alcohol ; and nitherto the term 
 proof-spirit has been often indefinitely employed. 
 
 The great importance of accuracy in determining the strength of alcoholic mixtures induced the 
 Lords of the Treasury, a few years ago, to request the Royal Society to give an opinion upon the 
 subject. In the report of the committee of this body (drawn up by Mr Faraday), it is stated, that 
 " a definite mixture of alcohol and water is as invariable in its value as absolute alcohol can be. 
 It is also invariable in its nature." It is therefore proposed, ' ' that standard spirit be that which, 
 consisting of alcohol and water alone, shall have a specific gravity of 0-92 at the temperature of 
 62° Fahrenheit, water being unity at the same temperature; or in other words, that it shall at 
 62° weigh ^ths, or IJths of an equal bulk of water at the same temperature." " This standard 
 is rather weaker than the old proof spirit (the specific gravity of which, at 62° is 0'918633), in the 
 proportion of oearlj 1-1 gallon of the present proof-spirit per cent." In regard to the specific 
 gravity of any mixture of alcohol and water, " your committee are of opinion that the hydrometer 
 
ALD 12 ALI 
 
 is the Instrument best fitted, in the hands of the excise officer, to indicate that specific gravity, 
 and they think it ought to be so graduated as to give the indication of strength, not upon an arbi- 
 trary scale, but in terms of specific gravity, at a fixed temperature, which in the present case 
 should be 62°, or that of the standard spirit." 
 
 Alcohol is extensively used in the arts. It dissolves the resins, camphor, and the essential oils ; 
 and hence its use in varnish-making, in pharmacy, and in perfumery; while its fluidity at the 
 lowest temperatures,— its antiseptic properties, and its purity and ready inflammability, render it 
 applicable to a great variety of other purposes. (Brande's Chemistry. Ure's Dictionary of Arts, 
 art. Alcohol.) [Spirits.] 
 
 ALDER (Alnus glutinosa), an aquatic tree, found in all parts of Europe, the 
 novlh of Africa, and in Asia and North America. Its timber is reddish yellow in 
 colour, and being soft works easily. It is much used for piles, pumps, and other 
 underground purposes where it is kept constantly wet ; and its stems, hollowed 
 out, are among the best materials, next to metal, for waterpipes. The veiny knots 
 are often cut into veneer. The bark is valuable for tanning ; and the young shoots, 
 when mixed with other ingredients, are used for dyeing. The alder rots when 
 exposed to the weather, and when dry is subject to worms. 
 
 ALE. [Beer.] 
 
 ALEXANDRIA. [Egypt.] 
 
 ALGIERS extends about 500 miles along the northern shore of Africa, from 
 about 8° 30' east, to 1° 30' west. It is bounded on that side by the Mediterranean, on 
 the east by Tunis, south by the Sahara or Great Desert, and west by Morocco, from 
 which it is separated by the desert of Angad. There are four provinces, Algiers 
 Proper, Constantiua, Titteri, and Mascara ; the first was under the direct govern- 
 ment of the Dey ; the others under local rulers called Beys. In 1830, the principal 
 part of the country was conquered by the French, by whom it is still retained. 
 Population, about 2,000,000, one half being Kabyles or Berbers, and the rest chiefly 
 Arabs, Moors, Cooloolis, Jews, and Soudan negroes. 
 
 The country is traversed by branches of the great mountain-chain of Atlas, and in general is well 
 watered and highly fertile. In the high grounds of the interior, the same plants can be reared as 
 are cultivated on the opposite shores of the Mediterranean ; while there is reason to believe that 
 all the productions of more southern, and even of tropical climates, might on the low grounds 
 near the coast be cultivated with advantage. The grain sown is wheat, barley, maize, millet, 
 doura and rice. The mountains are rich in metals and timber ; and in the eastern parts, towards 
 Oran and Mostagan, there is great abundance of fossil salt. The manufactures are inconsiderable. 
 On the coast, near Bona, there are extensive coral banks, the seat of an important fishery, carried 
 on chiefly by Italian vessels. 
 
 Algiers, 36° 48' N., 3° 4' E., the principal city and port, rises in the form of an amphitheatre 
 near the middle of the coast. It is defended on the seaside by very strong batteries. The 
 harbour, a work of immense labour, is formed by two projecting moles ; and is about 15 feet deep ; 
 but it is unsafe, and vessels lying along it must be strongly fastened by cables. Formerly the 
 population was about 70,000, including a number of Jews ; but the expulsion of the Turks, and 
 the emigration of the Moors, have since greatly reduced this number. Exports, — oil, wax, hides, 
 skins, corn, fruit, wool, rugs, embroidered handkerchiefs, ostrich feathers. Imports, — cotton 
 goods, silks, spices, metals, hardware, earthenware, and other manufactured goods. 
 
 The principal intercourse of Algiers is with France, Britain, Italy, and Spain. The extent of 
 the British intercourse cannot be precisely ascertained, as the public accounts do not distinguish 
 the trade of the different Barbary States, while large quantities of British manufactures, parti- 
 cularly cottons, are imported by way of Leghorn and Gibraltar. In 1832, the value of cottons 
 imported into the town of Algiers, was from France, £7363 ; and of British cottons from Leg- 
 horn, £28,558; Gibraltar, £17,900; Tunis, £307; total, £46,765 ; in all, £54,128. In 1837 the 
 amount of imports into Algiers from France (exclusive of £83,507 of specie) was £703,787 ; of 
 which French merchandise, £472,020; foreign merchandise, £231,767; in the same year the 
 amount of exports to France was only £58,012 exclusive of £.9331 of specie. 
 
 The other chief ports possessed by the French are Oran, Dona, and Mostagan. The principal 
 inland town is Constantina, pop. 30.000. 
 
 The Measures, Weights, and Monies are chiefly those of France. The Algerine pataca, 
 or piastre of 24 tomins, is valued at 1 franc 86 cents, or Is. 6d. sterling. The Turkish pic used 
 in measuring cloth = 24J inches ; the Moorish pic, used for cotton and linen, = 18*4 inches. The 
 caffise of 16 tarries = 8| imperial bushels. The metalli of oil weighs 37 lbs. 6 oz. avoirdupois. 
 The metical — 73 grains troy ; and 100 rottoli = 119 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 The conquest of Algiers has relieved the Mediterranean from the dread of piracy ; though it will 
 be long before any other advantage can be derived from this achievement by France. The climate 
 is indeed good, and the soil rich ; but the inhabitants of the adjacent country are regardless of 
 treaties, strangers to the enjoyments of social life, addicted to plunder, and accustomed to consider 
 war as their profession. For some years rumours .prevailed that Louis Philippe was determined 
 to relieve his exchequer of the burden entailed by this colony ; but as some of the most formidable 
 obstacles to success have been removed, no doubt is now entertained that he will persevere in the 
 undertaking. (Russell's Darbary States, Edin. Cab. Lib. No. XVII.) See Algeria, in S 
 
 ALICANT. [Spain.] 
 
 ALIEN, in its original acceptation, is applied to any one born out of the domi- 
 nions of Great Britain. The disqualifications of aliens do not, however, apply to all 
 individuals so situated. By 7 Anno, c. 5, the children of all natural born subjects, 
 though they happen to be born beyond the liegcance of the crown, are deemed to 
 
ALK 13 ALK 
 
 be natural born subjects ; and in explanation, it is enacted by 4 Geo. II. c. 21, 
 § 2, that this privilege does not include the children of persons who, at the time of 
 the birth, were attainted, or liable to the penalties of treason. By 13 Geo. III. 
 c. 21, § 1, the benefit is extended to grandchildren of natural born subjects, *. e. 
 to the children of persons declared to be naturalized by these statutes. Aliens 
 cannot hold real property in the United Kingdom, but an alien may trade and 
 acquire property in goods, money, and other personal estate. " Also," say3 Sir 
 William Blackstone, " an alien may bring an action concerning personal property, 
 and may make a will, and dispose of his personal estate : not as in France, where 
 the king, at the death of an alien, is entitled to all he is worth by the droit d'aubaine 
 or jus albinatus, unless he has a peculiar exemption" (I. 372). This hard law 
 is now repealed in France, to the extent of allowing the representative of a foreigner 
 to succeed to his property, in so far as Frenchmen hold the same privilege in the 
 foreigner's native country {Code Civil, Liv. iii. Tit. i. ch. 2, art. 726). Alien enemies 
 can hold no property in the United Kingdom, and cannot pursue actions. " The 
 children of aliens," says Blackstone, " born here in England, are, generally speak- 
 ing, natural born subjects, and entitled to all the privileges of such, in which the 
 constitution of France differs from ours ; for there, by their jus albinatus, if a child 
 be born of foreign parents, it is an alien" (I. 374). By the later law of France, 
 however, children of foreign parents may become naturalized by claiming the 
 privilege in the course of a year following the attainment of majority, and 
 declaring their determination to reside permanently in France (Code Civil, Liv. 
 i. Tit. i. ch. 1, art. 9). The crown may grant to aliens letters of denization. A 
 denizen may " take lands by purchase or devise, which an alien may not, but 
 cannot take by inheritance : for his parent, through whom he must claim, being 
 an alien, had no heritable blood ; and, therefore, could convey none to the son. 
 And upon a like defect of hereditary blood, the issue of a denizen, born before 
 denization, cannot inherit to him ; but his issue born after may" (Blackstone, i. 374). 
 The rule in Scotland appears to be analogous. (Erskines Inst. iii. 10, § 10.) 
 The full right of citizenship can only be conferred by Act of Parliament. In 
 bills of naturalization, it is usual to insert a clause disabling the party from being 
 a Member of the legislature or of the Privy Council. By 13 Geo. II. c. 3, every 
 foreign seaman who, in time of war, serves two years on board an English 
 ship, by virtue of the King's Proclamation, is naturalized; and by statutes 13 
 Geo. II. c, 7 ; 20 Geo. II. c. 44 ; 22 Geo. II. c. 45 ; 2 Geo. III. c. 25, and 13 Geo. 
 III. c. 25, all foreign Protestants, upon their residing seven years in any of the 
 American colonies, without being absent two months at a time, and all suck 
 persons serving two years in a military capacity there, or being three years em- 
 ployed in the whale-fishery, without afterwards being more than one year absent 
 from the king's dominions ; and by 26 Geo. III. c. 50, §§ 24, 27, 28 ; and 28 Geo. 
 III. c. 20, § 15, all foreigners who have established themselves and families in 
 Britain, and carried on the southern whale-fishery, are naturalized as if by act of 
 naturalization. In Ireland, the Parliament passed a temporary act (14 and 15 
 Cha. II. c. 13) for naturalizing all aliens of the Protestant religion intending to 
 permanently with their families and property. By 7 & 8 Vict. c. 66, the 
 statutory disabilities of aliens were, in respect of property, greatly mitigated. 
 
 By 6 6c 7 Win. IV. c. 11, all aliens, on their arrival from abroad, must declare 
 their name and country to the chief officer of customs at the port of landing, and 
 show him their passport, with a view to their being registered, under penalty of 
 £2 ; and shipmasters must report all aliens brought over seas in their vessels, 
 under a penalty of £'20, and £10 additional for each alien on board. 
 
 ALKALIS, a class of chemical bodies characterized generally by their peculiar 
 hot, bitter, and caustic taste ; by their changing the colours of vegetable blues to 
 green, and yellows to brown ; and by their neutralizing acids, and forming with 
 them the class of compounds called salts. The principal alkalis are ammonia. 
 potash, and soda : an account of which, and such others as possess commercial 
 interest, will be given under their proper heads. The value of any alkali i3 deter- 
 mined by an alkalimeter, a graduated instrument which shows the quantity of acid 
 neutralized by a given weight of the sample, and hence the amount of pure alkali 
 contained in it. The alkalimeter at present used, is minutely described in Mr 
 Faraday's Chemical Manipulation. S 
 
 ALKANET (Fr. Orcanette. Ger. Orkancz-icurzel. It. Arganetla. Sp. Ar- 
 caneta), the root of a species of bugloss (Anchusa tinctoria), a native of the warmer 
 parts of Europe. It is of a dark red colour, and white within ; and imparts an 
 elegant tint to alcohol, wax, and to all unctuous substances. 
 
ALL 14 ALO 
 
 The colouring matter is confined to the bark, and the small roots are preferred, as these have 
 most bark in proportion to their bulk. Alkanet is produced in England ; but the best is imported 
 from near Montpellier in France, and from the Levant. 
 
 ALLIGATION, in commercial arithmetic, is a formula for ascertaining the 
 proportion of constituents or ingredients in a mixture. 
 
 I. To find what quantity of any number of ingredients, whose rates are given, will compose a 
 mixture of a given rate. Rule — 1. Write down the rates of the ingredients under each other. 
 2. Connect by a curved line, the rate of each ingredient, which is less than that of the mixture, 
 with one or any number of those that are greater, and each greater rate with one or any number 
 of those that are less. 3. Put the difference between the mixture rate, and that of each of the 
 ingredients, opposite the contrary rate with which it is linked. 4. Then if only one difference stand 
 against any rate, it will be the quantity belonging to that rate ; but if there be several, their sum 
 will be the quantity. 
 
 Example 2. What quantity of spirits at 17s. 
 18s. and 22s. per gallon, must be taken, so as 
 that the mixture may be worth 20s. the gallon. 
 
 Example 1. Wine at 9s. per gallon is to be 
 mixed with wine at 6s. per gallon ; required the 
 proportions so as to sell the mixture at 7s. per 
 gallon. 
 
 -/9\ . . . 1 at 9s. per gallon 
 
 7 \6/ ... Sat6s 
 
 That is, the wine at 9s. per gall, must be to 
 that at 6s., in the proportion of l to 2. 
 
 ( m 2 at 17s. per gallon. 
 
 20-? 22< . 3 + 2 = 5 at 22s 
 
 (.18) 2 at IBs 
 
 Ans. 2 gallons at 17s. ; 5 at 22s. ; and 2 at 18s. 
 
 II. When the whole composition is limited to a certain quantity. Rule. — Find an answer as 
 before, by linking ; then say as the sum of the quantities, or differences thus determined, is to the 
 given quantity, so is each ingredient found by linking, to the required quantity of each. 
 
 III. When one of the ingredients is limited to a certain quantity. Rule.— Take the difference 
 between each price and the mean rate as before ; then, as the difference of that ingredient whose 
 quantity is given is to the rest of the differences respectively, so is the quantity given to the 
 several quantities required. 
 
 In the same manner, questions of this kind may be worked when several of the ingredients are 
 limited to certain quantities, by finding first for one limit, and then for another. In general, 
 however, cases in alligation are best resolved by an analytical process, as they form what are called 
 indeterminate or unlimited problems, from their admitting of a variety of answers. [Averagk.] 
 
 ALLOWANCES. [Tare.] 
 
 ALLOY, in coinage, a certain proportion of harder metal, mixed with pure gold 
 and silver, in order to render them less flexible, and better adapted for general use. 
 
 ALLSPICE. [Pimento.] 
 
 ALMONDS (Du. Amandelen. Fr. Amandes. Ger. Mandeln. It. Mandole. 
 Por. Amendoas. Sp. Almendias), the kernel of the fruit of the almond tree 
 (Amygdalis communis), a native of Syria and Barbary, but now naturalized in the 
 south of Europe. Almonds are of an oblong compressed shape, nutty taste, and 
 are covered with a thick brown skin. There are two permanently distinct 
 varieties. — the sweet and the bitter; but many subvarieties are distinguished 
 in the places of growth. It is said that the eye can discover no difference 
 between the sweet and bitter almonds, nor between the trees which produce them ; 
 and it is asserted (though without probability) that the same tree, by culture,has been 
 made to bear both. Almonds are now little used in medicine ; the sweet, are a com- 
 mon article of the dessert ; the bitter, are used chiefly in cookiug to give a flavour 
 to other articles. Both become rancid by keeping. They are gathered in August 
 and September, but are not generally shipped till the middle of October. They 
 are imported into this country chiefly from Barbary, especially Mogadore, and 
 from Valencia, Alicant, and Malaga, in Spain ; small quantities are, besides, 
 brought from France, Portugal, and Italy. Bitter almonds are obtained almost 
 wholly from Barbary. The best sweet arc the Jordan variety, brought from 
 Malaga ; they are longer, flatter, less pointed at one end, and less round at the 
 other, and have a paler cuticle than the other kinds. 
 
 Prior to 1832, when the duty was reduced, the consumption of almonds was only about 3000 cwts. 
 annually ; but it is now 8000 cwts. In 1836, there were imported 17,370 cwts. ; re-exported, 8814 
 cwts. ; and entered for consumption, 8061 cwts., yielding of customs' revenue, £8101. The prices 
 in bond, per cwt., quoted in the London market in July 1839, were, Jordan, £'9 to £10 ; Valencia, 
 £4, 10s. ; Barbary, bitter, £2, 10s. 
 
 Customary Tares. — In the shell, 2-3d parts ; in baskets of li to 1 J cwt., 6 lbs. each ; in serons of 
 1J to 2 cwt., 12 lbs. each. 
 
 Almond Oil, a fat or greasy substance expressed from sweet and bitter almonds. Sp. gr. -915. 
 It is pale yellow, but becomes colourless when long exposed to light. It soon grows rancid, espe- 
 cially if in contact with oxygen. [Oil.] It is so plentiful, that 5J lbs. of almonds have yielded 
 1 lb. 6 oz. of oil by cold expression, and t lb. more on heating them. S 
 
 ALMUDE, a measure for liquids in various places. In Lisbon, it contains 3"G4 
 imp. galls. ; in Oporto, 5"61 do. ; in Faro, 4'08 do. ; and in Constantinople, P15 do. 
 
 ALOE, AMERICAN. [Maguey.] 
 
 ALOES (Fr. Aloes. Ger. It. & Sp.yf/o^. Pers. Sibbir), a bitter resinous juice, 
 extracted from the leaves of a succulent plant of the same name. It is used as a 
 
ALO 15 AMI 
 
 common purgative medicine. Three kinds are known to druggists, namelyy— 1. So- 
 cotrine, from the island of Socotra, is sometimes imported in chests from the Levant ; 
 it is the purest, though seldom to be found genuine in this country : the aloes 
 brought from the Cape Colony, and Melinda, are sometimes designated by the same 
 name, but they are much inferior in quality. 2d, Hepatic, or liver-coloured aloes, is 
 imported chiefly from Bombay in gourds ; a darker kind is brought from Barbadoes. 
 3d, Caballine, known by its rank smell, is used only for horses. These varieties of 
 aloes are said to differ only in purity, and it is probable that they may be ob- 
 tained, in some instances, from different species of the same plant. Socotrine aloes 
 is said to be obtained by only draining the leaves, after bein^ cut at their base : 
 Hepatic or Barbadoes aloes, by boiling or slight pressure ; and horse aloes seem to 
 be a coarse preparation from the dregs of the last. Those of best quality are glossy, 
 not very black, but brown ; when rubbed or cut, of a yellow colour ; compact, but 
 easy to break ; easily soluble ; of an unpleasant peculiar smell, and an extremely 
 bitter t 
 
 ALOE-WOOD (Fr. Bois d' Aloes. Ger. Aloe-holz. Lat. Lignum Aloes), called 
 
 I /lo-Aloes or Calambac, is procured from the interior part of the trunk of a 
 
 large tree [Aquilaria, Agallochia of Roxburgh), growing in some parts of Assam, 
 
 Cochin, and China. It is of a dark colour, and is saturated with a peculiar aromatic 
 
 ruinous matter, which is highly esteemed by eastern nations. This substance is 
 
 be the produce of disease, as the sound wood is white and inodorous. It is 
 
 - a stimulating medicine, as well as an ingredient in incense. (Ainslie's 
 
 Materia Indira.} 
 
 ALQUEIRE, a corn measure in Portugal and Brazil. 100 alqueires of Lisbon 
 = 37 i imp. bushels ; and 100 alqueires of Maranhani = 124^ imp. bushels. 
 
 ALUM (Arab. Shebb. Du. Aluin. Fr. Alitn. Ger. Alaun. It.Alhnne. Por. 
 Fedrah'ume. Rus. Kicassu. Sp. Alumbre), an earthy salt extensively used in the 
 arts. It is found native only in small quantities ; but it has long been produced 
 artificially. The basis of common alum is sulphate of alumina, combined with 
 sulphate of potash. It is brittle, colourless, iuodorons, has a sweetish astringent 
 taste, and crystallizes generally in transparent octahedrons. Sp. gr. 173. Water 
 at 60° Fahren. dissolves about l-15th, and at -212°, about 3-4ths of its weight of alum. 
 Its contamination with iron may be detected by nut-gall, or prussiate of potash ; 
 the last will give solution of alum a blue tint if it contain iron. The most extensive 
 alum-works in Britain are at Hurlett and Campsie, near Glasgow, where it is 
 prepared from slaty-clay, obtained from the shales of old coal-pits. It is also pre- 
 pared extensively at Whitby, from a stratum of alum slate, said to extend 29 miles. 
 But the British alum is inferior to the Roch alum imported from Smyrna, and also 
 to the Roman alum, manufactured at La Tolfa, near Home. This last is the purest 
 of all, and is generally distinguished by being mixed with a little reddish powdery 
 matter. Alum is also extensively produced in China, from whence it is exported 
 to India. This salt is much used in dyeing and calico-printing, in consequence of 
 the attraction of its base for colouring matter. It is als,o used in lake colours, 
 leather dressing, pasting paper, clarifying liquors, by candlemakers to harden and 
 whiten the tallow, &c. In medicine, "it is employed as an astringent. 
 
 The price of British alum was lately quoted at Us. per cwt., and Roch, at 24s. to 26s. per cwt. 
 
 Customary Tare, in casks, 10 to 12 per cent. S 
 
 AMADOU. [Agaric] 
 
 AMALGAM, a name applied to the combinations of mercury with other metals, 
 
 AMAZON-STONE, a crystallized variety of felspar, of a beautiful apple-green 
 colour. Localities, Ural Mountains and South America. 
 
 AMBER (Fr. Succin. Ger. Bernstein. It.Ambragialla. 1.3.t. Succinum elect rum. 
 Rus. Jantar. Sp. Ambar), a solid, brittle, carbonaceous substance, found in beds of 
 lignite, in various countries, more particularly on the Adriatic and Sicilian shores, 
 and in Prussia, near the seacoast, between Memel and Dantzic, where there are 
 regular mines of it. It is discovered generally in nodules, or small pieces of a white, 
 yellow, or brown colour, and very commonly translucent. When bruised, it exhales 
 a slight aromatic odour. It is susceptible of a good polish, and when rubbed it 
 becomes electrical. Sp. gr. P07. It is sometimes adulterated with copal or other 
 . which are detected by their different appearance, and by not exhaling the 
 proper odour when burned. The origin of amber is uncertain ; Mr Phillips states 
 that it is commonly considered to be a fossil resin. It is imported into this country 
 chiefly from the Baltic, and is used in varnishes, as well as for ornamental purposes 
 in the manufacture of necklaces, &c. In oriental commerce, it is carried into India 
 from Japan, Madagascar, and the Philippines. {Ainslie's Materia Indica). 
 
AMB 16 AM?.I 
 
 AMBERGRIS (Fr. Ambergris. Ger. Ambra. It. Ambracani. Lat. Ambra 
 
 frisea. Sp. & Por. Ambargris), a substance found principally in warm climates, 
 oating on the sea, or thrown on the shore ; it is said to be a morbid product of 
 the spermaceti -whale. It is generally procured in small fragments, but sometimes in 
 masses weighing upwards of 100 lbs. When good, it is solid, opaque, of a bright gray 
 colour, which is darkest externally, and intermixed with yellow or reddish streaks. 
 It has a fragrant and peculiar odour when heated or rubbed. Sp. gr. about '914. 
 The best comes from Madagascar, Surinam, and Java. It is used as a perfume. 
 It usually sells in London, at from 5s. to lis. per oz. This high price leads to 
 frequent adulteration of the commodity. S 
 
 AMBOYNA. [East Indian Islands.] 
 
 AMBO YN A, or LINGOA WOOD, a fancy wood of various colours, and having 
 the shades generally small. It is much used in cabinet-work, and is imported from 
 Ceram and Amboyna, in logs of about 2 feet wide. 
 
 AMETHYST (Fr. Amethyste. Ger. Ametyst. It. Amatista. Por. & Sp. 
 Ametisto), a precious stone of a purplish violet colour, and great brilliancy. It is 
 of two kinds, the oriental and common. Of these, the oriental, which is a species 
 of sapphire, is by far the most valuable. The common or occidental amethyst is 
 merely a coloured variety of quartz, or rock crystal, and is in beauty, lustre, and 
 hardness, much inferior to the oriental amethyst. It occurs crystallized, in rounded 
 pieces, and in massive portions ; but its primary form, like that of quartz, is a 
 slightly obtuse rhomboid. It is most valuable when large, high coloured, and with- 
 out flaws. It is found in India, Germany, Sweden, and Spain, but is imported into 
 this country chiefly from Brazil. [Sapphire.] 
 
 AMIANTHUS. [Asbestos.] 
 
 AMMONIA, volatile alkali, or spirits of hartshorn, a pungent volatile substance, 
 of great importance and extensive use, which is formed during the putrefactive 
 fermentation of animal matter. When pure, it is a gaseous body, composed of 
 three equivalents of hydrogen and one of azote ; sp. gr. *590 ; but in medicine and 
 the arts, it is generally used either in solution in water, or in combination with 
 other substances. 
 
 a Liquid Ammonia, or Hartshorn, is an aqueous solution of ammonia, prepared 
 either by passing the gas as it is formed directly into water, or by distillation from 
 sal-ammoniac, burnt bone, and water. In the former case, the sp. gr. is *880, in the 
 latter '954. It is limpid, colourless, very volatile, has a pungent smell, and a caustic 
 taste ; and is one of the most useful stimulants in the materia medica. 
 
 Acetate of Ammonia, or Spirit of Mindererus, is prepared by adding Sesqui- 
 carbonate of ammonia, to dilute acetic acid. It has a sweetish bitter taste ; and is 
 employed externally as a refrigerant, and internally as a diaphoretic. 
 
 Carbonates of Ammonia. — The Carbonate of Ammonia may be obtained by 
 uniting one volume of carbonic acid gas with two volumes of ammonial gas. It is a 
 dry, white, volatile powder, and is used as a stimulant in a preparation called 
 Spirit of Sal Volatile. The Sesqui-carbonate of Ammonia is obtained by sublima- 
 tion from a mixture of muriate or sulphate of ammonia and chalk, and usually 
 occurs in cakes, broken out of the subliming vessel. When fresh, it is of a crys- 
 talline texture, semi-transparent, and hard, odour pungent, and taste penetrating. 
 It is extensively used in cnemical preparations. In medicine, it is employed as a 
 stimulant, and is usually called smelling-salts. It is also usea instead of yeast, in 
 making some kinds of bread. 
 
 Muriate of Ammonia, or Sal- Ammoniac (Fr. Sel Ammoniac. Ger. Salmiak. It. 
 Sale Ammoniaco. Rus. Naschatur), was originally procured from Egypt, where it 
 was made from the soot of camel's dung. It is now, however, prepared in abund- 
 ance in this country, by decomposition of the ammonial fluid given off during the 
 preparation of coal-gas ; also, by a complicated process, from bones and other refuse 
 of animal substances containing its ingredients. It is likewise found native at Etna 
 and Vesuvius, in some of the Tuscan Lakes, and in Persia, Bucharia, &c. As gene- 
 rally obtained, it is in large cakes of a semi-circular form, translucent and colour- 
 less, with a sharp saline taste, but no smell. Sal-ammoniac is extensively employed 
 in tne arts. It is used in preparing aqua regia, — in soldering some of the metals, — 
 in tinning iron and copper,— -in the preparing of dyes ; also in various chemical 
 manufactures. It is exported in considerable quantities to Russia and other parts 
 of the Continent, and to the United States. 
 
 AMMONIACUM(Arab./<VsZ&0oA;. Fr. Gomme Ammoniaqtie. Ger. Ammoniack), 
 a gum resin, procured, according to some authorities, from the Heracleum gummi- 
 ferum, but by others referred to the Ferula Orientalis. It has rather a heavy smell, 
 
AMP 17 ANG 
 
 and a bitter street taste. It is in agglutinated masses of tears, or in separate dry 
 drops, of a yellowish white colour. Sp. gr. 1"207. That which is decidedly gutti- 
 form,of a clear and deep buff colour externally, paler within, and free from impurities, 
 i- must esteemed. It is produced in Persia, Abyssinia, and other places, but is 
 imparted into the United Kingdom from India. It is used in medicine as a stimu- 
 lant ; and in the arts, to form the diamond cement employed to join pieces of broken 
 glass or porcelain. 
 
 AMPHORA. [Anfora.] 
 
 AMSTERDAM. [Holland.] 
 
 ANCHOR (Fr. Ancre. Ger. Anker. It. Ancora. Sp. Ancla), a heavy hooked 
 iron instrument for fixing a vessel in a harbour or road. Large ships carry four 
 principal anchors, the sheet, best bower, small bower, and spare a?ichors ; and two 
 small ones besides, for particular purposes, namely, the stream and kedge. The 
 form of this well-known instrument remained almost unchanged from a very early 
 period, until of late years, when more complex methods of fabrication have been 
 partially introduced. (Lardner's Cyclopedia. Manufactures in Metal, v. i. p. 93.) 
 Anchors are extensively manufactured in the United Kingdom ; and nearly 2500 
 tons are annually exported to all parts of the world. S 
 
 ANCHORAGE, a duty paid for the liberty of anchoring in a port. It means 
 also a ship's anchoring ground. 
 
 ANCHOVY (Fr. Anchois. It. Acciugd), a small fish (Engraulus encrasicholus, 
 Cuvier), about the size of a finger,ofablueish-brown colour on the back, and silvery 
 white on the belly. It abounds in the Mediterranean, particularly off Gorgona, near 
 Leghorn, where it is taken in May, June, and July. It is also found on the coasts 
 of France and Portugal, and occasionally on the shores of England. After being 
 caught, and the heads and entrails separated, the bodies are salted and packed in 
 small barrels, in which, if the air be excluded, they will keep for a considerable 
 time. Genuine anchovies are small and firm, round backed, fibre red, with skin of 
 a silvery white. Those that are dark brown without, with flabby pale coloured 
 flesh, and tapering much towards the tail, are commonly Sardines, an inferior 
 species, frequently substituted for, or mixed with, the true kind. They are used 
 as a condiment. About 140,000 lbs. are annually imported. 
 
 Customary Tare, in barrels of 16 lbs., 6 lbs. each. 
 
 ANFORA, or AMPHORA, a Venetian liquid measure = 114 imp. galls, nearly. 
 
 The ancient Roman amphora of 2 urna?, contained about 6*39 imp. galls. ; and the ancient Greek 
 amphora or amphoreus of 6 choi, was equal to 3-61 imp. galls, nearly. ( Paucton't Metrologie.) 
 
 ANGEL, an ancient English gold coin, first issued in 1465, by Edward IV., when 
 it was valued at 6s. 8d. In the latter part of Henry VIII.'s reign, its value was 
 raised to 8s. ; and in the reign of Mary to 10s. ; at which rate it was valued until 
 the close of Charles I.'s reign ; after which it was no longer coined. 
 
 The angeM or half angel of 3s. 4d., was anciently a very common coin ; so much so, that forty 
 pence became a proverbial expression for a small wager {Shakspeare's Henry VIII.) ; and it still 
 remains the legal and established fee in many offices. 
 
 ANGELICA (Fr. Angelique), a large umbelliferous plant common in Britain, 
 all whose parts have a fragrant aromatic smell, and a pleasant bitter taste. The 
 A. Arcliangelica, a biennial, is generally cultivated in gardens for the use of 
 confectioners, by whom a sweetmeat is made of the stalks. The roots are used in 
 medicine, for which purpose, however, those from Spain and Bohemia are preferred. 
 The common wild kind {A. sylvestris, a perennial) possesses properties similar to 
 the other, but is much weaker. {Duncan's Dispensatory.) 
 
 Customary Tare in casks, 15 per cent. 
 
 ANGOLA extends from about lat. 1° to 12° S. along the W. coast of Africa ; and 
 comprehends the districts of Angola Proper, Loango, Congo, and Benguela. The 
 whole is claimed by the Portuguese, but their settlements are chiefly confined to the 
 coast. The residence of the governor is at St Paul de Loando ; pop. 8000. 
 
 This coast is very imperfectly known, as foreign intercourse is prohibited by the Portuguese. 
 It appears to be certain, however, that the principal, or rather the sole object for which it ia 
 resorted to, is the trade in slaves, of whom, from 18,000 to 20,000 are said, by Mr Martin, to bo 
 annually exported, chiefly to Brazil. For the protection of this infamous traffic, a considerable 
 military force is maintained on the coast, composed mostly of convicts. 
 
 ANGOSTURA, or CUSPARIA BARK, in the materia medica, is a valuable 
 tonic, obtained from the stem and branches of a species of Galipea, — the former being 
 in flat, and the latter in quilled pieces. It breaks with a short and resinous frac- 
 ture, is covered with an ash-coloured epidermis, is internally smooth, and of a dull 
 brownish-yellow colour. Its odour is rather nauseous and fishy, and it has a 
 strong bitter flavour, accompanied by a peculiar and somewhat aromatic pungency. 
 
ANI 18 ANN 
 
 It is found in the warmer parts of South America, especially in the neighbourhood 
 of Angostura in Colombia. 
 
 A spurious and poisonous bark is sometimes met with under the name of angos- 
 tura. " This is more intensely bitter, and in shorter and less regular pieces than 
 the genuine ; internally, it is nearly black, and externally, covered with a rough 
 rust-coloured epidermis." {Branded Pharmacy.) 
 
 ANIMI, improperly called gum animi, is a resin which exudes from a large tree 
 (Hymencea) growing in South America. It is of a pale brownish-yellow colour, 
 and is met with partly in transparent and somewhat unctuous grains or tears, and 
 partly in larger brittle masses. It often contains a great many insects. Sp. gr. 
 about 1'055. In commerce it is distinguished as " washed" and " scraped," — the 
 latter being the most valued. This resin is extensively used by varnish-makers. S 
 
 ANISEED is the product of an annual umbelliferous plant, a native of Egypt, 
 but cultivated in various parts of Europe. It has an aromatic smell, and a 
 warm sweetish taste. The small compact seed imported from Spain, is usually 
 preferred to the lighter and larger kind, which is the growth of this country. It 
 is an article of the materia medica. 
 
 Oil of Aniseed isa volatile fluid, obtained from the seeds by distillation ; it concretes at about 50°, 
 which is its leading character. It is in general imported for pharmaceutical use, from Spain ; and 
 is consumed chiefly in the preparation of horse medicines. 
 
 ANKER, a liquid measure in various places. The English anker contains 10 
 wine gallons, or 83 imp. galls. The Scottish anker of 20 Scottish pints, equal 
 about 1\ imp. galls. In Copenhagen, the anker contains about 8£ imp. galls. ; in 
 Prussia, 1\ ; in Amsterdam, Riga, and Pernau, 8| ; in Revel, 9| j and in Rostock, 
 nearly 8 imp. galls. 
 
 ANNA, an Indian money of account, equal to the 16th part of a rupee, or about 
 l^d. sterling ; also a small weight. 
 
 ANNAM, an empire in the eastern peninsula of India ; bounded N. by China, 
 E. and S. by the Gulf of Tonquin and Chinese Sea ; and W. by Siam. It was esta- 
 blished about the beginning of the present century, and comprises the kingdoms 
 of Cochin-China, Tonquin, Kamboja, Chiampa, Bao or Boatan, and part of Laos. 
 Area vaguely estimated at 98,000 square miles ; and population at 6,000,000. The 
 capital, Hue, is one of the strongest fortified towns in Asia ; pop. 100,000. The 
 government is a despotic monarchy, with a sort of council composed of the officers 
 of state : the king is nominally a vassal of China. 
 
 The two extremities of the empire, Kamboja on the S. and Tonquin on the N., consist chiefly 
 of low alluvial tracts, little elevated above the level of the sea ; while the central part, orCocbm- 
 China, is generally mountainous, with here and there valleys of considerable extent and fertility. 
 A material diversity of climate is found to obtain throughout the empire, resulting as well from 
 physical aspect as from geographical situation. In the northern and southern provinces, the 
 seasons observe the same course as in Malabar and Bengal, but in Cochin-China a high range of 
 mountains produces the same effect as the central range of Hindostan, in reversing the order of 
 seasons ; so that a dry season prevails during the south-west, and a wet one during the north-east 
 monsoon, — the rains continuing from October till March. The climate is in general salubrious. 
 The metallic productions are inconsiderable, except in Tonquin, which abounds both in the useful 
 and precious metals. The mines are worked entirely by Chinese, and furnish employment, accord- 
 ing to Mr Crawfurd, to about 25,000. The yearly produce of the silver mines is stated at about 
 213,600 ounces. The vegetable species differ little from those in similar latitudes in other parts 
 of India. Tea and silk are produced in the northern provinces ; but, like all other productions 
 of the country demanding the exercise of skill and intelligence, greatly inferior to those of China. 
 Certain descriptions of cinnamon, cardamums, eagle-wood, and other trifling articles, are subject 
 to the monopoly of the government. The domestic traffic of the country is chiefly carried on by 
 the great rivers of Kamboja and Tonquin, or by the seacoast. 
 
 The foreign trade is greatly inferior to that of Siam. It is carried on chiefly with that country, 
 China, and the British ports within the Straits of Malacca. The intercourse with China is partly by 
 sea, and partly by land with the provinces adjoining Tonquin ; the exports consist principally of 
 cardamums, areca-nut, sugar, cinnamon, salt, salt fish, rice, fancy woods, varnish, eagle-wood, 
 ebony, cotton, stick-lac, ivory, peltry, hides and horns, deers' sinews, and ornamental feathers, 
 with a variety of dyeing drugs and gold and silver bullion from Tonquin ; the imports are teas, 
 wrought silks, Chinese and British manufactures, and Bengal opium. The intercourse with Siam 
 is entirely conducted in vessels belonging to the Siamese port of Bankok. The trade with the 
 British ports has chiefly originated since the establishment of Singapore in 1819; the exports 
 are confined to rice, salt, sugar, raw silk, with some minor commodities ; the imports are opium, 
 catechu for the consumption of the Kambojans, iron taken to Saigon only, fire-arms, with some 
 British woollens and white cotton goods. The direct intercourse with Europeans is inconsiderable ; 
 the greater part of the domestic, and almost the whole of the foreign commerce, is in the hands 
 of the Chinese, who are both the merchants and mariners of the empire. The seaports are 
 numerous, and in general good. The principal are Saigon, in Kamboja ; Faifo and Hue, in Cochin- 
 China ; and Cachao, in Tonquin. The latter, situate in lat. 22° 36' Is., and long. 105° 11' E., pop. 
 150,000, may be regarded as the commercial capital of the empire. 
 
 Measures and Weights.— The ordinary weights are those of China. At Hue and Faifo, however, 
 
ANN 
 
 19 
 
 ANN 
 
 the picul = 112 catties ; and at Saigon, a picul of sugar = 1 i picul, or 150 catties. Rice is sold by 
 the bag of 50 catties, though commonly 2 catties short of this amount. 
 
 Money. — The common money of account is the quan of 10 mas, or GOO sapeks. The only coin is 
 the sapek, which is made of zinc ; and the 600 forming a quan are commonly strung upon a filament 
 of ratan, and in this manner kept for use; forming a bulky and most inconvenient currency. 
 Ingots of gold and silver, stamped by the government, though current, are not considered coin. 
 The Spanish dollar passes in Cochin-Cbina, and is valued at 1£ quan by the government. 
 
 Duties. — No import duties are levied ; and the only article prohibited is opium, which, however, 
 is readily sold by the Chinese. An export duty of 5 per cent, is levied on cardamums, pepper, 
 cinnamon, ivory, rhinoceros' horns, esculent nests, sapan wood, ebony, and red wood; and on 
 timber and cordage 10 per cent. The exportation of coin, bullion, copper, agila wood, rice, and 
 salt is contraband ; but the prohibition is rather nominal than real ; and the exportation of rice 
 and salt is allowed by license. The chief port charge is a duty on the measurement of the vessel, 
 the amount of whichis lowest at the capital, and highest at Saigon,— an absurd distinction intended 
 to counterbalance the natural disadvantages of the northern ports, and place them on an equality 
 with the fine harbour of Saigon. (Craicfurd's Siam and Cochin- China.) 
 
 ANNATTO, or ARNOTTO (Du. Orleaan, Rokoe. Fr. Rocou. Ger. Orlean. 
 It. Oriana. Por. Oriana), a reddish dye, is an inspissated extract from the pellicles 
 of the seeds of the Bixa Orellana, a native of the Malayan archipelago. It is Drought 
 to this country from Brazil and Guiana, but it is also to be found in the East and 
 West Indies. It is used by dyers for giving more or less of an orange cast to the 
 simple yellows, — as an ingredient in varnishes, — and for colouring cheese. Annatto 
 is moderately hard, of a brown colour on the outside, and a dull red within. There 
 are two kinds. Flag or Cake annatto, in cakes of about two or three pounds 
 weight each, is generally enveloped in large flag leaves. Roll annatto. a more 
 concentrated extract, is brought in small rolls of a few ounces weight, ana contains 
 a larger proportion of colouring matter than the former. This is the kind used 
 chiefly in dairies. S 
 
 The consumption of annatto has much increased of late years, partly from a great abatement of 
 the duty in 1832. In 1836, the quantity entered for home consumption was 233.987 lbs. 
 
 ANNUITY, any fixed sum of money which is payable either yearly or in given 
 portions at stated periods of the year. Annuities are of two kinds : first those called 
 Certain, payable during a fixed term of years, the value of which is founded upon 
 the operation of compound interest ; and Annuities on Lives, in which the operation 
 of compound interest is combined with the chances affecting the duration ot human 
 life. 
 
 1. Annuities Certain for terms of years are currently sold by government, and 
 by many of the insurance companies. Their value fluctuates with the market rate 
 of interest ; and the price of those sold by government, as well as by other parties, 
 is generally regulated by the current rate of 3 per cent, stock ; — the sum sunk in 
 the purchase of an annuity producing a smaller, or a larger return, according as the 
 
 ?rice of stock is high or low. Thus, supposing 3 per cent, stock to be at par, or 
 00, — the rate of interest derived from investing money therein, being then only 
 3 per cent., — a sum of £100 sunk in the purchase of an annuity from government 
 for 20 years, would purchase only £6, 13s. 8d. per annum ; but if the 3 per cents, 
 fall to 80, they then yield a return of 3^ per cent, interest for every £100 invested 
 in them ; and the same sum will purchase an annuity for 20 years of £7, 3s. The 
 following table shows the rates at which the government annuities may be pur- 
 chased at the common prices of stock : — 
 
 Annuities for Terms of Years which £100 (Money) will purchase, when the 
 3 per cent. Stock, ex dividend, is at the following prices : — 
 
 
 £y9 3 6 £91 12 1 £90 4 
 
 6 £88 17 9 
 
 £87 11 10 
 
 £8ti 6 7 
 £87 11 10 
 
 £83 2 2 
 £86 6 7 
 
 £79 9 5 
 £80 10 9 
 
 N'aof 
 
 £100 16 10 £93 6 £91 12 
 
 1 
 
 £90 4 6 
 
 £88 17 9 
 
 Years. 
 
 Rate, 
 
 Rate, 
 
 Rate 
 
 
 Hate, 
 
 Rate, 
 
 Rate, 
 
 Rate, 
 
 Rate, 
 
 
 £3 per ct. 
 
 £3,5s.p.ct. 
 
 £3,6s.p 
 
 ct. 
 
 £3,7s.p.ct. 
 
 £5,8s.p. ct. 
 
 £5,9s.p.ct. 
 
 £3,10s.p.ct. 
 
 £5,15s.p.ct. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 (1. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 10 
 
 11 12 11 
 
 11 15 10 
 
 11 16 
 
 5 
 
 11 17 
 
 11 17 6 
 
 11 18 2 
 
 11 18 9 
 
 12 1 8 
 
 15 
 
 8 6 6 
 
 8 9 6 
 
 8 10 
 
 
 
 8 10 8 
 
 8 11 3 
 
 8 11 10 
 
 8 12 6 
 
 8 15 6 
 
 20 
 
 6 13 8 
 
 6 16 9 
 
 6 17 
 
 4 
 
 6 18 
 
 6 18 6 
 
 6 19 3 
 
 6 19 10 
 
 7 3 
 
 25 
 
 5 14 3 
 
 5 17 5 
 
 5 18 
 
 1 
 
 5 18 9 
 
 5 19 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 8 
 
 6 3 11 
 
 30 
 
 5 1 6 
 
 5 4 10 
 
 5 5 
 
 r, 
 
 5 6 2 
 
 5 6 10 
 
 5 7 6 
 
 5 8 2 
 
 5 11 7 
 
 35 
 
 4 12 8 
 
 4 16 1 
 
 4 16 
 
 8 
 
 4 17 5 
 
 4 18 1 
 
 4 18 10 
 
 4 19 6 
 
 5 3 1 
 
 40 
 
 4 6 2 
 
 4 9 8 
 
 4 10 
 
 5 
 
 4 11 1 
 
 4 11 10 
 
 4 12 6 
 
 4 13 3 
 
 4 16 11 
 
 45 
 
 4 1 3 
 
 4 4 11 
 
 4 5 
 
 7 
 
 4 6 4 
 
 4 7 1 
 
 4 7 9 
 
 4 8 7 
 
 4 12 4 
 
 50 
 
 3 17 5 
 
 4 1 2 
 
 4 1 
 
 11 
 
 4 2 8 
 
 4 3 5 
 
 4 4 2 
 
 4 5 
 
 4 8 10 
 
 60 
 
 3 12 
 
 3 16 
 
 3 16 
 
 9 
 
 3 17 6 
 
 3 18 3 
 
 3 19 2 
 
 3 19 11 
 
 4 4 
 
 70 
 
 3 8 6 
 
 3 12 7 
 
 3 13 
 
 5 
 
 3 14 2 
 
 3 15 1 
 
 3 15 11 
 
 3 16 9 
 
 4 1 
 
 80 
 
 3 6 1 
 
 3 10 4 
 
 3 11 
 
 1 
 
 3 12 O 
 
 3 12 11 
 
 3 13 8 
 
 3 14 8 
 
 3 19 
 
 90 
 
 3 4 4 
 
 3 8 9 
 
 3 9 
 
 7 
 
 3 10 6 
 
 3 11 5 
 
 3 12 3 
 
 3 13 2 
 
 3 17 9 
 
 100 
 
 3 3 2 
 
 3 7 8 
 
 3 8 
 
 7 
 
 3 9 5 
 
 3 10 4 
 
 3 11 4 
 
 3 12 3 
 
 3 16 10 
 
ANN 
 
 20 
 
 ANN 
 
 2. Annuities on Lives arc of different kinds, according as they aro made to depend 
 upon single lives, joint-lives, or upon lives subject to particular contingencies. 
 They are, as well as the former class, currently sold by government, and also by 
 insurance companies. Their value of course fluctuates with the market-rate of 
 interest ; but is mainly dependent upon the age of the nominee ; being highest 
 when the expectancy of life is greatest, and decreasing gradually as age advances. 
 Of late years also, a distinction has been made between the sexes, as most obser- 
 vations unite in confirming the fact, that on the average females live longer than 
 males. The following table shows the rates at which annuities on single lives 
 are at present granted by government : — 
 
 Life Annuities, which £100 (Money) will purchase when the 3 per cent. Stock, 
 ex dividend, is at the following prices : — 
 
 £85, 2s. 2d., and un-f£79, 9s. .5d., and un- 
 der £86, 6s. 7d., the der £80, 10s. 9d., the 
 rate of interest being rate of interest being 
 £3, 10s. per cent. £3, 15s. per cent. 
 
 Age of 
 
 Nomi- 
 
 25 
 
 75 
 
 80&up. 
 
 £99, 3s. 6d. and under'£91, 12s. Id., and un 
 
 £100, 16s. 10d., the 
 rate of interest being 
 £3 per cent. 
 
 5 17 
 
 6 7 
 
 7 2 
 
 8 2 
 
 9 5 
 11 1 
 13 9 
 16 18 
 23 16 
 
 13 
 6 4 
 
 6 18 
 
 7 19 
 9 8 
 
 11 11 
 14 11 
 18 9 
 
 der £93, Os. 6d., the 
 rate of interest being 
 £3, 5s. per cent. 
 
 Male. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 4 17 
 
 5 1 
 
 4 3 
 
 8 1 
 13 6 
 
 11 
 11 3 
 
 6 6 
 
 8 5 
 
 9 9 
 11 4 
 13 13 
 17 2 
 24 
 
 Female. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 11 2 
 13 10 
 16 9 
 
 8 2 
 
 9 12 
 11 15 
 14 15 
 
 18 13 10 
 
 Male. 
 
 s. d. 
 1 6 
 
 5 10 
 
 8 6 
 
 12 1 
 17 5 
 
 4 10 
 15 1 
 10 5 
 
 9 10 
 
 13 4 
 8 10 
 
 17 4 
 
 6 1 
 
 5 
 
 Female. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 4 15 6 
 
 4 18 
 
 5 11 
 5-4 7 
 5 9 2 
 
 5 14 5 
 
 6 1 8 
 6 11 
 7 
 
 8 6 
 
 9 16 
 11 19 
 14 19 
 18 18 
 
 6 4 
 
 6 19 
 
 7 14 
 
 8 13 10 
 
 9 17 3 
 11 12 11 
 14 1 4 
 17 10 1 
 24 9 3 
 
 Female. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 4 19 9 
 
 5 2 3 
 5 5 2 
 5 8 9 
 5 13 3 
 
 5 18 5 
 
 6 5 6 
 
 6 15 6 
 
 7 10 1 
 
 8 10 6 
 10 4 
 12 3 4 
 15 3 8 
 19 2 3 
 
 These annuities are payable half yearly, and are transferable ; and upon the death 
 of any nominee, a sum equal to one-fourth part of the annuity, besides arrears, will 
 be payable to those entitled thereto, or their executors, provided the same shall bo 
 claimed within two years. They are sold at the National Debt Office ; where 
 tables may be obtained showing the values corresponding to all ages, and fluctua- 
 tions of stock. Annuities on joint-lives, and for deferred periods, may be purchased 
 on similar terms. 
 
 The annuities granted by insurance companies are in some cases based upon the 
 Northampton table ; in others, upon the Carlisle table, the Government tables, or 
 some modification of them. [Interest and Annuities.] 
 
 In considering a life-annuity as a subject of commerce, it must be kept in 
 view that it is susceptible of two different market prices, according as it is the 
 purchaser or seller of the annuity that goes to market. The values stated above 
 are applicable solely to the case of a party wishing to purchase an annuity. A 
 party possessed of one on his own life, or on that of any other, wishing to sell, must 
 be content to accept of a great deal less than its full value ; as the contingent 
 nature of the security, the difficulty of employing profitably capital repaid in small 
 instalments, and other circumstances, have always depreciated the value of life- 
 annuities, when viewed as mere objects of investment. The price at different 
 periods depends upon the state of the money-market : but in general, a person who 
 invests money in the purchase of annuities, demands as much as is calculated to 
 replace the capital sum advanced by him, with interest considerably higher than 
 the ordinary rate ; formerly 8, 10, or 12 per cent, was charged ; at present it is 
 about 6 per cent. There are thus two market prices for annuities, depending upon 
 the circumstances and necessities of the party going to market. In the first case, 
 the purchaser of the annuity gets his money returned, making allowance for the 
 chances of life, with interest at 3 per cent, or a little more ; while the person who 
 is forced to sell his annuity must be content to accept of such a price as will make 
 a return to the money-dealer of about 6 per cent., exclusive of casualties. [Funds. 
 Interest and Annuities. Reversions.] 
 
 Under the legacy act, 36 Geo. III. c. 52, annuities are valued by the Northampton table, at 4 
 per cent. 
 Redeemable Annuities are those which are redeemable on certain terms by the granter,— as by 
 
ANT 21 APP 
 
 repayment of the consideration-money. Life annuities being attended with risk, are not within the 
 roach of the usury laws, and are therefore used by landed proprietors, and others having a limited 
 interest in their property, to evade them, — more especially when the market-rate of interest exceeds 
 the legal rate. During the late war, the most exorbitant terms were frequently exacted for loans 
 on annuity ; and certain formalities in their creation were in consequence introduced by the act 
 53 Geo. III. c. 141 (explained by 3 Geo. IV. c. 92 ; and 7 Geo. IV. c. 75). By this statute 
 annuity-bonds or instruments granted for money in loan, must be enrolled in Chancery within 30 
 days after their execution : it does not, however, extend to Scotland or Ireland. 
 
 ANTHAL, a Hungarian wine measure = 11& imperial gallons. 
 
 ANTHRACITE is a mineral charcoal, black, light, and often with a shining 
 surface, whence it is named glance coal. It is also called blind coal from its burn- 
 ing without flame. Anthracite is found in many of our coal-mines, but was little 
 worked until lately, when its value became known in South Wales, where it is em- 
 ployed for smelting iron. In the United States it is used extensively, being burned 
 in peculiar grates adapted to its difficult combustion. 
 
 ANTIGUA. [West Indies.] 
 
 ANTIMONY {Fr. Antimoine. Ger. Spiesglanz. Mai. Soormah. Tam. Anjana 
 Kalloo), a metal extensively used in medicine ; and in the arts employed in the 
 composition of printing types, music-plates, &c. The metallic ore of commerce 
 consists of sulphur and other impurities combined with the pure metal. This ore 
 is found abundantly at Rosenau, in Hungary, and in other parts of Europe ; but 
 is imported into this country chiefly from the Malayan Archipelago. It is generally 
 of a lead-gray colour, possessing considerable splendour, and is met with compact, 
 — in acicular crystals, — and in rhombic prisms of considerable size, and variously 
 modified. Crude antimony is the name given in commerce to the sulphuret of the 
 metal, after being separated from the impurities of the ore, by fusion, and a species 
 of filtration. It is usually in the form of loaves, of a dark-gray colour, the good- 
 ness of which is estimated from their compactness and weight, the largeness and 
 distinctness of the striae, and from their being entirely vaporizable by heat. 
 Regulus of antimony, the pure metal after being separated from the sulphur, is com- 
 monly of a dusky-white colour, very brittle, and of a scaly texture. Sp. gr. about 6'8. 
 
 ANTWERP. [Belgium.] 
 
 APPLE (Fr. Pomme. Ger. Apfel), the well-known fruit of the pyrus malus, is 
 distinguished as being at once the most brisk and refreshing of the orchard fruits 
 of the colder climates. It is also the most generally cultivated, as it remains the 
 longest in season, and is used in the greatest number of ways. Apples, when ripe, 
 yield easily to the pressure of the finger at the stalk-end of the fruit. The best for 
 table are the Golden and Ribston Pippins, and for storing for kitchen-use, the 
 Yorkshire Green and Stock Ledingtons. The Catalogue of the Horticultural Society 
 of London, however, enumerates more than 1*200 varieties. The chief localities of 
 this fruit in Britain, are the Cider districts in England, and Lanarkshire in 
 Scotland. Apples are imported in considerable quantity from the Channel Islands, 
 France, and the United States. 
 
 The wood of the apple tree is hard and heavy, and well adapted for the working parts of ma- 
 chinery, if not under water. 
 
 APPRAISEMENT, or VALUATION, is generallyused to designate the estima- 
 tion of the pecuniary value of estates or commodities, made by a sworn appraiser or 
 valuer. By 46 Geo. III. c. 43, appraisers must take out an annual license from 
 the excise. The act applies to " every person who shall value or appraise any 
 estate or property, real or personal, 6r any interest in possession or reversion, 
 remainder or contingency in any estate, real or personal, or any goods, merchan- 
 dise or effects, of whatsoever kind or description the same may be, for, or in expec- 
 tation of any hire, gain, fee, or reward, or valuable consideration to be therefor 
 paid to him' 5 (§ 4). The penalty for acting without license is £50 for each offence 
 (§ 6). Licensed auctioneers may act without taking out an appraiser's license 
 (£2). Each appraisement must be extended on a stamp, in terms of the statute. 
 
 APPRENTICE,an individual (generally under the ageof twenty-one) who is sub- 
 jected to an engagement to serve for a stipulated period under the practiser of some 
 trade or profession, in matters referring thereto, on condition of receiving instruc- 
 tion in return. 
 
 In England, it is held that by the common law no man can be prohibited from 
 working in any lawful trade at nis pleasure. By the statute 5 Elizabeth, chap. 4, 
 this freedom was restricted in so far as, with some special exceptions, an appren- 
 ticeship of seven years was necessary to enable any person " to set up, occupy, use, 
 or exercise any craft, mystery, or occupation," and the form and manner of this 
 engagement was strictly regulated. By 54 Geo. III. c. 96, the portion of this 
 
APP 22 APP 
 
 statute affecting apprentices was repealed, and it was declared (§ 2), " that it shall 
 and may be lawful for any person to take, or retain, or become an apprentice, 
 though not according to the provisions of the said act : and that indentures, deeds, 
 and agreements in writing, entered into for that purpose, which would be otherwise 
 valid and effectual, shall be valid and effectual in law." It was provided that the 
 repeal should not affect the customs of the city of London, or those of any city, 
 town, corporation, or company lawfully constituted. This latter reservation will 
 be affected by 5 & 6 Wm. IV. c. 76, § 14, by which the exclusive privileges of cor- 
 porations are abolished, and it is enacted, that " notwithstanding any custom or 
 by-law, any person in any borough may keep any shop for the sale of all lawful 
 wares and merchandises for wholesale or retail, and use every lawful trade, occupa- 
 tion, mystery, and handicraft, for hire, gain, sale, or otherwise within any borough." 
 It is held that by the common law persons under the age of twenty-one cannot bind 
 themselves so as to be liable to an action of covenant to fulfil the conditions, and that 
 the father or guardian cannot bind the infant without his consent. Hence the 
 undertaking is generally on the part of both, the parent or guardian becoming bound 
 for the apprentice's faithful discharge of his duty. A youth, however, who has 
 bound himself singly and fulfilled his apprenticeship will be entitled to the benefit 
 of it. By the custom of London, an infant unmarried and above the age of fourteen 
 may bind himself to a freeman. The covenant between the parties is contained 
 in a mutual deed or indenture. In the city, indentures must be enrolled before the 
 chamberlain within a year, on a petition to the mayor and aldermen, otherwise a 
 sciri facias shall issue to the master to show cause why it is not enrolled ; and if 
 the omission is owing to the master, the apprentice may sue out his indentures and 
 be discharged. The father or other person who has covenanted for the apprentice 
 is bound for his true performance or the articles. Every indenture entered into 
 by an infant, is voidable at his election on his attaining the age of twenty-one ; 
 but if any adult have covenanted for his performance of his duties, that person con- 
 tinues liable ; and so it has been held that a father who had become bound for his 
 son was not released by his son's attaining majority during the currency of the 
 period, but was liable for his then absenting himself (Cuming v. Hill, 1819, 
 3 B. Sf- A. 59). The parties becoming bound with an apprentice, generally agree 
 to pay the master a premium or fee, as a farther remuneration for his instructing 
 the young person. By 8 Anne. c. 9, § 39, the full " sum paid, secured, or contracted 
 for, must be stated in the indenture, otherwise it will be void, — the temporary act 
 42 Geo. III. c. 23, § 7 ? which gave power on payment of double duty to rectify the 
 omission, having expired. Where an indenture was void by omission of the pre- 
 mium, it was found that the master had no action against the apprentice's father 
 on a promissory note given as apprentice fee, though he had maintained the appren- 
 tice till he absconded (Jackson v. Warwich, 1797, 7 T. R. 121). By the stamp laws, 
 if " any thing, not being money, shall, directly or indirectly, be given, assigned, con- 
 veyed, delivered, contracted for, to or for the use or benefit of any master, with or 
 in respect of any such apprentice, &c, the duties, &c. should be paid for the full value 
 of such thing or things (8 Anne, c. 9, § 45). This has been neld not to apply to 
 the friends of an apprentice covenanting to maintain him and supply him with 
 clothes (Rex v. Leighton, 1792, 4 T. R. 732). Whatever an apprentice gains is 
 gained to his master, who will not be deprived of his remedy by a defect in the con- 
 tract. The contract of apprenticeship terminates by the consent of all the parties, 
 or by the death of the apprentice, or by the death of the master. In this last case, 
 however, though the obligation on the master to teach the apprentice is personal, 
 and so terminates with his life, yet if he have become bound to provide the appren- 
 tice with food and clothing, his executors must fulfil the obligation in so far 
 as they have assets. By the custom of London, it is held that, when the master 
 dies the executors must bind the apprentice to another master in the same trade. The 
 discharge of an apprentice requires to be in writing. By 6 Geo. IV. c. 16, § 49, the 
 issuing of a commission (now fiat) of bankruptcy against the master operates as a 
 discharge. 
 
 The enforcement of the mutual obligations between masters and apprentices 
 is in a great measure committed to the Justices of Peace. By 20 Geo. II. c. 19, 
 § 2 ; 33 Geo. III. c. 55, § 1 ; and 4 Geo. IV. c. 29, in the case of parish ap- 
 
 Erentices (see below) or those with whom an apprentice fee not exceeding £25 
 as been paid, the apprentice may summon his master to appear before two justices 
 on a complaint of misusage, refusal of necessary provision, cruelty, or other ill- 
 treatment, and the justices may discharge him by a warrant for which no fees 
 are payable, and on consideration of the circumstances may cause the master to 
 
APP 23 APP 
 
 refund the whole or any part of the premium : or two or more justices at specif 
 petty sessions may impose on the master a fine not exceeding 40s. On the o 
 hand, on complaint by a master of misdemeanour, miscarriage, or ill behav 
 
 :ial or 
 other 
 on complaint by a master of misdemeanour, miscarriage, or ill behaviour 
 on the part of his apprentice, two justices may commit the latter to the house of 
 correction for a period not exceeding one month, or discharge him. [Factories.] 
 By 6 Geo. III. c. 25, and 4 Geo. IV. c. 34, any such apprentice absconding, may be 
 compelled, to make up for the time during which he has absented himself, or be'im- 
 prisoned for three months, on oath being made by the master, or any steward or 
 overseer, to a Justice of Peace. A master cannot recall any license he may have 
 
 given to an apprentice to leave him ; and if the master dismiss him for negligence, 
 e may be bound in equity to refund part of the premium. By the custom of London, 
 a freeman may turn away an apprentice for gaming (Burn's Justice. Sir E. Tom- 
 lin's Law Dictionary. Smith's Mercantile L. 372-376). 
 
 Parish Apprentices are such as are bound to inhabitants and occupiers of lands 
 and tenements within the parish by church-wardens and overseers : and by 43 Eliz. 
 c. 2, § 5, and 18 Geo. III.c. 47, these officers are empowered, with the assent of two 
 justices, to bind as apprentices children whose parents they judge unable to support 
 them. But they must be bound for no longer a period than till they reach the age 
 of twenty-one, and the engagement of a female is terminable with her marriage. By 
 56 Geo. III. c. 133, § 7, the child before being apprenticed must have attained the 
 age of nine years. It is for the church-wardens and overseers, in their discretion, 
 to find proper persons to whom they may bind parish apprentices ; and the justices 
 may compel them to receive the children, under penalty of £10 for the use of the 
 poor, to be levied by distress and sale. The master, however, if he feel aggrieved 
 by the order, may appeal to the sessions. Clergymen and gentlemen of fortune are 
 liable, but officers of the army are exempted by the Mutiny Acts. Mere strangers 
 who stand in no relation to the parish cannot be compelled to take apprentices, but 
 occupants of lands in it, though they reside elsewhere, are liable. By 32 Geo. III. 
 c. 57, provision is made for compelling masters to support their apprentices, and 
 awarding punishment for ill usage ; and it is enacted by § 12, that if any one is 
 convicted of abusing his apprentice, no other shall be bound to him, but he shall be 
 compelled to pay a composition of not more than £10 or less than £5, for the pur- 
 pose of binding out any child who otherwise would be forced on him. The binding 
 of parish apprentices is particularly regulated by 56 Geo. III. c. 139. By § 1, pro- 
 vision is made for preventing children from being removed to a great distance 
 from the parochial officers and their parents, and it is enacted that an apprentice 
 shall not be sent to an establishment out of the county, more than forty miles from 
 his own parish, unless he belong to one more than forty miles from the city of 
 London, in which case an apprenticeship to a greater distance may be made by 
 special order of the justices. By the late Poor Law Act (4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 
 76, § 15), the commissioners are empowered to issue rules and regulations as to 
 apprenticeships (Bum's Justice and Statutes quoted). 
 
 In Scotland there has never been any general regulation enforcing apprentice- 
 ships, such as the act of 5 Elizabeth : and the conditions in each trade or pro- 
 fession are still regulated by their respective charters and by-laws. The period 
 is generally five years. An apprenticeship confers no general privilege beyond 
 the corporation of which the master is a member. It has been laid down, that the 
 acts of parliament, giving special jurisdiction to justices of the peace in questions 
 between master and apprentice, do not apply to Scotland (Tait's Justice, 4). This 
 is undoubtedly the case with those enactments which refer to parish apprentices, 
 of which there are none in this country, but in late cases it has been taken for 
 granted that the act 4 Geo. IV. c. 34 embraces North Britain (Frame agt. 
 Campbell, 9th June 1836, 14 D. B. M. 914). The stamp acts, as above referred to, 
 apply to Scotland. The indenture must be attested by two male persons, who 
 sign with the designation " witness" after their names, and who must have seen 
 the principals subscribe or have heard them acknowledge their subscriptions, and 
 whose names must be inserted in the testing clause. A minor pupil (that is, a boy 
 under fourteen years of age, and a girl under twelve) cannot be bound, except 
 through the engagement of a parent or guardian. A minor above pupillarity, if he 
 have guardians, must have their consent ; but if he have none, he may validly con- 
 tract, though the engagement is liable to reduction on the ground of minority, and 
 lesion, or injury to his interests. By the common law, an apprentice cannot enlist 
 in the army, or enter the navy unless he has been bred at sea. The rule is often 
 nullified by the annual mutiny act and other statutes (Ersk. Inst. I. 8. 63. Tait's 
 Justice of Peace. Burton's Manual). 
 
APR 24 ARA 
 
 APRICOT (Fr. Abricot. Ger. Ahprikat), the fruit of the Frunus Armeniaca, a 
 tree widely diffused in Asia, and growing in abundance upon the oases of Africa, 
 from whence the fruit, called there Mish-mish, is brought in a dried state to Egypt. 
 Various kinds are cultivated in this country, particularly in the South of England. 
 Of those cultivated upon walls, the Orange is the best for preserving, and the 
 Moorpark and Turkey for the table. The Breda and the Brussels, both well-suit ad 
 for preserving, are the kinds preferred when grown upon open standard trees. 
 The wallfruit is said to be the finest, but the other is the best flavoured. 
 
 AQUAFORTIS, a name given to impure nitric acid. [Nitric Acid.] 
 
 AQUA-MARINE. [Beryl.] 
 
 AQUA-REGIA. [Chlorine.] 
 
 AQUA, or AQUA-VIT^E, a term absurdly applied to ardent spirits. 
 
 ARABIA extends from 12° to 34° N. lat., and from 33° to 60° E. long. It is bounded 
 N. by Turkey in Asia ; W. by the Red Sea, and Isthmus of Suez ; S. by the Indian 
 Ocean ; and E. by the Persian Gulf. Its area is vaguely estimated at 1,000,000 
 square miles, and its population at 10,000,000 ; composed partly of the commercial 
 inhabitants of the coast, who form a regular society, and partly of Bedouins or pas- 
 toral Arabs, who live in tents, and subsist by their flocks, or by the plunder of passing 
 caravans. Arabia is subject to a great variety of rulers. In the coast districts, ' 
 monarchies, more or less extensive, have been formed. The chief of these are, 
 Hejaz, or the Sheriffat of Mecca, now subject to the Pacha of Egypt ; the Imamat 
 of Sanaa, or kingdom of Yemen ; and the Imamat of Muscat. The remainder is 
 mostly divided among a vast number of petty sheiks, whose government resembles 
 that which formerly prevailed among the Scottish clans. Nejd, the central part, is 
 possessed by the Wahabees, a body of religious reformers, who, about the beginning 
 of the present century, overran nearly the whole peninsula, but since 1818, have 
 been confined to their original district, by the Pacha of Egypt. 
 
 Arabia is proverbially an arid barren country. Scarcely a single river exists ; and almost the 
 whole of the interior is occupied with sandy deserts, — diversified only by a few oases or spots of 
 fertility. Some of the districts on the coast, however, particularly Yemen, are fertile and beauti- 
 ful. The chief productions are coffee, which is grown in Yemen, at Bulgosa, near Beit-el-Fakih, 
 gum-arabic, dates, pomegranates, figs, oranges, opobalsam, and a variety of odoriferous plants. 
 Senna and the cotton-tree are also cultivated in Yemen ; and indigo is cultivated about Zebid. 
 There are no mines of the precious metals ; but Niebuhr states that iron exists in the territory of 
 Saade ; and that the lead-mines of Oman are productive. Arabia has long been celebrated for its 
 horses : the best are bred in the desert bordering on Syria. 
 
 The commerce of Arabia may be divided into the maritime commerce of the Red Sea, from 
 Hejaz and Yemen ; that of the Persian Gulf, from Muscat and Bussora ; and the caravan trade. 
 The three last are described under the articles Muscat, Turkey, and Caravan. 
 
 Hejaz, or Sheriffat of Mecca, comprises the N. and W. part, bordering on the Red Sea. 
 It is the holy land of the Mohammedans, on account of its containing Mecca, the native town of 
 Mohammed, and Medina, the city where he is interred. It is under the nominal dominion of the 
 Grand Seignior, as protector of the holy cities, but in reality it is subject to the Pacha of Egypt. 
 The other chief towns are Jiddah, the seaport of Mecca, and Yembo, the seaport of Medina. The 
 maritime commerce of the country is almost all concentrated at Jiddah. 
 
 Jiddah, in 21° 29' N., and 39° 15' E., is described as a fine town, and perhaps the wealthiest of 
 the same extent in the east ; but the port is not commodious, and large vessels are obliged to 
 anchor at the distance of two miles, and discharge their cargoes by boats. The population is 15,000. 
 The inhabitants are almost all engaged in commerce, and business is transacted with punctuality 
 and despatch. The trade is much influenced by the number of pilgrims or hajjis, who visit Mecca 
 annually in the month Dalhajja, from all Mohammedan countries, and which, by the greater 
 number, is made subservient to commercial purposes. It is further influenced by a regulation 
 that prevents Yemen vessels from passing without payment of a heavy duty ; in consequence of 
 which their cargoes are generally landed, and reshipped by Jiddah merchants. The principal 
 trade is that with India. Some vessels arrive direct from Calcutta, freighted solely with rice, 
 sugar, and Dacca muslin ; others bring blue cloths, cambric, of which the ihram is made, and 
 indigo ; the latter complete their lading on the Malabar coast with teak-timber, cocoa-nut oil, 
 cocoa-nuts, black pepper, dried ginger, turmeric, &c. This branch of commerce is now, however, 
 on the decline. Ships seldom leave Bombay direct for the Red Sea, unless they are small, and in- 
 tended for the coasting-trade ; the usual practice is to proceed to the Malabar coast, where they 
 take in cargoes of the same articles as the Bengal ships, in addition to which, they bring annually 
 from Bombay 400 or 500 tons of pig-lead, which is landed at Mocha, and afterwards sold to the 
 Somaulies at Berbera. The imports from Surat consist of Cashmere shawls, tissue, flowered and 
 embroidered muslin, and other valuable cloths, amounting yearly to about $600,000 : from Bushire 
 and Bussora, wheat, tobacco, dates, and Persian carpets for the Bedouin sheiks, in whose tents, 
 one at least is considered as indispensable : from the Malay islands, little is brought except spices ; 
 and ships from thence complete their cargoes on the Malabar coast with rice. The returns made 
 for these imports are mostly in cash, with a few pearls of indifferent quality, shark skins and fins, 
 and some chests of red beads, old copper-ware, &c. All the vessels make up their return cargoes 
 at Aden and Mocha with coffee. The coffee trade between Jiddah and Egypt has much declined 
 since the importation of American and West Indian coffee into the ports of the Mediterranean and 
 Levant. Corn is imported from Upper Egypt entirely on account of the Pacha. Timber for ship- 
 building is supplied either from India or by way of the Nile, from the Mediterranean. The inter- 
 course betwixt Jiddah and the opposite coast of Africa, is considerable, Indian goods, manufactures, 
 
ARA 25 ARG 
 
 iron, &c. being sent in exchange for ghee, mats, barley, hides, 6laves, tobacco, and gold. The 
 number of Tessels belonging to Jiddah and Yembo may be estimated at from 250 to 300. (Com. 
 by Lieut. Weltsted, I. N. to Gro. Soc. Journal, vol. vi.) 
 
 Measures, Weights, ami Money. — The native measures cannot be stated with accuracy. The 
 bahar of 10 frazils, 100 maunds, or 200 rattles = 222i lbs. avoird. Accounts are kept in cruse of 40 
 duanees ; 25 cruse pass for about 100 Spanish dollars. Of late years, the Egyptian measures, 
 weights, and monies, have been much used. 
 
 I. ma. mat of Sanaa. — This state comprises the principal part of Yemen, situate in the S. and 
 W. part of Arabia bordering on the Red Sea. The area is vaguely estimated at 52,000 sq. miles, 
 and pop. at 1,000,000. It is subject to an imam, a kind of hereditary monarch, whose capital is 
 Sanaa, pop. 3-"), 000 ; but the commercial emporium of the country is Mocha. 
 
 Mocha, in 13° 20 7 N., and 43° 20> E., is the principal port in the Red Sea frequented by Euro- 
 peans, pop. 5000. It is situate about 40 miles N. of Cape Bab el Mandeb, between two projecting 
 points of land, which shelter vessels whose draught (if not more than 10 or 11 feet) allows them 
 to anchor within a mile of the town ; large ones lie further out, and are exposed as in an open 
 road. Provisions are here plentiful and cheap, but good water is scarce. The principal article of 
 export is coffee ; the others are gum-arabic, tragacanth, myrrh, frankincense, civet, balsam, dates, 
 acorus, rhinoceros' horns and hides, sagapenum, salep, senna, and sharks' fins. The imports 
 consist principally of rice, ghee, iron, hardware, and other manufactures. The foreign trade 
 is transacted chiefly by Banians. All produce is sold by tale or weight, at so much the Spanish 
 dollar. According to Mr Milburn (Oriental Commerce), the duty payable on exports and imports 
 by the British is 3 per cent, ad valorem, besides brokage and shroffage. 
 
 Measures and Weights. — The covid = 19, and the guz = 25 Imp. inches ; the gudda of 8 noosfias 
 = 1 8 Imp. gall. ; and the tomand, dry measure, containing 40 kellas, weighs of rice 168 lbs. avoird. 
 The bahar of 15 frazils, or 150 maunds = 450 lbs. avoird. The miscal of 1 J coffola, or 24 carats = 
 73-37 troy grains ; 10 coffolas = 1 vakia ; and 87 vakias = 100 Spanish dollars weight. 
 
 Money accounts are kept in piastres, or Mocha dollars of 80 cavears ; and as 121 j piastres = 100 
 Spanish dollars (in which payments are made), the piastre i= worth about 3s. 5d. sterling. The 
 native coins are, conimasses of 7 carats; 40 cornmasses generally pass for a dollar. 
 
 ARANGOES, large beads formed from rough carnelian, formerly much used in 
 the African slave trade. 
 
 ARBITRATION, a contract by which two or more parties engaged in a dispute 
 agree, by an instrument called a submission, to leave the decision to a third party, 
 called an arbiter or arbitrator. The submission is generally in the form of mutual 
 bonds, binding each to obey the award under penalties. In contracts of partner- 
 ship, it is usual to insert conditions of arbitration which have the effect of prevent- 
 ing one member from resorting to a lawsuit, unless a reference has proved ineffectual, 
 or the others have refused to accede to it. Where the submission, as was fre- 
 quently the case, came into existence in the course ofa litigation, the English courts 
 adopted the practice of enforcing the decision of the arbiter, as against litigants 
 before the court, and by 9 & 10 Wm. III. c. 15, the same privilege was extended 
 to all formal written submissions. The proper subjects of arbitration are those 
 questions as to fact, which are generally referred to a jury, — a liquid debt specified 
 and defined by deed is therefore not a proper subject. Where there is more than 
 one arbiter, there is generally authority to choose an umpire if they cannot come to a 
 decision, — and this last must be selected by voluntary choice, not by lot. The object 
 of arbitration is a final determination, and so a reservation is void. An award to 
 do an illegal act, or one which cannot be done by the party, is void. The courts 
 exercise considerable discretion in overlooking minute deficiencies, and allowing 
 the evident meaning and intention of the various parties to be put in practice ; and 
 though an award be void as to some portion of it, yet if it be specific in assigning 
 to the parties the rights which the arbiters intended to bestow on them, it will be 
 good as to the remamder. When a time is limited for making an award it cannot 
 be protracted, except by prolongation consented to by parties, or permitted by rule 
 of court. The courts will not relieve a person who has voluntarily submitted his 
 case to an arbiter from the consequences of the decision, unless on grounds of cor- 
 ruption, partiality, or mistake. The law of Scotland as to arbitration, in principle 
 resembles that of England. If the submission contain a clause of registration the 
 decree-arbitral can be enforced as if it were the decree of a court. (Caldwell on 
 Arbitration. Parker on Arbitration. 3 Wm. IV. c. 42.) 
 
 ARBITRATION OF EXCHANGE, the deduction of a proportional or arbitrated 
 rate of exchange between two places through an intermediate place, in order to 
 ascertain the most advantageous method of drawing or remitting. [Exchange.] 
 
 ARCHANGEL. [Russia.] 
 
 ARCHILL. [Orchill.] 
 
 ARCHIM, or PIK, the Turkish ell, is equal f Imp. yard nearly. 
 
 ARE, the unit of the French measures of surface, equal to 100 square metres, or 
 about 1076 British square feet. 
 
 ARECA-NUT. [Betel-Nut.] 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. [Buenos Ayres.] 
 
ARG 26 ARS 
 
 ARGOL, a common name for crude Tartar, in the state in which it is taken 
 from the inside of wine vessels. [Tartar.] S 
 
 ARISTOLOCHIA, or SNAKE-ROOT (Fr. Serpentaire de Virginie. Ger. 
 Virginische Schlanqenwurzel), the dried root of the A. serpentaria or Virginian 
 snake-root. It consists of a short stock or head, with numerous rootlets three 
 inches or more in length, thready, interlaced, and brittle ; skin greenish yellow or 
 brown, and pith iron-coloured. In odour and taste it resembles valerian and cam- 
 
 fhor. The root is all used, but the rootlets are more powerful than the solid part. 
 t is employed in medicine, and its action is similar to that of camphor. Aristolochia 
 is imported into this country from Virginia and Carolina. (Duncan's Dispensatory.) 
 
 ARITHMETIC, COMMERCIAL. [Alligation. Average. Discount, &c] 
 
 ARMS and AMMUNITION. [Gun. Gunpowder.] S 
 
 ARNOTTO. [Annatto.] 
 
 ARPENT, a land-measure in the old French system. The Arpent des eaux-et- 
 forets = 51*07 ares ; the Arpent de Paris = 34*19 ares ; and the Arpent Commun = 
 42*22 ares, or 1 British acre and 7 perches. The Arpent of Geneva = 51*66 ares, 
 or 6179 British square yards. 
 
 ARRACK (Du. Arak. Fr. Arac. Por. Araca), an oriental name for spirituous 
 liquors of all kinds, but in this country applied generally to those distilled in India 
 and the adjoining regions. Arrack was formerly prepared in considerable quantity 
 at Goa, but the principal seats of the manufacture at present are, the islands of 
 Java and Ceylon. In the former, it is commonly termed kneip, and is made from 
 a mixture of 62 parts molasses, 35 parts rice, and 3 parts of the sweet juice called 
 
 ? aim-wine or toddy, extracted from the flowers of different species of palm-trees, 
 n the latter, it is entirely distilled from cocoa-nut tree toddy. Ceylon arrack is 
 reckoned superior to that of Java ; and in India, to which very large quantities are 
 annually exported, it brings a price 10 or 15 per cent, higher. The prime cost of 
 arrack at Columbo varies from 8d. to lOd. per gallon. In India, it is prepared 
 from the flowers of the Bassia longifolia, the Mahwah tree, and the Bassia latifolia. 
 In Turkey, it is distilled from the skins of grapes, and flavoured with aniseed. 
 (Milburn's O. C.) 
 
 ARRANZAD A, a Spanish land-measure, estimated, for vineyard land, equal to 
 3 Imp. roods 33 poles nearly. 
 
 ARRATEL, the Portuguese pound = 7083 troy grains ; and 98| arratels = 100 
 lbs. avoird. 
 
 ARRESTMENT AND FORTHCOMING in Scotland, like foreign attachment 
 in England [Attachment], is a process by which a creditor can lay an embargo on 
 money due to his debtor by a third party, or on moveable property belonging to tho 
 same in the hands of sucn a party. If the debt has not been constituted by the 
 decision of a court, the arrestment may be loosed if the debtor find security to 
 pay. While the arrestment is in full force, if the person in whose hands it is taken 
 
 {►ay his debt, or make over the property arrested to the arrester's debtor, he becomes 
 iable for the debt. This process has of late been materially facilitated by the act 
 1 & 2 Vict. c. 114. 
 
 ARROBA, a Spanish and Portuguese weight ; also a Spanish measure of capa- 
 city. It varies in different places. The Arroba Weight, — Spanish standard = 25*36 
 lbs. avoirdupois ; Alicant = 27*38 do. ; Valencia = 28*25 do. ; Arragon = 27*76 
 do. ; Portugal = 32*38 do. The Arroba Measure of Capacity, — Spanish standard 
 for wine = 3*54 Imp. galls., and for oil = 2*78 do. ; Malaga = 3*49 do. ; Valen- 
 cia = 2*59 do. ; Canaries = 3*54 do. 
 
 ARROW-ROOT, a farinaceous substance procured in America, the West Indies, 
 and Ceylon, from the root of the Maranta arundinacea ; and in India, from the 
 tubers of the Curcuma angustifolia. It is prepared in nearly the same manner as 
 starch ; and when good, should be free from all musty flavour, white, insipid, and 
 form a consistent jelly when dissolved in eight parts of boiling water. (Branded 
 Pharmacy.) It retains its nourishing property unimpaired for many years. Arrow- 
 root forms a common article of food for children and invalids ; and about 900,000 lbs. 
 are now annually imported into this country, chiefly from the British West Indies, 
 and very little of it is re-exported. The best is brought from the Bermudas, New 
 Providence, and Ceylon. It is frequently adulterated with potato starch, and great 
 care is necessary in purchasing it. S 
 
 ARSENIC (Fr. Arsenic, Arsenic oxyde natif. Ger. Arsenik, weisse Arsenik. It. 
 Arsenico, Arsenico uxneo), an exceedingly brittle metal, of a strong metallic lustre, 
 and white colour, running into steel-gray. Sp. gr. 5*9. This substance ? however, being 
 very soft, is of little value, and is not used in the arts. The arsenic of commerce 
 
ARS 27 ASH 
 
 is the white oxide of that metal, or more correctly arsenious acid, a compound which 
 is obtained chiefly in Bohemia and Saxony, in roasting the cobalt ores for making 
 zaffre, and also by sublimation from arsenical pyrites. It is brittle, white, faintly 
 sweetish in taste, more or less translucent, and is generally met with in cakes or 
 tboir fragments, retaining the shape of the subliming vessel ; sometimes it has a 
 yellow or reddish tinge owing to the presence of iron, sulphur, and other im- 
 purities ; from these it is freed for pharmaceutical use by resublimation, when it is 
 often obtained in vitreous transparent cakes, which, however, soon grow opaque 
 and crumble. Sp. gr. 372. In the shops it is commonly offered for sale in the 
 form of a fine smooth powder, which is liable to adulteration with chalk and gypsum ; 
 but the fraud is easily detected by exposing the suspected substance to heat, when 
 the pure acid is entirely sublimed, and the additions remain. Arsenious acid, though 
 one of the most virulent poisons, is used in medicine. It is also employed as an 
 ingredient in Scheele's Green and other dyes, and in the manufacture of flint-glass. 
 Arsenic forms with sulphur two compounds, which are known in commerce under 
 the names of Realgar and Orpiment. 
 
 ARSHEEN, or ARCHIN, a Russian cloth measure = 28 Imp. inches or 071 
 French metre. 
 
 ARTABA, a Persian measure of capacity = 2 Imp. bushels nearly. 
 
 ARTICHOKE (Fr. Artichaut), an esculent vegetable {.Cynara scolymtis), having 
 large perennial roots and annual stems, bearing Targe round heads. Each of these 
 is composed of numerous oval calycinal scales, enclosing the florets, sitting on a broad 
 fleshy receptacle ; this and the fleshy base of the scales, being the only eatable parts 
 of the plant, are gathered before the expansion of the flowers. 
 
 Jerusalem Artichokes are the tubers of the Helianthus tuberosus, a kind of sun- 
 flower. This name is due to its strong resemblance in taste to the real arti- 
 choke. 
 
 AS, a denomination given to the ancient Roman libra, or pound of 12 uncus ; also 
 to the principal Roman coin. This last was composed chiefly of copper ; and when 
 first issued in the reign of Servius Tullius(B.c. 560) contained a pound of metal ; but 
 the weight was gradually diminished, until by the Papirian law (b.c. 178), asses of 
 half an ounce were coined. This rate was continued till Pliny's time (a.c. 70), 
 and long after. The weight and value of the as, at different periods, is however a 
 subject of much difference of opinion among antiquaries. 
 
 ASARABACCA (Fr. Assaret. Ger. Haselkraut), the root and leaves of the 
 Asarum Europceum, a perennial plant indigenous in Britain, but generally imported 
 from the Levant. It contains a camphor-Tike principle, and a bitter essence which 
 is combined with gallic acid. It is used in veterinary medicine, and also as an 
 ingredient in most of the cephalic snuffs. 
 
 ASBESTUS, or AMIANTHUS, a mineral in silky filaments, which, when mixed 
 with oil, may be woven into a fire-proof cloth. Localities, Portsoy and Glenelg in 
 Scotland, St Neverne in Cornwall, Corsica, and U. S. of America, where it is some- 
 times used as iamp-wick. 
 
 ASCENSION, a small island of volcanic origin, lying in 7° 56' S., and 14° 24' W., 
 about 685 miles N.W. of St Helena, and 1450 from the W. coast of Africa. Length 
 8 miles ; breadth 6. It belongs to Britain ; and, being at present used as a store 
 depot for the African squadron, is occupied by a detachment of marines, who are 
 chiefly employed in rendering available its scanty resources for supplying the ship- 
 ping with provisions and water. 
 
 Ascension lies within the immediate influence of the S.E. trade-wind ; and as it is directly in 
 the track of ships on their passage home from the East, such as do not touch at the Cape or St 
 Helena, usually call here for refreshments. The roadstead at Georgetoum offers secure anchorage. 
 This island was for a long time chiefly celebrated in the ' ■ Almanac des Gourmands," on account of 
 the abundance of turtle found on it. The season for catching them is between February and 
 July; and their usual weight is from 400 to 700 lbs. 4 * The turtle of Ascension, when scientifically 
 served up, is esteemed of high and undoubted merit ; but it is in general too large to reach England.' ' 
 
 ASH, a tree of which there are many varieties. The common ash (Fraxinus ex- 
 celsior) is one of the most useful of the British forest trees, on account of its rapid 
 growth, and the excellence of its hard tough wood. The timber of the common ash 
 is that chiefly used for agricultural implements. It is also esteemed for the purposes 
 of the coachmaker, cooper, and turner ; and for ladders, poles, and other purposes 
 which require strength, elasticity, and comparative lightness ; while the underwood 
 is excellent for hoops, rods, hop-poles, &c. It is, however, quite unsuitable for 
 building purposes, as it neither stands moisture nor the weather. Of the known 
 foreign species, the white American (F. Americana) is the only one that rivals the 
 
ASH 28 ASS 
 
 common ash in value. It abounds chiefly in New Brunswick, Canada, and tho 
 adjoining parts of the United States. 
 
 ASHES. [Potash. Barilla.. Kelp, &c] 
 
 ASHLAR, a name given to rough stones ; and to freestones when they are first 
 taken out of the quarry. The term is also applied to a facing made of squared stones. 
 
 ASPARAGUS (Fr. Asperge), a well-known esculent vegetable (Asparagus offi- 
 cinalis), having a perennial root and annual stalks. The stems are cut for use when 
 only a few inches above ground. There are two varieties, — the green and the red ; 
 the former is considered the best flavoured, but the latter, owing to its larger size 
 and showy appearance, is more esteemed by gardeners. 
 
 ASPER, a small Turkish coin and money of account, equal at Constantinople to 
 about the 100th part of a piastre. This proportion, however, varies in different places. 
 
 ASPH ALTU M, a species of bitumen produced by the decomposition of vegetable 
 matter. It is solid, brittle, of a black colour, vitreous lustre, and conchoidal frac- 
 ture. It melts easily, and is very inflammable, — burning when pure without leaving 
 ashes. Sp. gr. about 1*5. It abounds on the shores and surface of the Dead Sea, 
 in Barbadoes, and in Trinidad, where it fills a basin of three miles in circumference. 
 It also occurs in various parts of Britain and other countries. Asphaltum is some- 
 times employed, when mixed with grease, for a coating to ships, in place of tar ; 
 and a mastic or cement composed principally of it, has of late been used as a ma- 
 terial for roofs and pavements. S 
 
 ASS, a domestic quadruped resembling the horse, but much inferior to that 
 animal, both in beauty and utility. The ass has nearly the same mouth-marks as 
 the horse, — takes from 2 to 3 years in growing, and lives from 25 to 30. It is less 
 subject to disease than the other, and being content with scanty and coarse fare, is 
 employed in this country by poor people in drawing small carts, and in carrying 
 burdens ; the female is, besides, valued for her milk. The abject condition of this 
 creature in northern climes is in part owing to its never being the subject of at- 
 tention. In eastern countries, particularly in Arabia, where the breed is not only 
 carefully tended, but frequently improved by intercourse with the fleet and fiery 
 onagar (or wild ass), it is an animal of great strength and considerable beauty. 
 
 ASSAFCETIDA (Fr.It.&Por. Assafetida. Ger. Stinkander Asand. Arab. 
 Hiltect. Pers. Ungoozeh), a medicinal gum-resin, composed of the juice of the roots 
 of the Ferula assafoetida, a large umbelliferous plant growing in the provinces of 
 Khorassan and Laristan, in Persia. In its recent state it is white and semi-fluid, but 
 by exposure to the sun it gradually hardens, and assumes a reddish colour. It is 
 imported into this country by way of India, and in trade is met with in large 
 irregular agglutinated masses of a waxy consistence, having a motley appearance 
 owing to the mixture of white drops with others of a violet, red, and brown tint. 
 It has a nauseous alliaceous smell, and a bitterish acrid taste. Those masses 
 are to be selected which are clear, of a pale reddish colour, and variegated with a 
 number of elegant white drops or tears. An inferior kind, full of sand and very 
 foetid, is said to be a compound of garlic, sagapenum, turpentine, and a little of 
 the real gum. Assafoetida loses some of its smell and strength by keeping ; it 
 should, therefore, be preserved in bladders shut up in tin boxes, and kept apart. 
 (Duncan's Dispensatory. Brande's Pharmacy.) 
 
 ASSAY, or ASSAYING (Fr. Coupellation. Ger. Abtreiben aufder capelle), a 
 process by which the quality of gold and silver coin, plate, or bullion, is determined. 
 
 ASSETS, from the French assez, is used in England to signify goods enough to 
 discharge the burden which is cast upon the executor or heir, of satisfying the debts 
 and legacies of the testator or ancestor. They are divided into personal and real. 
 The latter were not applicable to pay simple contract debts, until the passing of the 
 act 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 104, intituled, " To render Freehold and Copyhold Estates 
 Assets for the Payment of Simple and Contract Debts." On this subject, see Ram's 
 Treatise of Assets, Debts, and Encumbrances. The word assets is employed in a 
 more general sense to designate property presumed to be set apart to meet any 
 obligation ; thus the acceptor of a bill is said to have assets of the drawer in his 
 hands. It is also commonly used in trade to designate the funds, or property in 
 possession of a merchant, in contradistinction to his liabilities or obligations. 
 
 ASSIGN ATS, the paper-money issued in France after the Revolution. The want 
 of public confidence and stagnation in trade, caused by that event, having led to 
 the withdrawal of nearly all the current coin, tho revolutionary government, with 
 the view of providing a substitute, and at same time creating a market for the 
 confiscated property possessed by them, issued notes in the following form : — •" Na- 
 tional Property Assignat of 100 francs." These notes were a legal tender ; but they 
 
ASS 29 ASS 
 
 differed from every other paper currency in not even professing to represent any 
 specified tiling ; the relation of " National property " to 100 francs obviously de- 
 pending on the comparative quantity of the property purchasable, and the number 
 of assignats issued, neither of which was defined. The first issue was in May 1790, 
 to the extent of 400 millions of francs, which bore interest by the day, like Exchequer 
 bills. To this was added 800 millions in September 1790, without the liability to pay 
 interest. The government, finding this an easy method of supporting their treasury 
 without new taxes, seized every opportunity to increase their issues, so that in 
 1793 they amounted to 3626 millions ; in 1794, to 8817 millions ; in 1795, to 19,700 
 millions ; and lastly, in September 1796, to 45,579 millions of francs, or the immense 
 sum of £1,823,160,000. These excessive issues produced a rapid depreciation in 
 the value of the paper, so that in 1796, an assignat of 100 francs, professing to be 
 worth £4, was currently exchanged for 5h sous, or less than threepence. Having 
 thus sunk below 1 -300th part of their nominal value, they were called in, — the 
 government offering to take them at 1 per cent, in payment of a forced loan, which 
 was imposed in money, and to give mandats, a new species of paper-currency, in 
 exchange for them, at the rate of 3 per cent. The ultimate result was, that of the 
 whole 45,579,000,000, 12,744,000,000 were in some way or other discharged ; the 
 remaining 32,835,000,000 continued waste-paper in the holders' hands. The man- 
 dats were of the nominal value of 2,400,000,000 francs (or £96,000,000) ; but they 
 came out at a discount, and gradually sunk to less than l-70th of their nominal 
 value. They were issued June 9, 1796, and extinguished, partly in the purchase of 
 confiscated property, and partly in the payment of taxes, before the end of the fol- 
 lowing September. 
 
 This financial bubble produced more profligacy, injustice, and misery, throughout France, than 
 all the proscriptions and sanguinary violence of the Reign of Terror. ' ' Every body," says Mr 
 Senior, " taxed his ingenuity to find employment for a currency of which the value evaporated 
 from hour to hour. It was passed on as it was received, as if it burned every one's hands who 
 touched it." " Those who depended on fixed money payments were reduced to beggary; and 
 beggary at periods of general distress, is starvation.' Every morning there were found in the 
 waters, and on the shores of the Seine, the bodies of wretches who had preferred death by suicide 
 to death by starvation. The state of the labouring classes was scarcely more tolerable." The 
 revolutionary convention made efforts equally violent and senseless, to prevent the constantly in- 
 creasing depreciation of assignats in metallic money and in commodities; the rate at which corn, 
 provisions, fuel, clothing, and other necessary articles, were to be exchangeable for assignats, was 
 fixed by law ; and fine, imprisonment, confiscation, and death, were substituted for the ordinary 
 motives to commercial transactions. Of course, the majority of the shops were shut ; and in those 
 which continued open, only the worst articles were exposed to sale. The bakers' shops were the 
 principal subjects of legislation. They were not to be entered without a certificate ; and a long 
 rope was extended from the counter into the street, which the file of candidates for purchase were 
 to lay hold of, in order to ensure their entering the shop in fair succession. Many, however, spent 
 whole nights in the street, in vain attempts to make their entrance ; and sometimes the feeble 
 were suffocated or trampled to death in the consequent struggles. At length the Convention felt 
 the impossibility of using fear instead of hope as the motive of production and exchange ; and 
 their coercive laws were abandoned ; but not without leaving on the minds of the French people 
 a prejudice against the use of paper-money which has continued to the present time. (Senior on 
 Money, p. 78. Starch, Economie Polit. v. 4. p. 164.) 
 
 ASSIGNEES, in the law of bankruptcy, are the persons to whom the realization, 
 management, and distribution of the estate of a bankrupt are committed, subject to 
 the control of the court of bankruptcy. They are either official, provisional, or chosen. 
 
 Assignees, Official, are officers of the court of bankruptcy, appointed to co- 
 operate in town bankruptcies with the assignees chosen by the creditors, to prevent 
 loss to the estate from the fraud, insolvency, or negligence of the latter. They were 
 brought into existence by the Bankruptcy Court act, 1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 56. They are 
 appointed by the Lord Chancellor, to the number of thirty, and must consist of 
 ■ merchants, brokers, accountants, or persons who are or have been engaged in 
 trade in the city of London or Westminster, or the parts adjacent." One official 
 assignee must act with the others chosen by the creditors ; and in this capacity he 
 is subject to the regulation of the Chancellor and the Court of Bankruptcy. The 
 official assignee acts alone till the creditors have made their election. All the 
 personal estate, and the rents and profits of the real estate, and the proceeds of 
 sales vest in the official assignee alone, unless it be otherwise directed by the Court 
 of Bankruptcy. He must deposit in the Bank of England, to the credit of the 
 accountant-general, " all stock in the public funds or in any public company, and 
 all monies, exchequer bills, India bonds, or other public securities, and all bills, 
 notes, and other negotiable instruments," to be subject to the order of the court. 
 On neglect of the above rule, he is liable (as in the case of the assignees chosen 
 by the creditors) to be charged interest on the property at the rate of 20 per cent. 
 Official assignees must not interfere with the assignees chosen by the creditors, " in 
 
ASS 30 ASS 
 
 the appointment or removal of a solicitor or attorney, or in directing the time and 
 manner of effecting any sale of the bankrupt's estates or effects." (1 & 2 Wm. IV. 
 c. 56, §§ 22, 23; 12 & 13 Vict. c. 106.) 
 
 Official assignees are in like manner appointed to act with the creditors' assignees in all 
 bankruptcies pi osecuted in the country ; the official assignees, however, not to interfere with 
 the creditors' assignees in the appointment of the solicitor chosen by them, or in directing the 
 time and manner of disposing of the bankrupt's estate and effects. Fourteen days before a final 
 dividend is advertised under any bankrupt's estate, a debtor and creditor account is to be fur- 
 nished by the official assignee to the creditors' assignees, and to any creditor who may apply 
 for the same, and to any other person, not being any creditor, upon payment of such sum, not 
 exceeding two shillings and sixpence, as shall be fixed by the court. When only one or more 
 partners of a firm are bankrupt, a creditor to the whole firm is entitled to vote in the choice 
 of assignees, and to assent to or dissent from the certificate ; such creditor not to receive any 
 dividend out of the separate estate of the bankrupt till all the other creditors are paid the full 
 amount of their debts, unless he be a petitioning creditor. The commissioners, on stating their 
 reasons, in writing, may appoint a provisional assignee until assignees be chosen by the creditors. 
 
 Assignees, Chosen, are the persons to whom the realization, management, and 
 distribution of the bankrupt estate is intrusted, subject to the control of the com- 
 missioners and the court. In all bankruptcies, they act in concert with the official 
 assignee as stated above. When the commissioners used to advertise three public 
 meetings for the bankrupt to surrender and conform, the assignees were chosen at 
 the second; and the number being limited to two by 1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 56, § 20, the 
 choice takes place at the first. The election is decided by a majority of the creditors 
 whohave proved to theamountof£10 and upwards. Votes may be given by authority 
 of letter of attorney on proof of the execution, either by affidavit before a Judge in 
 Chancery, or parole oath before the commissioners ; and, in the case of the creditor 
 residing out of England, by oath before a magistrate duly attested by a notary- 
 public, British minister, or consul (12 & 13 Vict. c. 106.) The first duty of the 
 assignees is to see that the bankruptcy is valid; to this end they are entitled to all 
 serviceable information from the petitioning creditor. On ascertained defects, the 
 assignees may apply to have the bankruptcy superseded, but such applications 
 are received with jealousy. In country bankruptcies they still must keep an 
 account in which is entered all property received from, and all payments made to 
 account of, the bankrupt estate, to be open to the inspection of the creditors at 
 all reasonable times. The commissioners may at any time summon assignees 
 before them, and require them to produce all books, papers, deeds, writings, and 
 other documents relating to the bankruptcy, in their possession, and may enforce 
 their order by warrant and imprisonment if necessary. The majority at the meeting 
 for choosing assignees may determine how and where the money received from time 
 to time is to be deposited, and on their not so determining, the commissioners are 
 to direct. No money is to be paid into the hands of any commissioner, or the 
 solicitor of the bankruptcy, or of any company in which a commissioner, an assignee, 
 or the solicitor is interested (§ 102). Commissioners may direct money to be 
 invested in exchequer bills, and how such exchequer bills are to be administered 
 (§ 103) ; and any assignee retaining in his own hands, or employing for his own 
 benefit, money to the extent of £100, or countenancing any other assignee in doingso, 
 or neglecting when directed to invest money in exchequer bills, becomes chargeable 
 with 20 per cent, interest on the amount during the period of misapplication (§ 104). 
 If an assignee, being debtor to a bankrupt estate for money so misapplied, become 
 bankrupt, his certificate can only have the effect of freeing his person from impri- 
 sonmentj but his future effects (tools of trade, and necessary household goods, and 
 wearing apparel of himself and family excepted) remain liable for the debt with 
 interest (§ 105). Assignees are entitled to charge expenses necessarily disbursed 
 on the bankruptcy. " As, on the one hand, they may not devolve upon an account- 
 ant duties which they are themselves competent to discharge, so, on the other 
 hand, if they cannot do their duty to the creditors without calling in the aid of an 
 accountant, they are justified in calling in such aid " {Henley's B. L. 213). Where 
 an assignee is an accountant, he is not entitled to charge for business done in that 
 capacity. A majority of the assignees choose the solicitor of the bankruptcy, who 
 ought not either to be one of their number, or the private agent of the bankrupt. 
 The assignees are liable to him for reimbursement and remuneration. Assignees, 
 commissioners, and the solicitor are alike incapacitated from being purchasers of 
 any part of the bankrupt estate, or of dividends. Assignees may, with approbation 
 of the Subdivision Court, appoint the bankrupt to superintend the management of the 
 estate, or to carry on the trade for the behoof of the creditors (1 & 2 Wm. IV. 
 c. 56, § 35). At the meeting for the last examination of the bankrupt, the com- 
 missioner.* anpoint a public meeting not less than four months after the date of the 
 
ASS 31 ASS 
 
 fiat, and not more than six months after that of the meeting (of which twenty-one 
 days' notice must be given in the Gazette), to audit the accounts of the assignees, 
 who must deliver a state on oath of all monies received by them, and when ana 
 on what account the same have been employed, and the commissioners examin- 
 ing the accounts must ascertain what balances have been in hand from time 
 to time, and whether any sum appearing in hand ought to be retained. 
 
 Assignees may be examined on oath touching the truth of the accounts The proceeds of 
 the estate of the bankrupt must not be deposited in any banking-house or place in which any 
 assignee, commissioner or solicitor is interested. Assignees are of the nature of trustees, each 
 is responsible only for his own acts, and there is contribution between them to reimburse an 
 assignee for payments occasioned by their joint acts. 
 
 Vesting and Disposal of Bankrupt Estate. — Previously to the Bankrupts' Court 
 Act the estate and effects of the bankrupt were assigned, with the exception noticed 
 below, by the commissioners acting in the commission. By 1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 56, 
 §£ 25, 26, all the bankrupt's personal estate, and all his real estate in the united 
 kingdom an d the colonies, vests in the assignees by their appointment, without any deed 
 of conveyance. When, according to the laws of the place where the real property is 
 situated, a conveyance requires to be recorded, the certificate of the appointment of 
 the assignees is registered (§ 27). The above provisions refer to those species of 
 property which, by 6 Geo. IV. c. 16, were appointed to be assigned by the commis- 
 sioners. From this method of disposal estates tail in England and Ireland, and 
 copyholds, were excepted, the commissioners being authorized to sell them for the 
 benefit of the creditors (§§ 65, 68), and by the Fine and Recovery Act, 3 & 4 Wm. IV. 
 c. 74, the disposal of estates tail by the commissioners is facilitated. By 6 Geo. IV. 
 c. 16, § 77, all powers vested in the bankrupt which he might execute for his own 
 benefit (except the right of nomination to any ecclesiastical benefice) maybe executed 
 by the assignees for behoof of the creditors. Where the bankrupt is invested with 
 property in trust for the use of others, the court, on petition, will direct the assig- 
 nees to transfer the same to proper persons for behoof of those interested (§ 79). 
 Where the bankrupt holds any government stock, funds, or annuities, or the stock 
 of any public company in the United Kingdom, the commissioners may in writing 
 direct the persons whose consent is necessary to that end, to transfer the same to 
 the name of the assignees, and those acting in virtue of such direction are indemni- 
 fied (§ 80). Where the bankrupt has pledged property or deposited deeds subject 
 to redemption, the assignees may, before the time of performance, fulfil the con- 
 dition of redemption, as completely as the bankrupt might have done, and may 
 dispose of the property recovered, in the usual manner (§ 70). " If any bank- 
 rupt, being at the time insolvent, shall (except upon the marriage of any of his 
 children, or for some valuable consideration) have conveyed, assigned, or transferred 
 to any of his children, or any other person, any hereditaments, offices, fees, 
 annuities, leases, goods, or chattels, or have delivered or made over to any such 
 person any bills, bonds, notes, or other securities, or have transferred his debts to 
 any other person or persons, or into any other person's name, the commissioners 
 shall have power to sell and dispose of the same as aforesaid ; and every such salo 
 shall be valid against the bankrupt, and such children and persons as aforesaid, 
 and against all persons claiming under him " (§ 73). 
 
 By § 72, " If any bankrupt, at the time he becomes bankrupt, shall, by the 
 consent and permission of the true owner thereof, have in his possession, order, 
 or disposition any goods or chattels, whereof he was reputed owner, or whereof 
 he had taken upon him the sale, alteration, or disposition as owner, the commis- 
 sioners shall have power to sell and dispose of the same for the benefit of the 
 creditors under the commission : Provided that nothing herein contained shall 
 invalidate or affect any transfer or assignment of any ship or vessel, or any share 
 thereof, made as a security for any debt or debts, either by way of mortgage or 
 assignment, duly registered according to the provisions of an act of parliament made 
 in the fourth year of his present majesty, intituled A n Act for the Registering of Ves- 
 sels." The act alluded to is 4 Geo. I V. c. 41 , for which 3 & 4 Wm. I V. c. 55 (see § 43) 
 is now substituted. [Registry.] The property to which the foregoing enactment ap- 
 plies must come within the definition of personal goods and chattels, such as ships, 
 furniture, utensils in trade, stock, bills of exchange, policies of insurance, shares 
 in public companies and in newspapers, &c. " Chattel interests in lands, houses, 
 and things affixed to the freehold, or shares in a company seised of real estate, are 
 not within the statute " (Henley's B. L. 270). The provision only applies to property 
 in hand at the time of the act of bankruptcy, and not to goods received before 
 or obtained after it. It has been laid down, that a removal on the day of the 
 
ASS 32 ASS 
 
 bankruptcy does not take the property out of the statute, and the same was held 
 where goods were fraudulently removed on the day before (Darby v. Smith, 1798, 
 8 T. R. 82). The possession must be with " consent and permission " of the owner, 
 and so the property of infants incapable of consenting, or fraudulently obtained, is 
 not within the statute. The interim possession by a carrier through whom the 
 bankrupt has sent goods, does not alter the reputed ownership, but that of a pawneo 
 holding in pledge does. Property deposited for a particular purpose is not held 
 within the statute ; thus, bills lodged with a banker for the purpose of obtaining 
 payment do not vest, but it is otherwise where they are not remitted for a particular 
 purpose, but to be discounted and credited to the remitter. Goods in the hands of 
 a factor do not pass to his assignees, but those on sale and return are within the 
 statute. The question of reputed ownership is generally a question of fact for the 
 consideration of a jury. 
 
 Among the other effects of the bankrupt, which vest in the assignees are, 1st, Pro- 
 perty in right of his wife, unless she hold it by the custom of London as a sole trader, 
 or it is settled to her separate use. 2d, Choses in action, including whatever right 
 existed in the bankrupt to sue for performance of beneficial contracts, and for remedy 
 of wrongs committed as against his property, but not of personal wrongs. By 6 Geo. 
 IV. c. 16,§ 76, where the bankrupt has entered on an agreement to purchase an estate 
 or interest in land, the vender may require the assignees to choose whether they shall 
 perform the agreement or not, and if they do not make their election, he may apply 
 to the court for restoration of the property. 3d, Advowsons, which may be sold for 
 behoof of the creditors, but if a vacancy occur before the sale, the bankrupt presents. 
 4th, Leases. On this subject we take the following remarks from Mr Smith : " The 
 assignees are not bound to accept a term for years belonging to the bankrupt ; for 
 it might be burdened with rent and covenants beyond its value, and prove a loss 
 instead of a benefit to the creditors. Such an estate, till they have done some act 
 to manifest their acceptance of it, remains in the bankrupt, subject to the right of 
 the assignees to adopt it. It has frequently become a question, what acts will 
 amount to such an adoption. The general rule is, that any intermeddling with 
 the estate, in the capacity of owner, amounts to an adoption of it ; but not a mere 
 experiment to ascertain its value. Thus, where the assignees entered and kept 
 possession of the premises for three months, they were held to have adopted the 
 lease, though the bankrupt's effects were on the premises during that period, 
 and immediately after the sale they delivered up the key. But they were held not 
 to have adopted the term, by advertising it for sale, without stating it to belong to 
 them, nor by or for whom it was to be sold, but only that there was a saleable term ; 
 for that might be a mere experiment to ascertain its value. 
 
 " The lease remaining in the bankrupt till the assignees' election, he would, in 
 the mean while, and afterwards, in case of their refusing it, be liable to rent, and 
 would be chargeable on his express covenants, whether the assignees accepted the 
 lease or declined it. However, by st. 1 Geo. IV. c. 16, § 75, 
 
 " ' A bankrupt entitled to any lease or agreement for a lease, if the assignees 
 accept the same, shall not be liable to pay any rent accruing after the date of the 
 commission, or to be sued in respect of any subsequent non-observance or non -per- 
 formance of the conditions, covenants, or agreements therein contained ; and if the 
 assignees decline the same, shall not be liable as aforesaid, in case he deliver up 
 such lease or agreement to the lessor or such person agreeing to grant a lease, 
 within fourteen days after he shall have had notice that the assignees shall have 
 declined as aforesaid ; and if the assignees shall not (upon being thereto required) 
 elect whether they will accept or decline such lease or agreement for a lease, the 
 lessor or person so agreeing as aforesaid, or any person entitled under such lessor 
 or person so agreeing, shall be entitled to apply by petition to the Lord Chancellor, 
 who may order them so to elect and to deliver up such lease or agreement, in case 
 they shall decline the same, and the possession of the premises, or may make such 
 other order therein as he shall think fit.' 
 
 " This section applies only to the case of a lessee, not to that of the assignee of 
 a lessee. And though the "bankrupt, complying with the provisions of the act, 
 cannot be sued for any breach of covenant subsequent to the date of the fiat, and is 
 discharged from his express covenants contained in the lease, although he should 
 come in again as the assignee of his own assignees ; yet a surety for the perform- 
 ance of those covenants is liable for breaches accruing between the date of the 
 commission and the delivery up of the lease. The assignees, as they may if they 
 please repudiate the lease, so, if they do, are not allowed to take advantage of any 
 covenants contained in it. If they accept it, they may, like ordinary assignees, 
 
ASS 33 ASS 
 
 exonerate themselves from future liability by assigning it over even to an insolvent 
 person" (Smith's Mercantile L. 567-569). 
 
 By 6 Geo. IV. c. 16, § 88, the assignees, with consent of a majority in value of 
 the creditors assembled at a general meeting called on twenty-one days' notice 
 in the Gazette, may compound with any debtor to the estate, or submit any dispute 
 to arbiters to be chosen by the assignees and the majority in value on the one 
 hand, and the person with whom they are in dispute on the other ; " provided that 
 if one-third in value or upwards of such creditors shall not attend at any such 
 meeting (whereof such notice shall have been given as aforesaid), the assignees shall 
 have power, with the consent of the commissioners, testified in writing under their 
 hands, to do any of the matters aforesaid." By 1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 56, § 43, the arbi- 
 tration may be made a rule of court. [Arbitration.] 
 
 It is the duty of the assignees to bring the estate recovered to sale without unne- 
 y delay ; and with this branch of management, the official assignee is prohibited 
 from interfering (1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 56, § 23). It is a general rule that the credi- 
 tors not only as a body, but as individuals, are entitled to insist on a speedy realiza- 
 tion of the property ; and if assignees delay to make sale, though in opposition only to 
 one individual, they will incur responsibility. However advantageous it may 
 appear, a creditor cannot be dragged into a speculation which may render the 
 rtturns from the estate future and uncertain, and it has been laid down that the 
 es under a separate bankruptcy against one partner, cannot engage in a new 
 adventure with the solvent partner, without the consent of every one interested in 
 the estate (Chancellor's opinion, Crawshay v. Collins, 1808, 15 Vesey, 228). 
 
 For the auditing of assignees' accounts "and the payment of dividends, see Bank- 
 ruptcy. 
 
 The Commissioners of the Bankruptcy Court have power to remove assignees 
 on their own discretion, and without appeal. Assignees have been removed for 
 purchasing part of the bankrupt estate, and for permanently residing beyond the 
 jurisdiction of the court. On removal of an assignee the rights he had acquired vest 
 in his successor (Henley's Bankrupt L. 207-255. Smith's Mercantile L. 547-590. 
 Statutes as quoted). [Act of Bankruptcy. Bankruptcy. Proof. Certifi- 
 cate.] 
 
 In Scotland the duties which correspond with those of the assignee in England, 
 devolve on the trustee. [Sequestration. Trustee.] 
 
 In Ireland, by 12 & 13 Vict. c. 107, the law as to assignees in bankruptcy, 
 is framed on the model of that of England, — there are, however, no official 
 assignees, and therefore the rules applicable to the country bankruptcies only 
 apply. The various sections embracing the subject are as follows : By § 72 
 assignees are to be chosen at the first sitting appointed by the commissioners ; and 
 §§ 74-77 provide for the vesting of the bankrupt's estate in the assignees, without 
 conveyance. By § 78 a certificate of the appointment of assignees must be entered 
 in the office for enrolment of matters relating to bankruptcy. By § 79 the com- 
 missioners are entitled to dispose of estates tail, in conformity with the provisions 
 of the Fine and Recovery Act (3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 74). Section 86 provides for goods 
 in the reputed ownership of the bankrupt passing to assignees, with the exception of 
 red securities on ships (for which 4 Geo. IV. c. 41, is referred to instead of 
 ?> 6l 4 Wm. IV. c. 55), and §§ 89-91, 94, provide as to leases, inchoate agreements 
 to purchase real property, powers, and stock, vested in the bankrupt, as detailed 
 above with regard to England. Section 102 empowers assignees with consent of 
 creditors (or if one-third in value do not attend the meeting, with consent of com- 
 missioner) to compound debts, and submit disputes to arbitration. By § 121 as- 
 signees are to keep a book of accounts of the bankrupt's estate, and commissioners 
 are empowered to summon assignees, and enforce production of documents ; and by 
 § 120-123, the vesting of money according to direction of majority of value of the 
 creditors, and purchase of Exchequer bills by direction of commissioner are enjoined. 
 Section 124 provides for auditing assignees accounts. 
 
 ASSIGNMENT, Eng. & Ir. ; ASSIGNATION, Scot, is an agreement, by which 
 a right or interest in one person is transferred to another. The granter is called 
 cedent or assigner, the receiver assign or assignee. In England an assignment is 
 employed in real property, generally for the purpose of transferring temporary or 
 defeasible estates, such as estates for life or for years ; and it differs from a lease in 
 as far as it transfers the whole interest of the granter. In Scotland, in real property 
 transactions, imperfect titles containing authority to the holder to complete them, 
 are transferred to purchasers and others, by assignation,to enable them to makegood 
 their titles, and the portions to run of leases are common subjects of assignation. 
 
ASS 34 AUC 
 
 In moveable property, when the assignment conveys property in the possession 
 of the assigner, the contract comes properly under the head of " Sale." In its more 
 limited acceptation, however, the term is generally used to express the conveyance 
 of a right which theassigner has to the subject of the transaction. In this manner 
 debts, contracts, and all those rights which in England are called choses in action, 
 and by the civilians jura ad rem, are the proper subjects of assignment. Among 
 the most ordinary assignments is the indorsation of bills of exchange, bills of lading, 
 and such like. By an old rule of the common law of England, a chose in action could 
 not be conveyed, because such conveyance led directly to " maintenance," or that 
 offence which arises from the money of one person being employed in prosecuting the 
 suit of another. This rule still holds good in the common law courts, with some 
 exceptions, among which are assignments of bills by indorsation. To enable assign- 
 ments of bonds to be supported in those courts, a power of attorney authorizing the 
 assignee to sue in name of the assigner is employed, and the courts so far aid the 
 transaction, that if the obligee in such a document has paid the contents to the 
 original obligor after notice of the assignment, he cannot plead the payment in a 
 suit at the instance of the assignee. Courts of equity have always given full force 
 to assignments (Blackstone's Com. ii. 442). 
 In Scotland, intimation of an assignation to the obligee is necessary, not only to 
 give a preference to the assignee over one acquiring a posterior title, and to pre- 
 vent the obligee from fulfilling his contract with the original obligor, but for the 
 completion of the transference. The regular form of notice is made by the assignee or 
 his procurator appearing before the obligee, or repairing to his dwelling house in pre- 
 sence of a notary and two witnesses, and readingthe assignation or leaving a schedule 
 of it. If the obligee is not in Scotland, the intimation must be made at the Register 
 House. The narrative of the giving notice is reduced to a probative instrument by 
 the notary. Professor Bell observes, that " an assignation [in England] of a debt 
 due in Scotland, produced in a competition with creditors arresting the fund, will 
 be ineffectual without intimation or something equivalent." A formal notice, attested 
 by a notary public, is not always necessary, — equivalents are admitted. Thus an 
 action, or any kind of legal execution, raised by the assignee against the debtor, is 
 effectual notice. A bill accepted, or even protested for non-acceptance, is held suf- 
 ficient notice of an assignation of a money-debt ; and an acknowledgment of notice 
 in the debtor's handwriting on the assignation, or in a paper apart, is sufficient. 
 A partial payment will prove notice in so far as respects the debtor. Some trans- 
 ferences of property, which take place in the course of the administration of justice, 
 or by the fixed rules of the law, are called assignations, as adjudications of real 
 property, marriage in the case of the property of a female, &c. These do not 
 require notice, but the debtor will be justified in paying to the original creditor 
 until he is acquainted with the event. A mere document of debt may be transferred 
 by indorsation ; but a special assignation is necessary to convey the diligence that 
 may have followed on it. Diligence (or execution) taken out in the name of the 
 cedent, cannot be used in that of the assignee without judicial warrant (Erskine's 
 Inst. b. iii. tit. 5. Bell's Com. ii. 16-20). 
 
 ASSIZE, an ordinance or decree regulating the price of bread, ale, fuel, or other 
 common necessary of life. Bread was formerly rated according to the price of 
 wheat. Assizes were in ancient times very common ; and the power to set one on 
 some articles still subsists, though it is seldom or never acted upon. The inutility 
 of such regulations is now too obvious to require comment. 
 
 ASSURANCE. [Insurance on Lives.] 
 
 ATTACHMENT, in its general sense, is a writ issued by a court of justice on bare 
 suggestion, or on the judges' own knowledge, against a party who has committed 
 a contempt. Foreign attachment, by the custom of the city of London, is a process 
 by which property in the hands of some party, other than the debtor, may be at- 
 tached for payment of the debt. It may proceed from the court of the Mayor or of 
 the Sheriff, but the former is the more advantageous. A debt may be attached in 
 the hands of the garnishee (literally the person warned, viz. he who has the pro- 
 perty of the debtor in his hands) before it is due, but cannot be levied till the term 
 of payment. The original debtor must be summoned and have notice. Attachment 
 cannot proceed on goods in thehands of a carrier {Comyns' Digest, v. Attachment). 
 
 ATTORNEY, POWER OF. [Letter of Attorney.] 
 
 AUCTION, SALE BY, is the public sale of property, to whatever person pre- 
 sent will give the highest price for it. By the usual form in this country, the pro- 
 perty is set up at a minimum, and intending purchasers bid above each other, until 
 no one will bid more. By the form commonly called Dutch auction, a price higher 
 
AUC 35 AUC 
 
 than that expected is named at the commencement, and gradually reduced until 
 some one consents to purchase. 
 
 In England, sales by auction come within the statute of frauds, 29 Ch. II. c. 3, 
 and therefore, when the price of any article is £10 or upwards, the contract is not 
 good unless the buyer take delivery of a part, or receive earnest, or a memorandum 
 in writing be signed by the parties or their agents. In auctions, the auctioneer is 
 from the commencement agent for the vendor, and, by bidding, the proposing pur- 
 chaser is held also to constitute him his agent. It will be sufficient conformity 
 with the statute of frauds, that the auctioneer write the initials of the purchaser's 
 name opposite to the lot in the catalogue, if the conditions of the sale be annexed 
 to the catalogue, or clearly referred to. An auctioneer, while acting as such, can- 
 not purchase the property he is employed to sell. He has a lien for charges and 
 auction duty, first on the goods, and when they have been delivered, on the price. 
 An auctioneer is liable for deterioration of the goods through his negligence, 
 but not for unavoidable casualties. [Bailment.] It is his duty to sell to the 
 highest bidder, but no action will lie against him for not obtaining the price he was 
 instructed to obtain, though action will lie for not putting up at the price fixed by 
 the vendor. The fall of the hammer decides the completion of the contract (unless 
 some other criterion be adopted, such as the running of a sandglass, or the burning of 
 a candle), and until that event occurs a bidder may retract. It is said that in Eng- 
 land, where the sum bid is £10 or upwards, and so comes within the statute of 
 frauds, he may resile before the writing is completed. On the part of the exposer 
 the sale must be conducted without the adoption of undue means for raising the 
 price, and so that the lots may fall to the highest real bidder among intending 
 purchasers. Fictitious bidding, by means of persons termed " white bonnets," is 
 unlawful, and vitiates the sale. The clause of the act 42 Geo. III. c. 93, referred 
 to below, countenances buying in by the exposer or his agent, provided " the 
 fairness and reality of the transaction" be " certified." If due notice is given of 
 such intention, therefore, the owner may bid. If the sale be advertised, however, 
 as " without reserve," it would appear that he cannot do so. Fraudulent descrip- 
 tion or concealment will vitiate the transaction ; it is a common fraud to mix effects 
 (such as pictures and other works of art) with collections which have acquired a 
 reputation from the judgment of their possessor, and to sell the whole as having been 
 his. Such a fraud will vitiate the transaction. On the other hand, bidders must 
 not combine, or use other means to prevent the sums offered from rising to the 
 extent they would reach were each person besides the final purchaser freely to bid 
 the utmost he intends to give. Thus the contract was voided where a purchaser 
 declared to the people around him that he had a claim on the property exposed 
 (Fuller v. Abrahams, 1821 ; 3 Brod. § Bing. 116). In Scotland, three persons having 
 been commissioned to bid for property at a sale, agreed that the one who had the 
 highest commission should purchase at the upset price, and divide the difference 
 among his associates ; besides the reparation for fraud, the sale was found void 
 (Murray v. Macwhan, 1st March 1783, M. 9567). Where there are printed conditions 
 of sale, they cannot be altered by the verbal statement of the auctioneer. It is suf- 
 ficient publication of the conditions, that they are posted on the auctioneer's box, 
 or on the wall of the room, or are attached to catalogues circulated among the 
 frequenters. (Babington's Law of Auctions. Sugden's Law of Vendors, 13-45. 
 Morton on Vendors and Purchasers, 148-165.) 
 
 Auctioneer, is a person whose business is to conduct sales by auction. It is 
 his duty previously to the commencement of every sale to state the conditions 
 under which the property is offered; to receive the respective biddings; and to 
 declare the termination of the sale. For these purposes he commonly makes 
 use of a hammer, upon the falling of which the biddings are closed. 
 
 In 1845, by 8 Vict. c. 15, the duties on sales by auction were repealed, and 
 previous statutes so far as they related to the collection of them. Under this Act 
 even- auctioneer is required to take an annual excise license, for which £10 is to 
 be paid ; the license to be renewed ten days at least before the expiration thereof, 
 on the fifth of July in every year, under the penalty of £100 for omission, and 
 earning on the business of an auctioneer without such license; a separate license 
 is requisite to sell plate or other articles. But certain sales need not be con- 
 ducted by a licensed auctioneer, namely, goods sold under a distress for less than 
 £20, for rent or tithes, and under the provisions of certain small debts acts. By 
 
AUD 36 AITS 
 
 § 7, prior to the commencement of an auction, the auctioneer is required to sus- 
 pend in some conspicuous part of the room a ticket or board, containing his full 
 christian and surname and place of residence; and to produce his licence to, or 
 deposit £10 with any officer of excise or customs, or stamps and taxes, who may 
 demand its production; in default, he may be arrested at the termination of the 
 sale, and conveyed before a justice, who may commit him to prison for any time 
 not exceeding one calendar month, and this imprisonment is not to affect any 
 proceedings for the penalty incurred for selling without a licence. On the pro- 
 duction, within a week, of the licence, the deposit of £10 is to be returned by 
 the officer. 
 
 An auctioneer who has duly paid the licence-duty is not liable, in the city of 
 London, to the penalties for acting as a broker without being admitted agreeably 
 to 6 Anne, c. 1 6. 
 
 The net revenue derived from auction-duties in the year ended January 5, 1840, was in Eng- 
 land £263,567; in Scotland, £21,014 ; in Ireland, £13,824 ; total, £298,405. 
 
 AUDIT, an examination of accounts by persons duly appointed. 
 
 AUNE, a French cloth measure ; the aune zisuelle =■ Al\ Imp. inches ; the old 
 aune of Paris = 464 Imp. inches. 
 
 AUSTRALIA. [New South Wales. Queen's Land. South Australia. 
 Van Diemen's Land, or Tasmania. Victoria. Western Australia.! 
 
 AUSTRIA, an empire situated betwixt lat. 42° and 51° N., and long. 8° and 26° 
 E. ; and bounded N. by Saxony, Prussia, Poland, and Russia ; W. by Bavaria, 
 Switzerland, and Piedmont ; S. by Tuscany, the Ecclesiastical States, the Adriatic, 
 and Turkey ; E. by Turkey and Russia. Area, 255,226 square miles. Population, 
 according to the latest returns, Austria Proper, 2,113,915 ; Styria, 859,841 ; Tyrol, 
 786,543 ; Bohemia, 3,897,076 ; Moravia and Austrian Silesia, 2,066,218 ; Illyria, 
 1,145,445 ; Galicia or Austrian Poland, 4,548,534 ; Hungary, Sclavonia, and Croatia, 
 11,536,431; Transylvania, 2,034,385; Dalmatia, 309,412 ; Venetian Lombardy, 
 4,332,581 ; total, 33,630,381 . Capital, Vienna, pop. 330,000. The government is mon- 
 archical ; in Hungary, the nation shares the legislative, and even the executive 
 power, with the emperor ; and the Tyrolese possess to a certain extent the same 
 privileges. In other parts there are provincial diets, but they are consulted only as 
 to the mode of raising the taxes ; so that his imperial majesty is in a great measure 
 an unlimited sovereign. 
 
 The Austrian empire being generally mountainous, the plains, which occur chiefly in Hun- 
 gary and Galicia, occupy a comparatively small part of the surface. In point of climate, the 
 whole may be divided into three regions. The southern extends from lat. 42° to 46° N., where 
 the depth of winter resembles the month of March in northern countries ; and where are found 
 the olive, myrtle, vine, fig-tree, and even pomegranate. In the middle region, from lat. 46° to 
 49° N., the olive is not found, but vines and maize thrive in favourable situations ; winter lasts 
 from 3 to 4 months ; summer is warm, but variable ; and the air is salubrious, except in the vicinity 
 of the Hungarian marshes. The northern region extends from lat. 49° to 51° N., where the winter 
 is severe, and lasts fully 5 months ; vines and maize are no longer to be met with, and even wheat 
 requires a choice of situation. The soil, though of endless variety, is in general fertile ; but in 
 agriculture, Austria has not kept pace with other European states. Great pains have, however, 
 been lately taken to improve the land, and about 4-5ths of the entire area have been brought 
 into use. The arable portion forms less than one half ; the forests and woodlands more than a third ; 
 the vineyards about l-50th ; and the meadow andgrazingground, each about 1-1 lth of the available 
 surface. The country abounds in minerals. The mires of gold and silver in Hungary and 
 Transylvania, and of quicksilver at Idria in Carniola, are the richest in Europe ; lead and copper 
 are produced in considerable quantities ; and the supply of iron is almost inexhaustible, though 
 the quantity raised is limited by the dearness of fuel. Tin, calamine, zinc, cobalt, antimony, chrome, 
 bismuth, manganese, also exist ; and indeed nearly every metal except platinum, is to be found in 
 different parts of the empire. Salt exists in abundance : the celebrated mine of Wieliczka, in 
 
 Galicia, yields annually 35,000 tons ; and the total yearly produce of the empire is nearly equal to 
 the consumption, as its importation is prohibited. Vitriol, alum, soda, sulphur, and saltpetre, are 
 likewise found in great quantities. Scarcely a province is deficient in coal ; but the quantity 
 
 raised is trifling, owing to the abundance of fuel obtained from the forests. Marble and a variety 
 of precious stones also occur. The silk produced yearly is estimated at upwards of 7,000,000 
 lbs., a great part of which is exported from the Italian provinces, where it is chiefly raised. The 
 produce of the vine, though far short of what it might be rendered, is a source of considerable 
 wealth ; and a large quantity is exported, chiefly to the adjoining states ; the finest is the celebra- 
 ted Tokay, made at Zemplin, in Hungary. Olive oil is produced in large quantities in the Italian 
 provinces. Besides these articles, tobacco, hops, hemp, flax, and potash, are produced in sufficient 
 quantity to afford a surplus for exportation. 
 
 The manufactures of Austria are considerable, though by no means proportionate to its natural 
 resources. Those of linen and woollen in Moravia and Bohemia have long been celebrated, and 
 
AUS 
 
 37 
 
 AUS 
 
 the introduction of Jacquard's machinery has produced a rapid extension of the silk manufacture, 
 especially in Lower Ens, at Vienna, and in the Italian provinces. The cotton manufacture em- 
 ploys a great many hands, but it is not in a prosperous condition, and is indeed entirely supported 
 by the present high rate of duty on foreign articles. The other manufactures are chiefly those of 
 iron, leather, paper, and glass; the last chiefly in Bohemia. The proportion of the manufac- 
 turing classes to the agricultural, is said to be as one to four. 
 
 The internal commerce, though burdened in some branches by government monopolies, and by 
 the frontier duties of each separate state, is still very considerable. The communication be- 
 twixt distant places is facilitated by navigable rivers, and generally by good roads, on which 
 the government bestow great attention. Of the rivers, the most important are the Adige, Po, 
 Elbe, and above all the Danube, which, with its tributaries, pervades the whole empire, crossing, 
 however, its eastern boundary at about 500 miles from the sea. An important aspect has been 
 lately given to the navigation of the Danube by the introduction of steam- vessels. This was first 
 accomplished in 1828, by two English shipbuilders, Andrews and Pritchard. A company has 
 since been formed, with a charter for 25 years, to prosecute further this great object ; and it is 
 stated, that there are now 9 steam-boats on the river, forming a chain of communication betwixt 
 Vienna and Constantinople. This navigation is throughout rather difficult, owing to shoals and 
 rapids ; and at Orsova, it is altogether impeded by rocks. A further disadvantage occurs from 
 the fact, that the mouths of the river are now in the possession of Russia, who is said to view with 
 jealousy the extension of this navigation. With the view of keeping the communication open, it 
 has been proposed to cut a canal from the nearest point to Kustendji, on the Black Sea. 
 
 Vienna is the great storehouse of the internal trade of the empire ; the other commercial towns 
 are Prague, Pesth, Cronstadt, Lemberg, Brody, Botzen, Milan, Bergamo, Brescia, Semlin, and 
 Debreczin. Austria has kept aloof from the Prussian commercial league; and its chief foreign 
 intercourse by the land frontier is with Turkey, the lesser German States, and Switzerland. 
 
 The maritime commerce of Austria is comparatively inconsiderable, owing partly to its small 
 extent of seacoast, but much more to the monopolies and restrictions of the government. The 
 export of the precious metals, ashes, raw flax, and hemp with the roots attached, is prohibited. 
 Many articles, such as salt, gunpowder, and tobacco, are monopolized by the government; and 
 their importation is either forbidden, except to government contractors, or loaded with high duties. 
 Duties of a prohibitory character are also imposed on most woven fabrics. The duty on cotton 
 manufactures of all kinds (exclusive of twist) is 60 per cent, ad valorem,- on woollens and fine 
 hardware the same ; on silks, £1 per lb. ; on linens, from 5s. to 12s. per lb. The duties on coffee, 
 refined sugar, and many other tropical productions, are likewise very high. In consequence of these 
 regulations, a very large proportion of the trade is carried on by smuggling, a practice which is 
 conducted with facility from the nature of the frontier, and by the corruption of the custom-house 
 officials. According to recent statements, however, there are grounds for expecting that this 
 prohibitory system will be soon either abolished or greatly relaxed. 
 
 In 1834, the registered merchant shipping of the empire consisted of 516 vessels of 123,890 tons ; 
 but this was exclusive of the smaller class of coasters. The chief ports are Venice, Malamocco, 
 Brondolo, and Chioggia, in the Venetian territories; Trieste, Fiume, Rovigno, Capo-d'Istria, 
 and Pola, in Illyria ; and Ragusa, Cattaro, Zara, Sebenico, and Spalatro, in Dalmatia. The 
 foreign trade is, "however, almost wholly engrossed by Trieste and Venice, which are both free 
 ports. 
 
 Trieste is situated in 45" 38' N., and 13° 46' E., at the N.E. extremity of the Adriatic, pop. 51,346. 
 It possesses a commodious harbour, and being a free port, and almost the only outlet for the South 
 of Germany, Blyria, and part of the Sclavonian provinces, its commerce is very extensive. Exports 
 —glassware, hardware, beads, copper, wheat, rice, currants, raisins, hemp, iron, paper, rags, Russia 
 leather, shumac, silk, steel, tobacco, timber, musical instruments, and other articles. Imports — 
 principally sugar, cotton-wool, coffee, olive oil, cotton and woollen manufactures : the other 
 articles, comparatively of small amount, are almonds, hides, wax, wool, valonia, gums, wheat, 
 maize, barley, and hemp. Of these imports, a very considerable proportion is forwarded to other 
 places, particularly to Venice. In 1836, no fewer than 1095 vessels engaged in foreign trade entered 
 the port, and the total number of vessels entered, including coasters, was 8489, of 422,743 tons. 
 The value of the trade with different places, in the same year, was as follows : — 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Russia 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Prussia 
 
 German v 
 
 Holland 
 
 France 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Sardinia . 
 Tuscany. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 £598. 370 
 
 290,290 
 
 27,500 
 
 400 
 
 'isjoo 
 
 66,760 
 236,500 
 86,920 
 25,845 
 40,210 
 37,150 
 
 Exports. 
 
 £558,970 
 32,810 
 
 3,440 
 17,360 
 56,370 
 48,100 
 69,850 
 19,550 
 
 7,060 
 40,440 
 53,200 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Roman States. 
 
 Sicily 
 
 Ionian Islands. 
 
 Greece 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Barbary 
 
 United States 
 
 Brazil 
 
 South America... .. 
 
 Austrian Ports 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 Imports. 
 
 £124,500 
 
 .3? ) 
 77" 
 W 
 380 
 410 
 155 
 
 ,120 
 110 
 
 147 
 896 
 
 7-36 
 
 5, 
 
 319 
 
 MM 
 
 m 
 
 Exports. 
 
 £6,315,390 
 
 £254,850 
 
 101,670 
 
 72,960 
 
 137,320 
 
 680,856 
 
 130,550 
 
 15,410 
 
 171,850 
 
 15,720 
 
 14,430 
 
 2,033,479 
 
 £4,536,245 
 
 The commerce of Trieste is rapidly increasing, and between the years 1826 and 1838 it had nearly 
 doubled in amount. This arose chiefly from a more extended intercourse with Turkey, South 
 America (especially Brazil), Britain, and the United States. The exports to Britain were more 
 than doubled in the four years 1833-36 ; but little difference has occurred in the imports. About 140 
 British vessels arrive annually. 
 
 reniceis a magnificent city and port , standing near the N. extremity of the Adriatic, on a number 
 
AUS 
 
 38 
 
 AUS 
 
 of small islands separated from each other hy canals, and from the mainland by narrow shallows, 
 pop. 1 03,000. Its commercial greatness dates from the middle ages ; but since the discovery of the 
 passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, it has gradually diminished, and at present, although 
 a free port, its trade is inconsiderable, compared with that of Trieste ; being confined chiefly 
 to the receiving and transmitting of goods through the medium of that city. Exports— silk, fruit, 
 grain, woollens, paper, cheese, &c. Imports — chiefly olive oil, cotton, coffee, and sugar; with 
 dried fish, wheat, linseed, indigo, iron, and other articles of smaller value. In 1836, the total 
 value of the imports was £1,081,971 ; of which, £592,096, were brought via Trieste. About 30 
 British vessels arrive annually. 
 
 In 1835, the exports from Fi'wme amounted to £247, 112, and from .Ra^iaa to £45,936, consisting 
 chiefly of goods sent coastwise. 
 
 MEASURES, WEIGHTS, MONEY, AND FINANCES. 
 
 VIENNA AND TRIESTE. 
 
 Measures and Weights.— The klafter of 6 
 "Vienna feet = 6*23 imp. feet ; the Vienna ell = 
 30-6 imp. inches ; the post mile of 4000 klaftern 
 = 4*71, or about 43 imp. miles. 
 
 The Vienna joch = 6889 imp. sq. yards, and 
 7*03 jochs = 10 imp. acres. 
 
 The Vienna wine eimer of 70 kopfen, 40 maas- 
 ses, or 4 viertels = 12*46 imp. galls : the fuder = 
 32 eimers ; the dreyling is 30 eimers. 
 
 The corn metzen of 4 viertels or 8 achtels = 1 -69 
 imp. bushel ; and 100 metzen = 21£ imp. quar- 
 ters : 30 metzen = 1 muth. 
 
 The Vienna pound of 4 quarters, 16 ounces, 
 or 32 loths, = 8645 troy grains; and 100 lbs. = 1 
 centner = 123J lbs. avoirdupois: 20 lbs. = 1 
 stone. Gold and silver are weighed by the Vienna 
 mark ■= 4333 troy grains. 
 
 In Trieste, the woollen ell = 26*6 imp. inches ; 
 the silk ell = 25*22 imp. inches : the wine orna 
 or eimer = 12*45 imp. galls ; the barile = 144J 
 imp. galls ; the oil orna = 107 Vienna lbs., or 
 14*17 imp. galls; 100 staji of corn = 28f imp. 
 quarters ; but estimated commonly at 342 staji 
 to 100 imp. qrs. In other respects same as above. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are kept in florins of 60 
 kreusers, each of 4 pfennings: 20 florins are 
 coined from the Cologne mark of fine silver ; 
 hence 1 florin = 2s. Oid. nearly, and the par of 
 exchange with London is 9 florins 50 kr. for £1. 
 The other silver coins are the rixdollar of 2 
 florins ( = 1$ German rixdollar of account), and 
 pieces of 20, 10.5, and 3 kreusers : The souverain 
 d'or = 27s. lOd. ; and the ducat about 9s. 5d. ; 
 there are also copper pieces of 1 , i , and i kreusers. 
 The paper-currency consists of notes of the Na- 
 tional Bank, and of the outstanding depreciated 
 notes of the old Vienna State Bank, called 
 • • Wiener- Wahrung " (Vienna value) , which are 
 at a fixed discount of 60 per cent. ; 100 florins 
 specie or effective being = 250 florins W. W. 
 the last are used chiefly in retail, and for wages, 
 &c. ; all large payments being made in National 
 Bank notes or in silver. 
 
 Bills upon Vienna are generally drawn in effec- 
 tive ; and frequently the particular coin in which 
 they are to be paid is specified — as in 20 kreuser 
 pieces. Usance is 14 days after acceptance ; bills 
 payable " medio mense" are reckoned due on 
 the 15th ; 3 days of grace are allowed, except 
 when drawn at less than 7 days' sight or date. 
 
 The Austrian National Bank was instituted in 1817, with the view of restoring the money stan- 
 dard of the empire, which had become depreciated by the excessive issues of irredeemable paper 
 by the Vienna bank during the war. It commenced with a capital of 100,000 shares, each of 1000 
 florins of that depreciated paper (the Vienna bank being then discontinued), and of 100 florins 
 in specie. The former was converted into government bonds, bearing interest at 2J per cent., 
 payable in specie, and redeemable at 50 per cent. — the treasury at same time establishing a sinking 
 fund for their redemption. The bank, though connected with the state, is under the management 
 of a body of directors ; and its accounts are published periodically. It advances money on bills 
 and other securities, receives deposits, and issues notes for 5, 10, 25, 100, 500, and 1000 florins, 
 which are payable in silver on demand. Branches have been established at Trieste, Milan, Prague, 
 and other towns throughout the empire ; and according to a late statement, the price of the shares 
 had advanced to 1385. 
 
 The Public Revenue of Austria, estimated at £15,000,000, is derived chiefly from taxes, rates, 
 crown-lands, and mines. The expenditure is nearly the same, more than one-third being re- 
 quired to maintain a standing army of 270,000 men. The accounts are, however, not made 
 public. The national debt is about £60,000,000 ; principally in bonds called ' ' metallics, " from their 
 
 MILAN AND VENICE. 
 
 Measures and Weights.— Since 1803, a system 
 founded upon that of France has been used 
 throughout the Italian provinces in all public 
 transactions; thus 1000 atomi, 100 diti, or 10 
 palmi = 1 metro or metre = 39*37 imp. inches ; 
 1000 copi, 100 pinte, or 10 mine, = 1 soma or 
 hectolitre, = 2*751 imp. bushels; 10,000 grani, 
 1000 denari, 100 grossi, or 10 oncie, = 1 libbra 
 nuovaltaliana or kilogramme = 2*204 lbs. avoird. 
 The old measures and weights are still used in 
 private business. 
 
 In Milan, the braccio = 23*4 inches ; 1 wine 
 brenta = 15*72 imp. galls. ; 100 corn staji = 50*2 
 imp. bushels ; the moggio = 4*02 do. ; the mark 
 = 3627 troy grains ; 59*45 lbs. grosso, or 138*78 
 lbs. sottile, = 100 lbs. avoird. : the rubbio of oil 
 weighs 474 lbs. avoird. 
 
 In Venice, the woollen braccio = 26*6 inches ; 
 the silk braccio = 24*8 inches ; 100 wine sechi = 
 237*6 imp. galls. ; 100 oil miri = 335*4 imp. galls ; 
 100 corn staji = 220 imp. bushels; the mark = 
 3681 i troy grains ; 95*07 lbs. grosso, or 150*54 lbs. 
 sottile = 100 lbs. avoird. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are kept in lire Austriachi 
 of 100 centisimi, or 20 soldi; 3 lire Aus. = 1 
 Austrian florin ; hence the lire Aus. = 8Jd. 
 sterling, nearly ; and the par of exchange with 
 London is 29i lire Aus. for £1, or as sometimes 
 quoted, 48|d. per 6 lire Austriachi. 
 
 Formerly, accounts were kept in the lira Ita- 
 liana, equal in value to the French franc. Retail 
 transactions are conducted in lire corrente, or 
 lire piccole. 100 lire Aus. = 87 lire It. = 113& 
 lire corr. = 169gf lire pice. : hence the lira It. 
 = 9Jd. ; the lira cor. = 73d. ; the lira pice. = 4|d. 
 The circulating medium is composed chiefly of 
 lire, and their halves, &c, and of Austrian cur- 
 rency. The gold doppia of Milan = 15s. 7ld. ; 
 the sequin = 9s. 5d. ; and the scudo of 6 lire cor- 
 rente = 3s. 7id. 
 
 Bills are usually drawn in London upon Milan 
 and Venice, at 90 days after date. No days of 
 grace can be claimed at Milan ; but the holder 
 may allow 3 days. No days of grace are allowed 
 at Venice. 
 
AUS 39 AVE 
 
 dividends being payable in specie ; the remainder consists of such obligations in depreciated paper 
 W. W. as have not yet been bought up, or converted by the government. The prices of Austrian 
 stocks as recently quoted were : — 5 per cents. 105 ; 4 per cents. 100 ; 3 per cents. 75£. The onlv debt 
 owing by Austria in England is £2,500,000, raised by a loan contracted in 1823, with Mr Roths- 
 child, at 82 per cent., in order to pay off a debt incurred to Great Britain during the war. The 
 bonds are for £100 each, with coupons for the interest, at 5 per cent, payable in London half 
 yearly, on 1st May and 1st November ; they are transferable without registration, and are seldom 
 offered for sale, being esteemed a safe and desirable investment. 
 
 ABSTRACT OF TREATY OF COMMERCE BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND AUSTRIA, 3d JULY 1838. 
 
 1. The vessels of the two powers shall pay the same duties in their respective harbours, as the 
 national vessels of each power. 2. All the productions of Austria, and which may be imported 
 into the harbours of the Queen of England, as also all British productions which may be im- 
 ported into the harbours of the Emperor, shall enjoy the same privileges; and vice versa. 
 3. Articles, not the produce of the dominions of the two powers, imported from the harbours of 
 Austria into British possessions, pay the same duties as if imported in British vessels. 4. All 
 Austrian vessels proceeding from the harbours of the Danube, as far as Galatz inclusive, as well 
 as their cargoes, may sail direct for the ports of all British possessions, as if they came direct from 
 the harbours of Austria ; and reciprocally, all English vessels, as well as their cargoes, shall be 
 admitted into Austrian harbours with the same immunities as Austrian vessels. 5. The productions 
 of the ports of Asia and Africa within the Straits of Gibraltar, which, after being carried direct to 
 Austrian ports, are thence sent in Austrian vessels to British ports, shall enjoy the same advan- 
 tages as ifimported by English vessels from Austrian ports. 6. All articles imported or exported 
 into, or from the ports of the two countries, under the flags of either, whether in British or Aus- 
 trian bottoms, subjected to the same duties and premiums. 7- Goods in bond from either country 
 subjected to the same duties on re-exportation. 8. No preference to be shown by either power 
 in the purchase of imported commodities, on account of the nationality of the vessel in which such 
 commodities may be imported. 9. The Austrian trade to the East Indies placed on the footing of 
 the most favoured nations. 10. Treaty not to apply to trade between one port and another situated 
 in the dominions of the same power. 11. The vessels and subjects of the two powers, in their 
 trade and navigation, are always to enjoy reciprocally all the privileges of the most favoured 
 nations in the ports of either. 12. Stipulations in treaty of 1815, as to trade between Austria and 
 Ionian Islands, to continue in force. 13. This treaty to be binding until 31st December 1848, and 
 thereafter, until 12 months after notice. S 
 
 AVERAGE in the law of shipping is generally applied to the loss occasioned by 
 any sacrifice made to insure the safety of a ship and cargo, and being a loss which 
 underwriters have to replace, it constitutes part of the law of insurance. There 
 are, technically speaking, two sorts of average, general average, and simple or par- 
 ticular average. The latter is an unmeaning term used merely in contradistinction 
 to the other ; to express those losses arising from the danger of the sea and other- 
 wise, which are not made up by any contribution, but fall on the possessors of the 
 article lost, or on those who may be responsible for its safety. General average 
 dates back to the days of Rhodes. Its principles were fully developed by the earlier 
 civilians ; the maritime nations of the middle ages adopted them, and the system 
 is in full practice over all the commercial world. The circumstance under which 
 the provisions of this law can be had recourse to is, when a vessel and the crew, 
 passengers, and cargo, are in such imminent danger as to render it necessary to 
 make a sacrifice of a part, for the preservation of the whole. The simplest case is 
 that of throwing goods overboard to lighten the ship. Here cargo is sacrificed, 
 and the other proprietors of cargo, along with the shipowners, bear a share of the 
 loss, according to their respective interests. In another instance, it may be necessary 
 to cut away a mast, or slip an anchor. Here the sacrifice is against the shipowners, 
 and the other parties interested must share the loss with them. It is of no moment 
 how light and valuable may be the goods thrown overboard, or how much the reverse 
 those saved. It is said that the act should be done with formality and deliberation, 
 and with the consent of the majority of those on board. The circumstances, however, 
 under which so extreme a measure is generally taken, do not often admit of form 
 and deliberation, and the necessity for the act will have more weight than its 
 regularity. Goods stowed on deck are presumed to be an encumbrance, and so not 
 suitable subjects of average. A loss effected by inherent defect, or by sea risk, 
 cannot be considered average ; there must be an intention to sacrifice, and that 
 intention must have been with the view of preserving the remaining property em- 
 barked in the adventure. It is held, that where a vessel having sustained an injury 
 has to put into a port for repairs, the expense of putting into port and remaining 
 there, is to be considered average loss, if the act was necessary for the safety 
 of all concerned, but that the expense of the repairs (unless in so far as they may 
 be solely necessary for the preservation of the cargo) falls on the shipowners. Pro- 
 perty injured in the making of the sacrifice— such as a part of the ship cut away 
 to facilitate the throwing overboard of goods, constitutes average. An accurate 
 statement of the circumstances under which a jettison, or other loss on which aver- 
 age is claimed, should be entered in the log, and immediately on arrival, the master 
 
AVE 40 AZU 
 
 should draw up a narrative of the circumstances, and make affidavit to them, along 
 with his crew, that there may be no ground to presume that goods have been removed 
 sincft Jn*nV(il 
 
 The adjustment is generally made thus : The owners contribute according to the 
 net value of ship and freight at the port of delivery, after deducting expenses. But 
 ship provisions, wearing apparel, and seamen's wages, do not contribute. If the 
 vessel has had to put back to the port of lading, the cargo is taken at invoice price ; 
 otherwise, the cargo is valued at the price it would bring at the port of destination, 
 deducting freight and charges. Ship furniture is rated at the cost of renewal, with 
 a deduction of one-third. The Talue of what is lost being thus estimated, is added 
 to the value of what is saved, and the whole being divided according to the respec- 
 tive interests of the parties, the loss which each has to suffer is a sum bearing the 
 same proportion to his share of the whole sum divided, which the loss sustained 
 bears to the whole sum. {Abbot on Shipping, 342-363. Marshall on Insurance, 
 538-552. Stevens on Average. Martin on the Practice of Stating Averages.) 
 
 AVERAGE in arithmetic is the mean of two or more quantities, formed by 
 adding them together, and dividing by the number of quantities. Thus, 4 is the 
 average of 2 and 6 ; and 5 is the average of 2, 6, and 7. The averages most com- 
 monly required in trade are those of prices. Example : What is the average price 
 per quarter of 300 quarters wheat, sold at 70s. per quarter ; 260 quarters at 50s. ; 
 and 270 quarters at 60s. ? 
 
 300 quarters at 70s. = £1050 
 
 260 at 50s. = 650 
 
 270 at 60s. = 810 
 
 830 830) 2510 (Am. £3 : : 5f per quarter. 
 
 Further illustrations will be found under the heads Alligation and Equation 
 of Payments. 
 
 In calculations of this kind, it must be remembered, that the average of a set of 
 averages is not the average of the whole, unless there are equal numbers of quan- 
 tities in each set averaged. 
 
 AVOIRDUPOIS, the name of the British commercial weight. It is " probably 
 derived from avoirs (averia), the ancient name for goods, or chattels, and poids 
 weight." (Report of Commissioners of Weights and Measures.) 
 
 AXUNGE. [Lard.] 
 
 AZORES, or WESTERN ISLANDS, are situated in the Atlantic, between lat. 
 37° and 40° N., and long. 25° and 32° W., about 795 miles W. from Portugal, to 
 which they belong. They consist of three groups, viz. 1. St Michael and St Mary ; 
 2. Terceira, Fayal, Pico, St George, and Graciosa ; 3. Flores and Corvo, exclu- 
 sive of several islets. Pop. 205,000. The seat of government is Angra, in the 
 island of Terceira, pop. 16,000. 
 
 These islands are of volcanic origin, and are in general mountainous. The climate is mild and 
 pure ; and the soil highly fertile,— most of the islands abounding in vineyards, orange and lemon 
 orchards, and pastures. The growth of wine is considerable : it is produced mostly in Pico, but 
 is known as Fayal wine, from being shipped from the latter. From 8000 to 10,000 pipes are exported 
 in favourable seasons to America and the West Indies, The remaining exports are chiefly from St 
 Michaels, and consist of large quantities of fruit to Britain ; and of corn and live-stock to Lisbon, 
 Madeira, and the Canaries. The imports are, from England, cottons, woollens, hardware, earthen- 
 ware, and other manufactured goods ; from America, boards, staves, lumber, fish, pitch, tar ; 
 and from Portugal, tobacco, sugar, coffee, dispensations, indulgences, images of saints, and relics. 
 The principal shipping towns are Ponta del Gado in St Michaels, Angra in Terceira, and Fayal 
 in the island of that name ; but there is no good port, and as none of the anchorages afford shelter, 
 ships are often obliged, by violent winds, to put to sea at a very short notice, particularly in the 
 months from October to April. In 1833, the British shipping that entered the Azores, and 
 the invoice value of British imports and exports were as follows : St Michaels, ships entered, 305; 
 tonnage, 21,903; imports, £56,437; exports, £100,116. Terceira, ships entered, 59 ; tonnage, 
 5419; imports, £18,200; exports, £12,667. Fayal, ships entered, 32; tonnage, 3607; imports, 
 £8699 ; exports, £7294. Total value of British imports in 9 years, 1825 to 1833, £738,867; and 
 of exports in same period, £895,785. Measures, Weights, and Money, same as Portugal. (Geo. 
 Journal, vol. iv. Tables of Board of Trade.) S 
 
 AZURE STONE, or LAPIS-LAZULI, a mineral substance of an azure blue 
 colour. It is found massive; also, though rarely, in rhombic dodecahedrons. 
 Sp. gr. 2*95. The massive is nearly opaque, and its blue colour is not uniform. 
 Chief localities, China, Persia, Bucharia, and Siberia. The finer kind is prized by 
 the lapidary ; and the common is used occasionally for toys, &c. Lapis-lazuli is, 
 liov. r> chiefly important from its affording ultra-marine, a beautiful pigment, 
 highly valued by painters. 
 
BAB 41 BAI 
 
 B. 
 
 BABLAH, called also Neb-neb, is the rind of the fruit of the Mimosa cineraria. 
 It contains a considerable proportion of gallic acid ; also tannin, a red colouring 
 matter, and an azotized substance. Bablah has been imported from the East Indies 
 and Senegal, as a substitute for the more expensive astringent dye-stuffs, and for 
 communicating shades of drab to cotton. 
 BACON (Ft. Lard. Ger. Speck), the flesh of the hog salted and dried. [Hog.] 
 BADEN, a German grand-duchy, situated on the right bank of the Rhine in 
 its upper course, between lat. 47° and 50° N. ; and long. 7° and 10° E. Area, 
 5915 British square miles. Population in 1834, 1,231,319. Capital, Carlsruhe ; 
 pop. 20,500. Government a constitutional monarchy, with two chambers. S 
 
 Baden has been called the ** Eden of Germany," for although nearly one-half of its surface is 
 occupied by the mountainous districts of the Black Forest and the Odenwald, it possesses a soil 
 favourable to the growth of corn, wine, and fruit, and abounds in magnificent woods and navigable 
 streams ; while the proportion of waste lands to the whole soil is less than six acres in every 
 thousand. Agriculture is the chief occupation of the people, and yields a surplus of grain for the 
 markets of Switzerland and France. Tobacco, hemp of a very fine description, and flax, are also 
 extensively cultivated. The average produce of the vine, which is chiefly grown on the high 
 lands skirting the valleys of the Rhine and Maine, and Lake Constance, is estimated at about 
 4,000,000 gallons. Mining is carried on with partial success, the chief mineral productions being 
 silver, cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, salt, coal, alum, vitriol, and sulphur. The manufactures, 
 though inconsiderable, have increased since the accession of Baden to the Prussian Commercial 
 Union ; the most extensive is perhaps that of the middling and coarser descriptions of linen ; the 
 chief others are woollens, cottons, silks, watches, jewellery, paper, and wooden ware, clocks, and 
 straw-hats, for the production of which the Black Forest has been long celebrated. Pforzheim, 
 Carlsruhe, and Mannheim, are the principal manufacturing towns. 
 
 The exports consist of timber, grain, meal, oil, hides, wine, hemp, linen, tobacco, iron wares, 
 and smaller commodities, to an amount exceeding one million sterling yearly ; the imports 
 of French and other wines, colonial produce, drugs and dyes, iron, steel, cottons, silks, fine 
 woollens, horses, and cattle. Baden is advantageously situated for trade from its position on the 
 Rhine, Maine, Neckar, and other streams, which, besides securing to it an outlet for its own pro- 
 ductions to France, Germany, and Switzerland, have rendered it a country of extensive transit. 
 Free ports have been instituted at Mannheim, Schrock on the Rhine near Carlsruhe, Otten- 
 heim and Freistett on the same river, Ludwigshafen and Constance on the Lake of Constance, 
 and Heidelberg on the Neckar. 
 
 Measures and Weights. — The new aune of 2 feet = 6 French decimetres or 23-62 inches ; the 
 morgen = 36 ares or 0-8896 acre ; the ohm = 150 litres or 33-015 Imp. galls. ; the last of 20 mal- 
 ters = 30 hectolitres, or 10-32 Imp. quarters ; and the centner of 10 stones or 100 lbs. = 50 kilo- 
 grammes, or llQHbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 Money.— Accounts are stated in florins, each divided into 60 kreutzers. The Baden or Rhenish 
 florin, being coined at the rate of 24i to the Cologne mark of fine silver, is equal Is. 8d. sterling. 
 
 Finances.— The estimate of the budget for 1837-38 was 13,026,559 fl. a-year, of which the share 
 received from the Prussian Customs Union was 1,495,593 fl. National debt about 12,000,000 fl. 
 
 BAGGAGE. [Passenger.] 
 
 BAGGING, a coarse hempen fabric used as a wrapper for cotton wool, coffee, 
 and other articles. It is made chiefly at Dundee, for exportation to America. 
 
 BAILMENT, from the French bailler, to deliver, — a term peculiar to English 
 law. Sir William Jones defines it as " a delivery of goods on a condition, expressed 
 or implied, that they shall be restored by the bailee to the bailor, or according to his 
 directions, as soon as the purpose for which they were bailed shall be answered " 
 (Essay I. on Bailments). It embraces a variety of contracts, the nature of which is 
 thus defined and illustrated by Blackstone : * a delivery of goods in trust, upon a 
 contract, expressed or implied, that the trust shall be faithfully executed on the 
 part of the bailee. As, if cloth be delivered, or (in our legal dialect) bailed, to a 
 tailor to make a suit of clothes, he has it upon implied contract to render it again 
 when made, and that in a workmanly manner. If money or goods be delivered to 
 a common carrier, to convey from Oxford to London, he is under a contract in 
 law to pay, or carry them, to the person appointed. If a horse, or other goods, be 
 delivered to an innkeeper or his servants, he is bound to keep them safely, and 
 restore them when his guest leaves the house. If a man takes in a horse, or other 
 cattle, to graze and depasture in his grounds, which the law calls agistment, he 
 takes them upon an implied contract to return them, on demand, to the owner " 
 (//. 451). The contracts so embraced in this term will, where they have relation 
 to commerce, be found treated under their respective designations. The term 
 bailment is now generally used by legal writers, for the purpose of classifying the 
 various contracts it embraces, with a view to a consideration of the proportionate 
 responsibility of the bailee for the subject under his charge, according to the 
 
BAI 42 BAL 
 
 nature of the bailment. The scale of responsibility generally approved of, is that 
 adopted by Sir William Jones. He adopts the distinction of the civilians between 
 culpa, culpa lata, and culpa levis, or " ordinary neglect," " gross neglect," and 
 " slight neglect." These are thus distinguished :— 
 
 " Ordinary neglect is the omission of that care, which every man of common 
 prudence, and capable of governing a family, takes of his own concerns. 
 
 " Gross neglect is the want of that care, which every man of common sense, how 
 inattentive soever, takes of his own property. 
 
 " Slight neglect is the omission of that diligence which very circumspect and 
 thoughtful persons use in securing their own goods and chattels " (118, 119). The 
 responsibility of the bailee, as measured by these definitions, has been thus applied 
 to the leading contracts comprehended under the term bailment. 
 
 In Deposit, where the bailee becomes the gratuitous custodier of the goods,he is not 
 in general liable for what may happen to them, unless a wilful carelessness, which 
 must be presumed to evince fraud or malice, can be shown to have actuated him. 
 If he be naturally careless, and allow his own property to run the same risk, the 
 proprietor must bear any loss which may occur, as the consequence of having 
 trusted a person of such habits with his property, — in this case, then, the bailee is 
 only answerable for gross neglect. 
 
 In Mandate, where the mandatory acts gratuitously, the same rule applies, with 
 the difference applicable to the position of the bailee, who is not merely the passive 
 custodier, but has undertaken to perform some act relative to the subject put into 
 his hands. He is not bound to exact diligence, and cannot be made responsible, 
 unless for gross carelessness, as above (but "see below, in the case of a hiring). 
 
 Commodate or loan for use, exacts the highest degree of care on the part of the 
 borrower. The rule is, that the article lent perishes to the owner, but as it is 
 intrusted to the borrower for his convenience, he will be liable in damages, if the 
 loss can in any way be attributed to the absence of caution on his part. A bor- 
 rower or hirer is absolutely liable for the safety of the object, if he keep it beyond 
 the time stipulated, or use it for a purpose different from that for which it was lent. 
 Pledge, or Pawn, being a contract for the mutual advantage of the bailor and 
 bailee, exacts ordinary diligence. The subject, if it perish, perishes to the bailor, 
 but he can make the bailee responsible if he has shown " ordinary neglect," or has 
 not taken such care of it as a man usually takes of his own property. There are 
 special statutory regulations for the responsibility of pawnbrokers. [Pawn- 
 brokers.] 
 
 Location includes many contracts of great practical importance, such as the 
 letting and hiring of moveables, the employment of manufacturers or artists to 
 perform operations on subjects put into their hands, the employment of factors and 
 agents [Factor. Principal and Agent.], and the delivery of goods to carriers, 
 shipowners, innkeepers, and others. The general rule in location is, that the bailee 
 is liable for ordinary neglect, but special rules apply to the several contracts. Thus, 
 from an early period, shipowners, carriers, and innkeepers, have been considered 
 under an absolute obligation safely to restore all goods committed to their charge, 
 no cause of deterioration exculpating them, unless it be occasioned by " the act of 
 God or of the king's enemies ;" there are, however, in special cases statutory limi- 
 tations of such responsibility. For further information on this subject, reference 
 must be made to the heads Carrier, Factor, Innkeeper, Shipping, Wharfinger. 
 In bailment, the bailor continues proprietor, but " a special qualified property " 
 is transferred to the bailee, who being responsible to the bailor, has a right to 
 maintain an action against any person injuring or abstracting the subject. (Black- 
 stone, as above. Sir William Jones' Essay on the Law of Bailments.) 
 
 BAIZE, a coarse open woollen fabric, having a long nap, and sometimes friezed 
 on one side. It is made at Chichester and Colchester, but principally at Rochdale. 
 BALACHONG, a kind of cake formed of dried fish, pounded up with salt and 
 spices, and then allowed to ferment freely. The best sort, or the red bala- 
 chong, is made of shrimps. The black, or common sort, is made of other small 
 fish. It is esteemed a great delicacy by the Malays ana Chinese, with whom it 
 forms an article of extensive commerce. 
 
 BALANCE, the sum of money which must be added to one or the other side of 
 an account, in order that the debits and credits may be balanced, or of equal 
 amount. [Bookkeeping.] 
 
 BALANCE, or BEAM AND SCALES, is a well-known instrument used for 
 comparing weights with one another. When well-constructed, it must have the 
 following properties :— 1^, It should rest in a horizontal position when loaded with 
 
BAL 43 BAL 
 
 equal weights. 2d, It should have great sensibility, that is, the addition of a small 
 weight in either scale should disturb the equilibrium. 3d, It should have great 
 stability, that is, when disturbed, it should quickly return to a state of rest. That 
 the first property may be obtained, the beam must have equal arms ; and the centre 
 of suspension must be higher than the centre of gravity. The second property, 
 sensibility, is greater, in proportion to the length of the arm, the less the distance 
 between these two centres, and the less the weight with which the balance is loaded. 
 The third property, stability, is attained by making the centre of gravity of the 
 whole apparatus fall below the point of support. The arm having a given length, 
 additional weight either to the scale or beam is favourable to stability, and un- 
 favourable to sensibility. Every increase of sensibility (the arm remaining the 
 same) is a decrease of stability, and vice versa. Stability in a balance is much less 
 difficult to attain than sensibility. The scales of shopkeepers are sufficiently stable, 
 but few are very sensible. Balances of great sensibility, however, are not suited 
 for the ordinary purposes of business, as the process of weighing in such balances 
 is generally tedious, owing to the slow vibrations of the beam. Balances used in 
 commerce are sometimes constructed either fraudulently or by inaccurate work- 
 manship, so as to make unequal weights produce equilibrium,— an effect produced 
 by making the arms of the balance, though apparently equal, really unequal. But 
 an error of this kind is readily detected, by transposition of the weights, when, if 
 the equilibrium be not preserved, the balance is fraudulent and useless. A balance 
 for delicate purposes should be made as much as possible of brass, as steel and iron 
 are apt to acquire magnetic properties. 
 
 BALANCE OF TRADE, a term sometimes employed to express the difference 
 between the commercial exports and imports of a state. This term was introduced, 
 and has been chiefly used, by the supporters of the mercantile theory, a system of 
 Political Economy which was based on the assumption, that " wealth consists of the 
 precious metals ; that what is gained in trade by one nation must be lost by another ; 
 and that our great object in receiving returns should be to get money instead of mer- 
 chandise." Hence, when the exports exceeded the imports, the state was said to 
 have a, favourable balance, and in the opposite case, an unfavourable balance ; it 
 being supposed that such balances could not be cancelled, except by the remittance 
 of an equivalent amount of gold and silver, and that the money thus remitted was 
 the measure of the gain or loss derived by the state from foreign trade. In order 
 chiefly to bring about the desirable result of a favourable balance, restrictions 
 and prohibitions were for many years imposed on the importation of nearly all 
 commodities except bullion, while on the other hand bounties were granted on 
 exportation. [Bounty.] 
 
 The selfish principle that what is gained in trade by one nation is lost by another, 
 is now abandoned ; it being obvious, that unless in the general case both parties 
 are benefited, no exchange of commodities will take place. It is now also admitted, 
 that the wealth of states and of individuals consists not in money alone, but in the 
 abundance of their whole disposable products ; that gold and silver are commo- 
 dities subject to the same general rules in their transmission, as sugar, tobacco, or 
 any other commodities, namely, sent from where they are of lower, to where they 
 are of higher value, and never exported except for the purpose of importing some 
 more valuable article in return ; that in the case of what is called an unfavourable 
 balance, bullion is not exported unless it be at the time the cheapest exportable 
 commodity ; and that in point of fact its exportation (except from mining coun- 
 tries), as well as its importation, can take place only to a limited extent. If 
 bullion be largely exported, it will become scarce, and of course dear, in the ex- 
 
 Sorting country ; the money value of other commodities will in a proportionate 
 egree fall ; and they will become preferable objects of remittance and exportation 
 until bullion is again reimported. In a similar manner, if by the operation of a 
 favourable balance, bullion is imported in greater quantity than is necessary to 
 supply the wants of the country, its value will become depreciated in relation to 
 other commodities, and it will be again re-exported. [Exchange.] 
 
 The public accounts do not show correctly the amount of the exports and imports 
 of the country ; the official, or custom-house rate of valuation, having been fixea 
 so far back as 1696, when prices were altogether different from what they are now 
 while the declared value furnished by the merchant applies solely to the exports. 
 In 1839, the official value of the exports was, £110,198.716 ; and of the imports, 
 £62,004,000 ; showing, according to this valuation, a balance of trade in favour of 
 the United Kingdom, or an excess of exports above imports, to the extent of 
 £48,194,716 ! It is manifest, however, that unless the imports of a merchant exceed 
 
BAL 44 BAL 
 
 his exports in value, his trade would be speedily abandoned ; and as what is true 
 in the case of the individual merchant must be equally true in the case of the com- 
 munity at large, it follows, that could the public accounts be kept with accuracy, 
 they would show, instead of a greater amount of exports than of imports, a very 
 considerable excess of the latter above the former. S 
 
 BALE, a bundle or parcel of goods, packed up for carriage. 
 
 BALKS, large beams of timber, such as are used in building. 
 
 BALLAST (Dan. Baglast. Du. Ger. & Sw. Ballast. Fr. Lest. It. Savorra. 
 Sp. Lastre. Por. Lastro. Rus. Balast), sand, iron, or any other heavy ma- 
 terial employed for sinking a vessel to a proper depth in the water, and to give it 
 a just counterpoise against the action of the wind on the sails. In ballasting a 
 vessel, the centre of gravity should be placed neither too high nor too low. When 
 too much heavy ballast is deposited in the bottom of the hold, the vessel will be too 
 stiff; she will roll violently, and besides having her sailing qualities impaired, will 
 be in danger in bad weather of being dismasted. When, on the contrary, there is 
 too little ballast, or this is so disposed as to raise the centre of gravity too high, 
 the vessel will be too crank, and equal danger will arise. The art of ballasting, 
 however, is to be acquired rather from experience than specific rules, as the quan- 
 tity required by different vessels of the same tonnage varies according to their 
 shape or build. 
 
 Vessels in ballast, i. e. having no goods on board other than the stores and other articles requi- 
 site for the ship, crew, and passengers, are exempt from the payment of certain port-charges 
 which are levied upon vessels having cargoes ; many formalities at the Custom-house are likewise 
 dispensed with in favour of such vessels. A foreign vessel proceeding from a British port is con- 
 sidered as a ship in ballast, though having on board a small quantity of goods of British manufac- 
 ture for the private use of the master and crew, and not as merchandise, provided such goods do 
 not exceed in value £20 for the master, £10 for the mate, and £5 for each of the crew. 
 
 The ballasting of vessels in the Thames is placed under the superintendence of the Corporation 
 of the Trinity-house, in whom is vested the soil of the river from London Bridge to the sea. Their 
 charges are as follows : — 
 
 For land ballast from any quarries or pits east of Woolwich, Id. per ton of 20 cwt. For river 
 ballast, not washed, carried to any vessel employed in the coal-trade, Is, per ton ; carried to any 
 other British vessel, Is. 3d. per ton ; carried to any foreign vessel, Is. 7d. per ton. For washed 
 ballast, double these rates are chargeable in each case respectively. 
 
 The following additional sums are also chargeable : — For each ton delivered in or unladen from 
 the inward East or West India Dock, lOd. ; in or from the outward East or West India Dock, the 
 London Dock, the Commercial Dock, the East Country Dock, or the City, Surrey, or Regent's 
 Canal, 4d. 
 
 No ballast is to be put on board before entry at the Ballast-office, under a penalty of £5 per 
 ton. The Trinity Corporation may recover a fine of £10 from any person, for every ton of ballast 
 which he may take out of the river, within the limits above mentioned, without their authority. 
 It is likewise ordered, that the ballast of all vessels coming into the Thames must be unladen into 
 a lighter, the charge for which is 6d. per ton ; and a penalty of £20 is levied from the master of 
 any vessel from which ballast is cast into the river. 
 
 Similar regulations exist in most other ports. [For the custom-house regulations as to vessels 
 in ballast see Customs' Regulation Act, abridged, § 80-83.] 
 
 BALSAM (Fr. Baume. Ger. Balsam). Under this name are commonly in- 
 cluded various medicinal resinous juices obtained from trees ; but the term is 
 strictly applicable only to such as contain benzoic acid, along with a volatile oil 
 and resin ; and of these true balsams there appear to be only five ; namely, Bal- 
 sam of Peru, Balsam of Tolu, Benzoin, Storax, and liquid Amber. There are 
 besides the balsam of Gilead or Opobalsam, Copaiba, and others which contain no 
 benzoic acid, but are turpentines containing a volatile oil and resin. 
 
 Balsam of Peru is procured from the Myroxylon Peruiferum, a tree which grows 
 in the warmest parts of South America. It occurs in two states ; one called the 
 whito, the other the black. The former, which results from spontaneous exuda- 
 tion, or incisions made in the bark, is very rare. The black or common balsam is said 
 to be procured by boiling the bark and branches of the tree. It is a fluid, having 
 the consistence of syrup, a brown colour, fragrant aromatic smell, and a pungent 
 bitterish flavour. Sp. gr. P15. It is commonly imported in tin flasks. Both the 
 white and the black balsams are extensively adulterated, chiefly with copaiba, 
 turpentines, or volatile oils. 
 
 Balsam of Tolu, or Dry White Balsam, is said to flow from incisions in the 
 same tree (?) ; and when fresh, is of the consistence of a strong turpentine. It 
 becomes tenacious with age, and in cold weather may be broken, but melts again 
 in summer. It is a brownish- yellow or reddish-brown friable substance, of a plea- 
 sant smell like benzoin, and a weak aromatic somewhat acrid taste. Its adultera- 
 tion with turpentine or resin is known by its odour when thrown on hot coals. It 
 is imported in jars or tin cases. 
 
BAM 45 BAN 
 
 The balsams of Peru and Tolu are employed medicinally in the state of syrup 
 or tincture, particularly in cough mixtures ; their fragrance also renders them 
 pleasant adjuncts to chocolate, liqueurs, and other articles. [Benzoin. Storax. 
 Copaiba.] 
 
 BAMBOO, a gigantic plant of the reed or grass kind, which grows luxuriantly 
 in the tropical parts of Asia and America. It shoots up with great rapidity, and 
 varies in height from 15 to nearly 100 feet. When full grown its general appear- 
 ance is that of a straight rod with a number of stiff branches shooting at right 
 angles from the main stem. It is of almost universal use, and is probably the most 
 valuable boon conferred by nature upon the inhabitants of warm climates. The 
 young shoots of the plant are eaten like asparagus ; when older, a fluid affording 
 an agreeable beverage is secreted in the hollow joints ; and the leaves and seed are 
 used in medicine. 
 
 " No plant is more useful where a union of strength and lightness is required. In building it is 
 so generally employed that the houses of the inferior classes in India are almost exclusively con- 
 structed of it. It is adapted to the formation of bridges, masts for boats, and almost every article 
 of domestic furniture. Bedding and sacking, and even cordage are manufactured from it. It is 
 the common fence for gardens and fields ; and palanquins and light carriages are principally com- 
 posed of it. The hollow stems serve for waterpipes, and in military operations it has often been 
 resorted to for the construction of screens. Finally, according to Barrow, the Chinese find the 
 bamboo invaluable for keeping the whole empire in due subordination through the medium of in- 
 cessant bastinading." (Ed in. Cab. Lib., British Imlia.) 
 
 BANANA, the fruit of the Musa paradisiaca, a valuable plant common in tropi- 
 cal countries. It very closely resembles the plantain [Plantain], but is generally 
 shorter and rounder, with a pulp softer and of a more delicate taste. 
 
 The banana and plantain are to the inhabitants of the torrid zone what corn is to Europe, and 
 rice to the natives of India and China. Humboldt doubts with reason whether there is any 
 other plant in the globe which, in so small a space of ground, can produce so great a mass of 
 nutriment. Eight or nine months after the sucker has been inserted in the earth, it begins 
 to form its clusters, and the fruit may be gathered in less than a year. A plantation is perpetuated 
 without any other care than that of "cutting the stems on which the fruit has ripened, and giving 
 the earth a slight dressing. A spot of 1076 feet may contain at least from thirty to forty plants, 
 which, in a year, will yield more than 4410 lbs. of nutritive substance. Humboldt also estimates 
 that the produce of the banana is to that of wheat as 133 : 1, and to that of potatoes as 44 : 1. Nu- 
 merous preparations are made of this fruit, both before and after its maturity. When fully ripe, 
 it is exposed to the sun, and preserved like our figs, forming an agreeable and wholesome 
 food ; while meal or flour is obtained from it by being cut into slices, dried, and pounded. 
 It is calculated that the same extent of ground in Mexico on which the banana is raised, is capable 
 of maintaining fifty individuals, whereas in Europe, under wheat, it would not furnish subsistence 
 for two ; and nothing strikes a traveller more than the diminutive appearance of the spots under 
 culture round a hut which contains a numerous family (Humboldt's Travels, Edin. Cab. Lib.). 
 The other parts of the plant are also useful. The leaves, which are more than two yards long, 
 and a foot broid, are used for napkins and table-cloths, and are food for hogs. The water from 
 the soft trunk is used as an astringent. In the Philippine Islands the fibrous bark of a wild banana, 
 Musa textilis, is made into cloth, and also affords material for the cordage called in eastern coun- 
 tries Manilla ropes. 
 
 BANCO, an Italian word signifying Bank, used for describing the bank money 
 of Hamburg and other places. 
 
 BANDANA, a kind of handkerchief with bright figures or spots upon a red or 
 dark ground. India is the original seat of this manufacture ; but the oriental 
 patterns are now far surpassed in beauty and precision of design by the British. 
 The term bandana is also applied to the style of calico-printing by which the pat- 
 terns are produced. 
 
 BANK, a term sometimes applied to a depository for money, but most commonly 
 to an establishment for dealing in money capital. The proprietor or manager of 
 .such an establishment is called a banker ; and the term banking is generally used 
 to express the rules and principles by which his operations are, or should be re- 
 gulated, as well as these operations themselves. 
 
 I. Historical Notice.— Few records are preserved of the extent to which bank- 
 ing was known or practised by the ancients. The first bankers were the money 
 dealers, who exchanged the coins of one nation for those of another. In Athens 
 and Rome bankers are said to have existed who fulfilled many of the modern 
 functions of the trade ; but the prejudice against the taking of interest for money, 
 rendered the business one of little repute. The barbarism of the middle ages 
 left no field open for banking. In the twelfth century, however, the revival of 
 commerce in Italy again created the necessity for the employment of bankers. 
 These at first were Lombard Jews, who exchanged money and bills in the public 
 market-places on benches, whence the term bank, from banco, the Italian word for 
 bench. The modern public banks were originally deposit-banks. The first was 
 
BAN 46 BAN 
 
 the celebrated Bank of Venice^ instituted in 1171. Its capital was composed of a 
 loan advanced to the state, which was made transferable in the books of the bank. 
 It opened accounts with depositors of gold, silver, and jewellery, giving them credit 
 for the value of the effects deposited. The holders of such credits were said to be 
 the holders of so much bank money ; and it was made obligatory upon the mer- 
 chants to make their contracts and draw their bills in this money, the payments being 
 effected by a transfer from one name to another in the bank accounts of the funds 
 deposited in its coffers. In 1587, its capital was above five millions of ducats. This 
 bank continued to prosper until the subversion of the republic in 1797 ; and its 
 money at all times bore an agio over the current money of the city : in 1808 it 
 was discontinued. The banks of Barcelona and Genoa were founded in the four- 
 teenth century. In 1609, the well-known Bank of Amsterdam was established, and 
 shortly afterwards, in 1619, the Bank of Hamburg, both banks of deposit, on the 
 model of that of Venice. The other continental banks are of much more recent for- 
 mation. 
 
 In England, the Jews, famous during the middle ages for " their egregious cun- 
 ning in trade," were the principal money dealers until the thirteenth century, when 
 this branch of business was shared by a number of Lombard Italians who then settled 
 in the country. The business of banking, however, in the modern sense of the term, 
 is comparatively of recent date. In London, the merchants lodged their money 
 for security in the Tower, whence they drew it out as occasion required ; but 
 in 1640, Charles I. having seized £200,000 thus deposited, they appear to have 
 afterwards employed the goldsmiths as their depositaries. The London gold- 
 smiths, whose money trade had previously been confined to the changing of coins, 
 then extended their business by borrowing and lending on interest ; and the 
 receipts which they gave for deposits circulated nearly in the same manner as the 
 modern bank notes. The extension of commerce which occurred about half a cen- 
 tury later, after the settlement of the government of the Revolution, led to the in- 
 stitution of the Bank of England, the Bank of Scotland, and in time to other 
 establishments in the manner afterwards described. 
 
 II. Objects and Principles of Banking.— These will be best explained by first 
 considering separately the principal purposes of a bank, namely, receiving deposits, 
 facilitating remittances, issuing paper money, and making loans, and afterwards 
 showing the general effect of these operations when combined ; in each case having 
 regard chiefly to the mode in which banking is usually conducted in the United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Deposits.— The banks first instituted in Europe after the revival of commerce 
 were, as already noticed, established for the purpose of receiving deposits. The 
 lodgements consisted of coin of full weight, or an equivalent amount of bullion ; 
 and the credits raised in the bank books for such deposits were transferred in 
 payment of debts from one account to another by means of drafts or cheques ; 
 the coin or bullion being seldom or never withdrawn, except when required for ex- 
 portation. No interest was allowed on the deposits ; and the advantages derived 
 from such banks consisted in the safe custody of the precious metals, in the facility 
 and despatch given to cash transactions by the transfer system, and in the certainty 
 afforded that these transactions would be adjusted in currency of a determinate and 
 invariable standard, instead of the light and debased coins then in circulation. 
 This mode of banking is still continued in Hamburg, under which head it is more 
 fully explained. But in the United Kingdom the receiving of deposits is invaria- 
 bly conjoined with other departments of banking business ; and the general con- 
 dition of the circulating medium renders bullion lodgements unnecessary. Deposit 
 banking, as thus modified, still furnishes to the public the advantages of secure 
 custody for their money, with the facility, despatch, and economy of the transfer 
 system ; besides which, interest, varying from about two to three percent., is (except 
 by the private bankers of London) generally allowed on the sums in their hands, 
 from the readiness with which they can be reinvested by the banks in securities 
 yielding a higher rate. Deposits in this country are, however, of two kinds : Dead 
 Accounts (distinguished in Scotland as Deposit Receipts), in which money is invested 
 for the purposes of security and interest without being operated upon ; and Draw- 
 ing Accounts, called also Running f Operating, or Current Accounts, in which there 
 is a perpetual paying in and drawing out by cheques or otherwise, according to the 
 circumstances or necessities of the depositor, interest being allowed on the daily 
 balances in the hands of the bank. 
 
 Remittances were, in ancient times, effected by sending a messenger with the coin, 
 and in the middle ages by means of bills of exchange. The latter still form the chief 
 
BAN 47 BAN 
 
 vehicle for foreign remittances ; but the transmission of money from one part of 
 the kingdom to another is now almost entirely effected bv the banks, by whom it is 
 c inducted with great security and despatch, through the medium of their agents 
 or their branches. These facilities encourage trade in two ways : —First, by caus- 
 ►ney to be transmitted in a shorter space of time, capital is made to revolve 
 more rapidly ; and, secondly, they diminish the prices of commodities, operating 
 like improved roads in lowering the expense of their conveyance. The most common 
 form of effecting an inland remittance is that of a Letter of Credit, which authorizes 
 the bank's correspondent to repay the money deposited with them to the party 
 named in the letter ; the use of the money during the intervening period and some- 
 times a small commission, forming the remuneration to the bank. [Exchange.] 
 
 Circulation. — The issue of paper money in the form of notes payable to the bearer 
 on demand, is, in reference to the public, perhaps the most important of the func- 
 tions of a bank ; but a disturbing element is attached to it from the circum- 
 stance of its being profitable according to the proportion in which the amount of 
 notes that is kept in circulation exceeds the amount of capital which is kept in re- 
 serve for the payment of them. It is, however, generally admitted, that banks of 
 issue are capable of conferring valuable benefits upon a country when they are pro- 
 perly conducted, their operations confined to the legitimate objects of banking, and 
 their liability to comply with their contracts strictly enforced. The principal check 
 upon the overissues of banks is the convertibility of their notes into specie on de- 
 mand. That tendency is also limited on the one hand by the wants of the public, 
 on the other by the desire of the banks to protect their own interest ; as the issue of 
 notes will be either in the repayment of deposits, or in the form of loans by dis- 
 counts or otherwise. Farther checks exist in the system of bank exchanges, by 
 which the notes circulated by one establishment are intercepted by the others and 
 brought back to it ; and by the practice of allowing interest on deposits, under the 
 influence of which the notes not necessary in trade are returned for the purpose of 
 investment. [Money.] 
 
 Loans may be classed under three heads : 1st, Discounts ; 2d, Cash-credits ; 
 &/, Overdrafts on Current Accounts : — 
 
 1. Discounts. The form in which loans are chiefly made by bankers is on the 
 security of bills of exchange, which are well adapted for their purposes, as having 
 only a short time to run before they fall due, the advanced capital soon returns, 
 while, being transferable, they can, if necessary, be rediscounted. The advance 
 is made to the full amount of the bill under deduction of interest, or as it is some- 
 what loosely termed discount, for the time which the bill has to run ; a commission 
 is also sometimes charged, varying from one-fourth to one-eighth per cent. 
 
 " The bills presented to a bank for discount," says Mr Gilbart, " may generally be divided into 
 t!' • following classes : — 
 
 " (1.) Bills drawn by producers or manufacturers upon wholesale dealers. 
 
 " (2.) Bills drawn by wholesale dealers upon retail dealers. 
 
 " (3. ) Bills drawn by retail dealers upon consumers. 
 
 " (4. Bills not arising out of trade, but yet drawn against value, as rents, &c. 
 
 '* (5.) Kites or accommodation bills. 
 
 " The first two classes of bills are the best, and are fair legitimate bills for bankers to discount. 
 The third class ought not to be too much encouraged. They are for comparatively small amounts, 
 and are drawn by shopkeepers and tradesmen upon their customers. To discount these bills freely 
 would encourage extravagance in the acceptors ; and ultimately prove injurious to the drawers. 
 When a man accepts bills to his butcher, baker, tailor, or upholsterer, he may fairly be sus- 
 pected of living beyond his income. Solvent and regular people pay their tradesmen's accounts 
 with ready money. The fourth class of bills, though sometimes proper, ought not to be too much 
 eneouraared. Persons out of trade have no business with bills. The last class of bills should al- 
 most always be rejected. To an experienced banker, who knows the parties, the discovery of 
 accommodation bills is by no means difficult. They are usually drawn for even amounts, for the 
 largest sum that the stamp will bear, and for the longest term that the bank will discount, and 
 are presented for discount soon after they are drawn. The parties are often relations, friends, or 
 parties who, from their avocations, can have no dealings with each other." (Hittory and Prin- 
 ciplet of Banking, p. 155.) 
 
 The length of the period which bills have to run is also matter of consideration. The principal 
 advantages to a bank of short dated bills compared with long dated bills are the following : — 
 There is more safety in discounting short bills, because the parties may fail before the long ones 
 fall due : The commission (where this is charged) will be more in the course of a year upon any 
 given amount of capital employed in discounting short bills than in discounting long bills : A 
 greater amount of notes will be* issued in discounting a succession of short bills than in discount- 
 ing long bills : Long dated bills lock up the funds of a bank, so that they cannot be discounted 
 with safety but from the bank's own capital ; for if a bank employs its deposits, or its circulation 
 in discounting long dated bills and payment of the notes or deposits should be demanded, the 
 long dated bills could not be rediscounted, and the bank must stop : Long bills may encourace 
 speculation ; as persons may purchase large quantities of commodities in the expectation that the 
 
BAN 48 BAN 
 
 price will advance before the long bills which he accepts in payment shall fall due ; while if the 
 bills are of short date this will be prevented. (Ibid. p. 156.) 
 
 Besides discounting bills the banks render important services in attending to 
 their due negotiation ; it being customary for merchants and other people to send 
 all the bills and drafts payable to them to their bankers, who become responsible 
 for their regular presentation for payment, and for their noting if not paid. 
 
 2. A Cash-credit is an undertaking on the part of a bank to advance to an indi- 
 vidual such sums of money as he may from time to time require, not exceeding in 
 the whole a certain definite amount, for repayment of which he enters into a bond 
 with securities. Cash-credits are granted not only upon personal security, but 
 also upon the security of stock in the Public Funds, also occasionally of lands or 
 houses, and by some joint-stock banks on the security of their own shares. To 
 those requiring temporary advances of money, cash-credits possess the following 
 advantages over discounts : — The party can repay any part of the sum drawn at 
 pleasure, and interest is charged only for the money actually employed : He has 
 also the power of drawing whenever he pleases to the full amount of his credit ; 
 whereas, in the case of discounting bills, he must make a new application to the 
 bank for each bill. To a bank the comparative advantages of a cash-credit in 
 respect to bills, consist chiefly in its connecting the party more intimately with the 
 bank ; in the summary mode in which the bond may be recovered from the party or 
 his securities ; while to a bank issuing notes, the frequent operations under the 
 credit gives activity to its circulation. On the other hand, their comparative disad- 
 vantages to a bank are as follows : 
 
 «' (1.) Cash-credits, when once granted, cannot be called up, but bills of exchange soon fall due, 
 and you can refuse to discount again. (2.) If you discount bills of exchange, they can be redis- 
 counted to supply the bank with funds if necessary, but advances on cash-credits cannot be ro- 
 
 E laced. (3.) In case of a panic or a run upon the bank, the persons having cash-credits might 
 ave occasion to draw upon the bank, and the notes would immediately be returned upon the 
 bank, for payment in gold; but you could refuse to discount bills of exchange until the run was 
 over." (Gilbart, p. 177.) 
 
 The cash-credit system was first introduced in Scotland, to which part of the United Kingdom 
 it is still chiefly confined. 
 
 3. Overdrafts on Current or Deposit Accounts. These are stated under a sepa- 
 rate head, because in England the advances in this way are considerable. They 
 are similar in character to the drafts under a cash-credit, with this difference, that 
 in a current account the party overdraws on his own individual security, and that 
 on each occasion he has to obtain the permission of the bank. 
 
 In advancing money, whether by discounting bills of exchange or otherwise, a 
 bank receives only the market rate of interest. But as this is a return which may be 
 obtained for money without incurring the expense of an establishment for the pur- 
 pose, it is obvious that no one would invest capital in the business of banking were 
 it to be confined to the loan department alone. The main object of the banker, how- 
 ever, is to procure, and employ on an advantageous footing, the money of other 
 people, and his profits are nearly in proportion to the extent to which he can ac- 
 complish that object. The trading capital of a bank consists of —1st, The capital 
 contributed by the partners ; 2d, The money lodged on deposit ; and, 3d, The mo- 
 ney deposited for the purpose of remittance ; to which falls to be added in the case 
 of banks of issue, 4th, The amount of notes in circulation. These means are em- 
 ployed in— 1st, Discounting bills of exchange : 2d, Advances on cash-credits, or 
 overdrawn accounts ; and, 3d, Investments in the funds and other public securities. 
 The surplus of the former above the latter forms the reserve kept by the bank to 
 meet current demands. The amount of reserve necessary in ordinary circum- 
 stances is to be estimated from experience, and the transactions and position 
 of the bank ; but as unforeseen events may occur which may render the bank liable 
 to be called upon for the whole or a considerable proportion of its liabilities, 
 whether in the shape of deposits or notes in circulation, it is of consequence that 
 the amount of trading capital arising from these sources should be invested in secu- 
 rities which shall rapidly revolve, and be at all times convertible. The securities 
 which best fulfil these requisites are bills of exchange, stock in the public funds, 
 and exchequer bills, on which a bank can easily extend or diminish its advances 
 in proportion to the capital which it may have to employ ; increasing them when 
 the deposits and circulation are increasing, and diminishing them when these are 
 diminishing ; while in anticipation of a run, the bills may be converted into money 
 by being rediscounted, and the stock and exchequer bills sold. Investments on 
 securities not readily convertible cannot be made with safety except out of the 
 capital belonging to the bank itself. 
 
BAN 40 BAN 
 
 Banking establishments are constituted in various ways. On the continent, the 
 public banks are, in general, more or less connected with the government. In the 
 United States they are chiefly joint-stock companies, with charters limiting the 
 responsibility of tne partners to the amount of their snares, or some fixed multiple 
 thereof. In this country the banks are constituted in three ways : — 1*/, Char- 
 tered ones invested with'certain privileges of monopoly,— as the Bank of England, 
 and the Bank of Ireland ; 2d, Joint-stock banks established on the principle 
 of unlimited responsibility ; and 3d, Private banks. The joint-stock and private 
 banks again differ in some respects in their privileges and methods of transacting 
 business, according as they are situated in London, in the provincial parts of Eng- 
 land, in Scotland, or in Ireland. 
 
 III. The Bank of England was established in 1694 as a bank of issue, deposit, 
 and loan, under the title of the Governor and Company of the Bank of England. Its 
 original capital of £1,200,000 was lent to government at 8 per cent, interest, with a 
 further allowance of £4000 a-year for management. According to the statement 
 of the projector ? William Paterson, " the erection of this famous bank not only 
 relieved the ministerial managers from their frequent processions into the city for 
 borrowing money on the best and nearest public securities at an interest of 10 and 
 12 per cent, per annum, but likewise gave life and currency to double or triple the 
 value of its capital in other branches of public credit." The charter was granted 
 for a limited time ; but it was renewed at different periods, some advantage being 
 given after each interval by the bank to the public in the shape of an advance of 
 money at a low rate of interest, or without any interest. The capital was in- 
 creased by new subscriptions in 1708 to £5,559,995 ; in 1722 to £8,959,995 ; in 1742 
 to £9,800,000 ; in 1746 to £10,780,000 ; and in 1782 to £11,642,400 ; lastly, by a 
 bonus of 25 per cent, in 1816 to £14,553,000 ; the whole of which, as it was raised, 
 was lent to the government. 
 
 In 1708 an act was passed prohibiting all other banks of issue in England con- 
 sisting of more than six partners ; and this statute having been construed so as to 
 apply to banks of all descriptions, the Bank of England remained the only joint- 
 stock one in England until it was partially repealed in the year 1826. 
 
 In 1696 the bank became involved in difficulties, and was obliged to suspend pay- 
 ment of its notes ; but was shortly afterwards relieved by the assistance of the go- 
 vernment. No similar embarrassment occurred until the early part of the late war 
 with France, when commercial difliculties, caused by the transition from peace to a 
 state of hostility, an unfavourable state of the exchanges arising from a deficient 
 harvest, foreign subsidies, and, above all, a general dread of invasion produced so 
 great a drain for specie, that on Saturday the 25th February 1797, only £1,270,000 of 
 treasure remained in the coffers of the bank. A further drain being apprehended, 
 an order in council was issued next day by the ministers, prohibiting the directors 
 from paying their notes in specie until the sense of Parliament could be taken. 
 Shortly afterwards, the memorable Bank Restriction Act was passed, exempting 
 the bank from paying in cash, and authorizing it to issue notes for £1 and £2 in 
 lieu of gold. 
 
 This measure placed the currency of the country under circumstances wholly dis- 
 similar to those that have attended it either before or since. The events of the war, 
 particularly during the seven years that preceded the peace of Paris, opposed greater 
 obstacles to the prosecution of our foreign trade than were ever at any other time 
 put into action, whence gold and silver became the only articles which could be safely 
 taken in exchange for the goods of which we were purchasers from the continent. 
 These metals, especially gold ; were besides greatly in demand for the pay of troops. 
 These circumstances, acting in conjunction with the tendency of the Bank Restric- 
 tion Act, under which the directors were relieved from the dangers that would 
 otherwise have attended an undue expansion of their issues, caused such an en- 
 hancement of the prices of the precious metals, when measured by the paper-currency, 
 as forced all our gold coin out of circulation. The difference in value of Bank of 
 England notes and gold, estimated at the Mint price, was for some time trifling, 
 and from 1803 to 1808 was no more than £2:13:2 per cent. But in the seven 
 following years, that excess in value of gold was raised in the following degrees : — 
 1809, £14 : 7 : 7 per cent. ; 1810, £8 : 7 : 8 per cent. ; 1811, £20 : 2 : 7 per cent. ; 
 1812, £25 : 16 : 8 per cent. ; 1813, £29 : 4 : 1 per cent. ; 1814, £14 : 7 : 7 per cent, ; 
 1815, £13 : 9 : 6 per cent. The fall in the price of gold which occurred in 1814 was 
 brought about by the return to peace, which restored trade to its natural channels ; 
 and it was afterwards reduced to its Mint price by the contraction of issues forced 
 upon the bank by Parliament. 
 
BAN 50 BAN 
 
 The Bank Restriction Act had provided for the return to specie payments within 
 six months after the signature of a treaty of peace ; but, at the peace of Amiens in 
 180*2, this was postponed for a year, on account of the serious inconvenience it would 
 then have caused to trade ; and after the rupture in 1803, the public called loudly 
 for' a continuance of the exemption. At the close of the war in 1815 an act was 
 
 gissed, declaring in the preamble that " it was highly desirable that the Bank of 
 ngland should return as soon as possible to the payment of its notes in cash." 
 The year following, however (1816), being one of commercial distress, the resump- 
 tion of cash payments was postponed to July 1, 1818 ; and by a further act to July 1, 
 1819. In the last mentioned year a committee of the House of Commons was ap- 
 pointed to inquire into the subject generally, of which committee Mr (now Sir 
 Robert) Peel was chairman ; and upon the recommendation of their Report the 
 celebrated act (59 Geo. III. c. 49), sometimes called Peel's Act, was passed, requiring 
 the Bank after February 1, 1820, to exchange their paper for bullion at certain fixed 
 and graduated prices, and on May 1, 1823, to pay in current gold coin at the Mint 
 rate of £3 : 17 : 10^ per ounce : the latter provision was anticipated in point of 
 time by the bank recommencing payment of their notes in coin on May 1, 1821. 
 
 Renewed Charter, August 29, 1833 (3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 98). The following is a 
 summary of the provisions of this act : — 
 
 Section 1. The Bank of England declared to have the exclusive privilege of banking upon the 
 conditions specified in the act. 
 
 Section 2. During such privilege, no Company of more than six persons to issue notes payable 
 on demand within London, or sixty-five miles thereof, — but banks beyond that limit may issue bills 
 and notes payable on demand, or otherwise, at the place at which the same shall be issued, and 
 also in London ; but no such bill or note shall be under £5, or be reissued in London, or withiu 
 Bixty-five miles. 
 
 Section 3. Any Company of more than six may carry on banking in London, or within sixty-five 
 miles, provided it do not issue its bills or notes payable on demand, or at any less time than six 
 months. 
 
 Section 4. All notes of the Bank of England payable on demand which shall be issued out of 
 London shall be payable at the place where issued. 
 
 Section 5. The exclusive privileges of the bank may be terminated upon a year's notice given 
 within six months after August 1, 1845, and repayment of the public debt. 
 
 Section 6. Bank of England notes are a legal tender (except with respect to the bank itself) so 
 long as the bank shall pay such notes in coin. 
 
 Section 7- Bills not having more than three months to run not subject to the usury laws. [This 
 period has since, by temporary acts, been extended to twelve months.] 
 
 Section 8. Accounts of bullion, and of notes in circulation, to be sent weekly to the Chancellor 
 of the Exchequer ; and an average state of the bank accounts of the preceding three months shall 
 be published every month in the London Gazette. 
 
 Section 9. Public to repay the bank one-fourth part of the debt of £14,686,800. 
 
 Section 10. If the proprietors shall so determine, the capital stock of the bank shall be re- 
 duced from £14,553,000 to £10,914,750; and the difference shall be divided amongst them on 
 October 5, 1834. 
 
 Sections 11. 12. Provide for the qualification of directors in the event of the said reduction of 
 stock being made. 
 
 Section 13. Bank to deduct £120,000 per annum from sum allowed for management of national 
 debt. 
 
 Section 14. Provisions of 39 & 40 Geo. III. to remain in force, except as altered by this act, 
 subject to redemption upon the terms following : — that at any time, upon twelve months' notice, to 
 be given after August 1, 1855, and upon repayment of the public debt, then the said exclusive 
 privileges of banking shall cease and determine. 
 
 Capital and Nature of Business. — The repayment of one-fourth of the debt due 
 by the public to the bank was made by an assignment of 3 per cent, stock from the 
 Commissioners for the reduction of the National Debt ; but the proprietors have 
 allowed this sum to remain as available capital in the hands of trie directors. 
 Hence the stock of the bank, sometimes called its permanent capital, still amounts 
 to £14,553,000, upon which sum the dividend is paid to the proprietors. The real 
 capital of the bank however exceeds this sum by £2,944,000, the amount of the un- 
 divided profits, or rest, at 31st March 1840 ; making its total amount £17,497,000. The 
 permanent capital is transferable like government stock ; and its value fluctuates 
 from political causes, as well as from the value of money, and the supposed success 
 of the Company. It is exempted from taxes, accounted personal estate, assignable 
 by unstamped transfer, and not subject to forfeiture, or liable to be taken in execu- 
 tion. The disposable capital under the management of the directors consists of the 
 amount raised by the issue of notes, that held by deposit from government and 
 private parties, and, lastly, undivided profits. The sum of the whole is generally 
 about £30,000,000, of whicn part is vested in coin and bullion, but a larger part in 
 securities producing interest — such as Exchequer bills and mercantile acceptances. 
 The income of the bank is derived from interest on government securities, discount 
 
BAN 51 BAN 
 
 on mercantile bills, allowance for managing the public debt, profits on bullion, 
 and agency, amounting altogether to about £1,600,000, which, after deduction of 
 salaries, losses, and duty on notes, forms the fund divisible among the proprietors. 
 The bank is prohibited from engaging in any commercial undertaking other than 
 its legitimate operations, such as the buying and selling of coin or bullion, and 
 bills of exchange. Being, however, authorized, like the Banks of Amsterdam and 
 Hamburg, to make advances on the security of merchandise lodged with it, or 
 pledged to it by written documents, a power is given to the directors to sell the 
 same for their reimbursement. 
 
 Management and Internal Regulations.— The chief management is vested in a 
 Governor, Deputy-Governor, and twenty-four Directors elected annually ; thirteen 
 or more, of which the governor or deputy-governor must always be one, constitute 
 a court. A governor requires to be possessed of £4000 or upwards of the stock, 
 a deputy-governor £3000, a director £2000, and every elector £500. The directors 
 seldom possess more stock than what is necessary to qualify them for their office. 
 Four general courts of proprietors are held annually, namely, in March or April, 
 July, September, and December. The purpose of these meetings is to make or 
 revise by-laws, to determine questions relating to the institution, and to elect offi- 
 cers—this last usually taking place at the first meeting. Special meetings can be 
 convened at the request of nine or more proprietors qualified as electors. 
 
 No account can be opened with the establishment without permission from the 
 directors. If this be granted the bank will then discount approved bills, and re- 
 ceive and pav cash as ordinary bankers ; but no deposit-account can be opened 
 with less than £500. No interest is allowed by the bank. The party keeping an 
 account must always have a sum at his credit ; and no account is allowed to be 
 overdrawn. Bills or notes (having not more than 95 days to run) including town 
 bills, are now discounted every day instead of once a- week as formerly. But it is 
 a general rule of the bank not to open discount accounts for issuing country bankers 
 and joint-stock banks. It however discounts to such issuing bodies to the extent 
 that may be required to discharge their notes paid into the several branches, and 
 also gives some facilities of a similar kind to banks which afford aid in the collec- 
 tion of the revenue at the time, and to the extent of the aid given. {Mr G. W. 
 Norman's Evidence, 1840 ; Bank Report, p. 209.) 
 
 A committee of three directors sit daily, and on Thursday the whole court 
 assembles. No important measure is adopted without the assent of the majority of 
 the court ; and on particular occasions the directors communicate with the go- 
 vernment. These communications are made to the First Lord of the Treasury and 
 the Chancellor of Exchequer, whose opinions are always considered with attention ; 
 but they possess no authority for enforcing any change in the bank's arrangements. 
 
 The bank's business is divided into two departments ; the one under the chief 
 cashier, who transacts the receipts and payments, and issues the notes ; the other 
 under the general accountant, who posts these notes as they are issued or paid off, 
 and manages the affairs of the national debt. In 1832 there were employed at 
 the bank 820 clerks and porters, and 38 printers and engravers ; and there were 
 also 193 pensioners, chiefly superannuated clerks, who received in pensions £31,243, 
 averaging £161 to each. In the same year the salaries and pensions amounted to 
 £218,003; the house expenses to £39,187; the allowance of the directors was 
 £8000 ; and the rent of the building was set down at £40,000. The salaries of the 
 officers at the branches amounted to £25,000. 
 
 Transactions with Government. — The bank, besides lodging its capital with go- 
 vernment, in consideration of the exclusive privileges granted to it, and as a secu- 
 rity to the public for payment of its notes, has always performed the ordinary 
 functions of a banker to the state. Since the renewal of the charter in 1833, one- 
 fourth of the permanent debt has been repaid, and been thus reduced from 
 £14,686,800 to £11,015,100, upon which interest is at present paid to the bank at 
 the rate of 3 per cent. The bank has, however, been always in the practice of 
 making other considerable advances to government, chiefly in the form of Exchequer 
 bills. Before the exemption from cash-payments in 1797, these advances averaged 
 about £8,000,000 ; but after that time they increased very considerably, and the 
 general amount in the ten years from 1807 to 1817 was £22,000,000. At present they 
 consist partly of Exchequer bills, but chiefly of a sum of £10,897,880 lent in 1823, to 
 relieve the public finances of the heavy payments on account of the half-pay and 
 pensions due to retired officers, called the" dead weight" the consideration granted 
 to the bank, being an annuity of £585,740 for forty-four years until 1867. 
 
 The bank acts as the organ of government in paying the dividends on the na- 
 
BAN 52 BAN 
 
 tional debt, and in receiving and registering transfers of stock from one public 
 creditor to another ; employing in this department about 400 persons. For this 
 service it receives at present about £130,000 yearly. It likewise renders to the 
 Treasury and other public offices, in daily receiving and paying money, the same 
 services as a private banking house does to its customers. During the late war, 
 owing to the large amount of taxes and loans raised for the public service, the 
 balances at the credit of the different government offices amounted to very consi- 
 derable sums, at one time even so large as £11,000,000 ; in consideration of which 
 the bank agreed to lend government £3,000,000 without interest. At present the 
 public deposits fluctuate commonly between three and four millions, upon which 
 no interest is allowed. 
 
 Deposits by Private Parties. — These generally varied from one to two millions 
 until the panic of December 1825 ; but after that time they increased very consi- 
 derably, and of late years have fluctuated from about four to twelve millions. Even 
 this last sum, however, is comparatively small, arising from the fact that the bank 
 directors do not give the same facilities to their customers as is received from pri- 
 vate bankers. 
 
 Discount of Mercantile Bills.— The bills discounted have varied greatly in 
 amount. When the rate of interest charged by the bank is on a level with the 
 market rate, the number is large, but the reverse when it exceeds that rate. In 
 1809 and 1810, the average amount of discounts was about seventeen millions. 
 Since the peace, it has seldom exceeded three millions, in consequence of the abun- 
 dance of money possessed by private bankers, and their charge being commonly 
 lower than that of the other, which is therefore chiefly resorted to for discounts 
 during periods of commercial embarrassment. The annual average of loss by bad 
 debts on discounts was, from 1795 to 1831, both inclusive, £31,696. 
 
 Circulation and Regulation of Issues. — No notes under £20 were put into circu- 
 lation by the bank prior to 1759, in which year notes for £10 were first issued. In 
 1793, the bank began to issue notes for £5, and £1 and £2 notes were introduced 
 in March 1797, after the bank suspended payment in specie. The issue of the latter, 
 except for a short period at the end of 1825, ceased in 1821 ; and since the 5th April 
 1829, no bank in England can issue any note under £5 (7 Geo. IV. c. 6). The 
 paper circulated by the bank at present consists of ordinary notes for £5 and up- 
 wards, and of bank post bills, drawn commonly at seven days' sight. The amount 
 of the whole is generally about £18,000,000. In 1833 it was estimated that about 
 three-fourths of the bank's paper money circulated in the metropolitan district; the 
 remaining fourth in the country, particularly Lancashire. 
 
 The bank issues are understood to be regulated on the principle that the circu- 
 lation should be at all times kept full, but without any redundancy, and the means 
 by which this condition of things may be adjusted are, except on extraordinary 
 emergencies, held to be indicated by the state of the foreign exchanges. In the 
 exercise of their powers, however, the directors commonly act with caution. They 
 are aware that under any circumstances a diminution of the currency is unfavourable 
 to trade, lowering the price of commodities, and producing a general dulness in 
 markets. When the foreign exchanges are likely to fall, and it appears incumbent 
 on the bank to contract its issues, the directors profess not to act on opinion, but 
 to wait until an actual demand for gold has been made on the bank. Even then 
 they do not make a direct contraction of their circulation ; they merely forbear to 
 issue notes in the place of those which have been returned by the public for gold. 
 The contraction of the circulation is usually effected by raising the rate of discount 
 for bills, sometimes also by the sale of public or other securities ; an opposite pro- 
 cedure leads of course to an expansion of it. 
 
 The bullion, or cash reserve, )s.e\>t by the bank consists chiefly of gold, — silver sel- 
 dom exceeding one-fifteenth of the whole. The common rule of the directors is to 
 keep in treasure a sum equal to one-third of their liabilities. This proportion has 
 usually been found sufficient ; but the rule is not founded on general principles, 
 and is not closely followed. In ordinary times, and when under a vigilant ma- 
 nagement, the circulation is limited within the amount which would injuriously 
 affect the foreign exchanges, so large a proportion as one-third cannot be neces- 
 sary. On the other hand, when by an overissue of paper, prices have been raised 
 bo high that gold has become the most profitable commodity for exportation, the 
 experience of the bank has shown that the drain thus arising may be carried to an 
 extent far exceeding the amount necessary to restore the equilibrium of the cur- 
 rency ; while in a commercial panic, more especially when aggravated by a poli- 
 tical disturbance, it is difficult to say what quantity of treasure would be found 
 
BAN 53 BAN 
 
 adequate short of the amount of the bank's whole liabilities. With the view, how- 
 ever, of being provided as far as possible to meet such contingencies, most of 
 the disposable capital is invested in securities which can, if required, be brought 
 to sale in the stock exchange. This is the case not only with exchequer bills 
 and government stock, but with the greatest of all their assets, the annuity on 
 the dead weight, which might, if necessary, be divided or subdivided into portions 
 fitted for the money market. 
 
 Branch Banks were first established by the directors in 1 82G, at the suggestion, 
 it was said, of the late Lord Liverpool, and for the purpose of lessening the incon- 
 venience arising from the frequent discredit of the country banks. The business of 
 these branches principally consists in discounting bills, issuing notes which are pay- 
 able in London and in the place where they are issued, and in transmitting money 
 to and from the capital. The towns in which they are established are as fol- 
 lows : — Birmingham, Bristol, Gloucester, Hull, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, 
 Newcastle-on-Tyne, Norwich, Swansea, Portsmouth, and Plymouth. The mana- 
 gers of the branch banks allow no interest on deposits, nor do they permit any one 
 to overdraw his account ; the regulations under which they act having been framed 
 so as to avoid interfering with the business of the local banks. The branches 
 further consult the convenience of these banks by receiving gold from those who 
 happen to hold more than they require, and in supplying it to those who stand in 
 need of it. They also lend Bank of England notes to such as think fit to use them 
 instead of their own, by discounting their bills at 3 per cent, interest. The branches 
 were not expected to be productive of profit to the Bank of England, nor have 
 they proved so. 
 
 The Profits of the Bank have in general been steady, though, at least in former 
 times, seldom exceeding a certain moderate limit. In 1694 the dividend was 8 
 per cent. ; and in 1695, 9 per cent. From that year to 1729, it fluctuated between 
 5£ and 9 per cent. From 1729 to 1747, the rate was b\ to 6 per cent; from 1747 
 to 1753, 5 per cent.; in 1753 it fell to 4£ per cent. After 1767 the dividend was 
 gradually raised to 7 per cent.,at which rate it continued till 1805. Before the lat- 
 ter period, however, the exemption of cash -payments in 1797 had increased the 
 income of the bank in two ways ; by extending its circulation, and by saving it the 
 interest sacrificed till then in keeping a stock of bullion. Of the additional profits 
 thus derived, 57 § per cent, was distributed among the proprietors in the form of 
 bonuses, as follows : — 10 per cent, in 1799, 5 per cent, in 1801, 2£ per cent, in 1802. 
 5 per cent, in 1804, 5 per cent, in 1805, and 5 per cent, in 1806. These making 32£ 
 per cent, were paid to the proprietors ; and in 1816, an additional 25 per cent was 
 carried to the credit of each of them in the bank books ; thus increasing the ca- 
 pital from £1 1,642,400 to £14,553,000. Besides these extra allowances, the bank's 
 ordinary dividend was increased in 1805 from 7 to 12 per cent., which rate was 
 paid in 1805 and 1806. In 1807, it was reduced to 10 per cent, which continued 
 until 1832 ; after which, from a decrease on the profits consequent on the recall of 
 the small notes, and the resumption of cash payments, it was further reduced to 8 per 
 cent. In 1839, a still further reduction was made to 7 per cent., at which rate it 
 has since continued. 
 
 The Rest, or Surplus of Undivided Profits, was about £3,000,000 until 1797, after 
 which it increased gradually to eight millions, and led in 1816 to the above men- 
 tioned bonus of 25 per cent." It was further reduced in 1817 and 1818 by the ex- 
 pense incurred by tne bank in procuring gold from abroad. Its general progress is 
 shown in the annexed statement, from which it will be seen that its present amount 
 is nearly £3,000,000. 
 
 Accounts. — The practice of the Bank of England in former times, like the banks of 
 Venice and Amsterdam, was to observe strict secrecy in regard to its accounts, con- 
 sidering this as important to its prosperity. After 1797, the directors reported 
 regularly to government the amount of notes in circulation, which was afterwards 
 published in the newspapers ; but every thing else was kept secret until 1832, when 
 the Report of the Parliamentary Committee on bank affairs gave to the public much 
 information which, until then, had been considered confidential. Of the accounts 
 then published, there is given below a State of its Liabilities, Assets, and Rest, for a 
 series of years since 1780, with continuation, adding for each quarter, commencing 
 with 1834, a statement of the average amount of the Issues, Deposits, Securities, 
 and Bullion of the bank, according to the accounts which the directors are now 
 required to publish in the London Gazette, in terms of act 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 98. 
 
BAN 
 
 BAN 
 
 Account of the Liabilities, Assets, and Rest or Amount, of Undivided Profits of, 
 the Bank of England in the following years : — 
 
 
 Liabilities. 
 
 Assets. 
 
 Rest or 
 
 undivided 
 
 Profits. 
 
 
 Circulation. 
 
 
 Securities. 
 
 
 
 Notes 
 under L.5. 
 
 Other Notes 
 & Post Bills. 
 
 Deposits. 
 
 Public. 
 
 Private. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1780 Feb. 29 
 
 .. ., 
 
 8,410,790 
 
 4,723,890 
 
 9,145,659 
 
 1,755,371 
 
 3,581,060 
 
 1,347,410 
 
 1785 .. 28 
 
 
 
 
 5,923,090 
 
 6,669,160 
 
 7,198,564 
 
 4,973,926 
 
 2,740,820 
 
 2,321,060 
 
 1790 .. .. 
 
 
 
 
 10,040,540 
 
 6,223,270 
 
 8,347,387 
 
 1,984,733 
 
 8,633,000 
 
 2,701,310 
 
 1791 . . 
 
 
 
 
 11,439,200 
 
 6,364,550 
 
 10,380,358 
 
 2,222,282 
 
 7,869,410 
 
 2,668,300 
 
 1792 .. 29 
 
 
 
 
 11,307,380 
 
 5,523,370 
 
 9,938,799 
 
 3,129,761 
 
 6,468,060 
 
 2,705,870 
 
 1793 . . 28 
 
 
 
 
 11,888,910 5,346,450 
 
 9,549,209 
 
 6,456,041 
 
 4,010,680 
 
 2,780,570 
 
 1794 .. .. 
 
 
 . . 
 
 
 10,744,020 
 
 7,891,810 
 
 9,950,756 
 
 4,573,794 
 
 6,987,110 
 
 2,875,830 
 
 1795 . . 
 
 
 
 
 14,017,510 
 
 5,973,020 
 
 13,164,172 
 
 3,647,168 
 
 6,127,720 
 
 2,948,530 
 
 1796 .. 29 
 
 
 
 
 10,729,520 
 
 5,702,360 
 
 12,951,812 
 
 4,188,028 
 
 2,539,630 
 
 3,247,590 
 
 1797 . . 28 
 
 
 
 
 9,674,780 
 
 4,891,530 
 
 11,714,431 
 
 5,123,319 
 
 1,086,170 
 
 3,357,610 
 
 .. Aug. 31 
 
 867,J 
 
 10,246,535 
 
 7,765,350 
 
 8,765,224 
 
 9,495,946 
 
 4,089,620 
 
 3,471,320 
 
 1798 Feb. 28 
 
 1,448,220 
 
 11,647,610 
 
 6,148.900 
 
 11,241,333 
 
 5,558,167 
 
 5,828,940 
 
 3,383,710 
 
 1799 .. .. 
 
 1,465,650 
 
 11,494,150 
 
 8,131,820 
 
 11,510,677 
 
 5,528,353 
 
 7,563,900 
 
 3,511,310 
 
 1800 .. .. 
 
 1,471,540 
 
 15,372,930 
 
 7,062,680 
 
 13,975,663 
 
 7,448,387 
 
 6,144,250 
 
 3,661,150 
 
 1801 .. .. 
 
 2,634,760 
 
 13,578,520 
 
 10,745,840 
 
 15,958,011 
 
 10,466,719 
 
 4,640,120 
 
 4,105,730 
 
 1802 .. .. 
 
 2,612,020 
 
 12,574,860 
 
 6,858,210 
 
 14,199,094 
 
 7,760,726 
 
 4,152,950 
 
 4,067,680 
 
 1803 .. .. 
 
 2,968,960 
 
 12,350,970 
 
 8,050,240 
 
 9,417,887 
 
 14,497,013 
 
 3,776,750 
 
 4,321,480 
 
 1804 . . 29 
 
 4,531 ,270 
 
 12,546,560 
 
 8,676,830 
 
 14,684,686 
 
 12,314,284 
 
 3,372,140 
 
 4,616,450 
 
 1805 .. 28 
 
 4,860,160 
 
 13,011,010 
 
 12,083,620 
 
 16,889,501 
 
 11,771,889 
 
 5,883,800 
 
 4,590,400 
 
 1806 .. .. 
 
 4,458,600 
 
 13,271,520 
 
 9,980,790 
 
 14,813.599 
 
 11,777,471 
 
 5,987,190 
 
 4,867,350 
 
 1807 . . 
 
 4,109,890 
 
 12,840,790 
 
 11,829,320 
 
 13,452,871 
 
 13,955,589 
 
 6,142,840 
 
 4,771,300 
 
 1808 .. 29 j 4,095,170 
 
 14,093,690 
 
 11,961,960 
 
 14,149,501 
 
 13,234,579 
 
 7,855,470 
 
 5,088,730 
 
 1809 .. 28 
 
 4,301,500 
 
 14,241,360 
 
 9,982,950 
 
 14,743,425 
 
 14,3/4,775 
 
 4,488,700 
 
 5,081,090 
 
 1810 .. .. 
 
 5,860,420 
 
 15,159,180 
 
 12,457,310 
 
 14,322,634 
 
 21,055,946 
 
 3,501,410 
 
 5,403,080 
 
 1811 .. .. 
 
 7,114,090 
 
 16,246 130 
 
 11,445,650 
 
 17,201 ,800 
 
 19,920,550 
 
 3,350,940 
 
 5,667,420 
 
 1812 .. 29 
 
 7,457,030 
 
 15,951,290 
 
 11,595,200 
 
 22,127,253 
 
 15,899,037 
 
 2,983,190 
 
 6,005,960 
 
 1813 .. 27 
 
 7,713,610 
 
 15,497,320 
 
 11,268,180 
 
 25,036,626 
 
 12,894,324 
 
 2,884,500 
 
 6,336,340 
 
 1814 .. 28 
 
 8,345,540 
 
 16,455,540 
 
 12,455,460 
 
 23,630,317 
 
 18,359,593 
 
 2,204,430 
 
 6,937,800 
 
 1815 Feb. 28 
 
 9,035,250 
 
 18,226,400 
 
 11,702,250 
 
 27,512,804 
 
 17,045,696 
 
 2,036,910 
 
 7,631,510 
 
 1816 .. 29 
 
 9,001,400 
 
 18,012,220 
 
 12,388,890 
 
 19,425,780 
 
 23,975,530 
 
 4,640,880 
 
 8,639,680 
 
 1817 .. 28 
 
 8,136,270 
 
 19,261,630 
 
 10,825,610 
 
 25,538,808 
 
 8,739,822 
 
 9,680,970 
 
 5,736,090 
 
 1818 .. .. 
 
 7,400,680 
 
 20,370,290 
 
 7,997,550 
 
 26,913,360 
 
 3,991,970 
 
 10,055,460 
 
 5,192,270 
 
 1819 .. 27 
 
 7,354,230 
 
 17,772,470 
 
 6,413,370 
 
 22,355,115 
 
 9,099,885 
 
 4,184,620 
 
 4,099,550 
 
 1820 .. 29 
 
 6,689,130 
 
 16,794,980 
 
 4,093,550 
 
 21,715,168 
 
 4,472,322 
 
 4,911,050 
 
 3,520,880 
 
 1821 . . 28 
 
 6,437,560 
 
 17,447,360 
 
 5,622,890 
 
 16,010,990 
 
 4,785,280 
 
 11,869,900 
 
 3,158,360 
 
 1822 . . 
 
 1,374,850 
 
 17,290,500 
 
 4,689,940 
 
 12,478,133 
 
 3,494,947 
 
 11,057,150 
 
 3,674,940 
 
 1823 .. .. 
 
 681,500 
 
 17,710,740 
 
 7,181,100 
 
 13,658,829 
 
 4,660,901 
 
 10,384,230 
 
 3,130,620 
 
 1824 .. .. 
 
 486,130 
 
 19,250,860 
 
 10,097,850 
 
 14,341,127 
 
 4,530,873 
 
 13,810,060 
 
 2,847,220 
 
 1825 .. .. 
 
 416,730 
 
 20,337,030 
 
 10,168,780 
 
 19,447,588 
 
 5,503,742 
 
 8,779,100 
 
 2,807,890 
 
 .. Aug. 31 
 
 396,340 
 
 19,002,500 
 
 6,410,560 
 
 17,414,566 
 
 7,691,464 
 
 3,634,320 
 
 2,930,950 
 
 1826 Feb. 28 
 
 1,375,250 
 
 24,092,660 
 
 6,935,940 
 
 20,573,258 
 
 12,345,322 
 
 2,459,510 
 
 2,974,240 
 
 .. Aug. 31 
 
 1,161,260 
 
 20,402,300 
 
 7,199,860 
 
 17,713,881 
 
 7,369,749 
 
 6,754,230 
 
 3,074,440 
 
 1827 Feb. 28 
 
 661,390 
 
 21,229,220 
 
 8,801,660 
 
 18,685,015 
 
 4,844,515 
 
 10,159,020 
 
 2,996,280 
 
 1828 . . 29 
 
 416,260 
 
 21,564,450 
 
 9,198,140 
 
 19,818.777 
 
 3,762,493 
 
 10,347,290 
 
 2,749,710 
 
 1829 .. 28 
 
 356,830 
 
 19,514,020 
 
 9,553,960 
 
 19,736,665 
 
 5,648,085 
 
 6,835,020 
 
 2,794. 9fi0 
 
 1830 .. 27 
 
 320,490 
 
 19,730,240 
 
 10,763,150 
 
 20,033,890 
 
 4,165,500 
 
 9,171,000 
 
 2,561,510 
 
 1831 . . 28 
 
 306,870 
 
 19,293,270 
 
 11,213,530 
 
 19,927,572 
 
 5,281,408 
 
 8,217,050 
 
 2,612,360 
 
 1832 . . 29 
 
 299,100 
 
 17,752,610 
 19,110,000 
 
 8,937,170 
 15,675,000 
 
 18,497,448 
 
 5,836,042 
 
 5,293,150 
 8,598,000 
 
 2,637,760 
 2,315,000 
 
 1834 July 29 
 
 
 
 28,502,000 
 
 .. Oct. 21 
 
 
 
 
 18,914,000 
 
 13,514,000 
 
 27,840,000 
 
 7,123,000 
 
 2,535,000 
 
 1835 Jan. 15 
 
 
 
 
 18,012,000 
 
 12,585,000 
 
 26,390,000 
 
 6,741,000 
 
 2,534,000 
 
 .. April 7 
 
 
 
 
 18,591,000 
 
 11,289,000 
 
 26,228,000 
 
 6,329,000 
 
 2,077, "00 
 
 .. July 28 
 
 
 
 
 18,322,000 
 
 11,561,000 
 
 26,244,000 
 
 6,283,000 
 
 2,644,000 
 
 . . Oct. 20 
 
 
 
 
 17,930,000 
 
 14,227,000 
 
 28,66 1,000 
 
 6,186,000 
 
 2,690,000 
 
 J836 Jan. 12 
 
 
 
 
 17,262,000 
 
 19,169,000 
 
 31,954,000 
 
 7,076,000 
 
 2,599,000 
 
 . . April 5 
 
 
 
 
 18,063.000 
 
 14,751,000 
 
 27,927,000 
 
 7,801,000 
 
 2,914,000 
 
 .. July 28 
 
 
 
 
 17,940,000 
 
 14,495,000 
 
 28,315,000 
 
 6,926,000 
 
 2,806,000 
 
 .. Oct. 21 
 
 
 
 
 17,936.000 
 
 13,324,000 
 
 28,845,000 
 
 5,257,000 
 
 2,842,000 
 
 1837 Jan. 10 
 
 
 
 
 17,422,000 
 
 14,354,000 
 
 80,365,000 
 
 4,287,000 
 
 2,876,000 
 
 . . April 4 
 
 
 
 
 18,432,000 
 
 11,192,000 
 
 28,843,000 
 
 4,071,000 
 
 3,290,000 
 
 .. July 25 
 
 
 
 
 18,261,000 
 
 10,672,000 
 
 26,727,000 
 
 5,226,000 
 
 3,020,000 
 
 .. Oct. 17 
 
 
 
 
 18,716,000 
 
 10,501,000 
 
 25,316,000 
 
 6,856,000 
 
 2,955,000 
 
 1838 Jan. 9 
 
 
 
 
 17,900,000 
 
 10,992,000 
 
 22,606,000 
 
 8,895,000 
 
 2,609,000 
 
 .. April 3 
 
 
 
 
 18,987,000 
 
 11,262,000 
 
 22,838,000 
 
 10,126,000 
 
 2,715,000 
 
 .. July 24 
 
 
 
 
 19,286,000 
 
 10,424,000 
 
 22,601,000 
 
 9,749,000 
 
 2,640,000 
 
 .. Oct. 16 
 
 
 
 
 19,359,000 
 
 9,327,000 
 
 22,015,000 
 
 9,437,000 
 
 2,765,000 
 
 1839 Jan. 8 
 
 
 
 
 18.201,000 
 
 10,315,000 
 
 21,680,000 
 
 9,336,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 .. April 2 
 
 
 
 
 18,371,000 
 
 8.998,000 
 
 22,987,000 
 
 7,073,000 
 
 2,691,000 
 
 .. July 23 
 
 
 
 
 18,049,000 
 
 7,955,000 
 
 24,905,000 
 
 3,785,000 
 
 2,686,000 
 
 .. Oct. 15 
 
 
 
 
 17,612,000 
 
 6,734,000 
 
 24,939,000 
 
 2,525,000 
 
 3,118,000 
 
 1840 Jan. 7 
 
 
 
 
 16,366,000 
 
 7,136,000 
 
 22,913,000 
 
 3,454,000 
 
 2,865,000 
 
 . . April 28 
 
 
 
 
 16,831,000 
 
 7,296,000 
 
 22,726,000 
 
 4,318,000 
 
 2,917,000 
 
 .. July 21 
 
 
 
 16,951,000 
 
 7,578,000 22,865,000 
 
 4,529,000 2,865,000 
 
BAN 
 
 55 
 
 BAN 
 
 1. The returns since 1834 are formed upon the average of the preceding quarter. The amounts 
 on each Saturday night, for thirteen weeks in succession, are added together, and the sum divided 
 bv thirteen ; this gives the average of the quarter. Hence these returns do not show the progress 
 qt the affairs of the Bank during the quarter. For instance, the amount of notes in circulation 
 niay be high in the beginning of the quarter, and low at the end of the quarter, or the reverse; 
 or the amounts may be low at both the beginning and the end, and high in the middle of the quar- 
 ter, or the reverse— and yet all these cases may produce the same average. 
 
 2. " The circulation "includes the notes of the head-office, and of all the branches; it also includes 
 the Bank Post Bills issued at the former, and the drafts drawn by the branches upon the pa- 
 rent establishment, or upon each other. The bank did not publish the branch circulation se- 
 parately until the year 1840, when it was furnished to the Parliamentary Committee on Banks 
 of Issue, from whose Report it appears to have fluctuated in the years 1838 and 1839 from 
 £3,723,000 to £4,3^7,000. ,_ M ^ ---_-. 
 
 3. The deposits include those at the head-office and all the branches. 
 
 4. The securities also include those at the head-office and at the branches : they are formed of 
 bills under discount, Exchequer bills, the dead weight, and other government securities, loans on 
 mortgage, &c. . . . * . , . . .. 
 
 5. The bullion includes both gold and silver, whether corned or uncoined, and whether at the 
 head-office or the branches. 
 
 6. The difference between the liabilities and the assets forms the rest," or surplus capital, 
 arising out of accumulated profits, and which is over and above the capital of £14,553,000, upon 
 which the dividends are paid to the proprietors. 
 
 The defects of the quarterly returns have been supplied by the last report of the Com- 
 mittee on Banks of Issue (Par. Paper of 7 th A ugust 1840, No. 602), the Appendix to 
 which contains a weekly statement of the liabilities and assets of the bank from 
 March 1832 to March 1840. The following is a copy of the last of these statements :— 
 Bank of England, March 31, 1840. 
 
 Assets. 
 Public Securities : 
 Advances on Exchequer Bills : 
 
 Deficiency £340,000 
 
 16,398,000 Other Exchequer bills.. 481, 000 
 
 Liabilities. 
 Circulation : 
 
 London £12,446,000 
 
 Country 3,952,000 
 
 Deposits, Public, viz. : 
 
 Exchequer Account 806,000 
 
 For pavment of dividends 393,000 
 
 Savings Banks. 18,000 
 
 West India Compensation .... 
 Other public accounts... .1,187,000 
 
 Deposits, Private, viz. : 
 
 London Bankers. 740,000 
 
 East India Company 603,000 
 
 Loan from ditto 
 
 Bank of Ireland, & Royal 
 
 Bank of Scotland 70,000 
 
 Other deposits 2,141 ,000 
 
 Deposits at Branches. .. . 472,000 
 
 4,026,000 
 
 £22,828,000 
 
 Exch. Bills purchased.. 1,050,000 
 Stock and Annuities. .10,132,000 
 
 Private Securities : 
 Bills discounted : 
 
 London 791,000 
 
 Country 3,275,000 
 
 East India Bonds 
 
 City Bonds, &c. 1 ,359,000 
 
 Mortgage. 1,296,000 
 
 Advances : 
 
 Bills of Exchange. 2,267,000 
 
 Exch. Bills, Stock, &c. 335,000 
 
 12,003,000 
 
 4,006,000 
 
 5,257,000 
 
 £21,326,000 
 Bullion, ..4,446,000 
 
 £25,772,000 
 
 IV. London Bankers. — The private bankers in London were formerly the gold- 
 smiths, as already noticed, who, after a time, gradually relinquished their original 
 pursuit and became exclusively bankers. They issued notes, and continued to do 
 so even after the establishment of the Bank of England ; but from this branch of 
 business they have long since withdrawn. There are at present fifty-four private 
 banking-houses in London, and of these, three, namely, Messrs Child and Company, 
 Messrs Hoares and Company, and Messrs Snows and Company, were in existence 
 before the Bank of England. Their business chiefly consists in acting as deposi- 
 taries of money, discounting bills, and officiating as agents for banks out of London. 
 They allow no interest on deposits ; but, on the other hand, they charge no com- 
 mission for paying the drafts of those who keep accounts, or for the trouble of 
 presenting their cheques and bills for payment ; the balance at their credit being 
 considered a sufficient remuneration for keeping the account, and this balance is 
 expected to be large or small, according to the number, amount, and nature of the 
 transactions. They likewise afford considerable facilities to their customers, both 
 in discounting bills, and by temporary loans, with or without security, according 
 to circumstances. Bills for other parties are commonly discounted through the 
 medium of brokers. This branch of business they transact with great advantages 
 as to security, from the unreserved confidence which they are accustomed to place 
 in one another as to the credit of their respective customers. 
 
 " The deposits held by the London bankers are generally composed of very large sums, which 
 are necessarily payable on demand ; and hence they cannot be made use of to the same extent as 
 those which are intrusted to country bankers, and which, whenever interest is allowed, are usually 
 
BAN 56 BAN 
 
 left with them for a stipulated period." '* The London banks, in order to be able to meet their 
 engagements, usually keep a large deposit, nearly equal perhaps to half of what they hold in reserve 
 in the Bank of England ; a portion of their current funds they necessarily hold at home in bank- 
 paper, and a small amount in gold." " In order to turn their funds to profit, the London bankers 
 employ as much money as they can amongst their customers. They invest a considerably larger 
 proportion of their deposits in bills of exchange and promissory notes than in public securities. 
 The city banker is, however, under a disadvantage in this respect which is not felt by the banker 
 at the west end of the town. The latter may, to a certain extent, depend upon the use of the 
 money deposited with him, as his accounts are usually those of country gentlemen and individuals 
 out of trade ; whereas the former, whose accounts are principally those of persons actively engaged 
 in commercial or money operations, can hardly know three days beforehand what the amount of 
 his deposits may be at any given period. The London bankers are obliged to employ their money 
 occasionally at a very low rate of interest." (Mr Glyn's Evidence, 1832.) 
 
 The Clearing-House was instituted by the London bankers about the year 1775, in 
 order to save the time, risk, and inconvenience of sending round to each other for 
 payment of the numerous cheques which they daily receive from their customers. 
 
 " In a large room in Lombard Street, about thirty clerks from the several London bankers take 
 their stations, in alphabetical order, at desks placed round the room ; each having a small open 
 box by his side, and the name of the firm to which he belongs in large characters on the wall above 
 his head. From time to time other clerks from every house enter the room, and, passing along, 
 drop into the box the cheques due by that firm to the house from which this distributor is sent. 
 The clerk at the table enters the amount of the several cheques in a book previously prepared, under 
 the name of the bank to which they are respectively due." " At four o'clock all the boxes are 
 removed, and each clerk adds up the amount of the cheques put into his box and payable by his 
 own to other houses. He also receives another book from his own house, containing the amounts 
 of the cheques which their distributing clerk has put into the box of every other banker. Having 
 compared these, he writes out the balances due to or from his own house opposite the name of each 
 of the other banks ; and having verified this statement by a comparison with the similar list made 
 by the clerks of those houses, he sends to his own bank the general balance resulting from this 
 sheet, the amount of which, if it is due from that to other houses, is sent back in bank notes. At 
 five o'clock the inspector takes his seat ; when each clerk, who has, upon the result of all the 
 transactions, a balance to pay to various other houses, pays it to the inspector, who gives a ticket 
 for the amount. The clerks'of those houses to whom money is due, then receive the several sums 
 from the inspector, who takes from them a ticket for the amount. Thus the whole of these pay- 
 ments are made by a double system of balance, a very small amount of bank notes passing from 
 hand to hand, and scarcely any coin." 
 
 " It is difficult to form a satisfactory estimate of the sums which daily pass through this opera- 
 tion : they fluctuate from two millions to perhaps fifteen. About two millions and a half may 
 possibly be considered as something like an average, requiring for its adjustment perhaps £200,000 
 in bank notes, and £20 in specie. By an agreement between the different bankers, all cheques 
 which have the name of any firm written across them must pass through the clearing-house ; con- 
 sequently, if any such cheque should be lost, the firm on which it is drawn would refuse to pay it at 
 the counter ; a circumstance which adds greatly to the convenience of commerce. The advantage 
 of this system is such, that two meetings a-day have been recently established — one at twelve, the 
 other at three o'clock ; but the payment of balances takes place once only, at five o'clock. If all 
 the private banks kept accounts with the Bank of England, it would be possible to carry on the 
 whole of these transactions with a still smaller quantity of circulating medium." (Babbage's Eco- 
 nomy of Machinery and Manufactures.) 
 
 The establishment of the clearing-house has led to new arrangements in several 
 branches of business. The stockbrokers for instance now settle all their receipts 
 and payments by cheques, to be paid through the clearing-house : the cheques 
 which a broker draws on his banker being paid by the cheques of other brokers 
 which he lodges to his credit. The colonial brokers and other classes have fixed 
 days for settling their accounts, and on these days draw cheques on their bankers 
 in the morning, and deposit others to meet them at a subsequent part of the day. 
 The institution of the clearing-house has thus become entwined with the general 
 commerce of the country. 
 
 Metropolitan Joint-stock Banks. — Of late years several extensive joint- stock 
 banks have been established in the capital, as the London and Westminster, the Lon- 
 don Joint-stock, the Metropolitan, the Union, and others. These banks conduct their 
 business in some respects differently from the private bankers, particularly in re- 
 ference to deposits on which they allow interest ; charging likewise a commission 
 upon the drawing accounts instead of requiring a balance. They are viewed with 
 jealousy by the Bank of England as well as the private bankers, by whom they are 
 excluded from the clearing-house ; but being powerfully supported, they have been 
 enabled successfully to meet this opposition ; and it is considered probable that 
 their number will increase. 
 
 V. English Provincial Banks. — The act of 1708 exercised an unfavourable influ- 
 ence upon the banking business out of London, the prohibition of the number of 
 partners to six, having, as already noticed, been understood to apply not to banks 
 of issue alone, but to banks of all kinds. At the time the enactment took place, and 
 for many years after, the extent of injury arising from it was not perceived, as 
 there were few provincial banks in England, and consequently few failures among 
 them ; but during the greater part of the last half century, the case has been very 
 different. After 1770, the increase of town population, consequent on the progress 
 
BAN 57 BAN 
 
 of the cotton and iron manufactures, occasioned an addition to the number of banks ; 
 and during the ten years of prosperity and peace (1783-93) which followed the close 
 of the American war, they multiplied with great rapidity. The sudden check, 
 however, which was given to trade by the transition from peace to war in 1793, fell 
 directly on the provincial banks, and by causing twenty-two of them to declare 
 their insolvency in one year, brought into view the pernicious effect of the act of 
 1708. In 1797, when their number was about 280, leave was given to them, as well 
 as to the Bank of England, to issue £1 and £2 notes. This privilege having been 
 coupled with the important one of not paying their notes in cash, an extraordinary 
 extension of their business suddenly took place ; and between 1797 and 1814 their 
 number increased to 900. In the course of the three years 1814, 1815, and 1816, 
 however, ninety insolvencies occurred, and an equal number of dissolutions of part- 
 nership, which" reduced the number of banks to between seven and eight hundred. 
 In the year of speculation, 1825, their number again increased, but it was once more 
 reduced by the failure of eightv in that and the following year. These stoppages, 
 and the injury which resulted from them, at last forced the defective constitution 
 of the provincial banks upon the attention of the government, and this more particu- 
 larly from the contrast presented by the state of banking in Scotland, where, for 
 upwards of a century, scarcely a single bank of issue had proved insolvent in 
 consequence chiefly of the non-existence of the limitation in question. Accordingly, 
 in 1826, the act 7 Geo. IV. c. 46, was passed, allowing joint-stock banks to be 
 formed in all places beyond the metropolitan district, it being at the same time 
 arranged (7 Geo. IV. c. 46, § 15) that the Bank of England should establish 
 branches, and that notes under £5 should be withdrawn from circulation by April 5, 
 1829. By a subsequent act in 1833, the provincial banks were allowed to tender 
 Bank of England notes instead of gold in exchange for their notes. 
 
 Statutory Regulations. — These are principally embodied in 7 Geo. IV. c. 46, and 
 3 & 4 Wm. IV". c. 83, already noticed. 
 
 The statute first mentioned, enacts (§1), that copartnerships or societies, though consisting of 
 more than six persons, may be bankers in England, and may issue notes, provided such copartner- 
 ships shall have the whole of their banking establishments beyond sixty-five miles from London, 
 and that all the partners are liable for the whole debts of the bank ; and (§§4,5) that a return be 
 made to the Stamp-office, before commencing business, and between the 28th February and 25th 
 March annually, of the name of their firm, of the names and places of abode of all their partners, 
 of the places where the banks are established, and of two or more of their number who shall have 
 been appointed public officers, which returns shall be open for the inspection of the public on 
 payment of one shilling for every search. (§ 8) Special returns must be made of any additional 
 public officers, of all retiring and newly-appointed partners, and of any new agencies. (§ 9) Such 
 banking companies are entitled to sue and be sued in the name of their public officers ; and 
 (§§ 12, 13) when judgment is obtained against such public officers, execution may be issued against 
 any member of the copartnership. (§ 16) The banks are allowed to compound for the stamp- 
 duties on their notes at the rate of 7s. per annum for every £100 in circulation. (§ 17) If a com- 
 pany issuing notes has two, three, or four places of issue, a license is required for each ; but four 
 licenses will suffice for any number of places of issue. ( § 18) A company delaying to make the said 
 return to the Stamp-office forfeits £500 per week during the delay, and, if a false return is made, 
 £500 is forfeited by them, and £H»0 by the officer who makes the return. 
 
 The statute 3 &4 Wm. IV. c. 83, enacts (§ 1), that partnerships and persons carrying on bank- 
 ing business and issuing notes shall make returns to the Stamp-office, London, of the average 
 amount of notes in circulation in the quarters ending January 1, April 1, July 1, and October 1, 
 in each year ; the quarterly average to be formed from the amount in circulation at the end of 
 each week ; such returns to be verified on oath , and to be made under a penalty for default of £500. 
 (§ 2) Banks of more than six persons may draw on any agent in London on demand, or otherwise, 
 for less than £50, notwithstanding the provision to the contrary in the act 7 Geo. IV. c. 46. 
 
 The temporary acts, 1 & 2 Vict. c. 96, and 3 & 4 Vict. c. 1 1 1 , contain provisions applicable to legal 
 proceedings by joint-stock banking companies agai-st their own members, and by such members 
 against the companies. The 3 <fe 4 Vict. c. Ill, likewise provides for the punishment of members of 
 banking companies embezzling notes, &c. 
 
 The statute 55 Geo. III. c. 184, imposed the following stamp-duties on the notes of country 
 bankers ; namely— not exceeding £1, Is.,— 5d. ; exceeding £1, ls.andnot exceeding £2, 2s.,— Hid. ; 
 from £2, 2s. to £5, 5s.,— Is. 3d. ; from £5, 5s. to £10,— Is. 9d. ; from £i0 to £20,— 2s. ; from 
 £20 to £30,-33. ; from £30 to £50,— 5s. ; from £50 to £100,— 8s. 6<L 
 
 Nature of Business. — All the provincial banks discount bills, grant advances or 
 credits on accounts, effect remittances, and receive deposits on which they allow 
 interest ; but their mode of transacting business is not uniform. 
 
 On current accounts, they allow from 2\ to 4 per cent, interest, — a commission of $ per cent, 
 being charged on all sums paid by the bank, besides from 4 to 5 per cent interest on overdrafts ; 
 the usages in this respect, however, differ much in different districts. Advances are often made 
 without security, but more commonly upon a promissory note by the party with sureties ; some- 
 times also upon bonds, and the lodgement of title-deeds. The rate of interest allowed on deposits 
 varies from about 2 to 3 per cent., and notice is in general required before any considerable sum 
 can be withdrawn. Current or drawing accounts are balanced half-yearly ; and bills lodged by 
 : uving Buch accounts, are passed to their credit, as on June 30, and December 31. English 
 
BAN 
 
 58 
 
 BAN 
 
 bills are always made payable at a London bank, a circumstance which facilitates their circulation, 
 and enables provincial bankers more readily to meet any exigency by rediscounting them. The 
 London agent of a provincial bank is paid for his trouble either by a certain amount being allowed to 
 remain in his hands without interest, by a commission on his payments, or by a fixed annual sum. 
 Most of these banks issue notes which are often made payable at their London agent's establish- 
 ment, as well as at their own. The profits from this source were reduced by the suppression of 
 those under £5, which, prior to 1829, formed about one-half of the circulation; but the reduc- 
 tion is estimated at only 30 per cent., owing to the larger amount of other notes since taken by the 
 public. 
 
 There are exchanges of notes between the banks in the country towns either once or twice 
 a- week as may be arranged, and the balance is paid by an order at sight upon London. The sys- 
 tem of exchanges is less comprehensive than in Scotland ; but in that part of the island, the circu- 
 lation of the larger banks is very widely diffused through their numerous branches ; whereas, the 
 country circulation of England pretty much divides and restricts itself to particular districts, and 
 within which, in each case, the issues of the several banks almost exclusively circulate. Any notes 
 that find their way beyond such limits are of trifling amount, and are speedily returned to the 
 banks by whom they were issued, or their London agents. 
 
 Account showing the Amount of Notes circulated in England and Wales by Pri- 
 vate Banks, and Joint-stock Banks and their Branches, from Returns under 
 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 83. 
 
 Quarters to 
 
 1833. Dec. 28. 
 
 1834. March 29. 
 — . June 28. 
 
 — Sept. 27. 
 
 — Dec. 28. 
 
 1835. March 28. 
 
 — June 27. 
 
 — Sept. 26. 
 
 — Dec. 26. 
 
 1836. March 26. 
 
 — June 25. 
 
 — Sept. 24. 
 
 — Dec. 31. 
 
 Joint 
 Private. Stock. 
 
 ,836,803 1 
 ,733,4001 
 ,875,7951 
 ,370,4231 
 ,537,655 2 
 231,206 2 
 455,114 2 
 ,912,5872 
 334,863 2 
 353,894 3. 
 614,132 3 
 764,824 3 
 753,500 4 
 
 £ 
 ,315,301 
 ,458,427 
 ,642,887 
 ,783,689 
 ,122,173 
 188,954 
 ,184,687 
 508,036 
 799,551 
 094,025 
 588,064 
 969,121 
 258,197 
 
 Total. 
 
 £ 
 
 10,152,104 
 10,191,827 
 10,518,682 
 10,154,112 
 10,659,828 
 10,420,160 
 10,939,101 
 10,420,623 
 11,134,414 
 11,447,919 
 12,202,196 
 11,733,945 
 12,011,697 
 
 Quarters to 
 
 1837. April 1. 
 
 — July 1. 
 
 — Sept. 30. 
 
 — Dec. 30. 
 183a March 31 . 
 
 — June 30. 
 
 — Sept. 29. 
 
 — Dec. 31. 
 
 1839. March 30. 
 
 — June 29. 
 
 — Sept. 28. 
 
 — Dec. 28. 
 
 1840. Mar. 28. 
 
 Joint 
 Private. Stock. 
 
 Total. 
 
 £ 
 
 7,275,784 3 
 7,187,673 3 
 6,701,996 3 
 7,043,4/0 3 
 7,005,472 3, 
 7,383,247,4! 
 7,083,811 4i 
 7,599,9424i 
 7,642,1044: 
 7,610,7084; 
 6,917,6574, 
 7,251,678 4, 
 6,893,012!3. 
 
 £ 
 ,755,27911 
 ,684,764 ! 10 
 440,053 10 
 826,66510 
 921,03910 
 362,256 11 
 281,15111 
 625,546 12 
 617,363 12 
 665,llo!l2 
 167,313 11 
 170,76711 
 940,232 10 
 
 £ 
 031,063 
 ,872,437 
 142,049 
 ,870,135 
 ,926,511 
 ,745,503 
 364,962 
 225,488 
 ,259,467 
 275,818 
 684,970 
 422,445 
 833,244 
 
 ENGLISH PROVINCIAL JOINT STOCK BANKS. 
 (The capital, and the circulation of these banks which issue notes, are stated according to the 
 House of Commons Report for 1836, Par. Paper No. 591, and their Report for 1837, P. P. 
 No. 531. The number of partners and branches* are shown for 1839, according to Return 
 to the House of Commons in that year, P. P. No. 530.) 
 
 Tvo-TT 
 
 Designation. 
 
 Ashton, Staleybridge, Hyde & Glossop B. 
 
 Barnsley Banking Company 
 
 Bilston District Banking Company 
 
 Birmingham Banking Company 
 
 . . . . Bank of 
 
 Town and District Bank. Co. 
 
 . . . . and Midland Bank 
 
 . . . . Borough Bank. 
 
 Bolton, Bank of 
 
 Bradford Banking Company 
 
 . . . Commerical Joint-stock Bg. Co- 
 Bristol Old Bank. , 
 
 Bury Banking Company , 
 
 Bury and Hey wood Banking Company 
 
 Carlisle and Cumberland Banking Co 
 
 Carlisle City & District Banking Company 
 
 Cheltenham & Gloucestershire Bank 
 
 Chesterfield & North Derbyshire Bank. Co 
 
 Commercial Bank of England 
 
 County of Gloucester Bank 
 
 Coventry and Warwickshire Banking Co. . . 
 
 Coventry Union Banking Company 
 
 Cumberland Union Banking Company 
 
 Darlington District Joint-stock Bank. Co. . . 
 Derby and Derbyshire Banking Company. . 
 Devon and Cornwall Banking Company .. . . 
 Dudley and Westbromwich Banking Co. . . . 
 
 East of England Bank 
 
 Glamorganshire Banking Company 
 
 Gloucestershire Banking Company 
 
 Gloucester County and City Bank 
 
 Halifax Joint-stock Banking Company 
 
 . . . Commercial Banking Company 
 
 . and Huddersfield Banking Co 
 
 Head Office. 
 
 Ashton 
 
 Barnsley 
 
 Bilston 
 
 Birmingham. 
 
 Bolton.... 
 Bradford. 
 
 Bristol . 
 Bury... 
 
 Carlisle 
 
 Cheltenham. 
 Chesterfield. 
 Manchester. 
 Gloucester. . 
 Coventry 
 
 Workington . 
 Darlington... 
 
 Derby 
 
 Plymouth . . . 
 
 Dudley 
 
 Norwich 
 
 Swansea. 
 
 Gloucester. .. 
 
 1836 292 
 
 1832 111 
 
 1836 131 
 1821? 
 
 1832 240 
 
 1836 397 
 
 1836 180 
 
 1837, 90 
 
 1836 165 
 
 1827 165 
 
 Halifax . 
 
 1838 
 1826 
 1836 
 1886 
 1836 
 1837 
 1836 
 1832 
 1334 
 1836 
 1835 
 1 836 
 1829 
 1832 
 1834 
 1332 
 
 18331 179 
 501 
 1836 102 
 1831 
 1835 
 1829 207 
 
 1336 
 1836 
 
 £ 
 
 20,330 
 25,100 
 27,375 
 50,000 
 73,785 
 
 36J400 
 
 20,670 
 77,900 
 48,095 
 140,000 
 63,925 
 
 50J950 
 
 22,*625 
 23,380 
 
 262,485 
 
 176,750 
 43,490 
 32,700 
 18,810 
 55,425 
 40,900 
 56,820 
 32,325 
 
 156,322 
 32,500 
 
 100,000 
 19,720 
 44,475 
 65,000 
 83,775 
 
 Circulation 
 in Quarter t< 
 Uec. 31,1838. 
 
 8,247 
 9,706 
 
 22,379 
 
 33,019 
 20,575 
 104,352 
 
 9,555 
 16,255 
 
 113,527 
 87,424 
 31,225 
 18,439 
 36,870 
 73,285 
 27,656 
 
 110,762 
 42,030 
 84,574 
 
 76\132 
 
 25^395 
 13,348 
 44,549 
 
 * The number of branches, though taken from a return made by the Stamp-office, is not always accu- 
 rate, as it is a common practice of the banks to insert in their licenses places where circumstances may 
 induce them to establish branches, but where none were in existence at the time the license was granted. 
 
BAN 
 
 BAN 
 
 Designation. 
 
 Hampshire Banking Company 
 
 Helston Banking Company 
 
 Herefordshire Banking Company 
 
 Huddersfield Banking Company 
 
 Hull Banking Company 
 
 Imperial Bank of England 
 
 Knaresborough and Claro Banking Co 
 
 Lancaster Banking Company 
 
 Leamington Bank 
 
 . . . . Priors& Warwickshire Bg. Co. 
 
 Leeds Banking Company 
 
 & West Riding Banking Company . . . 
 
 Commercial Banking Company 
 
 Leicestershire Banking Company 
 
 Lichfield, Rugeley, & Tamworth Bank. Co. 
 
 Lincoln <St Lindsey Banking Company 
 
 Liverpool, Bank of, 
 
 Commercial Banking Company.. 
 
 Union Bank of. 
 
 Tradesmens' Bank 
 
 Albion Bank 
 
 Royal Bank of 
 
 Banking Company 
 
 United Trades' Bank. 
 
 Borough Bank 
 
 Central Bank of 
 
 Phoenix Bank 
 
 Manchester, Bank of 
 
 & Liverpool District Bank. 
 
 Union Bank of 
 
 & Salford Bank 
 
 Monmouth and Glamorganshire Bank. Co.. 
 Moore & Robinson Nottinghamsh. Bg. Co. 
 
 National Provincial Bank of England 
 
 N'ewcastle-on-Tyne Joint-stock Bank. Co.. . 
 Newcastle, Shields, and Sunderland Union 
 
 Joint-stock Banking Company 
 
 Newcastle Commercial Banking Company 
 
 Northamptonshire Banking Company 
 
 Union Bank 
 
 Northern and Central Bank of England. . . 
 North of England Joint-stock Banking Co. 
 North & South Wales Bank 
 Northumberland & Durham District Bank. 
 
 North Wilts Banking Company 
 
 Nottingham and Nottinghamshire Bank. Co 
 
 Oldham Banking Company 
 
 Pares' Leicestershire Banking Company 
 
 Saddle worth Banking Company 
 
 Sheffield Banking Company 
 
 . . & Hallamshire Banking Company, 
 . . & Rotherham Joint-stock Bg. Co.., 
 
 Shropshire Banking Company 
 
 Stamford, Spalding, & Boston Banking Co. 
 
 Stockport, Bank of 
 
 Stockton and Durham County Bank. 
 
 Stourbridge & Kidderminster Banking Co. . 
 
 Stuckey's Banking Company 
 
 South Lancashire Bank 
 
 South Wales, Bank of 
 
 Southern District Banking Company 
 
 Sunderland Joint-stock Banking Company.. 
 Swaledale & Wensleydale Banking Comp.. . 
 
 Wakefield Bauking Company 
 
 Walsall & South Staffordshire, Bank of 
 
 Warwick & Leamington Banking Company. 
 West Riding Union Banking Company .... 
 
 Westmoreland, Bank of. 
 
 West of England and South Wales District 
 
 Bank 
 
 Western District Banking Company 
 
 Wilts and Dorset Banking Company 
 
 Whitehaven Joint-stock Banking Companv 
 
 . . . . Bank of 
 
 Wolverhampton & Staffordshire Bank. Co.. 
 York City and County Banking Company. . 
 
 . . Union Banking Company 
 
 Yorkshire District Bank 
 
 Head Office. 
 
 Southampton . . 
 
 Helston 
 
 Hereford. 
 
 Huddersfield .. . 
 
 Hull 
 
 3lanchester 
 
 Knaresborough 
 
 Lancaster 
 
 Leamington 
 
 Leeds 
 
 Leicester . 
 Lichfield. . 
 Lincoln. . . 
 Liverpool 
 
 Manchester. 
 
 Newport 
 
 Nottingham . . 
 
 London 
 
 Newcastle 
 
 Northampton. . 
 
 Manchester . . 
 Newcastle . . . 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 Newcastle . . . 
 Melksham. .. 
 Nottingham . 
 
 Oldham 
 
 Leicester 
 
 Saddleworth . 
 Sheffield 
 
 Shiffnal 
 
 Stamford 
 
 Stockport 
 
 Stockton 
 
 Stourbridge 
 
 Bristol 
 
 Manchester 
 
 Carmarthen . . . 
 Southampton... 
 
 Sunderland 
 
 Richmond 
 
 Wakefield 
 
 Walsall 
 
 Warwick 
 
 Huddersfield... 
 Kendal 
 
 Bristol 
 
 Plymouth 
 
 Salisbury 
 
 Whitehaven 
 
 Wolverhampton 
 York 
 
 AgriculturalandCommer.Bg. Co. York- 
 
 No, o f 
 
 Put- Bran- 
 ner*. chet. 
 
 466 
 384 
 
 ■257 
 
 VJ2 
 
 894 
 
 401 
 
 40 
 
 136 
 
 660 
 
 1287 
 
 411 
 
 226 
 
 328 
 
 157 
 
 7M 
 
 55 
 
 836 462 
 836 162 
 836' 316 
 836! 420 
 834 1088 
 832 610 
 836 476 
 836 303 
 835 
 
 334 
 
 53 
 
 107 
 
 210 
 836 638 
 8361 275 
 836 
 
 834 
 
 442 
 
 121 
 230 
 263 
 833| 271 
 834 1055 
 836, 618 
 
 Advanced 
 Capital, 
 1H36-37. 
 
 £ 
 
 28,445 
 4,190 
 30,300 
 65,180 
 41,950 
 73,580 
 21,620 
 60,750 
 40,125 
 22,920 
 120,450 
 67,725 
 60,000 
 49,440 
 28,000 
 53,510 
 380,170 
 338,900 
 257,350 
 94,375 
 
 352J930 
 
 106,700 
 
 206,225 
 
 5,790 
 
 74i,*030 
 749,725 
 155,425 
 271,900 
 128,580 
 
 51,282 
 367,635 
 
 20,317 
 
 115,168 
 20,425 
 47,630 
 107,500 
 711,860 
 240,000 
 150,360 
 123,812 
 37,975 
 81,450 
 10,210 
 16,350 
 30,850 
 92,170 
 114,057 
 33,125 
 40,215 
 44,080 
 66,625 
 
 45io00 
 
 65,000 
 
 150,212 
 
 17,500 
 
 30^575 
 26,325 
 44,920 
 30,575 
 32,900 
 63,900 
 21,450 
 
 213,530 
 30,600 
 63,105 
 28,050 
 
 50,'66o 
 75,000 
 63,000 
 389,985 
 72,875 
 
 Circulation 
 Dec. 31, lbV 
 
 £ 
 
 38,580 
 74,960 
 
 37^44 
 48,701 
 287 
 24,145 
 34,193 
 37,695 
 21,975 
 
 67,055 
 
 136,366 
 616 
 
 32,879 
 
 22,433 
 
 329,480 
 
 3,835 
 
 58,798 
 4,372 
 
 33,657 
 
 89,776 
 305,082 
 105,670 
 
 52,358 
 
 60^52 
 52,522 
 2,296 
 30,138 
 20,790 
 35,778 
 18,771 
 48,295 
 50,509 
 68,748 
 
 67,167 
 289,070 
 
 6,560 
 
 10,950 
 16,680 
 43,505 
 40,360 
 21,376 
 
 76,405 
 17,880 
 74,976 
 42,331 
 
 51 ,228 
 94,500 
 81,090 
 231,483 
 16,224 
 
BAN 60 BAN 
 
 VI. Scottish Banks. — The introduction of banking into Scotland took place in 
 1 695, in which year the Bank of Scotland was founded, with a capital of £ 1 00,000 ster- 
 ling (or £1,200,000 Scots) ; but such was then the poverty of the country, that not 
 more than £30,000 were for a considerable time called up, and a large portion even 
 of this sum was advanced by natives of Holland, Hamburg, and England. It 
 remained the only bank until 1727, when the Royal Bank was established by the 
 subscription of £111,347 : 19 : 10 of the stock of the Equivalent Company, an asso- 
 ciation which acquired right to the greater part of the compensation (£398,085, 10s.) 
 granted by parliament to Scotland at the Union in 1707. In 1746, the British Linen 
 Company was chartered, with a capital of £100,000, and, having shortly thereafter 
 abandoned the linen trade, became exclusively a banking concern. Smaller banks 
 were soon afterwards instituted in different parts of the country. The expansion 
 of the national resources which occurred after the close of the American war in 
 1783, naturally led, as in the south, to a great increase of business, and considerable 
 additions were then made to the capital of the larger banks, while about the same 
 time they established branches in the several counties. The banks have since 
 increased with the advancing prosperity of the country, and their number at pre- 
 sent is about thirty, which have mostly numerous bodies of partners, as the 
 act of 1708, limiting the number in English banks to six, did not extend to Scot- 
 land. Five of these possess charters, which, however, confer upon them no pri- 
 vileges, in regard either to the issue of notes or any other department of business. 
 The charters of the three oldest are by some said to have the effect of restricting 
 the liability of the partners to the amount of their shares ; but, however this may 
 be, no doubt is entertained that the responsibility of the partners of all the others 
 extends to the full amount of their property, both real and personal : this circum- 
 stance has contributed powerfully to the solidity of the Scottish banks. 
 
 Notes payable to the Dearer on demand were first issued in 1704, by the Bank of 
 Scotland. During last century, these were frequently circulated for smaller sums 
 than £1 ; and at one period, owing to the runs made by the banks upon each other, 
 they were made payable either on demand, or six months after with interest ; but 
 these practices were suppressed in 1765. In 1826, when Parliament prohibited one 
 
 Eound notes in England, a similar attempt was made in regard to North Britain ; 
 ut, a Committee being called for by the Scottish members, the result was, a de- 
 termination not to interfere with the existing system. 
 
 The Statutory Regulations are principally embodied in the 5 Geo. III. c. 49, 
 which requires that all bank-notes, circulated like specie, shall be made payable 
 on demand, and prohibits those for sums under £1 ; and in the 7 Geo. IV. c. 67, the 
 enactments of which are similar to those of the 7 Geo. IV. c. 46, already quoted in 
 reference to England. In the act 7 Geo. IV. c. 67, however, the period within 
 which the yearly returns of managers, branches, and partners, must be made to 
 the Edinburgh Stamp-office, is from May 25 to July 25. The stamp-duties payable 
 on notes are the same as in England. 
 
 Business Operations. — These possess a more uniform character than in the 
 south, owing chiefly to the circumstance, that the Edinburgh banks have long had 
 branches established over all the country, in which business is transacted in the 
 same manner as at the head offices. The exchange regulations, afterwards ex- 
 plained, have likewise contributed to this result, by producing a kind of federative 
 connexion between the banks themselves. The system which has thus grown up, 
 will, however, be best explained in detail. 
 
 1. Deposits are received of sums from £10 upwards, which are repaid on demand, with interest 
 at a rate varying from 2 to 3 per cent. They are composed in nearly equal parts of Deposit Receipts 
 granted for money allowed to lie for considerable periods, and of Deposit Accounts, or drawing 
 accounts, which are balanced yearly. The banks make no charge for keeping these accounts, but 
 are supposed to be remunerated by the note circulation connected with the operations upon them. 
 No overdrafts are allowed as in England. The amount of deposits in the Scottish banks is esti- 
 mated at £25,000,000, nearly one-half consisting of sums not exceeding £200. 
 
 2. Cash-credit Accounts, the nature of which has been already explained, form a characteristic 
 feature in the Scottish system, into which they were introduced by the Royal Bank in the year 
 1729. The sureties, commonly two in number, are bound jointly and individually with the prin- 
 cipal, for the balance which shall ultimately arise, including all his liabilities to the amount of the 
 bond. These credits are also granted on the security of real property, and occasionally, under 
 certain restrictions, of the bank-stock. The interest charged on the current balances is commonly 
 the same as the market-rate of discount on bills ; occasionally it is one-half per cent, higher ; but 
 no commission is ever charged, the banks looking, as in the case of deposit-accounts, to the note 
 circulation arising out of the operations on the accounts, as their remuneration for the trouble of 
 keeping them. On this ground, cash-credits are not allowed to continue as dead loans: unlet! 
 frequently operated upon, they are withdrawn. The number of these accounts at present in Scot- 
 land is estimated at 15,000, and the total amount of the bonds, £7,500,000, nearly two-thirds of 
 
BAN 
 
 61 
 
 BAN 
 
 which are supposed to bo drawn out. The bonds are rarely for sums exceeding £5000, or below 
 £100 ; their average amount is about £500. 
 
 3. Bills are discounted at a rate varying in general from 4 to 5 per cent., and a commission is 
 seldom charged. The practice in Scotland, with regard to bills, differs from that of England, in 
 respect that comparatively few are made payable in London ; and they are never credited by the 
 bank to parties keeping accounts at stated periods half yearly, as common in that country. 
 
 4. The issue of notes is intimately connected with all the operations of the Scottish banks, and 
 by the profits derived from it, they are enabled to transact business, particularly as regards deposits 
 and cash-credits, on a footing highly advantageous to the public. The notes issued at present 
 are for sums of £1, £5, £10, £20, and £100 ; and, with the exception of silver and copper coins, 
 they compose almost the entire circulation. They are convertible at the head offices into gold, or 
 notes of the Bank of England. The amount in circulation varies, being greatest at the money 
 terms ; but, on an average, is nearly £3,250,000, about one-half of which consists of £1 notes. 
 
 5. Tbe Scottish banks also negotiate bills on all parts of the United Kingdom, and on many 
 places abroad — buy and sell for their customers stock in the public funds—draw the dividends 
 thereon — and effect remittances from one part of the kingdom to another, by means of letters of 
 credit or bills ; the par date for those from Edinburgh or Glasgow on London being 20 days. 
 They likewise facilitate remittances to many other countries, by means of bills drawn at a certain 
 date on their agents in London ; which bills, after being sent abroad, are again readily purchased 
 for remittances to Britain. This branch of business has greatly increased since the opening of the 
 trade to India and China. " We perceive," says the author of the Commerce, Money, and Bank- 
 ing of India, " that in the Calcutta price currents the rates of Scotch bank bills are regularly 
 quoted. We have one of these bills now before us of the Royal Bank for £500, with no less than 
 fourteen indorsements, and which had travelled over all India." 
 
 6. An organize:! system of exchanges has been long rigorously acted upon by the whole of the 
 Scottish banks, under which all their mutual claims arising out of the possession of notes, drafts, 
 or cheques, are settled at short intervals. Among provincial banks or branches, the exchange is 
 adjusted weekly, and the balance liquidated by a draft payable on demand at Edinburgh, where 
 the system is concentrated, and where all the banks are represented either by agents or their head 
 offices. In Edinburgh, the exchanges are adjusted twice a- week, and the balances paid in Ex- 
 chequer bilb, 400 of which, each of the value of £1000, are kept by the banks in proportions cor- 
 responding to the estimated amount of their circulation, including that of the provincial esta- 
 blishments which they represent. These bills are applied to no other use, each bearing the 
 distinguishing mark of " Edinburgh Exchange Bill," and any bank holding more than its quota 
 is obliged to sell at par to another requiring bills ; the price of such bills being paid by a draft on 
 London, at five days* date, and the current interest, at Exchequer rate, settled in cash. All sums 
 under £1000 are paid in Bank of England notes or gold. The balance receivable or payable by a 
 bank depends upon the nature and amount of its business, and the exchange is said to be favour- 
 able when a balance is receivable, and unfavourable when the contrary. In general, the tendency 
 of deposits, lodgements on current-accounts or for the purpose of remittance, and in short of all 
 receipts, is to render the exchange favourable; and of loans, discounts (more particularly of bills 
 not payable in the place), the payment of drafts, and of all advances, is to render it unfavourable; 
 while the increase or decrease of these operations at particular times is productive of corresponding 
 fluctuations. 
 
 The characteristics of the Scottish system of banking, it will be thus seen, are 
 freedom, economy, and security. No monopoly is enjoyed by any one bank to the 
 prejudice of others, and the money trade, like every other, is open to all who choose 
 to engage in it. The currency employed is of the cheapest kind ; and the joint 
 effect of the deposit and cash-credit system is to prevent any part of the money 
 capital of the country from remaining unproductive. The security of the whole is 
 generally provided by numerous bodies of partners, large paid-up capital, and the 
 system of exchanges, the practical operation of which is to drive from the field any 
 establishment extending its business in a manner disproportioned to its resources. 
 In the case of the celebrated Ayr Bank, of the East Lothian Bank, and of a few 
 others, heavy losses were sustained by the partners ; but the only banks of issue 
 by which the public have sustained losses, since the introduction of banking into 
 Scotland in 1695, are the Stirling Merchant, and Falkirk Union Banks, two small 
 concerns, the aggregate amount of whose deficiencies did not exceed £36,344. 
 
 1. Chartered Banks in Scotland. 
 
 Wp-te, Ij-j 
 
 Part- 
 ners. 
 
 Br. 
 
 Paid-up 
 Capital. 
 
 Dividend. 
 
 Share 
 Paid- 
 
 Price 
 Aug. 1840. 
 
 Rate 1 Payable. 
 
 1. Bank of Scotland. ... 1695 
 
 2. Roval Bank 1727 
 
 3. British Linen Co 1746 
 
 4. Commercial Bank.. . . 1810 
 
 5. National Bank 1825 
 
 672 
 764 
 164 
 519 
 12-38 
 
 31 
 
 7 
 44 
 52 
 33 
 
 £1,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 6 April and October. . 
 *>i January and July. . 
 8 June and December 
 
 7 January and July. . 
 6 ! January and July . 
 
 £100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 10 
 
 166 
 160 
 233 
 178 
 
 14 19 
 
BAN 
 
 62 
 
 BAN 
 
 2. Unchartered Banking Companies in Scotland 
 
 
 
 
 Designation. tuted. 
 
 Part- 
 ners. 
 
 Br. 
 
 Designation. 
 
 Insti- 
 tuted. 
 
 Part- 
 ners. 
 
 Br. 
 
 
 1767 
 
 1825 
 1825 
 1773 
 1830 
 1838 
 1834 
 1839 
 1837 
 1763 
 1809 
 1838 
 
 189 
 
 491 
 
 80 
 
 11 
 
 97 
 
 1100 
 
 465 
 
 779 
 
 818 
 
 52 
 
 82 
 
 774 
 
 11 
 Hi 
 1 
 i 
 
 7 
 i) 
 5 
 
 ;i 
 l 
 A 
 
 ] 
 
 13. Edinburgh & Leith Bank 
 14 / Forbes, Sir W., & Co. \ 
 L *' \ GlasgowUnion Bk.Co. / 
 15. Glasgow and Ship Bank. . 
 
 1838 
 
 1830 
 
 1749 
 1785 
 1792 
 1836 
 1839 
 1766 
 1802 
 1837 
 1832 
 
 785 
 508 
 28 
 
 "9 
 1564 
 344 
 182 
 
 226 
 
 469 
 
 e 
 
 2(i 
 
 1 
 .'J 
 
 :: 
 23 
 1 
 a 
 6 
 7 
 16 
 
 2. Aberdeen To. & Co. Bank 
 
 4. Ayr Bank 
 
 5. Ayrshire Banking Co. . . . 
 
 6. Caledonian Banking Co. . 
 
 7. Central Bank of Scotland 
 
 8. City of Glasgow Bank 
 
 9. Clydesdale Banking Co. . . 
 
 10. Dundee Banking Co 
 
 11. Dundee Union Bank 
 
 12. Eastern Bank of Scotland 
 
 17. Leith Bank 
 
 18. North of Scotland Bk. Co. 
 
 19. Paisley Commercial B. Co. 
 
 20. Perth Banking Company.. 
 
 21. Renfrewshire Bank. Co.. . 
 
 22. Southern Bank of Scot.. . 
 
 23. Western Bank of Scotland 
 
 The whole of these banks issue notes, and all are joint-stock companies, except Nos. 4, 15, 16, 17, 
 21. Two other joint-stock banks are at this date (August 1840) projected — the Greenock Union 
 Banking Company, and the Glasgow Joint-Stock Banking Company. Messrs A. Allan fy Co., 
 Edinburgh, are now the only private bankers who do not issue notes. 
 
 VII. Banks in Ireland. — The introduction of banking into Ireland took place at a 
 later period than in the two other parts of the kingdom ; and its history may be 
 termed a bad epitome of that of England, the same faults having been committed, and 
 the evil arising from them having been much more conspicuous. The Bank of 
 Ireland, which was incorporated in 1782, with a capital of £600,000 Irish, was in- 
 vested with privileges similar to those of the Bank of England, and its charter 
 contained unfortunately a clause that " no other bank issuing notes should consist 
 of more than six partners." This restriction was inserted in order to give it a mono- 
 poly of the circulation ; but the effect, as in England, has been to lead to the forma- 
 tion of country banks with inadequate resources. The evils resulting from such 
 banks have been already described in the case of England ; but in Ireland they were 
 much more serious, from the less commercial habits of the people ; and of fifty 
 country banks established in 1804, no fewer than forty stopped payment : of these, 
 ten failed in one year, namely, 1820 ? all in the southern part of the island. 
 
 The Bank of Ireland was placed in nearly the same relation to the State as the 
 Bank of England. It advanced the greater part of its capital to government; and 
 was intrusted with the management of the Irish department of the national debt. 
 The exemption from paying in cash, granted to the latter establishment in 1797, 
 was extended in the same year to the former, and led to a great increase in its 
 circulation, which, from little more than £500,000 in 1796, was increased by 1815 to 
 £3,000,000. A serious depreciation of the notes of the bank arose in consequence ; 
 and the silver currency of the country, though generally in a debased state, became 
 more valuable in the form of bullion, and was all melted down. The community 
 being, in consequence, exposed to the greatest inconvenience, the place of the coins 
 was supplied in Dublin and other parts by counterfeits, and in several districts by 
 a paper currency issued for sums gradually decreasing from 6s. to 6d., and even 3d. 
 It was estimated that about 1804 there were dispersed throughout Ireland 295 
 issuers of this paper money, chiefly consisting of a motley body of shopkeepers, mer- 
 chants, and petty dealers. The forgeries, frauds, and general inconvenience which 
 resulted from this exceptionable currency led at length to its suppression by law ; 
 and the wants of the trade were supplied by the issue of stamped dollars by the 
 Bank. 
 
 The charter of the Bank of Ireland was successively renewed, and its capital in- 
 creased, until 1821, when, on the renewal of the charter for seventeen years (1 and 
 2 Geo. IV. c. 72), the capital was raised to £3,000,000 Irish, of which £2,850,000 
 Irish, or £2,630,769 : 4 : 8 sterling, were deposited with government, — namely, 
 £1,615,384 : 12 : 4 at 4 per cent., and £1,015,384 : 12 : 4 at 5 per cent, interest. 
 The yearly dividends of the Bank have been at no time less than 5^ per cent., ex- 
 cepting in 1783-4, when they were 5, and in 1792-3, when they were 2| per cent. 
 From 1800 to 1814, however, they were 7, 1\, and 1\ ; from 1814 to 1829, except- 
 ing two years, they were 10 per cent. ; and since 1829 the rates have been 9, 8£, and 
 8 per cent. Besides these dividends, the proprietors, at different times since 1793, 
 have received bonuses amounting to no less than £665,000 Irish. 
 
 The only benefits ever granted by the Bank to the public, in consideration of its 
 privileges, were a payment of £60,000 Irish in 1791, and, since 1808, the manage- 
 ment of the Irish department of the national debt free of charge. The deposit with 
 
BAN 
 
 63 
 
 BAN 
 
 government of £2,850,000 Irish at the high rates of 4 and 5 per cent, cannot be viewed 
 as any advantage to the latter. On the other hand, it ought to be remarked, that 
 notwithstanding the vicious state of country banking in Ireland in consequence of 
 the Bank's monopoly, no attempt was made by them to establish branches until 
 18*25, when incited by the rivalry of the Provincial Bank. Since the expiry of the 
 charter in 1838, special acts have been passed continuing it from year to year, until 
 after the Report of the sitting Committee of the House of Commons, when the sub- 
 ject of its renewal will be discussed by Parliament, and when it is deemed probable 
 that it will be placed nearly on a footing with those granted to the chartered com- 
 panies in Scotland. 
 
 In the Appendix to the late Report (1840) of the Committee of the House of 
 Commons on Banks of Issue, a weekly statement is given of the liabilities and assets 
 of the Bank of Ireland from July 1832 to March 1840. The following is the 
 account for the week ending 28th March 1840 : — 
 
 Bank of Ireland, March 28, 1840. 
 
 Liabilitks. 
 Circulation : 
 
 £5 notes and above £1,816,700 
 
 Notes under £5 1,261,000 
 
 Deposits : 
 
 Public £1,156,500 
 
 Private & sundry balances.. 1,856,700 
 
 3,077,700 
 
 3,013,200 
 £6,090,900 
 
 Atsett. 
 Securities : 
 
 Public £2,778,300 
 
 Private, viz. — 
 Notes and Bills disctd. £2,463,500 
 All other Private secu- 
 rities. 807,300 
 
 3,270,800 
 
 Specie 1,130,500 
 
 £7,179,600 
 
 On the renewal of the Bank's charter in 1821, an arrangement was made by which 
 joint-stock banks were allowed to be established at a distance of fifty Irish miles 
 from Dublin ; but this arrangement remained inoperative until several vexatious 
 restrictions annexed to it were repealed by an act in 1824. This relief was followed 
 by the institution of the Northern Banking Company at Belfast, the Provincial 
 Bank, and several others. 
 
 The statutory regulations of the Irish joint-stock banks are principally embodied 
 in the 6th Geo. IV. c. 42, the enactments of which are similar to those of the 6th 
 Geo. IV. c. 46, already quoted in reference to England. In the former, however, 
 the period within which the annual returns of managers, branches, and partners, 
 are required to be made, extends from the 25th March in any year, to the same 
 date in the year following. 
 
 The Bank of Ireland, and all the joint -stock banks, excepting the Hibernian 
 and Roval Banks, issue notes for £1 and upwards; and their total circulation, ac- 
 cording'to the Bank Report for 1840, fluctuates from about £5,500,000 to £6,500,000. 
 The Bank of Ireland, Hibernian Bank, and Royal Bank, receive deposits and dis- 
 count bills ; but the first does not allow interest, and not one of the three grants 
 cash-credits. The other joint-stock banks conduct business on the Scottish system, 
 or a modification of it. Bills on London are drawn at 21 days' date in exchange 
 for cash, and letters of credit are granted for a premium of | per cent. 
 
 Banking Companies in Ireland, with their advanced Capital, according to Re- 
 turns to Parliament in 1837, and the Numbers of their Partners and Branches, 
 according to Returns in 1839. 
 
 Designation. 
 
 Head Office. 
 
 Founded. 
 
 Partners. 
 
 Branches. 
 
 Advanced 
 Capital. 
 
 1. Bank of Ireland Dublin 
 
 1782 
 
 
 22 
 
 L. Ste:!!ne. 
 
 2,769,231) 
 
 2. Hibernian Joint-Stock Loan Co. Dublin 
 
 1825 
 
 1063 
 
 
 
 250,000 
 
 3. Provincial Bank of Ireland London. 
 
 1825 
 
 728 
 
 34 
 
 491,780 
 
 4. Northern Banking Company Belfast 
 
 1825 
 
 195 
 
 10 
 
 122,275 
 
 5. Belfast Banking Companv Belfast 
 
 1827 
 
 280 
 
 16 
 
 125,000 
 
 6. Agricultural & Commercial Bank Dublin 
 
 1834 
 
 3673 
 
 28 
 
 352,789 
 
 7- ^National Bank of Ireland London 
 
 1835 
 
 *463 
 
 15 
 
 411,837 
 
 8. Ulster Banking Company | Belfast 
 
 9. Royal Bank of Ireland Dublin 
 
 1836 
 
 679 
 
 8 
 
 204,325 
 
 1836 
 
 324 
 
 
 
 1!»9.275 
 
 The Hibernian Joint-Stock Loan Company was instituted chiefly by Roman Catholic gentlemen, 
 
 • Exclusive of branch partners. 
 
BAN 64 BAN 
 
 in opposition to the Bank of Ireland in Dublin. It cannot, under the existing law, issue notes or 
 establish branches. The Royal Bank is subject to the same restrictions. 
 
 The Provincial Bank is managed by a board in London, the shareholders being principally re- 
 sident in England. It carries on business in most of the principal towns of Ireland. The manage- 
 ment of each branch bank, subject to the control of the directors, is vested in an agent, with a 
 committee of advice, consisting of two or more gentlemen residing in the district, each of whom 
 must hold at least ten shares. 
 
 The National Bank consists also of a board in London, connected with branch or local banks 
 throughout the principal towns in Ireland ; but its principle of operation is different from that of 
 the Provincial Bank. The capital of each branch is subscribed equally by the London company, 
 and by a body of local shareholders, and profits are divided in the same proportion. The supreme 
 control is vested in the London board; but it is provided " that each local bank shall be ma- 
 naged by a board of local directors, elected by the local shareholders, subject to the approbation 
 of the directors in London."* The National Banks established on January 5, 1839, with the num- 
 ber of partners attached to each were as follows : — Limerick, 684 ; Clonmel, 646 ; Carrick-on-Suir, 
 571 ; Waterford, 618 ; Wexford and Enniscorthy, 589 ; Tipperary, 620; Tralee, 609; Cork, 530; 
 Kilkenny, 546. 
 
 There are few private banks in Ireland. 
 
 The currency of Ireland was assimilated to that of Britain from and after January 5, 1826, by 
 the act 6 Geo. IV. c. 79. The proportion of the late Irish currency to sterling was as 13 to 12, or 
 £108 : 6 : 8 Irish = £100 sterling. 
 
 An account of the principles which regulate the value of bank paper, and a 
 fuller explanation of the rules which govern its circulation in the United King- 
 dom, are given in the article Money, under which head are likewise consid- 
 ered the improvements or alterations in the system of the United Kingdom, sug- 
 gested in the Reports made to the House of Commons by the Select Committee on 
 Joint-stock Banks, and Banks of Issue, first appointed in 1836 on the motion of 
 Mr Clay. 
 
 Principal Works on Banking, $c. :— Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations (Mr 
 M'Culloch's edition) ; Thornton on the Paper Credit of Great Britain ; Report 
 of the Bullion Committee of the House of Commons, 1810 ; Blake on the Course 
 of Exchange ; Tooke on Prices ; G. R. Porter's Progress of the Nation, sec- 
 tions III. and IV. ; Sir H. Parnell's Historical Sketch of the Bank of England ; 
 Sir H. Parnell's Observations on Paper Money, Banking, &c. ; J. W. Gilbart's 
 Practical Treatise on Banking ; J. W. Gilbart's History and Principles of 
 Banking ; Ricardo's Plan for the Establishment of a National Bank, 1824 ; 
 Reports of the Parliamentary Committees on Scottish Banks, &c. in 1826 ; Report 
 of the Committee of the House of Commons on the Charter of the Bank of Eng- 
 land, 1832 ; Reports by the Committees of the House of Commons on Joint-Stock 
 Banks, and Banks of Issue, in 1836, 1837, and 1840 ; and Pamphlets by Messrs 
 Samuel Jones Loyd, J. Horsley Palmer, W. Clay, and R.Torrens. See Banks, s- 
 
 BANKS (LOAN) are institutions formed for the purpose of advancing money 
 upon articles of merchandise. The charters granted to the Bank of England, Bank 
 of Scotland, and Royal Bank of Scotland, authorize them to advance money in this 
 way ; but in the present article it is intended to treat only of those loan banks 
 which originated in motives of charity. Institutions of this kind are sometimes 
 called Montes Pietatis ; the term mont or mount being at an early period applied 
 to any pecuniary fund. They were first established in the fifteenth century, for 
 the purpose of checking the extortions of usurers by lending money gratuitously to 
 the poor upon pledges : they were originally supported by voluntary contribu- 
 tions, but as these were found insufficient, it became necessary to charge interest 
 for the loans. A bank of this kind was formed at Perugia in 1464 ; another at 
 Rome in 1539 ; and one at Naples, which was considered the greatest in Europe, 
 in the following year. The present Mont de Piete - at Paris was established in 
 1777, and so largely has the public taken advantage of it, that it has been known 
 to have in its possession forty casks filled with gold watches. 
 
 Banks of this kind are also called " Lombards," from the name of the original 
 bankers or money-lenders. One of these was established in Russia in 1772, and the 
 profit derived from it was given to the Foundling Hospital of St Petersburg. 
 
 In the United Kingdom, the business of making advances to the poor is com- 
 mitted to Pawnbrokers and Loan Societies. 
 
 BANKS FOR SAVINGS are institutions for the deposit of savings from the 
 earnings of the poorer classes. They were established on a small scale in a few 
 country parishes about the beginning of the present century ; but it was not until 
 after the formation of the Edinburgh Savings Bank by Mr Forbes (now Lord 
 
 * This plan is understood to have been lately changed for that of the Provincial Bank, except at one 
 or two of the branches. 
 
BAN 65 BAN 
 
 Medwyn of the Court of Session) that they created much public interest. The 
 practical operation of that bank in a large city, together with the writings of Mr 
 Forbes, and Dr Duncan, minister of Ruthwell, led speedily to their establishment in 
 various parts of England, and they now rank among the most important institutions 
 of the kingdom. 
 
 Acts have been passed at various times for the encouragement and regulation of 
 Savings Banks. The existing act is the 9 Geo. IV. c. 92, passed in 1828. The 
 trustees of banks formed in terms of that statute are authorized to invest their depo- 
 sits in the Banks of England or Ireland on receipts carrying interest at the rate of 
 2Ad. per cent, per diem, or £3:16: Oh per cent, per annum ; but it is provided, that 
 "the interest payable to depositors shall not exceed the rate of 2£d. per cent, per 
 diem, or £3 : 8 : 5| percent, perannum, — the difference being retained by the trustees 
 to defray the expenses of the bank. It is also provided, that " All monies paid into 
 the Banks of England or Ireland on the account of Savings Banks shall be invested 
 in bank annuities or exchequer bills." The trustees are not allowed to receive 
 deposits from any individual whose previous lodgements have amounted to £150; and 
 when the balance due to any one depositor, including interest, amounts to £200, no 
 farther interest is to be allowed. Charitable or provident institutions are permitted 
 to deposit sums to the extent of £100 per annum, provided the amount shall not at 
 any time exceed £300, exclusive of interest ; and by the act 4 and 5 Wm. IV. c. 40, 
 § 9, Friendly Societies are allowed to deposit to any extent. The lowest deposit 
 received is generally one shilling, and by the act 3 Wm. IV. c. 14, § 29, indivi- 
 duals may not deposit more than £30 in any one year. A few days' previous notice 
 is commonly required before deposits can be withdrawn. 
 
 The preceding acts were extended to Scotland in 1835, by the act 5 & 6 Wm. IV. 
 c. 57. 
 
 On the 20th November 1837 there were in England 398 Savings Banks holding £16,177,699, 
 belonging to 534,353 depositors, being on an average £30 for each depositor. At the same time 
 there were in Wales twenty-three Savings Banks, holding £401,150, belonging to 13,557 deposi- 
 tors, being an average of £30 for each depositor ; in Ireland, seventy-eight Savings Banks, hold- 
 ing £1,775,911, belonging to 63,298 depositors, being on an aver ge £28 for each depositor; n 
 Scotland, nine Savings Banks, holding £143,284, belonging to 13,352 depositors, being on an 
 average £11 for each depositor ; making in all for the United Kingdom 508 Savings Banks, hold- 
 ing £18,498,044, belonging to 624,560 depositors, being an average of about £30 for each depositor. 
 Besides balances belonging to individual depositors, however, there were invested by 4909 Charit- 
 able Institutions, and 5187 Friendly Societies in England, £1,000,342; by 406 of such associations 
 in Wales, £54,696; by 803 of such associations in Ireland, £53,315; by 201 of such associations 
 in Scotland, £17,618. The total amount of money invested in Savings Banks on November 20, 
 1837, was therefore £19,624,015. On November 20, 1838, the number of individual depositors was 
 690,138, and the total amount deposited, including the lodgements of 6568 Charitable Institutions 
 and 6530 Friendly Societies, was £21 ,393,212. 
 
 The comparatively small extent to which the public have availed themselves of Savings Banks 
 in Scotland arises from the circumstance, that the ordinary banks seldom refuse to receive and 
 allow interest ou the deposit of a tradesman, though this should be considerably under £10, their 
 general limit. 
 
 Savings Banks' Annuities. — The act 3 Wm. IV. c. 14, enables the industrious 
 classes to purchase annuities, through the medium of Savings Banks, from the 
 Commissioners for the reduction of the National Debt. These annuities (not under 
 £4, nor in all exceeding £20) are payable for life, or for a number of years certain, 
 and to commence either immediately, or at the end of any assigned period, as may 
 be desired. Each description of annuity, when deferred, may be purchased either 
 by annual payments (which will be received in monthly instalments or otherwise), 
 or by one single payment ; the annual payments to cease when the annuity becomes 
 payable. And it is specially provided, that if there be default in making the annual 
 payments, or if the person who has contracted for the annuity die before it becomes 
 payable, the amount of all the payments, exclusive of interest, shall be returned. 
 On the death of the nominee of any life annuity, a fourth part thereof, over and 
 above arrears, is payable to his executors, or the party entitled thereto. These 
 annuities are not transferable ; but, on the purchaser's bankruptcy, they become 
 the property of his creditors, from whom they will be repurchased by the Commis- 
 sioners. The following is an abridgment of some of the tables of these annuities :— 
 
BAN 
 
 m 
 
 BAN 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE 
 
 SHOWING THE SUM REQUIRED TO BE PAID AT THE TIME OF PURCHASE, OR IN 
 
 SHOWING THE VA- 
 
 YEARLY INSTALMENTS, FOR A LIFE ANNUITY OF £20, DEFERRED FOR THE 
 
 LI'KOF AN IMME- 
 
 FOLLOWING YEARS : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 DIATE LIFE AN- 
 NUITY OF £20. 
 
 
 10 Years. 
 
 15 Years. 
 
 
 20 Years. 
 
 
 
 Age. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In one sum. 
 
 Yearly. 
 
 In one sum. 
 
 Yearly. 
 
 In one sum. 
 
 Yearly. 
 
 Age. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 377 15 6 
 
 
 £ s. 
 245 10 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 198 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. 
 16 1 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 a. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 26 12 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 157 11 
 
 
 
 10 11 6 
 
 20 
 
 362 12 2 
 
 20 
 
 238 
 
 
 
 25 16 6 
 
 189 8 
 
 
 
 15 7 
 
 G 
 
 148 13 
 
 
 
 9 19 6 
 
 25 
 
 354 15 3 
 
 21 
 
 236 3 
 
 
 
 25 12 6 
 
 187 7 
 
 6 
 
 15 4 
 
 
 
 146 13 
 
 6 
 
 9 17 
 
 30 
 
 343 18 10 
 
 22 
 
 234 4 
 
 6 
 
 25 8 6 
 
 185 6 
 
 
 
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 144 11 
 
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 9 14 
 
 35 
 
 328 19 11 
 
 23 
 
 232 3 
 
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 183 3 
 
 
 
 14 17 
 
 6 
 
 142 8 
 
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 9 11 
 
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 310 7 9 
 
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 229 19 
 
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 180 19 
 
 
 
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 140 2 
 
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 306 5 10 
 
 25 
 
 227 13 
 
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 178 13 
 
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 301 18 6 
 
 26 
 
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 297 7 10 
 
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 173 16 
 
 
 
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 292 U 6 
 
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 171 4 
 
 
 
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 287 12 6 
 
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 168 9 
 
 
 
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 159 7 
 
 
 
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 265 1 4 
 
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 156 
 
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 171 14 2 
 
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 191 11 
 
 
 
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 142 5 
 
 
 
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 104 19 
 
 
 
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 142 2 6 
 
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 138 18 
 
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 102 7 
 
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 75 
 
 114 4 7 
 
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 80 
 
 81 14 10 
 
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 179 5 
 
 
 
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 132 9 
 
 
 
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 97 1 
 
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 6 10 6 
 
 All transactions under this act are directed to be conducted through the medium 
 of a Savings Bank ; but it is made lawful for any persons, in a place where such 
 an institution does not exist, to establish a society for carrying the provisions of the 
 act into execution. S 
 
 BANKRUPT and BANKRUPTCY.— A bankrupt, in the modern acceptation of 
 the term, is a person who, either from the want of sufficient property, or from the 
 difficulty of presently converting what he possesses into money, is unable to meet 
 those demands of his creditors which the law gives them the power of instantly 
 enforcing, and who has committed some act indicative of the situation in which he 
 is so placed. It is in the latter particular that a bankrupt differs from one who is 
 insolvent. A man may, were his affairs examined, be found unable to pay his 
 debts ; but if his creditors are either ignorant of the circumstance, or knowing it, 
 trust to the return of prosperity, no one is injured, no one's claim is resisted, and 
 there is no necessity of applying the sweeping remedy of the Bankrupt Laws. But 
 when by resisting or evading the demands of creditors, or by the other acts pro- 
 vided for in the bankrupt laws [Acts of Bankruptcy], a man has distinctly shown 
 to the world that he has not wherewithal to meet the just demands on him, it has 
 been deemed, in some cases, necessary for a special law to step in and lay its hand 
 upon the property of every description belonging to the debtor, in order that 
 particular creditors may not, through an expeditious adoption of the ordinary 
 remedies of the law (suggested perhaps by superior means of knowing the bank- 
 rupt's circumstances), sweep away the whole in full payment of their debts, 
 and thus acquire an advantage over less fortunate creditors beyond the just reward 
 of their activity. To accomplish this end, a bankruptcy code appoints all the 
 property of every description belonging to a debtor to be placed in the hands of 
 trustees, to be by them converted into cash, and then to be distributed among the 
 ordinary creditors in proportion to the amount of their respective debts. It is a 
 principle of the commercial bankruptcy systems of the United Kingdom, that after 
 a sufficient time has been allowed for all the resources of the bankrupt to be inves- 
 tigated, and his property realized for behoof of his creditors, if he has conducted 
 himself with candour and integrity, he is protected from their farther prosecution, 
 and left free to recommence the pursuit of wealth, untrammelled by any obligation 
 to them previous to his bankruptcy. 
 
 In England, the laws of commercial bankruptcy were consolidated by statute 6 Geo, IV. c. 16 
 
 and were amended by the act 1 <fe 2 Wm. IV. c 56, which created a new tribunal in bankruptcy, 
 
 and again consolidated and amended in 1849, by 12 «fc 13 Vict, c 106. [Bankruptcy, CouktofJ 
 
 The old laws of Bankruptcy and Insolvency are entirely superseded. See Bankruptcy. S 
 
 Who may become bankrupt—By § 2 of the former statute* the commercial persons who may 
 
BAN 67 BAN 
 
 be subjected to the bankruptcy code are thus enumerated : " All bankers, brokers, and persons 
 using the trade or profession of a scrivener, receiving other men's monies or estates into their trust 
 or custody, and persons insuring ships or their freight, or other matters, against perils of the sea, 
 warehousemen, wharfingers, packers, builders, carpenters, shipwrights, victuallers, keepers of inns, 
 taverns, hotels, or coffee-houses, dyers, printers, bleachers, fullers, calenderers, cattle or sheep 
 salesmen, and all persons using the trade of merchandise by way of bargaining, exchange, barter- 
 ing, commission, consignment, or otherwise, in gross or by retail ; and all persons who, either for 
 themselves or as agents or factors for others, seek their living by buying and selling, or by buying 
 and letting for hire, or by workmanship of goods or commodities, shall be deemed traders liable to 
 become bankrupt : Provided that no farmer, grazier, common labourer, or workman for hire, re- 
 ceiver-general of the taxes, or member of, or subscriber to, any incorporated, commercial, or 
 trading companies, established by charter or act of Parliament, shall be deemed as such a trader 
 liable by virtue of this act to become bankrupt." There is here a distinction between two classes — 
 those who belong to some specified commercial profession, and those who in general carry on any 
 description of trade. It is ruled that the amount of the trade is not to be taken into consideration 
 if the party show a disposition to contract with all comers ; but occasional acts of buying and sell- 
 ing which spring incidentally from other pursuits, are not included, — as where a schoolmaster sells 
 books to his own pupils, or a person who keeps hounds buys dead horses and sells the skins and 
 bones, or one who has purchased more of an article than he finds use for sells the surplus. 
 * ' Where the business of brick-making is carried on as a mode of enjoying the profits of a real 
 estate, it will not make the party liable to the bankrupt law ; but where it is carried on substan- 
 tially and independently as trade, it will do so, and there is no difference whether the party is a 
 termer or entitled to the freehold. The same general doctrine applies to the case of a person 
 manufacturing alum, burning lime, or selling minerals from his own quarry" (Henley, 4 % 5). 
 Where an executor merely disposes of his testator's stock, it does not bring him within the act, 
 though he add ingredients to make it marketable ; but it is otherwise if he increase the stock and 
 continue to sell. It is not necessary that the trade be conducted in England, it is sufficient that the 
 bankrupt trade to England. The persons excepted enjoy their privilege only in the capacity assigned 
 to them in the act ; farmers and graziers are liable if" they trade. Buying and selling bank stock 
 or government securities, is considered as no trading within the statute. " Drawing and redraw- 
 ing bills of exchange and promissory notes, if there be a continuation of it with a view to gain a 
 profit by the exchange, is a trading ; but a person's merely drawing bills on his own account, and 
 paying for their being discounted with interest, and borrowing accommodation bills in exchange for 
 his" own to the same amount, will not make a man a trader" yHeniey, 4). [Before a trader can be 
 declared a bankrupt, one of those events must have taken place which the law recognises as indi- 
 cative of his inability to meet his engagements, or his design to evade them. These are termed 
 Acts of Bankruptcy," and will be found enumerated under that head.] 
 
 Petition. — A trader who has committed an act of bankruptcy is made bankrupt on the petition 
 of o -e or more creditors. If a single creditor or a company petition, the debt must amount to 
 £50; if two creditors, to £75, and if three or more, to U00; and "every person who has 
 given credit to any trader upon valuable consideration for any sum payable at a certain time, which 
 time shall not have arrived when such trader committed an act of bankruptcy, may so petition and 
 join in petitioning as aforesaid, whether he shall have any security in writing or otherwise, for such 
 sum or not" (6 Geo. IV. c. 16, § 15). " The debt must be due both in law and equity ; due to the 
 petitioning creditor alone, unless he be a co-assignee or co-partner ; it may be on account, if the 
 creditor swear to a sufficient balance, or a sum awarded, notwithstanding a bill filed to set aside 
 the award, or an attorney's bill though not signed or delivered ; or the debt of a surety. But not 
 a mere security for a contingent demand, nor co-ts recoverable only by attachment, nor damages 
 for a tort before judgment, nor a debt for which the debtor is in execution, nor a cross-acceptance, 
 unless the creditor have paid his own ; nor can the husband petition alone on a debt due to his 
 wife dum sola, unless it be a bill or note. Of course, the debt must not be bad for illegality. 
 It was once held, that a debt barred by the statute of limitations is sufficient, unless perhaps where 
 the objection is taken by the bankrupt himself, yet the prvo/of such a debt is disallowed. A debt 
 will be sufficient, though the debtor have been insolvent, and it was included in his schedule ; or 
 though a security of a higher nature have been taken for it since the bankruptcy. A debt due to an 
 infant will not "be sufficient" (Smith's Mercantile L. 493, 494). A debt barred by the statute 
 of limitations will not support a petition, nor will a debt on a transaction declared null by 
 the act 57 Geo. III. c. 99, §3, which prohibits spiritual persons from embarkingin trade. By § 18 
 of the 6 Geo. IV., if the petitioning creditor's debt is found insufficient, the court may order the 
 bankruptcy to be proceeded in on the petition of any other creditor who has proved a sufficient 
 debt, provided it be not anterior to that of the petitioning creditor. 
 
 Docket, Fiat, and Adjudication. — Before petitioning, a ere itor ought to institute a search 
 at the bankrupt office to ascer'ain if a docket has been struck. If none has been struck, the credi- 
 tor, if he reside in London or its vicinity, appears before a Master in Chancery, or if in the country, 
 before a Master-extraordinary in Chancery, and makes affidavit of the truth and reality of the debit, 
 and of belief that the debtor is a bankrupt. [Affidavit.] It has been a rule that a country 
 bankruptcy cannot be executed within forty miles from London, and must be executed within ten 
 miles of the place to which it is issued. The creditor then delivers his affidavit at the bankruptcy 
 office, accompanied by a bond to the extent of £200, in which he undertakes to prove his debt and 
 the bankruptcy of the debtor, in case of the proceedings being contested. An entry is made in an 
 official book, termed " the Docket Book," on the delivery of the bond and affidavit, and the peti- 
 tioner is then said to have " struck a docket" against the bankrupt. Before the act 1 & 2 Win. 
 IV. c. 56. the Lord Chancellor used to issue a commission, empowering certain commissioners to 
 dispose of the person and property of the bankrupt for the benefit of the creditors. A simple fiat 
 Js by that statute (§ 12) substituted for the commission. It may be issued by the Lord Chancellor, 
 the Master of the Rolls, the Vice-chancellor, and " each of theMasters of the Court of Chancery, 
 acting under any appointment by the Lord Chancellor to be given for that purpose." The fiat autho- 
 rizes the petitioner to prosecute his complaint in the Court of Bankruptcy, or before commissioners 
 in the country. It must be subsequent to the act of bankruptcy ; but it will be sufficient if it have 
 been issued at a later hour of the same day. When the bankruptcy is a country one, the commia- 
 
BAN 68 BAN 
 
 sioners qualify by taking the oath. The commissioners of the Court of Bankruptcy take a general 
 oath on entering on their office. The petitioning creditor must attend before the commissioners 
 and prove his debt, and the trading and bankruptcy of the debtor [Commissioners] ; and the 
 commissioners, after full inquiry, adjudge the party bankrupt. If the trader intend to dispute the 
 adjudication, he may present a petition to the court of review within two calendar months if he 
 be within the United Kingdom, within three if he be elsewhere in Europe, and within a year (or 
 a shorter period, at the discretion of the court) if he be out of Europe. The bankrupt may have 
 an issue for trying the question by jury, on finding security for costs, if the court require him to 
 do so (1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 56, § 17)- [Bankruptcy, Court op.] At the adjudication, the 
 commissioners issue the warrant of seizure, which empowers a messenger to search for and take 
 possession of the property of the bankrupt. The commissioners then proceed to make inquiry 
 into the bankrupt's dealings, by examining those who have been connected with him in business, 
 &c. [Commissioners.] Meanwhile, in town bankruptcies the estate vests in the official assignee, 
 and in country bankruptcies in the provisional assignees, if it has been thought necessary to make 
 such appointment. [Assignees.] 
 
 Relation.— The procedure retroacts by ' • relation " to the date of the act of bankruptcy. In virtue 
 of this principle, all transactions by which the bankrupt conveyed or alienated his property in the 
 interval were formerly void. The rule was gradually relaxed. By the 6 Geo. IV., payments were 
 protected, and other transactions if completed two calendar months before the date of the commis- 
 sion or fiat (§§ 81, 82). By a late statute, 2 & 3 Vict. c. 29, it is enacted that " all contracts, 
 dealings, and transactions, by and with any bankrupt, really and bona fide made and entered into 
 before the date and issuing of the fiat against him, and all executions and attachments against the 
 lands and tenements, or goods and chattels of such bankrupt bona fide executed or levied before 
 the date and issuing of the fiat, shall be deemed to be valid, notwithstanding any prior act of 
 bankruptcy by such bankrupt committed, provided the person or persons so dealing with such 
 bankrupt, or at whose suit, or on whose account such execution or attachment shall have issued, 
 had not at the time of such contract, dealing, or transaction, or at the time of executing or levying 
 such execution or attachment, notice of any prior act of bankruptcy by him committed : Provided 
 also, that nothing herein contained shall be deemed or taken to give validity to any payment made 
 by any bankrupt, being a fraudulent preference of any creditor or creditors of such bankrupt, or 
 to any execution founded on a judgment on a warrant of attorney, or cognovit, given by any bank- 
 rupt by way of such fraudulent preference." 
 
 The commissioner who adjudicates, appoints two or more meetings of creditors for the bank- 
 rupt to surrender and conform, at the first of which the chosen assignees are elected (1 & 2 Wm. 
 IV. § 20). A considerable portion of the subject of bankruptcy is so intimately connected with 
 the powers and duties of the assignees, that reference may here be made to that head for the greater 
 part of the remainder of the subject. The claims of the creditors will be found under the head of 
 Proof. Up to the meeting for the choice of assignees, the petitioning creditor prosecutes the 
 bankruptcy at his own cost, the commissioners then authorize the assignees to reimburse him from 
 the first realized funds. When the adjudication has been pronounced, notice is given by the com- 
 missioners in the London Gazette, of the adjudication, and of the two meetings. 
 
 The Bankrupt.— The bankrupt must surrender his property and all documents connected with 
 it, and conform to the provisions of the bankrupt law. A summons to surrender must be left at 
 his residence, and he is liable to transportation or imprisonment and hard labour if he disobey it, 
 or do not make a full surrender and disclosure. The surrender must be made before three o'clock of 
 the forty-second day after notice, but the court may enlarge the time (6 Geo. IV. §§ 112, 113). 
 The following provision is made by 6 Geo. IV. § 116, for the bankrupt's co-operation with the 
 assignees, ** every such bankrupt, not in prison or custody, shall at all times after such surren- 
 der, attend such assignees upon every reasonable notice in writing for that purpose, given by 
 them to him, or left at his house, and shall assist such assignees in making out the accounts of 
 his estate ; and such bankrupt, after he shall have surrendered, may, at all seasonable times 
 before the expiration of the said forty-two days, or such farther time as shall be allowed to him 
 to finish his examination, inspect his books, papers, and writings, in the presence of his assig- 
 nees, or any person appointed by them, and bring with him each time any two persons to assist 
 him ; and every such bankrupt, after he shall have obtained his certificate, shall, upon demand 
 in writing given to him or left at his usu >1 place of abode, attend the assignees, to settle any 
 accounts between his estate and any debtor to, or creditor thereof, or attend any court of 
 record to give evidence touching the same, or do any act necessary for getting in the said estate, 
 for which attendance he shall be paid five shillings per day by the assignees out of his estate." 
 The provision is enforced by imprisonment. The bankrupt is free from arrest in coming to sur- 
 render, and after surrender during the forty-two days, and such further time as may be al- 
 lowed for examination, provided he was not in custody at the time of surrender. If he be ar- 
 rested, he can demand his discharge on producing the commissioners' summons (§ 117). At the 
 last examination the commissioners may adjourn the examination sine die, and they are entitled 
 to indorse on the summons a protection to the bankrupt from imprisonment, for a period not 
 exceeding three months (§ 118). The commissioners and assignees are empowered to make the 
 bankrupt an allowance from time to time from the estate, until he have passed his last examina- 
 tion (§ 114). If the bankrupt have duly surrendered and conformed, he will, on obtaining his 
 certificate " be discharged from all debts due by him when he became bankrupt, and from all 
 claims and demands hereby made proveable " (§ 121). The certificate, if granted before six calen- 
 dar months from the bankrupt's last examination, must be signed by four fifths in number and 
 value of creditors to the amount of £20 ; after the six months it may be granted by three-fifths in 
 number and value, or nine-tenths in number. To render the certificate a discharge, it must be 
 accompanied by an attestation from the commissioners of the bankrupt's surrender and confor- 
 mity, and the bankrupt must swear that the certificate was obtained without fraud ( § 122). The 
 certificate must be "allowed " in the court of review, and it may there be opposed by any cre- 
 ditor. In the following cases, the certificate is, by § 130, void :— " If such bankrupt shall have 
 lost, by any sort of gaming or wagering, in one day £20, or within one year next preceding his 
 bankruptcy £200 ; or if he shall, within one year next preceding his bankruptcy, have lost £200 
 by any contract for the purchase or sale of any government or other stock, where such contract was 
 
BAN 69 BAN 
 
 not to be performed within one week after the contract, or where the stock bought or sold was 
 not actually transferred or delivered in pursuance of such contract ; or shall, after an act of bank- 
 ruptcy committed or in contemplation of bankruptcy, have destroyed, altered, mutilated, or fal- 
 sified, or caused to be destroyed, altered, mutilated, or falsified, any of his books, papers, writ- 
 ings, or securities, or made or been privy to the making of any false or fraudulent entries in any 
 book of account or other document, with intent to defraud his creditors, or shall have concealed 
 property to the value of £10 or upwards ; or if any person having proved a false debt under the 
 commission, such bankrupt being privy thereto, or afterwards knowing the same, shall not have 
 disclosed the same to his assignees within one month after such knowledge." A certificate in a 
 second bankruptcy, or in favour of a bankrupt who has at some previous period been discharged 
 on an insolvent act, or who has compounded, is restricted in its operation (unless the estate pro- 
 duce fifteen shillings in the pound) to the protection of his person from arrestment and imprison- 
 ment, his future estate and effects (tools of trade, necessary household furniture, and wearing 
 apparel excepted) remaining vested in his assignees (6 Geo. IV. § 127). After the bankrupt has 
 obtained his certificate, the regular allowance is awarded him. If the net produce amount to 
 10s. per pound, he is to receive 5 per cent., provided that do not exceed £400. If it amount 
 to 12a. So. per pound, his allowance is 7i per cent., provided it do not exceed £500, and if the pro- 
 duce amount to 15s. or upwards per pound, it is to be 10 per cent., provided it do not exceed £600. 
 If the estate do not pay 10s. per pound, the bankrupt is only to be allowed so much as the assignees 
 and commissioners think fit, not exceeding 3 per cent., and limited in amount to £300 (§ 128). 
 
 Dividends.— The distribution of the funds realized among the creditors is thus provided for. 
 At the meeting for the last examination, the commissioners appoint a public meeting to be held 
 than four months from the issuing of the fiat, and within six months after the examina- 
 tion, giving twenty-one days' notice in the Gazette. At the meeting the assignees give in an ac- 
 count of their transactionson oath, and the commissioners audit the account and inquire whether 
 any balance in the assignees' bands ought to be retained (§ 106). Not sooner than four, or later 
 than twelve months from the issuing of the fiat, the commissioners appoint a meeting with similar 
 notice for declaring the first dividend out of such part of the net produce as they may think fit. 
 At this meeting all creditors who have not previously proved may prove. The assignees make 
 the dividend in pursuance of the order, without a Deed of Division, and take a receipt from each 
 creditor in a book preserved for the purpose (§ 107). If the estate is not exhausted by the first 
 dividend, a meeting for a second is called in the same manner within eighteen months from the 
 issuing of the fiat. All creditors who have not proved may prove at this meeting, and all 
 who have not partaken of the former dividend are paid according to the amount of that dividend 
 before a general distribution is made, " and such second dividend shall be final, unless any action 
 at law or suit in equity be depending, or any part of the estate be standing out not sold or dis- 
 posed of, or unless some other estate or effects of the bankrupt shall afterwards come to the assig- 
 nees, in which case they shall, as soon as may be, convert such estate and effects into money, and 
 within two calendar months after the same shall be so converted, divide the same in manner afore- 
 said" (§ 109). Assignees having at their disposal unclaimed dividends to the amount of £50, 
 must within two months after expiry of a year from the above declaration of a dividend, pay the 
 dividends, or file a certificate of them in the bankruptcy office, with the creditors' names, 
 amounts, &c, otherwise they are chargeable with 5 per cent, interest, and such farther sum as the 
 commissioners may think fit, not exceeding 20 per cent. Dividends which have lain unclaimed 
 for three years may be divided among the other creditors (§ 110). By 1 & 8 Wm. IV. § 22, offi- 
 cial assignees must keep all monies lodged in bank, subject to the order of the court. [Assignees.] 
 
 Rescinding and Annulling.— The Lord Chancellor was, by the former law, empowered to issue 
 a ■ ' supersedeas " to supersede a commission ; he may now by 1 & 2 Wm. IV. § 19, rescind or an- 
 nul a fiat. The power is in the general case discretionary. It will be exercised in the case of fraud, 
 or in the absence of any of the requisites, or if the bankruptcy is not proceeded with. When a fiat 
 is rescinded, the acts done under it become void. It is the invariable practice to rescind or super- 
 sede when the consent of all the creditors who have proved is obtained. It is imperative on the 
 court to annul when it is certified that the proper number of creditors have agreed to a composi- 
 tion [Composition Contract.] (Henley's B. L- Smith's Mercantile L. p. 465-610.) [Assignees. 
 Bankruptcy Court. Commissioners. Composition Contract. Proof.] 
 
 In Ireland the process of bankruptcy has, by the late act 6 & 7 Wm IV. c. 14, as amended 
 by 7 Win. IV. & 1 Vict. c. 4«i, and by 12 & 13 Vict. c. 107, been in almost every respect assimilated 
 to* the English system, which may be applied to Ireland, keeping in view these small distinctions. 
 There are two "commissioners of bankruptcy in Ireland, a first and second, one of whom is 
 empowered to act in each instance by a commission under the great seal. There are no official 
 assignees, so that the rules as to country bankruptcies in England apply. In the case of persons 
 not liable to be made bankrupts, after the words " member of or subscriber to any incorporated 
 commercial or trading companies established by charter," come the words " under or registered in 
 pursuance of act of Parliament" (§ 18). In the Irish act, the expression " supersede "is continued. 
 
 In Scotland, the process by which the property of a trader is realized and divided among his 
 creditors is termed Sequestration (which see) ; the word bankruptcy has a wider meaning in law, 
 and is applied to all descriptions of persons who are placed in circumstances that publicly indicate 
 their inability to meet their engagements. They are distinguished from those who may be insol- 
 vent, but whose situation is not made known to the world through the public acts of their cre- 
 ditors, by the term " notour," or notorious, bankrupt. By the Scottish act 1696, c 5, any 
 debtor who, being under diligence by horning and caption, is imprisoned, or seeks the sanctuary 
 of Holyrood House in Edinburgh, or defends himself by force, or flees, or absconds, and is after- 
 wards found to have been insolvent at the time, is declared a notour bankrupt. " Insolvency," 
 says Professor Bell, " is not made a presumption by the statute, but few cases occur where a 
 proof of insolvency will be required in addition to the concurrence of the other requisites. It is 
 not necessary, as may be imagined from the words of the act, to institute a separate action for 
 ascertaining'the insolvency. The point is tried in the course of the reduction of a preference, or in 
 judging of the petition for* sequestration ; and the judgment on the insolvency is combined with 
 the sentence on the whole question before the court" (Commentaries, ii. 168). By later statutes, 
 additions were made to the acts which constitute bankruptcy. They are thus consolidated in the 
 
BAN 70 BAN 
 
 54 Geo. III. c. 137, § 1> " If any person, subject to the laws of Scotland, shall happen to be forth 
 of that part of the territory of the United Kingdom, or not liable to be imprisoned by being in the 
 sanctuary, or by reason of privilege or personal protection, a charge of horning executed against 
 him, together with either an execution of arrestment of any of his effects not loosed or discharged 
 within fifteen days after the date thereof, or an execution of poinding of any of his moveables, or 
 a decree of adjudication of any part of his heritable estate, for payment or security of debt, shall, 
 when joined with insolvency, be held a sufficient proof of legal bankruptcy, and equivalent to the 
 description of notour bankruptcy, given in the act of the Parliament of Scotland before men- 
 tioned, made in the year 1696 ; and it is hereby declared, that such insolvent debtor shall, from 
 and after the period when both the charge of horning against the person, and one or other of the 
 said diligences of arrestment (not loosed or discharged as aforesaid) or poinding have been exe- 
 cuted, or decree of adjudication obtained, be holden and deemed a legal or notour bankrupt, and 
 subject to the regulations of the said act in the year 1696, as hereby extended and explained ; and 
 every person, whether he be out of Scotland or not, whose estate has been or shall be sequestrated 
 under the authority of any of the acts before recited, or of the present act, shall in like manner be 
 holden and deemed a notour bankrupt in all questions upon the act 1696, from and after the date 
 of the first deliverance on the petition to the Court of Session for awarding the sequestration." 
 The latter part of this enactment is made applicable to sequestrations under the late act (2 & 3 
 Vict. c. 41, § 25). Horning and caption is a form of execution against the person, now in compa- 
 rative disuse, since a more brief method of execution was provided by the act 1 & 2 Vict. c. 114, a 
 warrant to imprison in terms of which, has the same effect in rendering bankrupt, as the super- 
 seded form (§ 35). By this act the power of imprisoning, and consequently of producing notour 
 bankruptcy is extended to the sheriffs of counties. Magistrates of royal burghs have long possessed 
 the power of imprisonment, but it is exercised in a form which does not carry bankruptcy with 
 the writ on which it proceeds. The effect of the bankruptcy is to render all deeds conferring pre- 
 ferences on creditors, whether by conveyance or security, null, if granted after the bankruptcy, 
 or within sixty days before it. The challenge is competent only to a creditor. A payment in money 
 is not challengeable, but the indorsation of bills and drafts is struck at unless they be simply given 
 as cash ; a real transaction is not challengeable, and so a bill drawn or indorsed for value imme- 
 diately received is valid, and " payments in the ordinary course of trade, though made by means 
 of bills or drafts, are to be sustained, unless the transaction be manifestly fraudulent, and in- 
 tended as an evasion of the act " (Bell, ii. 218). It is a farther effect of bankruptcy, that by the 
 act 1621, c. 18, deeds gratuitous, or without proper consideration to " conjunct or confident per- 
 sons," — that is, to near relations, or persons with whom the granter is nearly connected in business 
 or otherwise, — granted after the existence of lawful debts, are null, and may be challenged by the 
 creditors affected ; any creditor may benefit by the provision who can show that debts existed 
 before the granting of the deed, unless it be shown on the other side that at the time of making 
 the deed, the granter possessed surplus funds capable of meeting his debts. A deed granted in 
 virtue of a previous obligation is not gratuitous, and does not come within the statute (Bell's 
 Commentaries, ii. 160-242. Burton's Manual of the Law of Scotland, 601-606). [Sequestration. 
 Trustee. Personal Protection.] 
 
 BANKRUPTCY, COURT OF, in England. Previously to the passing of 
 \ & 2 Wm. IV. c. 56, the sole jurisdiction in bankruptcy was vested in the Lord 
 Chancellor, who exercised it by issuing a special commission in each individual 
 case. By that statute, a court was appointed, having one chief and three puisne 
 judges, six commissioners, two registrars, with deputy-registrars in number 
 not exceeding eight, and official assignees not exceeding thirty in number (§§ 1, 
 9, & 22). The judges, or any three of them, constitute a court of review, 
 which must always sit in public, " save and except as may be otherwise directed 
 by this act, or by the rules and regulations to be made in pursuance hereof" (§ 2). 
 (Questions are brought before the court of review by petition, motion, or special 
 case, according to rules which the judges are empowered to make from time to 
 time, with consent of the Lord Chancellor (§§ 3 & 11). The commissioners are 
 formed into two subdivision courts, each consisting of three ; and any one or 
 more of them possesses the powers formerly exercised by commissioners of bank- 
 ruptcy appointed by special commission (§§ 6 & 7). [Commissioners.] A com- 
 missioner may adjourn an examination, to be taken either before a subdivision 
 court or the court of review. He may adjourn a Proof of Debt [Proof] to 
 be heard before a subdivision court, which '" finally and without appeal, except 
 upon matter of law or equity, or of the refusal or the admission of evidence, shall 
 determine upon such proof of debt." If parties consent, the validity of a debt may be 
 tried by jury before the chief, or one or more of the other judges, on an issue prepared 
 under the direction of the commissioner or the subdivision court. If only one party 
 apply, the granting of the issue is at the discretion of the commissioner or sub- 
 division court, subject to appeal to the court of review (§ 30). The decision of a 
 commissioner or subdivision court, on any matter of law or evidence, or on the 
 refusal or admission of evidence, may be appealed to the court of review, and 
 thence to the Lord Chancellor (§ 31). If the court of review determine in any 
 appeal touching any decision in matter of law, upon the whole merit of any proof 
 of debt, the order is final as to the proof, unless an appeal to the Lord Chancellor 
 be lodged within a month. His decision in such case is final, but if the appeal is 
 on admission or refusal of evidence, it is remitted to the commissioner or subdivi- 
 
BAR 71 BAR 
 
 sion court (§ 32). If the Lord Chancellor deem any matter of law or equity 
 brought before him by appeal from the court of review, to be of sufficient difficulty 
 or importance to require the decision of the House of Lords, or if both parties to 
 any question before the court of review desire it to be determined in the first in- 
 stance by that House, and not by the Lord Chancellor, his lordship or the 
 court of review may direct the whole facts to be stated in the form of a peti- 
 tion of appeal to the House of Lords (§ 37). References or adjournments by a 
 commissioner must be to the subdivision court to which he belongs, unless in the 
 case of sickness of a member of the court, or for other good cause (§ 6). Appeals 
 to the Lord Chancellor are heard by him only, and not by any other judge of the 
 Court of Chancery (§ 3). The court of review has the power of deciding on petitions 
 for reversal of the adjudication against the bankrupt [Bankruptcy], and may 
 direct any issue as to a fact affecting the validity of the adjudication, to be tried by 
 jury. If the verdict is not set aside on application to the court of review within 
 a month after the trial, or if the adjudication be not set aside by the court of 
 review, the adjudication or verdict is conclusive evidence that the party was or was 
 not a bankrupt at the date of the adjudication — an appeal lies to the Chancellor 
 in matters of law or equity, or the refusal or admission of evidence only (§ 17). 
 
 In Scotland and Ireland there are no separate tribunals for administering the 
 bankrupt law. In the former country this duty is performed by the Court of Ses- 
 sion, in the latter by the Lord Chancellor, under whom there are two official 
 commissioners (6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 14, 7 Wm. IV. and 1 Vict. c. 48). 
 
 BARILE, an Italian and Sicilian liquid measure, the contents of which vary in 
 different places from about 7 to 16 Imp. gallons. 
 
 BARILLA (Fr. Barille. Ger. Barilla. It. Barriglia. Rus. Socianka. Sp. 
 Barrilld), an impure carbonate of soda, obtained by lixiviating the ashes of sea- 
 weeds. It is imported into the United Kingdom in considerable quantities from 
 Spain, the Canary Islands, and Sicily, and in smaller parcels from the East Indies. 
 The finest is brought from Alicant, near which it is prepared from the Salsola sativa 
 or Barilla, and the Salier, two plants which are extensively cultivated for that pur- 
 pose in Valencia and Murcia. It is brought to us in hard porous masses. The 
 best quality is of a blueish-gray colour, while that which is made from other plants is 
 of a colour approaching black," and of greater specific gravity than the former. The 
 value of barilla depends upon its purity. It usually contains from 16 to 24 per 
 cent, of its weight of pure carbonate of soda, and occasionally 30 per cent. It is 
 consumed in the arts, — particularly in the manufacture of soap and glass, and in 
 bleaching ; but it is now much less used than formerly, on account of the cheap- 
 ness with which soda is obtained from common salt. About 70,000 cwts. are at 
 present entered annually for home consumption, which, notwithstanding a great 
 reduction of duty, is less than one-third of the quantity formerly required. It is 
 chiefly used in Ireland. 
 
 A drawback is allowed on the barilla used in bleaching linen (4 & 5 Wm. IV. 
 c. 89, § 14). 
 
 British Barilla, or Kelp, is a still more impure alkali, formerly made in large 
 quantities in the Hebrides, Orkney, and Shetland, by burning sea-wrack (mostly 
 the Funis vesiculosus). It contains only from 3 to 8 per cent, of pure carbonate of 
 soda. The kelp manufacture has been comparatively trifling since the abolition 
 of the duties on salt, and the reduction of those on barilla. 
 
 BARK, the rind or covering of a tree. A variety of barks occur in commerce, 
 but only that of the oak will be noticed in this place. Some others, as cinchona 
 or Peruvian bark, cork, cinnamon, cassia, and quercitron, will be described under 
 their respective heads. 
 
 Oak Bark (Ger. Eichenrinde, Lohe. Du. Run, Runne. Fr. Tan Brut, Ecorce 
 de Chine. It. Scorza di Quercia, Corteccia delta Querela. Sp. Corteza de En- 
 ema. Por. Casca do Carvalho. Rus. Dubowui Kord) is the chief substance used 
 for tanning leather. Its quality varies according to the age of the tree, and the 
 season when it is cut ; and Sir H. Davy discovered that tannin is more abundant in 
 the bark of young than of old ones. It is likewise ascertained, that bark taken in 
 the spring has 4 h times the quantity of tannin, in a given weight, compared with 
 what it would have if taken in winter. Of substances used for tanning. Sir 
 Humphry states, that 8| lbs. of oak bark are nearly equal to 21 of common willow 
 bark, 18 of elm bark, 11 of the bark of the Spanish chesnut, 7 5 of the bark of the 
 Leicester willow, 3 of sumach, 2j of galls, and 1 of catechu, with respect to the 
 tannin contained in them. 
 
 In addition to the oak bark of British growth, nearly 40,000 tons are annually 
 
BAR 72 BAR 
 
 imported, more than one-half of which is brought from tho Netherlands, the re- 
 mainder chiefly from Italy and other parts in the Mediterranean. 
 
 BARLEY (Fr. Orge. Ger. Gerste. It. Or zo. Sp. Cebada), a well-known species 
 of corn (Hordeum), of which the varieties are distinguished either from the number 
 of rows of grains in the ears, or from the time of sowing them, into winter barley 
 and spring barley. In this country, it is commonly sown in April, and from two to 
 three bushels of seed are used for an acre. The produce varies greatly with sea- 
 sons, culture, and soil. The more early it can be sown, the produce in grain is the 
 surer, though the bulk in straw is less. 36 bushels per acre is generally held 
 to be a medium crop, and 40 bushels a good crop. The medium weight of the 
 common, or two-rowed barley (H. distichon), is about 52 lbs. the bushel. The princi- 
 pal consumption of barley is for malting. In the state termed pot or pearl barley 
 (having the external coat of the seed rubbed off), it is employed largely in soups 
 and cooling drinks ; and the flour is used in many places for Dread. In the south 
 of Europe, it is consumed as food for horses. Bigg or Bere, an inferior variety of 
 six-rowed barley, is cultivated in the north of Scotland, and other late places, on 
 account of its ripening well when sown in spring ; but its grains do not weigh 
 so heavy, in proportion to their bulk, as the two-rowed kind. Barley is culti- 
 vated in a greater variety of climates than any of the other bread corns. In the 
 United Kingdom, the best is raised in Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, where large 
 quantities are produced and malted for the London market. [Corn Trade.] 
 
 BARM. [Yeast.] 
 
 BARQUE. [Ship.] 
 
 BARRATRY is any fraudulent or other unlawful act committed by the master 
 or mariners of a ship, without consent of the owner, and tending to his injury j— 
 " as by running away with the ship, wilfully carrying her out of the course of the 
 voyage prescribed by the owners, sinking, or deserting her, embezzling the cargo, 
 smuggling, or any other offence, whereby the ship or cargo may be subjected to 
 arrest, detention, loss, or forfeiture" (Marsliall, 519). In other countries it com- 
 prehends those faults of ignorance, unskilfulness, or rashness, by which loss may 
 be occasioned ; but in Britain it is limited to intentional offences against the owners, 
 and it has been decided, that an act done with the privity of the owners, though 
 without that of the proprietor of the cargo, who was the person insured, is not bar- 
 ratry (/. T. R. 323). If the shipmaster be the owner, he cannot be guilty of barratry. 
 It is not essential that the act be done for the profit of the master or the mariners, 
 and so it is barratry to sail out of port in breach of embargo, in consequence of which 
 the owners sustain a loss in seamen's wages and provisions by detention (Robertson 
 v. Ewer, /. T. R. 127). It does not affect the act that it was designed to benefit the 
 owner. " With respect to the owner of the ship or goods," says Lord Ellenborough, 
 " whose interest is to be protected by the policy, it can make no difference in the 
 reason of the thing, whether the prejudice he suffers be owing to an act of the mas- 
 ter, induced by motives of advantage'to himself, malice to the owner, or a disregard 
 to those laws which it was the master's duty to obey, and which (or it would not be 
 barratry) his owners relied upon his observing." And it was accordingly decided, 
 that where a master had general instructions to make the best purchases with de- 
 spatch, this would not warrant him in going into an enemy's settlement to trade 
 (which was permitted by the enemy), though his cargo could be more speedily and 
 cheaply completed there ; but such act, in consequence of which the ship was seized 
 and confiscated, was barratrous (Earle v. Roucroft, 1806, 8 East. 125). A general 
 freighter is held owner for the time, and barratry may be committed against him, 
 though with the sanction of the shipowner. On the same principle, the owner 
 cannot recover as for barratry for what is done by order of the charterer, and it was 
 held, that if the owner of a ship let to freight takes the command of her, and wil- 
 lingly runs her ashore, this is barratry against the freighter (Soare3 v. Thornton, 
 7 Taunt. 627). Most descriptions of barratry are punished as crimes. By 33 Geo. III. 
 c. 66, § 8, the captain of any merchantman under convoy, wilfully disobeying the 
 signals or instructions of the commander of the convoy, or deserting without notice 
 or leave, is liable to imprisonment not exceeding a year, or to a penalty not exceed- 
 ing £500. By 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 30, for consolidating the laws of England as to 
 malicious injuries to property; maliciously setting fire to, or destroying any vessel, 
 whether complete or unfinished, and maliciously setting fire to a vessel to prejudice 
 the owner, or the owner of goods on board, or an underwriter, are respectively, by § 9, 
 made punishable (in England) with death. Barratry is one of the losses covered by 
 insurance, and the owner may thus protect himself against the act of the master and 
 sailors appointed by himself. " If the captain be the insured, no agreement on the 
 
BAR 73 BAV 
 
 part of the insurers can make them liable for barratry committed by himself ; but 
 they may be liable in such case for the barratry of the sailors in which he has no 
 part" {Marshall, 521). It is the duty of the owner to prevent as far as he may 
 the misconduct of the master; and if the former appear to have acted with gross 
 negligence, the underwriter is not liable. Nor will this last be liable for loss which 
 is the undoubted consequence of the barratry, unless it happen within the time 
 prescribed by the policy for the duration of the risk. (.Park on Insurance, 137-158. 
 Marshall on Insuratice, 518-538.) 
 
 BARREL, a round wooden vessel formed so as to be stopped close ; also a mea- 
 sure of capacity. The beer-barrel equal 36 imperial gallons. The barrel of flour 
 is 196 lbs. avoirdupois. In Ireland the barrel of wheat, pease, beans, and rye, equal 
 20 stones each of 14 lbs. ; the barrel of barley, here, and rapeseed, equal 16 stones ; 
 the barrel of oats is generally 14 stones ; the barrel of malt equal 12 stones. 
 
 BARREL-BULK, in shipping, is a measure of capacity for freight, equal 5 cubic 
 feet ; and 8 barrel-bulk, or 40 cubic feet, equal 1 ton measurement. 
 
 BARRIQUE, a French provincial liquid measure, equal in Bordeaux to about 
 50^ imperial gallons ; in Nantes, 52f ; in Rochelle, 38^ ; in Rouen, 43 ; in Mont- 
 pellier, for wine, 5h, and for oil, 7^ imperial gallons nearly. 
 
 BARTER is the" exchange of one species of merchandise for another without 
 reference to a money standard of value. Cases of pure barter are now of rare 
 occurrence. 
 
 Barter in Commercial Arithmetic is an application of the rule of Proportion to the exchange 
 of one commodity, of which both the rate and quantity are fixed, for another, of which either the 
 rate or the quantity are alone fixed. As the value of the goods exchanged are equal, it is obvious 
 that the product of the quantities multiplied into their respective rates will be also equal. Hence 
 the following 
 
 Rule : Multiply the given quantity and rate of the one commodity, and the product, divided by the 
 rate of the other commodity, gives the quantity sought ; or, divided by the quantity, gives the rate. 
 
 BARWOOD, a red dye-wood produced in Angola and other places in Africa. 
 Only a small quantity is imported into the United Kingdom. 
 
 BARYTES, a ponderous earthy mineral, which is found both massive and crys- 
 tallized ; it is of various colours ; and is both transparent and opaque. Sp. gr. 4*5. 
 It is a very widely diffused substance. Chief localities, Dufton in Cumberland, 
 Bohemia, &c. The purely white varieties are ground, and used as a pigment, either 
 alone or mixed with white lead ; but it is otherwise of little value. (Phillips' Geo- 
 logy and Mineralogy.') 
 
 BASKETS (Fr. Corbeilles. Ger. K'6rbe. It. Paniere. Por. & Sp. Canastas) 
 are well known articles, made of willows, twigs, rushes, or splinters, or some other 
 slender bodies interwoven. In England, the osier willow (Salix Viminalu) is re- 
 cognised as a most useful material for basketwork of all descriptions. The finer 
 kinds of baskets are formed of the twigs of another species of willow; but what is 
 called wickerwork is always made of osiers. See Basket Rods, s 
 
 BASSA, a liquid measure of Verona nearly equal to an imperial gallon. 
 
 BAST, the inner bark of the lime tree, is a material largely used in Russia for 
 matting and cordage. 
 
 BATMAN, an oriental weight. [Maund.] 
 
 BATTA, a term used in India to denote a per centage, or allowance. Thus the 
 Sicca rupee is said to bear a batta of 16 per cent, against the current rupee, as 
 100 Sicca rupees = 116 current rupees. Batta also denotes an allowance made to 
 the East India Company's military officers in addition to their pay. 
 
 BATTENS, pieces of fir or pine timber used for floors, and as a ground for laths. 
 They are always at least 6 feet long, and generally not exceeding 7 inches broad, 
 and 2£ inches in thickness when imported. The best are from Christiania ; the 
 worst from America. 
 
 Batten-ends are pieces under 6 feet in length. 
 
 BATZE, a small base silver coin in Switzerland and some parts of Germany, 
 worth about three halfpence sterling. 
 
 BAVARIA, a kingdom in the S.W. of Germany, and, next to Austria and Prus- 
 sia, the most important of the German States. Area, about 30,000 British square 
 miles. Population,4,315,469. It is subdivided into eight provinces. Capital, Munich, 
 pop. 75,000. The government is a limited monarchy, with chambers of councillors 
 and deputies, regulated by a deed of constitution of May 26, 1818. 
 
 Bavaria is composed of two territories, which are separated from each other by the interposition 
 of the Baden and Hesse Darmstadt possessions. The larger, called the Territory of the Danube and 
 Maine, extends from lat. 47^ IS)' to 50 D 41' N., aud from long. 8 3 51' to 13° 44' E., and compre- 
 hends seven of the eight provinces. This country is mountainous and woody towards the south ; 
 
BAY 74 BAZ 
 
 rising in the direction of the Alps, and containing a number of lakes and marshes, the grounds 
 adjoining which are only now being brought under tillage. To the northward are rich and exten- 
 sive plains until we reach the Danube, beyond which it is again mountainous and woody. The 
 division called the Territory of the Rhine, is a small but densely inhabited country, extending 
 from lat. 48° 57' to 49° 50' N., and from long. 7° 6' to 8° 31' E. Bavaria is essentially an agri- 
 cultural country, and its soil, though indifferently cultivated, is in general fertile. Wheat, rye, 
 barley, and oats, are the chief objects of culture ; next to which are the vine and hop plant : con- 
 siderable attention is likewise given to flax, hemp, fruit, liquorice, and madder ; and of late, the rear- 
 ing of the silk-worm has been attempted with partial success. The chief mineral productions are 
 iron, salt, and coal ; but quicksilver, gold, silver, cobalt, and some other metals, are likewise 
 found. Manufacturing industry is mostly diffused over a number of small dealers. The principal 
 article is coarse linen ; the others are woollens, worsted hose, cottons, hardware, arms, beer, 
 toys, leather, paper, glass, porcelain, and straw-platting. A favourable impulse has lately beeu 
 given to manufactures by the institution of polytechnic societies and mechanic schools. 
 
 The roads of Bavaria extend upwards of 5500 miles ; but they are generally bad ; and there are 
 few complete canals of any great magnitude. The improvement of the means of communication 
 has of late, however, begun to attract attention. A canal on a large scale is now in progress for 
 joining the Danube and the Rhine, by connecting Dietfurth on the Altmuhl, an affluent of the 
 former, with Bamberg on the Maine, a distance of about 112 British miles : it is estimated to 
 cost nearly £900,000. In 1835, a railroad with steam-carriages was established between Nuremberg 
 and Furth ; and in 1838, a regular steam-communication was established between Ratisbon and 
 Linz in Austria, which in 1839 was extended to Donauwerth and Ulm. 
 
 The external commerce of Bavaria is chiefly conducted by the Danube in one direction, and the 
 Rhine in the other. Exports: — Grain, salt,"timber, potashes, fruit, liquorice-root, seed, hops, 
 cattle, sheep, swine, fish, flax, yarn, coarse linens, glass, leather, Nuremberg wares, beer, <&c, 
 amounting annually to nearly 1,500,000 florins, more than one-half of which consists of manufac- 
 tured goods. Imports : — Wine, cotton, coffee, sugar, rice, tobacco, drugs, fish, copper, oil, hides 
 and skins, hemp and flax, silks, woollens, lead, furs, honey, and cheese. Salt is prohibited. 
 Bavaria, for an inland country, is favourably situated for commerce ; and it is the channel of a 
 considerable transit trade betwixt the other German States and Switzerland, Austria, and Italy, 
 to which the Prussian Commercial Union, of which Bavaria is a member, has given a consider- 
 able impulse. The duties on goods imported are in general those of the Union. 
 
 The chief commercial and manufacturing cities, besides Munich, are Augsburg, pop. 34,000; 
 Nuremberg, pop. 40,400 ; and Ratisbon, pop. 22,000. Augsburg formerly occupied the place now 
 held by Frankfort as the chief money-market of Central Germany ; and banking and exchange 
 operations are still one of its principal sources of wealth : it also carries on an extensive transit 
 trade, and is celebrated as a wine depdt. 
 
 MEASURES, WEIGHTS, MONEY, FINANCES, &C. 
 
 Measures and Weights. — In Munich, the ell = 
 32£ Imp. inch. ; the wine eimer of 60 maas = 8*12 
 Imp. galls. ; the scheffel of 6 metzen or 12 vier- 
 tels = 9-98 Imp. bushels; and the centner or 
 quintal of 5 stones or 100 pounds = 56 kilo- 
 grammes or 1 23J lbs. avoird. Gold and silver are 
 weighed by the Cologne mark, here reckoned 
 
 worth about 2s. OJd., and the par of exchange 
 with London, 9 fl. 50 kr. per £1. But in ex- 
 changes with Hamburg and Amsterdam thenomi- 
 nal florin, giro-geld is valued 27 per cent, higher, 
 or at 2s. 7d. sterling. Retail transactions are con- 
 ducted in Rhenish money, as above. The usance 
 for bills on Augsburg is 15 days' sight ; half 
 
 at J36098 troy grains. I usance 8 days. Bill transactions are settled weekly 
 
 on Wednesday, and those which fall due on that 
 day are not payable till the Wednesday follow- 
 ing. Bills have thus from 1 to 8 days' grace ; 
 but those drawn a vista (at sight), must be paid 
 within 24 hours after being presented. 
 
 Banks. — Augsburg, as already noticed, is one 
 of the principal places of Germany for banking 
 and exchange operations. At Munich , a bank- 
 ing company has been established which issues 
 notes, discounts bills, and lends money on mort- 
 gage; it is sanctioned by government; but the 
 latter is not responsible for its engagements. 
 
 Finances. — The public revenue is about 
 30,000,000 fl., and the expenditure nearly the 
 same ; besides which, the county rates for special 
 provincial disbursements amount to upwards 
 of 4,5(i0,000 fl. The national debt is nearly 
 130,000,000 fl. S 
 
 These measures and weights have lately been 
 rendered general throughout Bavaria. In the 
 former system of Augsburg, the traders' or long 
 ell = 24 Imp. inches ; the fustian or short ell 
 23-32 Imp. inches; the muid of 48 maas = 15*08 
 Imp. galls. : the schaff of 8 metzen = 5*65 Imp. 
 bushels ; 100 lbs. heavy weight = 108-30 lbs. 
 avoird. ; and 100 lbs. light weight = 104-23 lbs. 
 avoird. The Augsburg mark of 16 loths or 64 
 quintins = 3643 troy grains. 
 
 Money. — The common integer of account is 
 the Rhenish or Bavarian florin, which is divided 
 into 60 kreutzers, each of 4 pfennings. This 
 florin, being coined at the rate of 24 i from the 
 Cologne mark of fine silver, is equal to Is. 8d. 
 sterling. 
 
 In Augsburg, the florin of account and ex- 
 change (divided as above) is valued according to 
 the convention rate, as in Austria, making it 
 
 BAY, a celebrated tree {Laurus nobilis), a native of Barbary, of tbe south of 
 Europe, and of Asia. It attains a height of 20 or 30 feet. The leaves are smooth, 
 evergreen, lanceolate, and wayy at the margin; and afford, when bruised or burnt, 
 a grateful aroma, which occasions their employment for culinary purposes. But 
 the part chiefly valued is the fruit or berry, which is small, ovate, dark purple- 
 coloured, aromatic, and bitter. It has long been used in medicine as a stimu- 
 lant and carminative. The husks of the berries contain a great quantity of volatile 
 oil ; and the kernels furnish by expression a fat greenish oil, which is much em- 
 ployed in embrocations. Bay-berries and oil are imported into the United King- 
 dom from Italy and Spain. 
 
 BAZAAR (in Persian a market), a term used in Persia, Turkey, Egypt, and 
 India to distinguish those parts of towns which are exclusively appropriated to 
 
BEA 75 BEE 
 
 trade. The principle of the oriental bazaar is association for facility of reference ; 
 all the shops of a city are placed together ; and the different trades and occupations 
 are severally collected in different parts of the bazaar, instead of being indiscrimi- 
 nately mingled as in our streets. Thus the saddlers are found to occupy one passage, 
 the pipemakers another, and so on. The great bazaars consist of a connected 
 series of these passages, or lanes, vaulted with high brick roofs, surmounted by domes 
 which admit a subdued daylight ; and those of a superior description are sometimes 
 decorated with paintings. The passages are composed of a series of recesses or stalls, 
 the floor of which is raised from two to three feet above the ground. These re- 
 cesses, which are entirely open in front, are scarcely more than closets ; but in the 
 more respectable parts there is generally a door in the back-wall which leads to 
 another apartment that answers the purpose of a store-room. The front part is the 
 shop, on the floor of which the merchant sits with his goods so placed that he has 
 seldom occasion to rise, which, if he is a Turk, he rarely does without manifest re- 
 luctance. Long bargaining is common, and an apparent indifference is exhibited 
 both by buyer and seller ; the latter, as he sits smoking his pipe, being indeed the 
 very personification of luxurious repose. Not only trades, but handicraft employ- 
 ments are carried on in the bazaars. The stocks of the individual dealers are sel- 
 dom of much value, but an imposing effect is produced by the exhibition of the 
 whole in a connected form, whence arises the splendid appearance of the oriental 
 bazaars. Business commences and terminates with daylight, and none of the shop- 
 keepers or artisans reside in them. Wholesale dealers have no open shops in the 
 bazaars, but they have warehouses in them, or in their vicinity. 
 
 In this country, especially in London, the term bazaar is commonly understood 
 to mean an assemblage of shops or stalls under cover, but these are less properly 
 bazaars than Paternoster Row with its books, Monmouth Street with its shoes, and 
 Holywell Street with its old clothes. 
 
 BEACON. [Buoy. Lighthouse.] 
 
 BEACONAGE, a charge for the use and maintenance of a buoy, lighthouse, or 
 other beacon stationed for the use of navigators. 
 
 BDELLIUM, a gum resin of doubtful origin, produced in Persia and India. It 
 resembles myrrh, for which it is sometimes substituted. It is now disused in 
 Britain, but is to be found intermixed with gum-arabic. 
 
 BEADS, small globes or balls made of glass, ebony, pearl, or other materials, 
 and used as necklaces. They are also employed by Roman Catholics for the pur- 
 pose of counting a series of prayers called the Rosary. 
 
 BEANS (Fr. Fives. Ger. Bohnen. It. Fave. Por. Favas. Rus. Boobu. Sp. 
 Habas), the grain of a leguminous plant (Faba vulgaris), of which there are two 
 general classes, — those which are cultivated in gardens, termed garden or white 
 beans, and those which are cultivated in the fields, termed field or gray beans. Of 
 these last, the principal are the horse bean and the tick ; the former is the more 
 hardy, the latter is generally of better quality, and more productive. 
 
 The bean, though an exhausting crop, is regarded as well suited to prepare the land for wheat 
 or barlev. It is sown in February or March ; and except where the dibbling process is resorted 
 to, about 4 bushels of seed are required to the acre ; 40 bushels to the acre are regarded as a great 
 crop ; 30 bushels are a full and satisfactory one ; and probably the average produce of the kingdom 
 does not amount to 24 (Low's Agriculture). The field bean is chiefly applied to the feeding of 
 horses, hogs, and other domestic animals. [Corn Trade.] 
 
 BEAVER. [Fur Trade.] 
 
 BECHE DE MER, called also tripang, or sea-cucumber, is a very peculiar kind 
 of sea-slug (Holothurion), which, after being gutted, pressed, dried in the sun, and 
 smoked, is regarded by the Chinese as a luxury, much in the same way in which 
 we regard caviare. It is carried to China "from almost every island of the 
 Eastern Archipelago, from Australia, and of late from Mauritius and Ceylon. 
 The value, as may be seen by the Canton Price-current, varies according to qua- 
 lity, from 6 dollars up to 50 per pecul; and the natives alone for the most part are 
 judges of its worth. The principal importation into China is by the junks, and the 
 quantity is so considerable that the fishery of it, especially on the coast of New 
 Holland where it abounds, might probably be entered into with advantage by 
 Europeans. {Edinburgh Cabinet Library, No. XX. China.) 
 
 BEECH, a beautiful and valuable tree (Fagus sylvatica), indigenous to most 
 parts of Europe. It thrives best in rich soils and sheltered situations. The wood 
 is of close texture, though not so strong as the grained timbers against a cross 
 strain. When exposed to alternate drought and moisture soon decays, but lasts 
 long when kept constantly wet. Beech is used for machinery, furniture-work, 
 
BEE 76 BEE 
 
 screws for workmen's benches, presses, stocks and handles of tools ; also for keels 
 of ships, boats, and for planking in parts kept constantly under water. It is, 
 however, little used in building, and though easily turned, it is not adapted for 
 hollow vessels, as it is apt to split when quickly dried after being wet. Beech is 
 also liable to be attacked by worms, so that it is not extensively employed. The 
 small wood makes good charcoal, and the mast or fruit furnishes food for swine. 
 
 Beech-nut Oil, a fat or greasy oil, resembling that from olives, obtained from 
 the decorticated nuts of the beech tree. These yield, by pressure, about 15 per cent, 
 of oil, and a larger quantity when aided by heat; the remaining cake is reckoned 
 better food for cattle than common oil-cake. 
 
 BEEF (Fr. Bceuf. Ger. RindfieiscH), the flesh of the ox, forms, in a salted 
 state, a considerable article of exportation, especially from Ireland. In 1838 there 
 were exported of the produce of the United Kingdom 42,161 barrels of beef and 
 pork of the declared value of £148,403 ; about two-thirds of which were sent to 
 the West Indies ; and the remainder chiefly to Australia, British America, Mauri- 
 tius, and India. In the same year 13,108 cwts. of foreign salted beef were imported ; 
 only a small part of which, however, was entered for home consumption. 
 
 The importation of fresh, or corned, or slightly salted heef for home consumption is prohibited 
 by 3 & 4 Win. IV. c. 52, § 58-60 ; and, by 3 & 4 Wm IV. c. 57, § 43, foreign beef exported from 
 the warehouse must be taken on board as merchandise only, and not consumed as stores. 
 
 A barrel of Irish mess beef contains 25 pieces, each of 8 lbs., or 200 lbs. ; a tierce, 38 pieces, or 304 
 lbs. ; a firkin, 25 pieces, each of 4 lbs., or 100 lbs. S 
 
 BEEF-WOOD, the produce of a species of Casuarina, which grows in New 
 South Wales, is a hard, close-grained, reddish wood, variegated with dark and 
 white streaks. It is imported in logs of about 9 feet long by 13 inches broad ; and 
 is principally used in forming borders to work in which the larger woods are em- 
 ployed. S 
 
 BEER (Fr. Biere. Ger. Bier) is a fermented liquor, made from the malt of 
 barley, and flavoured with hops. It may be called the wine of barley. A variety 
 of kinds are made ; those in use at present being distinguished by the names of 
 Ale, Porter or Strong Beer, Table Beer, and Small Beer, which differ little except 
 in strength, and in the mode of preparing the malt from which they are manu- 
 factured. 
 
 Ale is brewed from malt which has been dried by the application of only a slight 
 heat, and is of a more sirupy consistence and sweeter taste than porter. The best 
 kinds made in this country are the Scotch and Burton ales. Scotch ale is distin- 
 guished for paleness of colour and mildness of flavour ; the taste of the hop never 
 predominates ; and it is perhaps more near to the French pale wines than any of 
 the other ales that are brewedin this country : it is like them too the result of a 
 lengthened fermentation. The general mode of charge is by the hogshead (= 1^ 
 barrels or 54 Imp. galls.), for which from £3 to £8 are paid according to 
 quality. This ale is made chiefly in Edinburgh, also at Alloa and Prestonpans. 
 Burton ale, brewed at the place of that name in Staffordshire, is prepared from the 
 palest malt and hops, as, if it be not as pale as a straw it will not pass with con- 
 noisseurs. It is also distinguished for strength, flavour, and sweetness. It is 
 usually charged by the gallon, as the sizes of the casks differ. Besides the Burton 
 ales, those of Nottingham and Birmingham are sent to the London market. 
 
 Porter, or strong beer, is a potent fine liquor, transparent, and of a beauti- 
 ful brownish colour. It is brewed in the same way as ale, with this difference, 
 that in making malt for porter, a much higher temperature is applied, by which 
 it is slightly burned, so that the wort got from it has a dark colour, and a peculiar 
 bitter taste. Other substances, however, besides malt and hops, are known to bo 
 sometimes used to improve its flavour and appearance, though the use of such sub- 
 stances is prohibited. Different kinds of porter are known in trade by particular 
 names and marks. Mild beer is beer newly brewed ; entire consists chiefly of that 
 made expressly for the purpose of keeping ; brown stout is a fine strong kind of 
 porter : the degrees of strength are in some cases marked with an X (single X), 
 XX (double X), and XXX (treble X). For a fuller account of the different 
 kinds of porter, see " Art of Brewing" Library of Useful Knowledge. The price 
 of a hogshead varies, according to quality, from about £2, 12s. to £5, 2s. ; 
 namely, X, or stout, £2, 12s. ; XX, or brown stout, £3, 12s. ; XXX, or double 
 brown stout, £4, 4s. ; imperial, £5, 2s. London is the chief seat of the manufac- 
 ture, but Dublin porter is also celebrated. Of late years a general preference is 
 fiven to mild ale instead of porter ; and several of the most eminent London brewers 
 ave had to change their manufacture to suit the altered taste of their customers. 
 
BEE 77 BEE 
 
 Small beer and Table beer aro weaker liquors, made either by mixing a large pro- 
 portion of water with the malt, or by mashing what is left after the porter or ale 
 wort is drawn off, with a fresh quantity of water. The names of spruce beer, gin- 
 ger beer, &c. are given to other inferior beverages, consisting of a saccharine liquor, 
 partially fermented, and flavoured with peculiar substances. 
 
 The excise duties formerly levied on beer were abolished from and after Octo- 
 ber 10, 1830, by 1 Wm. IV. c. 51 ; but a considerable revenue is still derived from 
 the licenses payable for the privilege of manufacturing and selling it, and from the 
 duty on malt. 
 
 The Manufacture of Beer is regulated by different statutes. Brewers are re- 
 quired to take out a license from the excise, and to " enter " their premises under 
 a penalty of £200, and forfeiture of the mash-tun and materials. No security is 
 required' for the license. Brewers are prohibited from having on their premises 
 any raw or unmalted grain or corn, under forfeiture of the same, and a penalty of 
 £200 (1 Wm. IV. c. 51). The adulteration of beer is also prohibited ; and any 
 brewer or dealer in beer having in his possession, making, using, or mixing with 
 any worts or beer, any other articles than malt and hops, shall forfeit such articles 
 and the vessels in which they are contained, and pay £200 for each offence. 
 Druggists or others delivering to any brewer, or dealer, knowingly, any colouring 
 other than unground brown malt, are subject to a penalty of £500 (56 Geo. III. 
 c. 58). 
 
 The license duty imposed on brewers shall be paid according to the quantity of 
 malt used by them, reckoning a barrel of beer (36 Imp. galls.) for every two 
 bushels of malt (6 Geo. IV. c. 81 ; 1 Wm. IV. c. 51). 
 
 The Sale of Beer in England is principally regulated bv the acts 11 Geo. IV. and 
 1 Wm. IV. c. 64, 4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 85, and 3 & 4 Vict. c. 61, the chief enactments 
 of which are the following : — 
 
 A party requiring a license for selling beer, ale, and porter, by retail, must produce to the officer 
 of excise "a certificate from an overseer of his locality, to the effect, that he is an actual resident in 
 the house for which he claims, and stating the amount in which he is rated to the poor (3 & 4 Vict. 
 c 61, § 2) ; must enter into a bond to the commissioners of excise, with one surety of £20, or with 
 two of £10 each, for the payment of any penalty or sum of money, not exceeding the amount of 
 such £20 or £10 respectively, which shall be incurred for any offence against this act, by the 
 party to whom such license shall be granted ; and no person licensed to sell beer by retail, or not 
 being a householder paying the poor-rates, shall be surety in any such bond (1 Wm. IV. c 64, 
 §§ 4, 5). By the late act, licensed retailers must enter all their premises with the excise, under 
 the arrangements of the general excise act [Excise] (3 & 4 Vict. c. 61, § 9). 
 
 Every person applying for a license to sell beer to be drunk on the premises, to deposit with the 
 commissioners a certificate of good character, signed by six rated inhabitants of the parish, none 
 of whom shall be maltsters, common brewers, or persons licensed to sell spirituous liquors or beer 
 or cider by retail ; but if there are not ten rated inhabitants in the place, the certificate of the 
 majority of them to be sufficient. Such certificate to be signed by overseer as to rating, under a 
 penalty for refusal of £5 (4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 85, §§ 2, 3). 
 
 Duties on beer licenses under 1 Wm. IV. c. 64 repealed, and in lieu thereof there shall be payable 
 for any license to sell beer off the premises, £1, Is., and on the premises, £3, 3s. (lhiri. § 13). 
 Penalty for making or using false certificates, £50 ; and licenses obtained on false certificates to 
 be void. Licenses under the said act not to authorize persons to hold licenses for sale of wine. 
 Penalty on persons licensed under the acts permitting wine or spirits to be consumed on the 
 premises £50, besides excise penalties and forfeiture of the spirits, &c. and of the license. Penalty 
 on unlicensed persons selling beer and cider by retail, £5, besides excise penalties. There is a 
 similar penaltv against persons allowing beer to be drunk on the premises, when the license is for 
 beer drunk off the premises (3 & 4 Vict. c. 61, §§ 6, 13). 
 
 The name and surname of the party licensed to be painted on a board over the door " in letters 
 three inches at least in length, in white upon a black ground, or in black upon a white ground," 
 together with the words " licensed to sell beer by retail," " not to be drunk upon the premises," 
 or, " to be drunk on the premises " (1 Wm. IV. c 64, § 6 ; and 4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 85, § 18). 
 
 Certificate not to be required for houses in London or Westminster, or any parish or place 
 within the bills of mortality, nor any city or town corporate, nor within the distance of one mile 
 from the polling place of any town returning a member to Parliament, so that the population ac- 
 cording to the last parliamentary census shall exceed 5000 (4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 85, § 21). By the 
 last act, no premises can be licensed unless they be rated at £15, if in London, or within a mile 
 from the polling place of a town having 10,000 inhabitants; or at £11 where the population is 
 above 250u ; or at £8 if situated elsewhere (3 & 4 Vict. c. 61, § 1). 
 
BEE 
 
 78 
 
 BEE 
 
 Account of the Number of Licenses granted for the Manufacture and Sale of 
 Beer in the United Kingdom, together with the amount of Duty thereon, in the 
 Year ended January 5, 1838. 
 
 Brewers of strong beer not exceeding 20 barrels 
 
 exceeding 20 and not exceeding 50. . 
 
 .... 50 .... 100.. 
 
 .... 100 .... 1000. 
 
 lOOObarrels 
 
 Brewers of table beer 
 
 Retail brewers under 5 Geo. IV. c. 54 
 
 Sellers of strong beer only, not being brewers 
 
 Beer retailers whose premises are rated under £20 \ 
 
 per annum / 
 
 £'20 or upwards 
 
 Retailers of beer, cider, or perry, under 1 Wm. IV. \ 
 
 c. 64, and 4 & 5 Wm. iV. c. 85, namely f 
 
 To be drunk on the premises 
 
 Not to be drunk on the premises 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 No. 
 
 Duty. 
 
 No. 
 
 Duty. 
 
 No. 
 
 Duty. 
 
 8,998 
 
 £4,499 
 
 62 
 
 £31 
 
 29 
 
 £14 
 
 8,520 
 
 8,520 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 10,445 
 
 15,667 
 
 28 
 
 42 11 
 
 16 
 
 18,306 
 
 36,612 
 
 211 
 
 422 
 
 55 
 
 110 
 
 1,597 
 
 13,825 
 
 114 
 
 956 
 
 146 
 
 1549 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 90 
 
 63 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 94 
 
 20 
 
 105 .. 
 
 
 979 
 
 3,084 
 
 23 
 
 72 60 
 
 i89 
 
 39,926 
 
 41,922 
 
 16,293 
 
 17,108 19,175 
 
 20,134 
 
 15,824 
 
 49,846 
 
 790 
 
 2,488 1,623 
 
 5,112 
 
 39,902 
 
 125,691 
 
 
 
 
 
 5,291 
 
 5,556 
 
 
 
 
 
 The Exportation of Beer is regulated by 1 Wm. IV. c. 51, § 9-14. A drawback 
 of 5s. is payable for every barrel of 36 imperial gallons exported to foreign parts. 
 But before any debenture shall be paid for such drawback, the exporter, or his 
 principal clerk or manager, shall make oath, before the proper officer of excise, 
 that such beer or ale was exported as merchandise, and no part thereof for the 
 ship's use ; and that, according to the best of his knowledge and belief, the same 
 has been brewed wholly from malt which has paid the duty of 2s. 7d. a bushel. He 
 shall also specify in such oath the time when, and the place where, and the brewer, 
 being an entered and licensed brewer for sale, by whom such beer or ale was 
 brewed, and that the quantity of malt used in brewing was not less than 2 imperial 
 bushels for every 36 gallons of such beer or ale. Penalty for false statements, 
 £200, and the debenture is void. 
 
 The art of preparing ale and beer for warm climates has now attained a high 
 degree of excellence ; but the quantity exported is inconsiderable, when compared 
 with what is consumed at home. It is principally sent to the East and West 
 Indies, Australia, United States, and Brazil. In 1836, 15,148 tuns (each of 216 
 gallons) were exported, of the declared value of £270,915 ; in 1837, 15,588 tuns, 
 declared value, £273,122 ; in 1838, 18,327 tuns, declared value, £317,359. 
 By the Customs Tariff Act of 1853 the duty on beer and ale imported is £1 per barrel. 
 
 Historical Notice.— The use of a fermented liquor from barley is of high antiquity, not only in 
 the north of Europe, but even in Spain and Egypt. Ale was a favourite beverage of the ancient 
 Scandinavians, and it was an article of their belief that drinking large draughts of it formed one 
 of the chief felicities of heroes in the Hall of Odin. In England, ale appears from a very early 
 period to have been regarded as one of the necessaries of life ; but down to the era of the Reforma- 
 tion, the use of wine was also very general ;— it being both extensively manufactured from vines 
 reared in the southern counties, and imported on a considerable scale from the Rhine and other 
 parts. The decay of the ecclesiastical gardens at that time, however, and the greater encourage- 
 ment then given to the growth of grain and the culture of hops, gradually led to the more extended 
 use of ale, which, from the period just stated, maybe regarded as peculiarly the national beverage 
 of England. 
 
 In ancient times, ale was subject to a variety of statutory regulations in reference to its price 
 and wholesomeness ; but it was not made an exciseable commodity until 1643. The beer duties 
 varied at different periods ; and at length were abolished in Ireland in 1795, and in Britain in 1830. 
 The rates levied betwixt 1802 and 1830, were 10s. per barrel (old measure) on strong beer, and 2s. 
 per barrel on table beer, which yielded in the year 1829, in England, £3,126,568; in Scotland, 
 £79,414 ; in all, £3,205,982. The quantity brewed during the same year in Britain, amounted 
 to 7,735,598 barrels, of which 6,060,247 barrels were strong beer. No record exists of the quan- 
 tity made since the abolition of the duty ; but there can be no doubt that it has very consider- 
 ably increased. 
 
 In the same year (1830) in which the duties on ale and beer were repealed in Britain, by 1 Wm. 
 IV. c. 51, another act of even greater importance, not only to the traders in ale and beer, but to 
 the community generally, received the sanction of the legislature. This was the act 1 Wm. IV. 
 c. 64, already mentioned. Under its provisions, which came into operation on the 10th October 
 1830, any person could obtain a license to sell ale, beer, and porter by retail in England ; their 
 privilege being derived from an excise license costing two guineas, and renewable annually. Pre- 
 viously, the Justices of the Peace were alone empowered to grant licenses for the sale of malt 
 liquor. The acts of 1834 and 1840 (4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 85 ; and 3 & 4 Vict. c. 61 ) introduced some 
 new regulations which ought perhaps to have been considered necessary from the first opening of 
 
BEE 79 BEL 
 
 a new trade so liable to be misconducted a3 that of the sale of fermented liquors. The act of 1834 
 also introduced a distinction in England between those who sold beer, <fcc for consumption on 
 their premises, and those who sold it only to be consumed elsewhere. Since the passing of tho 
 acts of 1830 and 1834, the number of licensed retailers has increased in every part of England; 
 but it has now probably reached a point at which it will remain nearly stationary. 
 
 In Ireland and Scotland, the fermented liquor most commonly used is whisky, and the quantity 
 of beer consumed is inconsiderable, compared with England. [Malt. Hops.] S 
 
 BEET, a plant, one species of which {Beta vulgaris) is distinguished by its large 
 succulent root. Of this species the chief varieties are, — red beet, which has been 
 long cultivated in our gardens for the table ; white beet, extensively used in France 
 ana other parts of the Continent, for the manufacture of sugar [Sugar] ; and field 
 beet [Mangel Wurzel] used as food for cattle. Another species of beet producing 
 succulent leaves only (B. hortensis), forms one of the principal culinary vegetables 
 of the peasantry of France, Germany, and Switzerland. 
 
 BELGIUM, a kingdom situated in the W. of Europe, betwixt lat. 49° 27' and 
 51° 31' N., and long. 2° 37' and 6° E. ; and which, prior to the revolution of 1830, 
 formed with Holland the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is bounded N. by 
 Holland, E. by Prussia, S. by France, and W. by the North Sea. Area, excluding the 
 portions of Luxemburg and Limburg, now subject to Holland, 11,351 British square 
 miles. Provinces and population in 1839 : Antwerp, 365,173 ; Brabant, 604,950 ; 
 W. Flanders, 636,890 ; E. Flanders, 769,407 ; Hainault, 643,410 ; Liege, 400,780 ; 
 Limburg, 151,617 ; Luxemburg, 167,885 ; Namur, 232,825 ; total, 3,972,937 ; of 
 which nearly 300,000 are Germans and Dutch, the rest Belgians, that is Walloons 
 and Flemings, belonging to the Greco-Latin stock and speaking a French dialect. 
 Capital, Brussels ; pop. in 1839, 104,713. Government, a constitutional monarchy, 
 with a senate and house of representatives ; the members of both chambers being 
 elected by those citizens who pay not less than 20 florins (33s. 3d. sterling) annually 
 of direct taxes. 
 
 Belgium is in general a level country, except in the provinces of Liege and Namur, where the 
 surface becomes irregular and in some parts hilly. The soil of the flat country is in most parts 
 light and sandy ; but is rendered exceedingly fertile by the constant application of manure, to 
 obtain which the attention of the cultivator is especially directed to the rearing of cattle. The 
 climate resembles that of the S. of England, but more variable ; and the common objects of 
 culture are wheat, rye, barley, oats, buckwheat, potatoes, turnips, hemp, flax, beet, hops, and 
 chicory, with artificial grasses ; a variety of fruits are also grown, and some tobacco. About 
 9-llths of the country are under cultivation, and of the remainder, the greater part is occupied 
 by forests, towns, roads, canals, and railways, which cannot be deemed unproductive. The most 
 highly cultivated provinces are those of the north and west, which in their flatness, fertility, dikes, 
 and canals, closely resemble Holland ; and are so thickly inhabited as to present the appearance 
 of one continuous village. 
 
 The mineral productions are numerous and abundant, particularly in the S. and E. portions of 
 the kingdom, comprehending Hainault, Namur, Luxemburg, and Liege ; and the working of 
 mines constitutes a valuable branch of the national industry. Of the mineral products, the first in 
 point of importance is coal, the extraction of which employed in 1836, 31,190 men ; and there were 
 produced 22, 000,000 hectolitres, worth 32,000,000 francs. The three great centres of the coal 
 mines are Mons, Charleroy, and Liege. Iron mines are numerous, especially in the district 
 between the Sambre and the Meuse ; and in 1836, the quantity of prepared ore worked up was 
 456,000 tons, corresponding to double that quantity taken from the mines. Lead is found in 
 Liege, in Namur, and in Luxemburg, especially at Longrilly; copper in Hainault and Liege; 
 zinc in Namur and Hainault ; besides which the mineral products of the S. and E. provinces em- 
 brace manganese, calamine, sulphur, and alum, also various kinds of stone, slate, marble, and 
 clay fitted for the manufacture of porcelain. 
 
 In manufactures, Belgium formerly excelled all other states, but they gradually declined while 
 the country was under the dominion of Spain, and became comparatively inconsiderable. Since 
 the revolution of 1830, however, a new impulse has been communicated to all branches of indus- 
 try. One of the most important of the manufactures is that of woollen cloths (particularly black 
 cloth), the chief seats of which are at Verviers, Liege, and Dalhem ; carpets are made at Tour- 
 nay ; linens at Ghent, St Nicolas, Termonde, Courtray, Ninove, and other places. The cotton 
 manufacture, in which there is invested in fixed capital in buildings and machinery about 
 60,000,000 francs, employs upwards of 120,000 hands ; Ghent, St Nicolas, Antwerp, and Mechlin 
 contain the principal factories. The breeding of the silk worm was introduced in 1826, and the silk 
 manufacture is rising into importance in Antwerp, Siene, and Uccle near Brussels. The lace 
 of Brussels and Mechlin has long been celebrated ; and ribands of every kind are made in large 
 quantities at Antwerp, Tournay, and Ypres. The smelting and manufacture of iron, copper, and 
 tin is carried on extensively from the abundance of these metals and of coal, and charcoal from 
 the forests ; the principal groups of forges are between the Meuse and the Sambre, at Charleroy, 
 and on the banks of the Meuse, extending from its entrance into Belgium to the limits of Namur 
 and Liege, at which last place the coke furnaces, which have been doubled in number since 1837, 
 are of greater dimensions and power than any in Europe : the iron manufactures comprehend 
 steam-engines, cannons, and firearms, all made on a great scale in Liege ; and cutlery and iron 
 utensils in various localities. The chief other manufactures are those of hosiery, employing about 
 60,000 persons, mostly in the arrondissement of Tournay ; porcelain at Sept- Fontaines, Brussels, 
 Ardennes, and Tournay ; glass at Namur, Liege, Val-St-Lambert, and Charleroy ; beet-root 
 •ugar, and refining at Ghent ; besides beer, leather, salt, paper, hats, and a great variety of other 
 
BEL 
 
 BEL 
 
 articles. Much of the rapid progress observable in almost every branch of industry of late years 
 is due to the facilities and encouragements afforded by the government, but individual enterprise 
 has been also conspicuous. Amidst many instances of this kind, there is one in particular so essen- 
 tially national to Belgium, so identified with its prosperity, and of a celebrity so truly European, 
 that it is impossible to leave it unnoticed. We allude to Mr John Cockerill of Liege, one of the 
 most distinguished persons who has yet appeared in the manufacturing world. He is concerned 
 in upwards of 50 manufacturing establishments ; Germany, France, and Poland possess some of 
 them ; but the greatest number are situated in Belgium. Of these the most remarkable for its 
 intrinsic qualities of vastness and solidity, as well from its being the seat of government, so to call 
 it, of Mr Cockerill's scattered empire of mechanical enterprise, is that of Seraing, on the banks 
 of the Meuse, near Liege, where no fewer than 3700 men are employed in coal-mines, iron-works, 
 blast furnaces, and in the manufacture of steam-engines and other machines. 
 
 The internal commerce of Belgium is facilitated by magnificent rivers, particularly the Meuse 
 and the Scheldt, the latter being navigable as far as Cambray in France. There are also 
 numerous canals. We can only mention the great Northern Canal, from Neuss on the Rhine 
 (in Prussia) by Venloo on the Meuse to Antwerp, and with which communicate, by means of the 
 Scheldt, the Lievre and Bruges canals; the Ostend and Dunkirk canals, reaching the sea at differ- 
 ent points ; the Brussels canal ; and the Louvain canal. The railways, likewise, owing to the flat- 
 ness of the country, have been introduced with a success unknown even in Britain. According to 
 a law passed in 1034, it was provided that a system of railroad should be established in the king- 
 dom which, having Mechlin for its centre, should lead towards the east by Louvain, Liege, and Ver- 
 viers, to the Prussian frontier ; towards the north to Antwerp ; towards the west by Termonde, 
 Ghent, and Bruges, to Ostend ; and towards the south, over Brussels, and through Hainault, to 
 the French frontier : the costs of the execution, and the superintendence, to devolve upon the 
 government ; and the tariff for the use of the railroads to be fixed yearly by a law. The works 
 began immediately after the publication of the law, and have since been forwarded with great suc- 
 cess. In 1839, they comprised an extent of 150 British miles ; while those which are decided upon 
 towards France will embrace a further distance of 90 miles. So persevering besides is the activity 
 of the government in the improvement of the country that large sums are also voted for new roads 
 and canals, although Belgium is already so rich in the facilities of communication. Of the public 
 works, not a few, such as the railroads for uniting the Scheldt and the sea with the Rhine, and the 
 constructions towards the German frontier, have been projected with the view of rendering com- 
 paratively unproductive to Holland the rivers which had secured to her the commercial monopoly 
 of the Rhenish provinces, and the transit trade to Germany. 
 
 The external commerce of the kingdom suffered from the revolution of 1830, but it has again 
 revived, and now shows a progressive improvement, corresponding with that which has occurred 
 in the other branches of industry. The exports chiefly consist of bark from the trees of the Bel- 
 gian forests, of which nearly 350,000 cwts. are annually exported to Great Britain alone, seeds, 
 especially clover, coal, of which immense quantities are annually sent to France, where it is re- 
 ceived on more favourable terms than that from England ; spelter, flax, hops, linens, lace, car- 
 pets, and firearms; the last being sent in large quantities to Brazil, from whence they are again 
 exported to Africa in exchange for slaves. The imports are principally composed of tropical pro- 
 duce, especially coffee, tobacco, and cotton, British manufactures, wool to the annual value of 
 £550,000, chiefly from Germany, Poland, Hungary, and the southern provinces of Russia, and 
 wine. The following account, abridged from the Tables of the Board of Trade (vol. v. p. 338), 
 furnishes a general view of the commerce of Belgium for the first four years after its separation 
 from Holland. 
 
 France 
 
 Holland 
 
 Prussia,Hanse 1 
 Towns, &Ger- > 
 many. J 
 
 Great Britain . . 
 
 Russia 
 
 United States. . . 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Other countries- 
 Total, 
 
 Value of Imports into Belgium. 
 
 1831. I 
 
 £ 
 584,995 2 
 404,419, 
 
 1832. 
 £ 
 
 249,768 
 348,399 
 
 448,474 1,166,399 
 
 1,550,224 3, 
 54,463; 
 
 1833. 
 
 £ 
 
 ,927,505 
 730,426 
 
 1834. 
 
 £ 
 
 1,425,952 
 
 1,073,436 
 
 1,284,8201,064,743 
 
 289,102 2, 
 300,434 
 
 327,8021,215,723 
 
 280,763 
 269,383 
 
 273,704 
 492,772 
 
 643,877 
 224,850 
 
 935,722 
 
 308,435 
 645,110 
 
 2,102,649 
 
 180,044 
 
 f 710,876 
 
 1 298,315 
 
 (.166,084 
 
 399,367 
 
 531,211 
 
 3,920,523 9,336,301 8,700,7457,952,6/7 
 
 Value of Exports from Belgium. 
 
 1831. 1832. 1833. 
 
 £ £ £ 
 1,684,749 2,420,365 2,226,618 
 
 281,826j 321,765, 708,046 
 
 1 ,188,953 1,288,684 862,425 
 I 
 
 528,743 318,173 414,154 
 23,036 
 
 I 14,486 
 
 120,000 
 43,454 
 
 28,641 
 
 11,818 
 37,196 
 
 10,205 
 85,084 
 
 10,984 
 129,153 
 
 3,862,211 '4, 449,678 4,446,669 
 
 1834. 
 £ 
 3,121,534 
 712,274 
 
 1,484,344 
 
 323, 
 
 22,065 
 
 ( 57,500 
 
 < 24,825 
 
 I 72 
 
 16,694 
 
 114,754 
 
 5,878,05( 
 
 Since 1834 the trade has no doubt increased, though the shipping possessed by Belgium 
 still remains inconsiderable. At the revolution in 1830, many of the Belgian shipowners placed 
 their vessels under the flag of Holland, as the latter retained all the colonies which formerly 
 belonged to the two kingdoms jointly ; and though some increase has since taken place, yet, on 
 31st December 18.37. the number of merchant vessels belonging to the Belgian ports (including 
 river ports), was only 156, and their tonnage 21,690 ; this included 5 steamers, but was exclusive 
 of about 100 fishing sloops. (Board of Trade Table*, vol. vii. p. 286.) 
 
 The imports from the United Kingdom consist partly of foreign and colonial merchandise, but 
 chiefly of British produce and manufactures. The declared value of the latter imported from 1831 
 to 1838 was as follows :— 1832, £690,899; 1833, £886,429; 1834, £750,059; 1835, £818,487; 1836, 
 £839,275; 1837, £804,917; 1838, £1,068,010 ; which last is equivalent to two-thirds of the British 
 exports to Holland and Belgium jointly in 1821. The imports from Britain chiefly consist of 
 sheep's wool, woollen, linen, and cotton yarns, machinery, iron, steel, hardware and cutlery, 
 
BEL 81 BEN 
 
 especially the finer kinds, cotton manufactures and small wares, woollen cloths, silks, brass, cop- 
 per and pewter manufactures, and salt. A considerable portion of these goods, especially the 
 yarns and cloths, are not intended for consumption in Belgium, but are smuggled aero s the 
 French frontier ; this is partly done by dogs trained for the purpose by being pampered in France, 
 and half-starved and otherwise ill-used in the former country. 
 
 The bonding yards are at Antwerp, Bruges, Brussels, Courtray, Ghent, Liege, Louvain, Mech- 
 lin, Mons, Nieuport, Ostend, Ruremonde, Tournay, and Venloo. 
 
 Belgium communicates with the sea by Antwerp, Ostend, and Nieuport, by the canal of Bruges 
 to O ostburg, by the canal of Dunkirk to Fumes, by the canal of Ghent to Terneusen, by the 
 canal of T?rmonde to Hulst, by the Scheldt from Flushing to Antwerp, by the same river and the 
 eanal of "Willebroek from Brussels to Antwerp, and by the canal of Louvain and the Scheldt from 
 Louvain to Antwerp. But the only seaports of any consideration are Antwerp and Ostend. 
 
 Antwerp, a strongly fortified and magnificent town, is situated in 51° 14' N. and 4° 22' E. on low 
 ground, on the right bank of the Scheldt, where the river mukes a considerable bend. Population 
 in 1838, 77,162. It is about 45 miles from the mouth of the Scheldt, reckoning from Flushing, 
 where vessels bound for Antwerp must take a Dutch pilot as far as Litlo. The river at Antwerp 
 is about 400 yards broad, and large vessels may sail up to the quay, and into a large basin ; 
 the depth at low water in front of the city being from 32 to 42 feet. Its commerce is still consider- 
 able, though far below what it was in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, when it had a popula- 
 tion of 200,000, and 2000 vessels annually entered its port. In \8zJ, 995 ships arrived ; 690 in 
 1830 ; and only 382 in 1831 ; but since this last year the shipping has greatly increased, and in 
 1837 the number of vessels which entered was 1426, and the amount of their tonnage, 225,759. 
 
 Ostend, a fortified seaport of West Flanders, is situated in 51° lO' N. and 2° 54' E Papulation, 
 11,390. It possesses great facilities for carrying on trade with the interior by means ol railways 
 and canals. The town is almost surrounded by two of the largest of these, particularly that leading 
 to Bruges, into which ships of great tonnage may enter with the tide. The number tuat arrive 
 annually is from 500 to 600. 
 
 MEASURES, WEIGHTS, MONEY, FINANCES, &C 
 
 Measures and Weight*.— The French metrical loans, and in various ways facilitates commerce. 
 . was introduced in 1820. j Its capital (exclusive of a reserved fund) con- 
 
 " The following old measures are still partially ; sists of 50,000,000 florins, or 105,820,000 francs 
 US ed: — The Antwerp silk ell = 27-32 Imp. inches, , (£4,lf>6,666), and it issues notes to the amount 
 and woollen ell = 2697 Imp. inches ; the Brabant , of 40,000,000 francs, in sums of 50, 100, 5oO, and 
 eil = 27-58 Imp. inches; the aam of 50 stoops = j 1000 francs. The Bank of Belgium at Brussels 
 32§ Imp. galls ; the velte = 4-1 Imp galls. ; the ; was founded in 1835, with a charter for 25 yeara. 
 last of 37i viertels = 10i Imp. qrs. ; and 100 lbs. | Its capital is 20,000,000 francs, and its banking 
 Brabant weight = 103*35 lbs. avoird. The Bra- j operations are similar to the society just named, 
 bant league is 6076 yds. | Both are in part under the control of the govern- 
 
 Money. — The general monetary unit is now the , nient, and possess numerous dependencies. In 
 French franc, which is divided into loo centimes, I 1837, the Commercial Bank of Antwerp was in- 
 and equal 9Jd. sterling. In some places the stituted with a capital of 25,000,000 franes; and 
 Dutch florin or guilder (= Is. 8d. sterling) is numerous other institutions of the same nature 
 still retained, particularly in foreign exchanges ; j exist in different parts of the kingdom, 
 and in others the Brabant florin; the Litter is Finances. — The public revenue in 1839amonnt- 
 divided into 20 sous, each of 12 deniers ; 6 florins ed to £4, 163,821; the expenditure to £4,476, 613. 
 Dutch or Netherlands currency = 7 florins Bra- The national debt consists, 1st, of 100,000,000 
 bant currency; 189 Dutch florins = 400 francs; francs, borrowed in 1831-32, at 5 per cent., chiefly 
 and 110 florins 5 sous Brabant currency = 20u for the organisation of the army ; 2d,of 30,000,000 
 francs. The national coins are similar to those \ trancs, borrowed in 1836, at 4 per cent., for 
 of France. railways and other means of communication ; 
 
 The usance of bills from London is 1 month's • 3d, of a floating debt of 25,000,100 francs, at 
 
 date. No davs of grace are allowed. 3i per cent., principally for railways and roads ; 
 
 Banks.— The Societe Generate pour favor iser ' total, 155,000,000 francs, or £<j,2OO,0 0. This is 
 
 r Industrie, instituted in 1822, with a charter for exclusive of the Belgian portion of the debt of 
 27 years, discounts bills, receives deposits, makes [ the Netherlands. S 
 
 BELL-METAL, an alloy consisting of three parts of copper and one of tin. A 
 little zinc is added to small shrill bells. 
 
 BEN-OIL, a fat or greasy oil procured by expression from the decorticated 
 seeds of the Marin ga pterygosperma, a tree which grows in Ceylon, Arabia, Egypt, 
 and Ethiopia. It is inodorous, "and does not readily become rancid ; hence its excel- 
 lence for the manufacture of jasmine, tuberose, and other scented oils. 
 
 BENZOIN, BENJAMIN, or FRANKINCENSE, is the concrete resinous 
 juice of the Styrcuc benzoin, a tree growing in Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. It is 
 sometimes called a gum, but appears rather to be intermediate between resins and 
 balsams. Benzoin is now chieny employed to yield benzoic acid, and for other 
 purposes in medicine. It is also used as a cosmetic, and to burn in censers in 
 Roman Catholic churches. 
 
 " Benzoin occurs in large masses, on which the impression of the reed mats is visible. It is quite 
 dry, and easily pulverizable, of a brownish-red colour, spotted with clear red, and, in proportion 
 to its fineness^ has intermixed a larger number of tears (Benzoe amygdaloides) , resembling in size 
 and form almonds, with an even fracture, having a greasy lustre, and translucent ; while the mass 
 is opaque, uneven in its fracture, and occasionally porous. Its taste is sweetish, balsamic, and 
 resinous; its smell, especially when rubbed or kindled, pleasant and balsamic Sp. gr. P068. 
 The large masses, quite opaque, of a brownish or blackish colour, and destitute of white grains, is 
 called benzoin in sorts." ( Duncan's Dispensatory.) 
 
 Bbwzoic Acid is commonly extracted from benzoin ; but it exists al*o in storax, the balsam* 
 
 F 
 
BER 82 BIL 
 
 of Peru and Tolu, and other substances. " The usual process consists in boiling finely powdered 
 gum benzoin in a large quantity of water, along with lime or carbonate of potash, by which means 
 a benzoate is formed. To the solution, after being filtered and concentrated by evaporation, mu- 
 riatic acid is added, which unites with the base, and throws down the benzoic acid. It is then 
 dried by a gentle heat, and purified by sublimation" (Turner's Chemistry). Sublimed benzoic 
 acid, or flowers of benzoin, which should alone be used for medical purposes, occurs in white 
 needle-like prisms, of a flocculent appearance when in mass, with a soft, silky lustre; taste, at 
 first sweetish, but afterwards pungent ; odour peculiar, and highly characteristic. Sp. gr. - 657- 
 It is scarcely soluble in water, but completely in alcohol. 
 
 BERGAMOT, the fragrant fruit of the Bergamot orange-tree (Citrus Berqamia), 
 from the rind of which an essential oil of delicious quality is obtained, both by- 
 pressure and distillation. This oil or essence is limpid, fluid, and yellowish, with a 
 smell resembling that of oranges. Sp. gr. 0*888. It is used as a perfume. 
 
 BERMUDAS. [West Indies.] 
 
 BERRI, a Turkish road measure, equal 1826 Imp. yards. 
 
 BERRIES are soft and succulent fruits, having their seed lying loosely among 
 pulp. A description of those chiefly imported will be found under the heads of 
 bay, juniper, and yellow berries. 
 
 BERYL, an ornamental stone, differing little from emerald, except in colour. 
 The emerald is green ; all the varieties of other colours, tinged more or less yellow 
 and blue, or altogether colourless, are beryls. Common form, the hexahedral prism ; 
 transparent, translucent, or opaque ; lustre, vitreous. Sp. gr. 275. Localities, 
 Brazil, Siberia, France, and United States. Such varieties of beryl as are clear, 
 transparent, and exhibit brilliant shades of sky-blue, or mountain-green, are deno- 
 minated by lapidaries aqua marine, or precious beryl. They are principally brought 
 from the Brazils, and occur in considerable masses. (Phillips' Mineralogy.} 
 
 BETEL, an East Indian plant (Piper betel), the leaf of which, mixed with the 
 fruit of the Areca palm (A. catechu), commonly called betel, or pinang nut, and 
 fine lime [Chunam], forms a hot and acrid masticatory, in almost universal use in 
 India and the Malayan Archipelago. The mixture is used by both sexes, and at 
 all ages. It is said to be aromatic and stomachic, and also to produce intoxication 
 in those not habituated to its use. 
 
 The chewing of betel forms an important branch of eastern etiquette. Marsden states •* this 
 custom is universal among the Sumatrans, who carry the ingredients constantly about them, and 
 serve them to their guests on all occasions ; the prince in a gold stand, and the poor man in a 
 brass box, or mat bag. The betel-stands of the better ranks of people are usually of silver, em- 
 bossed with rude figures. When the first salutation is over, the betel is presented as a token of 
 politeness, and an act of hospitality. To omit it on the one hand, or to reject it on the other, 
 would be an affront ; as it would be likewise in a man of subordinate rank to address a great man 
 without the precaution of chewing it before he spoke. All the preparation consists in spreading 
 on the sirih, or piper betel leaf, a small quantity of the chunam, and folding it up with a slice of 
 the pinang-nut. From the mastication of these proceeds a juice which tinges the saliva of a bright 
 red, and which the leaf and nut, without the chunam, will not yield. This hue being communi- 
 cated to the mouth and lips is esteemed ornamental ; and an agreeable flavour is imparted to the 
 breath. The juice is usually (after the first fermentation produced by the lime), though not 
 always, swallowed by the chewers of betel." (History of Sumatra.) 
 
 Betel-Nut, or Areca, forms an article of extensive commerce from port to port in 
 India ; and a very large quantity is annually carried to China. The nuts are seldom 
 imported into Britain, though Mr Milburn thinks they might be of use in some ma- 
 nufactures, as they are employed in dyeing cottons in Coromandel and Malabar. 
 
 BEZANT, a gold coin so called from Byzantium, the ancient name of Constan- 
 tinople, which, during the middle ages, furnished most of the European kingdoms 
 with gold money. Bezants were the solidi of the old scale ; they were six to the 
 ounce, and were in use till after the time of William Rufus. Bezant appears like- 
 wise to have been a term applied to all kinds of gold coin, and it was succeeded in 
 the same general sense by the gulden or florin. 
 
 BEZO AR, an animal concretion highly valued in the East, where it is supposed 
 to possess many extraordinary medicinal virtues. The greater portion is pro- 
 cured from the intestines of ruminating animals. The most highly valued is 
 obtained from the stomach of the Capra aegagrus, or wildgoat of Persia. Bezoars 
 have long fallen into merited disuse in Europe. 
 
 BILL OF ENTRY, a note of the particulars of goods entered at the Custom- 
 house, delivered with certain duplicates to the collector or comptroller of the port, 
 according to the terms of the Customs Regulation Act, of which an abridgment 
 will be found under the head Customs. 
 
 BILL OF EXCHANGE maybe defined a written order directing one party to 
 pay a sum of money to another — either the person who gives the order or some third 
 party— at some day fixed or ascertainable. The individual who issues the order 
 
BIL 83 BIL 
 
 is called the drawer ; the person to whom it is addressed is called the drawee 
 [Drawer and Drawee], until he consent to honour the draft or obey the order, 
 after which he i3 called the acceptor [Acceptor]. The bill may be passed from 
 hand to hand by delivery or indorsation, according to circumstances [Indorsation], 
 and in the latter case, the person who makes over is called the indorser, and the 
 person who receives the indorsee. He who is in the legal possession 01 the bill, 
 and the obligation contained in it, is called the holder or the payee. Bills of 
 exchange, as one of the most prompt and powerful engines in conducting trade, 
 are peculiarly privileged by the law, requiring few words, and no solemnities of 
 execution. There is no particular form for a bill of exchange required by law, 
 farther than that the mandate to pay in money be distinct, and the person who is to 
 pay, the person who is to receive, and the time of payment shall be ascertainable be- 
 yond a doubt. A mere request to pay money is not a bill, for the drawee is presumed 
 to be the drawer's debtor, and the bill must be an absolute assignment of the debt ; 
 nor is an acknowledgment of debt, or a promise to pay which is part of a bargain 
 for the sale of goods. Where a bill has all the apparent requisites, though an ex- 
 pression which takes it out of this species of document be fraudulently introduced 
 to escape observation, it would appear that it will still be held a bill against the 
 committer of the fraud. This was held where the word " at " was introduced in 
 very small letters within the tail of the S of Sir in the address to the drawee 
 (Allan v. Mawson, 4 Camp. 115). An order to pay in any thing other than cash is 
 not a bill, as " in East India bonds," " in bank-notes," &c. The amount must be 
 specific, and therefore the addition of the words " or whatever else may be due," 
 would vitiate a bill. The money must be payable " at all events," and any condition 
 which may affect the certainty of the declared intentions of the parties to hold it 
 an absolute order to pay at some time or other, will vitiate the bill, as, where A B 
 agrees to pay when C t> shall marry, or at a certain time if C D be alive then, 
 or if C D shall have disposed of certain property. From the time when a bill 
 is drawn and delivered, it becomes by the operation of the contract of mandate, a 
 document of debt in favour of the payee, for he who in fulfilment of an obligation 
 gives an order on another to pay, becomes himself responsible on that other not 
 performing. If the drawee is not indebted to the drawer, or as it is commonly 
 termed, has " no effects," he will not be liable, even though he has accepted, to the 
 drawer, but third parties who have received the paper for value, are not affected 
 by the obligations between the original parties, otherwise than as they appear on 
 the bill. [Accommodation Bill.] 
 
 A drawer generally appends his usual signature at the foot of the mandate. The 
 acceptor to whom it is addressed generally signs below the drawer, either with or 
 without the word " accepts" before his name. An indorser commonly puts his 
 name on the back, with or without a direction to pay to a particular person. 
 [Drawer. Acceptor. Indorser.] It is a common practice to mention on the face of 
 a bill that it is u for value received ;" but this is not necessary, and in the general 
 case value is presumed, and need not be proved by the party pleading it unless 
 where a bill has been originally obtained through fraud, or in the case of a transfer 
 by delivery by a person not entitled to make delivery, or in that of a bill which has 
 been stolen. In bcotland the presumption of value is so strong that no evidence will 
 be received to contradict it but the writ or oath of the party pleading it. Persons 
 may come under general obligations as to bills which have to be made specific by 
 the acts of others. Thus if one makes a bill blank in the name of the payee, any bond 
 fide holder is entitled to fill in his own name. A person who delivers a blank bill 
 stamp, drawn or accepted, is liable for whatever sum, covered by the stamp, may 
 be filled in. Bills may be subscribed by procuration. Whoever takes such a bill, 
 however, must assure himself of the procurator or agent's authority to grant it, 
 for if he exceed his powers, the bill will not be effectual against his employer. A 
 person who signs a per procuration" should mention that he does so, otherwise he 
 will be personally liable. 
 
 Bills of exchange are divided into foreign and inland ; the former are drawn in 
 one country and payable in another, the latter are drawn and payable in the same 
 country. A bill drawn in one of the three British kingdoms on a person resident 
 in another, is, for some purposes, considered a foreign bill. The peculiar privileges 
 which attach to bills as negotiable instruments, were first awarded to foreign bills, 
 or to those drawn in Britain and payable abroad, and arose out of the absurd 
 notions regarding the balance of trade. By 9 & 10 Wm. III. c. 17, and 3 & 4 Anne. 
 c. 9. in England, and by the act 1696, c. 36, in Scotland, inland bills were placed 
 in the same situation with foreign ; and in most essential points, the laws as to 
 
BIL 84 BIL 
 
 both are analogous to each other. The chief distinction is in the practice of pro- 
 test in England, which is necessary on occasion of the dishonour of a foreign hill, 
 but is limited in effect and practice in inland bills. [Protest.] Foreign bills are 
 generally drawn in several sets or parts, transmitted by different conveyances, in 
 order that if any one or more should be lost, another may arrive safe for being 
 presented. Each bears that it is payable on the others not being paid, as, " pay 
 this my second bill of exchange, first and third of the same tenor and date not 
 being paid," &c. The drawee of a bill drawn in sets should only accept one of the 
 sets, as it is held that if he accept one set, and afterwards pay another set, he will 
 not be liberated from the claim of a bona fide holder of the accepted ones. 
 
 By special statute in England, all bills under 20s. are void, and those between 
 that sum and £5 must be made payable within twenty-one days after date, contain 
 the name and description of the payee, and bear date at the time of making. They 
 must likewise be attested by a subscribing witness (15 Geo. III. c. 51, 17 Geo. III. 
 c. 30, and 27 Geo. III. c. 16). [Indorsement.] Persons negotiating in England bills 
 or notes under £5, or on which less than £5 remains undischarged, made in Scot- 
 land or Ireland, or elsewhere out of England, forfeit a sum not less than £5, or more 
 than £20 (9 Geo. IV. c. 65, § 1). Bills of exchange must be on a proper stamp. In 
 Britain there is a distinction in the scale of duties for those drawn not exceeding two 
 months after date, or sixty days after sight, which are said to be at short date, and 
 those at longer periods, which are said to be at long date (55 Geo. III. c. 184, Sched.). 
 There is no such distinction in the schedule of the Irish stamp act, 56 Geo. III. 
 c. 56. There are separate tables for bills drawn in sets, each set requiring to be 
 stamped. The principal exemptions are, bills issued by the Bank of England ; 
 bills drawn in pursuance of the acts for paying and supplying the army and navy 
 (55 Geo. III. c. 184, Schedule). By 9 Geo. IV. c. 49, § 15, drafts on bankers 
 within fifteen miles of the place of drawing are exempt, provided the place where 
 the draft is issued be specified, and they bear date on or before the day of issue, 
 and do not direct payment to be made by bills or promissory notes. Although, as 
 above stated, a document which is not an order to pay money " at all events," is 
 not entitled to the privileges of a bill, yet an order on any particular fund which 
 may or may not be available, or depending on a contingency which may never 
 happen, if made payable to bearer, or to order, or delivered to a payee, requires a 
 stamp (Sched.). Persons connected with the issue of bills not duly stamped, forfeit 
 £50 ; and persons post-dating bills, for the purpose of bringing them under the 
 smaller duty applicable to bills at short date, or being in any way accessary to the 
 issue of such post-dated bills, forfeit £100 (55 Geo. III. c. 184, §§ 11 & 12). Per- 
 sons evading the stamp-duties under colour of the exemptions in favour of bank 
 notes, and bills, and drafts, forfeit £100 (§ 13). A bill not duly stamped is not ad- 
 missible as evidence of any description of obligation, and cannot be regarded by a 
 court of justice (31 Geo. III. c. 25, § 19, and 55 Geo. III. c. 184, § 8). It is no 
 objection to the stamp on a bill, that it is of greater denomination than that re- 
 quired by law, or that it is a stamp adapted to a different purpose (if of the assigned 
 or greater denomination), provided it have not the different purpose stated on its 
 face (55 Geo. III. c. 184, § 10). A bill cannot properly be stamped after it is issued ; 
 but if the commissioners have stamped it, the period of applying the stamp cannot 
 be objected to against the holder of the bill. But where a bill is stamped, of the 
 proper or higher value, with a wrong denomination on the face of it, it may be re- 
 stamped. 
 
 Bills, though they are of the nature of a " chose in action," which is not strictly 
 assignable, may be transferred from hand to hand or negotiated. [Chose in Action.] 
 In England, to enable this to be accomplished, there must be negotiable words, 
 such as " or order," " or bearer :" in Scotland this is not requisite. A bill pay- 
 able to A B, or order, is indorsable by A B, and payable to his indorsee. A 
 bill payable to A B, or bearer, is payable to whosoever holds it, A B's name not 
 affecting the nature of the document. The various parties upon a bill, besides the 
 acceptor, indorsers, drawers, and others, become liable for its payment on failure 
 of the acceptor. The acceptor's failure to pay is commonly said to be an act of dis- 
 honour. If the drawee refuse acceptance, this likewise is dishonour, and is held to 
 be such a prospective refusal of payment as entitles the holder to claim immedi- 
 ately from the drawer, or, if there be an indorser, on that indorser, who has re- 
 course on the drawer ; but to entitle him thus to recur on the original parties, there 
 are obligations on the holder, without performing which he is held not to have 
 duly negotiated. He must present the bill for acceptance and for payment on the 
 proper occasions. [Presentment.] He must give notice of non-acceptance, or of 
 
BIL 85 BIL 
 
 non-payment ; and in particular cases he must have the bill protested in such cir- 
 cumstances. [Notice. Protest.] In Scotland due negotiation gives a bill which 
 has no irregularity on its face a peculiar privilege, by which it is held as the decree 
 of a court, and put in immediate execution, unless cause can be shown for sus- 
 pending. [DiligencEjSummary.] Bills of exchange cease in England to be do- 
 cuments of debt on the expiry of six years from the time named for payment. 
 By 9 Geo. IV. c. 14, § 3, no memorandum of part payment by the party receiving 
 payment is sufficient to take a bill out of the rule. In Scotland, by 12 Geo. II 1. 
 c. 7"2, § 37, and 23 Geo. III. c. 18, § 55, no action can be commenced on bills after 
 six years from the time of payment. This provision does not affect the debt or 
 obligation on which the bill proceeds, which is still open to be proved otherwise. 
 (Bayley on Bills. Chitty on Bills. Thomson on Bills.) 
 
 Form of Ordinary Inland Bill. 
 £100. London, January I, 1861. 
 
 Three months after date, pay to ine or order, One Hundred Pounds, for value received. 
 
 John Smith. 
 To Mr William Anderson, Merchant, Glasgow. William Anderson. 
 
 W. B. This admits of the following variations, according to circumstances : — Instead of " three 
 months after date," it may be " at sight," or at such a time " after sight," or at such a specified 
 time, or "on demand ;" and the instruction to pay may be " to AB or order." 
 
 Form of a Promissory Note. 
 £100. London, January 1, 1361- 
 
 Three months after date, I promise to pay to Mr John Smith, or order, One Hundred Pounds, 
 for value received. William Anderson. 
 
 The variations above noticed, in regard to a bill, are all applicable, so far as they are consistent 
 with the nature of the document. 
 
 Form of a Foreign Bill. 
 £540. Havana, April 1, 1861. 
 
 Sixty days after sight of this First of Exchange (Second and Third unpaid), pay to the order of 
 Messrs Lamb and Thompson, Five Hundred and Forty Pounds sterling, value received; and 
 charge to account, with or without advice of Thomas Forbes. 
 
 To John Walker, Esq., Liverpool.") John Walker, payable at the office of 
 
 Payable in London. / Messrs Barclay and Company, London. 
 
 The naming of the payee admits of the same variations as are exhibited in an inland bill. Tha 
 time of payment may also be expressed in the various ways applicable to an inland bill. The term 
 ' ' usance " is sometimes employed to express the period of running in foreign bills. It means a 
 certain time fixed by custom as between any two places, and the period covered by a usance will 
 therefore depend on the places of drawing and payment " An usance between this kingdom and 
 Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Hamburg, Altona, or Paris, or any place in France, is one calendar 
 month from the date of the bill ; an usance between us and Cadiz, Madrid, or Bilbao, two ; an 
 usance between us and Leghorn, Genoa, or Venice, three." (Bayley on Bills, 251.) S 
 BILL OF HEALTH. [Quarantine.] 
 
 BILL OF LADING is the acknowledgment given by the master of a ship f>r 
 goods shipped. It is a negotiable instrument. Several parts or copies are made 
 out, one for the use of the master, the others for the snipper, who, by means of 
 them, can give a title to the consignee or other person for whom the goods are 
 destined, to receive them. The following is an ordinary form of a bill of lading : 
 
 Shipped in good order and well-conditioned by John Smith & Co., in and upon 
 /\ the good ship called the Elizabeth, whereof is master for this present voyage William 
 / [/\ Nelson, and now riding in the river Douro, and bound for Leith, ten hogsheads red 
 \ / Port Wine, being marked and numbered as in the margin, and are to be delivered in 
 yvt the like good order and well-conditioned at the aforesaid port of Leith, the dangers of 
 the seas only excepted, unto Mr Henry Ivison, or to his assigns, he or they paying 
 freight for the said goods, sixty shillings sterling per ton, with primage and average 
 accustomed. In witness whereof, the master of the said ship hath affirmed to threi 
 Brand, bills of lading, all of this tenor and date, one of which bills being accomplished, the 
 J. S. & Co. others to stand void. 
 
 W. Nelson. 
 Oporto, April 6, 1861 
 When the goods are put on board, a receipt is generally given by the master ; 
 this is afterwards exchanged by the holder for the bill of lading. It must be writ- 
 ten on a stamp. It will be observed that there is a clause, as in bills of exchange 
 drawn in sets, providing that one set being honoured, the others are void. The 
 bill has two objects. It fixes the amount and condition of the goods received, and 
 for which the shipmaster is responsible [Affreightment], and conveys a title to 
 demand delivery. It may, like a bill of exchange, be negotiated by simple indor- 
 sation and delivery, which will carry a right to the goods. No intimation to the 
 shipmaster is necessary, he being bound to deliver to the holder. Notwithstanding 
 the delivery of the negotiable instrument, the goods are still liable to be stopped 
 in transitu, as in the hands of a middleman before they reach the consignee. 
 
BIL 86 BIR 
 
 [Stopping in transitu.] If the bill has been indorsed for value by the consignee, 
 or his authorized agent, the property is passed, and the right to stop ceases. The 
 right to stop is not barred by delivery or the bill unindorsed to a third party, nor 
 by indorsation without value, or with knowledge on the part of the indorsee that 
 the goods will not be paid for by the indorser, and that the transaction is fraudulent, 
 nor where the indorsee has received notice of the consignee's insolvency. The in- 
 dorsee however is not held bound to inquire into the ability of the indorser to pay for 
 the goods, and to secure him it is not necessary that he should take the bill without 
 notice that the goods have not been paid for ; it is sufficient if he have not received 
 " notice of such circumstances as rendered the bill of lading not fairly and honour- 
 ably assignable" (Cumming v. Brown, 9 East, 516. See Salomons v. Nissen, 
 2 T. R. 674). Partial value will give an onerous right to a corresponding extent, 
 and to that extent bar stoppage. Where the indorsee undertook to make advances 
 which he failed to make, it was held that a claim on previous advances was no bar 
 to the right to stop (Newsom v. Thornton, 6 East, 17) ; but " where the consignee, 
 before his insolvency, and before the goods had arrived, has indorsed the bill of 
 lading to a third party as a security for advances, the equitable right of the unpaid 
 vendor to stop the goods (although he has no strictly legal right to resume posses- 
 sion even after the claim is satisfied) continues, subject only to the amount of such 
 claim ; and, if the indorsee holds in his hands any other property belonging to the 
 insolvent, the unpaid vendor has an equity to compel him to resort to it in the first 
 place." {Morton on Vendors and Purchasers, 196, 197. Holt on Shipping, 359-378. 
 Smith's Mercantile L. 243-246. Bell's Com. i. 198, 219.) 
 
 BILL OF PARCELS is an account of goods sold given by the seller to the 
 purchaser. It usually contains the description, quantity, price, and amount of each 
 article ; with a statement of the place, date, and terms of credit. 
 
 BILL OF SIGHT, a form of entry at the custom-house, by which goods, re- 
 specting which the importer is not possessed of full information, may be provision- 
 ally landed for examination. The bill must contain " the best description that 
 can be given," and a perfect entry is required to be made within three days. [Cus- 
 toms.] 
 
 BILL OF STORE, a form of writing by which certain kinds of goods may be 
 entered at the custom-house for reimportation ; also a custom-house license per- 
 mitting the provisions and stores necessary for a ship's voyage to be shipped duty 
 free and without entry: this last is sometimes termed a Victualling Bill. [Customs.] 
 
 BILLINGSGATE. [Markets.] 
 
 BILLON, in coinage, a base alloy of gold or silver (generally the latter) in which 
 copper is predominant. The word is derived from the French, but its origin is 
 doubtful. In Spain billon money is called moneda de vellon. 
 
 BIRCH (Belula alba), a graceful forest tree, common in the cold parts of Eu- 
 rope. It is valuable for poor elevated soils, and on wet or springy land ; but is 
 seldom planted on favoured soils, as its timber is not durable, and in little esteem. 
 It is chiefly used for underwood, and by the turner and wheelwright. In Scotland 
 it is much employed for undressed palings ; and sometimes cut into staves for her- 
 ring barrels. It affords good charcoal. The bark yields a yellow dye for wool, and 
 also the oil used in making Russia leather. The black birch of America (B. lento), 
 imported into this country, is a compact handsome wood ; but it soon decays. It 
 is used for forming the slides of dining-tables, and similar purposes. 
 
 BIRD-LIME, an adhesive, tenacious, vegetable product, obtained principally 
 from the inner bark of the holly by bruising, long boiling in water, and fermenta- 
 tion; the mass being again boiled in water and evaporated to a proper consistence. 
 This kind is of a greenish colour, odour resembling that of linseed oil, and having 
 a bitter taste. Bird lime is also procured from the berries of the mistletoe, and 
 other plants. In commerce it generally occurs in an impure state. 
 
 BIRD NESTS (EDIBLE), in oriental commerce, a celebrated luxury of the 
 table, highly esteemed by the Chinese. They are the nests of a species of swallow 
 Ulirundo esculenta) common in the Eastern or Malayan Islands, from whence 
 immense quantities are exported into China. The nest when pure is of a cream- 
 white colour, semitranslucent, and in shape and size like a quarter of an orange. 
 It is muco-albuminous, and in soup possesses little or no taste,— at least to the Eu- 
 ropean palate. In the preparation of this dish by the Chinese, however, such a 
 number of fine stimulants are generally added, that of right it occupies the first 
 rank amongst relishes at their tables. These nests are said by Meyen (Quarterly 
 Review, vol. liii. p. 333) to be formed of the sea-weed, Spheerococcus carlilagineus var. 
 setaceus aq. The swallow eats the fresh weeds, and permits them to soften for 
 
BIR 87 BIR 
 
 some time in its stomach, after which it throws up the mass now converted into 
 a jelly, and sticks it together to form the nest. The nests are brought in their 
 raw state to China, where they are cleaned in immense warehouses built for the 
 purpose, and then exposed to sale. They are accounted in that country highly 
 restorative. 
 
 The quantity of edible birds' nests annually exported from Java to China is estimated at no 
 less thati 200 peculs ; of which by far the largest proportion is the produce of the Javan rocks and 
 hills. The price which those nests of the best quality have of late years brought in the Canton 
 and Amoy markets has been 40 Spanish dollars per catty. They are usually classed into first, 
 second, and third sorts, differing in price from 40 to 15 Spanish dollars, and even 10 and less for 
 the most ordinary. In the Malayan islands in general but little care is taken of the rocks and 
 caverns which produce this dainty, and the nests procured are neither so numerous nor so good as 
 they otherwise would be. In Java, where perhaps the birds are fewer, and the nests in general 
 less' fine than those to be met with in some of the more eastern islands, both the quantity and the 
 quality have been considerably improved by European management. The caverns which the birds 
 are found to frequent are cleansed by smoking and the burning of sulphur, and the destruction of 
 all the old nests. The birds are then left undisturbed to form their nests, and the gathering takes 
 place as soon as it is calculated that the young are fledged. If they are allowed to remain until 
 the eggs are again laid in them, they lose their pure colour and transparency, and are no longer 
 of what are termed the first sort. Much of their excellence and peculiar properties, however, 
 depend on the situation of the place in which they are formed, and the nature of the different sub- 
 stances to which they are fixed. The best are procured in the deepest caverns (the favourite 
 retreat of the birds), where a nitrous dampness continually prevails, and where, being formed 
 against the sides of the cavern, they imbibe a nitrous taste, without which they are little esteemed 
 by the Chinese. (Ruschenberger's Voyages.) 
 
 BIRDS OF PARADISE, a genus of birds (Paradisea) remarkable for the ex- 
 treme elegance and richness of their feathers. There are various species, but per- 
 haps the most elegant is that which is best known and oftenest seen — the great 
 emerald {P. apoda). The beauty of the male of this species exceeds all description ; 
 and even the most magnificent drawings cannot represent the vivid and chang- 
 ing tints of the originals. The feather of these birds is much sought after to 
 decorate the turbans of oriental chiefs, and in this and other countries is employed 
 for the same purposes as the feathers of the ostrich. In dimensions the various species 
 differ considerably. The bodies of most are not larger than that of a thrush, 
 although the thickness of their plumage makes them appear the size of a large 
 
 gigeon. They are found only in the Papuan islands, from whence they are carried 
 y the natives to the Dutch settlements in the Spice islands ; and are imported into 
 Europe almost wholly from Batavia, the number of which it receives annually is 
 stated by Dr Ruschenberger at 1500, valued at 10,000 florins. 
 
 The natives of New Guinea entrap the birds, or shoot them with blunt arrows ; and they pre- 
 pare the skins with considerable nicety, having removed the true wings, which are not so brilliant 
 as the other feathers, and cut off the legs. The absence of feet in all the birds of paradise brought 
 to Europe gave rise to the fable that they had no power of alighting, and were always on the wing. 
 Their migratory habits may probably also have given some colour to this tale. At the nutmeg 
 season they arrive in flights in the East Indian Islands, where, according to popular belief, the 
 strength of this spice so intoxicates them that they fall dead drunk to the earth. 
 " Those golden birds that, in the spice time, drop 
 About the gardens, drunk with that sweet food 
 Whose scent hath lur'd them o'er the summer flood." — Moore. 
 
 BIRMA, AVA, or BIRMAN EMPIRE, is situated on the western part of 
 the Eastern Peninsula of India, betwixt 15° and 28° N. lat. It is bounded N. by 
 Assam and the adjacent states ; E. by Siam, and the Shan nations ; S. by 
 Siam, the sea, and the British district of Martaban ; and W. by the sea and the 
 British possessions of Aracan and Bengal. The area is estimated at nearly 
 200,000 square miles, and population at 4,000,000. The capital is Ava, in 21° 50' 
 N. 95° 50 7 E. ; pop. 50,000. The government is a despotic monarchy ; but the sove- 
 reign, called Boa, has two councils, a public and a private one, through which 
 his edicts are issued. 
 
 The two great divisions of the empire, Ava and Pegu, are throughout intersected by the river 
 Irrawady, which, rising in the chain of the Himalaya, flows through several mouths into the gulf 
 of Martaban. Ava occupies the upper or northern district of the Irrawady; and Pegu, in the 
 lower or southern district, is a sort of delta entirely traversed by the alluvial branches of this 
 river. Beyon 1 the banks of the Irrawady, little is known respecting the interior. In the northern 
 part of Ava, the country is mountainous and irregular, and the valleys generally narrow, but 
 near Amarapoura, the country opens up ; and the portion betwixt that city and the mouth of the 
 Kyan Duayn, is the most fertile and populous part of the empire, containing Ava and several other 
 considerable towns. Below Ava the Irrawady is a majestic river, and betwixt 18^ N. lat. and 
 the sea, it throws off a great number of branches of various magnitudes, watering an immense dis- 
 trict, and affording an internal navigation scarcely equalled in any country. Gold, silver, copper, 
 tin, iron, lead, and antimony are found in Birma, chiefly in the mountainous districts on the 
 N. E. ; but the metallic riches of the country are much neglected ; coal, amber, nitre, salt, and 
 
BIS 88 BIT 
 
 limestone also exist abundantly in various places ; the most remarkablo mineral product, however, 
 is petroleum, or mineral oil, an enormous quantity of which is produced from wells near Prome, 
 and used throughout the provinces, yielding a large revenue to government. 
 
 The principal vegetable productions, in a commercial point of view, are catechu and teak ; the 
 latter, though generally diffused throughout the country, is mostly obtained from the forest of 
 Sarawadi, betwixt the high and low lands. The chief objects of cultivation are rice, maize, millet, 
 wheat, various pulses, palms, sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, and indigo. Tea is grown near Ama- 
 rapoura, but its leaf is coarse, and is seldom used but as a pickle. The seasons of Birina have 
 a general resemblance to those of Bengal. 
 
 The internal commerce of the empire is considerable, being greatly facilitated by the Irrawady, 
 and its tributaries : the foreign is nearly limited to a caravan trade with the Chinese, and the 
 maritime trade at Rangoon. The intercourse with the Chinese takes place at annual fairs at 
 Bhanmo and Medi, near Ava ; and the commodities supplied by them consist chiefly of raw silk, 
 copper, orpiment, quicksilver, vermilion, iron pans, brass ware, tin, lead, alum, silver, gold and 
 gold leaf, earthenware, paints, carpets, rhubarb, tea, honey, velvets, spirits, musk, verdigris, dry 
 fruits, paper, fans, umbrellas, wearing apparel. The principal exports are raw cotton, with 
 ornamental feathers, edible birds' nests, ivory, horns, and a small quantity of British woollens. 
 The total amount of this trade, including imports and exports, is from £400,000 to £700,000. 
 
 Rangoon stands in 16° 47' N. lat., 96° 15' E. long, on the northern bankof abranch of the Irrawady, 
 about 28 miles from the sea; pop. 2<).Ouo. The climate, as in Calcutta, is divided into the cold, 
 hot, and rainy seasons. In November, Fahrenheit varies from 60° to 86°, and in March and April 
 from 72° to 101°. The town is accessible to very large vessels. A bar on the river has only about 
 2 fathoms at low water, but the rise and fall of the tide is frequently 21 feet. Rangoon having 
 long been the asylum of bankrupts from different parts of India, is crowded with foreigners of des- 
 perate fortune, and the exchange exhibits a motley assemblage, such as few towns can present. 
 The river is commodious for the building and repairing of ships, and vessels of from 600 to 900 
 tons are built here of excellent workmanship. The principal trade is carried on with Calcutta, 
 Chittagong, and Dacca. The chief article of export is teak timber, besides which there are quan- 
 tities of cotton of a superior quality, formerly used in the manufacture of Dacca muslins, gold 
 and silver, catechu, stick-lac, ivory, glue, &c. The imports consist of British cotton manufac- 
 tures, areca and cocoa nuts, tobacco, wrought and unwrought iron, copper, lead, quicksilver, bo- 
 rax, nitre, arms and ammunition, opium, sugar, arrack, rum, British earthenware, glass, &c. 
 The duty on exports at Rangoon is 5 per cent. ; on Imports, 12J per cent. 
 
 Money is reckoned decimally as in China. No 
 coin is minted. The circulating medium is 
 chiefly composed of gold and silver bullion, 
 which is estimated by the tical or kiat = 251 
 troy grains, and worth in silver, which is the 
 standard, about 2s. 8d. sterling. Pieces of lead 
 are used in small payments. The quantity of 
 alloy in the precious metals varies considerably, 
 and great waste is occasioned by frequent 
 assaying. 
 
 Measures and Weights— The taong or cubit 
 = 19-10 Imp. inches ; thetaingor league of 1000 
 tas or bamboos, or 7000 taongs, = 2 British miles 
 193 yds. The ten or basket of rice of 4 saits or 
 64 sales = 16 vis, or 57*36 lbs. avoird., but is com- 
 monly reckoned at £ cwt. Grain, pulse, fruit, 
 salt, and lime, are bought and sold by measure ; 
 most other commodities by weight. 1 paiktha 
 or vis of 100 kiats = 359 lbs. avoird., but is com- 
 monly reckoned at 34 lbs. ; and the candy of 150 
 vis at 500 lbs. avoird. 
 
 Commerce with the British was regulated by a treaty in 1826 with Birmah up to 1851-2, 
 "When differences arose which ended in the British obtaining possession of Pegu. 
 
 BISCUIT (Dan. Skibstvebak. Du. Scheepsbeschuit. Ft. Biscuit. Ger. Ziveibach. 
 It. Biscotto Galetta. Por. Biscoito. Rus. Bort, Ssucher. Sp. Bizcocho Galletd), a 
 kind of bread chiefly used by seamen, which is baked in the form of flat cakes in 
 order to insure their being deprived of moisture, and so preserved from becoming 
 mouldy during the continuance of long voyages. 
 
 BISMUTH (Fr. Bismuth. Ger. Wismuth), a brittle reddish-white metal ; 
 texture foliated ; in hardness is between copper and lead ; sp. gr. 9*83 ; sensible 
 odour and taste ; fusible at 460°. It is scarcely malleable, breaks under the ham- 
 mer, and cannot be drawn into wire. Bismuth is a very rare metal. It is occa- 
 sionally found native, but is usually obtained in a combined state in Cornwall, 
 Bohemia, Saxony, and Sweden. As met with in commerce it is impure ? gene- 
 rally containing iron and arsenic, and probably some other metals. It is used 
 for communicating fusibility to other metals, as in forming solders ; also in making 
 some kinds of pewter. In the arts it is often called tin glass. A white powder 
 called magistery of bismuth or pearl white is obtained from the nitrate of bismuth, 
 and used in medicine as a tonic. (Brande, Fyfe, fyc.) 
 
 BIT, a West Indian silver money, worth about 5d. : it is properly the Spanish 
 real of provincial plate (= 2 reals vellon). The term is likewise applied to the 
 small circular piece frequently cut out of the centre of the hard dollar. 
 
 BITUMEN, or Mineral Pitch, a combustible substance, of which there are se- 
 veral kinds. Elastic Bitumen is of various shades of brown, and has a highly 
 bituminous odour. Hitherto it has only been found in the Odin Mine near Castle- 
 ton, in Derbyshire. Compact Bitumen is of a brownish black colour ; one variety 
 called maltha, may be impressed by the nail ; another called Asphaltum is very 
 hard and brittle. The softer variety has not been put to any use, but the harder 
 is used for a great many purposes. 
 
 The mineral oils, Naphtha and Petroleum, are also sometimes included under 
 
BLA 89 BLU 
 
 the head of bitumen. These substances are found in the earth, or issue from its sur- 
 face ; but though commonly stated as minerals, they are all of vegetable origin. 
 (Phillips' Geology and Mineralogy.) 
 
 BLACKING, a factitious shoe-black, in general composed chiefly of ivory black 
 and beer. 
 
 BLACKLEAD. [Plumbago.] 
 
 BLACK-WOOD, a term generally applied to the timber of different species 
 of Diospyrus which grow in various parts of the East Indies. The best is the 
 black-wood or ebony of the Mauritius. The logs are of various sizes ; but those 
 about 6 inches in diameter, long, and straight, are preferred. They are to be chosen 
 free from bark and white wood, without cracks, not worm-eaten or decayed. This 
 wood is used for turning, inlaying, and other purposes. The black-wood of Van 
 Diemen's Land is the timber of the Acacia melanoxylon. S 
 
 BLANKETS, a soft loosely-woven woollen stuff, commonly used for bed cover- 
 ing, form a considerable branch of the British woollen manufacture. The best 
 are made from unmixed British wool. Localities of the manufacture, Dewsbury, 
 Witney, Dalverton, and Glamorganshire, and on a small scale at Hawick in 
 Scotland, and Kilkenny in Ireland. This trade has experienced a great in- 
 crease of late years. The quantity exported in 1820 amounted to 1,288,409 yards ; 
 but in 1839, it had risen to 3,148,846 yards: of which 1,951,743 yards were 
 sent to the United States, 364,351 yards to British America, and 339,968 yards to 
 Australia. S 
 
 BLEACHING POWDER. [Chloride of Lime.] 
 
 BLENDE, a native sulphuret of zinc. [Zinc] 
 
 BLOCKADE, in the law of nations, takes place when a fort, city, or other place 
 belonging to one of two belligerent powers, is watched by the troops or ships of 
 another, for the purpose of preventing the ingress or egress of people or effects, 
 and especially with the view of starving the garrison into submission. Commercial 
 questions arise principally from blockades to seaward, and they generally come 
 either in the form of cases before the admiralty courts, for the condemnation of 
 neutral vessels which have infringed the blockade, or in insurance questions 
 where a breach of warranty of neutrality is alleged. [Insurance.] The opera- 
 tions of France and England during the late war brought forward several very 
 serious questions about the effect of declarations of blockade. Between the Ber- 
 lin decrees on the one hand, and the Orders in Council on the other, two powers 
 declared Europe and America to be in a state of blockade as respects the one or 
 the other, and had the principles been carried to their full extent against all 
 breaches of these proclamations, the seas would have been converted into one 
 general arena of piracy and rapiue. It has been held, however, that to be acknow- 
 ledged in a law court/a blockade must be an actual and effectual one. " In the 
 very notion of a complete blockade," says Lord Stowell, " it is included, that the 
 besieging force can apply its power to every point in the blockaded state. If it 
 cannot, it is no blockade of that quarter where its power cannot be brought to 
 bear : and where such a partial blockade is undertaken, it must be presumed that 
 this is no more than what was foreseen by the blockading state, which nevertheless 
 thought proper to impose it to the extent to which it was practicable" (4 Robin- 
 son's Reports, 66, 67). The circumstance, however, that from the state of the wind, 
 or the warlike operations of the besieged, a neutral ship has been able to pass 
 the blockade, will not affect its legality ; indeed were it not that there are always 
 chances in favour of evasion, there would be few discussions as to the extent of 
 blockades. On the part of this country, a blockade is proclaimed by an Order in 
 Council. It is believed, that in distant regions, a commander of a ship of war has 
 power to extend such a blockade, but certainly not within the limits of Europe. 
 Neutral merchants cannot be bound to observe one of which their governments 
 have not received official notice. {Chilly's Law of Nations, 128-147. Marshall on 
 Insurance, 74, 75.) 
 
 BLONDE, a species of Lace. There are both black and white blondes, which 
 again are either real or in imitation. The best of the former are imported from 
 France, being extensively manufactured at Alencon in Normandy. 
 
 BLOOD-STONE is a species of calcedony coloured by chlorite, with numerous 
 bright red spots like drops of blood ; it is called also heliotrope and oriental jasper. 
 It is found in India, Siberia, Iceland, Isle of Rum, though the best comes from 
 India. It is in request by the Chinese as an ornament to their girdle-clasps. 
 
 BLUBBER is the fat substance (Adeps) found immediately under the skin, and 
 over the muscular layers of whales and other large sea animals, and of which train- 
 
BOA 90 BOL 
 
 oil is made. # In the whale, it invests the hody about six inches thick ; but near the 
 under lip it is found two or three feet thick. 
 
 BOARD, in carpentry, means timber sawed to a less thickness than nine inches ; 
 all above that thickness are called planks. 
 
 BOARD (Fr. Bureau), a term used to designate, in their collective capacity, 
 certain persons to whom is intrusted the management of some department, office, 
 or joint-stock association. Thus the lords of the treasury, the commissioners of 
 customs, and the persons chosen from among the proprietors to manage the opera- 
 tions of a bank, are, when met together for the transaction of the business of their 
 respective offices, styled the Board of Treasury, the Board of Customs, the Board 
 of Directors. See Board op Trade, s 
 
 BOAT, a small uncovered vessel, commonly moved by rowing. 
 
 The owner of every vessel shall paint, or cause to be painted, upon the outside of the stern of 
 every boat belonging to such vessel, the name of the vessel, and the port or place to which she 
 belongs, and the master's name withinside the transum, in white or yellow roman letters, not lest 
 than two inches in length, on a bloxk ground, on pain of the forfeiture of such boat not so marked, 
 wherever the same shall be found. And the owner of every boat not belonging to any vessel, shall 
 paint, or cause to be painted upon the stern of such boat, in white or yellow roman letters of two 
 inches in length, on a black ground, the name of the owner or owners of the boat, and the port 
 or place to which she belongs, on pain of forfeiture (3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 53, §§ 8, 10, 11, 12). 
 
 Every pilot-boat or vessel, or other boat or vessel in the service of any corporation or so- 
 ciety established by law in relation to pilotage, or of, or belonging to, any person authorized to act 
 as a pilot by such corporation or society, shall at all times, and on every station, be painted or 
 tarred entirely black, except the name or other description now required by law to be painted on 
 euch boat or vessel (3 & 4 Vict. c. 68, § 2). 
 
 BOBBIN, a kind of small cord made of linen or cotton. The common bobbins, 
 made of linen, are for progressive sizes known by the dealer as Nos. 5, 7, 9, 11, 
 13, 15. Scotch bobbins are made of cotton, of the same numbers, and designed to 
 imitate the preceding. They are purchased by the dozen, and are usually con- 
 tained in papers each of two dozens (Perkins on Haberdashery). 
 
 BOBBIN-NET, a kind of net-work made by machinery, and generally bearing 
 the characteristics of Lace. 
 
 BOISSEAU, a French corn-measure, equivalent to nearly one- third of an im- 
 perial bushel. 
 
 BOLE, an earthy mineral, formerly an article of the Materia Medica, but now 
 disused in Europe, except occasionally as a veterinary medicine. It is dull, of 
 various colours, and has a greasy feel. Localities, Armenia, Saxony, Tuscany, 
 Ireland, Skye. Armenian bole is still used in the East. 
 
 BOLIVIA, or UPPER PERU, a state of S. America, situated between lat. 
 9° 30' and 25° 40' S., and long. 58° and 71° W. ; boundaries, N. and N. W. 
 the States of North and South Peru, E. Brazil and Paraguay, S. La Plata States 
 and Chili, and W. the Pacific Ocean. Area, 318,000 square miles. Pop. about 
 1,000,000, more than three-fourths being Indians and mixed races. It is divided 
 into six departments, Chuquisaca, La Paz, Oruro, Potosi, Cochabamba, and Santa 
 Cruz, which again are subdivided into provinces. Capital, Chuquisaca or La Plata, 
 an inland city, pop. 18,000. The government is republican, the executive power being 
 vested in a president for life, with the privilege of naming his successor ; and the 
 legislative functions nominally in three bodies, a senate, tribunes, and censors. 
 
 The country presents very different conditions of surface, elevation, and climate. It is traversed 
 by the Andes, particularly towards the W., while on the E. it stretches out into plains, which 
 are watered by the Beni, Mamore, and other rivers which unite to form the Madeira, the largest 
 affluent of the Amazon, and the Pilcomayo, one of the chief branches of the Plata. This region 
 is fertile, but it is nearly covered with vast primeval forests. In the plains, the climate is hot 
 and unhealthy, except in the elevated valley of the Desaguadero, where it is temperate, especially 
 during the winter season, from May to November. Earthquakes are common on the coast. 
 
 The mineral productions are gold, principally found on the E. declivity of the E. Cordillera of 
 the Andes, and in the sands of the rivers which fall from that range ; silver from the mines of 
 Potosi, which, however, are now much less productive than formerly. In the year 1837, the 
 number of marcs of silver coined at the mint of Potosi was 243,538, value £414,015 sterling ; in 
 the same year, the number of marcs of gold coined was 1367, value £39,506 (Board of Trade 
 Tables, v. vii. p. 335). Besides the precious metals, copper is procured at Corucuero, and other 
 places; there are also lead, tin, salt, brimstone, and nitre. Of vegetable products, the chief is 
 timber ; the cocoa of Apollobamba and Moxas is celebrated ; the sugar cane and tropical fruits 
 flourish in profusion on the banks of the Beni ; and the E. of the Andes abounds in cascarilla, 
 indigo, cotton, rice, coffee, tobacco, canes, cinchona, copaiba, sarsaparilla, gum-elastic, vanilla, 
 and other valuable drugs and dye-woods. The manufactures principally consist of cottons and 
 glass made at Oropesa ; woollens at La Paz ; and hats at St Francisco de Atacama. 
 
 The commerce is inconsiderable, owing chiefly to the difficulties which have to be encounter- 
 ed in bringing the produce to market. The people have not yet learned to avail themselves of 
 the navigable affluents of the Amazon and La Plata, by means of which an intercourse might bo 
 opened with the ports on the E. coast of S. America ; and at present the trade with Europe takeg 
 
BOL 
 
 91 
 
 BOL 
 
 place wholly through the ports of the Pacific, which cannot be reached except by toilsome passage*. 
 The country to Cobija, the only Bolivian port, is traversed by only one road, that from Oruro, 
 and that is practicable only for mules and llamas. Cobija, though a free port, is therefore but 
 little frequented; the Bolivians preferring to obtain their foreign imports through Arica and 
 Tacna, ports of Lower Peru, notwithstanding a transit duty of 3 per cent, being there imposed 
 upon them. These imports chiefly consist of hardware and a few articles of finery. The exports, 
 from the causes already assigned, are nearly altogether confined to portable commodities, such 
 as the precious metals, woollens, and hats. 
 Measures and Weights same as in Spatv. I of 8 dwts., about 26 per cent, less than the 
 
 Money is reckoned in dollars, each divided into national standard ; and although the issue of this 
 8 rials. The Bolivian national or hard dollar, I small and base coin is nominally restricted to 
 when of full weight, is worth nearly 4s. 3d., being ' $200,000, this regulation is not always adhered 
 minted at the rate of 8$ from the Castilian marc to ; thus in 1835 its issue amounted to* $509,000 ; 
 (= 3550J troy grains), of silver, 65-72ds. fine, or in 1836 to $303,186 ; and in 1837 to $301,563. 
 of the standard of 10 dwts. and 20 grains pure, \ The Public Revenue was in 1832 $1,700,719; 
 out of 12 dwts. But since the year 1830, all the the expenditure in the same year is said to have 
 silver coins issued from the mint of Potosi, with been $1,586,026. 
 the exception of dollars, have been of the standard 
 
 The territory of Upper Peru was detached from the Spanish viceroyalty of Peru in 1778, and 
 annexed to that of Buenos Ayres. It was delivered from the Spanish yoke by the victory of 
 Ayacucho in 1824 ; and, in 1825, a congress assembled from the different provinces, declared it an 
 independent republic, under the name of Bolivia, in honour of General Bolivar, by whom the 
 country was liberated, and its constitution framed. [Peru.] S 
 
 BOLL, a measure for corn in Scotland prior to the introduction of the Imperial 
 system. It was divided into 4 firlots, 16 pecks, or 64 lippies or forpits ; and 16 
 bolls made 1 chalder. In each county, however, the barley -boll (used also for oats 
 and malt) differed commonly from the wheat-boll (used also for pease, beans, rye, 
 and salt). The Linlithgow or Scottish standard barley-boll = 0728140 imperial 
 quarter, and the Linlithgow wheat-boll = 0*499128 imperial quarter. 
 
 To convert Linlithgow wheat-bolls into imperial quarters, multiply the former by the fraction 
 0"499128; or, approximately, substitute for the wheat-boll, firlot, peck, and lippy, the imperial 
 half-quarter, bushel, peck, and half-gallon respectively; or, more nearly, multiply the number of 
 bolls by 2000, and divide the product by 4007. 
 
 To convert prices per Linlithgow wheat-boll into prices per imperial quarter, multiply the for- 
 mer by 2-003494; or, approximately, take the double of the prices per wheat-boll; or, more 
 nearly, add to the price per wheat-boll a halfpenny for every pound, and then double the result. 
 
 To convert Linlithgow barley-bolls into imperial quarters, multiply theformer by 0*728140 ; or, ap- 
 proximately (as 33 barley-bollsequal 24 imperial quarters nearly ) , deduct ^yths from the barley-boll. 
 
 To convert prices per Linlithgow barley-boll into prices per imperial quarter, multiply the for- 
 mer by 1-373363 ; or, approximately, add 4id. per shilling to the price per barley-boll ; or, more 
 nearly, add to the price per barley-boll its fourth part, together with the half of the fourth part. 
 
 On the other hand, to convert imperial quarters into Linlithgow wheat-bolls, multiply the for- 
 mer by 4007, and divide the product by 2000 ; and to reduce the price per imperial quarter to the 
 price per wheat-boll, take a halfpenny per pound from the former, and then halve the result. 
 
 To convert imperial quarters into Linlithgow barley-bolls, multiply the former by 1-373363 ; or, 
 approximately, multiply the imperial quarter by 11, and divide the product by 8 ; and to reduce 
 the price per imperial quarter to the price per barley-boll, multiply the former by 0728140 ; or, in- 
 crease the price per imperial quarter a farthing for every pound ; from the result take ^th part, 
 and then from the remainder take |th part. 
 
 The Linlithgow measures were in use only in the counties of Linlithgow, Edinburgh, Dumfries, 
 Haddington, Lanark, Peebles, Perth, and Wigtown. In the other counties the measures differed 
 generally, both from the Linlithgow, and from each other. The following Table shows the relative 
 proportion of these local measures to imperial, as fixed by the verdicts of juries in the different 
 counties, in terms of the act 5 Geo. IV. c. 74, § 18 : — 
 
 Table showing the number of Bushels, Pecks, and Gallons, Imperial Measure, 
 equivalent to one Boll of the Old Scottish local Measures. 
 
 Bar. Oats, ie. Wheat, k c. 
 
 Aberdeen 
 
 Argyll, Inverary 
 
 Achnabreck 
 
 Cantire 
 
 Ayr 
 
 Banff. 
 
 Berwick. 
 
 Bute 
 
 Caithness 
 
 Clackmannan 
 
 Dumbarton 
 
 Elgin and Morav 
 
 Fife ! 
 
 Forfar, Dundee 
 
 other places 
 
 Inverness 
 
 Kincardine, North part 
 
 P. PV. Galls.' 
 
 6 1 1-544 
 6 1 0-411 
 
 6 2 0-426 
 
 7 3 1-0141 
 7 3 0-045 
 
 6 1 0256 
 
 5 3 0-667 
 
 7 3 0759 
 
 6 1 0-566, 
 6 1-418| 
 6 1 1019 
 6 1-006 
 5 3 0-957 ; 
 
 5 3 1-353 
 
 6 0-1041 
 6 0-917 
 6 1 1544 
 
 B. Pk. Galls. 
 
 4 3 1-416 
 
 3 3 1-022 
 
 4 1 0-551 
 3 3 1111 
 3 3 1-379 
 
 3 3 1-943 
 
 4 1-691 
 4 0*188 
 4 0-320 
 4 1-072 
 4 0-484 
 3 3 1-944 
 
 Bar. Oats, tee. Wheat, &c. 
 
 Kincardine, South part 
 
 Kinross 
 
 Kirkcudbright 
 
 bet. Orr and Fleet. 
 
 West of Fleet 
 
 East of Orr. 
 
 Linlithgotc 
 
 »— 153X::::: 
 
 Renfrew 
 
 Ross and Cromarty . 
 
 Roxburgh 
 
 Teviotdale 
 
 Selkirk 
 
 Stirling 
 
 Sutherland 
 
 B. Pk. Galls. 
 
 6 0-104 
 5 3 0-565 
 
 10 2 1-311 
 
 11 2 1-067 
 9 2 1-556 
 
 5 3 0-601 
 
 6 1-097 
 
 7 2 1-371 
 6 1 0-445 
 
 5 3 1-735 
 
 6 0-442 
 
 7 2 0-552 
 7 1 1274 
 6 1-181 
 6 0-102 
 
 B. Pk. Galls 
 
 4 1-072 
 3 3 1-919 
 
 3 3 1-944 
 [•4 2 0-823 
 
 3 3 1944 
 
 3 3 1-699 
 6 0-442 
 5 1*508 
 
 4 3 0765 
 3 3 1-919 
 3 3 1944 
 
BOM 92 BON 
 
 The standard Scottish meal-boll contained 8 Dutch or Lanark stones, equal 139135 lbs. avoir- 
 dupois, but usually reckoned 140 lbs., in consequence of the Lanark stone being estimated at 
 174 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 In the flour measure at present in use a boll is reckoned equal to 140 lbs. avoirdupois : this 
 boll is divided into 10 stones or pecks, and 2 flour bolls equal 1 sack. [Bushel. Measures and 
 Weights.] 
 
 BOMBAY. [East Indies.] 
 
 BOMBAZINE, a twilled fabric, having its warp of silk, and its shoot or weft of 
 worsted. The worsted is thrown on the right side which has a twill upon it. It 
 was formerly made entirely for mourning garments, but it is now manufactured 
 of various colours. Bombazines are all woven with silk of the natural colour and 
 dyed afterwards. The pieces are generally sixty yards long ; the width is intended 
 for | yard, but seldom measures more than half a yard, oftener under than over. 
 They are almost wholly made at Norwich, where the manufacture was introduced 
 by Flemish artisans, who fled from the persecutions of the Duke of Alva. [Silk 
 Manufacture.] 
 
 BOND. A description of obligation which assumes a variety of forms, and is 
 connected with many of the contracts separately considered in this work. A 
 simple bond is an obligation to pay money, generally with interest, at a certain 
 time, or under certain circumstances. 
 
 In England, " a bond, or obligation," is defined as " a deed whereby the obligor 
 [or person bound] obliges himself, his heirs, executors, and administrators, to pay 
 a certain sum of money to another [the obligee] at a day appointed" (Black- 
 stone's Com. ii. 339). A bond must be under seal, and thus constitutes a higher 
 obligation than a simple contract. An obligation by bond extinguishes a simple 
 contract debt, but the bond of a surety will not extinguish the debt of the principal 
 (White v. Cyler, 6 T. R. 176). A bond being a chose in action [Chose in Action], 
 cannot be assigned so as to enable the assignee to pursue on it in his own name ; 
 but by modern practice the assignee sues in name of the obligee, a power to that 
 effect being inserted in the assignment. It is usual to grant bond to pay a certain 
 sum, provided a certain act is not performed ; or, more properly speaking, to grant 
 an obligation which shall be void if a particular act be performed. It is thus not 
 illegal by the usury laws to take a bond for a larger sum than the principal and 
 legal interest of a debt, if the debt be not paid by a day certain. " Where a penalty 
 is inserted merely to secure the enjoyment of a collateral object, the enjoyment of 
 the object is considered in equity as the principal intent of the deed, and the pen- 
 alty is only accessional, and only operates to secure the damage really incurred, 
 until the actual damage sustained shall be ascertained by an issue {.Bacon' 's Ab., 
 Obligations, A.). By 4 & 5 Anne, c. 16, §12, "where an action of debt is brought upon 
 any bond which hath a condition or defeasance to make void the same upon pay- 
 ment of a less sum at a day or place certain; if the obligor, his heirs, executors, or 
 administrators, have, before the action brought, paid to the obligee, his executors, 
 or administrators, the principal and interest due by the defeasance or condition of 
 such bond, though such payment was not strictly made according to the condition 
 or defeasance, yet it shall and may nevertheless be pleaded in bar of such action, 
 and shall be as effectual a bar thereof as if the money had been paid at the day and 
 place according to the condition or defeasance, and had been so pleaded ;" and by 
 § 13 of the same statute, if, during the dependence of an action on a bond with pen- 
 alty, the defendant tender in court the principal sum, with interest and costs, he shall 
 be discharged. Though the claim of the obligee is adjusted to a fair demand of prin- 
 
 msistmg 
 
 original agreement, the' performance of which is to relieve ttie obligor from the penalty 
 in the bond. A bond requires no particular form, provided it distinctly set forth 
 an obligation to pay money, and be sealed and delivered. By 13 & 14 Vict. c. 97, 
 " a bond in England, and a personal bond in Scotland, given as a security for any 
 definite and certain sum of money," is liable to an ad valorem stamp, commencing 
 \rith Is 3d, where the sum does not exceed £50. The same scale of duties applies 
 where the bond is " given as a security for the repayment of any sum or sums of 
 money to be thereafter lent, advanced, or paid, or which may become due upon 
 my account, together with any sum already advanced or due, or without, as the 
 case may be." For every £100 above £300, 2s 6d. One advantage of a bond is, 
 it binds not only the obligor but his heirs in specialty, so that the holder's claim 
 it binds not only the obligor but his heirs in specialty, so that the holder's claim 
 
BON 93 BOO 
 
 has precedence of those who are creditors hy simple contract, over the assets, real 
 and personal, of the deceased. By 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 104, however, which first 
 made real property assets for simple contract debts, the debtor must have ex- 
 pressly bound himself " and his heirs" to give a preference over the real estate. 
 A court of equity will order voluntary bonds, or other special contracts, without 
 consideration, to be postponed to genuine debts, though merely " simple contract" 
 debts (3 P. Wins. 222). By the statute of limitations, simple contract debts are 
 barred by the expiry of six years from the time of their origin. By 3 & 4 Wm. 
 IV. c. 42, § 3, action may be brought on a bond at any time within twenty years 
 from its falling due. Bonds, though granted simply for payment of money, if made 
 in furtherance of any illegal or immoral contract, may be barred by pleading the 
 nature of the transaction (Blackstone's Com. ii. 339-341. Bacon's Abridgment, Ob- 
 ligations). 
 
 In Scotland, the bond is of two kinds, moveable and heritable. The former 
 resembles the English bond, and is employed for an equally great variety of pur- 
 poses, — among others, for that of accomplishing cash-credits with banks [Cash- 
 Credit]. Sureties or cautionries, out of the course of mercantile transaction?, 
 and requiring much formality, are generally accomplished by bonds of cautionry. 
 In Scotland it is not the practice to seal deeds. A bond is executed for all prac- 
 tical purposes, and proves itself until reduced or disproved, if signed in presence 
 of two male witnesses, who sign with the obligants, and whose names and desig- 
 nations are recorded in the body of the deed, along with that of the writer, and 
 the day and place of executing. It is usual to insert a clause of registration, by 
 which the bond may be summarily enforced without the intervention of a court of 
 law [Registration, Clause of] ; but to admit of this recourse, the obligation must 
 be so precise and certain, that it may at once be enforced without farther inquiry, 
 and so nothing must be left to future ascertainment, though there is an exception in 
 the case of cash-credits, the sum for which execution proceeds in their case being 
 fixed by reference to an account extracted from the bank books. [Cash-Credit.] 
 Heritable bonds are bonds on real property, and bear some resemblance to mort- 
 gages in England. The simple heritable bond is now little used as a security for 
 money, but is generally united with the disposition in security, which being a 
 reversionary transfer of the property itself to the lender, affords greater facility for 
 procuring payment from the estate {Burton's Manual, 543-546). 
 BONDED GOODS. [Warehouse.] 
 
 BONES. The bones of animals have long been used in turnery and other arts. 
 In this country, however, their chief use is as a manure on light soils, particularly 
 for turnips ; and the facility of their carriage has permitted many distant and hilly 
 districts to be improved at a comparatively small cost. Little difference is ob- 
 served in the kind of bones used ; but those boiled or fermented are generally pre- 
 ferred. Their effect as a manure is said to depend on the phosphate of lime con- 
 tained in them, and in their power of absorbing and retaining moisture. Before 
 being used they are crushed into different sizes called drill bones, medium, and 
 dust ; for which purpose, mills have been erected in many parts of the country. 
 Bone manure was first introduced in 1800, but it was not extensively used until 
 within the last ten years. The increasing demand for this material has led to its 
 importation from foreign, and even distant countries ; of late, considerable diffi- 
 culty has been experienced in meeting the demand. The price in 1840 was, bone 
 dust medium 22s. to 23s., and drill about 21s. per imperial quarter. These high 
 prices have led to a system of adulteration which is very generally practised in 
 mixing this manure with saw-dust, slaked lime, and numerous other ingredients. S 
 BONUS (Lat.), good, a term commonly used to express an extra dividend 
 or allowance to the shareholders of a joint-stock company, out of its accumulated 
 profits. 
 
 BOOK, a name applicable in a general sense to almost every literary composi- 
 tion, but usually confined to such compositions as are large enough to form a 
 volume. Printed volumes are distinguished according to the number of leaves 
 produced from one sheet of paper. Folio is the largest size, of which 2 leaves or 4 
 pages make a sheet ; Quarto or 4to, 4 leaves or 8 pages ; Octavo or 8vo, 8 leaves or 
 16 pages ; Duodecimo or 12mo, 12 leaves or 24 pages ; Octodecimo or 18mo, 18 leaves 
 or 36 pages, and so on. These again differ according to the size and form of the 
 sheet. Thus there are royal, demy, post, and crown octavos ; and the same with 
 the others. 
 
 The modern book -trade dates from the discovery of the art of printing with 
 moveable types by John Gutenberg of Mayence, in 1441. In 1471, the art was 
 
BOO 94 BOO 
 
 brought to London by William Caxton, a mercer, and from that time until 
 1600, the activity of the press was considerable ; the works chiefly issued being 
 Bibles and works on divinity, translations of the classics, versions of French and 
 Italian romances, and old chronicles. Few, however, but " clerks and noble 
 gentlemen " could then use these works, as their expense and the imperfect state 
 of education placed them beyond the reach of the people in general. In 1505, 20 pence, 
 a sum then equal to a labourer's weekly wages, were paid for a " Primer " and a 
 " Psalter ;" and in 1516, " Fitzherbert's Abridgment," a folio law-book, was sold 
 for 40 shillings, a sum which at that time would have bought 3 oxen. The edition 
 of a book, during this period, averaged about 200 copies. The stormy period from 
 1600 to the revolution m 1688, was, although the age of Shakspeare, Bacon, and 
 Milton, upon the whole less favourable to the diffusion of knowledge ; and the 
 number of books issued, unconnected with religious or political controversy, was 
 very small. Only two editions, or about 1000 copies, of Shakspeare, were printed 
 betwixt 1623 and 1664. From 1666 to 1680, the works printed were, 947 divinity, 
 420 law, 153 physic, 397 schoolbooks, and 253 geography, including maps, or in 
 all, only 3550, of which, about one-half were single sermons and tracts, and a con- 
 siderable proportion reprints. The period from 1688 to the accession of George 
 III. in 1760, was much more celebrated. Newspapers were established on a regular 
 footing, both in London and the provinces : in 1731, appeared the " Gentleman's 
 Magazine," the first of that class of periodicals produced in England, and in 1749, 
 the first review, " The Monthly ;" and other similar works soon followed. Pub- 
 lishers attained higher influence in society, and the trade of books went much 
 more than formerly into regular commercial channels. The number of new ones 
 
 Erinted during this period was, however, not large, as the publishers appear to 
 ave aimed less at novelty than at selling large impressions of a few standard works. 
 Betwixt 1700 and 1756, excluding pamphlets and tracts, only 5280 new books 
 appeared ; or, on an average, 93 annually. The period from 1760 to 1800 is dis- 
 tinguished less for originality than for the increased diffusion of literature. Perio- 
 dical works were multiplied, and the principle of " number books " was then 
 first developed. Of the latter, one of the most successful was Smollett's History of 
 England, which sold to the extent of 20,000 copies. Towards the end of the century, 
 the average number of new books published annually was about 370, exclusive of 
 pamphlets. From 1800 to 1827, the average annual number of new books, exclu- 
 sive of pamphlets, was about 588; showing a very considerable increase relatively to 
 the preceding period. Notwithstanding this increase, little had been done for many 
 years in economizing the mode of conveying knowledge ; indeed, as compared with 
 the preceding centuries, the price of books had advanced, and the reading portion 
 of the middle classes had little or no opportunity of gratifying their taste, except 
 through the medium of circulating libraries, and reading clubs. A larger class of 
 readers, however, had now arisen, for whom a new species of literature was to be 
 provided. With the view of meetingthe wants of this class, " Constable's Miscellany " 
 appeared in 1827 ; soon afterwards, the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Know- 
 ledge was instituted, for the purpose of conveying sterling information in a cheap 
 form, and a number of enterprising publishers subsequently entered upon the same 
 field ; the attention of all being likewise directed to the issue of cheap editions of 
 the great writers. The success which in general attended these operations has 
 gradually revolutionized the book trade. The portly folios and quartos of former 
 times have given place to octavos and duodecimos ; and publishers now find it their 
 interest, in bringing out works even for the wealthiest, to place them at the same 
 time within reach of the generality of the middle class ; reimbursing themselves 
 for the lower price charged by the larger impression sold. This change has been 
 effected without producing, as many anticipated, any diminution of new works. 
 On the contrary, there has been a considerable increase ; and the truth of the ob- 
 servation. " that the more people read, the more they will read," has been confirmed. 
 The number of new works, excluding pamphlets and reprints, was, in 1828, 842 ; 
 in 1829, 1064 ; in 1830, 1142 ; in 1831, 1105 ; in 1832, 1152 ; in 1833, 1.180 ; in 1834, 
 1220 ; in 1835, 1382 ; and in 1836, 1332 ; the last embracing 1573 volumes. 
 
 The principal localities of the book trade are London, Edinburgh, Dublin, Ox- 
 ford, Cambridge, and Glasgow. Of these, by far the most extensive is London, 
 which may be regarded as the emporium of the whole kingdom, as the provincial 
 publishers have all agents there, to whom a large proportion of their works are 
 consigned as soon as printed. The capital is in particular distinguished for perio- 
 dical literature, which in point of extent is unparalleled in the world. According 
 to a late statement, the periodicals issued in December 1837 were as follows : — 
 
BOO 95 BOO 
 
 Weekly, religious, 6 ; literary criticism, 2 ; musical criticism, 1 ; medical, 4 ; scien- 
 tific, 2 ; advocacy of particular opinions, 2 ; miscellanies, 18 ; tales, 5 ; attempts 
 at fun,— mostly trash, 7 ; sporting slang, 1 ; total, 48 ; of which, 21 were published 
 at Id., 8 at Ud. ; 7 at 2d., and the rest at higher prices, varying up to 8d. Monthly, 
 including weeklies issued in parts, 236 ; whereof, general literature, 58 ; science, 
 48 ; religious, 46 ; histories of England, 4 ; works issuing in volumes, 17 ; fine 
 arts, 20 ; fashions, 6 ; the remainder chiefly children's periodicals. Quarterly, 34. 
 The aggregate circulation of the whole is unknown; but the number of periodicals 
 sold on the last day of each month (1837) was stated at 500,000, and their cost, 
 £25,000 ; and the number of parcels despatched in the same day by the London 
 booksellers to the country, 2000. The last would be much greater, were it not that 
 the majority of the Scotch and Irish provincial booksellers transmit their London 
 orders through the medium of their agents in Edinburgh and Dublin. 
 
 The declared value of printed books exported annually from the United King- 
 dom is nearly £150,000 ; of which about one-half is sent to India and the British 
 colonies, one-fifth to the United States, and the remainder chiefly to France, Ger- 
 many, Holland, and Italy. The amount of duty annually paid on foreign books 
 imported is about £8000. 
 
 The chief seats of the foreign book trade are Paris, and Leipzig in Saxony, 
 where all the German publishers have agents, and where the trade is likewise faci- 
 litated by two great book-fairs which are held annually, at Easter and Michael- 
 mas. These fairs are frequented not only by all the booksellers of Germany, but 
 by many of those of the neighbouring countries. 
 
 Books first composed, or written, or printed in the United Kingdom, and printed or reprinted 
 in anj- other country, are prohibited from being imported for sale, except books not reprinted in 
 the United Kingdom within twenty years, or being parts of collections, the greater parts of which 
 had been composed or written abroad (3 & 4 Win. IV., c. 50, § 58). 
 
 Books first composed, or written, or printed and published in the United Kingdom, and re- 
 printed in any other country or place, may not be entered to be warehoused (Ibid. § 59). 
 
 The importation for private use of English books reprinted abroad is limited to a single copy for 
 each party, accompanied by his luggage. {Treasury Order, June 29, 1830.) [Copyright.] S 
 
 BOOK-DEBT, an expression employed to designate an obligation for the price 
 of goods sold and delivered, when it is supported by no better evidence than the 
 books of the seller. An entry made by a tradesman himself is not evidence in his 
 own favour. If his shopman be examined as a witness, however, he may employ 
 the entry as a memorandum to refresh his memory. Entries by a clerk or shop- 
 man are not in all cases evidence, but they may be admitted in certain circum- 
 stances. By a rule not easily to be accounted for, after the person who made the 
 entry is dead, and when it is consequently difficult to get any explanation of the 
 circumstances connected with it, it is better evidence than if he were alive, and 
 capable of being examined on the subject. Mr Phillips, on this subject, says, " the 
 entry in the tradesman's book ought to have been made by the shopman ; or, if not 
 actually written by him, should at least appear to have been observed by him, soon 
 after it was made, so as to enable him to speak to its correctness, and that the 
 entry may be tantamount to one made by the shopman himself. If the shopman 
 is living, he ought to be produced as a witness, that he may explain the circum- 
 stances and dealings on which the entry was founded. When he is examined, he 
 may use the entry as a memorandum ; and the other party charged with the debt 
 will then have an opportunity of examining into its correctness. If the person who 
 made the entry was employed as shopman or clerk, to deliver goods, &c, and he 
 is since dead, an entry made by him will be evidence, under certain restrictions. 
 But proof of the handwriting of the clerk, and that he is gone abroad, and is not 
 likely to return, has been held not to be sufficient to make such an ex parte memo- 
 randum admissible in evidence" {Law of Evidence, 7th edit. 264). A merchant's 
 books will, in the general case, be very effectual evidence against himself. 
 
 In England, by statute 7 James I., c. 12, it is provided that no tradesman, or 
 handicraftsman, shall be allowed to give his books in evidence of goods delivered 
 or work done by him, after the expiration of a year from the date of the entry, 
 unless he have in the mean time obtained a bill or obligation for the debt, or have 
 brought his action within the year. The act does not apply to transactions be- 
 tween merchant and merchant. It proceeds on the preamble, that tradesmen were 
 in the practice of producing accounts against individuals and their representatives, 
 long after the transactions on which they were founded had been forgotten, and it 
 is understood to have been passed in reference to a general belief, that after the 
 expiry of a year, tradesmen s books became evidence, when they were not so before. 
 
 In Scotland, by statute 1579, c. 83, all book-debts, or accounts, by tradesmen and 
 
EOO 90 BOO 
 
 others, prescribe in three years. The period runs from the last entry in the ac- 
 count, so that if there be a new entry at any time within three years after an im- 
 mediately previous one, the whole account is saved from prescription till three 
 years after that entry. The prescription does not dissolve the obligation to pay — 
 it merely limits the proof to two descriptions of evidence— a writing by the debtor, 
 and an appeal to his oath. If, in the latter, the debtor admit the constitution of 
 the obligation, he will not be relieved unless he specifically swear to its payment. 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING is the art of recording financial facts in a lucid and sys- 
 tematic manner. The only method of book-keeping founded upon general princi- 
 ples is the Italian, or, as it is more commonly called, the Double-Entry system, from 
 its being based on the principle, that every transaction in business is virtually a 
 transfer between two accounts, and so must be entered to the debit of the one, and 
 the credit of the other. " Of the efficiency of this system, the trading world in its 
 infinite variety of commerce and concerns gives unanimous evidence. Into every 
 well regulated manufactory, — into every extensive mercantile establishment in 
 every part of the civilized world, — it has gradually, but peremptorily, forced its 
 way ; and in this country is finding its way into mercantile establishments of 
 humbler grades. The revenues of no government have been safely administered, — 
 the accounts of no government have been intelligibly kept, — the business of no go- 
 vernment has been promptly and satisfactorily despatched, — until the commercial 
 system has been introduced with its order and uniformity into the different depart- 
 ments " (Parliamentary Report on Excise Accounts, 1834). 
 
 In the present article it is proposed to give— I. An outline of the ordinary proce- 
 dure in recording the transactions of a general merchant ; — II. Practical directions 
 for stating the different accounts ;— and III. A' short account of a modified system 
 adopted for retail business ; premising the following general rules : — 
 
 Record nothing but facts. 
 
 Record facts under their date of occurrence. 
 
 Record them under their proper heads of account. 
 
 Facts of the same character are to be represented by addition ; facts of different 
 characters by opposition ; but the result of two different species of facts is never to 
 be represented by their difference. 
 
 I. Outline of the ordinary procedure in recording the transactions of a general 
 merchant. 
 
 The double-entry system, according to the practice of most commercial establish- 
 ments, comprehends three different kinds or classes of books : — \st, Primary Records, 
 or Day-books, for each distinct branch of business— as Cash, Bills, Invoices Inward, 
 Invoices Outward, Sales on Commission, and so on, according to the nature of the 
 trade, and in each of which the transactions are stated circumstantially as they 
 occur. 2d, The Journal, in which all the entries in the primary records are col- 
 lected and digested monthly in a concise technical form, suited for their being 
 readily transferred into the ledger. 3c?, The Ledger, in which the results shown in 
 the journal are arranged under their appropriate heads ; and the periodical ab- 
 stract of which, termed a Balance Sheet, exhibits in a succinct form the state of 
 the merchant's affairs. 
 
 PRIMARY RECORDS. 
 
 Cash Book. — This, though the most important of all, is in its form the most 
 simple. On the left-hand page, or Dr. side, are entered in chronological order all 
 the sums received ; and on the right-hand, or Cr. side, in the same order, all the 
 payments. As no money can be paid that has not been first received ; it follows 
 that the Dr. side of a cash-book can never amount to less than the Cr. side ; the 
 excess of the former above the latter, if any, must, when correctly kept, also cor- 
 respond with the money in hand. 
 
 Bill Books. — Bills are either receivable or payable ; the former being one of the 
 channels through which debts due to the concern are collected, the latter one of the 
 channels through which debts due by the concern are discharged. Each descrip- 
 tion has generally a book allotted to itself, both of which should contain spaces for 
 all particulars inherent and relative to the bill. 
 
 The Bills Receivable book should contain appropriate spaces for the following 
 particulars : No. — When received — On whose account— Cr. folio — From whom re- 
 ceived — Drawer — Drawee— To order of— Where payable — Date — Term — When 
 due — Sum — When and to whom paid away — Dr. folio. 
 
 The Bills Payable book should contain spaces under the following heads : No. — 
 When accepted— On whose account— Dr. folio— Holder— Drawer — To order of— 
 
BOO 97 BOO 
 
 Where payable — Date of Bill— Term— When due — Sum— When and to whom paid 
 -Cr. folio. 
 
 Both books, it will be observed, are furnished with columns for running num- 
 bers ; which numbers are also written on the face of each bill respectively, and 
 by this means it can be readily referred to and identified. 
 
 Invoice Book Inwards, or Bought Book, is a receptacle for bills of parcels, or 
 accounts of goods purchased. — In some houses these accounts are copied at length 
 in the order in wluch they are received ; while others form this book of blue, or 
 common blank paper, into which the original aecounts are pasted. 
 
 Invoice Book Outwards is appropriated for an account of goods sold on credit 
 at home, or exported abroad. This book being of great importance, should be kept 
 with the utmost precision, and carefully verified before the sums are transferred to 
 the journal and ledger. In extensive concerns, several books of tliis kind may be 
 kept at the same time, the titles of which can be varied according to the nature of 
 the business. Thus one may be appropriated for Town department, another for 
 Country department, and a third for Foreign department. 
 
 Sales Book, or Factory Book, is generally appropriated to accounts of con- 
 signments. Each account commonly occupies two pages, a title being placed over 
 both, stating the names of the goods, ship, and consigner. The left-hand page 
 contains an account of the charges incurred, including brokerage, and commission : 
 the right-hand page contains an account of the quantity, price, and amount of the 
 goods sold, with the buyer's name, and the time of payment. The difference be- 
 tween this amount, and the charges on the other side, is the net proceeds for which 
 the consigner receives credit. 
 
 Other books may be kept according to the nature of the business ; as a Deben- 
 tures Book, Insurance Book, &c. ; and the common practice, as already noticed, 
 is to set apart books for each distinct department of business. In some houses, 
 however, a Waste Book, or Petty Journal, is appropriated for such occasional trans- 
 actions as do not fall under any of the preceding heads. 
 
 These exhaust the authorities from which it is usual to compile the journal. 
 There are, however, a variety of other books, kept in every counting-house, which 
 do not commonly form part of the materials for the journal, such as the Ware- 
 house Book, Letter Book, Account-Current Book, Account-Sales Book, Petty 
 Cash Book, and Order Book. The Warehouse Book, kept in a similar way to th<» 
 Factory Book, contains accounts for each parcel of goods belonging to the mer- 
 chant's own stock, detailing the quantities received, their disposal, the charges 
 incurred, and the quantities on hand. The use of the others is sufficiently pointed 
 out by their names. 
 
 JOURNAL. 
 
 The journal, as already stated, is a monthly synopsis of all the transactions 
 collected from the primary records, and digested under their appropriate heads of 
 Debtor and Creditor. It usually contains, — 1st, A column for the day of the month ; 
 2d, A column for the folio of the ledger where each account is posted ; 3d, A space 
 for narrative ; and, 4th, Two money columns. The rules for distinguishing Dr. 
 and Cr. are to be inferred from the nature of the transactions and the accounts in 
 the ledger. In personal accounts nothing is plainer than who are Dr. and Cr. ; 
 in actual business this is not only understood but felt. The following are the most 
 general rules that can be given. 
 
 Whatever is Received, or the Receiver is Debtor. 
 
 Whatever is Delivered, or the Deliverer is Creditor. 
 
 The journal begins with the inventory of stock. Thus if the property of a mer • 
 chant consist of Cash, £300 ; Bill No. 57, on P. Hill, due April 3, £500 ; Goods, 
 £900 ; Debt due by Peter Gray, £200 ; Ship Minerva, £400 : and his obligations, 
 Bill No. 80, to P. Yates, due Jan. 6, £700 ; Debt due to Moses Ker, £600. The 
 journal entries will be in this form : — 
 Sundries Dr. to Stock. 
 
 Cash, £300 
 
 Bills Receivable— No. 57, P. Hill, due April 3, 500 
 
 Goods, 900 
 
 Peter Gray, 200 
 
 Ship Minerva, 400 
 
 £2300 
 
BOO 98 BOO 
 
 Stock Dr. to Sundries. 
 To Bills Payable— No. 80, P. Yates, due Jan. 6, £700 
 To Moses Ker % 600 
 
 £1300 
 
 The primary Records are journalized at the end of each month. 
 
 In journalizing the Cash Book, state 
 
 Cash Dr. to Sundries ... For all money received. 
 Sundries Drs. to Cash . . For all money paid. 
 
 Specifying particulars, and classing items of the same kind together. 
 
 In journalizing the Bill Books, 
 
 Bills Receivable Dr. to Sundries . For all bills received. 
 Sundries Drs. to Bills Payable . . For all bills accepted. 
 Setting forth names, numbers, and other necessary particulars. 
 
 In journalizing the Invoice Book Inwards, 
 Goods Account^ Dr. to A B (the seller) . For amount of goods purchased. 
 
 In journalizing the Invoice Book Outwards, 
 C D (the Person on whose account the invoice is sent) Dr. to Sundries. 
 To Goods .... For amount of goods. 
 
 To Charges .... For Shipping and other charges. 
 To Commission . . . For the Factor's Commission. 
 
 To Insurance . . . For Premium of Insurance. 
 
 The case here supposed is that of a consignment to order. When the transac- 
 tion is an Adventure Outward, or direct sale, no Commission is charged. 
 
 In journalizing the Sales Book or Factory Book, 
 
 Sundries Drs. to Sales on Commission. 
 
 E F (the Purchaser) . . . For Sales on Credit. 
 
 Cash .... For ready money Sales. 
 
 Sales on Commission, Dr. to Sundries. 
 To Charges .... For charges at landing, &c. 
 To Interest . . . For interest (if charged on advances). 
 
 To Commission . . . For the Factor's Commission. 
 
 To G H (the Consigner) . . For Net Proceeds. 
 
 The journal for the month is then closed by a similar arrangement of the transac- 
 tions contained in any other Record which the nature of the business may render 
 necessary. 
 
 LEDGER. 
 
 This book is divided into distinct accounts, corresponding to the different 
 branches of the business, into which are posted monthly the results brought out in 
 the journal. Each account is introduced by an appropriate title ; and articles of 
 opposite kinds which belong to the same account, are placed on opposite pages. 
 The left hand page is called the Debtor, or Dr. side of the account ; and the right 
 hand page the Creditor, or Cr. side. The difference between the sums of the Dr. 
 and Cr. sides is called tne Balance. 
 
 The accounts in the ledger may be divided into two great branches. The first 
 forms the accounts of the whole property or capital, technically called Stock, and 
 the second embraces the accounts of the component parts of property. Under the 
 general head of Stock Accounts are comprehended Profit and Loss account, and its 
 ramifications, Commission, Interest, and Charges ; the object of these accounts being 
 to collect together the individual augmentations and diminutions of capital, and to 
 transfer the results in one general entry to Stock; and also Private Account, its 
 use being to record all sums put into the business, or withdrawn, so as to keep them 
 distinct from Profit and Loss, and to transfer the result in the same manner in one 
 entry to Stock. The accounts of the component parts of property will depend upon 
 
BOO 
 
 99 
 
 BOO 
 
 Stock. 
 
 the nature of the husiness ; but in a general point of view, the whole may be con- 
 veniently arranged as follows : — 
 
 1. Whole Property. 
 
 Branches. Ramifications. 
 
 ( ( Commission. 
 
 Profit and Loss. < Interest. 
 ( Charges. 
 (, Private Account. 
 
 2. Component Parts of Property. 
 Accounts of Money, Real Property, <§r. viz. Cash, Bills Payable, 
 
 Bills Receivable, Goods, Ships, Houses, Public Stock, &c. 
 Personal Accounts, viz. Banker, Ordinary Debtors and Creditors. 
 As by the fundamental law of double entry, every debit must have a correspond- 
 ing and equivalent credit, and vice versa, it follows that the two sides of the ledger 
 must, if correctly posted, be constantly in a state of equilibrium : It follows like- 
 wise from the axiom that " the whole is equal to the sum of all its parts," that the 
 balance of the stock account must equal the aggregate balance of all the other 
 accounts. Hence arises the proof of double entry, which consists in abstracting the 
 balances of all the accounts in the ledger, and verifying their accuracy by ascer- 
 taining how far the above requisites have been fulfilled. This operation, called 
 balancing the books, is usually performed at the close of the year ; at which period, 
 likewise, the gain or loss during the year is indicated by the credit or debit balance 
 brought into Stock Account " from " Profit and Loss," after transferring to the latter 
 its branches, Commission, Interest, &c, and the differences betwixt the debit and credit 
 sides of the goods and property accounts, after crediting the balances of merchandise 
 aud property on hand at their market value. The whole debit and credit balances 
 being then arranged in opposition to each other^ will give a condensed view of the 
 merchant's assets and liabilities, and of his capital stock in the following form : — 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Balance Account. 
 
 Ct. 
 
 
 £56 
 
 463 
 
 3,500 
 
 1,000 
 
 800 
 
 400 
 
 900 
 
 2,881 
 
 Bills Pavable 
 
 £1,600 
 2,500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £4,000 
 6,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £10,(»00 
 
 £10,000 
 
 II. Practical Directions for stating the different Accounts, including Observa- 
 tions upon Joint Accounts. 
 
 Stock.— This is in truth the account of the merchant himself, or the concern ; 
 and in commencing a new set of books, is debited with all the liabilities, and cre- 
 dited with all the assets. Thus the sums given above under the head " Journal,'* 
 will be entered in the ledger in this form : — 
 
 Dr. 
 
 To Sundries 
 
 Stock. 
 £1300 | By Sundries 
 
 Cr. 
 
 £2300 
 
 The excess of the credit above the debit side, £1000, being the net capital or stock 
 in trade. If at next balance it shall be found that a profit of £300 has been realized, 
 while £200 has been withdrawn for private expenses, Stock will fall to be credited 
 " By ' Profit and Loss' £300," and debited "To * A B's Private account,' £200." 
 After which the balance at Cr. of ' Stock,' or A B's net capital, will be £1100. 
 
 Profit and Loss. — During the currency of the year, this account should be de- 
 bited solely for actual losses, and credited for actual gains ; leaving the balances 
 of Commission, Interest, Charges Account, &c. to be transferred at the time fixed 
 for balancing. Some houses amalgamate the whole of these accounts into one 
 general Profit and Loss account ; but this is objectionable, especially in large con- 
 cerns, where it is of importance to preserve all the channels of gain and loss as 
 distinct as possible. A Detter plan is to open a separate account for Profit, and 
 another for Loss. 
 
BOO J 00 BOO 
 
 The balance arising on Profit and Loss account is transferred " To Stock," or 
 " By Stock," according as the result is gain or loss. 
 
 Commission Account is credited for all commissions received for our trouble in 
 transacting business for others. There are seldom any entries to the debit, as the 
 charges for commission made by our agents properly belong to the Goods Account 
 to which they have reference. It is closed by transferring the balance to " Profit and 
 Loss." 
 
 Interest Account contains on the Dr. side all sums paid or incurred for interest 
 or discount ; and on the Cr. all sums received or become due for the same. The dif- 
 ference, at balancing, is transferred to " Profit and Loss." 
 
 Charges Account contains on the Dr. side all general expenses paid or incurred 
 in the business, as rents, taxes, salaries, postages, and incidents. If any of these 
 should be afterwards charged to some other account, the sums so charged are en- 
 tered to the Cr. The balance is transferred to " Profit and Loss." 
 
 In some houses, separate accounts are kept for Export Charges, Charges on 
 Sales, on Commission, &c, such accounts being dissected periodically, and credited 
 by the different parties, or Adventures, for which the charges were incurred. 
 
 Private Account contains on the Dr., money, or any thing else withdrawn from 
 the concern for private use. It seldom contains any thing on the Cr. side. The 
 balance is transferred to " Stock." Dr Hamilton and other writers carry private 
 or house expenses to " Profit and Loss ;" — but this is improper, as the true profits of 
 business may be £1000 a-year, while the expenditure being £1500, a false loss 
 would be exhibited. 
 
 Cash.— Some houses post the ledger directly from the Cash Book, without any 
 intermediate entry in the Journal beyond " Cash Dr. to Sundries" for the monthly 
 amount of receipts ; and " Sundries Dr. to Cash" for the monthly amount of pay- 
 ments ; but the more general method in large concerns is that described above un- 
 der the head " Journal." By both plans, the cash account in the Ledger is usually 
 comprised in twelve lines on each side yearly. 
 
 The mode of stating the cash details is simple. When goods are sold for ready 
 money, Dr. " Cash," Cr. " Goods," or account to which the goods belong. When 
 cash is received for goods formerly sold on credit, Dr. " Cash," Cr. the purchaser. 
 When goods are bought for ready money, Cr. " Cash," Dr. " Goods," or account to 
 which the goods belong. When cash is paid for goods purchased on credit, Cr. 
 " Cash," Dr. the seller. When money is received of one person for the use of another, 
 or for his own use, Dr. " Cash," Cr. the person for whose use it is received. When 
 money is paid to one person for the use of another, or for his own use, Dr. the per- 
 son for whose use it is paid, Cr. " Cash." When money is lent, Cr. " Cash," Dr. the 
 borrower. When money is borrowed, Dr. • Cash," Cr. the lender. When a bill is 
 paid. Cr. " Cash," Dr. " Bills Payable." When a bill is discounted, Dr. " Cash," and 
 Cr. * Bills Receivable" for the total amount of the bill ; and Cr. " Cash," and Dr. 
 " Interest," for the discount. 
 
 Bills Payable Account is credited with all bills accepted, and debited with 
 those paid ; the balance shows the amount of bills unpaid. 
 
 Bills Receivable This account is debited with all bills received, and credited 
 
 with those paid, discounted, or otherwise disposed of ; the balance shows the bills 
 remaining in hand. 
 
 In the Renewal of Bills, — 1st, If the bill be in your own hands, make A B (the 
 acceptor) Dr. to Sundries ; viz. To " Bills Receivable, " for the sum of the old bill ; To 
 " Interest," for interest for the time the bill is renewed added to the new bill ; and 
 then " Bills Receivable" Dr. to A B for the new bill. 2d, If the bill be discounted, 
 or paid away, make A B Dr. to " Cash" when you pay his bill,— and A B Dr. to " In- 
 terest " for interest : then " Bills Receivable" Dr. to A B for the new bill. If the 
 new bill, however, be drawn for the same sum as the former, and the interest paid 
 in cash, it is sufficient to enter " Cash" Dr. to " Interest" for the interest, without 
 bringing it to A B r s account. 
 
 In the Protesting of Bills,— 1st, If the bill be in your own hands, make A B (on 
 whose account it was received) Dr. to " Bills Receivable " for the bill, and A B Dr. 
 to " Cash" or " Charges." for expenses of protest ; 2d, If the bill be discounted or 
 paid away, A B Dr. to " Cash," paid his bill with expenses. 
 
 Accommodation Bills.— When you receive another person's acceptance, or grant 
 your own note and receive the proceeds, in either case merely for your own accom- 
 modation, enter " Bills Receivable" Dr. to " Bills Payable " for the bill (as you will 
 have to provide for it when it falls due) ; and when discounted, "Cash Dr. to 
 " Bills Receivable," and when paid, " Bills Payable" Dr. to " Cash." When you 
 
 
BOO 101 BOO 
 
 grant your bill to another, merely for his accommodation, it is sufficient to note 
 the particulars in a "Memorandum Book,"or " Register Bill Book," and take an 
 obligation from him that he is to provide for it when it becomes due. If he then be 
 unable to pay the bill, enter A B Dr. to " Cash." Where, however, accommoda- 
 tion bill transactions betwixt two parties are numerous, the best way is to open a 
 separate account for them. 
 
 Merchants whose bill transactions are numerous, keep a Register Bill Book, in 
 which all bills they receive, or become bound to pay, are entered in the order in 
 which they fall due, to enable them to regulate their payments without embar- 
 rassment. 
 
 Goods Account commences on the Dr. side, with the balance of goods on hand. 
 Goods bought are entered on the same side ; and goods sold on the Cr. Charges 
 laid out on goods are entered on the Dr. side, as also discounts allowed on goods 
 sold ; and on the Cr. side discounts received on goods purchased, as well as any 
 other incidental advantage which arises from them. On closing the account, Cr. 
 By " Balance " for value of goods on hand. If the Cr. side is then found to exceed 
 the Dr. the account is to be debited, To " Profit and Loss" for gain ; and, if the con- 
 trary, it is to be credited By " Profit and Loss " for loss. In some houses, separate 
 accounts are opened in the Ledger for each kind of goods ; but perhaps the more 
 general practice is to open only one general account, and leave the gain or loss 
 upon the different parcels to be ascertained from the Warehouse Book. 
 
 Accounts of Ships, Houses, &c. are debited with the cost and outlays, and 
 credited with freights, rents, and other receipts. The difference is transferred to 
 " Profit and Loss, after crediting them " By Balance " for their value at the time of 
 closing. 
 
 Personal Accounts are debited to Goods, Cash, Charges for Commission, and 
 for every thing we give out ; and credited for what we receive either in Goods, 
 Cash, or Charges, &c. Where the transactions with a party are numerous, and of 
 different kinds, several accounts may be opened ; thus with A B you may open his 
 " General Account," his " Accepting Account," his u Account of Consignments," 
 &c, the balance of all, or any of these, being transferred at certain periods to his 
 " Account Current." 
 
 Insurance Account is stated in various ways, according to circumstances. In 
 the books of a merchant, or person insured, it is debited to the Broker or Insurance 
 Company, for the amouut of premium and policy, and credited by the Adventure 
 or person for whose account it is effected ; the Broker being debited for Returns, 
 Averages, or Losses, to the accounts that were formerly charged with the pre- 
 miums. Where, however, the merchant acts as his own broker, it will be convenient 
 to open a separate set of Insurance books for the accounts of the different under- 
 writers, &c, and to reserve his general ledger for an Insurance Account, and an 
 account for himself as " Broker, both of which will be stated, as in the former case. 
 
 In the books of an Underwriter, " Insurance Account " is credited by the 
 broker or party insured for the premium, &c. ; and debited to the same accounts 
 for Returns, Averages, or Losses ; the difference being transferred at balancing to 
 " Profit and Loss." At balancing, care must be taken to transfer the premiums 
 on current risks to a " Suspense" or " Guarantee Account." 
 
 Debenture Account is debited To " Goods " for the drawbacks to be received 
 on goods exported from our own stock, and credited by ** Cash " when we receive 
 the same ; the balance shows the debentures outstanding. 
 
 Goods Received on Commission. — Separate accounts are sometimes opened in 
 the ledger for each consignment ; but as this is done in the Sales or Factory Book, 
 it is usual to confine the ledger accounts to two general ones, namely, " Sales on 
 Commission," and " Charges on Sales on Commission." The first is credited by 
 the accounts of the different purchasers for the gross sales ; and debited (after each 
 consignment is sold ) to " Charges on Sales on Commission " for the amount of 
 charges, to " Commission " for your commission, and to the consigner for the net 
 proceeds ; and the balance will consist of the gross proceeds of goods not yet 
 accounted for by you. " Charges on Goods on Commission " is debited to " Cash," 
 &c. for all charges, and credited as already stated : the balance will show the 
 amount of advances remaining to be accounted for to you. 
 
 Adventures.— In Adventures Outward, , two accounts are generally opened with 
 the foreign agent, " A B Account of Consignments " is debited with the cost of the 
 goods, Insurance, and Charges ; and credited by " A B Account-Current " for net 
 proceeds ; the difference being carried to Profit and Loss. The account-current is 
 credited by remittances. In Adventures Homeward, the foreign agent's account 
 
BOO 
 
 102 
 
 BOO 
 
 is credited by " Goods," or as the case may be, for the amount of invoice and 
 charges ; and debited with remittances. 
 
 Consignments by you to parties in this country are stated in the same manner as 
 in Adventures Outward. 
 
 Joint Adventures may be stated in various ways. If A and B ship goods con- 
 junctly to Bombay, to the value of £300 ; of which, £210 are from A, and £90 
 from B ; and the net proceeds realized by Z be £400 ; the accounts may be stated 
 in this form in A's books, supposing him to be manager, and the profits divisible 
 equally. 
 
 Dr. Adventure to Bombay in a with B. 
 
 To Goods . 
 ToB . . . 
 
 To Insurance 
 To Charges . 
 
 £210 
 
 . 90 
 
 . 12 
 
 . 10 
 
 322 
 To Profit and Loss 39 
 
 By B his i cost 
 
 By Z my i net! 
 
 proceeds . $ 
 
 Cr. 
 
 £161 
 
 200 
 
 Dr. 
 
 ToAdven.hisJcost£161 
 To Balance . . 129 
 
 B 
 
 By Adven. &c. 
 By Z his J net") 
 proceeds . J 
 
 Dr. 
 
 To Adven. &c. 
 
 ToB ... 
 
 £200 I By Balance 
 200 
 
 Cr. 
 
 £90 
 200 
 
 290 
 
 ~Cn 
 
 £400 
 
 The balance of £129 is paid to B, on the £400 being remitted by Z. The adven- 
 ture may also be stated by A as though it were his own entirely, giving credit to 
 B for his goods, and half the profit. 
 
 Branches. — Concerns which have branch establishments should open accounts 
 with each precisely as if they were strangers. 
 
 Foreign Money Accounts. — If an account with a foreigner is to be settled in 
 foreign money, we must enter the value of each article reduced to that money in 
 an inner column. If the sums of the inner columns be equal, there is nothing due 
 by the one party to the other ; and then, if the sums of the outer columns be 
 unequal, the difference is gain or loss. But if the inner columns be unequal, the 
 balance due from one party to the other must be valued at the current rate of 
 exchange ; and after the value is added to the proper side, the difference is gain 
 or loss. 
 
 Bad Debt Account is debited to " A B," &c. forbad debts incurred, and credited 
 by " Cash " for dividends, &c, and by " Profit and Loss " for the net loss sustained 
 at the period when the debtor is discharged, or the recovery of his debt has become 
 hopeless. 
 
 A preferable mode of disposing of bad debts is to open a " Guarantee Account," 
 and credit it at the period of balancing by " Profit and Loss " for the probable 
 amount of loss by bad or doubtful debts. In this case, the debtor's own accounts 
 are credited for dividends, &c, and afterwards by " Guarantee Account " for net 
 loss. At each succeeding period of balance, a new valuation of bad debts is to be 
 made, and an additional sum credited by " Profit and Loss," if found requisite. 
 
 Any other contingency may obviously be provided for in Guarantee Account on 
 the same principle. 
 
 Partnership Accounts may be kept in the general ledger in six different ways, 
 namely ; — three in which no entries are made until the partners advance their shares ; 
 and three in which entries are made previous to the shares being paid in : in the 
 latter an " Account Proper " being opened with each partner, for recording the 
 sums drawn out or paid in, distinct from the " Account in Company" for his share. 
 
 1. Cash, or the Article advanced Dr. to Stock, 
 
 —then 
 
 Stock Dr. to Sundries. 
 To each partner for his share, 
 
 2. Sundries Drs. to the Partner. 
 
 For the articles paid in. 
 
 3. Sundries Drs. to Stock in Company. 
 
 For the articles paid in, mentioning each 
 partner's share. 
 
 4. Stock Dr. to Sundries. 
 
 To each partner's Account in Company, 
 for his proposed capital, — then 
 Sundries Drs. to Stock. 
 Each partner's Account Proper for the 
 
 same. 
 Each partner's Account Proper Dr. to each 
 partner's Account in Company, for the 
 capital to be advanced. 
 Sundries Drs. to Stock in Company. 
 Each partner's Account Proper for the 
 proposed capital— and 
 
 when the partners pay in their respective shares, the entry by all the three last is 
 " Cash " or the Article advanced Dr. to partners' Account Proper. At balancing 
 the books, if the business has been successful, and the profit is to be divided, enter 
 " Profit and Loss" Dr. to each Partner's Account Proper, but if there has been a 
 loss, these entries are to be reversed. The balance of the Account Proper is then 
 usually transferred to the Account in Company when the latter is kept separate, 
 
BOO 
 
 103 
 
 BOO 
 
 and it is not fixed that the capital shall remain permanent. In all cases, interest 
 is to be charged on the partners' accounts, in order to equalize their advances. 
 
 A preferable mode, however, is to state the accounts in the General Ledger pre- 
 cisely as in the case of a single proprietor, and to adjust the partnership interests 
 in a private Partnership Ledger as follows : — 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Joint Capital. 
 
 Cr. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 A. Cr. 
 
 To Sundries 
 To Interest 
 To P. & L. 
 
 £900 
 
 37 
 
 300 
 
 By A, withdrawn £210 
 By B do. 105 
 By balance 922 
 
 To J« C. withdrn. £210 
 To Balance 615 
 
 By Joint C. £600 
 By Interest 25 
 By P. &L.§gain 200 
 
 
 £1237 
 
 
 
 
 £1237 
 
 
 £825 
 
 £825 
 
 Dr. 
 
 To Sundries 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Interest. 
 
 £37 1 By Joint C. 
 
 Profit and Loss. 
 
 Cr. 
 
 £37' 
 
 Cr. 1 
 
 Dr. B. Cr. 
 
 To Jt C. withdr*. £105 By Joint C £300 
 
 To Balance 307 By Interest 12 
 
 By P. & L. i gain 100 
 
 To Sundries 
 
 £300 
 
 By Joint C. 
 
 £300 
 
 
 £412 
 
 £412 
 
 Joint Capital is debited at the outset to each of the partners for his capital ; at 
 balancing it is debited to " Interest " for the interest arising on the capital ; to " Profit 
 and Loss" for gain ; and credited by each of the partners' accounts for the sums 
 withdrawn. It is thus just the Stock Account of the General Ledger reversed. 
 
 Interest is credited by " Joint Capital" for the interest arising on it ; and debited 
 to the partners for their respective shares. 
 
 Pro/it and Loss is credited by " Joint Capital" for net gain ; and debited to the 
 partners' accounts for their respective shares. 
 
 Partners' Accounts are credited by " Joint Capital," " Interest," and " Profit and 
 Loss," for their respective shares of capital, interest, and gain, and debited to 
 " Joint Capital" for the sums withdrawn. 
 
 III. Outline of a Modified System adapted for Retail Business. 
 
 It is a common prejudice that the retailer, from the minuteness of his sales, is 
 unable to keep his accounts on the same systematic principles as the merchant. 
 The difficulty, however, applies solely to the quantities of goods, and in no respect 
 to the money accounts which, in all businesses, are composed of expenditure and 
 returns, receipts and payments. These particulars the retailer can ascertain as 
 easily as the merchant, and therefore he may with equal facility systematize his 
 accounts. In the simple form given below, the only books employed are a Cash 
 Book, a Day Book, and a Ledger into which the two former are posted directly 
 without the intervention of a Journal. 
 
 The Cash Book differs from ordinary books of this kind in having an inner 
 column on each side titled " Store." In the inner column on the Dr. side are entered 
 the cash drawn for ready-money sales and discounts received ; and in the credit 
 inner column, ready-money purchases, discounts allowed or paid, and all charges of 
 a general nature. The amount of each of the inner columns is transferred monthly 
 to the outer, and then posted to " Store Account" in the Ledger. 
 
 In the annexed form the ready-money sales are entered weekly, but in practice 
 they should be entered daily unless a petty cash book is kept for that purpose ; in 
 which case they may be transferred when convenient. 
 
 The Day Book forms a chronological record of all the other transactions : the 
 purchases on credit are extended into the column titled " Store Dr. ;" the sales on 
 credit to that titled " Store Cr.," and any other transactions which may occur are 
 expressed in the journal form, and entered in an inner column. The two outer 
 columns are summed monthly, and their amounts posted to " Store Account," as 
 before. 
 
 The Ledger is extremely simple, and will be readily understood on inspection. 
 The Store account combines a goods and charges account ; and at closing, the value 
 of the goods on hand, as ascertained by inventory, is stated to the credit as a ba- 
 lance, and the excess of the credit above the debit side, being the profit realized, is 
 transferred to Stock account. 
 
 The period embraced by the transactions is one month, but the procedure is the 
 
BOO 
 
 104 
 
 BOO 
 
 same throughout the year. The operation of balancing is here for illustration per- 
 formed at the end of the month, when the closing stock entries are stated in the 
 journal form at the end of the Day Book. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 CASH BOOK 
 
 
 Cr. 
 
 Feb. 1. 
 
 To Stock - - - £ 
 
 Store. 
 
 500 
 
 Feb. 1. 
 
 By Bank, lodged - £ 
 
 Store. 
 
 285 
 
 .. 7- 
 
 To Store, cash sales - 
 
 15 
 
 
 .. 3. 
 
 By Store, 200 lbs. tea, at 4s. 
 
 40 
 
 
 .. 8. 
 
 To Store.disc'. from J. Smith 
 
 10 
 
 
 .. a 
 
 By J. Smith, paid him - 
 
 
 200 
 
 .. 14. 
 
 To Store, cash sales 
 
 16 
 
 
 .. 13. 
 
 By A B, family expenses 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 To J. Bell in full 
 
 
 12 
 
 .. 14. 
 
 By Store, discount to J. Bell 
 
 1 
 
 
 .. 21. 
 
 To Store, cash sales 
 
 12 
 
 
 .. 25. 
 
 By Store, disct. on P.B's bill 
 
 1 
 
 
 .. 25. 
 
 To Bills Receivable, dis- 
 
 
 
 .. 28. 
 
 By Store, incidents, &c. - 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 counted P. Brown's, due 
 
 
 
 
 By A B, family expenses 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 June 18 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 h4 
 
 .. 28. 
 
 To Store, cash sales - 
 
 14 
 
 67 
 
 
 By Balance 
 
 ay 
 
 
 
 639 
 
 
 
 639 
 
 
 DAY BOOK. 
 
 
 Store. 
 Dr. 
 
 200 
 250 
 
 Store. 
 Cr. 
 
 Feb. 2. 
 .. 5. 
 .. 10. 
 .. 15. 
 
 .. 20. 
 
 To John Smith, for 1000 lbs. tea, at 4s. 
 
 By J. Bell, 48 lbs. tea, at 5s. 
 
 To J. Smith, 100 cwt. sugar, at 50s. - 
 
 By J. Bell, 20 cwt. sugar, at 60s. .... 
 
 Bills Receivable, Dr. to J. Bell 
 
 Received his bill at 4 months, due June 18 - 
 
 - £ 
 
 - £60 
 
 12 
 
 60 
 
 .. 28. 
 
 By J. Bell for 4 lbs. tea, at 5s. 
 
 40 lbs. sugar, at 6d. - 
 
 - £ l 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 Store Account, Dr. for purchases on credit this month 
 Store Account, Cr. for sales on credit this month 
 
 Stock Dr. to A B Private Account, balance of latter transferred 
 
 - £H 
 
 450 
 
 74 
 
 
 
 
 
 Store Account Dr. to Stock, gain on former transferred 
 
 £21 
 
 
 
 Dr. 
 
 LEDGER. 
 
 Cr. 
 
 
 
 - Stock. - 
 
 
 Feb. 28. 
 
 To A B for cash withdrawn 
 
 To Balance - 
 
 - £11 
 
 510 
 
 Feb. 1. By Cash for capital - £500 
 . . 28. By Store for gain 21 
 
 
 
 £521 
 
 £521 
 
 
 
 , . 
 
 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 - Store. - 
 
 Cr. 
 
 Feb. 28. 
 
 To Cash 
 
 To Sundries, per Day B. 
 
 To Stock for gain 
 
 - £54 
 
 - 450 
 
 21 
 
 Feb. 28. By Cash for sales, &c. - £67 
 . . . . By Sundries, sales per Day B. 74 
 . . . . By Balance, goods on hand 384 
 
 
 
 £525 
 
 £525 
 
 Dr. 
 
 
 - Bank. - 
 
 Cr. 
 
 Feb. 1. 
 
 To Cash lodged 
 
 - £285 
 
 Feb. 28. By Balance - - £285 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Feb. 20. 
 
 
 
 To J. Bell, due June 18 
 
 - £60 
 
 Feb. 25. By Cash, disca. J. Bell's bill £60 
 
 Dr 
 
 
 
 Feb. 13. 
 .. 28. 
 
 To Cash, family expenses 
 To ditto 
 
 - £5 
 6 
 
 Feb. 28. By Stock transferred - £11 
 
BOR 
 
 105 
 
 DOT 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Feb. 8. 
 .. 28. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Feb. 5. 
 
 .. 15. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 John Smith. 
 
 Cr. 
 
 To Cash, discount £10 
 To Balance 
 
 £200 Feb. 2. By Store, 1000 lbs. tea, at 4s...£20O 
 250 . . 10. By Store, 100 cwt. sug., at 50s. 250 
 
 J. Bell. 
 
 To Store, 48 lbs. tea, at 5s. 
 To Store, 20 cwt. sugar, at 60s. 
 To Store, tea and sugar 
 
 Cr. 
 
 £12 
 
 £12 Feb. 14. Bv Cash, discount £1 - 
 60 . . 20. By Bills Recw% due June 11 (ji) 
 2 . . 28. By Balance - - 2 
 
 £74 
 
 Balance. (A B's Estate, Feb. 28.) 
 
 To Cash on hand 
 
 To Store, goods on hand 
 
 To Bank 
 
 To J. Bell, due by him 
 
 £89 
 384 
 
 2 
 
 £760 
 
 By J. Smith, due to him 
 By Stock 
 
 £74 
 
 Cr. 
 
 £250 
 510 
 
 £760 
 
 If the concern is a partnership, the accounts may be kept precisely as above, and 
 the interests of the partners adjusted in a private ledger, according to the form 
 given in last section. In this ledger should also be engrossed the Inventory and 
 Valuation of Stock, and the Balance Account. 
 
 BORACIC ACID is obtained artificially by the action of sulphuric acid upon 
 borax ; and in a natural state in the hot springs of Sasso, near Florence, and in 
 the Lipari islands. It occurs in small brilliant colourless crystals, which have a 
 greasy feel : it is inodorous, and possesses little taste. This acid is used in the ma- 
 nufacture of borax, as well as in chemical investigations. About 6000 cwts. are 
 annually imported into this country. 
 
 BORAX, a salt procured in an impure state, called tincal, or rough borax, from 
 a lake in Thibet, about fifteen days' journey from Teeshoo Lomboo, from whence 
 nearly the whole European market is supplied by way of Calcutta. Tincal, as im- 
 ported, is embedded in a kind of soapy matter ; its crystals are soft and brittle, 
 colourless^yellowish or greenish, sometimes nearly transparent, but more commonly 
 opaque. When purified, it is called borax, or borate of soda, and occurs in rather 
 large white semitransparent crystals, having a sweetish alkaline taste. When 
 heated, it becomes a porous friable mass, called calcined borax. Borax is also pre- 
 pared artificially in England and France from its ingredients, boracic acid and soda. 
 This salt is employed in medicine, but is chiefly used as a flux in the arts. About 
 1500 cwts. are annually brought to this country, nearly one-half of which is again 
 re-exported. 
 
 BOTARGA, a substance similar to caviare, prepared on the coasts of the Medi- 
 terranean, from the spawn of a kind of mullet. It is very firm, of a deep reddish 
 colour, and has two lobes about nine inches long. The best is made at Tunis. 
 
 BOTTLES (Du. Bottels. Fr. Bouteilles. Ger. Bouteillen. It. Bottiglie \ Fiaschi. 
 Por. Botelhas. Rus. Bululki. Sp. Botellas.) [Glass.] 
 
 BOTTOMRY is a contract by which money is borrowed on the joint security of 
 a ship and its owners, repayable on the ship terminating her voyage successfully. 
 It corresponds with Respondentia, which is a similar method of raising money 
 on the cargo. [Respondentia.] It may be executed either by bill on the part of 
 the borrower, or by a mutual bond, provided the conditions be clearly expressed. 
 At home, the contract is entered into by the owners, or by the master as their agent. 
 The master has full authority in a foreign country to bind the owners, and hypo- 
 thecate the ship and freight by a bottomry-bond, in cases of necessity. " If it be 
 made," says Mr Smith, " by the owners themselves in this country, before the com- 
 mencement of the voyage, the lender has not the same convenient remedy by suit 
 in the Admiralty against the ship, as he has in the case of hypothecation for neces- 
 saries by the master in a foreign port, and if the contract refer to a British ship, of 
 which it purports to be an assignment, compliance with the provisions of the Re- 
 gistry Act seems necessary to its validity (Mercantile L. 348). In Scotland, 
 according to Professor Bell, " to make the debt effectual, the proceedings are in 
 Admiralty [now the Court of Session] by an application for the sale of the ship, and 
 payment of the bottomry debt, or a warrant against those who owe freight.'* The 
 bond may be granted not only for money lent, but for repairs executed. The holder 
 of the bond may take any amount of interest without being liable to the usury laws, 
 a privilege of less consequence than it formerly was. [Usury.] But this privilege 
 
BOU 106 BOU 
 
 continues with the sea risk— when that ceases, the interest, which continues to run, 
 is restricted to the ordinary rate. Where the master hypothecates the ship for 
 interest exceeding 5 per cent., the lender has a personal claim against the master, 
 but none against the owner. Where there are several bonds of Bottomry, and the 
 value of the ship is insufficient to meet them all, the last, if absolutely necessary, 
 is preferred, as having had the chief tendency to the preservation of the vessel. 
 (Abbott, 117-131. Marshall on Insurance, 742-769. Smith's Mercantile L. 346-351. 
 Bell's Cam. i. 530-536.) 
 
 BOUGHT-AND-SOLD NOTE. [Broker]. 
 
 BOUNTY, a premium given by a government for the encouragement of a par- 
 ticular branch of industry. The granting of bounties formed, until lately, a promi- 
 nent feature of the commercial policy of this country. A graduated allowance per 
 yard was paid on all linen exported, in order to encourage the home manufacturer, 
 and enable him to meet foreign competition ; four shillings were granted on each 
 barrel of cured gutted herrings ; and £1 per ton on every vessel fitted out for the 
 whale-fishery, in order to promote the fisheries and the rearing of seamen. En- 
 couragements were given to other trades on similar principles ; and in 1824 the total 
 sum paid under this head amounted to £536,228. The impolicy of bounties had by 
 this time, however, been rendered evident by the writings of Smith and Ricardo. 
 It was now acknowledged that individual interest is of itself sufficient to prompt 
 men to engage in all trades of a really advantageous nature ; — that the production 
 and exchange of commodities fall into the most profitable channels when left to 
 themselves ; and that as often as they are diverted from those channels by external 
 interpositions of any sort, so often the industry of the country is made to employ 
 itself less advantageously, and those engaged in it rendered comparatively indiffer- 
 ent to improvements. The principle of bounties was accordingly abandoned by 
 government. The tonnage duty paid on whale ships ceased in 1824 ; and the 
 ounties on herrings, linen, and other articles were repealed in 1830. 
 
 ' ' We cannot give our workmen a monopoly in the foreign as we have done in the home market. 
 We cannot force foreigners to buy their goods as we have done our own countrymen. The next 
 
 best expedient it has been thought therefore is to pay them for buying Bounties, it is 
 
 allowed, ought to be given to those branches of trade only which cannot be carried on without 
 them. But every branch of trade in which the merchant can sell his goods for a price which re- 
 places to him, with the ordinary profits of stock, the whole capital employed in preparing and 
 
 sending them to market, can be carried on without a bounty Those trades only require 
 
 bounties in which the merchant is obliged to sell his goods for a price which does not replace to him 
 his capital, together with the ordinary profit ; or in which he is obliged to sell them for less than it 
 really costs him to send them to market. The bounty is given in order to make up this loss, and 
 to encourage him to continue or perhaps to begin a trade of which the expense is supposed to be 
 greater than the returns, of which every operation eats up a portion of the capital employed in it, 
 and which is of such a nature that if all other trades resembled it there would soon be no capital left 
 in the country. The trades which are carried on by means of bounties are the only ones which can 
 be carried on between two nations for any considerable time together, in such a manner as that 
 one of them shall always and regularly lose, or sell its goods for less than it really costs to bring 
 them to market. But if the bounty did not repay to the merchant what he would otherwise lose 
 upon the price of his goods, his own interest would soon oblige him to employ his stock in another 
 way, or to find out a trade in which the price of the goods would replace to him, with the ordinary 
 profit, the capital employed in sending them to market. The effect of bounties, like that of all the 
 other expedients of the mercantile system, can only be to force the trade of a country into a chan- 
 nel much less advantageous than that in which it would naturally run of its own accord." {Wealth 
 of Nations, book iv. chap, v.) 
 
 BOURBON, an island in the Indian Ocean subject to France. It lies about 90 
 miles S.W. from Mauritius, and is 440 miles E. from Madagascar. Area 895 
 British square miles. Population in 1836, 106,099, of which 69,296 were negro 
 slaves. The chief town and port is St Denis, situated on its northern side, in 20° 50' 
 S., and 55° 31' E.; pop. 12,000. It possesses no close harbour, but only an open 
 and dangerous roadstead. 
 
 The island consists of the heights and slopes of two mountains, the most southerly of which con- 
 tains a volcano in perpetual activity. A great part of the interior is a volcanic desert ; but the dis- 
 tricts on the coast are generally fertile. The climate though humid, is pleasant and salubrious ; 
 hurricanes are, however, frequent and violent. The staple product for exportation is sugar ; there 
 are also extensive plantations of coffee and cloves. The forests abound in a variety of fine timber 
 and dye-woods ; and ambergris, coral, and turtle, are found on the shores. The total value of 
 articles exported in 1836, of the growth and produce of the island, was 16,743,899 fr. (or £669,756); 
 the principal being raw sugar, 18,173,092 kilogrammes, value 12,721,164 fr. ; coffee, 990,013 kilo- 
 grammes, value 1 ,386,018 fr. ; cloves, 556,650 kilogrammes, value 1 ,403,575 fr. In the same year the 
 total value of the imports was 13,769,541 fr. (or £550,782), consisting chiefly of cottons and other 
 manufactured goods, with rice, wheat, oils, wine, cattle, timber, and salt. The principal com- 
 mercial intercourse is with France, where the bulk of the produce of the island is exchanged for 
 manufactured articles, — Madagascar, to which French manufactures are sent in exchange for 
 cattle, &c, — India, to which cloves and other articles are sent in return for rice, — and the neigh- 
 bouring island of Mauritius. 
 
BOX 107 BRA 
 
 Measures, Weights, and Money, same as France. 
 
 Revenue in 1837, 2,149,563 fr., or £85,982; expenses, 2,932,428 fr., or £117,297. S 
 
 BOX (Fr. Buis), a small tree {Buxus sempervirens), now very scarce in this 
 country, but common in the south of Europe and west of Asia. Its wood, which is 
 unique and highly valuable, is close, hard, heavy and durable, of a yellowish colour, 
 cuts better than any other, and is the only kind adapted for engraving. It 
 is also used for the wooden part of fine tools, snuff-boxes, and for a variety of pur- 
 poses requiring strength, beauty, and polish, in timber. A late reduction of the 
 duty from £5 to 10s. per ton (6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 60), has led to a greatly increased con- 
 sumption of boxwood, and about 700 tons are now annually imported, chiefly from 
 Turkey and Spain. 
 
 BRACCIO, an Italian cloth measure, varying in different places from about 21 
 to 26 imperial inches. 
 
 BRAN, the husks of ground corn. 
 
 BRANDY (Fr. Eau de vie de vin. Ger. Branteicein. It. Aquarzente. Por. 
 Agnardente. Sp. Aguardiente), a spirit distilled from wine, and from the marc, 
 or fermented residue of pressed grapes. In general it is obtained from wine of 
 inferior quality, fit only for making brandy. The product of the distillation is at 
 first colourless, but it obtains a certain degree of colour by age. Most commonly, 
 however, it is coloured artificially by mixture with burnt sugar and saunders-wood. 
 The quality is of course dependent both on the material from which it is procured, 
 and the skill with which it is manufactured. Marc brandy is said to possess a 
 more acrid flavour than that obtained from wine. 
 
 Brandy is manufactured in most wine countries, but the best, and almost the only 
 kind imported into Britain, is made in France. The quantity annually prepared in 
 that country is estimated, though somewhat vaguely, at about 20,000,000 galls., 
 of which nearly one-third is exported. The finest, made at Cognac, in the de- 
 partment of Charente, is said to be procured from white wine fermented so 
 as not to become impregnated with the oil of the grape skin. The Cognac 
 brandy is shipped mostly from the port of Tonnay on the Charente ; but brandy 
 forms likewise a valuable export from Cette, Bordeaux, Rochelle, and Nantes. 
 Besides the British, the Anglo-Americans and Dutch take considerable quantities 
 of it ; but the exports to other countries are comparatively trifling. That exported 
 from Spain is shipped chiefly at Barcelona for Cuba, Mexico, and the South Ame- 
 rican States. 
 
 The extravagant duty of 22s. 6d. per gallon levied on foreign spirits has mate- 
 rially checked the use of brandy in this country ; indeed the quantity at present 
 entered for home consumption is much less than it was fifty years ago. In 1790, 
 when the duty was 6s. the annual consumption was about 1,700,000 gallons 
 (Imp. meas.). At present, although it has somewhat increased of late years, it 
 averages only about 1,400,000 gallons annually. A considerable quantity, however, 
 is besides introduced in an irregular manner, as a contraband trade is carried on 
 with activity along the coast of the Channel. 
 
 In 1838, the quantity of brandy imported amounted to 2,398,135 Imp. galls, (including over- 
 proof), of which 2,300,122 galls, were from France ; the quantity entered for home consumption 
 was 1,203,435 galls.: and the quantity re-exported to 1,010,851 galls, (proof). Of the latter, 
 there were sent to British America, 281,6o9 galls. ; British West Indies, 215,531 galls.; Cape 
 of Good Hope, 89,383 galls. ; United States, 57.514 galls. ; East Indies, 105,173 galls. ; and Aus- 
 tralia, 122,104 galls. ; besides smaller quantities to the West Coast of Africa, to the South 
 American States, especially Chili and Peru, to the Canaries, and to other places. The quantity 
 under bond in this country is usually about 1,300,000 galls. ; and that in the stocks of dealers 
 about 500,000 galls. [Spirits.] S 
 
 BRANK. [Buck-Wheat.] 
 
 BRASS, an important alloy of copper and zinc, usually prepared by cementa- 
 tion of calamine, a native carbonate or zinc, with granulated copper. Sometimes 
 blende, a native sulphuret, is employed instead of calamine. It is of a fine yellow 
 
 colour, susceptible of a high polish, and is little liable to rust. It is very mal- 
 leable, and ductile when cold : at a high temperature it is brittle. Sp. gr. 7"8 to 8'4. 
 It is more fusible, sonorous, a worse conductor of heat, and harder than copper. 
 The relative proportions of the two metals vary in the different kinds of brass; but 
 there is seldom less than one-ninth, or more than one-fourth of zinc. Brass has 
 been known and used from the earliest ages. Its colour and other properties re- 
 commend it in preference to copper for many purposes in the arts, and it is exten- 
 sively employed both for useful and ornamental purposes. From being readily 
 turned on a lathe, it is well adapted for philosophical instruments, and those used 
 in manufacturing processes. It is besides used in the manufacture of a great 
 variety of articles, such as buttons, chandeliers, lamps, vases, fenders, fire-screens, 
 
BRA 108 BRA 
 
 and lock and door handles. When drawn into fine wire, it is extensively employed 
 in pinmaking, and for other purposes. It is also beaten into thin leaves, which, 
 under the name of Dutch leaf or Dutch gold, are used in making trinkets (Brande's 
 Chemistry, $c). The great seat of the brass manufacture is Birmingham. 
 
 ** The use of this valuable compound metal has continually increased during the last hundred 
 years, and the talent of the designer has been tasked in the invention of new forms, and in the 
 adaptation of classical models to the purposes of modern domestic comfort and ornament. The 
 introduction of the stamp especially, which was first applied to the multiplication of copies of 
 smaller wares, as buttons, buckles, and cloak pins, and which was at length adapted by increasing 
 its power, to the production of large forms, has caused the greatest change in this branch of ma- 
 nufacture. The process of casting, though preferable for many articles, is tedious ; the forms 
 require considerable repairing and finishing after they leave the sand, and the metal is necessarily 
 bo thick as to be for many purposes inconveniently heavy ; but the stamp brings up the work on 
 the die on light rolled sheet metal, so that the most intricate and involved patterns are executed 
 with the greatest precision ; and by the ingenious application of separate parts, the work of the 
 carver and gilder in large decorated pieces of scroll and foliage is successfully imitated." I Pen. Cy- 
 clopaedia, art. Birmingham.) 
 
 BRASSAGE, charges for mint expenses. 
 
 BRAZIL, an extensive empire lying in S. America, between lat. 4° N. and 33° 
 S. ; and between long. 35° and 73° W. It is bounded N. by Venezuela, French 
 Guiana, and the Atlantic ; S. and S. E. by the Atlantic ; S. W. and W. by Uru- 
 guay, Paraguay, Argentine Republic, Peru, Ecuador, and New Grenada. Area 
 about 3,000,000 square miles. Population vaguely estimated at 5,000,000 ; of which 
 1,000,000 whites, of Portuguese origin ; 2,800,000 negro slaves ; 300,000 Indians ; 
 and 900,000 free blacks and mixed races. It is divided into 18 provinces, namely, 
 Para, Rio Negro, Maranham, Piauhi, Ceara, Rio Grande del Norte, Parahiba, 
 Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, Bahia, Espirito Santo, Rio Janeiro, San Paulo, 
 Minas Geraes, Goyaz, Matto Grosso, Fernando. Capital, Rio Janeiro. The go- 
 vernment is a constitutional monarchy ; the executive is vested in the monarch or 
 emperor; the legislative body consists of a senate chosen by the emperor, and a 
 chamber of deputies elected by the people. 
 
 The physical character of Brazil is as yet but imperfectly known, but so far as ascertained, 
 it appears to be a country of vast natural capabilities. A ridge of mountains runs parallel 
 with and at no great distance from the coast, from 10° to 32° S. lat. In the W. the land again 
 rises to the height of from 3000 to 6000 feet, spreading out into those sandy plains called Campos 
 Parexis, which occupy the centre of S. America. Nearly one-half of the surface is composed of 
 uplands. The lowlands extend principally along the sides of the river Amazon, with smaller por- 
 tions on the shores, and on the S.W. border. In a country equal in extent to nearly 4-5ths of 
 Europe, the productions must be very much diversified ; but the greater part of it is covered by 
 vast forests, considerable portions of which have been only partially explored. The mineral pro- 
 ductions, so far as known, are chiefly gold, diamonds, iron, and salt. The province of Minas 
 Geraes is the richest in gold and diamonds ; and what is called the " Diamond District " extends 
 about 50 miles from N. to S., and 25 miles from E. to W. around the sources of the Rio Francisco, 
 and the Rio Parana, and adjoining Tejuco, about 400 miles N. from Rio de Janeiro, where nearly 
 2000 persons are employed by government in collecting the stones. Gold abounds chiefly in this 
 province, in the affluents of the Rio Francisco, but it is found likewise in all the head waters of 
 the great rivers which flow northward into the Amazon. About the middle of last century, the 
 annual produce was about 35,000 marcs ; but, owing to the exhaustion of the auriferous sand from 
 which it was washed, the amount decreased, and betwixt 1800 and 1820, averaged only about 
 9000 marcs annually. Of late, however, British capital has been applied with some success to 
 work the veins in the mountains, particularly at Congo Soco, near Sahara, about 280 miles N. 
 from Rio, and the produce is again doubtless more considerable. The forests abound with great 
 varieties of wood well adapted for dyeing, for cabinet-work, and for shipbuilding. A considerable 
 portion, however, of the country S. of 20° S. lat. especially in the province of Rio Grande, con- 
 sists of extensive pastures, on which innumerable herds of cattle roam, mostly in a wild state. 
 
 The propensity of the Brazilians to seek for gold and diamonds has produced a general disrelish 
 for sober industry. The comparatively small portion only of this fine country which is cultivated, 
 consists chiefly of tracts extending from 30 to 40 miles around the seaports. The attention of the 
 more intelligent Brazilians has of late been directed to the improvement of agriculture ; but it is 
 still generally in a rude state, particularly in the coffee and sugar estates, the produce of which, 
 though raised under the highest advantages as to soil and climate, is in quality much inferior to 
 that of the "West Indies. The northern provinces produce cotton, sugar, rice," tobacco, tapioca, 
 isinglass, caoutchouc, indigo, and a variety of drugs and dye-woods; the middle provinces, 
 coffee, sugar, tobacco, rosewood, rice, &c. ; while in the southern province of Rio Grande, the 
 hides and horns of the wild cattle form the chief source of wealth. A small quantity of wheat 
 was formerly raised in Rio Grande, but the late revolt of this province from the imperial govern- 
 ment has paralyzed all kinds of industry ; in point of soil and climate, hovrever, it is so well 
 adapted for the productions of the temperate zone that it might not only supply all the rest of 
 the empire with provisions, but have a considerable surplus for exportation to foreign countries. 
 The Mandioca plant is common nearly all over the empire ; the root ground into meal, forming a 
 general article of food, while the plant itself produces tapioca, which is largely exported. Indian 
 corn, millet, and beans are also generally cultivated. Cotton is raised chiefly from lat. 15° S. to the 
 equator ; the best is that of Pernambuco ; next, that of Maranham ; that of Bahia and Para is 
 inferior. Sugar is cultivated chiefly in the province of Bahia, but to a great extent likewise in 
 the provinces of Rio de Janeiro and Pernambuco. Coffee forms the chief object of culture in 
 
BRA 109 BRA 
 
 the province of Rio de Janeiro, where the quantity raised is very great, and is yearly increasing. 
 It is likewise raised, but to a comparatively trifling extent, in the northern provinces ; also 
 in some of the inland ones, particularly Minas Geraes. The cultivation of tobacco, formerly so 
 extensive, is now on the decline ; the best is grown near Bahia. Rice is raised principally in the 
 island of Santa Catharina, and in the provinces of Maranham and Para. 
 
 The internal commerce of Brazil chiefly consists in conveying the produce of the country' to 
 the seaports, and receiving European manufactures in exchange. Mules form the common means 
 of transport, as the roads seldom admit of the use of carriages, and as yet there is no inland na- 
 vigation. A number of large rivers intersect the country in various directions ; but very little is 
 known regarding their capabilities. A company, under English direction, has however been re- 
 cently formed at Rio de Janeiro for the survey and navigation of the Rio-doce. 
 
 The foreign commerce of Brazil exceeds that of any other country of America except the 
 United States, and is yearly increasing. The exports chiefly consist of coffee, sugar, cotton, and 
 hides, besides tallow, horns, brazilwood, rosewood, fustic, tobacco, rice, indigo, ipecacuanha, 
 sarsaparilla, castor-oil, castor-beans, tapioca, caoutchouc, nuts, gold and diamonds. The trade 
 in brazilwood is a government monopoly, but the commodity is extensively smuggled. The chief 
 markets for Brazil produce are, the United States, and in Europe, London, Liverpool, Ham- 
 burg, Antwerp, Trieste, Havre. Lisbon, and Oporto. In 1838, the principal articles carried to 
 Britain consisted of 10.373,713 lbs. coffee ; 201,780 lbs. cocoa; 24,464,505 lbs. cotton ; 86,515 cwts. 
 sugar ; 28,463 cwts. bides ; 132 tons fustic ; and 10,469 lbs. tobacco. A considerable portion of the 
 goods shipped to the other European markets is on English account, more particularly coffee and 
 sugar, as these two articles cannot (owing to prohibitory duties) be introduced into the United 
 Kingdom except for re-exportation ; such cargoes, however, are frequently sold in London by 
 sample ; the vessels waiting their ultimate destination in the Channel. 
 
 The imports consist of manufactured commodities of all kinds, tea, wine, oil, and provisions. 
 The declared value of British manufactures and produce imported in 1827, according to the 
 accounts of the British Board of Trade, was £2,312,109 ; in 1836, £3,030,532 ; in 1838, £2,606,604 : 
 the last was chiefly composed of apparel, fcc. £11,576; arms and ammunition, £37,214 ; ale and 
 beer, £7009 ; books, £1295 ; brassand copper manufactures, £25,595 ; butter and cheese, £106,221 ; 
 coals, £4193; cordage, £3963; cotton manufactures, £1,657,702; earthenware, £35,275; glass, 
 £19,393; hardwares and cutlery, £51,570; hats, £9862; iron and steel, £50,527; lead and 
 shot, £20,043; leather, wrought and unwrought, £8164; saddlery, £2243 ; linen manufactures, 
 £167,545; machinerv, £13,857; painters' colours, £8238; plate, £1717 5 silks, £12,869; soap 
 and candles, £58,769"; stationery, £10,960; tinwares, £2090; woollen manufactures, £228,932; 
 other articles, £58,857- A variety of articles of foreign and colonial produce are also imported 
 from the United Kingdom : in 1838, the principal were 2528 lbs. cassia ; 29,107 cwts. flour; 00,707 
 pieces India cottons ; 1 1 , 164 pieces India silks ; 4612 lbs. pepper and pimento ; 536 lbs. quicksilver ; 
 1637 lbs. rhubarb ; 4050 galls, brandy ; 3906 galls, geneva ; 3824 lbs. tea ; 165,334 lbs. tobacco ; and 
 5683 galls, wine, chiefly Spanish and Portuguese; besides which a considerable portion of the 
 imports from other countries are on English account : From France are imported wines, cottons, 
 woollens, silks, saddlery, glassware, flour, books, stationery, jewellery, perfumery, and fancy 
 articles: From Portugal, wine, oil, snuff, and a small quantity of linens: From the United 
 States, about two-thirds of the flour, and nearly all the tea consumed in the country ; also ordinary 
 cottons, wax and sperm candles, India goods, and a variety of rough articles of furniture, imple- 
 ments of husbandry, &c. : From the Hanse Towns, furniture, coffee bagging, linens, paper, glass, 
 provisions, &c. : From Belgium, cutlery, arms, copper and brass manufactures, &c. : From Spain, 
 wine, oil, fruit, & c. : From Italy, macaroni, vermicelli, marble, &c. : From Holland, demyjohns, 
 gin, cheese, &c. : From Sicily, wine: From Sweden, iron, tar, pitch, pine, boards, &c. : From 
 Africa, negroes continue to be brought in immense numbers, notwithstanding the utmost vigilance 
 of the British cruizers ; these are paid for chiefly in coarse muskets and gunpowder, imported 
 expressly for this infamous traffic from England and Belgium ; and in the common cotton fabrics 
 well known in the British manufacturing districts under the name of ' ' coast goods." The ship- 
 ping craft employed in the slave-trade is imported from the United States. 
 
 The total amount of exports is estimated at about £6,000,000, and the imports at nearly the 
 same. Upwards of two-thirds of the whole foreign trade is in the hands of the British. The ports 
 at which it is chiefly conducted, stated in their order from N. to S., are Para, Maranham, Pa- 
 rr- iba, Pernambuco, Maceio, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, Santos, and Rio Grande : the principal of 
 tlie>e are the following : — 
 
 Maranham in 2° 31' S. and 44° 19/ "W., lies on the island of that name, forming the S. E. side of the 
 bay of Marcos ; pop. 30,000. The harbour is good and safe, but the entrance is difficult. Exports, 
 chieflv cotton, sent for the most part to Liverpool, and rice and hides shipped to Portugal. The value 
 of the imports in 1835 was £489,014 ; whereof in 23 British vessels £259,924 ; 35 Brazilian, £83,975; 
 18 Portuguese. £50,924; 19 Spanish, £23,193 ; 8 French, £27,547; 23 American, £32,194; and 3 
 Belgian, £11,257. In 1838, the value of the exports was £303,552; and of the imports, £414,002. 
 Pernambuco, in 8° 3' S. and 34- 52' W., the capital of the province of that name, and one of the most 
 flourishing ports of Brazil, comprises three distinct towns.which are built on sandbanks surrounded 
 by the sea, and connected by bridges ; pop. including the adjoining city of Olinda, nearly 
 100,000. Exports, cotton, sugar, and hides ; the estimated value in 1835 being £951,808. The 
 number of vessels that entered in the same year was 247 ; of which 59 were British ; the value 
 of the British cargoes being in merchandise, £464,179 ; and in specie by packets, £35,821 ; total, 
 
 faoo.ooa 
 
 Bahia is situated in 13° 1' S. and 38° 32' TV. in the capacious bav of All Saints, with an excellent 
 harbour ; pop. 130,000. The anchorage is abreast of the city, a mile and a half distant, in 8 to 12 
 fathoms. Bahia was formerly the capital of Brazil, and though now subordinate to Rio, is still a 
 place of great consideration. It is strongly fortified, and possesses both public and private ship- 
 building yards. Exports, sugar, cotton, coffee, hides, tobacco, fancv woods, and drugs. The 
 imports in 1835 amounted to £1,412,521, of which £942,956 were from Britain. 
 
 Rio de Ja?ieiro (formerly St Sebastian), in 22° 55' S., and 43° 9' W., is beautifully situated on 
 the western side of a small bay, forming one of the most magnificent natural harbours in the world ; 
 pop. about 200,000, two-thirds being blacks and mixed castes. The city lies about 4 miles from 
 
BRA 110 BRA 
 
 the entrance to the bay. To the right on entering is the fort of Santa Cruz, within hail of which 
 all vessels going into the harbour are required to pass, in order to answer any questions that 
 may be put to them. Rio is the seat of more than one-half of the foreign commerce of Brazil ; 
 and it has likewise a very extensive inland trade, particularly with the provinces of Minas Geraes, 
 Goyaz, and Matto Grosso. It is the key to the mining districts, — furnishing all their supplies and 
 receiving all their produce for shipment or other disposal. Exports, coffee, nearly 600,000 bags 
 (each of 5 arrobas or 160 lbs.) ; sugar, about 20,000 cases (each from 1200 to 2000 lbs.) ; hides, No. 
 300,000; cotton, tallow, drugs, dyes, gold, and diamonds ; the imports, of manufactured commo- 
 dities of all kinds, flour, dried fish, wine, and brandy. The value of foreign goods imported into 
 ltio in 1836, according to a statement given in the Jornal do Commercio, was £3,839,379 ; of 
 which from Britain, £2,005,543; France, £581,571; Portugal and her possessions, £281,885; 
 United States, £225,353; Hanseatic States, £239,384; Uruguay, £96,857; Belgium, £73,789; 
 Spain, £61,270; Sardinia, £56,223; Argentine Republic, £44,284; Holland and her colonies, 
 £37,046; Sicily, £33,219; Sweden, £31,589; Chili, £26,135; Austria, £14,067; Sundries, 
 £31,164. These imports are exclusive of negroes, of whom vast numbers continue to be brought 
 from Africa to this port or the neighbouring coast. 
 
 MEASURES, WEIGHTS, MONEY, FINANCES, &C. 
 
 The Measures and Weights are nominally those I No silver or gold coins are at present in circu- 
 of Portugal ; but there are some variations. In Iation. Before the introduction of paper money, 
 trade, the following proportions are usually ob- ' the principal silver coin was the 960 rea piece, a 
 served : 5 varas = 6 Imp. yds. ; 4 covados = 3 Spanish dollar restamped, worth 4s. 2d. : the 
 Imp. yds. ; 99 Brazilian lbs. = 100 lbs. avoirdu- j principal gold coin was the piece for 4 $000, 
 pois. At Rio Janeiro, 100 medidas = 73J wine, j worth 20s. l£d. 
 
 or 61^ Imp. galls. ; and 12 alqueires = 13i Win- Bills are usually drawn on London at 60 days' 
 Chester bushels. At Bahia, 1 Canada = 1| Imp. sight. 
 
 galls. ; and 7 alqueires = 6 Winchester bushels. | Finances. — The public revenue for the year 
 At Maranham, the alqueire = 1$ Winchester 1 1838-39 was estimated at $13,663,289, or about 
 bushel. ! £2,732,658 ; and the expenditure for the same 
 
 Money.— The integer of account is the rea, and i year (including $5,877,985 for the finance depart- 
 1000 reas make 1 milrea (1 $000), the value of Iment) at $13,622,696. The internal debt of the 
 which fluctuates, being reckoned in depreciated ! empire is estimated at about £5,000,000. The 
 government paper, or in a debased and irregular I Brazilian loans raised in England consist of 
 copper money. The course of exchange with j £1,686,200 contracted for in 1824 at 75 per cent. ; 
 London was recently quoted at Rio Janeiro, | £2,000,000 contracted for in 1825 at 85 percent.; 
 
 where the paper money chiefly circulates, at only 
 31 d. per milrea. At the northern ports of Per- 
 nambuco, Maranham, and Para, the currency 
 is principally copper. 
 
 A conto is 1000 $000. 
 
 The paper money is in the form of imperial 
 bank or rather treasury notes for one milrea and 
 upwards, which are inconvertible ; and the cop- 
 per mostly in pieces of 40, 20, and 10 reas. The 
 amount in circulation was lately stated to be I 
 
 and £800,000 contracted for in 1 829. These were 
 raised by the issue of bonds for £100, £200, 
 £500, and £1000 ; the whole bearing 5 percent, 
 interest, payable half-yearly on the 1st April and 
 1st October. 
 
 Duties.— The duty on all imports was fixed by 
 treaty at 15 per cent, on the tariff value ; but 
 now, in consequence of the alteration of certain 
 charges, it is estimated at 20 per cent. The 
 duties on exports vary at the different ports. The 
 
 about 33,500 contos of paper, and 6500 contos I treaty with Britain by which the import-duty 
 of copper money ; in all 40,000,000 $000. Va- 1 was fixed continues in force until November 10, 
 rious projects have been brought forward for the j 1842, and further until notice given by one or 
 reform of the Brazilian currency, but none has | other of the parties, in which case it expires at 
 yet received the sanction of the government. the end of 2 years from the date of such notice. 
 
 Brazil is said to have been discovered a. d. 1500 by Pincon, a Spanish navigator, one of the 
 companions of Columbus ; but it was taken possession of in the same year by Pedro Alvarez de 
 Cabral, an admiral of Emanuel, king of Portugal, by which country it was soon afterwards colonized. 
 In 1808, in consequence of the invasion of Portugal by the French, the royal family removed 
 to Brazil, and remained there till 1821. In 1822, Don Pedro, the crown prince of Portugal, who 
 had been left by his father Regent of Brazil, was proclaimed emperor by the inhabitants ; and in 
 1823 a constitution was adopted. In 1831, an insurrection broke out, which led to the abdication 
 of Pedro I. in favour of his infant son. [Portugal.] S 
 
 BRAZILETTO. a kind of brazilwood (Casalpinia Brasilien-ns) of very inferior 
 quality which grows in the West Indies. It is imported from the Bahamas and 
 Jamaica. 
 
 BRAZIL-NUTS, the seeds of Bertholletia excelsa, a remarkable plant, of which 
 there are large forests on the banks of the Orinoco. About thirty of these nuts 
 are contained in cells within a hard spherical fruit nearly the size of a man's head. 
 They are wrinkled triangular substances, having pure white kernels or almonds, 
 which form a delicious fruit when fresh, and also yield a large quantity of oil suited 
 for lamps. They are exported to Europe from Para and French Guiana. 
 
 BRAZILWOOD (Fr. Bois de Bresil. Ger. Brasilienholz. Por. Pao Brasil. 
 Sp. Madera del Bresil), a valuable dye-wood, the product of a tree (Ccesalpinia 
 echinata) which grows in various tropical countries, but is found in greatest abund- 
 ance, and of the best quality, in the province of Pernambuco in Brazil, where it is 
 known as pao de Rainha, or Queen's-wood, from being the subject of a royal 
 monopoly. The tree commonly grows in dry places and amid rocks, and seldom 
 exceeds thirty feet in height. The only valuable part is the heart, which, after 
 being freed from the thick bark and white pith, is only about one-half of the 
 
J3RE 111 BRE 
 
 bulk of the trunk. Brazilwood is ponderous and hard ; and when first cut is of 
 a pale red, but becomes darker by exposure to air. It is variegated with irre- 
 gular black spots, has a sweetish taste when chewed, and gives out its colour 
 with water, a property by which it is distinguished from saunders-red or sandal. 
 The thick and close-grained pieces are preferred. The wood is susceptible of a 
 good polish, and is occasionally used by the turner and cabinetmaker, but it is 
 chiefly employed as a red dye. It is often used for giving to silk a crimson hue, 
 in the manufacture of red ink, and in the preparation of a brilliantly red lake. 
 Price in bond from £50 to £85 per ton. 
 
 BREAD is in this country made almost wholly from wheaten flour. It may be 
 divided into biscuit bread and loaf bread. Biscuit bread is made solely from flour 
 and water without undergoing any fermentation ; and after being kneaded, flat- 
 tened out, and baked, is compact, heavy, and hard. Loaf bread is made by work- 
 ing the flour into paste with water, yeast, and a little salt, allowing it to stand 
 until a certain degree of fermentation takes place, and then baking it in an oven 
 heated to about 488° Fahr. During the fermentation, a quantity of gas is formed, 
 and as it is prevented from escaping by the toughness of the paste, and dilated by 
 the heat of the oven, the bread is rendered light, porous, and soft. Many bakers 
 add potatoes to the flour. This admixture neither injures the quality nor the 
 wholesomeness of the bread; but adulterations which are not so innocent are some- 
 times had recourse to, for the purpose of concealing the taste of damaged flour, or 
 to make the bread white when formed of inferior flour. The use of alum is liable 
 to this objection, as being positively injurious to health ; it is employed to lighten 
 the dough. (See Dr Colquhoun on the Art of Baking Bread, Annals of Philo- 
 sophy, vol. 28. Donovan's Domestic Economy.) 
 
 The quantity of bread produced by the same weight of flour depends in some 
 measure upon the properties of the corn. A Winchester bushel of wheat of fair 
 quality, weighing (JO lbs., is usually calculated to yield 48 lbs. of household flour, 
 which is the sort chiefly used for the manufacture of bread throughout England. 
 When the assize of bread was fixed by the Lord Mayor of London, a sack of flour 
 (280 lbs.) was calculated as sufficient to make 84 quartern loaves of 4 lbs. 5 oz. 
 each. The bakers, however, admit that if the flour be of good marketable quality, 
 it will make 86 such loaves, or 370 lbs. 14 oz. of bread, equal to 92^ loaves of the 
 present weight of 4 lbs. each. 
 
 Statutory Regulations. — In England (beyond the London district), and in Scotland, the 
 baking of bread is regulated by the statute 6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 37, the chief enactments of which 
 are as follows : — Bakers must sell bread by weight (except French or fancy bread or rolls), under 
 a penalty not exceeding 40s. ; and must use avoirdupois weight, under a penalty not less than £2 
 or more than £5 (§§4, 5). Bakers must keep scales in their places of sale, in order to weigh 
 the bread when required, under penalties (§§ 6, 7). The regulations apply to bread made of 
 flour, or meal, of wheat, barley, rye, oats, buck-wheat, Indian corn, pease, beans, rice, or pota- 
 toes, and with any common salt, pure water, eggs, milk, barm, leaven, potato or other yeast, 
 and with no other ingredient (§ 2). There are heavy penalties for adulteration (§§ 8, 9). 
 
 The baking of bread in London is regulated by the acts 1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 50, and 3 Geo. IV. c. 
 106; and in Ireland by the act 1 Vict. c. 28. These acts contain regulations similar to the 
 above. 
 
 In former times, the peasantry of these kingdoms used only bread made of rye, oats, or barley- 
 meal, and that of wheat was exclusively devoted to the higher classes ; indeed, so prevalent was 
 the employment of inferior substitutes "for this " staff of life," that in the description of a farmer's 
 establishment as depicted in the " Vision of Piers Ploughman," supposed to have been written in 
 the fourteenth century, we find 
 
 " A few croddes and creyme, and a cake of otes, 
 And bred for my bames of beanes and of peses," 
 
 in common use by persons of that class. In later times, the increase of the comforts of life gra- 
 dually introduced wheaten bread into more general consumption ; and now all other grain has nearly 
 disappeared in the formation of our household loaf ; though the use of oat and barley cakes, and of 
 oats in the shape of " stirabout " and " porridge," is indeed still common among the labouring 
 classes of Scotland and Ireland ; while, in the north of England and some parts of Wales, a mixture 
 of rye and wheat, under the name of " meslin," is usual among respectable families. In the north 
 of Europe the use of rye-bread is still universal. 
 
 BREAD-FRUIT-TREE {Artocarpus incisa) is a native of the South Sea islands, 
 East Indies, and other tropical countries. It is about forty feet in height, having 
 a trunk commonly from one to two feet in diameter, and a large umbrageous 
 head ; it bears in about five years, and will probably continue prolific for fifty. 
 The fruit, which, in the South Sea islands at least, is produced two or three or even 
 four times a-year, is something like a roundish or oval melon, with hexagonal 
 marks, and six or eight inches in diameter. The seedless variety is most esteemed, 
 and its substance when washed resembles the crumb of wheaten bread. Mr Ellis, 
 
BRE 112 BRI 
 
 the missionary, considers the bread-fruit as the staff of life to the South Sea 
 islanders ; and Dr Solander called it " the most useful vegetable in the world," 
 and urged that no expense should be spared in its cultivation. The mere idea of 
 bread growing spontaneously was doubtless calculated to excite attention, — almost, 
 perhaps, as strongly as the subsequent description of Byron : — 
 
 " The bread-tree, which, without the ploughshare, yields 
 
 The unreap'd harvest of unfurrow'd fields, 
 
 And bakes its unadulterated loaves 
 
 Without a furnace in unpurchased groves, 
 
 And flings off famine from its fertile breast ; 
 
 A priceless market for the gathering guest." 
 
 The wood is useful, and equally so the gum that exudes from it. The bread-fruit- 
 tree was introduced by the British government into the West Indies ; but it is not 
 reckoned equal to the plantain as food. The species, culled jack or jaca (Artocarpus 
 integrifolia), is a larger tree than the preceding, the trunk being, according to 
 Roxburgh, from eight to twelve feet in circumference. The fruit is oblong and 
 very large, sixty or seventy lbs. in weight. As an article of diet it is not much 
 esteemed, though the natives of Ceylon eat it freely. 
 
 Some other species grow to a large size, and yield valuable timber, in Bengal and 
 Malabar. 
 
 BREMEN, one of the Hanseatic republics, is situated on the river Weser, about 
 60 miles from its entrance into the North Sea. It consists of a town and small ter- 
 ritory. Area, 67 British square miles ; pop. 57,000. The government is vested 
 in a senate and convention of burgesses. 
 
 The city of Bremen lies in 53° 4' N. and 8° 48' E., and is divided into two unequal portions by 
 the Weser ; pop. 41,500. Vessels drawing not more than 7 feet come up to the town, and those 
 drawing 13 feet may come up to Vegesack, about 13 miles below Bremen ; but large vessels do not 
 generally ascend higher than Bremen Haven, lying on the E. bank, about 38 miles below the town. 
 Bremen possesses considerable manufactories of refined sugar, tobacco, leather, and other articles; 
 but its importance is derived from its being one of the principal continental ports for the 
 warehousing and transit of foreign and German commodities. By the Weser, Werra, Fulda, and 
 other channels, it receives produce and manufactured goods (particularly linens) from Hanover, 
 Saxony, Hesse, and Westphalia ; supplying these places in return with tropical produce, British 
 goods, and other commodities. About 700 vessels arrive annually, including nearly 140 from Britain, 
 and nearly the same number from the United States. The imports in 1838 consisted of 14,498,000 
 lbs. coffee; 23,818,000 lbs. tobacco; 14,000,000 lbs. raw sugar ; 6600 bales cotton; 2,500,000 lbs. 
 rice; 45.090 tuns train oil; 1,000,000 lbs. butter; 800,000 lbs. cheese; 1,180,000 lbs. hides; 
 200,000 lbs. tea ; 33,000 lbs. indigo; 11,000 hhds. wine; 500,000 lbs. linseed; with earthenware 
 and other manufactured goods, grain, metals, dye-stuffs, spices, saltpetre, rosin, spirits, currants, 
 tar, tallow, and a variety of articles of smaller value ; amounting annually in all to about 
 16,000,000 rix-dollars, or £2,633,280. The exports by sea amount to about 12,000,000 rix -dol- 
 lars, and consist chiefly of linens to the annual value of about 3,500,000 rix-dollars ; tobacco 
 and snuff about 6,000,000 lbs. yearly ; soap, starch, refined sugar, syrup, and other manufac- 
 tures ; grain, hams, bacon, bones, bark, oil-cake, rags, chicory, quills, drugs, and lead. Of late 
 years Bremen has likewise become the chief port for emigration from the Continent to America. 
 
 Measures and Weights.— The ell of 2 feet = I Usance of bills from Germany and Holland, 
 22-76 Imp. inches, and 100 ells = 63i Imp. yds. 1 14 days' sight, and from England and France 1 
 
 The ahm of 20 viertels, 45 stubchen, or 180 month after date. Days of grace, 8; but none 
 quarts, = 31 £ Imp. galls. ; 1 fuder of Rhenish ! are allowed on bills at sight, or from 2 to 5 days 
 
 wine = 6 ahnis ; 1 ahm of French wine = 44 
 stubchens ; 1 tonne beer = 45 stubchens ; 1 tonne 
 of train oil = 6 steckans, or 96 mingels. 
 
 The last of corn of 4 quarts, 40 scheffels, 160 
 viertels or 640 spints, = 977 Imp. quarters. 
 
 16 ounces = 1 pound ; 14 lbs. = 1 lispond ; 
 116 lbs. = 1 centner = 127'44 lbs avoird. ; or 10 
 Bremen lbs. = 11 lbs. avoird. nearly. Gold and 
 silver are weighed by the Cologne mark. 
 
 Money. — The integer of account is the rix-dol- 
 lar current of 72 groots, or 360 schwaren ; and 
 5 rixdollars are reckoned equal 1 Carl d'or, or old 
 Louis d'or, worth about 16s. 5d. The par of 
 exchange with London is thus nearly R.D. 609 
 = £100 ; and 1 R.D. = 3s. 3jd. 
 
 BRENTA, an Italian liquid measure equal to nearly 16 Imp. galls. 
 
 BRICK, a mixture of clay, with sand, ashes, or chalk, dried in the sun, and 
 burned in a clamp, or baked in a kiln into a kind of artificial stone for the use of 
 builders. They are made in very large quantities in England and Ireland ; but 
 not in Scotland, where stone is the chief material for building. They are of 
 various kinds, but are almost all moulded of one size, namely 10 inches long, 5 
 wide, and 3 thick ; and when burned, on an average 9 inches long, 4h wide, and 2.^ 
 thick. The best slock-bricks ( those from the centre of the clamp, of an equal hard 
 
 after sight. 
 
 Banks, Finances, $c. — Bremen possesses, 
 among other institutions, a bank, a discount 
 office, and several insurance offices. According 
 to the budget for the year 1838, the public 
 revenue was R.D. 536,<»78 or £88,185, and the 
 expenditure, R.D. 580,207, including R.D. 
 101,600 as interest, and R.D. 45,084 as sinking 
 fund of the public debt. 
 
 Duties.— The duty on all goods exported is 
 only \ per cent, ad valorem ,• on all goods im- 
 ported f per cent. The port and shipping charges 
 are also very moderate. S 
 
BR1 H3 BRO 
 
 texture and even colour) aro worth from 30s. to 40s. the 1000 ; the inferior soft 
 red bricks, called place-bricks, from '20s. to 30s. ; and clinkers, or burrs, masses of 
 vitrified brick, about 10s. a-load. Dutch clinkers are small hard yellow bricks. 
 Malm-stocks are carefully tempered bricks made from clay, to which ooze, chalk, 
 or marl is added ; they are of a fine clear yellow colour, and are used for facing 
 walls and making arches over doors and windows ; the softest kind are called cut- 
 ters, from their admitting of being cut with the trowel. Fire bricks are kiln-burnt, 
 from a peculiar kind of clay found in perfection at Windsor, Stourbridge, and in 
 various parts of Wales, whence the varieties derive their names. These last, some- 
 times called Welsh lumps, stand an extreme heat, and are made of large sizes for 
 sugar-boilers, brewers' coppers, and other purposes. 
 
 The duty on bricks was repealed in 1850; it was charged at the rate of 5s. lOd. per 1000, 
 more or less, according to the size and polish of the bricks. It was an impolitic tax like all 
 taxes on buildings materials, and was first imposed in 1784 by Mr. Pitt. The construction of 
 railways and vast increase of house-property and manufactories, has augmented immensely 
 the consumption of bricks. In England, the number charged annually with duty was about 
 1.500,000,000; in Scotland, 40,000,000; total, about 1,540,000,000; yielding of duty about 
 £450,000. The quantity made in Ireland is not known, as no duty was" exigible in that part of 
 the United Kingdom. 
 
 BRIGANTINE, or BRIG, a vessel with two masts, square rigged in the same 
 manner as a ship ; the spanker and spanker-boom being in the brig attached to 
 the mainmast. [Ship.] 
 
 BRILL, a flat fish {Rhombus vulgaris), similar to turbot, but smaller and infe- 
 rior in quality. It is plentiful on our southern coast, and is brought in abundance 
 to the London market. 
 
 BRIMSTONE. [Sulphur.] 
 
 BRISTLES (Ger. Borsten. Rus. Schtschetina), hard, strong, shining hairs, 
 which form the manes of wild boars and hogs, and are imported from Russia and 
 Prussia for the use of brushmakers, shoemakers, and saddlers. About 1,700,000 
 lbs. are annually entered for home-consumption. S 
 
 BRITANNIA-METAL, a compound of tin, the regulus of antimony, copper, 
 and brass, extensively employed in Sheffield and Birmingham, especially the for- 
 mer, in the manufacture of teapots, spoons, and a variety of other articles. All 
 wares that were formerly made of pewter, and most of those now made of silver, 
 or which are plated, are imitated in Britannia-metal. The articles made of it 
 possess considerable beauty, and are very cheap ; and when sufficiently massive, 
 thev are also very durable." 
 
 BROCADE, a fabric composed of satin, striped or purfled with gold or silver. 
 It was at one time used for dress, but more lately for ornamental furniture. None 
 has been manufactured in the United Kingdom for many years. The last is said 
 to have been some very elegant pieces woven at Spitalfields, to be used as chair 
 bottoms at Carlton House, for his Majesty King George IV. 
 
 BROKER, a person employed as an agent or middleman to transact business 
 between merchants or other individuals. Brokers generally confine themselves 
 to negotiations for the purchase and sale of some particular articles, by which 
 means they acquire an intimate knowledge of their qualities, as well as an ac- 
 quaintance with the sellers and buyers, and the state of supply and demand; and 
 they are thus enabled to negotiate between dealers on terms equitable for both. 
 A merchant seldom has the same intimate knowledge for his guidance, and there- 
 fore generally finds it advantageous to effect his purchases and sales through 
 the medium of brokers. Brokers are, however, of different kinds, as, besides the 
 ordinary commercial or produce brokers, there are ship-brokers, insurance-brokers, 
 bill-brokers, and stock-brokers. 
 
 A commercial broker is a person who makes it his business to find purchasers 
 for goods offered for sale, and vendors of goods wanted on purchase, thus becoming 
 the medium through which transfers are accomplished. Brokers in London require, 
 by 6 Anne, c. 16, to be admitted by the mayor and aldermen, who have a general 
 superintendence over them, and are entitled to enforce certain regulations which 
 they were empowered by that act to frame. By local act 57 Geo. III. c. 60, they 
 must pay an admission fee of £5, and the sum of £5 annually ; and are liable to a 
 penalty of £100 for acting without being duly admitted. In England, a broker is 
 agent for both parties, under the section of the statute of frauds (29 Ch. II. c. 3, § 
 17), which renders it necessary that in sales where the price exceeds £10, some writ- 
 ing should pass between the parties or their agents. The writing in this case i3 the 
 
 ii 
 
BRO 114 BRU 
 
 bought-and-sold notes, which are notes of the bargain delivered by the broker, one to 
 each party. " With respect to contracts made through a broker," says Mr Starkie, 
 " it is now perfectly well settled that the bought-and-sold notes are, if they correspond, 
 evidence to bind the bargain, although the broker has not signed a formal entry in 
 his book, secus if they do not correspond. Although it be clear that an entry 
 signed by the broker is not essential to the validity of a contract where formal 
 bought-and-sold notes have been delivered, it is another question whether the 
 broker's entry of the contract, signed by him, would be sufficient in the absence of 
 sufficient bought-and-sold notes " (Law of Evidence, ii. 869, 870). Formerly the 
 entry in the broker's book was held to be the contract, the bought-and-sold notes 
 being merely transcripts of it, but the rule has latterly been to place dependence 
 on the latter where they exist. " There is not," says Professor Bell, "in Scot- 
 land any necessity, as by the practice of England, for a signed note to be 
 entered in the broker's book " (Bell's Principles, § 89). Where the name of the 
 purchaser has not been communicated, the seller may withdraw where the price 
 is not for ready money, if he give speedy warning after inquiry into the condition 
 of the purchaser. (Morton on Vendors and Purchasers, 76-78. Smith's Mer- 
 cantile L. 411, 412. Starkie, ut supra. Bell's Com.i. 435, 436.) [Factor. Lien.] 
 
 Ship-brokers are persons who undertake the management of all business matters 
 occurring between the owners of vessels and the shippers or consignees of the 
 goods which they carry; such as procuring cargo or a charter for outward-bound 
 ships, entering and clearing them at the custom-house, and collecting freight on 
 the goods which vessels bring into port. Many ship-brokers act also as insurance- 
 brokers, in which capacity they procure underwriters to policies of insurance, ad- 
 justing with the latter the various conditions under which they engage to take the 
 risk, and recovering the sums for which they are responsible in the event of loss. 
 [Insurance. Policy.] 
 
 For an account of the duties of bill-brokers and stock-brokers, see the heads 
 Exchange and Funds respectively. 
 
 Persons who deal in old household furniture are also called brokers, though their 
 occupation bears no analogy to that of any of the commercial agents above men- 
 tioned. In England, such persons frequently superadd to their business the ap- 
 praising and distraining of goods, for the performance of which functions, however, 
 they must provide themselves with an excise license, and conform to the regulations 
 of the act 57 Geo. III. c. 93. The business of a pawnbroker is also different from 
 those already noticed. [Pawnbroker.] 
 
 BROKERAGE, the per centage charged by brokers for the sale or purchase of 
 goods, bills of exchange, or stock. [Commission.] 
 
 BROMINE,a substance obtained by a chemical process from the uncrystallizable 
 residue of sea-water, commonly called bittern. It is a liquid of a deep reddish- 
 brown colour, and disagreeable suffocating odour. Sp. gr. 3. It is highly poison- 
 ous. Bromine was discovered by M. Balard of Montpellier in 1826. The alcoholic 
 solution of bromine, and the bromide of sodium are employed in medicine. (Brande's 
 Chemistry.) 
 
 BRONZE, an alloy consisting of from 8 to 12 parts of tin, with 100 of copper. It 
 is sometimes called gun-metal ; and is used for casting statues, cannons, and other 
 purposes. 
 
 BRONZE-POWDER. [Mosaic Gold.] 
 
 BROOM, a small, hardy, evergreen tree (Spartium scoparium), common in this 
 country. The wood is used for pins, pulleys, and snuff-boxes ; when of sufficient 
 size it is also applicable to the same purposes as laburnum, which, except in 
 colour, it closely resembles. The branches are used for thatching. The flowers of 
 the species called dyer's broom (Genista tinctoria) yield a bright yellow colouring 
 matter, which is used in dyeing wool. 
 
 Broom, a well known utensil, so called from having been originally made from 
 the twigs of the broom-tree. 
 
 BRUNSWICK, a German duchy, consisting of several detached portions of ter- 
 ritory on the rivers Weser, Leine, Ocker, and Aller, between lat. 51° 38' and 52° 59' 
 N., and long. 9° 10 and 11° 22' E., and is contiguous to Hanover and Prussia. Area, 
 1505 square miles ; pop. ( 1839) 260,000. Circles : Brunswick, Wolfenbuttel, Helm- 
 stedt, Gandershcim, Holzminden, Blankenburg. Capital, Brunswick; pop. 35,000, 
 chiefly Lutherans. Government, a constitutional monarchy, regulated by the 
 national compact called the Landschaft's-Ordnung, of the 12th October 1832. 
 
 The northern districts, particularly Wolfenbiittel, have an undulating surface, and their soil 
 is highly productive; the southern, including the Blankenburg territory, which lie within tho 
 
BRU 115 BUD 
 
 limits of the ITarz, are composed of a succession of mountains, in part well wooded, and studded 
 with highly cultivated valleys. The aspect of the whole of the duchy is indicative of good order 
 and prosperity. The principal articles of home manufacture exported, are timber, yarn, 
 linen, grain, oil, chicory, madder, leather, hops, and ironware, amounting to about £150,000 per 
 annum. The chief imports are colonial produce, raw materials, fish, butter, cheese, and cattle. 
 Having no coast, and, except the Weser, no navigable streams, the foreign trade of the duchy is 
 naturally cramped ; but a customs league exists with Oldenburg and Hanover, which opens to her 
 the communication with the German Ocean by means of the Elbe and the Weser ; and the transit 
 trade between the Hanse Towns and the interior of Germany is a considerable source of emolu- 
 ment. Two fairs are held annually at the town of Brunswick ; they begin on the Thursdays that 
 fall nearest to Candlemas and St Lawrence's day, and each lasts about ten days. 
 
 Measures and Weights.-— The ell of 2 feet = 
 22-46 Imp. inches. The wine ahm of 40 stub- 
 gens = 32-28 Imp. galls. The corn wispel of 
 4 scheffels or 40 himtens = 34-20 Imp. bushels. 
 The centner of 114 lbs. = 117 lbs. 6 oz. avoird. ; 
 and 100 Brunswick lbs. = 103 lbs. avoird. 
 
 Money. — The integer of account is the Prus- 
 sian dollar of 30 silver groschen = 2s. 10|d. ster- 
 ling. 
 
 Finances.— Revenue, after deducting the civil 
 list expenditure, about £145,000 per annum. 
 Debt, £495,000. S 
 
 BRUSHES (Fr. Brosses. Ger. Bursten. It. Setole, Spazzole. Por. Escovas. 
 Rus. Schtschetki. Sp. Brozas, Cepillos), cleansing instruments, generally made 
 of bristles set in wood. 
 
 BUBBLE, a name familiarly applied to any chimerical or fraudulent commercial 
 project carried on for the purpose of enriching the projectors at the expense of those 
 who subscribe for shares. The mischief produced by the South Sea scheme and 
 other gambling projects, in the years 1719 and 1720, led. to the passing of the statute 
 6 Geo. I. c. 18, commonly known as the Bubble Act, prohibiting companies of this 
 description tending to the prejudice of the public. The difficulties inseparable from 
 the construction ofthis act (which never seems to have been observed) were removed 
 in 1825, when it was repealed by the statute 6 Geo. IV. c. 91 ; and the projectors 
 of bubble companies are now punishable only when they can be deemed guilty of 
 fraud at common law. 
 
 BUCHU, a low shrub (Diosma crenata) found at the Cape of Good Hope, 
 the aromatic leaves of which, reputed to be powerfully antispasmodic, are an 
 article of the materia medica. 
 
 BUCKBEAN, or Marsh-trefoil, a plant (Menyanthes) common in this country, 
 the flowers of which are an article of the materia medica. 
 
 BUCKLE (Fr. Boacle. Ger. Schnalle). The buckle manufacture long ranked as 
 one of the great staples of Birmingham, and its mutations through all the capricious 
 and fantastic varieties of form and ornament which prevailed during the age of 
 powder, embroidery, and gold lace, would furnish materials for an interesting 
 work. The shoe-buckle having at length been completely supplanted by shoe- 
 strings, the manufacture lost all its importance. In 1791, his late Majesty George 
 IV., then Prince of Wales, attempted, at the solicitation of the manufacturers, to re- 
 vive the taste for buckles ; but the tide of fashion set too strongly in the opposite 
 direction to be controlled even by the example of royalty. 
 
 BUCKRAM (Fr. Bougran. Ger. Schettre. It. Tela collatao gommata. Por. 
 Olandilha. Sp. Bucaran), a coarse kind of linen or cotton fabric, having a 
 peculiar stiffness imparted to it by strong gum and calendering, and chiefly used in 
 the making of clothes to keep them in the proper shape. Buckrams are f wide ; 
 when formed of cotton they are generally in pieces of 28 yards in length ; when of 
 linen, 25 yards. (Perkins on Haberdashery.) 
 
 BUCKWHEAT, or BRANK (Fr. Ble Sarrassin. Ger. Buchweizen. It. Grano 
 Saraceno. Por. & Sp. Trigo Saracino), an annual plant (Polygonum fagopy rum), 
 a native of a warm climate, which grows with a strong branching stem of a 
 reddish colour, about 2 feet high, and the seeds of which, when ground, produce a 
 fine farina which in appearance resembles that of wheat. Its cultivation has never 
 been very extensive in the variable climate of Britain. In England a little of it is 
 cultivated in Norfolk, Suffolk, and some other counties, on light and poor soils ; in 
 other parts it is ploughed down as a manure while in flower. In Scotland it is 
 seldom cultivated except for feeding pheasants and other game. " On the Con- 
 tinent it is used in the distillery, and its flour made into bread, which is palatable 
 and nutritious. In France it is given to horses, and it is said that a busnel of its 
 grain goes farther than 2 bushels of oats ; and, if mixed with four times its bulk 
 in bran, will be full feeding to any horse for a week. Its straw is said to be more 
 nourishing than that of clover, and its blossoms form a rich repast for bees. The 
 produce may be reckoned about 4 qrs. per Imp. acre " (Laivson's Agriculturist's 
 Manual). The quantity annually imported is of trifling amount. 
 . BUDGET, a name applied to the annual statement of the public revenue and 
 
BUE 11G BUE 
 
 expenditure submitted by the Chancellor of the Exchequer to the House of Commons. 
 The accounts which accompany the statement show on the one hand the sums 
 required for the public service during the year, under the heads of Navy, Army ; 
 Ordnance, and Miscellaneous Services, together with any incidental charges ; and 
 on the other hand are given the Ways and Means for meeting the same, consisting of 
 the surplus (if any) of the Consolidated Fund, the annual duties, and such incidental 
 receipts as come in aid of the national revenues. These accounts are, however, de- 
 fective, and not readily understood, as the interest of the national debt and other 
 permanent charges are not included, and nothing is stated regarding the produce of 
 the permanent taxes, which form the consolidated fund, except the amount of its 
 surplus or deficiency, after providing for the permanent charge upon it. 
 
 BUENOS AYRES, ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, or States of the Rio de la 
 Plata, a South American confederation, whose territories embraced the vast 
 country lying between lat. 22° and 41° S., and long. 57° and 70° W., formerly part of 
 the Spanish viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. Area, 910,000 square miles ; pop. 
 700,000, chiefly Indians and mixed races. The confederated states were 
 Buenos Ayres, Entre-Rios, Corrientes, Santa Fe, Cordova, Santiago, Tucuman, 
 Salta, Catamarca^Rioja, San Juan, San Luis, Mendoza, with capitals of the same 
 name, excepting Entre-Rios, of which the chief town is Baxada. This confederacy 
 was dissolved some years ago by civil disputes, and the country remains in a 
 divided condition. Buenos Ayres being the leading, and the only maritime state, 
 its acts are often considered abroad as those of the whole country. 
 
 The chain of the Andes runs along the whole western boundary, and the country for several 
 hundred miles to the east of this chain is generally mountainous. The territory E. of the river 
 Parana is waving, well-watered, and fertile ; but the district between that river and the moun- 
 tains, and extending from N. to S. through the whole length of the country, consists of extensive 
 plains. In the N. these plains are in many parts liable to be overflowed ; in the S. they are 
 called pampas, and are remarkably dry and destitute of trees. Mines of the precious metals exist 
 in the states adjoining the Andes, particularly from Mendoza northwards ; and the extensive 
 districts between the Paraguay and the mountains abound in salt. The country is however chiefly 
 celebrated for the countless herds of wild cattle and horses which roam in the vast natural pastures 
 of the plains, and whose hides and tallow at present constitute the chief source of wealth. The 
 grounds in the vicinity of the towns are in general cultivated, producing wheat, maize, and barley, 
 together with the sugar-cane, orange, cocoa, fig, olive, and vine. 
 
 The external commerce of the country is conducted entirely at the town of Buenos Ayres, 
 which is the outlet for the produce not only of the whole valley of the river Plata, but also of large 
 districts of Peru and Chili. It is afine healthy town, situated in lat. 34° 36' S., long. 58°24'W., on 
 the S. W. side of the estuary of the Plata, about 180 miles from its mouth; pop. 70,000. The 
 river is here 35 miles broad, but so shallow towards the S. bank that large vessels have to unload 
 by means of lighters in the outer roads, distant 8 miles from the port ; while small vessels cannot 
 approach nearer than the inner roads, distant about 2 miles : even open boats cannot be brought 
 close to the beach, and have to land goods and passengers in rudely constructed carts. The Exports 
 chiefly consist of ox-hides, with jerked beef and sheep's wool ; the last has risen into importance 
 only within these few years. In the year 1837, according to Sir Woodbine Parish (Parish's 
 Buenos Ayres, p. 354), the exports were as follows :— Ox-hides, No. 823,635, value §3,294,540 ; 
 jerked beef, 178,877 quintals, value $446,092; sheep's wool, 164,706 arrobas (of 25 lbs.), value 
 $329,412 ; silver, Spanish dollars, No. 258,743, marks, No. 4881 ; gold, 22,361 oz. ; horse-hides, 
 No. 25,367; horns, No. 434,456; horse-hair, 70,372 arrobas ; nutria-skins, No. 51,853; tallow, 
 100,249 arrobas ; sheep-skins, 56,188 dozens; flour, 14,069 fanegas; corn, 4150 fanegas; besides 
 a variety of smaller articles, amounting altogether to 5,637,138 Spanish dollars, or about 
 £1,127,427 sterling ; to which Sir W. Parish thinks about 20 per cent, may be added on account 
 of short manifests by the shippers. All these articles are exported to Europe except the jerked 
 beef, which goes to Havanna and Brazil ; the corn and flour to the last mentioned country ; and 
 a considerable portion of wool and sheep-skins, which are carried to the United States. The ex- 
 ports to Britain chiefly consist of hides, wool, nutria-skins, and tallow. Antwerp is the principal 
 market on the continent of Europe for the hides of Buenos Ayres. 
 
 The Imports in 1837 amounted to about £1,400,000 sterling, of which those furnished by Great 
 Britain constituted nearly one half ; the declared value of the produce and manufactures of the 
 United Kingdom sent to the states of La Plata, including Monte Video, having been in that year 
 £696,104 ; while on an average of the ten preceding years, 1827-1836, the amount was £556,080. 
 The imports from Britain chiefly consist of cottons, especially plain and printed calicoes, which 
 are now become of the first necessity to the lower orders ; also of linen, woollen, and silk manufac- 
 tures, ironmongery, cutlery, coarse and fine earthenware, glass, tea, foreign brandies, and wines : 
 From France are imported articles of luxury rather than of necessity, such as superfine cloths and 
 linens, merinos, cashmeres, silks and cambrics, lace, gloves, shoes, looking-glasses, combs, jewel- 
 lery, and all sorts of made-up finery ; the whole amounting in 1836 to £231,373: From Belgium, 
 arms : From Holland, gin, butter, cheese, hams : From the Baltic States, iron, cordage, canvass, 
 pitch, tar, and deals. The Mediterranean trade is principally in Sicilian and Spanish produce, 
 especially the cheap wines of Sicily and Catalonia, of which from 10,000 to 12,000 pipes are taken 
 yearly, brandies (1000 pipes), olive oil, macaroni, and dried fruits : in amount this trade is fully 
 equal to that from France, or from the North of Europe. From the United States are brought 
 flour, coarse unbleached cloths, spirits, soap, sperm candles, dried and salted provisions, tobacco, 
 ordinary furniture, and deals, amounting yearly to about £140,000 : From Brazil, tobacco, sugar, 
 coffee, rice, and yerba mate" or Paraguay tea : From Havanna, sugar, coffee, aud tobacco. 
 About 240 vessels enter the port of Buenos Ayres annually. 
 
BUF 
 
 117 
 
 BUL 
 
 The Plata is navigable for ships to Assumption, the capital of Paraguay, about 1000 miles from 
 its mouth ; and for small craft to the 18tb degree of south latitude. From Paraguay immense 
 quantities of yerba mate are brought to Buenos Ayres packed in hides, and distributed throughout 
 Chili and Peru. These countries are besides partly supplied by Buenos Ayres with European 
 manufactures. 
 
 Measures and Weights same as Spain. 
 
 Money. — The integer of account is the current 
 dollar, which is divided into 8 reals, each of 16 
 quartos, or 34 maravedis. The circulating me- 
 dium is principally composed of government 
 paper money, which, by its overissue, has depre- 
 ciated the value of the current dollar to about 
 5d. sterling. Some copper money is also in cir- 
 culation. The silver dollar coined by the Argen- 
 tine Republic was of the same weight and fine- 
 ness as the Spanish hard dollar. 
 
 Finances. — These are in a deplorable condition 
 owing to the late hostilities with Brazil and 
 France. In 1836, the revenue was estimated at 
 $12,000,000 currency, which was quite insuffi- 
 cient to meet the ordinary expenditure of the 
 state. The amount of funded debt unredeemed (6 
 
 per cents.), in the same year was $35,917, 166 cur- 
 rency; besides, the English loan for £1,000,000 
 sterling, the interest on which (6 per cent.) has 
 been unpaid since January 1828; and the amount 
 of the bank issues in circulation, about$20,000,000 
 currency. These accounts, though ex facie 
 national, relate to the province of Buenos Ayres 
 alone: the other provinces, containing |ths of 
 the population of the republic, contribute nothing 
 towards the general expenses, though most of 
 them manage to support their petty provincial 
 administrations. 
 
 A Treaty of Commerce between Great Britain 
 and the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata was 
 executed on 2d February 1825 : it was the first 
 treaty entered into by any European power with 
 the new republics of America. S 
 
 The Plata was discovered by Juan Diaz de Solis, a Spaniard, in 1512 ; and in 1534 the country 
 was conquered by Mendoza, who founded the city of Buenos Ayres. In 1/78, the province of 
 Buenos Ayres, which had hitherto been a dependency of the Spanish viceroyalty of Peru, was 
 
 to October 1840 Buenos Ayres was blockaded by the French. 
 
 BUFF, a kind of leather generally prepared by dressing buffalo-skin with oil, 
 after the manner of shammy. It is also made from the skins of other animals. 
 
 BUGLES, a species of glass beads, formed into small capillary pipes, broken into 
 various lengths. They are imported in large quantities from the Levant. Duty 
 is paid on about 40,000 lbs. annually, and a considerable quantity is likewise re- 
 exported to Africa and Asia. 
 
 BUILDING SOCIETIES. [Friendly Societies.] 
 
 BULLION, a term strictly applicable only to gold and silver in an uncoined 
 state, but of late used commonly to denote the precious metals in general. No 
 commodities being so permanent in their value, so uniform in their quality, and 
 so easy of transport as gold and silver, these metals, besides their extensive use 
 in the arts, have been employed from a very early age in the form of coin, as a 
 measure of the value of other commodities ; and their employment for this purpose 
 is at present nearly universal. 
 
 The precious metals were in ancient times derived from a great variety of 
 sources, but since the discovery of America they have been obtained principally 
 from the Central and Southern part of that continent. According to Humboldt, 
 the average annual supply procured thence from 1492 to 1500 was £52,083 ; 
 from 1500 to 1545, £625,000 ; from 1545 to 1600, £2,291,666 ; from 1600 to 1700, 
 £3,333,333 ; from 1700 to 1750, £4,687,500 ; from 1750 to 1803, £7,354,166 ; and at 
 the commencement of the present century, £9,062,500. 
 
 The revolutionary tumults in the Spanish American colonies in 1810 led to so 
 great a dilapidation of the mines, that their produce was lessened by one-half ; the 
 average annual supply from 1810 to 1830, according to Mr Jacob, being only 
 £4,036,838. In 1825, a number of joint- sto^k companies were formed in Britain for 
 the purpose of working the mines ; bu*. thc^ operations were conducted with so 
 little skill that for several years no obfervable it.. urease took place on the annual 
 supply of the precious metals ; and thongb. the case is now somewhat different, yet 
 the prospect of the South American mines being rendered equally productive as 
 before, is distant and uncertain. 
 
 Of late years new sources of supply as regards gold have been discovered in 
 the United States and Russia. In the former gold was discovered in North 
 Carolina in 1804, and afterwards in Georgia ac* other states ; but the produce 
 realized was trifling until 1830, when about £97,083 were minted, exclusive of an 
 equal amount supposed to have been consumed or exported in an uncoined state. 
 The produce has since been considerably increased ; but well-informed persons 
 are opposed to the opinion that any permanently extensive supply can ever be de- 
 rived from that quarter. In Russia the case is "different. The gold mines of that 
 country, situated in the Uralian Mountains, yielded, in 1820, 1938 lbs. avoird. ; 
 
BUL 
 
 118 
 
 BUL 
 
 and their produce has since progressively increased. In 1835 it amounted to 
 10,620 lbs., value £645,165 ; and most accounts concur in representing the supply 
 as likely to prove lasting as well as abundant. At present the total annual pro- 
 duce of America, Europe, and Asia may be estimated as follows : — 
 
 Country. 
 
 Principal Localities. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 
 Gold. 
 Sierra Madre 
 
 Silver. 
 Real del Monte 
 
 £ 
 
 100,000 
 15,000 
 
 375,000 
 
 30,000 
 40,000 
 200,000 
 200,000 
 
 £ 
 
 2,300,000 
 50,000 
 8,000 
 950,000 
 400,000 
 300,000 
 
 £ 
 
 2,400,000 
 65,000 
 383,000 
 980,000 
 440,000 
 500,000 
 200,000 
 
 Central- America. . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pataz, Huailas 
 
 Tipuani River 
 
 Pasco 
 
 
 Potosi 
 
 
 Copiapo 
 
 
 
 
 United States 
 
 
 
 960,000 
 150,000 
 140,000 
 650,000 
 
 4,008,000 4,968,000 
 . . . . 1 150,000 
 450,000 680,000 
 170,O00| 820,000 
 
 Transylvania, &c 
 
 Ural Mountains 
 
 Borneo, China 
 
 Hungary, &c 
 
 Altai 
 
 Asiatic Russia 
 
 Rest of Asia 
 
 China 
 
 1 ,900,000 
 1,235,000 
 3,135,000 
 
 4,628,000 6,528,000 
 915,000 2,150.000 
 
 Total, 
 
 5, .043,000 8,678,000 
 
 No notice is taken of Africa, as the former reports of its produce appear to have 
 been grossly exaggerated ; and it may now be well doubted whether the supply 
 derived from that part of the world is more than equal to the consumption. Ihe 
 estimates for Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, United States, and Asiatic Russia, are 
 founded on returns by the British consuls in those countries,— allowance being made 
 for the quantities raised in Peru and Chili, and exported clandestinely. The esti- 
 mates for the other countries are chiefly founded on statements made by Mr Jacob 
 and Mr John Crawfurd. So much uncertainty, however, attends all calculations 
 of this kind, that the preceding summary, and more especially the part which has 
 reference to the portion of Asia not subject to Russia, is to be regarded merely aa 
 a loose approximation. 
 
 Vague as are all estimates regarding the production of the precious metals, those 
 regarding their consumption are much more so, there being no data upon which 
 to found any calculation of the proportions used for coin and in the arts, or of the 
 supply obtained for these purposes by the fusion of old plate. Humboldt estimated 
 the quantity of gold and silver annually consumed in Europe, exclusive of that 
 used for coin, at £3,500,000. Mr Jacob's estimate, in 1830, of the amount applied 
 to ornamental and luxurious purposes, was as follows : — Great Britain, £2,457,220; 
 France, £1,200,000 ; Switzerland, £350,000 ; rest of Europe, £1,605,490 ; America, 
 £280,630 ; total of Europe and America, £5,893,340 ; or, after deducting l-40th 
 for that supplied by the fusion of old plate, to £5,746,006. Adding l-5th of this for 
 Asia will make the total consumption of Europe, America, and Asia, exclusive of 
 that used for coin, £6,895,207. 
 
 The quantity required to serve as coin depends upon a great variety of circum- 
 stances,— such as the wealth and population of the different countries of the world, 
 the extent to which their currency has been economized by the use of paper-money, 
 and by the art of banking, the waste of coins by abrasion, and their loss by acci- 
 dent, and by the practice, common in uncivilized countries, of burying treasure. Of 
 these the most important as regards the consumption of the precious metals is the 
 loss by abrasion. According to recent experiments at the mint, this appears to be 
 upon British silver coin about 5s. and upon gold Is. 3d. per cent, per annum ; but 
 on the general amount of coin throughout the world it cannot be reckoned at less 
 than 5s. per cent, upon both, — the foreign silver-money being about four times that 
 of gold in amount, and inferior in fineness to British silver. The whole amount of 
 the precious metals in the world is estimated by Mr Senior at two thousand mil- 
 lions sterling. No estimate has been formed of the amount existing in the form 
 of coin ; but the annual loss by abrasion and otherwise can scarcely be assumed 
 at less than £2,000,000. This, added to the amount used for other purposes, would 
 raise the total annual consumption of gold and silver to £8,895,215, a sum nearly 
 equal to the annual supply. It has to be observed, however, that Mr Jacob's esti- 
 mate of the annual consumption for other purposes than coin is by many supposed 
 to be greatly exaggerated : his allowance of only l-40th for the fusion of old plate 
 is also considered to be much too small. 
 
 The value of gold and silver, like that of all other commodities, is regulated by 
 the amount of capital and labour required to bring them to market,— in other 
 
BUL 139 BUO 
 
 words, by their cost of production. If this could be reduced, their value would 
 fall, and the money value of other commodities would proportionally rise : if, on 
 the other hand, their cost of production were to be augmented, their value would 
 be increased, and the money value of other commodities would proportionally fall. 
 Any fluctuation, therefore, on the value of gold or of silver, according as the one 
 or the other has been adopted as the standard, is necessarily productive of a cor- 
 responding variation in bullion prices, and a proportionate derangement of all ex- 
 isting contracts. The influence of a reduced cost in obtaining the precious metals 
 upon bullion prices, has been experienced since the discovery of America, where 
 the mines have yielded those metals with so much less labour than the mines pre- 
 viously worked in the Old World, that gold and silver have fallen to one-third of 
 their former value, and bullion prices have been raised to three times their former 
 rate. This effect did not, however, take place at once, but gradually, and was not 
 fully realized until about the close of last century. 
 
 The natural tendency of the defalcation in the produce of the Spanish American 
 mines after 1810 was to reduce bullion prices ; and by many persons the remark- 
 able fall, which occurred in Europe after the close of the war, is in part attributed 
 to this circumstance. It would appear, however, that this decline can be accounted 
 for by increased facility of production, or by other causes affecting each particular 
 commodity ; " that no direct influence of the defalcation of the produce of the mines 
 is to be traced in the late fall of prices ; and that consequently the presumption 
 must be, either that the mass of the metals is so large as to render what might 
 otherwise appear to be considerable variations of supply, imperceptible in general 
 prices, or that circumstances affecting their functions and distribution have coun- 
 terbalanced these variations " (Tooke an Prices). Of the latter, perhaps the most 
 important were the immense quantities of plate and hoarded treasure exported 
 from South America to Europe by the loyalists and others during the civil dissen- 
 sions, and the cessation of the drain of silver from Europe to China and India, 
 and an inversion of the stream by an importation which is still taking place. It 
 must be admitted, however, that", all other circumstances being the same, if the 
 produce of the mines had not fallen off, prices would now be higher in some 
 proportion to the larger supply of the metals. 
 
 Gold and silver are subject to fluctuation in their relative value towards each 
 other as well as to other commodities. More labour and capital have always been 
 requisite to bring a given quantity of gold to market than the same quantity of 
 silver, and the value of the former has in consequence been always much greater 
 than that of the latter ; but the proportion in which gold has exceeded silver in 
 value has varied at different times. Among the Romans gold to silver seldom 
 varied more than from nine to eleven for one ; nor did the relative value of the 
 metals fluctuate more down to the time when the Spanish American mines were 
 brought into full activity. Since that period the comparative value of the two 
 kinds of metal has been gradually changed, and gold is now become rather more 
 than \5h times as valuable as silver. 
 
 Gold is the standard of value in this country, and it is regularly purchased by the 
 Bank of England at the rate of £3 : 17 : 9, and issued at the rate of £3 : 17 : lOh 
 per ounce of 22 carats (ll-12ths) fine ; its price may therefore be regarded as fixed. 
 Silver, however, though the standard of value in most foreign countries, is here used 
 merely as a subsidiary currency, and its price is therefore regulated by the state of 
 the exchange. For some years past it has varied little from 5s. per ounce of the 
 fineness of 11 oz. 2dwts. (37-40ths). Gold bullion occurs chiefly in the form of bars 
 or doubloons, silver bullion in that of bars or dollars. The bullion trade of the 
 United Kingdom is almost wholly confined to the Bank of England and a few 
 private merchants in London. 
 
 Bullion is chiefly imported by the government packets and ships of war, the 
 charges attending which are detailed in the Navy List. 
 
 The exportation and importation of bullion in this country is free ; and by 3 & 4 
 Wm. IV. c. 52, § 2, it may be landed without report entry or warrant. [Coin. 
 Exchange.] s 
 
 BULRUSH, a plant (Scirpus laenstris) much used for putting between the 
 staves of barrels, and for chair-bottoms and matting. It is imported from Russia 
 and Holland ; but it might be profitably grown in marshes in this country where 
 the soil is not very peaty, and of rather superior quality ; particularly on the banks 
 of rivers which are flooded by fresh water tides. 
 
 A load of bulrushes consists of 63 bundles. 
 
 BUOYS (Fr. Boutes. Ger. Ankerboyen. It. GavilelU. Sp. Boyas) arc floating 
 
BUR 120 BUT 
 
 pieces of wood or cork moored to some certain spot, in order to point out the 
 course that a vessel should follow ; they are also used to mark the situation of 
 ships' anchors, — the former heing denominated public, the latter private buoys. 
 The public buoys on the English coasts are under the control and management of 
 the Trinity House, Deptford-Strond; and those of Scotland and Ireland are under 
 its supervision (6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 79). Small tonnage duties are charged on the 
 shipping for the maintenance and repair of the public buoys. [Lighthouse.] 
 
 " Every person who shall ride by, make fast to, or remove, or wilfully run down, or run foul, 
 of any vessel placed to exhibit lights, or any buoy or beacon, belonging to, or placed by, any cor- 
 poration, or society, having lawful authority to place the same, shall, besides being liable to the 
 expense of replacing or making good any damage occasioned thereby, forfeit for every such offence 
 any sum not exceeding £50, nor less than £10." (6 Geo. IV. c. 125.) 
 
 Private buoys are protected by the act 1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 75. 
 
 BURDOCK, or CLIT-BUR, a biennial indigenous plant, common in unculti- 
 vated places, the roots of which being esteemed aperient, diuretic, and sudorific, 
 are used in medicine. The roots are collected in spring, and lose four-fifths of 
 their weight by drying. 
 
 BURGUNDY PITCH, the resin of the spruce fir (Pimis abies), is usually in 
 softish masses of an aromatic odour, and a pale yellowish brown colour, often in- 
 termixed with white streaks, and occasionally in rounded masses, or tears, which 
 have spontaneously exuded from and dried upon the trees. This resin is likewise 
 obtained by incision of the bark; the different portions, being collected, are dissolved 
 in boiling water, and cleansed by pressing through canvass cloths. Burgundy 
 pitch is imported from Saxony and the north of Europe. Its only use is as an in- 
 gredient in some plasters. Price in bond, 18s. to 25s. per cwt. 
 
 Common or spurious Burgundy pitch manufactured in this country is detected 
 chiefly by deficiency in the peculiar odour and viscidity of the genuine resin. 
 
 BUSHEL, a British measure of capacity used for seeds, corn, and other dry 
 
 foods ; it is equivalent to 4 pecks, 8 gallons, or to one-eighth of a quarter. The 
 mp. bushel measures 2218*192 cubic inches, or 36*348 French litres ; and the 
 Winchester, or old English standard corn bushel (still employed in the United 
 States and elsewhere), measures 2150*42 cubic inches, or 35*237 litres; hence 33 
 Winchester bushels equal 32 Imperial nearly. The bushel, heaped measure, for- 
 merly used for coals, lime, fish, potatoes, and other commodities, contained 2*217*6 
 cubic inches ; but when heaped in the form of a cone above the brim, 2815^. 
 
 Besides the Winchester bushel, a variety of other bushels were in use in different parts of Eng- 
 land for corn ; these differed greatly in size ; thus, the Herefordshire bushel contained 10 gallons, 
 the Berkshire bushel 9 gallons, and the Cornwall bushel 24 gallons. In some parts of the north of 
 England, 6 bushels were termed a boll; in others, this denomination was applied to a smaller 
 number of bushels. A detailed account of all these local measures will be found in the Second 
 Report of the Parliamentary Commissioners on Weights and Measures. 
 
 BUSS, a cutter-built vessel, in size varying from 50 to 80 tons, employed in the 
 Scotch and Dutch herring fishery. 
 
 BUTT, a liquid measure in the old English system. The ale or beer butt con- 
 tained 108 ale gallons; the wine butt 126" wine gallons. The standard gauge of 
 the butt of sherry is now 108 Imp. galls. 
 
 BUTTER (Dan. Sm'or. Du. Boter. Fr. Beurre. Ger. Butter. It. Burro. 
 Por. Manteiga. Sp. Manteca), a substance derived from the oily or creamy part 
 of milk by agitation or churning. It may be obtained either by separating the 
 cream from the milk and then churning it, or by churning the milk and cream 
 together. By the first method the best butter is obtained, by the second the 
 largest quantity. The quality also depends materially on the care with which it 
 is made, and on the nature of the pasture ; the best is made from cows fed on rich 
 natural meadows. Butter is extensively made and consumed both in a fresh and 
 salted state in almost all the countries of northern Europe ; and in the East it is 
 largely used in the liquid form, called Ghee. The butter of Holland is accounted 
 the best, a pre-eminence which it owes chiefly to the remarkable attention paid by 
 the Dutch to the minutiae of the dairy, to the purity of the salt used, and especially 
 to cleanliness. The English butter is scarcely inferior, especially that of Epping, 
 Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, Yorkshire, Somerset, Gloucestershire, and Oxfordshire 
 The best Scottish is that of Clydesdale and Aberdeenshire. The butter produced 
 in Britain is however insufficient for the consumption, and large quantities are 
 imported, particularly from Ireland, where it forms a staple. 
 
 The principal dairy counties of Ireland are Carlow, Cork, Fermanagh, Kerry, Leitrim, Long- 
 ford, Sligo, Waterford, and Westmeath. " Carlow has the reputation of producing the best but- 
 ter ; but the firkins containing that which is manufactured in all the surrounding counties are 
 
BUT 121 CAB 
 
 often branded with the name of Carlow. It is highly esteemed in London, and is often sold for 
 Cambridge butter; but much of the Irish butter is very salt, and sometimes smoky and tallowy. 
 In fact, there are three distinct sorts of butter in the Irish market. The best is sent to Dublin 
 and to England ; and from the latter country exported to the East and West Indies. An inferior 
 sort finds a market in Spain ; and an inferior still used to be sent to Boulogne " ( Youatt on 
 Cattle, p. 188). Brazil now takes annually about 30,000 firkins Irish butter. 
 
 The quantity imported into Britain from Ireland was, in 1825, 425,670 cwts. In 1847, 
 12,000 tons of fresh butter were received at London, and 11,500 tons at Liverpool. In 1850, 
 l3,i»oo tons came to London, and 12,600 tons to Liverpool. The exports, about 5609 tons, go 
 chiefly to Australia, Brazil, Portugal, and the West Indies. 
 
 All the butter exported from the United Kingdom is the produce of Ireland; all the batter 
 produced in England being consumed at home. The quantity of butter consumed in London 
 is estimated by M'Culloch at 15,357 tons annually, of which 20o0 tons are supplied to shipping. 
 The imports of foreign butter were in 1840, 252,661 cwts.; in 1852, 354,218 cwt., of which 
 344,185 cwts. were entered for home consumption. The gross amount of duty received in 
 1852 was £.167,418. By the tariff of 1841 the duty on foreign butter was 10s. per cwt., and 
 5s. 3d. per cwt. if imported from a British possession. These duties were reduced by the tariff 
 of 1853 on foreign butter to 5s. per cwt. or if from a British possession to 2s. 6d. 
 In 1S5J, the duty was removal alto g ether. 
 
 BUTTER-NUTS are the berries of a large tree {Caryocar tomentosurri) which 
 
 frows in Guiana, and is called by the natives Tata-Youba. They are covered 
 y a skin two or three lines thick, and consist internally of a buttery yellowish 
 substance, which melts between the fingers, and is sometimes used in cooking in- 
 stead of common butter. Under the skin lies a stone, within which is a brownish 
 kidney-shaped kernel, very good to eat, and commonly served at table. Butter- 
 nuts are common in the London markets. 
 
 BUTTONS (Fr. Boutons. Ger. Knopfe. It. Bottom. Por. Botoens. Sy.Botones). 
 This article is made of an endless variety of materials. In former times it was 
 also made of an endless variety of shapes ; but at present these may be reduced to 
 four, viz. buttons with shanks ; buttons without shanks ; buttons on rings or wire 
 moulds ; and buttons covered with cloth or other material. Metal buttons are 
 manufactured on a large scale at Birmingham, both for home consumption and 
 exportation. Except where the taste of foreign countries demands otherwise, 
 these are at present generally made with a well gilt and highly ornamented sur- 
 face. In the reign of George I. several absurd acts were passed to regulate the 
 kind of buttons to be worn ; but these, though still on the statute-book, have been 
 long in disuse. The act 36 Geo. III. c. 6, imposes penalties on the manufac- 
 ture or sale of buttons marked "gilt" or " plated," and not so gilt or plated in 
 terms of the act. 
 
 c. 
 
 CABBAGE, a well-known culinary vegetable (Brassica oleracea), of which 
 there are almost innumerable varieties. Those most valued for the garden are gene- 
 rally divided into the close-hearting and the spreading ; the most common of the 
 former being the York and the Savoys, and of the latter coleworts and Scotch 
 kale. The larger and grosser kinds are sometimes cultivated as food for stock. 
 According to Arthur Young, the average crop on a dry soil is 36 tons per acre ; 
 but on a sandy soil, only 18 tons. In Germany, immense quantities of the large 
 white cabbage are manufactured into " that excellent preparation " sauer kraut, 
 an article of considerable trade in that country. 
 
 CABBAGE-WOOD is obtained from the cabbage-palm (Areca oleraced), a tree 
 which grows in abundance in the mountainous parts of the West Indies, and is 
 familiar to all who have read the popular tale of Paul and Virginia. The wood is 
 sometimes used in ornamental furniture; but it does not answer very well, as the 
 ends of the fibres are too hard, and the medullary part too soft for holding glue ; 
 the surface is also very difficult to polish, and cannot be preserved without var- 
 nish. The trunk, after the centre part is rotted out, forms a durable water-pipe. 
 
 CABLE, a long thick rope, employed in the mooring or anchoring of ships. 
 There are generally at least three kept ready for service, namely, the sheet cable, 
 the best bower cable, and the small bower cable, which are each commonly 100 or 
 120 fathoms in length. Cables are now also formed of iron chains, which are much 
 stronger and more durable than those of hemp. On a rocky bottom, a hempen 
 cable is destroyed in a very short time, while the duration of the other is almost 
 
CAC 122 CAL 
 
 indefinite. It is sometimes desirable to cut the cable when of hemp ; this contin- 
 gency is provided for in iron cables by a bolt and shackle at short distances, so 
 that by striking out the bolt the cable is easily detached. At present, hempen ca- 
 bles are in very little request in the British navy, and even in the merchant ser- 
 vice iron has nearly supplanted hemp for this purpose. The regulations of Lloyd's 
 require all vessels under 150 tons to have at least 150 fathoms of chain ; of 150 and 
 under 250 tons, 180 do.; of 250 and under 350 tons, 200 do.; of 350 and under 500 
 tons, 240 do.; of 500 and under 700 tons, 270 do.; of 700 tons and upwards, 300 
 do. ; but in all cases where hempen cables are used, then one-sixth more in length 
 is required. [Cordage.] 
 
 Cables-length in navigation signifies 120 fathoms, the usual length of a cable. 
 
 CACAO, or COCOA (Fr. Sp. Por. & It. Cacao. Ger. Kakao), is the bruised 
 seeds or nuts of the cacao or chocolate tree ( Theobroma cacao). The seeds are 
 oval, about as large as an olive, and covered with a violet or ash-gray skin which 
 encloses two cotyledons of a fatty nature, and of a brownish-black or violet colour. 
 When simply bruised they constitute the cacao of the shops ; reduced to a paste, 
 mixed with sugar, and flavoured with vanilla, they become chocolate. They are 
 imported from the West Indies, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Brazil, in all which places 
 the tree grows wild, or is cultivated for the sake of its seeds. Dr Ainslie states 
 that the cacao is now also much cultivated in the Philippine islands, and that the 
 chocolate made from the nuts, particularly in Zebu, is esteemed even superior to 
 that of Guayaquil in America. Cacao is considered somewhat less nutritive, but much 
 lighter than chocolate. The quantity consumed in the United Kingdom has greatly 
 increased since 1832, when the duty was reduced from 6d. to 2d. per lb. It now 
 is Id. From 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 lbs. are annually imported; of which about 
 1,600,000 lbs. are entered for home consumption; the remainder being re-exported 
 chiefly to Germany, Holland, Belgium, Spain, and Italy. S 
 
 CADMIUM, a rare metal discovered in 1817, by Stromeyer, in an oxide of zinc 
 {Annals of Philosophy, vol. xiv.). In colour and lustre it has a strong resemblance 
 to tin, but is somewhat harder and more tenacious. It is very ductile and 
 malleable. Sp. gr. 8'604. The sulphuret of cadmium has an orange-yellow colour, 
 and would form a useful pigment, could the metal be found in greater abund- 
 ance. 
 
 CAFFISO, an Italian oil measure, equal in Malta to 4| Imp. gallons, and in 
 Messina and Trieste to 2| Imp. gallons. 
 
 CAHIZ, a Spanish corn measure, equivalent in Alicant to 6|, in Aragon to 5, 
 and in Valencia to 5§ Imp. bushels; but the standard Avila cahiz of 12 fanegas, 
 used in Cadiz and other places, is equal to 18£ Imp. bushels. 
 
 CAIRNGORM, a name given by lapidaries to an ornamental stone found on 
 the mountain of that name in Inverness-shire. It is a splendid quartz, of various 
 shades and nearly transparent. 
 
 CAJEPUT OIL, a valuable volatile oil, limpid, transparent, of a greenish 
 colour, a camphoraceous smell, and an acridly aromatic taste. Sp. gr. 0'927. It 
 is sometimes adulterated with other oils, particularly oil of turpentine. It is pre- 
 pared in large quantities in the Dutch settlements on the Banda and Molucca 
 islands, from the leaves of the Melaleuca cajeputi, and is imported into this country, 
 by way of Holland, in copper flasks. It is used internally as a stimulant and 
 antispasmodic, but more frequently externally as an embrocation. 
 
 CALABASH (Sp. Calabaca), a name given in the West Indies to a gourd or 
 pompion, the fruit of the Crescentia cujete, the shells of which are used by the 
 natives for cups, measures, kettles, and other vessels. 
 
 CALAMANCO, a woollen fabric, chiefly manufactured in the Netherlands. It 
 is made plain, coloured, striped, or watered ; and the warp is sometimes mixed 
 with silk or goats' hair. 
 
 CALAMANDER WOOD, a beautiful fancy wood obtained from a tree which 
 
 grows in Ceylon. It is extremely hard, and finely veined with different shades of 
 lack and brown. Being scarce and very dear, little is imported. 
 CALAMINE, a native carbonate of Zinc. 
 
 CALCEDONY, an ornamental stone, a species of agate of a uniform colour, 
 generally of a milky white or pale yellow, like turbid jelly, often with an internal 
 wavy structure in the form of stalactites, and very commonly with a peculiar mam- 
 millary surface. It is found in abundance in the Faroe islands, in Iceland, in 
 Cornwall, and many places of Britain as well as other countries ; sometimes in 
 large masses from which cups and other vessels are formed. 
 CALCIUM, the metallic base of Lime. 
 

 CAL 123 CAM 
 
 CALENDAR. [Measures and Divisions of Time.] 
 
 CALICO (Fr. Coton. Ger. Kattun. It, Tela Bambagina. Pot. Patio de A l- 
 godao. Sp. Tela de Algodon), white, or plain cotton cloth. [Cotton Manufacture.] 
 
 CALOMEL, the protochloride of Mercury. 
 
 CALUMBO ROOT (Fr. Racine de Calumbo. Por. Raix de Calumba. Ger. 
 Kolumba tcurzel. Mozamb. Kahtmb). The calumbo plant (Cocculus palmatus) is 
 
 Eroduced in Malabar, and in the thick forests on the eastern coast of Africa, 
 etwecn Oibo and Mozambo, from which last place the roots form a staple ex- 
 port to Ceylon, and thence to Europe. Calumbo root is generally brought in 
 transverse sections, from half an inch to three inches diameter, rarely divided 
 across; and the bark is of a dark brown colour outside, and bright yellow within. 
 It is very subject to decay by worms; when good it looks bright and solid, breaks 
 with a starchy fracture, and" has a faint aromatic odour, and bitter taste. 
 
 The root of a Carolina plant (Frasera walterd) is imported into Liverpool, and 
 aes fraudulently substituted for Calumbo. The American root may be dis- 
 tinguished by its whiter colour, lighter texture, the mixture of longitudinal pieces, 
 and the taste being at first sweetish, and not nearly so bitter as the genuine root. 
 The substance of the tree is besides rendered blue by iodine, the false, brown. 
 Calumbo root is used in medicine. {A inslie's Mat. Indica. Duncan's Dispensatory.) 
 
 CAMBRIC (Fr. Batiste. Ger. Kammertuch. It. Cambraja. Por. Cambraia. Sp. 
 Cambrai), a very fine linen fabric, so called from having been originally manufac- 
 tured at Cambray, a city in the department Du Nord in France. 
 
 CAMEL (Arab. Djemal), a ruminating quadruped, of a grotesque form, which 
 has been used from a remote period in eastern countries as the principal beast of 
 burden. There are two species : The Bactrian camel (Pamelas Bactrianus), cha- 
 racterized by a couple of humps — one on the rump, and another above the shoulders, 
 is employed in Thibet, Turkistan, Tartary, Southern Russia, and in the Pisan 
 territory in Tuscanv ; the dromedary (Camelus dromedarius), with one hump 
 situated on the middle of the back, is indigenous in Arabia, from whence it has 
 spread over the north of Africa, Syria, and Persia ; and the intermixture of these 
 two species has produced varieties which are more or less used in different localities. 
 The camel is esteemed by eastern nations one of the most precious gifts of Provi- 
 dence to man; and assuredly, it seems formed by nature for a life of patient drud- 
 gery. Justly has the Arab named it the Living Ship of the Desert, as without it 
 he could neither transport himself nor his merchandise across those oceans of sand 
 with which his country is covered. Its spreading cushioned feet, formed to tread 
 lightly upon the dry and shifting soil — the nostrils so formed that it can close them 
 at will to exclude "the drift sand of the parching simoom — the powerful upper 
 teeth for assisting in the division of the tough prickly shrubs and dry stunted herb- 
 age of the desert — and above all, the cellular structure of the stomach, which is 
 capable of being converted into an assemblage of watertanks, — bear ample testimony 
 to the care manifested in the structure of this extraordinary quadruped. The 
 camel is weaned at the commencement of the second year, and begins to propagate 
 when four years old, though it does not complete its full growth until the age of 
 twelve. It will live as long as forty years ; but after twenty-five or thirty its ac- 
 tivity begins to fail. Camels are content with the coarsest food— a bunch of dry 
 grass or the stunted shrubs of the wilderness. Their ordinary food is a ball of paste 
 (maabouk), weighing about a pound, made of barley meal and water, which each 
 receives in the evening ; and this is all the daily expense of these useful creatures. 
 The value of the camel depends of course on its Kind and quality. In Hejaz, 
 liurckhardt states the price of a good one to be £14, but they sometimes cost 
 £36 ; and as much as £70 has been paid for one of the Oman breed. 
 
 Camels are used both for riding and carriage, for which purposes they are em- 
 ployed in large numbers in the Eastern caravans. [Caravan.] The first thing that an 
 Arab examines about his camel, when preparing for a long journev, is the hump, 
 which is an infallible criterion as to the ability for exertion ; for whenever it sub- 
 sides the beast gradually yields to fatigue. A long journey will cause the hump almost 
 entirely to disappear : it is easily restored, however, by a few weeks of good nour- 
 ishment and repose. The favourite pace of the riding camel is a kind ot amble at 
 the rate of 5 or 5£ miles an hour. Many fabulous stories are related of the swift- 
 ness of this animal, but it never approaches even for short distances to that of a 
 common horse, though it is perhaps unrivalled for the ease with which it will 
 despatch an uninterrupted journey of several days and nights if allowed its own 
 natural pace, and not employed on hilly, woody, or slippery ground. The load of 
 the carriage camel in common cases is from 400 to 500 lbs. for a short journey, and 
 
CAM 124 CAN 
 
 from 300 to 400 lbs. for one of any considerable distance. The capability of bear- 
 ing thirst varies among the different races. In the caravans from Darfur they 
 travel nine or ten days without water ; but the Anatolian camel requires drink 
 every second day. 
 
 CAMEL-HAIR (Fr. Poll de chameau. Ger. Kameelhaar. It. Pelo di camello), 
 is imported into the United Kingdom from the Levant, principally for the manu- 
 facture of pencils for the painter. That produced in Persia is held in the highest 
 estimation. The black hair is most valued, next the red, and the gray brings only 
 half the price of the red. In the East camel-hair is woven into clothing and even 
 tents, purposes to which it has been applied from a remote period. 
 
 CAMLET (Fr. Camelot. Ger. Kamelot. It. Ciambello) was originally a 
 rough fabric made of the hair of the camel and the goat interwoven, which was 
 used by ascetics. That of the East is made of the hair of the Angora goat. 
 English camlet, however, is a light stuff made of long wool hard spun, sometimes 
 mixed in the loom with cotton or linen yarn. 
 
 CAMPHOR (Du. Kamfer. Fr. Canfre. Ger. Kampfer. It. & Por. Canfora. 
 Sp. Can/or. Arab. & Pers. Kafoor), a peculiar vegetable principle arising from 
 the separation of the volatile oil of different trees, which is used in medicine and 
 the arts. Two kinds are distinguished in commerce : — 
 
 China or Java Camphor, the only kind met with in Europe, is the product of 
 the Laurus camphora (Nees Von Esenbeck), found in Quang-tung and Fo- 
 kien in China, in Cochin China, and in Japan. It is extracted from all parts of tho 
 tree, but chiefly from the roots, and is obtained in the state called crude camphor 
 merely by sublimation. In this state it is generally imported, and is afterwards 
 refined by mixture with lime and a second sublimation. Crude camphor occurs 
 in small brownish or gray grains mixed with impurities. Refined camphor is a 
 very white, soft, semitransparent substance, having a crystalline appearance, a 
 strong and fragrant odour, and a hot pungent taste ; very inflammable, and so 
 volatile as totally to exhale when left exposed in a warm air. Sp. gr. 0'985 : it 
 occurs in round cakes, each weighing about 2 lbs., and is commonly packed in 
 vessels containing nearly 250 cakes. The quantity of camphor exported from Can- 
 ton varies much from year to year. In the United Kingdom about 650 cwts. are 
 annually entered for home consumption. 
 
 Malay or Barus Camphor is found in great purity concreted among the woody 
 fibres of the Dryobalanops camphora, growing in Borneo, Sumatra, and the Malayan 
 Archipelago. As an article of commerce it is found exclusively in the East, and 
 particularly at Canton, where it fetches a price equal to about 100 times that of 
 the article made from their own L. camphora. The former is far more fragrant 
 than the latter, but whether it possesses any superior virtues is exceedingly 
 doubtful. 
 
 CAMPHOR-OIL is a limpid fluid which exudes from the Dryobalanops cam- 
 
 fhora. It is much used in some parts of the East, but is not brought to Europe. 
 t is as agreeable as the concrete substance, and almost as cheap as spirits of tur- 
 pentine. If by any contrivance it could in Britain be reduced to a concrete state, 
 as has lately been done with the oil of the cocoa-nut, the produce might be advan- 
 tageously exported to China, and perhaps retained in part for home consumption. 
 CAM- WOOD, a red dye-wood of a very fine colour, obtained from a tree prin- 
 cipally found in the neighbourhood of Sierra Leone. It is chiefly used in turnery 
 for knife handles and similar articles. About 1000 tons are annually entered for 
 home consumption. 
 
 CANADA BALSAM, a fine species of turpentine, obtained from the Pinus 
 Balsamea. 
 
 CANADA, the most important portion of British America, lies nearly all be- 
 tween the Hudson's Bay Territories and the United States, and, within the basin 
 of the river St Lawrence, from about 42° to 52° N. lat. It was colonized by the 
 French in 1608, and conquered by the British in 1759. There are two provinces, 
 separated by the Ottawa river : — Lower Canada, adjoining the estuary of the St 
 Lawrence ; area, 250,000 square miles ; pop. (1836) 664,631, chiefly of French ori- 
 
 g'n ; capital, Quebec, pop. 30,000. Upper Canada, contiguous to the great lakes 
 ntario, Erie, Huron, and Superior; area, 105,000 square miles; pop. 371,332, 
 chiefly of British origin ; capital, Toronto, pop. 9765. Each province had formerly 
 a governor, executive and legislative councils, and a house of representatives,— the 
 governor of the lower province being likewise captain-general of all British Ame- 
 rica; but, by the act 3 & 4 Vict. c. 35 (1840, July 23) of the Imperial Parliament, 
 the two provinces have been united. 
 
CAN 125 CAN 
 
 Canada, though in some parts hilly, is upon the whole a level and well-watered country. The 
 located portions are mostly confined to the banks of the St Lawrence, the lower part of the Ottawa, 
 margin of the Lakes Ontario and Erie, and the S. E. banks of lakes Huron and St Clair, 
 which are generally fertile. Beyond these districts, the country, more especially towards the N. 
 and \V., is very imperfectly known. The climate is salubrious, and heat and cold, though felt in 
 their extremes, are not oppressive, owing to the purity of the atmosphere. In the lower province, 
 the medium of cold in winter is about 15° Fahr., its maximum about — 20° ; and the medium summer 
 h at is from 75 J to 80°, its maximum 103°. Early in December the St Lawrence is closed by ice, 
 which seldom totally disappears before the first week in May. The five months from May to 
 September, inclusive, comprise the spring, summer, and autumn of the Lower Canadian year. 
 At Montreal, and in the Upper Province, the spring commences from six weeks to two months 
 earlier, according to its latitude, and the climate is in every respect milder ; indeed, in the W. 
 part of Upper Canada, the duration of frost and snow is not more than half, or even one-third, as 
 long as in Quebec. The severity of the Canadian winter is much less unfavourable to the opera- 
 tions of agriculture than might at first appear. The snow effectually prevents the frost from 
 penetrating deeply into the earth, and the rapid progress of the spring thaws, followed by frosty 
 Bights, pulverizes the soil, and helps to prepare it for seed. Against the severity of the 'winter, 
 must also be set down the steady weather which prevails during summer in both province?, and 
 which renders the progress of vegetation so rapid, that the Canadian harvest is early, and almost 
 always secured before bad weather commences. Hence the climate of Canada, severe though it 
 is, presents no obstacle to the unlimited extension of almost every description of produce, except 
 Buch as is peculiar to a tropical climate. 
 
 The Canadians are scattered over a vast extent of country, some parts of which are 800 or 900 
 miles distant from the port of Quebec, and 600 or 700 from that of Montreal. But owing to the 
 facility of communication by means of lakes and rivers, the expense of transport is comparatively 
 small ; and, from the improvements which are taking place in railroads and canals, this expense 
 will soon be greatly reduced. The St Lawrence is navigable for large ships to Montreal, about 
 6'X) miles, and to Quebec, 420 miles, for ships of the line; above Montreal, its current is broken 
 by rapids. The Ottawa and Saguenay, the principal tributaries of the St Lawrence, are only 
 partially navigable, having their course likewise interrupted by falls and rapids. The principal 
 canals are the Grenville and Rideau canals, which, in connexion with the river Ottawa and tho 
 La Chine canal, form a vast chain of internal navigation, reaching by a circuitous line from Mon- 
 treal to Kingston. The Welland canal, a most important work, connects lakes Ontario and 
 Erie, avoiding the Falls of Xiagara. Besides these there are various smaller canals and railroads, 
 ioth in the Upper and Lower Provinces. 
 
 The culture of the soil is the principal occupation of the people ; a circumstance which almost 
 necessarily follows from the abundance of rich land and the total absence of taxes ; for these 
 advantages more than compensate the high price of labour. The chief agricultural product is 
 wheat, the crop of which is estimated at 11,000,000 bushels. The average export of wheat and 
 Vour by sea, in the four years 1832-1835, was equivalent to 780,000 bushels, besides which, a 
 considerable quantity from the Upper Province found its way to the United States ; but in 1836 
 it was much smaller; amounting only to 18,125 barrels flour, and 9716 bushels wheat. The 
 quantity of other articles of agricultural produce has been hitherto inconsiderable; the most 
 important are flax, tobacco, and salted provisions. 
 
 The staple exports of the colony, however, are timber and ashes. The former is the prin- 
 cipal ; but as a portion of the trade is the result of a legislative monopoly arising out of the 
 high duties in the United Kingdom on foreign European timber, with low duties on Canadian, 
 that portion can last only as long as the monopoly is maintained. The chief articles of timber 
 exported to the United Kingdom and the colonies in 1836, were,— oak, 22,805 tons ; elm, 18,733 
 tons ; pine, 315,967 tons ; 6,707,278 staves, chiefly puncheon and standard pieces ; deals, deal-ends, 
 battens, boards, and planks, 2,785,520 pieces ; besides ash and birch timber, hoops, handspikes, and 
 smaller articles ; the whole amounting in value to £7 f, 3,lfi5. Besides the timber carried by sea to 
 the United Kingdom and West Indies, there is a considerable quantity of boards, scantling, and 
 other sawn timber, prepared for the United States and for home consumption. The timber-trade 
 of Canada with the West Indies and the United States, as it exists without protection, cannot be 
 affected by any change of the duties. On the other hand, the advantage which the colony now 
 enjoys with the mother-country may be destroyed by the removal of those restrictions by which 
 it was originally created, and which is at present contemplated. It would exceed the limits of the 
 present article to describe the effects which are likely to result from this change. The prevailing 
 opinion is, that Canada has other means of employing her labour and capital independent of the 
 timber-trade, and that the change will be beneficial not only to the mother-country, but to the 
 colony. The clearing of the land from wood to iit it for cultivation, gives rise to the production of 
 pot and pearl ashes. The usual course is to burn the timber on the ground, and if the price be 
 remunerating, the wood ashes are converted into the ashes of commerce. If, however, the rate be 
 discouraging, they are harrowed in for the improvement of the soil. The quantity shipped is 
 annually about 36,000 barrels, consisting of about two-thirds pot and one-third pearl ashes. Of 
 late years this trade has been on the decline. 
 
 The fisheries of Canada form a subordinate branch of industry ; but still the gulf and lower 
 
 portion of the St Lawrence furnish a considerable quantity of fish and oil for home consumption, 
 
 and leave a small surplus for export. The produce of the fisheries in the county of Gaspe and the 
 
 Magdalen Islands in 183*>, consisted of— cod, 100,542 cwts. ; cod oil, 37,162 gallons ; whale oil, 
 
 -rations, besides salmon and other fish, the whole amounting in value to £86,624. 
 
 Montreal was formerly the emporium of a very considerable portion of the fur trade, which 
 was carried on by two rival companies, — the Hudson's Bay and the North-west. After the failure 
 of the latter association, most of the skins were carried direct to the residents at Hudson's Bay, 
 who have an establishment also at La Chine, near Montreal. But although not a single bale of 
 furs were shipped from that city, we should be justified in ranking the fur-trade among the resources 
 of Canada, because a large importation of British goods takes place through Montreal, and wages 
 are paid to the hunters by drafts on the company in London. There is, however, a small though 
 not an increasing exportation of this article from Montreal, consisting chiefly of skins of the musk- 
 rat, martin, beaver, and otter. 
 
CAN r:o CAN 
 
 Of manufactures, the principal is that of ashes, already noticed. The others are as follow :— 
 Cloth, a kind of gray homespun or ctoffe du pays, worn by the habitant or farmer of Lower Cana- 
 da; coarse cotton, but only in small quantities; coarse linens ; carpets and mats formed of threads 
 obtained from old materials ; straw hats ; worsted stockings and socks ; caps ; leather mittens ; 
 iron wares at St Maurice ; nails; maple sugar; bricks; while soap, candles, leather, linseed-oil 
 and cake are manufactured to an extent sufficient to furnish a surplus for exportation. Whisky 
 is largely produced in both the Canadas. Starch, blue, cider, cordage, paper, and a few other 
 articles are also made, but in very small quantities. It is to be observed that these manufactures, 
 with the exception of whisky, exist almost wholly without protection. But the domestic manu- 
 factures are supported more by the habits of the people than by cheapness ; in fact the itoffe du 
 pays is imitated in Britain at a much lower price than the Canadian cloth usually sells at in the 
 native market. 
 
 Shipbuilding is an important employment in all the N. American colonies. The average num- 
 ber of vessels built annuallv in Canada, during the 11 years ending 1835, was 26, and their tonnage 
 8249. These ships are built of oak, and are of much better workmanship than those of New 
 Brunswick and Nova Scotia, which for the most part are constructed of pine. 
 
 The imports chiefly consist of British manufactures, principally cottons and woollens; in 1836 
 the former amounted in value to £472,892 sterling, the latter to £303,166. The woollens are 
 mostly of the coarser and warmer sorts, such as blankets, flushings, flannels, and the coarse cloths 
 produced in the manufacturing towns of Yorkshire. The cottons are chiefly power-loom shirtings, 
 striped and checked cloths, printed calicoes, ginghams, muslins, cambrics, and also fustians, 
 velveteens, and similar fabrics. The other articles of British produce or manufacture imported 
 in 1836 were as follow : — Hardware, value, £74,249; wrought iron, £56,298; unwrought iron, 
 £35,345; linens, £61,082; silks, £59,488; British refined sugar, £49,628; glass, £84,069; 
 haberdashery, £71,646; earthenware, £15,606; apparel and slops, £33,975; painters' colours, 
 £17,426; besides coals, leather, books, candles, soap, stationery, salt, lead, cordage, hats, and 
 a variety of other goods. 
 
 The other imports are principally composed of the following articles :— tea, about 680,000 lbs., 
 brought chiefly from Britain ; raw sugar, about 3,000, 000 lbs. (maple sugar being extensively 
 grown in the colony) ; rum, 330,000 galls. ; brandy and gin, 220,000 galls. ; wine, nearly 3500 
 pipes, namely, port, 500 ; madeira, 200 ; sherry, 200 ; Teneriffe and other low white wines, 700 ; 
 Spanish and other low red wines, 1600 ; French and German, 300. London enjoys the chief part 
 of this trade to Canada, as there is a discriminating duty of £7, 7s. per tun of 262 galls, on wines 
 " direct from the place of growth." A considerable quantity of low white and red wines is also 
 brought from the Mediterranean, after having been landed at Gibraltar; an expedient by which 
 the high duty is evaded. The West India produce is for the most part imported direct from 
 the place of growth, and chiefly from Grenada, Jamaica, and Demerara. Halifax in Nova 
 Scotia has recently become an entrepot for exchanging the productions of Canada and the West 
 Indies ; the former paying for her purchases in flour and other provisions. St John's in New- 
 foundland also enjoys a small inter-colonial trade. 
 
 The inland trade with the United States is considerable. A portion of the ashes, flour and 
 other provisions consumed in Canada, are derived from thence. In early spring, teas, coffee, 
 fruits, tobacco, and various groceries, are imported from New York by the way of Lake Cham- 
 plain. The exports at St John's, on that lake, the chief seat of this trade, amounted, in 
 1832, to £8197 ; the imports to £146,807- In 1833, the former were £20,500, the latter £104,500. 
 Of the imports fully two-thirds consisted of agricultural produce, all, it is said, required for 
 Canadian consumption. An intercourse with the United States is also carried on from different 
 points in Upper Canada, the duties on which amounted, in 1835, to above £10,000. Of this there 
 were paid at Toronto, £3750; Kingston, £1517; Burlington, £1438; Port Stanley, £835; 
 Brockville, £549. When commodities are exported on American account, the transmission of a 
 bill of exchange on New York easily closes the transaction. Shipments are also made to the West 
 Indies from that city, as well as some of the more southern towns, by order of Canadian houses. 
 These are usually paid for by drafts on London. 
 
 The total imports into Lower Canada in 1836 amounted in value to £1,941,053 sterling; and 
 the exports to £1,034,514 sterling. These sums, however, do not include the extensive illicit 
 trade which is carried on with the United States. The chief ports of the colony are Quebec and 
 Montreal, both being warehousing ports, and the former a " free port " under the act 3 & 4 Wm. 
 IV. c. 59. 
 
 Quebec is a strongly fortified city on the north bank of the St Lawrence, in 46° 49 / N. 71° 16' W. 
 It is divided into two parts ; the Lower Town, where are all the commercial establishments, is 
 situated immediately under Cape Diamond, nearly on a level with the water; the Upper Town is 
 on a rock 200 feet above ; and the communication with the lower town is maintained by a winding 
 street, at the top of which is a fortified gate. The basin of Quebec is very spacious, being suffi- 
 cient to contain 100 sail of the line. In 1836, 1140 ships entered this port, having a tonnage of 
 344.206; of which Great Britain, 880 ships, 291 ,235 tons; British colonies, 174 ships, 22,393 tons; 
 United States, 50 ^hips, 19,619 tons ; foreign states, 42 ships, 10,959 tons. 
 
 Montreal, in 45° 30' N. 73° 30' W., lies about 180 miles above Quebec, on the south side of the 
 island of Montreal, which is formed by the confluence of the St Lawrence and the Ottawa ; pop. 
 35,000. Vessels of 600 tons come up to it. The harbour is not large, but is always secure ; 
 the greatest disadvantage is the rapid of St Mary, about a mile below the town. Montreal is the 
 commercial capital of Canada, being favourably situated for the lumber trade, and for intercourse 
 with the Upper Province and the United States. Most of the business, even in Quebec, is carried 
 on by branches from its mercantile houses. In 1836, there entered this port 98 ships, 22,289 tons ; 
 of which Great Britain 73 ships, 19,410 tons ; British colonies 23 ships, 2392 tons ; foreign states. 
 2 ships, 487 tons. S 
 
 MEASURES, WEIGHTS, MONEY, DUTIES, &C. 
 
 Measures and Weir/Ms are those of Great Bri 
 tain, but with the old English measures of capa- 
 city. The minot, sometimes used in Lower Ca- 
 nada, is an old French measure, 90 of which are 
 
 commonly estimated at 100 English or Winches- 
 ter bushels, although the true proportion is 90 
 to 98. 
 Money and Exchanges. — Accounts are kept 
 
CAN 
 
 12 
 
 CAN 
 
 nnd sales and purchases are made in pounds, I Those in the Upper Province were four in num- 
 shillings, and pence, Halifax currency, which is ber :— The Bank of Upper Canada, with a capital 
 20 per cent, inferior to British, though ' of £200,000, that of Kingston, or the Midland 
 the denominations and proportions are the same. District, with a capital of £100,000, together 
 The pound currency is four Spanish dollars, with the Agricultural and People's Banks, the 
 each dollar being called 5s. But the average' paid up capital of which was probably £100,000 
 value of the dollar in the London market is only j more. The Bank of British America, esta- 
 4-. 2d. ; hence 4s. 2d. sterling = 5s, currency ; or, Wished in London in the year 1836, has also 
 1 6s. 8d. sterling = £1 currency ; or £100 ster- branches in various places- Most of the provin- 
 ling = £120 currency. The comparison of ex- cial banks are instituted on the American prin- 
 change is, however, complicated, by theassump- ciple of limited liability. 
 
 tion of a par departing widely from the value of j Tariff. — The duties on imported goods levied 
 the currency. This erroneous par is 4s. Gd. taken in Canada are imposed partly by the authority 
 as the value of the dollar, or £90 sterling equal to , of the British government, and partly by that of 
 £100 currency ; the rule being, add one-ninth to the colonial legislature. The former are called 
 Bterling to obtain currency. To make up the differ- Icroicn duties, and the latter provincial duties ; 
 ence between the erroneous par and the average | the first being in sterling money, the latter in 
 value of the currency,— say the approximate par, currency. In charging the duties, the dollar 
 —it is necessary to make "use of a nominal pre- 1 is received at 4s. 4d., which is 2d. less than the 
 mium of exchange. Thus, when exchange is really j old par, but 2<L more than its real value. The 
 wholly undisturbed, or, in other words, at par i provincial duties have no object besides the in- 
 (£100 sterling selling for £120 currency), it is I crease of revenue, not discriminating in any way 
 said to be at 8 per cent, premium. For example, I between the sources of supply. The crown duties, 
 bill on London, sterling £100; add premium 8 [on the other hand, seem to be framed rather 
 per cent. £8, makes £108; adding also one- ; for the purpose of forcing the trade into particu- 
 ninth, £12, we have £l20 currency = £100 [ lar channels, than for simple revenue ; and the 
 sterling. The better way would be to quote the ! royal receipts are certainly trifling compared with 
 dollar, or the pound, or the £100, at what each j what they would be were the imports equalized, 
 is respectively worth. Government exchange is j The provincial duties are, on spirits, 6d. per gall.; 
 thus quoted, so are sovereigns. The commis- Madeira wine, 9d. per gall. ; other wines, 6d. per 
 sary -general of Canada quotes his drafts at 4s. 2d. I gall. ; molasses, 5d. per gall. ; coffee, 2d. per lb. ; 
 or 4s, 1 3d. per dollar, as the case may be ; that sugar, raw, id., refined, Id. per lb. ; teas, hyson, 
 is, on being paid so many times 5s. currency, he j 6d., bohea, 2d., all others, 4d. per lb. ; tobacco, 
 will deliver a bill on the treasury of as many manufactured, 3d., leaf, 2d. per lb. ; snuff, 4d. 
 times 4s. 2d. or 4s. 1 3d. sterling. Sovereigns are ! per lb.; salt, 4d. per minot, which is drawn 
 quoted in the Canadian price-lists at 24s. curren- 1 back if reshipped for fisheries; goods, wares, 
 cy (more or less). Thus, 4s. 2d. sterling per dol- and merchandise not specified (including nearly 
 lar ; 24s. currency per sovereign ; exchange at 8 all British manufactures), 2£ per cent, ad valo- 
 per cent, premium ; and £l( r sterling = £120 rem. The crown dutiesarenot levied on British 
 currency, all mean the same state of the ex- ■ produce and manufactures. On foreign wine, 
 change. Fluctuations in the rate of exchange of (except French wine) the crown duty is 10s. per 
 
 course revolve round the nominal premium of 8 
 per cent, as around a pivot, so that 6 per cent, 
 premium is in fact 2 discount, and 10 per cent, 
 only 2 premium. The circulating medium is 
 chiefly composed of British and American coins, 
 and of notes circulated by the various banks. No 
 paper is issued by the government or on the cre- 
 dit of the colony. 
 
 The Banks in 1836, in the Lower Province, 
 consisted of the Montreal Bank, with a capital 
 of £990,000; the (Montreal) City Bank, capital 
 £200,000; the People's Bank, capital paid up 
 £75,000; and Quebec Bank, capital £75,000. 
 
 tun in wood from the United Kingdom, Malta, 
 and Gibraltar, and £7 per tun from place of 
 growth; on British plantation rum 6d., and 
 foreign spirits Is. per gall. ; tea and British plan- 
 tation sugar and coffee are free. On most other 
 articles the 3d and 4th Wm. IV. c 59, imposes 
 duties of 7J, 15, 20, and 30 per cent. ; but, as 
 in general they amount to a prohibition, they 
 are seldom levied. The duty of 71 per cent, is 
 occasionally paid, but the excess only is levied ; 
 so that when the goods are liable to the provin- 
 cial duty of 2J per cent., 5 per cent, only is pay- 
 able to the crown. [Colony. Emigration.] 
 
 CANAL, an artificial channel of water, adapted to the easy conveyance of goods 
 in boats or barges, also sometimes for the purposes of irrigation and the supplying 
 of towns with water. Navigable canals have existed since a very remote period, 
 but were principally confined to the low countries adjacent to the alluvial deltas 
 of large rivers, such as the Nile, the Euphrates, and the great Chinese rivers, and in 
 Europe the Po and the Rhine. In such countries, indeed, nature may be said to 
 have pointed out this method of communication, as in every way the most conve- 
 nient and simple. In Holland, the canals answer all the purposes of highways, 
 and may be likened in their number and utility to the turnpike roads of England; 
 but as a pecuniary investment, the former yield an immense income to government, 
 while the returns of the latter are barely sufficient to keep them in repair. The 
 canals of Holland are mostly formed in straight lines ; and the country being quite 
 fiat, they are constructed very simply, and without any of the costly expedients of 
 deep cutting, embanking, or tunnelling. The lock, which is an indispensable 
 appendage to canals in this country, is comparatively a modern contrivance, having 
 been first applied in Italy towards the end of the fifteenth century. The vast ex- 
 tent of water communication in China has no locks even to this day. As a sub- 
 stitute they have inclined planes of stone, over which they haul the vessels and 
 launch them again in the upper level ; thus applying main force to accomplish 
 what is effected in the lock by simply letting in the water from the upper level 
 into the trough, and thereby raising the enclosed barge. 
 
CAN 128 CAN 
 
 The first efforts of any consequence that were made in this country towards ex- 
 tending inland navigation, took place ahout the beginning of last century, and by 
 the middle of it 40 acts had been obtained for improving and extending the navi- 
 gation of some of the principal rivers in England. Experience showed, however, 
 that navigation of this kind was liable to continual waste, and the works sub- 
 ject to destruction by floods. These difficulties suggested (in 1757) to the pro- 
 prietors of the Sankey navigation in Lancashire the expediency of substituting a 
 new cut alongside Sankey brook, instead of making the latter navigable. But it 
 was the Duke of Bridgewater that first aroused public attention to undertak- 
 ings of this kind, by a canal which he formed to convey coal from one of his 
 estates at Worsley to Manchester, about nine miles distant. The novel features 
 of this work consisted then (1759 J in its taking a direction away from all natural 
 water courses, passing boldly across the river Irwell, at a height of 40 feet above it 
 by means of an aqueduct 600 feet long, and tunnelling through the solid rock of a 
 large hill to reach the mouths of the coal pits. This canal and many others were 
 executed at the private expense of the Duke of Bridgewater, and completed with 
 wonderful skill and ingenuity by Briudley, his grace's engineer. The signal 
 success which attended these undertakings, opened the eyes of the nation to the 
 advantages to be derived from still-water navigation ; and extensions from the 
 river Mersey to the Trent, Severn, and Thames, quickly followed. These, and the 
 rapid formation of joint -stock companies, of which upwards of 100 have been 
 incorporated for works of this sort, are evidence of the zeal with which such im- 
 provements have been prosecuted. Mr Telford, in his autobiography, mentions as 
 an instance of the eagerness of the public about 1790 for canal speculations, that 
 at the first general meeting of the promoters of the Ellesmere canal (112 miles 
 long, and connecting the Mersey, Dee, and Severn), four times the estimated ex- 
 pense was at once subscribed without hesitation. 
 
 In England, about 2400 miles of navigable canals have now been made, and 
 wholly at the expense of private companies or individuals; in Ireland, 300 miles ; 
 in Scotland, 200. These works are unequalled for extent, and for difliculties 
 of all sorts successfully overcome. As specimens of the latter may be mentioned 
 the tunnel at Blisworth, on the grand Junction canal, which is 3080 yards in 
 length. The underground cuttings in the Duke of Bridgewater's canal are said to 
 be altogether 18 miles long, and to have cost £170,000. The Marsden tunnel, in 
 the Huddersfield canal, is 5451 yards long. The tunnel at Sapperton, in the 
 Thames and Severn canal, is 2§ miles in length, and 250 feet below the highest 
 point of the hill through which it is made. In the Thames and Medway canal, 
 between Gravesend and Rochester, a tunnel 2£ miles is cut through the chalk ; 
 and one of the tunnels of the Leominster canal at Pensax is 3850 yards long. 
 
 In the planning, of canals, the first object is to select a line that conforms best 
 with the levels and natural drainage of the country, so as to have as few locks 
 as possible, and a plentiful supply of water to them at all seasons. The latter has 
 to be regulated in a great measure by the amount of trade, or number of barges 
 that pass the locks, and the water must be supplied at the highest part of the canal; 
 but the greater part of the waste is generally owing to loss by leakage through the 
 gates, absorption through the ground, and evaporation. It sometimes happens 
 that the adjacent streams are insufficient in dry seasons, or their water is taken off 
 for mills; in such cases, reservoirs must be constructed with weirs and sluices at 
 a great expense. To prevent loss by absorption, the whole extent of the canal is 
 lined with a clay puddle, impervious "to water ; and in embankments, vertical lay- 
 ers, or sunk walls of the same material, are generally placed at each side as further 
 security. 
 
 The expense of constructing canals depends so much upon local circumstances 
 that it is impossible to give data of general application. Some idea, however, of 
 the relative proportion which one part of the work bears to another, may be had 
 from the following abstracts of estimates by Mr Baird and Mr Telford. 
 
 Edinburgh Union Canal, 32 miles. (Mr Baird.) Cutting, embanking, puddling, 
 towing paths, £71,000 ; bridges, aqueducts, tunnels, drains, £84,000 ; land, 
 £23,000 ; fencing, £5500 ; nine locks, rise 110 feet, £17,000 ; reservoirs, £12,000 ; 
 total, £212,500. 
 
 Leicestershire and Northamptonshire Canal, 42 miles. (Mr Telford.) Cutting, &c, 
 
 £130,000 ; bridges, &c, £65,000; land, £18,000 ; fencing, £6700 ; total, £219,700. 
 
 The rise effected by a lock varies from 4 to 12 feet, according to circumstances, 
 
 but seldom exceeds 8 feet. The expense appears from Mr Telford's estimates to 
 
 vary in general from about £120 to £180 per foot rise. 
 
CAN 
 
 129 
 
 CAN 
 
 The facilities of transit that are afforded hy canals seem as yet to be confined to 
 low rates of speed. Careful experiments, made with barges, proceeding at from one 
 to four miles an hour, have shown that the resistance increases rather faster than the 
 square of the velocity. At four miles an hour the power necessary to pull along 
 ordinarv loaded barges is 1-31 7th of the gross load, while at two miles per hour it 
 diminishes to l-1200th only. On a good level turnpike road the power requires to 
 be l-30thof the load, and on level railways about 1 -220th ; but they remain the 
 same at all velocities. Thus at a speed of about 11 miles per hour the same power 
 will pull along the same load on a canal as on a turnpike road ; and a similar 
 equality of advantage exists between a canal and a railway at a speed of 4^ miles 
 per hour. Below this rate the canal has the advantage of the railway in point of 
 economy ; above it the railway has the advantage of the canal. 
 
 The stimulus given to internal intercourse by the success of railways, and espe- 
 cially the fears entertained by canal proprietors of the injury that their property 
 was likely to sustain by their general introduction, has urged them of late, however, 
 to effect considerable improvements in the construction of passage-boats ; though a9 
 yet steam- vessels have not been introduced with success. Experiments made by 
 the Forth and Clyde Canal Company have proved that a rate of velocity may be 
 attained with horses, which at one time would have been deemed quite chimerical. 
 This has been accomplished by extremely light barges called swift boats, weighing 
 onlv from 2 to 3 tons ? and made very narrow so as to penetrate the water easily, 
 and produce little disturbance. Their use is principally confined to the canals 
 between Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Paisley ; and their usual rate is from 8 to 9 
 miles the hour, not including stoppages or passing of locks. They carry from 80 
 to 90 passengers each, weighing with luggage from 5 to 6 tons. They perform the 
 distance (56 miles) between Edinburgh and Glasgow in 7 hours. On the Grand 
 Junction canal, between London and Birmingham, fly boats are employed, which 
 average a speed of 4 miles per hour : they weigh from 7 to 7| tons, and carry from 
 10 to 15 tons of goods. The ordinary heavy boats are dragged at the rate of from 
 2 to 2^ miles the hour : they carry 20 tons of goods, and weigh 6^ tons ; others 
 carry 24, and weigh 9 tons. [Stocks.] 
 
 Table of the cost of conveying goods and passengers on canals at different rates 
 of speed. ( Wood on Rail-Roads, p. 678 ; 1838.) S 
 
 Description 
 of Boats. 
 
 Rate of speed 
 
 in miles per 
 
 hour. 
 
 Resistance 
 
 in fraction 
 
 of load. 
 
 Cost of haul- 
 age per ton 
 per mile. 
 
 Cost of 
 boat-hire 
 
 per ton 
 per mile. 
 
 General 
 Expenses 
 per ton 
 per mile. 
 
 Aggregate Charges. 
 
 Useful load per 
 ton per mUe. 
 
 Gross load per 
 ton per mile. 
 
 Slow boats 
 Flv boats 
 Swift boats 
 
 21 
 4 
 10 
 
 
 d. 
 
 0-18 
 
 0-50 
 
 0-275 
 
 per passen- 
 
 3id.perton 
 
 d. 
 032. 
 0-66. 
 
 d. 
 086 
 2-34 
 9-7 
 
 d. 
 
 1-36 
 35 
 1-08 
 
 per passenger. 
 13*d. per ton. 
 
 d. 
 
 1-02 
 
 2275 
 
 lOd.perton. 
 
 CANARY ISLANDS, a group belonging to Spain, situated in the Atlantic, off 
 the coast of Morocco, between 27° 40' and 29° 30' N., and 13° 30' and 18° 20' W. 
 The inhabited islands and their population (1837) are Teneriffe, 85,448 ; Canary, 
 72,779 ; Palma, 33,098 ; Lanzarote, 17,714 ; Fuerteventura, 14,096 ; Gomera, 11,722; 
 Hierro, or Ferro, 4481 ; total, 239,338. The seat of the governor-general is at Santa 
 Cruz, the port of Teneriffe, in 28° 29' N., and 16° 15' W.; pop. 8500. The other chief 
 towns are Laguna and Orotava in the same island, and Las Palmas in Canary. 
 
 The aspect of the Canaries is, throughout, elevated, and some of the mountains, particularly the 
 Peak of Teneriffe, rank among the loftiest in the globe. The sides of the mountains inclining 
 towards the W. and N. exhibit, rising above each other, the plants of the torrid, the temperate, 
 and even the frigid zone. The islands are within the limits of the trade-wind, and the climate 
 eminently salubrious. The most fertile are Canary and Teneriffe ; Lanzarote and Fuerteventura 
 are dry and sandy. About one-fifth of the surface of the whole islands is under cultivation. In a 
 late consular return, the principal productions in one year are stated to be, wine, 46,226 pipes ; 
 potatoes, 151 .800 quarters ; wheat, 57,487 qrs. ; maize, 39,876 qrs. ; barley, 66,282 qrs. ; rye, 5343 
 qrs. ; vegetables, 10,310 qrs. ; barilla, 114,000 quintals ; and orchilla, 1498 quintals. A small quan- 
 tity of sugar is made, and there are manufactures of coarse linens, cloths, and silks. Domestic 
 animals are plentiful. An active commercial intercourse exists among the different islands, and 
 upwards of 30 vessels are employed in the fishery on the coast of Africa. The staple export is 
 wine, particularly that called " Teneriffe," the better sort of which is equal to the middling kinds 
 of Madeira, for which it frequently passes in England. In 1833, there were exported 3561 pipes 
 from Santa Cruz, of which, 1855 were sent to London, 968 to Hamburg and Bremen, 405 to 
 the United States, and 181 to St Thomas ; but the total export of wine from the islands in that year 
 was 8684 pipes. The chief of the other exports are barilla, cochineal, orchilla, fruit, and raw silk, 
 
CAN 130 CAN 
 
 with small quantities of brandy, vinegar, rock-moss, and tunny-fish. The imports consist of sugar, 
 coffee, brandy, oil, leather for soles, wax, and a variety of manufactured goods. The amount of 
 exports in 1833, according to the tariff valuation, was, to Spain, £34,206 ; America, £4693 ; 
 other countries, £65,224 ; total, £104,123 ; and imports from Spain, £29,047 ; America, £11,885 ; 
 other countries, £ 128, 592 ; total, £169,524. The imports of British and Irish produce and ma- 
 nufactures, amount annually to about £40,000 ; chiefly consisting of cottons and woollens, linens, 
 iron, hardware, cutlery, glass, soap, earthenware, hats, and apparel. Foreign wheat, India 
 piece goods, and brandy, are likewise imported from this country. In 1838, 38 British vessels ar- 
 rived at Santa Cruz, Teneriffe ; 13 at the port of Orotava ; 8 at Arecife in Lanzarote ; and 12 at 
 Port of Palmas in Canary. 
 
 The Canaries are frequently visited by ships for fresh provisions, which, except vegetables, 
 may be obtained plentifully in most of the islands. There is, however, no accommodation for 
 ships except open roadsteads, which are unsafe in winter. 
 Measures, Weigtits, and Money, same as Spain. 
 
 CANARY SEED is the produce of an annual grass (Phalaris Canariensis), 
 chiefly cultivated near Sandwich in Kent ; an acre yielding from 3 to 5 quarters. 
 It is used extensively for the food of tame singing-birds. 
 
 CANARY WOOD, a fancy wood of a golden-yellow colour. 
 
 CANDIA, or CRETE, one of the largest islands in the Mediterranean, is situ- 
 ated to the S. of the Grecian Archipelago. Length, 160 miles ; breadth varying 
 from 6 to 35. Population 300,000. Capital, Candia, in 35° 21' N. 25° 3' E. ; pop. 
 12,000. The island forms a Turkish pashalic. 
 
 The coast, especially towards the N., is indented by deep gulfs ; on the S. it is rugged and iron- 
 bound ; and a continuous mass of high land runs through the whole length of the island. The soil 
 is fertile, producing corn, especially barley, oil, honey, and wine, besides considerable quantities 
 of cheese, wool, wax, silk, valonia, carobs, and a variety of fruits. The principal exports are, 
 white soap (50,000 cwts.), sent chiefly to Turkey and Greece, oil, silk, raisins, carobs, valonia, 
 almonds, chesnuts, oranges, lemons, and linseed ; and the imports, grain, rice, cottons and piece 
 goods, timber, leather and hides, tobacco, sugar, barilla, butter, salt fish, and other articles ; 
 the whole amounting annually to about £130,000 sterling. The chief commercial intercourse 
 is with Turkey, Greece, Austria, and Egypt. According to a recent consular return, the average 
 annual value of British manufactures and metals imported is about £22,000 ; consisting of cotton 
 twist, 70,000 lbs. ; gray calicoes, 4000 pieces ; madapolams, 3500 pieces ; long cloths, 500 pieces ; 
 imitation shawls, 8000 pieces ; nankeens, 30,000 yds. ; muslins, 2500 pieces ; prints, 1200 pieces ; 
 cambrics, 1500 pieces ; printed shawls, 500 doz. ; iron, 600 quintals ; shot, 100 sacks. The most 
 frequented port is Canea. Itetimo has also a small harbour. That of Candia is much decayed, 
 and nearly filled up. These three principal towns are all situated on the N. side of the island. 
 
 = 126 lbs. avoird. A mule or horse load (by 
 which some duties are reckoned) weighs about 
 2£ cwts. ; an ass load 1| cwt. 
 
 Money. — 40 paras =l piastre; and 100 piastres 
 = £1 sterling nearly, gj 
 
 Measures and Weights.— The pic or ell = 25J 
 Imp. inches ; the dennum is about 40 sq. yds. ; 
 the mistach of oil about 3 Imp. galls. ; the mis- 
 tach of wine varies from 3 to 5 galls. ; the corn 
 measure is the carga = 4-19 or nearly A\ Imp. 
 bush.; the oke = 23 lbs. avoird. ; and the quintal 
 
 CANDLE. Candles are manufactured from tallow, bleached bees'-wax, 
 spermaceti, the concrete part of cocoa-nut oil, and lately the concrete part of 
 tallow has been separated by pressure from the oil, and made into candles, under 
 the name of stearine. They are also made from mixtures of the preceding, and 
 called composition, imperial wax, &c. Candles are always cylindrical, and have 
 a wick formed of fine cotton in the centre. The use of the wick is purely mechani- 
 cal ; when lighted it first melts the solid candle, which, being drawn by capillary 
 action, is diffused over the fibres of the wick, and thus prepared for decomposition 
 and combustion. The quality of the candle depends very much upon the wick, as 
 if too thin, it will melt more than the fibres can decompose, and the candle will 
 run ; if, on the other hand, the wick be too thick, the candle will smoke ; owing to 
 the melted part not being in a perfect state of combustion, for want of air at the 
 centre of the wick. Wax and sperm, from being less fusible than tallow, are made 
 with a much more slender wick, which, bending over, is consumed by the oxygen 
 of the atmosphere, and therefore requires no snuffing. The best tallow candles are 
 always firm and white. Wax candles, on the contrary, are never perfectly white 
 when pure, but are a little inclined to straw colour. They should be hard and free 
 of grease ; when very white and opaque, they are adulterated with tallow. Pure 
 spermaceti candles are readily distinguished by their transparency, and they are 
 therefore seldom adulterated. Wax candles, on the contrary, are much adulter- 
 ated ; and it is not uncommon for dealers to quote their price at one-half of that 
 of the raw material. S 
 
 Tallow candles were formerly subject to an excise duty of Id., and wax and 
 spermaceti of 3^d. per lb. These duties were repealed from 1st January 1832 
 (1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 19). In 1830, the quantities brought to charge were, tallow, 
 115,586,192 lbs. ; wax and spermaceti, 1,265,113 lbs. ; and the net produce of the 
 duty, £482,413 ; a considerable quantity of tallow candles were, however, manu- 
 factured privately. The exportation of candles is trifling, except to the West Indies. 
 
CAN 131 CAP 
 
 CANDY, a large East Indian weight, consisting generally of 20 maunds. The 
 Madras candy of 20 maunds = 500 lbs. avoird. ; the Bombay candy also of 20 
 maunds = 560 lbs., or 5 cwt. avoird., reckoned for grain at 25 Winchester, or 24| 
 Imp. bushels. 
 
 CANDY, a preparation of sugar, made by melting and crystallizing it several 
 times. 
 
 CANELLA ALBA, an aromatic tree common in the West Indies. The bark 
 of the young branches, freed from its outer rind, is imported in rolls or quills two 
 or three feet in length, or in small broken pieces, and employed as a stomachic. It 
 has a bitterish, acrid, peppery, taste, and is sometimes called white cinnamon. 
 
 CANES are obtained from a variety of palms and plants of the reed kind. They 
 are imported principally from the Malayan Archipelago, India, and China. The 
 chief are the Bamboo and Rattan. 
 
 CANNA, or CANNE, a measure for cloth in Italy, and in the South of France, 
 Spain, and other places. 
 
 CANNON. [Gun.] 
 
 CANTARO, a weight used in Italy, Egypt, and the Levant. It generally con- 
 tains 100 rottoli. 
 
 CANTEEN, a place in a fort or barracks licensed for the sale of liquors, tobacco, 
 and provisions. The sale of liquors is not allowed except at the canteen, and the 
 quantity sold at one time is regulated by the commanding-officer. The quarter- 
 master is responsible that no disorder occurs. 
 
 CANTHARIDES, called also Spanish fly or blister beetle, is an insect (Can- 
 tharis vesicatoria) found in the warmer parts of Europe, especially Spain and Italy. 
 It is about three-fourths of an inch long, of a bright green colour, except the legs 
 and antennre, which are bluish black, and is well known for its medical uses. 
 
 CANVASS, a coarse strong cloth made of hemp or flax, and used chiefly for 
 Sail-cloth. 
 
 CAOUTCHOUC, GUM-ELASTIC, or INDIAN RUBBER (Fr. Caoutchou. 
 Ger. Federharz. Por. Boracha. Sp. Resina elastica. Ule), is obtained from the 
 juice of several South American plants, particularly the Siphonia elastica, also from 
 the Ficus elastica, a species of fig-tree. Incisions are made in the bark, chiefly 
 in wet weather, and the flux, which is abundant and of a yellowish-white colour, 
 is conducted by tubes into vessels for its reception. The caoutchouc is after- 
 wards separated by heat or exposure to the air. It is formed by the natives of S. 
 America into pear-shaped bottles, by being spread over moulds of clay, and its 
 dusky coating is communicated by exposure to smoke in order that it may be tho- 
 roughly dried. It is then commonly marked on the outside with various lines or 
 figures, and the clay after having been softened with water is picked out. 
 
 Caoutchouc, when pure, is destitute of taste and smell. Its sp. gr. varies from '930 
 to 1. It is remarkable for its elasticity. It is insoluble in water and in alcohol ; and 
 is difficultly acted upon by acids and alkalis. It dissolves sparingly in washed ether ; 
 but in the coal naphtha, or oil obtained from gas works, it is softened and dissolved 
 in a very remarkable manner, and the solutions have been applied to render vari- 
 ous articles of clothing waterproof. The cloth thus prepared, besides being exten- 
 sively used for cloaks, is so impervious to moisture and to air, that floating or 
 hydrostatic beds for invalids are formed from it, and even beds and cushions are 
 rendered elastic by inflation. Caoutchouc is besides employed for the erasure of 
 pencil marks on paper by friction, for the manufacture of braces and surgical 
 instruments, and it is cut by machinery into very fine thread, which is woven into 
 a variety of ornaments and elastic fabrics. " Subjected to destructive distillation 
 it yields a large relative proportion of a highly volatile and inflammable liquid 
 hydrocarbon. This product, which is applicable to many useful purposes in the 
 arts, is made upon a large scale by Messrs Enderby of London ; it is a solvent of 
 caoutchouc itself, and of other substances used as varnishes. The various applica- 
 tions of caoutchouc in the manufacture of elastic articles and other useful products, 
 are as yet probably in their infancy only." (Brande's Chemistry.) 
 
 Caoutchouc is imported chiefly from Guiana, in the woods of which, as well as 
 in the province of Quito, and along the borders of the Amazon, the tree grows 
 abundantly. The consumption has of late years been greatly increased, partly 
 owing to the entire repeal of the import duty, but chiefly from the discovery of its 
 application to waterproof clothing by Mr M'Intosh. 
 
 CAPE BRETON. [Nova Scotia and Cape Breton.] 
 
 CAPE DE VERDE ISLANDS, a group subject to Portugal, situated in the 
 Atlantic, about 300 miles W. of Cape Verde in Africa, and consisting of ten islands, of 
 
CAP 132 CAP 
 
 which the largest are St Jago, St Antonio, and St Nicholas ; the smaller Mayo, 
 Bona Vista, Sal, St Vincent, St Lucia, Brava, and Fogo, besides numerous islets. 
 Population in 1830, 88,000, out of which 30,000 are said to have died of famine in 
 1833. Chief town, Porto Praya, in St Jago ; lat. 14° 54' N. long. 23° 30' W. It 
 is the residence of a governor-general, whose administration extends over these 
 islands and the Portuguese settlements in Senegambia. 
 
 The Cape de Verde Islands possess little commercial interest, being mountainous and unpro- 
 ductive, and situated at a distance from the usual track of vessels destined for America and the 
 Indies. Their productions are cotton, fruit, cattle, poultry, orchilla, goats, asses, mules, turtle, 
 and salt. The latter is formed in large quantities by natural evaporation on the seashore, parti- 
 cularly in Mayo and Sal, which are frequented by American vessels for its collection. The amount 
 of British produce and manufactures exported to these islands in 1838 was £1392, but in 1839, only 
 £189. 
 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, a British colony composed of the portion of Africa 
 lying between the Southern Ocean and lat. 29° S. Area about 150,000 sq. miles, but 
 not accurately defined. Population (1838), 156,616, chiefly African- Dutch, negroes, 
 and Hottentots. The administration of public affairs is vested in a governor, aided 
 by executive and legislative councils. 
 
 The Cape territory is in general rugged and barren, and deficient in the means both of internal 
 and external communication. But a portion of the E. coast is of a different character, more 
 especially towards the N. E. frontier, including the district of Albany, where the country is well 
 wooded and watered, and favourable for agriculture and grazing. The W. coast, and a great 
 portion of the rest of the country, consist of barren mountains and arid plains, one of which, the 
 Great Karroo Desert, a high parched table-land, separating the Cape Town District from the finer 
 country to the N.E., extends about 100 leagues in length, from E. to W., and 30 in breadth. The 
 climate, however, is one of the finest in the world; and were the aridity of the soil counteracted 
 by irrigation, and the means of intercourse improved by the formation of roads, the character of 
 the country would be very different, as the capabilities of the soil are naturally great. The 
 only parts thickly settled are the Cape and Stellenbosch districts, which contain about 3-8ths 
 of the whole population, some parts of Worcester, Graaf Iteynet, and the British settlements at 
 Graham Town and Bathurst, in Albany ; the other portions are occupied chiefly by Dutch graziers 
 called boors. Nearly 225,000 acres are under crop, yielding annually about 540,000 bushels of 
 wheat, besides smaller quantities of barley, oats, and rye ; the remainder of the productive sur- 
 face is chiefly pasture land. The principal mercantile commodity is wine, of which about 12,000 
 leaguers (1,518,000 Imp. galls.) are made yearly, besides about 1000 leaguers (126,630 galls.) of 
 brandy. The vine is grown chiefly in the Stellenbosch district, and within forty miles round Cape 
 Town ; but the wines, except that made at Constantia, near Table Mountain, are almost all of 
 very low quality. Of late years, part of the capital which was embarked in the wine trade 
 has been transferred to the production of wool, which has thus risen into considerable importance ; 
 and as the Merino breed of sheep has been introduced with success, wool will probably become ere- 
 long the chief staple of the colony. The fisheries might, under good management, be an import- 
 ant branch of industry, as the coasts are frequented by numerous whales ; but at present the trade 
 is almost entirely in the possession of the Americans. 
 
 The progress of the Cape colony has, of late years, been materially impeded by the invasion of 
 the N.E. frontier by the Caffres, and by the extraordinary emigration of about 20,000 of the Dutch 
 colonists to Natal, on the E. coast, partly on account of the great fertility of that district, and 
 partly from hostility towards Government, on account of the emancipation of their slaves. The 
 departure of the farmers has produced a great rise in the price of provisions at Cape Town , which 
 has materially lessened the demand for ship refreshments, formerly a principal branch of trade at 
 that port, and amounting to about £100,000 yearly. The chief of the other native exports are, 
 wine (1,000,000 galls.), wool, hides and skins, horns, tallow, flour, wheat, bran, butter, whale oil 
 and fins, aloes, ivory, besides which, coffee [Co ffke], sugar, tea, spices, and a variety of other 
 articles are shipped at second-hand from Brazil, Mauritius, India, and China. In 1836, the exports 
 amounted in value to £384,383 ; of which at Cape Town, £336,199 ; at Port Elizabeth, £47,307 ; 
 at Simon's Town, £877- The imports into the colony in the same year amounted to £891,162, 
 chiefly from the United Kingdom. With the exception of foreign spirits (principally brandy), 
 wines, and spices, the British imports consist almost wholly of manufactured goods, and of these 
 upwards of one-third are cottons ; the remainder chiefly woollens, apparel, silks, arms, hardware, 
 and earthenware. The demand for English produce and manufactures increased from £216,558 
 (the declared value) in 1827, to £623,323 in 1838, arising partly from the improved habits of the 
 Dutch farmers, but principally from a more extended intercourse with the natives of the interior. 
 
 The ports are few and in bad condition. The principal are, Cape Town, the capital and seat of 
 government, situated in 33° 56' S. and 18° 28' E. on Table Bay ; pop. 20,000 ; Port Elizabeth, in 
 Algoa Bay, the shipping place for the E. part of the colony ; and Simon's Town, which are all 
 free warehousing ports. In 1836, 486 ships entered these ports, having an aggregate tonnage of 
 134,875 tons. 
 
 MEASURES, WEIGHTS, MONEY, DUTIES, &C. 
 
 Measures and Weights.— 132% Dutch ells =100 
 yds. ; 49j morgen = 100 acres. The leaguer of 4 
 ahms = 152 English wine or 126*63 Imp. galls. ; 
 the muid or mudde of 4 schepels=3-06 Imp.bush.; 
 and 914, Dutch lbs. = 100 lbs. avoird. The Dutch 
 measures and weights, however, are now almost 
 entirely superseded by British. 
 
 Money is reckoned in pounds, shillings, and 
 pence sterling ; or in rixdollars of 8 schellings, 
 
 24 dubbletjees, or 48 stivers = Is. 6d. sterling. 
 The currency principally consists of British coins 
 and of notes issued by the Government Bank and 
 the " Cape of Good Hope Bank." 
 
 Banks, Sgc. — A government bank has long ex- 
 isted at Cape Town, which receives deposits, 
 discounts bills, and issues notes. Much injury 
 was at one time sustained by the over issues of 
 the bank, which were conducted to such an ex- 
 
CAP 133 CAR 
 
 tent that the paper rixdollar was depreciated 
 from 4s. to Is. 4d., its value prior to 1826, when 
 it was fixed permanently at 1 s. fid. The Cape of 
 Good Hope Bank, lately established, has its head 
 office also at Cape Town ; but it has branches at 
 Graham Town and other places. Another joint- 
 stock bank has been projected at Graham Town 
 
 Finance*. — In 1836, the public revenue amount- 
 ed to£158,697, and the expenditure to£147,579; 
 the last, however, was exclusive of the expenses 
 incurred in England on account of the colony. 
 
 Import Duties.— The general rate on British or 
 colonial merchandise is 3 per cent, ad valorem,' 
 on foreign, 10 per cent. (Order in Council, Au- 
 but it may be doubted how far the resources of I gust 10, 1840). The dues levied on vessels entering 
 that locality are yet sufficient to afford stability I Table or Simon's Bay, for the purposes of trade, 
 to such an institution. There are also two insu- | are 4Jd. per ton ; but if for refreshments or other 
 ranee companies, namely, the " South African" purposes, only 2£d. per ton. The importation of 
 and " Cape of Good Hope." The shares of all arms and ammunition is prohibited except with 
 these undertakings are now quoted at high pre- permission from the government. S 
 mi urns. 
 
 The Cape was discovered in 1493. Formal occupation by the English, 1620. Dutch coloniza- 
 tion, 1650. British conquest, 1795. Restoration to the Dutch, 1800. Recapture by the British, 
 1806; to whom the colony was finally ceded in 1815. 
 
 CAPERS (Fr. Capres. It. Cappari), the flower buds of the caper bush, (Cap- 
 paris spinosa), a trailing shrub, which grows in profusion in Italy and the south of 
 France, particularly between Marseilles and Toulon. They are used as a pickle, 
 and about 70,000 lbs. are consumed in the United Kingdom yearly. The youngest 
 and smallest are deemed the best. 
 
 CAPITAL consists of the accumulated savings of industry, capable of being 
 employed either for the support of human existence, or as an instrument of pro- 
 duction. It is distinguished by economists into two sorts, arising from a difference 
 in the mode of applying it. Fixed capital consists of those articles of a durable 
 nature which contribute to production without being destroyed. Such are roads, 
 canals, houses, docks, harbours, warehouses, and those tools, machines, and other 
 accommodations which do not perish in the using. Circulating capital possesses 
 this distinctive character, that it is necessarily consumed in contributing to pro- 
 duction, and that it must be reproduced in order to enable the producer to continue 
 his operations. Of this nature are food, coal, seed, wool, clothes, some kinds of 
 tools, and all other articles subservient to production which perish in the using. 
 These terms are not however always very definite. Thus, the lower animals are 
 in some cases to be regarded as fixed, in others as circulating capital ; oxen used 
 permanently for draught, belonging to the former, but when reared solely for the 
 market, to the latter. " It follows, necessarily, if the instruments of labour, the 
 materials on which it is employed, and the subsistence of the labourer, are all 
 included under the name of capital, that the productive industry of every country 
 is in proportion to its capital, increases when its capital increases, and declines 
 when its capital declines. It is obvious that when there are more instruments of 
 labour, more materials to work upon, and more pay for workmen, there will be 
 more work, provided more workmen can be obtained. If they cannot, two things 
 will happen : wages will be raised, which, giving an impulse to population, wul 
 increase the number of labourers ; while the immediate scarcity of hands will 
 whet the ingenuity of capitalists to supply the deficiency, by new inventions in 
 machinery, and by distributing and dividing labour to greater advantage." 
 {MilPs Political Economy.) 
 
 Capital, according to the sense in which the term is generally used in commerce, 
 does not differ essentially from that now explained. It comprehends in addition 
 the debts due to traders ; but in estimating capital in the aggregate, these must 
 evidently be neglected, as what constitutes an article on the credit side of the 
 books of one class of men, forms an exactly equal item of debt in the books of 
 others. 
 
 The ratio of the accumulation of capital depends upon the degree in which pro- 
 duction annually exceeds consumption. Accumulation is facilitated by the abate- 
 ment of taxes, and by the removal of monopolies, and of all impediments to the 
 free employment of the capital, labour, and skill of a nation. It is also increased by 
 whatever tends to economize consumption in the different branches of industry, 
 and by the prevalence of frugal habits, — objects which only can be secured by 
 basing professional skill of every sort upon real knowledge, by the enlightenment 
 of the people, and above all by the predominance of pure and simple tastes and 
 sound morals. 
 
 CAPSICUM. [Pepper.] 
 
 CARAT, or KARAT, a term used in a relative sense to express the fineness of 
 gold. It means the twenty-fourth part of any given weight of that metal or of its 
 
CAR 134 CAR 
 
 alloy. If such a weight be pure gold, it is said to be 24 carats fine ; if three- 
 fourths only be gold, it is said to be 18 carats fine. The diamond carat, however, 
 is a definite weight = 3& troy grains ; and the pearl carat = |ths of a troy 
 grain. 
 
 The carat was originally the ^?th of the old marc, or half-pound of the French, 
 from whom the term is said to have come. 
 
 CARAVAN, a troop or body of merchants or pilgrims, as they travel with 
 camels in the east. The Koran, as is well known, enjoins every Mussulman, who 
 has the means, to perform a pilgrimage to Mecca once at least in his life. Dul- 
 hajja, as the name imports, is the month in the Mohammedan calendar peculiarly 
 set apart for the performance of this solemnity. Formerly when devotional zeal 
 was more ardent, the difficulties of the journey through the desert were held to 
 increase the merit of the act, but of late a considerable portion of the hajjis do not 
 travel by land with the caravans, but arrive by sea at Jidda. The regular haj- 
 caravans are six or seven in number, though they do not always make their appear- 
 ance together, nor even perform the visit annually. One caravan proceeds from 
 Syria, consisting chiefly of pilgrims from the Turkish empire. Another, issuing 
 from Cairo in Egypt, conducts the Mogrebin, or African hajjis. A third cara- 
 van arrives from Bagdad with Persian pilgrims ; and two smaller caravans 
 fo from Lahsa and Oman, besides a separate company of pilgrims from Yemen, 
 'he principal is that from Syria, which used to be accompanied by the caliph in 
 person. During the whole route it is attended from town to town by the armed 
 force of the district, and from Damascus to Medina it moves with great pomp 
 across the desert,— a journey of 30 days. The Pasha of Damascus, or one of his 
 principal officers, always escorts it ; and the different classes of hajjis are stationed 
 according to their town or district. At every stage (or distance of 11 or 12 hours' 
 march), is a storehouse for provisions, with a small garrison, and a large tank at 
 which the camels receive water. The usual time of travelling is from three o'clock 
 in the afternoon to an hour or two after sunrise next day,— torches being lighted 
 during the night. The pomp and magnificence of this moving solemnity are still 
 considerable, though much diminished since the time of the caliphs, both in point 
 of splendour and attendance. In 1814, the Syrian caravan, which was reckoned 
 small, amounted only to 4000 or 5000 persons, attended by 15,000 camels. But of 
 late years the numbers are understood to have increased, owing to the greater se- 
 curity afforded by the Pasha of Egypt against the Bedouins and Wahabees. Most 
 of the pilgrims undertake the tour with a view to profit. Some accompany the 
 caravan as soldiers ; some are pilgrims by profession, and are paid to perform the 
 sacred journey for others ; and except mendicants, almost every hajji combines 
 mercantile adventure with his religious duties. So much is this now the case that 
 the annual assemblage of Mecca, instead of a religious ceremony, may be more pro- 
 perly regarded as the principal eastern fair for the exchange of the productions of 
 Asia, Africa, and Europe. The Mogrebins bring their red bonnets and woollen 
 cloaks ; the western Turks, shoes and slippers, hardware, embroidered stuffs, 
 sweetmeats, amber, European trinkets, and other small wares ; the Anatolians 
 bring carpets, silks, and Angora shawls; the Persians, Cashmere shawls, and large 
 silk handkerchiefs; the Afghans, plain coarse shawls, beads, &c. ; the Indians im- 
 port the numerous productions of their rich and extensive regions; the people of 
 Yemen bring sandals and various articles in leather; and of late years an increased 
 quantity of European manufactures are carried there through various channels. 
 
 Besides the religious caravans, there are many others which travel betwixt va- 
 rious places both in Africa and Asia. Thus, the intercourse betwixt Egypt and 
 Barbary and the interior of Africa is conducted by means of these associations ; 
 the trade between Russia and China is likewise a caravan trade ; as is that 
 between Aleppo and Bassora, and Bagdad ; similar lines exist in the countries to 
 the E. of the Caspian; and others on a smaller scale are constantly occurring at 
 various places where travellers and others assemble and organize an expedition 
 for their mutual safety; one of their number being elected to regulate the order of 
 march, and others to adjust disputes. 
 
 ' ' Notwithstanding the robberies and violence of legal and illegal bandits, the commerce of the 
 east, without exchanges or post offices, canals or railroads, insurances or credit, unprotected by 
 courts at home or consuls abroad, unprotected by a legislative body, where all interests are 
 duly represented, — extends its gigantic operations from Mount Atlas to the Yellow Sea ; from the 
 Blue Mountains amid the deserts of Africa to the Baikal in the wastes of Tartary ; and by the 
 slow and noiseless step of the camel, maintains the communications, exchanges the produce, and 
 supplies the wants of three-fourths of the globe. It is impossible to witness the arrival of the 
 many-tongued caravan at its resting-place for the night, and see unladen and piled up together 
 
CAR 135 CAR 
 
 the bales from such distant places, — to glance over their very wrappers, and the strange marks 
 and characters which they bear, without being amazed at so eloquent a contradiction of our pre- 
 conceived notions of indiscriminate despotism and universal insecurity of the east. But while we 
 observe the avidity with which our goods are sought, the preference'now transferred from Indian 
 to British muslins, from Golconda to Glasgow chintzes, from Damascus to Sheffield steel, from 
 Cashmere shawls to English broad cloth ; and while at the same time the energies of their com- 
 mercial spirit are brought thus substantially before us, it is indeed impossible not to regret that a 
 gulf of separation should have so long divided the east and the west, and equally impossible not 
 to indulge in the hope and anticipation of a vastly extended traffic with the east, and of all the 
 blessings which follow fast and welling in the wake of commerce." (UrquharVs Turkey, p. 134.) 
 
 CARAWAY, a biennial umbelliferous plant (Carum carui), cultivated in the 
 southern districts of England, chiefly for its seeds, which are used to a considerable 
 extent in confectionery, also for flavouring cheese, spirits, and liqueurs, and in me- 
 dicine. The seeds have an aromatic smell, a warm pungent taste, and yield much 
 essential oil. They are largely imported from Holland. 
 
 CARBUNCLE, a name sometimes given to the Precious Garnet, or Almandine. 
 
 CARDAMOMS, a spicy seed obtained from small plants growing in India, 
 Ceylon, amd Java. They are of two sorts, called the lesser and greater seeds. 
 
 Lesser Cardamom seeds are a product of the Elettaria cardamomum, which is pro- 
 duced in great abundance on the Malabar coast. They are small, almost black, 
 nearly triangular, rugose, with an intensely aromatic taste, and a fragrant cam- 
 phoraceous smell, and are contained in a triangular membranaceous capsule, 
 pointed at both ends, about half an inch long, and trilocular. They are much used 
 in medicine, and as a condiment. In India they are an article of great importance. 
 
 Greater Cardamom seeds, or the grains of paradise seeds, are a product of the 
 Amomum granum paradisi, cultivated in Ceylon and Java. They are much larger 
 than the preceding, more pungent, and less aromatic. They are sometimes im- 
 ported into England, but are not esteemed. 
 
 Mr Milburn states that cardamoms are reckoned to keep best in a body; and are 
 therefore packed in large chests well jointed, pitched at the seams, and otherwise 
 properly secured, as the least damp greatly reduces their value. {Oriental Com- 
 merce. Ainslie's Mat. Ind.) 
 
 CARDS and DICE. The manufacture and sale of these articles are regulated 
 by 9 Geo. IV. c. 18 ; its chief clauses are as follow : — 
 
 § 2. An annual license costing 5s. thall be taken out by every maker of cards or dice, under 
 penalty of £100, and a duty of Is. shall be paid for each pack of cards (to be specified on the 
 ace of spades) ; and of 20s. for every pair of dice. § 7- Manufacture to be confined to cities of 
 London, Dublin, and Cork, under penalty of £100. § 24. No playing cards shall be sold as 
 waste cards, unless a corner of every such card shall be cut off at least half an inch in depth, 
 nor unless the same shall be sold or exposed to sale in parcels, without being enclosed in any 
 wrapper, or paper, or other cover. § 25. It shall be lawful for any person, not being a licensed 
 maker of cards, to sell any pack, notwithstanding the same may have been previously sold and 
 opened, or used, if every such pack shall be sold without the wrapper or jew of any licensed 
 maker, and shall contain not more than 52 cards, including an ace of spades duly stamped for use 
 within the United Kingdom, and shall be enclosed in a paper or wrapper with the words '* second 
 hand cards " printed or written in distinct and legible characters on the outside thereof. No foreign 
 cards shall be warehoused without having the name of the maker thereon. — The stamp-duty on 
 cards and dice annually amounts to about £14,000. For present duties, see 16 <fc 17 Vict. c. 59. 
 
 CARGA, a liquid measure in Barcelona, equal 27 i Imp. galls. ; also a Spanish 
 weight. In Candia it is a corn measure, equal 4£ Imp. bushels. 
 
 CARMINE is a beautiful red pigment, made of cochineal and alumina, or oxide 
 of tin. 
 
 CARNELIAN, an ornamental stone, so called because some kinds are of a 
 flesh colour, is a variety of agate or calcedony. Carnelians, when recent, are dark 
 olive green, inclining to greenish gray ; but, by exposure to the sun and calcination, 
 they become generally of a reddish colour, though sometimes yellow or white, the 
 deep clear red being, however, the most valuable. They are never figured or 
 striped. The great supply is from Japan, and they are also imported from Bom- 
 bay, being collected in the province of Guzerat ; but the best come from the Gulf 
 of Cambay. Many of the antique gems are engraved in carnelian, and it is now 
 much usea for seals. 
 
 CARPETS (Fr. Tapis. Ger. Teppiche. It. Tappeti. Rus. Kowru). The princi- 
 pal localities of the carpet manufacture are Kidderminster in Worcestershire, 
 Wilton in Wiltshire, Axminster in Devonshire, Yorkshire, and Kilmarnock, 
 Edinburgh, and Stirling, in Scotland. The term Kidderminster is applied not 
 only to the carpets made in that place, but likewise to the Yorkshire and Scotch. 
 Other kinds of British carpets are distinguished as " Brussels, " " Venetian," and 
 " Damask Venetian." The Brussels are in fact Wilton carpets ; they are com- 
 
CAR 136 CAS 
 
 posed of linen and worsted, and comprise the most important branch of the manu- 
 facture. The more extended use of carpets of late years has led to so great an in- 
 crease in this branch of manufacture, that it is said to have been quadrupled since 
 the beginning of the present century. In a well written article on carpets in the 
 Penny Cyclopaedia the number of looms in Britain is estimated at 4000, and their 
 yearly produce at £1,000,000. The exports are chiefly to the United States. A 
 few carpets of most beautiful fabric are still imported from Turkey and Persia ; 
 bu*t the oriental carpets are now nearly equalled by the best of those made in Ax- 
 minster, Wilton, and Edinburgh. The Scoto-Persian and Scoto-Turkish carpets 
 made in Edinburgh have of late years obtained high celebrity. 
 
 CARRIAGES. [Coach. Passenger.] 
 
 CARRIERS, LAW OF. Carriers inland come under that doctrine, derived from 
 the civil law, which renders innkeepers, shipowners, &c. liable to restore the pro- 
 perty committed to their charge in the condition in which they receive it, unless 
 it has suffered from " an act of God or the king's enemies." The term includes 
 all who carry persons or goods for hire, as mail-coach contractors, waggoners, 
 stage-coachmen, and bargemen ; but hackney coachmen are not understood to be 
 included. The extent of responsibility, from the necessity of admitting many quali- 
 fications, was vague and irregular, until fixed by 1 1 Geo. IV. & 1 Wm. IV. c. 68. It 
 was thereby provided that carriers should not be liable for the loss or injury of gold 
 or silver (in coin or otherwise), jewellery, watches, clocks, trinkets, notes or other 
 securities for payment of money, stamps, maps, writings, title-deeds, paintings, 
 engravings, plated articles, glass, china, silk, furs, or lace, whether delivered for 
 simple carriage, or accompanying a passenger, when the value exceeds £10, unless 
 the value has been declared at the booking-office, or other proper place, and the 
 usual increased charge paid for conveyance. The rate of increased charge must 
 be published, by notice affixed in legible characters, on some conspicuous part of 
 the office. When the increased rate is paid, the person in attendance must give a 
 receipt (which is not liable to stamp duty) if required, otherwise he loses the 
 benefit of the act, and becomes responsible at common law. Carriers are liable for 
 the safety of goods not specified by the act, notwithstanding any advertisement to 
 the contrary. Where the increased rate is paid with a parcel, the party entitled 
 to recover damages, on its loss or injury, is also entitled to recover the increased 
 charge. Carriers are not concluded against as to value by the additional rate 
 being so paid, but may require proof from the party suing. [There are separate 
 statutes affecting the liability of shipowners. Shipping.] 
 
 It is ruled that one who holds himself out as a carrier to all comers, cannot 
 refuse goods offered for conveyance if he have room for them, unless he can show 
 that they are of a nature calculated to injure other property. As a counterpart to 
 the obligations which he thus comes under to the public, the carrier has a hen on 
 the property conveyed by him for his charges. The lien is particular, not general, 
 and so one set of goods cannot be detained for the charges on a previous set. 
 {Jones on the Liabilities and Rights of Common Carriers.) 
 
 CARROT, an umbelliferous plant (Daucus carota), having a succulent root, 
 which is largely used as human food, and in some places for the maintenance of 
 stock, especially horses and dairy cows. The most esteemed for field culture in 
 England are the Altringham, the Orange, and the Long-red. Professor Low states 
 that, under favourable circumstances, the produce will be from 300 to 400 bushels 
 to the acre, though much beyond this quantity is sometimes produced. Carrot 
 seed is raised largely at Weathersfield, in Essex : it is also imported from Holland. 
 
 CARTHAMUS. [Safflower.] 
 
 CASCARILLA BARK. [Croton.] 
 
 CASH, a general term for money ; also the name of a small Chinese coin. 
 
 CASH-CREDITS in the Banking System of Scotland. " A cash-credit," 
 says Professor Bell, " is an undertaking on the part of a bank to advance to an 
 individual, or to a partnership, such sums of money as may from time to time be 
 required, not exceeding on the whole a certain definite amount ; to be repaid, and 
 a continual circulation kept up by the replacing in the bank of small profits and 
 sums as they come in. The security upon which the advances are made, is a bond 
 with sureties, generally two in number, for the repayment, on demand, of the sums 
 actually advanced, with interest upon each issue from the day on which it is made ; 
 interest at a lower rate being allowed by the banker for the sums paid into the 
 bank" (Commentaries. 1. 367, 368). The security in short enables one to transact 
 business with the bank, as if the sum for which the sureties have become respon- 
 sible wero actWiv deposited in his own name. When the banker discounts bills 
 
CAS 137 CAS 
 
 to the holder of the account, ho may either enter them to the debit in the account, 
 or hold them as separate transactions, but by adopting the latter step he is not 
 foreclosed from entering them afterwards on the account, and so making the 
 sureties responsible. The bond thus covers every description of transaction on 
 account of which the party may become responsible to the banker, whether it be 
 by a single cheque drawn by the holder himself, or a bill discounted by him, for 
 payment of which the banker may have looked at first to another party. A cash- 
 credit may be secured on real property. By an old Act of Parliament (1696, c. 5) 
 securities for future debt could not be made real upon landed property. By a part 
 of the old sequestration act, still in force (54 Geo. III. c. 137, § 14), this rule was 
 so far modified that proprietors of lands might pledge them, either directly for the 
 security of a bank which grants a cash-credit, or by way of relief to the cautioners 
 in a bond, provided that the principal and interest which may become due be limit- 
 ed to a certain definite sum to be specified in the security, not exceeding the amount 
 of the principal sum, and 3 years' interest at 5 per cent. " The limitation," says 
 Professor Bell, " is rather vaguely expressed in the act ; but the meaning seems 
 to be, that the sum to be secured shall not exceed in amount the principal sum 
 which the person to be accommodated shall have the privilege of drawing, together 
 with 3 years' interest of that sum" (Com. 11.241). Were the bond, in the case 
 where the security given is personal, to place the sureties in the situation of simple 
 cautioners, the security would be extinguished or would prescribe in seven years. 
 [Cautionary Obligations.] The limitation, however, is avoided by the practice 
 of binding the principal and his sureties as co-obligants, the former being only 
 distinguished from the latter as the person whose drafts are to be honoured. By 
 this means also, the obligation to follow out diligence or execution against the 
 principal debtor, before the cautioners can be sued, is avoided. The bank will be 
 bound to assign to the cautioners the bills and other obligations which they have 
 entered on the account, but if the balance due exceed the sum secured by the 
 bond, the banker will not be bound to give up papers on which advances have 
 been made, unless they have been entered in the account as they were presented, 
 so as to be looked upon as discounted on the credit of the guarantees. These last 
 may terminate their responsibility by notice to the bank, and to the principal in 
 the bond. 
 
 ■■ Where one granted a guarantee for a person who had a cash-credit, saying, ' Mr G. D. has 
 mentioned to me that he may have occasion to overdraw his account to the extent of £3000 ; and, 
 if he should do so, I hereby become bound to repay the same to you, in the event of his failing to 
 do it ;'— this was held not to be merely a guarantee for one advance, but to be an addition to the 
 cash-credit, covering like it the balance on a series of transactions. AVhere, of three co-obligants 
 in a cash-credit, two granted a letter requesting that it might be continued, ' in terms and to the 
 extent of the bond,' on the holder's decease, in favour of his son, they were held conjunctly liable, 
 though in terms of the bond there was a third obligant to share the responsibility with them, and 
 they alleged that they granted the letter only as a continuance of their liability under the bond. 
 Under a cash-credit in the regular form, the bank may introduce discounts of bills and other 
 charges against the principal party, which have not properly formed part of his cash-account. 
 The transactions charged on, however, must be strictly legal and regular. It was found on appeal, 
 that the bank could not pursue cautioners on drafts drawn beyond the statutory distance (which was 
 then ten, but is now fifteen miles), or wrong dated, where the bank-agent was aware of these 
 circumstances ; and this though the drafts were entered in accounts doqueted by the principal. 
 A cautioner in a cash-credit for all bills on which C. F.'s name might appear, was liable for bills 
 discounted to C. F. & Co., a concern in which C. F. had no partner." (Burton's Manual of the 
 Law of Scotland, 462, 463 ; authorities quoted.) 
 
 CASHEW-NUTS (Fr. Noix d'Acajou. Ger. Akamniisse. Por. Nozes d'Acaju. 
 Sp. Nueces d'Acaju) are kidney-shaped bodies attached to the fruit of a small tree 
 (Anacardium occidentale) found in the West Indies and South America. The 
 kernel is a wholesome article of food, and is used as an ingredient in puddings. It 
 is also sometimes roasted for the purpose of communicating a flavour to Madeira 
 wine. The cashew fruit is highly esteemed in Brazil. 
 
 CASHMERE. [Shawl.] 
 
 CASK (Fr. Baril, Tonneau. Ger. Fass. Por. Barril). Empty packages of 
 British manufacture exported with merchandise and returned, are to be admitted 
 to entry duty free ((7. O. 5th May 1835). And packages from which wine or spirits 
 have been racked, drawn off, or destroved, are to be delivered free of duty. (C. O. 
 20th October 1835.) 
 
 CASSAVA, or MANDIOC (Por. Mandioca), a farinaceous substance obtained 
 from the roots of a plant (Jatropha manihot), which is extensivelv cultivated in South 
 America, especially Brazil, where it forms the principal article of food. Tapioca 
 is a well-known preparation of cassava. 
 
 CASSENETTE, a fabric made of very fine wool, sometimes tastefully mixed 
 
CAS 138 CAT 
 
 with silk or cotton. It differs from valentia and toilinette in having its twill 
 thrown diagonally. Cassenette is much used for waistcoatings. 
 
 CASSIA FISTULA (Fr. Cassefistulense. Ger. Purgircassie. Pers. Khyar chember), 
 a small tree indigenous to India, Ceylon, and Egypt, and cultivated in Jamaica. 
 The fruit is a brownish-coloured pod, a foot or more in length, but scarcely an 
 inch broad. The pulp of this pod has aperient properties, but it is now little em- 
 ployed. Two sorts of them are imported, — East Indian and West Indian. The 
 former are the smallest and smoothest, and are generally preferred. (Duncan's 
 Dispensatory.) 
 
 CASSIA LIGNEA (Fr. Casse en bois. It. Cassiglina. Sp. Cassia lenosa. Por. 
 Cassia lenhosa. Ger. Kassienrinde. Du. Mocdercaneel Houtkassie), a bark re- 
 sembling cinnamon, procured, according to some, from the Cinnamomum Zeylani- 
 cum, or Ceylon cinnamon-tree, though on better grounds ascribed by others to the 
 C. Cassia (Blume), indigenous to the forests of Quang-tung and Quang-see in China, 
 but cultivated in the Eastern Islands. The cassia consumed in Europe is chiefly 
 imported from Canton. It resembles cinnamon, but generally may be distinguished 
 by being thicker and less quilled. It has also a fainter odour, breaks shorter, and is 
 more acridly pungent to the taste. Mr Milburn recommends that "it should be chosen 
 in thin pieces, of an agreeable, biting, and aromatic taste, and the best is that 
 which approaches nearest to cinnamon in flavour ; that which is small and broken 
 should be rejected" (Oriental Commerce). This bark is chiefly employed as a 
 substitute for cinnamon. In 1834, the exports from Canton by the Britisn amounted 
 to 2,347,600 lbs.; and by the Americans to 1,468,933 lbs.; the price in Canton being 
 about 3d. per lb. The importations into the United Kingdom were, in 1833, 
 1,297,710 lbs. ; in 1834, 2,066,836 lbs. ; in 1835, 1,966,303 lbs. ; in 1836, 837,413 lbs. ; 
 in 1837, 984,674 lbs. ; in 1838, 369,598 lbs. ; in 1839, 430,511 lbs. The quantity 
 entered annually for home consumption is about 100,000 lbs. ; the surplus is 
 re-exported to all parts of Europe, except Portugal; also to Canada, West Indies, 
 and Brazil. 
 
 Cassia Buds (Du. Kassielblamen. Por. Flores de Cassia), are produced by the 
 same plant as the cassia bark, and are imported from China. They are of a dark 
 brown colour, with a form like that of a nail. The flavour and taste resemble 
 those of cinnamon. 
 
 Cassia Oil is of a fainter colour than cinnamon oil : taste acrid and pungent, 
 and odour agreeable. 
 
 CASSIS, a kind of black currant (Ribes nigrum) formerly celebrated for its me- 
 dicinal properties, but now only used in preparing the liqueur called ratafia. 
 
 CASTOR (Fr. Castoreum. Ger. BibergieL Rus. Boboowaja struga), a concrete 
 medicinal substance of a peculiar nature/found in two pear-shaped bags situated 
 beside two smaller follicles, in the inguinal region of both sexes of the beaver. It is 
 of a penetrating unpleasant odour, and a bitterish and somewhat acrid taste. There 
 are two kinds, the Russian, and Canadian or English, of which the former, now 
 very rare, is the most esteemed. The Russian castor occurs in pairs of bags of 
 unequal size, from 3 to 4 inches long, and 1| to 2 inches broad at the base. The 
 bags of American castor are smaller, narrower at the base, and much corrugated. 
 That which is very old, quite black, and almost destitute of taste and smell, should 
 be avoided. It should be kept in a cool place, and in a well-corked bottle. 
 
 CASTOR NUTS. [Castor Oil.] 
 
 CASTOR OIL (Fr. Huile du ricin. Ger. Rizinus korner. It. Olio di ricino) 
 is prepared from the seeds of the Ricinus communis or Raima Christi, a plant 
 which grows in the East and West Indies, America, and the S. of Europe. The 
 oil is obtained from the seeds either by expression without any assistance from 
 heat, or by boiling. The first, called cold-drawn castor-oil, is always to be 
 
 Preferred. It is of an amber colour, and of a slightly nauseous smell and taste, 
 'he oil obtained by boiling the seeds is more deeply coloured, more acrid, and more 
 liable to become rancid. Castor oil is one of the most valuable aperients we pos- 
 sess, and the consumption has greatly increased since the late reduction of the duty 
 to Is. 3d. per cwt. It is chiefly imported from India, but smaller quantities are 
 also brought from North America and the West Indies ; that from Jamaica being 
 of a superior quality. The castor nuts or seeds are now likewise imported in con- 
 siderable quantities, and the oil manufactured in this country. The nut or capsule 
 is trilocular, nearly the size of a large marble, of a pale green colour, and usually 
 contains three whitish seeds of an oblong flat shape, and heavy taste. (Ainslies 
 Mat. Indica.) 
 CATECHU (Fr. Cachou. Ger. Katchu. Can. & Hind. Cutt. It. Catccu, 
 
CAT 139 CAT 
 
 Catciu, Catto), formerly called Terra Japonica, is an astringent extract, chiefly pre- 
 pared from a decoction of the brown heart-wood of the Acacia catechu, a tree 
 indigenous to Hindostan. It is a dry, opaque, friable substance, of various forms, 
 rounded masses, or cut into discs, squares, or lozenges. Its taste is powerfully 
 astringent, afterwards bitterish, then sweet, and its colour varies from pale brown 
 to chocolate brown, the darker coloured being the most astringent. It is soluble in 
 water, but more easily in alcohol. It seems to keep for any length of time without 
 change. Catechu contains a greater proportion of tannin tnan any other substance 
 known, 1 lb. being in this respect equal to about 7 or 8 lbs. of oak bark. Two sorts 
 are chiefly imported, namely, an inferior kind from Bengal, and another of a yellow- 
 ish-brown colour from Bombay. There is but little difference betwixt the two varie- 
 ties ; but according to the analysis of Davy, the Bombay catechu affords the greater 
 proportion of tannin, and is therefore preferable. It is consumed in enormous 
 quantities as a masticatory by the Malays and other betel-eating nations. In this 
 country it was used solely as an astringent medicine, until of late, when it has 
 been employed for tanning. 
 
 CATLING, or CATGUT (Fr. Corde a boyau. Ger. Darmsaite. It. Corde di 
 budella), cord made of the twisted intestines of the sheep. There are different kinds, 
 as whip-cord, hatters' cords, cords for bowstrings, clockmakers' cord, and fiddle 
 and harp strings ; these last, made of the peritoneal covering of the intestines, are 
 chiefly imported from Italy, where they are manufactured of a quality superior to 
 those prepared in this country. 
 
 CAT'S- EYE, a gem which presents a beautiful opalescence like the light of the 
 eye of a cat. It is a variety of fibrous quartz, interspersed with thin filaments 
 of asbestos. It is often brown and red, but commonly of a grayish or greenish 
 colour, and generally translucent. This stone, which is chiefly procured in Ceylon 
 and Malabar, is held in high estimation. Among the late King of Candy's jewels, 
 sold by auction in London in 1 820, there was a cat's-eye, which measured two 
 inches in diameter, and brought upwards of £400. 
 
 CAT-SKIN. [Fur.] 
 
 CATTLE (NEAT), or OXEN. The domestic ox (Bos taurus), said to be of 
 Asiatic origin, is found from the equator almost to the limits of vegetable life. 
 From an early period, Britain has owed no small part of her opulence to the ex- 
 cellence and numbers of cattle possessed by her. The varieties or breeds are 
 greatly diversified both by natural circumstances and by the effects of art in 
 changing their properties and form. According to Professor Low, the types of the 
 cattle of this country are as follow : — 1. The mountain breeds, comprehending 
 those small hardy animals which are naturalized and reared in the more elevated 
 parts of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. 2. The Devon breed, a medium-sized breed, 
 generally of a bright red colour, peculiar to the S. of England, and of which the 
 parent stock is the North Devon. 3. The long horned (suited to field grazing and 
 rougher treatment), prevailing chiefly in the humid and western parts of England 
 and the lower districts of Ireland, and of which the most improved variety is the 
 Dishley. 4. The short horned (suited to stall feeding, and the practice of the most 
 Improved agriculture), more peculiarly belonging to the dry and eastern parts of 
 the country, and of which the most improved variety is the Teeswater, called also the 
 Dutch or Holstein. 5. The Ahlerney, a small delicate breed found almost exclusively 
 in the islands of the British Channel. The breed of short horns is the most esteemed ; 
 it is indeed said, that it has in form, disposition to fatten, and early maturity, been 
 brought to all the perfection of which the ox seems to be susceptible (Loiv's Agri- 
 culture). Mr Youatt states that this country " has to boast of more than eight 
 millions of cattle unrivalled in the world. 160,000 head of cattle are annually sold 
 in Smithfield alone, without including calves or the dead market— the carcasses 
 sent up from various parts of the country. If we reckon this to be a tenth part of 
 the cattle slaughtered in the United Kingdom, it follows that 1,600,000 of them are 
 sent to the butcher every year ; and averaging the life of the ox or the cow at five 
 years, the value of British cattle, estimated at £10 per head, will be £80,000,000." 
 ( Youatt on Cattle.) 
 
 Little can be said regarding the commerce in cattle, from its scarcely coming 
 within the range of the public accounts. It consists in a great measure in bringing 
 the mountain-bred animals to fairs and public markets, where they are purchased 
 by the lowland farmers, and afterwards fattened for the supply of the towns. The 
 best are those produced in Argyllshire and in the Hebrides. The different islands 
 contain about 150,000 of these cattle, of which it is calculated that not less than 
 one-fifth are sent annually to the mainland. If these average £5 a-head, the 
 
CAT 140 CAU 
 
 amount will be £150,000. The cattle bred in the West Highlands are, at the age 
 of 2 or 11 years, removed into Dumbartonshire and the neighbouring counties. At 
 3 years old, they, along with large quantities from Galloway, are carried to the 
 northern counties of England, and so by degrees southward, particularly to Nor- 
 folk and Suffolk, from whence the London market is chiefly supplied. Of late 
 years, however, a considerable change has taken place in this course of trade, owing 
 to the facilities afforded by steam-navigation ; and large numbers are now fattened 
 in the eastern and northern counties of Scotland, and forwarded to London direct 
 from Leith, Dundee, Aberdeen, and other ports, and from the western ports to 
 Liverpool. Of Irish cattle, about 100,000 are annually imported into the Mersey. 
 Large quantities are likewise carried into the Bristol Channel, and fattened in 
 the adjoining counties, particularly Somersetshire. 
 
 The characters which indicate a disposition to feed, in the ox, are described by Professor Low 
 to be— the fineness of the bones,— the largeness of the body, as compared with the limbs, neck, 
 and head,— the broadness of the chest,— the roundness of the body,— and the soft and elastic touch. 
 The last is a property with which all graziers are familiar. They call it a mellow feel, the meaning 
 of which it is more easy to conceive than define. The form of animals that are best fitted to secrete 
 and yield milk is somewhat different. " A dairy cow, like a feeding animal, should have a skin 
 soft and mellow to the touch,— should have the back straight, the loins broad, the extremities small 
 and delicate ; but she should not, as in the case of the feeding animal, have the chest broad and 
 prominent before. She should rather have the fore-quarters light, and the hind-quarters relatively 
 broad, capacious, and deep ; and she should have a large udder." (Pp. 505, 533.) 
 
 " The parts of an ox to which the term offal is usually applied, are the head and feet, the 
 tallow, the hide and horns, and the entrails." " The tallow is generally considered to be of 
 the same value, weight for weight, as the flesh of the four quarters ; and so likewise is the hide. 
 These and the other parts termed offal are commonly regarded as forming about one-fifth of 
 the value of the animal. When beef is said to be sold at a certain price, sinking the offals, 
 the meaning merely is, that the whole price of the animal is reckoned upon the carcass alone ; 
 hence, when beef is sold at a certain price, sinking the offals, that price is more than if it were 
 sold without including in it the price of the offals. That portion of the ox which is used for food, 
 exclusive of the offals, is usually termed the quarters, because the animal, on being cut up, is 
 divided into four parts or quarters. The most esteemed parts for food are the hind-quarters. 
 These weigh somewhat less than the fore-quarters ; though the more perfect the form of the 
 animal is, the more nearly do the fore and hind quarters approach in weight. Practice enables 
 persons to judge of the weight of animals by the eye alone ; but it is convenient to be able to 
 ascertain the weight by measurement. This may be done with considerable correctness in the 
 following manner : — When the animal is standing in a natural position, measure his length in feet 
 from the foremost upper corner of the shoulder-blade, in a straight line to the hindmost point of 
 the rump ; then measure the girth or circumference immediately behind the fore-legs ; multiply 
 the square of the girth by the length, and this product by -238, which will give the weight of the 
 quarters in stones of 14 lbs. each." " Another method of ascertaining the weight of fat cattle is 
 by weighing them when alive, and multiplying the gross weight by '605 " {Low, p. 519). The pre- 
 sent average dead- weight of bullocks is estimated by Mr Youatt at 656 lbs., and of calves, 144 lbs. 
 
 By 31 Geo. II. c. 40, no salesman, broker, or factor employed in buying cattle for others, shall 
 buy for himself in London, or within the bills of mortality, on penalty of double the value of the 
 animals bought and sold ; and drovers in London, and within 5 miles round, must be licensed, and 
 wear a badge, according to regulations made by the mayor in 1831, pursuant to 21 Geo. III. c. 67. 
 Cruelty is repressed by 3 Geo. IV. c. 71, and other acts ; and the felonious killing or maiming 
 of cattle by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 30. 
 
 See Cattle Teade, in Supplement. 
 
 Buffalo Cattle {Bos bubalus) are plentiful in Italy, North America, and eastern 
 countries ; also {B. Coffer) in the Cape Colony ; but they are not reared in this 
 kingdom. The buffalo is well-suited for heavy draught, and the milk of the 
 female is good ; but the flesh is held in less esteem than that of the ox. 
 
 CATTY, the Chinese pound, equal to 1^ lb. avoirdupois. 
 
 CAUTIONARY OBLIGATION, in the law of Scotland, is a term applied to a 
 species of bond, which serves the part either of a mercantile guarantee, or of an 
 English bond of security under seal covenanting in a penalty if a party do not per- 
 form certain stipulations. In its former capacity, the nature of the contract will 
 be discussed under the head of Guarantee, and its application to one important 
 branch of commercial law has been considered under the head of Cash-Credits. It 
 will be sufficient on this occasion to give a view of the legal privileges which make 
 the adoption of this form of security desirable. The Scottish courts not being re- 
 stricted, like those of common law m England, to the awarding of money for breach 
 of agreement, a bond of cautionary, instead of stipulating for a sum of money being 
 paid, and releasing the surety if certain specifications are duly performed by the 
 principal, first enumerates the obligations to be performed, and then binds tho 
 cautioner to see them done, or to pay a sum of money. It is a privilege of the cau- 
 tioner that means shall have been taken to exact performance from the principal 
 before he can be had recourse to ; but to obviate inconvenience arising from this 
 practice, it is not unusual for the cautioner to be bound as a principal along with 
 the primary debtor. When there is more than one cautioner, each is liable for tho 
 
CAV 141 CEN 
 
 whole, but ho may exact payment of their respective shares from his co-cautioners. 
 When a cautionary obligation is for the payment of money, it prescribes or becomes 
 extinct, on the lapse of seven years. Where, however, by the terms of the bond the 
 cautioner is taken liable as a principal, the prescription does not run in his favour, 
 unless the bond contain a clause binding the original debtor to relieve him, or there 
 be a separate document to that effect intimated to the creditor. One of the prin- 
 cipal inducements for adopting this form in money transactions is, that the bond 
 may contain a clause of registration [Registration, Clause of] on which execu- 
 tion may proceed without the intervention of a court. (Burton's Manual of the 
 Law of Scotland, 451-467.) 
 
 CAVIAR (Fr. Caviar. It. Caviario. Ger. Kaviar. Rus. Ikrd), a substance 
 prepared in Russia from the roe of the sturgeon and other large fish. The roe is first 
 freed of its membranes and washed in vinegar or white wine. It is afterwards 
 dried in the air, salted, and the liquor being removed by compression in a bag, it is 
 finally packed in kegs. When good, it is dry and of a brown colour, and is generally 
 eaten with oil and lemon juice. Caviar is highly esteemed in Russia, and the con- 
 sumption is very great. The best is made on the shores of the Caspian. A consi- 
 derable quantity is exported from the ports of the Black Sea to Italy, but only a 
 small portion is brought to this country. 
 
 CEDAR, a name applied to several distinct kinds of forest trees. The cedar of 
 Lebanon is a valuable species of pine (Pinus cedrus), cultivated in gardens and 
 parks in this country on account of its majestic appearance, but seldom for eco- 
 nomical purposes, as it is slow of growth, and requires a free space for circula- 
 tion of air. The wood has a fragrant odour, and is so bitter that no insect will 
 touch it, — a circumstance which accounts for its great durability. The cedar of 
 Lebanon was, in ancient times, much employed in religious buildings, and most 
 readers are familiar with the descriptions given of it for this purpose in Scripture. 
 The tree is still to be found thinly scattered in the elevated valleys of Lebanon, 
 Taurus, and other mountain-chains in Asia Minor. A second species {P. deodara) 
 exists in the Himalayan mountains, where it is regarded by the natives with great 
 veneration. 
 
 The other kinds of cedar do not belong to the pine family. The white cedar of 
 America (Cupressus thyoides) is employed for hoops, small boats, and roofing, but 
 is not of great value. The Bermuda cedar [Juniperus Bermudiana) is a large 
 tree used for shipbuilding. The red cedar {Juniperus Virginiana) of North Ame- 
 rica and the West Indies is of great size and valuable. The wood is close, dark 
 red, and odoriferous, and is much employed for cabinet work, wainscoting, and in 
 the manufacture of pencils. 
 
 Cedar is imported in considerable quantities from Jamaica, the Bermudas, Ba- 
 hamas, Carolina, Cuba, and New South Wales. 
 
 CELERY (Apium graveolens), a sweet and wholesome vegetable, of which 
 there are several varieties. The blanched footstalks of the leaves are used as an 
 esculent. The red variety is coarse but hardy, and well adapted for stews and 
 soups. Celeriac is a turnip-rooted variety, occasionally imported from Hamburg. 
 
 CEMENT is a substance used for joining or covering bodies, in order to keep 
 them from being acted on by fire or some other agent. Its nature differs of course 
 according to the purpose for which it is employed. 
 
 CENTNER, a name applied to the hundredweight or quintal in Germany and 
 Holland. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA, formerly the Spanish captain-generalship of Guati- 
 tala, is a republic, situatea on the isthmus which connects N. 
 
 mala, is a republic, situated on the isthmus which connects N. and S. America, 
 betwixt 8° and 18° N. lat., and 82° and 94° W. long. It is bounded N. by Mexico, 
 E. and N. E. by the Atlantic, S. E. by New Granada, and S. and S. W. by the Pa- 
 cific. Area, 150,000 sq. miles. Population, whites (Spanish Creoles), 475,000 ; 
 Indians, 685,000 ; ladinos or mulattoes, 740,000 ; total 1,900,000. The republic is 
 a confederacy of five states, Guatimala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa- 
 Rica, and a federal district. Capital, New Guatimala ; pop. 50,000. The legisla- 
 tive power is vested in a federal congress, composed of deputies elected in the pro- 
 portion of one to every 30,000 inhabitants, and half the members are re-elected 
 annually. The senate, consisting of two members from each state, has the sanc- 
 tion of the laws, and acts as a council to the president, but is not considered as a 
 house of congress. The executive power is vested in a president and vice-president. 
 The elections are made through the medium of electoral colleges as in France. 
 
 Central America is traversed by the Andes, and the difference in the elevation of its surface is per- 
 haps greater than in any other country of equal extent, — a circumstance which produces a corres- 
 
CER 
 
 142 
 
 CES 
 
 ponding difference in its climate and productions. Its vegetable products include not only those 
 of tropical countries, but nearly all those of Europe, besides others peculiar to itself. It also 
 possesses mines of the precious metals, which, though but little encouraged under the Spanish 
 dominion, are said to be increasing in their products. Gold is found in Costa-Rica, and silver 
 in Honduras. The great staples of the federation, however, are indigo, cochineal, sarsaparilla, 
 hides, mahogany, cedar, dye-woods, sugar, rapadura or panela, a species of brown sugar 
 principally used for the distilling of spirits, cotton, vanilla, and Peruvian balsam. The indigo is 
 chiefly grown in the state of Salvador, along the Pacific ; it is of excellent quality, and formerly 
 about 1,000,000 lbs. were exported; but the civil wars having reduced its cultivation, a late 
 account estimates the crops at from 500,000 to 750,000 lbs. The Nopal trees, on which the cochineal 
 insect subsists, grow in the plains near the city of Guatimala, where the quantity collected in 
 favourable seasons has amounted from 200,000 to 250,000 lbs. The cotton grown along the Pacific 
 is of excellent quality ; it is, however, always exported in an indifferent state, from not being pro- 
 perly freed from the seed. Good tobacco is grown in the hilly districts ; but it is the subject of 
 a government monopoly, and its cultivation being limited to certain places and to a certain 
 amount, little is exported. Besides these articles, brimstone is collected from certain vol- 
 canoes, and salt is made on the north-western coast. Other parts of the republic are said 
 to afford mother-of-pearl and tortoise-shell. Manufactures of coarse cotton and woollen goods, 
 hats, crockery, furniture, and other common articles, are carried on to some extent, chiefly in 
 Guatimala. 
 
 Central America is placed in a favourable position for commerce. The exports chiefly consist 
 of specie, indigo, cochineal, and brazil-wood, with other articles in small quantities; the whole 
 amounting annually to about $4,000,000. 
 
 The imports from Britain are cotton and woollen fabrics, hardware, and other dry goods. Silks, 
 wines, spirits, and trinkets are brought chiefly from France and Spain ; and Chinese productions 
 are brought in American vessels to Acajutla. 
 
 The ports on the Pacific are La Independencia, Acajutla, La Libertad, Conchagua, Realejo, and 
 San Juan del Sur ; the bay of Conchagua also forms a safe and commodious harbour. The ports 
 on the Atlantic are Isabel, Omoa, Truxillo, San Juan, and Cartago. Isabel, situated on Golfo 
 Dolce, is a safe and good harbour. The government has several times contemplated the project 
 of uniting the Pacific with the Atlantic by rendering the river San Juan on the eastern side na- 
 vigable into the lake of Nicaragua, requiring a lockage of 200 feet in about 17 miles, and cutting a 
 canal from the lake into the Pacific, a distance of barely 20 miles. 
 
 and a debt of £167,000, contracted in England in 
 1825. The latter was negotiated at 73 per cent. ; 
 and interest was to be paid at 6 per cent. ; but 
 none has been received since Feb. 1, 1828. 
 
 Duties.— These were stated in 1836 to be 2 per 
 cent, on the produce of the soil exported ; and 
 14 per cent, on cotton goods, and 10 per cent, on 
 most other articles imported. 
 
 Measures and Weights, same as Spain. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are stated in pesos or cur- 
 rent dollars each of 8 reals. The Central Ame- 
 rican hard dollar is of equal weight and standard 
 with the Spanish. [Mexico.] 
 
 Finances. — The revenues are derived chiefly 
 from the customs duties and the tobacco mono- 
 
 Eoly; their present amountisnot known. Thepub- 
 c debt consists of a domestic debt of $3,500,000, 
 
 CERTIFICATE. [Customs.] 
 
 CERTIFICATE, in the bankrupt law of England and Ireland, is a testimonial 
 on the part of a certain proportion of the creditors that the bankrupt has surren- 
 dered and conformed himself to the acts. It is the authority for discharging the 
 bankrupt. As to the rules for granting the certificate, and its special effects, see 
 Bankruptcy. 
 
 CERUSE, or WHITE LEAD, is a carbonate of lead, usually made by suspending 
 thin plates of lead over heated vinegar, the vapour of which corrodes the metal, 
 and converts it into a heavy white powder. The process is most destructive to the 
 health of the manufacturer. White lead mixed with oil is a common paint. In 
 medicine it is employed as a dressing for sores ; and, notwithstanding its delete- 
 rious qualities, has been used as a cosmetic. 
 
 CESSIO BONORUM, in Scotland, is the process by which the effects of an 
 insolvent debtor, who does not come under the system of sequestration applicable 
 to traders, is divided among his creditors. This system, which may be traced to 
 the civil law as practised throughout Europe, has long existed in Scotland, and its 
 practice there seems to have been the model on which the earlier English insol- 
 vency acts were framed. [Insolvency.] By the law as it stood till lately, the 
 debtor applying for the benefit of cessio must have been a month in jail, but by the 
 late act, any debtor imprisoned or against whom a writ of imprisonment for a civil 
 debt is available, may apply. The process formerly could only be pursued before 
 the Inner House of the Court of Session ; but it may now proceed either before the 
 Sheriff of the county, or before the Outer House of the Court of Session, subject, in 
 certain circumstances, to a reference to the Inner House. There are provisions for 
 the production and examination of the debtor and his books and other vouchers. 
 The debtor will be liberated or protected from imprisonment during the process, 
 unless the court see reason to the contrary. A list of the creditors with their debts 
 must be inserted in the petition, and they must receive notice either by post-paid 
 letters, or judicial writs, to appear at the examination. When decree of cessio is 
 granted, it has the effect of conveying the debtor's whole property to a trustee for 
 
CEY 143 CEY 
 
 distribution among his creditors. In the case of his holding an annuity or office, 
 an equitable deduction is made from his income. By the decree of cessio, execu- 
 tion of all existing writs against the debtor is barred, but in the event of any pecu- 
 niary improvement in his condition, he is still responsible for his debts. The process 
 of cessio is a privilege to the debtor, — the creditors cannot force him to submit to 
 it. (1 & 2 Vict. o. 110. Burton's Manual, 594-600.) 
 
 CEYLON, a magnificent island belonging to Great Britain, lying near the S. 
 point of India, from which it is separated by the Gulf of Manaar. Extreme length 
 from N. to S. 270 miles ; average breadth, 100 miles. Area, 24,664 square 
 miles. Population (1835) 1,231,000, of which 9000 were whites ; the remainder 
 chiefly Singalese, Malabar Hindoos, Moors, and Vedahs. The island is divided 
 into five provinces, each subdivided into districts. The chief town, and seat of 
 government, is Colombo, pop. 31,549. The administration is vested in a governor, 
 assisted by executive and legislative councils. 
 
 Ceylon is an island of the highest natural capabilities,— having great varieties of soil, climate, and 
 situation, — vegetable and other indigenous productions in excellent quality, — and considerable faci- 
 lities of internal and foreign communication. In 1836, about 1 ,676,000 acres of land were cultivated 
 or in pasture, and 2,818,0< acres waste ; of the former, 464,580 acres were sown with paddy, 108,460 
 acres with fine grains, and 1 ,070,480 acres in pasture. Of its mineral wealth little is known ; iron and 
 plumbago are abundant ; and, according to some authors, gold, silver, and mercury are found in the 
 hill streams. Nitre and nitrate of lime have been obtained ; also alum and sulphate of magnesia. 
 Salt is found in natural deposits, is also formed artificially in several parts, and yields a revenue 
 of about £30,000. In the deposits or "leways" of Hambantotte, it crystallizes spontaneously, 
 and of the finest quality, in quantities which might be sufficient for the supply of the greater part 
 of the Malay islands. Ceylon is also rich in precious stones ; the gems most esteemed are the 
 ruby and cat's-eye, but there are likewise found the amethyst, topaz, garnet, cinnamon stone, 
 sapphire, and diamond ; and the pearl and chank fisheries in the Gulf of Manaar are among the 
 most celebrated in the world. [Pearl.] The chief commercial production, however, is cinnamon, 
 grown in the S. E. portion of the island, and of which article it has almost a monopoly [Cixxa- 
 mon-j ; but the cocoa-nut is perhaps the most valuable product of the island. Mr Martin states, 
 that from Colombo to Tangalle, a distance of 100 miles, plantations of cinnamon, amidst groves 
 of cocoa-nut trees, skirt the whole coast for ten miles from the seashore. Besides these articles, 
 rice, cotton, tobacco, coffee, sugar-cane, pepper, cardamoms, and areca-nuts, are raised in various 
 places, chiefly in the southern and central districts ; while a great part of the interior, especially 
 in the northern division, is covered with dense forests, in which teak abounds, and where also 
 calamander, ebony, satin, rose, sappan, iron, jack, and other cabinet and fancy woods, are found 
 in rich profusion. The most valuable animal in Ceylon is the elephant, which is of enormous 
 size, and has been found in flocks of from 1< to 200 ; they are used for a variety of purposes ; the 
 ivory obtained from them, however, is not very considerable. The manufactures are nearly con- 
 fined to arrack, salt, coir, cordage, oil, coarse cloths, and the smelting of a small quantity of iron 
 in the interior. 
 
 The commerce is not very extensive, but it has increased during the last few years, since the 
 abandonment of the Dutch monopoly system, — an improvement which was effected under the 
 auspices of the late governor, Sir R. W. Horton. The exports to Britain chiefly consist of cin- 
 namon, coffee, and cocoa-nut oil ; besides which, there are sent plumbago, cordage, cardamoms, 
 pepper, horns, tortoise-shell (chiefly from the Maldives), ebony and satin wood; and the imports 
 principally of British manufactures. The exports to India and the British colonies consist of areca- 
 nuts, arrack, tobacco, chiefly sent to Travancore, coffee, salt, cocoa-nuts, timber, hookah shells, 
 coir, nipera lath, beche de nier, sharks' fins, and fish-oil ; and the imports, of rice (brought in large 
 quantities from India), cloth, sugar, opium and other drugs. In 1835, the estimated value of the 
 exports to Great Britain was £79,596 ; to British colonies, £63,632 ; to the United States, £400; 
 to foreign states, £15,272; total (exclusive of the produce of the pearl-fishery, estimated at 
 £40,000), £158,500; the principal articles being coffee, £59,046; cinnamon, £21,809; cocoa- 
 nut oil, £12,100; cocoa-nuts, £'6784; areca-nuts, £10,497; and arrack, £7217. In the same 
 vear, the amount of imports from Great Britain was £69,997 ; from British colonies, £251,894 ; 
 "from United States. £103; from foreign states, £30,082; total, £352,076; the principal articles 
 being cloth, £116,259 ; rice, £115,605 ; paddy, £23,937 ; and wheat, £7202. In 1836, the amount 
 of exports had increased to £3o8,703, including £228,501 to Great Britain; the imports to 
 £411,167, including £93.257 from Great Britain. 
 
 The chief ports are Colombo, Trincomale, and Point-de-Galle. 
 
 Colombo, in Iat. 6° 57' N. , long. 80° E. , where nearly the whole maritime trade of the island is car- 
 ried on, is a handsome town defended by a strong fort mounting 300 cannon. It has a wooden 
 quay adapted for vessels not exceeding 100 tons ; larger vessels anchor in the small semicircular 
 bay within which the quay is built, or in an outer roadstead, which, however, is safe only during 
 the N. E. monsoon from November to" the end of March. The climate is salubrious. The 
 mean daily variation of temperature is from 76° to 86J° Fahr. 
 
 umale, in lat. 8' 32' N., long. 81° 17' E., 150 miles N. E. from Colombo, is also strongly 
 fortified ; and the harbour, described by Nelson as the finest in the world, is accessible at all seasons, 
 the depth of water being so great that vessels may he alongside the rocks in perfect safety. 
 
 Point-de-Galle, in lat. 6° 1' N., long. 80° W E., distant 78 miles S. S. E. from Colombo, is an- 
 other excellent and strongly fortified harbour. 
 
 Measure* and Weights. — The chief native The Candyan land-measure is the amomam of 
 Measures are the amomam of 8 parrahs or 192 : 4 peylas or 40 coornies = 2 acres 2 roods 371 
 seers = 53 Winchester bushels ; the last = 63 I perches. 
 
 Winchester quarters. The leaguer of 75 welts I British weights are used for foreign commo- 
 or 300 canades = 150 English wine gallons. The I dities. The candy or bahar = 500 lbs., and the 
 British measures of length and surface are used. ! garce = 82 cwt. 2 qrs. 165 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
CHA 
 
 144 
 
 CHA 
 
 Money.— Accounts are now generally stated in 
 poundsj shillings, and pence sterling. Formerly 
 they were kept in rixdollars of 12 fanams, 48 
 pice, or 144 chalies = Is. 6d. sterling. The cir- 
 culating medium is composed of notes for £1 and 
 upwards, issued by the colonial treasury, and 
 payable in specie on demand ; also of rixdollars, 
 British silver and copper coins, Spanish dollars, 
 
 rupees, copper fanams, and cowries or little 
 shells which are used in small payments by the 
 natives. 
 
 The Public Revenue of Ceylon, in 1835, amount- 
 ed to £371 ,695, and the expenditure to £323,277 ; 
 but this last was exclusive of an expenditure of 
 about £130,000, incurred in Britain on account 
 of the island. S 
 
 Ceylon is said to have been the chief mart for eastern commerce in the sixth century. In 
 1505, it was first visited by the Portuguese, who in 1518 subdued the maritime provinces. In 1656, 
 the Portuguese were expelled by the Dutch, from whom again the island was wrested by the Bri- 
 tish in 1796. Until 1815, the English occupied only the maritime provinces, while the King of 
 Candy possessed the interior ; but in that year the monarch was deposed, and the whole island 
 has been since under the sway of this country. 
 
 CHAIN, a British land-measure divided into 100 parts called links. The Eng- 
 lish or Imperial chain = 66 feet, and 10 square chains = 1 Imp. acre. The Scottish 
 chain formerly in use contained 74*12 feet. 
 
 CHAIN-RULE, or RULE OF EQUATIONS, an arithmetical formula of Ger- 
 man origin, which is of great practical utility, particularly in exchange calculations. 
 It is so called from the terms being stated as equations, and connected as it were 
 by a chain, so as to obtain by one operation the same result as by any number of 
 different questions in the rule of three. The principle may be familiarly illustrated 
 as follows : — 
 
 Required the number of Roman pauls which may be had for £60 sterling, reckoning £1 = 25 
 French francs, and 100 francs = 200 pauls. 
 This case contains obviously two different questions : — 
 1. If 25 francs be equivalent to £1, how many francs may be had for £60 ? 
 1 : 60 : : 25 : 1500. Answer, 1500 francs may be had for £60. 
 
 25 
 1)1500(1500 
 If 100 francs be equivalent to 200 pauls, how many pauls may be had for 1500 francs ? 
 100 : 200 : : 1500 : 3000. Answer, 3000 pauls may be had for 1500 francs. 
 
 1500 
 
 100)300,000(3000 
 which is evidently the answer originally required, as 1500 francs are equivalent to £60, the original 
 term of demand. 
 
 In the course of these operations the term of demand, 60, is first multiplied into 25, then divided 
 by 1, next multiplied into 200, and afterwards divided by 100. But it would obviously produce 
 the same result to collect the multipliers and the term of demand into one product, and the divisors 
 into another, and then to divide the former by the latter. The preceding case may, therefore, be 
 stated thus :— 
 
 £60? 
 £1 = 25 francs 
 
 100 francs = 200 pauls 
 
 And WX«^ a 3J^000 = 3^ pauls m before< 
 
 By this mode of arranging the terms, it is obvious that those which would form the divisors in 
 continued statements in the Rule of Three are multiplied together for a common divisor, and the 
 other terms for a common dividend. 
 
 The same reasoning may be applied to those cases which involve three or more different ques- 
 tions. Hence the following 
 
 General Rule.— Arrange the several terms into two columns of antecedents and consequents, 
 in this manner : — 
 
 1. In the right-hand column enter first the tei'm of demand. 
 
 2. On the line below, and in the left-hand column, enter the first antecedent, which must be of 
 the same denomination as the term of demand, and equal in value to the corresponding consequent 
 placed contiguously in the right-hand column. 
 
 3. Similarly make the second antecedent of the same denomination as the preceding consequent, 
 and equal in value to the annexed consequent, and so on throughout, introducing equations 
 according to the nature of the case, and making the terms lead from one to another, so that the 
 last term may be of the same denomination as the answer required. 
 
 Then multiply the antecedents together for a divisor, and the consequents, including the term 
 of demand, together for a dividend, and the quotient will be the answer required. 
 
 Example — Required the price per lb. avoird. of tea purchased in China at 30 tales per pocul of 
 133J lbs. ; 720 tales bemg equal 1000 dollars, and the rate of exchange 58 pence per dollar ? 
 Arranging these data according to the preceding rules, we have— 
 
 lib.? 
 1&3$ lbs. = 1 pecul 
 1 pecul = 30 tales 
 720 tales = 1000 dollars 
 1 dollar = 58 pence 
 1 X 1 X 30 X 10 00 X 58 1,740,000 ... „ . 
 
 133* yix 720x1 — = ~~96 006~~ = " pence, the price per lb. required. 
 The operations are in practice simplified by striking out the same numbers when they occur in 
 
CHA 115 CHA 
 
 different columns ; or when terms in different columns are measured by the same number, by 
 cancelling the original terms, and using the quotients in their stead. Fractions likewise are gene- 
 rally converted into whole numbers by multiplying both terms of the equations in which they occur 
 by the denominator. Thus, multiplying the first equation of the preceding case by 3, we have 400 
 lbs. = 3 peculs. 
 
 Calculations of this kind are further facilitated by compounding the invariable terms into one 
 result or fixed number, and applying the variable terms to it as multipliers or divisors, according 
 to the state of the question. Thus, in the preceding case, the invariable terms are 133$ lbs. = I 
 pecul (or its equivalent 400 lbs. = 3 peculs), and 720 tales = 1000 dollars ; and collecting these 
 
 400 X 7-X) 
 into one result separately, and using the antecedents as the dividend, we have , - = 96, 
 
 3 X 1000 
 which will therefore form a fixed antecedent or divisor in the above and all analogous cases. In 
 
 the above case we shall have simply — — — = 18| as before. 
 
 The chain-rule admits of being applied advantageously to a great variety of cases in commercial 
 arithmetic, but it is in questions of exchange that it is chiefly employed. " Foreign merchants," 
 says Dr Kelly, " are generally very expert in their application of this rule to commercial coms- 
 putations ; and it is in a great measure to this that their acknowledged superiority in the science 
 of exchange may be attributed." {Cambist, vol. ii. Introd. p. vi.) [Exchange.] 
 
 CH ALDER, a corn-measure in the former Scottish system, which contained 16 
 bolls. [Boll. J 
 
 CHALDRON, a heaped measure formerly used for coals, lime, fish, potatoes, and 
 other coarse commodities, but now prohibited (5 & 6 Wm. IV. c. 63) ; it contained 
 12 sacks, or 36 heaped Bushels. Also a weight for coals still used in London and 
 Newcastle ; the London chaldron = 25^ cwt. ; the Newcastle chaldron of 3 wains 
 = 52$ cwt., but estimated for boats at 53 cwt. 
 
 CHALK (Fr. Craie. Ger. Kreide. It. Creta. Por. Creda. Rus. Mjel. Sp. 
 Greda) is a massive opaque carbonate of lime, of a, white, grayish, or yellow colour, 
 having an earthy fracture. Sp. gr. 2*5. It varies much in hardness, but is gene- 
 rally soft to the touch, and adheres to the tongue. It composes a large portion of 
 the newest secondary rocks in the S. of England. When purified by trituration 
 and elutriation, it is called whiting and Spanish white. Its uses are well known 
 in furnishing lime for manure and cement, in polishing metals and glass, as a 
 marking material, and in painting and whitewashing. 
 
 Black Chalk is a grayish, or bluish-black kind of clay, of a slaty texture, used 
 both in drawing and painting. It is found in France, Spain, Italy, and Bayreuth. 
 
 CHAMOMILE, a useful herb (Anthemis nobilis), found plentifully in this coun- 
 try, especially on the commons near London. It is celebrated as a bitter ; and an 
 infusion of the flower-heads is much used in medicine. The bitter principle is 
 strongest in the little yellow flowers of the disk, and the wild blossoms are much 
 stronger than those of the cultivated sort. 
 
 A species of chamomile (Anthemis tinctorid) is raised in France for the sake of 
 a brilliant yellow dye which is obtained from it. 
 
 CHAMPAGNE. [Wine.] 
 
 CHANKS are shells ( Voluta gravis) of a spiral form, fished up by divers in the 
 Gulf of Manaar, on the N. W. coast of Ceylon. There are two kinds, payel and 
 patty, one red and the other white ; the latter is of little value. These shells are 
 exported to India, where they are sawed into rings of various sizes, and worn on 
 the arms, legs, fingers, and toes by the Hindoos. A third species, opening to the 
 right, is rare, and very highly valued. The demand for these shells, caused by the 
 religious rites of the Hindoos, was formerly so great, that 60,000 rixdollars per 
 annum were received by the government for the right of fishing them ; but the 
 demand decreased until the revenue became not worth collecting ; and the fishery 
 is now free to all. 
 
 CHARCOAL, a well-known impure form of carbon, obtained by the destructive 
 distillation of various organic products ; its characters and properties vary with 
 its source. Wood charcoal is commonly made of oak, chesnut, elm, beech, or ash ; 
 the white and resinous woods are seldom used, and young trees answer better 
 than large timber. It is a black, brittle, solid substance, easily pulverized, per- 
 fectly insipid, and inodorous. Animal charcoal is obtained generally from muscle, 
 horn, hoof, or similar animal substances. It possesses the same general characters 
 as the former, but often has a peculiar lustre and sponginess, and appears as if it 
 had undergone fusion. Charcoal possesses remarkable antiseptic properties. It 
 resists the putrefaction of animal matter ; it also destroys the colour and 
 smell of many substances. Common vinegar, by being boiled with it, becomes 
 colourless ; and red wines, rum, or brandy, may be bleached by filtration through 
 it. It is largely employed for this purpose in the process of sugar-refining, and other 
 arts. Animal charcoal has been found most efficacious for these purposes. Wood 
 
 K 
 
CHA 146 CHE 
 
 charcoal is mostly used for fuel, and in the manufacture of gunpowder. (Branded 
 Chemistry.) 
 
 CHART, a plan or Map of a sea or coast, constructed for the purpose of ascer- 
 taining the position of a ship with reference to the land, and of shaping a course 
 /) any place. " The charts used in navigation are those on Mercator's projection, 
 because on this alone the track of a ship always steering the same course appears 
 a straight line ; and thus all calculations respecting the latitude and longitude of 
 a ship steering a course which cuts all the meridians at the same angle, are reduced 
 to the utmost simplicity." diaper's Navigation.) 
 
 CHARTER-PARTY, a branch of the contract of affreightment, is defined a 
 contract, " by which an entire ship, or some principal part thereof, is let to a 
 merchant for the conveyance of goods, on a determined voyage to one or more 
 places" (Abbot, 162). It is executed by a deed duly written on a stamp, gene- 
 rally containing specification of the ship and her burden, the amount of freight, 
 the limitation of the agreement by time or voyage, and the time of loading and un- 
 loading. The amount of demurrage is generally fixed. [Demurrage.] In Eng- 
 land, the execution of a charter-party by the master, though said to be done on 
 behalf of the owners, does not furnish ground for a direct action against them, 
 founded on the instrument. " This depends," says Mr Abbot, " upon a technical 
 rule of the law of England, applicable as well to this as to other cases, and not 
 affected by the mercantile practice of executing deeds for and in the name of 
 absent persons; the rule of the law of England being, that the force and effect 
 which that law gives to a deed under seal, cannot exist, unless the deed be exe- 
 cuted by the party himself, or by another for him in his presence and with his 
 direction, or in his absence by an agent authorized to do so by another deed; and 
 in every such case, the deed must be made and executed in the name of the prin- 
 cipal." By another technicality, if the agreement bear to be between particular 
 parties, owners of a ship, whereof a certain person named is master, on the one 
 side, and certain persons named, on the other, the master cannot bring an action 
 in his name upon the covenants, nor give a release for them, though he seals and 
 delivers the instrument. If, however, the covenants on the side of the owners bear 
 to be by the master, with their consent, the owners can bring an action for fulfilment, 
 though, unless they seal the deed, they cannot be sued (Abbot, 166). " In Scotland," 
 says Professor Bell, " the charter-party is not trammelled by those technical rules 
 which, to a stranger, appear to oppose so many bars to the efficacy of the contract, 
 according to the jurisprudence of England. The contract, when duly executed by 
 the owners or by the shipshusband, or by the master within the limits of his 
 powers, is binding on the owners, and gives action direct in the Court of Admi- 
 ralty [now in the Court of Session] against all concerned. It also, in general, 
 contains a registration clause, in virtue of which it may be the ground of summary 
 execution, without any necessity for a previous action." (Bell's Com. i. 539.) 
 
 The most important questions regarding charter-parties generally relate to the risks 
 and responsibilities of parties arising out of the usual perils of the sea ; compensa- 
 tion or damage for delays, alterations of the agreement, &c. Information on these 
 subjects will he found under the heads Affreightment, Bill of Lading, Demur- 
 rage, and Shipping. (Abbot and Bell, ut supra. Smith's Mercantile L. 240-243.) 
 
 CHATTELS, or CATALS, in the law of England, is an expression used to desig- 
 nate any description of property, moveable or immovable, except such as is, in 
 its nature, freehold, or parcel of it. Chattels are either personal or real. Of the 
 former, are shop goods and wares, household furniture and plate, corn sown, cattle, 
 &c. Chattels real are such as are said to savour of the reality, i. e. which either 
 are landed property or some continuous right issuing out of it, as terms for years 
 of land, the next presentation to a church, &c. (Jacob's Law Dictionary.) 
 
 CHAYA-ROOT, a small slender root, yielding a scarlet dye, obtained from a 
 plant (Oldenlandia umbellata), cultivated on the coasts of Coromandel and Mala- 
 bar, and in Ceylon. In that island it was once monopolized by the government, but 
 the monopoly has been relinquished. The colouring principle exists only in the 
 bark. It is used in India to paint the red figures on chintz, &c, but is not esteemed 
 by the dyers in this country. 
 
 CHECK. [Cheque.] 
 
 CHECK, a kind of cloth in which coloured stripes cross each other rectangularly. 
 In this country, the checks chiefly manufactured are of a very coarse kind, suited 
 for seamen's shirts, aprons, and common bed-gowns. The two principal seats of 
 the trade are Blackburn and Kirkcaldy, the former in cotton, the latter, till of late, 
 chiefly in linen. [Pullicates.] 
 
CHE 147 CHE 
 
 CHEESE (Du. Kaas. Fr. Fromage. Ger. K'dse. It. Formaggio, Cacio. Por. 
 Queijo. Rub. Stir. Sp. Qtceso), a species of food which consists of the caseous mat- 
 ter of milk, united to a certain portion of the oily or creamy part, which last 
 adds to the flavour and richness of the cheese. Cheese, however, can he made 
 from milk from which the cream has heen removed, and it is then termed skimmed 
 milk cheese. It may even be made from buttermilk ; but then the creamy part 
 being more withdrawn than in the case of skimmed milk, the cheese wants still 
 more the properties and flavour which are valued. The poorer the cheese is the 
 longer it will keep ; but every variety, if well cleared from whey and sufficiently 
 salted, may be preserved for years. 
 
 Cheese is made in large quantities in the dairy counties of England, particularly 
 in Cheshire (where the annual produce is about 11,500 tons), Gloucestershire, 
 and Warwick. " Single Gloucester" is made from skimmed milk, " Double Glou- 
 cester " from unskimmed, — the best being from the vale of Berkeley. The Wiltshire 
 is equal to the best double Gloucester. The celebrated Chedder and Bridge- 
 water cheeses are made in Somersetshire ; though a somewhat inferior Chedder is 
 often sold as double Gloucester. The cheeses known by the name of Stilton, which 
 are chiefly made in Leicestershire, and those of Banbury in Oxfordshire, are of 
 superior richness ; the former is made by adding the cream of the preceding 
 evening's milk to the morning's milking. Scotland produces little good cheese, 
 except that called " Dunlop," made in Ayrshire and the adjoining counties of 
 Wigtown and Kirkcudbright ; the most esteemed is the Wigtown Dunlop. In 
 Ireland only a small quantity is made, and that too of an inferior quality. 
 
 The most celebrated foreign cheeses are the Parmesan, a skim-ndlk cheese chiefly 
 from Lodi in Italy ; the Gruyere, from Switzerland, entirely of new milk; the Roque- 
 fort, of ewes' milk; and the Neufchatel, made of cream, thickened by heat; the last, 
 a small cheese folded in paper, is imported as a delicacy from France. The foreign 
 cheeses principally used in this country, however, are those from Gouda and Edam 
 in Holland ; of these the former is the finest, but the latter keeps longest, and 
 consequently forms an important article in the victualling of ships. 
 
 Cheeses are frequently coloured with annatto, the juice of the orange carrot, or 
 the flower of marigold, from the notion that a yellowish tint makes them look 
 richer ; Gloucester and Wiltshire cheeses are coloured deeply ; Cheshire slightly ; 
 but Chedder, Stilton, and some other rich cheeses are never coloured. 
 
 Very little cheese is exported, but the quantity imported is considerable, being 
 about 220,000 cwts., which, with the exception of about 1000 cwts. from Italy, 
 France, and Germany, is brought exclusively from Holland. 
 
 CHEQUE is a written order on a banker by a person having money in the 
 banker's hands, directing him to pay on presentment, or to bearer, or to a person 
 named, a certain sum of money. Cheques partake of the nature of bills of excnange, 
 in their indorsibility as the representative of cash. The cheque, till lately, being 
 exempt from the stamp laws, was limited in its operation, so as to prevent it from per- 
 forming the functions of a bill of exchange, and, being either a means of raising a 
 credit, or an instrument by which a creditor at a distance from his debtor can 
 convert the debt into a negotiable obligation. But by the act of 1853, the 16 & 17 
 Vict. c. 59, cheques are made liable to the uniform penny receipt stamp, ii 
 drawn payable to bearer or to order on demand. The place of issue must be 
 named, and the order must bear date on the day of issue, and must not direct 
 payment to be made by bills or promissory notes (9 Geo. IV. c. 49, § 15. Sched. of 
 55 Geo. III. c. 184). These rules must be strictly observed. Where a person resid- 
 ing in a private house four miles from a town, dated a cheque drawn there as if 
 drawn in the town, it was held unavailable for want of a stamp (Waters v. 
 Brogden. I. Young <£ Jerv. 457). Cheques are exempted by 7 Geo. IV. c. 6, § 9, 
 from the provision which prohibits bills under £5 from being negotiated in Eng- 
 land except under certain restrictions. It is held that, in the ordinary course of 
 business, a cheque cannot be negotiated so as to affect the drawer (e. g. in the case 
 of the banker becoming insolvent), after banking hours of the day on which it was 
 issued, but where the drawer is himself instrumental to the delay, he may continue 
 liable to any onerous holder. It is the duty of the person receiving a cheque, whether 
 from the drawer or an indorser, to present it for payment on the day on which he 
 receives it, if it come to his hands early in the day, and otherwise on the day follow- 
 ing ; if he be at a distance, he should despatch it within the same time, if the Post 
 Office arrangements admit of his doing so. Legal rules on these points cannot, how- 
 ever, be strictly laid down, and the above statements must be held as of a merely 
 precautionary nature. A banker refusing to honour a cheque when he is in funds 
 
CHE 148 CHI 
 
 to the drawer, is liable in damages ; but lie is entitled to act on bis own discretion 
 where there are grounds to suspect forgery or fraud. [Bill of Exchange.] 
 
 CHEQUEE, a small Turkish weight. The chequee used in weighing gold, silver, 
 and precious stones, contains 100 dirhems or drams, and is equal 4950 troy grains ; 
 but the chequee for goat-wool contains 800 drams, and that for opium 2.50 drams. 
 
 CHERRY, the well-known fruit of a tree (Cerasus), of which the Horticultural 
 Society's Catalogue enumerates about 220 varieties. The cherry orchards of Kent 
 are celebrated. The wood of the tree is close, takes a fine polish, and some sorts 
 are adapted for tool-handles and cabinet-work. 
 
 M Several liqueurs are manufactured from cherries. A large black cherry is used in the composi- 
 tion of the Ratafia of Grenoble ; and the Maraschino of Zara is prepared from a particular species 
 of cherry cultivated in Dalmatia. Kirschwasser, which is a cheap spirit, forming a considerable 
 article of commerce, is the fermented liquor of a small black cherry." ( Veg. Substances, i. p. 341.) 
 
 CHESNUT, SWEET or SPANISH (Fr. Chataignes. It. Castagne. Sp. Castanas), 
 is a dark-brown, ovate, sharp-pointed nut, or coat, containing a nutritive starchy 
 kernel, of a sweet flavour, which is extensively used as food, either raw, roasted, 
 ground, or otherwise prepared, in Italy, Spain, and the S. of France, where the tree 
 (Castanea vescd) chiefly abounds. It is used in this country in a roasted state at 
 desserts. The quantity annually imported fluctuates from 15,000 to 30,000 bushels. 
 
 The sweet chesnut is grown in several parts of England, but the fruit is of an 
 inferior kind. The tree in a wild state sometimes attains an extraordinary size : 
 On iEtna there is one called the hundred-horse chesnut, from its being able to 
 contain 100 mounted men in its hollow. The timber is considered to be of equal 
 value to that of the oak, and is applied to the same purposes. 
 
 Horse Chesnut (SEsculus) is a handsome tree, much used for ornamental pur- 
 poses in this country, but as it is soft and spongy, its value is limited. 
 
 CHETWERT, or TCHETVERT, the principal Russian corn-measure, equal 
 5| Imp. bushels nearly. 
 
 CHICA, a plant (Bignonia chica), growing on the banks of the Orinoco,from the 
 leaves of which an orange dye is extracted. It is occasionally to be met with in the 
 form of round cakes. In America it is used by the Indian tribes to stain their skins. 
 
 CHICORY, or SUCCORY, is a hardy perennial plant (Cichorium intybus); 
 found either in a wild or cultivated state in most parts of Europe. It has a strong 
 and fleshy root, which when young is celebrated for its use as a substitute for coffee, 
 — a purpose for which Dr Duncan thought it might be advantageously cultivated in 
 this country. Its preparation consists merely in being cut into pieces, dried, and 
 ground. The substitution of chicory for coffee was greatly encouraged by Bona- 
 parte, in order to harass the trade of England; and the root is still thus used in 
 many parts of Germany, Holland, and Switzerland. In this country it is well 
 known to be extensively employed in the adulteration of coffee. S 
 
 CHILLIES are long roundish taper pods, obtained from a shrubby plant (Cap- 
 sicum frutescens), cultivated extensively in the East Indies. The pods are filled 
 with a dry loose pulp, and contain many small, flat, kidney-shaped seeds. Their 
 taste is extremely pungent and fiery ; their colour when ripe is a bright orange 
 red. They are occasionally imported dry, and are used as a condiment. They 
 form the basis of Cayenne pepper and curry powder. The fresh capsicums used 
 in Europe are chiefly procured from a species (C. annuum) found wild in the W. 
 Indies and S. America. 
 
 CHILI, a narrow country extending nearly 1200 miles along the W. coast of 
 S. America, betwixt lat. 25° and 44° S. It is bounded N. by Peru, E. by the 
 Argentine Republic, S. by Patagonia, and W. by the Pacific. Area, including the 
 Archipelago of Chiloe, but excluding the portion of Patagonia claimed by Chili, 
 130,000 sq.miles. Population 1,200,000, chiefly Spanish- Americans and Indians. It 
 is divided into eight provinces. Capital, Santiago, a handsome inland city; pop. 
 60,000. The government has a republican form ; the legislature consists of a 
 senate and house of representatives j and the executive power is vested in the 
 hands of a supreme director. 
 
 The lofty chain of the Andes runs along the whole eastern boundary of Chili, and the country 
 below is composed, to a considerable extent, of valleys, surrounded by high mountains or ridges. 
 The climate varies much in the different districts, but it is every where salubrious, and in the 
 central provinces is similar to that of Italy. Rain occurs seldom except between May and August. 
 Spring begins in September, and the hottest months are January and February. The northern 
 
 Erovinces are in general dry and steril, destitute of wood, but rich in minerals. On the other 
 and, the southern provinces are humid, highly fertile, and abound in fine timber, but are much less 
 rich in minerals. The chief metallic productions of Chili are gold, silver, and copper, but the steril 
 condition of the provinces in which they are principally found prevents them being worked except 
 where very rich. Gold is obtained both from the sand of the rivers and from mines; tbi total 
 
CHI 149 CHI 
 
 quantity in 1834 is stated, in a late consular return, at 3852 marcs ; but no dependence can 
 be placed on the accuracy of this report, as the metal is mostly exported in a clandestine manner 
 to avoid the export duty, which is 4 per cent, ad valorem. The silver mines exist chiefly in 
 the highest parts of the Andes, on which account few of them are worked ; indeed they have been 
 almost entirely abandoned since 1832, when some very rich ores were discovered about" sixty miles 
 S. of Copiapo. The quantity of silver obtained in 1834 is stated, in the consular return, at 164,935 
 marcs. The copper mines "are exceedingly numerous between the cities of Copiapo and Coquim- 
 bo ; and in 1834 there were exported 77.265 quintals of this metal in bars, besides 36,850 quintals 
 of ore ; while in 1838, the exports were, in bars, 89,537 quintals; in ore, 261,265 quintals. The 
 total value of these minerals produced in 1834 was, gold, $525,231 ; silver, $1,484,416; copper, 
 $1,148,501 ; total, $3,158,148, or £631,630. Mines of lead, tin, iron, and quicksilver are said to 
 exist, but they are not worked. Coal is found in the southern provinces. The supply of salt is 
 deficient. Intertropical plants do not succeed in Chili ; and the sugar-cane, after being tried, 
 was abandoned. Wheat is the great staple ; barley and hemp are also leading objects of cul- 
 ture ; and the latter is of a quality even superior to that of Russia. The vine and olive are also 
 cultivated extensively ; but the wine and oil manufactured are of indifferent quality. The rearing 
 of stock forms an important source of wealth ; the pastures N. of the river Maule are filled with 
 innumerable herds of cattle ; and swine are abundant in the Archipelago of Chiloe. The manu- 
 factures of the country comprise earthenware, hempen cloths, coarse cordage, soap, inferior cop- 
 per wares, leather, brandy, tallow, and charcoal. 
 
 The internal commerce of the country is impeded by the defective means of communication. 
 The high ridges, which every where separate the valleys, are passable only for mules ; and the 
 roads suited for carriages are almost confined to those between Santiago and Valparaiso and 
 Conception ; while of the numerous streams which flow from the Andes to the Pacific, none 
 are navigable for any distance. The capital, Santiago, is the great emporium of the inland 
 trade : it maintains a considerable intercourse with the mining districts and the coast ; and also 
 with the States of La Plata ; the commerce with the latter being carried on chiefly through the 
 pass of Aconcagua, on the road to Mendoza. 
 
 Chili is said to be almost the only Spanish-American state whose commerce has increased since 
 the separation from the mother country. Its trade with the other S. American states chiefly con- 
 sists in exporting wheat, flour, jerked beef, fruit, barley, beans, cheese, timber, wine, European 
 and Indian goods, in exchange for tobacco, sugar, coffee, cotton, rice, salt, drugs, dye-stuffs, matte, 
 hats, tocuyos (a coarse cotton linen from Brazil), and bullion. The exports to, and imports 
 from, other countries are as follow : — China, exports, copper and bullion ; imports, silks, nan- 
 keens, tea, sugar, and small articles. India, exports, copper ; imports, sugar and coarse cotton 
 goods. United States, exports, hides, copper, seal-skins, and bullion ; imports, tobacco, sperma- 
 ceti candles, oil, European and Indian goods, sugar from Havannah and Brazil; the annual 
 value of the American imports is estimated at $2,500,000. Spain, no direct exportation ; im- 
 ports (by neutral vessels), wine, oil, and quicksilver. France, exports, bullion, hides, and cop- 
 per ; imports, wine, brandy, silks, linens, cloth, hardware, paper, perfumery, books, leather ; the 
 amount of the whole being" estimated at $l,0u0,0u0. Germany, exports, bullion ; imports, linens, 
 cloth, glass, iron utensils, silks, cottons, spirits. Belgium, exports, bullion, hides ; imports, Bri- 
 tish, German, and French manufactures. Britain, exports, bullion, Peruvian bark, saltpetre, 
 indigo, cotton and sheep's wool, coffee, cocoa, hides, sarsaparilla, and copper ; imports, British 
 manufactures of all kinds, besides quicksilver, wines, rum, brandy, and other foreign and colonial 
 articles. The declared value of British produce and manufactures sent to Chili in 1827 was 
 £400.134; in 1830, £540,626; in 1833, £816,817 ; in 1836, £861,903; and in 1839, £1,103,073; but 
 the Chilian estimate of the total average annual value of British goods imported in British and 
 foreign vessels is $6,000,000. Of the British cargoes a great proportion is sold for export to 
 Bolivia, Peru, Central America, and Mexico. 
 
 Valparaiso, in 33° 2 / S., and 71° 41/ W., the port of Santiago, is the centre of the foreign trade 
 of Chili ; pop. 20,000. It stands on a rugged promontory, forming, with the shore, a deep cres- 
 cent, the concavity of which, opening to the N., forms the harbour, where ships of any size may 
 ride in safety against all winds, except those from the K., which blow with great violence along 
 the whole coast in the beginning of the rainy season. About 450 vessels arrive at this port an- 
 nually, including about 100 British. 
 
 The chief other ports are, Conception, pop. 10,000 ; Copiapo, pop. 4000 ; Coquimbo, or La Se- 
 rana, the principal port of the mining country, pop. 12,006 ; and Valdivia, pop. 5000. These 
 towns have at different times suffered greatly from earthquakes, which are common throughout 
 Chili, particularly in the interior. In the N*. provinces slight shocks are felt almost daily. 
 
 Measures and Weights. — 1<>8 varas = 100 Imp. I gress, the revenues for 1834-35-36 amounted 
 yds. 96 Chilian lbs. reckoned equal 100 lbs. | to $5,697,666, averaging yearly $1,899,222. 
 Spanish, or 101-44 lbs. avoird. In other respects j The expenditure during the same years was 
 same as Spain. $6,578,555, averaging yearly $2,192,851 ; leav- 
 
 Money. — Accountsare kept in dollars of 8 reals, : ing an annnal deficit of $293,629, exclusive of 
 each of 34 maravedis. The coins are, in gold, interest on the foreign debt. The domestic debt 
 doubloons, half and quarter doubloons, and amounts to about £5,000,000. The foreign debt 
 crowns: In silver, dollars, pieces of 4 and 2 reals, amounts to £1,000,<HK), raised by the issue of 
 and J and i reals : In copper, centaras and half bonds in this country in 1822, bearing interest at 
 centaras. The Chilian national dollar being 6 per cent. The Chilian loan was contracted 
 coined at the rate of 8* to the Castile marc, is with Messrs Hullet Brothers at 70 per cent. ; 
 equivalent in value to the Spanish hard dollar, and the dividends remain unpaid since Septem- 
 
 Finances. — According to the reports to Con- ber 1826. S 
 
 CHINA, the Celestial Empire, situated in the E. of Asia, is bounded N. by Asiatic 
 Russia ; E. by the Pacific Ocean ; S. by Gulf of Tonquin, Annam, Birmah, and 
 British India"; W. by British India, Independent Tartary, and Asiatic Russia. 
 It comprises China Proper, area, 1,300,000 sq. miles ; pop. 360,000,000 : Chinese 
 Tartary, area, 3,300,000 sq. miles ; pop. 12,000,000 : and Thibet, area, 750,000 sq. 
 miles; pop. 5,000,000. The capital is Pe-king, in 39° 50' N., 116° 30' E. ; pop. 
 2,000,000. The government is a despotic monarchy, and the emperor is designed 
 
CHI 150 CHI 
 
 " Son of Heaven," and absolute lord not only of China, but of the world. A pecu- 
 liar character, however, is given to the constitution, by a provision for securing 
 intelligent functionaries in the different branches of administration. These must be 
 persons elevated to the dignity of qicans or mandarins, by their proficiency in 
 learning. The highest class reside at the capital, as state councillors, public cen- 
 sors, or as members of the six pous or boards, to whom are confided the different 
 branches of administration; and from the other classes are chosen provincial go- 
 vernors and subordinate officers. 
 
 Chinese Tartary and Thibet are comparatively thinly peopled territories, inhabited by wander- 
 ing and semi-barbarous tribes, who are held as tributaries, or under loose military government, 
 without any attempt to impose on them the laws and general character of China itself. The source 
 of the vast wealth of the state is to be found in China Proper, the local features of which are under- 
 stood to possess the same character of vastness which generally distinguishes the empire. Her 
 provinces equal our kingdoms, her towns our capitals, her villages most of our cities ; yet all these 
 are pervaded by a certain sameness approaching to monotony. The number of provinces is 
 eighteen, and these are subdivided into districts, each dependent on one of the great cities. These 
 last, according to their importance, are arranged in three classes, generally expressed by the terms 
 fou, tcheou, and Men annexed to their names ; as, Kai-fong-/<ra, Laxi-tcheou, Yuen-Men. The 
 northern, central, southern, and western provinces possess each peculiar and distinctive characters. 
 
 1. The Northern Provinces, Pe-che-lee, Shan-tung, and Shan-see, consist of very extensive plains, 
 rising on the N. and W. into mountains or high table-land, which form the lower declivity of the 
 lofty chain that traverses Mantchoo Tartary. The winter is extremely rigorous compared with 
 that of European countries under the same latitude ; so that all the rivers, not excepting the 
 largest, are then frozen. Hence, though the summers are proportionally hot, the more valuable 
 articles of rice, silk, and tea, which constitute the pride of Chinese culture, cannot be reared ; 
 even wheat does not successfully resist the cold, and millet is therefore the standard grain. The 
 high grounds wear somewhat of a pastoral aspect, and support several domestic animals, which 
 have been banished from the more cultivated provinces. The fine manufactures that distinguish 
 China are also unknown, though there are some remains of the woollen fabrics in which she an- 
 ciently excelled. The mineral products consist of iron, large quantities of coal, with lapis-lazuli, 
 and other varieties of beautifully coloured stone. This district contains the capital, Peking, which 
 is situated in Pe-che-lee ; and its northern boundary for 1500 miles is the celebrated Great Wall, 
 composed of two parallel brick walls, twenty-four feet in height, and twelve feet apart, the inter- 
 val between which is filled with earth, and towers are erected at distances of 300 or 400 feet. 
 
 2. Tlie Central Provinces consist of Kiang-nan, Tche-kiang, Kiang-see, Ho-nan, and Hou-quang. 
 The first and the last have each been divided into two ; yet the original appellations of both are 
 still retained, and they form decidedly the finest part of the empire. All its most valuable pro- 
 ductions, all its finest fabrics, are here reared or manufactured. This territory consists, with 
 little interruption, of an immense plain, through the midst of which flows the great river Yang- 
 tse-kiang, while the numerous tributaries which fall into it from both sides, as well as those 
 flowing northwards to the Hoang-ho, render it one of the best-watered regions upon earth. Indeed, 
 the excess of moisture, as it renders some districts marshy, is the chief disadvantage under which 
 it labours. Kiang-nan is the province in which the riches and beauty of this part of China are 
 most amply displayed ; all the products of nature and art being carried to a perfection unequalled 
 in any other. The rice and wheat are excellent ; the silk is rivalled only in Tche-kiang ; cotton is 
 nowhere so good. The song-lo or green tea, the most delicate of that species, grows only on the 
 hills of Kiang-nan, and in Tche-kiang, chiefly the former. The people are said to be more intel- 
 ligent, and Nan-king, its chief town, was informer ages the capital, and still is the literary me- 
 tropolis of the empire, and its finest city. It is celebrated for its porcelain tower, andfor its flourishing 
 manufactures ; — the satins ; the cotton cloth bearing its name ; and its ink and paper, which are 
 superior to any made elsewhere. Tche-kiang, the rival of Kiang-nan, forms, in a great measure, 
 a continuation of the same vast plain, equally fertile and beautiful. In particular, it is completely 
 pervaded by rivers and canals, covered with innumerable barks. All the tropical productions 
 flourish here to a great extent ; but that of silk is particularly distinguished for its quality and 
 abundance. The commerce and manufactures of its capital, Hang-tcheou-fou, rank it with the 
 greatest cities in China. Silks, particularly flowered taffetas, and different kinds of satin, are its 
 peculiar staple. Kiang-see, though to a considerable extent mountainous or marshy, shares in 
 some degree the manufactures of the neighbouring provinces, but is chiefly distinguished for the 
 finest porcelain, which is exclusively confined to King-te-tching, one of its towns, said to contain 
 1,000,000 inhabitants. The other provinces in this district are less distinguished for their produc- 
 tions, whether natural or artificial. 
 
 3. The Southern Provinces are composed of Quang-tung, or Canton, Fo-kien, and Quang-see. 
 These consist of the level country intervening between the sea and the extensive mountain-chain 
 which is prolonged from the Himmaleh, along the whole south of China, with an elevation dimi- 
 nishing in its progress eastward, and which forms a steep barrier separating them from the rest of 
 the empire. High ranges also shoot across them, and terminate in rugged cliffs. In the intervals, 
 however, are many valleys, and even extensive plains, that rival the finest of the central pro- 
 vinces, and are cultivated with equal diligence, though they yield no very valuable productions, 
 except the bohea tea, reared chiefly on the hill-slopes of Fo-kien. The manufactures are various 
 and actively pursued, yet none of them can match those of Nan-king, Hang-tcheou-fou, and King- 
 te-tching. The coast, however, is the seat of nearly all the foreign trade of the empire. Its posi- 
 tion relative to the eastern peninsula and archipelago, its fine harbours, even the ruggedness of 
 many of its districts, seem to have united in turning the industry of the people into this direc- 
 tion. Canton is the well-known seat of the trade with Europeans and their possessions in India : 
 while the Chinese junks sent to the neighbouring coasts and islands are almost all fitted out from 
 the ports of Fo-kien. A bolder and more enterprising race, addicted to maritime adventure and 
 even to emigration, inhabits these shores. 
 
 4. The Western Provinces bordering on Tartary are Shen-see, Kan-su, Se-tchuen, Koei-tchcou, 
 and Yun-nan, but our knowledge of them is more imperfect than of any other quarter. Ac- 
 
CHI 151 CHI 
 
 cording to every description hitherto received, their aspect, productions, and social state differ 
 very widely from those of the other parts of the empire. The mountains are much loftier ; and their 
 recesses are occupied to a great extent by the Miao-tse, Lolos, and other independent and almost 
 savage tribes. This region, however, is not altogether steril or unproductive ; there are some 
 extended plains, and the mountains are generally interspersed with rich and beautiful valleys. The 
 store of metals and minerals is particularly ample, including gold, silver, and copper. On the 
 hills of some districts are rhubarb and other medicinal plants ; and among the numerous wild 
 animals is the one which yields musk. The rivers afford commodious channels for transporting 
 those articles through the whole empire. 
 
 Besides these eighteen provinces on the continent, the Chinese possess various islands on the 
 coast ; the principal, Formosa, being on the west, and Hainan on the south. The former is moun- 
 tainous, and inhabited by barbarians, apparently of Polynesian origin. The latter is considerable, 
 and is occupied in the interior by rude natives, and on the coast by the Chinese, rearing productions 
 similar to those of the adjoining coast of Quang-tung. 
 
 The Chinese have been represented as averse to all traffic ; but more accurate information seems 
 to establish the fact that no people are more solicitous to acquire riches, or less fastidious as to the 
 means ; and that the wealthy class are as desirous as in any other land to procure whatever ap- 
 pears to them useful or agreeable, without any scrupulous inquiry as to how or whence it comes. 
 The Interned Trade of this vast country constitutes by far the most important part of its com- 
 merce. The variety of climate and productions throughout the empire renders the provinces 
 mutually dependent upon each other, and affords ample scope for exchange ; while the traffic is 
 increased by the circumstance that the court, and with it the great body of opulent families, is 
 resident at Pe-king, near the northern frontier, and in a country which yields scarcely a single 
 article of elegance or luxury. Tea, the universal beverage, though produced in almost every pro- 
 vince, is not to be found of fine quality except in the few districts already mentioned. Rice is 
 raised only in the central and southern divisions, whence the whole consumption of the north 
 must be furnished. Sugar is confined within nearly the same limits. The silk and cotton manu- 
 factures are carried to perfection only in the great cities of Kiang-nan and Tche-kiang : porcelain 
 only at King-te-tching. Timber grows only on the mountains, and chiefly on the southern range. 
 Salt, a government monopoly, exists in mines as well as rock springs, but is principally procured 
 from sea- water on the eastern and southern coasts. Huge stacks or rather hills of salt seen at Tien- 
 tsin were estimated by Mr Barrow to contain 600,000,000 lbs. Although these are the principal 
 commodities, there are obviously many others, the conveyance of which, on a scale requisite for 
 the wants of so vast a population, must give occasion to a very extensive commerce. This great 
 trade is conducted almost entirely by means of water communications, consisting not only of the 
 great rivers, particularly Hoang-ho and Kiang-ku, with their tributaries ; but also of canals, with 
 which almost the whole empire is furrowed, and upon which the Chinese have made the most la- 
 vish display of their industry and resources. The principal is the Imperial Canal, which extends 500 
 miles in Shan-tung and Kiang-see. Compared with this grand system of water-communication, 
 land-carriage is little regarded, and few of the roads are better than footpaths ; though when 
 one does become actually necessary to connect any of their points of intercourse, the inhabitants 
 spare neither labour nor cost in making it complete. The coasting trade is discouraged by govern- 
 ment on account of its diminishing the internal transit-dues. It is, however, pretty extensive ; and 
 centres chiefly in Amoy, Fou-tcheou-fou, and other ports of Fo-kien, which form a link between 
 the northern and southern provinces. Ning-po and Sha-poo in Tche-kiang, and Shang-hai in 
 Kiang-nan, are also extensive ports. At the latter, which ranks next to Canton in commercial 
 importance, the officers of the Amherst in 1832 saw, in 7 days, 400 junks of from 100 to 400 tons 
 burden enter from the north bringing flour and pease. There are several other emporia along 
 the northern coast, particularly Tien-sing in the metropolitan province of Pe-che-lee. In the 
 southern provinces, Ching-hai, about 200 miles E. from Canton, is the seat of a flourishing com- 
 merce. The towns to the westward are of secondary importance, and very little known. 
 
 The External Commerce is inconsiderable when compared to the great resources of the country. 
 This has arisen partly from the variety of productions and manufactures exchanged by means of 
 the vast internal trade, but chiefly from the intercourse with Europeans being prohibited except 
 at the single port of Canton, a port most unfavourably situated for foreign commerce, from its 
 lying on the south coast, far removed from the most fertile and populous provinces, and at the 
 farthest extremity from the metropolitan province. The policy of thus confining the European 
 trade to a place so little suited to its extension, is attributed to the desire of the Chinese govern- 
 ment to remove the danger of foreign quarrels from the neighbourhood of the capital, and to de- 
 rive the largest possible revenue from transit-dues. In the early period of European intercourse 
 with the east, a more liberal spirit prevailed, and the English East India Company possessed 
 factories both at Tay-wan in Formosa, and at Amoy. Owing to losses sustained at these establish- 
 ments they were after some years abandoned, and the trade removed to Canton. The oppressive 
 exactions at the latter place induced the English to re-open the communication with Amoy ; but 
 in 1757, all attempts of this kind were foreclosed by a decree of the Emperor Kien-long, strictly 
 limiting European intercourse to Canton. Since that time various endeavours have been made by 
 the British and other European states to improve their commercial relations with China, but 
 without success. Lord Macartney's embassy in 1792 failed in procuring more than some slight re- 
 laxations at Canton ; and Lord Amherst's in 1816 led to no result whatever ; partly it has been 
 said from his lordship's refusal to perform the celebrated homage of the ko-tou to the emperor, 
 though it would appear that this was done " in full solemnity" by a Dutch ambassador in 1794, 
 with no other result than contempt for his servility. 
 
 Exports.— The staple export of the empire is tea. [Tea.] As already noticed, the black tea is ob- 
 tained chiefly from Fo-kien, and the green from Kiang-nan ; but of late years the cultivation of 
 the former for exportation has extended to Quang-tung, and of the latter to Tche-kiang. The 
 traders generally begin to arrive in Canton early in October with the crop of the season ; though 
 with the exception of the kinds most in demand, teas may be had throughout the year. In No- 
 vember the trade may be considered at its height. Teas are exported principally to Europe (par- 
 ticularly Great Britain) and the United States ; besides which, a considerable quantity is sent to 
 our possessions in India and Australia; and a much larger to every country of Asia which 
 contains Chinese emigrants, — such as the Annam Empire, Siam, and the Eastern Islands. The 
 Russians, who are prohibited from trading with the Chinese by sea, receive their supply over- 
 
CHI 
 
 152 
 
 CHI 
 
 land, as do all the Tartar nations, who have acquired a great relish for this article. The commodity 
 next in importance is raw silk, which is raised and manufactured in the provinces of Kiang-nan 
 Fo-kien, Tche-kiang, and Quang-tung ; but the silks brought to Canton are those of Kiang-nan or 
 Nan-king, and of Quang-tung only ; and the first is generally double the value of the last. There 
 is no article which shows in a more remarkable manner than this the capacity of extended pro- 
 duction possessed by China. The British exports, which form by far the most considerable part, 
 and which averaged only, under the East India Company, about 94,000 lbs. until 1834, when the 
 trade was opened to private adventurers through the medium of Singapore, having now increased 
 to 1,400,000 lbs., without producing any sensible advance in the price of the article. The 
 next commodity, if rated according to its importance, is sugar, which is of two descriptions,— clayed 
 or soft, and sugar-candy ; this last being the nearest approach to the refined variety yet made 
 by the nations of the East. The only manufactures for foreign trade are in Quang-tung and Fo- 
 kien ; and, in so far as refined sugar is concerned, the produce of the former is fully 75 per cent, 
 better than that of the latter. The quantity exported is from 8000 to 9000 tons. In former times, 
 the shipping of this article was confined to a small portion sent to the western coast of India, and 
 it is only within the last 25 years that it has been brought to Europe. Nan-king cloth still con- 
 tinues to be exported in large quantities ; also manufactured silks, notwithstanding the improve- 
 ment made in this branch of industry in Europe. The principal purchasers of the latter are the 
 Americans, who export to the amount of about §1,500,000. Cassia -lignea and cassia-buds are 
 produced abundantly in the forests of Quang-tung and Quang-see, and about 4,000,000 lbs. are 
 exported by the British and Americans. Camphor, found also in the forests of Quang-tung, is 
 exported largely, but the quantity varies much from year to year. There are likewise brought 
 to the market of Canton rhubarb, musk, aniseed, turmeric, orpiment, galangal, and cinnabar. 
 
 The superior industry of the Chinese as compared with other Asiatic nations is proved by their 
 extensive exportation of manufactured articles. To those already enumerated the following may 
 be added ; alum, white lead, red lead, brass leaf, tutenague or zinc, false-pearls, glass-beads, paper, 
 paper-hangings, toys, table and floor mats, and china ware, with the precious metals. Alum is 
 prepared in the distant province of Kiang-see, which supplies, we believe, the whole east with this 
 mineral. The paper of China is greatly inferior to the European fabric, but being much 
 cheaper, it is used even in our Indian settlements for all ordinary purposes. Their porcelain was 
 largely exported before the western nations borrowed the art, and is still an important article of 
 commerce, especially to the Eastern Islands, Siain, and Annam. The total value of manufactured 
 articles exported by the English and Americans in 1834, exclusive of raw silk, refined sugar, and 
 buiiion, amounted to nearly £500,000. 
 
 Of late years bullion has been very largely exported from China. In 1834, the quantity of silver 
 exported in British shipping amounted to $6,217,820 ; and of gold to $513,795, making together, 
 at 4s. 2d. per dollar, £\ ,402,420. Of this the amount of native or sycee silver was $5,119,304 ; and 
 if to it be added the export of native gold, we shall have a total export of the precious metals, 
 the produce of that country, equal to £1,197,035. 
 
 China, besides exporting native productions, is also an entrepot for those of the neighbouring 
 countries, and occasionally even for the manufactures of Europe, India, and America. Among 
 these may be mentioned mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, cloves, canes, and rattans ; dragon's- 
 blood, and cubebs, the produce of the Eastern Islands; gamboge, procured in Cambodia; salt- 
 petre and opium, the produce of India ; and cochineal and copper from America. 
 
 The principal articles carried to Great Britain in the year 1838 were,— 38,998,572 lbs. tea; 
 702,677 lbs. raw, and 18,840 lbs. thrown silk ; 21,870 pieces bandanas, &c. ; 8451 shawls, scarfs, 
 and handkerchiefs ; 3599 pieces taffetas, damasks, &e. ; 55,811 lbs. rhubarb; 44,142 lbs. cassia; 
 5852 lbs. cinnamon ; and 59,038 pieces of cotton. The American exports, which, next to the 
 British, are by much the most important, amount annually to about $9,000,000, or £1,875,000, 
 of which nearly two-thirds are in tea. 
 
 Thelmports may be divided into those from continental India, — those from the Eastern Islands, An- 
 nam, and Siam,— those from Great Britain, — those from America,— and those from other countries. 
 
 Of the imports from continental India by far the most important is opium, though the use of 
 this well-known drug is prohibited by the laws. [Opium.] In the year 1817-1818, the quantity 
 imported was 2435 chests, but in the year 1835-1836, it had increased to 26,018 chests, amounting 
 in value to $17,106,903, or £3,563,938, probably the largest sum given for any raw article supplied 
 by one nation to another, if we except the raw cotton iurnished to Great Britain by the United 
 States. The next article of importance is cotton-wool, one oi the oldest branches of trade betwixt 
 the countries, and, until opium took the lead, by far the most considerable. The market for this 
 production is not supposed to extend beyond Quang-tung and Quang-see, where it is said to be 
 chiefly made into quilting-cloths, to be used as winter dresses. The cotton fabrics of India have 
 never, however, found a market in China, — the people having no fancy for fine muslins, while 
 the ordinary Indian cottons are neither so substantial as their own, nor so much cheaper as to 
 create a demand. The other articles imported are of inferior value ; they consist of black pepper, 
 in smaU quantity, from Malabar ; catechu from Pegu ; myrrh and olibanum, productions of Ara- 
 bia ; asafcetida, procured in Persia ; putchuck from Guzerat ; also saltpetre, sandul-wood, sharks'- 
 fins. fish-maws, bezoar, pearls, and carnelians. 
 
 The following tables exhibit for a series of years the course of trade between China and the 
 different presidencies, according to the valuations thereof in the Indian accounts, estimating the 
 rupee at 2a. sterling : — 
 
 Imports into China from India. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1832-1833 
 
 1833-1834 
 
 1834-1835 
 
 1836-1838 
 
 1838-1837 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 Madras. 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Merchandise 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 Merchandise 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 Merehandi e, Treasure. 
 
 Merchandise 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 £ 
 
 1,180,830 
 1.323.H85 
 1,270,770 
 2,019,183 
 1,912,172 
 
 £ 
 
 3,200 
 3,743 
 
 1,125 
 2,295 
 
 3.392 
 
 £ 
 33,103 
 34,411 
 40,484 
 172,234 
 270.063 
 
 £ 
 
 670 
 
 1,312 
 1.519 
 
 £ 
 
 1,489,289 
 2,205,942 
 1,560,855 
 2,245,674 
 3,266 625 
 
 £ 
 
 880 
 
 880 
 
 £ 
 
 2,703,222 
 
 3,564,038 
 2,872,109 
 4,437,091 
 5,448.860 
 
 £ 
 
 3,200 
 
 4,413 
 1,125 
 4,487 
 5,791 
 
cm 
 
 153 
 
 CHI 
 
 Exports from China to India. 
 
 Von 
 
 1832-1833 
 
 1833-1834 
 
 1834-1835 
 
 1835-1836 
 
 1836-1837 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 M liMh 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 Total 
 
 Merchandise 
 
 £ 
 
 93,944 
 100,817 
 119,2' '3 
 
 59,690 
 107,506 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 Merchandise 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 -Merchandise 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 Merchandise Treasure. 
 
 £ 
 
 221,243 
 375,859 
 329,033 
 329,480 
 233,167 
 
 £ 
 
 26,138 
 10,531 
 37,787 
 12,887 
 17,471 
 
 £ 
 
 604 
 
 Voo 
 
 2,146 
 
 £ 
 
 333,230 
 430,611 
 358,353 
 457,572 
 400,567 
 
 353,834 453,312 575,681 
 907,846 541,959 1,283,705 
 855,923 515,343 1,185,656 
 956,728 530,149 1,288,354 
 1,007,428 525,544 1,240,596 
 
 The imports from the Eastern Islands and peninsula consist of the following articles : — Beche 
 de mer, betel-nut, Malay camphor, nutmegs, elephants' teeth, sharks' fins, pepper, rice, sapan- 
 wood, cubebs, gamboge, tortoise-shell, mangrove-bark, bees' wax, birds' nests, cloves, ebony, 
 fish-maws, gambir rattans, sandal-wood, tin, dragons' blood, mother-of-pearl, gold, eagle-wood, 
 benjamin. China, like every other country which is densely inhabited, is deficient in the supply 
 of timber and dye-woods. It is supplied by the neighbouring provinces, therefore, which are in a 
 rude state ; and if capital were abundant and freights low, they would export a much larger 
 amount. Rice is also an article of great importance. Owing to the vast population and its 
 consequent pressure on the means of subsistence, the value of rice is commonly double in Canton 
 what it is in the neighbouring countries. The government, in respect to the importation of this 
 article, adopts an unusually liberal policy, exempting all ships with cargoes of it from harbour 
 charges, and from the greater part of the customary fees. It is usually brought from Java and 
 the Philippines, and recently from Singapore. In 1834, the quantity imported in British ves-sels 
 was 15,406 tons, and in American, 7412 tons, making a total of 22,818 tons, valued at £153,903. 
 This is a branch of trade likely to become of vast importance ; for it is at present in its infancy. 
 
 The imports from Europe are almost wholly from Great Britain. Those of most importance 
 are woollens, cotton goods, and cotton-twist ; iron, steel, lead, spelter or zinc, and quicksilver; 
 the minor articles being cudbear, smalts, flints, tin-plates, clockwork, and machinery. Woollens 
 have always been much in demand in China ; and those used are chiefly broadcloths, camlets, 
 and long-ells, which find their way throughout nearly the whole empire. The cold winters, 
 even of the most southern provinces, render such fabrics a comfortable wear ; and, consider- 
 ing the diminished supply and high price of furs, it is probable that the demand for them will go 
 on increasing. A more decided expansion, however, would be given to the woollen trade, were 
 the Chinese to allow of foreign intercourse at one of the northern ports. In order to be consumed 
 at Pe-king, our woollens must travel 1200 miles, and cross the mountain-barrier, at the foot of 
 which they are unladen from boats, and carried across the pass called Mei-ling. The consequence 
 is, that not more than one-ninth of our woollen exports is consumed in the northern provinces, 
 including the capital, as proved by Mr Ball. It is only since the opening of the trade in 1814, that 
 our cotton goods have been received in China, and yarn was not imported until about the year 1827. 
 The descriptions of calicoes most in request are chintzes, long-cloths, muslins, cambrics, and ban- 
 danas, scarlet and blue. Tho twists in demand range from No. 16 to 36. The metal goods imported 
 are almost entirely consumed in the province where they are landed, as they cannot bear the 
 expense of lengthened land-carriage and transit-dues ; and this branch of trade is therefore of 
 limited amount, owing to the restriction already alluded to. Of the minor articles it is not neces- 
 sary to speak at large. Watches have long been taken, and generally by the ton or half ton. The 
 fancy of the Chinese is to wear them in pairs, in accordance with a pretty general prejudice in the 
 East against an odd number. Scarlet cuttings, or the tailor's refuse of scarlet cloth, is so regular 
 an object of trade as always to be quoted in the printed Price-current. The increase in the import 
 of British produce and manufactures has been very considerable since the opening of the trade in 
 1833 ; their average annual amount in the five previous years having been £614,368; while the 
 average amount in the five years, 1835 to 1839 inclusive, was £1,027, 161 ; thus showing an increase 
 on the annual declared value amounting to £412,793. In 1838, the amount was £1,204,356, the 
 principal articles being— woollen manufactures. £409,762 ; cottons (22,133,621 yards), £519,098; 
 cotton-twist and yarn (3,851, 3J5 lbs.i, £217,047 ; hardware and cutlery, £5014 ; apparel, £2741 ; 
 plate and jewellerv, £5143; iron and steel, £9397; lead and shot (348 tons), £'6700; linens 
 (90,349 yards) , £3927 ; beer and ale (203 tuns) , £3809 ; and glass, £2368. Of foreign and colonial 
 articles, there were also imported in the same year, from Great Britain, 11,632 lbs. cochineal; 
 4500 musquash, and 4914 otter furs; 766 tons pig lead; 167,764 lbs. quicksilver; besides about 
 2500 gallons of brandy and Geneva, and about 8000 gallons wine, chiefly Spanish and French. 
 
 The imports from America are almost wholly by U. S. shipping, and consist of Spanish dollars, 
 furs, ginseng, Turkey opium, Chili copper, occasionally cotton-wool, cotton fabrics, woollens, 
 quicksilver, wines, spirits, and generally all articles supplied by the English. They bring also 
 sandal-wood from the Sandwich and Fejee Islands, and pepper, tin, and other commodities, 
 technically known by the name of Straits' Produce ; that is, the produce of the Straits of Malacca, 
 comprehending generally that of all the western countries of the Malayan Archipelago. They also 
 bring cargoes of rice from Java and Manilla. The trade in furs was created by that people ; and 
 the skins usually imported are those of the rabbit, seal, sea-otter, land-otter, beaver, and fox. 
 They are conveyed direct from the north-west coast of America, and of late years, from the re- 
 cently discovered land of New South Shetland. In the vear 1832-1833, the Americans imported 
 into China cargoes to the value of §3,362,971 ; but in 1837 they only amounted to §630,591. 
 
 To the Indian, British, and American trade must be added that of the Portuguese, Spanish, 
 Dutch, and French, with an occasional ship from Denmark and Sweden. The trade under the 
 Portuguese flag is very considerable, conducted chiefly through the ports of Damaun, Goa, Bom- 
 bay, and Calcutta, and employing annuallv from 13 to 22 ships ; and the joint imports and exports 
 are estimated at $5,000,000. The Spaniards employ a number of small vessels belonging chiefly to 
 the Philippines. In the parliamentary papers their trade is stated at §500,000 ; while that of the 
 Dutch is given at §742,693. The French commerce occupies 4 or 5 ships yearly, and is valued at 
 §500,000. The foreign trade of the native craft is confined to the eastern seas, and is estimated 
 at §20,000,000 ; employing about 80,000 tons of shipping. 
 
CHI 154 CHI 
 
 Canton, or Quang-tcheou-fou, the emporium of the foreign trade, is seated in lat. 23° 7' N., 
 long. 113° 14' E., on the N. side of the Choo-kiang or Canton river, 80 miles distant from the open 
 sea. Vessels in the regular trade proceed first to Macao [Macao], at the entrance to the estuary, 
 where they are reported to a Chinese officer, who, on receiving satisfactory answers to his in- 
 quiries, grants a permit for them to pass through the Bogue (or mouth of the river). They then 
 proceed upwards to Whampoa, the shipping station, situated about 14 miles below Canton. 
 The city is walled, and with the suburbs, which are nearly of equal extent, contains a population 
 of about a million. Europeans are not admitted within the gates ; their business is transacted at 
 factories situated in the S. W. suburb, on a muddy flat contiguous to the river. There are at 
 present four factories, the British, American, Dutch, and French; the first is the least objec- 
 tionable, but all are incommodious. They belong to a body called the Hong or licensed mer- 
 chants ; of whom every vessel is required to have one as security for the duties, and for the 
 conduct of the crew. These merchants never hesitate to undertake the responsibility for any ship 
 that offers; and although the law declares that foreigners shall trade with them only, this is 
 evaded by the purchase of a small quantity of goods from one of their number, and, under a sort 
 of license from him, a traffic is then openly carried on with the outside merchants, or natives 
 generally. Shipmasters are required to declare that they have brought no opium. 
 
 Trade is conducted with punctuality and despatch. The number of foreign merchants is about 
 100, mostly British, or Americans, with Parsees and Mohammedans from Bombay and Surat. 
 Their residence at Canton, however, is only allowed during the business season, commonly from 
 October until the setting in of the westerly monsoon in the beginning of March. During the re- 
 mainder of the year they reside at Macao. 
 
 The public affairs of the Americans, French, and Dutch are managed by consular agents, who, 
 although not publicly recognised by the imperial government, are virtually so by the provincial 
 administration, which transacts all business with them through the hong merchants. The Bri- 
 tish intercourse is regulated by the act 3 & 4 Win. IV. c. 93, which appointed three commissioners 
 for its superintendence, but whose duties have been since devolved on one, who has power to issue 
 directions respecting commerce, and for the government of our countrymen in China and within 
 100 miles of its coast. Section 8 of the act provides that a duty on tonnage not exceeding 5s. per 
 ton, and on goods not exceeding 10s. per cent, ad valorem, may be levied on shipping, in order to 
 defray the expenses of the establishment. S 
 
 Measures, Weights, Monies, Duties, &c. 
 
 Measures and Weights. — Thecovidof 10 punts Duties and Port Charges. — The export and 
 = 14*625 inches, or 32 covids = 13 Imp. yards ; import duties are always paid by the Chinese, 
 and the li of 180 fathoms = 632 Imp. yards ; 200 so that they appear mixed up with the price of 
 lis = 1 degree ; there are no measures of capa- the articles, and the foreigner only knows that 
 city, liquids and grain being sold by weight. I they exist. In the Canton commercial guide 
 
 The tael of 10 mace, 100 candareens, or 1000 there is a list of the duties on a few articles, 
 cash, = 583J troy grains (but in weighing money These are specified taxes upon the quantity; 
 estimated at 579*84 grains) ; the catty of 16 taels and a few examples of their operation as ad va- 
 bs 1£ lb. avoird. ; and the pecul of 100 catties = lorem duties may be here given, taking prices as 
 133 J lbs. avoird. Hence 3 peculs=400 lbs. avoird., they stood in 1834. The duty on English iron 
 84 catties = 1 cwt., and 12 taels = 1 lb. avoird. amounted to 18 per cent. ; on Indian cotton 
 
 Money. — Accounts are stated by foreign mer- 1 wool, 14 per cent. ; on Bohea tea, 20 per cent. ; 
 chants in dollars and cents ; but by the Chinese and on Congou, 10 per cent, 
 in taels (leang), of 10 mace (tseen), 100 canda- j Vessels at Whampoa are subject to a variety 
 reens (fun), or 1000 cash (le), which, except the of charges ; on the Glenelg, of 867 tons burden, 
 last, however (a small piece of copper and zinc the whole were stated by Mr Martin to amount 
 with a square hole in the middle), have no re- J to 4959 dollars ; of which, measurement charge, 
 presentatives in coins, and are rather money $2363 ; cumshaw or present, composed of entre- 
 weights. The tael is the weight (1*208 oz. troy) pot, clearance, and other fees, §2223 ; fees to 
 of sycee, or silver reputed to be pure, and as such linguist and comprador, pilotage, bar-boats, &c. 
 would be worth about 6s. 6d.; but it is commonly ; §373. But vessels loaded with rice are exempted 
 valued among foreign merchants according to t from the measurement charge ; also from the 
 its rate of exchange for dollars. In converting j entrepot and leang-tous fees, comprising the 
 taels of account into dollars, 720 taels are reck- greater part of the cumshaw. 
 oned equal to §1000 ; though in weighing money The heaviuess of the port charges, particularly 
 717 taels are reckoned for §1000, making the ' on small vessels (the cumshaw being the same 
 value of the tael of dollar silver about 5s. lOd. j on all), joined to the contraband nature of the 
 This is, however, subject to variation. opium trade, have led to an extensively organ- 
 
 The fineness of the precious metals is expressed ! ized system of smuggling at Lintin. At this 
 by dividing their weight into 100 equal parts island, situated at the mouth of the river, small 
 called touch, — an ingot of 94 touch being under- I vessels transship their cargoes into large ones; 
 stood to contain 94 parts of pure metal and 6 of j ships are also stationed here with rice, which 
 alloy. The sycee silver used in ingots, as a sub- they sell in sufficient quantities to vessels newly 
 stitute for money, is never perfectly pure; in arrived, to exempt from port charges. It is like- 
 commerce it is seldom found above 96 touch, j wise the chief seat of the opium trade, and ships 
 That received of late years for opium at Lintin . are constantly lying as depots for the drug. Many 
 has been found to contain a considerable admix- ' "* 
 ture of gold, which has enhanced its value. 
 
 Remittances to China may be made either 
 direct or in bills on Calcutta, Madras, or Bom- 
 bay, to be sold in Canton. At Canton, bills on 
 
 London are drawn at 6 months' sight, the usual j imperial fleet, — a sufficient proof, if any were 
 rate being about 4s. lOd. per dollar. I wanting, of the corruption of the native officers. 
 
 other smuggling vessels lie at the same station ; 
 and even the price current states articles as deli- 
 verable in the course of the regular trade and in 
 that by smuggling indiscriminately. All this con- 
 traband traffic is conducted in the presence of the 
 
 In the preceding article, we have confined our attention to the course of trade as it existed prior 
 to the seizure of the British superintendent, Captain Elliot, by Commissioner Lin, in April 1839. 
 A narrative of the hostile operations which followed that event would be out of place here ; but 
 For other details we refer to the articles Opium and Tea, and China in the Supplement. 
 
CHI 155 CHR 
 
 CHINA-ROOT, a large tuberose knotty root, of a dark reddish-brown colour 
 on the outside and reddish-white within, produced by a species of smilax (Smilax 
 China). It was formerly imported from China, and employed in medicine, but of 
 late years it has been much neglected by European practitioners. Various species 
 of smilax are common in Jamaica, where the root is in great repute, and held equal 
 in quality to the oriental kind. (Ainslie's Mat. Indica.) 
 
 CHINCHILLA, a little qua,drn^ed(Chinchilla lanigera) celebrated for the beauty 
 of its fur, which exceeds in warmth and softness that of any other animal, and 
 has long been known as an expensive and useful article in the dress of ladies. The 
 fur, or rather wool, is of an ash-gray colour, and sufficiently long for spinning. In 
 length, the creature is six inches from the nose to the root of the tail, with small 
 pointed ears, a short muzzle, teeth like the house-rat, and a tail of moderate length. 
 It belongs to the Rodentia, or gnawing animals, and lives in burrows under ground, 
 in the open country, in the northern provinces of Chili. [Fur.] 
 
 CHINTZ (Du. Sits. Fr. Indiennes. Ger. Zitze. It. Indiane. Por. Chitas. 
 Rus. Siz. Sp. Chiles, Zaraza), a peculiar style of fast-printed calico, in which 
 figures of many different colours are impressed upon a white or light-coloured 
 ground. 
 
 CHLORATE, or OXYMURIATE OF POTASH, an interesting compound of 
 chloric acid and potash, which, when strongly triturated, crackles, throws out 
 sparks, and becomes luminous. It is extensively manufactured in consequence of 
 its use in the preparation of light-matches, and a detonating priming for firearms 
 having percussion-locks. 
 
 CHLORIDE OF LIME, or BLEACHING POWDER, is prepared by passing 
 chlorine into chambers containing fresh slacked lime in fine powder, by which the 
 gas is copiously absorbed, with extrication of heat. It is a dry white powder, 
 possessing a faint odour of chlorine, and a strong penetrating taste. When agitated 
 with water, a portion is dissolved ; and the solution, called bleaching liquor, con- 
 tains both chlorine and lime. This compound is extensively used as a bleaching 
 material. Its power for this purpose, and consequently its commercial value, may 
 be estimated by its action upon a solution of indigo of known strength (Ann. of 
 Phil. xxiv. 218). The composition of bleaching-powder is variously stated. " A 
 specimen of chloride of lime of the best quality usually sold in London, consisted 
 of 1 equivalent of chlorine, 2 of lime, and 2 of water " (Brande's Chemistry). 
 Chloride of lime is also used for fumigation, from its possessing the property, when 
 exposed to air, of checking contagion or destroying noxious effluvia. 
 
 Chlorides of Potash and Soda. — These compounds likewise possess bleaching 
 properties, but the price of the alkalis has led to their being superseded for general 
 purposes by the chloride of lime, though they are still used by some bleachers and 
 calico-printers for their more delicate processes. The chloride of soda is also 
 employed as a substitute for ashes in various manufactures. 
 
 CHLORINE, the most energetic of the chemical elements, is obtained by the 
 action of muriatic acid on peroxide of manganese. When pure, it is a greenish- 
 yellow coloured gas, which has an astringent taste, a peculiar, disagreeable odour, 
 and violently irritates the nostrils, windpipe, and lungs, when inhaled. The solution, 
 which is made by transmitting a current of chlorine gas through cold water, has the 
 colour, taste, and most of the other properties of the gas itself. Of these, the most 
 important is its bleaching power ; it is also a powerful antiseptic, and destroyer of 
 contagious matter and of bad odours ; and hence forms an important ingredient 
 in many useful substances. 
 
 CHOCOLATE (Fr. Chocolat. Ger. Schokolate. It. Cioceolata. Por. & Sp. 
 Chocolate), a kind of paste or cake, chiefly prepared with the triturated cocoa-nut 
 (Theobroma cacao) after having been roasted, and other ingredients, the chief of 
 which are sugar, vanilla, and a little cinnamon. It abounds with nutritive matter, 
 but contains an oil which is of difficult digestion. A small quantity only is used in 
 this country, which is nearly all of British manufacture. Foreigners generally prefer 
 the Spanish chocolate, but ours is made with more care, and is less oily. 
 
 CHOSE IN ACTION, an English law term, denoting that kind of property of 
 which the owner is not in the actual occupation, though he has a legal right en- 
 titling him to obtain the possession by a suit. 
 
 CHROMIUM, a metal resembling iron in colour, brittle, and difficult of fusion. 
 Sp. gr. 5'9. It is rarely to be found in its metallic state, but several of its com- 
 pounds are used in the arts. In commerce, it chiefly occurs in the forms of chromate 
 of iron and chromate of lead. 
 
 Chromate of Iron, a compound of oxide of chrome with protoxide of iron, is 
 
CHR 156 CIN 
 
 found in Unst in Shetland, in France, and near Baltimore in America. It occurs 
 massive, and in octahedral crystals of a blackish colour, and imperfect metallic 
 lustre. Sp. gr. 4*3. It is used in the manufacture of chromate of potash. 
 
 Chromate of Lead, or Red Lead, is found native in the gold mines of Berezof in 
 Siberia, in the Ural Mountains, and in Brazil, and is easily prepared by mixing 
 chromate of potash with a soluble salt of lead. It occurs massive and crystallized ; 
 colour deep orange-red ; when pulverized, orange-yellow. Sp. gr. 6. It is a valuable 
 pigment, and is used both in oil and water colours, in calico-printing, and in dyeing. 
 
 Chromate of Potash is a salt of a bitter disagreeable taste ; crystals yellow. 
 Sp. gr. 2*6. The Bi-chromate of potash is prepared from the chromate ; it has a 
 bitter penetrating metallic taste. Sp. gr. 1*98. This salt is largely manufactured 
 in Glasgow, for the use of calico-printers. 
 
 The other compounds chiefly in use are the Oxide of Chromium, employed to give 
 a green colour to glass and to porcelain, and Chromic Acid, which, from its pro- 
 perty of destroying most vegetable and animal colouring matters, is advantageously 
 employed in calico-printing. 
 
 CHRONOMETER. [Watch.] 
 
 CHRYSOBERYL, a gem much prized when transparent and free from flaws. 
 Its colour is green, sometimes with a yellow or brownish tinge, and occasionally 
 presenting internally an opalescent blueish- white light. It occurs crystallized, and 
 in rolled fragments. Sp. gr. 37. Localities, Connecticut, Ceylon, and Brazil from 
 whence the finest specimens are procured. {Phillips.) 
 
 CHRYSOLITE, an ornamental stone of a bright yellow colour, sometimes tinged 
 with green or brown ; transparent or translucent ; and possessing double the power 
 of refraction. It is found in angular, or somewhat rounded crystalline masses, and 
 in prismatic crystals. Sp. gr. 3'4. The best specimens are brought from Egypt. 
 
 CHRYSOPRASE is a rare pale-green calcedony, found in Upper Silesia and 
 Vermont, which owes its colour to the presence of nickel. It loses the delicacy of 
 its original hue by being much handled or worn as an ornament : it is, however, 
 much prized by jewellers, and usually cut into a convex form. 
 
 CHUN AM, in oriental commerce, is quicklime made from calcined shells. 
 
 CIDER (Fr. Cidre. Ger. Zider, Apfelwein), the wine of the apple, is made in 
 large quantities in the English " cider counties," which lie something in the form 
 of a horse-shoe around the Bristol Channel. The best are Worcester and Hereford 
 on the N., and Somerset and Devon on the S. In Ireland, it is made of good qua- 
 lity in the counties of Waterford and Cork. Generally speaking, those apples 
 that are considerably astringent, and are unfit for the table or culinary purposes, 
 make the best cider. From 24 to 30 bushels of fruit are required to make a 
 hogshead, the price of which varies from £2 to £5, according to season and quality. 
 The harvest is in September, but the liquor is not fit for sale until March ; it 
 improves by keeping. Cider is made in Germany, Belgium, and Normandy ; and 
 in the United States it may be considered as the common beverage of the great 
 body of the people, except in large towns. 
 
 An annual license to retail cider in England is granted by the Excise, on an application similar 
 to that required for a beer license [Beer], the payment being £3, 3s., if the liquor is to be drunk 
 on the premises ; £1, Is., if it is not (4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 85, and 3 & 4 Vict. c. 61). The duty of 
 10s. a-barrel on cider was repealed in 1830. 
 
 CINCHONA. [Peruvian Bark.] 
 
 CINNABAR (Fr. Cinnabre. Ger. Zinnober. Sp. Cinabrio. It. Cinabro), a 
 mineral ore, consisting of mercury combined with sulphur, from which quicksilver 
 is generally obtained by distillation. A similar compound, prepared artificially 
 and powdered, forms the pigment termed Vermilton. 
 
 CINNAMON (Du. Kaneel. Fr. Cannelle. Ger. Zimmet, Kanehl. It. Canella. 
 Sp. Canela. Por. Canella), a valuable aromatic bark obtained from a small tree, 
 a species of Cinnamomum, found in Ceylon. The tree is seldom peeled before 
 the ninth year, and the proper time is from May to October. After the bark is 
 removed, it is firmly bound up for about 24 hours, during which time it undergoes a 
 kind of fermentation, which facilitates the separation of the outer bark from the 
 epidermis and green matter under it, which are carefully scraped off the Ceylon 
 cinnamon. The substance then speedily dries, contracts, and assumes a quilled or 
 pipe appearance. These pieces or quills are inserted into each other, the smaller 
 being surrounded by larger ones. It is then carefully examined, sorted, put up 
 into bundles, and wrapped in double cloths made of hemp. The interstices 
 between the bales are filled with black pepper, a mode of packing originally prac- 
 tised by the Dutch, and scrupulously adhered to by the English, as it is said to 
 
CIN 157 CIR 
 
 improve both spices. The best Ceylon cinnamon occurs in pieces abont 40 
 inches long, each containing from six to eight quills or rolls. It is of a light 
 yellow colour, nearly as thin as paper, smooth, shining, admits of a considerable 
 degree of bending before it breaks, fracture splintery, has a pleasant warm aromatic 
 flavour, slightly astringent, with a mild degree of sweetness. When chewed, the 
 pieces become soft, and seem to melt in the mouth. Other varieties of cinnamon 
 found in trade are coarser and thicker, and are not so pungent and sweet. The 
 ordinary uses of cinnamon as a spice for seasoning, are well known. It is, besides, 
 an article of the materia medica, but is chiefly employed as an accompaniment to 
 other medicines. 
 
 Cinnamon and cassia differ from each other in little except the degree in which 
 the aromatic principle exists in them. There are many contradictory statements 
 as to the species of Cinnamomum from which they are obtained. According to the 
 most recent authorities, cinnamon is obtained from two distinct species, but it is 
 altogether uncertain which out of several yields cassia. The best cinnamon is 
 procured from the C. Zeylanicum (Blume) indigenous only to Ceylon, but cultivated 
 in Java, Brazil, Guiana, and elsewhere; and that of China is said to be the produce 
 of the C. Aromaticum of Nees Von Esenbeck. 
 
 Cinnamon is often adulterated with cassia or cassia-lignea, but the latter may 
 be easily distinguished by its fracture being smooth, and by its slimy mucilaginous 
 taste, without any of the roughness of true cinnamon. It is also sometimes mixed 
 with portions which have been deprived of their essential oil, — a fraud which can 
 onlv be distinguished by the weaker smell and taste. 
 
 Europe is supplied with this article almost wholly from Ceylon, of which it forma 
 a staple export. It was formerly the subject of a monopoly, but though this is 
 abolished, it is still liable to the excessive export duty of 3s. per lb., levied by the 
 local government. As cassia lignea, however, can now, since the opening of the 
 China trade, be obtained at Canton for about 3d. per lb., this cheap commodity is 
 substituting itself, for many purposes, for the superior cinnamon of Ceylon. The 
 amount of the latter annually imported averages about 500,000 lbs. The annual 
 consumption in this country at present is, however, only about 16,000 lbs. The 
 surplus imported is re-exported chiefly to Germany, Holland, Belgium, France, 
 Spain, Italy, West Indies, United States, and Mexico. 
 
 In the London market three qualities of cinnamon are distinguished, the price of •which 
 varies at present (April ls62) from 9d. to 2s. 3d. per lb. 
 
 A bale of cinnamon weighs 92$ lbs. avoirdupois. S 
 
 Cinnamox-Oil, one of the most powerful stimulants in the materia medica, is 
 generally prepared from the coarsest part of the bark, by maceration in sea-water, 
 and then distilling with a slow fire. The finest has the "flavour of cinnamon, and 
 the inferior a considerable mixture of the clove taste. It is sometimes adulterated 
 with the oils of cassia, cherry laurel, or bitter almonds. 
 
 CINNAMON-STONE, a precious stone of a red colour, with occasionally a 
 brown or orange-yellow tinge ; translucent, rarely transparent, lustre resinous. 
 Sp. gr. 3*5. It is commonly found in masses, which are full of fissures, and rarely 
 in a state fit for cutting. Chief localities, Ceylon and Brazil. 
 
 CINQUE PORTS, a Norman term applied to the towns of Sandwich, Dover, 
 Hythe, Romney,and Hastings, which were severed by William I. from the admin- 
 istration of the counties to which they belonged, and erected into a kind of 
 palatine jurisdiction, with the view of securing his communications with the 
 Continent, and rendering this maritime line one of the grand outworks of the 
 Conquest. They were invested with valuable privileges, and placed under the 
 constable of Dover Castle, with the title of Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. 
 To the five original ports were afterwards added, Winchelsea and Rye, and twenty- 
 one subordinate ports or members, — the jurisdiction of the whole collectively 
 extending from Birchington, near Margate, in Kent, to Seaford in Sussex. The 
 organization of the Cinque Ports was almost entirely broken up by the Parlia- 
 mentary and Municipal Reform Acts ; but the warden still possesses an admiralty 
 jurisdiction, with the execution of writs and custody of debtors. 
 
 CIRCULATING MEDIUM, a term applied to " all instruments of interchange 
 by which the productions and the revenues of the country are distributed ; every 
 thing which serves and is received as a mode of payment, or which constitutes the 
 nominal monev-price which appears in price-currents." (Mr Tooke's Evidence, Par. 
 Report on Banks of Issue, 1840 ; Q. 3285.) 
 
 Circulation is the amount of such currency in use. When the term is used in 
 reference to a bank, it means the amount of its paper issues. 
 
CIT 158 CLO 
 
 CITRIC ACID is obtained by a chemical process from lemon or lime juice. 
 It forms beautiful crystals, of which the primary figure is a right rhombic prism. 
 They have a sour taste, and are soluble in somewhat less than their own weight 
 of cold and half their weight of boiling water. They also dissolve in alcohol. 
 The average proportion of citric acid afforded by a gallon of good lemon juice is 
 about 8 oz. This acid is prepared by a few manufacturers upon an extensive 
 scale. It is employed by calico printers ; while in the form of lime juice it is 
 used as an acidulous drink, and in preventing scurvy. With salifiable bases it 
 forms salts called citrates, which are applied to various purposes. {Branded 
 Chemistry.) 
 
 CITRON (Fr. Citronat verd. Ger. Succade. It. Confetti di cedro. Sp. Acitron 
 verde), the fruit of the Citrus medica, a tree growing in Madeira, Spain, Italy, 
 Persia, and other places. The fruit is oblong, five or six inches in length, warted 
 and furrowed with a rough yellow rind, and a subacid but edible pulp. It is 
 chiefly valued, however, for the fragrance of the rind, from which a delicate sweet- 
 meat is prepared. There are a great variety of citrons. The fingered citrons are 
 a large kind, much esteemed by the Chinese, who place tnem upon porcelain 
 dishes, and have them in their apartments to fill the air with fragrance. Another 
 variety is in great demand by the Jews, who use it as a conserve at their Feast of 
 Tabernacles. Citrons are generally imported in salt and water, and sometimes 
 preserved with sugar. 
 
 CIVET, a valuable perfume obtained from the civet cat (Viverra civetta), a 
 native of Brazil, Guinea, Madagascar, and the East Indies; but of which numbers 
 are kept for commercial purposes in Holland. This perfume is produced by both 
 sexes, and is contained in two cavities or pockets placed beneath the tail; these 
 cavities are smooth internally, and covered with numerous small pores, connected 
 with the glands from which it is secreted. It is of a clear vellowish or brownish 
 colour, about the consistence of honey, and uniform throughout. Undiluted, the 
 smell is offensively strong, but when mixed with other substances, it becomes 
 what some consider a fragrant perfume. Civet was formerly in high repute in 
 Europe, but is at present little used, excepting in the composition of some kinds of 
 perfumery, to increase the power of other scents. When genuine it is worth from 
 30s. to 40s. an ounce. 
 
 CL AFTER, a name given to the fathom in Germany and Switzerland. 
 
 CLARET, a name given in this country to the red wine of Medoc, imported 
 from Bordeaux, or more commonly a mixture of that and the wine of Benicarlo, 
 in Spain, or some full-bodied French wine. In France, Clairet is a general name 
 for all rose-coloured wines. [Wine.] 
 
 CLEARING A SHIP is registering her name and cargo, on leaving a port, 
 in the books of the customhouse. 
 , CLEARING-HOUSE. [Bank.] s 
 
 CLOCK (Fr. Horloge. Ger. Wanduhr, Uhr, Grosse-Uhr). a timepiece 
 constructed on the same general principles as the watch, but having its mo- 
 tion regulated by a pendulum, instead of a balance and spring. The early 
 history of clocks is enveloped in obscurity; but the invention of the pendulum 
 clock is supposed to have occurred about twenty years after the discovery of the 
 isochronal property of the pendulum by Galileo in 1639. Many of the most im- 
 portant improvements on the machinery of the clock have been the work of Eng- 
 lishmen ; of these may be mentioned the anchor escapement of Clement, a London 
 clockmaker, in 1680, Harrison's pendulum, and Graham's dead-beat escapement. 
 The chief seat of the clock manufacture of the United Kingdom is London. As in 
 the case of watches, the different parts of the mechanism of the clock are made by 
 different sets of workmen, and polished and adjusted by others. The foreign clocks 
 imported into the United Kingdom consist chiefly of German or Nuremberg wooden 
 clocks. [Watches.] S 
 
 Clockmakers are bound to engrave upon the dial-plate their name and residence. 
 
 The importation and exportation of clocks and watches are regulated by the act 3 & 4 Wm. IV. 
 c. 52, §§ 58 & 104. [Customs.] 
 
 Clocks and watches for private use, however, not being marked in the manner required by the 
 said act, may be admitted on payment of the proper duty, upon the party making a declaration 
 of his entire ignorance of the law at the time he purchased the clocks and watches, and that they 
 are for his own private use. (T. 0. September 4, 1828.) 
 
 CLOFF, the name given to a small commercial allowance or deduction (com- 
 monly 2 lbs. per bale), made from the original weight of some kinds of commodities 
 on their sale. It is now nearly obsolete. 
 
CLO 159 COA 
 
 CLOVER-SEED (Du. Klaver-zaad. Fr. Semence de trefle. Ger. Kleesaal), the 
 produce of a plant (Trifolium) of which there are two principal kinds : red clover, 
 a biennial; and white or Dutch clover, a perennial. Red and white clover seeds 
 are largely imported from Germany, Holland, Belgium, France, and the United 
 States; and about 100,000 cwts. are annually entered for home consumption. A3 
 the foreign seed frequently contains weeds, its quality should be examined by 
 pressing the moistened thumb to the sample, and looking to the colour and 
 plumpness of the seeds which are turned up. 
 
 An acre of clover will, on good land, produce about three tons and a half of 
 dry hay ; of which two tons will be procured from the first cutting, and one and 
 a half from the second ; on highly manured land, greater crops are obtained. 
 
 CLOVES (Du. Kruidnagelen. Fr. Clous de girofle. Ger. Gewurznelken. It. 
 Garofani. Por. Cravos da India. Sp. Clavillos. Rus. Gwosdika), the unexpanded 
 dried flowers of the clove-tree {Caryophyllus aromaticus), a native of the Moluccas. 
 They have somewhat the form of a nail. Their colour should be of a deep pitch- 
 brown, internally reddish; their smell strong, peculiar, and agreeable; and their 
 taste warm, acrid, and aromatic. The best are large, heavy, brittle, but not 
 crumbly, and when pressed, exude a little oil. When light, soft, wrinkled, dirty, 
 pale, and without smell or taste, they are to be rejected, having probably been 
 steeped in water before being dried (Duncan's Dispensatory). Europe was for 
 a long time supplied exclusively from Amboyna, where the cultivation of the 
 spice is monopolized by the Dutch; but the clove-tree has now been carried to most 
 of the tropical parts of the world, and particularly to Sumatra, and the western 
 parts of the Indian Archipelago, to Guiana and Brazil. It is also cultivated in 
 Mauritius; but the cloves are of inferior quality. Those of Amboyna are reckoned 
 the best. The average quantity of this spice entered for home consumption is about 
 100,000 lbs. S 
 
 Clove-Oil. Cloves yield by distillation nearly one-sixth of their weight of 
 essential oil, of a deep red colour, having the flavour of the clove, but comparatively 
 milder. Sp. gr. 1*034. It is a powerful stimulant. 
 
 COACH, CARRIAGE. The coachmaking trade is carried on principally in 
 London and Edinburgh, and to a considerable extent also in most large towns 
 throughout the kingdom. The number of persons employed in this manufacture 
 is estimated at about 6000. Besides making coaches for sale, a number of manu- 
 factui ers are partially engaged in the stage-coach business, by lending out vehicles 
 to speculators, and keeping them in repair, in return for about 2$d. or 3d. for 
 every mile travelled. A few are exported to India and other places ; but 
 almost none are imported,^a circumstance attributable partly to the state of 
 excellence to which the manufacture has arrived in this country, and partly to 
 the high import duty on foreign carriages. 
 
 Mail Coaches are under the management of the Post-oflBce. Hackney Coaches are subject to 
 special regulations in different districts : the hackney and stage carriages of London are regulated 
 by the acta 1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 22; the 16 <fe 17 Vict c. 33, and 16 & 17 Vict c. 127. The last two 
 of which fix the fare at 6<L per mile, or 2s. per hour; the annual licence duty at £1. and the 
 weekly duty at 7s., or if the carriage be not used on Sunday 6s. weekly. 
 
 Stage Carriages, or all carriages where separate fares shall be paid by passengers for places 
 therein, are subject in Britain to the following duties and regulations, in terms of 2 & 3 Wm. IV. 
 c. 120 ; 3 <k 4 Wm. IV. c. 48 ; and 2 & 3 Vict. c. 66 :— 
 
 For every original license to be taken out yearly by the person who shall keep any stage £ s. d. 
 carriage, namely, for each carriage 5 
 
 And for every supplementary license for the same carriage, for which any such original 
 license shall have been granted, which shall be taken out in any of the several cases 
 provided for by the act during the period for which such original license was granted. .0 10 
 
 And in respect of every mile which any such stage carriage shall be licensed to travel, the fol- 
 lowing rates of duty per mile, namely, — If licensed to carry not more than 6 passengers, Id. 
 per mile ; more than 6, and not more than 10, l|d. per mile ; and for each 3 additional pas- 
 sengers, id. per mile. 
 
 The proprietors of railways in Britain shall pay for all passengers conveyed by hire in carriages 
 at the rate of ^d. per mile for every four passengers so conveyed ; and they are required to 
 give security that they shall keep regular accounts of the same, and pay the duties. The 
 Treasury is, however, authorized to compound for these duties. 
 
 Duties shall attach on every horse let for hire, or used either as a saddle-horse, or for drawing 
 any carriage, and in respect of every horse of any mourning coach or hearse, except for 
 drawing any stage carriage or hackney carriage, going no less than ten miles from the Post- 
 office, nor any fish cart. 
 
 Stage carriages, the roof of which shall not be more than 8 feet 9 inches from the ground, and 
 the bearing of which on the ground shall not be less than 4 J feet from the centre of the track 
 of the right wheel to the centre of the track of the left wheel, if licensed to carry not more 
 than 9 passengers, shall be allowed to carry not more than 5 outside ; 10 to 12 ditto, 8 out- 
 side ; 13 to 15 ditto, 11 outside ; 16 to 18 ditto, 12 outside ; and if licensed to carry any greater 
 
GOA 160 COA 
 
 number than 18, shall be allowed to carry not more than 2 additional passengers outside for 
 every 3 additional passengers licensed to carry, under penalty of £5. Driver, guard, and 
 children in lap, not to be counted as passengers ; 2 children under 7 years to be reckoned as 
 1 passenger. No person to sit on luggage on roof, nor more than 1 beside the driver ; penalty 
 £5. Justices, road-surveyors, toll-keepers, &c. are authorized to cause carriages and lug- 
 gage to be measured, and passengers counted. 
 The other regulations have reference chiefly to the name-plates of the proprietors, and the 
 conduct of the driver and guard. 
 
 ASSESSED TAXES ON CARRIAGES. 
 
 By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 90, the following Duties are payable on 
 Private Carriages: — 
 
 £ s d. 
 13 hands in height . . . .0100 
 
 And where any such carnage i One half of the 
 shall be kept and used solely ) above -mention- 
 for the purpose of being let J ed duties respic- 
 for hire ( tively. 
 
 For every carriage used by any com- 
 mon carrier principally and bond fide 
 for and in the carrying of goods, wares, 
 or merchandise whereby he shall seek 
 a livelihood, where such carriage shall 
 be occasionally only used in convey- 
 ing passengers for hire, and in such 
 manner that the stage carriage duty 
 or any composition for the same shall 
 not be payable under any licence by 
 the Commissioners of Inland Re- 
 venue : 
 
 Where such last-mentioned carriage 
 
 £ s. d. 
 For everv carriage with four wheels : 
 Where the same shall be drawn by two 
 
 or more horses or mules . . . 3 10 
 And where the same shall be drawn by 
 
 one horse or mule only . . .200 
 For every carriage with four wheels, 
 
 each being of less diameter than 30 
 
 inches: 
 Where the same shall be drawn by two 
 
 or more ponies or mules, neither of 
 
 them exceeding 13 hands in height 1 15 
 And where the same shall be drawn by 
 
 one such pony or mule only . .10 
 For every carriage with less than four 
 
 wheels; 
 Where the same shall be drawn by two 
 
 or more horses or mules . . .200 
 And where the same shall be drawn 
 
 by one horse or mule only . .0150) shall have four wheels . . .268 
 And where the same shall be drawn by I And where the same shall have less 
 
 one pony or mule only, not exceeding ! than four wheels . . . .168 
 
 Exemptions. — Any carriage licensed as a hackney carriage, or public stage 
 carriage, or carriage let for hire, with a horse therewith, by any person duly 
 licensed to let horses for hire. Also any waggon, van, cart, or other such car- 
 riage which shall be kept to be used solely in the course of trade or in husbandry, 
 and whereon the christian name and surname and place of abode of the owner, 
 shall be legibly painted; provided that such carriage shall not on any occasion 
 be used for any purpose of pleasure, or otherwise than as aforesaid, except for 
 conveying the owner or his family to or from any place of divine worship. 
 
 Coaches were introduced into England about 1570, and by the year 1600 were in general use among 
 the wealthy classes. Prior to their introduction, the only mode of travelling by land was on foot, on 
 horseback, or in litters,— the use of the last, however, being confined to the sick, to ladies of 
 rank, or to the carriage of the dead. " When the daughter of Henry VII. repaired to Scotland 
 in 1503, she travelled for the most part on a ' faire palfrey,' two footmen in her train, carrying 
 * one varey riche litere, borne by two faire coursers varey nobly drest ; in the wich litere the 
 sayd quene was borne in the intryng of the pood townes or otherways to her good playsur.' At 
 Dalkeith she was met by her future spouse, James IV.; and the royal lovers made their entry into 
 the capital, ' the kyng monted upon a pallefroy, wyththe quene behynd hym ,- and so rode thorow 
 Edenborough ' " (New Edinburgh Almanac, 1839). Hired coaches were first used in 1625 ; but 
 mail coaches were not introduced until 1785. In 1837 there were 54 four-horse, and 49 pair-horse 
 mail coaches in England. The greatest speed attained by any of these was log miles per hour, 
 the average of the whole being 8J miles per hour. There were besides 30 four-horse mails, and 
 5 pair-horse mails in Ireland ; and 10 four-horse mails, and 4 pair-horse mails in Scotland. The 
 number of licensed stage-coaches, including mails, in 1837, was 3026 ; of which about one-half 
 (1507) began or ended their journeys in London. The amount of revenue derived in 1837 from car- 
 riages of all kinds (exclusive of that from horses) was £546,236. 
 
 COAL (Dan. Steerikull Du. Steerikoolen. Fr. Charbon de terre. Ger. Stein- 
 Jcohlen. It. Carboni fossili. Por. Carvoes de terra. Rus. Ugolj. Sp. Carbones de 
 tierra. Sw. Stenkol) is the result of the mineralization of vegetable remains. It 
 exists in many parts of the world, but in none is it produced so abundantly as in 
 Britain. The most important English coal-fields are situated in Northumberland 
 and Durham ; but coal is likewise found in large quantities in Wales, Yorkshire, 
 Lancashire, Cumberland, Gloucester, Somerset, and in the midland counties. The 
 Scottish coal-fields are chiefly situated in the Edinburgh and Glasgow districts, in 
 Fife and in Clackmannan. In Ireland coal is worked in the counties of Antrim, 
 Leitrim, and Kilkenny ; but the produce of that part of the United Kingdom is not 
 *jual to the consumption. 
 
COA 
 
 161 
 
 COA . 
 
 Coal is of different kinds ; as, brown coal, found at Bovey in Devonshire, and in 
 several parts of the Continent; pitch coal ox jet ; glance or anthracite coal, of which 
 Kilkenny coal appears to be a variety ; and black or common coal .-—the last being 
 the kind principally found in this country. Dr Thomson has arranged the different 
 kinds of coal which are met with in Britain into four subdivisions {An. of Phil. 
 vol. xiv.). The first is caking coal, because its particles are softened by heat, and 
 adhere together, forming a compact mass : the coal found at Newcastle, around 
 Manchester, and in many other parts of England, is of this kind. The second is 
 termed splint coal, from the splintery appearance of its fracture. The cherry coal 
 occurs in Staffordshire, and in the neighbourhood of Glasgow : its structure is 
 slaty, and it is more easily broken than splint coal, which is much harder ; it easily 
 takes fire, and is consumed rapidly, burning with a clear yellow flame. The 
 fourth is cannel coal, which is found of great purity at Wigan in Lancashire ; in 
 Scotland it is called parrot coal: it emits a brilliant light, possesses a very 
 compact structure, and is peculiarly well fitted for the manufacture of gas. Coal 
 is of a great variety of qualities, as almost every pit has in trade a distinct 
 character. 
 
 The employment of this mineral in England as fuel extends little farther back 
 than six centuries ; and it was not until about the reign of Charles I. that it was 
 in general use in London and other large towns. Its consumption has since 
 kept pace with the increase of population and industry, and with the advances in 
 the art of mining. The invention of the steam-engine, the improved mode of 
 propping the mines introduced in 1810, and the advantages derived from the 
 safety-lamp of Davy (first used in 1815), have greatly facilitated the working of 
 coal in modern times ; and since the commencement of the present century, its 
 consumption has been more than doubled. At present the annual consumption of 
 the United Kingdom is estimated at 58,000,000 tons, which, at the rate of 10s. per 
 ton, will amount to £29,000,000, — a sum considerably exceeding the value of the 
 annual produce of gold and silver throughout the world. 
 
 The following table exhibits the quantities shipped coastways, and exported to 
 foreign oountries at the different ports in 1839 :— 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 London 
 
 Portsmouth 
 
 Bristol , 
 
 Gloucester 
 
 Cardiff 
 
 Newport 
 
 Swansea 
 
 Llanelly 
 
 Milford 
 
 Chester 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 Fleetwood 
 
 Whitehaven 
 
 Carlisle 
 
 Berwick 
 
 Newcastle 
 
 Sunderland 
 
 Stockton 
 
 Hull 
 
 Goole 
 
 Other ports 
 
 Coastways. Exported, 
 
 2,940 
 
 3,710 
 
 74,786 
 
 145,057 
 
 470,820 
 
 486,792 
 
 141,839 
 
 63,221 
 
 88,111 
 
 22,686 
 
 439,188 
 
 50,141 
 
 1,259 
 
 ,159,321 
 
 913,960 
 
 ,308.778 
 
 13,285 
 
 132,475 
 
 3,208 
 
 26, 
 
 640 
 230 
 6,874 
 3,058 
 4,879 
 13,035 
 25,684 
 24,890 
 
 3,921 
 33,630 
 107 
 22,616 
 2,432 
 1,372 
 58,052 
 70,620 
 11,707 
 28,426 
 4,802 
 2,162 
 
 6,521,577 1.315,137 
 
 Leith 
 
 Borrowstounness . 
 Grangemouth . . . 
 
 Kirkcaldy 
 
 Greenock 
 
 Port-Glasgow . . . 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 Irvine 
 
 Ayr 
 
 Other ports 
 
 Dublin 
 
 Other ports. 
 
 Coajtways. Exported. 
 
 6f/9,348 
 
 2,088 
 
 18,366 
 
 33,029 
 
 11,151 
 
 7,138 
 
 16,011 
 
 3,768 
 
 20.733 
 
 ]i>,224 
 
 151 
 
 994 
 
 130,565 
 
 1 .329 
 2,386 
 
 3,715 
 
 Totals. . . . 7-223,013 1,449,417 
 
 Of the 7,223,013 tons shipped coastways, 336,968 tons consisted of culm, which was 
 sent almost wholly from Swansea, Llanelly, and Milford, and 13,015 tons of cinders, 
 chiefly from Newcastle. All coal sent coastways by sea was, in the reign of Wm. 
 III., subjected to a tax of 5s. per chaldron, which, during the late war, was raised 
 to 9s. 4d. ; it was reduced in 1824 to 6s., and in 1831 it was repealed ; in 1830 the 
 revenue yielded by this tax amounted to £1,021,862. 
 
 In 1836 an act (6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 109) was passed which repealed certain pro- 
 visions contained in three previous acts (9 Anne, c. 28 ; 4 Geo. II. c. 30 ; and 
 28 Geo. III. c. 53), by which combinations in the coal-trade to enhance the price 
 were declared unlawful, and which also had the effect of preventing more than 
 five persons from carrying on trade In coals in partnership. 
 
 L 
 
COA 162 COA 
 
 The coal-trade in different parts of the kingdom is regulated hy a great variety 
 of local statutes; the shipments from the Tyne hy the " Turn act,' r 6 Geo. IV. 
 o. 32, which provides that every ship must he loaded in her " turn;" and the Lon- 
 don trade hy the act 1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 7 6, continued and amended by 8 & 9 Vict, c 
 01, to the year 1862. The chief provisions of these acts are the following : — 
 
 The duties previously payable upon coals commuted for 13d. upon every ton sold within the 
 limits of the city ; namely, 8d. per ton payable to the fund for public improvements ; 4d. per ton 
 to the corporation of London ; and Id. per ton to the coal market. Coal Exchange to continue 
 vested in the corporation of London ; and to be an open market, §§ 3, 4. Court of Aldermen ma J 
 make by-laws to regulate the market, § 32. Coals to be sold by weight ; and the chaldron mea 
 sure formerly used to be reckoned equal 25 J cwts., §§ 43, 44. With coals exceeding 560 lbs. deli' 
 vered from any lighter, or from any wharf within 25 miles of the General Post Office, the sellel 
 shall deliver to the purchaser immediately on arrival, and before unloading, a ticket specifying 
 the name of the coal, and the quantity; and a weighing machine is directed to be carried with 
 every wagon, and the carman to weigh gratuitously any sack chosen by the purchaser, under 
 penalties of £20, § 47. Coals above 560 lbs. to be delivered in sacks containing either 112 lbs. or 
 224 lbs. net ; coals delivered by gang labour may be conveyed in sacks containing any weight, such 
 being first mentioned, and may be delivered in bulk if the purchasers think fit; but the weight 
 of the cart and coals therein shall be previously ascertained by a weighing machine, and the seller's 
 ticket shall state the weight of the cart and of the coals therein, under penalty of £50. Further 
 regulations were made in 1851, by 14 & 15 Vict. c. 116, in respect of coals brought by railway 
 and canals. 
 
 The consumption of coal in London in the year 1837 amounted to 2,626,997 tons, 
 which, with the exception of 18.735 tons Scotch, 33,259 tons Welsh, and 14,963 
 tons Yorkshire, were brought almost wholly from Newcastle, Sunderland, and 
 Stockton ; the number of vessels which entered the port of London with coals in 
 the same year was 8720. In 1838, the consumption of London was 2,552,321 tons, 
 in 1839, 2,611,616 tons; in 1845, 3,463,630 tons, and now above 4,000,000. 
 
 Of late years considerable interest has been excited both in and out of Parlia- 
 ment by a system under which the supply of coals to the London market is limited 
 when the prices are below certain denned rates. It would appear, that for the 
 ostensible object of preventing an undue fluctuation of prices, an arrangement, 
 called " The Limitation of the Vends," has (though subject to occasional interrup- 
 tions) long existed among the coal-owners in Durham and Northumberland, by 
 which the quantity to be raised from the different collieries is apportioned according 
 to the probable demand. " When," says Mr Brandling, " it is understood by the 
 coal- owners that all the parties interested in the coal-trade on the Tyne and Wear 
 are willing to enter into an arrangement of this nature, a representative is named 
 for each of the collieries ; these representatives meet together, and from amongst 
 them choose a committee of nine for the Tyne, and seven for the Wear. This being 
 done, the proprietors of the best coals are called upon to name the price at which 
 they intend to sell their coals for the succeeding twelve months ; according to this 
 price the remaining proprietors fix their prices; this being accomplished, each 
 colliery is requested to send in a statement of the different sorts of coal they raise, and 
 the powers of the colliery, that is, the quantity that each particular colliery could 
 raise at full work ; and upon these statements the committee, assuming an ima- 
 ginary basis, fix the relative proportions as to quantity between all the collieries, 
 which proportions are observed whatever quantity the markets may demand. The 
 committee then meet once a-month, and according to the probable demand of the 
 ensuing month, they issue so much per 1000 to the different collieries ; that is, if 
 they give me an imaginary basis of 30,000, and my neighbour 20,000, according to 
 the quality of our coals, and our power of raising them in the monthly quantity, 
 if they issue 100 to the 1000, I raise and sell 3000 during the month, and my 
 neighbour 2000; but in fixing the relative quantities, if we take 800,000 chaldrons 
 as the probable demand of the different markets for the year, if the markets should 
 require more, an increased quantity would be given out monthly, so as to raise the 
 annual quantity to meet the demand, were it double the original quantity as- 
 sumed." {Par. Paper, 1830.)' 
 
 The criterion by which the coal-owners are guided is the price in the London 
 market. This price, however, is alleged to be very much under the control of the 
 coal-factors, who, it is said, are enabled, by the co-operation of the northern owners, 
 to regulate the number of cargoes to be unloaded, and in this way artificially to 
 elevate the price to the consumer. The regulation of the coal-factors of date 
 2d February 1837 bears, " That in consequence of the great increase of price of 
 
 * The following are the annual proportions which the committee for regulating the issues hav* 
 apportioned upon the nominal basis of each colliery in the regulation since its establishment:— 
 In 1834, 645 chaldrons per thousand ; in 1835, 768 chaldrons ; in 1836, 765 chaldrons ; in 1837, f]S 
 chaldrons ; in 1838, 695 chaldrons ; in 1839, 644 chaldrons ; and in 1840, 555 chaldrons per thousand. 
 
COA 163 COA 
 
 every thing connected with shipping and the coal-trade, the following scale be 
 adopted," namely, to admit from 30th September to 1st March, 40 cargoes, when 
 coals rule 23s. 6d. ; 50 cargoes when they rule from 23s. 9d. to 24s. ; 60 cargoes 
 when from 24s. 3d. to 24s. 6d. ; and 70 cargoes at 24s. 9d. From 1st March to 1st 
 April, each rate is reduced 6d. ; and from 1st April to 30th September, a further 
 reduction of 6d. is made on the scale. The price here stated is the wholesale price 
 charged at the coal-exchange.* According to Mr Pease, the particulars of the cost 
 of one ton of best house-fire coal (as Bewicke, Craister, Wall's End, Gosforth, 
 Heaton's, and others of a similar quality), from the Tyne, supplied to a London 
 consumer, assuming the price paid by him to be £1, 12s. 6d., is as follows : — 1st, 
 Cost on board of a ship in the Tyne, 10s. 6d. ; 2d, Charges at coal-market in 
 London, including city dues, insurance, &c, 2s. 8d. ; 3c?, Freight to shipowner, 
 including harbour dues, &c. ? 9s. 4d. ; 4th, coal-merchant in London, including 
 screening, carting, &c. 10s. ; in all, £1, 12s. 6d. {Par. Paper, 1838, No. 475, pp. 
 7, 165.) 
 
 Notwithstanding the clamour which has been raised upon this subject, it may be 
 doubted whether any material reduction could be made on the price charged by 
 the northern coal-owner, as he is kept in check by the competition of proprietors 
 in other places, who are not parties to the alleged combination. But the fact 
 that the cost free on board, in the Tyne, is more than trebled upon the consumer 
 in London, shows that abuses must exist in the mode of conducting the trade there; 
 and on examination this will be found to be the case. An unnecessary delay occurs 
 in the discharge of coal-vessels after their arrival in the Thames,— a circumstance 
 which must produce an extra charge for freight ; while, in unloading and in all 
 subsequent operations, a want of economy is conspicuous, and charges are accu- 
 mulated in a manner without parallel in any other port of the kingdom. In Edin- 
 burgh, situated on elevated ground, 2 miles from the port, the shipping price of 
 Newcastle coal is only about doubled on the consumer. 
 
 The exportation of coals was formerly checked by a heavy export duty of 6s. 5d. 
 per ton upon large, and Is. 8d. per ton upon small coals ; but in 1831 these duties 
 were modified ; and in 1835 (4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 89) they were repealed, with the 
 exception of an ad valorem duty of 10s. per cent, when exported in a British ship, 
 and of 4s. per ton when exported in a foreign ship. No duty is exigible on 
 shipments to the British colonies. As coal can be frequently taken as bal- 
 last, it is now exported in increasing quantities to foreign countries. In 1839, 
 the quantity exported was, as already stated, 1,449,417 tons ; whereof, France, 
 340,373 tons ; Holland, 180,348 tons ; Denmark, 129,005 tons ; Germany, 116,678 
 tons ; Russia, 78,054 tons ; Prussia, 83,942 tons ; Italy, 30,279 tons ; Malta, 
 27,988 tons ; British America, 50,983 tons ; British West Indies, 64,078 tons ; 
 United States, 52,930 tons ; Brazil, 21,066 tons ; other countries, 273,693 tons ; the 
 declared value of the whole was £542,609. 
 
 It is not now necessary to enter into bond for the due exportation of coals to British possessions ; 
 but when they or any other articles shall be exported in foreign vessels, on payment only of the 
 low duty (under treaties of reciprocity), security by bond shall be given (for the amount of duty 
 at risk) for the due landing of the articles so exported in some port of the country to which such 
 vessel shall belong, and for the production, within six months, of certificates by the British consul 
 at such port of the due landing of the cargoes, before such bonds shall be discharged: the parties 
 executing the bond are to be the master and mate of the vessel only, and the stamp-duty on the 
 bond is to be remitted to the party. (Min. Com. Cus. July 12, 1837; Treat. Order. Nov. 7, 1837, 
 and Dec. 22, 1838.) 
 
 Duration of Coal. — There is much fallacy in the conjectures which are so frequently 
 hazarded in regard to the duration of our coal-mines. Some persons perceive in 
 them a store of fuel laid up for thousands of years, even at the present increasing 
 rate of consumption ; while others pronounce as confidently that cold and starva- 
 tion await us before five centuries shall have elapsed. The present vast demand, 
 it is true, would exhaust our known coal-fields in a calculable time, but we have the 
 unknown, or rather unsurveyed, in reserve, to which ingenuity and enterprise will 
 gradually extend themselves. We have also ground to hope that the present waste 
 of coal in the mine and on the bank cannot always continue, for in the progress of 
 knowledge we have an assurance, that every year, as it increases the necessity, 
 will also increase the means of economizing our resources. When we consider the 
 augmented effect of coal in the steam-engine since the days of Watt, and the saving 
 
 * Much dissatisfaction exists among the owners of the best coals in the north with the coal-fac- 
 tors* regulation in London, which often precludes the best description of coal from being offered 
 for sale until the inferior qualities have been taken off the market by the coal-merchants, and it u 
 considered as not improbable that some alteration in the present system will be the result. 
 
CO A 164 COC 
 
 of fuel which the introduction of the hot-blast, and of anthracite coal in the smelt- 
 ing of iron, promises to occasion, we cannot doubt that a general rise in the price 
 of coal would stimulate ingenuity to the discovery of other improvements by which 
 equal effects might be produced without increase of cost. Such a stimulus is already 
 in some measure supplied by the economy of fuel which the employment of steam- 
 vessels in long voyages renders necessary, and from this important results must 
 follow. Meantime, the only legitimate end to be aimed at by speculators on the 
 duration of coal, is the prevention of all waste. If, to the best of our power, we 
 husband our resources, we may safely leave to posterity the management of their 
 own interest, — the task of compensating for a diminution of mineral resources by 
 an increase of mechanical skill and ingenuity. S 
 
 COASTING-TRADE. [Commerce. Customs. Shipping.] 
 
 COB, a name given in some places to the hard dollar. 
 
 COBALT (Fr. Cobalt. Ger. Kobalt), a reddish-gray brittle metal, somewhat 
 soft, and difficultly fusible; it possesses little lustre. Sp. gr. 8"6. The finest spe- 
 cimens are the produce of Saxony. Cobalt is never employed in a separate state, 
 but the impure oxides of the metal, called zaffre and smalts, are extensively 
 used as colouring materials. Cobalt blue, or Thenard's blue, is a beautiful pig- 
 ment prepared from the phosphate of cobalt, which may sometimes be introduced 
 by painters as a substitute for ultramarine. (Brande's Chemistry.) 
 
 COCA, a shrub (Eryihroxylon coca) cultivated extensively on the Andes of Peru, 
 on account of its leaves, which, when dried and mixed with burnt lime, form a 
 stimulating narcotic, which is much used by the Peruvians as a masticatory. The 
 use of coca brings on a state of apathy to all surrounding objects, and its effects 
 are of the most pernicious nature, exceeding even those of opium in the destruction 
 of mental and bodily powers. A confirmed coca-chewer, or coquero, is said never 
 to be reclaimed. In Peru and Bolivia, the value of this drug prepared annually 
 is estimated at above 2| millions of dollars. 
 
 COCCULUS INDICUS (Fr. Coque de Levant. Ger. Fischkormer. It. Galla 
 di Levante. Malay, Tuba bidij. Tarn. Kakacollie verei. Sans. Kakamari), a 
 name given to the berries of the Menispermum cocculus (Linn.) of Malabar. They 
 are about the size of large peas, of a gray colour, and wrinkled surface, and contain a 
 kidney- shaped seed within a very thick shell. Four ounces of the nut afford one 
 ounce of the -seeds. The shell has little taste, but the seed is poisonous and in- 
 tensely bitter. Cocculus indicus is said to be employed by some brewers as a 
 substitute for hops, though its sale and use for such a purpose is prohibited under 
 severe penalties by 56 Geo. III. c. 58. It is sometimes used externally in medicine. 
 About 2000 lbs. are annually entered for home consumption. S 
 
 COCHIN-CHINA. [Annam.] 
 
 COCHINEAL (Du. Conchenilje. ~Fr.Cochenille. Ger. Koschenilje. It. Cocciniglia. 
 Por. Cochenilha. Rus. Konssenel. Sp. Cochinilla, grana), a beautiful red dye-stuff, is 
 the female of a small insect (Coccus cacti) a native of Mexico, which feeds on the 
 leaves of the cactus opuntia, from which it is supposed to derive its colour. After 
 being collected from the plants, they are plunged into boiling water to kill them, and 
 dried in the sun. Cochineal is imported in small rugose inodorous grains, commonly 
 of a deep mulberry-colour, and covered more or less with a whitish down. Those 
 insects are preferred which are dry and plump. In the British market the quali- 
 ties are distinguished by the names Black, Silver, and Foxy, the respective prices 
 of which, in bond, were recently stated at 8s., 7s., and 6s. per lb. It is liable 
 to be adulterated by mixture with old insects, composed of mere skin, and with 
 spurious grains manufactured of coloured dough; the latter are detected by the 
 action of boiling water, which dissolves them, while it has little effect upon the 
 genuine insect. Care should likewise be taken that the dark colour has not been 
 communicated by art, which may be discovered by the article having, in this case, 
 an unpleasant odour. Cochineal, though affording a crimson solution, is generally 
 used for dyeing scarlet, and is employed chiefly for woollen goods. 
 
 The production of cochineal is confined to Mexico and Central America; but, as 
 it comprehends a great value in small bulk, it is frequently used by merchants for 
 remittances, and is thus imported from many other places besides the countries of 
 production. The consumption in this kingdom was nearly doubled after a great 
 diminution of the duty in 1824; and it has again much increased since the lato 
 reduction to Is. per cwt. (1 & 2 Vict. c. 113), which took effect from the 5th 
 January 1839; the average quantity annually entered for home consumption in the 
 four previous years having been 170,000 lbs.; whereas, in the year to 5th January 
 2840, it amounted to 490,000 lbs. s 
 
COC 165 COD 
 
 COCKET, a custom-house warrant, given on the entry of goods for exportation, 
 in evidence of their having paid duty, or being duty free. 
 
 COCKLE, a shell-fish (Cardium) which abounds in the seas of almost every 
 warm and temperate climate. It is generally found buried in sand near the shore. 
 The species are numerous, and some grow to a very large size. The common 
 cockle (C. edule) is well known as a cheap article of food in most of the towns on 
 our coast. 
 
 COCO, or COCOA-NUT (Pers. Narjible), is the product of a species of palm 
 (Cocos nucifera) found in all tropical countries. The milk of the cocoa-nut is a 
 pleasant refreshing liquor contained within the kernel while it is yet growing, aud 
 which diminishes in quantity as the kernel approaches to maturity. This last 
 has much the taste of the filbert. The importance of the cocoa-nut tree to mankind 
 has caused it to be cultivated wherever the climate is favourable to its growth. 
 It is sometimes found throughout extensive tracts, to the exclusion of all other 
 trees. Almost the whole Brazilian coast, from the river San Francisco to the bar of 
 Mamanguape, about 280 miles, is thus occupied ; and it was estimated some years ago 
 that about 10,000,000 trees were growing on the south-west coast of Ceylon. The 
 nuts are generally brought to Europe as wedges to fasten casks and other packages in 
 vessels ; their freight, therefore, costs nothing. About 400,000 lbs. are annually 
 entered for home consumption. S 
 
 The cocoa palm is from 60 to 100 feet in height, and 1 to 2 feet in diameter; at the top it is 
 crowned with a magnificent tuft of leaves, each about 14 feet in length, and resembling an 
 enormous feather. A good tree produces from 50 to 80, sometimes 100 nuts in a year ; and each 
 nut is considered equivalent, as food, to at least 3 oz. of rice. It grows best in the moist low 
 grounds that border the seacoast, or which form the neighbouring islands. Nothing can be more 
 beautiful than these cocoa groves. The bare trunks rise like columns to a vast height, and the 
 regular foliage, arching their summits, carries the eye along the vistas, as it were, of a boundless 
 gothic edifice. It is a very prolific tree ; flowers are put forth every four or five weeks, and thus 
 flowers and fruit are generally to be seen at the same time. It furnishes materials for almost an 
 infinite variety of purposes. Of the roots are constructed baskets ; of the hollowed trunk, drums, 
 pipes for aqueducts, and similar articles. The reticulated substance at the base of the leaves, besides 
 serving for infants* cradles, is manufactured into coarse sackcloth. The terminal bud is accounted a 
 delicacy for the table. The leaves are employed for thatching buildings, for making baskets, fonccs, 
 and torches, besides furnishing the chief diet in Ceylon for the tame elephants ; in a young state they 
 are transparent, and are made into lanterns by the natives. The woody ribs of the leaflets are 
 formed into a kind of basket-work for catching fish, and into the brushes and brooms employed for 
 domestic purposes. Good potash is yielded by the ashes, and the latter is used instead of soap 
 by the native washermen. From the unexpanded flower is procured a sweet juice which 
 is converted into wine, and subsequently distilled into arrack, which is manufactured in very 
 large quantities in the island. From palm-juice is likewise prepared, in great abundance, a coarse 
 kind of sugar called jaggery. The value of the fruit of this tree can only be fully appreciated in 
 the countries that produce it. The fibrous covering is an admirable substitute for hemp, and is 
 largely manufactured into coir [Coir], a substance pecidiarly well adapted for the cordage of 
 vessels. In short, to such a variety of purposes is the cocoa-nut tree applied, that, according to 
 Mr Martin, the natives of the Maldive Islands send an annual embassy to Ceylon, the boats con- 
 veying which are entirely prepared from this tree, the persons composing the embassy clothed and 
 fed on its products, and the numerous presents for the governor are all manufactured from this 
 queen of the palms. 
 
 Cocoa->" ut Oix. is obtained from the albumen, or white solid matter contained within the shell, 
 by pressure or decoction ; usually the former. This oil is used in lamps, in the manufacture of 
 candles and torches, in the composition of pharmaceutical preparations ; and mixed with dammer 
 it forms the substance used in India for calking the seams of ships. It is largely imported into the 
 United Kingdom from Ceylon, and about 30,000 cwts. are annually entered for home consumption. 
 
 COCOA. [Cacao.] 
 
 COCOON, the oblong roundish ball formed by the silk- worm by winding around 
 itself the silk which it draws from its bowels. 
 
 COD (Dn. Kabeljaauw, Baukaelja. Fr. Morue. Ger. Kabljau, Bakalau. It. 
 Daccala. Por. Bacalhdo. Sp. Bacalao), the most valuable of the white fish {.Gadus 
 Morrhua, Linn. ; Morrhua vulparis, Cuv.) is found universally from Iceland nearly 
 to Gibraltar, and is very abundant on the coast and islands on the E. side of Ame- 
 rica, from N. lat. 40° to 66°, particularly at Newfoundland. It spawns in our seas 
 about February, and nine millions of ova have been found in the roe of one female. 
 It is in the best condition, as food, from the end of October to Christmas. Two 
 varieties are distinguished in the British seas, the northern or Scotch cod, a blunt- 
 headed, lighter-coloured fish ; and the southern or Dogger Bank cod, a sharper- 
 nosed, darker fish : both are equally good, and are sometimes taken on the same 
 ground. As cod generally inhabits water from 25 to 40 fathoms deep, its capture 
 is only attempted with lines and hooks. It is voracious, and easily taken ; from 
 400 to 550 fish have been caught at the Newfoundland bank, in 10 or 1 1 hours, by one 
 man. " In this country, it appears to be taken all round the coast ; among the 
 
COD 166 COD 
 
 islands to the N. and W. of Scotland it is abundant ; most extensive fisheries are 
 carried on ; and it may be traced as occurring also on the shore of almost every 
 county in Ireland." — P A change has lately taken place from the cod having shifted 
 their ground. Formerly the Gravesend and Barking fishermen obtained no cod 
 nearer than the Orkneys or the Dogger Bank ; but for the last two or three years, 
 the supply for the London market has been obtained by going no farther than the 
 Lincolnshire and Norfolk coasts, and even between that and London, where pre- 
 viously very few fish could be obtained." (YarrelVs British Fishes.) 
 
 The Great Bank of Newfoundland, the celebrated resort for the cod-fishery, is a 
 large rocky shoal extending towards the east of the island, about 600 miles in length 
 ana 200 in breadth. The ocean flowing over this vast submarine mountain contains 
 perhaps as much human food as a land territory of equal extent ; and although the 
 maritime nations have for several centuries laboured indefatigably in it, not the 
 slightest diminution of fruitfulness has ever been observed. For a long time the 
 fishery was chiefly confined to this bank, and to vessels sailing from European ports. 
 As soon, however, as permanent settlements began to be formed, it was found that 
 the S. E. coast, rocky and deeply embayed, afforded a supply almost equally ex- 
 haustless, the produce of which could be cured there much more cheaply and con- 
 veniently. The bank-fishery was in consequence gradually deserted by the British ; 
 and if the French and Americans still carry it on to a certain extent, we may 
 conclude that it is entirely owing to the want of the same conveniency on shore. 
 
 The fishery now carried on by our countrymen chiefly extends along the coasts 
 of Labrador, principally the south-eastern tract opposite to Newfoundland, and 
 separated from it by the Straits of Belleisle. Twenty thousand British subjects 
 are annually employed, with from two to three hundred schooners, on the Labrador 
 stations. About four -fifths of what we prepare is afterwards exported to the 
 southern countries of Europe, chiefly for consumption during Lent, and the other 
 fasts of the Roman Catholic church. A great quantity is carried into Newfound- 
 land green or pickled, that is, it is split and salted, but has not been dried at the 
 stations. In general, however, it is dried ; after undergoing which, and a careful 
 inspection, it is divided into three sorts :— 1. Merchantable, of the finest colour 
 and quality. 2. Madeira, which are nearly equal to the first. 3. West India, 
 decidedly inferior, yet capable of standing a sea-voyage, and being kept a consider- 
 able time. These last, with the greater part of the Madeira, are destined for the 
 aliment of the negroes in the West Indies. The bank-fish is inferior in appearance 
 to the shore-fish, and, to a certain degree, in quality, from the process of drying 
 (which must be done on shore) being often performed too late, and with fewer 
 conveniences than in the case of the shore-fishery. It is, however, of a larger size, 
 which secures a preference in some markets. 
 
 The annual produce of the British fishery of Newfoundland, including the fish 
 carried there from Labrador, at different periods since 1790, was as follows. The 
 quantities stated are quintals of dried fish, each equal 112 lbs., or 1 cwt. avoir- 
 dupois. 
 
 quintals 760,177 
 619,177 
 883,536 
 674,988 
 727,586 
 860,354 
 
 The state of the fishery may thus be regarded as stationary. The price ob- 
 tained for eod, however, has varied remarkably. In 1814, it was estimated at £2 per 
 quintal ; in 1831, 1832, and 1833, at not more than 10s. In 1834, it rose to about 
 13s. ; but in 1835, again fell to 10s. The value of the 860,354 quintals dry fish, in 
 1836, is stated in the public accounts at £517,457, of which there were exported, 
 810,598 quintals, value, £483,638 sterling ; the value of the core and pickled fish, 
 in the same year, being, besides, £1665. This, however, was exclusive of the 
 fisheries of Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, Canada, and New Brunswick, the produce 
 of which is stated under these heads respectively. The quantity of fish imported 
 into the United Kingdom, re-exported, and consumed, for a series of years, is stated 
 in the accounts of the Board of Trade as follows, without however distinguishing 
 the portion thereof consisting of cod : — 
 
 Imported, cwts. 
 
 Re-exported 
 
 Entered for consumption 
 
 Great Britain, by the treaty of 1816, ceded to France the right of fishing on the 
 
 1790, 1791, 1792, average 
 
 quintals 656,800 
 
 1830 
 
 1798, 1799, 1800 
 
 382,881 
 
 1832 
 
 1805 . . 
 
 526,380 
 
 1833 
 
 1815 
 
 1,245,808 
 
 1834 
 
 1820 
 
 899,729 
 
 1835 
 
 1825 
 
 973,464 
 
 1836 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 51,974 
 
 68,337 
 
 86,165 
 
 125,133 
 
 103,448 
 
 17,412 
 
 5,360 
 
 9,916 
 
 13,310 
 
 6,574 
 
 34,562 
 
 62,752 
 
 76,474 
 
 111,823 
 
 96,874 
 
COD 167 COF 
 
 shores of Newfoundland, from Cape John to Cape Ray, with the islands of St 
 Pierre and Miquelon ; and in 1832, this power employed ahout 325 vessels, of from 
 100 to 400 tons each, in her fisheries on the British American coasts and banks, 
 and 14,000 fishermen ; and the produce of their fishery in the same year was about 
 354,000 quintals, value £300,000 sterling ; to protect which the government pays 
 on the average £50,000 in bounties. The French vessels are principally fitted out 
 at St Malo, Bordeaux, Brest, Marseilles, and Dieppe. 
 
 The Americans of the United States, by the convention of 1818, possess the pri- 
 vilege of fishing along all the coasts within three marine miles of the shore ; and 
 of curing fish in such harbours and bays as are uninhabited, or, if occupied, with 
 the consent of the inhabitants. Their first spring voyage is made to the banks ; 
 the second either to the banks, Gulf of St Lawrence, or the coast of Labrador; the 
 third, or fall voyage, is again to the banks ; and a fourth, or second fall voyage, is 
 also made, sometimes to the banks. In these fisheries they have annually engaged 
 from 1500 to 2000 schooners of 90 to 130 tons, employing about 20,000 seamen. The 
 total produce of their cod-fishery was stated some years ago at 1,850,000 quintals, 
 of which about 1,500,000 quintals were taken in the British American seas. The 
 adventurers receive no bounty from their government, but they possess peculiar 
 advantages from their vicinity to the fishing-grounds. Their vessels are chiefly 
 fitted out at Boston, and other ports on their north-eastern coast. 
 
 The history of the cod-fishery, and of the dissensions it has frequently produced 
 between the maritime states, with a full account of the different methods by which 
 the fish are caught and cured, will be found in M'Gregor's " British America," vol. i. 
 chap. 9 & 10; also in Edinburgh Cabinet Library, " British America," vol. ii. chap. 12, 
 [Fisheries.] S 
 
 COD ILL A, the part separated or picked out in cleaning hemp or flax. 
 
 COFFEE (Du. Koffy. It. & Por. Cafe. Ger.Koffe. Rus./To/e. Fr.&Sp.Ca/e) 
 is the berry of the Coffea Arabica, an evergreen shrub with an erect slender trunk, 
 in height from 8 to 15 feet, and having long flexible branches. The flower resem- 
 bles that of the common jasmine, and the fruit is like a small red cherry, enclosing 
 within a soft pulp the two oval seeds familiar to every one as the coffee bean of 
 commerce. The shrub begins to produce fruit when about 2 years old, and yields, 
 according to its age and size, from 1 to 4 or 5 lbs. ; but the quality of the produce 
 from young plants is inferior to that from such as are 4 or 5 years old. Coffee only 2 
 or 3 months from the tree is not so good as that which has been kept a year; but when 
 older it becomes deteriorated. When of good quality, the seeds or beans are hard 
 and heavy, sink quickly in water, are of a light yellowish-green colour, sweetish 
 taste, possess in a slight degree the peculiar odour of coffee, and are free from any 
 damp smell. The beans from the West Indies are larger than those from the 
 East. Before being used for domestic purposes they are roasted, a process by 
 which they are increased to nearly twice their original size, while they lose about 
 one-third of their weight. Coffee is very apt to imbibe moisture, or the flavour 
 of any thing placed near it ; much attention is therefore necessary in packing it 
 on board ship or otherwise. 
 
 The coffee shrub is indigenous to Abyssinia and Arabia, but it has been trans- 
 
 flanted into many tropical countries, and is now of great commercial importance. 
 ts chief celebrity, however, is derived from Arabia, where its cultivation seems to 
 be best understood. The quantity shipped from the different places of its produc- 
 tion is at present estimated at upwards of 250,000,000 lbs. The chief places, stated 
 according to their importance in this respect, are Brazil, 72,000,000 lbs.; Cuba, 
 64,000,000 lbs.; Hayti, 40,000,000 lbs.; Java, 30,000,000 lbs.; British West Indies, 
 Dutch Guiana, South American States, Ceylon, British India, French West Indies, 
 Porto Rico, Sumatra, Bourbon, Philippines, and Mocha. 
 
 The consumption of coffee in this country was inconsiderable until of late years. 
 In 1790, it amounted only to 973,1 10 lbs. ; the duty on British plantation coffee being 
 at the same time about 10^d. per lb. An increase of the duty in 1795 to about Is. 5£d. 
 per lb. reduced the consumption ; and in 1800 it was only 826,590 lbs. An impetus, 
 however, was given to the trade in 1807, when the duty was reduced to 7d. per lb.; 
 and in 1810, the quantity entered for home consumption was 5,308,096 lbs. In 1820 
 it was 6,869,286 lbs. Its subsequent progress is shown in the following table :— - 
 
COF 
 
 163 
 
 COF 
 
 Account of the Quantities of Coffee imported, exported, and consumed in the 
 United Kingdom ; with the rates of import duty, revenue arising therefrom, and 
 price of fine Jamaica Coffee in bond in July in the following years : — 
 
 Years. 
 
 1831.. 
 
 1822., 
 1823. . 
 1824.. 
 1825. , 
 1826. . 
 1827. . 
 1828. , 
 1829. , 
 1830. , 
 1831.. 
 1832.. 
 1833. , 
 1834.. 
 1835.. 
 1836.. 
 1837.. 
 1838.. 
 1839. . 
 1840. . 
 
 Imported. Exported. Consumed 
 
 lbs. 
 45,237,869 
 44,003,124 
 45,053,373 
 
 ,674,249 
 52,597,518 
 42,017,103 
 47,938,047 
 41,069,731 
 a9,071,215 
 40,952,163 
 43,007,828 
 50,225,939 
 34,426,109 
 41,865,111 
 28,398,493 
 34,054,837 
 36,412,514 
 39,932,279 
 39,850,752 
 
 lbs. 
 
 635,956 
 ,825,535 
 ,025,691 
 ,517,736 
 ,392,389 
 ,894,278 
 ,475,870 
 ,785,980 
 ,023,410 
 ,087,994 
 485,474 
 719,742 
 349,578 
 ,250,480 
 ,346,537 
 ,681,758 
 ,060,975 
 ,293,290 
 ,762,587 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Duty per lb. 
 
 *. d. 
 
 W.Ind.B.P 1 
 
 (-E.Ind.B.P 1 
 
 j Foreign 2 
 
 Revenue. Price per Cwt. 
 
 W. Ind. B. P.. 
 E. Ind. B. P.. 
 Foreign , 
 
 ... 
 ... 
 
 W. & E. Ind. B. P. pro- 
 duce of & import, from 
 E. Ind. B. P. imp. from 
 
 E. Ind. imp. from 1 
 
 Foreign 1 
 
 387,342 
 
 428,613 
 
 "j 420,988 
 
 I 315,809 
 
 336,570 
 
 399,690 
 
 1440,245 
 
 6 484,975 
 
 9 579,363 
 
 3 583,751 
 
 589,858 
 
 591,241 
 
 614,434 
 
 652,124 
 
 691,616 
 
 6 696,645 
 
 9 685,082 
 
 779,855 
 
 3 
 
 S. 
 
 119 to 
 
 140 .. 
 
 125 .. 
 
 87 .. 
 
 88 .. 
 85 .. 
 
 73 
 
 M 
 79 
 
 87 
 
 107 
 
 70 
 06 
 
 83 
 
 108 
 
 90 
 124 
 131 
 
 Of the 39,932,279 lbs. imported in 1838, there were brought from the British 
 West Indies 17,588,655 lbs.; East India Company's territories and Ceylon, 7,785,963 
 Jbs. ; Brazil, 10,373,713 lbs. ; Hayti, 1,655,494 lbs. ; Cuba and other Foreign West 
 India colonies, 685,509 lbs. ; Cape of Good Hope, 506,874 lbs. ; West Coast of 
 Africa, 267,303 lbs. ; Colombia, 3/5,329 lbs. ; the remainder in smaller quantities 
 from Mauritius and other places. The chief exportations in the same year were to 
 Belgium, 2,586,500 lbs. ; Holland, 2,049,220 lbs. ; Italy and Sicily, 2,308,822 lbs. ; 
 Turkey, 1,546,695 lbs. ; Russia, 669,305 lbs. ; Germany, 532,434 lbs. ; Malta, 
 177,413 lbs.; and Syria, 128,158 lbs. It may be noticed, however, that besides the 
 quantities of coffee entered as imported into the United Kingdom, numerous cargoes 
 from Brazil and other foreign countries are sold in London by sample ; the vessels 
 waiting in a roadstead in the Channel until a sale is effected, when they are de- 
 spatched, without breaking bulk, to Hamburg, Antwerp, Rotterdam, or some other 
 port on the Continent. 
 
 The consumption of coffee in the United Kingdom has now overtaken the supply 
 from the British West Indies and other colonies admissible at the low duty of 6a. 
 per lb.; and the great increase of price which has consequently taken place, has, 
 besides rendering adulteration with chicory, roasted rye, and burnt corn, very com- 
 mon, made it an object to import foreign coffee by way of the Cape of Good Hope, 
 which, being held to be a British possession within the limits of the East India 
 Company's charter, entitles such coffee to be introduced into this country for con- 
 sumption at the next lower duty of 9d. per lb. In this way, great quantities of 
 coffee, the produce of Brazil, Hayti, and other foreign countries,have been entered 
 for home consumption ; the additional cost of sending it for transhipment at the 
 Cape being only trom ^d. to Id. per lb. Java coffee is likewise introduced in this 
 way through the Cape and Singapore. These evasions of the law, called in trade 
 " colonizing coffee," have been chiefly practised since the end of 1838, before which 
 time the quantity introduced at the 9d. duty was quite inconsiderable. The 
 Is. duty is nearly an exclusion ; that at Is. 3d. is entirely so ; the coffee imported 
 into this country direct from Brazil. Hayti, and other foreign countries being merely 
 warehoused for re-exportation to the Continent. 
 
 The absurd operation of the present regulations, under which the British con- 
 sumer is made to pay the higher duty, and an increase of freight, while the 
 foreign coffee is not excluded from the British market, though this was obviously 
 the purpose of the law, has already engaged the attention of Parliament {Report 
 on Import Duties, 1840), and it is considered probable that another session will 
 not be allowed to pass without some remedy being applied by the legislature. 
 The formation of temperance societies and other circumstances with regard to the 
 habits of the people, are such as to be greatly more favourable than formerly to the 
 use of coffee by the humbler classes, and little doubt is entertained that the re- 
 venue derived from it might be much increased by a different arrangement of the 
 
 
COF 
 
 169 
 
 COI 
 
 duties. The following table, prepared by Mr Porter of the Board of Trade (Re- 
 port on Import Duties, p. 200), exhibits, in a striking point of view, the advan- 
 tageous effects which have been produced by the past reductions of the duty : — 
 Consumption of Coffee in Great Britain. 
 
 Years. 
 1801 
 
 Population. 
 
 Pounds Weight 
 Consumed. 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 Consumption 
 per Head. 
 
 Tax per Head. 
 
 10,942,646 
 12,596,803 
 14,391,631 
 16,539,318 
 
 18,275,946 
 
 750,861 
 
 6,390,122 
 
 7,327,283 
 
 21,842,264 
 
 24,920,820 
 
 $. d. 
 
 1 6 per lb. 
 7.. 
 10.. 
 6.. 
 6.. 
 
 OZ. 
 
 1-09 
 
 812 
 
 8-01 
 
 21 13 
 
 22-60 
 
 d. 
 
 H 
 
 4 
 6 
 8 
 8* 
 
 1811 
 
 1821 
 
 1831 
 
 1838 
 
 The act 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 52, § 32, provides that no abatement of duties shall be made on account 
 of anv damage received by coffee ; and by 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 57, § 33, coffee may be abandoned 
 for duty. [Customs. Warehouse.] Coffee-dealers must take out a license renewable annually. 
 
 In London, coffee is sold in bond; the business is done in the market, either by public sale 
 or private contract. The terms are — E. I. and W. I. British Plantation, 1 month, 1 percent, 
 discount, allowing 4 per cent, for cash ; East India at a prompt of three months from the day of 
 sale without discount ; Foreign, 1 month, 2 J per cent, discount, and 4 per cent, for cash. The tares 
 are the same as allowed by the revenue. The draft on B. P., namely, casks of 5 cwt. and upwards, 
 5 lbs. ; under 5 cwt. 4 lbs."; barrels and bags, 2 lbs. ; Foreign and East India, 1 lb. 
 
 The prices in bond of the different kinds of coffee in the London market in January 1841 were 
 as follow :— 
 
 t. d, s. d. 
 Jamaica. 
 
 Fine, Middling, <fe Fine \ U9 ft t ,,- n 
 
 Good Middling i 112 to 13o 
 
 Middling 106 
 
 Low do 102 
 
 Fine and Fine Fine Ord. . . 90 
 
 Good Ordinary 80 
 
 110 
 104 
 100 
 
 70 
 
 } 70 
 
 88 
 
 78 
 
 130 
 
 106 
 
 98 
 
 84 
 
 *. d. 
 
 Dominica and St Lucia. 
 
 Middling and Fine 108 
 
 Good and Fine Ordinary. . 80 
 
 Middling and Good 58 
 
 , St Domingo, for export 42 
 
 1 Brazil do 41 
 
 Havannah. 
 
 Good and Fine Ordinary... 40 
 
 Middling and Good 58 
 
 Porto Rico & La Guayra... . 41 
 
 East India, Java. 56 
 
 Ceylon, certificate 72 
 
 Do. for export 
 
 Sumatra and Samarang 34 
 
 Mocha 105 
 
 to 132 
 
 .. 100 
 
 .. 68 
 
 .. 47 
 
 .. 46 6 
 
 .. 55 
 
 .. 68 
 
 .. 72 O 
 
 .. 70 
 
 .. 80 
 
 .. 55 
 
 .. 135 
 
 Ordinary. 
 
 Triage 
 
 Demerara and Berbice. 
 Good Middling to Fine. ... 108 
 
 Low 3Iiddling & Mid 100 
 
 Good and Fine Ordinary . . 78 
 
 Ordinary. 
 
 Broken . . 
 
 We possess no precise information as to the period when coffee was first adopted as an article ot 
 diet. Its use during several centuries was peculiar to the east ; and the city of Aden is the first on 
 record that set the example of drinking it as a common refreshment ab ut the middle of the 15th 
 century ; after which it rapidly extended to Mecca, Medina, and the other cities of Yemen. It 
 was introduced at Grand Cairo about 1500, by dervises from Yemen resident in that city, where, 
 however, it was opposed on religious grounds, from the persuasion that it had an inebriating qua- 
 lity ; and in 1523, Abdallah Ibrahim having denounced it in a sermon, a violent commotion was 
 produced, and the parties came to blows. Upon this, says a writer in Rees* Cyclopaedia, the 
 Sheik Elbelet, commander of the city, assembled the doctors, and after giving a patient hearing to 
 their tedious harangues, treated them all with coffee, first setting the example by drinking it 
 himself, and then dismissed the assembly without uttering a word. By this prudent conduct 
 the public peace was restored, and coffee continued to be drunk without further molestation. At 
 Constantinople, where it was introduced in 1554, it had to encounter both political and religious 
 opposition ; but it soon triumphed over every obstacle, and being taxed, produced a considerable 
 revenue. Public officers are appointed to inspect and prepare it ; and it is said that a refusal to 
 supply a wife with coffee is one of the legal grounds of divorce in Turkey. 
 
 Coffee was brought into notice in the west of Europe in the seventeenth century. The first 
 coffeehouse in London was opened in 1652 by a Greek named Pasqua, who had been servant to 
 Daniel Edwards, a Turkish merchant, and the number soon increased. In 1675, Charles II- 
 attempted to suppress them as places of resort dangerous to government, but without effect ; and 
 in 1688, it was supposed that there were as many of these houses of entertainment in London as 
 in Grand Cairo ; besides those to be met with in the principal towns throughout the country. 
 The quantity consumed upon the whole, however, was unimportant, and derived solely from 
 Arabia through the medium of Turkey, as coffee was not cultivated in the western hemisphere 
 prior to the eighteenth century, when Van Hoorn, governor of Batavia, procured seeds from 
 Mocha, and a plant reared by him was forwarded to the botanical garden at Amsterdam, the 
 progeny of which was in 1718 sent to Guiana. The produce of another plant was about the same 
 time transmitted by Louis XIV. of France to Martinico, and from these places the cultivation of 
 the coffee-shrub rapidly extended throughout the West Indies and South America. S 
 
 COIN, a flat circular piece of metal, impressed with a public stamp serving a9 
 a guarantee for its weight and fineness, and used as money. A variety of metals 
 have been employed for this purpose ; but the portability, permanent value, and 
 uniform quality of gold and silver, have, from an early age, secured for them a 
 general preference. Copper has also been very commonly used, especially for 
 subsidiary coins ; and of late years the Russian government has introduced plati- 
 
coi 170 COI 
 
 nuin ; but this last, though intrinsically well adapted for the purpose, has ob- 
 tained only a partial circulation, from a want of confidence in the stability of its 
 price. 
 
 Pure silver and gold, though invariable in their quality, are yet too flexible for 
 the ordinary purposes of coin, and they are therefore mixed with a small proportion 
 of harder metal, called alloy. The proportion of this, however, varies in different 
 countries, and hence both the weight and the degree of fineness, or standard, of a 
 coin have to be considered, the value of the alloy never being taken into account. 
 In this country silver and gold are measured by troy weight ; the fineness of silver 
 is also denoted by the number of pennyweights and grains of pure metal contained 
 in a troy ounce ; but the fineness of gold is expressed in carats. Of these 24 are 
 supposed to be contained in any given quantity of the metal, and its quality is 
 denoted by expressing the number which consist of pure gold. The British money 
 standard of silver has for a long period been 11 oz. 2 dwts., equal to a fineness of 
 37-40ths ; and that of gold 22 carats, equal to a fineness of ll-12ths : these have 
 been found to be the proportions best suited for durability. 
 
 Although coins of botn silver and gold are found in almost all countries, yet a 
 preference is commonly given to one or the other as the medium for large payments, 
 or standard of value. In general silver has been adopted for this purpose, but in 
 some countries g^old is used ; in others ? both metals are employed, — their mutual 
 convertibility being determined according to a fixed rate of exchange. It does not 
 appear that either of the precious metals is naturally better suited than the other 
 for a standard ; but the adoption of both, though approved by Sir Isaac Newton, 
 has been generally productive of disorder, owing to the variation in the market- 
 prices to which silver and gold are subject, as well as other commodities, and the 
 tendency thus produced of the one kind of coin to drive the other out of circulation. 
 Formerly both metals were legal tender in England, and in 1717, their relative 
 value was fixed at one guinea in gold, for 21 shillings in silver. This was an over- 
 valuation of the former, to the extent of rather more than 1^ per cent., a difference 
 which afterwards increased, and led, before the end of the century, to the fusion or 
 exportation of all silver coins of full weight, and the exclusive use of gold in all 
 large payments. 
 
 Previous to the reform of the British coinage in 1815 much discussion arose as to 
 whether gold, silver, or both metals, should be employed as the standard of value. 
 At length this was decided for the time by the " Treatise on the Coins of the Realm," 
 by the first Earl of Liverpool, in which it was maintained, " that coins, which are the 
 principal measures of property, should be composed of one metal only ; that this 
 metal should be gold (being that in which the principal payments in England are 
 made) ; and that the expenses of fabrication should be taken out of the silver and 
 copper coins." These principles were made the basis of the new regulations em- 
 bodied in the act 56 Geo. III. c. 68 ; and the existing state of the British coinage 
 is as follows : — 
 
 Gold is issued in pieces termed sovereigns (of 20 shillings) and half-sovereigns ; 
 the issue of double sovereigns is also authorized, but none are in circulation. These 
 are coined at the rate of 1869 sovereigns from 40 troy pounds of standard metal ; 
 hence gold is minted at £3, 17s. 10^d. per ounce, and the full weight of the sovereign 
 is 5 dwts. 3'274 grains. The sovereign of 5 dwts. 2j| grains is, however, a legal 
 tender, and the others in proportion. 
 
 Silver is issued in crowns (of 5 shillings), half-crowns, shillings (of 12 pence), 
 sixpences, and groats or fourpences ; a few pieces for 3d., 2d., and Id., called 
 Maundy money, are also made for the purpose of distribution as alms by the 
 sovereign, but they are not in general circulation. These are all coined at the rate 
 of 66 shillings from one pound of standard metal ; hence silver is minted at 5s. 6d. 
 per oz. ; being an increase of 4d. per oz. from the rate prior to 1816, which was 
 5s. 2d. ; and the full weight of the shilling is 3 dwts. 15 grains and 3-llths. 
 
 Copper is issued in pennies, halfpennies, and farthings, at the rate of £224 per 
 ton, or 24 pence from 1 lb. avoird. of metal. 
 
 The Remedy of the Mint, or allowance for the fallibility of workmanship, in 
 regard to standard weight and fineness, is, for gold coins, 12 grains per lb. in the 
 weight, and l-16th of a carat in the fineness ; for silver, 1 dwt. per lb. in the weight, 
 and the same in the fineness ; and for copper, l-40th of the weight. 
 
 No Seignorage is exacted on gold coins, as they are minted at the market-value 
 of that metal ; but on silver coins a seignorage is at present levied of about 10 per 
 cent, (the market-price being about 5s., and the mint price 5s. 6d. per oz.) ; while 
 on copper coins it amounts to more than 100 per cent. It was enacted, however, 
 
COI 
 
 171 
 
 COI 
 
 that silver coins shall be a legal tender for 40s. only at one time, — copper coins for 
 12 pence only, — and "that gold coins shall be in future the sole standard measure 
 of value and legal tender for payment, without any limitation of amount." 
 
 The amount of money coined in the 23 years 1816-1838 has been : Gold, 16,119 
 double sovereigns ; 54,964,695 sovereigns ; 8,526,451 half-sovereigns : Silver , 
 1,849,905 crowns ; 31,051,938 half-crowns ; 94,339,080 shillings ; 52,915,235 six- 
 pences ; 87,412,938 fourpences : Copper, 21,450,240 pence ; 28,304,640 half-pence ; 
 and 41,782,270 farthings; besides Maundy money, and small coins for the colonies. 
 The total amount of coin in circulation in the United Kingdom at present is esti- 
 mated to be about £40,000,000. 
 
 The loss on coins by abrasion has been variously estimated. According to ex- 
 periments made at the Mint in 1833, the waste per cent, per annum appears to be, 
 on sovereigns, from 9d. to 10hd. ; on half-sovereigns, from Is. to Is. 6|d. ; on half- 
 crowns, from 2s. to 3s. ; on shillings, from 2s. 3d. to 6s. ; and on sixpences, from 
 7s. to 8s. These results, making allowance for the greater use of some coins than 
 others, confirm the general estimate that gold possesses about four times the dura- 
 bility of silver. 
 
 f The coining of money forms one of the exclusive prerogatives of the crown, and 
 the counterfeiting of it constituted formerly the offence of high treason. At present 
 the integrity of the coinage is guarded by the act 2 Wm. IV. c. 34, under which 
 persons counterfeiting coin, or impairing it, are punished with transportation or 
 imprisonment. Penalties are also imposed on those uttering false coins, — having 
 three or more such pieces in their possession, with intent to put off the same,— and 
 on those making, mending, or having in possession, any coining tools. 
 
 Foreign Coins are in this country regarded merely as bullion, and are valued 
 according to the assayer's report of their purity. These reports are made in refer- 
 ence to the money- standards already mentioned ; and the comparative difference 
 of the metal assayed is called its Betterness or YVorseness : thus, gold 23 carats 2 
 grains fine, is reported, — Better 1 carat 2 grains ; and gold 20 carats,— Worse 2 
 carats : Also silver 11 oz. 4 dwts. fine, is reported, — Better, 2 dwts. ; and silver 10 oz. 
 fine, — Worse 1 oz. 2 dwts. The calculation of the quantity of standard gold or silver 
 that could be obtained from the full weight of the given metal, according to the 
 assay report of its purity, is termed the Standarding of Gold and Silver. Gold is 
 valued either from the full weight, by a price varying according to its purity, — 
 by the market-price per oz. standard, from the quantity of standard metal, or by 
 the fixed mint-price ; the latter being the usual rate for determining the intrinsic 
 value of foreign coins as money. Dollar silver is usually sold by the full weight at 
 a variable price per ounce ; and other silver by the standard weight, at a variable 
 price per ounce standard. Silver coins, however, are usually valued, in commercial 
 works and for ordinary purposes, from the standard weight at the fixed price of 5s. 
 per ounce standard, — a rate which varies little from the market-price of late years. 
 Practical formulae for standarding gold and silver, for ascertaining their value 
 under different circumstances, and for the various other calculations which occur in 
 bullion operations, will be found stated with much neatness in Mr Tate's " Manual 
 of Foreign Exchanges" (p. 134-224). The following tables, compiled from that 
 work, show the assays, weight, purity, and value of the principal foreign gold and 
 silver coins, computing the former at the rate of £3 : 17 : 10^, and the latter at 5s. 
 per ounce, British standards : — 
 
 Table of the Principal Foreign Gold Coins. 
 
 Country. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Assay Re- 
 port. 
 
 Full 
 Weight. 
 
 StandJBt 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Pure 
 Gold. 
 
 Value in 
 Sterling. 
 
 Austria. 
 
 Half-sovereign 
 
 Ducat 
 
 car. gr. 
 W 0| 
 B 1 2| 
 W 3 24 
 W 1 
 W0 0£ 
 
 w it 
 
 W IJ 
 W li 
 
 B 1 2} 
 
 won 
 
 Stand. 
 W Ok 
 
 Stand. 
 rV 1 OJ 
 
 V 2 1 
 
 dwt. gr. 
 
 3 14 
 2 51 
 
 4 4 
 4 7 
 7 12 
 4 3i 
 9 20 
 4 6J 
 2 5| 
 4 7f 
 
 34 12 
 9 6i 
 
 4 34 
 17 84 
 
 5 9 ! 
 
 dwt. gr. 
 3 13-75 
 
 2 10-00 
 
 3 11-80 
 
 4 5-83 
 7 H-48 
 4 1-52 
 9 15-97 
 4 5-04 
 2 9-56 
 4 5-68 
 
 34 12-00 
 9 5-86 
 4 3-50 
 
 16 11-20 
 
 grains. 
 78-61 
 5317 
 76-82 
 93-34 
 
 164-53 
 89-39 
 
 212-64 
 92-62 
 52-77 
 9321 
 
 75900 
 
 s. d. 
 13 10-95 
 9 4-93 
 13 7-16 
 16 6-25 
 29 1-44 
 
 15 9-86 
 37 7-63 
 
 16 472 
 9 4-07 
 
 16 5-97 
 134 4-01 
 
 
 
 Denmark 
 
 
 East Indies 
 
 Mohur 
 
 France 
 
 
 Hanover 
 
 Double Louis 48 livres 
 
 Holland 
 
 Ducat 
 
 Portugal 
 
 10 florins. " 
 
 
 Russia. 
 
 
 203-37 1 35 11-95 
 
 9120 16 1-71 
 
 362-26 «4 WO 
 
 Half Imperial. 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 United States, America 
 
 Half Eagle 1 
 
 5 6-06 
 
 115-56 1 
 
 20 5-40 
 
COI 
 
 172 
 
 COL 
 
 Table of the Principal Foreign Silver Coins. 
 
 
 
 Country. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Assay Re- 
 port. 
 
 Full 
 Weight. 
 
 Standard 
 Weight. 
 
 Pure 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Value in 
 Sterling. 
 
 
 Species thaler of 2 fl. . . 
 
 Rigsbank dollar 
 
 Company's rupee 
 
 oz. dwt. 
 W 1 2 
 W 12 
 W 2 
 W 6 
 W 2 2 
 B 16 
 W 8 
 W 6| 
 W 1 2 
 W 5 
 W 4 
 W 2 3 
 W 3 
 W 14 
 W 7 
 W 8 
 W 7 
 
 dwt 
 18 
 9 
 7 
 16 
 5 
 8 
 6 
 17 
 14 
 17 
 9 
 14 
 17 
 13 
 17 
 17 
 16 
 
 gr- 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 n 
 
 21J 
 
 9 
 22 
 11 
 18 
 
 7^ 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 dwt. gr. 
 16 6-09 
 8 18-94 
 
 7 10-37 
 
 15 15-32 
 4 18-73 
 
 8 23-48 
 6 16-01 
 
 16 22-73 
 13 6-91 
 16 22-14 
 
 8 23-05 
 
 11 12-56 
 16 19-47 
 
 12 11-82 
 16 18-88 
 16 17-01 
 
 grains. 
 360-83 
 195-12 
 165-00 
 347-17 
 106-12 
 199-32 
 148-01 
 376-22 
 295-00 
 375-68 
 198-92 
 255-82 
 373-21 
 277-33 
 372-66 
 370-93 
 359-67 
 
 s. d. 
 4 076 
 
 2 2-36 
 1 10-29 
 
 3 10-91 
 
 1 2-34 
 
 2 2-93 
 
 1 8-00 
 
 4 2-84 
 
 3 3-86 
 
 4 2-76 
 
 2 2-88 
 
 2 10-57 
 4 2-43 
 
 3 1-47 
 
 4 2-36 
 4 2-12 
 4 0-60 
 
 
 
 
 
 Current mark 
 
 F. zweydrittel 
 
 Guilder or florin 
 
 Dollar 1833 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 
 
 Ducat del regno 
 
 Dollar 1833 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thaler 
 
 
 Scudo 
 
 Russia 
 
 
 Pillar dollar 
 
 United States, America 
 Venetian-Lombardy.. . 
 
 Dollar 
 
 6 lire 
 
 17$ 16 4-84 
 
 For further information regarding foreign coins, see the heads of the different countries to which 
 they belong : the more important coins are also noticed separately. S 
 
 Historical Notice. — The origin of coined money is ascribed to the ^Jginetans, who are said 
 to have possessed silver coins about 895 b. c. The coins next in point of antiquity are probably 
 those of Lydia, and then the early Persian Darics (522-486 b. c), which were both in gold and 
 silver. No Hebrew coins occur earlier than those struck under the dominion of the Maccabees, 
 about 150 B.C., and which are nearly all of copper. The first Greek coins were those of the 
 cities, of which there is no chronological arrangement : the chief piece of money in use among the 
 Athenians, and probably other Greeks also, was the Drachma, weighing, according to Paucton, 
 69 troy grains of silver. The earliest Roman coin was the As, first struck in the reign of Servius 
 Tullius in the sixth century b. c. It originally consisted of 12 ounces, or 1 libra of copper, but 
 it was gradually reduced until 214 b. c, when, according to Pliny, it was only 1 ounce. 
 
 Coins of gold and silver, and the inferior metals, are found in this country, that are usually 
 attributed to the very ancient British kings, but the earliest coin of any importance was the silver 
 penny, which was common in most European kingdoms, and usually bore the device of a cross. 
 
 In England, the silver penny has been coined from a. d. 688 to the present time, and it affords 
 the best rule for valuing the other silver coins, as it has always formed the 240th part of the num- 
 mary pound. Its original weight of 224 troy grains, was reduced in 1356 to 18 grains, in 1421 to 15 
 grains, and in 1464 to 12 grains. Its subsequent reductions were, in 1527, to lli ; in 1543 to 10 ;— 
 in 1551 to 8 grains ; in 1601 to 7| T grains ; and in 1816 to 7f\ grains. The standard for silver was 
 11 oz. 2 dwts. from the Conquest (1066) until 1543. Frequent changes took place from 1543 till 
 1560, when it was permanently fixed at the former rate. The standard for gold was 23 carats 3J 
 grains from 1344 to 1527. Considerable fluctuations afterwards took place ; but in 1604 it was 
 fixed at 22 carats ; and at this rate it has since continued. The principal gold coins of the old 
 standard were nobles of 6s. 8d., marks of 13s. 4d., angels of 10s., and sovereigns of 20s. each. Prior 
 to 1816, the principal coin of the new standard was the guinea, first coined in 1666, and which was 
 minted at the rate of 44J to 1 lb. troy. The number of shillings in the guinea fluctuated from 20 
 to 30, until 1717, when, as already noticed, it was fixed at 21. 
 
 In Scotland, the money pound contained, from the time of Alexander I. to that of Robert 
 Bruce, a pound of silver of the same weight and fineness with the English pound ; but the weights 
 of the coins were afterwards gradually reduced, and at the Union in 1707, the Scots money 
 amounted to only ^ of its original value, — the English having within the same time been reduced 
 to about Jd. Scots money became thus only ^th the value of English, — and hence £1 Scots = 
 Is. 8d. sterling, and the Scots merk of 13s. 4d. = Is. 1-^d. sterling. The Act of Union placed the 
 currency of Scotland on the same footing as that of England. 
 
 In Ireland, the gold and silver coins were from an early period those of England, but in the 
 currency of that country they were reckoned for more than their British value. In 1698, the pro- 
 portion of 12 to 13 was established in silver ; in 1717 in gold ; and in 1736 in copper. Hence, £100 
 sterling was equal £108, 6s. 8d. Irish, and the nominal par of exchange was 8^ per cent. The 
 actual course of exchange was, however, sometimes 10 or 12 per cent, above par. The distinction 
 betwixt the monies of the two countries was abolished by the act 6 Geo. IV. c. 79, which assimilated 
 the currency of Ireland to that of Britain, from and after 5th January 1826. [Bullion. Money.] 
 
 COIR, a kind of cordage made, in Ceylon and other places, out of the fibrous 
 covering of the cocoa-nut. It is much esteemed in India, and on some occasions 
 preferred to that of Europe from its advantage of floating on the surface of the 
 water. It forms a considerable article of export from Ceylon, and nearly 4000 
 cwts. are annually entered for home consumption in the United Kingdom. S 
 
 COKE is an impure carbon procured from the distillation of pit coal, and gene- 
 rally obtained from coal-gas retorts. It has a porous texture, and more or less 
 lustre. It is employed as fuel, and produces an intense and steady heat. 
 
 COLCOTHAR, or CROCUS, a reddish powder, obtained by the decomposition 
 of green vitriol. It is an oxide of iron, and is used as a paint, and for polishing 
 iron and glass. 
 
COL 173 COL 
 
 COLLISION OF VESSELS. Injuries occasioned by one ship driving against or 
 running foul of another, are frequently the foundation of claims and disputes on 
 policies of insurance and otherwise. Such injury is held to be by a peril or the sea, 
 and as such, the amount is recoverable under an ordinary policy. With regard to the 
 ultimate incidence of the loss, it must come on the party whose misconduct has 
 occasioned it, and there can be no recovery where the mischief is caused by the 
 culpable negligence of the master or mariners of the vessel insured. Where neither 
 party is to blame, the rule in this country is that the loss rests where it lights ; 
 Dy the maritime codes of some countries, the loss is, in such circumstances, 
 divided between the owners of the two ships. {Marshall on Insurance, 494, 495.) 
 
 COLOCYNTH, COLOQUINTIDA, or BITTER APPLE (Fr. Colquinte. 
 Ger. Coloquintt. It. Coloquintida. Pers. & Arab. Hunzil), the fruit of an annual 
 plant of the gourd kind (Cucumis colocynthis) found in Turkey and Nubia. It is 
 about the size of an orange, smooth and yellow, but is peeled and dried before 
 being imported, when it becomes whitish, very light, dry, and spongy, with a weak 
 and disagreeable smell, and an intensely bitter nauseous taste. The medullary 
 part, freed from the seeds, furnishes an extract which is in common use as a pur- 
 gative. About 16,000 lbs. are annually entered for home consumption in the 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 COLOMBIA, the name given to a republic which was formed, in 1819, of the 
 northern part of South America, formerly divided under Spain into the viceroyalty 
 of New Granada, comprising the audiencia of Quito, and the captain-generalship of 
 Venezuela. In 1831, this republic was separated into the three republics of New 
 Granada, Venezuela, and Ecuador, or Quito, — the territories of which correspond 
 nearly with the former divisions. During the existence of the republic of Colombia, it 
 raised the following loans in London, namely, £2,000,000 in 1822, contracted with 
 Messrs Herring, Graham, and Co., at 84 per cent. ; £4,750,000 in 1824, contracted 
 with Messrs B. A. Goldschmidt, & Co., at 88^ per cent. These loans bear interest 
 at 6 per cent. ; but none has been paid since 1826. The bonds for the first loan 
 being red, and those for the other black, they are so distinguished in the money 
 market. According to arrangements made at Bogota in January 1835, the amount 
 of the loans was partitioned among the Colombian republics as follows : — New 
 Granada to bear 50 parts, Venezuela. 28^ parts, and Ecuador 21 £ parts. The 
 branches of revenue appropriated by the late government, as a provision for the 
 debt, consisted of £th of the customs duties, the whole of the duties levied on gold 
 and silver, and the revenues from the tobacco monopoly ; these are now under 
 charge of the separate republics, but the recent political dissensions have rendered 
 them much less productive than formerly. 
 
 COLONY, a territory possessed and cultivated by a body of people drawn from 
 a distant country to which it is politically united. The term, however, is used 
 vaguely, to express an outlying part of the population of the mother-country, or an 
 outlying territory belonging to it, either in conjunction, or any of the two by 
 itself. In both ancient and modern times colonization has proceeded from the same 
 causes, namely, commercial enterprise, political commotion, the desire of conquest, 
 or the natural overflowing of population. The earliest of the ancient colonies were 
 those formed by the Canaanites or Phoenicians, on the shores and islands of the 
 Mediterranean, and more particularly on the N. coast of Africa ; these owed their 
 origin in most cases to a spirit of commercial adventure. The Greek colonies were 
 formed partly from similar motives, but chiefly from the dissensions and super- 
 abounding population in the parent states. On the other hand, the Roman colonies 
 were military stations, formed solely for the purpose of bridling subjugated pro- 
 vinces. These last always maintained an intimate connexion with Rome ; but 
 the Phoenician and Grecian colonies appear in most cases to have been independent 
 states,— though a strong feeling of regard generally characterized their intercourse 
 with their parent countries. 
 
 The spirit of colonial enterprise, dormant in the'middle ages, was revived in the 13th 
 century by the Italian republics, Genoa, Pisa, and Venice, which formed settlements 
 in various parts of the Mediterranean and Levant. The modern European colonies, 
 however, owe their origin to the ambition of the maritime states to participate in 
 the Indian commerce formerly conducted by way of the Red sea, and monopolized 
 by the Venetians. The discovery of the compass prompted navigators to attempt 
 this by new channels. The Portuguese, after repeated failures, at length ascer- 
 tained the eastern passage in 1497, when the Cape was doubled by Vasco de 
 Gama ; the Spaniards attempted a westerly course which led to the discovery, by 
 Columbus, of the West Indies in 1492, and of South America in 1498 ; while the 
 
COL 174 COL 
 
 English, restrained by the pope from profiting by the Portuguese and Spanish dis- 
 coveries, despatched Sebastian Cabot by the north-west, a route which led him 
 to Newfoundland and North America in 1497. The progress of commercial en- 
 terprise in the East is described under the head East India Company. In South 
 America, Columbus's discoveries were followed by the conquest of Mexico in 1519 
 by Cortez, and of Peru by Pizarro and others in 1531. Brazil was settled by the 
 Portuguese in 1500. The West Indian Islands, notwithstanding the papal grant in 
 favour of Spain, were occupied by various nations ; Hispaniola or Hayti in 1496 ; 
 Jamaica, about 1510 ; Cuba, 1511 ; Porto-Rico, 1514 ; Barbadoes, 1605 ; and the 
 others at later periods. The progress of colonization was much slower in N. 
 America; Virginia was taken possession of by Raleigh in 1583, but soon after aban- 
 doned; and the first permanent English settlement, which was at Jamestown in the 
 same state, was not formed until 1607. The colonization of N. America afterwards 
 proceeded rapidly, particularly during the disturbances in England which attended 
 and followed the dethronement of Charles I. ; the cavaliers emigrating to Virginia, 
 the Puritans to New England, and the Quakers to Pennsylvania. In 1776, the 
 attempt of Great Britain to tax the American colonists for the purposes of the 
 general government led to the political separation of the " United States " from the 
 mother-country ; and in 1810, revolutionary movements occurred in S. America 
 which resulted in the emancipation of the Spanish colonies on that continent. The 
 subsequent progress of these countries has been illustrative of the treatment 
 previously received by them from the parent states. The English colonists, allowed 
 free institutions, and a more extensive market for their surplus produce than the 
 colonies of any other nation, acquired habits of self-government and industry; and 
 their career, since becoming independent, has been peaceable and prosperous to an 
 extent which now places them in commercial greatness above all countries of the 
 world except Britain. The Spanish colonists on the other hand, oppressed with 
 heavy taxes and crown monopolies, were subjected to a despotic government, 
 under which they were excluded from all offices of emolument ; education also was 
 proscribed, and the Inquisition established. Under such training, the people became 
 ignorant and depraved ; and having adopted republican institutions, for which they 
 were unfitted, have, by tumultuous and frivolous contentions, so far paralyzed 
 industry and dissipated their resources, that these fine countries are now, with the 
 exception perhaps of Chili, even much less productive than when under the wretched 
 dominion of the mother-country. 
 
 Notwithstanding the separation of the United States, the British colonies re- 
 mained of considerable extent ; and many acquisitions having been since made, 
 both by conquest and settlement, they now far exceed in importance those of all 
 other states. Including fortified stations and other dependencies, Great Britain now 
 possesses :— In Europe; Gibraltar, Malta, Gozo, and Heligoland: North Ame- 
 rica; Canada, Hudson's Bay Territory, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the 
 islands of Cape Breton, Prince Edward, and Newfoundland, together with the 
 Falkland group off S. America : West Indies ; Jamaica; the Windward Islands. 
 Barbadoes, St Vincent, Grenada, Tobago, St Lucia, and Trinidad ; the Leewara 
 Islands, Antigua, St Christophers, Montserrat, Nevis, Auguilla, Dominica, and 
 Virgin Isles ; Bahama Islands ; Bermuda Islands ; Demerara, Berbice, and Esse- 
 quibo in Guiana ; and the settlement of Honduras in Central America : Africa ; 
 Cape of Good Hope ; settlements in Guinea and Senegambia, including Bathurst, 
 Sierra Leone, and Cape Coast Castle ; the islands of Fernando Po, St Helena, As- 
 cension, and Tristan d'Acunha ; the Mauritius, and other small islands in the Ma- 
 dagascar Archipelago : Australasia ; New South Wales ; Swan River, and King 
 George's Sound ; South Australia ; Van Diemen's Land; and New Zealand : Asia; 
 the island of Ceylon. The immense territory of the East India Company in Hin- 
 dostan, with their dependencies, Singapore, Penang, Malacca, and Aden, are not 
 usually included in the list of British colonies. 
 
 The foreign possessions of Spain at present consist of Cuba, Porto-Rico, the 
 Philippines, the Canaries, and settlements in Morocco : Portugal has the Madeiras 
 and the Cape de Verde Islands ; Angola, Benguela, Loango, and Mozambique in 
 Africa ; Goa in India ; Macao in China ; and a settlement in the island of Timor ; 
 France has the West Indian Islands Guadaloupe, Martinique, Marie-Galante, 
 and Deseada ; Cayenne in Guiana ; the small islands of St Pierre and Miguelon 
 in the vicinity of the Newfoundland fishing-ground ; Algiers, Senegal, and Goree 
 in Africa ; the isle of Bourbon ; St Marie in Madagascar ; and Pondicherry and 
 Chandernagore in India : Holland possesses Java, the Moluccas, and settlements 
 in Sumatra, Celebes, Borneo, Banda, and other eastern islands ; the West India 
 
COL 175 COL 
 
 Island? Curasao, St Eustatius, Saba, and part of St Martin ; and Dutch Guiana : 
 Denmark has Iceland, settlements in Greenland, the West India Islands St Croix. 
 St Thomas, and St John ; Christiansburg and other possessions in Guinea ; ana 
 Tranquebar and Serampore in India : Sweden has the West India Island of St 
 Bartholomew. 
 
 European Colonial Policy. — Every European power has endeavoured more or 
 less to monopolize to itself the commerce of its colonies ; but the manner in which 
 this monopoly has been exercised by different nations has been very different. 
 Some have given up the whole to an exclusive company ; some, without esta- 
 blishing such a company, have confined the whole to a particular part of the 
 mother-country ; while others have left it free to their subjects at all ports. The 
 last has been trie general policy of Great Britain, which has been characterized by 
 Dr Smith as comparatively more liberal than that of other European powers 
 (Wealth of Nations, b. iv. c. 7). At an early period, indeed, the English colonists 
 were allowed to follow their own interest in their own way ; but on their com- 
 merce becoming of importance it was placed under regulations calculated to secure 
 their consumption of English manufactures, the employment of English ships, and 
 a preference to the English market for their surplus produce. In the exportation 
 of their surplus produce, however, it was only with regard to certain commodities 
 that the British colonies were confined to the market of the mother- country. These 
 commodities having been enumerated in the act of navigation (12 Ch. II. c. 18) and in 
 some other subsequent acts, were upon that account called enumerated commodities ; 
 the rest, called non-enumerated, could originally be exported directly to all parts of 
 the world, provided it were in British or colomal ships ; but they were afterwards 
 (6 Geo. III. c. .52) confined, as to the European market, to the countries that lie 
 south of Cape Finisterre, which, not being manufacturing countries, we were less 
 jealous of the colonial ships carrying home from them any manufactures which could 
 interfere with our own. The most perfect freedom of trade was permitted between 
 the British colonies of America ana the West Indies, both in the enumerated and 
 in the non-enumerated commodities. Great Britain, too, while she confined to her 
 own market some of the most important productions of the colonies, so in compen- 
 sation she gave to some of them an advantage in that market, sometimes by im- 
 posing higher duties upon the like productions when imported from other countries, 
 and sometimes by giving bounties upon their importation from the colonies. The 
 comparative liberalitv of England, however, towards the trade of her colonies was 
 confined chiefly to what concerned the market for their produce either in its rude 
 state, or what "might be called the very first stage of manufactures. The more ad- 
 vanced or more refined manufactures even of the colony-produce were reserved to 
 the merchants and manufacturers of Great Britain; and their establishment in the 
 colonies was prevented sometimes by high duties, and sometimes by absolute pro- 
 hibitions. But these restrictions, though selfish and tyrannical, did not materially 
 affect the prosperity of the colonies, as in all newly settled countries labour yields 
 the most profitable "return when applied to the cultivation of the soil. 
 
 The colonial policy of Great Britain, though perhaps more liberal than that of 
 other states, was thus wholly influenced by the narrow-minded principles which 
 characterize the " mercantile system." In modern times, it has undergone important 
 modifications, but it still contains much that is exceptionable. The present colonial 
 tariff is so framed that the West India colonies are obliged to bring provisions 
 and lumber from British America in British ships, though these articles might be 
 obtained cheaper direct from the United States : they are also prevented from re- 
 fining sugar, though this is an operation which they themselves could conduct 
 with much advantage in the colonies. In return for these sacrifices, and the dis- 
 criminating duties imposed in favour of British manufactures, the colonies are, as 
 afterwards explained, virtually allowed the monopoly of the home-market for the 
 sale of their produce. Under certain conditions of reciprocity as to the vessels em- 
 ployed, the colonies are allowed to ship their produce to all parts of the world ; but 
 their intercourse with foreign countries is of little importance, owing to the superior 
 facilities for trade possessed by the mother-country. 
 
 The existing Regulations of the British Colonial Trade are chiefly embodied in 
 the act 3 <5c 4 Wm. IV. c. 59, of which the following is an abstract :— 
 
 § 1. Act 6 Geo. IV. c. 114, and succeeding acts British ships) exported from any of the British 
 consolidated. 1 possessions in America by sea, from or to any 
 
 place other than the United Kingdom, or some 
 
 Free Ports, § 2. No goods shall be imported other of such possessions, under pain of forfeiture, 
 to, nor (except the produce of the fisheries in except at the several " free ports." (These are 
 
COL 
 
 176 
 
 COL 
 
 enumerated under the heads of the several colo- 
 nies to which they belong.) 
 
 § § 3. 4. Additions may be made to the number 
 of free ports by order of council ; and ports may 
 also be established for limited purposes. 
 
 Foreign Ships, §§5,6. The privileges granted 
 by the Navigation Law to foreign ships shall be 
 limited to the ships of those countries which, 
 having colonial possessions, shall grant the like 
 privileges of trading with those possessions to 
 British ships, or which, not having colonial pos- 
 sessions, shall place the commerce and navigation 
 of this country, and of its possessions abroad, 
 upon the footing of the most favoured nation, 
 unless it shall be otherwise provided by order in 
 council. But nothing contained in this act shall 
 atfect the acts 4 Geo. IV. c. 77, and 5 Geo. IV. 
 c. 1, for regulating the trade of foreign ships. 
 
 Prohibitions and Restrictions, § 7- The several 
 sorts of goods described in the table following are 
 prohibited to be imported into the British pos- 
 sessions in America, or shall be so imported only 
 under the restrictions mentioned in such table : — 
 
 Table of Prohibitions and Restrictions. 
 Gunpowder, arms, and ammunitions, or utensils 
 of war, are prohibited to be imported, except 
 from the U. K. or from some other B. P. 
 Tea prohibited, except from the U. K., or from 
 some other B. P. in America, unless by the 
 East India Company, or with their license, 
 during the continuance of their exclusive right 
 of trade. 
 Fish, dried or salted, and oil, blubber, fins, or 
 skins, the produce of creatures living in the 
 sea, are prohibited, except from the U. K. or 
 some other B. P., or unless taken by British 
 ships fitted out from the U. K. or from some 
 B. P., and brought in from the fishery, and 
 except herrings from the Isle of Man. 
 Coffee, sugar, molasses, and rum, being of foreign 
 production, or the production of any place 
 within the limits of the East India Company's 
 charter, are prohibited to be imported into 
 any B. P. on the continent of S. America or 
 in the W. Indies (the Bahamas and Bermudas 
 not included), except to be warehoused for 
 exportation only ; and may also be prohibited 
 to be imported into the Bahamas or the Ber- 
 mudas by order in council. 
 Base or counterfeit coin, and books (such as are 
 prohibited to be imported into the IT. K.), are 
 prohibited to be imported. 
 And goods imported contrary hereto, forfeited ; 
 also the ship, if of less burthen than 70 tons. 
 § 8. All coffee, sugar, molasses, and rum 
 (although of the British plantations), exported 
 from any B. P. in America, into which the like 
 goods of foreign production can be imported, shall 
 upon subsequent importation from thence into 
 any B. P. in America, into which such goods, 
 being of foreign production, cannot be imported, 
 or into the U. K., be deemed to be of foreign 
 production, unless warehoused under the pro- 
 visions of this act, and exported direct to such 
 other B. P., or to the U. K. 
 
 § 9. Table of Duties. 
 
 Duties payable upon Spirits, being of the Growth, 
 
 Production, or Manufacture of the United 
 
 Kingdom, or of any of the British Possessions 
 
 in America or the West Indies, imported into 
 
 Newfoundland or Canada. 
 
 Spirits imported into Newfoundland, the pro 
 
 duce of any B. P. in S. America or W 
 
 Indies, if imported from any B. P. in America 
 
 or from the U. K., the gallon ..£006 
 
 If imported from any other place, to be 
 
 deemed foreign, and charged duty as 
 
 such. 
 
 Spirits imported into Newfoundland, the 
 
 produce of any B. P. in N. America, 
 
 or of the U. K., and imported from the 
 U. K., or from any B. P. in America, 
 the gallon £0 16 
 
 If imported from any other place, to be 
 deemed foreign, and charged duty as 
 such. 
 
 Spirits imported into Canada, the pro- 
 duce of any B. P. in S. America or W. 
 Indies, and imported from any B. P. 
 in America, or from the U. K., the 
 gallon 6 
 
 Imported from any other place, to be 
 deemed foreign, and charged duty as 
 such. 
 
 Note.— When imported from the U. K., 
 this duty is not to be abated upon the 
 ground of any duty under any colonial 
 law. 
 
 Duties payable upon Commodities, not being of 
 the Growth, Production, or Manufacture of 
 the United Kingdom, or of any of the British 
 Possessions in America, imported into any of 
 the British Possessions in America. 
 
 Imported into the British Possessions in the 
 West Indies, or on the continent of South 
 America, or into the Bahama or Bermuda 
 Islands, viz. wheat flour, the barrel £0 5 
 
 But if imported from any B. P. in N. 
 America, or from the warehouse in 
 the U.K. Free. 
 
 Shingles, not more than 12 inches in 
 length, the 1000 . . . . 7 
 
 Shingles, more than 12 inches in length, 
 the 1000 14 
 
 But if imported from any B. P. in N. 
 America, or from the warehouse in 
 the U. K Free. 
 
 Red oak staves and headings, the 1000 . 15 
 
 But if imported from any B. P. in N. 
 America, or from the warehouse in 
 the U. K Free. 
 
 White oak staves and headings, the 1000 12 6 
 
 But if imported from any B. P. in N. 
 America, or from the warehouse in 
 the U. K Free. 
 
 Pitch pine lumber, one inch thick, the 
 
 1000 110 
 
 But if imported from any B. P. in N. 
 America, or from the warehouse in 
 the U. K Free. 
 
 White and yellow pine lumber, 1 inch 
 thick, the 1000 feet . . . 110 
 
 But if imported from any B. P. in N. 
 America, or from the warehouse in 
 the U. K Free. 
 
 Dyewood and cabinetmakers' wood . Free. 
 
 Other kinds of wood and lumber, 1 inch 
 thick, the 1000 feet . . . 18 
 
 Wood hoops, the 1000 . . . 5 3 
 
 But if imported from any B. P. in N. 
 America, or from the warehouse in 
 the U. K Free. 
 
 Beef and pork, salted, of all sorts, the cwt. 12 
 
 But if imported from any B. P. in N. 
 America Free. 
 
 Imported into New Brunswick, Nova 
 Scotia, or Prince Edward Island, viz. 
 wheat flour, the barrel . . 5 
 
 Beef and pork, salted, of all sorts, the 
 cwt 12 
 
 Fresh, brought by land or inland naviga- 
 tion ... . . Free. 
 
 Imported into any of the B. P. in Ame- 
 rica, viz. spirits : brandy, Geneva, or 
 cordials, and other spirits, except rum, 
 the gallon 10 
 
 And further, the amount of any duty 
 payable for the time being on spirits, 
 the manufacture of the U. K. 
 
 Rum, the gallon . . . . 6 
 
COL 
 
 177 
 
 COL 
 
 And further, the amount of any duty 
 payable for the time being on rum of 
 the B. P. in S. America or W. Indies. 
 N.B. — Rum, although British, if im- 
 ported from any B. P. in which foreign 
 rum is not prohibited, is treated as 
 foreign, unless it had been warehoused, 
 and exported from the warehouse. 
 Wine in bottles, the tun . . £7 7 
 And further, for every £100 of value 7 10 
 And on the bottles, the dozen . .010 
 Bottled in and imported from the U. K., 
 for every £100 of the value . 7 10 
 
 The bottles Free. 
 
 Wine not in bottles, for every £100 of 
 
 value 7 10 
 
 Imported into B. P. in N. America from 
 Gibraltar or Malta, subject to no higher 
 duty than if imported from the U. K., 
 viz. one-tenth of the duty remitted. 
 Coffee, cocoa, and sugar, the cwt. . 5 
 Molasses, the cwt- . . . .030 
 And further, the amount of any duty 
 payable for the time being on coffee, 
 cocoa, sugar, and molasses, the pro- 
 duce of B. P. in S. America orW. Indies. 
 Clocks and watches, leather manufac- 
 tures, linen, musical instruments, 
 wires of all sorts, books and papers, 
 silk manufactures, for every £100 of 
 
 the value 30 
 
 Glass manufactures, soap, refined sugar, 
 sugar candy, manufactured tobacco, 
 and cotton manufactures, for everv 
 £100 of the value . . . '20 fl 
 Alabaster, anchovies, argol, aniseed, 
 amber, almonds, brimstone, botargo, 
 boxwood, currants, capers, cascacoo, 
 cummin seed, coral, cork, cinnabar, 
 dates, essences of bergamot, lemons, 
 roses, citron, oranges, lavender, and 
 rosemary, emery stone, fruit pre- 
 served in sugar or brandy, figs, honey, 
 iron in bars, unwrought and pig iron, 
 juniper berries, incense of frankin- 
 cense, lava and Malta stone for build- 
 ing, lentils, marble rough and worked, 
 mosaic work, medals, musk, mac- 
 aroni, nuts of all kinds, oil of olives, 
 oil of almonds, orris root, ostrich 
 feathers, ochres, orange buds and 
 peel, olives, pitch, pickles in jars and 
 bottles, paintings, pozzolana, pumice- 
 stone, punk, Parmesan cheese, pickles, 
 prints, pearls, precious stones except 
 diamonds, quicksilver, raisins, sau- 
 sages, sponges, tar, turpentine, ver- 
 milion, vermicelli, and whetstone, for 
 every £100 of the value . . 7 10 
 Goods, wares, and merchandise, not 
 
 otherwise charged with dutv, and not 
 herein declared to be free of* duty, for 
 every £100 of the value . . £15 
 Coin, bullion, diamonds, live-stock, tal- 
 low, raw hides, rice, corn and grain 
 unground, biscuit or bread, meal or 
 flour except wheat flour, fresh meat, 
 fresh fish, carriages of travellers . Free. 
 Wheat flour, beef and pork, hams and 
 bacon, wood and lumber, imported 
 
 into Canada Free. 
 
 Wood and lumber, imported into New 
 Brunswick, Nova Scotia, or Prince 
 Edward Island .... Free. 
 Hay and straw, fresh fruit and vegetables, 
 
 salt, and cotton- wool . . . Free. 
 Goods, the produce of places within the 
 limits of the E. I. Co.'s charter, im- 
 ported from those places, or from the 
 U. K., or from some place in the 
 British dominions .... Free. 
 Herrings taken and cured by the inha- 
 bitants of the Isle of Man, and im- 
 ported from thence . . . Free. 
 Lumber, the produce of and imported 
 
 from any B. P. on theW. coa*t of Africa Free. 
 Any sort of craft, food and victuals ex- 
 cept spirits, and any sort of clothing, 
 and implements and materials fit and 
 necessary for the British fisheries in 
 America, imported into the place at or 
 from whence such fishery is carried on Free. 
 Drugs, gums or resins, dye-wood and 
 hard-wood, cabinetmakers' wood, tor- 
 toiseshell, hemp, flax, and tow . Free. 
 Seeds, wheat flour, fruits, pickles, woods 
 of all sorts, oakum, pitch, tar, tur- 
 pentine, ochres, brimstone, sulphur, 
 vegetable oils, burr-stones, dog-stones, 
 hops, cork, sago, tapioca, sponge, 
 sausages, cheese, cider, wax, spices, 
 and tallow, imported direct from the 
 warehouse in the U. K. . . Free. 
 
 All goods imported from the U. K., after 
 having there paid the duties of con- 
 sumption, and being exported from 
 thence without drawback . . Free. 
 And if any of the said goods be imported through 
 the U. K. (having been warehoused therein, 
 and exported from the warehouse, or the 
 duties thereon, if there paid, having been 
 drawn back), one-tenth part of the duties 
 herein imposed shall be remitted in respect of 
 such goods. 
 
 Acts and Duties not Repealed, §§ 10, 11. 
 Nothing in this act to affect the act 18 Geo. III. 
 c. 12, nor any previous act now in force by which 
 duties in any B. P. in America were granted to 
 the crown ; nor to repeal the 31 Geo. IIL c. 31. 
 And the duties* imposed by any of the acts 
 
 * The following is a Table of the principal duties here referred to 
 
 Duties (commonly called Crown Duties) payable 
 on Goods Imported into the British Possessions 
 in America, over and above any other Duties. 
 
 TABLE OF DUTIES, 
 
 Under the act 4 Geo. HI. c. 15. 
 Wine, except French wine, viz. : of the growth 
 of the Madeiras, or of any other island or 
 place from which such wine may be lawfully 
 imported, and which shall be so imported from 
 such island or place, the tun . £7 
 Portugal, Spanish, or any other wine 
 (except French wine), imported from 
 the U. K., the tun . . . 10 
 Under the act 6 Geo. in. c. 52. 
 Molasses and syrups, the gallon . 1 
 Pimento (British) the lb. . . 0J 
 Under the act 14 Geo. III. c. 88. 
 (On importation into Canada only.) 
 Spirits, viz. : Brandy, or other spirits, 
 
 of the manufacture of the U. K., the 
 gallon £0 3 
 
 Rum, or other spirits, which shall be 
 imported or brought from any of his 
 Majesty's sugar colonies in the West 
 Indies, the gallon . . . 6 
 
 Rum, or other spirits, which shall be 
 imported or brought from any other 
 of his Majesty's colonies or dominions 
 in America, the gallon . . 9 
 
 Brandy, and other spirits of foreign ma- 
 nufacture, imported or brought from 
 the U.K., the gallon . . .010 
 
 Rum, or spirits, of the produce or ma- 
 nufacture of any of the colonies or 
 plantations in America, not in the 
 possession or under the dominion of 
 his Majestv, imported from any other 
 place except the U. K., the gallon .010 
 
COL 
 
 178 
 
 COL 
 
 herein before mentioned or referred to, passed 
 prior to the 18 Geo. III. c. 12, shall be applied for 
 the purposes of those acts : Provided no greater 
 proportion of the duties imposed by this act, ex- 
 cept as herein before excepted, shall be charged 
 upon any article which is subject also to duty 
 under any of the said acts, or subject also to duty 
 under any colonial law, than the amount, if any, 
 by which the duty charged by this act shall exceed 
 such other duty or duties : Provided neverthe- 
 less, that the full amount of the duties mentioned 
 in this act, whether on account of such former 
 acts, or on account of such colonial law, or on 
 account of this act, shall be levied under the 
 regulations of this act. 
 
 Currency, Weights, and Measures, § 12. All 
 sums imposed by this act, in the B. P. in Ame- 
 rica, shall be deemed to be sterling money of 
 Great Britain ; and such monies may be received 
 according to the proportion and value of five 
 shillings and sixpence the ounce in silver ; and 
 all duties shall be paid in every part of the B. P. 
 in America, according to British weights and 
 measures in use on the 6th July 1825. 
 
 § 13. The Produce of the Duties, except crown 
 duties, under acts prior to 18 Geo. III. c. 12, 
 shall be paid by the Collector to the Treasurer 
 of the colony. 
 
 Tonnage Duties, § 14. All British vessels shall 
 be subject to equal tonnage duties in the colonies, 
 except coasting-vessels. 
 
 Drawback at Newfoundland, § 15. Upon the 
 exportation from Newfoundland to Canada of 
 rum or other spirits, the produce of B. P. in S. 
 America or W. Indies, a drawback allowed of 
 duties paid upon importation thereof into New- 
 foundland : Provided such spirits shall be shipped 
 within one year of the importation, and such 
 drawback claimed within one year from day of 
 shipment. 
 
 Report of Ship and Cargo, § 16. The master of 
 every ship arriving in any B. P. in America, or 
 Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, or Sark, shall come 
 directly, and before bulk be broken, to the 
 customhouse, and report in writing to the col- 
 lector or comptroller, or other proper officer, of 
 the arrival and voyage of such ship, stating her 
 name, country, and tonnage, and if British, the 
 port of registry, the name and country of the 
 master, the country of the owners, the number 
 of the crew, and how many are of the country of 
 such ship, and whether she be laden or in ballast, 
 and if laden, the marks, numbers, and contents 
 of every package on board, and where the same 
 was laden, and where and to whom consigned, 
 and where any and what goods, if any, had been 
 unladen during the voyage, as far as any of such 
 particulars can be known to him ; and shall 
 further answer all such questions concerning the 
 ship, cargo, crew, and voy;:ge, as shall be de- 
 manded of him. Penalty for non-compliance, 
 £100 ; and goods not reported shall be forfeited. 
 
 Entry Outwards, §§17, 18. The master of, 
 every ship bound from any B. P. in America, 
 or Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, or Sark, shall, 
 before any goods be laden, deliver to the proper 
 officer an entry outwards, under his hand, of i 
 the destination of such ship, stating her name, I 
 country, and tonnage, and if British, the port of 
 registry, the name and country of the master, 
 the country of the owners, the number of the 
 crew, and how many are of the country of such 
 ship; penalty for non-compliance, £50; and 
 before such ship depart, the master shall deliver 
 to the proper officer a content in writing, under 
 his hand, of the goods laden, and the names of 
 the respective shippers and consignees of the 
 goods, with the marks and numbers of the pack- 
 ages or parcels of the same, and shall make a 
 declaration to the truth of such content, as far as 
 
 can be known to him ; and the master of every 
 ship bound from any B. P. in America, or Guern- 
 sey, Jersey, Alderney, or Sark, whether in ballast 
 or Laden, shall before departure come before the 
 collector, or other proper officer, and answer 
 upon oath, all such questions concerning the 
 ship, and the cargo, if any, and the crew, and 
 the voyage, as shall be demanded of him ; and 
 thereupon the collector and comptroller, or other 
 proper officer, if such ship be laden, shall give a 
 certificate of clearance ; penalty for not clearing, 
 £100. Goods not stated in certificate to be pro- 
 duce of B. P. to be deemed of foreign production. 
 § 19. Whenever any ship clears out from 
 Newfoundland or other part of his Majesty's 
 dominions, for the fisheries of Newfoundland or 
 its dependencies, a fishing certificate is to be sub- 
 stituted for a clearance ; but such certificate to 
 be given up at end of season ; and ships trading 
 shall forfeit their certificate. 
 
 Entry of Goods, § 20. No goods shall be laden 
 or water-borne to be laden, on board, or unladen 
 from any ship, in any of the B. P. in America, or 
 Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, or Sark, until due 
 entry made, and warrant granted ; and no goods 
 shall be so laden or unladen, except at some 
 place at which an officer of customs is appointed 
 to attend, or for which a sufferance shall be 
 granted ; and no goods shall be so laden or 
 unladen except with permission of the proper 
 officer; all goods laden, water-borne, or unladen 
 contrary to regulations, shall be forfeited. 
 
 § 21. The person entering any such goods shall 
 deliver to the proper officer a bill of entry there- 
 of, containing name of exporter or importer, 
 ship, master, place to or from which bound, 
 place where the goods are to be laden or unladen, 
 particulars of goods, and their packages, includ- 
 ing marks and numbers, and whether such goods 
 be the produce of the B. P. in America or not ; 
 and such person shall at the same time pay all 
 duties thereon ; and the proper officer shall 
 thereupon grant warrant for the lading or un- 
 lading of such goods. 
 
 § 22. The importer, when he cannot, for want 
 of full information, make perfect entry, may 
 make an entry by bill of sight, by the best de- 
 scription which can be given ; but within three 
 days after landing of goods a perfect entry must 
 be made, and duties paid. 
 
 §§ 23, 24. In all cases where the duties are 
 charged according to the value thereof, such 
 value shall be ascertained by the declaration of 
 the importer, or his agent, in form following: — 
 
 " I, A. B., do hereby declare, That the articles 
 mentioned in the entry, and contained in the 
 packages [here specifying them, and describing 
 marks and numbers] are of the value of 
 Witness my hand, the day of 
 
 A. B. 
 The above declaration, signed the day of 
 
 in the presence of C. D. collector [or 
 other principal officer]." 
 
 Which declaration shall be written on the bill of 
 entry of such articles : Provided that if it shall 
 appear that the said articles are not truly valued, 
 then the importer or his agent shall be required 
 to declare on oath what is the invoice price, and 
 that he verily believes such invoice price is the 
 current value of the articles at the place from 
 whence they were imported ; and such invoice 
 price, with the addition of ten per centum there- 
 on, shall be deemed to be the value of the articles, 
 and upon which the duties shall be paid : Pro- 
 vided also, that if it shall appear to the collector, 
 or other proper officer, that such articles have 
 been invoiced below the true value thereof, or if 
 the invoice price is not known, the articles shall 
 be examined by two competent persons, to be 
 appointed by the governor, and such persons 
 
COL 
 
 179 
 
 COL 
 
 shall declare on oath what is their true value In 
 such colony ; and the value so declared shall be 
 deemed to be the true value upon which the 
 duties shall be paid. And if importer refuse to 
 pay such duty, the goods may be sold. 
 
 8 25. If goods be not entered and landed in 
 twenty days, the officer may land and secure 
 them; and if duties be not paid within three 
 months, goods to be sold. 
 
 § 26. No goods shall be imported into any 
 B. P. as being imported from the U. K., or other 
 B. P. (if any advantage attach to such distinc- 
 tion), unless such goods appear upon the cockets, 
 or other proper documents, to have been duly 
 cleared outwards at the port of exportation, nor 
 unless the ground upon which such advantage be 
 claimed be stated therein. 
 
 § 27. No goods shall, upon importation into 
 any B. P. in America, be deemed to be of the 
 production of the U. K., or of any B. P. in 
 America, unless imported from the U. K., or 
 some B. P. in America. 
 
 § 28. No entry nor warrant for landing, or 
 taking goods out of warehouse, valid, unless the 
 particulars of the goods and packages in such 
 entry shall correspond with the particulars in the 
 report of the ship, by which the importation or 
 entry is authorized, nor unless the goods shall 
 have been properly described in such entry by 
 the characters according to which such goods are 
 charged with duty or may be imported ; and any 
 goods taken out of any ship or warehouse by 
 virtue of any entry or warrant not agreeing in all 
 such respects, shall be deemed to be goods landed 
 or taken without due entry, and forfeited. 
 
 Certificate of Production, § 29. Before any 
 sugar, coffee, cocoa, or spirits, shall be shipped 
 for exportation in any B. P. in America or in 
 Mauritius, as being the produce of such posses- 
 sion, the proprietor of the estate on which such 
 were produced, or his agent, shall make affidavit 
 declaring that such goods are the produce of such 
 estate ; and such affidavit shall set forth the 
 name of the estate, the description and quantity 
 of the goods, the packages, with their marks and 
 numbers, and the name of the person to whose 
 charge, at the place of shipment, they are to be 
 sent ; and the person entering and shipping such 
 goods shall deliver such affidavit to the collector 
 or comptroller, or other proper officer, and shall 
 subscribe a declaration before him, that the goods 
 to be shipped by virtue of such entry are the same 
 as are mentioned in such affidavit ; and the mas- 
 ter of the ship in which such goods shall be laden 
 shall, before clearance, make and subscribe a 
 declaration before the collector or comptroller, 
 that the goods shipped by virtue of such entry 
 are the same as are mentioned in such affidavit ; 
 and thereupon the collector or other officer shall 
 give to the master a certificate of production, 
 stating that proof has been made, in manner 
 required by law, that such goods (describing the 
 same) are the produce of such B. P., and setting 
 forth the name of the exporter, ship, master, 
 and destination of the goods ; and if any sugar, 
 coffee, cocoa, or spirits, be imported into any 
 B. P. in America, as being the produce of some 
 other such possession, without such certificate, 
 the same shall be forfeited. 
 
 Certificate on Re exportation from another Co- 
 lony, § 30. 
 
 Inland Trade 0/ British America, § 31-35. 
 
 Free Warehousing Ports, § 36. These are 
 enumerated under the heads of the colonies in 
 which they are respectively situated. 
 
 § 37-48. Regulations of the Waretiouses. 
 
 Mauritius, § 49. This island to be on the same 
 footing as the W. Indies, as to duties, exporta- 
 tion, and importation. 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, § 50. In all trade with 
 
 I B. P. in America, the Cape of Good Hope, and 
 dependencies, shall be deemed to be within the 
 limits of the E. I. Co.'s charter. 
 
 Dutch Proprietors in Guiana, §§51, 52. The 
 Dutch proprietors in Demerara, Essequibo, and 
 Berbice, may supply their estates from Holland ; 
 but such proprietors may not export to the U. K. 
 or colonies. 
 
 § 53. Persons deemed Dutch proprietors. 
 
 § 54. Persons not wishing to be considered 
 Dutch proprietors to sign a declaration to that 
 effect. 
 
 Intercourse between Jamaica and St Domingo 
 Prohibited, § 55. 
 
 Miscellaneous Regulations, § 56. All laws or 
 customs, in any B. P. in America, repugnant to 
 this or any act of the U. K., so far as such act 
 shall relate to said possessions, shall be null and 
 void. 
 
 § 57. No exemption from duty in any B. P., 
 contained in any act of parliament, shall extend 
 to any duty not imposed by act of parliament, 
 unless and so far only as any duty not so imposed 
 is or shall be expressly mentioned in such ex- 
 emption. 
 
 §58. It shall be lawful for the officers of cus- 
 toms to board any ship, in any port, in any B. P. 
 in America, and to search for prohibited and 
 uncustomed goods, and also to board any ship 
 hovering within one league of any of the coasts 
 thereof. 
 
 § 59. All vessels, boats, carriages, and cattle, 
 made use of in the removal of any goods, liable 
 to forfeiture under this act, shall be forfeited ; and 
 every person who shall be concerned in the re- 
 moval or harbouring of such goods, shall forfeit 
 the treble value thereof, or the penalty of £100 
 at the election of the officers of customs. 
 
 § 60-80. Specific regulations as to seizures 
 and the recovery of penalties. 
 
 King may Regulate Trade of certain Colonies, 
 § 81. His Majesty, by orders in council, may 
 make such regulations touching the trade to and 
 from any B. P. on or near the continent of 
 Europe, or within the Mediterranean, or in 
 Africa, or within the limits of the E. I. Co.'s 
 charter (excepting the possessions of the said 
 Company), as shall appear expedient. 
 
 East Indies. § 82 Regulates the trade of the 
 Company with the colonies in America, during 
 the continuance of their privileges ; also the 
 trade in tea under their license, from China to 
 the said colonies. 
 
 § 83. It shall be lawful for the shipper of any 
 sugar, the produce of some B. P. within the 
 limits of the E. I. Co.'s charter, to be ex- 
 ported from any place in such possession, to 
 go before the chief officer of the customs at 
 such place, or, if there be no such officer, to go 
 before the principal officer, or the judge or com- 
 mercial resident, and make affidavit that such 
 sugar was bona fide the produce of such B. P. ; 
 and such officer is required to administer such 
 affidavit, and to grant a certificate, setting forth 
 the name of the ship in which the sugar is to be 
 exported, and its destination. 
 
 § 84. All ships built within the limits of the 
 E. I. Co.'s charter prior to the 1st January 1816, 
 and which then and since have been solely the 
 property of his Majesty's subjects, shall be 
 deemed to be British ships for all the purposes 
 of trade within the said limits, including the Cape 
 of Good Hope. 
 
 Cape Wine Certificate, § 85. The shipper of 
 any wine, the produce of the Cape of Good Hope, 
 which is to be exported from thence, may go 
 before the chief officer of the customs, and make 
 affidavit that such wine was bona fide the pro- 
 duce thereof ; and such officer is hereby required 
 to administer such affidavit, and to grant a cer 
 
COL 
 
 180 
 
 COL 
 
 f ificate thereof, setting forth the name of the ship 
 in which the wine is to be exported, and its des 
 tination. 
 
 Channel Islands, § 86. Any person who is about 
 to export from Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, or 
 Sark, to the U. K., or to any B. P. in America, 
 goods the produce of any of those islands, or 
 manufactured from materials which were the 
 produce thereof, or of the U. K., may go before 
 a magistrate of the island, and make a declara- 
 tion that such goods are of such produce, or ma- 
 nufacture, and such magistrate shall administer 
 such declaration ; and thereupon, the governor, 
 lieutenant-governor, or commander-in-chief of 
 the island from which the goods are to be ex- 
 ported, shall, upon delivery of such declaration, 
 grant certificate of the proof contained therein, 
 stating the ship in which, and the port to which, 
 in the U. K., or in any such possession, the goods 
 are to be exported ; and such certificate shall be 
 the proper document to be produced at such ports 
 respectively, in proof that the goods mentioned 
 therein are of the produce or manufacture of 
 such islands respectively. 
 
 § 87. During the continuance of theE. I. Co.'s 
 exclusive right of trade it shall not be lawful to 
 import into Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, or Sark, 
 any tea, except from the U. K. 
 
 § 88. No brandy, Geneva, or other spirits (ex- 
 cept rum of B. P.) shall be imported into or ex- 
 ported from Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, or 
 Sark, or removed from any one to any other of 
 said islands, or coastwise in any vessel of less 
 burden than 100 tons (except when imported 
 from the U. K. in ships of 70 tons at least), nor 
 in any package of less content than 40 gallons, 
 (except when in bottles, and carried in a square- 
 rigged ship), nor any tobacco or snuff in any 
 Vessel of less burden than 100 tons (except when 
 imported from the U. K. in ships of 70 tons at 
 least), nor in any package containing less than 
 450 lbs. (except such spirits or loose tobacco as 
 shall be for the use of the seamen, not exceeding 
 2 gallons of the former, and 5 lbs. of the latter, 
 for each, and also except such manufactured 
 tobacco or snuff as shall have been duly exported 
 
 as merchandise from Great Britain or Ireland) , 
 on pain of forfeiture of such spirits, tobacco, or 
 snuff, respectively, together with the packages, 
 the vessel, and the apparel thereof. 
 
 § 89. Nothing herein contained shall extend to 
 vessels not above ten tons, supplying island of 
 Sark, having license so to do. 
 
 § 90. Every person who shall be discovered to 
 have been on board any vessel liable to forfeiture 
 under any act relating to the customs, for being 
 found within one league of Guernsey, Jersey, 
 Alderney, or Sark, having on board or convey- 
 ing, or having conveyed, in any manner, such 
 goods as subject such vessel to forfeiture, or who 
 shall be discovered to have been on board any 
 vessel from which any part of the cargo shall 
 have been thrown overboard during chase, or 
 destroyed, shall forfeit £100. 
 
 British Coals, § 91. Not lawful for any person 
 to re-export, from any of his Majesty's posses- 
 sions abroad, to any foreign place, any coals, the 
 produce of the U. K., except upon payment of 
 the duty to which such coals would be liable 
 upon exportation from the U. K. to such foreign 
 place ; and no such coals shall be shipped at any 
 of such possessions, to be exported to any British 
 place, until the exporter or master shall have 
 given bond, with surety, in double the value of 
 the coals, that such coals shall not be landed at 
 any foreign place. 
 
 False Documents, § 92. Every person who 
 shall, in any of his Majesty's possessions abroad, 
 counterfeit or falsify, or wilfully use when coun- 
 terfeited or falsified, any entry, warrant, cocket, 
 or other document for the unlading, lading, 
 entering, reporting, or clearing any vessel, or 
 for the landing, shipping, or removing of any 
 goods or article whatever, or shall by any false 
 statement procure any writing or document to 
 be made for any such purposes, or shall falsely 
 make oath or affirmation, or shall counterfeit a 
 certificate of said oath or affirmation, or shall 
 publish such certificate, knowing the same to be 
 
 counterfeited, shall for every such offence for- 
 feit £200. 
 
 Colonial Monopoly of the Home Market. — The British colonies, as already men- 
 tioned, were virtually allowed a monopoly of the home market for the sale of the 
 principal articles of their produce. This was effected by fixing in the British tariff 
 the duties on commodities imported from the colonies at a much lower rate than 
 when the same description of commodities are imported from foreign countries. 
 The following is a table of the chief differential duties in favour of the colonies : — 
 
 
 
 Dutiei. 
 
 Rice 
 
 Duties. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Colonial. 
 
 Foreign. Colonial. 
 
 £ 8. d. 
 
 3 3 
 1 3 9 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 2 6 
 
 5 6 
 
 £ b. d. 
 1 4 
 9 
 6 
 9 
 2 9 
 10 
 0' 4 
 free 
 
 1 
 
 1 8 
 1 3 
 
 \£ s. d. 
 
 £ B. d. 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 5 
 10 
 
 free 
 2 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coffee 
 
 lb. 
 
 Fish oil . . . 
 
 
 Spirits 
 
 Wines 
 
 Timber 
 
 Cotton wool 
 
 Sheep's wool 
 
 Tallow 
 
 gall. 
 
 gall. 
 
 
 fan 39 18 
 
 Bark 
 
 
 'load 2 15 
 
 act. 2 11 
 
 lb. 1 
 
 cwt. 3 2 
 
 Extract of bark . . 
 
 Honey 
 
 Wax 
 
 ...cwt.' 3 
 ...cwt.' 15 
 ...cwt 1 10 
 
 
 4 10 
 3 11 3 
 
 Cocoa 
 
 Arrow root 
 
 lb. 6 
 
 ...cwt. 18 8 
 
 .... soft 
 
 cwt. 
 
 N. B. Stated exclusive of late addition of 5 per cent. 
 
 Besides these a protective duty of about 100 per cent, was imposed on hides and 
 skins; furs also were protected, if from North America (chiefly Hudson's Bay). 
 Spices, and in short all tropical productions, had likewise high differential duties 
 in favour of the colonies. 
 
 The practical effect of these protective duties was, until lately, the complete 
 exclusion from our markets of many of the foregoing articles when imported from 
 
COL 181 COL 
 
 foreign countries, and especially the great staples of our West India islands ; but 
 within the last few years, owing, on the one hand, to the diminished production 
 of these colonies since the abolition of negro slavery, and, on the other, to the 
 increased consumption of this country, coffee and sugar of foreign growth have 
 been entered for home consumption in considerable quantities, — the coffee by an 
 evasion of the law that was practised by transhipping it at the Cape of Good Hope, 
 which, being within the limits of the East India Company's charter, allowed it to be 
 introduced at a modified duty of 9d., instead of Is. 3d. per lb.; and sugar, in conse- 
 quence of the great rise of price, from the circumstances just mentioned, having 
 more than counterbalanced the extra duty payable on the foreign articles. But 
 before these operations could be carried on to advantage by the importer, the rise 
 of price has been necessarily so great that the British consumer has had to pay nearly 
 double what is charged for the same articles on the continent of Europe. The 
 differential duty upon timber was also highly injurious, from its having the effect of 
 substituting the inferior kind obtained in North America for the superior article 
 of the north of Europe. [Coffee. Sugar. Timber.] 
 
 The injurious operation of the former system of legislation in regard to the 
 trade of the colonies, and in particular the hardship which it imposed upon the 
 British consumer, long attracted the attention of 4he public, as is proved by the 
 Report made in the year 1840, by the Select Committee of the House of Com- 
 mons upon Import Duties. The evidence collected by the committee was so con- 
 clusive as regards the vicious effects of the present system, that they felt no diffi- 
 culty in urging its immediate modification, if not repeal. " Your committee," the 
 Report bears, " farther recommend, that, as speedily as possible, the whole sys- 
 tem of differential duties and of all restrictions should be reconsidered, and that a 
 change therein be effected in such a manner that existing interests may suffer as 
 little as possible in the transition to a more liberal and equitable state of things. 
 Your committee is persuaded that the difficulties of modifying the discriminating 
 duties which favour the introduction of British colonial articles would be very 
 much abated if the colonies were themselves allowed the benefits of free trade 
 with all the world." (Report, p. vi.) 
 
 The Advantages of Colonies have been exaggerated by some, and perhaps too 
 much underrated by others. Such establishments relieve t\iQ parent state of its 
 superabundant population, and afford the chance of acquiring property to many who 
 have no means at home. On the other hand, they receive from the parent state 
 that protection and countenance which is essential to their progress as civilized 
 communities. But in a commercial point of view, the foundation of their reci- 
 procal benefits is, that they afford good markets to each other ; while the identity 
 of tastes, habits, and opinions, renders the intercourse of business between them 
 more easy, agreeable, and steady than between nations of different origin. It is, 
 however, indispensable to the continued existence of this mutual interest and 
 affection, that the commercial intercourse between the mother country and her 
 colonies should not be placed under restraint ; for every restriction, by shutting out 
 men from some possible source of increased wealth, tends to the impoverishment of 
 a country, and produces ill-will towards the possessor of the exclusive privilege. 
 The monopoly of the markets of the American colonies was one main source of 
 the grudge against Great Britain, which led to their declaration of independence. 
 The preference still retained by England in the markets of her colonies is rather 
 nominal than real, as she is now the cheapest manufacturing country in the world; 
 but it is otherwise with the monopolies of sugar, coffee, and timber, which are 
 preserved in her markets in favour of the colonies, and the continuance of which 
 is, as already noticed, the cause of much dissatisfaction. The amount of indirect 
 taxation on the British consumer, produced by the present discriminating duties 
 in favour of these three descriptions of colonial produce, being estimated in the 
 late Report on Import Duties at from £5,000,000 to £8,500,000. 
 
 The colonial expenditure of Great Britain, for civil, naval, and military pur- 
 poses, after deducting repayments from colonial revenues, was, in the year 1835- 
 36, the latest period for which it is shown in the public accounts {Par. Paper, 
 1840, No. 632), as follows -.—Military and Maritime Stations: Gibraltar, £139,830; 
 Malta, £110,818; Cape of Good Hope, £242,907; Mauritius, £78,284; Bermuda, 
 £91,446; Fernando Po, £510; Ascension, £4907; Heligoland, £1016; Ionian 
 Islands, £118,955; St Helena, £87,558. Plantations and Settlements: Jamaica, 
 Bahamas, and Honduras, £232,428; Windward and Leeward Islands, including 
 Trinidad and British Guiana, £373,242 ; Upper and Lower Canada, £221,441 ; 
 Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland, £161,294; 
 
COL 
 
 182 
 
 COL 
 
 Sierra Leone and Gambia, £38,347; Ceylon, £133,805; Western Australia, £12,745. 
 Penal Settlements ': New South Wales and Van Biemen's Land, £533,501; general 
 charges, £23,449. Total, £2,606,483. This, however, is exclusive of the share 
 of the pensions and other similar expenses fairly chargeable to the account of 
 those establishments. 
 
 It does not fall within our plan to consider the much agitated questions as to the 
 policy which a state should pursue in the formation of colonies, and in their go- 
 vernment. On the former head, however, it may be observed that the recent 
 policy of Great Britain has been to recognise the self-supporting system of emigra- 
 tion, first broached by Mr Wakefield in his " England and America," and after- 
 wards developed by him in the Colonial Land Committee in 1836, namely, the 
 plan of making unappropriated lands a fund for the free importation of labouring 
 emigrants, and the importation of such emigrants the source of value to those 
 lands, and an attraction for capitalists. [Emigration.] This plan has been fol- 
 lowed in South Australia, and in the settlement of New Zealand, the youngest of 
 our colonies. As to government, the British colonies have, in general, local 
 legislatures elected by the people, and a governor and council named by the crown; 
 and in any changes which have recently taken place, an increased disposition has 
 been shown to leave the internal arrangements to the colonists themselves. S 
 
 A statistical and commercial description of the different colonies will be found 
 under their respective heads, and a further account of their trade generally in the 
 article Commerce. 
 
 COLOUR TRADE. The manufacture of painters' colours now forms an im- 
 portant branch of the national industry. The tedious and unwholesome process of 
 grinding colours in oil, for house-painting, was formerly accomplished by the hand, 
 and by painters for their own use ; but of late the manufacturing chemists have 
 been enabled, by the application of machinery, to supply the articles so cheaply, 
 that the old method is almost entirely superseded. This improvement in the 
 manufacture of colours has led to their now entering pretty largely into the list 
 of exports. In the year 1839, the declared value of painters' colours exported was 
 £236,482. The countries to which they are chiefly sent, are the United States, 
 West Indies, and British America ; considerable quantities are likewise shipped to 
 Australia, India, Brazil, and the North of Europe. 
 
 The following is a table of the principal substances employed as paints and dyea 
 and for other colouring purposes in the arts :— S 
 
 Table of substances used for colouring, with their composition. 
 
 BLACK. 
 
 Blacklead. Native carburet of iron. 
 Blue black. Charcoal. 
 
 Frankfort black. From calcined lees of wine. 
 Ivory black. Bone charcoal. 
 Indian Ink. Lampblack, &c. 
 Lampblack. Soot of resinous wood. 
 Marking Ink. Nitrate of silver and soda. 
 Spanish black. Charcoal from cork. 
 Writing Ink. Gallosulphate of iron. 
 
 BLUE. 
 
 Antwerp blue. Ferro-sesqui-cyanuret of per- 
 oxide of iron and alum. 
 
 Blue ochre. Subphosphate of iron and earthy 
 matter. 
 
 Blue verditer. Carbonate of copper and lime. 
 
 Cobalt blue. Vitrified oxide of cobalt, silica, 
 and potass. 
 
 Indigo. From leaves of Indigo/era. 
 
 Mountain blue. Native carbonate of copper. 
 
 Prussian blue. Ferro-sesqui-cyanuret of per- 
 oxide of iron. 
 
 Royal blue. Same as cobalt blue. 
 
 Saxon or Intense blue. Indigo dissolved in sul- 
 phuric acid. 
 
 Smalts. Same as cobalt blue. 
 
 Ultramarine. Silica, alumina, sulphur, and 
 soda. 
 
 Ultramarine (French). Ditto with iron. 
 
 Wood. From plant Isatis tinctoria. 
 
 BROWN. 
 
 Asphaltum. Mineral resin. 
 Antwerp brown. Ditto. 
 
 Bistre. Burnt oil from soot of wood-fire. 
 Chesnut brown. From the horse-chesnut. 
 Extract of Logwood. From the Hcematoxylon 
 
 Campechianum. 
 Ivory brown. Bones partially charred. 
 Mummy brown. Mineral resin and animal 
 
 matter. 
 Neutral tint. Sepia, indigo, and madder. 
 Sepia. From the cuttle-fish. 
 Sienna (Terra de). Oxide of iron and earthy 
 
 matter. 
 Sienna (Burnt). Ditto, moderately calcined. 
 Spanish brown. Oxide of iron and earthy matt er. 
 Umber. Oxides of manganese and iron, and 
 
 earthy matter. 
 Umber (Burnt). Ditto calcined. 
 Vandyke brown. Peat, or bog earth. 
 
 GREEN. 
 
 Brunswick green. Preparation of copper. 
 Chrome green. Protoxide of chromium. 
 Emerald green. Arsenite of copper. 
 Mineral green. Carbonate of copper. 
 Mountain green. Native ditto. 
 Sap green. From juice of buckthorn berries. 
 Scheeles green. Arsenite of copper. 
 Verdigris. Subacetate of copper. 
 
 ORANGE. 
 
 Annatto. From seeds of Bixa orellana. 
 Orange vermilion. Bisulphate and subsulphate 
 
 of mercury. 
 Chrome orange. Dechromate of lead. 
 Orange lead. Proto and deuto oxides of lead. 
 Orpiment. Sulphuret of arsenic. 
 
COL 
 
 183 
 
 COM 
 
 Tin tchite. Oxide of tin. 
 White chalk. Carbonate of lime. 
 White lead. Carbonate of lead. 
 Zinc white. Oxide of zinc. 
 
 YELLOW. 
 
 Brown ochre. Protoxide of iron and earthy 
 
 matter. 
 Chrome yelloio. Chromate of lead. 
 Dutch pink. Carbonate of lime and French 
 
 berries. 
 French berries. Unripe berries of Rhamnus in- 
 
 fectoria. 
 Fustic. From wood of a species of mulberry. 
 Gamboge. A gum resin. 
 Indian yellow. Uriophosphate of lime. 
 Lemon yellow. Chromate of baryta. 
 Madder yellow. From root of Rubia tinctoria. 
 Massicot. Protoxide of lead. 
 Naples yellow. A compound of the oxides of 
 
 lead and antimony. 
 Orpiment or King's yellow. Sulphuret of arsenic. 
 Oxford ochre. Protoxide of iron and earthy 
 
 matter. 
 Patent yellow. Chloride and oxide of lead. 
 Queen's yellow or Turpeth mineral. Bubsul- 
 
 phate of mercury. 
 Quercitron. From bark of Quercus tinctoria. 
 Realgar. Protosulphuret of arsenic 
 Roman ochre. Protoxide of iron and earthy 
 
 matter. 
 Saffron. From flower of Crocus sativa. 
 Stone ochre. Protoxide of iron and earthr 
 
 matter. 
 Sumach. From flower of Rhus coriaria. 
 Turmeric. From root of Curcuma longa. 
 Weld. From the plant Reseda luteola. 
 Yellow ochre. Protoxide of iron and eartbp 
 
 matter. 
 
 PURPLE. 
 
 Carmine purple. Carmine partially charred. 
 ( tisxius purple. Oxide of gold and tin. 
 Litmus. From flower of Lecomora tartarea. 
 logwood. From the tree Hcematoxylon Campe- 
 
 chutnutn. 
 Madder purple. From root of Rubia tinctoria. 
 
 RED. 
 
 Alkanet. Root of Anchusa tinctoria. 
 
 Carmine. From cochineal. 
 
 ( 'h rome red. Dechromate of lead. 
 
 Cochineal. From the insect coccus cacti. 
 
 Cudhear or Archil. From the moss Rocella 
 
 tinctoria. 
 Dragon's blood. A gum resin. 
 Indian red. Oxide of iron and earthy matter. 
 Intense scarlet. Peroidide of mercury. 
 Lac dye. From Coccus lacca insect. 
 Lakes. From Brazilwood, lac, &e. 
 Madder. From root Rubia tinctoria. 
 Peaclnvood. A species of Brazilwood. 
 Re<l lead. Deutoxide of lead. 
 Red ochre. Peroxide of iron and earthy matter. 
 Rouge. Safflower and French chalk. 
 Sqfflower. From flowers of the plant. 
 Venetian red. Oxide of iron and earthy matter. 
 Verm ilion. Bisulphuret of mercury. 
 Vermilion (Chinese). Ditto of arsenic 
 
 WHITK. 
 
 Ceruse white. Carbonate of lead. 
 
 Constant white. Carbonate and sulphate of 
 
 barytas. 
 Flake. Sulphate of lead. 
 French white. Carbonate of lead. 
 London and Nottingham tchite. Ditto. 
 Pearl white (true). Pulverized pearls. 
 
 Ditto (false). Oxide of bismuth. 
 Roman white. Carbonate of lead. 
 Spanish white. Carbonate of lime and clay. 
 
 COLUMBO-ROOT. [Calumbo-Root.] 
 
 COMBS (Fr. Peignes. Ger. Kamme. It. Peltini. Por. Pentes. Sp. Peines\ 
 instruments for cleaning and adjusting the hair, the common kinds of which are 
 formed of horn or bone, the finer generally of tortoise-shell. Combs are manu- 
 factured in most of our large towns. 
 
 COMMERCE is the interchange of commodities, whether manufactures or 
 agricultural products, for money or for other commodities. 
 
 I. — Historical Summary. 
 The origin of commerce must be ascribed to the period when man first acquired 
 the idea of property so perfectly as to be acquainted with the most simple of all 
 contracts, that of exchanging by barter one rude commodity for another. The 
 wants and ingenuity of his nature would then readily suggest to him a new method 
 of increasing his enjoyments by disposing of what was superfluous in his own 
 stores, in order to procure what was necessary or desirable in those of other men. 
 A commercial intercourse would thus begin and gradually spread to neighbouring 
 tribes ; but no important interchange could take place between contiguous districts, 
 whose soil and climate being nearly the same, would yield similar productions, and 
 as remote countries could not carry on a very extensive intercourse by land, the 
 progressive extension of commerce could take place only in those states that culti- 
 vated the art of navigation. The rude construction of vessels among the ancients, 
 however, and their ignorance of the polarity of the magnet, rendered their mari- 
 time efforts timid, uncertain, and unimportant. The Egyptians, soon after the 
 establishment of their monarchy (b. c. 2188), are said to have opened a trade 
 between the Red Sea and India ; but the Phoenicians were the first truly commer- 
 cial people of whom we have any authentic record. The genius, policy, and laws of 
 the Phoenicians were entirely commercial, and the trade carried on by them, espe- 
 cially at Tyre (Ezekiel,c. xxvii. b. c. 588) and Sidon, was more extensive than that of 
 any other state in the ancient world. They were a nation of merchants who aimed 
 at the empire of the sea, and actually possessed it. Their ships not only frequented 
 all the ports of the Mediterranean, but visited the western coasts of Spain and 
 Africa, m many of which places they founded colonies ; while, through means of 
 harbours possessed by them in the Red Sea, they established an intercourse with 
 
COM 184 COM 
 
 Arabia, India, and the eastern coast of Africa. The vast wealth thus acquired by 
 the Phoenicians incited in their neighbours the Jews, under the prosperous reigns of 
 David and Solomon (b. c. 1014), a desire to be admitted to some share of the eastern 
 trade ; but the peculiar institutions of the Jews formed a national character inca- 
 pable of that free intercourse with strangers which commerce requires. The 
 Phoenicians, however, transmitted the commercial spirit in full vigour to their own 
 descendants the Carthaginians, who (b. c. 263) pushed their navigation and disco- 
 veries towards the west and north, far beyond the views of the parent state, but 
 do not seem to have aspired to any share of the commerce with India. The mari- 
 time power of the Phoenicians was annihilated by Alexander's conquest of Tyre 
 in the year b. c. 332 ; and the empire of the Carthaginians was overturned by the 
 Romans in the year b. c. 146. 
 
 Neither the Greeks nor the Romans imbibed the commercial enterprise which dis- 
 tinguished the Phoenicians and Carthaginians. Several of the Grecian states applied 
 themselves to commerce with considerable success ; but they hardly carried on any 
 trade beyond the limits of the Mediterranean, and their chief intercourse was with 
 their colonies in Asia Minor, Italy, and Sicily. The genius of Alexander, however, 
 effected a revolution in commerce hardly inferior to that in empire, occasioned by 
 the success of his arms. His expedition to the east, and the voyage of discovery 
 accomplished under his auspices by Nearchus (b. c. 325) down the Indus, and along 
 the Persian Gulf, considerably enlarged the sphere of geographical knowledge. 
 The long and vigorous check also which he encountered from the republic of Tyre 
 having afforded him an opportunity of observing the vast resources derived by it 
 from trade, he was led to form the plan of rendering his dominions the centre of 
 commerce as well as the seat of power. With this view he founded the city of 
 Alexandria (b. c. 332) near one of the mouths of the Nile, that by its proximity to 
 the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, it might command the trade both of the east 
 and the west. This situation was chosen with such discernment, that Alexandria 
 soon became the chief commercial entrepot of the world; and amidst all the successive 
 revolutions in those countries, commerce, particularly that of the east, continued, 
 until the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, to flow in the channel which the 
 sagacity of the Macedonian had marked out for it. 
 
 The commerce of the Romans was still more inconsiderable than that of the 
 Greeks. Their military education and the spirit of their laws concurred in es- 
 tranging them from trade and navigation, — pursuits which would have been deemed 
 a degradation of a Roman citizen ; and the commerce of Greece, Egypt, and other 
 conquered countries continued to be carried on in its usual channels after they 
 became provinces of the western republic. The influence of Roman policy, however, 
 appears upon the whole to have been favourable to commerce. " The union of 
 nations," says Dr Robertson, " was never so entire, nor their intercourse so perfect, 
 as within the bounds of this vast empire. Commerce under the Roman dominion 
 was not obstructed by the jealousy of rival states, interrupted by frequent hos- 
 tilities, or limited by partial restrictions. One superintending power moved and 
 regulated the industry of mankind, and enjoyed the fruits of their joint efforts " 
 (History of America). The chief progress made under the reigns of the em- 
 perors was in the commerce with India, from whence increasing supplies were 
 imported for the use of the luxurious inhabitants of the capital. The course of the 
 monsoons was then discovered, and vessels in pursuing this trade, instead of coast- 
 ing along, boldly stretched across the Arabian Sea. The Indian trade, according 
 to Pliny, drained the empire annually of more than £400,000 ; and Strabo states 
 that 120 vessels sailed yearly from the Red Sea to India, chiefly to Musiris on the 
 Malabar coast. 
 
 After the removal by Constantine of the seat of government to Constantinople 
 (a. d. 330) the Roman empire became divided and its force weakened, and it was 
 finally overturned (a. d. 476) by barbarous invaders from various quarters. These 
 parcelled out Europe into many small and independent states, which, occupied by 
 such inhabitants, may be said to have returned to a second infancy. The names 
 of stranger and enemy became once more words of the same import, and com- 
 mercial intercourse with distant nations would have nearly ceased had not Con- 
 stantinople escaped the destructive rage of the barbarians. In that city the 
 knowledge of ancient arts was preserved, the luxuries of foreign countries were 
 in request, and commerce continued to flourish when it was almost extinct in every 
 other part of Europe. 
 
 The first symptoms of revival from this torpid and inactive state were discerned 
 in Italy, where various causes concurred in restoring liberty and independence 
 
COM 185 COM 
 
 to the cities. Constantinople was at first the chief mart to which the Italians 
 resorted, but the cheaper rate at which eastern commodities were to be obtained 
 at Alexandria (then in possession of the Soldans of Egypt) soon led to their 
 resorting to that place, notwithstanding the violent animosities which existed 
 between Christians and Mohammedans. The Italians, by distributing their 
 wares over Europe, began to impart to its various nations some taste for the 
 productions of the East, as well as some ideas of arts and manufactures. The Cru- 
 sades (1099—1249), by leading multitudes from every quarter of Europe into Asia, 
 opened a still more extensive communication between the east and the west, the 
 means of which were chiefly supplied by Genoa, Pisa, and particularly by Venice, 
 which, before the termination of the Holy War, became a great maritime state, pos- 
 sessing an extensive commerce and ample territories. A further acquaintance with 
 the commercial resources of the East was obtained by means of the travels of Marco 
 Polo, a Venetian (1295), and others. The mariner's compass was discovered about 
 1302, but the art of steering by it was acquired slowly. The Portuguese and 
 Spaniards were the first who under its guidance attempted the navigation of 
 unknown seas. The former, step by step, explored the coast of Africa, and in 
 1 497 discovered the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope. About the same 
 time (1492) America was discovered by Columbus. The influence of these discov- 
 eries upon commerce and navigation is noticed under other heads. [Colony. East 
 India Company.] 
 
 The extension of trade in the north of Europe led, about the year 1241, to 
 the famous Hanseatic league [Hanse Towns], the members of which formed the 
 first systematic plan of commerce known in the middle ages. The Hanse Towns, 
 which attained their greatest power in the 15th and 16th centuries, traded exten- 
 sively with the Lombards, exchanging naval stores and other bulky articles of the 
 north for the productions of India and the manufactures of Italy. The city of 
 Bruges in Flanders became the centre of communication between the Hanseatic 
 and Lombard merchants, and rose in consequence to be the principal emporium in 
 Europe, while habits of industry spread throughout the adjacent districts. Flanders 
 and the contiguous provinces thereby became distinguished above all other countries 
 for manufactures, skill, and opulence. The prosperity of those districts was at its 
 height (1567) when the religious persecutions of the Duke of Alva and others drove 
 multitudes of its most skilful artisans to other countries. The tyrannical conduct 
 of the Spaniards, however, although ruinous to Flanders, was productive of benefit 
 to the neighbouring country of Holland, to which, before the expiry of the 16th 
 century, nearly the whole commerce of Bruges, Antwerp, and other Flemish cities 
 was transferred. Holland thenceforth rose to be the first commercial state. Her 
 greatness was owing to her favourable situation, the superior industry and economy 
 of her inhabitants, the comparatively enlightened principles of her laws, and the dis- 
 turbance prevailing in other countries, all which contributed to render her the carrier 
 of Europe. Her commerce was greatest from 1650 to 1670, during which period 
 her external trade and navigation surpassed those of all Europe besides. Her sub- 
 sequent decline is to be attributed partly to the natural progress and rivalry of other 
 states, particularly England, but mainly to the heavy taxation with which the 
 inhabitants were burdened, in consequence of the expenses attending the wars with 
 Spain, France, and England, and the low rate of profit which was produced by this 
 circumstance, and the excessive accumulation of capital. Notwithstanding all the 
 changes, however, which Holland has undergone, it continues, though not larger 
 than Wales, and naturally not more fertile, to be the richest and most industrious 
 of all the states on the continent of Europe. 
 
 In England, besides the common obstructions of commerce occasioned by the 
 nature of the feudal government, and the state of manners during the middle ages, 
 its progress was retarded by peculiar causes. The divided state of the kingdom 
 during the Saxon heptarchy, — the revolution of property occasioned by the Nor- 
 man conquest,— the long-continued wars in support of the pretensions of her 
 sovereigns to the throne of France, — and the destructive contests between the houses 
 of York and Lancaster, successively checked the growth of industrious habits, and 
 rendered the people unfit for the pursuit of any system of useful policy. The 
 English were accordingly one of the last nations in Europe who availed themselves 
 of those commercial advantages which were natural or peculiar to their country. 
 Before the reign of Edward II. all their wool, except a small quantity wrought 
 into coarse cloths for home consumption, was sold to the Flemings and Lombards, 
 and manufactured by them; and though that monarch, in 1326, began to allure some 
 of the Flemish weavers to settle in his kingdom, it was long before his subjects 
 
COM 186 COM 
 
 were capable of fabricating cloth for foreign markets, and the export of wool 
 continued to be the chief article of their commerce. All foreign commodities were 
 brought to them by the Lombard and Hanseatic merchants. The first commercial 
 treaty of England on record was that with Hagum king of Norway, in 1217. But 
 the English did not venture to trade in their own ships to the Baltic until the 
 beginning of the 14th century : it was after the middle of the 15th ere they sent 
 any ship into the Mediterranean; nor was it long before this period that they began 
 to visit the ports of Spain or Portugal. 
 
 The accession of Henry VII. terminated the civil wars of York and Lancaster, 
 and his vigorous and prudent administration (1485 — 1509) forms an important era 
 in the history of English commerce. He maintained peace, facilitated commercial 
 enterprise by negotiating treaties, modified the powers of corporations, and pro- 
 vided for uniformity in weights and measures ; while, by subverting the feudal 
 system and establishing the authority of the law, he increased the numbers of the 
 industrious classes, elevated their condition, and rendered their property secure. 
 Henry VIII., though he degraded the coinage, was likewise disposed to facilitate 
 commerce ; and he may be styled the founder of the Royal Navy and of the Trinity 
 House. The Reformation, which occurred in his reign, communicated a prodigious 
 impulse to the minds of the people, and their energies being now roused, an in- 
 creased desire was felt to emulate the Spaniards and Portuguese in discovery with 
 a view to trade. During this period the expeditions of Willoughby and Chan- 
 celor took place. Henry% successor, Mary, having espoused Philip of Spain, dis- 
 countenanced all projects that might have brought England into collision with that 
 country. But the disposition for adventure was revived during the vigorous sway 
 of Elizabeth ; and the struggle with the Spanish Armada, and the expeditions 
 under Drake, Raleigh, Hawkins, Cavendish, and others, developed and confirmed 
 the national taste for maritime enterprise. The East India Company was chartered 
 by Elizabeth in the year 1600 ; settlements were about the same time made in the 
 East Indies ; but it was not until the reign of James I. that colonies were perma- 
 nently established in North America. 
 
 The reigns of Elizabeth, James I., and Charles I. formed the era of mono- 
 polies and exclusive grants. Under Cromwell many of these were abrogated ; but 
 it was during his protectorate that the foundation was laid of our Navigation 
 Laws, a system perfected in the next reign by the 12th Charles II. c. 18. In 
 this reign also, government unfortunately lent itself to the urgency of our manu- 
 facturers so far as to impose heavy duties upon foreign goods, particularly in 1678 
 on French commodities, a course followed with increased rigour after the Revolution 
 of 1688 and the ensuing war ; national animosity concurring with the belief that 
 our interests called on us to discourage the use of foreign articles. Bounties were 
 at the same time granted on the exportation of many kinds of English goods. This 
 was the beginning of what is designated by political economists the Mercantile 
 System, a fuller explanation of which is given elsewhere. [Balance of Trade. 
 Bounty. Mercantile System.] 
 
 The confidence inspired by the government of the Revolution, and the now in- 
 creased wealth of the country, gave life and expansion to public credit, developing 
 almost simultaneously, however, its abuses as well as its advantages. The Fund- 
 ing System was introduced at that time ; in 1693, the Bank of England was estab- 
 lished, and in 1695, the Bank of Scotland ; events which were shortly followed in 
 the latter country by ill-fated colonial schemes (1695), and in the former by the 
 South Sea Bubble ( 1720). But notwithstanding these reverses, and the increased 
 burdens produced by two great wars (1701 — 1713 and 1739—1748), the industry and 
 wealth of the country steadily advanced ; and by 1750 the mercantile navy had 
 increased from 270,000 tons, its amount at the beginning of the century, to upwards 
 of 600,000 tons ; Great Britain now taking the lead as the first commercial state. 
 
 The progress made by this country during the latter half of the 18th century 
 was still more considerable, although interrupted in its first portion by the seven 
 years' war (1756 — 1763), and afterwards by the insurrection of our American 
 colonies, which began in 1775, and in 1778 extended to a struggle with France, 
 Spain, and eventually Holland,— an arduous and expensive contest, from which this 
 country was relieved by the peace of 1783, when these colonies were separated from 
 the mother country. The people, however, soon recovered from the apprehension 
 of loss of power caused by this separation ; our town population increased, and our 
 manufactures extended, favoured as they now were by the easy conveyance of 
 fuel and bulky goods by canals, which about this period were generally formed 
 throughout the kingdom. Country banking also was extended without being 
 
COM 
 
 187 
 
 COM 
 
 abused, while at the same time the public revenue increased slowly but progress- 
 ively. The chief branch of manufacture in England had formerly been that of 
 woollens, and in Scotland that of linens ; but the discoveries of Hargreaves, Ark- 
 wright, Watt, and others in this period, gave an entirely new aspect to the indus- 
 try of the country, particularly as regards the importance communicated to all 
 branches of the hardware trade, and the development of the cotton manufacture, 
 which henceforward became the great staple of both parts of the island. The 
 impulse thus communicated led to an extraordinary increase of our shipping, 
 which, by the end of the century, amounted to about 1,600,000 tons, having thus 
 been nearly tripled since 1750. 
 
 II.— Progress op British Commerce from 1793 to 1841. 
 
 The indications of prosperity alluded to in the latter part of the preceding sec- 
 tion were suspended by the war of the French Revolution, which began in 1793, 
 and was for some time productive of great commercial distress, but assumed a very 
 different appearance after the extended circulation of bank paper in 1797, and 
 seemed to bring a yearly addition to the national wealth. This ostensible pros- 
 perity continued during the principal part of the war. The transition to peace, 
 however, produced a fall of prices in every department of business, and the year 
 1816 was among the most gloomy in our commercial history. A revival took place 
 in 1817 and 1818, also in 1823. The year 1824 was a period of prosperity, but it 
 was followed by excitement and overtrading, which resulted, in the end of 1825, in 
 a commercial pressure and revulsion of almost unprecedented severity. A some- 
 what similar alternation of prosperity and distress again occurred in the years 
 1836 and 1837 respectively; and since then our commerce has been almost uniformly 
 in a depressed state. 
 
 The limits of the present article do not admit of our considering in detail the 
 progress of trade during the extraordinary period that has elapsed since 1793 
 but the following table contains a digest of the principal events that occurred 
 appended to which is an abstract of the yearly amount of our imports and exports 
 since 1800, when the legislative union took place between Great Britain and 
 Ireland. 
 
 CHRONOLOGtCAL SUMMARY OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS AFFECTING BRITISH COMMERCE 
 FROM 1793 TO 1841. 
 
 1793. War declared by France against Great 
 Britain. 
 
 1797- February 26. Order in Council prohibit- 
 ing the Bank of England from paying 
 their notes in specie, — a measure shortly 
 afterwards ratified by the Bank Restric- 
 tion Act. 
 
 1800. A series of deficient harvestsbegan in 1795, 
 
 which were aggravated to dearth in this 
 year and 1801. 
 
 1801. October 1. Suspension of hostilities with 
 
 France ; followed by Peace of Amiens in 
 1802. 
 
 180& May 21. War again broke out between 
 France and Great Britain. 
 
 i The Warehousing System introduced (43 
 
 Geo. UI. c 132). 
 
 1805. The commerce with the United States 
 now rises into great importance ; in this 
 and the two following years, nearly one- 
 third of our foreign export trade "being 
 carried on with them. In this period the 
 merchants of the United States were ac- 
 customed to sell their produce in the 
 Continental markets to a much greater 
 amount than their purchases in these 
 markets ; while in their dealing with this 
 country, they had every year a large bal- 
 ance to pay to it. The means of liqui- 
 dating this balance were furnished by 
 the excess of their Continental sales, the 
 amount of which was paid to the agents 
 of the British government for bills upon 
 the Treasury, which came as a remit- 
 tance to our exporting merchants, and 
 thus were funds placed at the disposal of 
 our armies, and provided for the payment 
 of subsidies. 
 
 1806. Steam navigation established by Fulton 
 
 in the United States, on the river Hud- 
 son, between New York and Albany. 
 
 November 21. Bonaparte issued his Ber- 
 
 lin Decree, whereby he declared all the 
 ports of Great Britain in a state of block- 
 ade, and forbade all trading with us, or in 
 the articles of our produce and manufac- 
 tures, declaring such to be liable to seizure 
 and condemnation, and forbidding the 
 importation into the countries under his 
 control, which then included nearly all 
 continental Europe, of any goods of such 
 kinds as were included among the home 
 or colonial productions of this country, 
 unless they should be accompanied by 
 certificates, showing their origin to have 
 been other than British: this was the 
 commencement of what is sometimes 
 called the Continental System. 
 
 1807. March. Slave-trade abolished by Great 
 
 Britain. 
 
 November 11. British Orders in Council 
 
 issued, declaring, as the only condition 
 upon which neutrals might trade with 
 countries not at peace with Great Bri- 
 tain, that the vessels in which that trade 
 was carried on should touch at some port 
 in this country, there to pay such amount 
 of customs duties as should be imposed 
 by the British government ; and any ves- 
 sel found to have on board the certificate 
 of origin required by the French govern- 
 ment was declared lawful prize. 
 
 The government of the United States, find- 
 
 ing its flag was excluded from the Conti- 
 nent by the Berlin Decree and the Orders 
 in Council, interdicts altogether the trade 
 
COM 
 
 188 
 
 COM 
 
 of its subjects with either of the belliger- 
 ents: first (December 22), by blockad- 
 ing its own ports; and next (1809, May 
 20) , by a law forbidding intercourse with 
 the belligerents. 
 
 1807. December 27. Bonaparte issued his Milan 
 
 Decree, declaring that any ship that 
 should have paid any tax to the British 
 government, or that had submitted to be 
 Bearched by any British authorities, was 
 thereby denationalized, and became a 
 good and lawful prize. 
 
 1808. The East India Company begin to grant 
 
 licenses to the owners of Indian vessels to 
 trade between India and China. 
 
 1810. February 19. Treaty of commerce and 
 
 navigation between Great Britain and 
 Portugal. 
 — — The House of Commons appoint The Bul- 
 lion Committee to inquire into the differ- 
 ence in value of Bank of England notes 
 and gold, whose report is presented to 
 parliament in June. 
 
 - Harvest greatly deficient. 
 
 181 1. March 2. The United States pass another 
 
 non-intercourse act against Great Bri- 
 tain ; the former having been repealed by 
 a law of 1st May 1810. 
 
 Steam navigation introduced into the 
 
 United Kingdom ; the first vessel worked 
 for hire being the Comet, of three horse 
 power, which plied on the Clyde. 
 
 1812. June 4, 17. War declared against Great 
 
 Britain by the Congress of the United 
 States. 
 
 1813. The East India Company's charter re- 
 
 newed for 20 years, from April 22, 1814 
 (53 Geo. III. c. 155), when the trade with 
 India was thrown open to the British 
 public. 
 
 October 16-19. The battle of Leipsig, an 
 
 event followed by the opening of the prin- 
 cipal ports on the continent of Europe to 
 the trade of Great Britain. 
 
 1814. May 30. Peace between Great Britain 
 
 and France ; which, however, was inter- 
 rupted for a short period (March— July) 
 in the following year, by the return of 
 Bonaparte. 
 
 December 24. Peace of Ghent between 
 
 Great Britain and the United States. 
 
 1815. July 3. Treaty of commerce between 
 
 Great Britain and the United States. 
 
 1816. New silver coinage (56 Geo. III. c. 68), and 
 
 the Mint standard of silver raised from 
 5s. 2d. to 5s. 6d. per ounce. 
 
 September 26. Treaty of commerce and 
 
 navigation between Great Britain and 
 the Two Sicilies. 
 
 Deficient harvest followed by large im- 
 
 portations of foreign corn. 
 
 1819. The statute 59 Geo. III. c. 49 (Mr Peel's 
 
 Act), passed, providing for the gradual 
 resumption of specie payments by the 
 Bank of England. 
 
 1820. February 1. The Bank of England com- 
 
 mences to exchange its paper for bullion. 
 
 1821. May 1. The Bank of England recom- 
 
 mences payment of its notes in current 
 gold coin. 
 
 1822. Various relaxations of our navigation laws 
 
 effected by five acts (3 Geo. IV. c. 41, 42, ! 
 43, 44, and 46), introduced by Mr (after- ! 
 wards Lord) Wallace, then President of 
 the Board of Trade. . 
 
 1823. October 30. The British government sends 
 
 consuls to the new states of SouthAmerica. 
 
 1824. April 2. Treaty of commerce between j 
 
 Great Britain and Prussia. 
 
 June 16. Commercial treaty between Great 
 
 Britain and Denmark. I 
 
 1824. 
 
 1825. 
 
 1826. 
 
 1827. 
 1828. 
 
 1829. 
 1830. 
 
 March 17. Treaty between Great Britain 
 and the Netherlands respecting their East 
 Indian commerce and territories. 
 
 The navigation laws further relaxed by 
 the introduction, by Mr Huskisson, of 
 The Reciprocity System (4 Geo. IV. c. 77, 
 and 5 Geo. IV. c. 1), a measure which 
 had become expedient in consequence of 
 the attitude assumed by Prussia. 
 
 Institution of joint-stock banks in Ireland. 
 
 January 1. Mr Canning announces the 
 intention of the British government to 
 negotiate treaties of commerce with the 
 new South American states, upon the 
 basis of the recognition of their indepen- 
 dence respectively : this is shortly after- 
 wards carried into effect with the states 
 of the Rio de la Plata, Colombia, Mexi- 
 co, and the others. 
 
 February 7. Treaty between Great Britain 
 and Russia, regulating the intercourse 
 between their possessions on the north- 
 west coast of America. 
 
 September 29. Treaty of commerce and 
 navigation between Great Britain and 
 the Hanse Towns. 
 
 Great commercial excitement throughout 
 the kingdom, and numerous joint-stock 
 companies associated for banking, insur- 
 ance, and other purposes, including about 
 seventy associations for the working of 
 the South American mines, nearly the 
 whole of which proved ruinous to the ad- 
 venturers. 
 
 December 12. General commercial panic 
 commenced by the failure in London of 
 the banking-house of Pole & Co. 
 
 January 1 . The Imperial Systetn of weigh ts 
 and measures came into operation. 
 
 January 5. Currency of Ireland assimilat- 
 ed to that of Britain. 
 
 January 26. Treaty of commerce between 
 Great Britain and France. 
 
 July 5. Repeal of system of prohibition 
 against the importation of foreign manu- 
 factured silk goods, effected by the intro- 
 duction of a modified scale of duties, to 
 be in operation after this date. 
 
 Branch banks first established by the Bank 
 of England. 
 
 Joint-stock banks allowed to be established 
 in all parts of England, except the me- 
 tropolitan district. 
 
 A new registry act for shipping, 6 Geo. IV. 
 c. 110 (now superseded by 3 & 4 Win, 
 IV. c. 55) came into operation. 
 
 May 13. The United States tariff bill, im- 
 posing prohibitory duties on many prin- 
 cipal articles of British manufacture, 
 passes the American senate. 
 
 Deficient harvest followed by large im- 
 portations of foreign corn. 
 
 December 21. Treaty of commerce and 
 navigation between Great Britain and 
 Austria. 
 
 September 15. Opening of the Liverpool 
 and Manchester railway : the mail was 
 first sent by it on the 11th November 
 following. 
 
 October 10. Duties on ale and beer ceased 
 from this date. 
 
 Bounties on linen and all other articles 
 ceased. 
 
 March. Modification of the American 
 tariff; chiefly in consequence of the hos- 
 tile attitude of South Carolina. 
 
 August 29. The charter of the Bank of 
 England renewed by the act 3 & 4 Wm. 
 IV. c. 98. 
 
 Relaxation of the usury laws in favour of 
 bills of exchange. 
 
COM 
 
 189 
 
 COM 
 
 1834. The Prussian commercial union comes into 
 practical operation. 
 
 April 30. The East India Company prohib- 
 
 ited from trading after this date, when 
 their charter expired. 
 — — August 1. Emancipation of the negro 
 slaves in the British colonies, — an indem- 
 nity of £-20,000,000 being granted to their 
 owners by parliament. 
 
 1836. Great commercial excitement throughout 
 
 this country and the United States. 
 
 1837. May. A total derangement of commer- 
 
 cial affairs in the United States ; all their 
 banks suspend specie payments ; and very 
 extensive failures occur, the effect of 
 which is felt to a considerable extent in 
 Great Britain, especially in the manufac- 
 turing districts. 
 
 November. Insurrection in Canada. 
 
 1838. Colony of South Australia established. 
 
 April 8. The Great Western steam-ship 
 
 sailed from Bristol to New York, where 
 Bhe arrived April 23. This voyage esta- 
 blished the practicability of the steam- 
 navigation of the Atlantic. 
 
 April 16. War between France and Mexi- 
 
 co, and the Mexican ports blockaded; 
 terminated March 9, 1839, through the 
 mediation of Great Britain. 
 
 1838. July 3. Treaty of commerce with Austru ; 
 
 and with Turkey, November 16. 
 
 Deficient harvest, followed by extensive 
 
 importations of foreign corn, an adverse 
 state of the exchanges, and considerable 
 pressure in London and other districts. 
 
 1839. April 15. The Chinese arrest the British 
 
 superintendent at Canton, Captain Elliot, 
 and several merchants, who are compel- 
 led to deliver up (May 30) opium to the 
 amount of £3,000,000. 
 
 November 24. The trade between Great 
 
 Britain and China stopped by order of 
 Lin, the imperial commissioner. 
 
 1840. January 10. The uniform Penny Postage 
 
 commenced on all letters not exceeding 
 half an ounce in weight, between places 
 in the United Kingdom. 
 
 - May 15. An addition of 5 per cent, to be 
 
 levied, after this date, on all customs and 
 excise duties, except on spirits (which 
 pay an additional 4d. per gallon), corn 
 imported, horses let on hire, &c 
 
 May 21. The islands of New Zealand pro- 
 
 claimed to be British territory. 
 
 June 28. Blockade of the river and har- 
 
 bour of Canton by the British. 
 
 November 16. Treaty of commerce be- 
 
 tween Great Britain and Texas. 
 
 Statement of the Amount of the Foreign and Colonial Trade of the United King- 
 dom, in each year from 1801 to 1839 : — 
 
 
 
 Official Value. 
 
 
 Real or Declared Value of British and Irish 
 Produce and Manufactures exported. 
 
 
 Import* of Foreign 
 
 Exports of Foreign 
 
 Export* of British 
 
 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 and Colonial 
 
 and Colonial 
 
 and Irish Produce 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Other Places. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 and Manufactures 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 ISM.... 
 
 31,786,262 
 
 10,336,966 
 
 24,927,684 
 
 
 
 39,730,659* 
 
 1802.... 
 
 29,826,210 
 
 12,677,431 
 
 25,632,549 
 
 
 
 45,102,330* 
 
 18<>3.... 
 
 26,622,696 
 
 8,032,643 
 
 20,467,531 
 
 
 .... 
 
 36,127,787* 
 
 1804.... 
 
 27,819,552 
 
 8,938,741 
 
 22,687,309 
 
 
 
 37,135,746* 
 
 1805.... 
 
 28,561,270 
 
 7,643,120 
 
 23,376,941 
 
 13,625,676 
 
 24,45i,468 
 
 38,077,144 
 
 1806.... 
 
 26,899,658 
 
 7,717,555 
 
 25,861,879 
 
 11,363,635 
 
 29,511,348 
 
 40,874,983 
 
 18«7.... 
 
 26,734,425 
 
 7,624,312 
 
 23,391,214 
 
 9,002,237 
 
 28,243,640 
 
 37,245,877 
 
 1808.... 
 
 26,795,540 
 
 5,776,775 
 
 24,611,215 
 
 9,016,033 
 
 28,259,069 
 
 37,275,102 
 
 1809.... 
 
 31 ,750,557 
 
 12,750,358 
 
 33,542,274 
 
 15,849,449 
 
 31,521,944 
 
 47,371,393 
 
 1810.... 
 
 39,301,612 
 
 9,357,435 
 
 34,061,901 
 
 15,627,806 
 
 32,810,874 
 
 48,438,680 
 
 1811.... 
 
 26,510,186 
 
 6,117,720 
 
 22,681,400 
 
 12,834,680 
 
 20,056,032 
 
 32,890,712 
 
 1812.... 
 
 26,163,431 
 
 9,533,065 
 
 29,508,508 
 
 
 
 41,716,964 
 
 1813.... 
 
 Recor< 
 
 Is destroved b 
 
 yfire. 
 
 
 
 
 1314.... 
 
 33,755,264 
 
 1 19,365,981 
 
 34,207,253 
 
 26,869,591 
 
 18,624,628 
 
 45,494,219 
 
 1K15.... 
 
 32,!>87,396 
 
 15,748,554 
 
 42,875,996 
 
 20,736,244 
 
 30,866,784 
 
 51,603,028 
 
 1816... . 
 
 27,431,604 
 
 13,480,780 
 
 35,717,070 
 
 18,653,555 
 
 23,004,318 
 
 41,657,873 
 
 1817 
 
 30,834,299 
 
 10,292,684 
 
 40,111,427 
 
 19,093,574 
 
 22,667,558 
 
 41,761,132 
 
 1818 
 
 36,885,182 
 
 10,859,817 
 
 42,700,521 
 
 19,439,382 
 
 27,163,867 
 
 46,603,249 
 
 1819 
 
 30,776,810 
 
 9,904,813 
 
 33,534,176 
 
 16,790,652 
 
 18,417,669 
 
 35,208,321 
 
 1820... . 
 
 32,438,650 
 
 10,555,912 
 
 38,395,625 
 
 18,429,503 
 
 17,995,149 
 
 36,424,652 
 
 1821.... 
 
 30,792,760 
 
 10,629,689 
 
 40,831,744 
 
 15,903,442 
 
 20,756,188 
 
 36,659,630 
 
 1822.... 
 
 30,500,094 
 
 9,227,589 
 
 44,236,533 
 
 16,601,562 
 
 20,367,402 
 
 36,968,964 
 
 1823.... 
 
 35,798,707 
 
 8,603,904 
 
 43,804,372 
 
 14,857,128 
 
 20,600,920 
 
 35,458,048 
 
 1824.... 
 
 37,552,935 
 
 10204,785 
 
 48,735,551 
 
 15,698,940 
 
 24,697,360 
 
 40,396,300 
 
 lass.... 
 
 44,137,482 
 
 9,169,494 
 
 47,166,020 
 
 14,646,358 
 
 24,231,030 
 
 38,877,388 
 
 1826.... 
 
 37,686,113 
 
 10,076,286 
 
 40,965,735 
 
 13,893,270 
 
 17,643,453 
 
 31,536,723 
 
 1827-... 
 
 44,887,774 
 
 9,830,728 
 
 52,219,280 
 
 14,478,964 
 
 22,702,371 
 
 37,181,335 
 
 1828.... 
 
 45.o28.805 
 
 9,946,545 
 
 52,7^7,455 
 
 13,775,870 
 
 23,036,886 
 
 36.812,756 
 
 1829.... 
 
 43,981,317 
 
 lo. 622,402 
 
 56,213,041 
 
 14,545,474 
 
 21,297,149 
 
 35,842,623 
 
 1830.... 
 
 46.245,241 
 
 1 8,55<»,437 
 
 61,140,864 
 
 15,610,638 
 
 22,660,959 
 
 38,271,597 
 
 1831.... 
 
 49,713,889 
 
 ; 10,745,171 
 
 60,683,933 
 
 13,550,440 
 
 23,613,932 
 
 37,164,372 
 
 1832.... 
 
 44,586,741 
 
 Il.(i44,8'i9 
 
 65,026,702 
 
 15,584,006 
 
 20,866,588 
 
 36,450,594 
 
 1833.... 
 
 45,952,551 
 
 9,833,753 
 
 69,989,339 
 
 15,611,789 
 
 24,055,558 
 
 39,667,347 
 
 1834.... 
 
 49,362,811 
 
 11,562,036 
 
 73,831,550 
 
 18,007,033 
 
 23,642,158 
 
 41,649,191 
 
 1835.... 
 
 48,911,542 
 
 12,797,724 
 
 ■78,376,731 
 
 18,464,433 
 
 28,907,837 
 
 47,372,270 
 
 1836. . . . 
 
 57,023,867 
 
 12,39J,711 
 
 85,229,837 
 
 19,011,066 
 
 34,357,505 
 
 53,368,571 
 
 1837.... 
 
 54,737,301 
 
 13,233,622 
 
 72,548,047 
 
 19,071,303 
 
 22,999,441 
 
 42 J '70,744 
 
 1 1838.... 
 
 61,268,320 
 
 12,711,318 
 
 92,459,231 
 
 21,711,295 
 
 28,349,675 
 
 50,060,970 
 
 1 1839.... 
 
 62,004,000 
 
 12,795,990 
 
 97,402,726 
 
 20,414,520 
 
 32,819,060 
 
 53,233,580 
 
 * These apply to Great Britain only : the exports from Ireland are, however, inconsiderable. 
 
COM 
 
 190 
 
 COM 
 
 The official value stated in the preceding table is rated according to a scale estab- 
 lished so far back as 1696, when prices were altogether different from what they 
 are at present ; but the system has been preserved in the public accounts without 
 alteration, because it is supposed to afford a correct measure of the comparative 
 quantity of merchandise which has made up the sum of our imports and exports. 
 On the other hand, the real or declared value is estimated at the market price, 
 agreeably to the sums declared by the exporting merchants ; this latter method, 
 however, is only applied to the exports of the produce and manufactures of the 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 If the progress of our foreign commerce be measured according to the official 
 valuation, it appears that the increase since the commencement of the century has 
 been very great ; the amount of exports of British produce and manufactures 
 within this period having indeed been nearly tripled. But if the declared value is 
 to be assumed as the test of these last, it will be seen that little or no progress has 
 been made, — that in fact, if one or two late years are excepted, the amount of our 
 foreign trade has not been equal to that which was carried on during some of the 
 years when we were at war with nearly all Europe, nor to that of the first five 
 years of peace that followed. A still less flattering aspect is presented by that part 
 of our commerce which, being carried on with the rich and civilized inhabitants of 
 European nations, should present the greatest field of extension, — more especially 
 when we look to the change which has of late taken place in the nature of our 
 exports to those countries. This is shown in the following table prepared by Mr 
 Porter, of the Statistical Department of the Board of Trade (Par. Report on Im- 
 port Duties, 1840, No. 601), and which exhibits facts of the utmost importance to 
 the general interests of the country. 
 
 Table showing the value of British Produce and Manufactures exported to various 
 districts or quarters of the world in 1827 and 1838, distinguishing finished ma- 
 nufactures and goods into the value of which much labour has entered, from 
 materials of manufacture, and goods upon which but little labour has been be- 
 stowed ; showing also the centesimal proportions of each of these two descrip- 
 tions : — 
 
 Russia, Sweden, Nor- 
 way, & Denmark 
 
 Prussia, Germany, Hol- 
 land A: Belgium. 
 
 Southern Europe 
 
 Cape of Good Hope. . . . 
 
 1827. 
 
 1838. 
 
 Goods into the Value of 
 which has entered 
 
 Centesimal Pro- 
 portion of Column 
 Number 
 
 Goods into the Value of 
 which has entered 
 
 Centesimal Pro- 
 portion of Column 
 Number 
 
 Much Labour. 
 
 Little Labour- 
 
 Much Labour 
 
 Little Labour. 
 
 I. 
 
 2. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 1. | 2. 
 
 £ 
 
 498,437 
 
 4,773,648 
 4,987,269 
 196,968 
 173,874 
 224,378 
 3,812,199 
 295,424 
 
 1,159,340 
 2,927,228 
 860,723 
 6,725,676 
 2,137,111 
 
 1,648,936 
 
 275,265 
 
 £ 
 
 1,101,309 
 
 2,159,869 
 958,432 
 19,590 
 21,839 
 34,839 
 647,123 
 44,706 
 
 238,010 
 655,994 
 46,586 
 292,596 
 174,998 
 
 43,274 
 
 45,694 
 
 31*15 
 
 68-84 
 83-88 
 90-95 
 88-84 
 86-56 
 85-48 
 86-85 
 
 82-96 
 81-69 
 94-86 
 95-83 
 92-43 
 
 97-44 
 
 8576 
 
 68-85 
 
 31-16 
 16-12 
 9-05 
 11-16 
 1344 
 14-52 
 13-15 
 
 17-04 
 18-31 
 5-14 
 4-17 
 7-57 
 
 2-56 
 
 14-24 
 
 £ 
 
 422,081 
 
 4,193,921 
 
 7,493,907 
 
 576,555 
 
 414,240 
 
 689,964 
 
 4,508,077 
 
 1,198,900 
 
 1,745,833 
 2,916,129 
 1,222,326 
 6,782,077 
 2,420,806 
 
 2,072,821 
 
 288,059 
 
 £ 
 
 1,602,698 
 
 5,567,641 
 2,619,397 
 46,768 
 53,102 
 67,130 
 1,110,879 
 137,762 
 
 246,624 
 477,312 
 93,205 
 803,683 
 185,798 
 
 47,480 
 
 55,795 
 
 i 
 
 20-84 79-16 
 
 1 
 42-96 57-04 
 74-09 25-91 
 92-49 : 7-51 
 88-63 11-37 
 91-13 8-87 
 80-23 1977 
 89-69, 1031 
 
 87-62 1-2-38 
 85-93 14M»7 
 92-91 7-<>9 
 89-40 10-6o 
 92-87; 713 
 
 9775 2-25 
 
 8377 ' 16-23 
 
 Other parts of Africa.. . 
 
 Australia 
 
 British North American 
 
 Colonies 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 Foreign West Indies 
 
 United States of America 
 
 Other parts of S. Ame- 
 rica & Mexico 
 
 Guernsey, Jersey, Alder- 
 
 Total . 
 
 30,696,476' 6,484,859 
 
 82-56 
 
 17-44 
 
 36,945,696 13,115,274 
 
 73-H0 26-211 
 
 Comparing 1827 with 1838, it appears, that the proportion of fully manufactured 
 
 foods exported in the former year was .... 82"56 per cent, 
 n the latter year, 73'80 
 
 If the shipments to British colonies and dependencies are separated from those to 
 foreign countries, it appears that the proportionate value of the aggregate ship- 
 ments in those two years was nearly the same, viz. ; — 
 
COM 
 
 191 
 
 COM 
 
 1827, Value of Shipments to Colonies 
 
 to Foreign Countries 
 
 1838, Value of Shipments to Colonies 
 
 to Foreign Countries 
 
 Centesimal 
 Proportions. 
 
 28-27 
 7173 
 
 27-52 
 72-48 
 
 100 
 
 -100 
 
 But if those values are separated according to the degree of labour bestowed, 
 will be found that the proportions are, 
 
 Much Labour. Little Labour. 
 
 Colonies . 1827 . . 84'09 . 15'9l 
 
 1838 . 84-55 . . 15'45 
 
 Foreign Countries 1827 . . 81'95 . . 18'05 ." 
 
 1838 . 6972 . . 30*28 
 
 Separating further the shipments to Northern Europe, it will be found that the 
 proportions are, 
 
 1827. 1838. 
 
 Much labour . . 6178 . . . 39'16 
 
 Little labour . . 38"22 . . 60*84 
 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 The actual amount of Shipments in 1827 and 1838 to British Colonies, to Foreign 
 Countries generally, and to Northern Europe, was as follows : — ■ 
 
 
 1827. 
 
 1838. 
 
 Much La- 
 bour. 
 
 Little La- 
 bour. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Much La- 
 bour. 
 
 Little La- 
 bour. 
 
 Total. 
 
 ~£ 
 
 13 11R (ML 
 
 £ £ 
 8,840,268 1,672,956 
 
 21,856,208) 4,811,903 
 
 £ 
 10,513,224 
 
 26,668,111 
 
 £ 
 
 11,647,793 
 
 25,297,903 
 
 £ 
 2 128 242 
 
 To Foreign Countries gen- 
 
 10 987.032 3R.2B4 Q35 
 
 To Northern Europe 
 
 
 ' ' 
 
 30,696,476 1 6,484,859 
 
 37,181,335 
 
 36,945,696 13,115,274 '50,060,970 
 
 5,272,085 3,261,178' 8,533,263 
 
 4,616,002 7,170,339 11,786,341 
 
 These results afford strong evidence of the unsatisfactory footing upon which 
 our trading relations with the nations of Europe are established. These countries, 
 particularly those of the North of Europe, which now take a diminished proportion 
 of our more highly manufactured commodities, possess an abundance of productions 
 suited to our wants, which they are naturally desirous of exchanging for the pro- 
 ducts of our looms and our mines ; but by our imposing high duties upon corn and 
 timber, the principal articles they have to give us in exchange, they have, in order 
 to employ their own population, been driven to manufacture for themselves ; " and 
 now," as the President of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce lately remarked, 
 " we have rivals where we should otherwise have had customers." Similar 
 impediments exist to the extension of our intercourse with other countries, arising, 
 however, no less from the anti-commercial system of legislation of the governments 
 of those countries than of our own. In the report lately presented to the House 
 of Commons by the Committee on Import Duties, the progress of manufactures 
 throughout Europe, the growing competition with which our merchants have now 
 to contend in foreign markets, and the consequent necessity of releasing their goods 
 as much as possible from the unequal burden of our taxation, are very fully ex- 
 plained. It is shown clearly that the complicated system of our duties tends, 
 among its other evils, to derange the natural course of trade, and to place under 
 particular disadvantages our manufacturers who go abroad in quest of a market. 
 An account of the remedies suggested in this report is given in the article Tariff, 
 to which head we likewise refer for other details relating to the present condition 
 of our foreign commerce. 
 
 Ill — Principles of Commerce. 
 
 These may be partly inferred from what has been already stated. Commerce is 
 only productive of wealth in an indirect manner. The merchant produces no 
 alteration on the articles which he buys and sells : he merely exchanges one com- 
 modity for another ; and in general, what is given is the exact equivalent of what 
 
COM 192 COM 
 
 ia received. The advantage of commerce — and it is difficult to overestimate its 
 importance— consists in the uninterrupted scope and efficiency which it gives to 
 the division and distribution of labour, by placing it in the power of individuals to 
 prosecute continuously such employments as suit their taste or capacities. The inter- 
 vention of the commercial class gives continuous motion to the national industry. 
 They collect together every variety of commodities in warehouses and shops, and 
 enable individuals, without loss of time, to supply themselves with whatever they 
 want. Without the assistance of the merchant, it would not be possible to confine 
 ourselves to one branch of industry, and all the advantages of co-operation and 
 combination would be lost. Commerce, besides, is eminently conducive to the 
 wealth and prosperity of a country, by balancing what is deficient in one dis- 
 trict with what is superfluous in another ; and by enabling it to import the com- 
 modities for the production of which the soil, climate, capital, and industry of foreign 
 countries are best calculated, and to export in, payment those articles for which its 
 own situation is better adapted. By this distribution of the various articles suited 
 to the accommodation of man in different and distant regions, or, as it may be de- 
 scribed, this territorial division of labour, Providence has, by a beautiful arrange- 
 ment, and one which will probably lead to the general civilisation of the world, 
 provided for the mutual dependence of individuals and nations, and made even 
 their selfish pursuits subservient to the general good. 
 
 In order that each community may avail itself to the uttermost of its peculiar 
 means of production, it is essential that commercial intercourse should be free and 
 unrestricted. Respecting the freedom of the home trade, or that between different 
 parts or provinces of the same country, no difference of opinion is now entertained. 
 Without this freedom there would have been little or no wealth, only a limited 
 population, and that population rude and barbarous. But although foreign trade 
 is to all the countries in the world merely what home trade is to the different pro- 
 vinces of the same country, it is contended that it should be regulated in a different 
 manner. It is alleged that the importation of foreign commodities prevents the em- 
 ployment of so much native industry as would be required to fabricate these goods, 
 or some substitutes for them, at home ; and that this injury is in no degree compen- 
 sated by the comparative cheapness of the foreign commodities to the consumer. 
 
 In this argument the attention is confined to the effect of the importation of the 
 superior foreign article on those persons in the importing country who are already 
 engaged, or would, but for such importation, engage themselves in the manufacture 
 of the commodity in question, or its substitute. It is altogether overlooked that the 
 importation is only an exchange of some product of home industry for some other 
 of foreign industry ; that the equivalents of the foreign commodities must be first 
 produced here, and then exported in exchange for them, or their introduction would 
 be impossible ; for assuredly foreigners never send us their goods except in return 
 for an equivalent, and we can of course export nothing which is not the produce of 
 British industry. Every obstacle, therefore, to the importation of any foreign 
 commodity is precisely to the same extent an obstacle to the exportation of an 
 equivalent of British produce or manufacture. And the injury sustained by the 
 consumers of the protected articles from their higher price or inferior quality, ia 
 uncompensated by the advantage derived by any other class ; the effect of all 
 protecting duties being to diminish the general productiveness of the national 
 industry, by confining it to such employments as are less productive of value than 
 those which without such interference would be undertaken. Hence, in all cases 
 where high duties are imposed to afford protection, foreign commerce must in the 
 nature of things be diminished to a greater extent than domestic industry ia 
 encouraged. 
 
 The principle of free trade, however, is opposed by many in this country who do 
 not attempt to deny the axiom, that every importation causes a correspondent 
 exportation, on the following grounds : — 
 
 1. " The producers of such a highly taxed country as Great Britain ought to be 
 protected from the competition of comparatively untaxed foreigners." 
 
 If the taxes are levied equitably, it is obvious that the producer of the commodity 
 which would be exported in exchange for that which is imported, is as much 
 burdened as the producer of the article which the latter would supersede. If, on 
 the other hand, the taxes are not levied equitably, the remedy is to equalize them, 
 not to make the imposition of one injustice the defence for another. 
 
 2. ■ A country loses by the importation of the goods of another, unless there is a 
 reciprocity in the free admission of her goods, on the same terms, into the latter." 
 
 If Prussia sends goods into England, while the admission of goods from England 
 
COM 193 COM 
 
 into Prussia are prohibited, and the goods received by England are paid in specie, it is 
 obvious, that in order to render it profitable for an English merchant to export specie 
 in exchange for Prussian goods, he or some other merchant must find it profitable 
 to import an equal quantity of it in exchange for goods of home production, from 
 Mexico, Peru, or some other country into which British goods find their way. 
 If this quantity of specie could not be bought somewhere with English goods, its 
 exportation to Prussia would speedily raise its value in this country so high, that 
 it would no longer be profitable to export it in exchange for Prussian commodities. 
 The whole may be regarded as one transaction. The merchants of England, as a 
 body, could not find it profitable to export specie for goods, unless it were equally 
 profitable to purchase specie with goods. It is well known, however, that in fact 
 very little gold or silver is employed for such purposes. [Balance of Trade. 
 Exchange.] If England imports from Prussia more goods than it sends thither, 
 Prussia is mostly paid by goods sent from other countries which receive from 
 England more than they send, and their mutual balances are adjusted by the 
 circulation of bills of exchange. Any obstacle, therefore, to the interchange of 
 goods between one country and another, is as injurious to that imposing the restric- 
 tion as to that on whose productions the restrictive duty is imposed; every tax 
 upon importation acting to the same extent as a tax upon exportation. If Franco 
 excludes our iron and yarns, she suffers from such policy quite as much as this 
 country. In whichever of two countries the restriction is imposed, there is sure to 
 be a reciprocity of injury ; and the benefit of every relaxation, from whichever it 
 proceeds, is sure to be enjoyed by both. 
 
 3. " It is the policy of a nation to be independent of foreign supplies, in case it 
 may be deprived of such supplies by war" 
 
 This policy is false in principle and ruinous in practice. In the fear of war a sys- 
 tem would be maintained, the tendency of which is to perpetuate war. More quarrels 
 have been engendered by the commercial system of exclusion than by all the other 
 follies and passions of subjects and rulers. The best way to preserve the nations 
 of the earth in peace, is to let them prove how dependent each is upon the others 
 for the profitable employment of its people, and for the comforts resulting from 
 that profitable employment. 
 
 The system of protection was introduced into European policy in 1667 by M.Colbert, 
 minister to Louis XIV. of France, and it has been since steadily acted upon by 
 almost all nations, on the mistaken notion which has been generally entertained, 
 that the protection of trade was a necessary part of the duty of the executive 
 government ; and there are few political errors which have occasioned greater 
 mischief. The regulating mania which it inspired has tormented industry in a 
 thousand ways to force it from its natural channels. Besides falsely teaching 
 nations to regard the welfare of their neighbours as incompatible with their own, it 
 has fostered a spirit of conspiracy of class against class, and interest against in- 
 terest,— every one trying to gain legislative favour at the expense of the rest. The 
 {)rices of most articles have been artificially enhanced by protective duties or legis- 
 ative monopolies. By this system of each robbing each, all parties have been 
 losers, and the sum of national wealth has been proportionally lessened. 
 
 The policy of abandoning the restrictive system was long regarded with jealousy 
 by the commercial classes ; but juster and more liberal opinions now prevail. In 
 the year 1820, many of the principal mercantile houses in London joined in a peti- 
 tion to Parliament, embodying the substance of all the principles of free trade 
 which we have endeavoured to explain, and particularly tne following : — 
 
 " That freedom from restraint is calculated to give the utmost extension to for- 
 eign trade, and the best direction to the capital and industry of the country. 
 
 " That the maxim of buying in the cheapest market, and selling in the dearest, 
 which regulates every merchant in his individual dealings, is strictly applicable as 
 the best rule for the trade of the whole nation. 
 
 ** That of the numerous protective and prohibitory duties of our commercial code, 
 it may be proved, that, while all operate as a heavy tax on the community at large, 
 very few are of any ultimate benefit to the classes in whose favour they were ori- 
 giually instituted, and none to the extent of the loss occasioned by them to the 
 other classes. 
 
 " A3 long as the necessity for the present amount of revenue subsists, your peti- 
 tioners cannot expect so important a branch of it as the customs to be given up, 
 nor to be materially diminished, unless some substitute less objectionable be sug- 
 gested. But it is against every restrictive regulation of trade, not essential to the 
 revenue; against all duties merely protective from foreign competition; and against 
 
 R 
 
COM 
 
 194 
 
 COM 
 
 the excess of such duties as are partly for the purpose of revenue, and partly for 
 that of protection,— that the prayer of the present petition is respectfully submitted 
 to Parliament." 
 
 The attention which this petition was the means of drawing to the anti-commer- 
 cial principles of our restrictive system, powerfully tended to bring about the suc- 
 cessive relaxations which, since its presentation to Parliament, have been made in 
 our commercial code. Within the last few years, several circumstances have com- 
 bined to draw public attention still more strongly to this subject. At a meeting of 
 the Chamber of Commerce of Manchester, to receive the report of Dr Bowring on 
 the Prussian Commercial League, the following resolution was passed, disclaiming 
 protecting duties of every kind : — " This meeting regards the present as the proper 
 occasion for reiterating its adherence to the opinion so often declared by this 
 chamber, that the prosperity, peace, and happiness of this and other nations can be 
 alone promoted by the adoption of those just principles of trade which shall secure to 
 all the right of a free interchange of their respective productions ; and this meeting 
 on behalf of the great community whose interests it represents, feels especially 
 called upon to declare its disapprobation of all those restrictive laws which, whether 
 intended for the protection of the manufacturing or agricultural classes, must, in 
 so far as they are operative, be injurious to the rest of the nation, unjust to the 
 world at large, and in direct hostility to the beneficent designs of Providence." 
 And in January 1839, deputations of merchants and manufacturers assembled in 
 London, from Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Birmingham, Sheffield, Derby, Not- 
 tingham, Wolverhampton, Glasgow, Paisley, and other great towns, passed a 
 resolution to the same effect. To these testimonies in favour of the principle of 
 free trade has now to be added that of the Select Committee of the House of 
 Commons on Import Duties, already alluded to, who " report their strong convic- 
 tion of the necessity of an immediate change in the import duties of the kingdom," 
 and " recommend that, as speedily as possible, the whole system of differential duties 
 and restrictions should be reconsidered, and a change effected in such a manner 
 that existing interests may suffer as little as possible in the transition to a more 
 equitable state of things." The deep and general sensation which has been pro- 
 duced by their report throughout the country affords just grounds to hope that 
 many of the improvements which it suggests in our commercial code will erelong 
 be carried into effect by the legislature. S 
 
 COMMISSION, or BROKERAGE, the allowance to a factor, agent, or broker, 
 for transacting the business of others. It is generally charged at so much per cent., 
 the amount being regulated either by stipulation or the usage of trade. A com- 
 mission del credere is a higher rate charged in those cases where the factor, or 
 other agent, guarantees his dealings, or in other words, engages to be answerable, 
 as if he himself were the proper debtor. [Del Credere.] 
 
 These allowances are calculated by the Rule of Three, or Simple Proportion ; the first term 
 being always 100, the second the rate of commission, and the third the sum upon which the com- 
 mission is granted, while the fourth is the allowance to be made. The following table will facilitate 
 such calculations for the common rates :— 
 
 Commission or Brokerage Table. 
 
 Prin. 
 
 *1 
 
 £ 
 
 >er cent, i per cent. 
 
 1 per cent. 
 
 2 per cent. 
 
 21 per ct. 
 
 3 per cent. 
 
 4 per cent. |5 per cent. 
 
 Prin. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. d. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ ■■ 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 ,. 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 10 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 1 16 
 
 2 5 
 
 
 
 2 14 
 
 
 
 3 12 
 
 
 
 4 10 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 1 12 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 2 8 
 
 
 
 3 4 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 1 8 
 
 1 15 
 
 
 
 2 2 
 
 
 
 2 16 
 
 
 
 3 10 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 1 4 
 
 1 10 
 
 
 
 1 16 
 
 
 
 2 8 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 5 
 
 
 
 1 10 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 10 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 4 
 
 
 
 1 12 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 1 4 
 
 
 
 1 10 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 
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 COMMISSION OF BANKRUPTCY. Before the passing of the Bankruptcy 
 Court Act, 1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 56, bankruptcies were prosecuted under commission 
 
COM 195 COM 
 
 by the Lord Chancellor to certain commissioners. A different arrangement was 
 adopted by that act, and the decree authorizing the prosecution of a bankruptcy is 
 called a hat. [Commissioners.] The expression & commission of bankruptcy" 
 came into use for expressing the whole process of bankruptcy, and is still some- 
 times employed in that sense. Bankruptcy. S 
 
 COMMISSIONERS in the Law of Bankruptcy. — In England the commissioners 
 are officers who hold certain powers of administration and superintendence in mat- 
 ters of bankruptcy. Previous to the act 1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 56, a special commission 
 was issued under the great seal in every particular case ; but the practice has 
 been altered by that act. The commissioners in town bankruptcies are the six 
 commissioners of the Court of Bankruptcy. [Bankruptcy, Court of.] Those in 
 the country are permanent officers, chosen by the judges of the several circuits, 
 from among the barristers, attorneys, and solicitors, in the respective counties 
 of the circuits, subject to the approbation of the Chancellor. In town bankruptcies, 
 a single commissioner acts. The commissioners of the Court of Bankruptcy take 
 the oath of office on their appointment ; the country commissioners take a new 
 oath on the opening of each fiat. In a town bankruptcy, the fiat authorizes tho 
 petitioning creditor to prosecute in the Court of Bankruptcy ; in country bank- 
 ruptcies, hefore commissioners named. It has to be observed, that in bank- 
 ruptcies prosecuted in the Court of Bankruptcy, one commissioner has the same 
 authority which was formerly conferred by a commission, and is now conferred 
 on country commissioners by a fiat. Wherever the word " commissioners " is 
 used in the following statements, it must be understood to refer to one commis- 
 sioner in town bankruptcies, unless otherwise specified. 
 
 The commissioners receive proof of the petitioning creditor's debt, who must 
 attend before them in person, unless under very peculiar circumstances. They are 
 empowered to summon before them " any person whom they shall believe capable 
 of giving any information concerning the trading of, or any act or acts of bank- 
 ruptcy" committed by, the person petitioned against, and they may command 
 production of all documents tending to the same purpose. The remedies and 
 means of enforcement are the same as those below stated, with regard to the 
 other examinations (6 Geo. IV. c. 16, § 24). Being satisfied of the debt, trading, 
 and act of bankruptcy, they adjudge the party bankrupt (§ 24), subject to review. 
 After adjudication, the commissioners appoint the meetings for the bankrupt to 
 surrender and conform (§25), and at these, and every dividend meeting, creditors 
 may prove their debts before the commissioners. [Proof.] The commissioners 
 are empowered, after adjudication, to summon before them persons suspected of 
 having any part of the bankrupt estate in their possession, or ofbeing indebted to tho 
 bankrupt, or any individuals who can give information as to his person, trade, or deal- 
 ings, and they may require such individuals to produce books, papers, and vouchers. 
 They can enforce attendance by warrants (§ 33). The examination may be on oath, 
 and either written or verbal, and parties may be required to sign written answers. 
 On refusal to answer lawful questions, to produce vouchers, or to sign answers to 
 questions, the commissioners may commit the party without bail, until satisfactory 
 answers are given, and the other directions of the act are complied with (§ 34). 
 The commissioners are empowered to allow charges to witnesses, who must, as in 
 service of a subpoena, have their expenses tendered (§ 35). They have similar 
 authority to examine the bankrupt, and the same means of enforcing attendance, 
 and " it shall be lawful for them to examine such bankrupt upon oath, either by 
 word of mouth, or on interrogatories in writing, touching all matters relating either 
 to his trade, dealings, or estate, or which may tend to disclose any secret grant, 
 conveyance, or concealment of his lands, tenements, goods, money, or debts, and to 
 reduce his answers into writing, which examination, so reduced into writing, the 
 said bankrupt shall sign and subscribe." And the commissioners are empowered 
 to imprison him to remain without bail " until he shall submit himself to the said 
 commissioners to be sworn, and full answers make to their satisfaction to such 
 questions as shall be put to him, and sign and subscribe such examination " (§ 36). 
 The commissioners may examine the bankrupt's wife, with like means of enforce- 
 ment, " for the finding out and discovery of the estate, goods, and chattels of such 
 bankrupt, concealed, kept, or disposed of by such wife, in her own person, or by 
 her own act, or by any other person " (§ 37). Quakers may make solemn affirma- 
 tion on such examinations, and falsehood, either under oath or solemn affirmation, 
 infers the punishment of perjury (§ 99). § 39 of the act regulates the course to be 
 adopted by the courts of law when applied to by habeas corpus or otherwise to 
 interfere with commitments under the act. § 40 provides for the protection of the 
 
COM 196 COM 
 
 commissioners in cases of actions of damages. No single commissioner of the Court 
 of Bankruptcy can commit an individual, except to a messenger of the court, to be 
 brought before a subdivision court, or court of review, within three days (1 & 2 
 Wm. IV. c. 56, § 7). In the examinations a witness is not bound to answer a 
 question which may criminate him, or expose him to penalties, but it will not serve 
 as a ground of protection that the answer may expose him to a civil claim. " And 
 a bankrupt may not only be compelled to disclose the disposition of his property, 
 and the mode of it, although such instances may tend to prove an act of bankruptcy, 
 but he may be examined as to whether a deed was voluntary ; and he cannot refuse 
 to discover the particulars relating to his estate, although such information may 
 tend to show that he has committed a criminal act ; but if the question put to him 
 be, whether or not he has done an act clearly criminal, he may refuse to answer it " 
 ( Henley's B. L. 91). Any commissioner of the Court of Bankruptcy may adjourn an 
 examination, or a proof of debt, to a subdivision court, or a court of review ; and 
 if a commissioner decide any point of law or equity, or as to the refusal or admission 
 of evidence in the case of a disputed debt, the decision is subject to review (1 & 2 
 Wm. IV. c. 56, §§ 30, 31). Commissioners of the Court of Bankruptcy are judges 
 of record, and have the corresponding privileges and protections (lb. § 1). The 
 country commissioners are protected in the execution of their duty by 6 Geo. 
 IV. c. 16, § 41-44. {Statutes, as quoted. Henley's B. L. 79-97-) 
 
 In Ireland there was, by the original bankruptcy act, 6 Wm. IV. c. 14, one 
 commissioner, but a second was added by 7 Wm. IV. and 1 Vict. c. 48. In each 
 bankruptcy, a separate commission is issued under the great seal to one of the 
 commissioners, but they only require each to take one oath of office ( § 4). The 
 commissioner summons the bankrupt, subjects him to examination, inquires into 
 the trading and bankruptcy by witnesses and documents, in the same manner as 
 the commissioners in England, and he has similar remedies for enforcing attend- 
 ance. The Lord Chancellor may, on affidavit or otherwise, issue an extraordinary 
 commission, for proof of debts, examination of witnesses, and other matters, while 
 the person so appointed possesses the same powers to compel attendance of wit- 
 nesses, and examine them, and to enforce production of documents, as the official 
 commissioner (§ 57). [Bankruptcy.] 
 
 In Scotland there are commissioners appointed in each sequestration or bank- 
 ruptcy, whose situation and duties, however, are very different from those above 
 described. They form a committee of three creditors, who are the assessors or 
 council of the trustee, and whose consent is necessary to certain transactions con- 
 nected with sequestrations. They are chosen at the meeting for electing the trustee, 
 and in the same manner, by creditors duly qualified. [Trustee.] They must be 
 chosen from among the creditors or mandatories, and their election is declared by 
 the Sheriff. Where a commissioner has become disqualified, or has otherwise 
 ceased to act, the trustee must call a meeting to elect a new one. The commis- 
 sioners must concur with the trustee in submissions and other transactions. They 
 meet at stated intervals to examine into the proceedings of the trustee, audit his 
 books, and declare dividends. They fix the trustee's remuneration, and have the 
 privilege of assembling when they think fit, to ascertain the situation of the estate. 
 Two are a quorum. They are not entitled to purchase property sold under the 
 bankruptcy. [Sequestration. Trustee.] (2 & 3 Vict. c. 41. Burton's Manual 
 of the Law of Scotland.) 
 
 COMPANY, an association of persons for the prosecution of a common under- 
 taking. In carrying on those costly enterprises in which the capital of a commer- 
 cial country is employed, the resources and the mind of one person are often 
 inadequate. They require the combined capital and industry of many, with the 
 unity of purpose and of person which belongs to an individual. Hence the origin 
 of companies, of which the following kinds may be distinguished : — 
 
 Private Companies, or voluntary associations of two or more persons for the 
 acquisition of profit, with a contribution for that end, of stipulated shares of pro- 
 perty and industry; accompanied by an unlimited mandate to each partner to bind 
 the company in the line of its employment, and a guarantee to third parties of all 
 the engagements undertaken in the social name. Companies of this kind may be 
 subdivided into Partnerships and Joint-Adventures, under which heads, respect- 
 ively, these contracts are fully described. 
 
 Joint-Stock Companies differ from the preceding in respect,— 1st, That the credit is 
 placed on the joint-stock of the company, as indicated by a descriptive name, instead 
 of being personal, as indicated by a firm ; 2d, That the management is delegated by 
 the partners to a body of directors ; and, 3d, That the shares are transferable. 
 
COM 197 COM 
 
 Public or Chartered Companies are of different kinds. A royal charter enables 
 a joint-stock company to enjoy the privileges of a corporation, and trade under a 
 limited responsibility ; the shares of such a company are transferable ; the company 
 itself undissolved by the death or bankruptcy of partners ; and the management and 
 title to pursue are vested in the officers appointed according to the charter. But to 
 give the privilege of monopoly to a company, there must be an Act of Parliament, 
 as in the cases of the East India Company and Bank of England. 
 
 Regulated Companies are chartered commercial associations which do not trade 
 upon a joint-stock, but are obliged to admit any person properly qualified, upon 
 paying a certain fine, and agreeing to submit to the regulations of the company, 
 each member trading upon his own stock, and at his own risk. After the revival 
 of commerce in the loth, 16th, and 17th centuries, it was the practice in most 
 modern states to assign such branches of trade as were reckoned peculiarly hazard- 
 ous to the exclusive management of such companies, who were authorized to levy 
 duties, and to provide for their common defence ana security, as few governments 
 had then ships and troops to spare for the defence of their subjects in remote 
 regions. But the necessity for these associations, if it ever existed, ceased long 
 ago ; and of the regulated companies which were formerly established in Britain, 
 as the Hamburg Company, the Russia Company, the Turkey Company, the African 
 Company, and others {Wealth of Nations, b. 5, c. 1), a few only exist in name ; 
 all British subjects being now at liberty to trade with friendly countries, on their 
 conforming to the regulations laid down by such countries, and to our customs laws. 
 
 Patent Companies are associations instituted under the act 7 Wm. IV. & 1 Vict, 
 c. 73, which provides for the limitation and regulation of the partners by letters 
 patent ; in this way avoiding those cumbrous peculiarities of a corporation which 
 are inconvenient to a mere trading company, and rendering the expense of an Act 
 of Parliament unnecessary. 
 
 Societes en Commandite, though not sanctioned by the British laws, are common 
 in France and elsewhere. They consist of a number of individuals, of whom one 
 or more undertake the management, and are held indefinitely responsible for all 
 engagements, as in the case of ordinary partnerships ; and the others are mere 
 shareholders, responsible only to the amount of their contributions, either paid up 
 or contracted to be paid into the joint-stock of the association. The first, called in 
 France commandites, may be designated managing partners; and the second, called 
 commanditaires, non-responsible partners, or simply shareholders. Thus the com- 
 mandite association is intermediate in its character between an ordinary partner- 
 ship and a privileged trading company. The managing partners are liable in their 
 whole fortunes ; the others only in a limited sum. 
 
 The Constitution of Companies, in regard to the mutual rights of the partners, and their liabili- 
 ties to the public, will be treated in detail under the heads Partnership and Joint-Stock Com- 
 pany. But an opportunity will be here taken to describe those proceedings which are usual or 
 necessary in the institution of a company to undertake the formation of a railway, canal, or other 
 work requiring a private Act of Parliament. In the prosecution of such undertakings, the first 
 step usually taken is for the projectors to draw up the plan of the association, with a statement of 
 the advantages to be derived from it, and the proposed method of carrying it into effect. This is 
 submitted to a meeting of those interested. If the plan be approved, a subscription is opened to 
 defray immediate expenses, and means are taken to give publicity to the plan so adopted, in order 
 to procure shareholders. An estimate has generally been formed of the amount which is considered 
 sufficient for the completion of the object ; and the .-hares are agreed to be paid in such proportions 
 and at such times as shall be afterwards fixed by the bill. In the view of introducing a private bill 
 into Parliament, surveys are then made, and plans prepared, together with a list containing the 
 names of every person whose interests are immediately affected, or whose estate, or any part 
 thereof, is required for the purposes of the undertaking. Duplicates of this list, having three 
 blank columns, headed assenting, dissenting, and neutral, are forwarded to every such person, to 
 be signed by him in whichever column he pleases, and numerous other regulations are established 
 by the * ' Standing Orders " of the two Houses of Parliament, for the purpose of securing to private 
 bills, in their progress, the observation of all whose interests they may affect; for an account of 
 which we must refer to these orders themselves. 
 
 The preliminaries prescribed by the standing orders of the House of Commons having been 
 fulfilled within a certain defined "time before the assembling of Parliament, and subscribers ob- 
 tained to the amount of at least three-fourths of the estimated expense, one-tenth of which sub- 
 scribed amount is also required by the same orders to be paid up and deposited in the Bank of 
 England, in a chartered bank in Scotland, or invested in government securities,— the draft of 
 the bill is prepared, and a petition is addressed to the House, praying that it may be re- 
 ceived. This petition must be presented on or before a certain day in each session, which 
 is always fixed at the commencement of the session, and is usually within a fortnight or three 
 weeks thereafter. H presented in time, with the necessary documents and plans, it is referred 
 to a select committee, taken bv ballot from certain lists into which the whole House is divided, 
 for particular divisions of the'country. This committee having ascertained that the standing 
 orders have all been complied with, report the same to the House, and the bill, having been 
 printed, and copies distributed among the members, is received and read a first time. After the 
 
COM 198 COM 
 
 lapse of a certain number of days, it is moved that the bill be read a second time, when, if any 
 objection is made, it is then stated, and the bill is either rejected or referred to a select committee, 
 who consider it clause by clause, and are empowered to examine witnesses, and to hear counsel 
 both in support and opposition. The committee, in almost every case, introduce a maximum of 
 the toll, or duty, or rent (according to the nature of the measure), to be levied, and in many cases 
 declare a maximum of interest to be divided on the capital, and order the surplus to be invested 
 in the public funds till the amount is sufficient to repay the advances by the shareholders,— the 
 improvement to be then thrown open for the free enjoyment of the public. In many cases also 
 provision is made to secure the completion of the work when once begun. The committee having 
 completed their labours, announce their decision in a report ; after which the House proceeds to 
 the third reading of the bill, when it may be again discussed, though the report of the committee 
 is in most cases agreed to without any farther opposition. If the bill is passed, it is carried to the 
 House of Lords, where it goes through nearly the same forms ; and if it be finally approved of by 
 the Upper House, and receive the royal sanction, it becomes an Act of Parliament. It should 
 also be stated, that early in the sessio'n the House fixes periods within which the different stages 
 of private bills are required to be forwarded. 
 
 The expenses of carrying the generality of such bills through Parliament are very considerable. 
 A much higher amount of fees is paid in the case of a private bill than in that of a public bill, to 
 the clerks and other officers of the two Houses ; besides which, the expenses of agency, of bringing 
 up witnesses, and the other charges attending the making application to Parliament for a private 
 bill, at present often amount to many times as much as the fees. The following shows the expenses 
 of constituting several of the English railway companies : — 
 
 London and Birmingham railway (1 12J miles) ; payments for act of incorporation, £72,868. 
 
 North Midland railway (72 miles), £40,588. 
 
 Great Western railway (114 miles), £38,710. 
 
 Southampton railway (75 miles), expended in raising capital, procuring act, &c, £39,040. 
 
 Liverpool and Manchester railway ; parliamentary and law expenditure, £28,465. 
 
 COMPASS (the Mariner's), an instrument employed in directing the course of 
 vessels at sea. It consists of a circular card, having a magnetized needle attached 
 to the back of it, so as to form one of its diameters ; this diameter being supported 
 on a point, and exactly balanced on its centre, turns freely round with the card, 
 which by a particular contrivance is so suspended within a cylindrical box that it 
 remains perfectly horizontal, notwithstanding the irregular motions to which a ship 
 is liable at sea : it is the property of the needle, when thus balanced, to point nearly 
 to the North Pole ; whence, by simply looking at the position of the needle, the 
 mariner can see the direction in which the vessel is sailing, and regulate his steering 
 accordingly. 
 
 The course indicated by the needle, however, is only the magnetic bearing, which 
 is seldom the true direction ; for the magnet rarely points exactly north, being 
 subject to two errors from different causes, called the variation and the deviation. 
 The former is the result of a slow progressive alteration in the position of the 
 magnetic pole, which, within certain limits, moves from east to west, and back 
 again from west to east. When it was first noticed, about the middle of the 16th 
 century, the needle in London pointed some degrees to the east of the true north ; 
 this variation gradually became less, till in 1660 it coincided with the North Pole 
 of the earth; it then gradually varied to the west, till in 1828 the variation 
 amounted to about 25° ; since which it has decreased, being at present about 24°. 
 It also changes 10 or 15 minutes at different times of the day. The variation of 
 the compass, however, is very different in different parts of the globe, and must 
 therefore be determined at sea by comparing the true bearing of a celestial object 
 with its bearing by compass, which is done by a finer instrument called an azimuth 
 compass. The cause of the variation of the compass has hitherto eluded the re- 
 searches of philosophers. Captain Parry discovered that when he had passed to 
 the north of a certain spot westward of Hudson's Strait, the needle, which had 
 been previously varying to an extreme degree, absolutely went half round the com- 
 pass, and this continued to be the case until he had sailed considerably farther 
 north. Whether this peculiar attraction had any reference to the real magnetic 
 pole, further observations will perhaps determine. — The deviation of the compass 
 is a local error, occasioned by the attraction of iron on board ship : it was first ob- 
 served by Mr Wales, the astronomer of Captain Cook, and has been the cause of 
 numerous shipwrecks : an ingenious method of discovering its amount, however, 
 has been lately invented by Professor Barlow. The dip of the needle is a devia- 
 tion from its horizontal line ; it is different in different places, and, like the varia- 
 tion, undergoes slow changes : its diurnal change is not perceptible. 
 
 The inventor of the mariner's compass is not known. It was employed in Europe 
 in navigation, about the middle of the 13th century, but the exact date of its intro- 
 duction is matter of doubt. The Chinese, however, are said to have been acquainted 
 with it much earlier. The attractive power of the loadstone was known to the 
 ancient Egyptians, but was not by them applied to any practical purpose. [Com- 
 merce.] 
 
COM 199 COM 
 
 COMPOSITION-CONTRACT, an agreement between a bankrupt trader and 
 his creditors, by which, on its being ratified according to the terms of the statutes, 
 the debtor is relieved from the farther operation of the bankrupt laws. 
 
 In England, by the bankrupt statute 6 Geo. IV. c. 16, this practice was intro- 
 duced from the sequestration law of Scotland. By § 133, any meeting after the 
 bankrupt has passed his last examination (of which and its purport 21 days' no- 
 tice shall have been given in the Gazette), if he or his friends make an offer 
 of composition, or security for composition, agreed to by nine-tenths in number 
 and value of the creditors present, another meeting is to be appointed, and if at 
 that meeting nine-tenths in number and value agree, the bankruptcy is to be super- 
 seded. By § 134, a creditor whose debt is less than £20, is not reckoned in number, 
 but his debt must be computed in value. Any creditor to the amount of £50 
 residing out of England, must have notice of the meeting so long before as to have 
 time to vote, and such creditor may vote by letter of attorney, as in the case of 
 assignees. A creditor agreeing to accept any gratuity or higner composition for 
 assenting, forfeits the debt and the gratuity ; and the bankrupt may be compelled 
 to make oath that no such transaction has taken place, and that he has used no 
 undue means to obtain the assent of his creditors. The composition-contract 
 having been in use in Scotland since 1793, the practice in that part of the island 
 will in a great measure regulate that of England, except where a distinction is 
 created by statute. 
 
 In Scotland, by the late sequestration act, 2 & 3 Vict. c. 41, an offer of composi- 
 tion may be made at the meeting appointed for electing a trustee. [Trustee.} If 
 a majority in number and nine-tenths in value, at the meeting, agree to entertain 
 the offer, the trustee must advertise in the Edinburgh Gazette that an offer has 
 been made and entertained, and that it will be decided upon at" a meeting to be 
 held after the bankrupt's examination, stating the day, hour, and place of the 
 meeting. He' must also send a circular by post to each creditor claiming, or men- 
 tioned in the bankrupt's state, containing a notice of the resolution and meeting, 
 with a specification of the offer and security, and an abstract of the state of the 
 affairs and valuation of the estate, " so far as the same can be done, to enable the 
 creditors to judge of the said offer and security " (§ 113). If at the meeting, a 
 majority in number and nine-tenths in value accept, a bond of caution [Cautionary 
 Obligation] by the bankrupt and his cautioner may be lodged with the trustee. 
 The trustee has then to send a report of the resolution of the meeting and the bond 
 of cautionary to the Bill- Chamber Clerk of the Court of Session, or the Sheriff- 
 Clerk of the" district. The latter alternative is made, that the trustee may have 
 the decision of the Lord Ordinary, or of the Sheriff, according to his choice. If 
 the judge find that the requisites are complied with, he must judicially approve of 
 the composition, after hearing all objections by opposing creditors, " and if he shall 
 refuse to sustain the offer, or reject the vote of any creditor, he shall specify the 
 grounds of refusal or rejection (§ 114). The second occasion for an offer is at the 
 meeting after the examination, or at any subsequent meeting called for the purpose 
 by the trustee, with consent of the commissioners [Commissioners], when if a 
 majority in number and four-fifths in value resolve to entertain the offer, the 
 trustee must send notice to the creditors, as above, for a meeting within 21 days. 
 At the meeting, a majority in number and four -fifths in value may accept the 
 offer. The proceedings must be judicially certified as above (§ 115). If an offer 
 having been made has been rejected, or has otherwise become ineffectual, no second 
 offer can be entertained, unless nine-tenths in number and value assent in writing, 
 and the offer, stating the amount of composition and the terms of payment, be sub- 
 scribed by the cautioner. Such an offer not only requires to be accepted by a 
 majority in number and nine-tenths in value of the creditors called to a meeting by 
 the trustee, but to be assented to by nine-tenths in value of all the creditors who 
 have produced affidavits (§ 121). Before a composition is approved of, the com- 
 missioners have to audit the trustee's accounts, and ascertain the balance, subject 
 to review by the Lord Ordinary or Sheriff (§ 117). The bankrupt and his cautioner 
 in the composition are precluded from objecting to any debt given up by the bank- 
 rupt in his " state," or admitted in his offer of composition, and likewise to any 
 security held by a creditor, unless an objection have been made in the offer of com- 
 position, written notice having been given to the creditor (§ 119). A creditor who 
 has not produced his claim before the date of the judicial approval of the com- 
 
 Sjsition, has no claim against the cautioner after two years from its date (§ 120). 
 n a composition being approved of, and the bankrupt taking the declaration or 
 oath prescribed by the statute, he is discharged. (§ 116,) 
 
CON 200 CON 
 
 In Ireland, by 6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 14, §§ 151 & 152, the composition-contract was 
 established in the same terms as by §§ 133 & 134 of 6 Geo. IV. c. 16 in England, 
 the notice of meeting being given in the Dublin Gazette. 
 
 CONESSI, the bark of the oval-leaved rosebay( Wrightia antidyseritericum). It 
 is obtained chiefly at Tellicherry, on the Malabar coast, whence it is sometimes 
 called Tellicherry bark. It has lately been introduced into the British materia 
 medica. (Ainslie's Mat. Indica.) 
 
 CONEY, or RABBIT (Fr. Lapin. Ger. Koniglein. It. Coniglio. Sp.Conejo), a 
 well-known rodential little animal (Lepus Cuniculus, Linn.) remarkable for its 
 fecundity,— beginning to breed at the age of six months, and producing several litters 
 \i a year, generally from five to seven or eight at a time. Its fur is in considerable 
 demand, particularly for the hat trade ; at one time the silver-haired varieties, or 
 silver sprigs, were much valued for ornamental linings to cloaks, and other pieces 
 of dress. Coney furs are a common article of import. 
 
 CONSIGNMENT is an expression employed to designate any transaction by 
 which an individual in one place transmits or consigns goods to an individual 
 in another place, to be at his disposal under conditions expressed or implied. 
 The person who transmits the goods is called the consigner, — he who receives them 
 the consignee. Consigner and consignee are used by merchants to express gen- 
 erally the shipper of merchandise, and the person to whom they are addressed, by 
 bill of lading or otherwise. The most ordinary description of consignment is that 
 to a factor, who has to traffic with the goods for the use of his principal, and 
 who may deal with third parties not warned of limitations to his power, as if he 
 were the principal. [Factor, and substance of the Factor's Act under that head,] 
 Cargoes are sometimes consigned from debtors to creditors in satisfaction of debt, 
 and sometimes as a fund of credit for advances, the consigner being entitled to 
 draw on the consignee to a certain amount, or the latter advancing cash to the 
 former. On failure of the consigner, the consignee has a lien on the goods in his 
 hand for his advances. (Paley on Principal and Agent.) [Factor. Lien.] 
 
 CONSOLIDATED FUND. [Budget. Revenue and Expenditure.] 
 
 CONSOLS, a familiar term used to denote the portion of the national debt of the 
 United Kingdom forming the 3 per cent, consolidated annuities. 
 
 CONSUL, an officer appointed by a government to reside in some foreign 
 country for the purpose of facilitating and protecting the commerce of the subjects 
 of such government. Consuls are not in general reckoned among diplomatic min- 
 isters ; but in some particular cases (such as that of the consuls-general sent to 
 some of the semi-barbarous states of Africa), having diplomatic duties to perform, 
 they are accredited and treated as ministers. According to the general instruc- 
 tions of the British government, a consul must study " to become conversant with 
 the laws and general principles which relate to the trade of Great Britain with 
 foreign parts ; to make himself acquainted with the language, and with the muni- 
 cipal laws of the country wherein he resides, and especially with such laws as have 
 any connexion with the trade between the two countries." His principal duties are 
 " to protect and promote the lawful trade and trading interests of Great Britain 
 by every fair and proper means ;" " to caution all British subjects against carrying 
 on an illicit commerce to the detriment of the revenue, and in violation of the laws 
 and regulations of England, or of the country in which he resides ;" " to give his 
 best advice and assistance, whenever called upon, to his Majesty's trading subjects, 
 quieting their differences, promoting peace, harmony, and good-will amongst them, 
 and conciliating as much as possible the subjects of the two countries upon all 
 points of difference which may fall under his cognizance;" and to uphold the right- 
 ful interests and privileges of British subjects both in person and property, placing, 
 however, cases where redress cannot be obtained from the local authorities in the 
 hands of the British minister. The consul is also required to send annually to the 
 Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs a return of the trade at the ports within his 
 consulate ; and to transmit quarterly a weekly account of the prices of agricultural 
 produce, with the course of exchange, and any remarks connected with these sub- 
 jects which he may consider necessary. He is further required to acquaint his own 
 tovernment with the appearance of any contagious disease at the place of his resi- 
 ence ; to afford relief to any distressed British subjects thrown upon the coast, or 
 reaching by chance any place within his district ; and to furnish intelligence, ob- 
 tain supplies, and generally assist any king's ships coming within his consulate. 
 
 The consuls appointed by our government are generally British subjects ; but 
 this is not an invariable rule. Previous to the year 1814, the greater part of the 
 English consuls abroad, who held commissions under the crown, were merchants at 
 
CON 201 CON 
 
 the respective places of their consular residence. Many of those consuls had no 
 salary from government ; their emoluments consisted of fees, which they levied 
 upon the tonnage of British ships, and upon the value of their cargoes. This mode 
 of remunerating these officers having created dissatisfaction among the commercial 
 classes, a new system was introduced in the year 1826, and an act of Parliament 
 was passed to abolish all consular fees on tonnage and cargoes, and to enable the 
 crown to give remunerating salaries to consuls. According to the system founded 
 upon the act of 1826, it was determined " that British consuls should not be in any 
 way concerned, directlv or indirectly, in commercial pursuits." This system was 
 acted upon witn some few exceptions until the year 1832, when a very considerable 
 reduction was made in the salaries assigned to them, and " permission was 
 given to engage in commercial pursuits," as a set-off against the reduction of sal- 
 ary. Thus, the principle established in 1826 was reversed, and restriction " to 
 engage in mercantile pursuits " made the exception instead of the rule. 
 
 Table of Fees payable to Consuls-general and Consuls by the act 6 Geo. IV. c. 87. 
 Table (A.) 
 
 Registrations 1 dollar 
 
 Visa of passport j 
 
 Valuation of goods 1 per ct. 
 
 Attending sales i per cent, where there lias been 
 
 a charge for valuing, otherwise 1 per cent. 
 Attendance, out of consular office, at a ship- 
 wreck, five dollars per diem for his personal 
 expenses, over and above his travelling ex- 
 penses. 
 
 Do, on opening a will 5 dollars 
 
 Management of property of British sub- 
 jects dying intestate 2J per ct. 
 
 The dollars mentioned in the preceding tables 
 are in all cases to be paid by the delivery of dol- 
 lars, each of which is to be of the value of 4s. 6d. 
 sterling, and no more, according to the rate of 
 exchange prevailing at the place where such pay- 
 ment is made. 
 
 Certificate of due landing of goods exported from 
 the United Kingdom 2 dollars 
 
 Signature of ship's manifest 2 
 
 Certificate of origin, when required 2 
 
 Bill of health, when required 2 
 
 Signature of muster-roll, when.required.2 . . 
 
 Attestation of a signature, when re- 
 quired 1 
 
 Administering an oath, when required.. J . . 
 
 Seal of office, and signature of any 
 other document not specified herein, 
 
 when required 1 
 
 Table (B.) 
 
 Bottomry or arbitration bond 2 
 
 Noting a protest 1 
 
 Order of survey 2 
 
 Extending a protest or survey 1 
 
 CONTINENTAL SYSTEM. [Commerce.] 
 
 CONTO, a Portuguese word, denoting a million. A conto of reis is 1000 milreis; 
 commonly expressed 1000 $000. 
 
 CONTRABAND, from the Italian Contrabando, contrary to proclamation, is 
 applied in one sense to the goods which are prohibited to be exported or imported, 
 on the ground of theories regarding national policy, or protection to home pro- 
 duce. These are embodied in the customs duties act, 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 52, an 
 abridgment of which will be found under the title Customs. Contraband of war is 
 applied by belligerent powers to the furnishing of arms, provisions, or other assist- 
 ance to powers with which they are at war, by neutral states, or their own subjects. 
 Like most other questions in the law of nations, it is exceedingly difficult to decide 
 what goods may or may not give assistance in the furtherance of hostilities, and 
 consequently what are or are not contraband. " Not only arms, powder, ball, and 
 other ammunition, but also horses and furniture, pitch, tar, sails, hemp, and cord- 
 age, masts, yards, and all other necessaries for the building or equipment of ships, 
 are generally considered as contraband" (Marshall on Insurance^ 73). The 
 penalties where neutrals convey contraband, are somewhat arbitrary, depending 
 often on the power of the nation that enforces them. Formerly the vessel and 
 cargo were forfeited, but in later times the penalty has generally been mitigated. 
 It is treasonable in a subject of Britain to supply contraband to a nation with 
 which this country is at war, and all contracts, including insurances, made here, 
 in relation to the conveyance of contraband, whether by British subjects or 
 neutrals, are void. (76. 72-79.) 
 
 CONTRACT, or AGREEMENT, may be denned the legally expressed con- 
 sent of two or more persons to give and receive some specified benefit. 
 
 In England, a person non compos cannot enter into an agreement. By the origi- 
 nal principles of the law, infants, or minors, that is, persons under twenty-one 
 years of age, cannot contract. In practice, however, in general, their contracts 
 for their benefit are supported, while they are entitled to recede from those to their 
 prejudice. A minor may bind himself for necessaries, such as food, clothing, medi- 
 cine, and education ; and in judging of what are necessaries, the comparative age 
 and position of the party will be considered. Thus, where a minor was a captain 
 in the army, he was held liable to pay for his servant's livery,— his situation being 
 
CON 202 CON 
 
 held as requiring such an attendant (Hands v. Slaney, 8 T. R. 578). If one lends 
 money to a minor, it would seem that the borrower will not be bound though he 
 lay it out on necessaries, as the necessity is judged of from the nature of the con- 
 tract, not from what the minor may do m consequence of it. By 9 Geo. IV. c. 14, 
 § 5. a confirmation by one of full age, of a contract incurred in minority, cannot be 
 validly made except in writing. A wife during intermarriage is incapable, without 
 her husband's consent, of entering on an agreement, in the general case ; but with 
 respect to her separate property, she is entitled to act as if she were a single woman. 
 (2 Vesey, senior, 190.) 
 
 All agreements to do an act on one side, should have a consideration on the other; 
 but a deed duly executed, in the most solemn manner, under seal, is binding without 
 a consideration ; and negotiable instruments, such as bills and notes, bind without 
 consideration, where the interest of third parties is involved. [Bill.] In the 
 general case courts of law will not interfere either to enforce voluntary agreements, 
 not having any of these qualifications, unless creditors or other third parties have 
 an interest, or to annul them, unless in cases of fraud. The party injured by breach 
 of agreement, may have recourse at common law, or in equity, according to the 
 circumstances. Where specific performance is demanded, the latter is the proper 
 tribunal : Where damages for non-performance will compensate the claimant, a 
 court of law and a jury should be resorted to. " Therefore, in general, they (Courts 
 of Equity) will not allow a bill for a specific performance of contracts of stock, 
 corn, hops, or other articles of merchandise, but will leave the plaintiff to his 
 remedy at law." (Bacon's Ab. ; Agreements, B. 1, note.) 
 
 By the statute of Frauds, 29 Ch. II. c. 3, among many provisions which refer 
 chiefly to agreements as to real property, it is by § 4 enacted, " That no action 
 shall be brought whereby to charge any executor or administrator, upon any 
 special promise, to answer damages out of his own estate, or whereby to charge 
 the defendant, upon any special promise, to answer for the debt, default, or mis- 
 carriages of another person ; or to charge any person upon any agreement made 
 upon consideration of marriage, or upon any contract or sale of lands, tenements, 
 or hereditaments, or any interest in or concerning them ; or upon any agreement 
 that is not to be performed within the space of one year from the making thereof ; 
 unless the agreement upon which such action shall be brought, or some memoran- 
 dum or note thereof, shall be in writing, signed by the party to be charged there- 
 with, or some other person thereunto by him lawfully authorized." By a still 
 more important enactment (§ 17), " no contract for the sale of any goodsj wares, 
 and merchandise for the price of ten pounds sterling or upwards, shall be allowed 
 to be good, except the buyer shall accept of part of the goods so sold, and actually 
 receive the same, or give something in earnest to bind the bargain, or in part of 
 payment ; or that some note or memorandum in writing of the said bargain be 
 made and signed by the parties to be charged, or their agents thereunto lawfully 
 authorized." By 9 Geo. IV. c. 14, § 7, this provision is declared to apply, though 
 the goods may not be made, or fit for delivery at the time of the agreement. With 
 regard to the delivery, where goods are ponderous, it may be symbolical, as by de- 
 livery of the key of the warehouse. Acceptance of samples is only held accept- 
 ance of a part, when it really is part of the bulk. The consideration need not be 
 expressed in the memorandum. This document may consist of two separate 
 writings. Where the seller only signed, and the name of the buyer did not appear, 
 it was held insufficient (Champion v. Plummer, I. Bos. 4* Pul. 252). Where one 
 expresses his consent by writing his name, it is of no consequence whether it be 
 by subscription, or in the body of the memorandum. An agreement in part per- 
 formed, is not affected by the statute. Such acts must be done distinctly with the 
 view of fulfilling the agreement. (Bacon's Ab. ; voce Agreements.) 
 
 In Ireland, the equivalent to the English statute of frauds is 7 Wm. III. c. 12, 
 which is amended as above by 9 Geo. IV. c.14. 
 
 CONVOY, in the law of shipping, is applied to a naval force appointed by the 
 government, for the protection of vessels plying between certain ports in time of 
 war. An obligation to sail with convoy has occasionally been created and en- 
 forced by act of Parliament (see 38 Geo. III. c. 76, & 43 Geo. III. c. 57), while at 
 other times it has been left to the private arrangement of the parties interested, in 
 their capacity of underwriters, &c. It was decided in 1783, that an obligation to 
 sail with convoy is not fulfilled by incidentally accompanying and being under the 
 protection of a ship of war, and that only vessels commissioned for that express 
 purpose by the government constitute convoy (Park on Insurance, 449). The 
 admiral commanding-in-chief on a foreign station, is, however, the representative 
 
COP 203 COP 
 
 of the government to the effect of appointing such protection. It frequently happens 
 that the convoy does not sail from the same port as the vessel ; when this £3 the 
 case, the obligation on the master is to proceed, in the usual manner, to the place 
 of rendezvous. Convoys cannot generally be appointed for every individual voyage 
 during its whole continuance, and in such cases vessels may have to conclude their 
 voyages unprotected. Each voyage is, however, attached to some particular con- 
 voy, which must be kept company with so far as it goes. The master of a vessel 
 bound to join convoy must immediately apply for sailing instructions, that he may 
 be able to obey the signals, and may know the place of rendezvous in case of separa- 
 tion. Unless it be owing to impediments over which the master has no control, he 
 is not considered as having put himself under the protection of convoy, until he 
 has obtained sailing instructions. The principal questions as to sailing with con- 
 voy arise out of cases where it is a warranty specified or implied in insurances, and 
 in this view it will be discussed under the head Warranty. 
 
 COPAIBA, or COPAIVA, commonly called a balsam, but properly an oleo-resin 
 or turpentine, is a drug obtained from the Copaifera officinalis, a native of South 
 America, and from other species of the same tree. Two kinds are sometimes distin- 
 guished, and named from the countries in which they are produced, the Brazilian 
 (chiefly from the province of Para), and the West Indian. The former is thin, 
 clear, of a pale colour, pleasant aromatic smell, and of an acrid bitter taste: while 
 the latter is thick, golden yellow, not transparent, and of less agreeable smell, even 
 resembling turpentine. Sp. gr. *980. It is often adulterated with castor-oil and 
 the finer sorts of turpentines. When good, it should be completely soluble in alcohol 
 of the strength of 90 per cent. ; but the simplest test of its purity is to heat a small 
 quantity in a watch-glass, when, if good, a hard brittle resin remains. This drug 
 is celebrated for its action as a stimulant to the mucous surfaces. About 320 cwts. 
 are annually entered for home consumption. 
 
 COPAL, a peculiar kind of resin obtained from a large tree {Rhus copallinum), 
 found in various tropical countries. It usually appears m the form of round, hard, 
 shining, transparent masses, brittle, tasteless, ana nearly inodorous ; and is gene- 
 rally of a lemon hue, though the best is nearly colourless. It is fusible and inflam- 
 mable, insoluble in water, and differs from most other resins in being very 
 sparingly soluble in alcohol. It is, however, dissolved by ether and some essential 
 oils, though with difficulty. The resin is chiefly employed with oil of turpentine in 
 making copal varnish, a substance which, when carefully prepared, is durable, sus- 
 ceptible of a brilliant polish, and so hard as to resist scratches. It is applied to 
 tea-boards, snuff-boxes and other utensils, and also to the preservation and restor- 
 ation of paintings. Copal is principally imported from Africa, though small 
 quantities are occasionally brought from Mexico and the East Indies. 
 
 COPPER (Fr. Cuivre. Ger. Kupfer. It. Rome. Por. Cobre. Rus. Mjed. 
 Sp. Cobre. Sw. Koppar), a metal of a beautiful red colour, and considerable 
 lustre. It is very malleable and ductile, and has a peculiar smell when warmed or 
 rubbed. It is so tenacious that a wire 1-lOth of an inch in diameter will support 
 nearly 300 lbs. Sp. gr. 8*8. Fusing point 1996° Fahr. The uses of this metal are infe- 
 rior only to those of iron. It is used for coin, for covering the bottoms of ships, for 
 boilers, and a great variety of utensils ; also in the manufacture of colours, and in 
 medicine. Its alloys are noticed under the heads of Bell-metal, Brass, Bronze, 
 German Silver, Speculum Metal, and Pinchbeck. 
 
 Copper is found in the metallic state in nature, but not in great quantities. 
 An amorphous mass is said to have been discovered in Brazil, weighing 2666 
 Portuguese pounds. The great source of its supply is an ore in which the metal is 
 found combined with sulphur. In both states it is obtained in almost every mineral 
 district in the world, in heds, or more commonly in veins in primitive and second- 
 ary mountains, accompanied by several other mineral substances. Mines of cop- 
 per are largely worked in England, Chili, Cuba, Germany, Sweden, and Siberia ; 
 those of France, Spain, Hungary, Norway, and Ireland, are of much less conse- 
 quence. 
 
 The English mines were scarcely worked prior to last century ; they are chiefly 
 situated in Cornwall, where the most common ore consists of copper, iron, and sulphur, 
 in nearly equal proportions, and is called yellow copper ore, or copper pyrites ; veins 
 are also worked in the counties of Devon, Anglesey (particularly in Pary's mountain 
 near Amlwch), and Stafford. Owing to the want of fuel in Cornwall and Devon, the 
 ores are shipped from these countries to South Wales to be smelted, principally to 
 works situated on the navigable rivers of Swansea and Neath; the smaller quantity 
 of material being thus carried to the greater, while the vessels load back with coal 
 
COP 204 COR 
 
 for the use of the various steam-engines. The quantity of metallic copper yielded by 
 the ore is commonly about 8 or 9 per cent. The produce of metal from the workings 
 in Cornwall in 1775 was 3596 tons ; in 1800, 5187 tons ; in 1820, 7364 tons ; and 
 in 1838, 11,527 tons. The productive power of the mines has thus been increased 
 more than threefold in the last 60 years. No statement can be given of the total 
 quantity of copper raised in the United Kingdom before 1820 ; in that year it was 
 8127 tons ; in 1830, 13,232 tons ; and in 1840, about 16,500 tons. The annual 
 Value of this metal raised in the kingdom, estimated at from £90 to £100 per ton, 
 may be taken at present at about £1,500,000. 
 
 The copper yielded by the British mines is more than sufficient for the consump- 
 tion of the kingdom, and a considerable (but decreasing) quantity is exported ; in 
 1820, it amounted to 121,958 cwts. ; in 1830, to 183,154 cwts. ; and m 1839, to 
 153,743 cwts. This last consisted of 16,555 cwts. unwrought in bricks and pigs ; 
 128,977 cwts. sheets, nails, &c. ; 762 cwts. coin ; 39 cwts. wire ; and 7410 cwts. 
 wrought copper of other sorts. These are chiefly shipped at Liverpool and Lon- 
 don for the East Indies, China, and the United States ; considerable quantities are 
 likewise sent to Germany, Holland, Canada, West Indies, and Brazil. 
 
 Of late years great quantities of copper ore have been brought to England, 
 chiefly to Swansea, for the purpose of being smelted, and re-exported in the 
 metallic state. In 1839, the amount of ore thus imported was 603,902 cwts., of 
 which 346,048 cwts. were brought from Cuba, and 182,664 cwts. from Chili. Of the 
 copper smelted from foreign ore, there were exported in the same year 112,830 
 cwts. ; of which there were taken by France 84,567 cwts. ; and the rest was sent in 
 smaller quantities to the Netherlands and the United States. 
 
 British copper is exempted from the tax laid on Tin, and the oppressive regulations growing 
 out of it. Copper sheathing and utensils, and old copper and pewter apparatus of British manufac- 
 ture, returned from the British plantations ; also copper stripped from vessels in ports in the United 
 Kingdom may be admitted to entry duty free under the following regulations: — 1. Old copper- 
 sheathing off British vessels in ports in British possessions, upon proof that it was taken off in 
 such ports, and also that it is the property of the owner of the ship from which it was so strip- 
 ped, to be delivered to such owner. — 2. Old copper-sheathing off any ship in any port of the 
 United Kingdom, upon the fact being certified by the landing-waiter superintending the process ; 
 the old copper to be delivered only to the coppersmith, who may re-copper the vessel from which 
 it was stripped, he making proof to that fact. — 3. Old worn-out British copper and pewter uten- 
 sils to be in all cases delivered when brought from B. P. in British ships, upon the consignee sub- 
 mitting proof that they had been used on a particular estate, and are consigned to him on account 
 of the owner of that estate, and that he (the consignee) believes them to be of British manufac- 
 ture. (Min. Com. Customs, Feb. 15, 1833.) 
 
 For regulations as to taking copper ore out of bond to be smelted, see Warehouses, Public 
 Bonded. S 
 
 Copper Manufactures. The custom-house accounts of exports include copper 
 and brass manufactures together ; the total quantity and declared value of these 
 shipped in each of the years from 1828 to 1838 were as follows : — 
 
 Cwts. Declared Value. Cwts. Declared Value. 
 
 1834 205,960 £961,823 
 
 1835 242,095 1,094,749 
 
 1836 204,835 1,072,344 
 
 1837 250,105 1,166,277 
 
 1838 265,204 1,221,732 
 
 The chief shipments in 1838 were made to the following countries, namely : — 
 France, 85,926 cwts., £371,363 ; East Indies, 65,780 cwts., £303,132 ; United 
 States, 29,916 cwts., £140,722 ; Holland, 19,503 cwts., £86,369 ; Belgium, 10,496 
 cwts., £48,283 ; Germany, 7248 cwts., £36,617 ; Italy, 7609 cwts., £34,291; British 
 West Indies, 6518 cwts., £36,628; Foreign West Indies, 4845 cwts., £23,552; 
 British America, 5801 cwts., £29,672 ; Brazil, 5111 cwts., £25,595. 
 
 COPPERAS. [Vitriol.] 
 
 COPYRIGHT. [Literary Property.] 
 
 CORAL (Fr. Corail. Ger. Korallen. It. Corale. Por. & Sp. Coral. Rus. 
 Korallu), a submarine production, composed of the cells of minute creatures of the 
 polypus kind {Polypiara cortificera, Lamarck), some species of which, after being 
 polished and worked, are prized as ornaments of female dress. It is a hard, com- 
 pact, stony body, furrowed, and in the form of plants, with warty excrescences ; 
 and is valued according to its size, solidity, and the depth and brilliancy of its 
 colour. This is most commonly yellowish white; but it also occurs red and black, 
 — the last being in general the most highly esteemed ; there are, however, many 
 varieties of each kind. It is found at different depths ; andLit is remarked that 
 light exerts a powerful influence on its growth as well as its colour, — the tint being 
 darker in proportion to the deepness of the sea. Coral abounds in various parts of 
 
 1829 161,241 £812,366 
 
 1830 189,592 867,344 
 
 1831 181,951 803,124 
 
 1832 213,482 916,563 
 
 1833 192,974 884,149 
 
COR 205 COR 
 
 the Mediterranean ; the most profitable fisheries of it are those of Majorca, Minor- 
 ca, Provence, and Sicily : the Sicilian one is chiefly followed by the Trapanese, 
 who go for the purpose to Bona in Africa. In the eastern seas, it is chiefly found 
 in the Arabian Gulf, the west coast of Sumatra, and in Japan. Some kinds of 
 coralline bodies increase to an extraordinary size, forming immense banks or masses 
 of submarine rocks, which are frequently dangerous to navigators. 
 
 CORD, a measure for firewood, so called because it was anciently measured by 
 a cord. Its dimensions are stated to be eight feet in length, four feet in height, and 
 four feet in breadth ; and its weight 10 cwts. It is equal to 1000 billets. 
 
 CORDAGE. [Cable. Rope.] 
 
 CORDUROY, a fabric of cloth originally composed of silk, but now very 
 extensively made in England of cotton. The common kind is of a plain body, a 
 better is twilled in the back, and the best is twilled on both sides ; but there is of 
 each kind a variety of qualities. The usual colours are olive, drab, slate, fawn, 
 and white. The material is no doubt important, but ductility, pile of a moderate 
 height, and a clear colour, are also characteristics of good corduroy. It is in pieces 
 varying in length from 40 to 70 yards. 
 
 CORIANDER-SEED is the fruit of an annual umbelliferous plant (Coriandrum 
 sativum), found wild about Ipswich and in some parts of Essex. When fresh, their 
 smell is strong and disagreeable, but by drying becomes sufficiently grateful. They 
 are used in sweetmeats, in brewing, distilling, and in certain stomachic liqueurs ; 
 and in some countries in cookery. 
 
 CORK (Fr. Liege. Ger. Kork. It. Sughero, Suvero. Por. Cortica de Sovreiro. 
 Sp. Corcho), the outer bark of a species of evergreen oak (Quercus suber), abundant 
 in Portugal, Spain, especially Catalonia and Valencia, Italy, the south of France, 
 Corsica, and other countries. This substance is in reality dead bark, and its 
 removal is effected without injury. The tree is first barked in the fifteenth year 
 of its growth, and this operation is repeated every eight or ten years afterwards. 
 Cork is light, porous, compressible, and elastic. It should be chosen in fine layers 
 or boards, not broken nor knottv, smooth when cut, and of moderate thickness. 
 It is employed for stopping bottles and casks ; as floats for nets; and for other 
 purposes. The best white cork is grown in France, but this country is supplied 
 almost exclusively from Portugal,— whence it is imported generally as dunnage in 
 ships laden with wine. The annual consumption is now about 60,000 cwts. 
 
 CORN (Dan. Korn. Du. Graanen, Koren. Fr. Bleds, Grains. Ger. Korn, 
 Getreide. It. Biade, Grani. Lat. Frumentum. Pol. Zboze. Por. Graos. Rus. 
 Chljeb. Sp. Granos. Sw. Sad, Spanmal), means strictly " grain in the ear," or 
 "grain unthrashed;" but in commerce the term is applied in a more compre- 
 hensive sense to all kinds of grain or pulse fit for food, in whatever state of 
 preparation. 
 
 I. Historical Summary of the English Corn-laws. 
 Period prior to 1688. — The general tendency of early legislation was to restrict 
 the exportation of corn, in order to ensure a sufficient supply of food for the 
 people, while its importation was freely permitted. The first statute on record 
 upon this subject is the 34th Edw. III. c. 20, passed in 1360-61, which prohibited 
 exportation. In the succeeding reign, in 1394 (17 Rich. II. c. 7), a counter-law 
 was enacted, allowing exportation on payment of " the subsidies and devoirs 
 thereof due," except when prohibited by the king in council ; a permission which 
 was placed under more definite limitations in 1436 by the act 15 Hen. VI. c. 2, 
 which declared the export of corn legal only when its price did not exceed 6s. 8d. 
 
 fer quarter for wheat, and 3s. per quarter for barley. This act was continued in 
 441, and in 1444-45 it was rendered perpetual. 
 The first symptom of a protective corn-law was in 1463, when the importation of 
 corn of foreign growth was prohibited unless the price of wheat should exceed 6s. 8d. 
 the quarter, that of rye 4s., and that of barley 3s. From this we may conclude 
 that the balance of prices had turned, and that, at least for a time, they wero 
 higher in England than in the neignbouring countries. 
 
 These laws, regulating the exportation and importation of corn, continued in 
 force until 1534, when exportation was prohibited, except " by license under the 
 king's great seal;" but it having been found impossible to enforce this law, it was 
 thought that better success would attend the regulation than the prohibition of the 
 trade, and accordingly the permission to export grain was restored in 1554, when- 
 ever the prices were at or under 6s. 8d. per quarter for wheat, 4s. for rye, and 3s. 
 for barley. In 1562, these limits were enlarged ; the wheat to 10s., the rye to 8s., 
 
COR 206 COR 
 
 and the barley to 6s. 8d. ; and in 1571, it was enacted by the 13th Eliz. c. 13, that 
 corn might be exported at certain specified duties at all times when no proclama- 
 tion had been issued to the contrary. This act gave virtual freedom to the trade, 
 as though the law of 1463 continued in existence, prohibiting importation while the 
 price of wheat, rye, and barley should be under 6s. 8d., 4s., and 3s., respectively, the 
 rates that had for some time prevailed rendered this law inoperative. 
 
 This system was continued in the succeeding reigns, but accompanied with 
 various modifications, particularly as regards the prices at which export was per- 
 mitted, which were from time to time enlarged, until in 1670 the shipment of 
 wheat was allowed at any time when the price did not exceed 53s. 4d. per quarter. 
 In order to keep the price at this high rate, heavy or rather prohibitory duties 
 were at the same time imposed upon importation. 
 
 Besides thus trammeling the foreign trade in corn, our ancestors thought proper 
 to impose restrictions upon the trade within the kingdom, under the impression 
 that if the consumers could be brought to purchase immediately from the growers, 
 the profits of intermediate corn-dealers would be saved, — and that the injurious 
 effects of dearths, which then frequently occurred, were attributable to the practices 
 of those dealers in buying up corn, and withdrawing it from market. In 1551, 
 an act was passed declaring the buying of corn in one market with intent to sell 
 it in another to be engrossing, an offence punishable with fine and imprisonment; 
 and by a statute of Queen Elizabeth, no person was permitted to convey corn 
 from one part of the kingdom to another without a license from the magistrates 
 in quarter sessions. In 1624, these restrictions were considerably modified ; and 
 in 1675, the engrossing of corn was made legal whenever the price of wheat did not 
 exceed 48s.* 
 
 Period of the Bounty System from. 1688 to 1815.— The era of 1688 is as important 
 in the history of our corn-laws as of our constitution. Not satisfied with the degree 
 of favour obtain! by the law of 1670, the landowners succeeded, in 1689, in pro- 
 curing as Vm. & Mary, c. 12), which provided that whenever wheat in the 
 i d be at or below 48s., and barley at or below 24s., there should 
 be allowed a bounty on export of 5s. a-quarter for wheat, and 2s. 6d. for barley. 
 nt act, in 1700, every thing in the shape of duty on English corn was 
 •ied by the crown ; and in 1707, on the legislative union with Scotland, 
 
 . - operation of the corn-laws was rendered uniform throughout Great Britain. 
 
 The grand argument brought forward in favour of the bounty law was its tend- 
 ency to prevent a scarcity by inducing the farmers to raise a surplus stock of 
 corn. If, however, as commonly alleged, the real view regarded an object more 
 directly resulting from it, namely, the raising of the rent of land, the projectors of 
 the law were disappointed. The result of the system was, as may naturally be 
 conceived, a large exportation in abundant years ; but it had not, on taking a com- 
 prehensive view of its operation, the effect of creating a general or permanent rise 
 of prices. On comparing the 70 years which followed the enactment of the bounty 
 with the 70 that preceded it, we shall find {Wealth of Nations, b. i. c. 11), that the 
 
 {trice of wheat was considerably lower in the latter period ; and there seems to be 
 ittle doubt that by carrying cultivation at first too far, it had counteracted the 
 intention for which it was framed. No progressive or constant rise was com- 
 
 * So lately as 1800, engrossing has been held to be an offence at common law, and a corn-dealer 
 was convicted of it, though he was not brought up for judgment. " Those who still imagine," 
 says Mr Buchanan, " that corn is artificially raised in price, would do well to consider that as the 
 supply of provisions is liable to great variations, there must be some provision in the economy of 
 nature for making a smaller supply last as long as a larger supply ; that there is no way of thus 
 regulating the consumption but by the price, and that it is, accordingly, in reference to this great 
 object that the price is invariably fixed. It neither can be lowered nor increased but for the sake 
 of more exactly suiting the daily and weekly waste to the supply of the year. If we suppose, for 
 example, that the supply falls in one year one-twelfth below the level of an average crop (which 
 we know frequently happens), it would, if consumption were to go on at the ordinary rate, be 
 consumed in the course of eleven months, leaving the last month wholly unprovided for. But 
 this we know never happens, and it is only prevented by a rise of price, which measures the con- 
 sumption by the deficiency of the crop ; and whether, therefore, there is an abundant, middling, 
 or scarce crop, a suitable allowance is sure to be measured out to the consumer, by a low, a mid- 
 dling, or a high price. The corn-dealer, indeed, thinks nothing about all this ; his object is to sell 
 his commodity at the highest price ; and in a scarcity he takes his full advantage ; but while he is 
 thinking only of himself,— while he is only playing his own paltry game, he is a mere instrument 
 in the hands of Him who brings good out of evil, and who turns the little passions of man to the 
 purposes of his own benevolence and wisdom. There is really nothing in nature more wonderful 
 than that great law of society by which subsistence is measured out in due proportion to the sup- 
 ply of the year ; and the more deeply it is considered, the more worthy will it appear of profound 
 and rational admiration." (Buchanan's Edition of Wealth of Nations, note e, vol. ii. p. 304.) 
 
COR 207 COR 
 
 niunicated to prices until after 1760, by which time the increase of our population 
 began to be such as nearly to equal by their consumption the enlarged produce of the 
 agriculturists. The rapid rise of price arising from this cause about ten years 
 afterwards, induced government to resort at first to temporary prohibitions of ex- 
 port ; but in 1773, the decisive step was taken of abrogating the bounty until our 
 markets should fall below the price at which it was formerly allowed, namely, 
 until wheat should be 44s. a-quarter, and barley 22s. ; a measure which amounted 
 virtually to its withdrawal. A more direct influence on the market, however, 
 was effected by the abolition at the same time of the restraints on importation, 
 which was now permitted at the nominal duty of 6d., so long as the home 
 market should be at or above 48s. for wheat, and 24s. for barley. The object of 
 these regulations was to maintain, as far as possible, a level rate of 48s., which the 
 act assumed to be a fair price both for grower and consumer. This revolution in 
 the law, though ascribed to the influence of Dr Smith and Mr Burke, arose more 
 immediately from a consideration of the popular discontent attendant on the rapid 
 advance of prices. 
 
 The landowners were loud in declaiming against this change, — ascribing to it 
 that cessation in our exports which may be more justly attributed to the increased 
 consumption attendant on an augmented population ; and on the plea that the 
 country might become dependent upon foreign states for food, this powerful class 
 succeeded, in 1791, in procuring an act raising the price at which importation was 
 allowed at 6d. per quarter, to 54s. ; a duty of 2s. 6d. was imposed when the price 
 was between 50s. and 54s.; and 24s. 3d. per quarter was charged when the price 
 was below 50s. Under this act the maritime counties of England were divided 
 into twelve districts, and importation and exportation in each were regulated by 
 their respective prices. 
 
 In 1804, the price at which the prohibitory duty of 24s. 3d. was charged, was 
 raised from 50s. to 63s.; between this last price and 66s., the duty was 2s. 6cL; and 
 above 66s., it was 6d. per quarter. By this act, the mode of fixing the prices 
 adopted in 1791 was altered, and the aggregate average of the twelve districts was 
 taken as the measure for regulating importation and exportation. 
 
 In 1814 (54 Geo. III. c. 69), the bounty system was abolished ; but it may be 
 observed, that none could have been claimed at any time after 1792, in which par- 
 ticular year the average price was below that fixed in 1773. 
 
 Period from 1815 to 1828.— In 1815, a law (55 Geo. III. c. 26) was passed, after 
 much opposition, and exciting great clamour, permitting the free importation of 
 foreign corn to be warehoused, or re-exported, but forbidding the importation for 
 consumption, unless the average prices were, for wheat, 80s.; for rye, pease, and 
 beans, 53s. ; for barley, 40s. ; and for oats, 26s. Every kind might be brought from 
 the colonies when the prices were, for wheat, 67s. ; rye, pease, and beans, 44s. ; 
 barley, 33s.; and oats, 22s. Owing to deficient harvests in 1816 and 1817, prices 
 were raised above these limits, and so much corn was imported free of duty, that 
 a considerable surplus was left for future years. The harvest of 1 822 was one of 
 abundance, and during the next twelve months prices fell below what they had 
 been since 1792. The projectors of the act of 1815 expected that its effect would 
 have been to keep up wheat to about 80s. per quarter, but so far was this 
 expectation from being realized, that, excepting in the years of scarcity already 
 alluded to, the average price, up to 1828, when the system of prohibition was ex- 
 changed for that of a graduated duty, was only 58s. 5d. 
 
 Meantime, however, the law of 1815 was modified in 1823, so as to allow of im- 
 portation whenever the price of wheat was 70s., for rye, pease, and beans, 46s., 
 for barley, 35s., and for oats, 25s. per quarter, when a duty of 17s. was to be pay- 
 able on wheat during the first three months of importation, and 12s. thereafter (and 
 proportional rates for other grain); but prices were never such, during the con- 
 tinuance of this act, as to bring it into operation. In 1825, the importation of 
 colonial wheat was permitted, upon payment of a duty of 5s. per quarter, without 
 reference to the price in the British market. In the same year, another act was 
 
 Sassed, permitting, until the 15th August, the entry of corn warehoused prior to 
 lay 1822 at a low duty ; and in the following year, the apprehensions of a deficient 
 harvest forced the government to the extraordinary step of having recourse to an 
 order of council to admit 500,000 quarters of foreign wheat at an almost nominal 
 rate of duty, in order, on the one hand, to alleviate the severity of the prohibitory 
 system, and on the other, to prevent the opening of the ports, and the consequent 
 probable admission of such a quantity of grain beyond the actual wants of the 
 country as might have affected prices for a long period afterwards. 
 
COR 
 
 208 
 
 COR 
 
 These indications of imperfection in the system, which admitted of alternate pro- 
 hibition and unlimited importation, gave strength to the opinion that a better plan 
 might be devised ; and its inconvenience having at length been recognised by all 
 parties, the act of 1828 founded upon a series of resolutions introduced by Mr 
 Charles Grant (now Lord Glenelg), was passed, by which the trade has been since 
 regulated. 
 
 II. Existing Regulations of the British Corn-trade. 
 
 These are embodied in the act 9 Geo. IV. c. 60 (15th July 1828), the principle 
 of which is the constant freedom of importation, upon the payment of duties fluc- 
 tuating according to the average price of grain, decreasing as the price advances, 
 and increasing as the price falls. 
 
 §§ 1, 2. Repeal former acts. | Returns to Corn-inspector, § 19. Every such 
 
 § 3. There shall be levied upon all corn entered , factor and dealer shall return, on Wednesday in 
 for home consumption in the United Kingdom, leach week, to the inspector for London, an ac- 
 
 from parts beyond seas, the duties specified in 
 the subjoined table. 
 
 Shipments from Colonies, § 4. No corn shall 
 be shipped from any British possession out of 
 Europe, as being the produce of such possession, 
 until the owner or shipper shall have subscribed, 
 before the chief officer of customs at the port of 
 shipment, a declaration specifying the quantity 
 of each sort, and that the same was the produce 
 of some B. P. out of Europe, to be named in such 
 declaration, nor until such owner or shipper shall 
 have obtained from such chief officer a certificate 
 of the quantity so declared to be shipped. And 
 before any corn shall be entered at any port 
 in the U. K. as being the produce of any B. 
 P. out of Europe, the master of the ship im- 
 porting the same shall deliver to the chief officer 
 of customs a copy of such declaration, certified 
 by the chief officer of customs at the port of 
 shipment before whom the same was made, to- 
 gether with the certificate signed by the said chief 
 officer of customs of the quantity of corn so de- 
 clared to be shipped ; and such master shall also 
 subscribe, before the chief officer of customs at 
 the place of importation, a declaration that the 
 several quantities of corn on board such ship, 
 and proposed to be entered, are the same that 
 were mentioned in the declaration and certificate 
 produced by him, without any addition. Penalty 
 for false statement, £100, with forfeiture of the 
 corn. 
 
 Malt or Ground Corn, § 5. Not lawful to 
 import for consumption into the U. K. any 
 malt, or into Great Britain any corn ground, 
 except wheatmeal and flour, and oatmeal, or 
 into Ireland, any corn ground, under penalty of 
 forfeiture. 
 
 Gazette Accounts, § 6. Accounts of corn im- 
 ported, and in warehouse, to be published month- 
 ly, by the commissioners of customs, in the 
 London Gazette. 
 
 Foreign Duties, %c. § 7- If any foreign state 
 shall subject British vessels, goods, &c. to any 
 higher duties or charges than are levied on the 
 national vessels, &c. of such state, his Majesty 
 may prohibit the importation of corn from such 
 state. 
 
 Weekly Returns of Sales, § 8. In order to re- 
 gulate the import duties on corn according to the 
 average prices of British corn, provides that 
 weekly returns of the purchases and sales of 
 British corn shall be made from 150 towns in 
 England and Wales, to an inspector. 
 
 Comptroller of Return, § 9-12. 
 
 London Inspector, § 13-17. To be appointed 
 by Lord Mayor, &c. Dealers in corn ineligible. 
 
 Declaration by London Corn-factor, fyc. § 18. 
 Every corn-factor or agent within five miles from 
 the Royal Exchange, and every dealer at Mark 
 Lane, shall deliver to the Lord Mayor or Alder- 
 men, a declaration that the returns of sales to be 
 made by him shall be conformable to the act. 
 
 count, signed by him or his agent, of the quan- 
 tities of each sort of British corn sold during the 
 week, ending on and including the next preced- 
 ing Tuesday, with the prices, the amount of every 
 parcel, the total quantity and value of each sort, 
 by what measure sold, and the names of the 
 buyers, and of the persons for whom such corn 
 was sold ; and it shall be lawful for such inspec- 
 tor to require any person making or tendering 
 such returns, to declare and set forth where, by 
 whom, and in what manner, any such corn was 
 delivered to the purchasers. 
 
 Provincial Inspectors, § 20-24. To be ap- 
 pointed by mayors in towns, and justices of peace 
 in counties. Dealers ineligible; also those so 
 engaged within preceding 12 months. 
 
 Declaration by Dealers in Provincial Towns, 
 § 25. Every person who shall deal in British 
 corn, or who shall in such town engage in the 
 business of a corn-factor, miller, maltster, brewer, 
 or distiller, or who shall be the owner of any 
 stage-coaches, wagons, carts, or other carriages 
 carrying goods or passengers for hire to and from 
 any such town, and every person who, as mer- 
 chant, clerk, agent, or otherwise, shall purchase 
 at such town any British corn for sale, or for the 
 sale of meal, flour, malt, or bread, made or to 
 be made thereof, shall before so dealing, pur- 
 chasing, or engaging himself, make and deliver a 
 declaration (according to a form given in the act), 
 that his returns shall in all respects be conform- 
 able to the provisions of the act ; which declara- 
 tion shall be delivered to the mayor, or chief 
 magistrate, or to some justice of peace for such 
 town, or for the county or division in which the 
 same is situate, who are to deliver a certificate 
 thereof to the inspector of corn returns. 
 
 Inspectors empowered to require such De- 
 claration (§ 26) from any person buying and 
 selling corn, not within the terms of the act 
 specially required to make declaration. 
 
 Dealers to make Returns of Sales, § 27. All 
 persons required to make declaration , shall, on 
 the first market-day which shall be holden, in 
 each week, in the town in which they respectively 
 deal, return to the inspector for such town an ac- 
 count, signed by them, of the amount of every 
 parcel of each respective sort of British corn 
 bought during the week ending on and including 
 the day next preceding such first market-day, 
 with the price, by what measure bought, name 
 of seller of each parcel, with the names of the 
 person or persons, if any other than the person 
 making such return, for or on account of whom 
 the same was so bought or sold ; and the inspec- 
 tor may deliver to any person tendering such 
 return, a notice, requiring him to set forth 
 where, by whom, and in what manner such corn 
 was delivered. 
 
 Inspector not to include Returns before ascer- 
 taining that the Parties have made Declaration, 
 §28. 
 
COR 
 
 209 
 
 COR 
 
 Inspectors to make Weekly Returns to Comp- j 
 troller, § 29. 
 
 Weekly A verages, § 30. The average prices of j 
 all British corn, by which the said duties shall 
 be regulated, shall be made up and computed on 
 Thursday in each week, in manner following : — | 
 The comptroller shall, each Thursday, from the | 
 returns received by him during the preceding j 
 week, ending on and including the Saturday in I 
 such week, add the total quantities of each sort 
 of British corn sold, and the total prices for which 
 the same shall have been sold, and shall divide 
 the latter by the former ; and the sum produced 
 thereby shall be added to the sums in like man- 1 
 ner, produced in the five weeks immediately pre- 
 ceding the same, and the amount thereof being 
 divided by six, will give the sum which shall be 
 taken to "be the aggregate average price of each , 
 sort of British corn respectively ; and the comp- ; 
 troller shall publish such aggregate weekly ave- 
 rages in the next succeeding Gazette, and every 
 Thursdav transmit a certificate thereof to the 
 chief officer of customs at each of the ports 
 of the U. K. ; and the duties to be paid shall 
 from time to time be regulated at each of the 
 ports, by the average aggregate prices of British 
 corn at the time of the entry for home consump- 
 
 tion, of any corn, grain, meal, or flour, charge- 
 able with any such duty, as such aggregate ave- 
 rage prices shall appear, and be stated in the last 
 of such certificates, which shall have been re- 
 ceived by the chief officer of customs at such port. 
 
 Imperial Measure (§31) to be used in com- 
 puting quantities. 
 
 British Corn (§33) shall be deemed to be all 
 grain the produce of the U. K. 
 
 Returns believed by Comptroller to be untrue 
 (§ 36) shall be represented to the committee of 
 the Privy Council, who may direct him to omit 
 the same from the computation of average prices. 
 
 Penalties, § 42-46. Every person required to 
 make and deliver declarations, who shall fail to 
 do so in the manner directed, shall forfeit £20 
 for each month during which he shall neglect or 
 delay to make and deliver any such declaration ; 
 and every person failing to make returns in the 
 manner directed, shall, for such offence, forfeit 
 £-2>t. And persons making false or fraudulent 
 returns, shall be guilty of a misdemeanour. 
 
 Limitation of Actions, § 48. Actions under 
 this act must be brought within three months of 
 matter done. Defendants may plead the general 
 issue, and if judgment given against plaintiff, 
 the former shall have treble costs. 
 
 DUTIES ON FOREIGN CORN ENTERED FOR HOME CONSUMPTION. 
 
 IF IMPORTED FROM ANY FOREIGN COUNTRY. 
 
 Average Price of British Corn. 
 
 Duty 
 per qr. 
 
 Average Price of British Corn. 
 
 Duty 
 perqr. 
 
 Wheat.— 61s. and under 62s. per qr 
 
 For each Is. under 61s., Is. additional 
 
 s. d. 
 25 8 
 
 24 8 
 
 23 8 
 
 22 8 
 
 21 8 
 
 20 8 
 
 18 8 
 
 16 8 
 
 13 8 
 
 10 8 
 
 6 8 
 
 2 8 
 
 1 
 
 13 10 
 12 4 
 
 1 
 
 FROM, A 
 5 
 6 
 
 2 6 
 6 
 
 2 
 6 
 
 Oats.— 24s. and under 25s. per qr 
 
 And for each Is. under 24s. such duty 
 to be increased by Is. 6d. 
 
 s. d. 
 10 9 
 
 9 3 
 
 1 
 16 9 
 
 15 6 
 
 
 64s. 6.5- 
 
 And for every additional Is. from 25s. 
 
 to 31s. such duty to be decreased 
 
 by ls.6d. 
 At or above 31s 
 
 
 66s. . . 67s 
 
 67s. 68s 
 
 68s. .. 69s 
 
 Rye, Pease, and Beans. — 35s. and under 
 
 
 71s 
 
 And for each Is. under 35s. such duty 
 to be increased by Is. 6d. 
 
 71s. .. 72s 
 
 
 
 And for every additional Is. from 
 
 
 Barley, Maize, Buck Wheat, Bear or 
 Bigg. — 32s. and under 33s. per qr. . 
 And for each Is. under 32s. such duty 
 to be increased by Is. 6d. 
 
 36s. to 46s. such duty to be decreas- 
 ed by Is. 6d. 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 6 
 
 Wheatmeal and Flour, per barrel of 
 
 196 lbs.— Duty equal to that on 38* 
 
 gallons of wheat. 
 Oatmeal, per quantity of 181 J lbs.— 
 
 Duty equal to that on 1 quarter of 
 
 oats. 
 
 NY BRITISH POSSESSION OCT OF EUROPE. 
 
 Rye, Pease, and Beans. — Until British 
 
 rye, pease, or beans be 41s 
 
 When at or above 41s. per qr 
 
 Wheatmeal and Flour, per barrel of 
 
 196 lbs.— Duty equal to that on 38J 
 
 gallons of wheat. 
 Oatmeal, perquantityof 181£lbs. — Duty 
 
 equal to that on 1 quarter of oats. 
 
 And for every additional Is. from 33s. 
 to 41s. such duty to be decreased 
 bv ls.6d. 
 
 IF PRODUCE OF, AND IMPORTED 
 
 Wheat— Until British wheat be 67s. . . 
 
 When at or above 67s. per qr 
 
 Barley, Maize, Buck Wheat, Bear 
 or Bigg. — Until British barley be 
 34s. 
 
 When at or above 34s. per qr- 
 
 Oats.— Until British oats be 25s. 
 
 When at or above 25s. per qr 
 
 HI. Statistics of the Corn-trade. 
 In presenting a brief summary of the progress of this branch of industry in the 
 United Kingdom, we deem it unnecessary to go farther back than the year 1760, 
 partly from the imperfect nature of the statistical materials previously in existence, 
 but chiefly from the circumstance that it is from that period we may date the 
 great development of manufactures, and commerce, and increase of town population, 
 which caused Great Britain to become an importing instead of an exporting country 
 for corn. Taking decennial periods, we find that, in the first ten years, 1760-1769, 
 
COR 210 COR 
 
 when the average population of England (including Wales) was 6,850,000, the 
 quantity of wheat produced exceeded the consumption by 1,384,561 quarters, — a 
 quantity so nearly equal to the wants of the people, that the deficient harvests of 1767 
 and 1768 occasioned the importation of 834,669 quarters. The average price during 
 this period is estimated by Mr Porter at 37s. per quarter, — a price which appears 
 to have given a stimulus to agriculture, as the number of inclosure bills passed was 
 385. In the second period, 1770-1779, when the mean population had advanced to 
 7,520,000, we find five years of export and five of import,— the imports rather pre- 
 ponderating in quantity. In this period the average price of wheat, according to 
 the London Gazette, was 45s. per quarter, and the number of inclosure bills was 
 increased to 660. In the next period, 1780-1789, six were years of export, and 
 four were years of import ; but the excess of the imports of wheat was only 
 233,502 quarters, — the supply being thus nearly on a level with the consumption of 
 the people, the mean number of which now reached 8,170,000. In this period, the 
 average price was 45s. 9d., having once been as high as 52s. 8d.; the number of 
 inclosure bills, however, fell off to 246. 
 
 In the ten years from 1790 to 1799, England ceased to be an exporting country ; 
 the last shipments of wheat having been, as already noticed, in 1792, when the 
 price fell to 41s. 9d. War immediately followed ; and a series of deficient harvests 
 began in 1795, which forced up prices, and led to the passing of an increased num- 
 ber of inclosure bills. The deficiency extended to a positive dearth in the first two 
 years of the next decennary period, 1800-1809 ; and the price of wheat having been 
 raised to the unprecedented height of 115s. lid. per quarter, a great additional 
 quantity of land was brought under the plough. 
 
 In 1809, another deficient harvest occurred, and, notwithstanding the importation 
 of 1,500,000 quarters of wheat, the average price of 1810 was 103s. 3d., reckoned in 
 the depreciated currency, or about 90s. if estimated in gold. In 1812, it advanced to 
 122s., equal to about 100s. in gold, — a price so high as to cause the application of so 
 much additional capital to land, that no fewer than 133 inclosure bills were passed 
 in this year, being the largest number on record in any one session. This stimulus 
 being continued, Ted to an increased production, which, joined to the diminished 
 exponse of importation consequent on the return of peace, caused so great a reaction 
 that the average price of wheat in 1814 fell to a rate which, measured in gold, was 
 only about 54s. per quarter. The cry of " agricultural distress" having in con- 
 %equence become urgent, Parliament was induced to pass the act of 1815, securing 
 Ihe monopoly of the home market to the British grower, until the average price of 
 Irheat should reach 80s. In the ten years 1810-1819, no fewer than 853 inclosure 
 Dills were passed ; but between 1820 and 1830, the number was only 205. This 
 diminution was partly owing, no doubt, to the circumstance of the previous in- 
 closures having greatly reduced the quantity of waste land fitted to be brought into 
 cultivation, but it is in a much higher degree attributable to the fact, that a larger 
 amount of produce has of late been drawn, especially in the northern counties, from 
 the same portion of ground, than was obtained in general at the beginning of the 
 century, — an improvement which has been effected by the more complete drainage 
 of the land, the adoption of better rotations, the enforcement of greater economy in 
 the management of details, and other causes. This improvement is not universally 
 admitted by the landowners, many of whom contend that, owing to the fall of prices, 
 agriculture has materially declined since 1815, and in particular since 1820 ; but 
 though this fall has certainly involved many in difficulties, there is still incontest- 
 able evidence to show that the agriculture of the kingdom generally, so far from 
 declining, has made an astonishing progress since 1815. In illustration of this 
 position, Mr Porter, in his valuable " Progress of the Nation" (sec. 2, c. 1, p. 171), 
 exhibits the proportionally decreasing quantities of land brought into use from 
 1801 to 1835 in contrast with the increase of the population during the same period 
 in the United Kingdom as follows : — 
 
 Inclosure Increase of 
 
 Bills. Acres. Population. 
 
 1801 to 1810 906. . . .1,657,980. . . .2,209,618 
 
 1811 to 1820 771. •• .1,410,930. $. .2,645,738 
 
 Inclosure Increase of 
 
 Bills. Acres. Population. 
 
 1821 to 1830 186. 340,380. 3,113,261 
 
 1831 to 1835 56 102,480 1,458,403 
 
 In the period from 1820 to 1835 there was no increase worth mentioning in the 
 quantity of foreign corn entered for home consumption as compared with the pre- 
 vious ten years, while there can be no doubt that the bulk of the population now 
 consume more corn, and particularly wheat, than at any former period. We are 
 therefore brought irresistibly to the conclusion that a very great increase of pro- 
 duce must have taken place. According to the estimates adopted by Mr Porter, 
 
COR 211 COR 
 
 ** 10,000 acres of arable and pasture land, which, as cultivated in 1801, supported 
 4327 inhabitants, do, at the present day, owing to the improvements brought about 
 in the art of agriculture, support 5555 inhabitants ;" being an increase of about |th 
 or 25 per cent, in this period. Again, if we compare the present state of the agri- 
 cultural class with their condition before the last war, a still more advantageous 
 contrast is exhibited. " With scarcely any exception," says he, " the revenue 
 drawn, in the form of rent, from the ownership of the soil, has been at least doubled 
 in every part of Great Britain since 1790. This is not a random assertion, but, as 
 regards many counties of England, can be proved by the testimony of living wit- 
 nesses, while in Scotland the fact is notorious to the whole population." 
 
 No means have been hitherto devised for ascertaining the actual produce of corn 
 in this country. But looking to the statements of the best authorities, and allowing 
 for the circumstance that nearly one-half of the population of Ireland live chiefly 
 upon potatoes, the average annual produce of grain of all kinds, in the United 
 Kingdom, may be estimated at about 56,000,000 quarters. Deducting one-seventh 
 for seed, there remains 48,000,000 quarters for consumption as food, and otherwise. 
 Adding to this the annual importation from abroad, which on an average of the 
 12 years from 1829 to 1840, inclusive, was 1,685,607 quarters, makes the total yearly 
 consumption about fifty millions of quarters, or nearly one million of quarters 
 a-week ; of this upwards of one-fourth may be estimated to consist of wheat. 
 
 The extent to which the potato is used as food in Ireland allows a considerable 
 quantity of grain, the produce of that part of the kingdom, to be sent to Great 
 Britain. The quantity thus exported has (as shown in Table, No. I.) increased 
 from between 300,000 and 400,000 quarters yearly, to about 3,000,000 quarters 
 since the commencement of the present century. It chiefly consists of oats ; this 
 grain forming about five-sevenths of the whole, while the wheat is only about one- 
 sixth. The shipments take place chiefly at the ports of Waterford, Limerick, 
 Cork, Dublin, and Drogheda ; large quantities are also sent from Wexford, Gal- 
 way, Newry, Dundalk, Sligo, Londonderry, and Newport. The principal ports 
 at which those shipments are received in Great Britain are Liverpool (about 
 450,000 quarters grain, and 1,200,000 cwts. meal and flour), London (from 600,000 
 to 900,000 quarters grain), and Glasgow (nearly 400,000 quarters grain, and 300,000 
 cwts. meal and flour); but a considerable share of this trade is likewise possessed by 
 Bristol, Portsmouth, Gloucester, Southampton, Cardiff, Swansea, and Lancaster. 
 {Par. Paper, 1839, No. 27.) 
 
 The chief seat of the British trade is London, where a great weekly market is 
 held every Monday at the Corn Exchange, Mark Lane ; Wednesdays and Fridays 
 being also business days. The quantity of British grain annually brought coast- 
 wise to London is nearly 1,500,000 quarters, besides about 1,000,000 cwts. meal and 
 flour; the shipments from thence, however, are trifling. The other ports which 
 participate most largely in the coasting-trade in British corn, are, in respect 
 to exports, — Yarmouth, Ipswich, Maldon, Lynn, Harwich, Colchester, Stockton, 
 Berwick, Aberdeen, Montrose, and Banff ; and in respect to imports, — Liverpool, 
 Goole, and Hull, Newcastle, Bristol, Leith, Grangemouth, and Glasgow. The 
 total quantity annually sent coastwise is about 3,500,000 quarters, besides nearly 
 2,000,000 cwts. flour and meal. 
 
 The total quantity of British wheat sold in the 150 towns from which returns 
 are made to the Corn-office was, in the year 1829, 2,576,129 quarters ; in 1834, 
 3,768,602 quarters ; and in 1838, 4,064,305 quarters. 
 
 From the annexed accounts it will be seen that the foreign supplies are principally 
 received from the north of Europe, especially Prussia, or rather Prussian Poland, 
 the produce of which is brought down the Vistula on rafts to Dantzic, the chief 
 
 Eort of shipment. The price of the wheat exported from this port averages rather 
 igher than at other places, but this difference is more than counterbalanced by 
 the superiority of its quality, which is nearly equal to the English, the " best white" 
 or " high mixed " being indeed superior to our best. Hamburg is likewise an im- 
 portant grain market, being an emporium for the produce of the extensive coun- 
 tries watered by the Elbe, as well as for large quantities of Baltic corn. The chief 
 other exporting ports in the north of Europe are Konigsberg, Riga^ Petersburg, 
 Rostock, and Rotterdam. In the south of Europe, the only great shipping port is 
 Odessa; but it is unlikely that any considerable quantity will be ever imported 
 from thence to Great Britain, as, owing to the distance between the two places, it 
 is essential, to preserve the wheat in condition and from heating, that the voyage 
 should be undertaken in winter. A fuller account of the corn-trade at these places 
 will be found under the heads Prussia, Hamburg, Russia, Mecklenburg, and 
 Holland. 
 
COR 
 
 212 
 
 COR 
 
 The quantity of foreign corn entered for home consumption varies of course 
 according to the productiveness of our harvest. In 1833, it was only 110,307 
 quarters ; while, in 1839, it amounted to no less than 4,632,261 quarters, being the 
 largest supply ever introduced into this country in any one year. The latter 
 quantity must have constituted a very considerable proportion of the grain brought 
 to our markets in 1839, as, besides the great deficiency in the harvest of the pre- 
 vious year, it must be borne in mind that a portion of the produce of this country, 
 which has been variously estimated at from a half to two-thirds of the whole, is 
 never brought for sale, but is consumed in the agricultural districts, and employed 
 as seed. Its influence in checking prices must also have been considerable ; for, as 
 we have elsewhere shown [Price], the natural effect of a deficiency in the supply 
 of so necessary an article as corn, is to produce a more than equivalent rise in its 
 price. 
 
 An account of the varieties and qualities of the different kinds of grain will be 
 found under the heads Wheat, Oats, Barley, &c. 
 
 No. I. Statement of the Quantities of Irish Grain (principally Oats) imported 
 into Great Britain in each Year from 5th January 1800 to 5th January 1840. 
 
 Yrs. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Yrs. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Yrs. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Yrs. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Yrs. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Yrs. 1 Quarters. 
 
 1800 
 
 3,238 
 
 1807 
 
 463,195 
 
 1814 
 
 812,462 
 
 1821 
 
 1,822,816 
 
 1828 
 
 2,826,590 
 
 1835 2,679,438 
 
 1801 
 
 525 
 
 1808 
 
 656,770 
 
 1815 
 
 821,192 
 
 1822 
 
 1,063,089 
 
 1829 
 
 2,307,244 
 
 1836| 2,958,272 
 
 1802 
 
 461,371 
 
 1809 
 
 932,478 
 
 1816 
 
 873,865 
 
 1823 
 
 1,528,153 
 
 1830 
 
 2,215,521 
 
 1837, 3,030,293 
 
 1803 
 
 343,547 
 
 1810 
 
 631,227 
 
 1817 
 
 695,651 
 
 1824 1,634,000 
 
 1831 
 
 2,429,182 1838 3,474,302 
 
 1804 
 
 316,958 
 
 1811 
 
 429,867 
 
 1818 1,204,733 
 
 1825 2,203,962 
 
 1832 
 
 2,990,767 [1839 2,243,149 
 2,737,441 1840, 2,327,966 
 2,792,658 1 
 
 1805 306,924 
 
 1812 
 
 597,356 
 
 1819, 967,680 
 
 1826 1,693,392 
 
 1833 
 
 1806' 466,760 
 
 1813 977,164 1820 1,415,722 1827 1,828,460 
 
 1834 
 
 The quantities of the different kinds imported from Ireland in 1839 were as follows : — Oats, 
 1,321,348 quarters, and oatmeal, 917,061 cwt. (equivalent, at 176 lbs. per quarter, to 583,584 quar- 
 ters grain) ; wheat, 98,473 quarters, and flour, 559,504 cwt. (equivalent, at 392 lbs. per quarter, to 
 159,858 quarters grain); barley, including bear or bigg, 61,675 quarters; rye, 2331 quarters; 
 pease, 1484 quarters ; beans, 11,535 quarters; malt, 2861 quarters; in all, 2,243,149 quarters as 
 above.* 
 
 No. II. Account of the Quantities of Foreign and Colonial Wheat imported ; the 
 average price of British Wheat, according to the London Gazette ; and the 
 nature of the Crops from 1800 to 1828 inclusive. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Nature of Crop. 
 
 Price. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Nature of Crop. 
 
 Price. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 1800 
 1801 
 1802 
 1803 
 1804 
 1805 
 1806 
 18(7 
 1808 
 1809 
 1810 
 1811 
 1812 
 1813 
 1814 
 
 Bad 
 
 s. d. 
 110 5 
 115 11 
 67 9 
 57 1 
 60 5 
 87 1 
 76 9 
 73 1 
 78 11 
 94 5 
 103 3 
 92 5 
 122 8 
 106 6 
 72 1 
 
 1,242,507 
 1,396,359 
 498,359 
 297,145 
 398,067 
 842,879 
 280,776 
 379,833 
 
 424^709 
 1,491,341 
 238,366 
 244,385 
 425,559 
 681,333 
 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 
 Full average 
 
 Scarcity 
 
 s. d. 
 63 8 
 76 2 
 94 
 83 8 
 72 3 
 
 65 10 
 54 5 
 43 3 
 51 9 
 62 
 
 66 6 
 56 11 
 56 9 
 60 5 
 
 225,263 
 
 1,020,949 
 
 1,593,518 
 
 122,133 
 
 34,274 
 
 2 
 
 12.137 
 15,777 
 525.231 
 315,892 
 572,733 
 842,050 
 
 
 | Average | 
 
 \Not above ave-f 
 
 J rage \ 
 
 Rather below avi rage 
 Above average 
 
 > Average ■[ 
 
 Below average 
 
 > Average < 
 
 Partial deficiency — 
 
 Good crop 
 
 Deficiency 
 
 | Favourable ■[ 
 
 Nearly average 
 
 Nearly average 
 
 > Average ■! 
 
 Scarcity 
 
 * In charging duties, and in conversions in the public accounts, the following quantities of flour 
 or meal are respectively deemed to be equivalent to one imperial quarter of grain ; namely, wheat- 
 meal or flour, 392 lbs.; barley-meal, bean-meal, and meal of maize or Indian corn, 384 lbs.; rye- 
 meal, 424 lbs. ; and oatmeal, 176 lbs. 
 
 In converting the weight of grain into measure, the rule adopted in the accounts of the Board 
 of Trade, is that laid down in the act 1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 87, § 37, accordingto which, 57 lbs. wheat, 
 65 lbs. rye, 49 lbs. barley, 42 lbs. bear or bigg, and 38 lbs. oats, are respectively deemed to be equal 
 to 1 Winchester bushel. These proportions give the following equivalents to 1 imperial quarter, 
 namely, 470-37 lbs. wheat, 453-87 lbs. rye, 404*35 lbs. barley, 346-59 lbs. bear or bigg, and 31358 
 lbs. oats. 
 
 The Irish barrel of wheat, pease, beans, and rye, equal 20 stones, each of 14 lbs. avoirdupois: 
 the barrel of barley, bear, and rapeseed, equal 16 stones ; the barrel of oats generally equal 14 
 stones ; and the barrel of malt, 12 stones. 
 
COR 
 
 213 
 
 COR 
 
 No. III. Statement of the Quantities of Foreign and Colonial Corn entered for 
 Home Consumption in the United Kingdom ; the Imports from Ireland into 
 Great Britain ; the average Prices of British Wheat, Oats, and Barley, accord- 
 ing to the London Gazette ; and the Nature of the Crop for each Year, from 
 1829 to 1840 inclusive. 
 
 
 
 Average Prices per 
 
 Foreign k Colonial Grain 
 
 Imports from Ireland into 
 
 Year. 
 
 Nature of Crop. 
 
 Quarter. 
 
 entered for Consumption. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 «. d. 
 
 Barley 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Qra. 
 
 Other Grain. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Other Grain. 
 
 
 
 a. d. 
 
 Q»«. 
 
 Q*i. 
 
 Qr<- 
 
 1829 Average 
 
 66 3 
 
 32 6 
 
 22 9 
 
 1,379,174 
 
 579,829 
 
 519,017 
 
 1,788,227 
 
 1830 Full average.. . 
 
 64 3 
 
 32 7 
 
 24 5 
 
 1,711,876 
 
 1,039,291 
 
 529,717 
 
 1,685,804 
 
 1831 Nearly average 
 
 66 4 
 
 38 
 
 25 4 
 
 1,510,486 
 
 1,(169,833 
 
 557,498 
 
 1,871,684 
 
 jjjg } Above ave-j 
 
 58 8 
 
 33 1 
 
 20 5 
 
 376,638 
 
 116,394 
 
 790,293 
 
 2,200,474 
 
 52 11 
 
 27 6 
 
 18 5 
 
 84,037 
 
 26,270 
 
 844,211 
 
 1,893,230 
 
 1834 J rage 1 
 
 46 2 
 
 29 
 
 20 11 
 
 64.975 
 
 168,955 
 
 779,505 
 
 2,013,153 
 
 1R35 Abundant 
 
 39 4 
 
 29 11 
 
 22 
 
 28,555 
 
 408,342 
 
 661,776 
 
 2,017,662 
 
 1836 Above average 
 
 48 6 
 
 32 10 
 
 23 1 
 
 30,108 
 
 377,346 
 
 598,757 
 
 2,359,515 
 
 1837 Under average.. 
 
 55 10 
 
 30 4 
 
 23 1 
 
 244.275 
 
 595,648 
 
 534,465 
 
 2,495,828 
 
 1&38 Scarcity 
 
 64 7 
 
 31 5 
 
 22 5 
 
 1,848,477 
 
 90,771 
 
 542,583 
 
 2,931,719 
 
 1839 Under average.. 70 9 
 
 39 6 
 
 25 11 
 
 2,711,309 
 
 1,920,952 
 
 258,331 
 
 1.984,818 
 
 1840 Average 66 4 
 
 36 5 
 
 25 8 
 
 2,401,367 
 
 1,442,378 
 
 174,440 
 
 2,153,526 
 
 No. IV. Statement of the Quantities of Foreign and Colonial Corn Imported, Re- 
 exported, and Entered for Consumption, in each of the Years from 1829 to 1839, 
 inclusive ; also of the Quantities remaining in the Bonded Warehouses of the 
 United Kingdom at the end of each of the said Y'ears respectively. 
 
 Imported from 
 
 Not th of Europe. 
 
 South of Europe. 
 
 British America. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Other places 
 
 Total 
 
 Re-exported. 
 
 Entered for consumption 
 
 In warehouse 
 
 Imported from 
 
 North of Europe 
 
 South of Europe 
 
 British America. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Other places 
 
 Total 
 
 Re-exported 
 
 Entered for consumption. 
 
 In warehouse 
 
 Imported from 
 
 North of Europe, 
 
 South of Europe 
 
 British America 
 
 United States. 
 
 Other places. 
 
 Total 
 
 Re-exported. 
 
 Entered for consumption 
 
 In warehouse 
 
 1832. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Qra. 
 
 287,447 
 
 5,642 
 
 103,468 
 
 39,117 
 
 28,384 
 
 464,058 
 
 288,189 
 
 376,638 
 
 702,293 
 
 0"- _ 
 
 162,925 
 
 7,432 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 782 
 
 171,149 
 112.842 
 116,394 
 268,544 
 
 1835. 
 
 Or*. 
 
 39.281 
 2.174 
 
 17,H»7 
 1,945 
 
 89,035 
 132.223 
 
 28,555 
 681,158 
 
 2™- - 
 
 238,763 
 
 25 
 
 650 
 
 ""22 
 
 239,46c 
 79,875 
 408,342 
 304,169 
 
 Wheat. Other Grain 
 
 Qim. 
 
 ,289,668 
 93,200 
 76,654 
 
 184,299 
 34,121 
 
 ,716 1 
 
 A 
 
 15,702 
 2,647 
 
 ' 8,379 
 
 1,677,942 
 34,698 
 711,876 1, 
 154,367 
 
 .444 2 
 
 749. 
 63,5101 
 
 1833. 
 
 Wheat. Other Grain 
 
 171^9621 
 
 Qra. 
 
 145,874 
 4,771 
 10 
 6 
 12 
 
 100,557 
 
 10,188l 
 
 39,02 4! 
 322,583 150,673 
 
 93,768 25,603 
 
 84, »>37 26,270 
 822,852 365,926 
 
 1856. 
 
 Wheat Other Grain 
 
 Q.r«. 
 227,294 
 1,611 
 
 5,150 
 
 338 
 
 28,681 
 
 Qra. 
 
 391,328 
 567 
 
 4 
 
 263,<r74 392,52( 
 
 255,037 80,082 
 
 3ii,108 377,346 
 
 631,442 241,0 44 
 
 1831. 
 
 Wheat. 'Other Grain. 
 
 Qn- I Ors. 
 
 ,070,309 1,121,520 
 533,435 39,507 
 218,329 7,<-38 
 464,793 2,466 
 32,620 1,389 
 
 319,486 1,171,920 
 
 63,073 43,545 
 
 1,510,486 1,069,833 
 
 '",445309,537 
 
 1834. 
 
 Wheat. Other Grain 
 
 Qr«- Qr», 
 
 99,526 377,341 
 
 2 1,216 
 
 56,446 
 
 9,993 .. 
 
 36,076 
 
 2(^2.043 379,847 
 
 159,499, 24,583 
 
 64,975 168,955 
 
 774,185 548,064 
 
 1,007 
 
 1857. 
 
 Wheat Other Grain 
 
 Qrs 
 721,122 
 
 29,847 
 
 525,496 
 12,623 
 2,722 
 
 37 .... 
 
 37,4 37 817 
 
 578,315 751,794 
 
 308,192 68,267 
 
 244,275 595,648 
 
 644,671 332,812 
 
COR 
 
 214 
 
 COR 
 
 Imported from 
 
 Russia 
 
 Denmark. , 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 Germany. , 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium , 
 
 France. , 
 
 Spain , 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Malta 
 
 Ionian Islands.... 
 
 Turkey 
 
 East Indies 
 
 British America.. 
 
 United States 
 
 Channel Islands.. . 
 Other places 
 
 Re-exported 
 
 Entered for consumption. 
 In warehouse 
 
 Total. 
 
 1838. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Other Grain. 
 
 Whe»t 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Other Grain. 
 
 Qr». 
 
 Qr.. 
 
 Q». 
 
 372,820 
 
 Q". 
 
 Qr.. 
 
 41,408 
 
 10,229 
 
 1,994 
 
 316,823 
 
 35,472 
 
 133,566 
 
 4,139 
 
 23,888 
 
 207,986 
 
 46,235 
 
 256,173 
 
 586,003 
 
 199 
 
 10,416 
 
 767,735 
 
 99,521 
 
 350,597 
 
 350,139 
 
 16,816 
 
 65,788 
 
 428,737 
 
 75,010 
 
 142,803 
 
 82,011 
 
 23,688 
 
 4,907 
 
 116,901 
 
 101,336 
 
 38,336 
 
 18,437 
 
 468 
 
 1,648 
 
 24,873 
 
 21,196 
 
 6,884 
 
 60,831 
 
 
 784 
 
 311,182 
 
 5,640 
 
 135,644 
 
 421 
 
 
 7 
 
 17,794 
 
 
 601 
 
 31,006 
 
 
 
 341,180 
 
 
 8 
 
 11,647 
 
 
 
 16,370 
 
 
 1,660 
 
 5,370 
 
 
 
 13,928 
 
 
 
 3,150 
 
 
 
 43,757 
 
 
 1,772 
 
 5,404 
 
 4 
 
 56 
 
 5,011 
 
 
 36 
 
 11,356 
 
 
 40 
 
 7,769 
 
 
 279 
 
 6,141 
 
 
 14 
 
 127,406 
 
 .... 
 
 
 41,545 
 
 1,427 
 
 4,184 
 
 46,353 
 
 452 
 
 7,640 
 
 892 
 
 "56^970 
 
 2,745 
 106,471 
 
 40,052 
 
 3,904 
 
 4,996 
 
 1,389,327 
 
 2,889,854 
 
 670,117 
 
 982,901 
 
 156,105 
 
 54,424 
 
 31,286 
 
 10,882 
 
 40,205 
 
 7,256 
 
 1,848,477 
 
 11,005 
 
 79,766 2,711,309 
 
 864,240 
 
 1,056,712 
 
 25,729 
 
 242,188 
 
 69,044 
 
 175,956 
 
 15,835 
 
 8,746 
 
 No. V. A Return of the Highest and Lowest Prices of Wheat, and the Differ- 
 ence per Cent., in each of the Years from 1829 to 1838 inclusive, in England and 
 Dantzic. {Par. Paper, 1840, No. 177.) 
 
 Years. 
 1829 
 
 England. 
 
 Dantzic. 
 
 Lowest. 
 
 Highest. 
 
 Differ, per 
 Cent, 
 
 Lowest. 
 
 Highest. 
 
 Differ, per 
 Cent. 
 
 8. d. 
 55 4 
 55 5 
 59 2 
 61 3 
 49 2 
 40 6 
 36 
 36 
 
 51 
 
 52 4 
 
 s. d. 
 75 11 
 
 74 11 
 
 75 1 
 63 7 
 56 5 
 49 6 
 44 
 61 9 
 60 1 
 78 4 
 
 37- 
 
 35- 
 27' 
 24- 
 14* 
 22- 
 22- 
 68* 
 17' 
 50- 
 
 s. d. 
 30 8 
 29 9 
 40 2 
 28 10 
 26 4 
 23 2 
 
 20 1 
 
 21 10 
 
 23 2 
 
 24 1 
 
 s. d. 
 
 60 1 
 
 48 2 
 
 49 6 
 42 6 
 
 32 
 28 6 
 24 11 
 34 10 
 
 33 11 
 
 61 2 
 
 96- 
 62- 
 
 23- 
 
 47- 
 
 21- 
 23- 
 23- 
 59- 
 36- 
 154- 
 
 1830 
 
 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 No. VI. Account of the Total Quantity of Foreign and Colonial Wheat and 
 other Grain and Pulse entered for Home Consumption in the United Kingdom, 
 from the time (15th July 1828) the Act 9 Geo. IV. cap. 60, came into operation, 
 to the 5th day of January 1839 ; the Total Amount of Duty received thereon ; 
 and showing what that Duty was equal to per Imperial Quarter on the Aggre- 
 gate Average of all this Period. S 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Barley 
 
 Oats 
 
 Rye 
 
 Pease 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Indian Corn... 
 Buck Wheat.. 
 
 Foreign Produce. 
 
 Suantities 
 arged with 
 Duty for Home 
 Consumption. 
 
 Wheatmeal & Flour 
 Oatmeal I 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 6,777,620 
 1,389,982 
 2,138,584 
 164,885 
 475,922 
 550,616 
 102,713 
 37,361 
 
 Cwts. 
 2,215,037 
 
 177 
 
 Amount of 
 
 Duty 
 
 received. 
 
 £ 
 
 2,039.115 
 
 414,921 
 
 766,429 
 
 35,546 
 
 176,920 
 
 265,776 
 
 19,271 
 
 11,906 
 
 191,978 
 52 
 
 Average 
 rates of 
 Duty. 
 
 Per Qr. 
 
 6s. Od. 
 
 6 
 
 7 2 
 4 4 
 7 5 
 9 8 
 3 9 
 6 4 
 
 Per Cwt. 
 1 9 
 5 11 
 
 Colonial Produce. 
 
 Quantities 
 charged with 
 Duty for Home 
 Consumption 
 
 Qr 
 
 519,530 
 
 314 
 
 8,977 
 
 5,482 
 
 Cwts. 
 595,745 
 1,843 
 
 Amount of 
 
 Duty 
 received. 
 
 £ 
 
 3,121 
 23 
 
 295 
 
 "635 
 "384 
 
 41,622 
 78 
 
 Average 
 
 rates of 
 
 Duty. 
 
 Per Qr. 
 3s. Qd. 
 1 6 
 8 
 
 i'ii 
 
 Per Cwt. 
 1 5 
 
 10 
 
COR 215 COR 
 
 IV. General Observations. 
 
 The inequality of the seasons is one of those obvious facts which force themselves 
 upon the attention of all. Equally so is the fact, that this inequality is greater in 
 a small than in a large distlfict ; and that, other things remaining the same, in 
 proportion as the territory which supplies subsistence is extended, the difference in 
 the productiveness of the seasons will be lessened. It is thus that, by leaving the 
 domestic trade of a kingdom unshackled, the deficiency of one district is, in a year 
 of scanty harvest, compensated in a greater or less degree by the comparative abund- 
 ance of another ; while the pressure is equalised throughout the year by the spontan- 
 eous operations of the corn-dealer, which force the people upon that timely economy 
 in the consumption of food, which, from ignorance or improvidence, they might 
 otherwise fail to adopt. But the merchant who equalises the supply of subsistence 
 through all the countries of the world, performs, though on a grander scale, and 
 in a more accurate manner, functions precisely analogous to those discharged by 
 the domestic dealer, — in a manner more accurate, because the irregularity of the 
 seasons in any territory is in an inverse ratio to its extent. On the same grounds, 
 it is obvious that prices must be always variable in a limited market, and steady 
 in proportion as the market is extended. 
 
 These principles, however, in so far as they relate to foreign trade, have seldom 
 been allowed to exercise an unfettered influence over national policy. In this 
 country, the exportation of corn was at one time prohibited ; at another it was 
 encouraged by a bounty ; while at a third its importation was subjected to re- 
 striction. The last and but recent practice, being one about whose expediency 
 opinion has been divided, we propose to state briefly the grounds upon which it 
 was advocated, and the objections that are commonly urged against it. 
 
 The policy of restraining importation professes to have in view two objects : — 
 1*/. To render the country independent of foreign supplies ; 2d. To protect and 
 encourage agriculture. 
 
 1st. The first object was much insisted on in 1815, in consequence of the es- 
 tranged position in which Great Britain had stood in reference to other countries 
 during a considerable part of the last war ; and it is still maintained, though per- 
 haps less strongly than formerly. The opponents of the corn-law, however, urge 
 that such a combination of foreign powers as should render importation impossible, 
 or even difficult, is a contingency scarcely conceivable, and totally at variance with 
 the experience of those countries, especially Holland, that have adopted a different 
 policy : That it is even opposed to our own experience, in as far as we have been for 
 many years in part dependent on other countries ; a large portion indeed of the grain 
 imported in 1 810, in consequence of the deficient harvest of 1809, having been brought 
 from France in the midst of war : Moreover, that we import from foreign countries 
 cotton-wool and other materials necessary in manufactures, affording employment 
 and subsistence to several millions of our population, but that the interests and 
 feelings created and sustained through means of such transactions, instead of being 
 adverse to political security, are the surest guarantees of prosperity and peace. 
 
 2d. The duty on grain, considered in reference to the protection of British corn- 
 growers, is to be viewed partly as a countervailing duty for their peculiar burdens, 
 and partly as having for its object the securing to them of the home market. 
 
 (1.) The principal burdens imposed on the agriculturists exclusively, or in a 
 higher degree than on others, are stated to be tithe and poor-rate, the countervail- 
 ing duty for which is estimated by Mr M'Culloch at 5s. or 5s. 6d. a-quarter on 
 wheat ; namely, 3s. 6d. for tithe, and from Is. 6d. to 2s. for poor-rate. On the 
 other hand, it is urged by many that the agriculturists are not subjected to greater 
 taxation than other classes, more especially since the late alteration of the poor-law, 
 but that the contrary is the case, all the direct public taxes affecting the occupation 
 of the farmer having been repealed ; also that land is proportionally less burdened 
 in Great Britain than in most other countries : Farther, that even admitting any 
 such extra taxation to exist, it is much more than counterbalanced by the charges 
 attending the importation of so bulky and perishable an article as corn. 
 
 C2.) The surplus of duty on foreign grain beyond the peculiar burdens of the 
 British corn-growers, is levied with the view of securing to them a preference in the 
 home market, similar to the legislative privilege in this respect enjoyed by other 
 branches of industry ; and they maintain that, having laid out much capital on the 
 faith of the continued existence of the present state of things, they are entitled to 
 expect that it shall not be speedily altered. To this it is answered— That the 
 " protection" of agriculture gives an enhanced value to the prime necessary of life; 
 a circumstance eminently injurious to the general body of consumers, and particu- 
 
COR 21G COR 
 
 larly to the manufacturers, who, while the cost of food is thus artificially raised, 
 are engaged with foreigners in an arduous competition, the effect of which is to 
 reduce profits and wages to the same level, whether on the Continent or in England : 
 That the views entertained by the landowners themselves, as to their suffering 
 from a change of the existing law, are exaggerated, if not unfounded; while, in the 
 opinion of many, instead of being benefited they have been directly injured by the 
 restrictive system, which, by holding out a fancied security, has led only to con- 
 tinued alternations of over-production, "agricultural distress," and short supplies. 
 
 These observations have reference solely to the principle of a restrictive corn- 
 law. Whether, holding that a duty should be imposed, the present scale is injurious 
 from its varying character, is no less a subject of controversy. The principal ad- 
 vantage expected from the sliding duty was, that it would tend to preserve uni- 
 formity of prices. But the extremes in the weekly averages, since it was introduced, 
 have been 36s. in December 1835, and 81s. 6d. in January 1839, — a difference of 
 1 26 per cent. Again, a graduated duty which fluctuates with the variations of price, 
 can never be appreciated beforehand, and is, as is well known, a fertile source 
 of delusion. Thus, suppose a merchant commissions a cargo of foreign wheat when 
 the home price is 71s., and when, of course, the duty is 6s. 8d. ; and suppose, at 
 the same time, that when he brings his wheat to market the price has fallen 3s., 
 that is, to 68s., he will in such case (besides losing by the fall of price) have to pay 
 a duty of 16s. 8d., or 10s. a-quarter more than his estimate. In the case of a rising 
 market, the advantage, it is true, will be on the side of the corn-merchant ; but 
 a law which thus adds to the loss of an unsuccessful and to the profit of a successful 
 speculation cannot be deemed beneficial. An equal degree of uncertainty is com- 
 municated to the operations of the foreign grower, who, of consequence, limits his 
 produce to the market upon which he can fairly calculate. In this way, the gra- 
 duated duty prevents that early importation of grain which merchants would have 
 recourse to even in the distant prospect of a scarcity, and leads to its being delayed 
 until after the emergency has arisen, and when the payment of its price cannot be 
 effected by shipments in the ordinary course of trade, but must be made suddenly 
 in bullion,— a circumstance which generally leads to a pecuniary crisis. Such a 
 crisis occurred, as is well known, in the sudden exportation of bullion to an im- 
 mense amount in 1839, which led to the convulsion of the money-market, much dis- 
 tress in trade, and the narrow escape of the Bank of England from a suspension 
 of specie payments. 
 
 No one can doubt the necessity of approaching with caution any alteration of the 
 laws affecting so important a branch of industry as agriculture, because any great 
 shock given to the corn-growers would be at the least as hurtful to others as 
 to themselves. Under this impression many eminent authorities thought that 
 the interests of all classes would be consulted by changing the late system for 
 that of a fixed duty. And that this need not be high, in order to ensure safety 
 to the landowner, might be inferred from the facts that, taking a series of years, 
 the average price of wheat at Dantzic (the cheapest exporting port) was not under 
 35s., while, in the event of a demand from this country, it invariably rises to 40s. 
 and upwards ; and that the charges of transport, exclusive of the importer's profit, 
 are fully 10s. a-quarter.* A moderate duty added, therefore, would obviously 
 afford ample protection, more especially when it is considered that the average 
 price of wheat in England, during the six years ending with 1837, was only 
 50s. 3d. a-quarter ; while, during the ten years ending with 1840, it was not more 
 than 56s. ll|d.; and that, during the greater portion of this period, cultivation was 
 never carried on with more spirit or success. Landlords should also keep in 
 view that high rents do not altogether depend upon high prices ; for the additions 
 to the present, compared with the former rent-rolls, have been much greater than 
 can be accounted for by the advance in the price of corn. This is owing to various 
 circumstances,— to increased population and wealth,— to the better adapted appli- 
 cation of capital to land, to greater economy, and to the progress of agricultural 
 science. These causes of a rise of rents are still in action, and will continue to be 
 so even with additional efficiency ; and their progress will of course still further 
 remove all chance of inconvenience from the abolition of the protective system, S 
 
 * " The charges, in ordinary times," says Mr Porter of the Board of Trade, " of merely trans- 
 porting a quarter of wheat from the north of Germany and the lower ports of the Baltic to Eng- 
 land, are stated, on good authority, to be 10s. 6d., in addition to all the charges on shipping ; and 
 I am assured that, in order to get back in London the cost of a quarter of wheat bought in the 
 Dantzic market, with the lowest rate of mercantile profit, it must be sold at an advance of 18s. 
 upon the original cost." (Effects of Restrictions on the Importation of Corn, p. 27.) 
 
COR 217 COT 
 
 CORNELIAN. [Carneljan.] 
 
 COROMANDEL-WOOD, the produce of a tree of great size, is used in cabinet 
 work, like zebra and rose wood. But it is inferior to the last in the brilliancy 
 and division of its colours, having a dingy ground, and sometimes running into 
 white streaks. 
 
 CORUNDUM. [Adamantine Spar.] 
 
 CORVETTE (Fr.), a small vessel of war, usually carrying from 10 to 20 guns. 
 
 COSS, also called the Cos,Cros,Crosa, and Hardary, is an Indian itinerary measure, 
 which varies in different places. It is generally distinguished into the standard cos 
 and the common cos ; the former is deduced from its proportion to a degree of the 
 meridian, the latter rests on popular computation. Thus the standard cos is, in some 
 places, 35 to a degree ; in others, 37 2» 40, and 45 ; while the common cos varies 
 from 1 to 2^ British miles. In the map of Central India prefixed to Sir John 
 Malcolm's Memoir, 42 cosses are reckoned to 1 degree. The Bengal cos of 1000 
 fathoms = 1 Brit, mile 1 furlong 3 poles and 3^ yards. 
 
 COTTON- WOOL, or COTTON (Dan. Bomuld. Du. Boomwol, Katoen. Fr. 
 Coton. Ger. Baumwolle. It. Bambagia, Cotone. Por. Algodao. Rus. Chlobts- 
 chataja Bumaga. Sw. Bomull. Sp. Algodon. Hindus. Ruhi. Malay, Kapas), 
 a vegetable hair, or filamentous down, enveloping the seeds of different species of 
 Gossypium, a plant growing in warm climates, and indigenous to India and Amer- 
 ica. It is produced within pods which protect it from injury by dust or weather, 
 until it is ripe and fit to be gathered, when the heat of the sun causes it to expand 
 and burst open the pod. It is of a white or yellowish-white hue, possesses downy 
 softness and warmth, and its delicate fibres are sufficiently long, flexible, and 
 tenacious to admit of being spun into a fine thread. The usual distinctions of the 
 plant are, 1st, Tree Cotton ; 2d, Shrub Cotton ; 3d, Herbaceous Cotton ; of each of 
 which there are several kinds,— the plant having a great tendency to run out into 
 varieties. 
 
 1st, Tree Cotton (G. Arboreum) is found in India, China, Egypt, the western 
 coast of Africa, and in some parts of America. It only attains the height of from 12 
 to 20 feet ; but another cotton-bearing tree (Bombax ceiba), seen in the West 
 Indies and elsewhere, called familiarly the umbrella tree, attains the height of 100 
 feet. The produce of the latter, however, is of so short and brittle a fibre, that 
 it is unfit for spinning or any other purpose, except stuffing pillows and beds. 
 
 2d, Shrub Cotton (G. religiosum) occurs in one or other of its varieties throughout 
 the tropical parts of Asia, Africa, and America. In appearance it resembles a cur- 
 rant bush. Its duration varies according to the climate ; in the hottest countries 
 it is a perennial, while in cooler places it becomes an annual. In the former, two 
 crops a-year are gathered, one from October to December, the other from February 
 to April. The Guiana, Brazil, and most of the West India cotton is of this kind ; 
 the whole being also long stapled. 
 
 3d, Herbaceous Cotton (G.herbaceum),hy far the most useful and important of the 
 three kinds we have noticed, is an annual plant cultivated in the United States, India, 
 China, and many other countries. It attains the height of 18 or 24 inches. The seed 
 is usually planted in rows in March, April, and May ; and the cotton is gathered by 
 hand, within a few days after the opening of the pods, in August, September, and 
 October. It is to this kind that the planters confine their attention in the southern 
 part of North America, — the places where cotton is most extensively cultivated, 
 and where the following varieties are commonly distinguished : — 1st, Nankeen Cot- 
 ton, abundant in produce, the seed covered with down, the wool of a dirty yellow 
 colour, and usually low priced. 2d, Green-seeded Cotton, which, as well as the 
 former, is grown in the upland and middle districts, whence the latter is called 
 upland, also short-staple, and, from the mode in which it was formerly cleaned, 
 bowed Georgia Cotton. This kind was at first chiefly raised in Georgia and South 
 Carolina, but of late years it has been very greatly extended in Alabama, Mobile, 
 and the Valley of the Mississippi. 3d, Sea-island or Long-staple Cotton, the finest 
 of all, is distinguished by the black colour of its seed, and the fine yellowish-white, 
 strong, and silky long staple by which it is surrounded ; it is grown in the lower 
 parts of Georgia and South Carolina, near the sea, between Charleston and Sa- 
 vannah, and on small islands adjoining the shore. Owing to the peculiar combi- 
 nation of circumstances requisite for the production of this kind, it forms only a 
 trifling proportion (about 12,000,000 lbs.) of the cotton grown in the United States ; 
 nor is the quantity on the increase. 
 
 All the varieties of the plant require a dry and sandy soil. Marshy ground is 
 wholly unfit for it, and a wet season is destructive to the crops, which are besides 
 precarious from the diseases to which the plant is subject, particularly blight pro- 
 
COT 218 COT 
 
 duced by wetness at the roots. In general, it flourishes most luxuriantly, and yields 
 produce of the best quality, on the coast, as is proved by the growth of the sea-island 
 cotton, which is mostly exposed to the action of the ocean's spray ; and a manure 
 of salt mud is known to impart a healthful action to the plant, and to produce a 
 staple at once strong and silky. To this rule, however, the fine Pernambuco cot- 
 ton is an exception; also the Egyptian, the growth of the upper provinces being 
 greatly superior to that of the Delta. In the United States, land fresh brought 
 under cultivation will yield, on an average, from 1000 to 1200 lbs. per acre of cot- 
 ton with the seed, which will give, of clean cotton, from 250 to 300 lbs.; but in 
 the old states, the produce is not more than one-half of this quantity. 
 
 The operation of gathering the ripe cotton requires to be performed with great care ; 
 and its separation from the seeds is a work of some difficulty, and one which must 
 be done effectually before the article is packed, otherwise it will become oily 
 and mouldy, and by the particles of seed and dirt be rendered unfit for spinning. 
 In Asia this is slowly performed by a rude hand-mill or roller-gin, by which not 
 more than from 40 to 65 lbs. a- day can be cleansed. The sea-island cotton is still 
 separated from the seeds by rollers, constructed however on a powerful scale ; but, 
 excepting this kind, all the North American produce is cleaned by the saw-gin, 
 invented in 1793 by Mr Eli Whitney, of Massachusetts, by which one man may 
 separate 3 cwts. in a day. This invention forms an important era in the history 
 of the cotton-trade, as, though the instrument injures, in some degree, the fibre, 
 the process is so rapid as to have been the main cause of the cheapness of the 
 short- stapled American cottons, and thus has powerfully contributed to the ex- 
 tension of its cultivation. 
 
 After the cotton is separated from the seeds ; it is packed in large canvass bags, 
 commonly with the aid of a screw or hydraulic press, into a very dense bale, for 
 the convenience of transport. The bale of Virginia, Carolina, Georgia, or West 
 India cotton weighs from about 300 to 310 lbs. ; that of New Orleans and Alaba- 
 ma, from about 400 to 500 lbs. ; the East India bale, 320 to 380 lbs. ; the Brazilian, 
 160 to 200 lbs.; and the Egyptian, 180 to 300 lbs. 
 
 In the infancy of the manufacture, England obtained the raw material from the 
 Mediterranean and Levant. In last century, the largest supplies came from the 
 West Indies and South America ; but before 1779, the quantity annually imported 
 scarcely exceeded 5,000,000 lbs. In 1786, when the total imports were 19,900,000 
 lbs., there were brought from the British West Indies 5,800,000 lbs. ; French 
 and Spanish colonies, 5,500,000 lbs. ; Dutch colonies, 1,600,000 lbs. ; Portuguese 
 colonies, 2,000,000 lbs. ; Smyrna and Turkey, 5,000,000 lbs. Prior to the Ameri- 
 can revolution, it was raised to a limited extent in the southern colonies for 
 domestic use ; and after the peace of 1783, small quantities were exported from 
 Georgia. It was not, however, cultivated to much extent for exportation until 
 about 1791 or 1792. Soon after which it became the great staple of South 
 Carolina and Georgia, and lately of the new states in the south-west. In 1791, 
 the quantity exported was only 189,316 lbs. ; but in 1794, it was increased to 
 1,601,760 lbs. ; in 1800, to 17,789,803 lbs.; since which, owing to Mr Whitney's in- 
 vention, and the industry and enterprise of the American planters, the exports have 
 gradually risen to be in value equal to one-half of the whole domestic exports of 
 the United States. [United States.] An equally rapid extension has occurred 
 in the consumption of the article in this country, in consequence of the discoveries 
 of Hargreaves, Arkwright, Crompton, Cartwright, and others, as noticed in the 
 next article. 
 
 The following statements of the production and distribution of cotton in 1834 
 are derived from tables compiled by order of the American Congress, and pre- 
 sented to the House of Representatives by Mr Levi Woodbury, late Secretary of 
 the United States Treasury. 
 
 Estimated Production in 1834. Distribution in 1834. 
 
 lbs. lbs. 
 
 United States 460,000,000 Exports from U. States to England. .266.750.0M 
 
 .... to Prance. . 79,900,00t 
 
 .... to other places 20,000,00* 
 
 Total from United States. . . .366,650,001 
 
 Exports from India to England 32,000,000 
 
 to China 40,000,000 
 
 Brazil to England 18,000,000 
 
 West Indies to England 4,000,001 
 
 Brazil & "West Indies to France 4,000,000 
 
 Egypt & Turkey to England 1 ,500,000 
 
 to France 7,000,000 
 
 Total. 473,150,000 
 
 Brazil 30,000,000 
 
 Mexico and South America (exclusive 
 
 of Brazil) 35,000,000 
 
 West Indies 8,000,000 
 
 Egypt 25,000,000 
 
 Other parts of Africa 34,000,000 
 
 India 185,000,000 
 
 Other parts of Asia 110,000,000 
 
 Other parts of the World 13,000,000 
 
 Total 900,000,000 
 
COT 
 
 219 
 
 COT 
 
 The differences between the quantities produced in and exported from the sev- 
 eral countries represent the probable consumption in the places of growth. 
 Since 1834 the cultivation has been materially increased, particularly in the United 
 States, India, and Egypt, to -which heads, as well as those of the other countries of 
 production, we refer for further information. 
 
 The following table exhibits the progress of the British trade since 1820; annexed 
 to which is the average annual price of upland or bowed Georgia cotton, which is 
 generally considered as forming a standard by which the value of other kinds is 
 measured. 
 
 Account of the Quantities of Cotton-wool imported into the United Kingdom, and 
 the Quantities Exported and Entered for Home Consumption ; also the average 
 prices of Upland or Bowed Georgia in each year, from 1820 to 1840 inclusive. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1820 
 
 1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1823 
 
 1824 
 
 1825 
 
 1826 
 
 1827 
 
 1828 
 
 1829 
 
 1830 
 
 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Entered for 
 Consumption. 
 
 Uplands 
 per lb. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Other 
 Countries. 
 
 Total. 
 
 lbs. 
 89,999,174 
 93,470,745 
 101,031,766 
 142,532,112 
 92,187,662 
 139,908,699 
 130,858.203 
 216,924,812 
 151,752,289 
 157,187,396 
 210,885,358 
 219,333,628 
 219,756,753 
 237,506,758 
 269,203,075 
 284,455,812 
 289,615,692 
 320,651,716 
 431,437,888 
 311,585,800 
 488,572,510 
 
 lbs. 
 61,673,481 
 39,065,875 
 41,805,862 
 48,870,391 
 57,192,460 
 88,096,592 
 46,749,198 
 55,524,097 
 76,008,353 
 65,580,015 
 53,«76,094 
 69,341.225 
 67,075,772 
 66,150,079 
 57,672,350 
 79,247,151 
 
 117,343,365 
 86,635,067 
 76,412,689 
 76,569,426 
 
 104,392,994 
 
 lbs. 
 
 151/172,655 
 132,536,620 
 142,837,628 
 191,402,503 
 149,380,122 
 228,005,291 
 177,607,401 
 272,448,909 
 227,760,642 
 222,767,411 
 263,961,452 
 288,674,853 
 286,832,525 
 303,656,837 
 326,875,425 
 363,702,963 
 406,959,057 
 407,286,783 
 507,850,577 
 388,155,226 
 592,965,504 
 
 lbs. 
 
 6,024,038 
 14,589,497 
 18,269,776 
 
 9,318,402 
 13,299,505 
 18,004,953 
 24,474,920 
 18,134,170 
 17,396,776 
 30,289,115 
 
 8,534,976 
 22,308,555 
 18,027,940 
 17,363,882 
 24,461,963 
 32,779,734 
 31 ,739,763 
 39,722,031 
 30,644,469 
 37,515,303 
 38,673,229 
 
 lbs. 
 152,829,633 
 137,401,549 
 143,428,127 
 186,311,070 
 141,038,743 
 202,546,869 
 162,889,012 
 249,804,396 
 208,987,744 
 204,097,037 
 269,616,640 
 273,249,653 
 259,412,463 
 293,682,976 
 302,935.657 
 326,407,692 
 363,684,232 
 368,445,035 
 455,036,755 
 355,781,960 
 531,197,659 
 
 d. 
 W 
 
 9S 
 8i 
 
 12| 
 61 
 61 
 6i 
 54 
 63 
 64 
 61 
 94 
 88 
 104 
 14* 
 8 
 61 
 8 
 6 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 Of the 76,412,689 lbs. imported from other countries than the United States in 
 1838, the latest year for which the particulars are given in the public accounts, there 
 were brought from East Indies 40,217,734 lbs. ; Brazil, 24,464,505 lbs. ; Egypt, 
 4,751,923 lbs.; Colombia, 2,877,194 lbs.; British West Indies, 1,529,536 lbs.; Italy, 
 &c, 996,764 lbs.; Turkey, 660,555 lbs. ; Chili, 424,633 lbs. ; Peru, 131,680 lbs.; other 
 
 f daces, 358,165 lbs. The re-exportations are almost exclusively to Germany, Hol- 
 and, Belgium, Russia, and Italy. 
 
 The supply of cotton derived from India has increased considerably within the 
 last ten years, owing to the great attention which is now paid to its cultivation by 
 the Company. The average importation of the three years 1827, 1828, and 1829, 
 was only 26,043,467 lbs., whereas that of the three years, 1837, 1838, and 1839, was 
 46,001,308 lbs.; being an augmentation of fully 75 per cent. On the other hand, 
 the importations from the British West Indies have fallen off within the same 
 period from about 5,000,000 lbs. to only 1,500,000 ; the cultivation of cotton having 
 been for the most part abandoned by the planters, owing to the cheaper rate at 
 which it can now be prosecuted in India and the United States. 
 
 •• A few words must be said as to the distinguishing qualities of cotton-wool in the estimation 
 of the manufacturer. The quality depends on the length, strength, and fineness of the fibre, 
 or, as it is called in the trade, the staple ; but these, which are the essential attributes of quality, 
 are modified by the cleanliness and the colour. The different denominations of cotton-wool vary 
 considerably from each other in these particulars, and the value is estimated accordingly. In 
 cotton of the same denomination there is also a considerable difference in quality. In Sea-island 
 cotton, which as a class is by much the most valuable, this difference is great ; the very finest 
 quality of this class, in ordinary states of the market, is worth three times as much as the common 
 quality of the same class. The variation of quality in most of the other denominations is from 20 
 to 25 per cent., and in none of them is more than 50 per cent. Formerly, the usual distinction of 
 the different sorts of cotton had reference to the colour, " yellow" and " white." But now, 
 improved modes and processes of manufacturing have rendered colour of less importance than 
 staple, and the broad distinction is therefore into " long-stapled" and ** short-stapled." The 
 principal lone-stapled cottons are Sea-islands, Brazils of every kind, Demerara, West Indian, and 
 Egyptian. The short-stapled cottons include such parts of the produce of North America as are 
 grown in the interior of that country, and called Uplands, Orleans, Alabama, Mobile, &c, as 
 
COT 
 
 220 
 
 COT 
 
 well as the East India cotton, Surat, Bengal, and Madras. Except the better qualities of Sea- 
 islands, there is no sort of cotton •which is now confined in its use to any peculiar or exclusive 
 purpose. By mixing different sorts together, and by careful management in preparing the mixture 
 for the spinning, the manufacturers can now make a substitute for almost any particular kind of 
 cotton, except the very best. It is only requisite to add, that the long-stapled cottons are gen- 
 erally used for the twist or warp, and the short-stapled for the weft." (Babies' History of the 
 Cotton Manufacture.) 
 
 The relative value of the different kinds introduced into this country will be seen in 
 the following list, extracted from the Liverpool Price-current of 11th March 1841 :— 
 
 Sea-island 14 
 
 stained 6 
 
 Bowed Georgia 6 — 
 
 Mobile 6 — 
 
 Tennessee 55 — 
 
 New Orleans 6 — 
 
 Pernambuco 8| — 
 
 d. 
 to 30 
 — 12 
 
 Maranham . 
 
 71- 
 
 fi. 
 to 12 
 — 8J 
 
 Demerara. , 
 
 West India 
 
 Peruvian 
 
 La Guayra 7 — 7f 
 
 Carthagena 4| — 5£ 
 
 Smvrna (j\ — 
 
 Egyptian 9i — 13 
 
 Surat 4|— 6* 
 
 Madras — .. 
 
 43- .. 
 
 saw-ginned 7 — 
 
 The expense of bringing cotton to this country from New Orleans and Mobile is 
 about ^d. per lb., and from the Atlantic States, £d. to f d. per lb. The American 
 planters frequently consign it for sale on their own account, but the greater part 
 is sent by mercantile houses. About nine-tenths of the whole imports to this coun- 
 try are brought to Liverpool, where it is sold by brokers, who charge 10s. per £100 
 for their trouble. The same commission is demanded by the brokers employed to 
 purchase for the spinners or dealers. The sales are made by sample, and owing to 
 the strict probity of the brokers, they are conducted with unparalleled facility and 
 despatch ; and though not made with the formalities necessary to render the bargains 
 legally binding, yet a difficulty in their fulfilment is almost unknown. Any mis- 
 understandings which do occur are promptly and satisfactorily settled, by a ref- 
 erence to some neutral broker. The credit allowed is 10 days, at the end of which 
 time the usage is to give a banker's bill payable in two months. 
 
 Statement showing the Number of Bags and Bales of Cotton Imported, Exported, 
 taken for Consumption, and the Stock on hand in London, Liverpool, and Glasgow, 
 each Year, from 1830 to 1841, both inclusive.* 
 
 Yeaii. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Exported and 
 
 destroyed by 
 
 Firei, fee. 
 
 Taken for 
 
 Co .sumption. 
 
 Stock on 1st January in each Year. 
 
 In London. 
 
 In Liverpool. 
 
 In Glasgow. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1830 
 
 1831 
 
 1832 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 
 1835 
 
 1836 
 
 1837 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 
 Baps. 
 
 870,750 
 
 901,764 
 
 902,240 
 
 931,796 
 
 946,585 
 
 1,089,309 
 
 1,191.744 
 
 1.163,839 
 
 1,429,062 
 
 1,109,550 
 
 1,599,343 
 
 Baas. 
 35,800 
 80,699 
 65,100 
 79,066 
 90,895 
 107,240 
 100,853 
 128,535 
 102,370 
 121,659 
 126,045 
 
 Bags. 
 
 805,250 
 
 862,205 
 
 858.434 
 
 877,589 
 
 883,280 
 
 937,616 
 
 1,031,904 
 
 1,064,931 
 
 1,265,116 
 
 1,043,511 
 
 1,274,729 
 
 Bags. 
 
 77,070 
 
 42,852 
 37,381 
 34,102 
 35,243 
 26,296 
 24,470 
 60,820 
 64,150 
 46,450 
 31,640 
 50,660 
 
 Bag*. 
 203,250 
 258,100 
 212,350 
 197,960 
 180,780 
 145,311 
 184.700 
 204,590 
 170,853 
 248,349 
 206,049 
 366,140 
 
 Bags. 
 
 8,962 
 21,268 
 26,575 
 13,058 
 
 9,127 
 13,953 
 20,843 
 23,500 
 24,370 
 26,300 
 27,790 
 47,248 
 
 Bags. 
 289,382 
 322,220 
 276,306 
 245,120 
 215,150 
 185,560 
 231. .013 
 289,000 
 259,373 
 321,099 
 265,479 
 464,048 
 
 The import duty on cotton wool (exclusive of the late addition of 5 per cent.) is 
 2s. lid. per cwt.; but if the produce of, and imported from, any British possession, 
 only 4d. per cwt. This duty, in the year 1840, amounted to £650,000. S 
 
 COTTON MANUFACTURE. The birthplace of this branch of industry is 
 India, where it probably flourished long before the date of authentic history. In 
 China, throughout which the manufacture is also very generally diffused, it is not 
 supposed to have existed before the beginning of the sixth century of the Christian 
 era. In the tenth century, the cotton plant is stated by Mr Baines to have been 
 extensively cultivated, and its produce woven into cloth by the Mohammedan 
 possessors of Spain, where, and especially at Barcelona, the manufacture long 
 flourished. At a later period (probably about the close of the 15th century), it 
 was introduced into Italy, then the channel through which the fabrics of India 
 
 * In " Burn's Commercial Glance," from which the preceding table is extracted, the average 
 •weight of the bags or bales of cotton is given as follows :— American, 373 lbs.; Brazil, 171 lbs. ; 
 Egyptian, 284 lbs. ; East India, 363 lbs. ; West India, 316 lbs. ; and of the whole consumed in this 
 country, 346 lbs. 
 
COT 221 COT 
 
 were distributed to the rest of Europe. The wool consumed by the Italian manu- 
 factures is supposed to have been obtained from the southern shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean, in most of the countries bordering on which, cotton is known to have been 
 cultivated and converted into clothing in the beginning of the 16th centurv, and 
 probably before. From Italy the manufacture found its way into the Netherlands, 
 from whence it is supposed to have been brought to England by protestant refugees 
 after the capture and ruin of Antwerp by the Duke of Parma in 1585. 
 
 It is unnecessary, and would indeed be difficult, to trace the introduction and 
 history of the manufacture into the other parts of Europe where it is now estab- 
 lished; but its growth has, in every case, been subsequent and greatly inferior in 
 extent to its progress in England, though even here it was long unimportant. In 
 1641, Roberts mentions, in his " Treasure of Traffic," that at Manchester " they 
 buy cotton wool in London that comes first from Cyprus and Smyrna, and at home 
 work the same and perfect it into fustians, vermilhons, dimities, and other such 
 stuffs, and then return it to London, where the same is vented and sold, and not 
 seldom sent into foreign parts, who have means, at far easier terms, to provide 
 themselves of the said first materials." But the cotton manufacture made very slow 
 progress in this island for more than a hundred years after the time when Roberts 
 wrote. At the commencement of the last century, the importation of cotton-wool 
 into the kingdom scarcely exceeded 2,000,000 lbs. annually, and of this quantity 
 a large portion was used for candlewicks, a purpose to which it had been long 
 applied in this country. Even down to 1760 the manufacture, if it deserved that 
 name, was mostly carried on by weavers scattered over the country in cottages, 
 who purchased what wool they wanted, each on his own account, got it spun into 
 thread by their wives and children, and plied their looms only during part of the 
 day, the "rest of which was spent in digging their gardens. 
 
 From the year 1760 we may date those improvements which have given to 
 England the appellation of " the second birthplace of the cotton manufacture." 
 The system was then begun by the Manchester merchants of distributing supplies 
 of wool among the weavers by means of agents, who travelled over the country for 
 that purpose at stated times. About that time also the fly-shuttle (invented by 
 John Ray of Bury in 1738) was generally introduced into the cotton manufacture ; 
 while his son Robert in the same year invented the drop-box. These inventions 
 placed the operation of weaving in advance of that of spinning, — a process which 
 until now had been performed by the distaff, or one-thread wheel, and the supply of 
 yarn became more and more inadequate every day. At length in 1767, James Har- 
 greaves, an illiterate but ingenious mechanic, invented the spinning-jenny, a con- 
 trivance which was speedily followed by the greatly more important one of spin- 
 ning by rollers by the water-frame, or throstle, for which a patent was taken out 
 in 1769 by Richard (afterwards Sir Richard) Arkwright,* a hairdresser, and 
 which, from that time, communicated altogether a new character to the manufac- 
 ture. 
 
 Hitherto no goods entirely composed of cotton had been made in England. In 
 what were called cotton cloths, it was only the weft or transverse thread that was 
 of cotton ; the warp, or longitudinal thread was always of linen yarn, — it not 
 having been found possible to spin the cotton into thread sufficiently strong and 
 hard for the latter purpose. But the yarn spun by Arkwright's machinery being 
 strong enough to serve for warp as well as woof, cloth was now woven entirely of 
 cotton. This important innovation was introduced in 1773, and the greater cheap- 
 ness of production encouraged the consumption of the article both at home and 
 abroad. In 1785, after a tedious lawsuit, Arkwright's patent was annulled, and 
 the invention of the water-frame being thus thrown open, a great increase in the 
 number of factories took place. After this event, also, the mule-jenny, a combina- 
 tion of Hargreaves' spinning-jenny and Arkwright's water-frame, which had been 
 some years before (1779) invented by Samuel Crompton of Bolton, came into 
 general use : it is only by the mule that cotton-thread of the finest qualities can be 
 spun. 
 
 The first steam-engine for a cotton-mill was made by Mr Watt in the year 1785. 
 
 • Mr Bailies has satisfactorily established that the merit of this discovery, though claimed by 
 Arkwright, truly belongs to John Wyatt of Birmingham, who made it the subject of a patent so 
 early as 1738 ; but wanting the means to realize his success, the invention slumbered till it was 
 either re-discovered, or what is more probable, till its principles came accidentally to the know- 
 ledge of Arkwright, who appreciated its value, and whose perseverance, talent, and good fortune 
 enabled him by its means to enrich himself and his countrv. The invention was also claimed by 
 Thomas Highs of Leigh. 
 
COT 222 COT 
 
 But at this time the application of the improved machinery was confined to the pro- 
 duction of yarn ; and as formerly the difficulty had been to find thread enough to 
 feed the looms ? so now it seems to have been apprehended that it would be impossible 
 to find a sufficient number of weavers to work the thread that was spun. This 
 great desideratum was, however, supplied by Dr Cartwright, who invented the 
 power-loom. This invention took place as early as 1785, but no practical applica- 
 tion of it was made until 1801; nor was it until several years afterwards that 
 the difficulties attendant upon its first employment were overcome. These inven- 
 tions were followed by that of the dressing-machine, of the cylinder printing-ma- 
 chine, and of mechanical engraving, and by the discovery of the various and 
 beautiful processes of calico-printing, and of important improvements in the art of 
 bleaching. More recently the process of spinning has been further facilitated by 
 the self-acting-mule of Mr Roberts. The combined effect of these splendid inven- 
 tions and discoveries has been, as is well known, the progression of the manufac- 
 ture with gigantic strides, until it now composes nearly the one-half of our 
 external trade, and affords subsistence to a portion of our population exceeding in 
 amount that of several of the continental kingdoms. 
 
 The different processes through which the cotton passes, in its conversion into 
 cloth, all of which are performed in many of the large spinning and weaving mills, 
 are briefly described by Mr Baines as follows : — 
 
 " The cotton is brought to the mill in bags, just as it is received from America, Egypt, or In- 
 dia, and is then stowed in warehouses, being arranged according to the countries from which it 
 may have come. It is passed through the willow, the scutching-machine, and the spreading-ma- 
 chine, in order to be opened, cleaned, and evenly spread. By the carding-engine, the fibres are 
 combed out, and laid parallel to each other, and the fleece is compressed into a sliver. The sliver 
 is repeatedly drawn and doubled in the drawing-frame, more perfectly to straighten the fibres, 
 and to equalise the grist. The roving-frame, by rollers and spindles, produces a coarse and loose 
 thread ; which the mule or throstle spins into yarn. To make the warp, the twist is transferred 
 from cops to bobbins by the winding-machine, and from the bobbins, at the warpimj-mill, to a 
 cylindrical beam. This beam being taken to the dressing^machine, the warp is sized, dressed, and 
 wound upon the weaving-beam. The latter is then placed in the power-loom, by which machine, 
 the shuttle being provided with cops of weft, the cloth is woven. 
 
 " Such, without entering too much into minutiae, are the processes by which the vegetable 
 wool is converted into a woven fabric of great beauty and delicacy ; and it will be perceived that 
 the operations are numerous, and every one of them is performed by machinery, without the help 
 of human hands, except merely in transferring the material from one machine to another. It is 
 by iron fingers, teeth, and wheels, moving with exhaustless energy and devouring speed, that the 
 cotton is opened, cleaned, spread, carded, drawn, roved, spun, wound, warped, dressed, and 
 woven. The various machines are proportioned to each other in regard to their capability of 
 work, and they are so placed in the mill, as to allow the material to be carried from stage to stage 
 with the least possible loss of time. All are moving at once, — the operations chasing each other ; 
 and all derive their motion from the mighty engine, which, firmly seated in the lower part of the 
 building, and constantly fed with water and fuel, toils through the day with the strength perhaps 
 of a hundred horses. Men, in the meanwhile, have merely to attend on this wonderful series of 
 mechanism, to supply it with work, to oil its joints, and to check its slight and infrequent irregu- 
 larities ; each workman performing, or rather superintending, as much work as could have been 
 done by two or three hundred men sixty years ago. At the approach of darkness, the building is 
 illuminated by jets of flame, whose brilliance mimics the light of day, the produce of an invisible 
 vapour, generated on the spot. When it is remembered that all these inventions have been made 
 within the last seventy years, it must be acknowledged that the cotton-mill presents the most 
 striking example of the dominion obtained by human science over the powers of nature, of which 
 modern times can boast."— (History of the Cotton Manufacture, p. 242.) 
 
 The principal and original seat of the British cotton manufacture is Manchester, 
 including the district lying within from thirty to fifty miles around it, which is 
 more important for the quantity, variety, and excellence of its productions than all 
 the others together. The departments of spinning, manufacturing, bleaching, and 
 printing, are all here carried to the highest perfection. The Manchester mills 
 supply the finest yarns ; and almost every description of cotton goods, except lace 
 and hosiery, is made in Lancashire. Besides Manchester, four other great districts 
 are distinguished by their cotton manufactures, namely, Is*, Glasgow, and the coun- 
 try around it, extending to Perth and Aberdeen; 2d, Nottingham, including Derby, 
 Warwick, and Lichfield ; 3d, Carlisle, branching out so as nearly to meet the Man- 
 chester and Scottish divisions ; 4th, The counties of Antrim, Armagh, Dublin, and 
 Kildare, in Ireland. The Glasgow district is chiefly celebrated for muslins and 
 bandanas ; the Nottingham, for lace and cotton hosiery. [Lace. Hosiery.] Cal- 
 ico printing is carried on chiefly in the neighbourhood of Manchester, in the val- 
 leys between Blackburn, Clitheroe, and Bury, and in the vicinity of Glasgow, 
 Dublin, and London. The principal bleaching works are in the neighbourhood 
 of Bolton, Blackburn, Manchester, and Glasgow. 
 ( The following tables exhibit the course and progress of our export trade in 
 
COT 
 
 223 
 
 COT 
 
 cottons, and the quantities of th8 different descriptions of these goods which com- 
 posed the shipments at different periods. 
 
 Account of the Declared "Value of Cotton Manufactures, and of Cotton Twist and 
 Yarn, exported to different Countries in the Years 1820, 1830, and 1838. 
 
 Russia 
 
 Prussia. 
 
 Germany 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 France 
 
 Portugal, Azores, ^Madeira 
 Spain, theBalearidslands, \ 
 
 and Canaries / 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Italy and Italian Islands — 
 
 Malta 
 
 Turkey ■) 
 
 Egypt \ 
 
 Barbarv States ) 
 
 West Coast of Africa. 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 Mauritius. 
 
 East Indies and Ceylon 
 
 China 
 
 Java, Sumatra, Siam, &c. . 
 
 Australasia 
 
 British America 
 
 West Indies. 
 
 Foreign West Indies. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central America. 
 
 Colombia. 
 
 Brazil 
 
 States of La Plata.... 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Channel Islands 
 
 Other places 
 
 1820. 
 
 Manufacture*. Twiit and Y«n. Manufactures. Twist & Yarn, 
 
 183a 
 
 £ I 
 
 7"-2,125 
 
 205,554 
 
 2,763,939! 
 
 979,681 j 
 
 l,82l| 
 792,825 
 
 140,010 
 
 837,836 
 
 1,336,831 
 
 175,593 
 
 352,894 
 
 28,592 
 68,673: 
 
 850,{ 
 
 ' 12J49 
 176,884 
 
 1,072,087 
 451,782 
 
 1,194,305 
 
 454,210 
 
 74,253 
 52,503 
 
 Total. 
 
 £ 
 
 1,094,305 
 
 7,468 
 
 1,404,519 
 
 55,261 
 ' i3,401 
 
 11,104 
 138,919 
 10,784 
 
 61,258 
 
 *"" 78 
 
 1,322 
 548 
 170 
 226 
 
 25,245 
 
 £ 
 
 155,975 
 
 52 
 
 1,478,570 
 
 646,689 
 
 10,001 
 630,111 
 
 145,404 
 1,758,925 
 
 74,339 
 f 861,759 
 
 71,594 
 
 '96,271 
 122,245 
 67,945 
 
 1,562,574 
 
 114,409 
 45,767 
 375,597 
 645,768 
 541,804 
 
 2,305,165 
 660,546j 
 
 [ 146,643! 
 
 l,416,167i 
 344,310! 
 372,610 
 233,651* 
 81,128| 
 108,819, 
 
 £ 
 
 1,087,662 
 
 3,370 
 
 1,449,521 
 
 612,925 
 
 391 
 14,276 
 
 726 
 
 1,044 
 
 433,754 
 
 19,296 
 
 86,148 
 
 8,946 
 
 " 54 
 
 1,296 
 
 7 
 
 333,286 
 
 2,040 
 
 848 
 
 8,803 
 
 3,598 
 32,026 
 
 6S6 
 587 
 
 2,128 
 29,581 
 
 £ 
 
 64,755 
 28 
 ,065,047 
 634,041 
 194,855 
 172,026 
 744,912 
 
 34,452 
 
 1,379,082 
 99,574 
 
 1,321,069 
 189,090 
 59,930 
 187,377 
 806,024 
 169,986 
 
 f 1,805,449 
 
 I 522,857 
 377,020 
 194,487 
 402,972 
 989,674 
 679,643 
 
 1,470,918 
 267,434 
 
 "94',9V) 
 1,657,702 
 486,923 
 272,022 
 221,679 
 63,511 
 85,450 
 
 13,690,109 2,826,639 15,294,923 4,133,74116,715,857 
 
 £ 
 
 1,236,584 
 
 1,272 
 
 2,264,330 
 
 1,864,529 
 
 11,740 
 
 48,271 
 
 27, 
 
 185 
 
 7,673 
 626,503 
 
 21,048 
 285,314 
 
 14,904 
 
 584 
 
 640,205 
 
 217,047 
 
 27,952 
 
 749 
 
 14,824 
 
 3,609 
 
 426 
 
 5,349 
 
 15,707 
 
 "" 90 
 
 1.45U 
 
 1,470 
 
 391 
 
 1,600 
 
 155 
 
 7,431,869 
 
 Statement of the Quantity and Declared Value of British Cotton Manufactured 
 Goods Exported from the United Kingdom, distinguishing the descriptions of 
 Goods in various Years since 1820. 
 
 White or plain cottons.. 
 
 Printed or dyed cottons. . -s 
 
 Hosiery and small wares, value.. £ 
 
 /yards. .. 
 
 I value.. £5,451,024 
 
 / yards. 
 
 T^t and yarn {j™^. 
 
 ISL'5. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1855. J 1858. 
 
 158,039,786 244,799,032 277,704,525 363,357,845 
 
 6,027,892; 6,562,3971 6,910,506 7,293,831 
 
 178,426,912 199,799.466 279,811,176 326,719,777 
 
 8,205,117 7,557,373, 8.270,925 8,260.902 
 
 919,787 1,175,153| 1,240,284 1,161,124 
 
 32,641,604 64,645,3421 83,214,198 114,596,602 
 
 3,206,729 4,133,741 5,706,589 7-431,869 
 
 Total declared value. .£ 16,516,748 18,359,526 19,428,664 22,128,304. 24,147,726 
 
 If the first and last years in this table are compared, it will be seen, that while 
 the number of yards exported in 1838 is greater by 178 per cent, than the number 
 exported in 1820, the increase in the declared value has been scarcely 18 per cent.; 
 the average price a-yard, which in 1820 was 12*yt_ having fallen in 1838 to 5y 5 d. 
 The quantity of twist exported has increased in the same period 398 per cent., 
 while the increase in the declared value is not more than 163 per cent. The average 
 price of twist, in 1820, was 2s. 5/ 5 d., and in 1838, only Is. 3 T5 d. a-pound. We 
 may thus form some judgment as to the economy which has been introduced into 
 the process of manufacture between 1820 and 1838, and are, besides, able to appor- 
 tion that which appertains to the spinning and to the weaving branches respec- 
 tively, -holding, what may reasonably be supposed, that the average qualities of 
 
COT 224 COV 
 
 cloths and twist should have heen the same at both periods. The diminution 
 of value in the twist amounts to 47 g per cent., and in the cloth to 55 A per cent. : 
 hence, by far the greater part of the saving occurs in the spinning processes,— a 
 circumstance which may in part account for the greater proportionate increase in 
 the exportation of twist and yarn. 
 
 In Mr Baines' work, an account is given of the extent and value of the British 
 cotton manufacture in 1833, of which the following is an abstract : — 
 
 Cotton- wool imported, 303,656,837 lbs. ; consumed in the manufacture, 282,675,200 lbs. Yarn 
 spun (deducting If oz. per lb. for loss), 256,174,400 lbs. ; number of hanks spun (averaging 40 to 
 the lb.), 10,246,976,000; length of yarn spun (840 yards to the hank), 4,890,602,182 miles.* 
 
 Value of the cotton- wool consumed, at 7d. per lb. £8,244,693 ; value of manufactures consumed 
 at home, £12,879,693; and of exports, £18,459,000 ; making total annual value of the manufac- 
 ture, £31,338,693. Capital employed in the manufacture, £34,000,000. 
 
 Number of persons supported by the manufacture, 1,500,000. Operatives in the spinning and 
 weaving factories in England, 200,000 ; in Scotland, 32,000 ; in Ireland, 5000 ; total, 237,000. Hand- 
 loom weavers, 250,000. Wages earned by the factory operatives, £6,044,000 ; by the hand-loom 
 weavers, £4.375,000. 
 
 Power, moved by the factories, 33,000 horses; water, 11,000 do; total, 44,000 horse-power. 
 Number of spindles, 9,333,000 ; number of power-looms, 100,000. 
 
 In 1840, the quantity of cotton- wool entered for home consumption was 531,197,659 
 lbs., being an increase of 81 per cent, beyond the amount in 1833, when the foregoing 
 estimates were formed ; and the value of the exports had increased to £24,661,179 
 (of which £7,099,468 was composed of yarn and twist), being an augmentation of 
 33 § per cent, since 1833. At the present time, therefore, we may fairly estimate 
 the annual value of the manufacture as being at least £40,000,000, and the capital 
 invested in it at nearly the same. This last estimate of the capital is much less 
 than what the above proportions would indicate, having been made on the assump- 
 tion that, though a considerable increase must have taken place on the fixed capi- 
 tal on buildings, and machinery, since 1833, it is probable no great addition has 
 been made on the floating capital, as, owing to quicker returns, the same amount 
 now suffices for the transaction of a larger amount of business. 
 
 The foreign countries in which the cotton manufacture is chiefly prosecuted will 
 be seen from the account given in last article of the production and distribution of 
 the raw material. It exists on a considerable scale in the New England states of 
 America, and in France, in each of which the produce of the manufacture may be 
 estimated at nearly one-fourth that of Great Britain. It is also advancing in Saxony, 
 Prussia, Switzerland, and Lombardy. The Americans, from their proximity to 
 the cotton-growing districts, possess an advantage in those articles where the value 
 of raw material exceeds that of the workmanship ; and in Germany and France 
 perhaps a superiority exists in some descriptions of hosiery and yarns ; but in a 
 general point of view, England commands a superiority over all the nations of the 
 world in regard to the cotton manufacture ; and in other countries this branch of 
 industry is only maintained under a system of protection. 
 
 In no way is the superiority of the British manufacture more strikingly shown 
 than in the extent of the triumph it has gained over the cotton fabrics of India, 
 formerly reckoned so beautiful and cheap, that nearly all the governments of 
 Europe thought it necessary to prohibit them, or to load them with heavy duties, 
 in order to protect their own manufactures. Now, however, the British manufac- 
 turer brings the cotton of India from a distance of 1 2,000 miles, commits it to 
 his spinning-jennies and power-looms, carries back their products to the East, 
 making them again to travel 12,000 miles ; and, in spite of the loss of time, and of the 
 enormous expense incurred by this voyage of 24,000 miles, the cotton manufactured 
 by his machinery becomes less costly than the cotton of India spun and woven by 
 the hand near the field that produced it, and sold at the nearest market. 
 
 A duty of 10 per cent, is imposed on foreign cottons, and of 20 per cent, on made- 
 up articles. Partly from this cause, but mainly from the superiority of the British 
 manufacture, the importations are comparatively trifling, chiefly consisting of 
 Indian piece goods, with.hosiery, yarn, and other articles from Germany and 
 France. S 
 
 COUPONS (Fr.), warrants for payment of the periodical dividends on public 
 stocks, a number of which, being appended to the bonds, are severally cut off for 
 
 Eresentation as the dividends fall due. The practice of appending coupons to 
 onds prevails chiefly in reference to foreign stocks. 
 COVADO, a Portuguese cloth measure equal 26§ Imperial inches. 
 
 * In cotton yarn measure, a thread = 54 inches ; a skein or rap of 80 threads = 120 yards; a 
 hank of 7 skeins = 840 yards ; a spindle of 18 hanks = 15,120 yards. 
 
COV 225 CRA 
 
 ID, an Oriental cloth measure. In China it is equal to 14§ Imperial inches; 
 in iiombav, to 18 ; in Madras, to 18^ ; and in Malacca, to 18|. 
 
 CO WITCH, or COWHAGE, an article of the materia medica, consists of the 
 hairs growing upon the pods of different species of Mucuna, a large twining plant 
 iu India and other tropical countries, in hedges, thickets, and about water- 
 courses. They are slender, brittle, easily detached, and readily stick into the skin, 
 and produce an intolerable itching. Cowitch is used as a vermifuge, by being 
 mixed with syrup till of the consistence of honey. Before the pods are ripe, and 
 their hairs hardened, they are employed as a vegetable like kidney -beans, and are 
 said to be delicious. 
 
 COWRIES (Por. Bucios zimbos), small, white, glossy shells (Cyprea moneta), 
 found in abundance on the shores of the Maldive and Laccadive islands. They are 
 used in India and in some parts of Africa as a minor currency. In Calcutta 
 they are employed in Kauchau accounts, the method used in small bazaars by the 
 natives, reckoning 4 cowries = 1 gunda ; 20 gundas = 1 pun ; 4 puns = 1 anna ; 
 and 4 annas = 1 cahun. The value of the cahun fluctuates according to the abun- 
 dance or scarcity of cowries, but it is commonly equal to about a quarter of a rupee; 
 at this rate, olio cowries = 1 rupee. 
 
 CRAB, a crustaceous animal {Cancer pagurus, Linn.) common on the rocky 
 shores of Britain and Western Europe. Crabs are brought to market both in a 
 boiled and in a raw state. If the distance be great, they are placed in a well-box, 
 which is attached to the outside of the fishing vessel ; and in this manner they are 
 conveyed to London even from Norway and other remote parts. The animal is so 
 tenacious of life, that it does not lose its vital powers until two or three days afcer 
 leaving the sea. May, June, and July are the months in which it is generally out of 
 season. The male is of greater value than the female, and has larger claws. Before 
 boiling, a good crab is known by the roughness of its shell, particularly on the claws. 
 When boiled, its quality is known by holding the claws tight, and shaking the body, 
 which will rattle or seem as if water were in the inside, if it be not in perfection." 
 
 CRAB, a tree, the common kind of which (Pyrus malus) is found native in 
 many parts of the United Kingdom, particularly on the eastern slopes of the Welsh 
 mountains. Its timber is compact, and answers well for turning, and for the 
 working parts of machinery. On a rich soil, the tree yields a small kind of apple, 
 the sour jnice of which, previous to the introduction of the modern methods of 
 obtaining vegetable acids, was in request under the name of verjuice. Such apples 
 are now only used for feeding hogs. 
 
 CRANAGE, a common port-charge for the use of a crane by which goods are 
 lifted out of a ship. 
 
 CRANBERRY, the fruit of a slender trailing kind of shrub, of which there are 
 two species. The English or Russian cranberry {Oxycoccus palustris), common in 
 the bogs of Norfolk, Lincoln, Scotland, and other parts, is a round, austere, red 
 berry, about the size of a common currant : the American cranberry (6>. macro- 
 carpus) resembles the other, but is larger, has a more medicinal taste, and is con- 
 sidered of inferior quality; it is imported in considerable quantity from the United 
 States. Cranberries are much used by the pastry-cook for making tarts and some 
 kinds of marmalade. 
 
 CRAPE (Fr. Crtpe. Ger. Flohr. It. Espumilla. Por. Sendal Sp. Crespon), 
 a light and transparent silken fabric, made with hard silk of the natural colour, — 
 the warp being usually composed of singles, the shoot frequently of the same 
 material, but sometimes when a closer texture is required, of two-thread tram. 
 The peculiar appearance of this article is given to it in the operations of dyeing and 
 dressing after it is woven; and " different manufacturers affect a degree of mys- 
 tery with regard to their peculiar modes of dressing crape, possessing or imagining 
 thence some superiority over their rivab in the manufacture" (Lardner's Silk 
 Manufacture). Crape is generally dyed black, and, from its sombre appearance, 
 has always been considered as adapted to mourning vestments. The manufacture 
 is established in various parts of Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Somerset, and at Pan- 
 ders-End in Middlesex, but it has of late years decreased. [Silk Manufacture.] 
 
 CRAW-FISH, a long-tailed crustaceous animal (Astacus fluviatilis) of the 
 lobster kind, found in the fresh waters of Europe and the north of Asia. It thrives 
 best in rivers, and is commonly taken by nets or bundles of thorns in which flesh 
 in a state of decomposition is placed. 
 
 CRAYONS, a material for drawing, are of two kinds, — native and artificial. 
 The former is generally of a black, white, or red colour. The best black is a 
 species of earth brought from Italy, of a bright even tint, and of a smooth and 
 
GRE 22(3 CRE 
 
 moderately hard texture. The best white is a kind of chalk, and is procured in 
 France ; it is of a brilliant colour, but very brittle. Pipe-clay is sometimes 
 employed as a substitute, though of an inferior tint. Red crayon is a clayey 
 ochreous kind of chalk. The artificial crayons are composed of earths of different 
 colours, and other pigments, rolled into sticks with some tenacious substance, such 
 as milk or beer-wort. 
 
 CREAM OF TARTAR. [Tartar.] 
 
 CREASOTE. [Kreasote.] 
 
 CREDIT may be defined to be that confidence which subsists among commercial 
 men in regard to their mercantile affairs. This confidence operates in various 
 ways. It disposes them to lend money to each other; to bring themselves under 
 various pecuniary engagements by the acceptance and indorsement of bills; and 
 also to sell and deliver goods in consideration of an equivalent promised to be given 
 at a subsequent period. In a society in which law and the sense of moral duty are 
 weak, and property is consequently insecure, there will of course be little confidence 
 or credit, and there will also be little commerce. 
 
 " The day," says Mr Thornton, " on which it suits the British merchant to pur- 
 chase and send away a large quantity of goods, may not be that on which he finds 
 it convenient to pay for them. If it is made necessary for him to give ready money 
 in return, he must always have in his hands a very large stock of money; and for 
 the expense of keeping this fund (an expense consisting chiefly in the loss of in- 
 terest) he must be repaid in the price of the commodities in which he deals. He 
 avoids this charge, and also obtains time for preparing and adjusting his pecuniary 
 concerns, by buying on credit ; that is to say, by paying for his goods not by money, 
 but by the delivery of a note, in which he promises the money on a future day. 
 He is thus set more at liberty in his speculations ; his judgment as to the propriety 
 of buying or not buying, or of selling or not selling, and also as to the time of doing 
 either, may be more freely exercised. 
 
 " But the custom of taking and of giving long credit has its inconveniences as 
 well as its advantages. It increases the amount of the bad debts incurred in the 
 course of commercial transactions. The apprehension of loss is therefore con- 
 tinually operating on the mind of the lender as a restraint on the custom of giving 
 credit, while the compensation he receives for the use of the capital which he sup- 
 plies acts as an encouragement to the practice. The subsisting state of credit 
 may in general be considered as resulting out of a comparison made both by lenders 
 a nd borrowers, of the advantages and disadvantages which each discover that they 
 derive from giving and taking credit. Mercantile confidence, however, is not always 
 dealt out in that proportion in which there is reasonable ground for it. _ At some 
 periods it has risen to a most unwarrantable height, and has given occasion to the 
 
 most extravagant and hurtful speculations Evils of this kind, however, have 
 
 a tendency to correct themselves. In a country possessed of commercial knowledge 
 and experience, confidence, in most instances, will not be misplaced. 
 
 " Some persons are of opinion, that when the custom of buying on credit is pushed 
 very far, and a great quantity of individual dealings is in consequence carried on 
 by persons having comparatively little property, the national commerce is to be 
 considered as unsupported by a proper capital ; and that a nation, under such 
 circumstances, whatever may be its ostensible riches, exhibits the delusive appear- 
 ance of wealth. It must however be remembered, that the practice of buying on 
 credit, in the internal commerce of the country, supposes the habit of selling on 
 credit also to subsist, and to prevail, on the whole, in an exactly equal degree. 
 In respect to the foreign trade of a country, the practice of dealing on credit indi- 
 cates poverty or riches, in proportion as the credit generally taken is longer or 
 shorter than the credit given." {Essay on Paper Credit, p. 15-19.) 
 
 Credit, though of itself it can add nothing to capital, yet is thus often the in- 
 vigorating influence that aids the processes by which it is fed. Capital might 
 sometimes be frost-bound and stagnant, did not credit, as it were, lend the heat to 
 thaw it, and set it flowing. Supposing all credit to be prohibited, every capitalist 
 who may be incapable of employing his money successfully, will either not invest 
 it, or if he does, he will lose it ; while those who have no capital, but are possessed 
 of skill and capacity for its profitable management, are deprived of all opportunity 
 of exercising tlie talent and activity with which they are endowed, — at least in the 
 manner in which they might be most efficiently exercised. In both ways are in- 
 flicted private injury as well as public loss. But under a law permitting and pro- 
 tecting credit, the capital in the community is brought into combination with tho 
 skill of the community, and the result is tho most productive application of both. 
 
CRE 227 CRO 
 
 These observations, however, must be understood as having reference to that 
 system of credit which is conducted upon fixed principles, and which prevails 
 generally among persons in business, and not to that irregular description of 
 it which frequently takes place betwixt the retailer and the consumer. The 
 latter is a great social evil. It is opposed to habits of frugality and prudence, and 
 in some branches of business has led to such flagrant abuses as in the opinion of 
 many to justify the interference of the legislature. In a well-written pamphlet by 
 Mr A. Rosser, solicitor, titled, " Credit Pernicious," and which produced a con- 
 siderable sensation, the proposition was brought forward, " That m a great variety 
 of cases, simple contract debts between 40s. and £100 shall not be recoverable by 
 any suit or process whatsoever." Mr Rosser's proposed regulations, however, are 
 deficient in clearness ; and the exception which he would make of debts below 40s. 
 would of itself open boundless facilities for escaping from the general rule. A much 
 better plan has been advanced by Mr M'Culloch {Dictionary, art. Credit), namely, 
 to take away all actions for debts under a given sum, as £50, or £100, with the 
 single exception of claims for wages, or for labour done under executory contracts. 
 This would be at least a simple and precise regulation, and one which would rarely 
 admit of being evaded. But notwithstanding the eminent authority on which this 
 innovation is recommended, we doubt its expediency. Admitting to the full extent 
 the evils that have been alleged to attach to the existing system of unrestricted 
 credit, and the ri<,'ht of society to refuse its recognition of any compacts between 
 individuals, which shall be deemed to be in their general nature injurious,— we 
 apprehend public opinion would scarcely tolerate some of the results, outraging 
 all sense of natural justice, which the working of the proposed law would produce. 
 Further, we apprehend, that instead of generally putting down the present practice 
 of buying and selling on credit, such a law would only aggravate its worst evils. 
 In principle it would be very nearly the same with that of the usury laws, which, 
 in certain cases, refuses to recognise loans of money where the rate of interest is 
 higher than five per cent. The effect would be, that the premium paid by 
 the customer for the accommodation which he sought would be raised. Impro- 
 vident persons would not be kept out of tradesmen's books ; they would only be 
 more severely fleeced. 
 
 The only proper remedy for the evils of the credit system, we believe, is to be 
 afforded not by altogether depriving the creditor of his right to recover his debt, 
 but by restricting the exercise of that right to its legitimate object. On the principle 
 alone that the law should do as much as it can to uphold the dignity of human 
 nature, we would abolish altogether imprisonment for debt, and keep that infliction 
 exclusively for its proper use — the punishment of crime. We would consider the 
 creditor as having no claim against the debtor himself, but only against his pro- 
 perty. Upon the same views, we would protect likewise so much of the debtor's 
 property as should be evidently necessary to enable him to obtain a subsistence for 
 himself and his family. The "workman's tools should certainly be exempt from 
 seizure, and also the more indispensable articles of his household furniture. By 
 such changes, we would mitigate whatever is unnecessarily harsh in the provisions 
 of the law ; but we should look to other influences rather than to any that legislation 
 could exert, for the correction of mere habits of improvidence, and the protection 
 of individuals from the inconveniences naturally consequent upon their own volun- 
 tary acts. 
 
 These views have, to a certain extent, been lately carried into practical opera- 
 tion, — in England by the act 1 & 2 Vict. c. 110, of which an account is given under 
 the head Insolvency, and in Scotland by the 5 & 6 Wm. IV. c. 70, § 1, which 
 provides that no person shall be imprisoned for a debt not exceeding £8, 6s. 8d., 
 exclusive of interest and expenses. The establishment of County Courts, af- 
 fording speedy and inexpensive modes of recovering debts, have mitigated many 
 objections which had been urged against the credit system. [Accommodation. 
 Bank. Funds. Monet.] 
 
 CRETE. [Candia.] 
 
 CREW. [Master. Seaman.] 
 
 CROCUS. [Colcothar,] 
 
 CHORE, in Hindoo numeration, signifies ten millions. It is used to express 
 100 lacs of rupees ; and as each lac is 100,000 rupees, or nearly £10,000, the crore 
 is about £1,000,000 sterling. 
 
 CROTON, a plant used in medicine, and of which there are two kinds : 1**, The 
 Croton tiglium, a native of India, the seeds of which are about the size of a small 
 marble, of a convex shape on one side, and bluntly angular on the other, and 
 enveloped in a thin shell. These seeds are the most powerful purgative known. 
 
CRO 228 CUB 
 
 " Five hundred doses may be contained in a small wafer box." In this country 
 the medicine is used in the form of an oil expressed from the seeds. 2r/, The 
 Croton cascarilla, the bark of which finds a place in materia medica : it is imported 
 from the Bahamas, either in curled pieces, or rolled up into short quills ; is brown- 
 ish, resinous, and shining, with a weak aromatic smell, and a bitter taste. 
 
 CROWN, a silver coin in Great Britain and other countries. On the Conti- 
 nent it is known under the various names of couronne, ecu, patagon, and scudo. 
 
 CRUSADO, the name given to two Portuguese coins : the old crusado, or 
 crusado of exchange of 400 reis, and the new crusado of 480 reis. [Portugal.] 
 
 CUBA, a noble West India island and Spanish colonv, situated at the entrance 
 into the Gulf of Mexico, between long. 74° IP and 84° 58' W., and lat. 19° 47' and 
 23° 9' N. Area about 43,000 square miles, being nearly equal to all the other 
 islands together. Population about 900,000, of whom, from one-third to one-half 
 are whites, nearly one-third slaves, and the remainder free people of colour. By 
 the former Spanish constitution, Cuba and Porto Rico, being integral parts of the 
 monarchy, were governed like the provinces of Old Spain : they are now under the 
 charge of a captain-general, who resides at Havana, the capital. 
 
 A chain of hills runs through the centre of the island from E. to "W., from which the land 
 gradually inclines on hoth sides towards the coast. The country is broken into hill and valley, 
 and plains. The sides of the hills are in some situations cultivated, and are generally fertile ; but 
 the soil is liable to be washed off by heavy rains. The valleys and plains compose nearly four-fifths 
 of the island, and are extremely productive, being in this respect unequalled in the West 
 Indies, except, perhaps, by some parts of Hayti and Guiana ; only a very small extent, however, 
 is under cultivation. There are very few rivers, and none large ; and a great portion of the island 
 is subject to severe droughts. This disadvantage is remedied in some places by diverting the course 
 of the streams for the purpose of irrigation. The climate, although tropical, indicates a transition 
 to that of the temperate zone. The mean temperature of the interior is 73°, and of Havana 77°. 
 The mean annual heat of Havana, in July, the hottest month, is 84° ; the mean of the coldest is 
 70°, and the depression of the thermometer to 55° is rare. The N. winds are sometimes violent ; 
 but hurricanes occur less frequently than in the other Antilles. The chief mineral product is 
 copper, the mines of which, near Santiago, have of late years attracted considerable attention; 
 several are worked by English and American companies, and a considerable quantity of ore is sent 
 to Swansea, in Wales, to be smelted. [Copper.] The leading objects of culture are sugar, coffee, 
 and tobacco, which form the great staples of the island ; a variety of other tropical commodities 
 are produced, but not in large quantities. Maize, rice, beans, and a little wheat are raised, though 
 not sufficient for the demand ; also plantains, yuca, yams, and potatoes, which form the chief 
 support of the coloured people and slaves. Immense tracts of land are used only as pasture ; and 
 the number of cattle is considerable. 
 
 The means of internal communication are very defective, and after rain the roads are quite 
 impassable; but the island being of a long and narrow form, the planter is enabled to bring his 
 produce to the sea without a long land-journey. Hence the activity of the coasting-trade, in 
 which a prodigious number of small vessels are employed in conveying the produce to Havana, and 
 the other ports of shipment. Of late years, several railways have been formed ; the principal line 
 (opened in 1838) being from Havana to Guines, a distance of 45 miles. 
 
 The commerce of the island has increased very rapidly within the last half-century, more espe- 
 cially since 1809, when the Spanish colonial system was relaxed, and the ports of the island opened 
 to vessels of all nations. In 1837, the value of the exports amounted to $20,346,407 ; the principal 
 articles being— sugar, 9,060,053 arrobas, value, §7,927,546; coffee, 2,133,567 arrobas; molasses, 
 1 14,976 hogsheads ; cigars, 792,438 lbs., value, $1 ,267,4%* ; leaf tobacco, $560,948 ; besides copper, 
 rum, wax, mahogany, cedar, and other commodities of smaller value. To each of the quantities 
 here specified about a fourth part may be added on account of clandestine exportations from the 
 unlicensed ports. In the same year, the imports amounted to $22,940,357, chiefly consisting of 
 grain, flour, and provisions, from the United States, linens, cottons, wine, hardware, and a variety 
 of other manufactured articles. The chief intercourse is with the United States, the imports from 
 which amounted, in 1837, to $6,546,955, while those from Great Britain did not exceed $1 ,373,962. 
 This preponderance of the States in the trade of Cuba arises from their furnishing a near 
 and ready market for all the exports of the island, and from their being able to supply provisions 
 in abundance. Spain, since the loss of her colonies on the mainland, endeavours to turn to greater 
 advantage her possession of Cuba, and her trade ranks next, in point of extent, to that of the 
 United States. The smaller share possessed by Great Britain is mainly attributable to her not 
 admitting the productions of Cuba into her ports on the same terms as those of her own colonies. 
 
 The other states which participate most largely in the commerce of the island, are the former 
 Spanish colonies, the Hanse Towns, and France ; also Russia, to which considerable quantities of 
 produce are exported. 
 
 The value of the imports we have noticed does not include negro slaves, of whom about 25,000 
 are annually brought into Cuba; and to the low price of labour thus induced is in part attributed 
 the increased production which has lately taken place. This infamous traffic is said to be protected 
 by the government for the purpose of retaining the island more securely under the dominion of 
 Spain. By an ordinance of 12th March 1837, free coloured people are prohibited from even land- 
 ing on its shores. 
 
 The number of vessels which annually enter the ports is about 2500, one-half of which are from 
 the United States; about 740 Spanish; nearly 200 English; 50 French, and the same number 
 from the Hanse Towns and the Netherlands, respectively. 
 
 Havana, the chief port and capital of Cuba, and one' of the greatest commercial cities of the 
 New World, stands on the N. W. side of the island, in 23° 9' N., 82° 22' W., on a promontory 
 formed on one side by the open sea, and on the other by a large bay nearly 2J miles in width ; 
 
CUB 
 
 229 
 
 cue 
 
 nop. 130/>00, of which nearly onc-h.slf reside without the walls. The entrance iuto the harbour 
 .v and deep ; and defended on the E. by the Moro Castle, and on the W. by Puntal. 
 - into a secure and spacious basin, where there is sufficient depth of water for line-of -battle 
 ships enter annually. 
 The chief other ports are. on the N. side of the island, Matanzas, and on the 8. side Santiago- 
 de-Cuba ar.d Trinidad. Besides these, the following are licensed for foreign trade: — Puerto- 
 rrincipe, Baracoa, Gibara, Cienfuegos, and Manzanillo. 
 
 MEASURES AND WEIGHTS, MONEY, DUTIES, &.C 
 
 Measures and Weights.— The standards of 3 per cent., besides the balanza duty of 1 per 
 Spain are those generally in use. In trade the cent, on the gross amount of the duties previously 
 following proportions are commonly observed : — \ ascertained. The chief deviation from these ad 
 108 vans = 100 Imp. yards, or 1 vara = 33^ Imp. ' valorem duties is in the case of flour, which if 
 thefanega =3 Winchester, or 2*9 Imp. | imported from a foreign country in a foreign 
 f wine or spirits = 4-1 Eng- ; vessel, is $9J per barrel, but if from a foreign 
 li.-h wine gallons, or 3-42 Imp. gallons ; the quin- j country in a Spanish vessel, $8i per barrel ; be- 
 ta! of 4 arrobas, each of 25 lbs. = 1013 lbs. avoir- sides the balanza of 1 per cent. 
 
 »r 1 arroba = 25 lbs. 7 oz. avoirdupois. ' The export duty on produce, if sent to Spain 
 
 a re stated in dollars divided in a Spanish vessel , is 2$ per cent. ; if to a foreign 
 
 into 8 l 34 maravedis, which are port in a Spanish vessel, 4i; and if in a foreign 
 
 .1 bv merchants at the fixed rate of $444 vessel to a foreign port, 64 per cent. These ex- 
 
 . o'd. per dollar ; the vai ia- port duties are exclusive of the balanza duty of 1 
 
 eing made by per centages 
 
 upon the amounts in sterling. Bills on London 
 
 v,n at 60 days' sight ; and the course of 
 
 ge fluctuates" from about 6 to 20 per cent 
 
 un : the quotation at Havana, Oct. ID, 
 
 14 1 per cent, premium," or £114, 
 
 above = bill on London for 
 
 At 8 per cent, premium the dollar = 4s. 2d. 
 
 sterling. 
 
 The currency of the island consists of gold 
 doubloons, dollars, and their aliquot parts. 
 [Doikloon. Dollar.] Taper money is un- 
 known. 
 
 Duties are mostly ad valorem, the valua- 
 tions of the goods being as far as possible fixed 
 by the tariff. On Spanish goods brought direct 
 from the Peninsula, it is 64 per cent. ; but if 
 brought in foreign vessels, 14i, and in some cases, 
 184 per cent. On foreign goods from Spain in 
 Spanish vessels, 10i per cent., and in a few cases, 
 134 per cent. On foreign goods imported from a 
 foreign country in Spanish vessels, 144 per cent., 
 and in some cases 18$. On goods imported from 
 a foreign country in a foreign vessel, 214, and in 
 some cases 274 per cent. To these import duties 
 there is always added a supplementary duty of 
 
 per cent. On sugar, the export duty is 3 reals 
 per box, if shipped in a Spanish, and 4 reals if in 
 a foreign vessel ; on tobacco, in foreign vessels to 
 a foreign port, 124 per cent. ; in Spanish vessels 
 with a foreign destination, 64 ; and in Spanish 
 vessels to a Spanish port, 2$ per cent. ; on the 
 precious metals exported to a foreign port, gold, 
 14, and silver 24 per Cent. 
 
 The Revenues of the island, on an average of 
 the five years ending with 1837, amounted to 
 $8,948,581 per annum ; of which the import ;md 
 export duties formed 61 per cent., and the inter- 
 nal taxes, 221 per cent. 
 
 A British Loan was raised in 1835 for the pur- 
 pose of making the railroad between Havana and 
 Guinea. Its nominal capital is £450,450, which 
 was issued at 91 per cent., in bonds for £100, 
 £250, and £500 each, bearing 6 per cent, interest ; 
 and having 50 coupons forthedividends, whichare 
 due in London on 5th March and 5th Sep.ember. 
 It was agreed that asinkingfundshould commence 
 in 1839, in order to redeem the whole by 1860, 
 either by purchase, or payment at par by draw- 
 ing lots. This loan is secured upon the receipts of 
 the railway, and the revenues of the Royal Com- 
 mercial and Agricultural Society of Cuba. 
 
 Cuba was discovered by Columbus in 1493 ; and the first settlement was formed by the Spaniards 
 in 1511. In 1762, Havana was taken by the British, but it was restored to Spain at the peace of 
 1763. The island derives great political importance from its position, which gives it a control 
 over the trade between Europe and all countries lying round the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico ; 
 I returning to Europe from Jamaica, or the coast of South America, are under the neces- 
 sity of doubling CaLo San Antonio, and proceeding homeward by the Gulf Stream, in order to 
 avoid the opposing force of that current, and of the trade-wind which they have to encounter in 
 attempting a passage either by the Windward or Mona Passages, situated respectively at the W. 
 and E. extremities of Ilayti. S 
 
 (TBEBS (Du. Koebeben. Fr. Cubebes. Ger. Kubeben. It. Cubebi. Por. Co- 
 Rus. Kubebu. Sp. Cubebas. Jav. Kumukus), a kind of pepper, composed 
 of the dried pedicelled berries of the shrub Piper cubeba, a native of Java. They 
 are about the size of black peppercorns, but somewhat wrinkled, and having a 
 short slender stalk. Their colour is externally gray, their smell aromatic, and 
 their taste warm and camphoraceous. Cubebs are imported iuto Europe from 
 Bat :t via and Canton, and are used in medicine. 
 
 I IT, a measure of length, equal 18 inches, or |th of a fathom. 
 
 CUCUMBER, the cooling fruit of a well known annual (Cucumis sativus) of 
 
 which several varieties are cultivated in this country, mostly in hothouses, the 
 
 plant being a native of a warm climate. It is chiefly used with us as a salad or 
 
 :.ont ; but in Egypt, Syria, and other eastern countries, where it is grown in 
 
 it form-: a considerable part of the food of the lower classes, especially 
 
 I summer ; and its employment for this purpose is repeatedly noticed in 
 
 ■re. 
 
 \\ ild Cucumber, or Squtrtujo-courd, a perennial (Afomnrdim elaferium'), is a 
 
 : f the S. of Europe. The fruit Ls oblong, about IJ inch in length, ar.d &f a 
 
CUD 230 CUS 
 
 green colour ; aud its juice yields the purgative substance known in medicine under 
 the name of elaterium. 
 
 CUDBEAR, a dye-stuff, consists of a fine powder, of a violet red colour, and a 
 peculiar but not disagreeable odour ; it is prepared in the same manner as orchell, 
 from a species of lichen (Lecidea tartarea), imported from Sweden and Norway 
 under the name of rock-moss. 
 
 CUMMIN-SEEDS are obtained from an annual umbelliferous plant (Cuminum 
 cyminum) resembling fennel, but smaller. It is a native of Egypt, though the seeds 
 are imported chiefly from Sicily and Malta. They are of an ash-gray colour, 
 oval, linear, flat on one side, convex and striated on the other ; having a strong 
 unpleasant smell, and a bitter, acrid, aromatic taste. They are to be chosen 
 fresh, and of a greenish colour. These seeds are used in medicine, and also as a 
 condiment. 
 
 CURRANT, a hardy berry, produced by a bush (Ribes) common in all parts 
 of this country. There are two species ; one of a red or yellow colour {R. rubrum), 
 remarkable for its mixture of sweetness and acidity ; the other of a black colour 
 (R. nigrum) without acidity, but containing a powerful and agreeable aromatic 
 principle. Of the former, the finest varieties are, Wilmot's red, the White Dutch, 
 Knight's sweet red, and the common white ; of the latter, the best is the Black 
 Naples. These currants are employed in confectionary, and in the manufacture of 
 a kind of wine. 
 
 The fruit commonly known in commerce, however, under the name of currants, 
 consists of the small dried grape or berry species of vine, chiefly cultivated in the 
 Morea and the Ionian Islands, from whence about 170,000 cwts. are annually 
 brought to the United Kingdom, where it is extensively used in the making of 
 puddings, confectionary, &c. S 
 
 CURRENCY, the current money of a country. [Coin. Money. Exchange.] 
 
 ** The currency I consider to be, in strictness of language, according to the apparent derivation 
 of the term, that part of the circulating medium, such as the coin of the realm, and Bank of 
 England notes and country bank notes (although not a legal tender), which pass current from 
 hand to hand without individual signature, such as appears on drafts or indorsements. I am 
 doubtful whether cheques upon bankers might not be included, from their perfect similarity to 
 bank notes, in many of the purposes for which they are employed ; at the same time, there is the 
 feature of distinction which I have mentioned, viz. that cheques require the signature of the party 
 passing the draft, and that they do not pass from hand to hand. Bills of exchange I consider as a 
 part of the general means of distributing the productions and revenues of the country, and there- 
 fore as constituting a part of the circulating medium. I consider also, that the simple credits by 
 which goods are in many instances bought and sold, come likewise under the general description 
 of the circulating medium, in as far as the prices of commodities are in question ; because a simple 
 contract of sale, whether any payment eventually passes or not, is commonly entered in the price 
 currents without distinction from those for which any actual payment is made. I cannot consider 
 that transferable debts (such as deposits in the hands of bankers, against which the depositors are 
 entitled to pass their drafts) constitute circulating medium, but only the actual transfers." (Evi- 
 dence of Thomas Tooke, Esq. Report on Banks of Issue, 1840, p. 297.) 
 
 In some parts of Germany, and in the British colonies in the West Indies and 
 North America, the term currency is applied to the monies of account only. 
 
 CUSTOMS, duties levied upon commodities imported or exported. The first 
 statute authorizing the crown to levy such imposts in England was the 3d of Edward 
 I. ; and the method long employed in their collection was to affix a certain rate or 
 value upon each kind of merchandise, and to grant upon these rates a subsidy, 
 which was generally a poundage of Is. for every 20s. of value fixed in the book of 
 rates ; a specific duty, or tonnage, being also charged on the importation of each 
 tun of wine, and the exportation of each tun of beer. Hence, in the early acts 
 relating to the customs duties, they are described as subsidies of tonnage and 
 poundage. The system of poundage was continued until the reign of Charles II., 
 when, as respects some articles, it was changed for that of specific duties. This 
 course of substitution of specific rates, in place of the valuation of the subsidy, was 
 continued from time to time, and other innovations being adopted, the simplicity 
 of the ancient plan was at length destroyed. The embarrassment to traders 
 thereby produced was increased by the number of acts of Parliament passed for 
 altering the duties or regulations of this branch of revenue. Much was done to 
 remedy these inconveniencies, by a consolidation act, introduced by Mr Pitt in 
 1787, by other acts of the same kind, and by a Digest of the Customs Laws by Mr 
 Tickling, which was published by the Lords of the Treasury about the year 181.5 ; 
 but the utility of these arrangements and expositions having been impaired by 
 numerous fresh enactments, the government were induced in 1823 to cause the 
 preparation of a new set of laws for the consolidation of the customs. This wori* 
 
CUS 231 CUS 
 
 was uiiucrtaken and performed by Mr James Deacon Hume, then comptroller of 
 the customs in the port of London, and afterwards secretary of the Board of Trade; 
 and the bills prepared by him form the subject of the eleven acts of the 6th Geo. 
 
 IV. cap. 10(5, to cap. 116 inclusive, all passed in July 1825. These are as follows : 
 
 t for the Management of the Customs ; 2d, Act for the general Regulation 
 of the Customs ; 3d, Act for the Prevention of Smuggling ; 4th, Act for the En- 
 couragement of British Shipping and Navigation ; 5th, Act for the Registering of 
 British Vessels ; 6th, Act for granting Duties of Customs ; 7th, Act for the Ware- 
 housing of Goods ; 8th, Act to grant certain Bounties and Allowances of Customs ; 
 9th, Act to regulate the Trade of the British Possessions abroad ; KM, Act for 
 regulating the Trade of the Isle of Man ; and, llth, Act for regulating Vessels 
 carrying Passengers to foreign Parts. These statutes were brought into opera- 
 tion on the 1st January 1826; but the entire code was recast in 1853. 
 
 The produce of the customs in 1596, in the reign of Elizabeth, did not exceed 
 £50,000. In 1613, it amounted to nearly £150,000, more than two-thirds of which 
 were collected in London. At the Restoration, in 1660, it increased to £421,582 ; and 
 at the Revolution, in 1689, to £781,987. In 1763, the produce was about £2,000,000 
 in 1792, £4,407,000; in 1815, £11,360,000; in 1830, £21,084,525; in 1840, 
 £23,466,117; in 1850, £20,442,170; and 1860, £21,997,513. In 1861, theexact 
 amount received at the various Custom Houses in the United Kingdom in duties 
 on goods imported was £23,637,513. 
 
 CUSTOM-HOUSE, a term applied in a general manner to the establishment 
 by means of which the customs revenue is collected, and its regulations enforced ; 
 and in a more limited sense to the building within which the business is conducted. 
 The customs department of the revenue is at present managed by a board in Lon- 
 don, consisting of nine commissioners, acting under the Treasury, and by collectors 
 and other officers at the different ports. The regulations respecting the appoint- 
 ment, instruction, and conduct of the several officers are chiefly embodied in the 
 act 16 & 17 Vict. cap. 107, and in orders issued by the Commissioners. 
 
 Officers in the customs taking any fee or reward, not allowed, shall be dismissed ; and if any 
 person (not in the customs) shall give, offer, or promise to give any such fee or reward, he shall 
 forfeit £100 (3 £ 4 Wm. IV. c- 51, § 8, and 16 & 17 Vict. cap. 107, sect. 3). 
 
 Officers of customs not liable to serve parochial and other local offices. 
 
 Holidays at the customs, only Christmas day and Good Friday, fast-days, and the birthday 
 of Her Majesty, and which shall be kept us public holidays by the officers and servants of the 
 dock companies in the United Kingdom. 
 
 CUSTOMS REGULATIONS. The regulations respecting the importation 
 and warehousing and exportation of commodities are chiefly embodied in the 
 Customs Consolidation Act (16 and 17 Vict. cap. 107 ; 18 and 19 Vict. cap. 96; 
 22 and 23 Vict. cap. 37 ; 23 Vict. cap. 22, and 25 Vict. cap. 22). 
 
 Very little alteration has been made in the regulations except such as have 
 arisen from the alteration of the Navigation Laws, the progress of free trade 
 measures, and reciprocity treaties with foreign nations, the modification of 
 some penalties, the removal of restrictions on most goods imported or exported, 
 the extension of warehouse privileges and custom houses to additional ports, and 
 a few other minor matters. 
 
 We may specifically allude to the following alterations in the appended 
 abstract of the old regulations. Sections 23, 26, and 29 are obsolete, the trading 
 privileges of the East India Company having died out with the abolition of the 
 Company itself. 
 
 § 27. Goods not entered within 14 days may be conveyed to the Queen's 
 warehouse ; and if the duties and charges are not paid within three months, the 
 goods may be sold. 
 
 ^ 44 to 47, are obsolete; as fish and oil of foreign taking are now entered 
 duty free, no bounty or privilege whatever being given to British ships or British 
 enterprise. 
 
 § 58. The list of prohibited or restricted articles has been very greatly nar- 
 rowed, live animals, meat, fish of foreign taking, &c. are all admitted duty free. 
 
 § 69 and 72. There is now no restriction on the export of coal 
 
 § 96. The following ports are now added to those enumerated : Liverpool, 
 Hull, Shields, Aberdeen, Greenock, Dundee, and Waterford. 
 
 § 99. The privilege is extended to other ports than those named. 
 
 § 104. The prohibition to export tools, machinery, manufacturing engines, 
 removed ; indeed there is scarcely any restriction on the liberty of trade. 
 
cus 
 
 232 
 
 CUS 
 
 Abridgement of an Act for the general Regulation of the Customs, viz.: — 3 &4Wm. 
 IV. c. 52, with the Alterations made by later Enactments. 
 
 port of the ship, and subscribe a declaration to the 
 truth of the same, before the collector or comp- 
 troller. The report must state the marks, num- 
 bers, and contents of all the parcels of goods on 
 board and the particulars of goods stowed loose — 
 to the best of his knowledge, and of the places 
 where they were taken on board, and of the 
 luirden of the ship, and of the country where 
 she was built, or, if British, of the port of registry, 
 and of the country of the owners, and of the 
 name and country of the master, and of the num- 
 ber of the navigators, stating how many are erf 
 the country to which the ship belongs, and how 
 The report must 
 
 Inwards. 
 General Provision, §2. Nogoodstobeunlader 
 from any ship, or bulk to be broken, after arrival 
 of such ship within four leagues of the coast, 
 before due report and entry has been made, and 
 warrant granted, in the time, place, and manner 
 appointed by the act. All goods not duly re- 
 ported, or unladen contrary to the act, are for- 
 feited ; and if bulk be broken contrary to the act, 
 the master of such ship forfeits £100 ; and if, 
 after arrival within four leagues of the coast, any 
 alteration be made in the stowage of the cargo, 
 bo as to facilitate the unlading of any part, or if 
 any part be staved, destroyed, or thrown over- 
 board, or any 
 be deemed to 
 
 many of some other country. 
 
 be opened, the ship shall further declare, whether and in what cases such 
 
 ave broken bulk. j sn ip has broken bulk in the course of her voyage, 
 
 Manifest, § 3. No goods to be imported in any ana what part of the cargo, if any, is intended 
 British ship, nor tobacco in any ship, unless the f or importation at the port, and what part, if 
 master have on board a manifest thereof, made anv , for importation at another port, and what, 
 out and dated and signed by him at the place of if a ny? i s prohibited except to be warehoused 
 taking on board, and authenticated as herein for exportation, and what, if any, is intended for 
 after provided. Every manifest must set forth exportation in such ship, and what surplus stores 
 the name and tonnage of the ship, the name ot r stock remain on board, and, if a British ship, 
 
 the master and of the place to which the ship 
 longs, and of the places of loading and destination , 
 respectively, and contain a particular account 
 and description,— of all the packages on board, 
 with marks and numbers, and the sorts of goods 
 and different kinds of each sort contained therein 
 (to the best of the master's knowledge) and of the 
 particulars of such goods as are stowed loose, 
 and the names of the respective shippers and 
 consignees, as far as the same can be known to 
 the master ; and to such particular account shall 
 be subjoined a general account or recapitulation 
 of the total number of the packages of each sort, 
 describing the same by their usual names, or by 
 such descriptions as the same can best be known 
 by, and the different goods therein, and also the 
 total quantities of the different goods stowed 
 loose. Every manifest for tobacco must be dis- 
 tinct from any manifest for other goods, and 
 must contain the particular weight of tobacco in 
 each hogshead, cask, chest, or c»se, with the tare. 
 § 4. Before any ship is cleared out from any 
 British possession abroad, or from China, with 
 any goods for the United Kingdom, the master 
 must produce the manifest to the collector or 
 
 comptroller, or other proper officer, who shall answer all questions relating to the ship and 
 
 certify upon the same the date of production. 
 § 5. Before the departure of a ship trom a place 
 beyond the seas not under the British dominions, 
 where tobacco has been taken on board for the 
 United Kingdom, the master must produce the 
 
 what foreign-made sails or cordage, not being 
 standing or running rigging, are in use on board. 
 The master failing to report, or making a false 
 report, forfeits £100. 
 
 § 9. The master of every vessel coming from 
 Africa who has taken on board natives, must 
 state in the report how many he has on board, 
 under penalty of £100, and he or the owners 
 must enter into bond to the extent of £100 to 
 relieve parishesofany expense from such Africans, 
 or be liable in a penalty of £200. 
 
 § 10. If the master report contents of packages 
 as unknown, they may be opened by the officers, 
 and forfeited if prohibited, or charged with duty 
 if importable for home use; unless in either 
 case the commissioners, in consideration of the 
 sort or quality of the goods, or the small rate of 
 duty payable on them, see fit to deliver them for 
 exportation. 
 
 § 11. The master, at thetime of making report, 
 must deliver to the collector or comptroller the 
 manifest of the cargo where a manifest is re- 
 quired, and, if required by the collector or comp- 
 troller, must produce any bill of lading, or a true 
 copy, for any and every part of the cargo, and 
 
 cargo, and crew and voyage ; and in case of 
 failure in these requisites, or falsehood in per- 
 formance, or if any bill of lading uttered or pro- 
 duced have not been signed by him, or any such 
 copy have not been received or made by him 
 
 manifest to the British consul or other chief previously to his leaving the place where the 
 
 officer, if any such reside at or near the place, goods were shipped, the master forfeits £100. 
 
 who must certify upon it the date of production. § 12. If part of the cargo of any ship for which 
 
 § (j. If the manifest is wanting, or if any goods a manifest is required be reported for importa- 
 
 co Gained in it be not on board, the master for- 
 feits £100. 
 
 § 7- The master of every ship required to have 
 a manifest, must produce it to any officer of the 
 customs who shall come on board after his arrival 
 within four leagues of the coast, and who shall 
 
 tion at some other port, the collector and comp 
 troller of the port at which some part has been 
 delivered, must notify such delivery on the mani- 
 fest, and return the same. 
 
 § 13. Every ship must come as quickly up to 
 the proper place of mooring or unlading, as the 
 demand an inspection; and the master must 1 nature of the port will admit, and without touch- 
 deliver, to the officer who first demands it, a ing at any other place ; and must in proceeding 
 true copy of the manifest signed by himself; and '■ thither bring to at stations appointed by the coin- 
 must deliver another copy to any officer who missioners for boarding by officers ; and after ar- 
 may be the first to demand it within the limits rival she must not remove except directly to some 
 of the port to which the ship is bound. The | other proper place, and with the knowledge of 
 officers must notify on the manifest and copies the proper officer, on penalty of £100 by the 
 the date of production of manifest and receipt ! master. The commissioners may appoint proper 
 of copies, and transmit the copies to the col- | places for the mooring or unlading of ships im- 
 lector and comptroller of the port to which the 5 porting tobacco, and where such ships only shall 
 vessel is first bound, and return the manifest to bj moored or unladen ; and in case the place so 
 the master. A master failing to produce the , appointed be not within some dock surrounded 
 manifest, or deliver the copy, forfeits £100. with walls, if any ship, after having been dis- 
 
 Report, § 8. The master of every ship arriving, , charged, remain there, or if any ship not impoi t- 
 whether laden or in ballast, must, within twenty- j ing tobacco be moored there, the master forfeits 
 four hours, and before bulk be broken, make re- i £20. 
 
cus 
 
 233 
 
 CUS 
 
 § 14. The proper officers may board ships arriv- 
 ing, and remain on board until all the goods have 
 duly delivered ; and such officers must have 
 free access to every part of the ship, with power 
 to fasten down hatchways, and to mark any 
 goods before landing, and to lockup, seal, mark, 
 or otherwise secure any goods on board; and if 
 ice, or any box or chest, be locked, and 
 the keys be withheld, such officers, if they be of a 
 degree" superior to tidesmen or watermen, may 
 open them in the best manner in their power ; 
 and if they be tidesmen or watermen, or only of 
 that degree, they must send for their superior, 
 who may so open them. If goods be found con- 
 cealed, they become forfeited ; and if the officers 
 place any lock, mark, or seal upon any goods on 
 board, and they are wilfully opened, altered, or 
 broken before due delivery, or if any of the goods 
 be secretly conveyed away, or if the hatchways, 
 after having been fastened down by the officer, 
 be opened, the master forfeits £100. 
 
 § 15. When government ships, British or for- 
 eign , have goods on board, the commanding officer 
 must, before unloading, or when called on by an 
 officer, deliver an account of quality and quantity, 
 marks and numbers, and names of shippers and 
 consignees, and subscribe declaration, and answer 
 questions, &c, as above, under penalty of £100. 
 Such ships are liable to such searches as mer- 
 -hips, and officers may enter them, and 
 n shore into the Queen's warehouse goods 
 m board: subject to such regulations in 
 of British ships of war, as may be directed 
 by the Treasury. 
 
 § 16. The master of every British ship returning 
 from any British possessions in the West Indies, 
 must, within ten days of arrival, deliver to the 
 collector or comptroller a list of the names and 
 descriptions of the crew on board at the time of 
 clearing from the United Kingdom, and of the 
 crew on board at the time of arrival in the West 
 Indies, and of every seaman who has deserted or 
 died durirg the voyage, with the amount of wages 
 due at the time of death, and must subscribe a 
 declaration at the foot of such list, to its truth. 
 master omitting forfeits £50. The list is 
 kept by the collector for the inspection of all in- 
 terested. 
 
 Entry, § 17. Every importer must, within 
 fourteen days after arrival , make perfect entry in- 
 wards, or entry by bill of sight, of the imported 
 goods, and land the goods ; and in default, officers 
 may convey them to the Queen's warehouse. 
 When the cargo of a ship has been discharged, 
 with the exception only of a small quantity, the 
 officers may convey such remaining goods", and 
 may at any time convey small packages or parcels 
 to the warehouse, although the fourteen days 
 have not expired, to be kept waiting due entry 
 during their remainder. If the duties on goods 
 so conveyed to the Queen's warehouse be not paid 
 within 3 months after the 14 days, with charges 
 of removal and rent, they must" be sold, and the 
 produce applied, first to the payment of freight 
 and charges, next of duties ; the overplus, if any, 
 going to the proprietor. 
 
 §18. The person enteringgoods in wards(whether 
 
 for payment of duty, or to be warehoused upon 
 
 the first perfect entry, or for payment of duty upon 
 
 the goods being taken out of the warehouse, or 
 
 whether such goods be free of duty), must deliver 
 
 to the collector or comptroller a bill of entrv, fairly 
 
 written [or by 1 & 2 Yict. c. 113, § 3, printed or 
 
 partly written and partly printed] in words at 
 
 expressing the name of the ship, and of 
 
 the master, and of the place whence the goods 
 
 were brought, and the description and situation 
 
 of the warehouse- if they are to be warehoused, 
 
 name of the person in whose name they 
 
 are tu be entered, and their quantity and descrip- 
 
 id the number and denomination of the 
 
 packages; and in the margin he rau=t delineate 
 the marks and numbers of such packages ; and 
 he must pay down any duties payable iq>on the 
 goods. He must deliver at the same time two 
 I or more duplicates, as the case may require, in 
 1 which sums and numbers may be expressed in 
 \ figures. The particulars must be written and 
 arranged in such form and manner, and the 
 j number of such duplicates must.be such as the 
 collector and comptroller may require ; and the 
 | bill being duly signed by the collector and comp- 
 ! troller, and transmitted to the landing waiter, is 
 ; his warrant for the landing or delivering. 
 
 § 19. Every person making such entry without 
 consent of the proprietor or consignee, for every 
 offence forfeits £li ; but the penalty does not 
 ! extend to persons acting under the directions of 
 the several dock companies, or other corporate 
 bodies authorized by law to pass entries. 
 
 § 20. No entry or warrant is valid, unless the 
 particulars in the entry correspond with those in 
 the report, and in the manifest, and the certificate 
 or other document, where any is required, by 
 which the importation or entry is authorized, nor 
 unless the goods be properly described in the 
 entry by the denominations, and with the char- 
 acters and circumstances, according to which 
 they are charged with duty, or maybe imported, 
 either for use or exportation; and goous nut 
 duly entered, removed from any ship or ware- 
 house, or for the delivery of which, or for any 
 order for the delivery of which, from any ware- 
 house, demand is made, are forfeited. 
 
 § 21. If goods be charged to pay duty according 
 to the number, measure, or weight, such num- 
 ber, measure, or weight must be stated in the 
 entry ; and if they be charged according to value, 
 such value must be stated and affirmed by de- 
 claration of the importer or his known agent, 
 written upon the entry, and attested by his sig- 
 nature. If the goods be chargeableat thediscre- 
 tion of the officers by either criterion, both must 
 be stated. A person making the declaration un- 
 authorized, as by § 19, forfeits £100. 
 
 The declaration is as follows : — 
 
 " I, A. B., of [place of abode] do hereby de- 
 clare, that I am [the importer, or authorized by 
 the importer"), of the goods contained in this 
 entry, and that I enter the same [stating tchich, 
 if part only] at the sum of . Witness 
 
 my hand, the day of 
 
 " A. B." 
 
 § 22. If it appear to the officers that goods are 
 not valued according to their true value, they 
 may detain a^d secure them, and (within 5 days 
 from the landing, if in the ports of London, 
 Leith, or Dublin, or within 7 days if in any other 
 port), take them for the use of the crown ; and 
 if a different rate be charged, according as the 
 value of the goods is described as above or below 
 any particular price, and they are valued in the 
 entry for the lower rate, and it appear to the 
 officers that they are liable to the h:gher rate, 
 they may be so taken. The commissioners, in 
 such cases, cause the amount of such valuation, 
 together with an addition of 10 per cent., and 
 the duties paid upon entry, to be paid to the im- 
 porter or proprietor in full satisfaction, and dis- 
 pose of the goods for the benefit of the crown ; 
 and if the produce exceed the sums and charges, 
 j one moiety of the overplus e-oes to the officer 
 who detained the goods ; and the remainder is 
 ' carried to account as duties of customs. 
 
 § 23. The value of goods imported by the East 
 India Company is ascertained by the gross price 
 I which they bring at the Company's sales, and the 
 ' Company "is required to sell all goods paying duty 
 by their value, within three years from the im- 
 portation, and give notice to the officers of the 
 time and place. 
 
 § 24. If the importer, or his agent after full coq- 
 
cus 
 
 234 
 
 CUS 
 
 ference with him, declare before the collector or 
 comptroller that he cannot, for want of full infor- 
 mation, make a full or perfect entry, and sub- 
 scribe a declaration to the truth thereof, the 
 collector and comptroller may receive an entry by 
 bill of sight for the parcels of such goods, by the 
 
 they were landed, and provided the claim be 
 made at the time of the first examination. 
 
 § 31. On the claim being so made, the officers 
 examine the goods, and may state the proportion 
 of damage, according to their opinion, and make 
 a proportionate abatement ; but if the officers be 
 
 best description which can be given, and may i incompetent to estimate the damage, or the mi- 
 grant warrant that they may be provisionally porter be not satisfied, the collector and comp- 
 lauded, and be examined by the importer, in | troller must choose two indifferent merchants cx- 
 p-esence of the proper officers ; and within three perienced in the nature and value of such goods, 
 <Livs after goods have been so landed, the im-,to examine them, who subscribe a declaration, 
 porter must make a full or perfect entry, and ! stating in what proportion they judge them 
 either pay all duties or duly warehouse the goods, , lessened in value, and the officers may make 
 according to the purport of the full or perfect j abatement accordingly. 
 
 entry. When perfect entry is made of goods so § 32. No abatement is to be made for damage to 
 provisionally landed, the regulations of § 20 any of the following goods, viz. :— Cocoa, coffee, 
 apply. If money have been deposited upon any I oranges, pepper, currants, raisins, figs, tobacco, 
 entry by bill of sight, on account of the duties lemons, and wine [and by 4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 8'J, 
 which may be found to be payable, the officers § 5, certain drugs are added to the list, viz. :— 
 may deliver, in virtue of the warrant for landing cantharides, cocculus Indicus, Guinea grains, ja- 
 
 t!ie same, any quantity of goods the duty on 
 which does not exceed the sum. 
 
 § 25. In default of perfect entry within 3 days, 
 the goods may be taken to the Queen's ware- 
 house ; and if the importer do not, within one 
 mpnth after landing, make perfect entry, and 
 pay the duties on such parts as can be entered 
 for home use, together with charges of removal 
 and of warehouse rent, the goods must be sold for 
 payment of duties (or for exportation, if they be 
 such as cannot be entered for home use, or be 
 not worth the duties and charges), and for pay- 
 ment of charges ; the overplus, if any, being 
 paid to the importer or proprietor. 
 
 § 26. The East India Company may, without 
 proof, enter by bill of sight, to be landed and 
 secured as the commissioners may require, goods 
 imported by them, or by any other person from 
 within the limits of their charter — with the consent 
 of such person, upon condition to cause perfect 
 entry to be made within 3 months from date of 
 importation, either to warehouse the same or to 
 pay the duties as follows, viz. : if the goods be 
 charged duty according to the value, to pay 
 within 4 months from the sale ; and if according 
 to the number, measure, or weight, to pay one 
 moiety within 6, and the other within 12 calendar 
 months from the time of importation ; the goods 
 to be secured as the commissioners may require, 
 until duly entered, and the duties paid, or until 
 duly exported. Any person importing goods 
 from the Company's territory into the port of 
 London, may enter them in his own name, on 
 giving security by bond, to the satisfaction of the 
 commissioners, on the like conditions, provided 
 the goods be entered in some warehouse under 
 the superintendence of the Company. 
 
 § 27. In case of any default in the above regula- 
 tions, as to due entry and payment of duty, the 
 commissioners may cause the goods to be sold for 
 payment of duties (or for exportation, if they be 
 such as cannot be entered for home use), and for 
 payment of charges, the overplus, if any, being 
 paid to the proprietor. 
 
 § 28. When goods are found fraudulently 
 concealed in packages landed by bill of sight, 
 the whole contents of the packages are for- 
 feited. 
 
 § 29. The East India Company are to pay the 
 customs duties incurred by them at the respective 
 times when they become due, and obtain from 
 the receiver-general a receipt, which must be 
 taken by the collector as cash. 
 
 § 30. If goods rated to pay duty according to 
 number, measure, or weight (with exceptions 
 after mentioned), receive damage during the 
 voyage, an abatement of duties is allowed in 
 proportion to the damage, provided proof be 
 made to the satisfaction of the commissioners, 
 or of the proper officers, that the damage was 
 received after the goods were shipped, and before 
 
 lap, ipecacuanha, mix vomica, opium, rhubarb, 
 sarsaparilla, and senna J. 
 
 § 33. It is lawful to reimport in a ship of any 
 country, goods (with the exceptions after stated') 
 which have been legally exported, and to enter 
 them by bill of store, referring to the entry out- 
 wards, and exportation, provided the property 
 continue in the person by whom, or on whose 
 account they were exported, and that the re- 
 importation take place within 6 years from the 
 date of exportation. [By 6 & 7 Win. IV. c. CO, 
 § 2, this provision is so far altered, that if the pro- 
 prietor be absent, the goods may be entered by 
 bill of store, on production of a declaration by 
 him of their identity and of their not having 
 been sold, made before the consul or other Bri- 
 tish authority, at his place of residence] ; and if 
 the goods so returned be foreign, which had be- 
 fore been legally imported, the same duties are 
 payable as would, at the time of reimportation, 
 be payable on the like goods, under the same 
 circumstances of importation, as those under 
 which such goods had been originally imported, 
 or such goods may be warehoused as the like 
 goods might be warehoused upon a first importa- 
 tion : Provided that the goods enumerated in the 
 table following cannot be reimported for home 
 use upon the ground that they had been legally 
 exported, but are deemed foreign goods, whether 
 originally such or not, and deemed to be import- 
 ed for the first time into the United Kingdom : 
 
 A Table of Goods Exported which may not 
 be Reimported for Home Use. 
 
 Corn, grain, meal, flour and malt, hops, to- 
 bacco, tea. 
 
 Goods for which any bounty or drawback of 
 Excise had been received on exportation, un- 
 less by special permission of the commissioners, 
 and on repayment of the bounty or drawback. 
 All goods for which bill of store cannot be 
 issued, as hereafter explained, except small 
 remnants of British goods, by special permis- 
 sion of the commissioners, upon proof to their 
 satisfaction that they are British, and had not 
 been sold. 
 
 § 34. The person in whose name goods so reim- 
 ported were entered for exportation must deliver 
 to the searcher at the port of exportation an exact 
 account, signed by him, of the particulars of the 
 goods, referring to the entry and clearance out- 
 wards and to the return inwards, with the marks 
 and numbers of the packages, both inwards and 
 outwards; and thereupon the searcher, finding 
 that the goods were legally exported, grants a 
 bill of store ; and if the person in whose name 
 they were entered for exportation was not the 
 proprietor, but his agent, lie must declare on 
 oath on the bill of store the name of his employ- 
 er ; and if the person to whom the returned goods 
 are consigned be not the proprietor and exporter, 
 
cus 
 
 235 
 
 CUS 
 
 he mast subscribe a declaration on the bill of 
 store of the name of the person for whose use the 
 goods have been consigned to him ; and the real 
 proprietor, ascertained to be such, must subscribe 
 a declaration on the bill of store to the identity 
 of the goods so exported and so returned, and 
 that he was at the time of exportation and of re- 
 importation the proprietor, and that the goods 
 had not during such time been sold or disposed 
 of to any other person ; the declaration to be 
 made before the collectors or comptrollers at 
 the ports of exportation and importation respec- 
 tively ; whereupon the collector and comptroller 
 shall admit such goods to entry by bill of store, 
 and grant their warrant accordingly. 
 
 § 35. Surplus stores are subject to the same 
 duties, prohibitions, restrictions, and regulations, 
 as the like sorts of goods when imported by way 
 of merchandise ; but if it appear to the collector 
 and comptroller that the quantity or description 
 of such stores is not excessive or unsuitable, 
 under all the circumstances of the voyage, they 
 may permit them to be entered for the private 
 use of the master, purser, or owner, or of any 
 passenger, to whom they may belong, on payment 
 of the proper duties, or to be warehoused for the 
 future use of the ship, although the same could 
 not be legally imported by way of merchandise. 
 
 § 36. No goods can be entered as being from 
 any British Possession in America (if any benefit 
 attach to such distinction), unless the master de- 
 liver to the collector or comptroller a certificate, 
 under the hand of the proper officer of the place 
 where such goods were taken on board, of the 
 due clearance of the ship, containing an account 
 of such goods. 
 
 § 37- Before sugar, coffee, cocoa, or spirits are 
 entered as the produce of some British Possession 
 in America, or the Mauritius, the master must de- 
 liver to the collector or comptroller a certificate, 
 under the hand of the proper officer where such 
 goods were taken on board, testifying that proof 
 had been made as required by law, that the goods 
 are of such produce, stating place of produce, 
 quantity and quality, number and denomination 
 of the packages, and name of ship and master ; 
 and the master must also subscribe a declaration 
 before the collector or comptroller, that such cer- 
 tificate was received by him at the place of taking 
 on board, and that the goods are the same as are 
 mentioned therein. 
 
 § 38. Before sugar is entered as the produce 
 of any British Possession within the East India 
 Company's charter, the master must deliver to 
 the collector or comptroller a certificate under the 
 hand and seal of the proper officer at the place 
 of taking on board, testifying that oath had been 
 made before him by the shipper, that the same 
 was really and bona fide such produce ; and the 
 master must also subscribe a declaration before 
 the collector or comptroller, that such certificate 
 was received by him at the place of taking on 
 board, and that the sugar is the same as is men- 
 tioned therein. [By 5 & 6 Win. IV. c. 66', § 2, 
 no coffee can be entered as such produce, unless 
 the Blaster deliver to the collector or comptroller 
 a certificate under the hand and seal of the pro- 
 per officer at the place of taking on board, stating 
 that a declaration had been signed before him 
 (the contents of which he examined, and believed 
 to be true) by the shipper, to the effect that the 
 coffee was really the produce of such British Pos- 
 session ; nor unless the master subscribe a decla- 
 ration, that the certificate was received by him 
 at the place of taking on board, and that the 
 coffee imported is the same as therein men- 
 tioned.] 
 
 § 39. Before any wine is entered as the produce 
 of the Cape of Good Hope, the master must de- 
 live to the collector or comptroller a certificate 
 under the hand of the proper officer, testifying 
 
 that proof had been made as required by law, 
 that the wine is the produce of the Cape or its 
 dependencies, stating the quantity and sort, and 
 the number and denomination of the packages ; 
 and the master must subscribe a declaration be- 
 : fore the collector or comptroller, that the certifi- 
 ' cate was received by him at the Cape, and that 
 j the wine is the same as is mentioned therein. 
 
 §40. It is lawful to import goods of the produce 
 1 or manufacture of the Channel Islands or Man 
 without payment of duty (except in the cases 
 '■ hereafter mentioned) ; and such goods are not 
 ! deemed included in any duties imposed by any 
 j act to be made on the importation of goods gene- 
 rally from parts beyond the seas : Provided that 
 ! such goods may be charged with any proportion 
 of such duties as shall fairly countervail any du- 
 ! ties of excise, or any coast duty, payable on the 
 i like goods, the produce of the part of the United 
 Kingdom into which they shall be imported [and 
 \ by 1x2 Vict. c. 113, § 4, this is extended to any 
 excise duty payable on the materials]. The ex- 
 emption does not extend to manufactures from 
 I materials the produce of any foreign country, 
 j except manufactures of linen and cotton made in 
 ! and imported from the Isle of Man. 
 
 § 41. Before goods can be entered as the produce 
 of these islands (if any benefit attach to such dis- 
 tinction), the master delivers to the collector or 
 comptroller a certificate from the governor or 
 commander,that proof had been made, as required 
 by law, that the goods were of the produce of the 
 island, stating the quantity and quality, and the 
 number and denomination of the packages ; while 
 the master must subscribe a declaration that the 
 certificate was received at the place of taking on 
 board, and that the goods are the same as are 
 mentioned therein. 
 
 § 42. The Treasury may permit goods, the pro- 
 duce of the British Possessions or Fisheries in 
 North America, imported into Guernsey or Jer- 
 sey direct, to be imported into the United King- 
 dom for home use direct from those islands, un- 
 der such regulations as may be directed. 
 
 § 43. No vessel arriving on the coast of England 
 from the Channel Islands or Man, wholly laden 
 with stone, the production thereof, is liable to be 
 piloted by pilots licensed by the Trinity House. 
 
 § 44. Fresh fish of British taking, and imported 
 in British ships, and fresh lobsters and turbots, 
 however taken or in whatever ship, and cured 
 fish of British taking and curing, imported in 
 British ships, may be imported duty free ; but 
 before cured fish can be so entered free of duty, 
 the master must subscribe a declaration before 
 the collector or comptroller, that such fish was 
 actually caught and taken in British ships, a-.d 
 cured by the crews of such ships, or by British 
 subjects. 
 
 § 45. Before blubber, train oil, spermaceti oil, 
 head matter, or whale fins, are entered as the 
 produce of sea animals caught wholly by her 
 Majesty's subjects usually residing in some part 
 of her Majesty's dominions, and imported from 
 some British Possession, the master must deliver 
 to the collector or comptroller a certificate under 
 the hand of the proper officer of the British Pos- 
 session, or if no such officer be there, of two 
 principal inhabitants at the place of shipment, 
 notifying that oath had been made by the ship- 
 per, that the goods were the produce of sea ani- 
 mals taken wholly by British vessels. The mas- 
 ter must also subscribe a declaration before the 
 collector or comptroller, that the certificate v as 
 received by him at the place of taking on board, 
 and that the goods are the same as mentioned 
 therein ; and the importer must subscribe a de- 
 claration at the time of entry, that, to the best 
 I of his knowledge and belief, the same were the 
 produce of sea animals taken wholly by British 
 vessels. 
 
cus 
 
 236 
 
 CUS 
 
 § 46. Before blubber, train oil, spermaceti oil, 
 head matter, or whale fins, imported direct from 
 the fishery, are entered as the produce of sea 
 animals caught wholly by the crews of ships clear- 
 ed out from the United Kingdom, or from the 
 Channel Islands or Man, the master must subscribe 
 a declaration, along with the importer (to the best 
 of his knowledge and belief), that the same are 
 the produce, and caught, &c. as above; if the 
 ship has cleared out from any of the islands, 
 specifying which. 
 
 § 47. Upon the return of any ship from Green- 
 land or Davis' Straits to the United Kingdom 
 with blubber, the importers may cause it to be 
 boiled at the port of importation, under the in- 
 spection of the officers ; and the oil produced 
 may be admitted to entry, and the duties be paid, 
 as if so imported, and the oil, if afterwards ex- 
 ported, is not subject to duty of exportation as a 
 manufacture of the United Kingdom. 
 
 § 48. No goods are deemed imported from any 
 particular place unless they be imported direct, 
 and have been laden on board the importing ship, 
 either as the first shipment, or after they have 
 been actually landed. 
 
 § 49, With regard to the sale of goods, duty- 
 free, for salvage, is repealed by 4 & 5 Wm. IV. 
 c. 89, § 4. 
 
 § 50. All foreign goods, derelict, jetsam, flot- 
 sam, and wreck, brought or coming into the 
 United Kingdom or the Isle of Man, are subject 
 to the same duties as goods of the like kind im- 
 ported; and if any question arise as to the origin 
 of such goods, they are to be deemed of the 
 growth, produce, or manufacture of such place 
 as the commissioners may upon investigation de- 
 termine : Moreover, if any such goods be of such 
 sorts as are entitled to allowance for damage, 
 the allowance is to be made under such regula- 
 tions and conditions as the commissioners may 
 from time to time direct. [The next provision 
 is, that all such goods as cannot be sold for the 
 duty, are to be delivered to the lord of the manor, 
 and are deemed unenumerated. This is repealed 
 by 6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 60, § 3, which provides that 
 the commissioners or officers may receive proof 
 or the extent of damage, and abate accordingly.] 
 § 51 . If any person have possession of such goods, 
 without giving notice to the proper officer within 
 24 hours, or without on demand paying the du- 
 ties, or delivering the goods to the proper officer, 
 he forfeits £100 ; and if any person be accessory 
 to removing or altering in quantity or quality any 
 such goods, or opening or altering the packages 
 before the goods are deposited in a warehouse in 
 the custody of the officers, he forfeits £100, and 
 in default of payment of duties within 18 months 
 from the time of deposit, the goods may be sold 
 in like manner and for the like purposes as goods 
 imported may, in such default, be rold : Provided 
 that the lord of the manor (see § 50), or if there 
 he none, the person having possession of the 
 goods, is at liberty to retain them in his custody, 
 giving bond, with two sureties, to be approved 
 by the proper officer, in treble the value of the 
 goods, for payment of the duties at the end of a 
 year and day, or to deliver the goods to the pro- 
 per officer in the same state and condition as 
 they were in at the time of taking possession. 
 
 § 52. For the purpose of subjecting some goods 
 to excise regulations, it is enacted that no goods 
 subject to any regulations of excise are to leave 
 the charge of the officers of customs (although 
 the same may have been duly entered, and the 
 full duties paid), until the goods have also been 
 duly entered with the officers of excise, and per- 
 mit granted, nor unless the permit correspond in 
 all particulars with the warrant of the officers of 
 the customs : Provided that the entry must not 
 be received, nor the permit granted, until a cer- 
 tificate have been produced of the particulars of 
 
 the goods, and of the warrant for the same, under 
 the hand of the officers of the customs who hare 
 them in charge, and provided that, if upon any 
 occasion, it appear necessary, officers of excise 
 may attend the delivery by the officers of the 
 customs, and require that the goods be delivered 
 only in their presence ; and the officers of excise 
 may count, measure, gauge, or weigh such goods, 
 and fully examine them, and treat them in all 
 respects as if they were included in the excise 
 regulations. 
 
 § 53. To distinguish foreign from British ar- 
 ticles, the commissioners, after goods have been 
 entered, and before they are discharged and de- 
 livered to the importer, may mark or stamp 
 them in such manner as they may deem tit for 
 the security of the revenue, and by such officer 
 as they may appoint for the purpose. 
 
 § 54. Every order by the commissioners, in 
 respect of marking or stamping goods, must be 
 published in the London and Dublin Gazettes. 
 
 § 55. Persons forging, or possessing forged 
 stamps, are liable in a penalty of £200. 
 
 § 56. No goods, except diamonds, bullion, fresh 
 fish of British taking, and imported in British 
 ships, and turbots and lobsters, are permitted to 
 be unshipped from ships arriving from parts be- 
 yond the seas, or landed or put on shore, but on 
 days not being Sundays or holidays, and in the 
 daytime, or from the 1st of September until the 
 last of March, between sun-rising and sun-setting, 
 and from the last day of March to the 1st of Sep- 
 tember, between 7 o'clock a.m. and 4 o'clock p.m.; 
 nor can goods, with the same exceptions, be 
 unshipped or landed unless in the presence or 
 with the authority of the proper officer, and at 
 one of the legal quays appointed by royal autho- 
 rity, or at some wharf, quay, or place appointed 
 by the commissioners for the landing of goods by 
 sufferance ; and no goods, with the same excep- 
 tions, having been unshipped, are permitted to be 
 transhipped, or after having been put into any 
 boat or craft to be landed, are permitted to be 
 removed into any other boat or craft previously 
 to their being landed, without the permission or 
 authority of the proper officer. 
 
 § 57. The unshipping, carrying, and landing of 
 goo^s, and the bringing them to the proper place 
 for examination or weighing, and the putting 
 them into, and taking them out of, the scales, 
 must be performed by or at the expense of the 
 importer. 
 
 § 58. The goods in the following table are either 
 
 absolutely prohibited, or only to be imported 
 
 with the annexed restrictions : — 
 
 A Table of Prohibitions and Restrictions 
 
 inwards. 
 
 List of Goods absolutely prohibited to be 
 
 imported. 
 
 Arms, ammunition, and utensils of war, by 
 way of merchandise, except by license from her 
 Majesty, for furnishing her Majesty's public stores 
 only. Beef, fresh or corned, or slightly Baited. 
 Books, viz. first composed, or written, or printed 
 in the United Kingdom, and printed or reprinted 
 in any other country, imported for sale, except 
 books not reprinted in the United Kingdom within 
 20 years, or being parts of collections, the greater 
 parts of which had been composed or written 
 abroad. Cattle — great. Clocks and watches of 
 any metal, impressed with any mark or stamp 
 appearing to be or to represent" any legal British 
 assay, mark, or stamp, or purporting by any 
 mark or appearance to be of the manufacture of 
 the United Kingdom, or not having the name 
 and place of abode of some foreign maker abroad 
 visible on the frame and also on the face, or not 
 being in a complete state, with all the parts pro- 
 perly fixed in the case. Coin, viz. false money, 
 or counterfeit sterling. Silver of the realm, or 
 any money purporting to be such, not being of 
 
cus 
 
 237 
 
 CUS 
 
 c. 89, § 7, none of these restrictions apply to to- 
 bacco direct from Mexico, or South America, or 
 the islands of Cuba and St Domingo, in packages 
 of not less than 80 lbs.] ; and unless the particu- 
 lar weight of tobacco or snuff in each hogshead, 
 cask, chest, or case, with the tare of the same, 
 be marked thereon ; and unless into the ports of 
 London, Liverpool, Bristol, Lancaster, Cowes, 
 Falmouth, Whitehaven, Hull, Port-Glasgow, 
 Greenock, Leith, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Ply- 
 mouth, Belfast, Cork, Drogheda, Dublin, Gal way, 
 Limerick , Londonderry , Newry , Sligo , Waterfor d , 
 and Wexford; or into some other port or ports 
 " foi 
 
 (Tie established standard in weight or fineness. 
 Fish of foreign taking or curing, or in foreign 
 vessels; except turbots and lobsters, stock fish, 
 live eels, anchovies, sturgeon, botargo, and ca- 
 viare. [Salt or dried fish may be imported for 
 warehousing, 1 & 2 Vict. c. 113, § 7-1 Gunpow- 
 der, except by license from her Majesty, such 
 license to be granted for the furnishing her Ma- 
 jesty's stores only. Lamb. Malt. Mutton. Pork, 
 fresh, or corned, or slightly salted. Sheep. Snuff- 
 work. Spirits from the Isle of Man. Swine. 
 Tobacco stalks stripped from the leaf, whether 
 manufactured or not. Tobacco stalk flour. 
 
 which may hereafter be appointed for such pur- 
 List o/ Goods subject to certain Restrictions on pose by the Lords Commissioners of her Majesty's 
 Importation. j Treasury ; such appointments in Great Britain 
 
 China — goods from, unless by the East India ' being published in the London Gazette, and such 
 Company, and into the port of London, during appointments in Ireland being published in the 
 the continuance of their exclusive privileges[no\v : Dublin Gizette ; but any ship wholly laden with 
 expired]. East India— goods of places within the j tobacco may come into the ports of Cowes or 
 limits of the East India Company's charter, unless Falmouth to wait for orders, and there remain 
 into such ports as shall be approved of by the Lords 14 days, provided due 
 
 of the Treasury, and declared by order in council to 
 be fit and proper for such importation. Gloves of 
 leather, unless in ships of 70 tons [or, by 6&7Wm. 
 IV. c. 60, § 5, if measured by the new measure- 
 ment act, 60 tons] or upwards, and in packages 
 containing 100 dozen pairs of such gloves. Hides, 
 skins, horns, or hoofs, or any other part of cattle 
 or beast, her Majesty may by order in council 
 
 report of such ship be made 
 by the master with the collector or comptroller of 
 such port. And all goods from the Isle of Man, 
 except such as be of the growth, produce, or 
 manufacture thereof. And any goods imported 
 contrary to any of these prohibitions or restric- 
 tions are forfeited. 
 
 § 59. But goods may be imported to be ware- 
 housed, without payment of duty at the time of 
 
 prohibit, in order to prevent any contagious dis- the first entry, or notwithstanding their being 
 temper. Parts of articles, viz. any distinct or i prohibited to be imported for home use, except 
 separate part of anv article not accompanied by j the following, viz. :— Goods prohibited on account 
 the other part or all the other parts of such arti- 1 of the package in which they are contained, or 
 cle, so as to be complete and perfect, if such > the tonnage of the ship in which they are laden : 
 article be subject to duty according to the value i tea and goods from China in other than British 
 thereof. Silk : manufactures rf silk, being the ] ships, or by other persons than the East India 
 manufactures of Europe, unless into the port of , Company during the continuance of their exclu- 
 London, or into the port of Dublin direct from sive privileges of trade [now expired] ; gunpow- 
 Bordeaux, or into the port of Dover direct from | der, arms, ammunition, or utensils of war ; dried 
 Calais [or by 4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 89, §6, direct , or salted fish, not being stock fish; infected hides, 
 from Boulogne], and unles in a ship or vessel of I skins, horns, hoofs, or any other part of any 
 70 tons [or of 60 tons by the new measurement] cattle or beast ; counterfeit coin or tokens ; bo.jks 
 or upwards, or into the port of Dover in a vessel ! first composed or written, or printed and pub- 
 of the burden of 60 tons at least, with license of , lished in the United Kingdom, and reprinted in 
 the commissioners of the customs. Spirits, not any other country or place ; copies of prints first 
 being perfumed or medicinal spirits, viz. all spi- ; engraved, etched, drawn, or designed in the 
 rits, unless in ships of 70 tons [or of 60 tons by \ United Kingdom ; copies of casts of sculptures 
 the new measurement] or upwards ; rum of and ! or models first made in the United Kingdom ; 
 from the British plantations, if in casks, unless clocks or watches, being such as are prohibited 
 in casks containing not less than 20 galls, [by 4 & i to be imported for home use. 
 5 Wm. IV. c. 89, § 8, all vessels and packages, § 60. If by reason of the sort of any goods, or of 
 
 except glass bottles, are counted casks, in regard 
 to this and the immediately succeeding article] ; 
 all other spirits, if in casks, unless in casks con- 
 taining not less than 40 galls, [reduced by 6 & 7 
 Wm. IV. c. 60, § 4, to 20 galls.]. Tea, unless 
 from the place of its growth, and by the East 
 India Company, and into the port of London, 
 during the continuance of their exclusive privi- 
 leges of trade. Tobacco and snuff, viz. unless in 
 a ship of the burden of 120 tons or upwards ; 
 tobacco of and imported from the state of Coloni- 
 
 the place from whence, or the country or navi- 
 gation of the ship in which any goods are im- 
 ported, they may not be used in the United 
 Kingdom, they can only be entered to be ware- 
 housed, and it must be declared upon the entry 
 that they are entered to be warehoused for ex- 
 portation only. 
 
 OUTWARDS. 
 
 General Provisions, § 61. No goods can be 
 shipped, or waterborne to be shipped, in any 
 place in the United Kingdom, or the Isle of 
 
 bia, and made up in rolls, unless in packages j Man, to be carried to parts beyond the seas, be 
 
 containing at least 320 lbs. weight of such rolls 
 segars, unless in packages containing 100 lbs. 
 weight of segars ; all other tobacco and snuff, 
 unless in hogsheads, casks, chests, or cases, each 
 of which shall contain of net tobacco or snuff at 
 least 100 lbs. weight, if from the East Indies, or 
 450 lbs. [reduced, by 6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 60, § 4, 
 to 300 lbs.] weight, if from any other place, and 
 not packed in bags or packages within any such 
 hogshead, cask, chest, or case, nor separated nor 
 divided in any manner whatever, except tobacco 
 of the dominions of the Turkish empire, which 
 may be packed in inward bags or packages, or 
 separated or divided in any manner within the 
 outward package, provided such outward package 
 be a hogshead, cask, chest, or case, and contain 
 450 [300] lbs. net at least [but by 4 & 5 Wm. IV. 
 
 fore due entry outwards of ship and entry of 
 goods have been made, and cocket granted, nor 
 before the goods have been duly cleared for ship- 
 ment as after mentioned ; and no stores can be 
 shipped for the use of such ship, nor can goods 
 be deemed stores, except such as are borne upon 
 the victualling bill, and no goods can be so ship- 
 ped or waterborne to be snipped, except as di- 
 rected by the act, under penalty of forfeiture of 
 the goods or stores. 
 
 § 62. The master of any ship with goods or 
 stores on board departing without being duly 
 cleared outwards, forfeits £100. 
 
 § 63. The master of every ship departing, 
 upon application receives from the searcher a 
 victualling bill for the shipment of such stores as 
 he may require, and as may be allowed by the 
 
cus 
 
 238 
 
 CUS 
 
 collector and comptroller, for the use of the ship, 
 according to the voyage, and no articles are 
 deemed stores except such as are so borne upon 
 the victualling bill. 
 
 Ship's Entry, § 64. The master of every ship 
 in which goods are to be exported, must, before 
 taking on board, deliver to the collector or comp- 
 troller a certificate of the clearance inwards or 
 coastwise of such ship of her last voyage, specify- 
 ing what goods, if any, have been reported in- 
 wards for exportation ; and an account, signed 
 by the master or his agent, of the entry outwards 
 of the ship for her intended voyage, setting forth 
 the name and tonnage, the name of the place to 
 which she belongs if a British ship, or of the 
 country if a foreign ship, the name of the master 
 and the name of the place for which she is bound 
 if any goods are to be shipped for the same, and 
 the name of the place at which she is to take in 
 her lading, and if the ship have commenced her 
 lading at some other port, the master must state 
 the name of the port at which any goods have 
 been so laden, and produce a certificate from the 
 searcher that the cockets for such goods have 
 been delivered to him, the particulars of the ac- 
 count to be written and arranged as the collector 
 and comptroller may require. The account is the 
 entry outwards, and must be entered in a book 
 by the collector for the information of all inte- 
 rested; and if any goods be taken on board any 
 ship before she be entered outwards, the master 
 forfeits £100 ; but where it becomes necessary to 
 lade any heavy goods before the whole of the in- 
 ward cargo is discharged, the collector and comp- 
 troller may issue a stiffning order for that pur- 
 pose, previous to the entry outwards. 
 
 Entry of Goods, § 65. The person entering out- 
 wards goods to be exported, must deliver to the 
 collector or comptroller a bill of entry fairly writ- 
 ten [or printed as above, see § 18], in words at 
 length, expressing the name of the ship and of 
 the master, and of the place to which the goods 
 are to be exported, and of the person in whose 
 name they are to be entered, and the quantities 
 and proper denominations or descriptions of the 
 several sorts, and must pay any duties due upon 
 the exportation ; and deliver at the same time 
 one or more duplicates of the bill, in which sums 
 and numbers may be expressed in figures. The 
 particulars in the bill must be so written and 
 arranged, and the number of duplicates must be 
 such , as the collector and comptroller may require. 
 The collector and comptroller then cause to be 
 prepared, and sign, a cocket for the goods, to be 
 delivered to the person who makes entry, and 
 who is responsible for the proper use of it. 
 
 § 66. If any drawback or bounty be allowable 
 upon the exportation, or any duty be payable, or 
 any exemption from duty claimed, or if the 
 goods be exportable only according to some par- 
 ticular regulation, or under some restriction or 
 condition, or for some particular purpose or des- 
 tination, they must be entered and cleared by 
 the denominations or descriptions used or re- 
 ferred to in the granting of the drawback, or the 
 directing of the regulation, &c. ; and if the 
 goods are charged according to the value, such 
 value must be stated in the entry, and be affirm- 
 ed by the declaration of the exporter or his 
 known agent, to be made upon the entry, and at- 
 tested by his signature ; and if any person make 
 such declaration, not being the exporter or his 
 agent, he forfeits £100. The declaration is to be 
 made as follows, and to be binding upon the per- 
 son making it, viz. : — 
 
 " I, A. B. of [place of abode] do hereby declare, 
 
 that I am the exporter of the goods mentioned 
 
 in this entry, lor, that I am duly authorized by 
 
 him,] and I do enter the same at the value of 
 
 Witness my hand the day of 
 
 "A.B." 
 
 § 67. If upon examination it appear to the offi- 
 cers that the goods are not valued according to 
 the true value, they may be detained, and (within 
 two days) taken and disposed of for the benefit of 
 the crown, as above provided with regard to 
 goods imported, except that no sum in addition 
 to the amount of the valuation and the duties 
 paid is to be paid to the exporter or proprietor. 
 
 § 68. The person intending to enter outwards 
 any foreign goods for drawback, at any other 
 port than that at which the duties inwards had 
 been paid, must first deliver to the collector or 
 comptroller where the duties were paid two or 
 more bills, as the case may require, of the parti- 
 culars of the importation, and of the entry out- 
 wards intended to be made ; and thereupon the 
 collector and comptroller, finding such bills to 
 agree with the entry inwards, writes off such 
 goods from the same, and issues a certificate of 
 the entry, with such particulars as may be ne- 
 cessary for the computation of the drawback, 
 setting forth the destination of the goods, the 
 person in whose name they are to be entered, 
 and the name of his port. The certificate, with 
 two or more bills of the same, as the case may 
 require, in which sums and numbers may be ex- 
 pressed in figures, being delivered to the collector 
 or comptroller of the port of exportation, is the 
 entry outwards, and such collector and comptrol- 
 ler causes a cocket to be written and delivered as 
 above stated. 
 
 § 69. No cocket can be granted for coals to the 
 Isle of Man, or any British Possession, until the 
 exporter give security by bond in a penal sum of 
 forty shillings the chaldron, with condition that 
 the same shall be landed at the place for which 
 they are exported, or otherwise accounted for to 
 the satisfaction of the commissioners, and also 
 with condition to produce (within such time as 
 the commissioners may require, to be expressed 
 in the bond) a certificate of the landing, under 
 the hand of the proper officer at the place of des- 
 tination. The bond is not liable to stamp duty. 
 Clearance of Goods, § 70. Before any part of 
 the goods for which a cocket has been granted 
 can be shipped or waterborne to be shipped, 
 they must be duly cleared with the searcher; 
 and before being cleared, the particulars for each 
 clearance must be indorsed on the cocket, to- 
 gether with the number and denomination or 
 description of the packages ; and in the margin 
 of the indorsement marks and numbers of the 
 packages must be delineated ; and to each in- 
 dorsement must be subjoined, in words at length, 
 an account of the total quantities of each sort of 
 goods intended in such indorsement, and the total 
 number of each sort of package, distinguishing 
 such goods as are to be cleared for any bounty or 
 drawback, and also such as are subject to duty 
 on exportation, or entitled to exemption, and 
 also such as can only be exported by virtue of 
 some particular order or authority, or under 
 some particular restriction or condition, or for 
 some particular purpose or destination ; all goods 
 shipped or waterborne to be shipped, without 
 being duly cleared, are forfeited. 
 
 § 71. The person clearing for shipment must, on 
 each occasion, produce the cocket so indorsed to 
 the searcher, and deliver a shipping bill or copy 
 of such indorsement, referring by names and 
 date to the cocket, and must obtain the order of 
 the searcher for the shipment, and the particu- 
 lars in the indorsement and shipping bill must be 
 written and arranged as the collector and comp- 
 troller may require. 
 
 . §72. CoaUbroughtcoastwisemaybeenteredfor 
 exportation without being landed, provided the 
 officers be satisfied that the quantity left on 
 board does not exceed the quantity so entered 
 outwards. 
 § 73. Upon the clearance of goods of home pro- 
 
cus 
 
 239 
 
 CUS 
 
 duce or manufacture not liable to export duty, 'for the information of all interested, and must 
 an account, containing an accurate specification transmit the content, and the cockets, and 
 
 of quantity, quality, and value, together with a 
 declaration to the truth, signed by the exporter 
 or his known agent, must be delivered to the 
 searcher by the person clearing ; and if the de- 
 claration be false, the person signing forfeits £20. 
 The searcher may call for the invoice, bills of 
 parcels, and such other documents relating to 
 the goods as he may think necessary for ascer- 
 taining their true value. It is provided, that if 
 the exporter or agent subscribe a declaration 
 before the collector or comptroller that the value 
 cannot be ascertained in time for the shipment, 
 and deliver it to the searcher at the time of clear- 
 
 the victualling bill to the searcher. The parti- 
 culars in the content must be written and ar- 
 ranged as the collector and comptroller may 
 require. 
 
 § 79. The file of cockets and the victualling bill 
 are thereupon delivered by the searcher to the 
 master at such station, and in such manner as 
 may be appointed by the commissioners ; and 
 they are kept by the master as the authority for 
 departing with the parcels and packages of goods 
 and stores on board, so far as they agree with the 
 indorsements and the victualling bill. 
 
 § 80. If any ship is to depart in ballast, having 
 
 ance, a further time of three months is allowed | no goods on board except the stores borne upon 
 
 trtr» tfia H^livoit.- r\f +Vm contrato chirkT\in#r Kill thft viofcnallincr hill nr anv rrnr%Aa *tmr*y+&A in 
 
 for the delivery of the separate shipping bill 
 before the penalty is incurred. 
 
 § 74. No drawback of excise is allowed on goods 
 so cleared, unless the person intending to claim 
 have given notice to the officer of excise, as re- 
 quired by the excise regulations, and have ob- 
 tained and produced to the searcher at the time 
 of clearing a proper document from the officer of 
 excise, containing the necessary description of 
 the goods ; and if the goods upon examination be 
 found to correspond in all respects with the par- 
 ticulars contained in the document, and such 
 goods be duly exported, the searcher shall, if 
 required, certify the shipment upon the docu- 
 ment, and transmit it to the officer of excise. 
 
 § 75. The officer of excise, if he see fit, may 
 assist at the examination, and mark or seal the 
 packages, and keep joint charge of them, to- 
 gether with the searcher, until they have been 
 finally delivered into the sole charge of the 
 searcher, to be shipped and exported under his 
 care. 
 
 § 76. If any goods, subject to duty or restriction 
 in respect of exportation, or any goods to be 
 shipped for any drawback or bounty, are brought 
 to any quay, wharf, &c. to be shipped for ex- 
 p >rtation, and do not agree with the indorse- 
 ment on the cocket, or with the shipping bill, 
 they are forfeited ; and if goods prohibited to be 
 exported be found in any package so brought, 
 it and its contents are forfeited. 
 
 § 77. The searcher may open all packages, and 
 examine their contents, which, if found to cor- 
 respond with the cocket and clearance, he must 
 repack, at his own charge, to be allowed by the 
 commissioners as they see fit. 
 
 Clearance of Ship, § 78. Before any ship is 
 cleared outwards with goods shipped on board, 
 the master must deliver a content of the ship to 
 the searcher, setting forth name and tonnage, 
 place of destination, and name of master, and 
 also an account of the goods and packages, and 
 of the marks and numbers thereon, and a like 
 account of the goods on board, if any, which had 
 been reported inwards for exportation, so far as 
 any of sucli particulars can be known by him ; 
 and also before clearance, the cockets, with the 
 indorsements and clearances for the goods ship- 
 ped, must be finally delivered by the shippers to 
 the searcher, who files them together, and at- 
 taches with a seal a label to the file, showing the 
 number of cockets contained in the file, and 
 compares the particulars of the goods in the 
 cockets with the particulars in the content, and 
 attests the correctness by his signature on the la- 
 bel and on the content. The master must also 
 sign a declaration before the collector or comp- 
 troller to the truth of the content, and answer I 
 
 the victualling bill, or any goods reported in- 
 wards for exportation, the master must, before 
 her departure, answer to the collector or comp- 
 troller such questions touching her departure 
 and destination as may be demanded of him. The 
 collector or comptroller then clears the ship in 
 ballast, and notifies such clearance and the date 
 on the victualling bill, and also in the book of 
 ships' entries outwards, for the information of all 
 interested ; and the victualling bill must be kept 
 by the master as the clearance. 
 
 § 81. If there be on board any goods of the in- 
 ward cargo which were reported for exportation, 
 the master must, before clearance outwards, 
 deliver to the searcher a copy of the report in- 
 wards of such goods, certified by the collector 
 and comptroller ; and the copy, found to corres- 
 pond with the remaining goods, is the authority 
 to the searcher to pass the ship with such goods 
 on board ; and being signed by the searcher, and 
 filed with the cockets, is the clearance of the 
 ship for those goods. 
 
 § 82. The master may pass an entry and receive 
 a cocket in his name for the necessary personal 
 baggage of passengers, and may duly clear such 
 baggage for shipment in their behalf, stating in 
 such clearances the particulars of packages and 
 the names of passengers ; and if the ship is to 
 take no other goods than the necessary personal 
 baggage of passengers, the master may enter the 
 ship outwards in ballast for passengers only, and 
 the ship will be deemed a ship in ballast, and will 
 be described in the clearance, on the content, the 
 label, and the victualling bill, and in the book of 
 entries, as a ship cleared in ballast, except as to 
 the necessary personal baggage of passengers. 
 
 § 83. If the master and crew of any foreign 
 ship which is to depart in ballast from the United 
 Kingdom for parts beyond the seas shall be de- 
 sirous to take on board chalk rubbish by way of 
 ballast, or to take with them for their private 
 use any small quantities of goods of British man- 
 ufacture, such master, without entering sucli 
 ship outwards, may pass an entry in his name, 
 and receive a cocket free of any export duty for 
 all such goods, under the general denomination 
 of M British manufactures not prohibited to be 
 exported," being for the use of the master 
 and crew, and not of greater value than in the 
 proportion of £20 for the master, £10 for the 
 mate, and £5 for each of the crew, and stating 
 that the ship is in ballast. The master must 
 clear such goods in behalf of himself and crew, 
 stating the particulars of the goods and packages, 
 and the names of the crew making use of the 
 privilege. The ship is then deemed a ship in 
 ballast, and is cleared as such, and without a 
 content ; and the clearance is notified by the col- 
 
 such questions concerning the ship, the cargo, lector or comptroller on the label to the cockets, 
 and the voyage, as may be demanded ; where- and on the victualling bill, and in the book of 
 upon the collector or comptroller must clear the | entries, as a clearance in ballast, except as to the 
 ship for her voyage, and notify the clearance and privilege. [By 4 <fc 5 Wm. IV. c. 89, § 3, slates 
 
 the date upon the content, and upon the label to 
 the file of cockets, and upon the victualling bill 
 and also in the book of ships' entries outwards 
 
 and chalk are deemed ballast.] 
 
 § 84. The officers may go on board any ship after 
 clearance, any where within four leagues of the 
 
cus 
 
 240 
 
 CUS 
 
 coast, and demand the file of cockets and the 
 victualling bill, and if there be goods or stores 
 not contained in the indorsements on the cockets 
 nor in the victualling bill, they are forfeited ; and 
 if goods contained in the indorsements be not on 
 board, the master forfeits £20 for each package ; 
 and if any cocket be at any time falsified, the 
 person falsifying or wilfully using it forfeits £100. 
 
 § 85. Every ship departing from any port must 
 bring to at such stations within the port as may 
 be appointed by the commissioners, for the land- 
 ing of officers, or for further examination. 
 
 Debenture Goods, § 86. No drawback or bounty 
 is allowed upon exportations unless the goods 
 have been entered in the name of the real owner 
 at the time of entry and shipping, or of the per- 
 son who had actually purchased and shipped 
 them, in his own name and at his own liability 
 and risk, on commission, according to the prac- 
 tice of merchants, and who continues to be en- 
 titled in his own right to such drawback or 
 bounty, except in the cases after provided for. 
 
 § 87. The owner or commission merchant must 
 subscribe a declaration upon the debenture that 
 the goods have been actually exported, and have 
 not been relanded, and are not intended to be 
 relanded in any part of the United Kingdom nor 
 in the Isle of Man (unless entered for the Isle of 
 Man), nor in the Faroe Isles, and that he was the 
 real owner at the time of entry and shipping, or 
 that he had purchased and shipped the goods in 
 his own name and at his own liability, on com- 
 mission, as the case may be, and that he was and 
 continued to be entitled to the drawback in his 
 own right, provided that if he have not pur- 
 chased the right to the drawback or bounty, he 
 must declare under his hand upon the entry and 
 the debenture the person entitled to it, whose 
 name must be stated in the cocket and in the de- 
 benture, and the receipt of such person on the 
 debenture is a discharge for the drawback. 
 
 § 88. If the owner or merchant be resident more 
 than 20 miles from the custom-house of the port 
 of shipment, he may appoint any person to be 
 his agent to make and pass his entry, and to 
 clear and ship his goods, and to receive the 
 drawback or bounty payable on his debenture, if 
 payable to him, provided the name of the agent 
 and the residence of the owner or merchant be 
 subjoined to the name of the owner or merchant 
 in the entry and in the cocket. The agent must 
 make declaration upon the entry, if any be ne- 
 cessary, and also upon the debenture, to the 
 effect above described, and must answer such 
 questions touching his knowledge of the exporta- 
 tion of the goods, and the property therein, and 
 of the right to the drawback or bounty, as may 
 be demanded by the collector or comptroller ; and 
 if such goods be exported by a corporation or 
 joint-stock company, they may appoint an agent 
 so to act for them. 
 
 § 89. If any goods to be exported for drawback 
 have been consigned by the owner to his agent 
 to.be exported on account of the owner, the 
 agent being the consignee by whom and in whose 
 name the duties inwards on such goods had been 
 paid, or his legal representative, may in like 
 manner enter, clear, and ship the goods for him, 
 and receive the drawback. 
 
 § 90. No drawback is allowed on exportation of 
 goods unless they be shipped within 3 years 
 after payment of duties inwards, and no deben- 
 ture for any drawback or bounty allowed upon 
 exportation is paid after 2 years from the date of 
 shipment, nor is any drawback allowed upon 
 goods which by damage or decay have become of 
 less value for home use than the drawback ; and 
 goods so damaged if cleared for drawback are for- 
 feited, and the person clearing forfeits £200, or 
 treble the drawback, at the election of the com- 
 missioners. 
 
 § 91 . For the purpose of computing and paying 
 any drawback or bounty, a debenture must, in 
 due time after entry, be prepared by the col- 
 lector and comptroller, certifying in the first in- 
 stance the entry outwards ; and so soon as the 
 goods have been duly exported, and a notice of the 
 particulars of them has been delivered by the 
 exporter to the searcher, the shipment and ex- 
 portation must be certified to the collector and 
 comptroller upon the debenture, by the searcher, 
 and the debenture is then computed and passed 
 with all convenient despatch, and delivered to the 
 person entitled to receive it. 
 
 § 92. No drawback or bounty is allowed for goods 
 exported to the Isle of Man until a certificate be 
 produced from the collector and comptroller there 
 of the due landing. 
 
 § 93. No drawback or bounty is allowed for bales 
 cleared as press-packed, unless the quantities 
 and qualities of goods in each be verified by the 
 master packer, or, in case of unavoidable ab- 
 sence, by his foreman, having knowledge of the 
 contents, by declaration subscribed upon the 
 cocket before the collector or comptroller ; or if 
 the packer reside more than ten miles from the 
 port, by declaration upon an account of the 
 goods, before a magistrate or justice. If such 
 bales be not cleared as being press-packed, the 
 searcher, having opened any bale, is not required 
 to repack it at his charge. 
 
 § 94. No goods cleared for drawback or bounty, 
 or from the warehouse, can be waterborne, to 
 be put on board, unless by a person authorized 
 by license from the commissioners, who, before 
 granting it, may require such security as they 
 may deem necessary. The commissioners may 
 revoke any such license if the holder be convicted 
 of any offence against the laws of the customs or 
 excise. 
 
 § 95. If any goods taken from the warehouse to 
 be exported, or cleared to be exported for any 
 drawback or bounty, are not duly exported to 
 parts beyond the seas, or are relanded (not 
 having been duly relanded or discharged as short- 
 shipped under the care of the proper officers), or 
 be landed in the Faroe Isles, or be carried to the 
 Channel Islands, or Man (not having been duly 
 entered, cleared, and shipped to be exported 
 directly to one of these islands) , they are forfeited, 
 together with the ship, and all vessels used in re- 
 landing, landing, or carrying them ; and any 
 person by whom, or by whose orders or means, the 
 goods have been so taken or cleared, or so re- 
 landed, landed, or carried, forfeits a sum equal 
 to treble their value. 
 
 § 96. A drawback of the whole duties is allowed 
 for wine for officers of the navy, on board ships 
 in actual service, not exceeding in one year the 
 following quantities, viz. : — For every admiral, 
 1260 galls.; vice-admiral, 1050 ; rear-admiral, 84(» ; 
 captain of the first and second rate, 630 ; captain 
 of the third, fourth, and fifth rate, 420 ; captain 
 of an inferior rate, 210 ; lieutenant and other 
 commanding-officer, and for every marine officer, 
 105. Such wine can only be shipped at one of 
 the following ports, viz. :— London, Rochester, 
 Deal , Dover, Portsmouth , Plymouth, Yarmouth , 
 Falmouth, Belfast, Dublin, Cork, Leith, or 
 Glasgow. 
 
 § 97- The person entering such wine, and claim- 
 ing the drawback, must state in the entry and 
 declare on the debenture, the name of the officer, 
 and of his ship ; and the wine must be delivered 
 into the charge of the officers of the customs at 
 the port of shipment, to be secured and ware- 
 housed until shipped under their care ; and the 
 officers having certified upon it the receipt of the 
 wine, the debenture is computed, passed, and 
 delivered. 
 
 § 98. Provision is made for transferring wine 
 from one officer to another, as part of his pro- 
 
cus 
 
 241 
 
 CUS 
 
 portion, whether on board the same ship or an- 
 other, or the transshipment from one ship to 
 another for the same officer, or the relanding 
 and warehousing for future reshipment. The 
 officers of customs may receive back the duties 
 for any of such wine, and deliver it for home u?e : 
 Provided, that if any such wine be not laden on 
 board the ship for which it was intended, or be 
 unladen without permission of the proper officer 
 of the customs, it is forfeited. 
 
 § 99. The purser of any ship of war in actual 
 service may enter and ship at the ports of Ro- i 
 Chester. Portsmouth, or Plymouth, tol-acco there 
 standing warehoused in his name, for the use of | 
 his ship, provided he deliver to the collector or , 
 comptroller a certificate from the captain, stating ' 
 the name of the purser and the number of men, j 
 and give bond, with one surety, in treble the • 
 duties, that no part shall be relanded without 
 leave of the officers of the customs, or be landed 
 in the Channel Islands, or Man. 
 
 § HK>. If any purser be removed to another ship, 
 the remainder of any tobaccomay be transshipped, > 
 upon due entry, setting forth the time and the 
 port of the first shipment. The collector and 
 comptroller of a port where any ship is paid off ■ 
 may permit the remains of any tobacco to be 
 landed, and entered by the purser, either for 
 payment of duties, or to be warehoused for six 
 months, for the supply of some other ship, or 
 for payment of duties. All tobacco so ware- 
 housed is subject to the provisions of the act for 
 the warehousing of tobacco generally, as far as 
 applicable. 
 
 9 101. No greater quantity- of tobacco is allowed 
 to any ship than 2 lbs., by the lunar month, for j 
 each of the crew, nor may a greater quantity be 
 shipped at one time than sufficient to serve for '■ 
 six months ; and the collector and comptroller 
 have to transmit au account of the quantities to 
 the commissioners. 
 
 § ! 02. Goods may not be put off from any wharf, 
 quay, &c, or be waterborne for exportation, ex- 
 cept only on days not being Sundays or holidays, I 
 and in the daytime, viz. : from 1st September" to ! 
 the la*t day of March, betwixt sunrising and sun- | 
 setting, and from the last day of March until the 
 1st September, between 7 o'clock A. m. and 4 
 o'clock p. m. ; nor may goods be then put off or 
 waterborne, unless in the presence or with the 
 authority of the proper officer, nor except from 
 a legal quay appointed by royal authority, or 
 some wharf, quay, or place appointed by the 
 commissioners. 
 
 § 103. Any person exporting goods prohibited 
 from being exported under penalty of forfeiture, 
 forfeits double their value. 
 
 Prohibitions, § 104. The goods in the table 
 following are either absolutely prohibited to be 
 exported, or must be exported under the restric- 
 tions in the table, viz. : — 
 A Table of Pbohibitioxs and Restrictions 
 
 Outwards. 
 Clocks and watches, viz. : Any outward or in- 
 ward box, case, or dial-plate, of any metal, 
 without the movement in or with every such 
 box, case, or dial-plate, made up fit for use, 
 with the clock or watchmaker's name engraven 
 thereon. 
 Lace, viz. : Any metal inferior to silver which 
 shall be spun, mixed, wrought, or set upon 
 silk, or which shall be gilt, or drawn into wire, 
 or flatted into plate, and spun or woven, or 
 wrought into or upon, or mixed with lace, 
 fringe, cord, embroidery, tambour-work, or 
 buttons, made in the gold or silver lace manu- 1 
 factory, or set upon silk, or made into bullion | 
 spangles, or pearl or any other materials made ! 
 in the gold or silver lace manufactory, or which 
 shall imitate or be meant to imitate such lace, 
 fringe, cord, embroidery, tambour- work, or| 
 
 buttons ; nor shall any person export any cop- 
 per, brass, or other metal which shall be silver- 
 ed or drawn into wire, or flatted into plate, or 
 made into bullion spangles, or pearl or any 
 other materials used in the gold or silver lace 
 manufactory, or in imitation of such lace, 
 fringe, cord, embroidery, tambour-work, or 
 buttons, or of any of the materials used in 
 making the same, and which shall hold more 
 or bear a greater proportion than three penny- 
 weights of fine silver to the pound avoirdupois 
 of such copper, brass, or other metals. Any 
 metal inferior to silver, whether gilt, silvered, 
 stained, or coloured, or otherwise, which shall 
 be worked up or mixed with gold or silver in 
 any manufacture of lace, fringe, cord, em- 
 broidery, tambour-work, or buttons. 
 Tools and utensils, viz. : Any machine, engine, 
 tool, press, paper, utensil, or instrument used 
 in or proper for the preparing, working, press- 
 ing, or finishing of the woollen, cotton, linen, 
 or silk manufactures of this kingdom, or any 
 other goods wherein wool, cotton, linen, or 
 silk is used, or any part of such machines, 
 engines, tools, presses, paper, utensils, or in- 
 struments, or any model or plan thereof, or 
 any part thereof; except wool cards or stock 
 cards not worth above four shillings per pair, 
 and spinners' cards not worth above one shilling 
 and sixpence per pair, used in the woollen 
 manufactures. Blocks, plates, engines, tools, 
 or utensils, commonly used in or proper for the 
 preparing, workingup, or finishing of the calico, 
 cotton, muslin, or linen printing manufactures, 
 or any part of such blocks, plates, engines, tools, 
 or utensils. Rollers, either plain, grooved, or 
 of any other form or denomination, of cast- 
 iron, wrought iron, or steel, for the rolling of 
 iron or any sort of metals, and frames, beds, 
 pillars, screws, pinions, and each and every 
 implement, tool, or utensil thereunto belong- 
 ing ; rollers, slitters, frames, beds, pillars, and 
 screws for slitting mills ; presses of all sorts, in 
 iron and steel, or other metals, which are used 
 with a screw exceeding one inch and a half in 
 diameter, or any parts of these several articles, 
 or any model of the before-mentioned utensils, 
 or any part thereof; all sorts of utensils, en- 
 gines, or machines used in the casting or boring 
 of cannon or any sort of artillery, or any parts 
 thereof, or any models of tools, utensils, en- 
 gines, or machines used in such casting or 
 boring, or any parts thereof; hand-stamps, 
 dog-head stamps, pulley -stamps, hammers and 
 anvils for stamps ; presses of all sorts called 
 cutting-out presses ; beds or punches to be used 
 therewith, either in parts or pieces, or fitted 
 together ; scouring or shading engines ; presses 
 for horn buttons ; dies for horn buttons ; rolled 
 metal, with silver thereon ; parts of buttons 
 not fitted up into buttons, or in an unfinished 
 state ; engines for chasing, stocks for casting 
 buckles, buttons, and rings ; die-sinking tools 
 of all sorts ; engines for making button-shanks ; 
 laps of all sorts ; tools for pinching of glass ; 
 engines for covering of whips ; bars of metal 
 covered with gold or silver, and burnishing 
 stones commonly called blood-stones, either in 
 the rough state or finished for use ; wire moulds 
 for making paper ; wheels of metal, stone, or 
 wood, for cutting, roughing, smoothing, po- 
 lishing, or engraving glass ; purcellas, pincers, 
 sheers, and pipes used in blowing glass ; pot- 
 ters' wheels and lathes, for plain, round, and 
 engine-turning; tools used by saddlers, har- 
 ness-makers, and bridle-makers, viz. : Candle 
 strainers, side-strainers, point-strainers, creas- 
 ing-irons, screw-creasers, wheel-irons, seat- 
 irons, pricking-irons, bolstering-irons, clams, 
 and head-knives. Frames for making wearing- 
 apparel. 
 
 Q 
 
cus 
 
 2^2 
 
 CUS 
 
 COASTING TRADE. 
 
 Formerly no goods or passengers were per- 
 mitted to be carried coastwise, from one part 
 of the United Kingdom to another, but by 
 British Ships ; but ForeigD ships are now per- 
 mitted to be employed in the coasting-trade, 
 subject to the same rules and regulations, and 
 paying the same charges as British ships. 16 & 
 17 Vict cap. 107, and 18 & 19 Vict. cap. 96 
 define the regulations. Most of the following 
 provisions still hold good under the existing 
 acts. 
 
 COASTWISE. 
 
 §151 All trade by sea from one part of the 
 United Kingdom to another, or from one part 
 of the Isle of Man to another, is deemed coasting- 
 trade, and all ships employed therein coasting- 
 ships ; and no part of the United Kingdom, 
 however situated, is deemed beyond the seas, 
 with regard to any other part. 
 
 The Treasury are empowered to deter- 
 mine in what cases the trade by water from one 
 place on the coast to another shall or shall not be 
 deemed a trade by sea, within the meaning of 
 this act or any other act. 
 
 No goods are to be carried in any coast- 
 ing-ship, except such as are laden at some place in 
 the United Kingdom, or the Isle of Man; and 
 no goods are to be laden to be carried coastwise 
 until all goods brought in the ship from abroad 
 have been unladen ; and if any goods be taken 
 into or put out of any coasting-ship at sea, or 
 over the sea, or if any coasting-ship touch at any 
 place over the sea, or deviate from her voyage, 
 unless forced by unavoidable circumstances, or 
 if the master of any coasting-ship which may 
 touch at any place over the sea, do not declare 
 the same in writing, under his hand, to the col- 
 lector or comptroller at the port where the ship 
 afterwards first arrives, the master forfeits £200. 
 
 No goods are to be laden to be carried 
 coastwise, nor having been brought coastwise to 
 be unladen, until due notice in writing, signed 
 by the master, have been given to the collector 
 or comptroller , by the master, owner . wharfinger, 
 or agent, of the intention to lade, or of the arrival, 
 as the case may be, nor until proper documents 
 have been granted, as after described, for the 
 lading or unlading ; and goods laden or unladen 
 contrary to the directions of the act, as follows, 
 are forfeited. 
 
 In the notice must be stated the name 
 and tonnage of the ship, the name of the port to 
 which she belongs, the name of the master, the 
 name of the port to which she is bound or from 
 wliich she has arrived, and the name or descrip- 
 tion of the wharf or place at which her lading is 
 to be taken in or discharged, as the case may be ; 
 the notice to be signed by the master, owner, 
 wharfinger, or agent, and entered in a book to 
 be kept by the collector, for the information of 
 all interested. Every notice for unlading must 
 be delivered within 24 hours after arrival, under 
 a penalty of £20 by the master ; and in every 
 notice for lading must be stated the last voyage 
 on which the vessel arrived ; and if the voyage 
 
 board, it must be so declared. The master must 
 answer any questions relating to the voyage, and 
 if he fail in due time to deliver the notice, and 
 truly to answer questions,- he forfeits £100. 
 
 When due notice has been given to the 
 collector or comptroller at the port of lading of 
 the intention to lade, he grants a general suffer- 
 ance for the lading of goods (without specifying 
 them), at the place therein expressed, which is 
 authority for lading any goods, except such as it 
 may expressly except. But before a sufferance 
 be granted for goods prohibited, or subject to 
 any export duty other than an ad valorem duty, 
 the master or owner, or the shipper, must give 
 bond, with one surety, in treble the value, that 
 the goods shall be landed at the port for which 
 the sufferance is required, or be otherwise ac- 
 counted for to the satisfaction of the commis- 
 sioners. 
 
 § 155 The master of every coasting-ship must 
 keep a cargo-book, stating the name of the ship, 
 of the master, and of the port to which she be- 
 longs, and of the port to which bound on each 
 voyage. In this book must be entered, — at the 
 port of lading, an account of all goods taken on 
 board, stating the descriptions of the packages, 
 and the quantities and descriptions of the goods 
 packed and loose, and the names of the shippers 
 and consignees, as far as known, — and at the port 
 of discharge must be noted the respective days 
 on which goods are delivered, and the respective 
 times of departure and arrival. The master must 
 produce the book for the inspection of the coast- 
 waiter or other proper officer, so often as de- 
 manded, who is at liberty to make any note or 
 remark therein. If the master fail correctly to 
 keep the book, or to produce the same, or if 
 there be found on board goods not entered, or 
 noted as delivered, or if any goods entered as 
 laden, or not noted as delivered, be not on board, 
 the master forfeits £50, and if, upon examination 
 at the port of lading, any package entered as 
 containing foreign goods be found not to contain 
 such, it is forfeited, with its contents ; and if at 
 the port of discharge any package be found to 
 contain foreign goods not entered, they are for- 
 feited. 
 
 § 156 Before any coasting-ship departs, an ac- 
 count, with a duplicate, fairly written, and signed 
 by the master, must be delivered to the collector 
 or comptroller, setting forth the particulars re- 
 quired to be entered in the cargo-book, of foreign 
 goods, and goods subject to export duty (other 
 than an ad valorem duty), and of corn, grain, 
 meal, flour, or malt, laden on board, and gen- 
 erally, whether any other British goods or no 
 other British goods be laden, or whether the ship 
 be wholly laden with British goods not of any of 
 the descriptions before mentioned, as the case 
 may be. The collector or comptroller retains one 
 of the accounts, and returns the other, dated 
 and signed by him, and noting the clearance 
 thereon; and the account is the clearance for the 
 voyage, and the transire for the goods. If it be 
 false, or do not correspond with the cargo-book, 
 the master forfeits £50. 
 
 § 157 Before goodsare unladen at the port of dis- 
 charge, the master, owner, wharfinger, or agent, 
 
 have been from beyond the seas, there must be I must deliver the transire to the collector or comp 
 
 produced with the notice a certificate of the dis 
 charge of any goods brought in the ship, and of 
 due clearance inwards. 
 
 § 157 Upon the arrival of any coasting-ship in 
 Britain from Ireland, or in Ireland from Britain, 
 the master must, within 24 hours, deliver the 
 
 troller, who grants an order for the unlading at a 
 place specified. If any goods on board be subject 
 to duty on arrival coastwise, the master, owner, 
 wharfinger, agent, or consignee, must also deliver 
 a bill of entry, with a copy, and must pay all 
 duties of customs, or produce a permit in respect 
 
 notice, signed by him, to the collector or comp- of duties of excise, upon which the collector and 
 troller, in which, if the ship have on board goods comptroller grant an order for the landing, in pre- 
 subject to any duty of Excise, or which had been sence or by authority of the coast-waiter, 
 imported from beyond the seas, the particulars, § 153 The collector andcomptroller, in the cases 
 with the marks and numbers of the packages, after mentioned, may grant for any coasting-ship 
 must be set forth. If there be no such goods on a general transire, to continue for any time not 
 
cus 
 
 243 
 
 CUS 
 
 exceeding one vear, for the lading of any goods 
 (except such as it may expressly except), and for 
 the clearance and unlading, viz. :— For any ship 
 regularly trading,— between places in tlie river 
 Severn "eastward of the Holmes; or between 
 places in the river Humber ; or between places 
 in the Firth of Forth ; or between places to be 
 named in the transire, and carrying only manure, 
 lime, chalk, stone, gravel, sand, or any earth, 
 not being fullers' earth. The transire must be 
 written in the cargo book. It may at any time 
 be revoked, notice being given to the master or 
 owner, or to any of the crew on board, or being 
 entered in the cargo book by ai officer. [By 
 ti cs. 7 Wm. IV. c. 60, § 6, this provision is ex- 
 tended, and such trausires may be granted by 
 the commissioners, " under such regulations, 
 and for such tune as they may see fit."] 
 
 The coast-waiter, landing-waiter, and 
 searcher, and any other officer, may, at any time 
 board ;iny coasting-ship, and strictly search her, 
 and examine all goods on board, or being laden 
 or unladen, and demand all documents which 
 ought to be on board. 
 
 No goods going coastwise are to be unship- 
 ped, shipped, or waterborne to be shipped, but 
 on the days and within the times before mention- 
 ed hi § 102, and in presence or with the authority 
 of, and at places appointed and approved of by, 
 the proper officer. 
 
 . When goods are prohibited to be export- 
 ed by proclamation or order in council, the pro- 
 clamation or order may prohibit or restrict the 
 earryingof them coastwise ; and when such prohi- 
 bition or restriction is invaded, the goods are 
 forfeited. 
 
 JirSCELLANEOCS REGULATIONS. 
 
 Provision made for the construction of abbrevi- 
 ated terms,— among these, the term " Limits of 
 the East India Company's charter" means all 
 places and seas eastward of the Cape of Good 
 Hope to the Straits of Magellan; the terms 
 
 collector and comptroller " mean those of the 
 
 rt intended in the sentence ; the term " ware- 
 ouse " means any place, whether house, shed, 
 yard, timber-pond, or other place in which goods 
 entered to be warehoused upon importation may 
 be kept, and secured without payment of duty, 
 or although prohibited to be used in the United 
 Kingdom; and the term " queen's warehouse " 
 means any place provided by the crown for 
 lodging goods therein for security of the customs. 
 
 § 19-1 The island of Malta and its dependencies 
 are deemed in Europe. 
 
 § 195 Duties, bounties, and drawbacks must be 
 paid and received in Brit :sh currency, and accord- 
 ing to imperial weights and measures ; and where 
 they are imposed and allowed according to any 
 specific quantity or value, they apply in the same 
 proportion to any greater or less quantity or 
 value ; and all duties, bounties, and drawbacks 
 are under the management of the commissioners 
 of the customs. 
 
 § 196 All bonds in respect of goods or ships are 
 taken by the collector and comptroller ; and after 
 expiration of 3 years from the date, or from the 
 time for performance, every bond upon which no 
 prosecution or suit has been commenced is void. 
 
 § 197 The same instruments, tables, and scales 
 of graduation, and the same rules and methods, 
 followed by the officers of excise, are to be em- 
 ployed by the officers of the customs for the du- 
 ties od imported spirits. 
 
 § 198 The officers of the customs may take sam- 
 ples of goods for ascertaining the duties, to be 
 disposed of as the commissioners may direct. 
 
 8 199 For adapting alterations in the law to 
 current transactions, it is provided that impor- 
 tation is deemed to have had effect at the time 
 at which the ship had actually come within the 
 limits of the port of reporting and discharging, 
 
 K 
 
 I and that exportation is deemed to have had effect 
 at the time at which the goods had been shipped 
 I for exportation ; and if such question arise upon 
 j the arrival or departure of any ship, exclusive of 
 ber cargo, the time of arrival" is deemed that at 
 which the report has been or ought to have been 
 made ; and the time of departure is deemed that 
 of the last clearance for the voyage. 
 
 It is not lawful to return any overcharge 
 or duty, which has been judicially decided to be 
 levied on an erroneous construction of the law, 
 after the expiration of three years from the date 
 of payment. 
 
 The tonnage or burden of every British 
 ship within the meaning of the act, is" that set 
 forth in the certificate of registry, and the ton- 
 nage or burden of every other ship must be as- 
 certained in the same manner as those of British 
 ships. 
 
 The officers at any port under British do- 
 minion where there is a collector and comptroller 
 may refuse to admit any person to act as master 
 of any British ship, unless his name be inserted 
 in or indorsed upon the certificate of registry as 
 master, or until his name be so indorsed by such 
 collector and comptroller. 
 
 Persons falsifying, or counterfeiting, or 
 using, when falsified or counterfeited, documents 
 for the unlading, lading, entering, reporting, or 
 clearing of ships, or the landing or shipping of 
 goods, &c., or by any false statement procuring 
 such document, forfeit £200 ; but the penalty 
 does not attach to any particular offence for which 
 any other penalty is "expressly imposed. 
 
 When any person makes application to an 
 officer on behalf of any other person, the officer 
 may require of the person applying a written au- 
 thority from the person for whom he acts before 
 transacting business. 
 
 Any person making a false declaration, 
 except as to the value of goods, and any person 
 not truly answering questions authorized by any 
 customs act, forfeits £100, over and above any 
 other penalty. 
 
 All articles by this or any other cus- 
 toms act declared to be forfeited, may be seized 
 by any officer of the customs; forfeitures of ves- 
 sels include the guns, tackle, apparel, and furni- 
 | ture ; forfeitures of goods include the packages. 
 
 Articles forfeited, or detained as under- 
 valued, may be restored on such terms as the 
 ! commissioners may think fit ; and if the proprie- 
 tor accept the terms, he can have no action for 
 j recompense or damage. 
 
 If a ship have become liable to forfeiture, 
 , or the master to any penalty on account of goods 
 laden or unladen, which are small in quantity or 
 of trifling value, and it appear to the satisfaction 
 of the commissioners, that they had been laden 
 : or unladen contrary to the intention of the own- 
 ' ers, or without the privity of the master, as the 
 case may be, the commissioners may remit the 
 forfeiture, and remit or mitigate the penalty, 
 as they shall see reason to acquit the master of 
 all blame, or more or less to attribute the offence 
 to neglect of duty. 
 
 If any ship coming up or departing out of 
 I port do not bring to at the stations appointed by 
 | the commissioners, for the boarding or landing 
 ; of officers, the master forfeits £100. 
 
 The commissioners, and the collector and 
 1 comptroller of any port, may station officers on 
 j board any ship while within port, the master 
 ; providing each with sufficient room under the 
 ; deck, in some part of the forecastle or steerage, 
 i for his bed, and in case of neglect or refusal, for- 
 feiting £100. 
 
 When goods are warehoused for security 
 1 of the duties, or to prevent them from coming 
 | into home use, the commissioners may charge 
 I warehouse rent for the time, at the rate payable 
 
CUT 
 
 244 
 
 CYP 
 
 for the like goods when warehoused in any ware- 
 house in which they may be warehoused without 
 payment of duty ; but the Commissioners of the 
 Treasury, or of the Customs, by warrant under 
 their hands from time to time may fix the amount 
 of rent for goods secured in any of the ware- 
 houses. 
 
 In case goods are not cleared from the 
 warehouse within 3 calendar months (or sooner, 
 if they be of a perishable nature), the commis- 
 sioners may cause them to be sold by auction, for 
 home use or exportation, as the case may be, 
 the produce to be applied towards the payment 
 of the duties, if sold for home use, and of the 
 warehouse rent and other charges, and the over- 
 plus (if any) being paid to the person authorized 
 to receive the same. They may cause such goods 
 to be destroyed as cannot be sold for a sum suffi- 
 cient to pay duties and charges, if sold for home 
 use, or to pay charges, if for exportation : Pro- 
 vided that if the goods have been landed by the 
 officers, and the freight of the same has not been 
 paid, the produce must be first applied to the 
 payment of freight. 
 
 The crown is empowered by commission 
 out of the Exchequer, from time to time to ap- 
 point any port, haven, or creek, and to set out 
 the limits thereof, and to appoint the proper 
 places therein to be legal quays for lading and 
 unlading, and to declare that any place set out 
 as a legal quay by such authority, shall be no 
 longer such, and to appoint any new place to 
 be a legal quay. All ports, &c. existing as legal 
 at the commencement of the act continue to be 
 so, according to their respective limits, &c. 
 
 In proceedings for offences, the averment 
 that they were committed within the limits of 
 any port is sufficient, without proof of the limits, 
 unless the contrary be proved. 
 
 The commissioners may from time to time, 
 by order under their hands, appoint places to be 
 sufferance wharfs, for lading and unlading by 
 sufferance. 
 
 No vessel employed ordinarily for the car- 
 riage of letters is permitted to import or export 
 without permission of the commissioners, under 
 penalty of £100 against the master. 
 
 No person is to be deemed an apprentice 
 in terms of the act 4 Geo. IV. c. 25, for regulat- 
 ing the number of apprentices to be taken onboard 
 British merchant vessels, fyc, unless the inden- 
 ture have been enrolled with the collector and 
 
 [For abridgments of the other acts connected with the customs and the regulation of navigation, 
 see Shipping, Smuggling, Tariff, Warehousing.] 
 
 CUTLERY. [Hardware and Cutlery.] 
 
 CUTTER, a sharp, light-built vessel, with one mast, running bowsprit, and fore 
 and aft sails. Cutters are chiefly used as cruisers after smugglers, for conveying 
 despatches to a fleet, and for private sailing yachts. 
 
 CUTTLE-FISH, a molluscous class of animals {Cephalopoda) of which seven 
 species are indigenous to our seas, the most common being the Sepia officinalis, 
 found in profusion on the shores of Hampshire, and other parts. The cuttle-fish 
 is celebrated for the effusion, from a small bag, of a deep black fluid, by which, in 
 exigencies, it clouds the surrounding water, in order that it may conceal itself. 
 This excretion is manufactured into the pigment called sepia, and it is believed by 
 many that China-ink is made from it. The internal plate or bone, being hard on 
 one side while it is soft and yielding on the other, is sometimes used as a mould; 
 it is also employed for cleaning or polishing silver ; and when ground it furnishes 
 " pounce," a material used by scribes for erasures. 
 
 CYPRESS, a forest tree, the most important species of which are the evergreen 
 cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) and the white cedar (C. thyoides). Of the former 
 there are two varieties, the upright and the spreading,— the last affording the 
 larger and more valuable timber. It is a native of the south-eastern parts of 
 Europe, particularly of Italy, where it is beautifully applied in the terraced 
 scenery of villas ; but it is not much cultivated in England, — the climate being too 
 damp and cold for it in summer. Its wood is hard, elastic, and, though not so 
 
 comptroller of the port from which the apprentice 
 first goes to sea after the date of the indenture, or 
 in default of such enrolment, until it have been 
 enrolled at some port from which the ship in 
 which such apprentice shall afterwards go to sea 
 shall be cleared. [See the Abridgment of the 
 Seaman's Consolidation Act, 5 & 6 Win. IV. c. 
 19. Seamen.] 
 
 Licensed Agents, No one is entitled to 
 
 act as an agent for transacting business at the 
 Custom-house in London, relating to the entry or 
 clearance of any ship, goods or baggage, unless 
 authorized by license of the commissioners, who 
 are empowered in such case to require bond to 
 be given, with one surety, in the sum of £1000, 
 for the faithful and incorrupt conduct of such 
 person and his clerks, provided that such bond be 
 not required of any of the sworn brokers of the 
 city of London ; and any person acting without 
 license, or in partnership with any person not 
 licensed, forfeits £100 for each offence. [Bonds 
 which had been granted in terms of 6 Geo. IV. 
 c. 107 (repealed), are valid by 1 & 2 Vict. c. 113, 
 § 8.] 
 
 The Commissioners of the Treasury may, 
 by order under their hands, revoke such license, 
 and after a copy of such order has been delivered 
 to the person or his clerk, or left at his place of 
 abode or business, the license is void. 
 
 These provisions do not prevent the clerk 
 or servant of any person, or of any persons in co- 
 partnership, from transacting business at the 
 Custom-house on account of such person without 
 license ; provided he do not transact any such 
 business as clerk, servant, or agent to any other 
 person. 
 
 Any such agent or agents in copartner- 
 ship may appoint any person without license to 
 be a clerk in transacting such agency : Provided 
 that no person can be admitted to be clerk to 
 more than one agent or copartnership, nor until 
 his name and residence, and the date of his ap- 
 pointment, have been indorsed on the agent's 
 license, and signed by him, and witnessed by the 
 signature of the collector and comptroller, unless 
 such person have been appointed with consent of 
 the commissioners before the commencement of 
 the act. 
 
 The Commissioners of the Treasury, by 
 warrant, published in the London or Dublin Ga- 
 zette, may extend these regulations to agents at 
 any other port in Britain or Ireland. 
 
DAM 245 DAT 
 
 beautiful in colour as mahogany, it is stronger, resists the worm equally well, and 
 its odour repels insects from whatever may be contained in a cabinet or chest made 
 of it. In order to preserve the remains of their heroes, the Athenians buried them 
 in coffins of cypress ; and the chests in which the Egyptian mummies are found 
 are usually ot the same material. The precise period to which the tree lives 
 has not been ascertained, though the fact of its being planted over the graves 
 of the dead, and carried in funeral processions as an emblem of immortality, may 
 be regarded as a presumption that its duration must be very considerable. 
 
 The American cypress or white cedar is a native of Mexico and of the southern 
 parts of North America, — luxuriating in the deadly swamps of the Mississippi. It 
 grows to a considerable size, but slowly, being eighty years old before it is fit for 
 timber, which even then is not very valuable, though it answers well for hoops, 
 boats, roofing, and some other purposes. 
 
 D. 
 
 DAMAGED GOODS are those subject to customs duties though they have 
 received some injury in their conveyance into the country, or in the bonded ware- 
 house. 
 
 Not more than 63-64th parts to be allowed on damaged goods. (Board Order, May 31, 1771- ) 
 
 At the out-ports, damages exceeding £10 not to be allowed without the Board's sanction, and 
 not after the goods are in the merchant's possession. (B. 0. Jan. 4, 1817-) 
 
 Surveys for damage not to take place until the parties have first petitioned. (B. 0. June 5, 1817.) 
 
 The chief other rules are contained in the act 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c 52, § 30-32, an abstract of which 
 is given under the head Customs Regulations. 
 
 DAMASK (Fr. Venise. Ger. Damasten Tafelzeug. It. Tela damaschina. 
 Por. Guarnicao de mesa adamascada. Sp. Tela adamascada}, a description of silk 
 or linen cloth, of thick texture but fine in quality, with elaborate figures or flowers. 
 It is a twilled fabric, and said to have been first made in Damascus. Linen damask is 
 at present manufactured extensively at Dunfermline in Scotland, and in Ireland, 
 for tablecloths and napkins. That made for curtains and similar articles, is 
 formed of a mixture of silk with linen, cotton, or woollen. [Linen.] 
 
 DAMMER, a resinous substance much employed in India for covering the 
 bottoms of vessels. It is hard, dark- coloured, and brittle; and is exported in large 
 quantities from the Eastern Islands and Malayan Peninsula to India. It exudes 
 spontaneously from a tree, said by Mr Milburn to be a species of pine (Shorea 
 robusta, Rox.): but according to Mr Crawfurd it is obtained of various kinds from 
 different trees. It is so plentiful that it is gathered in lumps from the ground 
 where it has fallen. 
 
 DANTZIC. [Prussia.] 
 
 DATE (.Fx. Duties. It. Datteri. Sp. Datiles), the fruit of the date palm {Phoenix 
 dactylifera), a tree which forms the chief object of cultivation along the verge of 
 the desert, which, with but few interruptions, extends from the shores of the 
 Atlantic to the confines of Persia, a district where none of the cerealia will grow, 
 . to the aridity of the soil and the want of moisture. Between the States of 
 Barbary and the Desert, it is so abundant that this region is called L'e;id-ul- 
 gerid, or the Land of Dates. There are upwards of a hundred varieties ; but 
 in general it may be described as acorn-shaped, composed of a thin glossy mem- 
 brane which contains a fine soft and pulpy fruit that is firm, sweet, and rather 
 vinous to the taste; within this is enclosed a solid, tough, hard kernel. Ripe dates 
 cannot be kept for any length of time without fermenting and becoming acid; 
 whence those which are intended for storing or exportation are dried in the sun 
 upon mats. They are exported in large quantities from Arabia to India ; and a 
 few are brought to this country from the Levant and Barbary. 
 
 " In the Hedjaz, the new fruit called niteb comes in at the end of June, and lasts two months. 
 The harvest of dates is expected with as much anxiety, and attended with as general rejoicing, as 
 the vintage of the South of Europe. The crop sometimes fails, or is destroyed by locusts, and 
 then a universal gloom overspreads the population. The people do not depend upon the new fruit 
 alone, but during the ten months of the year when no ripe dates can be procured, their principal 
 subsistence is the date paste, called adjoue, which is prepared by pressing the fruit, when fully ma- 
 tured, into large baskets. ' What is the price of dates at Mecca or Medina ?' is, says Burckhard;, 
 always the first question asked by a Bedouin who meets a passenger on the road."" (Lib. of Ent. 
 Knoickdge, Vepet. Substances, vol. i. p. 357.) 
 
 The Date Palm b a majestic tree which shoots up in one cylindrical column to the height of 50 
 or 60 feet, without branch or division, and throws out from the summit a magnificent crown of 
 leaves. It i* distinguished as male and female, one plant bearing the fruit and another the blossom. 
 In the East, it has always been the subject of universal veneration. It is the palm-tree of 
 Scripture, where it is frequently selected as the emblem of the majesty and beauty of rectitude ; 
 and both iu ancient and modern times, the leaves have been used as the symbol of triumph. Its 
 
DAY 246 DEC 
 
 extensive Importance is one of the most curious subjects in natural history ; for a considerable part 
 of the inhabitants of Egypt, Arabia, and Persia, subsist almost entirely upon its fruit. They boast 
 also of its medicinal virtues. Their camels feed upon the date stones ; from the leaves they make 
 couches, baskets, bags, mats, and brushes ; from the branches, cages for their poultry, and fence9 
 for their gardens ; from the fibres of the boughs, thread, ropes, and rigging ; from the sap is pre- 
 pared a spirituous liquor; and the trunk of the tree furnishes fuel. It is now said, that from one 
 variety of palm-tree meal has been extracted from among the fibres of the trunk, and has been 
 used for food. 
 
 DAY-BOOK. [Book-keeping.] 
 
 DAYS OF GRACE, a certain number of days granted to the acceptor after the 
 term of a bill is expired. In the British dominions these amount to three; but if 
 the third should be Sunday, Good-Friday, Christmas-Day, or a fast appointed by 
 proclamation, the bill is payable on the second day of grace. They run on all bills 
 payable on a day fixed, or at so long after date, or after sight ; but not on bills 
 payable on demand, though they do (at least in England) on those payable at sight. 
 
 DEAD-WEIGHT, the name given to an advance by the Bank of England to 
 government, on account of the half-pay and pensions of retired officers of the 
 army and navy. After the end of the war, the sums thus payable amounted to 
 about £5,000,000 per annum; and the ministry being desirous to relieve their present 
 necessities by spreading the burden more equally over the 45 years, which, in 1822, 
 were calculated as the mean probable duration of the lives, offered (4 Geo. IV. c. 22) 
 to pay to any capitalists an annuity of £2,800,000 for that period, on condition of 
 provision being made for the pensions on the basis of a graduated scale of payments ; 
 commencing in the first year at £4,900,000, and ending at £300,000. The South 
 Sea directors entertained the project for a time, but soon discovered that it was 
 beyond their means; ministers had then recourse to the Bank of England, who, in 
 1823, accepted the offer to a limited extent, and advanced to government, in the 
 course of five years, £13,089,419, receiving in return an engagement to pay an 
 annuity of £585,740 for 44 years, ending October 10, 1867. The bank has not yet 
 disposed of any part of this security : a portion of it was, however, exposed for sale 
 on the 17th July 1839 ; and an account of the offers then received will be found 
 in the late Report on Banks of Issue. {Par. Paper, 1840, No. 602. App. p. 263.) 
 
 DEALS (Dan. Dceler. Du. Deelen. Fr. Planches minces. Ger. JJielen. Rus. 
 Doski. Sw. Tiljor), the name given in the wood-trade to the timber of the pine 
 when sawed into planks, in which form it is imported into this country from the 
 N. of Europe and British America. Standard deals are boards above 7 inches in 
 width, and of various lengths, exceeding 6 feet. When less than 7 inches in width 
 they are termed battens, and when under 6 feet in length, deal-ends. The American 
 deals are inferior in strength, and do not last so long as those of the N. of Europe, 
 
 {tarticularly Christiania ; hence the latter are usually preferred for the flooring of 
 louses, and other purposes where durability is required. But the former are used 
 where cheapness is the principal consideration, as in building small houses; they 
 are also preferred for many little articles, the internal fittings of houses, and other 
 purposes which require wood that can be easily worked. 
 
 DEBENTURE, the certificate given at the customhouse to the exporter of 
 goods, on which a bounty or drawback is allowed, bearing that he has complied 
 with the statutory regulations, and is entitled to such bounty or drawback. 
 [Customs Regulations.] 
 
 DECIMAL FRACTIONS differ from vulgar fractions in this respect, that their 
 denominators are always 10, or some power of 10, as 100, 1000, &c, and instead 
 of writing the denominator under the numerator, it is expressed by pointing off 
 from the 'right of the numerator as many figures as there are ciphers in the deno- 
 minator; thus '5, -43, 5-26 denote, respectively, * ft . ~« 5-- or ™' The value of 
 
 each figure in a decimal decreases from the loft to the right in a tenfold proportion; 
 that is, each figure is ten times as great as if it were removed one place to the 
 
 right, as in whole numbers; thus, '5, '05, '005, are y Q ' -^ ^— > &c, and the dc-* 
 
 cimal *438 is four-tenths, three-hundredths, and eight- thousandths of a unit. 
 Adding ciphers to the right of a decimal does not alter its value ; thus, *5, "50, 
 5 50 500 
 "500, or 1{) » j^» I000 » are equal to each other, the numerator and denominator 
 
 having been multiplied by the same number. 
 
 Decimals may be reduced to a common denominator by adding ciphers to the 
 right, where it is necessary, till the number of decimal places is the same in all. 
 
DEC 
 
 24! 
 
 DEC 
 
 Thus, "5, "03, and *564, reduced to a common denominator, are '500, '030, and "564; 
 
 .. . . 500 030 , 564 
 
 tbat "* low iooo' aud 1000* 
 
 The consequence of this method of expressing fractions is, that addition, subtraction, multipli- 
 cation, and division, are performed exactly as in common arithmetic ; the only difference being, 
 that we have, besides, to ascertain the place of the decimal point. In addition and subtraction) 
 bavins placed the decimal points under one another, and filled up the decimals, or supposed them 
 to be filled up, all to the same number of figures or places with ciphers, tbesame number of decimal 
 figures or places must be made in the result as in each of the lines. In multiplication, the number 
 of decimal places in the result must be the sum of those in the multiplier and multiplicand ; and, 
 in division, it must be the difference of those in the divisor and dividend. Thus, the sum, differ- 
 ence, product, and quotient of 8-085 and l'9b\ is 10-045, 6-125, 15-84660, and 4-1, respectively. 
 Addition. Subtraction. Multiplication. Division. 
 
 8i '85 8*035 81)85 
 
 1-93 1-96 1-96 8-085 
 
 = 4-1 Quotient 
 
 Sum 10-045 Difference 6-125 Product 15-84660 1-96 
 
 To reduce a vulgar fraction to a decimal, add ciphers at pleasure, as decimals in the numerator, 
 and divide by the denominator, according to the rule for the division of decimals. 
 
 Example - = 3 — = 75. 
 4 4 
 
 From the very nature of numbers, it must frequently happen that this division may be continued 
 without termination ; but, as the figures always decrease a tenth in value by* each remove 
 to the right from the point, decimals may be stopped, except in long calculations, at three or four 
 places, without any great degree of error ; and even in continued multiplications, when the decimals 
 are stopped at a given place, we have only to increase the last figure by 1, if the next figure was to 
 be 5 or above it, in order to compensate for cutting them short. 
 To find the value of a decimal qf one denomina- 
 . terms of a lower denomination. 
 iply the decimal by the number of integers 
 
 To reduce a quantity to a decimal of a superior 
 denomination. 
 
 Divide the quantity by the number of integers 
 
 of its denomination contained in 1 of the superior 
 
 denomination, and the quotient is the decimal 
 
 required. 
 
 Example, What decimal of a pound is 13s. 4"d.? 
 
 4)*_ 
 
 12)4^ 
 
 20)13375 
 •66875 
 First, we find what decimal of a penny id. is ; 
 this by the rule is -5 ; then what decimal of a 
 shilling 4 Jd. or 4-5d. is ; this is found in the same 
 manner to be -375 ; lastly, we find, by the same 
 rule, what decimal of a pound 13-375 shillings is, 
 Hence, the value required is 13s. 4Jd.* which appears to be -66875. 
 
 The proofs of the rules for the management of decimal fractions here given are necessarily con- 
 fined to particular instances, but the same reasoning may be applied in every case. 
 
 The following table of equations between vulgar and decimal fractions will be found useful in 
 practice : — 
 
 Table of Decimal Equivalents. 
 
 of the lower denomination contained hi one integer 
 of the higher, and the product is the value re- 
 quired. The value of any fractional part of the 
 lower denomination may be obtained in the same 
 manner, till we come tq the lowest. 
 
 Example, Required the value of -66875 £ 
 
 20_ 
 
 13-37500 shillings 
 
 12 
 
 4*500 pence 
 
 2-0 farthings 
 
 A -0167 
 
 A 
 
 ■1333 
 
 T <r -2067 
 
 ?:" -3833 
 
 H '5167 3 
 
 •6333 
 
 SJ 7667 
 
 H 
 
 •8833 
 
 
 ■0808 
 
 A 
 
 •1458 
 
 u 
 
 •2708 
 
 if -3958 
 
 H -5208 
 
 H 
 
 •6458 
 
 a 
 
 ■7708 
 
 H 
 
 •8958 
 
 A 
 
 •0250 
 
 
 •1500 
 
 \h 
 
 •2750 
 
 i 
 
 •4000 
 
 U '5250 
 
 U 
 
 •6500 
 
 U 
 
 •7750 
 
 A 
 
 •9000 
 
 A 
 
 •0312 
 
 A 
 
 •1562 
 
 ■: 
 
 •2812 
 
 U 
 
 •4062 
 
 li -5312 
 
 H 
 
 •6562 
 
 n 
 
 7812 
 
 if 
 
 •9062 
 
 A 
 
 •0333 
 
 1 
 
 •1667 
 
 U 
 
 •2833 
 
 A 
 
 •4167 
 
 A "5333 
 
 1 
 
 •6667 
 
 u 
 
 7833 
 
 H 
 
 •9167 
 
 A 
 
 •0417 
 
 i- 
 
 •1750 
 
 ^ 
 
 •2917 
 
 to- 
 
 •4250 
 
 if '5417 
 
 H 
 
 •6750 
 
 a 
 
 7917 
 
 ih 
 
 •9250 
 
 A 
 
 ■0500 
 
 U 
 
 •1833 
 
 A 
 
 •3000 
 
 ll 
 
 •4333 
 
 li -5500 
 
 H 
 
 •6833 
 
 i 
 
 •8000 
 
 a 
 
 •9333 
 
 A 
 
 •0625 
 
 A 
 
 •1875 
 
 A 
 
 •3125 
 
 A 
 
 •4375 
 
 & -5625 
 
 H 
 
 •6875 
 
 H 
 
 •8125 
 
 H 
 
 •9375 
 
 A 
 
 
 1 
 
 •2000 
 
 u 
 
 •3167 
 
 A 
 
 •4500 
 
 ii '5667 
 
 A 
 
 7000 
 
 18 
 
 •8167 
 
 18 
 
 •9500 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 •2083 
 
 U 
 
 •3250 
 
 U 
 
 •4583 
 
 ~? -5750 
 
 U 
 
 7083 
 
 a 
 
 •82.50 
 
 H 
 
 •9583 
 
 A 
 
 •0333 
 
 
 •2167 
 
 i 
 
 •3333 
 
 A 
 
 •4667 
 
 T T 5 -5833 
 
 H 
 
 7167 
 
 i 
 
 •8333 
 
 U 
 
 •9667 
 
 A 
 
 •0937 
 
 A 
 
 •2187 
 
 H 
 
 •3437 
 
 U 
 
 •4687 
 
 If -5937 
 
 H 
 
 7187 
 
 H 
 
 •8437 
 
 H 
 
 •9687 
 
 A 
 
 •1000 
 
 A 
 
 •2250 
 
 A 
 
 •3500 
 
 U 
 
 •4750 
 
 $ -6000 
 
 H 
 
 •7250 
 
 \i 
 
 •8500 
 
 18 
 
 •9750 
 
 A 
 
 •1048 
 
 U 
 
 •2292 
 
 U 
 
 •3542 
 
 il 
 
 •4792 
 
 if -6042 
 
 H 
 
 7292 
 
 H 
 
 •8542 
 
 H 
 
 •9792 
 
 A 
 
 •1167 
 
 
 •23.33 
 
 U 
 
 •3667 
 
 H 
 
 •4833 
 
 11 -6167 
 
 H 
 
 7333 
 
 if 
 
 •8667 
 
 #8 
 
 •9833 
 
 1 
 
 •1250 
 
 i 
 
 -2500 
 
 1 
 
 •3750 
 
 1 
 
 •8000 
 
 I -6250 
 
 3 
 
 ■7800 
 
 1 
 
 •8750 1 
 
 £8 
 
 1- 
 
 * The following rule to convert decimals of a pound into shillings and pence will be found more 
 convenient in practice : — 
 
 Double the first decimal on the right of the point for shillings, increasing this number by 1, if the 
 second decimal be 5, or above it. 
 
 Consider the number expressed by the 2d and 3d decimals (deducting 50, if 1 was added to the 
 I as farthings ; diminishing, however, this number by 1 , if it be above 12, and less than 
 37 ; and by 2, if it be above 36. The other decimals may be neglected. 
 
DEL 248 DEM 
 
 DEL CREDERE, in its restricted sense, is an engagement by an insurance 
 broker, for an additional premium, to guarantee the insured against the conse- 
 quences of the failure of the underwriter. In its ordinary mercantile acceptation, 
 it embraces every commercial transaction, in which the person who transacts for 
 another engages for the solvency of the person with whom he so bargains. A fac- 
 tor employed to dispose of property, in the usual manner, is only responsible to his 
 principal for the consequence of neglecting that degree of care which a prudent 
 man takes of his own affairs ; and if he sell to a person in good credit, and that 
 person fail, he is not responsible for the debt. If the factor or agent, however, 
 hold a del credere commission, he engages, in consideration of an additional pre- 
 mium, to guarantee all his transactions. His responsibility extends to the absolute 
 payment, and so it is not sufficient that he remit the price by bills to his principal, 
 —he is responsible for their being honoured (M'Kenzie and Lindsay v. Scott, 
 6 Brown's Par. Cases, 280). It was formerly held that this was a contract in 
 which the agent " engages to ensure to his principal not only the solvency of the 
 debtor, but the punctual discharge of the debt," and that " he is liable in the first 
 instance without any previous demand from the debtor " (Paley on Principal 
 and Agent, 41 ; and see, in Scotland, Bell's Com. i. 378). But the later doctrine is, 
 that " a factor or broker acting under a commission del credere is a surety to his 
 principal for the solvency of those with whom the principal deals through his 
 agency. He is in no case, as regards his own employer, himself the principal in any 
 contract he may make for him, and is liable only in default of those with whom 
 he deals. It follows, therefore, that before he can be charged, it must be averred 
 in the declaration, and proved at the trial, that the principal debtor has made 
 default." (Note to Lloyd's Paley, $. 111.) [Factor. Principal and Agent.] 
 
 DELFT, a kind of earthenware, covered with an enamel or white glazing, 
 which gives it the appearance and neatness of porcelain. It was so called from 
 the town of that name in South Holland, the original seat of the manufacture, but 
 which, since the improvements introduced into the English potteries by Wedge- 
 wood, is no longer a place of any note. 
 
 DELIVERY. [Sale. Stoppage in Transitu.] 
 
 DEMERARA. [Guiana.] 
 
 DEMURRAGE is applied to designate the time during which a vessel is de- 
 tained beyond that originally stipulated in loading or unloading ; but it is more 
 commonly applied to the compensation which the freighter has to pay for such 
 detention. The freighter usually agrees to load and unload within a certain time, 
 and comes under a subsidiary stipulation to pay so much by way of demurrage if 
 the time be exceeded, in which case it is generally fixed at a certain rate per day. In 
 computing the number of days to be paid for, it may be a question whether they 
 should be computed " running," i. e. without the exception of Sundays and holi- 
 days, or whether these should be excluded and " working" days only counted. It 
 would appear that the interpretation of the word " days," in this respect, will 
 depend on the custom of the place ; and so it was decided, on evidence of custom, 
 that when a vessel was employed on a voyage from the Elbe to London, with re- 
 ference to unloading in the Thames, working days only were included (Cochran 
 v. Retberg, 3 Esp. 121). Sometimes the demurrage is to run while the ship is 
 detained by certain circumstances, e. g. while she is waiting for convoy, or until 
 her cargo be completed. In the former case the demurrage ceases when the con- 
 voy is ready to depart, and in the latter when the ship is fully laden ; and will not 
 be continued by the vessel being detained, nor renewed on her being driven back 
 by stress of weather. When there is a stipulation for demurrage, it is payable 
 though the delay be not attributable to the conduct of the freighter, but to the 
 crowded state of the docks, or to other extraneous causes. Demurrage is, properly 
 speaking, the result of a stipulation, but it is often applied to the damages or com- 
 pensation which the freighter must pay for having detained the vessel, when there 
 is no special agreement, or beyond the time sanctioned by such agreement. The 
 amount of damage in either of these cases must depend upon circumstance and 
 usage ; but in the latter case there is generally a means of measuring the amount, 
 by that of the stipulated demurrage. Where a bill of lading has a note on the 
 margin importing that the goods are to be removed at a certain time, otherwise a 
 certain sum per diem is to be charged for delay, whoever claims the goods under 
 the bill becomes responsible for the sum. It was decided in Evans v. Forster, 
 however (1 Barn. Q Ado/. 118), that where there is no such note, the master cannot 
 claim damages from the consignee on the implied contract. (Abbot on Shipping , 
 178188.) [Affreightment. Bill of Lading. Charter-party. Shipping.] 
 
DEN 249 DEN 
 
 DENARIUS, the chief silver coin in Rome down to the time of Constantino I., 
 and worth, according to Pinkerton, ahout eightpence of our money. It originally 
 contained ten asses, but after the first Punic war it became the representative of 
 sixteen asses. The word denarius was also applied to coins of copper and gold. 
 The denarii certs began with the Emperor Valerian, and six of them are supposed 
 to have been equivalent to the silver denarius. The denarius aureus, the ordinary 
 Roman coin of gold, was equivalent to twenty-five silver denarii, or a hundred 
 sestertii. 
 
 DENMARK, a kingdom lying in the N. W. of Europe, between 53° and 58° N. 
 and 18° and 13° E. Area, 21,472 square miles. Subdivisions and population : 
 —1. Islands of Zealand, Funen, and others, 697,900 ; 2. North Jutland, 525,900 ; 
 3. South Jutland, or Duchy of Sleswick, 340,500; 4. Duchy of Holstein, 439,900 ; 
 5. Duchy of Lauenburg, 35,900 ; total, 2,040,100. Copenhagen, the capital, is situated 
 in Zealand. The government is a hereditary monarchy, formerly absolute ; but in 
 1834 representative assemblies, with a consulting voice, were instituted in each of 
 the four principal divisions ; the small duchy of Lauenburg having long possessed 
 a diet of its own. As Duke of Holstein and Lauenburg, the king is a member of 
 the Germanic confederation. 
 
 The aspect of Denmark, generally, is that of a rich, well-cultivated country. The surface is 
 flat, covered in some places with sands and marshes ; and forming, with the exception of Holland, 
 the lowest part of the great plain of Northern Germany. There are no mountains, for the highest 
 inequalities of soil in Holstein and Sleswick do not exceed 1000 feet ; and the islands in many places 
 scarcely rise above the level of the sea. From its proximity to the ocean, the climate of Denmark 
 is warmer than its latitude indicates. At Copenhagen the mean temperature of the year is 45*68 ; 
 that of the warmest month being 65-66 ; and of the coldest, 27*14. The structure of the land, 
 no part of which is more than 40miles distant from the coast, does not allow the formation of large 
 rivers. Those navigable are the Eyder, which rises in Holstein, and falls into the North Sea at 
 Tonningen, and the Trave, which enters the Baltic at Lubec. The former is navigable for about 
 105 miles, the latter for about 65. The want of such rivers is, however, amply compensated 
 by the numerous fiords or firths, which indent the coasts. There are four canals. The largest is 
 the Sleswick-Holstein, or Eyder canal, which conveys the Eyder from Rendsburgto the Gulf of 
 Kiel and thus unites the North Sea with the Baltic. It is 10 feet deep, and about 27 miles in 
 length, and carries vessels of 120 tons. In 1838, no fewer than 2442 passed this canal, of which, 
 however, only 11 were British. The Steckinitz canal connects the Elbe with the Gulf of Lubec; 
 the others are the Daneskiold in Zealand, and the Odensee in Funen. 
 
 Denmark possesses no mines, and scarcely any mineral substances of importance ; but agriculture 
 has undergone greater improvements of late years than perhaps any other branch of national in- 
 dustry. The soil is chiefly composed of sand and clay, and the constant humidity of the atmo- 
 sphere is favourable to vegetation. The pasturages are fresh and luxuriant, and the rearing of 
 stock, particularly horses, is carried on extensively. All kinds of grain common to the latitude of 
 the country, as oats, barley, rye, wheat, and other varieties, are found to succeed. Tobacco, flax, 
 hemp, and hops are cultivated in some districts, and in the gardens, apples, pears, cherries, and 
 hazel-nuts ; great quantities of Which are exported to Russia. Of the once extensive forests but 
 few remains are now found, and those mostly in Lauenburg, consisting principally of oaks and 
 beeches. To supply the deficiency of firewood, the people make use of turf and seaweed. The 
 fisheries are of considerable importance. Of these the principal is the herring fishery, which is 
 prosecuted on a large scale on the N. K. coast of Jutland, and on the fishing grounds of the Liimfiord. 
 The Danes are also actively engaged in the cod fishery of the North Sea, and the Greenland whale 
 
 fi-lltTV. 
 
 The government has afforded great encouragement to manufactures; but in no department 
 (except under the protection of exorbitant duties) can the people compete even in their own 
 markets with foreign rivals. The peasants employ themselves in working up their flax and 
 wool into coarse cloths. In Copenhagen there are factories for silk and cotton weaving, con- 
 structed on similar principles with those of England ; Randers and Odensee are famous for their 
 tanneries and gloves ; Tonder for its lace ; Frederickswark, Elsineur, and Holbeck for manufac- 
 turing large and small firearms. Lauenburg contains soap-works, breweries, and potteries for 
 common Dutch ware ; Altona carries on different manufactures ; Oldeslohe, on the river Trave, 
 is distinguished for its salt-works. FJensborg, a flourishing town, besides manufactories of soap 
 and tobacco, has a considerable number of oil-mills and sugar-refineries. 
 
 The commerce of Denmark is inconsiderable, though, from being the key of the Baltic, it pos- 
 sesses peculiar advantages for a ready intercourse with most of the maritime states of Europe. 
 This arises partly from the antiquated manner in which much of the business of the country is con- 
 ducted, partly from high transit dues, but chiefly from the oppressive imposts which are levied 
 with the view of sustaining the home manufactures. Much attention is, however, bestowed on 
 navigation, and from the economical manner in which it is conducted, the Danes possess a 
 considerable share of the carrying trade of other nations. At present the number of their ships is 
 estimated at upwards of 3700, in burden 143,800 tons. 
 
 The exports consist almost wholly of the raw produce of the kingdom and its dependencies. In 
 ia31, their amount was £1,295,011; in 1834, £1,656,771; and in 1836, it was £1,959,116 
 The chief articles were butter, 66,665 barrels, value £395,052; rapeseed, 93,932 quarters, value 
 £230,368 ; barley, 224,721 quarters ; oats. 86,312 quarters ; rve, 75,191 quarters ; wheat, 105,000 
 quarters; horses, 7566; cattle, 38,323; pork, 58,819 cwt.; beef, 26,326 cwt. ; herrings, hides, 
 eider-down, train-oil, lubfish, woollen stockings and mittens,— and other articles, the produce of 
 the Faroe Isles, Iceland, and Greenland, £03,059; susrar and rum, the produce of the Danish 
 West India Islands of St Croix and St Thomas, ahout £12.' , o<». The greater part of the grain 
 exported, and nearly the whole of the rapeseed, arc from the duchies. The total number of Danish 
 
DEN 
 
 250 
 
 DER 
 
 vessels which annually depart for foreign countries from all the ports of the kingdom is rather more 
 than 4000 ; the tonnage being about 230,000. The imports, exclusive of those from Britain and 
 the Danish West India islands, consist of piece goods, tobacco, and colonial produce from Ham- 
 burg and Bremen; linen, flax, wood, staves, and timber from Prussia; iron, tar, deals, timber, 
 fish, herrings, and train-oil from Sweden and Norway ; hemp, flax, ashes, tallow, seeds, and tim- 
 ber from Russia ; piece goods and colonial produce from the Netherlands ; and wine, salt, and piece 
 goods from France. 
 
 The trade betwixt Denmark and the United Kingdom is increasing. The declared value of 
 British and Irish produce and manufactures imported on an average of the 10 years 1827-1836, 
 was £101,037 ; in 1837, the amount was £103,448 ; in 1838, £181,404 ; consisting chiefly of iron, 
 coals, and salt, with small quantities of earthenware, cotton twist and yarn, glass, hardware, 
 lead, machinery, &c. The importations of foreign and colonial articles from the United King- 
 dom in the above period has greatly declined. The exports to Great Britain from Denmark chiefly 
 consist of rapeseed, flaxseed, linseed, tares, wool, corn, pease, beans, hides, and bark. A consid- 
 erable increase is observable of late years in the importation of wool and rapeseed, now the two 
 principal articles. About 50,000 tons of British shipping (vessels 227) annually arrive in the 
 Danish ports, more than 4-5ths of which enter Copenhagen. 
 
 The principal ports are Copenhagen and Elsineur. 
 
 Copenhagen, one of the best built cities in Europe, stands on the E. coast of Zealand, in lat. 55° 
 41' N. and long. 12° 35' E. ; pop. 130,000. The walls extend nearly 5 miles, and are surrounded 
 with a chain of bastions and a broad ditch. The harbour, formed by a narrow channel running 
 between the city and the island Aniak, is capable of containing 500 vessels, and possesses depth 
 sufficient for ships of the largest size. Exports are principally the produce of the soil, and colonial 
 articles; and the imports are sugar and coffee, chiefly from the island of St Croix, with small 
 quantities of iron, oil, blubber, tar, fish, and fruit. About 1900 vessels arrive annually from 
 foreign ports. 
 
 Elsineur, in lat. 56° 2' N. and long. 12° 37' E., stands on Zealand, about 20 miles N. from Copen- 
 hagen, at the narrowest part of the strait between the Cattegat and the Baltic, called the Sound ; 
 pop. 9000. The harbour is accessible only to vessels of small draught, but the town derives im- 
 portance from its being the place where a toll is levied by the Danish government on all vessels 
 passing the Sound. [Sound-Dues.] Above 12,000 anchor in the roads annually for this purpose, 
 the supplying of which with stores forms the principal trade of the place. 
 
 The chief other ports are Altona, Kiel, Flensborg, Tonningen, Aalborg, Kioje, Nostoed, Cor- 
 soer, Callundborg, and Eckenforde. Many parts of the Danish coast are useless, owing either 
 to the want of deep water, or the numberless banks, bars, and islands which line it. The shores 
 of the islands adjoining the Bialtic are also so flat and irregular as to be unapproachable in most 
 quarters by large vessels. 
 
 MEASURES, WEIGHTS, MONEY, FINANCES, &C. 
 
 Measures and Weights. — The ell of 2 Rhine- 
 land feet - 243 Imp. inches ; the mile of 2400 
 ruthes = 8244 Imp. yards, or 4-684 British stat- 
 ute miles. 
 
 The Danish acre, or ton of land, forms an 
 area of 14,000 square ells of 2 feet, and from 10 
 to 25 of such acres are reckoned to each ton of 
 hard corn, in proportion to the quality of the 
 soil. 
 
 The viertel of 4 kans, or 8 pots = 1*70 Imp. 
 gall. ; the hogshead of 30 viertels = 51 Imp. 
 galls. ; the ahm of 4 ankers = 33*1 4 Imp. galls. 
 
 The toende or barrel of 8 skieps, or 144 pots = 
 3-83 Imp. bushels, or 60 barrels = 29 Imp. qrs. 
 nearly ; the last of corn contains 12 toendes, or 
 45*91 Imp. bushels ; the last of coals 18 toendes ; 
 and the last of oil, butter, or herrings, 12 beer 
 toendes, each of 136 pots. 
 
 The shippond of 20 lisponds, or 320 lbs. = 3i 
 cwt. nearly; and the centner of 100 lbs. = Hoi 
 lbs. avoird. The ship-last is 4000 Danish lbs. 
 The Copenhagen mark of 8 ounces used in 
 weighing gold and silver = 3633 troy grains. 
 
 Money. — Accounts arc generally stated in rigs- 
 bank dollars, each divided into 6 marks, or .96 
 skillings ; but in some of the larger mercantile 
 houses they are kept in Hamburg marcs banco. 
 The rigsbank dollar, coined at the rate of 18 J 
 from the Cologne mark of fine silver (3608 troy 
 grains), is equal to one-half of the old species- 
 dollar, and when of full weight is worth about 
 2s ~2\<\. ; the par of exchange with London being 
 9 R. D. 10 skill, per £1. Nearly all the ex- 
 
 change business, however, is transacted through 
 the medium of Hamburg, the par being 2(H) R. 
 D. for 300 marcs banco, independent of the agio 
 on banco. 
 
 The National Bank at Copenhagen, formerly 
 called the Royal Bank, or Rigsbank, issues notes 
 for 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 rigsbank dollars ; these 
 are current at a fixed discount for specie, called 
 rigsbank silver value, which is adjusted by cer- 
 tain authorities quarterly. The circulating me- 
 dium consists almost wholly of this paper, and 
 according to recent statements it is now nearly of 
 equal value with specie. The coins or rather 
 tokens of inferior value are marks and skillings. 
 
 There is no established usance, but bills are 
 generally made payable on a certain day, and 8 
 days of grace are allowed. 
 
 Finances. — The public revenue, in 1837, 
 amounted to £1,584,133, of which land-tax, 
 £395,890 ; customs and excise, £416,334 ; crown 
 property, £181.831; sound-dues, £213,997; 
 other receipts, £376,061. The expenditure in 
 the same year was £1,561,92!; including for 
 armv and naw, £43/, 183; interest of debt, 
 £521,065; sinking fund, £97,882. 
 
 The public debt on 1st January 1838 was 
 £13,969,035; of which home debt, £7,742,888; 
 foreign debt, £6,226,147. The latter includes a 
 loan raised in London of £4,940,326, bearing 
 interest at 3 per cent., the dividends on which 
 are payable 31st March and 30th September by 
 Messrs Rothschild. 
 See Denmark, S. 
 
 DEPOSITS. [Bank. Currency.] 
 
 DERBYSHIRE SPAR. [Fluor Spar.] 
 
 DERELICT, any thing forsaken or left. It is used to express vessels forsaken 
 at sea, and found without any person in them. Of these the Admiralty has the 
 custody, and the owner may recover them within year and day. An allowance is 
 made for the salvage of derelict vessels, where it has been attended with danger 
 (Sir T. E. Toml'ins' Dictionary.) 
 
DES 251 DEV 
 
 DESIGNS or patterns for various articles of manufacture may be rendered the 
 subject of copyright, and thus secured, for a limited time, for the exclusive 
 use of the inventor. There is copyright in patterns on linen, cottons, calicoes, or 
 muslins; also on fabrics composed of wool, silk, or hair, and on mixed fabrics 
 composed of any two of the following materials, namely, linen, cotton, wool, silk, 
 or hair. The privilege exists for three months from the publication (by manufac- 
 ture and sale), provided the name of the proprietor be printed at each end. (34 
 Geo. III. c. 23; 2&3Vict. c. 13; 5 & 6 Vict c. 100; 6 & 7c. 65; 13&14,c. 101; 
 15, c. 12, S. 14. 
 
 Copyright extending to one year, and in some cases to three years, is granted in 
 certain other manufactures, by the act 2 & 3 Vict. c. 17, of which the following is 
 an abstract : — 
 
 § 1. Proprietors of designs for the following purposes, not published before 1st July 1839, are to 
 enjoy a copyright of one year from the date of registration : — 1st, For the pattern or print to be 
 either worked into, or worked on, or printed on, or painted on, any article of manufacture, being a 
 tissue or textile fabric ; those which enjoy the three months' copyright just stated are excepted. 
 2d, For the modelling, casting, embossment, chasing, engraving, or for any other kind of impres- 
 sion or ornament, on any article of manufacture, not being a tissue or textile fabric. 3d, For the 
 shape or configuration of any article of manufacture, except lace, and those articles which enjoy the 
 said three months' copyright. But every proprietor of a new design for the modelling, casting, 
 embossment, chasing, engraving, or any other kind of impression or ornament on any article of 
 manufacture, being of any metal or mixed metals, shall have the sole right to use the same during 
 three years. The proprietor must register his name ; and every article published by him, on which 
 such design is used, must have thereon the name of the first registered proprietor, the number of 
 the design in the register, and the date of registration. The author of every design is considered 
 the proprietor, unless he have for a consideration executed the work on behalf of another, who 
 shall then be considered the proprietor ; and every person purchasing for a consideration shall be 
 considered the proprietor. 
 
 § 2. The title of a purchaser may be entered on the register. § 3. Any one using the design, 
 without leave in writing from the proprietor, forfeits not less than £5, or more than £30. § 4. 
 Penaltv may be recovered in England, Scotland, and Ireland ; but all proceedings must be insti- 
 tuted within six months after the offence. § 5. Provision made for register of designs by Board of 
 Trade. § 6. Three copies must be sent to the registrar ; one to be returned with a certificate, 
 another to be filed, and a third to belong to the P. C. Committee of Trade. § 7. The certificate 
 of registration is evidence of the design, &c. 
 
 The number of designs registered under this last act, from 1st July 1839 to 31st January 1840, 
 was as follows :— 1st class, 14; 2d class, 184; 3d class, 46; designs exceeding one folio page, 21 ; 
 designs for articles in any metal or mixed metal, 68. Fees, £413. 
 
 DEVIATION, in Marine Insurance. It is one of the implied warranties in 
 the contract of insurance, that the voyage insured for shall be strictly adhered to, 
 and so if a different voyage is pursued, or that stipulated for is voluntarily departed 
 from, the contract is terminated, and the underwriter is discharged from liability. 
 Deviation does not void the contract, for the underwriter retains his premium, and 
 is liable to all loss up to the point of deviation. Though the loss happen after the 
 ship has returned to her proper course, and though it were distinctly proved that 
 it was not caused, or even influenced by the deviation, the insurer would still be 
 released, for the contract having been terminated by the deviation, cannot become 
 binding again without a new agreement. A deviation is said to be " a voluntary 
 departure, without necessity, from the usual course of the voyage." It is not to be 
 inferred from this that the vessel must have followed the route that can be proved 
 to be the most direct and expeditious, but that she has followed the usual custom- 
 ary track, sanctioned by safety and convenience. " Therefore, the stopping at 
 certain places in the course of the voyage, though out of the direct line, if it have 
 been customary to do so, is not a deviation, but a part of the voyage " (Marshall, 
 179). Still a few instances where vessels have taken a point out of their direct 
 course will uot constitute usage in favour of the practice. If deviation is once 
 shown to have taken place, the smallness of its extent will not justify it. It is 
 deviation if a ship insured, with liberty to touch at a particular port, touches at 
 another. It was formerly maintained that a ship entitled to touch at a port was not 
 entitled to trade there, but it has been since held, that if there is no delay, and no 
 increase of risk, trading is not a breach. If there are several ports of discharge, 
 it is held deviation to visit them in an order differeut from that in which they ap- 
 pear on the policy, and it certainly is so, if the risk is thereby increased. If the 
 ports of discharge be not specifically named in the policy, they should be taken in 
 their geographical order. It appears to be no deviation to proceed direct to any 
 one of a set of ports thus insured to, if the others are not visited at all. It u 
 deviation to touch at a port at which it is not customary to touch, although the 
 ship must pass it; or, there being several tracks, to select a less safe^and eligible 
 one for the purpose of accomplishing objects foreign to the voyage. Where a Bn*p is 
 insured for a voyage, with liberty to touch " at any one port " of some country, it 
 is held to mean a port in the course of the voyage, if the country be so situated as 
 to admit of this interpretation. Unnecessary delay is always a deviation. It 
 
DIA 252 DIA 
 
 appears to be considered deviation to prescribe any one of several tracks to the 
 master. If a specific track is predetermined by the insured, it ought to appear on 
 the policy, and if it do not, the underwriter is entitled to expect that he will havo 
 the benefit of the master's choice of tracks, whose duty it is, when he is at liberty 
 so to do, to adopt the best. Though there be an intention to deviate, and instruc- 
 tions given to that effect, the underwriter's responsibility will not be affected till 
 the dividing point is reached, and if the vessel be previously lost, he is liable. De- 
 viation will be justified by necessity, though proceeding from a cause not insured 
 against, as, from stress of weather, want of repairs, desertion or mutiny among the 
 crew, attempt to escape from an enemy, or the taking advantage of an opportunity 
 of joining convoy in time of war. The ship may deviate to be relieved of part of 
 her cargo, if too heavily laden, or to take in additional cargo, where necessary for 
 ballast. Deviation to succour ships in distress is held justifiable on principles of 
 public policy. It is a general principle that deviation will not be justified, if for 
 the purpose of providing against the consequences of a fault of the insured, so as to 
 allow one warranty to be infringed to cover the infringement of another. {Park, 
 437-475. Marshall, 174-206.) [Insurance.] 
 
 DIAMOND (Fr. Ger. & Du. Diamant. It. Sp. & Por. Diamante), a crystalline 
 mineral, which, on account of its lustre and hardness, is reckoned the most valu- 
 able of all gems. It is chiefly found disseminated in gravel, or embedded in sand- 
 stone, in India and Brazil, and, according to recent accounts, in the Ural Moun- 
 tains. It occurs generally in single or in unattached crystals, sometimes with 
 plain, but more frequently with rounded surfaces. The colours are commonly 
 white or gray, sometimes however red, brown, yellow, green, blue, and black ; but 
 the two last are rare. Lustre splendent, and internally perfect adamantine. 
 Cleavage, parallel to the sides of an octahedron, which is its primary form, subject 
 however to varieties, and the faces' are frequently curvilinear ; transparent, but 
 sometimes rendered opaque by foreign substances ; refracts single ; scratches all 
 known minerals, and can only be cut and ground by its own substance ; rather 
 easily frangible ; streak grayish. Sp. gr. 3'4 to 3'6. It consists of pure carbon. 
 The finest, called diamonds of the first water, should be perfectly crystalline, 
 resembling in complexion a drop of the purest water. When they fall short of 
 this perfection, they are said to be of the second, third, or fourth water, till tho 
 stone may be properly called a coloured one. If yellow, blue, green, or red, in 
 a high degree, they are more in esteem than if tinctured with these colours only in 
 a low degree. For ornamental purposes they are cut into rose diamonds and 
 brilliants. The Rose Diamond is generally made out of an octahedral crystal; it 
 is quite flat underneath, and its upper part cut in divers little faces, usually trian- 
 gles, the uppermost of which terminates in a point. The Brilliant is generally 
 formed out of a diamond with curvilinear faces ; it is cut in that form both at top and 
 bottom ; the table, or principal face, at top, being flat. The Rough Diamond is the 
 stone in its natural state ; it should be chosen uniform, of a good shape, transpa- 
 rent, not quite white, and free of flaws. Black, rugged, dirty, flawy stones, and 
 those unfit for cutting, are however pulverized, and employed to polish others, be- 
 sides being applied to various uses in the arts ; and for such purposes they are in 
 constant demand. 
 
 The weight and value of diamonds are estimated in carats, each divided into halves, quarters, 
 eighths, &c. This carat weighs 3J trov grains, or 205^ French decigrammes, and is the only weight 
 considered uniform in all countries. The comparative value of diamonds of equal colour, clean- 
 ness, and shape, is estimated according to the squares of their respective carat weights. The aver- 
 age price of rough diamonds that are worth working, is £2 for the first carat. Hence the value of 
 a rough diamond weighing 4 carats is £32 ; because 4 X 4 X 2 = 32. Cut diamonds are supposed 
 to have lost half their original weight, and are therefore valued according to the square of double 
 their actual weight. Thus the value of a cut diamond weighing 4 carats is £128 ; for 8 X 8 x 2 = 
 128. This rule, however, is inapplicable to those which are above a certain weight, — the ordinary 
 limit being 20 carats. The largest diamond ever known was brought to the King of Portugal from 
 Brazil. It is uncut, weighs 1G80 carats, and its value is often quoted, according to the above rule, 
 at £5,644,800. Similar extravagant valuations are applied to the famous Russian one, weighing 
 779 carats; to the Mogul, weighing, cut, 280 carats; and toothers; but it does not appear that 
 any sum exceeding £150,000 has ever been given. The last great sale of jewels was in London on 
 July 20, 1837, for the distribution of the Deccan booty, obtained by the army under the Marquis of 
 Hastings. On this occasion, the magnificent Nassau diamond, weighing 357 J grains of the purest 
 water, brought only £7200. 
 
 The glaziw's pencil diamond is a fractured portion, weighing about l-60th of a carat, and of a 
 trapezoidal shape, set in a wooden handle. Two kinds are now in use, the common pencil, worth 
 12s., and the patent pencil, worth 18s. 
 
 DIAPER (Fr. Linge ouvre. It. Tela testuta a opere. Ger. Drell), a flowered 
 linen fabric commonly used for table-linen, napkins, and other domestic purposes. 
 It is manufactured in Scotland, the north of Ireland, and Germany. Diapers aro 
 now also made of cotton, in imitation of the linen goods bearing the same name. 
 
DIC 253 DIV 
 
 DICE. [Cards and Dice.] 
 
 DILIGENCE, SUMMARY, a term used in the law of Scotland to express 
 an expeditious process, by which performance of documentary obligations is 
 enforced. It was formerly confined to the Court of Session, but since the 1 & 2 
 Vict. c. 114, it may proceed before the Sheriff. The document on which it is founded 
 must be registered in the books of the court ; and the principle on which execu- 
 tion proceeds is, that a judgment or decree of the court has been given in favour of 
 the holder of the document by consent of the granter. The documents thus privi- 
 leged are, 1st. Regularly executed contracts, containing a clause authorizing such 
 ration for execution, like the warrant of attorney in England. 2d, Bills 
 and promissory notes properly framed and duly negotiated. The former of these 
 qualifications requires accurate attention to stamp, designation of parties, sum, 
 and place of payment ; the latter comprehends presentment, notice of dishonour, 
 and proper noting and protest. To authorize summary diligence, the protest, if for 
 non-acceptance, must be registered within six months after the date of the bill ; 
 if for non-payment, within six months after the day of payment. 
 
 DIMITY (Fr. Basin. It. Dobletto), a cotton stuff, similar in fabric to fustian, 
 from which it differs chiefly in having ornaments woven in it, and in not being 
 dyed. Its colour should be delicately white. In the weaving, longitudinal stripes 
 are usually raised just above the surface of the piece, and dimities are called single 
 corded, or broad striped, according to the flatness and breadth of these stripes. 
 
 DISCOUNT is a premium paid for ready money, when, by agreement or the 
 usages of trade, it is understood that credit is given. A bill or note is said to be 
 discounted, when a third party, in respect of the credit of the names on it, agrees 
 to pay its contents to the holder before it becomes due, deducting the interest, and, 
 in some cases, commission for trouble and expense. There are certain penalties 
 and disabilities levelled by the usury laws against pecuniary accommodations on 
 which more than five per cent, of interest is taken [Usury], which still, though to 
 a very limited extent, apply to bills of exchange. A person discounting a bill, if 
 he deduct interest at 5 per cent., receives, as shown below, more than 5 per cent, 
 interest on the accommodation. But it has been the practice, not only to allow 
 discounters of bills to receive more than the 5 per cent, interest in this form, but 
 likewise to allow a small additional sum in name of commission and expenses. 
 The amount has been held matter of inquiry by a jury. |th per cent, appears 
 to be the general allowance. 7s. 6d. per cent, has been found usurious where no 
 expense or considerable trouble has been occasioned ; but in cases of long and 
 complicated accounts, 10s. per cent, has been allowed (Chitty on Bills, 99-104). 
 At the renewal of the bank-charter (3 & 4 Wm IV. c. 98), bills at three months 
 were exempted from the usury laws. The privilege was extended by 7 Wm. IV. 
 and 1 Vict. c. 80, which enacted that, till 1st January 1840, bills and notes at not 
 more than twelve months, or having no more than that period to run, should not be 
 null, and should not subject parties to liabilities, by reason of interest charged in 
 negotiating them. The enactment was continued to 1st January 1842 by 2 & 3 
 Vict. c. 37. 
 
 Discount in Arithmetic is the difference between a sum of money due at a future period, and 
 its present value ; and the rule for finding it is this : — As the amount of £100, increased by its in- 
 terest at the rate and for the time given, is to the given sum or debt, so is the interest of £100, at 
 the rate and for the time given, to the discount of the debt. Thus, to find the discount of £100 for 
 one year at 5 per cent, we have — 
 
 £105 : £100 : : £5 : £4:15:2| 
 which is 4s. &Jd. less than the interest for the same time ; the difference being in all cases equal to 
 the interest on the discount for the given time. 
 
 Hence the rule adopted by bankers and others in charging discount is not arithmetically correct ; 
 for as the true value of the discount is equal to the difference between the sum due and its present 
 worth, it is equal only to the interest of that present worth, instead of the interest on the whole 
 debt. [Interest.] 
 
 DITTO, a term derived from the Italian word detto (that which has been said), 
 and used in accounts to avoid repetition. It is commonly abbreviated into Do. 
 
 DIVIDEND, that portion of any joint profit or fund which is given out to be 
 shared or divided. It is usually expressed at so much per cent, or per pound 
 sterling. 
 
 Dividend, in Bankruptcy, is used to express the proportion (generally rated at 
 so much per £1) of a creditor's debt, which he receives from the bankrupt estate. 
 
 In England and Ireland, the first dividend is declared at a meeting called and 
 advertised by the commissioners, not less than four or more than twelve months 
 from the issuing of the fiat of bankruptcy. The second dividend is declared at a 
 similar meeting within 18 months after the fiat. [Bankruptcy.] 
 
DOC 254 DOC 
 
 In Scotland, the first dividend is declared within 14 days after the expiry of 
 six months from the commencement of the sequestration, and paid on the expiry 
 of eight months from the commencement. A dividend is similarly declared and 
 paid at every interval of four months, till the estate is exhausted, or the seques- 
 tration terminated. The commissioners may postpone any dividend till the next 
 stated period, giving notice in the Gazette. [Sequestration.] 
 
 DOCK, an artificial receptacle for shipping, the entrance of which is generally 
 closed by gates. There are two kinds : — 1st, Wet-docks, in which a uniform level 
 of water is maintained, so that the business of loading and unloading can proceed 
 without interruption, whilst the ships, being kept always afloat in still water, 
 and sheltered from the effects of the tides, their hulls, rigging, and cables, are 
 better preserved than in an open harbour or roadstead. 2d, Dry-docks or graving- 
 docks, used for inspecting or repairing ships, for which purpose they are so con- 
 trived that the water may be admitted or excluded at pleasure, in order that a 
 vessel can be floated in by the tide or otherwise, and that the water may run out 
 with the fall of the tide, or be pumped out, the shutting of the gates preventing its 
 return. In London and other ports, the wet-docks are generally surrounded by 
 warehouses, and enclosed by walls ; in this way the greatest facilities are given to 
 the unshipping and warehousing of merchandise, while, at the same time, the 
 vessels and their cargoes are rendered secure from depredation. 
 
 I. Docks of the Port of London. 
 
 The commerce of London, which had been gradually increasing during the first 
 half of the eighteenth century, outgrew in the second half the existing accommo- 
 dation for shipping ; and the port, at particular seasons, was often nearly blocked 
 up by fleets of merchantmen, many of them lying at anchor in the middle of the 
 stream, and discharging their cargoes into lighters and barges. The only dock at 
 that time was the Greenland Basin (now the Commercial Dock), on the south side 
 of the river, which was used only by a few vessels in the whale fishery. The 
 warehouse accommodation too was quite insufficient. The quays were frequently 
 covered with sugar hogsheads, piled six or eight tiers in height; while bales, barrels, 
 boxes, and bags, were to be seen heaped together in the utmost confusion ; and at 
 the seasons when the East and West India fleets arrived, the delay, caused by the 
 want of accommodation, was both harassing and expensive. Along with these 
 defects, there existed an extraordinary system of pillage and depredation, carried 
 on chiefly by lightermen, watermen, and labourers, and, in not a few instances, 
 winked at and shared by revenue- officers, numbers of the crews, and even by 
 the mates and captains ; these again being backed by a host of publicans and re- 
 ceivers on shore. 
 
 These abuses led, in 1798, to the establishment of the Thames police, and 
 about the same time to the formation of the docks ; the first being the West India 
 Docks, for the construction of which an act was passed in 1799. 
 
 The West India Docks, situated at the " Isle of Dogs," which lies in a bend of the 
 river between Blackwall and Limehouse, were begun in 1800, and by the end of 1 802 
 were sufficiently advanced for vessels unloading. The entire ground occupied by 
 them is about 295 acres ; and the extent of the water area is upwards of 60 acres, 
 capable of containing 500 large merchantmen. There are two large docks ; the 
 north or import dock, used for discharging vessels, having an area of 30 acres, and 
 the south or export dock, for loading them, having an area of 25 acres. These 
 lie parallel to each other, and are divided by a range of warehouses. There are 
 besides two entrance basins, one at Blackwall, 5 acres ; the other at Limehouse, 
 2 acres in extent ; in addition to which, the Company have purchased the canal 
 cut by the city across the Isle of Dogs, and converted it into a dock for wood-laden 
 vessels. There has been at one time in these docks, on the quays, under the sheds, 
 and in the warehouses, colonial produce amounting to the value of £20,000,000. The 
 capital of the joint-stock company by whom they were constructed is £1,380,000 ; 
 and the speculation has been an exceedingly successful one. Formerly, all vessels 
 engaged m the West India trade were compelled, by the charter granted to the 
 Company, to unload in these docks ; but this regulation is no longer in force. 
 
 The London Docks, begun in 1801, and opened in 1805, are situated at Wapping. 
 They consist of a western dock of 20 acres extent, a tobacco dock of about 1 acre, 
 and an eastern dock of seven acres; the whole, with the warehouses and other erec- 
 tions, forming a magnificent establishment covering 71 acres, and affording accom- 
 modation for about 800 ships. The tobacco warehouse covers nearly 5 acres, and 
 can hold 24,000 hhds. There is also cellarage for nearly 70,000 pipes of wine ; one 
 of the vaults having an area of seven acres. The capital stock of the Company is 
 
DOC 
 
 255 
 
 DOC 
 
 £3,238,310, 5s. lOd. ; besides which £700,000 were raised by the issue of bonds, 
 bearing 4 per cent, interest. 
 
 The East India Docks, situated at Blackwall, below the entrance to the West 
 India ones, consist of an import dock, of the area of 18 acres, and an export 
 dock, having an area of 9 acres ; besides which there is an entrance basin, common 
 to both, of 3 acres. They were originally formed for the accommodation of ships 
 in the East India trade, but they are now open to vessels from all parts. Capital 
 stock, £623,334, 10s. lid. 
 
 The Commercial Dock, composed in part of the old " Greenland Basin," is 
 situated at Rotherhithe, and occupies altogether 49 acres, about 4-5ths of which 
 are water. It is chiefly used by vessels in the corn and timber trades. Capital 
 stock, £313,250 ; besides which, £27,600 were raised by the issue of bonds, bearing 
 interest at 4 per cent. 
 
 The East Country Dock, constructed in 1807, has an area of about 6^ acres. It 
 adjoins the Commercial Dock to the south ; and is chiefly frequented by vessels 
 employed in the European timber-trade. Capital stock, £103,800. 
 
 St Catherine's Docks, lying immediately below the Tower, are those nearest to 
 the city. They were begun in May 1827, and partially opened in October 1828, and 
 consist of two basins, each capable of receiving vessels of 800 tons burden. They 
 afford accommodation for about 150 or 160 ships, besides small-craft ; and cover an 
 area of 11^ acres ; but the whole space, including that occupied by quays and ware- 
 houses, is about 24 acres. These docks are frequented by vessels in the East 
 India and North and South American trades ; and the warehouses are so arranged 
 that goods are taken into them at once from the ship. The depth of water at 
 spring tides is 28 feet in the lock ; and thus ships of 600 and 800 tons can come 
 up the river with a certainty of admission ; the arrangements also admit of the 
 vessels being docked and undocked by night as well as by day. Capital stock, 
 £1,352,800; besides which, the Company have raised, by the issue of bonds, £200,000 
 at 4 per cent., and £500,000 at 4h per cent. 
 
 Tlie Grand Surrey Canal Dock is a basin at the entrance of the Surrey Canal at 
 Rotherhithe. There is also the Regent's Canal Dock. 
 II. The Liverpool Docks. 
 
 The first commercial wet-dock made in England was formed in 1708 at this port, 
 then a place of no consideration. It was called the " Old Dock," but having been 
 filled up, its site is now occupied by the custom-house. A second was constructed 
 about the middle of last century. Additions were afterwards made at various 
 periods, and the docks of Liverpool now form an immense range, extending about 
 two and a half miles along the eastern bank of the river Mersey. These have 
 been constructed on a scale of extraordinary magnificence, and form one of those 
 characteristics of commercial greatness for which this town is unrivalled. 
 
 The aggregate water area of the docks is nearly 100 acres ; and the quay 
 space extends in length about 7^ miles. The whole, excepting the work called the 
 
 Duke's Dock," in possession of the Duke of Bridgewater's executors, is the pro- 
 perty of the corporation of the town, to which they have proved a great source of 
 wealth, having yielded a very large revenue in proportion to the money expended 
 on their construction. This lias arisen partly from their never having had to make 
 any outlay for the purchase of land, partly from their having avoided the expense 
 of building warehouses, but chiefly from the labour of excavating being in a great 
 measure saved, owing to their area having been enclosed from the river. 
 
 Table showing the Water Area and Length of Quay Space of the 
 Liverpool Docks. 
 
 I. IVc t Docks. 
 Clarence dock and lock. . 
 
 Half-tide basin 
 
 Waterloo dock and lock. 
 
 Trafalgar do 
 
 Victoria do 
 
 Prince's do 
 
 George's do 
 
 Canning do 
 
 Salthousedo 
 
 King's do 
 
 Queen's do 
 
 Flalf-tide do 
 
 Brunswick do 
 
 W„ter 
 
 Quav | 
 
 area. 
 
 length. 
 
 Sq yards. 
 
 Yard.. 
 
 29,313 
 
 914 ' 
 
 17,605 
 
 586 
 
 30,765 
 
 1,012 
 
 33,642 
 
 1,050 
 
 29,083 
 
 839 
 
 57,129 
 
 1,613 
 
 26,794 
 
 1,001 
 
 19,d95 
 
 500 
 
 23,025 
 
 759 
 
 37,776 
 
 875 
 
 51,502 
 
 1,255 
 
 13,185 
 
 497 
 
 60,824 
 
 1,092 
 
 I. Wet Docks. 
 
 Union dock 
 
 Coburg do 
 
 Total. 
 II. Dry Basins. 
 
 Prince's basin 
 
 Seacombe do 
 
 George's do 
 
 George's Ferry do 
 
 Old dock gut 
 
 Queen's basin 
 
 S.Ferry do 
 
 Water 
 
 
 area. 
 
 length. 
 
 Sq. yards. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 9,245 
 
 483 
 
 23,622 
 
 572 
 
 462.605 
 
 13,048 
 
 20,909 
 
 509 
 
 1,805 
 
 188 
 
 16,372 
 
 455 
 
 1,344 
 
 160 
 
 7,737 
 
 447 
 
 24,391 
 
 601 
 
 2,927 
 
 205 
 
 75,485 
 
 2,565 
 
DOC 
 
 256 
 
 DOC 
 
 The Clarence, Trafalgar, and Coburg Docks are appropriated to the accommo- 
 dation of steamers, the last being exclusively for the use of the Transatlantic and 
 Mediterranean vessels. 
 
 The following is a statement of the number of vessels by which the docks nave 
 been frequented in different years, taken at intervals, and their aggregate tonnage; 
 also the amount of dues collected thereon, and on the goods loaded and un- 
 loaded from the same. The progressive increase which it exhibits in the trade of 
 Liverpool since the middle of last century, is, we believe, unexampled in the his- 
 tory of commerce 
 
 Years. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Dues. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Dues. 
 
 1752 
 
 
 
 £1,776 
 
 1810 
 
 6,729 
 
 734,391 
 
 £65,782 
 
 1760 
 
 1,245 
 
 
 2,330 
 
 1815 
 
 6,440 
 
 709,849 
 
 76,915 
 
 1770 
 
 2,073 
 
 
 4,143 
 
 1820 
 
 7,276 
 
 805,033 
 
 94,413 
 
 1780 
 
 2,261 
 
 
 3,528 
 
 1825 
 
 10,837 
 
 1,223,820 
 
 128,692 
 
 1790 
 
 4,223 
 
 
 10,037 
 
 1830 
 
 11,214 
 
 1,411,964 
 
 151,330 
 
 1800 
 
 4,746 
 
 450,060 
 
 23,380 
 
 1835 
 
 13,941 
 
 1,768,426 
 
 217,825 
 
 1805 
 
 4,618 
 
 463,482 
 
 33,365 
 
 1840 
 
 15,998 
 
 2,445,708 
 
 197,478 
 
 The dock-dues are now extremely moderate, a great reduction having taken place 
 in the year 1836. 
 
 By an act passed in 1825, the management of the docks is vested in a committee 
 of 21 members, of whom 13 are appointed by the corporation, and 8 are elected 
 from their own body by those merchants who pay each not less than £10 a-year 
 in rates. 
 
 III. Docks at other Ports of the United Kingdom. 
 
 The docks at the other ports, though much inferior in point of extent to those of 
 London and Liverpool, are still works of great national importance. The principal 
 are those of Bristol, Hull, and Goole, Leith, and Dundee. 
 
 The Bristol wet-dock is of a character different from those of London and Liver- 
 pool, being formed bv digging a new course for the river Avon south of the city, 
 and converting the whole of the old channel into one floating harbour, about 3 miles 
 in length. It was commenced in 1804, and opened in 1809. The quays enclose 
 one end of the city, and form 3 sides of a parallelogram ; and there are two basins 
 for the temporary accommodation of vessels entering or quitting the harbour. The 
 estimated expense of the dock was £300,000, but its actual cost was about £600,000. 
 It was constructed by a company whose present capital consists of 2209 shares of 
 £147 each ; besides which a debt was contracted of £268,342, bearing interest at 
 5 per cent. The maximum dividend which the company are permitted to draw is 
 8 per cent., but it has seldom exceeded 2 per cent. The management is vested in 
 27 directors, of whom 9 are chosen by the proprietors, 9 by the ancient guild of 
 merchant venturers, and 9 by the corporation of the city, in whom the dock is 
 vested after payment of the debt and capital. 
 
 Hull possesses 3 wet-docks, which occupy the site of its ancient fortifications ; 
 the Old Dock, formed in 1775 ; the Humber Dock, begun in 1807 ; and the Junc- 
 tion Dock, connecting the two preceding, which was commenced in 1826, and 
 completed in 1829. The area of the quays is 15,643 sq. yds. ; the locks are 120 
 feet long, 36 feet broad, and 25 deep ; and the whole water area of the three 
 is about 26 acres, affording accommodation for 300 vessels ; but this being insuf- 
 ficient for the increasing trade of the port, farther works are in contemplation. 
 Attached to the Humber Dock, which is situated at the west part of the town, 
 is a capacious basin with its piers. At Goole, a new port, situated near the 
 junction of the Ouse with the Humber, about 22 miles more inland than Hull, 
 there are two wet-docks, one adapted for sea-going vessels of considerable bur- 
 den, the other for the small-craft which navigate the rivers and canals. 
 
 Leith has two wet-docks, one opened in 1806, the other in 1817, each of which 
 is about 300 feet wide, and between 700 and 800 feet long ; their joint water area 
 is about 10 acres, and they are capable of accommodating nearly 150 vessels of 
 the size which usually enter the port. Such as draw 17 feet water can be admit- 
 ted at spring-tides, but at other times the depth of the dock-sill is seldom above 
 14 feet. They are surrounded by well- constructed quays, upon which are erected 
 appropriate warehouses ; and there are two commodious dry-docks, for the build- 
 ing and repairing of ships. The whole cost of the docks was £268,993, mainly 
 consisting of advances by government, to whom £228,374 still remains due ; 
 though, by a late arrangement (1 & 2 Vict. c. 55), they have allowed £125,000 to 
 le raised, and preferably secured over the dues, for the erection of additional 
 
DOC 257 DOG 
 
 works. Besides these two wet-docks, Leith possesses a tide-harbour or basin. The 
 management of the whole is vested in 1 1 commissioners, of whom 5 are appointed 
 by the Treasury, 3 by the town-council of Leith, and 3 by the town-council of 
 Edinburgh. The port-dues annually levied on vessels and goods amount to 
 £21,000 : but the total revenue of the commissioners, including warehouse-feu*, 
 rents, and ballast-dues, is about £26,500. 
 
 Dundee possesses at present two wet-docks, King William's, of 6£, and Earl 
 Grey's, of 5% acres. The breadth of the lock of the former (to which is at- 
 tached a graving-dock) is 40 feet ; of the latter 55 feet, being made of this 
 width to admit steamers. Connected with these two docks, there is a tide-har- 
 bour, of 4% acres. A third wet-dock, of 14.] acres, is now nearly finished, the 
 lock of which is 60 feet ; and the harbour plan embraces another of 9§ acres, with 
 a tide-harbour between the two latter, of 11 acres in extent. The debt created 
 on account of these works amounted, at 30th May 1840, to £230,194. The man- 
 agement of the whole is vested in a parliamentary commission ; and the annual 
 amount of their revenue is about £16,700. S 
 
 The great public dockyards of this kingdom are situated at Chatham, Devon- 
 port, Portsmouth, and Plymouth, but a description of these magnificent arsenals 
 does not fall within our plan. They mostly contain grand basins, in which ves- 
 sels are received with all their standing and running rigging ; building-slips, 
 docks for repairing, rope-house, anchor-wharfs, an anchor-forge, a copper-sheathing 
 foundery and mills ; block, mast, sail and rigging, and other storehouses, — in a 
 word, all that is requisite for the construction, equipment, armament, and refitting 
 of ships of war. [ Port. ] 
 
 DOCKET, in English Law, signifies a brief in writing. In trade the term is 
 often applied to a short certificate, summary, or memorandum. 
 
 Docket in the Bankruptcy Law of England. When the petitioning creditor 
 lodges in the Bankrupt Office his affidavit of the debt, the act of bankruptcy, 
 and his bond undertaking to pursue the bankruptcy, entry is made in a book called 
 the u Docket Book," and the petitioner is said to have thereby " struck a 
 docket." [Bankruptcy.] 
 
 DOG, a well-known quadruped (Canis vulgaris, Linn.) varying greatly in sta- 
 ture, form, colour, and the quality of the hair. Its period of gestation is 63 days, 
 and the whelps, which often amount to 8 or 9, are born blind, and do not see till after 
 the lapse of 10 or 11 days. The growth of the animal is complete at two years; at 
 the expiration of 5 years it is considered old, and the limits of its existence rarely 
 exceed twenty years. No trace of the dog is to be found in a primitive state of 
 nature; and its parent stock is by many supposed to be the jackal or wolf, par- 
 ticularly the last, to which in many respects it has a strong affinity. " The dog 
 exhibits," says Cuvier, " the most singular, the most complete, and the most useful 
 conquest that man has made. The whole species is become our property; each 
 individual is entirely devoted to his master, adopts his manners, distinguishes and 
 defends his property, and remains attached to him even unto death; and all this 
 springs, not from mere necessity, not from constraint, but simply from reconnais- 
 sance and a true friendship. The swiftness, the strength, and the highly developed 
 power of smelling of the dog, have made him a powerful ally of man against the 
 other animals, and were perhaps necessary to the establishment of society. It is 
 the only animal that has followed man over all the earth." This account, however, 
 applies solely to the animal as it exists in Europe and America. By Mohammedans 
 and Hindoos it is regarded as impure, and neither will touch one without an 
 ablutiou ; they are, therefore, unappropriated, and prowl about the towns and 
 villages, devouring the offal, thus performing the office of scavengers. In China, 
 Cochin- China, the Society Islands, and other places, it is used as food, and puppies 
 are considered a great delicacy. 
 
 The following is a list of the duties payable on dogs in this country, under the 16 and 17 
 Vict. c. 90. For every dog, of whatever description or denomination, the same may be, 
 twelve shillings per annum. The said duty to be paid by the person keeping any dog, or having 
 the same in his custody or possession, whether the same be his property or not, such person not 
 discovering the owner thereof who shall have been duly assessed for the same. 
 
 Provided always, that no person shall be chargeable with duty to any greater amount than 
 £39.12s. for any number of hounds, or £9 for any number of greyhounds, kept by him in any year. 
 
 Exemption.— Any dog kept and used in the care of sheep or cattle, or in driving or removing 
 the same: provided no such dog shall be a greyhound, hound, pointer, setting dog, spaniel, 
 lurcher, or terrier. 
 
 DOGGER, a kind of vessel used by the Dutch in their fishings, which is similar 
 in form to the Galliot ; some have but one mast, others two. 
 
 R 
 
DOL 258 DOW 
 
 DOLLAR, the most common silver coin in the world, and particularly in the 
 western hemisphere, throughout the greater part of which it is likewise the integer 
 of account. It is coined in various states, but the general type of the whole is the 
 Spanish dollar, which is minted at the rate of 8| to the Castilian mark (= 3550£ 
 troy grains) of silver, of the fineness of lOf dineros, that is lOf parts fine out of 
 12. It accordingly weighs 41770 troy grains, and contains 374*19 troy grains of pure 
 silver ; and, reckoning British standard silver at 5s. per ounce, is worth, when of 
 full weight, 4s. 23d. sterling; but its more general value, as deduced from assays, 
 is 4s. 2d., the rate assigned to it in the proclamation issued by our government 
 on 21st September 1838, for regulating its circulation in the West Indies. This 
 coin is sometimes called the "hard dollar" (peso duro or fuerte) ; and the term "pillar 
 dollar" is frequently applied to the pieces coined in Mexico since 1772, from 
 their being impressed on one side with the arms of Spain placed between two 
 pillars. The dollar is still minted at the rate of 83 to the mark, in all the Spanish- 
 American republics, except the Colombian. Thatof the United States is of nearly 
 the same value, 4s. 2£d., containing 371$ grains of pure silver. The German and 
 Italian dollars are in value rather less. 
 
 The dollar, being the shape generally communicated to silver in the mining 
 countries, is one of the commonest forms in which that metal occurs in the mar- 
 kets of the world as bullion; and hence its almost universal circulation. But 
 although nearly all the American dollars are of the same intrinsic value, they are 
 not accounted as such in trade, a higher rate being generally given for the Spanish 
 or pillar dollar, from its being that best known, and most readily taken by traders 
 in semi-barbarous countries. Thus at Canton, where the circulating medium con- 
 sists almost entirely of dollars, none but the Spanish or pillar dollar is received 
 by the Chinese merchants. 
 
 In several of the South American States the dollar of account is, in their internal 
 trade, reckoned in small base coins; in others, as in Buenos Ayres, it is of still less 
 value, from being estimated in depreciated paper. 
 
 DOMETT, a thin kind of flannel, of which only the weft is wool, the warp being 
 composed of cotton. It is chiefly used by the poorer classes; also for shrouds and 
 the lining of coffins. 
 
 DOONCHA,an Indian plant (Mschynomene cannabina) cultivated in Bengal on 
 account of its fibres, which, though coarse, are much employed there in making 
 cable-ropes. These are generally used in India for the drag-ropes of fishing-nets, 
 but they appear to be of too perishable a nature for the rigging of ships. 
 
 DOUBLOON, the most common Spanish and American gold coin. It is of the 
 same weight as the Dollar, being minted at the rate of 8g to the Castilian mark, 
 21 carats fine. It therefore weighs 417*70 troy grains, of which 365*49 grains are 
 pure ; and its value, when of full weight (estimating British standard gold at 
 £3, 17s. 10^d. per oz.), is £3, 4s. 83d.; but its more general value, as deduced from 
 assays, is only £3, 4s. Id., or £3, 4s. The latter is the rate assigned to it in the 
 proclamation issued by our government on 21st September 1838, for regulating its 
 circulation in the West Indies. There are also half and quarter doubloons of pro- 
 portional value. This coin being the form generally given to gold in the mining 
 countries of S. America, is, like the dollar, extensively circulated as bullion. 
 
 DOWLAS, a coarse linen fabric. 
 
 DOWN, the soft fine feathers from the breasts of birds, particularly of the duck 
 kind. The most valuable is eider-down. It is plucked by eider-ducks from their 
 breasts, in order to line their nests ; and is generally obtained by the plunder of 
 these nests. The quantity afforded by one female during the period of laying is 
 stated to be half a pound, after being cleansed. Its lightness and elasticity are 
 said to be such, that 2 or 3 lbs. of it, squeezed into a ball which may be held in the 
 hand, will swell out so as to fill a case large enough for the foot covering of a bed. 
 Large quantities of cider-down are collected in the Danish colonies in Iceland and 
 Greenland, and sent to Copenhagen, from whence it is exported. It is also gathered 
 on the coast of Norway, and some parts of Sweden. According to Captain James 
 Ross, much of what is called eider-down is obtained from the ring-duck ; it is, 
 however, equally good. 
 
 DOW, on DAU, a kind of vessel navigated by Arabs, which is met with all 
 over the Indian Ocean. It varies in size from 5 to about 350 tons, and is ex- 
 tremely sharp at the bow, the deck being at least one-third longer than the keel. 
 The planks in the smaller ones are sewed together with coiv-rope ; the seams 
 are calked with cocoa-nut husks ; and the bottom is covered with a composition 
 consisting of lime and oil or tallow, which hardens under water, an<i protects the 
 
DRA 250 DRY 
 
 wood from marine worms. They have a single mast, stepped a little ahead of the 
 centre, and raking forward, upon which is set a coarse square-sail. They have an 
 open poop on the stern; the rudder is very large, and often secured hy ropes only. 
 * DRAB, a woollen fabric, generally woven thick and double milled, being chiefly 
 used for greatcoats. 
 
 DRACHMA, DRACHM, or DRAM, an ancient Greek weight, equivalent, ac- 
 cording to Paucton, to 69 troy grains; also the principal silver coin, and money of 
 account, of the new kingdom of Greece, where its weight is that just mentioned, 
 and its value about 8|d. sterling. 
 
 In the British system the term dram is applied to two weights, — in apothecary's 
 weight to the one-eighth part of the troy ounce, or 60 troy grains; and to the one- 
 sixteenth of the avoirdupois ounce, or 2732 * r °y grains; the latter, however, is 
 seldom used. 
 
 DRAFF, or DRAFT, a small commercial allowance or deduction, now nearly 
 obsolete. [Tares.] 
 
 DRAFT, a term sometimes applied to a bill of exchange or bank -cheque. 
 
 DRAGON'S-BLOOD, (Fr. Sang-dragon. Ger. Drachenblulh. Hind. Ilera- 
 duky. Palembang, Jaremang,) a peculiar resinous colouring principle mixed with 
 benzoic acid and other matters, is a dark red, inodorous, and insipid substance, 
 obtained from the surface of the ripe fruit of several species of palm (Calamus) in- 
 digenous to Hindostan, Cochin- China, and the Eastern Islands, especially Sumatra, 
 at the towns of Jambi and Palembang, in which, and at Banjarmassin in Borneo, 
 this resin is principally obtained. It is exported in considerable quantities to 
 China and India ; also to Europe, to which it is sent in the form of drops or tears,— 
 of grains, — and of reeds or rods from 12 to 18 inches long, about the thickness of the 
 finger, covered with the fronds of the palm wrapped round it with split branches. 
 The last is the best. Other kinds are procured iu India, Madeira, and near Car- 
 thagena in S. America ; these chiefly occur in masses of a violet colour, and are 
 derived from other trees besides that already mentioned, mostly the Dracaena Draco, 
 and the Pterocarpiis Draco, (Linn.) ; while a spurious sort is often made with co- 
 lophony, olibanum, turpentine, and gum-senegal, dyed with various substances. 
 The resin is employed as a colouring matter, an ingredient in varnishes, and in the 
 composition of tooth-powders ; it is now seldom used as a medicine. 
 
 DRAWBACK, a term used in reference to those duties of customs or excise 
 which are repaid by government on the exportation of the commodities on which 
 they were levied. This repayment is made to enable the exporter to sell lus goods 
 in the foreign market unburdened with duties. An accouut of the laws and official 
 rules affecting drawbacks will be found under the heads Customs Regulations and 
 Tariff. 
 
 DRAWER AND DRAWEE, in the law of bills of exchange. The former is 
 the person from whom the direction to pay emanates : the latter is the person 
 whom he directs to pay, or on whom he draws. The expression drawee is correctly 
 applicable only between drawing and acceptance. The drawer's name must appear 
 upon the bill, either in the body of it or at the end ; and his liability as a party to the 
 bill is completed by delivery to a payee. A drawer, like an acceptor, is responsible 
 for what sums may be filled into blanks in stamps to which he puts his name. A 
 drawer against whom recourse is to be preserved, ought to have notice of non- 
 acceptance or non-payment. In accommodation bills, notice is not requisite, and 
 a drawer may, by his own act, dispense with notice, as, where he has said he will 
 call on the acceptor, and see if a bill has been paid (Chipsen v. Kneller, 4 Camp. 
 285). The drawer is liable to a person paying supra protest. {Bayley. Chitty.) 
 [Bill of Exchange. Notice.] 
 
 DRUGGET, a slight stuff sometimes made of wool, sometimes half of wool and 
 half of thread, corded or plain, generally the last. It is manufactured chiefly in 
 Devonshire. 
 
 DRY-ROT, a disease affecting timber, particularly the oak, employed in ship- 
 building. It is generally produced by fungi ; and it is said that any of those that 
 are commonly found upon decaying trees are capable of producing the disease. The 
 circumstances that are most favourable to the development of the dry-rot fungi are 
 damp unventilated situations, and a subacid state of the wood ; the last being 
 easily produced, especially in oak, by a slight fermentation of the sap which re- 
 mains in the timber, especially if the latter has not been well seasoned before being 
 wrought. The first sign of the evil is the appearance of small white points, 
 from which a net-like substance radiates parallel with the surface of the timber ; 
 the former being the first stage of growth of the seeds in the fungus, the latter 
 
DUB 260 EAR 
 
 their thallus or spawn. These last gathering strength thrust asunder the tubes 
 from which the wood is organized, and completely destroy the cohesion of the 
 tissue ; and the total ruin of the timber speedily ensues where circumstances are 
 favourable to the growth of the fungi. The prevention and cure of dry-rot is of 
 great importance in reference to our shipping ; and various joint-stock companies 
 have been formed for the purpose of subjecting timber to preventive solutions. 
 According to Mr Kyan, timber steeped in a solution of corrosive sublimate cannot 
 become a prey to dry-rot, so far as that disease is produced by a fungus. 
 
 DUBBER, a kind of vessel or jar made of thin untanned goat-skin, which is 
 generally used in India to contain oil, ghee, and other liquids. Dubbers are of 
 almost every variety of size. 
 
 DUCAPE, a plain wove stout silken fabric of softer texture than gros de Naples. 
 
 DUCAT, a gold coin common on the Continent, especially in Germany, the 
 general value of which is about 9s. 4d. The Neapolitan ducat, however, is a silver 
 coin worth only 3s. 3|d. 
 
 DUCK. [Poultry.] 
 
 DUNNAGE, a name given to the pieces of loose wood placed on the bottom and 
 sides of a ship's hold, either to support the cargo, so that the vessel may be pro- 
 perly ballasted, or to prevent injury from leakage. 
 
 DUTCH-LEAF, a Ibrass substance used for making trinkets. 
 
 DUTCH-RUSH, or HORSE-TAIL, a hollow-stemmed leafless plant (Equisetum 
 hyemale) with a cuticle composed of pure silex, which gives it a hard surface that 
 makes it useful for polishing wood and metal, a purpose for which it is extensively 
 used. It is generally imported from Holland. 
 
 DUTY, a general name for a tax or impost. 
 
 DYE-STUFFS. An account of these will be found under their appropriate 
 heads. See also the article Colour Trade. 
 
 E. 
 
 EAGLE, the principal goldcoin of the United States, weighs 258 troy grains,9-10ths 
 fine, and contains 232£ grains pure ; and, estimating British standard gold ll-12ths 
 fine at £3, 17s. 10|d. per ounce, is equal £2, Is. l£d. sterling nearly. The half-eagle, 
 the most common gold coin of the States, is of proportional value. The eagle is a 
 legal tender for 10 dollars ; hence, the value of the dollar of account, reckoned in 
 gold, is 4s. l^d. sterling nearly. 
 
 The preceding is the value of the eagle according to the act of Congress of June 28, 1834, as 
 modified by the subsequent act of January 18, 1837. As the former of these acts, however, produced 
 an alteration which has exercised an important influence over the monetary affairs of the Union, 
 it will be proper to explain shortly its nature and effect. 
 
 According to an act of Congress of April 2, 1792, the weight of the eagle (of 10 dollars), was 
 fixed at 270 troy grains, and its contents in pure gold at 247 i grains ; the weight of the dollar at 
 416 grains, and its contents in pure silver at 371 J grains. The weight of pure gold in the eagle was 
 thus precisely 2-3ds of that of silver in the dollar, and the relative value of gold to silver was 
 therefore as 15 to 1. This being, at least after the resumption of specie payments by the Bank of 
 England in 1819, an undervaluation of gold in respect to silver, all payments were made in the 
 latter, in which the value of the dollar of account, equal to that of the coin, was 4s. 2£d. sterling. 
 But the act of June 28, 1834, reversed this system, by reducing the amount of pure gold in the 
 eagle to 232 grains, while it was still preserved as a legal tender for 10 dollars. No alteration 
 having been made on the silver coin, the relative value of gold to silver became then nearly as 16 
 to 1, in place of 15} or 15| to 1, its true proportion. This was an undervaluation of silver which 
 led speedily to its withdrawal from circulation, and to the general employment of gold, in which 
 the value of the dollar of account was l-10th of the new eagle, or only 4s. lid. sterling. 
 
 Under the act of January 18, 1837, the quantity of alloy in both the gold and silver coins was ad- 
 justed at the l-10th part, but no change was made on their value, farther than a small fractional 
 addition of pure metal to the gold coin, amounting in the eagle to only ^th of a grain. 
 
 The practical effect, therefore, of the late alterations has been to lower the intrinsic value of the 
 gold coin about 6§ per cent., to substitute gold for silver as a medium of exchange and measure of 
 value, and to reduce the general money standard of the Union nearly 1§ per cent., the differ- 
 ence in value between the former and the present dollars of account. 
 
 EARNEST, the delivery at the time of entering on a contract by one of the 
 contracting parties to the other, of some portion of the matter or consideration of 
 the contract, in token that it is finally agreed upon between the parties. Thus, the 
 person whose part in the contract it is to pay, gives a small sum, and the person 
 whose part it is to convey goods, gives a small portion of the goods in question. A 
 common instance is in the case of hired servants who receive a small sum or por- 
 tion of wages as earnest. By the statute of frauds (29 Ch. II. c. 3, § 17), no con- 
 tract for the sale of goods or merchandise in England to the extent of £10 is good 
 without a written memorandum, unless the buyer receive part of the goods, or give 
 something in earnest or part payment. 
 
EAR 261 EAR 
 
 EARTHENWARE, a term generally applied to all utensils composed of earthen 
 materials. In reference to chemical constitution, there are two kinds : Porcelain, 
 consisting of a fusible earthy mixture, along with an infusible, which, when combin- 
 ed, are susceptible of becoming semi-vitrified and translucent in the kiln ; and Pot- 
 tery, an infu-ible mixture of earths, which is refractory in the kiln, and continues 
 opaque. The latter comprehends several subspecies, which graduate impercepti- 
 bly into each other, as stoneware, earthenware proper, flintware, fayence, delft- 
 ware, and ironstone china. The term pottery, however, is sometimes applied 
 distinctively to the brown stoneware, made into jugs and other articles, porous ves- 
 sels, and the red pans and pots in common use. 
 
 The formation of earthen vessels is an art of the very highest antiquity ; and 
 it is one which probably was carried to greater perfection than any other of 
 the manufactures of the ancient world. It is also one which has been found in 
 a considerable degree of forwardness in all newly discovered countries possessing 
 the raw material, — even among people comparatively rude and unacquainted with 
 most of the other arts which conduce to human convenience. In China, it was 
 carried to very nearly the degree of excellence which their porcelain now exhibits 
 many centuries before it was practised with much skill in Europe. From Asia it 
 was brought to Greece, especially Corinth, the potters of which displayed such 
 exquisite taste and skill, that their works were amongst the most valuable decora- 
 tions in the dwellings of princes. The Greeks introduced their improvements into 
 Egypt ; and a Phoenician colony is supposed to have founded the ancient Etruria, 
 whence modern Europe has drawn models of skill and beauty. 
 
 The Romans improved the art of pottery in this and many of the other countries 
 which they conquered ; but the manufacture, nevertheless, continued stationary 
 until a comparatively recent period, and the wealthy were supplied with porcelain 
 almost exclusively from China. At length, however, the royal establishments of 
 Sevres, Dresden,and Berlin, produced wares which became the admiration of Europe ; 
 yet they never circulated throughout all ranks, nor effected any general change in 
 domestic life, being limited to the use only of the noble and the rich. 
 
 In England, the manufacture of earthenware has been established from the 
 remotest period of history, particularly in Staffordshire, where indeed the Romans 
 are said to have had potteries ; but until the beginning of the eighteenth century, 
 it was confined to a tew objects of the commonest description. In 1690, various 
 improvements were introduced by two brothers, named Elers, who came from 
 Nuremberg ; and about 30 years later, a person called Astbury first made 
 white stoneware, by the adoption of calcined flints in its composition. This 
 step was of consequence in preparing the way for the far greater advances after- 
 wards (1760) accomplished by Mr Josiah Wedgwood (born 1730, died 1795), by 
 whose discoveries and exertions the wares of Staffordshire were not only brought 
 into general use in this country, to the exclusion of all foreign goods, but English 
 pottery has since been sought for throughout the civilized world, and adopted even 
 in places where the art was formerly prosecuted. " Its excellent workmanship, 
 its solidity, the advantage which it possesses of sustaining the action of fire, its fine 
 glaze impenetrable to acids, the beauty and convenience of its form, and the cheap- 
 ness of its price, have given rise to a commerce so active and universal, that, in 
 travelling from Paris to Petersburg, from Amsterdam to the furthest part of 
 Sweden, and from Dunkirk to the extremity of the south of France one is served 
 at every inn with English ware. Spain, Portugal, and Italy are supplied with it; 
 and vessels are loaded with it for the East Indies, the West Indies, and the conti- 
 nent of America."* 
 
 The district in Staffordshire wherein the English earthenware is chiefly manu- 
 factured, distinguished by the general appellation of " The Potteries," is situated 
 on the borders of Cheshire, commencing at the village of Golden Hill, and extending 
 more than seven miles to Lane End, and comprising the intermediate places of 
 Newfield, Smithfield, Tunstall, Longport, Burslem, Cobridge, Etruria (the seat of 
 Mr Wedgwood's establishment), Hanley, Shelton, Stoke, Lower Lane, and Lower 
 Delf. These were all formerly distinct villages, but the increase of the manufac- 
 ture has led to the erection of so many new works, that their individuality is 
 now lost, and the whole presents the appearance of one large town. The manu- 
 facture in England, however, is far from being restricted to Staffordshire. Porce- 
 lain has long been made at Derby and at Coalport in Shropshire, while more lately 
 it has risen to high excellence in the city of Worcester, at Rockingham, and at 
 
 * Travels in England and Scotland by E. Faujaa de Saint Fond, vol. i. p. 97- 
 
EAR 2(>2 EAS 
 
 S win ton near Rotherham. The Lambeth stoneware is perfect in its kind ; and 
 establishments for making the commoner sorts are to be found in many parts of 
 the kingdom. 
 
 " The better kind of pottery, called in this country Staffordshire- ware, is made of an artificial 
 mixture of alumina and silica; the former obtained in the form of a fine clay, from Devonshire 
 chiefly; and the latter, consisting of schist or flint, which is heated red-hot, quenched in water, 
 and then reduced to powder. Each material, carefully powdered and sifted, is diffused through 
 water, mixed by measure, and brought to a due consistency by evaporation ; it is then highly 
 plastic, and formed upon the potter's wheel and lathe into various circular vessels, or moulded into 
 other forms, which, after having been dried in a warm room, are enclosed in baked clay-cases, 
 resembling bandboxes, and called seggars ; these are ranged in the kiln so as nearly to till it, 
 leaving only space enough for the fuel; here the ware is kept red-hot for a considerable time, and 
 thus brought to the state of biscuit. Thi3 is afterwards glazed, which is done by dipping the bis- 
 cuit-ware into a tub containing a mixture of about &) parts of litharge, 10 of clay, and 20 of ground 
 flint, diffused in water to a creamy consistence, and when taken out, enough adheres to the piece 
 to give a uniform glazing when again heated. The pieces are then again packed up in the seg- 
 gars, with small bits of pottery interspersed between each, and fired in a kiln as before. The 
 glazing mixture fuses at a very moderate heat, and gives a uniform glossy coating, which finishes 
 the process, when it is intended for common white ware. 
 
 " The patterns upon ordinary porcelain, which are chiefly in blue, in consequence of the facility 
 of applying cobalt, are generally first printed off upon paper, which is applied to the plate or other 
 article while in the state of biscuit ; the colour adheres permanently to the surface when heat is 
 properly applied. 
 
 " The manufacture of porcelain is a most refined branch of art ; the materials are selected with 
 the greatest caution, it being necessary that the compound should remain perfectly white after ex- 
 posure to heat ; it is also required that it should endure a very high temperature without fusing, 
 and at the same time acquire a semivitreous texture, and a peculiar degree of translucency and 
 toughness. These qualities are united in some of the Oriental porcelain, or China, and in some of 
 the old Dresden, but they are rarely found co-existent in that of modern European manufacture. 
 Some of the French and English porcelain, especially that made at Sevres and at Worcester, is 
 extremely white, and duly translucent, but it is more apt to crack by sudden changes of tempera- 
 ture ; more brittle, and consequently requires to be formed into thicker and heavier vessels ; and 
 more fusible than the finest porcelains of Japan and China." (Brande's Chemistry.) 
 
 The annual value of the manufacture in this country may be estimated at 
 £2,500,000, about two-thirds of which is produced in Staffordshire ; and nearly 
 the whole of this large amount consists of the labour and skill bestowed on the 
 goods, as the value of the raw material is trifling. This manufacture is besides 
 distinguished by other peculiarities. The Potteries' district being situated in one 
 of our most inland counties 5 occasions the employment of an immense quantity of 
 inland carriage by canals and otherwise, both for the raw materials and finished 
 goods ; while every ton of the former produces several tons of merchandise for 
 shipping, the freight being paid, not upon the weight, but according to the bulk ; 
 and scarcely a vessel leaves any of our great ports, whose lading is not in part made 
 up of these cheap, bulky, and, for these reasons, valuable articles, to this maritime 
 country. The total declared value of the goods annually exported is now about 
 £700,000 ; but the real value is said to be about one-fourth more. Nearly one-half 
 of these shipments is to the United States ; the remainder is diffused pretty equally 
 over all the other portions of the globe with which Great Britain has trading rela- 
 tions. [Porcelain.] S 
 
 EASTERN or MALAYAN ISLANDS, an archipelago lying betwixt the con- 
 tinents of Asia and Australia, and stretching from the W. extremity of Sumatra 
 to the island of Papua or New Guinea ; nearly all of them, with the exception of 
 the Philippines, being situated within 10 degrees of the equator on each side. 
 Among them are 2 islands of the first rank and size, viz. : Borneo, and Suma- 
 tra ; of the second rank, Java ; of the third, Celebes, Luzon, and Mindanao ; and 
 of the fourth rank, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Jindana, Flores, Timor, Ceram, Booro, 
 Gilolo, Negros, Samar, Mindoro, Panay, Leyte, and Zebu. The smaller ones are 
 numberless. Population vaguely estimated at 15,000,000. 
 
 The Eastern or Malayan Islands are the only portions of Asia situated under the equator, and, 
 like other tropical countries, enjoy heat, moisture, and a luxuriant vegetation. They are through- 
 out of a mountainous nature, and the principal chains volcanic. There is a general uniformity in 
 climate and in productions ; but on a closer view it is found that the western and eastern divisions 
 possess distinct characters. In the western division, the productions are of a higher order of 
 utility, and rice forms the principal food of the inhabitants. The eastern is less fertile, and the 
 inhabitants derive their chief sustenance from the pith of the sago tree. The portion of the latter, 
 however, betwixt long. 124° and 130° E. excels in the finer spices ; and in this part the character 
 of the monsoons is reversed ; the easterly monsoon being here rainy and boisterous, and the wes- 
 terly! dry and temperate. There are two aboriginal races of inhabitants in the archipelago; a 
 brown people, with lank hair, inhabiting chiefly the VV. division ; and a negro race, black, with 
 frizzled hair, inhabiting chiefly the E. division ; the former displaying nearly the same superiority 
 over the latter that the whites do over the negroes of Africa. The women of these islands, more 
 especially of Java, are, on shore, almost the sole merchants and brokers, the men interfering little, 
 particularly with retail business. The Wadjo-Buggesses are the chief carriers of the archipelago. 
 
EAS 26'3 EAS 
 
 The higher departments of commerce are conducted by foreigners, mostly Chinese, Euro- 
 peans or their descendants, and natives of India and Arabia. Of the Asiatic traders, the Chinese 
 are bv far the most useful, and appear to stand nearly in the same relation to the natives that the 
 Jews'did to the barbarians of Europe in the middle ages ; the advantage in respect of treatment 
 being, however, decidedly in favour of the former. 
 
 The Eastern Islands, and more especially the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, have, at different pe- 
 riods, been the subject of rivalry and contention among the Portuguese, English, Spanish, and 
 Dutch. The Portuguese having, by degrees, been shorn of their maritime power, and the atten- 
 tion of the English gradually absorbed by their immense empire on the continent of India, these 
 islands (excepting the English settlements in the Straits of Malacca), have long been occupied 
 only by the Spanish and Dutch. The Spanish possessions are the Philippines. The Dutch have 
 entirely subdued Java, the Moluccas, and some others, and hold military occupation of leading 
 positions throughout the archipelago, over the whole of which indeed, excepting the Philippines, 
 they claim a kind of sovereignty. The Dutch possessions are divided into seven governments; 
 Batavia with the seat of the governor-general, and Sumatra, Amboyna, Panda, Ternate, Macassar, 
 and Timor. During the last war, the British deprived the Dutch of Java and their other prin- 
 cipal settlements ; but the whole were restored at the peace in 1815 ; and in 1825, Bencoolen and 
 the other British settlements in Sumatra were exchanged with the Dutch for Malacca. Java, 
 while in possession of the British, was materially improved, and its restoration has ever been mat- 
 ter of regret, both on account of the intrinsic value of the colony itself, and of the admirable 
 situation of its capital, Batavia, as an emporium for the whole archipelago. 
 
 Gold is universally diffused throughout the Eastern Islands, and in 1818 the total produce, in- 
 cluding that of the Malay peninsula, was estimated at 154,815 ounces, or £658,176. It is most 
 abundant in Borneo, then in succession in Sumatra, Celebes, and Luzon ; silver, as an article of 
 commerce, scarcely exists ; iron is also rare ; copper ores are found in Sumatra, Timor, and at 
 Samlias in Borneo. Banca possesses tin mines which appear to be inexhaustible ; they are worked 
 by Chinese employed by the Dutch. Of late years the supply of tin from these mines has been 
 greatly augmented, and, after fully supplying the markets of India and China, a large quantity is 
 annually exported to Europe, where it has lessened the demand for Cornish tin. On the south 
 and west coasts of Borneo the diamond is found. The vegetable productions are of the most varied 
 description, many of them are common to all tropical countries, but not a few are peculiar to 
 these regions alone. Java is accounted the rice granary of the archipelago, and it besides pro- 
 duces coffee and sugar in large quantity, with some indigo. Black pepper is produced in greater 
 abundance in Sumatra, particularly the west coast, than in all the rest of the world. The nutmeg 
 exists throughout almost the whole of the Moluccas ; but the avaricious policy of the Dutch has 
 been nearly successful in confining it to the small group of the Bandas, and the clove to the island 
 of Amboyna, where they are both preserved as government monopolies. The chief other produc- 
 tions of these islands and the adjoining seas are timber, bamboos, rattans, antimony, camphor, 
 benzoin, tripang, bird-nests, shark-fins, and tortoise-shell. The fisheries are valuable, parti- 
 cularly in the seas of the western parts of the archipelago. 
 
 The* commerce of the Eastern Islands is considerable. An intercourse has always subsisted 
 with the remote maritime nations of Asia, but the most extensive has always been with China. 
 The intercourse with Europeans is effected chiefly through the medium of Batavia and Singapore, 
 the two great emporiums of the Eastern Islands. The imports received from China in exchange 
 for the productions of the archipelago consist principally of tea, cotton stuffs, and porcelain, all 
 of inferior quality; and from Europe, cotton manufactures, particularly chintzes of moderate 
 fineness and gaudy patterns, white cottons, cambrics, and imitation bandanas ; also light cheap 
 woollens of showy colours, and low-priced glassware, mirrors, and earthenware. Under the heads 
 Java, Singapore, and Philippines, a fuller account is given of the islands more particularly 
 under European influence. The chief other islands, with their ports or towns, are the following : 
 
 Sumatra. Dutch Towns. — Palembang, Padang, Bencoolen. Native Towns. — Acheen, Soosoo, 
 Deli, Asahan, Bacoungan, Tappunooly, Rawa, Natal, Ippoo, Ayrpoor, Manna, Kawur, Croee, 
 Tulang Bawang. 
 
 Borneo. Dutch Towns. — Sambass, Pontiana. Native Towns. — Borneo, Montradok, Mampawa, 
 Banjarmassin, Pasir Town. 
 
 Celebes. Macassar, Kema, Gounorg Tela, Bool, Palos, Waja Tannete, Mero, Boola, 
 Comba. 
 
 Sooloo Islands. Sooloo. 
 
 Molucca, or Spice Islands; Ceram, Amboyna, Banda, Ternate, Goram, Gilolo, Tidore. 
 Principal Dutch IWn.— Amboyna, in the island of that name. 
 
 The weights chiefly employed throughout the Eastern Islands are those of China. The currency 
 used by merchants is commonly the Spanish dollar, but in Java the Netherlands florin. 
 
 The moral and political condition of the inhabitants of the Eastern Islands has been much de- 
 teriorated by the evil effects of European influence as exercised by the Dutch ; and by then- 
 continued turbulence, owing to the defective power of the sovereign, the ill-defined succession to 
 the throne, the universal prevalence of piracy, and the inefficient protection of commerce and 
 consequent monopoly of trade by the petty chiefs, with all their arbitrary dues and extortions. 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY, an association originally formed for the sole pur- 
 pose of trading to Hindostan and the neighbouring regions ; but who, by a 
 peculiar combination of circumstances, have established themselves as the sove- 
 reigns of an immense empire, extending over the principal part of those countries, 
 and containing upwards of 100 millions of people. 
 
 From the first dawn of maritime enterprise in Britain the trade of India was 
 contemplated as its grandest object. Into the sanguine conceptions formed on this 
 subject there entered, no doubt, a considerable degree of illusion. Yet there were 
 circumstances which, even at that early stage of mercantile adventure, threw a 
 
EAS 264 EAS 
 
 peculiar lustre on the trade of India. The staple articles consisted of finer and 
 richer fabrics than any that had yet been produced in the West ; diamonds, pearls, 
 jewels the most beautiful and brilliant ; also spices the most fragrant and grateful 
 to the senses. The great scale, too, on which operations were conducted, and the 
 large fortunes accumulated in certain instances, gave to this traffic a character of 
 grandeur not belonging to the smaller transactions which took place within the 
 limits of Britain or of Europe. 
 
 The exclusive right to the navigation to India by the Cape of Good Hope was 
 claimed by the Portuguese, the original discoverers of the route in 1497, and then 
 the most powerful maritime state. This claim being sanctioned by the rope, and 
 somewhat in unison with the laws generally admitted in that age respecting mari- 
 time discovery, the early attempts of the English to participate in the Indian 
 trade were directed first to the exploring of a passage by the N. W. coast of Asia; 
 and next to the opening of an intercourse with India across Russia and Persia ; 
 and under Willoughby, Chancellor, and others, much capital and enterprise were 
 expended in vain on these arduous undertakings (1528, &c). The next attempts 
 were made by Cabot and others by the N. W. passage round the arctic shores of 
 America ; but the results were alike unsuccessful. At last Drake conceived the bold 
 design of penetrating into the South Sea ; and, having equipped a fleet, he accom- 
 plished a passage through the Straits of Magellan, and arrived in 1579 at the Mo- 
 luccas, where he first began that commerce with India which has since been 
 carried to so great an extent. Drake's return to England in 1580 was hailed 
 with exultation by the people ; and his success encouraged Cavendish and other 
 commanders to tread in his footsteps, while another route, projected by the Medi- 
 terranean and Persian Gulf, was accomplished by a different body of adventurers, 
 including Newbery and Fitch, in 1584 and 1585. Meanwhile, England having risen 
 to the first rank among maritime states, the awe inspired by the power of the Por- 
 tuguese became materially lessened ; and in 1591, three ships were despatched 
 under Lancaster and others by the Cape of Good Hope. He visited Sumatra, 
 Penang, Ceylon, and neighbouring places, and returned in 1594 ; but the issue of this 
 expedition was, upon the whole, unfortunate, and for some time chilled the ardour 
 of the English. On learning, however, that the Dutch had sent out four vessels, 
 they were again inspired with emulation, and an association, formed in 1599, sub- 
 scribed £30,000 to be employed in fitting out three ships for the Indian trade. 
 This body in 1C00 merged into one on a grand scale, having at its head George, 
 earl of Cumberland, with 215 knights, aldermen, and merchants, who constituted 
 the " Governor and Company of Merchants trading to the East Indies." 
 
 The Company received a charter for 15 years from Queen Elizabeth, and were 
 invested with the ample privileges which it was then customary to bestow on mer- 
 cantile associations. They began on the footing of a joint-stock company, though, 
 as the subscribers were slow in paying up their shares, a certain number of the 
 more zealous took the concern altogether into their own hands. They expended 
 £75,373, of which £39,771 were invested in shipping, £28,742 in bullion, and £6860 
 in goods. It was the wish of the court that Sir E. Michelborne should be com- 
 mander; but the merchants intimated their resolution not to employ gentlemen, 
 " but to sort their business with men of their own quality." They accordingly 
 appointed Lancaster, who sailed, 2d April 1601, with five ships, varying from 130 
 to 600 tons ; and after visitiug Acheen in Sumatra, and Bantam in Java, returned 
 in 1603. Betwixt 1603 and 1612, seven other voyages were undertaken, making in 
 all eight expeditions, the result of which was judged, on the whole, to be prosperous. 
 The commanders of these expeditions appear, like most of the early navigators, to 
 have sometimes conjoined the different occupations of trade and piracy. Their 
 principal object was to obtain pepper, cloves, nutmegs, and other spices in 
 the Eastern Islands, their chief settlement being Bantam; and the continent of 
 India was not visited until 1611, when Middleton reached Surat. In 1612, the 
 Mogul allowed them to establish factories at Surat, Ahmedabad, Cambay, and 
 Gogo. Shortly afterwards, a regular annual intercourse with India was established, 
 chiefly at Surat; and the most valuable possessions in the Eastern Islands having 
 been wrested from the Portuguese by the Dutch, were less visited, until at length 
 the greater attractions of the continent induced the Company gradually to relin- 
 quish all their insular stations except a few in Sumatra. The factory at Surat 
 remained their chief seat on the western coast until 1687, when the presidency 
 of the other settlements was transferred to Bombay, an island which had been 
 obtained by Charles II., in 1662, as the dowry of the Infanta Catherine of Portugal. 
 The Company's trading stations on the E. or Coromandel coast were held subordi- 
 
EAS 26J5 EAS 
 
 nate to Bantam until 1640, when they obtained the permission of a native chief 
 for the erection of Fort St George at Madras ; which place was formed into a pre- 
 sidency in 1654. The establishment in Bengal was founded somewhat later tnan 
 the others. In 1656, through the influence and patriotism of a physician named 
 Boughton, who had been professionally useful to the Nabob of Bengal, permission 
 was obtained to erect a factory at Hoogley, on the Ganges. From this time ships 
 were sent to Bengal every year, but its commerce was still considered secondary 
 to that of Coromandel, and made subject to the presidency of Fort St George. Cal- 
 cutta was purchased in 1698; and in 1707 it was raised into a separate presidency. 
 
 The Company, for some time, were little more than an associated body of private 
 adventurers ; the governor and directors merely receiving the funds contributed by 
 each individual, managing them according to his suggestion, and accounting to 
 him for the proceeds. But in 1612, by representing the complexity and inconvenience 
 arising out of this arrangement, they prevailed upon the merchants to unite into a 
 joint-stock company, where the whole sum subscribed was placed under the control 
 of the directors ; and a dividend made, conformable to the general results of the 
 trade. It has been alleged, however, that when zeal was no longer stimulated by 
 individual advantage, the transactions were not conducted with the same economy, 
 and yielded less advantageous returns. The Company afterwards involved their 
 affairs in the confusion of different interests. An addition to their capital being 
 from time to time required, was procured by a new joint stock, and sums were 
 subscribed by fresh bodies of adventurers, which were to be separately managed. 
 Thus by the year 1650, four distinct subscriptions were formed. Meantime, the 
 directors were harassed not only by the competition of interlopers, but by demands 
 from respectable merchants to be admitted to a share of this lucrative traffic. The 
 principles of commercial as well as of political liberty widely pervaded the nation; 
 the Levant and Muscovy trades had been thrown open with the happiest effects; 
 and it was urged that equal benefits would accrue from opening to the nation in 
 general that of India. In 1635, a new association, headed by Sir W. Courten, 
 obtained permission from the king, who was allowed a share in the adventure, to 
 embark in an independent trade with that country. The concern, however, was 
 not well conducted, and could not make head against the hostility of the Company. 
 At length the privilege was withdrawn ; but the directors agreed to incorporate 
 the capital with their own, forming what was termed the United Joint Stock. Its 
 proprietors, however, were in 1655 empowered by Cromwell to resume a separate 
 commerce. Jealousies were roused to the highest pitch ; and after several warm 
 discussions, it was agreed that the exclusive system should be fully re-established, 
 and that the different stocks which had led to such confusion should be consolidated. 
 From this time the transactions were carried on, if not in a more profitable, at least 
 in a more systematic manner. A charter granted to the Company in 1661 authorized 
 them " to make war or peace with any prince or people that were not Christians." 
 
 During a course of years from this date, though the Company laboured under 
 embarrassment, the prosperity of the country enabled them to extend their com- 
 merce. Their outward investment in goods and bullion, which in 1622 did not 
 exceed £65,000, rose in 1673 to £228,000. This apparent success produced the 
 usual effect of exciting emulation among the rest of the community ; and the project 
 of a new joint stock was (1683) for some time entertained. The Company, notwith- 
 standing, had still influence enough in 1693 to procure from the crown a charter for 
 21 years, which authorized them to extend their capital from £756,000 to £1,500,000; 
 but the House of Commons, in the same year, passed a vote directly annulling thi3 
 grant. In 1 698, a bill was brought into Parliament for the establishment of another 
 company. This measure was not, however, founded upon a liberal basis. It in no 
 degree threw open the trade, but merely transferred the monopoly from one body 
 to another, and a direct injustice was committed by allowing the new association 
 te commence their operations immediately; their predecessors being by their charter 
 entitled to a notice of three years before their exclusive trade should cease. Finally 
 — and this was the real source of their too ample privileges— the new company 
 agreed to advance to government £2,000,000 at 8 per cent. Their means being 
 thereby crippled, they were only able in their first voyage to complete an investment 
 of £178,000, while their rivals sent out one of £525,000. The old company also 
 conducted their affairs with increased prudence ; and by their great experience 
 
 E roved themselves superior to their new competitors. The most violent dissensions 
 roke out in India between tho rival associations, each representing the other in 
 the blackest colours to the native princes, who were much disposed to listen to the 
 statements of both. Hence arose an apprehension that the very existence of British 
 
EAS 266 EAS 
 
 trade in India was in peril ; and a sense of mutual danger induced the companies 
 to agree, in 1702, to a compromise, and to act thenceforth under the title of " The 
 United Company of Merchants trading to the East Indies." Godolphin was 
 appointed arbiter, and on the basis of his decision was formed a government com- 
 posed of a Court of Proprietors for general purposes, and a Court of Directors for 
 details. Seven years were allowed for each company to wind up its affairs, at the 
 end of which period (1708), the act 6 Anne, c. 17, was passed, prolonging their 
 charter to 1729, and obliging the United Company to advance £1,200,000 to govern- 
 ment without interest, which, when added to the former loan at 8 per cent., raised 
 the amount to £3,200,000, and reduced the rate to 5 per cent, upon the whole 
 advance. This act may be regarded as the foundation of the privileges of the present 
 Company. 
 
 The exports, in the early part of the 18th century, consisted chiefly of bullion ; 
 and the imports of Indian silks, piece goods, and other products. An inter- 
 course with China was opened so early as the year 1635 ; but the trade was 
 long prosecuted irregularly, and on a very limited scale. In 1678, the Company 
 possessed factories at Tay wan in Formosa, and at Amoy. At this period the chief 
 imports from China were silks and porcelain, and tea did not become the principal 
 commodity until 1706, previous to which time they had been forced to restrict their 
 intercourse to Canton. In 1715, the intercourse with the Chinese assumed the 
 character of a regular trade, and ships were despatched from England at stated 
 seasons, having each a supercargo to conduct the sales and purchases. 
 
 In 1709, the Company's dividend was 8 per cent., which was increased in 1711 
 to 9 per cent.; and in 1712, the charter was again extended to 1736. In 1716, the 
 dividend was increased to 10 per cent., but reduced in 1722 to 8 percent. In 1730, 
 a strenuous effort was made by petitions from the chief mercantile towns to have 
 the Indian trade thrown open ; but the Company defeated this application, and 
 procured a further extension of their charter for 33 years, to 1769, on which occa- 
 sion they gave £200,000 to the public, and agreed to reduce the interest on their 
 debt to 4 per cent. In 1743, they advanced £1,000,000 to government at 3 per 
 cent., and obtained an extension of their charter from 1769 to 1783. When a 
 general reduction of the interest on the public debt took place in 1749, that of 
 the whole debt of £4,200,000 was reduced to 3 per cent., and they were empowered 
 to borrow, by the sale of annuities to that extent, and did borrow £2,992,440 
 accordingly. 
 
 At this time (1749), the circumstances of the Company underwent a most im- 
 portant change. At first they attempted nothing more than to maintain factories 
 for the accommodation of their agents, and places of deposit for their goods. The 
 marauding character of the native princes afterwards rendered it necessary to 
 fortify these stations. But though some passages in the Directors' correspondence 
 in 1689 indicate a desire to make territorial revenue one of the Company's sources 
 of emolument, yet down to 1749 they had acquired only a few small districts 
 around Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. The war which then broke out in the 
 Carnatic had the effect of converting them into a military power, and of rendering 
 them, after various struggles, virtual sovereigns of that part of the country. Much 
 more memorable results arose out of the war in Bengal, and the victories of Clive, 
 in 1757, when they obtained the Dewanuee, includiug the real occupancy of that 
 province, with Bahar and Orissa, forming a territory more extensive, and at that 
 time supposed more opulent, than the whole of Great Britain. The sovereignty of 
 these territories having been confirmed to the Company by treaty in 1765, an 
 extraordinary sensation was created, and both themselves and the nation became 
 inspired with an extravagant idea of their wealth ; their stock rose to 263, and 
 a dividend was voted of 12^ per cent. These treasures, however, soon became 
 an object of jealousy and desire, both to the people and the government. The 
 question was mooted whether any body of subjects could exercise an authority 
 independent of the supreme power ; nor were ministers slow to pronounce that the 
 king must be the real and only sovereign over every territory conquered by the 
 British arms. This alarming claim was, for the time, evaded by an agreement 
 made in 1767, that the Company should annually pay £400,000 into the Exchequer, 
 and reduce their dividend to 10 per cent.; upon which they were allowed for two 
 years to retain their Indian acquisitions. In 1769, a similar arrangement ex- 
 tended their power five years longer ; but at this epoch a disastrous crisis had 
 arrived in their affairs. The revenues of the conquered provinces, though very 
 considerable, were found inadequate to defray the expenses of the war with Hyder 
 Ali, in which they were then engaged, and to meet the rapacity of their servants, and 
 
EAS 267 EAS 
 
 the exorbitant dividends which the proprietors thought themselves entitled to 
 tifmand. Their affairs were now (1772) in a state of extreme embarrassment, 
 which they in vain endeavoured to mitigate by loans from the bank, first of 
 £400,000 (July 15), and then of £200,000 (July 29). They were under the neces- 
 sity of stating to government (10th August 1772) their absolute want of an accom- 
 modation to the amount of £1,500,000. This application placed them entirely at 
 the mercy of the minister, who determined, indeed, after some hesitation, to grant 
 their request, but under conditions which might promote both his own influence 
 and that of the crown. His terms were, that the Exchequer should lend £1,400,000 
 at 4 per cent., and forego the stipulated annual payment of £400,000 till that debt 
 were discharged. In return, the Company were not to divide above 6 per cent, till 
 that object should be accomplished ; and on their extrication from difficulties, 
 were to pay to the revenue three-fourths of their surplus receipts at home. The 
 latter point was loudly denounced by the Directors as oppressive ; but, in fact, it 
 proved wholly nugatory, since the relief from embarrassment and the possession of a 
 surplus were never realized. The minister followed up this measure by another 
 still more offensive, regulating their constitution, both at home and in India, — in 
 particular, requiring the appointment of a governor-general, with four councillors, 
 and a chief -justice with three judges, subject to the approbation of the cabinet. The 
 remonstrances of the Company against this measure were fruitless, and the ar- 
 rangements were carried into effect by two acts passed in June 1773. 
 
 The debt to government was discharged in 1777, when the restriction on their 
 dividends was of course removed ; and in 1781, a new agreement was made, by 
 which £400,000 were accepted by government in discharge of all former claims, 
 and the charter extended to 1794. The dividend being at that time 8 per cent., it 
 was also stipulated that a certain share of the surplus profits should accrue to the 
 public ; but the state of the Company's affairs rendered the latter provision of no 
 value. 
 
 Meanwhile tho Directors were actively endeavouring to repress the disor- 
 ders which began to appear in their Indian possessions. It was with this 
 view chiefly that Clive went out a second time in 1765, though circumstances soon 
 afterwards led also to a vast extension of their territorial property. The two 
 primary objects of his mission were to put an end to the exaction of presents by 
 British officers from the native powers, and to repress the internal trade, in a great 
 measure monopolized by them, which had been the source of accumulated evils. 
 The first of these measures he enforced with rigour. The latter, however, he is 
 said to have partially connived at, till the repeated commands of the Directors left 
 him no choice but to perform his duty. Affairs, nevertheless, remained in extreme 
 disorder ; and the revenue had, in no degree, answered the expectations of the 
 Company. On the resolution being formed to appoint a governor-general, Parlia- 
 ment nominated Warren Hastings. The choice was entirely approved by the pro- 
 prietors ; and from that gentleman's splendid talents and great experience in 
 Indian affairs, the happiest results were expected from his elevation to tne supreme 
 government. His administration lasted from 1772 to 1785 ; and the various 
 transactions by which it was marked excited in Britain a very intense interest, 
 and gave rise, after his return, to some of the most memorable proceedings in the 
 records of Parliament, though they did not permanently affect either the extent of 
 the British power, or its relation to the native states. During Mr Hastings' 
 government, the revenue had been somewhat increased, but the debt had been 
 augmented in a greater proportion. This, however, had resulted from the wars 
 in which the Company were involved, particularly that with Hyder, to which 
 Mr Hastings could scarcely be considered a party. The violent clamour against 
 him led to his impeachment before the House of Lords, and his trial lasted from 
 1788 to 1793, in the course of which it appeared that, if he had not been free from 
 blame, it was evident that the magnitude of his offences had been considerably 
 exaggerated: the sentence of "not guilty" was finally passed in a thin house upon 
 all the charges ; and the Company granted him a considerable pension. 
 
 The affairs of India had meantime been made the chief ground of debate in 
 Parliament betwixt the two great political parties. Mr Fox having obtained an 
 ascendency in Parliament, brought in his memorable bill, by which nearly the 
 whole government and patronage of India would have been taken from the Com- 
 pany, and vested in the Commons. It was passed without difficulty in that house; 
 but through the influence of the king, it was rejected by the Lords. Mr Pitt 
 obtained office shortly afterwards, and by means of his exertions an act was passedin 
 1784, which made a "material change in the administration of India, by the estab- 
 
EAS 268 EAS 
 
 lishment of a new body, invested with high powers, called the Board of Control, 
 the functions of which will be immediately explained. The act contained very strict 
 injunctions for the remedy of the evils whence the Company's embarrassments were 
 supposed to have arisen ; in particular, to renounce all schemes of war and con- 
 quest, declaring that " schemes of conquest and extension of dominion in India, 
 are measures repugnant to the wish, the honour, and the interest of this nation." 
 In order to fulfil the objects of the act, Lord Cornwallis was appointed governor- 
 general in 1786. Animated by the purest patriotism and integrity, and endowed 
 with a sound judgment, he perhaps did not possess those comprehensive views 
 which form the complete statesman. In undertaking to place on an improved 
 basis the financial and judicial systems of British India, he was guided by motives 
 decidedly benevolent. But his arrangements in some cases proceeded on a very 
 imperfect knowledge of the actual state of the country; and he applied principles 
 founded upon abstract theory and English practice to a people in whom local 
 prejudices had taken deep root. The sanguine expectations formed from his 
 administration were therefore in a great measure disappointed. He was desirous, in 
 conformity with his instructions, to abstain from aggression and conquest in every 
 form, yet he allowed himself, on somewhat slender grounds, to be drawn into hos- 
 tilities with Tippoo, which added a considerable part of Mysore to the Company's 
 Possessions, and laid the foundation for other conquests on a still greater scale, 
 'he result, on the whole, has been, that, instead of " conquest and extension of 
 dominion" being abandoned, it was from this time that, in the mode of acquiring 
 territory, the Company dispensed with mercantile intrigue, and began to assume 
 more of a purely military character. 
 
 In 1793, the charter was renewed (33 Geo. III. c. 52) for 20 years. In the 
 same year, the public debt of £4,200,000 due to the Company was joined to 
 the 3 per cent, stock ; but as £2,992,440 of this debt had been previously sold, they 
 became holders to the extent of the balance only, viz. £1,207,560, which last sum 
 was not paid up until some years afterwards. At this period their revenues 
 amounted to £8,225,628, the expenditure to £7,007,050, thus yielding a surplus 
 of £1,218,578 ; and the debt was reduced to £7,971,665. This state of affairs 
 became the subject of vehement declamation in Parliament and elsewhere ; and 
 the Act, after directing payment of a dividend of 10 per cent., with £ per cent, 
 more eventually from a separate fund, and providing a sinking fund of £500,000 
 per annum, gravely appropriated an equal amount to be annually paid into 
 the British Exchequer ; besides contingent sums of " surplus profits," which were 
 to be applied in a similar manner. It may be almost superfluous to state that these 
 golden dreams were never realized. The hostilities against the French, which 
 commenced in 1793, led to their being entirely stripped of their Indian settlements; 
 but though annihilated as a separate party, they continued to intrigue with the 
 native princes, particularly Tippoo. This led to the Mysore war of 1799, the 
 destruction of that sultan, and the complete breaking up of his territory. In 1802, 
 the Mahratta war commenced, the most important of all in which the Company 
 have ever been engaged. Amidst these extended operations, the surplus of 
 revenue soon disappeared ; and it was not found convenient to make more than 
 two payments of £250,000 each to the public, in the years 1793 and 1794. In 
 1797, a deficiency occurred, which continued till 1811, although, by the extension 
 of territory in the interval, the revenue had increased from about 8 to 15£ mil- 
 lions sterling. In 1810, the Company obtained temporary assistance from the 
 public, by the advance of £1,500,000 in Exchequer bills. They again received 
 accommodation in 1812, by a loan of £2,500,000 : this last was liquidated by an- 
 nual payments, and finally discharged in 1822. 
 
 In 1808, the Company began to grant licenses to the owners of Indian vessels, 
 or " country ships," to trade between India and China. This traffic, which was 
 conducted quite distinct from the transactions of the Company, soon became of 
 considerable importance. The exports of the country traders, consisting chiefly of 
 opium and cotton wool, considerably exceeded in value their imports in return ; 
 while, on the other hand, the shipments of tea by the Company were of much 
 greater value than their outward investment. The balance was therefore adjusted 
 through the country traders, by means of bills drawn by the Company's servants 
 at Canton upon the Bengal government, and to a small amount also on the Court 
 of Directors in London. Previous to the great extension of the country trade, the 
 tea was principally paid for with bullion exported from England, - the export of 
 
 foods, which principally consisted of woollen cloths, with a small quantity of iron, 
 eing wholly inadequate to that purpose. 
 
EAS 
 
 2(59 
 
 EAS 
 
 In 1813, the act 53 Geo. III. c. 155, was passed, which renewed the charter for 
 a period of 20 years, from April 22, 1814. By this statute the trade with India 
 was thrown open to the public under certain regulations ; while that to China, 
 and the tea trade generally, was reserved exclusively to the Company. At the 
 same time, the territorial and commercial branches were separated, as well as all 
 accounts connected with them. During the 20 years embraced by the charter, there 
 occurred the Nepaulese war, 1814 and 1815 ; the Pindaree war, 1817 and 1818 ; the 
 Burmese war, from 1824 to 1826 ; besides others on a smaller scale, including Bhurt- 
 pore in 1826. Most of these operations led to an enlargement of territory, and con- 
 sequently to an increase of revenue, but likewise, as before, to a corresponding 
 amount of expenditure and debt; during the Burmese war alone the debt being 
 augmented by the sum of £13,007,823. 
 
 Before the trade to India was thrown open in 1813, it was confidently stated, in 
 a report which the Directors forwarded to the Board of Control, " that all the 
 expectations then entertained by British merchants as to the wished for opening 
 of the Indian trade were groundless and delusive; that those who should act 
 upon them if the trade were opened, would be sure to experience ruin, loss, and 
 disappointment ; and that the abolition of the Company's commercial privileges 
 would be in effect the extinction of the whole of the present Indian system." No- 
 thing daunted by this statement, the merchants at once entered into the new trade 
 with spirit, and the following table, showing the progress of both parties, well 
 illustrates the effects of the change : — 
 
 Declared Value of the principal Exports from Great Britain to all places East- 
 ward of the Cape of Good Hope (except China), in the Years 1814, 1823, and 
 1832, distinguishing the Private Trade from that of the East India Company. 
 
 
 1814. 
 
 1825. 
 
 1832. 
 
 Company. 
 
 Private. 
 
 Company- 
 
 Private. 
 
 Ctimpar y. 
 
 Private. 
 
 £ 
 
 434 
 23,962 
 17,778 
 
 '2*983 
 
 11,720 
 
 93,245 
 
 17,167 
 
 246 
 
 11,297 
 
 235,151 
 
 412,575 
 
 £ 
 
 49,588 
 28,638 
 91,702 
 7 
 65,460 
 15,163 
 69,836 
 6,267 
 18,079 
 
 260,882 
 20,213 
 
 422,297 
 
 £ 
 
 90,055 
 
 ' 1,486 
 
 6,087 
 
 36,402 
 
 1,894 
 
 29 
 
 1,328 
 
 85,649 
 
 235,620 
 
 £ 
 
 97,188 
 
 68,169 
 
 1,128,468 
 
 16,993 
 
 122,167 
 
 76,176 
 
 132,559 
 
 19,130 
 
 25,742 
 
 115,997 
 
 221,489 
 
 933,627 
 
 £ 
 ii'.iso 
 
 268 
 
 12 
 
 1,060 
 
 11,264 
 
 3,012 
 
 5,341 
 
 45 
 
 308 
 37,801 
 78,902 
 
 £ 
 
 87,606 
 
 178,036 
 
 1,531,125 
 
 309,719 
 
 100,087 
 
 71,025 
 141,681 
 
 43,715 
 
 25,159 
 149,949 
 199,708 
 763,283 
 
 Copper, wrought& mi wrought 
 
 British cottons 
 
 Cotton twist and yarn 
 
 Glass 
 
 Hardware and cutlery 
 
 Iron, wrought and un wrought 
 Linen manufactures 
 
 
 Woollen manufactures 
 
 Total.... 
 
 826,558 
 £l,8i 
 
 1,048,132 
 4,690 
 
 458,550 
 
 2,957,705 
 
 149,193 
 
 3,601,093 
 
 £3,416,255 
 
 £3,7^ 
 
 0,286 
 
 The preceding table shows, that notwithstanding the great reduction in the prices 
 of most of the commodities which make up our export trade with India, the value 
 of the shipments was doubled within the 18 years from 1814 to 1832, while in 
 British cottons, twist, and yarn, the increase was eighteen fold ; an increase the 
 more worthy of notice as occurring with regard to a species of manufactures for 
 our supply of which we were not many years before dependent upon the looms of Hin- 
 dostan. In comparing the Company's with the private trade, it will be observed, 
 that while the former progressively decreases, the latter rapidly increases. Indeed, 
 as the Company's exports include military stores as well as merchandise, it may 
 be held to have virtually expired in the year 1825, in which year the value of the 
 goods exported by them amounted to only £73,000. These results, viewed in con- 
 nexion with the fact, that for not a few years prior to 1814 little alteration had 
 occurred in their exports, showed conclusively that the increase was owing entirely 
 to the activity of the private traders. 
 
 The unfitness of a large corporation like that of the East India Company to 
 prosecute commercial dealings being now apparent, Parliament had little hesitation, 
 when called upon to legislate on Indian affairs in 1833, in not only abolishing their 
 monopoly of the China trade, but in preventing them from carrying on any 
 mercantile operations whatever, and of restricting them to the administration of 
 their vast territories. This change was effected by the three acts of 3 & 4 Wm. IV. 
 c. 85, 93, and 101. The first is entitled An Act for effecting an Arrangement with 
 
EAS 270 EAS 
 
 the East India Company, and for the better Government of his Majesty's Indian 
 Territories, till April 30, 1854 ; the second, An Act to regulate the Trade to 
 China and India; and the third, An Act to provide for the Collection and Manage- 
 ment of the Duties on Tea. The general amount of the provisions of these acts 
 was to throw open, for the first time, the countries to which they relate, to British 
 enterprise and capital. Down to 1813 both China and India were as completely shut 
 against the people of this country generally, as if they had been hostile regions. 
 The charter of 1813 diminished, to a certain degree, this restriction, by allowing 
 the ships of private traders to resort to India, and, more recently, regulations of 
 the Indian government permitted a limited extent of land for indigo plantations 
 to be held in India by persons who were not natives; while trade was licensed by 
 the Company between China and India. But much of this was upon sufferance, 
 and no relaxation of the monopoly of the trade between China and England had 
 ever been conceded. 
 
 Constitution and Present Condition of the Company. 
 
 The government of the East India Company's territories is composed of the Home 
 Government and the Executive Government in India. 
 
 The Home Government consists of, 1st, The Court of Proprietors; 2d, The Court 
 of Directors ; 3d, The Board of Control. 
 
 The Court of Proprietors elect the Directors, and make by-laws, which are bind- 
 ing in all matters not regulated by Act of Parliament. General courts are held 
 quarterly, in March, June, September, and December, at which no one can be 
 present unless possessed of £500 stock ; and the proprietors rate according to 
 the amount which they possess. The lowest sura which entitles a proprietor 
 to a single vote, is £1000 (of which he must have been in possession for the 
 preceding 12 months, unless such stock was obtained by bequest or marriage); 
 £3000, two votes; £6000, three votes; and £10,000, four votes. No greater number 
 of votes can be given by any one proprietor. The number of proprietors lately 
 entitled to vote was 1976 ; of which 54 possessed each four votes ; 50 each three ; 
 370 each two; and 1502 had single votes. 
 
 The Court of Directors consists of 24 proprietors, who are elected for four years; 
 six going out annually by rotation. They are re-eligible, and generally are re- 
 elected at the expiration of a year; thirteen form a court. The qualification for 
 a seat in the direction is the possession of £2000 stock. The election takes place 
 on the second Wednesday in April in each year. The Directors elect annually, 
 from their own body, a chairman and deputy-chairman. The court conducts 
 the whole affairs of the Company, subject to the superintendence of the Board of 
 Control. They nominate the governors of the presidencies, subject to the approval 
 of the crown. They can recall the governors, or any other of their servants, inde- 
 pendently of the Board of Control. Such despatches as that Board consider 
 should be secret, are forwarded to India by a Secret Committee, which usually 
 consists of the chairman, deputy-chairman, and the senior member of the court. 
 These all take the oath of secrecy, and form the channel through which are trans- 
 mitted the orders and instructions of the Board on all matters relating to war or 
 peace. The Directors are allowed an appeal from the Board of Control to the king 
 m council ; which, as Mr Mill observes, is little else than an appeal from the king 
 to himself, and has never in practice been resorted to. 
 
 The Board of Control consists of six members, among whom must be the Chan- 
 cellor of the Exchequer and a Secretary of State ; one of which high officers, ap- 
 pointed to act as president, does in fact exercise nearly the whole power of the 
 Board. Its functions are described in Mr Pitt's act of 1784, somewhat vaguely, in 
 the following terms : — " From time to time to check, superintend, and control all 
 acts, operations, and concerns, which, in any wise, relate to the civil or military 
 government or revenues of the territories and possessions of the United Company 
 in the East Indies." They are authorized to inspect all correspondence and de- 
 spatches to and from India, and the proceedings of the Courts of Proprietors and 
 Directors ; also to have access to all documents belonging to the Company. They 
 have the power to alter and amend the instructions which that body send out to 
 their servants ; and in certain special cases, as has just been noticed, can transmit 
 orders directly through a secret committee of the Directors, ayIio act as the mere 
 channel of their communications. The Board of Control is now almost the sole 
 governing power ; they direct all the grand measures, nominate the commander- 
 in-chief, and influence the other important appointments. They also possess by 
 courtesy a large share of the general patronage ; the president, who is a cabinet 
 
EAS 
 
 271 
 
 EAS 
 
 minister, is virtually secretary of state for India, and in Parliament is held account- 
 able for the proper administration of the affairs of that country. 
 
 The Board of Control and Directors have, on the whole, worked together with 
 a greater degree of harmony than might have been expected from an independent 
 and ill-defined jurisdiction. It is admitted, however, that the details of Indian 
 affairs have been generally administered by the Directors without vexatious or 
 oppressive interference from the controlling authority. 
 
 The establishment of the Company in England, in 1835, comprised 494 persons, 
 whose salaries and allowances amounted to £134,454. 
 
 The Executive Government in India is administered at the three presidencies, 
 Bengal, Madras, and Bombay. In the first, the government consists of a governor- 
 general and four councillors ; and at the two others, of a governor and three 
 councillors. The commander-in-chief is generally a member of council. The 
 
 governor-general has a controlling power over the governorsof Madras and Bom- 
 ay. The making and enforcing of laws in the respective presidencies is vested 
 in the governors in council, subject, in certain instances, to the consent of the supreme 
 court of judicature, to register these decrees ; and in all cases to the approval of 
 the Board of Control and Court of Directors. Two systems of judicature exist in 
 India, — the Queen's supreme courts, whose jurisdiction extends over Europeans 
 generally, and affects the natives only in and within a certain distance around 
 the several presidencies ; and the Company's courts, in which there is a mixture 
 of European and native judges. 
 
 The Company's Territories. 
 The Company's dominions, besides the presidencies of Bengal, Madras, and 
 Bombay, and the territories from time to time annexed to them by cession or con- 
 quest, comprise numerous tributary or protected states, the princes of which 
 acknowledge the supremacy of the British government. According to the last 
 edition of Mr Hamilton's Indian Gazetteer, the area and population of the whole, 
 including the states in Hindostan still independent, are as follow : — 
 
 Sq. miles.; Population. 
 
 Bengal Presidency 
 
 Madras Presidency 
 
 Bombay Presidency 
 
 Territories in Deccah, &c. 
 acquired since 1815, 
 mostly attached toBom- 
 bay Presidency 
 
 328,000 57.500,000 
 154,<i00 15,000,000 
 11,000 2,500,000 
 
 Allies & Tributaries. 
 
 Nizam 
 
 Nagpoor Raja 
 
 King of Oude 
 
 Guicowar 
 
 Kotah, Boondee, & Bo- 
 
 paul 
 
 Mysore Raja 
 
 Satara Raja 
 
 Travancore and Cochin. . 
 Other Rajas and Chiefs. . 
 
 60,000 
 553,000 
 
 96.000 
 70,000 
 20,000 
 18,000 
 
 14,000 
 I7,0N 
 
 14,000 
 8,000 
 
 Total. . . . 1,103,000 123,000,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 ,000 
 
 10,000,080 
 
 3,000,000 
 3,000,000 
 2,000,000 
 
 1,500,000 
 3,000,000 
 1,500,000 
 1,000,000 
 15,000,000 
 
 Independent States. 
 
 Nepaul Raja 
 
 Lahore Raja 
 
 Ameers of Sinde 
 
 Dominions of Sindia 
 
 Cabul, east of Indus*. . . . 
 
 India beyond the 
 
 Ganges. 
 
 British Acquisitions in 
 
 1S24 and 1825. 
 
 Countries S. of Rangoon, 
 
 consist ingof part of Mar- 
 
 taban and Tavay, Ye, 
 
 Tenasserim, and Mer- 
 
 gui Islands 
 
 Arracan 
 
 Assam and adjacent petty 
 States 
 
 Sq. miles- Population. 
 
 53,000 
 
 50,000 
 24,000 
 40,000 
 10,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 9,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 12,000 
 11,000 
 
 54,000 
 
 51,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 Total.... 77,000' 301,000 
 
 Stock, Finances, &c. 
 The Capital Stock of the Corporation amounts to £6,000,000, of which there were 
 subscribed, at the union of the two Companies in 1708, £3,200,000 ; in 1786, 
 £800,000 ; in 1789, £1,000,000 ; and in 1794, £1,000,000. The act of 1833, while it 
 determined that the government of the Indian territories should be continued to 
 the Company until the 30th of April 1854, directed (as already noticed) that their 
 trading privileges should cease from the 22d April 1834, that their commercial 
 assets should be assigned to government for the purpose of discharging the terri- 
 torial debt, and that, from the proceeds of the saleable effects, the sum of £2,000,000 
 should be taken, to be invested in the public funds, as a guarantee for the redemp- 
 tion of the capital stock. 
 
 * Cabul may now be included under the protected or allied states. 
 
EAS 
 
 272 
 
 EAS 
 
 The Security Fund thus created, consists of government 3 per cent, stock, which 
 amounted, on the 5th July 1837, to £2,461,562, 16s. 8d.; composed of consolidated 
 3 per cent, annuities, £6841, 17s. 7d. ; and reduced 3 per cent, annuities, 
 £2,454,720, 19s. Id., held in the name of the Commissioners of the National Debt. 
 
 The Dividend, annually payable to the proprietors, has been 10£ per cent, since 
 Midsummer 1798 ; and this rate is secured to them under the new act. It was 
 payable formerly out of the commercial assets of the Company only ; but by the 
 late act it is constituted a charge upon the territorial revenues of India. It is 
 payable at the East India House half-yearly, namely, on the 5th of January and 
 the 5th of July. 
 
 The Redemption of the Capital Stock may take place on or after the 30th of April 
 1874, at the option of the legislature, on payment of £200 for every £100 of stock ; 
 but it is provided, that in case the government of India should be taken from the 
 Company in 1854, the redemption of the stock at 200 per cent, may be claimed by 
 the Corporation. 
 
 The Debt of the Company consists of (1.) the India Bonds ; and (2.) the Terri- 
 torial Debt. 
 
 (1.) The " India Bonds " comprise the floating debt of the Corporation in this 
 country ; they are for sums of £100, £200, £300, and £500 each, and being payable 
 half-yearly to the Company at par, they are commonly used in London (where 
 they are constantly marketable) as an investment for money that is liable to be 
 suddenly called for. The interest (always computed up to the day on which they 
 are bought or sold) is payable at the East India House on the 1st of April and the 
 1st of October : its present rate is 3£ per cent. The amount of these bonds in cir- 
 culation, prior to the last renewal of the charter, was about £3,700,000 ; but it has 
 been since greatly reduced. In the year 1839-40, the annual charge on account of 
 the home bond debt is stated at only £51,828. 
 
 (2.) The " Territorial Debt " in India amounted, on the 30th of April 1838, to 
 £30,249,893, bearing, at various rates, interest amounting to £1,427,366 a-year. 
 About one-fourth of this debt is held by natives. Only a portion of it is transfer- 
 able in London, consisting of a 5 per cent, loan, the dividends on which are payable 
 at the East India House, twelve months after they become due in India, at a fixed 
 rate of exchange. 
 
 The Revenue and Expenditure in India for the last two years for which it has 
 been published are as follows : 
 
 Revenues. 
 
 Ben gal.. Co. 's rupees 
 
 Agra 
 
 Madras 
 
 Bombay 
 
 Sum of Ordinary Re- 
 venues 
 
 Equal in sterling £ 
 
 Extraordinary Re- 
 ceipts. 
 
 Bengal 
 
 Madras 
 
 Bombay 
 
 Rupees. , 
 £ sterling. . 
 
 Total £ sterling. . 
 Deficiency in 1838-39. 
 
 1837-38. 
 
 7,22,27,200 
 3,34,20,136 
 3,74,70,004 
 1,75,89,877 
 
 16,07^07,217 
 15,066,302 
 
 1,98,569 
 14,703 
 
 3,13,271 
 
 19.994 
 
 15,086,296 
 
 £ 15,086,2.% 
 
 1838-39.* 
 
 7,10,03,108 
 4,06,61,737 
 3,76,93,899 
 1,51,30,278 
 
 16,44,89,022 
 
 15,420,845 
 
 1,76,652 
 485 
 
 1,77,137 
 
 16,606 
 
 15,437,451 
 453,923 
 
 Charges. 
 
 Bengal. .Co. 's rupees 
 
 Agra 
 
 Madras 
 
 Bombay 
 
 Sum of Ordinary, 
 
 Charges of India . .112,78,03,083 
 
 1857-38. 
 
 6,69,15,428 
 
 77,98,714 
 
 3,22,36,136 
 
 2,08,52,805 
 
 1858-39. 
 
 7,93,93,089 
 
 86,29,471 
 
 3,28,81.619 
 
 2,07,01,110 
 
 11,981, 
 
 64,450 
 
 Equal in sterling £ 
 
 Extraordinary 
 Charges. 
 
 Bengal 
 
 Madras 1 
 
 Bombay 
 
 Rupees..] 64,450 
 
 £ sterling. . jj^ 6,042 
 £ sterling. . j 11,987,581 
 Charges in England..! 2,304,445 
 
 14,16,05,289 
 13,275,496 
 
 4,412 
 
 4,412 
 
 413 
 
 13,275,909 
 2,615,465 
 
 15,891,374 
 
 TotalCharges of India £14,292,026 , 15,891,374 
 Surplus in 1837-38 . . I 794,270 | 
 
 I .... . £ 15,086,296 15,891^374 
 
 The revenue of the Company is derived principally from the land, over which (as 
 common in the East) it exercises the right of ownership, not by retaining actual 
 possession, but by levying assessments which have been usually so calculated as to 
 realize the greatest amount of rental that could be safely extracted from the culti- 
 vators. Formerly, the lands were held by the ryots or cultivators of the soil, 
 
 * Stated in the accounts as partly estimated. 
 
EAS 273 EAS 
 
 whose right of perpetual occupancy was never questioned, but who were subject to 
 the demands of their respective governments,— demands unlimited as to right, but 
 limited in extent by custom. Different systems existed as to the mode of collection. 
 In some places the rent or tax was collected in one sum from each village, which 
 kept up a body of officers whose functions consisted in proportioning and levying 
 the assessment according to the means of the ryots. In other cases, government 
 appointed officers, who received charge of several districts, and who were remu- 
 nerated by a per centage upon the amount collected. These functionaries were called 
 zemindars, whence the plan acquired its name of the zemindary system. Their 
 allowance formerly was one-tenth part of the collections ; but in the year 1793, 
 the Marquis Cornwallis, then governor-general, formed the resolution of placing 
 the zemindars in the situation of proprietors, by fixing the assessment against 
 them, and engaging not to raise at any time its amount. This arrangement, 
 termed the permanent settlement, has been established through a great part of the 
 
 S residencies of Bengal and Madras. It was hoped that by this means the zemin- 
 ars would have been induced to improve their estates, since the whole increased 
 revenue resulting from such improvements would have been permanently theirs. 
 Unfortunately, however, the power thus confided to the landholders has been used 
 principally as the means of oppressing the cultivators ; and in order to remedy 
 this evil, the Company has, of late years, with the view of abolishing the system of 
 middlemen, become the purchasers of all estates thus held which have been brought 
 to sale, and making their bargain directly with the farmers or ryots ; whence the 
 plan is termed the ryotwary system. 
 
 Of the other branches of revenue, the principal is the monopoly of salt, which is 
 manufactured by the agents of government, and disposed of by public sale for 
 ready money. The next in point of importance is the monopoly ol opium, which 
 in the year 1837-38 produced 2,09,65,187 Company's rupees, subject to R. 65,97,949 
 of charges, leaving R. 1,43,67,238 net. Being produced chiefly in the province of 
 Bahar, the impost is levied only in the Bengal presidency. It has to compete, 
 however, with the opium of Malwa, originally much inferior, but which, being 
 manufactured by free cultivation, has improved greatly both in quantity and qua- 
 lity. The latter is exported at Bombay, where it pays a custom duty ; a system 
 which has been strongly recommended in Bengal, and would be attended with 
 many advantages ; but the large amount of the revenue, and the dread of smug- 
 gling, has caused every change to be viewed with apprehension. Tobacco is made 
 a subject of monopoly only in the western districts of the Madras presidency. 
 Customs are levied on the exportation, and also, down to 1837, on the inland 
 transit of goods. Another order of imposts, which bears the title of sayer, appears 
 to consist of dues levied at markets and the gates of towns. With these are usually 
 combined a second class called abkaree, which are laid chiefly, in the form of 
 license, on spirits, opium, and every species of intoxicating drugs. The other 
 branches are derived from stamps, post-office, mint, marine duties and pilotage, 
 to which may be added judicial fees and fines. 
 
 The expenditure consists partly of dividends to the proprietors, partly of 
 charges attending the collection of the revenue and the maintenance of the various 
 civil functionaries, but chiefly in the support of the Company's military establish- 
 ment. 
 
 The Indian Army. 
 
 In the government administered by the Company the most striking feature 
 is that military force by which their colossal empire was mainly acquired, and is 
 still held in subjection. Its composition is, perhaps, more remarkable than that of 
 any army ever levied ; for India is subjected to a foreign yoke by her own sol- 
 diers, paid with her own money. It might at first appear that a conquering state 
 could not, without the utmost peril, rely on such means ; but the incorruptible 
 fidelity of the native troops or sepoys, under British commanders, has entirely re- 
 moved all such apprehension. This army attained, by gradual steps, its present 
 strength and discipline. A few battalions were at first employed merely as an 
 appendage to the Company's forces, and at that time, captain, adjutant, and 
 some sergeants were the only English officers attached to them. With the skill 
 which these communicated, they easily vanquished the irregular troops of the na- 
 tive princes. When the latter, however, began to introduce European tactics, it 
 became necessary to raise the indigenous force to a higher degree of efficiency ; 
 their complement of British officers was progressively increased, and they were 
 more and more assimilated to regiments of the line. This method was brought into 
 
 a 
 
EAS 274 EEL 
 
 full operation in 1796 ; since which year no native has been allowed to rise above 
 the rank of subahdar, the highest pay attached to which is 147 rupees per month ; 
 and in that station he is subject to the command of the youngest subaltern from 
 England. 
 
 The following was the effective force of the Indian army in 1837 ; namely, Bri- 
 tish forces, consisting partly of Queen's troops, and partly of the Company's 
 European regiments, 26,582; native troops, including 3728 British officers, 157,758; 
 contingent native forces, 111,500 ; total, 295,840. Since the year just specified, the 
 hostilities in Afghanistan and China have doubtless led to a very considerable 
 increase in these numbers. S 
 
 EAST INDIES. [India.] 
 
 EAU DE COLOGNE, a celebrated preparation for the toilet, is nothing more 
 than aromatized alcohol. It is extensively manufactured in France from silent 
 brandy, mixed with sage, thyme, camphor, cloves, and other herbs and spices; the 
 whole being macerated together, and then distilled. 
 
 Eau de Luce is formed of the distilled oil of amber and water of ammonia. 
 
 EBONY (Fr. Ebene. Ger. Ebenholz), a hard, durable, black-coloured wood, 
 obtained from different species of Diospyros, a large tree, found in tropical coun- 
 tries, especially in India, the Malayan Islands and Peninsula. That which is 
 considered to be of the best quality is the D. ebenus, a native of the Mauritius, 
 Ceylon, and Madagascar ; being jet-black, astringent, and of an acrid, pungent 
 taste. Ebony, besides its other qualities, is susceptible of an elegant polish or lustre, 
 and has always been held in high estimation; it is at present chiefly used for 
 inlaying, for making rules and scales, as not being liable to warp, and for other 
 purposes in turnery; but it is in less request now than formerly for cabinet-making, 
 cheaper woods, dyed black, particularly that of the pear-tree, being commonly 
 substituted for it. About 2000 tons are annually imported. 
 
 ECU, an old French silver coin worth 6 livres ; also a Swiss piece of 40 batzen. 
 
 ECUADOR, or EQUATOR, a state comprising the S. W. part of the former 
 republic of Colombia, is situated on the W. coast of S. America, betwixt New Gra- 
 nada and Peru; and extends from 6° 30' S. to 2° N. lat., and from 70° to 81° 
 W. long. Area 325,000 square miles. Population, 600,000, of which about 
 160,000 are whites of Spanish extraction; the rest chiefly Indians. Divisions, 
 Ecuador or Quito, Guayaquil, and Assuay, each subdivided into provinces. Capital, 
 Quito, an inland town, and one of the finest cities of S. America; pop. 70,000. The 
 government is republican, consisting of a senate and house of representatives, both 
 elected by the cantonal deputies of the provinces, in a provisional assembly held 
 once in four years. 
 
 The country is intersected by the Andes, and the temperature of course differs considerably 
 in the elevated lands adjoining those mountains, and in the low countries on both sides of the 
 range. The department of Quito, though subject to earthquakes, possesses a very mild and 
 salubrious climate. That of Guayaquil and the valleys along the coast is warmer, and the por- 
 tion of Assuay adjoining the river Amazon and its tributaries is very hot. The difference of climate 
 gives a varied character to the productions of the country. The most important are cocoa, sugar- 
 cane, cotton, tobacco, and cinchona bark. The last is obtained chiefly from forests in the moun- 
 tains of Loxa in Assuay. In the department of Guayaquil, oak and other timber trees are pro- 
 duced, including the strong wood called guachapeli, cedar, ebony, and other cabinet woods. There 
 are gold and silver mines in Quito, and at Zaruma in Assuay ; but the country is less rich in the 
 
 Erecious metals than the other states which comprehend a portion of the Andes. Quicksilver, 
 owever, is found at Azogues ; lead also exists ; sulphur is prepared in considerable quantity at 
 Tesoan, in Chimborazo ; and salt is procured on the coast. 
 
 The maritime commerce of Ecuador is concentrated at Guayaquil, a flourishing port situated in 
 2° 12' S., and 79° 53' W., on the N. bank of the river of the same name, the estuary of which is 
 here about 2 miles broad ; pop. 22,000. The port is one of the best on the Pacific, but the town 
 is unhealthy, ill supplied with water, and from being built of wood, very subject to fires. On 
 the S. bank of the river, there is a dockyard much used for shipbuilding. Exports, chiefly 
 cocoa (nearly 9,000,000 lbs.), which is mostly sent to Spain, Mexico, U. States, and Peru, tim- 
 ber, hides, cattle, and tobacco ; the annual value of the cargoes being nearly £220,000. The im- 
 ports, consisting of British manufactures, wine, silks, and other articles, are of nearly the same 
 amount. 
 
 Measures, Weights, and Money, same as New Granada. 
 
 Finances.— The annual revenue and expenditure are each estimated at $800,000. The domestic 
 debt is unknown. The foreign debt consists of 21 J per cent, of the loans contracted in London for 
 Colombia in 1822 and 1824, or £1,451,250, exclusive of arrears of interest thereon, at 6 per 
 cent, since 1826. S 
 
 EEL, a peculiar description of fish resembling the snake in its external form, 
 but having otherwise little similarity. There are different species, but the most 
 common is the sharp-nosed eel (Murana anguilla). Eels innabit almost all our 
 rivers, lakes, and ponds; and are in great esteem for the table. The best kind — 
 
EFF 273 EGY 
 
 the silver eel— is that found in the clearest waters. The dingy yellow, and the deep 
 sallow-green, are very inferior to the clear coppery brown-backed eel, and even to 
 tlie bronze-coloured. Their freshness is known by their vivacity of motion. " The 
 London market is principally supplied from Holland by Dutch fishermen. There 
 are two companies in Holland, having five vessels each: their vessels are built with 
 a capacious well, in which large quantities of eels are preserved alive till wanted. 
 One or more of these vessels may be constantly seen lying off Billingsgate: the 
 others go to Holland for fresh supplies, each bringing a cargo of 15,000 to 20,000 
 lbs. of live eels " (Yarrell). About 70 cargoes are annually imported. 
 
 EFFECTIVE, a term used in many parts of the Continent to express coin, in 
 contradistinction to paper-money. Thus bills upon Vienna are generally directed 
 to be paid in effective, to guard against their being paid in paper-money of a de- 
 preciated value: very frequently also, the particular money in which the bill is to 
 be paid is specified; as in 20 kreuser pieces. 
 
 EGGS (Fr. (Eufs). The eggs of domestic fowls form a considerable branch of 
 inland traffic, more particularly betwixt Ireland and Britain. " The trade in eggs, 
 the value of which, for export, according to Mr Williams, in 1832, amounted to 
 £500 a-day, paid by England to Ireland, is carried on with considerable vivacity 
 at Lanesborough, and also at Tarmonbarry." — " In the height of the season, the 
 prices at Lanesborough were from 2s. 6d. to 4s. per 120; but towards the winter, 
 they rise to 5s. The eggs are packed in layers with straw, in crates. Each crate 
 will hold about 84 hundred of six score, that is 10,080, the first cost being from 
 £10, 10s. to £16, 16s. per crate. These are sent forward on speculation to Dublin, 
 or occasionally at once to the English market; and a profit of £4 or £5 per crate 
 is considered a fair remuneration" {Weld's Roscommon). Eggs are also largely 
 imported from abroad,— no fewer than 96,000,000 being at present brought annually 
 from the Continent, chiefly from the department of the Pas de Calais in France. 
 Throughout the whole of that kingdom the egg trade is carried on to an extent hardly 
 credible in this country. In a paper lately read by M. Legrand to the Statistical 
 Society, the number exported in 1834 is stated at 90,441,600, and the total number 
 consumed at 7,231,160,000; equal, at only 4d. the dozen, to £10,168,891 . " The con- 
 sumption in Paris is calculated at 115| eggs per head, or 101,152,400. The con- 
 sumption, in other parts of France, may be reckoned at double this rate, as, in many 
 parts of the country, dishes composed of eggs and milk are the principal items in 
 all the meals." S 
 
 EGYPT extends in length about 500 miles along the river Nile, from its mouth 
 upwards; and comprehends a breadth of 200 or 300 miles from the Red Sea to an 
 ill defined boundary in the Libyan desert. It was formerly divided into 16 pro- 
 vinces, but is now composed of 24 departments, which are subdivided, according 
 to the French system, into arrondissements ana cantons. Population, 2,500,000, 
 chiefly Arab-Egyptians or Felahs. Capital, Cairo, an inland city; pop. 240,000. 
 Egypt is an appendage to the Turkish empire ; but is under the government of a 
 pasha, whose power is nearly despotic, though he occasionally consults a council 
 composed of his chief officers. 
 
 The cultivated part of Egypt is confined to the banks of the Nile. This region is divided by 
 nature into two parts,— Lower Egypt, composed of the alluvial tract formed by the Delta of the 
 Nile ; and Upper Egypt, an exceedingly narrow valley which extends nearly 400 miles along the 
 Nile above its separation. On the E. and W. of this valley lie mountains and waste deserts, 
 interspersed with oases. The climate of Upper Egypt, though hotter, is more healthy than that 
 of the Lower country, where the plague is said to be indigenous, and ophthalmia and dysentery com- 
 mon in the autumn. In the latter, the annual range of Fahrenheit in the shade is from 50° to 100°. 
 The climate is, however, principally characterized by its great dryness, which would render Egypt 
 a desert were it not that the high lands of Abyssinia are periodically drenched by heavy rains, 
 which lead annually, betwixt July and October, to the overflow of the Nile, and the irrigation of 
 the greater part of the country. 
 
 " In Egypt, one necessity absorbs all others: unless the inundations of the Nile irrigate the 
 lands, in vain, through immense districts, is the seed sown, in vain the husbandman goes forth to 
 harvest. The inundations are very various in their character and consequences : when favourable 
 to the upper regions, they are excessive in the lower ; and when they suit the lower districts, they 
 sometimes leave the higher country almost dry. The average course of the stream of the Nile is 
 1366 toises per hour, but the current is considerably increased during the time of the inundation. 
 The prevalence of northerly winds more than compensates for the rapidity of the stream for vessels 
 bound upwards. An inundation of the elevation of 24 coudees in Upper Egypt will give 21 at 
 Cairo and 4 at the mouths of the Nile. The most productive inundation is from 19 to 21 , measured 
 by the nilometer at the island of Rhoda, opposite Cairo. The dike which lets out the waters of 
 the Nile is cut when the elevation is 190 inches; and the " Ouafa Allah," or ** Allah has kept 
 his promise," is then shouted by the tens of thousands who attend to witness the ceremonial, on 
 whose success so much of happiness or misery depends. As the fall of the dike is from 8 to 10 feet, 
 the rush of the great mass of water is extremely violent. When the Nile rises from 23 to 24 coudees. 
 
EGY 276 EGY 
 
 2,000,000 feddans are cultivated. The rairi (land-tax) was, in 1833. established on this basis. But 
 often the Nile does not rise above 19 coudees, and the inundation is not permanent enough to 
 produce the effect desired. Egypt is calculated to have 3,500,000 feddans of cultivable land, if 
 cultivation were pushed to its greatest extent." (Bowring's Report on Egypt, p. 12.)' 
 
 There are few minerals. The productive powers of the soil, however, are incalculable. Wherever 
 water is scattered, there springs up a rapid and beautiful vegetation ; the seed is sown and watered, 
 and scarcely any other care is required for the ordinary fruits of the earth. The agricultural pro- 
 duce consists of winter plants, which are sown and reaped after the inundation, and of summer 
 plants, which are raised by artificial irrigation. In some parts three crops are obtained in the course 
 of the year. The chief articles are wheat, barley, cotton, maize, millet, a variety of leguminous 
 plants, tobacco, indigo, and flax. Sugar is cultivated throughout a large portion of Upper Egypt, 
 and rice in the low lands near the Mediterranean. There are besides a great variety of fruits; 
 but there are no timber trees. The improvement of the country has been vastly extended ; 
 and in several respects revolutionized, under the energetic government of the present pasha, 
 Mohammed Ali. During his reign the cotton-plant has been introduced, and its cultivation so far 
 carried, that the annual shipments of wool now amount to from 100,000 to 150,000 bales. He 
 has also bestowed ereat attention on flax, the sugar-cane, indigo, opium, madder-roots and other 
 dye-stuffs; and of late he has established a colony of Syrians in Tumulaut, the ancient Land of 
 Goshen, for the purpose of cultivating the mulberry and rearing silk-worms. The pasha has 
 likewise attempted the introduction of cotton -factories, and other European arts, but in general 
 the native manufactures are rude and inconsiderable. 
 
 The commerce of Egypt is pretty extensive, but suffers greatly from the monopolies of the pasha, 
 whose views, though in many respects enlightened, are in regard to commercial matters narrow 
 in the extreme. Having created the commerce and manufactures of Egypt, he regards the whole 
 as his own property, or at least so much under his control, that no one is permitted to think for 
 himself, to fix his price, or to choose his market. Every landholder and manufacturer is obliged to 
 convey the produce of his labour to some central depot, where it is purchased by the agents of 
 government at fixed prices ; and all articles must be marked, otherwise they cannot be legally sold. 
 Even in the speculations of foreign trade, the pasha claims the right of taking a share with the 
 merchants, so far at least as to advance funds, and enjoy a portion of the profit. The commerce 
 may be divided into the inland and caravan trade ; the Red sea trade ; and the Mediterranean trade. 
 
 The Inland and Caravan Trade. 
 
 The chief commercial city of the interior is Cairo, but its trade has of late years much diminish- 
 ed, having ceased to be a depot, as it formerly was, both for articles of export and import. Alex- 
 andria, from the greater facilities which its position offers, has supplanted it in importance, and 
 Cairo is now a great market only for gums, and some other secondary articles. Of late there has 
 been a considerable export of diamonds and other precious stones to the East Indies, especially 
 to Calcutta ; but there is no English establishment, and the stocks of manufactures which exist 
 are principally for the consumption of the place, the buyers for the interior finding it more 
 advantageous to supply themselves from the warehouses of the importers at Alexandria. 
 
 The ordinary communication between Alexandria and Cairo is by the Mahmoudieh canal, which 
 joins the Nile at Atfeh. Indeed this canal and the Nile are the most active, not to say the only 
 channels of communication for the principal markets of Egypt. By boats of from 4 or 5 tons 
 burden to vessels of 120, there is a perpetual intercourse on these two main arteries of commerce. 
 Boulaq, the port of Cairo, and Atfeh, where the canal joins the Nile, are the principal places of 
 shipment and landing. 
 
 There is, as already explained [Caravan], a yearly caravan of pilgrims from Cairo to Mecca, 
 and their transit through Egypt, on their way to and from Arabia, will always create a consider- 
 able number of commercial transactions. The governor of Atfeh informed Dr Bowring, that the 
 number who passed up the Nile to the holy cities was, yearly, from 20,000 to 25,000 ; but this esti- 
 mate the doctor thought to be somewhat exaggerated. The caravan trade with the interior of Africa 
 and with the Barbary States is also much associated with the pilgrimage to Mecca, as the hadjis 
 generally join the great yearly caravan which leaves Cairo. The imports from Dongola, Darfur, 
 Sennaar, and other African countries to the south of the first cataract, are now principally confined 
 to negroes. A few elephants' teeth, rhinoceros' horns, and ostrich feathers; some gums, sesame, 
 aloes, tamarinds, natron, and a small quantity of gold ornaments (groups), and gold-dust, are the 
 chief articles of commerce. The amount of customs received averages about 20,000 purses, 
 or £100,000 per annum. It has been long a favourite object of the pasha to extend the trade with 
 the regions to the south of his territories ; and so great is their productive power, that, under a 
 proper system, it is no doubt susceptible of an enormous augmentation. It was indeed formerly 
 very considerable, but the heavy duties exacted by his highness have led to its abandonment by 
 the Frank merchants. The article of gums, according to the best information obtained by Dr 
 Bowring, might be produced to a very large extent in Sennaar. Kordofan alone would give yearly, 
 he was assured, 8000 loads, each of 550 rottoli. The impediments which the commercial inter- 
 course with the interior has experienced in Egypt have forced it into other channels ; and the 
 African traders now carry their goods to the Barbary States, and even to the distant ports of 
 Zanzibar and other possessions of the S. E. coast of Africa subject to the Imaum of Muscat, who 
 has of late held out great encouragement to commerce in that quarter. (Report, pp. 64, 67-) 
 
 The Red Sea Trade. 
 The two principal ports of Egypt on the Red sea are, Suez, at the head of that gulf, and Cosxeir, 
 about 300 miles further south/ These ports communicate with Cairo and Keneh respectively. 
 Their chief exports are grain, butter, and sugar, sent mostly to Jidda and Yembo ; their imports, 
 coffee, spices, silks, and piece goods. Keneh has generally sent large quantities of wheat to Arabia, 
 sometimes as much as 200,000 ardebs per annum. The late augmented number of travellers from 
 and to the East Indies, by way of Egypt, has increased the importance of both these ports, and 
 particularly of Suez, which is that resorted to by the Bombay steam-vessels. Camels ordinarily 
 perform the journey in three days from Cairo to Suez, and in four from Keneh to Cosseir. The 
 roads are now so safe that there is no accumulation into caravans ; but goods are conveyed as they 
 are ready with the utmost regularity and security. 
 
EGY 
 
 277 
 
 EJO 
 
 The Mediterranean Trade. 
 
 The great emporium of this trade, and the link which connects Egypt with Europe, is Alexan- 
 dria, a celebrated seaport, King in lat. 31° 13' N., and long. 29° 53' E. It is situated at the western 
 extremity of the Egyptian coast, upon a neck of land between the sea and the bed of the old lake 
 Mareotis ; pop. 60,000. There are two ports ; the best being the old one, on the W. side of 
 the city, in which, though the entrance is rather narrow and difficult, ships may ride in from 22 
 to 40 feet water ; and there is good anchorage all along the shore. The small new harbour, on the 
 E. side of the town, is exposed, and otherwise very inferior. Alexandria communicates with the 
 Nile bv means of the Mahmoudieh canal, already noticed. This was an ancient work, but it 
 had fallen into disrepair, and was useless until restored by the present pasha in 1819. Exports, 
 mainly cotton-wool ; also rice, corn, opium, indigo, dates, gums, incense, dried fruit, coffee, senna 
 and other medicines, hemp, linseed, mats, ostrich feathers, soda, skins, mother-of-pearl, and a 
 variety of other articles ; the quantity of corn exported, especially wheat, was formerly considerable, 
 but it has gradually diminished, in consequence of the greater encouragement afforded by the pasha 
 to the growth of cotton. This last, as also indigo and gums, are mostly sent to Trieste, Leghorn, 
 Liverpool, and Marseilles ; the rice and opium to Smyrna, Constantinople, and the Greek islands. 
 Imports — from Great Britain, chiefly cotton manufactures, especially white cotton cloth, yarn and 
 twist, hardware, arms, machinery, earthenware, and coals ; from France, Switzerland, Italy, and 
 Germany, are received wines, spirits, oils, cotton manufactures, silks (principally gros de Naples 
 and lustrings), articles of dress, furniture, hardware, trinkets, and other commodities suited not 
 only to Egypt, but the interior of Africa ; from Austria, timber for building and fuel (a valuable im- 
 port) ; from Turkey and the Greek isles, silks, tobacco, oils, wood, and fruits ; from Syria and Asia 
 Minor, carpets, especially small prayer carpets, tobacco, figs, soap, and other necessaries. The value 
 of the exports is estimated at about 2\ millions sterling ; that of the imports at half a million more. 
 
 According to the monopolizing system of the pasha, the whole of the commodities, the produce 
 of Egypt as well as of the adjacent countries under his influence, are purchased for him in the first 
 instance ; the prohibition of trading in them applying to every one, under the penalty of con- 
 fiscation. The whole are collected in Alexandria, where they are sold by public auction, the 
 upset price being fixed according to the latest report of the markets. 
 
 The onlv other ports on the Mediterranean side are, Damietta, situated in 31° 25' N., 31° 47' E., 
 near the mouth of the eastern branch of the Nile ; and Rosetta, in 31° 25' N., 30° 26' E., at the 
 mouth of the western branch. These would by their position seem to offer great advantages, 
 but the badness of their harbours, and the facility which is now given by the Mahmoudieh 
 canal, have caused a gradual declension of their trade. That which exists is mainly with Syria, 
 Cyprus, and Candia. English vessels seldom enter; though, occasionally, one from the Ionian 
 Islands visits Damietta. Rice is the principal article of export, but its cultivation is much on the 
 decline. 
 
 Measures, Weights, Monies, Duties, &c. 
 
 Measures and Weifihts.— It is difficult to give 
 any exact standard of Egyptian weights and mea- 
 sures. They not only vary in different parts of 
 the country, but have been changed by capricious 
 legislation in the same way in which the currency 
 has been at different times altered by firmans 
 from Constantinople. The following are those in 
 most general use : — 
 
 The common Egyptian cubit = 22? Imp. inches; 
 the Indian cubit, chiefly used for Indian goods. 
 = 25 Imp. inches ; the cubit of Constantinople, 
 used for measuring European cloth, = 26£ Imp. 
 inches. The malakha, the distance from one sta- 
 tion to another, is a vague measure, varying from 
 2 to 6 miles. 
 
 The feddan, land-measure, approaches an Im- 
 perial acre. The ardeb, corn-measure, of 6 wey- 
 belis, or 24 roobas, equal 5 English bushels 
 
 The kirat = 3 troy grains ; the dram or dirhem 
 = 48 troy grains ; the oke of 4(H) drams = 2f lbs. 
 avoirdupois nearly ; the rottolo or pound = 144 
 drams = 15j oz. avoird. nearly ; the oke = 2J 
 rottolis ; the cantar of 36 okes", or 100 rottoli = 
 983 lbs. avoird. nearly. 
 
 Money. — The integer of account is the piastre 
 or ckirsh (of 40 fuddahs or paras), a base coin of 
 silver and copper, usually estimated at about 2|d. 
 sterling, or 100 piastres = £1 ; but this is subject 
 to variation with the exchange. The smallest 
 Egyptian coin is thefuddah ; there are also pieces 
 of 5, 10, and 20 fuddahs. The saadeeyeh and 
 
 kheyreeyeh are small gold coins, equal the former 
 to 4", the latter to 9 piastres. The coins of Con- 
 stantinople, though current, are rare. European 
 and American dollars, doubloons, sequins, and 
 sovereigns are also in circulation. The ryal is a 
 nominal money = 90 fuddahs. The kees, or 
 purse = 500 piastres, or about £5 ; the khuzneh, 
 or treasury = 1000 purses. 
 
 The Duties on imports or exports are 3 per 
 cent. ; but on most of the produce sold by the 
 government no duty is charged, except on cot- 
 ton, which is subject to an impost of 6& piastres 
 per cantar. " Generally speaking," says Dr 
 Bowring, " there are few complaints of the 
 amount of the duties in Egypt, or the manner in 
 which they are levied. British merchants pass 
 their goods at their own valuation, and it is very 
 rarely that a question arises as to the sum of 
 duty with which they ought to be charged ; and 
 I am assured that it is seldom that a bale of 
 merchandise is opened in order to verify the 
 statements of any respectable European im- 
 porter." {Report, p. 69.) 
 
 Finances. — The present revenues of Egypt 
 were stated bv the government to Dr Bowring 
 to be 900,000 purses, or £4,500,000 ; but no de- 
 tails were furnished. The principal source of 
 income is the miri, or land-tax, which appears 
 to be considered throughout Egypt as an equi- 
 valent for rent. There is no national debt of 
 any sort. S 
 
 EIMER, a German wine measure, varying in different places from about 12 to 
 16 gallons; the Munich eimer, however, is only 8| gallons. 
 
 EJOO, or INDIAN HEMP, a black fibrous substance resembling coarse horse- 
 hair, which protrudes itself in large tufts from between the corticeous scales of the 
 sago palm. The length of the fibre runs from 1 to I5 foot, and each tuft contains 
 about 6 lbs. of the hemp. Ejoo cable is said to be considerably stronger than 
 
ELA 278 EMB 
 
 coir ; and it undergoes a longer exposure to sun and rain alternately, without 
 experiencing any effectual damage. It has of late attracted notice, but hitherto has 
 been used chiefly by the Malays about the Straits of Malacca. 
 
 ELATERIUM. [Cucumber.] 
 
 ELDER, a common tree (Sambucus niger), various parts of which, especially the 
 expressed juice of the berries, are occasionally used in medicine as a purgative. 
 The tree is frequent in hedges in this country; it flowers in June, and ripens its 
 fruit in September. 
 
 ELEMI, a resinous substance obtained from incisions made during dry weather 
 through the bark of the Amyris elemifera, a tree which grows in Brazil and other 
 parts of S. America. It is brought to us in yellow, tender, transparent lumps, 
 which readily soften by the heat of the hand, have a strong aromatic odour, a hot 
 spicy taste, and contain about 12£ per cent, of ethereous oil. Elemi is used in 
 making lacquer, to give toughness to the varnish. 
 
 ELEPHANTS' TEETH. [Ivory.] 
 
 ELL, a measure of length now superseded in the United Kingdom by the Im- 
 perial yard. The English ell = 45 inches; the Scottish ell = 37'0598 inches; the 
 Flemish ell = 27 inches. In Hamburg it is equal 22|, in Leipzic, 22|, and in 
 Prussia, 26^ inches nearly. 
 
 ELM, a graceful timber-tree (Ulmus) which attains a large size, and lives to a 
 great age. There are about fifteen species. The common elm (U. campestris) is 
 said to be indigenous to the southern part of this island. It is a tough and strong 
 timber, but coarse and open in the grain, more especially when it has grown upon 
 very rich land. Hence that which grows in the more fertile parts of England is 
 far inferior to the produce of the midland counties of Scotland; the latter, which 
 seems to be the mountain elm (U. montana), being much closer in the grain, harder, 
 more handsome, and taking a finer polish. The English is seldom used but fol 
 common purposes, such as casks, coffins, and presses, while of the Scottish, chairs 
 and other articles of furniture are made. Elm timber is quite unfit for build- 
 ing, on account of its tendency to warp and shrink during drought, and expand 
 when moist; but if wholly under water it answers well; and bolts and nails drive 
 better into it than into any other wood. It is also adapted for the external kee. 
 of ships, and for the planks nearest to it, as these are seldom exposed to the air; 
 the same qualities fit it for piles in the construction of bridges and harbours ; 
 though it should never be used above the low-water mark. 
 
 EMBARGO, a temporary injunction by the supreme government of a country 
 prohibiting individuals or commodities from being conveyed beyond seas, or vessels 
 from leaving their ports. There are two kinds of embargo, the one where the 
 sovereign detains the vessels of an adverse nation in his harbours, the other where he 
 suspends the sailing of those of his own subjects. The former generally takes place 
 on a declaration of war, and is sanctioned by the law of nations ; the latter is a 
 matter of internal administration, involving, in this country, questions asto the power 
 of the crown. On the issuing of a declaration of war, it has become, by the practice 
 of Europe, generally the first step, to lay an embargo on such vessels of the country 
 declared against as may happen to be in the ports of the government declaring. 
 This step is reconciled with the old principles of the law of nations by the view, 
 that the casus belli and virtual declaration will have taken place before the literal 
 proclamation. With regard to the right of placing an embargo on British ships 
 or subjects, it is of a wider range in time of war than in time of peace, and seems 
 in the former case to embrace all those occasions where the prohibition can be pre- 
 sumed necessary or useful to the national defence. In time of peace, however, the 
 crown must exercise the right within the limits which the law allows, the extent 
 of which is somewhat doubtful. In 1766, a proclamation was issued prohibiting the 
 exportation of corn, on account of the risk of famine; but it was thought necessary 
 to pass an act of indemnity (7 Geo. III. c. 7), which characterized the order as one 
 that " could not be justified by law, but was so much for the service of the public, 
 and so necessary for the safety and preservation of his Majesty's subjects, that it 
 ought to be justified by Act of Parliament." The proprietors of the embargoed 
 ships were indemnified, which they would not have been had the embargo been 
 legal. Loss by embargo is one of those which underwriters have to make good ; 
 while a breach of embargo is one of those breaches of warranty which release them 
 from their obligation. An embargo laid on by the government of the country in 
 whose port a vessel is, being but a temporary suspension, does not dissolve a con- 
 tract for the employment of the vessel. But in the case of a British subject freight- 
 ing a vessel which is subject to embargo on account of hostility to the country to 
 
EME 279 EMI 
 
 which the ship belongs, he will not be responsible for terminating the contract if 
 the object of the voyage would be likely to be defeated by delay. (Chitty on L. 
 of Nation*. 68-73. Abbot, 429-431. Marshall, 511.) 
 
 EMERALD, a beautiful ornamental stone of a peculiar green colour, which it 
 derives from the intermixture of a small proportion of chrome. The common form 
 of its crystal is the hexahedral prism; transparent or translucent; lustre vitreous. 
 Sp. gr. 275. It scarcely differs from bervL except in colour. Localities, Egypt, 
 New Granada, Hindostan, Germany. " The most splendid crystals of emerald 
 occur in a vein of magnesian limestone, which traverses a hornblende rock at Muso, 
 near Santa Fe de Bogota, in New Granada; some of these have been found exceed- 
 ing two inches in length and breadth. Less distinct varieties occur at Mount 
 Zalora, in Upper Egypt, the only locality of emerald with which the ancients are 
 believed to have been acquainted." {Phillips' Mineralogy.) 
 
 EMERY, a granular variety of corundum usually mixed with iron ore. Its 
 colour is intermediate between grayish black and blueish gray. Lustre glistening 
 and adamantine. Sp. gr. 4. It occurs abundantly in the isle of Naxos, and at 
 Smyrna. It is used for grinding and polishing hard minerals and metals. 
 
 EMIGRANT, in a general sense, is a person who leaves a country with all his 
 to settle permanently in another, but it is more commonly applied re- 
 
 strictedly to an individual who leaves an old and thickly-settled country, to establish 
 himself in one where there is abundance of land that has never been cultivated, and 
 a thinly-scattered population. Emigration to new countries is a necessary con- 
 sequence of the constitution of man and society; but in order that it may be a suc- 
 cessful undertaking, it is essential that it should include both capitalists and 
 labourers, or persons who combine both characters. The abstraction of capital 
 and industry might seem so much good taken from the mother country, but tnis is 
 outweighed by greater advantages. A system of emigration, based upon right 
 principles, is calculated to keep the pressure of population upon the means of sub- 
 sistence, in an old country, constantly in a healthy condition ; while the emigrants 
 often retain in their new settlements, through the medium of commercial exchange, 
 a connexion with the parent state, which is ultimately much more productive of 
 wealth to it than if they had never withdrawn. Thus many who settle in North 
 America or Australia, with nothing but their sinews and their industry, become 
 the possessors of land and flocks, and purchase much more of the products of 
 British labour and capital than if they had remained at home. 
 
 The emigrants from this country have hitherto mostly proceeded to the United 
 States and Canada ; but of late a considerable number have also gone to Australia, 
 and recently not a few to New Zealand. The greatest number of persons who 
 have hitherto emigrated in any one year was in 1832, when, according to the public 
 accounts, they amounted to 103,313 ; of whom there went to our North American 
 colonies, 66,339 ; United States, 32,980 ; Australian settlements, 3792 ; and Cape 
 of Good Hope, 202. The official statements of the number of emigrants are, 
 however, almost necessarily defective, as many persons proceed from the British 
 islands as emigrants on board vessels which are not wholly devoted to the con- 
 veyance of passengers, and of whom no record is kept at the custom-house. It ought 
 also to be noticed, in reference to the above-mentioned distribution of emigrants, 
 that a large proportion of those who proceed to the United States have no intention 
 of remaining there, but, in proceeding to Upper Canada, take the route of New 
 York in preference to the St Lawrence, the navigation of which is both tedious 
 and dangerous. The greater part of the emigrants from the United Kingdom are 
 natives of Ireland. 
 
 The following is, in general terms, the nature of the conditions on which public 
 lands can be acquired in the colonies :— In the Port Phillip district of New South 
 Wales, and in Western and Southern Australia, they are sold at a fixed price, 
 which is for the present established at £1 per acre. In the following colonies sales 
 are made by auction, and take place at certain periods, the land being offered at 
 these respective upset prices; namely., Sydney district of New South Wales, com- 
 prising at present all parts except the Port Phillip district, 12s. per acre; Van Die- 
 men's Land, 12s. ; Ceylon, 5s. ; New Brunswick, 2s. 6d. The Canadian rates can- 
 not be stated with certainty, until after they shall have been revised by the united 
 colonial legislature, now in the course of being assembled. In the Port Phillip 
 district, and in Western Australia, the land is divided into lots of 320 acres, or 
 half a square mile. In Canada, the lot has generally been 200 acres ; in Ceylon, 
 100 acres ; in Van Diemen's Land and the Sydney district of New South Wales, 
 the size of the lot is one square mile, except undo* special circumstances. 
 
EMI 
 
 280 
 
 ENA 
 
 In New South Wales, which was founded as a penal settlement, the supply of 
 labour has been chiefly furnished by convicts ; and this system, though in less 
 favour than formerly, is still continued. With the view, however, of facilitating 
 voluntary emigration, government now grants a free passage to labourers and 
 mechanics accustomed to out-door work and not exceeding 35 years of age, pro- 
 ceeding to that colony or Van Diemen's Land. A similar advantage is granted by 
 the South Australian Company and the New Zealand Company to labouring emi- 
 grants from the United Kingdom to their respective territories, the funds for that 
 purpose being derived from the sale of their lands, — a purpose to which they are 
 specially appropriated ; but no system of this kind has hitherto been established in 
 reference to Canada or the other colonies. See Emigration. Supplement. 
 
 Most of the emigrants from this country being persons in humble life, unac- 
 quainted with shipping, and the precautions necessary to ensure safety, conve- 
 nience, and economy, it has been of late years found necessary to place emigration 
 vessels under statutory regulations. The following is an abstract of those at 
 present in force : — 
 
 Abstract of the Passengers' Act, 5 & 6 Wm. IV, c. 53 (1835). 
 
 § 1. Act of Geo. IV. c. 21 repealed. 
 
 Number allowed on Board, § 2. No ship 
 carrying passengers from the U. K., Channel 
 Islands, or Man, to any place out of Europe, 
 shall carry more than 3 persons (including master 
 and crew) for every 5 register tons of such ship ; 
 and no ship having more than one deck shall carry 
 
 f>assengers upon such voyage, unless she be at 
 east 5J feet in height between decks ; and no ship 
 having only one deck allowed, unless a platform 
 be laid beneath such deck, so as to afford a space 
 5k feet high, and no ship shall have more than 
 2 tiers of berths, while in ships having 2 tiers, 
 there must be an interval of at least 6 inches 
 between the deck or platform and the floor of 
 the lower tier: provided that whatever be the 
 ship's tonnage, no greater number of passengers 
 shall be allowed than after the rate of 1 person 
 for every 10 superficial feet of the lower deck 
 unoccupied by goods or stores not being pas- 
 sengers' luggage, if such ship shall not have to 
 pass the line on her voyage, or after the rate of 
 1 person for every 15 clear superficial feet if such 
 ship have to pass the line. 
 
 Water and Provisions, § 3. No ship as afore- 
 said shall be cleared out unless there be on board 
 good provisions for the use of the passengers, 
 over and above the victualling of the crew, as 
 follows ;— namely, 5 gallons of water to every 
 week of the computed voyage for every passenger, 
 such water being carried in tanks or sweet casks, 
 and 7 lbs. of bread, biscuit, oatmeal, or bread- 
 stuffs to every such week for everv passenger. 
 To the extent of one-third of such supply, 7 lbs. 
 of potatoes may beheld equivalent to 1 lb. of bread, 
 biscuit, oatmeal, or bread-stuffs, in the supply of 
 any ship bound to N. America. When any ship 
 shall be destined to call at a place in the course 
 of her voyage for the purpose of filling up her 
 water, a supply at the above rate for every week 
 of the computed voyage to such place shall be 
 deemed a compliance with the act. 
 
 Computed Time of Voyage, § 4. The number 
 of weeks deemed necessary for a voyage shall be 
 computed according to the following rule : name- 
 ly, for a voyage to N. America, 10 weeks ; to S. 
 America, on the Atlantic, or to the XV. coast of 
 Africa, 12 weeks ; to the Cape of Good Hope, 
 15 weeks ; to the Mauritius 18 weeks ; any other 
 voyage, 24 weeks. S 
 
 Survey of Provisions and Berthage, §5. Before 
 any such ship shall be cleared, the officers of 
 customs shall survey, or cause to be surveyed by 
 some competent person, the provisions, 'water, 
 and berths as aforesaid, and shall ascertain that 
 there is besides an ample supply of water and 
 stores for the crew. 
 
 Prices of Provisions, § 6. The master shall 
 cause a table to be drawn up of the prices at 
 which stores are to be sold by any person on 
 board, and no higher prices shall be charged 
 during the voyage ; but this shall not be con- 
 strued as requiring the master to provide stores 
 for sale to passengers who have contracted to 
 victual themselves. 
 
 Miscellaneous Enactments, § 7- If doubts arise 
 as to seaworthiness of ship, which are not re- 
 moved to the satisfaction of the principal officer 
 of customs, the ship is to be surveyed by two com- 
 petent persons. 
 
 § 8. Two copies or abstracts of this act shall 
 be kept on board, one of which to be furnished 
 by master for perusal of passengers when required. 
 
 § 9. Every such ship carrying (except to N. 
 America) 100 passengers, must have a medical 
 practitioner, with the requisite medicines, on 
 board. 
 
 § 10. Such ships prohibited from exporting 
 spirits. 
 
 § 11. 3Iaster to deliver list of passengers to 
 officer of customs. 
 
 § 12. Passengers not to be landed at place not 
 contracted for. 
 
 § 13. Two children under 14 years, but above 
 7, or three under 7» shall be reckoned as one 
 person ; infants under 12 months not counted. 
 
 § 14. Unless ship detained by stress of weather, 
 or some other unavoidable cause, passengers to 
 be victualled during any detention which may 
 take place beyond time stipulated. 
 
 § 15. Passengers to be maintained for 48 hours 
 after their arrival. 
 
 § 16-19. Penalties, &c. 
 
 § 20. This act not to extend to ships carrying 
 passengers in cases where the number of persons, 
 computed as before, shall not exceed 1 for every 
 5 tons, nor to government ships. 
 
 § 21. Bahamas, and places in America south- 
 ward thereof, shall be deemed to be in S. Ame- 
 
 rica. See Passengers' Act- 
 EMPORIUM, or MART, a principal place for the importation and sale of mer- 
 chandise. Such a place was formerly called a staple. 
 
 ENAMEL (Fr. Email. Ger. Schmelz. It. Smalto), a kind of glass of which 
 there are several varieties, generally opaque and coloured,— always formed by the 
 combination of different metallic oxides, to which certain fusible salts are added, 
 such as the borates, fluates, and phosphates. It is prepared for the use of the 
 
END 281 ERM 
 
 painter in enamel, and for enamelling watch and clock dials, jewellery, and other 
 articles. The best is brought from Venice in round cakes, about six inches in 
 diameter, and half an inch thick. 
 
 ENDOWMENT, in Life Insurance, is a term applied to the assurance of a 
 capital sum on survivorship of time. 
 
 ENGRAVINGS. Those who invent or engrave, or cause to be invented or 
 engraved, works of art, maps or plans, on plates, enjoy a copyright in them for 
 twenty-eight years from the day of publication. (8 Geo. II. c. 13 ; 7 Geo. III. c. 
 38, S§ 1,7; 17 Geo. III. c. 57.) 
 
 ENGROSSING, the purchasing of large quantities of any commodity, in order 
 to sell it again at a high price. [Corn.] 
 
 ENTREPOT, a place into which commodities are imported and stored, with the 
 view of being afterwards re-exported to some other place for consumption. 
 
 ENTRY. [Customs Regulations.] 
 
 EPSOM SALTS (Fr. Sel d' Epsom. Ger. Epsom Salz), or Sulphate of Magnesia, 
 is a well-known saline bitter medicine which derives its name from having been 
 formerly obtained from the springs of Epsom in Surrey. It occurs native, but is usu- 
 ally procured from the bittern remaining after the extraction of sea-salt from sea- 
 water ; it is also largely obtained in some alum- works, and occasionally from saline 
 springs. Besides being used in medicine, it is largely consumed for the preparation 
 of carbonate of magnesia. 
 
 EQUATION OF PAYMENTS. When several sums of money due at different 
 times are owing from one person to another, it is sometimes required to find the 
 time when they may be all discharged in one payment without injury to either 
 party : this is called equating the payments ; and the principle of the rule consists in 
 finding the time when the interest of the sums which are deferred till after they 
 are due is equal to the discount of those which are paid before they are due. 
 1. Reckoning Simplk Interest. 
 
 Rule. — Multiply each sum by the time when it is due, then divide the sum of these products by 
 the total debt; the quotient is the time at which all the money ought to be paid.* 
 
 Example.— A. sum of £300 is due on 2d March ; £350 on 18th March ; and £525 on 17th April ; 
 required an average time for the payment of them all in one sum ? 
 
 The number of days from the 2d to the 18th of March is 16 ; and from the 2d March to the 17th 
 April, 46 ; hence, 
 
 300 X = 
 
 350 X 16 = 5,600 
 525 X 46 = 24,150 
 
 1,175 . . )29,750(25 days from March 2d, or March 27th nearly. 
 
 The distance of time is calculated from the 2d March, because the first sum becoming due on 
 that day, there is no discount to calculate upon it. 
 
 2. Reckoning Compound Interest. 
 Rule. — From the logarithm of the sum of all the debts subtract the logarithm of the sum of the 
 present values of such debts, and divide the remainder by the logarithm of the amount of £1 in a 
 year, at the given rate of interest : the quotient will be the equated time required. (Baily, p. 94.) 
 Example. — Suppose A were indebted to B in the sum of £750, which was to be paid in three 
 instalments ; namely, £250 at the end of li year ; £100 at the end of 2 years ; and the remaining 
 £400 at the end of 4 years ; in what time, reckoning compound interest at 6 per cent., ought the 
 whole to be discharged in one payment ? 
 
 Here we have the sum of all the debts = 750, and the sum of their present values = 634-913963. 
 [Interest and Annuities.] Consequently, 
 
 Log. 750 — Log. 634-913963 -0723463 . OEOO _ „ 
 
 L&W = -0253039 = 2 " 85887 ' ° r * yearS ■"* 313 dayS ' 
 
 ERMINE (Fr. Hermine. Ger. Hermelin. It. Armellina), a species of weasel 
 {Mustela erminea) which produces the most valuable of the furs. It is of per- 
 fect whiteness, except the tip of its tail, which is of a brilliant shining black. The 
 fur of the older animals is preferred to the younger. It is taken by means of snares, 
 
 * This rule is founded on the supposition that we are to find the time when the interest of the 
 sums which are kept till after they are due, is equal to the interest, and not to the discount, of 
 those which are paid before they are due; this, however, is not strictly correct; but since the 
 erroneous practice universally prevails of taking the interest instead of the discount from sums 
 which are due at a future period [Discount], the above rule is generally adopted in business as 
 affording a near and convenient practical approximation. The substitution of interest for discount 
 is, of course, to the advantage of the debtor. 
 
 In Mr Baily's Doctrine of Compound Interest and Annuities (p. 92), an analytical formula is 
 given which brings out the true value for ttco sums ; but where they are more numerous the 
 formula becomes too complicated ; and there is no rule, fit for general use, by which we can obtain 
 the exact values when simple interest only is reckoned. "Where compound* interest, however, is 
 computed, the true equated time mav in all cases be determined with the greatest accuracy by the 
 rule given in § 2. 
 
ERR 282 EXC 
 
 and sometimes shot with blunt arrows. The ermine of the best quality is procured 
 only in the cold regions of Europe and Asia. An animal called the stoat, a kind 
 of ermine, is said to be found in N. America, but it is very inferior to the European 
 
 ERRORS EXCEPTED. [Account.] 
 
 ESPARTO, or SPARTO, a plant (Stipa tenacissima) growing in Spain and 
 Africa, anciently held in esteem for the manufacture of cordage, but now nearly in 
 disuse, except in the countries of its production. It is found wild in places so 
 barren as scarcely to produce any other spontaneous vegetation. At the present 
 time it is used by the Spaniards for various purposes, especially in the manufacture 
 of a kiud of shoe, or rather sandal, called alpergates, much worn by the Catalans. 
 The sparto of Africa is very inferior. 
 
 ESSENCES, either ethereous oils, in which all the fragrance of vegetable pro- 
 ducts reside, or the same combined and diluted with alcohol. 
 
 Essence of Bergamot or Lemon, the essential oil obtained from the lemon and 
 bergamot orange, by expression of the rind. It is yellow, fluid, very fragrant, 
 and is imported from the Mediterranean for the use of perfumers. 
 
 Essence of Spruce is prepared by the decoction of the branches of the fir tree. 
 It is of the colour of treacle, but not so thick, and has a peculiar but not unpleasant 
 taste. It is imported from America, Norway, Russia, and other countries. 
 
 ESSENCE D'ORIENT, a beautiful glistening matter obtained from the scales 
 of a small river fish, the blay or bleak, called in French ablette, a species of Cy- 
 prinus. It is found principally at the base of the scales, and is used in the manu- 
 facture of artificial pearls. 
 
 ESTRICH (Fr. Duvet d'autruche. It. Penna matta di strozzo), the fine soft 
 down which lies immediately under the feathers of the ostrich. The finer kind is 
 occasionally used as a substitute for beaver in the manufacture of hats; the coarser 
 is sometimes fabricated into a species of cloth. 
 
 ETHER, a volatile fluid produced by the distillation of alcohol with an acid. 
 Ethers are of different kinds, as sulphuric ether, nitric ether, &c, each being distin- 
 guished by the name of the acid by which it is formed. The most common is sulphuric 
 ether, a transparent, colourless, inflammable fluid, of a very fragrant odour and 
 hot pungent taste. It is eminently volatile, and during its evaporation it produces 
 an intense degree of cold. Sp. gr. about 740. It is used for dissolving oils and 
 resins, and for a variety of medical and philosophical purposes. 
 
 EUPHORBIUM (Fr. Euphorbe. Arab. Aka nafsah, Farfiyan Gholak kala), a 
 resinous substance produced from several species of African Euphorbia, and more 
 particularly from a kind growing on the Atlas Mountains. It is imported from 
 Morocco, and occurs in tears or roundish and oblong masses; odour very weak, 
 and taste at first scarcely perceptible, but afterwards acrid and corrosive. Euphor- 
 bium is a strong medicinal drug ; the cathartic quality being rather too vigorous 
 for European practice. It is said that the bark of the plant is greatly valued by the 
 native tanners, and that to its singular effects the leather of Morocco owes its chief 
 pre-eminence. 
 
 EXCHANGE, a term that is used in reference to those transactions by which 
 the debts of persons residing at a distance from their creditors are liquidated 
 without the transmission of money ; being employed by merchants both to desig- 
 nate the bills or negotiable instruments by which transactions of this kind are 
 conducted, and the varying price or course of such instruments in the market. 
 The nature, constitution, and negotiation of Bills of Exchange having been 
 already explained under that head, the present article will be devoted to an 
 explanation of the principles by which exchange transactions are regulated ; to 
 which will be added practical formulae for the ordinary calculations that occur 
 in such transactions. 
 
 A foreign bill of exchange is an order addressed to a person residing abroad, 
 directing him to pay a determinate sum of foreign money to the person in whose 
 favour it is drawn, or to his order. The amount of foreign money, therefore, to 
 be paid is fixed by the bill; but the amount of British money (or money of the 
 country in which the drawer resides), to be given for the purchase of the bill, is by 
 no means fixed, but is continually varying. 
 
 The causes which influence these variations will be best explained by tracing 
 separately the circumstances determining the price of bills ; namely, first, the 
 value of the money in which they are to be paid compared with that with which 
 they are bought, termed the nominal exchange; secondly, their abundance or 
 scarcity in the market compared with the demand for them, termed the real ex- 
 
EXC 283 EXC 
 
 change ; while the combined effect of the real and the nominal exchange will be 
 afterwards considered in treating of the computed exchange. 
 
 The Nominal Exchange. 
 
 The coins in which the monies of account of different countries are reckoned 
 vary generally not only in denomination, but in weight and fineness, and conse- 
 quently in exchangeable value. Moreover, some consist of silver, others of gold. 
 Thus the ruble is the money integer of Russia, the guilder that of Holland, the 
 franc that of France, and the pound sterling that of Britain. But the ruble con- 
 tains nearly twice as much silver as the guilder, and the guilder about twice as 
 much as the franc, while the pound sterling is represented by a gold coin. 
 
 The relative value of the monies of different countries is in general determined 
 according to the quantity of pure silver or pure gold contained in the coins which 
 form the principal media of payment, or legal tender, — alloy never being taken 
 into account; and between two countries employing the same metal for their stand- 
 ard, that sum of the money of either of the two which in point of intrinsic worth 
 is precisely equal to a given sum of the other, that is, contains precisely an equal 
 weight of silver or gold of the same fineness, is usually termed the Par of Exchange.* 
 Between two countries employing the one silver and the other gold, there can be 
 no invariable par of exchange, as the relative value of these metals is subject to 
 fluctuation; but as this fluctuation has a very limited range, it has been customary 
 to assume a par, founded on their average prices in the market. 
 
 In the United Kingdom, gold coin being the legal tender, there is properly no 
 par of exchange, except with the United States, Sicily, and a few of the minor 
 bill markets on the Continent, where the established media of payment also 
 consist of gold. With countries or places which use silver, only an average or 
 approximate par can be stated. In the valuations of foreign monies in the present 
 work, this approximate par is given on the assumption that the proportionate 
 value of gold to silver is as 15^ to 1; standard gold being estimated at its fixed 
 mint price of £3, 17s. lOM., and standard silver at its average market price of 5s. 
 per ounce. 
 
 Of the two terms of comparison between the money of one place and that of 
 another, one is fixed, the other is variable. The place whose money is reckoned at 
 the fixed price is, in commercial language, said to receive the variable price ; the 
 other is said to give the variable price. Hence the higher the exchange between 
 any two places, the more it is in favour of that which receives the variable price ; 
 the lower, the more in favour of that which gives the variable price; — the exchange 
 being said to be favourable or unfavourable to any place, according as a smaller or 
 larger amount of the currency of that place is required for discharging a given 
 amount of foreign payments. Thus London receives from Paris a variable number 
 of francs and centimes for £1 sterling; and taking the par at 25 francs 34 centimes 
 for £1, exchange will be 5 per cent, in favour of London when it rises to 26 francs 
 62 centimes, and about 5 per cent, against London when it falls to 24 francs 7 
 centimes. 
 
 Supposing a par to be established, the fluctuations in the nominal price of bills 
 drawn by one country upon another will arise principally from an alteration in 
 the weight or fineness of the coin of either of the countries, or an alteration in the 
 total amount of the currency of either country, without a corresponding alteration 
 in the commodities to be circulated. When the currency of a country is depre- 
 ciated, whether from degradation of the coin, or from relative overissue, it is im- 
 possible that the same amount of it should purchase the same sum of foreign money 
 as before its depreciation. A bill on a foreign country, being in fact an order for 
 payment of a given sum of foreign money, will not be sold unless for such an 
 increased amount of the depreciated currency as will counterbalance the diminution 
 in its value; in other words, foreign bills will bear a premium in proportion to the 
 depreciation. In the same manner, a bill on the country where the currency is 
 
 * This definition of the intrinsic par of exchange, which is that given in the Report of the Bul- 
 lion Committee of the House of Commons in 1810, and generally understood by merchants, is 
 objected to by economists in so far as it does not make allowance for the difference in value of the 
 precious metals in different countries, owing to the greater facilities enjoyed by some in procuring 
 these metals, from their vicinity to the mines or otherwise ; but the difference in value thus occa- 
 sioned is in general very trifling, particularly in Europe, throughout which, according to the late 
 M. Rothschild, gold finds its level to within i per cent. ; and the above is the only sense in which 
 the term par can be employed in showing the average relative value of the currencies of different 
 countries by comparison of their coins. For the practical purposes of the bullion merchant or 
 exchange speculator, however, the par of the day must be carefully deduced from the market 
 prices of the metals in the manner explained below (page 290). 
 
EXC 284 EXC 
 
 depreciated will be bought abroad, where money retains its value, for a much less 
 nominal sum than the amount for which it is drawn; or, in other words, will be at 
 a discount. 
 
 Hence, after a par of exchange has been established, an alteration in the value 
 of money, whether it arises from degradation of the coin, or depreciation of the coin 
 or paper from relative overissue, will alike affect the price of a foreign bill, and be 
 made evident by an unfavourable nominal exchange. 
 
 In the process of restoration of a currency, after being depreciated, it is scarcely 
 necessary to observe that these phenomena will be reversed. 
 The Real Exchange. 
 
 We now proceed to consider the manner in which the market price of bills is 
 affected by their abundance or scarcity, compared with the demand for them on 
 which depend the alterations of the real exchange ; and as in treating of the 
 nominal exchange, we endeavoured to preserve the subject distinct from the real 
 exchange, by supposing the price of foreign bills to be unaffected by any varia- 
 tion in their abundance or scarcity ; so in tracing the effect of the real exchange 
 we shall suppose the state of the nominal exchange to remain unaltered, and that 
 no change takes place in the value of the currencies in the respective countries. 
 
 In the commercial intercourse between two countries, when neither of them im- 
 
 Eorts from the other to a greater amount than it exports to the same country, the 
 ills drawn by the merchants exporting produce will exactly equal in amount the 
 bills drawn on the merchants importing produce, and their mutual debits and 
 credits will be liquidated without the transmission of coin or bullion.* In this 
 case the supply of bills being equal to the demand for them, they will neither bear 
 a premium nor be at a discount, and the real exchange, however the nominal ex- 
 change may alter, will be at par. 
 
 But it seldom or never happens that the exports and imports are so exactly 
 equal as to leave no balance. When the imports are in excess, and more pay- 
 ments have to be made than received, the importer, rather than incur the expense 
 of transmitting coin or bullion, will be induced to give more for a bill of exchange 
 upon a party in the creditor country than the sum for which it is drawn. A com- 
 petition will thus be created among the purchasers of bills upon the creditor country, 
 and the holders will refuse to part with them, except an additional price be given 
 as a premium in proportion to the demand. In the creditor country, on the con- 
 trary, there will be more persons holding than there are wanting bills, and the 
 excess above the demand can only be converted into coin or bullion by sending 
 them to the place upon which they are drawn. But this operation involving the 
 expense and risk attending the transit of the bullion, the holder of a bill on the 
 creditor country, if he be desirous of converting it into money, will be content to 
 receive something less than its amount. There will therefore be in the creditor 
 country a competition to sell, and bills will be at a discount in proportion to the 
 supply. The premium in one country will correspond with the discount in the 
 other. But neither the premium nor the discount can for any long time exceed 
 the expense of transmitting bullion, which therefore forms the natural limit to the 
 fluctuations of the real exchange between any two countries. 
 
 The transit of bullion, however (unless from countries producing the precious 
 metals), rarely occurs except in small quantities : international accounts are 
 never closed ; and various facilities exist for warding off such a state of things 
 as would take place if a periodical settlement were enforced as in accounts between 
 individuals. 
 
 1st, The tendency of an unfavourable state of the real exchange is to stimulate 
 exportation and check importation. Commodities which would only just pay 
 with exchange at par, would yield a profit sufficient to induce exportation, where 
 the exporter could secure 1 or 2 per cent, more for the draft upon his foreign 
 debtor. On the other hand, an imported commodity which was only just paying 
 
 * The balance of trade and the balance of payments are here assumed to be identical,— a suppo- 
 sition true in the general case, and convenient for illustration. When, however, two countries sell 
 to each other on unequal terms of credit, these two balances may be materially different ; and, as 
 it is by the balance or payments that the market rate of exchange is regulated, their distinction 
 must be borne in mind, — more especially in reference to the exchanges of this country, in which 
 
 the exporters almost invariably allow a much longer credit than is received by the importers. The 
 balance of trade between the United States and Great Britain is believed to have been in favour of 
 the latter from the date of planting the first British colony in America, — of late years to the amount 
 sometimes of one hundred millions of dollars or upwards ; yet, owing to the longer credit allowed 
 by our traders, the exchange has not always been in our favour, but, on the contrary, has been so 
 controlled by the balance of payments as frequently to have been against us> 
 
EXC 285 EXC 
 
 when enhance was at par, would cease to yield a profit sufficient to induce impor- 
 tation when the importer should have to pay a premium for a foreign bill if he 
 remit one to his foreign creditor, or a discount added to the invoice price if his 
 creditor draws upon him. Thus, by the stimulus to exportation the supply of bills 
 would be increased, while by the check to importation the demand for those bills 
 would be lessened ; both causes operating to restore the exchange to its natural 
 level or par. In the same manner, a favourable exchange will act as a duty upon 
 exportation, and as a bounty upon importation. In the case of the nominal ex- 
 change, however, these effects would not be produced, as the same fall in the value 
 of the currency which renders the exchange unfavourable, and causes foreign bills 
 to sell at a premium, must increase in an equal degree the price of all commodities ; 
 and vice versa. 
 
 In exporting during an unfavourable state of the exchange, it is plain that the 
 merchant will, as in the ordinary conduct of his business, select those commodi- 
 ties which, besides the premium afforded by his bill, will give him the greatest 
 profit by the difference of price abroad and at home ; and it is not difficult to see 
 that these exports must generally consist of consumable produce, and not bul- 
 lion, which of all commodities is that which is subject to the least variation in its 
 real price. " The annual quantity produced from the mines is very nearly con- 
 stant,— its distribution, from the facility with which it is transported, is exceedingly 
 uniform,— and its value, and consequently its real price, throughout Europe at least, 
 must be considered as nearly the same. Unless then the bounty afforded by the 
 unfavourable state of the real exchange were greater than the expenses attending 
 the transit of bullion, it would be of all others the commodity least likely to be 
 selected by the exporting merchant." (Blake on Exchange, p. 21.) 
 
 '2d, This natural tendency of the exchange to correct itself is promoted by the 
 operations of the bill merchants, who study the exchanges, not only between the 
 place at which they reside and all other places, but also between all those other 
 places themselves, by which means they are generally enabled to realize a profit 
 by buying bills in one place and selling them in another ; — in this way preventing 
 any great fall in the price of bills in those countries in which the supply exceeds 
 the demand, and any great rise in those countries in which the supply happens to 
 be deficient. Sometimes exchange operations are conducted with little outlay of 
 capital. Thus, if a bill merchant in London can sell a bill on Amsterdam at half 
 per cent, premium, and buy one at Paris at half per cent, discount, and with 
 the latter buy one at Paris on Amsterdam at par, he will have gained 1 per cent. 
 by the transaction, without the employment of any capital ; — the bill remitted 
 from Paris to Amsterdam arriving in time to meet the bill drawn there upon his 
 correspondent. Again, a bill merchant, in order to take advantage of a premium 
 on the exchange, may obtain a credit abroad upon which he may draw bills, 
 under the calculation that at some future and not very distant period he will be 
 able to replace the funds at a lower rate of exchange, and thereby realize a profit 
 by the operation. The central points for such transactions are Hamburg, Amster- 
 dam. Vienna, Paris, New York, and above all, London, the great money change of 
 the world. 
 
 M, A variety of other expedients are also occasionally adopted, particularly in 
 the United States, where the extension of credits by the consent of the foreign cre- 
 ditors upon allowing interest for the extended term, and the transmission of public 
 securities, bank, railroad, and canal shares, are all well known levers in the me- 
 chanism of trade, by which the tendency of an unfavourable balance of payments 
 to cause an exportation of bullion is frequently neutralized. 
 
 4th ? When all these measures fail in keeping down the price of bills, and the 
 premium exceeds by a very small amount the expenses of the transit of bullion, its 
 exportation will immediately commence ; for the same uniformity of value and of 
 price which, as already noticed, would prevent bullion being exported before the 
 premium exceeded those expenses, would be the very cause why, as soon as the 
 premium had exceeded that point, it would be immediately chosen as the most 
 eligible for exportation, more especially in the greater exchange markets, where 
 the bullion merchants are generally distinguished for intelligence, large capital, 
 and the small profits upon which they transact their business. The foreign debt 
 will then begin to be paid by the bullion merchants exporting to take advantage 
 of the premium, and their competition will soon bring down the real exchange so 
 as no longer to afford a profit upon the export of this article. The exporters 
 of consumable produce will, during this period, co-operate with the bullion mer- 
 chants ; and when the latter have ceased to derive a profit, the former will still 
 
EXC 286 EXC 
 
 continue their operations, till the exports have been such as to counterbalance 
 the adverse debt, and render the quantity of foreign bills in the market equal to 
 the demand. 
 
 5^, Only a small part, however, of an unfavourable balance can be liquidated 
 by the transit of bullion, as its exportation cannot take place to any considerable 
 degree without affecting the market price of that article itself ; — raising it in the 
 country from which it is sent, and reducing it in that into which it is flowing ; so 
 that if, in the first instance, the difference of price in the home and foreign 
 market were but just sufficient to induce the bullion merchant to export, it is 
 clear that after the change has taken place, the exportation of bullion under the 
 same rate of exchange will cease. " The transit of bullion," says Mr Blake, 
 " from a high or low real exchange is an unnatural transit, not arising from the 
 wants of the country into which it flows, but depending solely on the profits which 
 a temporary pressure for foreign payments affords to the bullion merchants on 
 the sale of foreign bills ; and as soon as the cause that has produced the tem- 
 porary influx subsides (an event that will sooner or later necessarily take place by 
 the import of such ordinary produce as is wanted for the purposes of consumption, 
 and increased enjoyment of the people), the superfluous and unused quantity of 
 bullion that has been accumulated will flow back from the country where 
 its abundance has rendered its real price low, to those nations from which it had 
 been unnaturally sent, and where its scarcity will have rendered its real price 
 high." (P. 33.) 
 
 Hence it appears, that whenever there is a balance of payments due by a'country, 
 the real exchange will become unfavourable, and the price of foreign bills will bear 
 a premium, and vice versa ; that the natural limit to the amount of this premium 
 is the expense of the transit of bullion ; and before it has arrived at that point, the 
 export of ordinary produce will be forced, and its import restrained ; so that the 
 real exchange can scarcely begin to deviate from par, without calling into action a 
 principle that will correct its deviation. 
 
 The Computed Exchange. 
 
 The computed, or actual course of exchange, depends on the combined effect of 
 the nominal and real exchange. These being perfectly independent of each other, 
 it is obvious that if both are favourable, or both unfavourable, the computed ex- 
 change will denote their sum ; that if the one is favourable while the other is un- 
 favourable, it will express their difference ; and that it may be at par, though 
 neither the real nor the nominal exchange are so, provided the unfavourable state 
 of the one be counteracted by the favourable state of the other. The state of the 
 exchange at any particular period is best ascertained by a comparison of the mar- 
 ket with the mint price of bullion ;— the excess of the former above the latter 
 affording in general an accurate measure of the depreciation of the currency. 
 Thus, if the market and mint price of bullion at London and New York exactly 
 corresponded, and if the value of bullion were the same in both places, the nominal 
 exchange would be at par, and whatever variations might occur in the computed 
 or actual course of exchange, would have to be referred to fluctuations in the real 
 exchange, or in other words, in the demand and supply of bills. But if, when the 
 market price of bullion in London is equal to its mint price, it exceeds it 10 per 
 cent, in New York, this proves that New York currency is depreciated 10 per cent., 
 and consequently the nominal exchange between London and New York must be 
 10 per cent, against the latter. Again, if while the value of New York currency 
 was 10 per cent, less than the value of British currency, the computed or actual 
 course of exchange between London and New York was 12 or 13 percent, against 
 the latter, it would show that the real exchange was also against New York to the 
 extent of 2 or 3 per cent. : On the other hand, if the computed exchange was only 
 5 or 6 per cent, against New York, it would show that the real exchange was 5 or 
 4 per cent in its favour. 
 
 The oscillations of the exchange are now unimportant compared with what they 
 were during the last war, when most of the European governments resorted to in- 
 convertible paper money, which, by its overissue and consequent depreciation, 
 disturbed the nominal exchange, while the real exchange was generally more or 
 less influenced by remittances for the maintenance of troops abroad, or on account 
 of foreign subsidies. At present the rates in Wetenhall's " Course of the Ex- 
 change, given below, are all expressed in currency, either metallic, or directly 
 convertible into metallic money, except those on Rio Janeiro, Bahia, and Buenos 
 Ayres, where it consists almost entirely of depreciated paper ; the currencies of 
 
EXC 2 7 EXC 
 
 Denmark, Sweden, and Norway consist chiefly of depreciated paper, but these 
 countries have seldom a direct course with London, their exchange business being 
 generally transacted in banco through the medium of Hamburg. The real 
 exchange is now also, in ordinary times, maintained with considerable steadiness ; 
 the chief fluctuations to which it is liable arising from the effects of favourable or 
 unfavourable seasons on the customary produce of the land. In this country a 
 deficient harvest, actual or anticipated, leads directly to a demand for bills on the 
 foreign wheat ports, and indirectly to a demand for paper upon all places which 
 hold commercial intercourse with such ports, or through which remittances may 
 be made. The unfavourable exchange thus produced, occasions commonly an 
 exportation of bullion ; but it is evident, on the principles already explained, that 
 this efflux can be only of limited amount and temporary duration. 
 
 Besides the circumstances now explained, the price of a bill will of course be 
 influenced by the credit of the parties to it, and by the time which it has to run. 
 In the actual negotiation of bills, however, any small difference of time is not taken 
 into consideration, — a bill at 90 days' date frequently bringing as good a price as 
 one at 75 days' date. Short bills, that is, bills at sight, or at short sight, which is 
 generally 3 days' sight, do not usually bear a price higher than long-dated bills, 
 proportional to the interest for the difference of time, as the latter are preferred for 
 exchange speculations, from their affording an opportunity to wait, if it should be 
 judged expedient, for an improvement in the rate. 
 
 In this country the buying and selling of bills on foreign countries is conducted 
 by brokers, all such transactions centring in the metropolis. In London the days 
 for the negotiation of foreign bills are Tuesdays and Fridays, the Foreign post- 
 days. The brokers go round to the principal merchants, and discover whether 
 they are buyers or sellers ; and a few of the more influential, after ascertaining 
 the'state of "the market, suggest a price at which the greater part of the transac- 
 tions are settled, with such deviations as particular bills may be subject to from 
 their high or low credit. For the bills they buy on one post-day, houses of esta- 
 blished credit pay on the following post-day, when they receive the second and 
 third bills of the set ; — foreign bills being usually drawn in sets of three. The bro- 
 kerage charged on bills is 1 per mille, or j'gth per cent. 
 
 On the evenings of Tuesdays and Fridays, the market rates for bills on all the 
 principal foreign cities, with the current prices of bullion, are published in Weten- 
 nall's " Course of the Exchange," from which the following is extracted : — 
 Coubse gf Exchange, London, April 15, 1862. 
 
 Time. RmU*. Explanations. 
 
 Amsterdam 3 m/d. 11 18i Florins and Stivers for £1. 
 
 Ditto, at sight short 11 15$ Florins and Stivers for £ 1. 
 
 Rotterdam 2 m/d. 11 18§ Florins and Stivers for £1. 
 
 Antwerp 25 474 Florins and Stivers for £1. 
 
 Hamburg 13 Marks and Schillings Banco for £1. 
 
 Altona 13 12$ Marks and Schillings Banco for £1. 
 
 Paris, 3 days' sight short 25 20 Francs and Centimes for £1. 
 
 Ditto 3 m/d. 25 50 Francs and Centimes for £ I. 
 
 Marseilles 25 50 Francs and Centimes for £1. 
 
 Bordeaux 25 50 Francs and Centimes for £1. 
 
 Frankfort (Maine) 119* Kreusers for £1. 
 
 Berlin Dollars and Groschen for £1. 
 
 Vienna 3mld, 13 70 Florins and Kreusers (effective) for £1. 
 
 Trieste 13 70 Florins and Kreusers for £1. 
 
 Leghorn 25 52$ Tuscan Lire and CenreMmi for £1. 
 
 Genoa 25 50 Lire Xuove and Centesimi for £1. 
 
 Milan 25 50 Lire Austriac'ai and Centesimi for £1. 
 
 Venice Pence for 6 Lire Anstriachi 
 
 Naples 40* Pence for 1 Neapolitan Ducat 
 
 Palermo 120 Pence for 1 On Ha. 
 
 Madrid 49$ Pence for 1 Dollar of Plate. 
 
 Cadiz 49 Pence for 1 Dollar of Plate. 
 
 Barcelona Pence for 1 Dollar of Plate. 
 
 Gibraltar... Pence for 1 Hard Dollar. 
 
 Lisbon 60 d/d 53$ Pence for 1 Milreis. 
 
 Oporto 53$ Pence for 1 Milreis 
 
 Petersburg usance 33* Pence for 1 Silver Ruble, 
 
 Rio Janeiro 60 d/s. Pence for 1 Paper Milreis. 
 
 Bania Pence lor 1 Paper Milreis. 
 
 BaenosAyres Pence for 1 Paper Dollar. 
 
 New York 21 d/s. Pence for 1 Dollar. 
 
 Philadelphia Pence for 1 Dollar. 
 
 Price of Bcixiox.— Foreign gold in bars (standard), per ounce ... £3 17 9 
 
 Silver in bars (standard) .05 11 
 
EXC 
 
 288 
 
 EXC 
 
 When the exchange becomes more favourable to London, the foreign rates m 
 the upper part of the list will rise, the sterling rates in the lower part will fall : 
 when the exchange becomes less favourable, the former will fall, the latter will 
 rise. Again, the tendency of bullion is to fall in price as the exchange becomes 
 favourable, and to rise as it becomes unfavourable. 
 
 The Inland Exchange. — The principles now explained are all applicable to 
 the inland exchange ; but, in the United Kingdom at least, the uniform value of 
 the currency renders unnecessary any comparison between the value of the money 
 at the place where the bill is drawn with its value at the place where it is to be 
 paid ; while the constant intercourse maintained between the different parts of the 
 country prevents those fluctuations which occur in the market price of foreign bills. 
 Inland remittances are generally conducted by bankers, who, by having credits in 
 London and other cities, are enabled on all occasions to supply the demands of 
 their customers. The great centre of the inland as well as of the foreign exchange 
 is London, occasioned partly by its immense commerce, and by its currency consist- 
 ing of Bank of England paper, for which the notes of the country banks are ren- 
 dered exchangeable, but chiefly by its being the seat of the government, and the 
 place to which the revenue is remitted. Owing to these circumstances, the exchange 
 between the capital and the other parts of the kingdom is invariably in its favour. 
 The premium for bills on London, or rather letters of credit, the form in which 
 inland remittances are now chiefly made, is usually commuted for a fixed period 
 of time, termed the Par Date. The par date for remittances to London from 
 Edinburgh or Glasgow (exclusive of the 3 days of grace), is 20 days ; while in 
 London, bills or letters of credit on these places are commonly granted without 
 charge. In Liverpool, the banks draw on London at 21 days' date ; sometimes 
 also at 7 days' sight, charging | per cent, of commission. In Dublin and Belfast, 
 bills on London are drawn at 21 days' date, and letters of credit are granted for a 
 premium of £ per cent. 
 
 FORMULAE FOR EXCHANGE CALCULATIONS. 
 
 The rules for performing exchange calculations having been already fully ex- 
 plained, under the head Chain Rule, we shall here confine ourselves merely to 
 a selection of formulae ; giving, in the first place, those applicable to direct 
 remittances, and afterwards a few examples in indirect exchanges and bullion 
 operations. 
 
 DIRECT EXCHANGES. 
 
 LONDON ON AMSTERDAM. 
 
 Exchange 12 fl. 4| stivers. 
 1000 florins ? 
 1 florin = 20 stivers. 
 244 J stivers = £1. 
 
 Or what is the same ; 
 Exch. 12 fl. 22$ cents. 
 
 1000 florins? 
 1 florin = 100 cents. 
 1222| cents = £1. 
 
 Answer. 1000 florins = £81, 16s. 
 
 LONDON ON PARIS. 
 Exch. 25 fr. 65 cts. 
 
 1000 francs ? 
 1 franc = 100 cents. 
 
 2. r »t)5 cents = £l. 
 
 Aits. 1000 francs = £38, 19s. 8?d. 
 
 LONDON ON HAMBURG. 
 Exch. 13mks. 12 schill. B«* 
 
 lOoo marks B ' 
 1 mark B«°- = 16 schillings. 
 
 220 schillings = £l. 
 Ans. 1000 B™ marks = £72, 14s. 6Jd. 
 
 Exch. 
 
 LONDON ON LUBEC. 
 /On Hamburg, 13 mks. 12 schill. B c * 
 \ On Lubec, 24 per cent. 
 
 1000 current marks ? 
 124 cur. marks = 100 marks B™- 
 ImarkB" = J 6 schillings. 
 220 schillings = £l. 
 Ans. 1000 cur. marks = £58, 9s. 7d. 
 
 AMSTERDAM ON LONDON. 
 
 Exchange 11 fl. 95 cents. 
 £100 ? 
 £1 = 1195 cents. 
 
 100 cents = 1 florin. 
 
 Answer. £100 = 1195 florins. 
 
 N.B. The stiver is retained in the London, but 
 not in the Amsterdam course of exchange. 
 
 PARIS ON LONDON. 
 
 Exch. 25 fr. 10 cts. 
 
 £100? 
 
 £1 = 2510 cents. 
 
 100 cents = 1 franc. 
 
 Ans. £100 = 2510 francs. 
 
 HAMBURG ON LONDON. 
 
 Exch. 13 mks. 7 schill. B«>- 
 £100? 
 £1 =215 schillings. 
 
 16 schillings = 1 mark B^ 
 
 Am. £100 = 1343 marks 12 schill. B™- 
 
 LUBEC ON LONDON. 
 
 ■FYnJi 1 0n Hamburg, 13 mks. 8 schill. B « 
 Msxxa. ^ 0n Lubec> 23| per cent. 
 £100? 
 £1 = 216 schill. Be* 
 
 16 *rh\]]. B<*>- = 1 marK B™- 
 
 10<» ui irks Be- = 123J cur. marks. 
 
 Ans. £100 = 1667 cur. mks. 4 schill. 
 

 289 
 
 EXC 
 
 LONDON ON VIENNA. 
 Exch. 10 florins 4 kreusers. 
 KMM) florins? 
 1 florin = 60 kreusers. 
 604 kreusers = £1. 
 Ant. 1000 fl. = £99, 6s. 9<L 
 
 LONDON ON VENICE. 
 Exch. 47 pence. 
 
 1000 Lire Aus. ? 
 6 Lire Aus. = 47 pence. 
 240 pence = £1. 
 
 Ant. 1000 Lire Aus. = £32, 12s. 9|d. 
 
 LONDON ON MILAN. 
 
 Exch. 31 Lire Austriachi. 
 
 1000 Lire Aus. ? 
 1 Lira Aus. = l'K) centesimi. 
 3100 cent. = £1. 
 
 Ant. 1000 Lire Aus. = £32, 5s. 2d. 
 LONDON ON NAPLES. 
 Exch. 41i pence. 
 
 1000 ducats ? 
 
 1 ducat = 4U pence. 
 
 240 pence = £l. 
 
 Ant. 1000 ducats = £171, 17s. 6d. 
 
 LONDON ON LISBON. 
 
 Exch. 54| pence. 
 
 1000£000 ? 
 1 £000 = 64| pence. 
 240 pence = £l. 
 Ant. 1000 milreis = £228, 2s. 6d. 
 
 LONDON ON BERLIN. 
 Exch. 7 Pruss. dol. 
 
 1000 P. D. ? 
 1 Pruss. dollar = 30 groschen. 
 210 groschen = £1. 
 
 Ant. 1000 P. doll. = £142, 17s. lfd. 
 
 LONDON ON ST PETERSBURG. 
 
 Exch. 37J pence. 
 
 1000 rubles ? 
 1 ruble = 37J pence. 
 
 240 pence = £1 sterling. 
 
 Ant. 1000 rubles = £156, 5s. 
 
 LONDON ON PALERMO. 
 Exch. 123 pence. 
 
 1000 oncie ? 
 1 oncie = 123 pence. 
 240 pence = £1 sterling. 
 Ant. 1000 oncie = £512, 10s. 
 
 LONDON ON MADRID. 
 Exch. 37 pence. 
 
 1000 Reals v. ? 
 32 Reals vellon = 17 Reals plate. 
 8 Reals plate = 37 pence. 
 
 240 pence = £1 sterling. 
 
 Multiply by the rate and by 17, and divide by 
 C144U 
 Ant. 1000 Reals v. = £10, 4s. 9d. 
 
 LONDON ON LEGHORN. 
 Exch. £ T. 30, 60 cents. 
 
 1000 Lire T. ? 
 1 Tuscan lira = 100 cents. 
 
 3060 cents = £1. 
 
 Ant. 1000 Lire T. = £32, 13s. 7d. 
 
 LONDON ON NEW YORK. 
 Exch. 114 per cent. Premium. 
 $1000? 
 SUlilessprem. = $100. 
 $40 = £9 sterling. 
 
 Ant. $1000 = £201, 15s. 10id. 
 Exch. 46J pence. 
 $1000? 
 $1 = 46J pence. 
 
 240 pence = £1 sterling. 
 
 Ant. $1000 = £193, 15s. 
 
 VIENNA ON LONDON. 
 Exch. 9 florins 48 kreusers. 
 £100? 
 £1 =588 kreusers. 
 
 60 kreusers = 1 florin. 
 
 Ant. £100 = 980 florins. 
 
 VENICE ON LONDON. 
 
 Exch. 48 pence. 
 £100? 
 £1 =240 pence. 
 
 48 pence = 6 Lire Aus. 
 
 Ant. £100 = 3000 Lire Austriache. 
 
 MILAN ON LONDON. 
 
 Exch. 29 Lire 30 cents Aus. 
 £100 ? 
 £1 = 2930 centesimi. 
 
 100 cent. = 1 Lira Aus. 
 
 Ant. £100 = 2930 Lire AustriachL 
 NAPLES ON LONDON. 
 Exch. 610 grani. 
 £100? 
 £1 =610 grani. 
 
 100 grani = 1 ducat. 
 Ant. £100 = 610 ducats. 
 
 LISBON ON LONDON. 
 
 Exch. 57 pence. 
 
 £100? 
 
 £1 =240 pence. 
 
 57 pence = 1 ;j>000. 
 
 Ant. £100 = 421 #053. 
 
 BERLIN ON LONDON. 
 Exch. 6 P. D. 24 groschen. 
 £100? 
 £l =204 groschen. 
 
 30 groschen = 1 Pruss. dollar. 
 
 Ant. £100 = 680 Prussian dollars. 
 
 ST PETERSBURG ON LONDON. 
 
 Exch. 38 pence. 
 
 £100? 
 
 £1 =240 pence. 
 
 38 pence = 1 ruble* 
 
 Ant. £100 = 631 rubles 58 copecs. 
 
 PALERMO ON LONDON. 
 
 Exch. 60 tari. 
 
 £100? 
 £1 = 60 tari. 
 
 30 tari = l oncie. 
 
 Ant. £100 = 200 oncie. 
 
 MADRID ON LONDON. 
 Exch. 36 pence. 
 £100? 
 £1 =240 pence. 
 
 36 pence = 8 Reals plate. 
 
 17 Reals plate = 32 Reals vellon. 
 
 Multiply by 61440, and divide by the rate 
 multiplied by 17. 
 Ant. £100 = 10039 Reals v. 7 maraved. 
 LEGHORN ON LONDON. 
 Exch. £ T. 30, 10 cents. 
 £100? 
 £1 sterling = 3010 cents. 
 
 100 cents = 1 Tuscan Lira. 
 
 Ant. £100 = £ T. 3010. 
 
 NEW YORK ON LONDON. 
 Exch. 7J per cent. Premium. 
 £100? 
 £9 sterling = $40 
 
 $100 plus prem. = $107J. 
 
 Ans. £100 = $47778 cts. 
 
 Exch. $4-80 cts. 
 
 £100? 
 £1 sterling = 480 cents. 
 
 100 cents = $1. 
 
 Ant. £100 = $480. 
 
 In the two examples of the premium method, given above, the fixed par of 4s. 6d. per dollar is 
 expressed in the equivalent proportion, £9 = $40, according to usage in exchange calculations. 
 
EXC 
 
 290 
 
 EXC 
 
 LONDON ON MONTREAL. 
 
 Exch. 17i per cent, premium. 
 
 £1000 currency ? 
 
 f £'i UrrenC) ''} = £100 currency. 
 
 £10 currency = £9 sterling. 
 
 Ans. £1000 currency = £765, 19s. 2d. sterling. 
 
 LONDON ON JAMAICA. 
 
 Exch. 18 per cent. Premium. 
 
 £1000 currency? 
 
 ^JET*} = £"00 currency. 
 
 £7 currency = £5 sterling. 
 
 Ans. £1000 currency = £605, 6s. 6Jd. sterling. 
 
 MONTREAL ON LONDON. 
 
 Exch. 15 per cent. Premium. 
 
 £l()0 sterling? 
 £9 sterling = £10 currency. 
 
 plus^rem 7 ' } = £115 currency. 
 
 Ans. 100 sterling = £127, 15s. 7d. currency. 
 JAMAICA ON LONDON. 
 Exch. 15 per cent. Premium. 
 
 £100 sterling ? 
 £5 sterling = £7 currency. 
 
 £100 currency, \ „, , _ 
 
 plusprem. / = £"5 currency. 
 Ans. £100 sterling = £161 currency. 
 
 INDIRECT EXCHANGES, OR ARBITRATIONS OF EXCHANGE. 
 
 Arbitration of Exchange is the operation of finding a proportional rate between two places, 
 through any intermediate place or places, in order to ascertain the most advantageous method of 
 drawing or remitting. When there is only one intermediate place, it is said to be a Simple Arbi- 
 tration ; when more than one, a Compound Arbitration. 
 
 In practice the comparison is made with a variety of arbitrated rates, in order to find whether 
 any indirect paper affords a better rate than direct paper, — allowance being made for the difference 
 of interest or discount between the direct and indirect bills, and the additional charges attending 
 the latter, as brokerage, stamps, and commission. The commission to an agent varies from about 
 £ to i per cent, according to agreement ; but the small rate of profit yielded by exchange specula- 
 tions leads to their being chiefly conducted on joint account, or between branches of the same esta- 
 blishment, so that the charge for commission is generally avoided. 
 
 LONDON AND PARIS, THROUGH 
 HAMBURG. 
 
 Find the Arbitrated Rate between London 
 
 and Paris, when the exchange of London on 
 
 Hamburg is 13 marks 12 schillings Banco for £1 ; 
 
 and that of Paris on Hamburg, 184 francs 50 
 
 centimes for 100 marks Banco. 
 
 £1? 
 
 £l = 220 schillings Banco. 
 
 16 schillings = 1 marc Banco. 
 
 100 marcs Banco = 18450 cents. 
 
 100 cents = 1 franc. 
 
 Ans. 25 francs 37 cents. 
 
 LONDON AND AMSTERDAM, THROUGH 
 MADRID. 
 
 Find the Arbitrated Rate between London 
 and Amsterdam, when the exchange of London 
 on Madrid is 37 pence for 1 dollar of plate ; and 
 that of Amsterdam on Madrid 100 florins 75 cents 
 
 for 40 ducats of plate. 
 
 £1? 
 
 240 pence. 
 
 1 dollar plate. 
 272 maravedis. 
 
 1 ducat. 
 
 IOO75 
 
 1 florin. 
 
 £1 
 
 37 pence = 
 
 1 dollar plate = 
 375 maravedis = 
 40 ducats = 
 
 100 cents = 
 
 Ans. 11 florins 85 cents. 
 
 In the Simple Arbitrations now stated, although the exchange is said to be througha, third place, yet 
 it is commonly effected by the remittance of bills upon the intermediate place, to the place where 
 the fund is to be created ; — as, for example, by the purchase in London of bills upon Hamburg, 
 and the remittance of such bills to Paris ; this operation being less complicated, and attended with 
 fewer charges than remitting direct paper to Hamburg, and either having the proceeds forwarded 
 to Paris, or ordering the correspondent there to draw for them upon Hamburg. 
 
 Compound Arbitrations are of rare occurrence, as the liability to unfavourable changes becomes 
 greatly increased when more than three places are concerned in the operation ; besides, few houses 
 of business are capable of so far extending their negotiations. 
 
 ARBITRATIONS OF BULLION. 
 
 Arbitration of Bullion is the operation of deducing a rate of exchange from the prices of bullion 
 in two places, in order to determine, by comparison with the rate borne by bills, whether the pre- 
 cious metals can be exported or imported to advantage. The data required, besides the prices, 
 are the weight and fineness of the bullion ; — the modes of expressing which, in this and other coun- 
 tries, are explained under Measures and Weights, and the heads of those countries respectively. 
 
 In the following equations the variable terms are distinguished by an asterisk ; the others, being 
 invariable, are in each case compounded into a fixed number which may be used in all similar 
 arbitrations. The result of the equation for New York is shown, both according to the new and 
 the old methods of quoting the exchange. 
 
 LONDON AND NEW YORK. | LONDON AND AMSTERDAM. 
 
 Bar gold in London is 77s. 9d. per ounce stand- Bar silver in London is 60 pence per oz. stand- 
 ard ; required the arbitrated rate of exchange | ard ; in Amsterdam 104i florins per pond fine- 
 produced by its export to the United States, for required the arbitrated rate of exchange ; the 
 coinage at the rate of 232} grains of fine gold for Netherlands pond being equal 1000 wigties, and 
 
 the eagle of $10. 
 
 £1 sterling 
 *77l shillings 
 
 12 grains stand. 
 £32J grains fine 
 
 Ans. 
 
 £1 sterling? 
 20 shillings. 
 480 grains stand. 
 
 11 grains fine. 
 $10. 
 77 1)378-984 Fixed No. 
 
 $4-87,43 per £1 sterling. 
 900 
 
 40)4386-87,00 
 
 1091 per£100ster. 
 
 or 91 per cent. Premium. 
 
 31-1002 wigties equal 1 troy ounce. 
 
 £1 sterling ? 
 £l sterling = 
 
 *60 pence = 
 
 40 oz. standard = 
 
 1000 wigties 
 
 240 pence. 
 
 1 oz. standard. 
 37 oz. fine. 
 3M002 wigties. 
 
 *1 04 J florins. 
 
 Fixed No, 
 
 60)6-90424 
 •115070 
 Multiplied by 104j 
 
 Ans. Florins 12-02 cents. 
 
EXC 291 EXC 
 
 The arbitrated rates thu9 found, however, will fall to be corrected for Interest and charges, 
 before being compared with the prices of bills. 
 
 EXCHEQUER, a court established in England by William the Conqueror, and 
 which anciently was one of the first in importance, as all causes relating to the 
 rights of the crown were there discussed, and the royal revenues were supposed to 
 be received there. As now modified, it consists of two divisions, one of which pos- 
 sesses jurisdiction in matters of public revenue, while the other is subdivided 
 into a court of common law and a court of equity. The judges are, the Chan- 
 cellor of Exchequer for the time being, the Chief Baron, and four other Barons. 
 The Chancellor has a voice in giving judgment when the court sits in equity, 
 but it is now rarely or never exercised, his leading duties at present being those 
 of the public finance, of which he is minister. In this last capacity he is always a 
 leading member of the cabinet. 
 
 EXCHEQUER BILLS are promissory notes issued by the Treasury under the 
 authority of Parliament ; and are the form in which the floating or unfunded part 
 of the national debt chiefly exists. The issue of these bills greatly facilitates the 
 current financial business of the government. They are circulated at present for 
 sums varying from £100 to £1000, which are printed with ink of different colours; 
 namely, £100 bills with red ; £200, yellow ; £500, blue ; and £1000 bills with black 
 ink. They bear interest from their date until the day fixed for their payment, which 
 is announced by advertisement, and is generally about a year after being issued, 
 when they are either discharged or renewed for other bills, at the option of the 
 holders. Parties neglecting to present their bills on the day appointed are deprived 
 of interest till the next opportunity of obtaining new bills, or else must submit to 
 the loss of whatever premium they may chance to bear at the time. During the 
 currency of these bills, they may, after a limited time, be paid to the government 
 at par in discharge of duties and taxes; they are thus nearly exempt from the risk 
 of depreciation, and, as they are transferable without the necessity of a formal assig- 
 nation, they form an eligible investment for capital that may require to be suddenly 
 made available. They are so much in demand by capitalists in the metropolis, that 
 government is enabled to keep a considerable amount of them, generally about 
 £28,000,000, in circulation, at a low rate of interest. The rate is fixed at so much 
 per cent, per diem, and is commonly adjusted so that the bills shall bear a pre- 
 mium in the market, in order that government may not be exposed to the incon- 
 venience of having them returned in payment of taxes. Sometimes the small bills 
 a higher premium than the large ones. Of late years the rate has fluctuated 
 n l|d. to 2£d. per cent, per diem, that is, from £2, 5s. 7£d. to £3, 16s. 0£d. per 
 cent, per annum. 
 
 The brokerage upon either a purchase or a sale is Is. per cent. 
 
 Transactions through the medium of Exchequer bills generally involve a calculation of interest 
 and premium. Thus, 
 
 To find the cost of an Exchequer bill for £500, dated January 5, and sold April 6, at 60s. 
 premium, we have 
 
 £500 Bill. 
 
 £500 at 2d. per cent is lOd. : and lOd. X 91 days = 3 15 10 Interest 
 60s. X 5 = 15 Premium 
 
 5 Brokerage 
 
 £519 10 Whole cost. 
 
 These securities are issued at the Exchequer Bill Office, Palace- Yard, West- 
 minster. [Funds.] 
 
 EXCISE, a term applied in this country to the duties levied on articles of home 
 manufacture or production. Such duties were unknown in England before the 
 year 1643, when they were imposed by the Long Parliament upon beer, ale, cider, 
 perry, and other commodities. This kind of taxation long continued unpopular. 
 Marvel describes the excise as "a hateful tax ;" and Blackstone states, that, "from 
 its first original to the present time (1765), its very name has been odious to the 
 people of England." These opinions may have partly arisen from the harsh and 
 inconsiderate manner in which the duties were sometimes levied ; but there will 
 always be clamourers against even beneficial innovations. Few persons, however, 
 are now disposed to call in question the advantage of contributing towards the 
 necessary expenses of the country by means of an indirect tax, though this is an 
 advantage which may be purchased at too dear a rate, if great care be not taken 
 in the construction of statutes which give such large powers as the excise laws. 
 
 The excise was at first only intended to be resorted to as a temporary source of 
 revenue, but, like many other taxes, it was retained when the emergency in which 
 it originated had passed away. In 1649, the Parliament declared that " the impost 
 
EXC 292 EXC 
 
 of the excise was the most easy and indifferent levy that could be laid upon the 
 people ;" and by the 12th Charles II. c. 24, it was granted as part of the revenues of 
 the crown. The malt duty was first imposed in 1695 ; and during the reigns of William 
 III. and Queen Anne, the list of articles subject to the excise comprised nearly all 
 those which were liable at the close of the last century. In 1797, the number was 
 27; in 1833, they were reduced to 15 ; and in 1837, to 10, their present number, 
 either by the duty having been totally repealed, or (as in the case of tea, cocoa, 
 coffee, pepper,foreign spirits, tobacco, snuff, and wine) by being transferred to the de- 
 partment of the customs, which is enabled to collect the revenue with greater economy 
 and convenience. The articles from which the excise revenue is at present derived 
 are, Auctions, Bricks, Glass, Hops, Licenses, Malt, Paper, Soap, Spirits, and 
 Vinegar ; and under these heads, and those of Tariff, and Revenue and Expen- 
 diture, an account will be found of the different duties and their produce. 
 
 The persons subject to excise survey may be divided into five classes : — 1. Per- 
 sons visited for the purpose of charging the " growing " duties, as brickmakers, 
 maltsters, papermakers, and others. 2. Persons whose license is high or low ac- 
 cording to the extent of their consumption, as brewers and tobacco manufacturers. 
 3. Persons visited because subject to a license for dealing in articles upon which 
 excise duty has or ought to have been paid, as innkeepers, and retailers of beer 
 or spirits. 4. Persons visited in like manner because subject to a license for deal- 
 ing in articles chargeable with customs duty, as dealers in tea, wine, and tobacco. 
 5. Persons from whom no duty is collected, as tallow-melters (as a check on soap- 
 making), and a few others. The total number of parties surveyed in the United 
 Kingdom is about 600,000. 
 
 The Board of Excise is a sub -department of the Treasury, and as such is subject 
 to its check and control ; the First Lord of the Treasury and the Chancellor of 
 Exchequer being the really responsible parties. It consists of seven commissioners 
 who have equal authority and power. The chairman has a salary of £2000, the 
 deputy- chairman £1500, and the other commissioners have each £1200 per an- 
 num. The board is responsible for the general discipline of the service, amount- 
 ing to about 7000 individuals. They appoint to offices, and pay the parties 
 such sums as are necessary ; but the number of each description of officers is not 
 allowed to exceed that fixed by general warrant or order from the Trea- 
 sury. Since 1823 the Irish and Scottish boards have been consolidated with the 
 English establishment. 
 
 To facilitate the labours which devolve upon the exeise department, the country 
 is partitioned into convenient portions, known under the name of " collections ; 
 the number of these in England and Wales being 55. The name of a county, a 
 large portion or the whole of which is comprised within its limits, is given to 
 some collections ; others are known by the name of some great town which they 
 contain. Each collection is divided into districts, usually into six or seven. Each 
 district again is subdivided into rides and footwalks ; the former comprises a tract 
 of country in which the traders are thinly scattered, and the surveying officer is 
 required to keep a horse ; the latter never exceeds a circuit of 16 miles. 
 
 The chief officer of each collection is the collector, who is allowed a clerk ; and 
 in two or three collections more than one clerk is required. The officer next in 
 point of rank is the supervisor, who is in charge of a district; and afterwards come 
 the ordinary surveying officers. There is always one supernumerary in each collec- 
 tion, and in many there are officers called assistants and expectants. The salaries 
 of collectors vary from £350 to £550, the general rate being £400 a-year. The 
 salary of supervisors is £200; of officers, £100; of assistants, £85; of supernume- 
 raries, £52 ; of collectors' clerks from £115 to £150 ; of expectants £50 a-year. 
 When these last are employed as officers, they receive an additional allow- 
 ance at the rate of £30 a-year; and supernumeraries in like manner receive an addi 
 tion of £38 a-year. The collectors find security to the amount of £5000 ; super- 
 visors provide a bond of £1000; and all other classes in the service give security to 
 the amount of £200. 
 
 The following is an Abridgment of the Statutes under which the Excise Establish- 
 ment is regulated— 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 53 ; 4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 51 ; and 4 & 5 Vict. c. 20. 
 
 Commissioners and other Officials. — The crown 
 is empowered to appoint commissioners, not ex- 
 ceeding thirteen in number, for the collection and 
 management of the excise duties of the United 
 Kingdom; they are subject to the directions of the 
 Treasury. The Treasury have the appointment 
 of a comptroller and auditor for the United King- 
 
 dom. The commissioners appoint the proper col- 
 lectors, officers, clerks, and others, for the collec- 
 tion of the duties, not exceeding the number fixed 
 by a gen eral order from the Treasury. They pro- 
 mote, suspend, and dismiss officers, and regulate 
 theirsalaries, allowances, and expenses. No per- 
 son, holding any office in connexion with the excise, 
 
EXG 
 
 293 
 
 EXC 
 
 is to deal in excisable commodities, under penalty able on the proprietor by the act applicable to 
 of forfeiture of his office, and incapacity to fill the particular manufacture ; and any officer 
 any other connected with the excise. Any officer may, either at the time of discovery or after- 
 connected with the excise who asks or takes a wards, bring a person discovered in the act 
 bribe directly or indirectly, or enters into an , before a justice of peace, by whom he may bo 
 agreement, to conceal or connive at any infringe- summarily amerced in the penalty, or, on fail- 
 ruent of the excise laws, or to omit performing ure, be imprisoned, with hard labour, for three 
 
 his duty, is liable to a penalty of £500, and to 
 be rendered incapable of serving in any govern- 
 ment office. The same pecuniary penalty is in- 
 curred by any individual who may corrupt or 
 attempt to corrupt an officer to such breach of 
 duty. When any such punishable transaction 
 takes place between a private party and an offi- 
 cer connected with the excise, either party giving 
 prior information which leads to the conviction 
 of the other is indemnified. Where officers would 
 share in penalties or forfeitures, if they are 
 found to have acted collusively, as above, or 
 negligently, they lose their portion. 
 
 Entry of Premises, SfC— Every person obliged 
 by any excise act to make entry of his premises 
 or utensils, does so by giving an account, accord- 
 ing to the terms of the particular excise act, to 
 the officer of the survey, to be entered in the 
 general entry-book ; the penalty for omission is 
 £200. A person employing entered premises, 
 for other purposes than those for which they are 
 entered, forfeits £100. No second entry can be 
 made in name of any one but a partner ; but if 
 any person vacate his premises without with 
 drawing his entry, the commissioners may cou 
 sider it withdrawn, and permit a new one. The 
 entry must be made by a person who has attained 
 the age of twenty-one, and by the real owner ; 
 but whoever makes it, or uses the premises, is 
 responsible. Entry by a joint-stock company or 
 corporation must be made by the managers, or 
 four of them if they exceed that number. Every 
 entered building, place, or utensil, must be dis- 
 tinguished by a number painted on a conspicuous 
 part of it, and the proprietor must paint all fixed 
 pipes, and describe their direction and purpose 
 at the requisition of the surveyor, tinder penalty 
 of £100. A book called "a specimen" maybe 
 deposited in any entered premises, for recording 
 the entries of the officers who survey the pre- 
 mises, and any person other than an officer of 
 excise secreting, carrying away, destroying, or 
 making entries in, this book, is liable to a penalty 
 of £200. 
 
 Duties.— Persons carrying on business subject 
 to excise regulations delaying to pay the duties 
 when demanded forfeit double the value of the 
 duties. The collector, on affidavit, may grant 
 warrant for levying unpaid duties, in the same 
 manner as penalties are levied, reporting to the 
 commissioners, who may stay the proceedings or 
 grant relief. 
 
 Officers of excise are entitled to enter on pre- 
 mises used for any business subject to excise re- 
 gulations, and to take account of and charge any 
 duties they may find chargeable, at any time, by 
 night or day ; but if the entrance is to be made 
 at any time between eleven at night and five in 
 the morning, it must be by request, and in pre- 
 sence of a constable, unless a different rule be 
 established by any excise act applicable to any 
 particular commodity. All excisable commo- 
 dities, and utensils used in their preparation, are I must specify a day and place for the consicferatiou 
 at all times liable for the duties, and arrears of of the case, the day being eight days after the 
 duties, and penalties and forfeitures, incurred by notice. The decision of the commissioners or jus- 
 the person who uses them, though they have tices may then be given in absence, as if the par- 
 passed into other hands; but by the last excise] ties had appeared. By the last act, effects under 
 statute, effects which have been taken account I £15 in value may be treated as condemned after 
 of, and charged with duty, are not liable, in the | their being a month unclaimed. Where cattle or 
 hands of a bona fide purchaser. | goods of a perisliable nature are seized, they may 
 
 Smuggling. — Any person connected with the be re-delivered to the owner on his giving secur- 
 manufacturing of excisable commodities in un- ity ; and if the owner do not appear and otter se- 
 entered premises is liable in a penalty of £30, curity, any such property may, after the lapse of 
 over and above the penalties which may be levi- fourteen days, be sold by auction, without being 
 
 months. On a second offence, the penalty and 
 imprisonment are doubled. The commissioners 
 alone have the power of modifying the punish- 
 ment. All excisable commodities and imple- 
 ments concealed with intent to defraud the 
 revenue are forfeited, along with the vessels for 
 containing them, and vehicles and cattle for re- 
 moving them; and persons concerned forfeit 
 treble the value, or £100, as the commissioners 
 or the informer may decide. 
 
 Searching Premises, 8fc— Within the limits of 
 the chief office two commissioners, and, in the 
 country, a justice of peace, on an excise officer 
 making oath of suspicion of excisable articles 
 concealed, may grant warrant to search the pre- 
 mises, break down obstructions, and remove ex- 
 cisable commodities, by day or night, but if be- 
 tween eleven at night and five in the morning, 
 only in presence of a constable. Justices of the 
 peace, mayors, bailiffs, constables, and the pub- 
 lic at large are required to assist. Any constable, 
 or other ministerial officer of the peace, refusing 
 to assist an excise officer, forfeits £20 ; the as- 
 sistance may be continued by such ministerial 
 officer beyond his jurisdiction. Similar powers 
 to the above are conferred on officers of the cus- 
 toms. Persons who obstruct officers or their 
 assistants making seizures, or who attempt a 
 rescue, or injure the commodities seized, forfeit 
 £200. Officers and their assistants assaulted or 
 resisted with offensive weapons, in attempting 
 to make seizures, may oppose force to force ; 
 and if in doing so they occasion wounds or death, 
 they may be admitted to bail. 
 
 Seized and Forfeited Goods.— Officers of cus- 
 toms seizing excisable commodities, must give 
 notice at the next excise office, or to the super- 
 visor, or other officer of the district, who must 
 take an account of the goods, after which they 
 cannot be removed without a permit. Police 
 officers seizing such commodities, must deposit 
 them in the next excise office, unless when it is 
 necessary to detain them for a time as produc- 
 tions in any criminal trial ; a penalty of £20 is 
 incurred by neglect. Goods produced for the 
 purpose of fraudulently obtaining a drawback, 
 are forfeited, along with treble the value, or 
 £100, as the commissioners or the informer 
 may choose. Forfeited goods are publicly sold 
 to the best bidder. No such goods can be sold 
 for home consumption at a less price than the 
 duty; and if such a sum is not offered, they 
 must be sold for exportation, destroyed, or ap- 
 plied to some public use. Goods condemned as 
 being adulterated, or mixed with prohibited in- 
 gredients, must be destroyed. Where no claim- 
 ant appearsfor effects seized, notice is affixed to the 
 excise office, specifying a day when they are to be 
 adjudicated on. Within the limits of the chief 
 office the notice must be fourteen days after the 
 seizure ; and in the country it must be on the 
 next market-day after expiration of six days, and 
 
EXP 
 
 294 
 
 EXT 
 
 condemned, the owner having the choice of re- 
 ceiving the proceeds, or the appraised value, if 
 the final decision is in his favour, and a farther 
 sum of compensation for the loss sustained by the 
 seizure, at the discretion of the commissioners. 
 
 Prosecutions. — No actions of any description 
 can proceed for any penalty, forfeiture, or con- 
 demnation, except by order of the commission- 
 ers, or at the instance of the law officers of the 
 crown, summary proceedings for conviction 
 upon immediate arrest excepted. Actions for 
 penalties and condemnations proceed before 
 three or more commissioners within the circle 
 of the chief office, or one or more justices of 
 peace in the country. Information must be pre- 
 sented within four months after the offence or 
 seizure, notice being given to the accused within 
 one week after the exhibiting of the information. 
 The party receives ten days' warning to attend, 
 by summons, except in the case of prosecution 
 for double the value of duties neglected to be 
 paid, when twelve hours' warning is sufficient. 
 The justices of peace, to the number of two or 
 more, are appointed to meet every three months, 
 or often er if there be occasion, to hear excise 
 prosecutions. No officer of excise can act as a 
 justice ; nor can any person carrying on a busi- 
 ness subject to excise regulations act in any case 
 relating to that class of business. Convictionscon- 
 trary to eith er of th ese regulations are null. A wit- 
 ness summoned to appear, and having his expenses 
 tendered, is liable to forfeit £50 if he do not ap- 
 pear, or if he refuse to give evidence. Officers of 
 excise and informers are competent witnesses, 
 notwithstanding their right to receive a portion 
 of the penalty or forfeiture, on conviction. In 
 all prosecutions, whether at the instance of the 
 excise, or against any officer of excise, the proof 
 that goods have paid duty, or that they are not 
 of a kind for which duty is exigible, lies on the 
 proprietor or person claiming them. The justices 
 may mitigate penalties down to one fourth part 
 at their discretion ; but this does not extend to 
 prosecutions for double the value of duties ne- 
 glected to be paid. It is to be observed that the 
 separate statutes applicable to the different ex- 
 cisable commodities, impose their respective 
 penalties ; and where, by any such act, a penal- 
 ty is imposed, and, in default of immediate pay- 
 ment, imprisonment for a limited period, the 
 justices cannot mitigate except where they are 
 
 specially empowered to do so by the terms of the 
 act. . The commissioners of excise may mitigate 
 or entirely remit penalties. An appeal lies from 
 the decisions of justices to the next quarter ses- 
 sions. Where any judgment is for the condem- 
 nation of property, it is made effectual by a war- 
 rant for sale ; and where it is for a penalty, it 
 authorizes it to be levied on the goods of the 
 party by sale, not less than four or more than 
 eight days from the date of the warrant. On a 
 return that sufficient effects have not been found, 
 a warrant is granted to imprison. The law offi- 
 cers of the crown may stop prosecutions, and the 
 commissioners may forbear from prosecuting, or 
 restore seizures, or compromise prosecutions. 
 The Treasury may restore seizures before or 
 after condemnation, and remit penalties before 
 or after judgment. The commissioners may al- 
 low a sum not exceeding eightpence per day to 
 excise prisoners. All questions as to arrears of 
 duty, penalties, forfeitures, seizures, &c. belong 
 exclusively to the jurisdiction of the Court of 
 Exchequer, with the exception of the questions 
 which, as above, are decided by commissioners 
 or justices. All prosecutions in the Court of Ex- 
 chequer must be commenced within three years 
 after the cause of action. In cases which the 
 justices are empowered to decide, no defendant 
 can bring the proceedings before any superior 
 court, but the crown may bring any process into 
 the Court of Exchequer by certiorari. 
 
 Actions against Officers, fyc. — When an action 
 is to be brought against any officer or other per- 
 son acting under the excise laws, a month's no- 
 tice in writing must be given, and it must be pur- 
 sued within three months after the time when 
 the cause of action arose. If the pursuer is un- 
 successful, treble costs are awarded against him. 
 Any officer or other person who receives notice 
 of action, may tender amends within a month, 
 and if they be rejected, they may be pleaded in 
 bar of action, and on being deemed sufficient, the 
 verdict will be found for the defender, with treble 
 costs as above. In the case of a seizure, where 
 decision is given for the claimant, the person who 
 made the seizure is not liable to prosecution, if 
 the judge report that there was a probable cause 
 for seizure ; and in the case of a verdict against an 
 officer for any such seizure, if the judge give a 
 similar report, the prosecutor becomes entitled 
 to only 2d. of damages, and to no costs. S 
 
 EXPECTATION OF LIFE, a phrase improperly applied by writers on Life 
 Insurance to the average of forthcoming years in the life of an individual. As 
 explained in the article Interest and Annuities, it is different from the term of 
 probable life. 
 
 EXPORTATION. [Customs Regulations.] S 
 
 EXTENT, WRIT OF, is a process employed at the instance of the crown for 
 attaching the body, goods, or lands of a debtor. Extent is either in chief or in 
 aid. The former issues against the crown's debtor, the latter against the debtor 
 of the crown's debtor. It is a rule that an extent can only be founded on matter 
 of record, and so if it be required on a simple contract, and without bond, a 
 commission is issued out of the Court of Exchequer, on affidavit of the debt, to 
 two commissioners who are authorized to inquire, with the assistance of a jury, 
 whether the defendant be indebted to the crown in any and what sum, and to 
 return the result of the inquiry to the court. No notice is given to the defendant 
 of the inquiry. Where the debt is on bond, the writ may issue on the showing 
 of the bond, accompanied by an affidavit. The affidavit on which an extent in 
 chief is obtained, termed the affidavit of danger, must state the debt, the man- 
 ner in which it arose, and the circumstances connected with the debtor's situa- 
 tion, owing to which it is in danger of being lost. The fiat, which is the war- 
 rant for issuing the extent, may be obtained at any time from the Chancellor or 
 a Baron of the Exchequer. The writ is tested by the Chief Baron (in Scotland 
 by the judge of the Court of Session who acts as the judge of Exchequer), signed by 
 the Queen s Remembrancer, and sealed with the Exchequer seal. This is termed 
 
FAC 295 FAC 
 
 the teste, and the goods affected are bound from its date. The writ in England 
 directs the Sheriff to enter on the defendant's property, take his person, and 
 inquire by jury what lands and tenements, and of what yearly values, he had at 
 the time when he became debtor to the crown, or at any time since (or if it be 
 on a simple contract debt, what he now hath), and what goods or chattels, debts, 
 credits, or other assets, he, or any person in trust for him or to his use has, 
 and to appraise, extend, and seize all such property. It is a peculiarity in Scot- 
 land (the Exchequer law of which is in other respects derived from that of Eng- 
 land), that real property cannot be affected by a writ of extent. In England, 
 a jury is impannelled to inquire into the funds, and all having an interest may 
 appear. The effect of the writ on third parties is, that the property of the 
 debtor is bound by it from the date of the teste, into whatever hands, or for 
 whatever consideration it may pass. All the debtor's property may be" taken 
 under the extent, except what is necessary for himself and his family, and exclud- 
 ing beasts of the plough if there be other chattels sufficient. Goods bona fide sold, 
 or assigned for the benefit of creditors before the teste (though the latter turn out 
 to be an act of bankruptcy), cannot be affected, nor can goods pawned, or on which 
 a factor has been entitled to a lien, before that event. By the English bankrupt 
 laws, the crown's extent is defeated by the choice of assignees, the estate imme- 
 diately vesting in them. In sequestrations in Scotland, the vesting takes place 
 from the date of the act and warrant in favour of the trustee. Where an extent 
 in chief has been obtained, and debts found due to the crown's debtor, an extent in 
 chief of the second degree may be issued, and against that debtor's debtor an extent 
 in chief of the third degree, and so on. An extent in aid is issued for the benefit 
 of a crown debtor, who is himself liable to an extent in chief. By 57 Geo. III. 
 c. 117, §§ 4, 5, such extents are prohibited from being granted for simple contract 
 debts, or to persons who become the crown's debtors by bond in the course of 
 their trade, or as sub-distributors of stamps, or to sureties for crown debts, unless a 
 demand be made from them. Extent in aid may be issued to the third degree. 
 ( West on Extents. Tidd's Practice of King's Bench, $c. 1042-1083.) 
 
 F. 
 
 FACTOR, a commercial agent residing at a distance from his principal, and 
 haviug the superintendence of some branch of his employer's trade in the place 
 where he acts. A factor differs from an ordinary agent in this, that he does not 
 represent his principal, but acts as a principal himself in his transactions with 
 third parties. He is distinguished from a broker, in as far as he has the personal pos- 
 session and management of the goods over which his superintendence extends. The 
 factor carries on his commercial operations on commission. He receives consign- 
 ments from his principal, and makes sales and remittances in return, balancing 
 accounts from time to time. He may act without disclosing the name of his prin- 
 cipal. He frequently holds a Del Credere commission [Del Credere]. Like 
 other mandatories, the factor is personally responsible for whatever he may do 
 exceeding the powers delegated to him, and where they are not expressed in the 
 terms of his commission, his powers will be limited by the custom of the trade. He is 
 not responsible " at all events " (as it is termed) for the safety of goods within his 
 charge, that is to say, he is not liable for them as if he had insured them against all 
 risks ; but he ought to bestow on them the same care as on his own property, and it 
 would appear that he will be amenable to his employer if he do not. He is not in the 
 general case responsible for the consequences of fire, robbery, or other accident, but 
 there are precautions which, in certain circumstances,he must adopt. One of the most 
 important is that of protecting his principal's interest by insurance, and if he have 
 effects in hand, he is in all cases bound to comply with directions to insure, being, 
 on failure, himself considered responsible. Where goods are consigned to a fac- 
 tor, his title to them, and right to dispose of them, is generally conveyed in an in- 
 dorsed bill of lading, but in questions with parties privy to the transaction, it is 
 held that a letter of advice is sufficient. Where the factor has absolute power to 
 sell, indorsement of a bill of lading while the goods are at sea will pass them abso- 
 lutely, and bar the principal's right to stop in transitu, " and in the absence of 
 fraud, it seems that the assignee's knowledge of the factor's character would not 
 affect his title ; for, in order to make notice material, it must be notice of something 
 inconsistent with the right of the assigner to do the act under which the assignee 
 
FAC 
 
 290 
 
 FAC 
 
 claims, or of such circumstances as render the bill of lading not fairly and honestly 
 assignable. But, inasmuch as the character of a factor is consistent with the power 
 to sell, the knowledge of this circumstance would not probably be considered as any 
 impeachment of the transaction if it would be otherwise valid " (Paley, 239, 240). 
 A factor has a lien on the goods consigned to him, not only for charges affecting 
 those goods, but for his general balance. The lien extends to every portion of the 
 goods, and when they are disposed of, to the proceeds. On parting with possession, 
 the factor abandons the lien, and goods transmitted to him with a specific appro- 
 priation are excepted from it. (Paley on Principal and Agent.) 
 
 Abridgment of the Factor's Act, (6th Geo. IV. c. 94.) 
 
 § 1. Any person intrusted with goods for the 
 purpose of consignment or sale, who ships them 
 in his own name, and any person in whose name 
 goods are shipped, is deemed the true owner, so 
 far as to entitle the consignee to a hen in respect 
 of any money or negotiable security advanced 
 for the use of the person in whose name ' ' such 
 goods, wares, or merchandise shall be shipped, 
 or in respect of any money or negotiable secu- 
 rity, or securities received by him, to the use of 
 such consignee, in the like manner, and to all 
 intents and purposes as if such person were the 
 true owner of such goods:" Provided that at 
 or before the advance the consignee shall not 
 have notice by the bill of lading that the person 
 in whose name the goods are shipped is not the 
 actual owner. There is a presumption that the 
 person in whose name goods are so shipped has 
 been intrusted with them for the purpose of 
 consignment or sale, the burden of proving the 
 reverse being thrown on the person disputing 
 the presumption. 
 
 § 2. Any person in possession of a bill of lad- 
 ing, India warrant, dock warrant, warehouse- 
 keeper's certificate, wharfinger's certificate, or 
 other delivery warrant, is held the true owner of 
 the goods it represents, so far as to render valid 
 any contract for the sale, deposit, or pledge in 
 Becurity of advances, of the goods, provided 
 there be no notice, as above, that the holder is 
 not the true owner. 
 
 § 3. But if the deposit or pledge be taken as a 
 security for a prior debt owing by the person in 
 possession, then the individual taking the goods 
 acquires no farther title than could be commu- 
 nicated by the one so parting with the pos- 
 session of them. 
 
 § 4. Persons are safe in contracting with 
 agents for the purchase of goods intrusted or 
 
 consigned to them, the contract being binding 
 on the owner, though the purchaser is aware 
 that he has contracted with an agent : " Pro- 
 vided such contract and payment be made in the 
 usual and ordinary course of business," and the 
 party have not notice on entering on the con- 
 tract, or making payment, that the agent is not 
 authorized to sell the goods or receive the pur- 
 chase-money. 
 
 § 5. Persons may take goods, or warrants for 
 delivery of goods, in pledge, though they receive 
 notice that the persons from whom they receive 
 them are but factors or agents, but no better 
 right can be acquired in such circumstances 
 " than was possessed, or could or might have 
 been enforced by the said factor or agent, at the 
 time of such deposit or pledge." 
 
 § 6. Provision is made for enabling the prin- 
 cipal to recover his property from his factor, 
 before sale or deposit, or from the administrator 
 of the estate on his factor's bankruptcy, or to 
 obtain the money from the purchaser in case of 
 sale, subject to the right of set-off between the 
 purchaser and factor ; and to recover property 
 pledged on satisfying the claims of the pawnee 
 respecting it. 
 
 § 7. Factors or agents pledging goods intrusted 
 to them, and applying the money raised for 
 their own use, " in violation of good faith, and 
 with intent to defraud the owner or owners of 
 such goods," become liable to transportation 
 not exceeding fourteen years. 
 
 § 8. The deposit or pledge of goods in security 
 for no greater sum than is covered by the factor's 
 lien is not considered fraud ; the acceptance of 
 a bill, however, drawn by or on account of the 
 principal, is not a debt by the principal to justify 
 a pledge in these circumstances unless the bill be 
 paid when it becomes due. 
 
 FACTORAGE, the allowance or per cent age given to factors by the merchants 
 or manufacturers who employ them; it is fixed by mutual agreement or the usage of 
 trade. [Commission.] 
 
 FACTOR, INTERIM, in the law of bankruptcy in Scotland, is the person who 
 has charge of the bankrupt estate till a trustee be chosen. He is elected by a ma- 
 jority of qualified creditors, at a meeting held on a day specified in the writ awarding 
 the sequestration, not less than eight or more than fourteen days from the date 
 thereof. The sheriff decides as to the election in case of dispute. Where an 
 interim factor is not duly elected, his duties devolve on the sheriff-clerk. At the 
 meeting to elect a trustee, he presents his accounts and vouchers, and remuneration 
 may be awarded. If he be dissatisfied with the sum, he may appeal to the sheriff. 
 [Sequestration.] 
 
 FACTORY, an establishment of traders in a foreign land, who are governed 
 by regulations adapted for their mutual protection, against the interference of the 
 governments of the countries in which they reside. Such establishments were 
 common in former times, but they have almost ceased to exist, in consequence of 
 the greater protection now afforded to merchants in foreign parts. 
 
 FACTORY SYSTEM. The term factory is now very commonly applied 
 to an establishment in which a number of persons are employed, for the pro- 
 duction of some article of manufacture, generally with the aid of machinery. 
 The factory system of Great Britain owes its origin to those mechanical inven- 
 
FA I 297 FAI 
 
 tions which have led to the development of the cotton manufacture; and it is in 
 the mills in which that manufacture is carried on that the system has been brought 
 to its highest state of perfection. The last general return respecting the number 
 of factories, and the people employed in them, was made in the year 1835, when the 
 number of factories in the United Kingdom was 3236, of which there were employed 
 in the manufacture of cotton, 1304 ; wool, 1322 ; silk, 263 ; flax, 347. The number 
 and ages of the persons working in these factories were as follows :— Between 8 
 and 12 years, males, 10,087; females, 10,501 ; total, 20,588 : Between 12 and 13 years, 
 males, 17,687; females, 18,180; total, 35,867: Between 13 and 18 years, males, 
 43,482 ; females, 64,726 ; total, 108,208 : Above 18 years, males, 87,299 ; females, 
 103,411; total, 190,710: Total males, 158,555; total females, 196,818: In all, 
 355,373 ; of which there were employed in cotton factories 220,134 ; in woollen fac- 
 tories, 71,274 ; in silk factories, 30,682 ; and in flax factories, 33,283. The propor- 
 tion of females employed in factories is shown to be much greater in Scotland than 
 in the other parts of the United Kingdom. S 
 
 A very large proportion of the hands employed in those establishments, it will be 
 seen, consists of children and young persons. There having been reason to believe 
 that, in many cases, they were tasked beyond their strength, an investigation of the 
 practices in this respect was made in 1832 by a parliamentary committee, and 
 subsequently by a royal commission. The examinations which then took place 
 proved that, although the abuses alleged to exist had been greatly exaggerated, 
 enough remained to render legislation expedient ; and in consequence an act was 
 passed in 1833 (3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 103), the chief provisions of which are the fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 § 1. No person under 18 years of age shall be al- ! nor more than 9 hours in any day, who shall not 
 lowed to workbetween8i o'clock p.m. and 5f a.m., jbe 13 years old. 
 
 except as hereafter, in any cotton, woollen, wor- § 9. Young persons whose hours of work are 
 sted, hemp, flax, tow, linen, or silk mill or fac- i regulated shall be entitled to Christmas and Good 
 tory, in scutching, carding, roving, spinning, : Friday as entire holidays, and not fewer than 8 
 making thread, dressing or weaving of cotton, half-holidays in every year, 
 wool, worsted, hemp, flax, tow, or silk, either' § 11-14. Children whose work is restricted to 
 separately or mixed, in any such mill, in any part 9 hours a-day are not to be employed without a 
 of the IT. K. But the act not to extend to the medical certificate, countersigned by some in- 
 fulling, roughing, or boiling of woollens, nor to | spector or justice, that they are of the ordinary 
 any persons employed therein, nor to the labour strength ; a certificate of age is required from 
 of young persons above the age of 13 years, when young persons between 13 and 18. 
 employed in packing in any place attached to a § 17-19 Regulates appointment of inspectors of 
 mill, and not used for any manufacturing pro- : factories and superintendents, 
 cess, nor to any mill used solely for the manu- § 20. The inspectors are to make all rules ne- 
 facture of lace. (cessary for the execution of the act, and to en- 
 
 § 2. No person under 18 shall be employed force the attendance at school, for at least 2 
 more than 12 hours in one day, nor more than hours daily out of 6 days in the week, of children 
 69 hours in one week. | employed in factories ; from whose weekly wages 
 
 §6. There shall be allowed, in the course of a deduction, not exceeding I penny for every 
 every day, not less than 11 hour for meals to . shilling, for schooling, may be made, 
 every person restricted to the performance of 12 1 § 26. Interior walls of every mill to be lime- 
 
 hours' work. 
 
 § 7. No child, except in silk mills, shall be 
 employed who shall not be nine years old. 
 
 § 8. No child, except in silk mills, shall be 
 
 washed once a-year. 
 
 § 27. A copy or abstract of this act to be hung 
 up in a conspicuous part of every mill. 
 
 § 45. The inspectors shall, once a-year, report 
 
 employed more than 48 hours in any one week, [their proceedings to one of the Secretaries of State. 
 
 FAILURE, a common term for bankruptcy. 
 
 FAIR (from the Latin feria, a holiday), a greater kind of market, held at a 
 stated time and place, to which people resort from different and sometimes distant 
 places, for the purpose of traffic. Anciently, commodities of every kind were chiefly 
 sold at fairs ; but in modern times the increase of towns, and the improvement in 
 the means of communication, have tended greatly to diminish their importance ; 
 and in this country they are now mostly confined.to the sale of agricultural produce. 
 
 Principal English Fairs.* 
 
 January. 
 20, 21. Melton Mowbray, horses and cattle. 
 
 February. 
 24. Daventry, horses, cattle. 
 March. 
 
 1. Bristol (10 days) miscellaneous. 
 
 2. Ashby de la Zbuch, horses, cows, sheep. 
 
 7. Higham Ferrars, horses, cattle. 
 25. Woodbridge, Suffolk, horses. 
 29. Durham, cattle, sheep, horses. 
 
 April. 
 5. Gloucester, cheese. 
 
 8. Pontefract, sheep, cattle. 
 
 8, 9, 10. Barnet, horses and Scotch cattle. 
 
 * The dates of the English fairs are filled up as they occurred in the year 1840 ; but in other 
 years they will sometimes be different, as they are not unfrequently regulated by saints' days, or 
 particular days of the week. When the date falls on a Sunday, they are generally held on the day 
 following. 
 
FAI 
 
 298 
 
 FAI 
 
 22. East Ilsley (every Wednesday till July) sheep. 
 
 23. Oakingham, horses, cattle. 
 
 24. Lincoln (4 days), sheep, &c 
 27, 28. Boroughbridge, cattle, sheep. 
 29. Alton, sheep, lambs. 
 
 May. 
 1. Reading, horses, cattle. 
 4. Northampton, horses. 
 
 4, 5. Boston, sheep. 
 
 6. Abingdon, cattle. 
 — Southampton, cattle, cheese. 
 
 8. Stroud, cattle, sheep, pigs. 
 
 10, 11. Askrig, cattle. 
 
 11. Crediton, cattle. 
 
 12. Oswestry, cattle, sheep, pigs. 
 
 — Totness, horses, sheep, cattle. 
 
 13, 14. Ripon, horses, sheep. 
 20. Swindon, cattle, pigs, sheep. 
 
 22. Dunstable, horses. 
 
 23. Appleshaw, sheep-show before Weyhill Fair. 
 
 — Howden, horses. 
 
 June. 
 1. Leicester, horses, cows, sheep. 
 
 5. Malmesbury, cattle, horses. 
 
 9. Ashby de la Zouch, cattle, horses, sheep. 
 
 — Leighton Buzzard, horses. 
 
 12. Haverfordwest, cattle, horses, sheep. 
 
 13. "Whittlesey, horses, cattle. 
 
 19. Northampton, horses. 
 
 20. Hornby, cattle, horses. 
 22. Homcastle do. 
 
 27. Wigan, horses, cattle. 
 
 28. Higham Ferrars, do. 
 
 29. Spalding, do. 
 
 July. 
 10. Barnard Castle, wool. 
 12. Thetford, wool. 
 
 21. Howden, horses. 
 26. Lewes, wool. 
 
 August 
 
 3. Daventry, horses, cattle, sheep. 
 
 7. Barnard Castle, wool. 
 
 10. Doncaster, wool. 
 21. Horncastle, principal English fair for horses. 
 
 — Rugby, horses, cows, sheep. 
 26. Ipswich, lambs, cheese. 
 
 30. Spalding, horses. 
 
 September. 
 1. Bristol (10 days), miscellaneous. 
 
 4. Monmouth, wool. 
 4, 5. Barnet, sheep, Welsh cattle, horses. 
 
 11. Salisbury, sheep. 
 18. Woodbury Hill, kersey, druggets, &c. 
 
 — Bury (Lancashire), cattle, horses, woollens. 
 
 Principal Scottish Fairs. 
 Falkirk (Tryst), 2d Monday in October for sheep, and following day for cattle and horses. 
 Edinburgh, Hallow Fair, 2d Monday in November, cattle and horses. 
 Doune, November, 1st Tuesday, sheep ; 1st Wednesday, cattle and horses. 
 Rutherglen, 1st Friday after 4th May, great horse market. 
 
 Beauly, or Muir of Ord, Ross-shire, monthly, except January, February, March, and December. 
 
 Dumbarton, spring and summer months, for West Highland cattle and sheep. 
 
 Lockerby, Dumfriesshire, August, lambs ; September, cattle and sheep. 
 
 Principal Irish Fair. 
 
 Ballinasloe, in Galway, October 5 (four days), cattle and sheep. 
 
 The foreign fairs are described under the heads of the countries wherein they are held. 
 
 " In the feudal ages, the right of holding fairs was a valuable privilege, conceded by the sove- 
 reign to the lord of the manor ; and from the arts which the old barons used to draw crowds to 
 their markets, perhaps Warren and Rowland might learn new ways of alluring purchasers to their 
 marts of blacking and bear's grease. Much skill was shown in choosing the site ; the author of a 
 Statistical "View of the Fairs of France remarks, that, on examining his work, it will appear that 
 they were placed, for the most part, on the frontiers of the kingdom, or on the marches of ancient 
 provinces ; or at the foot of high mountains, at the beginning or end of the snow season, which for 
 months shuts up the inhabitants in their valleys ; or in the neighbourhood of famous cathedrals or 
 churches frequented by flocks of pilgrims ; or in the middle of rich pastures. The devotion of the 
 people was also turned to good account ; many fairs were held on Sundays in churchyards ; and 
 almost in every parish a market was instituted on the day on which the parishioners were called 
 together to do honour to their patron saint. Lest all these artifices should fail to secure a great 
 concourse, promises of sport and fun were held out, and each fair had its own peculiar drollery." — 
 (Deliciae Literariae, p. 66.) 
 
 19. Atherstone, horses, cows, cheese. 
 
 21. Reading, cheese, &c. 
 
 25. Howden (six days), horses, &c. 
 
 — Ipswich, cheese, butter. 
 
 October. 
 2. Howden, horses. 
 
 — Woodstock, cheese. 
 
 — Dudley, horses, cattle, wool, cheese. 
 
 2, 3, 4. Northampton, horses, cattle, cheese, &c. 
 
 10. Leicester, cheese, cattle. 
 
 — Weyhill, sheep. 
 
 11. Holbeach, horses. 
 
 17. St Faith's, near Norwich, principal English 
 
 fair for Scotch cattle. 
 
 18. Haverfordwest, cattle, horses, sheep. 
 
 19. Market-Harborough (9 days), horses, cattle. 
 
 20. Devizes, sheep, hogs, &c. 
 
 22. Burton-on-Trent, horses, cattle. 
 
 29. Horncastle, do. 
 
 November. 
 1. Saffron Walden, cows. 
 
 5. Beverley, cattle, horses, sheep. 
 
 6. Newcastle-under-Line, cattle. 
 
 — Eccleshall, cattle, sheep, saddle-horses. 
 
 7. Rochdale, horses, cattle, woollens. 
 
 8. Cirencester, cattle, sheep, horses. 
 8, 9. Leeds, cattle, horses, hardware. 
 
 8. Warwick, horses, cows, sheep. 
 
 13. Loughborough, do. 
 
 — Farnham, horses, cattle. 
 
 17, 18. Andover, sheep, horses, leather, cheese. 
 
 20. Boston, horses. 
 
 22. Hampton Green, Scotch cattle. 
 
 — Guildford, horses, cattle, sheep, hogs. 
 28. Gloucester, cattle, pigs, horses. 
 
 — Harleston (for a month), Scotch cattle. 
 
 30. Warrington (10 days) horses, cattle, cloth. 
 
 — Wells, oxen, horses, sheep, hogs. 
 
 December. 
 1. Bury St Edmunds, cattle. 
 
 — Rotherham, cattle, horses. 
 4. Dursley, cattle, &c. 
 
 — Atherston, horses, cows, sheep. 
 
 6. Bodmin, oxen, sheep, cloths. 
 
 — Higham Ferrars, horses, cattle, sheep. 
 
 7. Cheltenham, cattle, &c. 
 
 10, 11. Bewdley, hogs, cattle, horses, cheese, &c. 
 11. Baldock, cheese, &c. 
 
 — Boston, cattle. 
 
 9, 10, 11. Bradford (Yorkshire), hogs. 
 
 14. Thirsk, cattle, horses, sheep. 
 17. Hornsea, horses, cattle. 
 
 28. Bridgewater, cattle, &c. 
 
FAL 299 FIG 
 
 FALKLAND ISLANDS, or Malvinas, an insular group in the Southern Ocean, 
 about 300 miles N.E. of Cape Horn, between lat. 51° and 52° 45' S. and long. 
 57° 20 7 and 61° 46' W. It consists of two large islands, East and West Falkland, 
 and about 90 islets. The two former contain nearly 13,000 square miles. These 
 islands were discovered by Davis in 1592 ; and small settlements, at different times 
 made on them by the English, French, and Spaniards, were successively abandoned. 
 But as, since the increase of the southern whale fishery, and the opening of the 
 South American trade, they have again attracted attention, formal possession was, 
 in 1833, taken of them by the British government. 
 
 East Falkland, or Soledad, contains the small British settlement of Port Louis, which is situ- 
 ated on Berkeley Sound, at the north-east point. There is sufficient depth of water for vessels of 
 any size in Berkeley Sound, with good shelter and anchorage. The principal production of the 
 island is cattle. 
 
 West Falkland, the larger of the two islands, is at present uninhabited. The part chiefly fre- 
 quented is Port Egmont on the northern coast. 
 
 These islands are surrounded with good harbours, and the waters abound with fish, particularly 
 a species of mullet, which is salted for the use of the shipping. There are also numerous seals and 
 sea-elephants. The skins of the former are very valuable, and the procuring of them forms the 
 chief inducement for vessels to resort to the islands. 
 
 FANEGA, a Spanish corn measure equivalent to ljg Imp. bushel. 
 
 FANEGADA, a Spanish measure for corn land, equivalent to about 1 Imp. 
 acre 10.^ poles. 
 
 FATHOM, a measure of length in many countries, equal 6 feet. It is said to 
 have been derived from the height of a well-proportioned man. 
 
 FAUX, a Swiss land-measure, equivalent to 7855 English sq. yards, or 65% 
 French ares ; 6& faux = 10 Imp. acres. 
 
 FEATHERS for ornamental dress are obtained from the ostrich and a variety 
 of other birds, the chief of which are described under their proper heads. 
 
 Bed-feathers are procured in many parts of Britain from common poultry, and 
 large quantities are annually brought from Limerick and other ports of Ireland. 
 Considerable imports both of feathers and down likewise take place from the 
 countries adjoining the Baltic and other parts. The most esteemed for beds are 
 those of the goose, and they are best when plucked from the living animal, which is 
 done thrice a-year, in the spring, at midsummer, and the beginning of harvest, i 
 
 FEE-SIMPLE, a term sometimes applied to the value of a perpetual annuity; 
 and more frequently to an English tenure of land, in which seizure is granted to 
 a party and his heirs for ever. 
 
 FERNANDO PO, a mountainous island lying in the Bight of Biafra, 20 miles 
 from the African coast. It is about 120 miles in circumference, and is fertile and 
 beautiful. It was occupied by Great Britain as a naval and military station in 
 1827, from its supposed salubrity, and the facilities afforded by its situation for 
 the suppression of the slave trade ; but the climate having been found to be as 
 pestiferous as that of the other settlements on the adjoining part of the African 
 shore, the troops were withdrawn in 1834. The principal settlement was Clarence 
 Town, on the N. side, in lat. 3° 53' N., and long. 7° 40' E. 
 
 FERRET, a cotton ware resembling tape, but much stouter, chiefly used in 
 binding or making up articles of dress. It is also made of silk ; and tnis last is 
 sometimes called Italian ferret. 
 
 FIAT, in the English law of bankruptcy, is the act of court by which the petition- 
 ing creditor is authorized to prosecute his complaint against the bankrupt. By 1 & 2 
 Wm. IV. c. 56, § 12, it was substituted for the commission of bankruptcy, formerly in 
 use. It is issued by the Lord Chancellor, the Master of the Rolls, the Vice Chancellor, 
 or a Master in Chancery specially authorized by the Chancellor. [Bankruptcy.] 
 
 FIGS (Arab. Teen. Fr.Figues. Ger.Feigen. It. Fichi. Por. Figos. Sp.Higos), 
 the fruit of a small tree (Ficus Carted), indigenous to the temperate parts of Asia, 
 and now cultivated in the fertile islands of the Mediterranean, in Spain, Italy, 
 Greece, and France. It is also grown with some success in the southern parts of 
 England, but seldom in Scotland, except under glass. The fig consists of a pulp 
 containing a number of seed-like pericarps enclosed in a rind ; and is of a dark 
 purple or brownish colour, with a sweet taste. When ripe they are generally 
 dried in ovens to preserve them, and then packed very closely in the small chests 
 and baskets in which we import them. The tree produces a double, and in some 
 climates, as in Syria and Barbary, a triple crop ; whence the great value attached 
 to it in Eastern countries, where it bears fruit through a considerable portion of 
 the year. The first ripe figs come to maturity about the end of June ; the second 
 crop or summer fig is that which is dried ; the third often hangs and ripens upon 
 the tree after the leaves are shed. S 
 
Fit 300 FIR 
 
 In the Levant, the time of gathering the summer fig, with its attendant process 
 of drying and packing for the European market, is one of great bustle and activity. 
 The chief seat of this trade is Smyrna. Dried figs also form a considerable article 
 of commerce in Spain, Italy, and the south of France ; besides affording, as in the 
 East, an important article of food to the native population. Of late years, owing 
 partly to a reduction of duty, the consumption of figs has increased in this country, 
 amounting now to nearly 30,000 cwts. a-year; the greater part of which is imported 
 from Turkey in little chests, or drums, of about 24 lbs. each. Figs are also brought 
 from Malaga and Valencia in Spain, and Faro in Portugal. These last are mostly 
 in packages called frails. The Faro frail = 32 lbs. ; the Malaga frail = 56 lbs. 
 
 — The want of blossom on the fig-tree was considered as one of the most grievous calamities by 
 the Jews. Cakes of figs were included in the presents of provisions by which the widow of Nabal 
 appeased the wrath of David. In Greece, when Lycurgus decreed that the Spartan men should 
 dine in a common hall, flour, wine, cheese, and figs were the general contributions of each indi- 
 vidual to the general stock. The Athenians considered figs an article of such necessity that their 
 jexportation from Attica was prohibited. Either the temptation to evade this law must have been 
 great, or it must have been disliked ; for the name which distinguished those who informed against 
 the violators of the law became a name of reproach, from which we obtain our word sycophant. 
 At Rome the fig was carried next to the vine in the processions in honour of Bacchus, as the 
 patron of plenty and joy ; and Bacchus was supposed to have derived his corpulency and vigour, 
 not from the vine, but from the fig. All these circumstances indicate that the fig contributed 
 very largely to the support of man ; and we may reasonably account for this from the facility with 
 which it is cultivated in climates of moderate temperature." — " It is probable that if the fresh fig 
 were much esteemed by the people of this country, the tree would be more extensively cultivated 
 here in favourable situations, such as our southern coast. But it would seem from our old writers, 
 and indeed from a common expression even of the present day, that, from some association of 
 ideas, the fig was an object of contempt. ' Figo for thy friendship,' says Pistol." (Lib. of Ent. 
 Knowledge; art. Veg. Sub. v. i. pp. 242, 245.) 
 
 FILBERTS, the fruit of a variety of the hazel-nut (Corylus avellana), produced 
 partly by the superiority of soil and climate where it grows, and partly by culture. 
 The filbert is not thicker than the common nut, but is at least double the length, 
 with a corresponding kernel. The largest of the species is the cob-nut, which is 
 round. What is called the cluster-nut differs from the others only in the fruit 
 being produced in large clusters at the ends of the branches. In this country, the 
 management of the filbert is best understood in the county of Kent, especially 
 about Maidstone, where immense quantities are grown for the London market. 
 
 FILE, Files (Du. Vylen. Fr. Limes. Ger. Feilen. It. Lime. Por. & Sp. 
 Limas. Rus. Pili), a steel instrument with teeth upon the surface, for cutting and 
 abrading metal, wood, and other substances. When the teeth, formed by a sharp- 
 edged chisel, extend across the surface, they are properly termed files ; but when 
 by a sharp-pointed tool, in the form of a triangular pyramid, they are called rasps : 
 the latter are chiefly used for wood and horn. Of files there are two varieties : 
 1st, Single cut, where the teeth are a series of sharp edges, appearing like parallel 
 furrows ; 2d, Double cut, when these are crossed by a second series of similar teeth : 
 the first are fitted for brass and copper, the second for the harder metals, such as 
 iron and steel. Files are also distinguished according to their degrees of fineness ; 
 the finest of all is the dead smooth; the next to this is the smooth; then the second 
 cut; the bastard cut; the rough ; and the rubber, a heavy square file used for the 
 coarser kinds of smith-work. They are also distinguished by their shape, as flat, 
 half-round, three-square, four-square, and round. The coarser kinds are made from 
 the inferior marks of blistered steel. Those formed of the Russian iron called old 
 sable (known by its mark CCND) are excellent. The finest Lancashire files, for 
 watchmakers, are made of the best Swedish iron, called hoop L or Dannemora. 
 Many contrivances have been set on foot to perform the operation of file- cutting 
 by machinery, but none of them have fully succeeded, and all the best continue to 
 be cut by the hand. The manufacture is one of the staples of Sheffield, and the 
 finer kinds are extensively made at Warrington and Prescott, in Lancashire. 
 Files, besides being used in immense quantities at home, are largely exported. 
 
 FIR. [Pine.] 
 
 FIRE-ARMS. [Gun.] 
 
 FIRE-WORKS (Fr. Feux d'artifice. Ger. Feuerwerke), well-known devices 
 composed of explosive combustibles, generally of gunpowder along with iron, steel, 
 copper, and zinc filings, resin, camphor, lycopodmm, and lampblack. They are 
 divided into three classes : 1st, Those to be set off upon the ground ; 2d, Those 
 which are shot up into the air; 3d, Those which act upon or under the water. 
 
 FIRKIN, an English measure of capacity now disused. 
 
FIT* 301 FLA 
 
 FIRLOT, an old Scottish corn-measure equivalent to one-fourth of the Boll. 
 
 FIRM, the title under which the business of a mercantile company is carried on. 
 
 FISH, FISHERIES. The term fishery is applied to those places where fish 
 are caught in such abundance as to constitute an important article in commerce. 
 Great Britain possesses a coast-line of above 3000 miles in extent, while that of 
 Ireland is above 1000 miles ; and the greater part of the shores of both islands 
 abound with those species of fish which exist in the largest number, and yield a 
 supply of food the most acceptable. A very considerable portion of our coast 
 population are more or less engaged in fisheries ; and the shores are indented with 
 bays and harbours which facilitate their employment, and render it an important 
 branch of national industry. The principal kinds of fish which are the object of 
 systematic occupation in the British seas are the herring, cod, ling, hake, lobster, 
 mackerel, oyster, pilchard, and salmon ; but the quantity of other fish taken is in 
 the aggregate exceedingly great ; and the capture of whales in the Polar Seas is 
 an employment in which a considerable though declining amount of British ship- 
 ping is engaged, principally belonging to the north-eastern ports. The whole of 
 these are described under their proper heads. The annual produce of the fisheries 
 of the United Kingdom is variously estimated at from £4,000,000 to £8,000,000. S 
 
 Under the present tariff the import of fish of every description, fresh or cured, is free. The 
 northern whale fishery having failed resort has heen had lately to the high latitudes of the 
 Southern Pacific ocean. But the principal fishery is on the Great Bank of Newfoundland, which 
 In 1848 yielded 1,000,000 quintals (a quintal = 100 lbs.) of cod fish. 
 
 FISH-HOOKS (Fr. Hamecons. Ger. Fishangeln), well-known instruments made 
 of the best, smooth, sound, steel-wire; those for salt-water fishing being frequently 
 tinned to prevent them wearing rapidly away in rust. In the United Kingdom 
 they are manufactured chiefly at Redditch, in Worcestershire. Fish-hooks, besides 
 i«ing extensively used in this country, are largely exported. 
 
 FISH-MAWS, a term applied in Oriental commerce to the sonnds of fish 
 which is largely exported from the eastern islands to China. It is a favourite 
 article of luxury with the inhabitants of that country, often bringing $75 per pecul 
 in the market of Canton. 
 
 FITCH, the fur of the pole-cat, is principally brought from Germany; it is soft 
 and warm, but its offensive odour tends to depress its value. 
 
 FLAG, the ensign borne on the mast of a ship to designate the country to which 
 it belongs : in the royal navy it is likewise made to denote the rank of the officer 
 by whom the ship is commanded. The ensign to be worn on all British merchant 
 vessels is ordained by proclamation, dated 1st January 1801, to be a red flag, having 
 in the upper and inner corner, next the staff, the crosses of St George, St Andrew, 
 and St Patrick, blended on a blue ground. 
 
 None of her Majesty's subjects are permitted to hoist in their vessels the union jack, or any 
 pendants or colours usually worn in her Majesty's ships, and prohibited to be worn by proclamation 
 of 1st January 1801, under a penalty not exceeding £500 ; and any officer of her Majesty's navy, 
 or customs, or excise, may enter on board, and seize and take away such colours, which shall 
 thereupon become forfeited. (4 Wm. IV. c. 13, § 11.) 
 
 FLANNEL (Fr. Flannelle. Ger. Flanell), a well-known, slight, loose, woollen 
 stuff. In this country the finest kinds are made in Wales, principally in Mont- 
 gomeryshire, and within a circle of about 20 miles round Welchpool. Flannels are 
 also manufactured at Bury, in Lancashire ; in Shropshire ; and to a small extent 
 in Wicklow, in Ireland. [Woollen Manufacture.] 
 
 FLAX (Du. Vlasch. Fr. Lin. Ger. Flocks. It. Lino. V or. Linho. Rus. 
 Len, Lon. Sp. Lino), an annual plant (Linum usitatissimum), cultivated in this 
 and other countries from time immemorial for its textile fibres, which are spun 
 into thread, and woven into linen cloth. The stem is upright and slender, having 
 leaves placed alternately on it of a grayish colour. When about 2g or 3 feet 
 in height, it divides itself into slender stalks, which are terminated by small blue 
 indented flowers ; and these produce large globular seed-vessels, divided within into 
 ten cells, containing the bright slippery elongated seeds, well known in trade under 
 the name of Linseed. The plant will grow on almost any land ; but though easy 
 of culture, its quality depends very much on fitness of soil and situation. Rich 
 alluvial land (as in Zealand, which produces the best Dutch flax) is deemed the 
 most favourable situation for it. It impoverishes the soil, whence it is often 
 sown on rank ground, and seldom two years successively on the same spot. The 
 plant blossoms in June or July, and ripens its seeds in August or September. Two 
 varieties are generally distinguished, spring flax, with short knotty stems, and close 
 flax, with longer and smoother stems : the former is called by the Germans, who 
 
FLA 
 
 302 
 
 FLA 
 
 bestow much attention upon the culture of flax, Klanglein or Springlein, and 
 the latter Dreschlein, the kind most commonly grown. The spring sort is sown 
 in April or May, the late in June. When the flax is ripe, which is indicated 
 by the bottom of the stalk becoming yellow, and the leaves beginning to drop off, 
 it must be immediately pulled. The seed, however, is still immature, fit only for 
 the oil-press, but not for sowing ; and hence if seed be the object, the plant must 
 be suffered to acquire its full maturity, in which case the fibres are less soft and 
 fine. The produce varies according to soil, season, and management, from 280 to 
 980 lbs. per acre, but the average crop may be estimated at 560 to 700 lbs. of clear 
 fibres, available for spinning and weaving. The average quantity of seed produced 
 from an acre is from 6 to 8 bushels. 
 
 Good flax should have a yellowish, or bright silver-gray colour, inclining neither 
 to green nor black; it should also be long, soft, fine, and glistening, somewhat like 
 silk, and without broad tape-like portions from undissevered filaments. Tow differs 
 from flax in having shorter fibres, of very unequal length, and more or less entangled. 
 
 In this country, flax is at present partially cultivated in Lincolnshire, Somerset- 
 shire, and Yorkshire ; in some parts of Scotland ; and in Ireland, which indeed 
 produces a very large portion of what is required for its extensive linen manufac- 
 tures. But the United Kingdom, generally, has always been in a great measure 
 supplied by foreign countries. In 1820, the quantity of foreign flax entered for 
 home use was 376,170 cwts.; which, in consequence of the late expansion of the 
 linen manufacture, was increased in 1830 to 955,122 cwts.; and in 1840 to 1,261,292 
 cwts. Upwards of two-thirds of the whole imports are from Russia ; the remainder, 
 with the exception of a small quantity brought from France, is supplied by 
 Prussia, Holland, and Belgium. 
 
 The Russian flax is classed according to its quality, and made up into bundles by braacken, 
 or sworn inspectors appointed by government. That imported into this country is chiefly shipped 
 from Petersburg and Riga. 
 
 At Petersburg, the different kinds are distinguished bv the names of the districts in which they 
 are produced, — as Novgorod, Pleskau, Carelia, and v esnikovsky flax. The quality and colour 
 of the two first are very variable, from white to dark gray, also blueish, yellowish, and whiteish ; 
 such as is not steeped in water, and called Slanetz, is of a much finer and softer harle than the 
 common run. The Carelia is generally whiter, and of a longer and stronger harle than any other. 
 The Vesnikovsky is of a fine silky harle, very strong, and of a grayish or silver tinge. At the 
 public braack, each kind is separated into three classes or sorts, distinguished by the form in which 
 it is made up for shipment: First, that which is put up into bobbins of 12 heads, each bob- 
 bin weighing about 3£ poods, or 126 lbs. avoirdupois : Second, Bobbins of 9 heads, each bobbin 
 weighing about 2 poods, or 72 lbs. avoird. : Third, Bobbins of fi heads, each bobbin weighing about 
 1 i pood, or 54 lbs. avoird. The difference of price between the sorts is generally from 3 to 4 rubles, 
 per berkovetz of 10 poods, or 360 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 ** Unless the supply in view be very large, and prices disproportionately high, it is perhaps ad- 
 visable, in the Petersburg market, to make purchases before August, for in and after that month 
 prices are very frequently found to take sudden starts, from the competition of numerous buyers, 
 who sometimes happen to have to provide for ships waiting for cargoes; besides this, the considera- 
 tion of the exchange usually advancing towards autumn has not to be lost sight of." (Clark's Russia 
 leader's Assistant.) 
 
 At Riga, the public braack distinguishes the various kinds of Marienburg, Thiesenhausen, 
 Druyaner, and Livonian flax, as follows: — 1st, Sorts, crown Marienburg, marked CM; and 
 picked Thiesenhausen Rakitzer, marked P T R. 2d, Sorts, Marienburg cut, marked M C ; Dru- 
 janer cut, marked D C ; and Hoffs three-band, marked H T. 3d, Sorts, Risten three-bands, 
 marked R T ; and Livonian three-bands, marked L T. Lastly, Codilla, marked F C. 
 
 Of the other kinds of flax imported into this country, the growths of Liebau, Memel, and Ober- 
 Iand are held in little esteem. Those of Holland and Belgium, however, are well dressed, and of 
 the best quality. 
 
 The chief ports in this country for the importation of foreign flax, are Dundee, Hull, and Lon- 
 don. The following, extracted from the Dundee price-current of May 1841 , shows the comparative 
 estimation in which the different kinds are held in our principal market : — 
 
 
 h. 8. 
 
 L. ■. 
 
 Arch. Otbor.... 
 
 .53 
 
 ®54 
 ..51 
 
 Do. Crown. . 
 
 .50 
 
 Do. 4th sort.. 
 
 .39 10 
 
 ..40 
 
 Peters. 12 head. 
 
 .44 
 
 . 44 10 
 
 Do. 9 do.. 
 
 .38 
 
 . 39 
 
 Do. 6 do.. 
 
 .34 
 
 .36 
 
 Narva 12 do. . 
 
 .41 
 
 .44 
 
 Do. 9 do. . 
 
 .36 
 
 .— 
 
 Do. 6 do. . 
 
 .31 10 
 
 . — — 
 
 Liebau 4 brand 
 
 .40 
 
 .— 
 
 Riga PTR 43 ( 
 
 Do.DC 39 
 
 Do. RT 34 
 
 Do. Hoffs 41 
 
 Memel 4 brand . .38 
 
 Neust. No. 1 32 
 
 Do. No. 2 29 
 
 Konigsberg do.. .30 . 
 
 Crown Podolia . .40 . 
 
 Crown Druana . .40 . 
 
 ,43 
 
 10 
 
 39 10 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 3!* 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 sa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Crown Oberland39 0@ 
 
 Arch. 1 Codilla. .32 10 . . 
 
 Do. 2 do. None. 
 
 Do. 3 do ..26 — 
 
 Do. 1 Tow.... 35 10 .. 
 
 Do. 2 do 31 .. 31 10 
 
 St. Pet. Codilla. .20 . . 20 10 
 
 Riga do 23 0.. 
 
 Narva do 20 10 .. 21 
 
 Pernau do. 
 
 10 .. 26 10 
 
 The duty charged up to 1825, upon foreign flax, was, when dressed, £10, 14s. 6d., and wlicn 
 undressed, 5d. per cwt. In that year, the duty on both kinds was fixed at 4d. per cwt. ; a rate 
 ■which was further reduced in 1826 to 3d., in 1827 to 2d., in 1828 to the nominal rate of Id. per 
 cwt., and it is now free, rough or dressed. S 
 
FLA 303 FLO 
 
 Tares, SfC. at Dundee. 
 Petersburg flax , eenerally in bobbins, but when 
 
 matted, tare 2 ll>>. per mat. 
 
 lVniau, and Narva flax, always in mats; 
 
 tare 12 lbs. per mat. 
 Archangel flax, always in mats; tare 14 lbs. per 
 
 mat. 
 Leibau, Memel, and Neustadt flax, always in 
 
 bobbins, and therefore no tare. 
 Tow and codilla of all kinds, tare 14 lbs. per mat, 
 
 when matted, and no tare when loose. 
 Draft not allowed in Dundee. 
 Credit, 6 months, unless otherwise agreed. 
 
 Tare*, Sgc. at London. 
 Petersburg flax ; draft of 2 lbs. on every scale- 
 about 5 cwts. each when in mats. Can either 
 have them stripped or take the real weight of 
 mats. Tare 2i lbs. per bobbin. 
 Narva flax, same as St Petersburg. 
 Riga flax, always in mats; draft on each mat 
 1 lb. : Tare, 20 lbs. per mat or mats 3 cwts. or 
 upwards ; 14 lbs. when under 3 cwts. ; 10 lbs. 
 on small. 
 Archangel and Pernau flax ; draft and tare same 
 
 as Riga. 
 Credit, 9 months. Thus, if by agreement, 6 
 months' bill is granted, then a discount of 3 
 At Hull, the commercial allowances are gen- 1 months is taken off ; again, if a 4 months' bill 
 erally the same as in London. is granted, a discount of 5 months is taken off. 
 
 New Zealand Flax is the product of a different plant {Phormium tencuc), the 
 leaves of which yield a very strong and beautiful fibre : it has been of late im- 
 ported in considerable quantities from that island for the manufacture of cordage. 
 From having the defect, however, of breaking easily when made into a knot, it has 
 proved much less useful than it was expected to be. Its cultivation has been 
 attempted on the continent of Australia, but as yet with little success ; also near 
 Cherbourg, Toulon, and other places in France ; and it has been introduced 
 into Ireland, the moist climate of which is considered to be favourable to its 
 growth. 
 FLAX-SEED. [Linseed.] 
 
 FLINT (Fr. Pierre a fusil. Ger. Feuerstein), a mineral composed almost en- 
 tirely of silica. Few parts of the world are without it. It is used, when calcined 
 and ground, in pottery • also for gun-flints, for which purpose the yellowish gray 
 flints are preferred. 
 
 FLORENTINE, a silk stuff, chiefly used for men's waistcoats ; it is made striped, 
 figured, and plain, — the last being a twilled fabric. Two other stuffs are known 
 under this name ; one composed of worsted, used for common waistcoats, women's 
 shoes, and other articles ; the other, made of cotton, resembling jean, and generally 
 striped, is used for making trousers. 
 
 FLORIN (Ger. Gulden), a name given to different silver coins, current in vari- 
 ous parts of the Continent, especially Germany and Holland. The imperial or 
 convention florin, the integer of account, and principal coin in the Austrian empire, 
 is worth about 2s. O^d. sterling ; the Dutch florin or guilder is equal Is. 8d. sterling ; 
 which is also very nearly (Is. f^gd.) the value of the Rhenish florin (in 24k gulden- 
 fuss), lately adopted as the integer of account by the States of Southern and West- 
 ern Germany ; the Polish florin is equal 6d. nearly. The florin is also a German 
 gold coin, worth about 6s. 1 Id., which is chiefly current in the countries bordering 
 the Rhine. S 
 
 FLOSS-SILK (Fr. Filoselle, Bourre de soie), the name given to the portions of 
 ravelled silk broken off in the filature of the cocoons. It is carded like cotton or 
 wool, and spun into a coarse soft yarn or thread for making shawls, socks, bands, 
 and other articles, where an inferior kind of silk may be used. 
 
 FLOTSAM, JETSAM, and LIGAN, are barbarous appellations used to dis- 
 tinguish goods in circumstances at sea distinct from legal wreck, in order to con- 
 stitute which they must be thrown on shore. Flotsam is such portion of a ship 
 and cargo as continues floating ; jetsam is when goods cast into the sea there sink 
 and remain ; ligan is where, though sunk, they are tied to a buoy, in order that 
 they may be found again. All three belong to the crown, or its grantee, if no 
 owner appear to claim within a year after they are taken possession of by the 
 persons otherwise entitled to them. 
 
 FLOUNDER, one of the most common of the flat fish (Platessaflesus), is found 
 all round our coast, particularly near the mouths of large rivers, which it generally 
 ascends. It spawns in February or March. 
 
 The common dab, a species of flounder (Platessa limanda) frequently caught 
 along with that fish and plaice, is considered superior to both. It spawns in 
 May or June, and is in best condition for the table in February, March, and April. 
 FLOUR (Du. Bloem. Fr. Fleur de farine. Ger. Feines mehl, Semmelmehl. 
 It. Fiore. Por. Flor da farinha. Sp. Flor), the finely ground meal of wheat. 
 Three qualities are distinguished, called firsts, seconds, and thirds. [Corn.] 
 The barrel of flour is 196 lbs. net. 
 
 FLOWERS (Artificial), imitations of flowers and leaves, which form a common 
 article in the dress of ladies. They are extensively made in this country, but the 
 
FLU 304 FRA 
 
 best are imported from France, where great improvements have been made of 
 late years in the manufacture. The French adopt the finest cambric for making 
 
 Eetals, and the taffeta of Florence for the leaves ; while, by some artists, whale- 
 one, in very thin leaves, is, after being bleached and dyed, employed for flowers. 
 The imitations of nature made of these last are of remarkable beauty. 
 
 FLUOR SPAR, or native fluoride of calcium, sometimes called Derbyshire 
 spar, is a mineral found in great beauty and abundance in that county and other 
 
 S laces. It is procured in cubic crystals of various colours, and in the Odin mine in 
 etached masses, from an inch to more than a foot in thickness. This variety 
 admits of being turned in the lathe into vases and other ornaments. Fluor spar 
 is also sometimes used as a flux for promoting the fusion of other minerals. 
 
 FOOT, a measure of length, varying in different countries from about 11 to 13 
 inches. 
 
 FORESTALLING, which seems to have originally signified an interrupting on 
 the highway, came to embrace all attempts to prevent victuals or merchandise 
 from reaching a public market, or to enhance their price when they reached it. 
 Regrating, an offence associated with it in the same statute (5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 14), 
 is defined, " the buying of corn, or other dead victual, in any market, and selling 
 it again in the same market, or within four miles of the place " (Blackstone, iv. 158) ; 
 and Engrossing, another offence of a similar description, is said to consist in " the 
 getting into one's possession, or buying up, large quantities of corn or other dead 
 victual, with intent to sell them again " (lb.). The statute of Edward imposed 
 severe penalties on these offences, according to the number of convictions ; but all the 
 enactments on the subject were repealed by 12 Geo. III. c. 71. It is still held, 
 however, by the institutional writers, that they are offences at common law, pun- 
 ishable with fine and imprisonment, though how far the criminal law would now 
 be extended to such cases, where there is no fraud, is very questionable. The last 
 case litigated was that of Waddington in 1800 (East. i. 164). The inutility and 
 impolicy of these antiquated interferences with the freedom of industry are now 
 too obvious to require comment. 
 
 FORGERY may be defined as the construction of a document in such a manner 
 as to make it pass for the writing of a person different from the one who actually 
 prepares it, and thereby to occasion a fraud. It may be committed not only as to 
 a whole document, but as to part of one, e. g. by an alteration in the amount of a 
 bill, whereby the person who has engaged for a certain sum is made to appear 
 bound for a larger. It is in its effect on the rights of the parties to negotiable docu- 
 ments only that it is connected with the subject of this work. No man can be made 
 liable by his signature being forged by another, though one may in such circum- 
 stances create a liability by acknowledging the signature as his own. In the general 
 case, acceptance of a bill is an acknowledgment of the drawer's signature, which 
 will make the acceptor fully liable to third parties. Acceptance is not, how- 
 ever, held to be an acknowledgment of an indorser's signature (Smith v. Chester, 
 1 T. R. 654). Whoever pays a forged bill (whether a drawee, or a banker at whose 
 house it is made payable) is presumed also to have admitted or guaranteed the 
 signatures of the parties, and will not recover his money, unless he find out the 
 forgery immediately, before circumstances affecting the position of other parties 
 have intervened, and send notice on the day on which he made payment. A 
 person so paying will not have recourse on the party who appears, through means 
 of forgery, as drawer of an unaccepted or acceptor of an accepted bill. A party 
 who pays for honour is under like liabilities should the name of the person he has so 
 paid for have been forged. " Whoever," says Mr Justice Bayley, " pays a bill, 
 should be satisfied that it is, in all its parts, genuine ; if he be not, he will pay it 
 at his peril, and will lose his remedy against the party on whose account he pays 
 it " (322). In the case of vitiations and alterations, this distinction has to be 
 considered; that where, through the carelessness of the original maker of the docu- 
 ment, facilities have been left for alteration without detection (as where room is 
 left for adding a word to the sum and thereby increasing it), he will be responsible 
 for what appears on the face of the paper. (Bayley, 318-324. Chitty, 286, 287, 628.) 
 
 FOULARD, a kind of gauze riband made in France. 
 
 FRANC, the unit of the monetary systems of France and Belgium, is a silver 
 coin, worth about 9£d. sterling ; the Italian livre, forming the integer of account in 
 Genoa and other places, is of precisely the same value. The Swiss franc, introduced 
 during the existence of the Helvetic Confederation, is equal to about 1^ French 
 franc, or Is. 2d. sterling. 
 
 The mutual conversion of French and British money is, for general purposes, readily 
 
FRA 305 FRA 
 
 plished by reckoning 25 francs = £1, or 100 francs = £4 j an equation which furnishes us with 
 the following rules :- 
 
 1. To convert Francs into Pounds. 
 Rule.— Cut off the last two figures, and mul- 
 tiply the remainder by 4. 
 Ex. In 2500 francs how many pounds ? 
 25 U0 
 4 
 
 Ans.£UH). 
 
 2. To convert Pounds into Francs. 
 
 Rile.— Divide by 4, and add two ciphers to 
 the quotient. 
 
 Ex. In £100 how many francs ? 
 4 ! 100 
 
 Ans. 2500 francs. 
 
 FRANCE, a powerful kingdom advantageously situated in the W. part of Europe, 
 between latitude 42° 20' and 51° 5' N., and longitude 4° 50' W. and 8° 20' E. It is 
 bounded N.W.andN.by the English Channel and theN. Sea; N.E.by Belgium, Lux- 
 emburg, and the Rhenish provinces of Prussia and Bavaria ; E. by Baden, Switzer- 
 land, and the Sardinian States ; S. by the Mediterranean and Spain ; and W. by 
 the Bay of Biscay and the Atlantic. Including Corsica, it is divided into 86 de- 
 partments, designed from their geographical position ; 363 arrondissements, named 
 from their chief towns ; 2834 cantons ; and 37,187 communes or parishes. Area, 
 nearly 53,000,000 hectares, or about 204,000 British square miles. Population in 
 1836, 33,540,908, or 164 to the square mile. Capital, Paris, an inland town situated 
 ou the river Seine, and in the department of the same name, in lat. 48° 50 N., and 
 long. 2° 20' E., about 210 miles in a direct line S.E. of London ; population in 1836, 
 909,126. From the expulsion of Charles X in 1830, to the abdication of Louis 
 Philippe in February 1848, France was governed by a limited monarchy, with 
 a house of peers, and a representative chamber of 459 members, chosen by electors 
 paying £8 of direct taxes. In 1849, the monarchy was replaced by a republic, 
 with Louis Napoleon, the nephew of the Emperor, for its President ; but on 
 Dec. 2. 1851, the President subverted by military force the republic, and promul- 
 gated a new form of rule, which before the close of 1852 was followed by the re- 
 e-tablishnient of the empire, Louis Napoleon being declared Emperor, by 
 7,559,795 votes, against 5559. 
 
 Physical Character.— Prance generally exhibits a level, but not undiversified surface. The moot 
 level tracts are in the north. The elevated portions are chiefly in the eastern and southern pro- 
 vinces. Of the two principal chains, one is connected with the Alps, the other, a branch from the 
 Pyrenees, consists of the Cevennes, a long range of mountains, which, traversing Languedoc, 
 divides the basin of the Garonne from the Mediterranean, and afterwards 3tretches northward in 
 a direction parallel with the Rhone and the Saone. In Auvergne a branch of this chain spreads 
 into a lofty region, which exhibits very striking indications of volcanic phenomena. In respect to 
 climate, the country has been divided into three regions: the Northern, the Central, and the 
 Southern. In the first, limited by a diagonal line from lat, 47° on the W. to 49° on the E., the 
 waters have all a northerly course, and the temperature and produce bear a great resemblance to 
 those of the S. of England. The Central region, bounded southward by a diagonal line, from lat. 
 45° on the W. to 47 3 on the E., comprises the country south of the Loire, and may be generally 
 described as the basin of that river : this is esteemed the pleasantest part of France, the weather 
 being generally clear and agreeable, while the vine flourishes, together with wheat and barley, oats 
 and maize. In the southern region the climate approaches to that of Italy ; wheat gives place to 
 maize ; the vine forms a primary object of industry, especially in the valley of the Garonne ; and 
 the olive, the mulberry, and the orange flourish. 
 
 Rural Produce.— -The country generally is highly fertile. Extensive tracts of heath occur in 
 Guienne, Gascony, Anjou, Brittany, and Normandy, and poor districts in various other parts, 
 but the waste surface bears only a small proportion to the arable and pasture lands. Agriculture, 
 however, is commonly in a very backward condition. There are few large proprietors, or specula- 
 tive farmers, who have capital ; the average size of farms is much less than in England, and there 
 are a vast multitude of small occupations, by which a family is barely enabled to exist. The im- 
 plements in use are besides few, and of an antiquated kind. The land is in consequence usually 
 worked, cleaned, and manured in an imperfect manner; and the produce of an acre of wheat on 
 good soil is averaged at only 15 to 20 bushels ; of barley, 20 to 25 ; and of oats, 25 to 30, or from 
 about one-third to one-half less than on similar lands in England and Scotland, where the climate 
 is inferior. In the northern districts adjoining to Belgium, a better system prevails ; the land in 
 the neighbourhood of Paris is also well cultivated. In most other parts, except where maize is 
 raised, the old plan of two or three crops and a fallow is adopted ; these last being usually ill 
 worked and dirty. The extent of the arable land is at present estimated at nearly 57,000,000 
 acres (23,000,000 hectares) ; and, according to a recent statement, the produce in*1835 was as 
 follows :— Wheat, 72,f>00,000 hectolitres ; oats, 49,000,000 hectolitres ; rye, 33,000,000 hectolitres ; 
 barley, 18,000,000 hectolitres; maslin, or mixed corn, 12,000,000 hectolitres ; buck-wheat, 5,000,000 
 hectolitres ; maize and millet, 7,000,000 hectolitres ; pease and beans, 3,500,000 hectolitres ; other 
 small grains, 4,000,000 hectolitres ; total grain, 203,500,000 hectolitres. Potatoes, 72,000,000 hec- 
 tolitres; chesnuts, 2,000,000 hectolitres. 
 
 The woodlands occupy about one-seventh of the whole surface, but their produce is hardly suf- 
 ficient for the consumption of a country where timber, besides being the chief combustible, is in 
 constant request for other purposes. The varieties of climate and position are favourable to the 
 growth of all kinds of European and many exotic trees, including the cork-tree, which is cultivated 
 in the departments of the south-west. The forests are principally on the highlands in the eastern 
 part of Central France ; the ancient province of Bretagne being, on the other hand, the most 
 destitute of wood ; but upon the whole it is pretty generally distributed. About one-seventh of 
 the woodlands, consisting of 1473 different forests, belong to the state. 
 
 The vine, next to wheat, is the most important object of cultivation throughout the whole king- 
 dom, except in the departments of the north and north-west; and the amount of land thus occu- 
 pied is estimated at 2,134,822 hectares, or about 5,275,450 acres. The growers of wine are esti- 
 
FRA 806 FRA 
 
 mated at nearly 2,000,000 ; the quantity annually produced at 40,000,000 hectolitres (880,000,000 
 gallons), worth about £22,000,000 ; while the duties imposed on its consumption amount to nearly 
 £3,000,000. The departments in which the vineyards are chiefly situated are the Gironde, which 
 yields about 2,500,000 hectolitres yearly, and furnishes the wine known in England under the name 
 of claret ; Charente-Inferieure, about 2,500,000 hectolitres ; Herault, upwards of 2,000,000 hecto- 
 litres ; Charente, 1,700,000 hectolitres ; also Dordogne, Gers, Gard, Lot-et-Garonne, and Var ; 
 but those of Maine, Aube, and others, forming the ancient province of Champagne, as well as 
 those of Cdte d'Or, and Sadne et Loire, comprised in Burgundy, though yielding a smaller quan- 
 tity than many others, are distinguished for the superior quality of their wines. About one-sixth of 
 the wine is converted into brandy ; that U3ed for exportation is chiefly made in the Bordelais, but 
 the best is that of Charente, which furnishes the Cognac. [Wink. Brandy.] 
 
 Beet is extensively grown for the sugar derived from its root ; its culture is chiefly pursued in 
 the departments of the N. and E., and part of the centre ; the two arrondissements of Lille and Va- 
 lenciennes, in the dep. du Nord, however, furnish one-third of the whole quantity made. This 
 branch of industry has much increased of late years. Of the fruits, the mulberry, reared for the 
 nourishment of the silk- worm, is one of the most important ; it is chiefly grown in the S., par- 
 ticularly in the departments of Gard, Drome, Vaucluse, and Ardeche; in 1835, the quantity of 
 silk cocoons obtained amounted to 9,007,967 kilogrammes. Apples and pears are plentiful in the 
 departments of the N. and N.W., where the culture of the vine ceases, and cider and perry are the 
 ordinary beverages of the inhabitants. Chesnuts are so abundant in some of the central and 
 southern departments that they supply a large portion of the food of the population of the rural dis- 
 tricts. The olive, orange, lemon, and pistachio are produced on the shores of the Mediterranean, 
 but are not equal to those of other countries ; the best olive oil is that of the dep. Bouches-du- 
 Rhone and of the neighbourhood of Aix. 
 
 The domesticated animals are, for the most part, similar to those of Great Britain. According 
 to Berghaus, the live stock in 1840 amounted to 1 ,872,600 horses, 6,793,400 cattle, 39,000,000 sheep, 
 3,350,000 mules and asses, 4,500,000 hogs, and 900,000 goats. The horses are generally of inferior 
 breed ; but great pains is at present bestowed on their improvemenj. The rearing of cattle is pretty 
 general, especially in the mountainous regions, where the ox is preferred to the horse for farm- 
 labour. The oxen of Gasconyare the largest, and the navy is entirely provisioned from them; 
 but Paris is mostly supplied from Anjou. The cheese of Dauphiny, Franche Compte, and the 
 Ferez mountains is much esteemed. The best butter is made in the N., particularly in Brittany, 
 Normandy, and the vicinity of Boulogne, from whence considerable quantities are exported. The 
 sheep-wool, of which the annual produce is about45,000,0U0 kilogrammes, is usually ofa coarse descrip- 
 tion ; only a small portion of the native breeds having been crossed with the Merino and other fine 
 kinds. The goats are mostly in the Alpine and Pyrenean cliffs ; in the latter of which the Thibet 
 goat has been naturalized. "The hogs are most abundant in the E. and N.E. departments, where 
 they supply the means ofa considerable provision trade. 
 
 The Mines are chiefly under the control of government, by whom the kingdom is divided into six 
 departments, which are placed under an equal number of inspectors, who, with the Minister of 
 the Public Works, compose the Council -General of Mines. In Paris there is a theoretical school, 
 and at St Etienne one for practical men. Coal is worked in thirty-three departments, but the 
 annual produce is only about 20,000,000 metrical quint ds ; the most productive districts are near 
 Valenciennes in the N., and St Etienne in the S., but it is also dug in the departments of Saone 
 et Loire, Aveyron, and Gard. Iron is produced annually to the extent of 18,000,000 metrical 
 quintals. The quantity smelted has been much increased of late years, but the quality being 
 inferior, it maintains its ground against that produced in other countries only by means of protect- 
 ing duties. The principal iron-works are in the vicinity of Nevers, and the district of Forez, 
 about St Etienne. Rock-salt and brine-springs exist in the department of Meurthe. The only 
 other mineral products that need be noticed are, — silver, found in the department of Isere ; copper, 
 chiefly in the neighbourhood of Lyons; lead in the departments of Finistere, Isere, Lozere, and 
 Vosges ; besides which, manganese, antimony, clay for porcelain, bricks, and tiles, gypsum, chalk, 
 and slate, are obtained in various places. 
 
 In Manufactures, France ranks next to Great Britain, and in the vear 1839, the estimated value 
 of the goods produced was, fr. 2,330,000,000 ( £93,200,000). But in several branches, as afterwards 
 noticed, the industry of the country has been misdirected by a vicious anti-commercial system of 
 legislation. The principal manufactures are those of silk, woollen cloth, linen, cotton, iron and 
 hardware, leather, and sugar. 
 
 The French silks are distinguished by superior taste and elegance, qualities for which they are 
 unrivalled in any other part of Europe, or indeed of the world. The number of looms in 1839 was 
 estimated at 85,000, employing 170,000 hands; and their annual produce at fr. 300,000,000 
 (£12,000,000). This truly national manufacture is principally carried on in the vicinity of the 
 districts where the raw silk is produced. Its chief seat is Lyons ; but it likewise exists on a con- 
 siderable scale at Nimes, Avignon, Annonay, Tours, and Paris, at which last it has recently 
 received a great augmentation. Ribands are made at St Etienne, and St Chamond near Lyons. 
 
 The woollen manufacture, besides being of great importance, is also one of those that appears 
 well adapted to the country ; and of late years it has increased materially. The estimated value 
 of the goods manufactured in 1839 was fr. 265,000,000 (£10,600,000). Its principal localities are 
 as follow :— Broadcloths are made at Elboeuf, Louviers, and Vire, in Normandy ; at Abbeville ; at 
 Sedan ; and in the S. at Carcassonne, Lodeve, and Castres : light fabrics, at Paris, Rheims, 
 Amiens, and Beauvais : hosiery, at Paris, Troyes, Orleans, and at different places in Picardy ; 
 and in the S. at Nimes, Lyons, and Marseilles: carpets, at Paris, Abbeville, Aubusson, ahd 
 Felletin : shawls, including cashmeres, are made at Paris, Lyons, Nimes, and St Quentin. 
 
 Linens of the finer kind are produced at St Quentin, Cambray, Valenciennes, Douay, and other 
 places in French Flanders ; coarser linens and sailcloth, in Bretagne. The manufacture besides exists 
 in Dauphiny. Lace is made at Alencon, Caen, and Bayeux, in Normandy ; also at Valenciennes, 
 Douay, and other places. The annual value of these different manufactures is estimated at 
 fr. 260,000,000 (£10,400,000). 
 
 The cotton manufacture is carried on principally in the N. and E. departments. Its chief seat 
 is Rouen, the Manchester of France ; to which town it bears the further resemblance of being 
 situated within nearly the same distance of Havre that Manchester is from Liverpool. This ma- 
 nufacture also exists on a very considerable scale at Paris, Troyes, and St Quentin. Printed 
 
FRA 307 FRA 
 
 calicoes are made at Rouen and Beauvais; and at Cohnar and Miihlhausen, in the department 
 of Ilaut-Rhin. This manufacture, under the influence of high protecting duties, has increased 
 Guter than any other since 1815, and it now nearly supplies the home demand. But beyond 
 this limit it will not probably be much advanced ; as, although the French excel in the brightness 
 and durability of their dyes, their machinery is more expensive and less improved than that of 
 Great Britain, while their coal costs about double what that mineral can be procured for in Man- 
 chester and Glasgow. The estimated value of the cotton goods manufactured in 1839 was 
 fr. 225,000,000, or £9,000,000. 
 
 Wrought-iron goods are made at Grossure, Vienne, St Bonnet-le-Desert, and Vierzon ; steel 
 articles, near St Etienne, Arc near Gray, Raveau, and La Doue near La Charity, Orleans, Foix, 
 and Beze ; brass and zinc wares at Rouen and Paris ; tinned-plate wares at Imphy, Pont St Ours, 
 and Montataire ; wire and nails at I.aigle, Lods, Morvillars, and Romilly ; tools at Amboise, 
 Toulouse, Arc, Foy, and Klingenthal ; firearms and other weapons, at Tulle, Paris, St Etienne, 
 and Klingenthal ; hardware, at Paris, Strasbourg, Chalons-sur-Marne, Thiers, Chatellerault, and 
 Langres : the total annual produce of these different manufactures is estimated at fr. 215,000,000 
 (£8,600,000). Bronze goods, chiefly at Paris. Those of copper, at Romilly, Imphy, Rouen, Tou- 
 louse, and Paris ; and of lead, at Paris and Tours. Goods of tin, platina, mercury, and antimony, 
 chiefly at Paris, at which city are likewise the principal sugar-refineries, and manufactories of 
 soap, hats, furniture, starch , lacquered goods, gold and silver lace, goldsmiths' wares and jewellery, 
 chemical articles, musical instruments, and watches : watch-machinery, however, is chiefly made 
 at Beaucort, St Nicholas d'Aliermont, Besancon, and Montb£liard. Paper and paper-hangings 
 are manufactured at Annonay, Sorel, Saussaye, Paris, Vienne, and other places; leather, 
 including gloves, at Paris, Sens, Lonjumeau, Grenoble, and Toulouse ; porcelain, at Paris, Sevres, 
 and Limoges ; and wedgewood and other earthenware, at Sarreguemines, Creil, and Montereau. 
 Glassware, at St Gobin, St Quirin, Montherme", and Cirey. Perfumery, in the southern depart- 
 ments. Sugar from beet-root is chiefly made in the north; a branch of industry, which, first in- 
 troduced during Napoleon's anti-commercial system, has greatly increased of late years. The 
 produce of 1838 was estimated at 50,000,000 kilogrammes; but its existence is entirely dependent 
 on the continuance of the present high duties on foreign and colonial sugar. Steam-engines are 
 now generally in use, ai:d about two-thirds of them are of French manufacture. 
 
 Paris is the principal seat of the bcok-trade ; but Lyons and Avignon are also important literary 
 marts. This trade has increased greatly since 1815, though it suffers much from piratical practices 
 in Belgium and Switzerland, where most French works of merit are almost immediately reprinted. 
 All the French booksellers are licensed, and obliged to conform to certain prescribed rules. 
 
 The Fisheries on the coast are not of much importance ; the principal are those of pilchards, off 
 Brittany ; of herrings, at Dieppe ; of turbot, mackerel, &c. between Dunkirk and St Valery ; of 
 oysters, at Cancale Bay and the mouths of the Seine ; and of anchovies, on the Mediterranean 
 coast, especially off the department Du Var. In 1838, the number of boats engaged in the coast 
 fisheries on the Atlantic was 4626 ; tonnage, 38.008 ; crews, 21 ,994 : On the Mediterranean, boats, 
 1260; tonnage, 5931; crews, 5213; total boats, 5886; tonnage, 43,939; crews, 27,207. The 
 cod-fishery on the Bank of Newfoundland, and at the French islands of Miquelon and Pierre, is 
 chiefly prosecuted by vessels fitted out from Dunkirk, Marseilles, Granville, Bordeaux, and La Ro- 
 chelle ; the number employed in 1838 being 477 ; tonnage, 57,954 ; crews, 11,361 ; and the produce 
 consisted of 432,812cwts. wet fish; 2/6, &58cwts.dry; 34,234cwts.oil; and 17,560 cwts. sounds. Inthe 
 same year, the whale-fishery employed 21 ships (chiefly from Havre), their aggregate tonnage being 
 8610, and crews 690. The cod and whale fisheries are mainly supported by a system of bounties. 
 
 Internal Trade and Means of Communication.— The difference between the climate and produc- 
 tions of the northern and southern divisions of the kingdom affords ample scope for exchange, and 
 the internal trade is in consequence somewhat considerable, having greatly increased since it was 
 emancipated from the miserable system of provincial duties under which it laboured prior to the re- 
 rolution. The means of communication, however, will not bear comparison either with those of 
 Great Britain or the United States. The roads are divided into royal, departmental, and commu- 
 nal, the expenses of which are respectively defrayed by the government and the departments or com- 
 munes to which they belong. The first, in 1837, extended about 22,000 miles ; they are commonly 
 well made, — their construction and repair, as well as those of the departmental roads, which extend 
 23,000 miles, being under the superintendence of a central board ; but the communal roads, which 
 are under no such control, are mostly in a very bad state. Few railroads have yet been laid down ; 
 the principal being those between Paris and St Germain, and from St Etienne to Lyons. But sur- 
 veys have been made, and reported to the Chambers, of five different lines, with branches, which 
 it is considered desirable should be undertaken. These lines are, 1st, From Paris to Rouen, Havre, 
 and Dieppe, with branches to Pontoise and Beauvais. 2d, From Paris to Lille, with branches to 
 Valenciennes, Calais, Boidogne, and Dunkirk. 3d, From Paris to Strasbourg, with branches to 
 Metz, Vitry-le-Franeais on the Marne, and Gray on the Saone. 4th, From Paris to Lyons and 
 Marseilles, with branches to Melun and Gray. 5th, From Paris to Orleans, Tours, and Bordeaux , 
 with branches to Poitiers, Nantes, Louviers, and Elbceuf. The extent of these projected lines is 
 about 3125 English miles, and the estimated cost of their construction, fr. 908,000,000, or £36,3:0,000. 
 The extent of water-communications was estimated in 1837 at 7866 miles, of which about five- 
 sevenths were contributed by means of navigable rivers, and two-sevenths by canals. Of the for- 
 mer, the principal are the Seine, the navigation of which commences at Troyes ; the Vilaine, com- 
 mencing at Rennes; the Loire, commencing at Roanne ; the Dordogne, near Souillac ; the Garonne, 
 a little above Toulouse ; and the Rhone, which, though liable to interruption after it leaves the 
 Lake of Geneva, recommences a little above Seyssel, on the frontier toward Savoy, and remains 
 open during the rest of its course. The principal existing canals are as follow :— The Great Canal 
 of Languedoc, or du Midi, which joins the Garonne, at or near Toulouse, with the port of Cette, 
 and thus connects the Atlantic with the Mediterranean. It was opened in the reign of Louis XIV. 
 a. d. 1681 , and is one of the most magnificent canals in the world. The canal of Charollais, or du 
 Centre, which connects the Loire, near the junction of the Arroux, with the Sa6ne, at Chalons- 
 sur-Sa6ne. The canal of the Rhine and Rhone or du Monsieur, which connects these rivers by 
 joining their tributaries, the Doubs and the 111. The canal of Burgundy, which joins the Sadne 
 with the Yonne, and thus connects the Seine with the Rhone and Rhine. The canals of Briare and 
 Orleans, which unite the Loire with the Loing, a tributary of the Seine. The canal of Brittany, the 
 
FRA 
 
 308 
 
 FRA 
 
 longestof all (230 miles), which runs between Nan tee and Brest. The total number complete in 1837 
 was 74 ; besides which, 16 were in process of construction, and 14 others were projected. 
 
 The External Trade, though considerable, is by no means commensurate with the natural produc- 
 tive powers of the country, its advantageous position, or the ingenuity and enterprise of the people. 
 This is mainly to be ascribed to the system acted upon by successive governments of protecting 
 native industry, and excluding foreign products, with the view of rendering France independent 
 of other countries. This system was introduced in 1667 by M. Colbert, then minister of finance 
 to Louis XIV. ; and the prestige that has attached to his name has tended materially to prolong 
 this regulating mania. Its depressing effects are now seen and acknowledged by the generality of the 
 mercantile class, and even by the government ; but the influence of both has hitherto been over- 
 powered and superseded by a combination of the sinister interests which it has been the means of 
 creating; and even since the return of peace in 1815, the ordonnances of a pernicious tendency 
 have been many and stringent, while those of a liberal character have been few and unimportant. 
 
 The principal articles of export are, — wine, brandy and liqueurs, salt, raw silk, wax, tallow, 
 hides, wool, olive, rape, linseed and other oil, tobacco, flax, iron and steel, and colonial pro- 
 duce re-exported ; besides the following manufactured goods, namely, silks, woollens, linen and 
 hempen cloth, cottons, hardwares, perfumery and articles of fashion, hats, jewellery, and 
 household furniture. The chief articles of import are, — of raw materials, silk, wool, hemp, flax, 
 and cotton ; of metals, iron and steel, lead, copper, tin, and bullion ; of manufactured goods, 
 hardwares and linen yarn ; of colonial, tobacco, sugar, and coffee ; besides the following mis- 
 cellaneous articles, raw hides, tallow, bones and horns, olive oil, hard woods for cabinet ware, 
 cheese, sulphur, and wax. The export and import of flax are nearly equal ; of the coffee and 
 tobacco imported, about one-half is re-exported, and of the sugar about one-seventh. The export 
 of wax is about half the import ; that of raw hides, one-fourth to one-third. 
 
 The foreign trade has increased greatly since the peace of 1815. During the continuance of war the 
 commerce of the Atlantic ports was completely ruined, and that of the Mediterranean greatly 
 harassed and interrupted by British cruisers ; and the average annual amount of exports in the three 
 years 1816, 1817, and 1818, was only £17,429,533 ; but in the course of the succeeding 20 years this 
 amount was doubled, the average of the three years, 1836, 1837, and 1838, having been £35,670,531. 
 The following tables show the nature, amount, and distribution of the foreign trade in the year 1838 :— 
 
 Statement of the Value of Merchandise imported into, and exported from France, 
 dividing the Articles into certain Classes, and distinguishing the Trade by Sea 
 and by Land, in the Year 1838. 
 
 DESCRIPTION. 
 
 Animal Productions. 
 
 Live Animals 
 
 Animal Produce 
 
 Produce of Fisheries 
 
 Materials for Medicine and 
 
 Perfumery 
 
 Hard Substances for Carving 
 
 Vegetable Productions. 
 
 Farinaceous Food 
 
 Fruits 
 
 Colonial Produce 
 
 Vegetable Juices 
 
 Medicinal Substances 
 
 Common Wood (Timber) 
 
 Exotic Woods (Hard Woods) 
 Fruits, Stalks, and Filaments, 
 for manufacturing purposes 
 Dyes and Tanning Stuffs . .. 
 Other Produce and Waste . 
 
 Mineral Productions. 
 Stones, Earths, and other 
 
 Fossils 
 
 Metals 
 
 Manufactured Goods. 
 Chemical Preparations .... 
 
 Prepared Dyes 
 
 Colours 
 
 Various Compositions 
 
 Liquors, of all kinds 
 
 Vitrifications 
 
 Threads 
 
 Woven Goods and Felt 
 
 Paper, and Fabrications of the 
 
 Various Manufactures . . 
 Total. . 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 42,843 
 118,596 
 
 719,686 
 
 ,404,809 
 ,449,610 
 108,529 
 828,530 
 239,361 
 
 ,737,311 
 181,178 
 16,180 
 
 427,236 
 1,650,030 
 
 239,101 
 
 1,286,438 
 
 13,076 
 
 103,283 
 
 45,832 
 
 43.524 
 
 865;357 
 
 1,840,229 
 
 42,795 
 934,447 
 
 134,802 854,488 
 
 273,532 1,173,361 
 
 57,086 4,461,895 
 
 1,488,879 
 
 17,525 
 
 507,400 
 3,622 
 
 126,054 
 
 1,335,930 
 
 242,983 
 
 121.845J 4,859,156 
 26,909, 208,087 
 64,819 80,999 
 
 671,324 
 409,552 
 
 22.305 
 24,102 
 16,012 
 1/3,122 
 8,640 
 35,809 
 131,277 
 2,918,337 
 
 39,025 
 917,175 
 
 1,098,560 
 2,059,582 
 
 261,406 
 
 1,310,540 
 
 29,088 
 
 276,405 
 
 54,472 
 
 79,333 
 
 996,634 
 
 4,758,566 
 
 81,820 
 1,851,622 
 
 824,642 
 
 347,156 
 
 1,031,563 
 
 657,245 
 
 49,060 
 163,492 
 
 37,813 
 
 292,766 
 439,578 
 81,020 
 
 155,327 
 314,005 
 
 5,870 
 ,517 
 
 ,5f,7 
 
 ,706 
 
 286 
 204 
 37 
 701 
 2,635 
 538,958 
 92,169 
 11,936,244 
 
 3,452,205 
 
 25,168,553 12,313,626 37,482,179 27,791,154 10,445,152 38,236,306 
 
 4,670 
 919 
 
 85,771 
 82,719 
 307,728, 
 123,024 
 21,036, 
 102,499 
 6,489 
 
 718,369 
 
 113,717 
 286,253 
 
 30,820 
 16,650 
 
 910,413 
 
 429,875 
 
 1,339,291 
 
 780,269 
 
 70,096 
 265,991 
 
 44,302 
 
 1,011,135 
 720,204 
 140,859 
 
 269,044 
 600,258 
 
 99,342 
 145,833 
 
 40,875 
 337,077 
 262,653 
 147,228 
 107,257 
 4,880,429 16,816,673 
 
 386,212 
 350,350 
 78,432 
 038,7a3 
 898,472 
 
 210,266 
 1,381,330 
 
 607,798 
 ,833,535 
 
FRA 
 
 309 
 
 FRA 
 
 Statement showing the Amount of the Import and Export Trade of France with 
 the different Countries of the World, in the Year 1838. 
 
 Europe, 
 
 Russia 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway. 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Hanse Towns. 
 
 Mecklenburg-Schwerin . 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 Portugal, Azores, &c . 
 
 Spain 
 
 Austria. 
 
 Sardinian States 
 
 Two Sicilies 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Roman States, Lucca... 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Germany 
 
 Greece.." 
 
 Turkev 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Algiers. 
 
 Barbary States 
 
 Cape of Good Hope and \ 
 
 Mauritius / 
 
 Other parts 
 
 Asia. 
 E. Indies, British, and\ 
 
 Australia j 
 
 E. Indies, Dutch 
 
 French 
 
 Imports. Exports. 
 
 £ 
 
 1,592, fill* 
 
 202,711 
 
 440,339 
 
 33,144 
 
 838,762 
 
 397,352 
 
 14,124 
 
 837,359 
 
 3,723,856 
 
 3,797,701 
 
 61,080 
 
 1,418,592 
 
 206,197 
 
 4,469, 
 
 899,033 
 
 632,360 
 
 38,373 
 
 2.678,000 
 
 2,180,175 
 
 15,713 
 
 137,832 
 66,697 
 240.137 
 
 24,1/2 
 22,933 
 
 £ 
 
 539,828 
 
 41,655 
 
 88,576 
 
 78,556 
 
 361,594 
 
 831,018 
 
 15,275 
 
 877,014 
 
 2,206,461 
 
 5,602,145 
 
 90,113 
 
 3,033,093 
 
 411,678 
 
 2,380,815 
 
 541.782 
 
 71 '.Of)l 
 
 107,897 
 
 3,445,823 
 
 1,794,017 
 
 84,367 
 
 657,279 
 
 723,204 ! 
 
 249.194J 
 212,344 
 
 151,068 
 
 1,011,431 
 
 210,566 
 
 273,328 
 52,710 
 
 108,-' 81 
 
 57.'^55 
 17,361 
 
 China 
 
 Cochin-China, &c. , 
 
 America. 
 
 United States 
 
 Hayti 
 
 British Possessions 
 
 Spanish 
 
 Danish 
 
 Dutch 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Central America 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 New Granada. 
 
 Peru 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 Chili 
 
 States of Rio de la Plata 
 
 French Colonies. 
 
 Guadeloupe 
 
 Martinique. 
 
 Bourbon 
 
 Senegal 
 
 Cayenne 
 
 St PierreandMiquelon, \ 
 
 and the fisheries. J 
 
 Wrecks and salvage. 
 
 Total merchandise. . 
 Specie imported (one-\ 
 half fromGreat Britain) / 
 Specie exported. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 £48,149 
 
 £11,512 
 
 53,751 
 
 33,252 
 
 5,311,827 
 
 6,827,921 
 
 290,413 
 
 202,131 
 
 
 28,049 
 
 459,676 
 
 602,915 
 
 35,981 
 
 151,616 
 
 8 
 
 826 
 
 379,425 
 
 918,295 
 
 176,603 
 
 324,261 
 
 106,690 
 
 13,194 
 
 51,361 
 
 70,396 
 
 19,784 
 
 17,419 
 
 890 
 
 103,895 
 
 
 14,376 
 
 132.333 
 
 307,348 
 
 255,319 
 
 201,113 
 
 860,474 
 
 607,708 
 
 684,496 
 
 623,78fl 
 
 844,824 
 
 549,835 
 
 212,455 
 
 472,224 
 
 109,399 
 
 136,692 
 
 488,976 
 
 227,171 
 
 14,759 
 
 
 37,482,179 
 
 38,236,306 
 
 6,907,087 
 
 
 
 2,288,936 
 
 44..T-;fi.2»>l 
 
 40.525.242 
 
 Statement showing the Number and Tonnage of Vessels engaged in the Foreign 
 Trade of France, which Entered and Cleared at Ports in that Country, dis- 
 tinguishing French from Foreign Vessels, and those employed in the Direct from 
 those employed in the Carrying Trade, also the Value of their Cargoes, in the 
 Year 1838. 
 
 Vessels and Trade. 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Cleared. 
 
 Vessels. | Tons. ! Cargoes. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Ton?. 
 
 Cargoes. 
 
 French, exclusive of coasters 
 
 Foreign, in direct trade with the \ 
 
 country to which they belong / 
 
 Foreign, in carrying trade 
 
 Total.... 
 
 £ 
 
 6,081 657,084 12,695,120 
 6,812 ! 844,213 10,671,384 
 1,194 ' 170,527 1,802,044 
 
 5,557 
 5,126 
 1,194 
 
 569,882 
 463,342 
 148,123 
 
 £ 
 11,040,156 
 
 14,340,416 
 
 2,410,568 
 
 14,087 1,671,824 25,168,548 
 
 11,877 
 
 1,181,347 
 
 27,791,14" 
 
 The number and tonnage of merchant vessels, which belonged to the ports of France on 31st 
 December 1838, were as follows :— Of 30 tons and under, 10,623; between 30 and 60 tons, 1019; 
 between 60 and 100 tons, 1515; between 100 and 200 tons, 1263; between 200 and 300 tons, 606 ; 
 between 300 and 400 tons. 213 ; between 400 and 500 tons, 68 ; between 500 and 600 tons, 15 ; 
 letween 600 and 7^0 tons, 2 ; of 800 tons (1164) and upwards, 1 ; total number of vessels, 15,326, 
 and of tons, 696,978. 
 
 The Trade between France and Great Britain is inconsiderable, when viewed with reference to 
 the vast capabilities of the two countries to supply their mutual wants, and to their near neigh- 
 bourhood to each other. This is to be attributedto the exclusive policy introduced by M. Colbert, 
 and afterwards imitated in our own country ; and to the long continuance of that feverish state of 
 mutual jealousy and hatred which was ever and anon breaking out into fierce and protracted con- 
 tests of arms, — influences which, until a recent period, have led the two nations to act as if each 
 had no higher interest than at any cost to keep itself independent of the other, and to their com- 
 mercial intercourse heing, as it was in most other respects, little more than a connexion of opposi- 
 tion. At one period, indeed, sounder views seemed likelv to prevail. In 1786, Mr Pitt concluded the 
 treaty commonly called the Eden treaty, after Mr William Eden (subsequently Lord Auckland), 
 the negotiator, which was favourable in the highest degree to the extension of commercial relations 
 between France and Great Britain ; but this treaty continued in operation only until 1791, when 
 its provisions were supplanted by a new tariff, reimposing the former prohibitory duties ; and the 
 
FRA 
 
 310 
 
 FRA 
 
 system then restored may be said to have been adhered to down to the present day, at least on the 
 part of France, in all its leading principles. 
 
 At different periods since the peace of 1815, attempts have been made to extend commerce 
 between the two countries. In Great Britain, the discriminating duty on French wines has been 
 repealed ; the silk manufactures, formerly prohibited, are now admitted upon a scale of duties 
 which causes a considerable trade in them to be carried on, and at various times the duties 
 have been reduced in a considerable degree upon many minor articles of French produce ; 
 while in France these concessions have been met with a corresponding spirit. But viewed as a 
 whole, what has been effected is trifling, when compared with what yet remains to be done. Those 
 great British staples, coal and iron, articles of which France is deficient, are yet loaded by her 
 with prohibitory duties ; restrictions are likewise imposed by her on hardware, cutlery, cottons, 
 yarns, and many other products of English industry. On the other hand, the duties levied in the 
 United Kingdom on brandy, and even many descriptions of French silks and whies, are much too 
 high. Happily the importance of further relaxations is appreciated by the two governments, as 
 well as by the great body of the consumers in both countries, so that there is now some prospect 
 that their commercial intercourse will be allowed to grow up to its natural leveL 
 
 Trade of the United Kingdom with France at different Periods. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Official Value. 
 
 Declared Value 
 of British and 
 Irish Produce 
 and Manufac- 
 tures exported to 
 France. 
 
 Imports from 
 France. 
 
 Exports to France. 
 
 British and Irish 
 
 produce and 
 manufactures. 
 
 Foreign and 
 
 Colonial 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Total Exports. 
 
 1785 
 1795 
 1805 
 1815 
 1820 
 1825 
 1830 
 1835 
 1836 
 1837 
 1838 
 1839 
 
 £ 
 
 334,370 
 
 41,690 
 
 494,749 
 
 754,372 
 
 775,132 
 
 1,835,985 
 
 2,317,686 
 
 2,746,999 
 
 3,125,978 
 
 2,707,587 
 
 3,431,119 
 
 4,022,526 
 
 £ 
 368,037 
 
 ""l99 
 
 214,824 
 
 334,087 
 
 279,212 
 
 486,284 
 
 1,561,915 
 
 1,700,665 
 
 2,036,844 
 
 3,193,923 
 
 3,118,410 
 
 £ 
 
 354,020 
 
 78,653 
 
 353 
 
 1,228,856 
 
 829,814 
 
 892,403 
 
 181,065 
 
 505,346 
 
 644,950 
 
 839,207 
 
 691,080 
 
 514,243 
 
 £ 
 
 722,057 
 
 78,653 
 
 552 
 
 1,443,680 
 
 1,163,901 
 
 1,171,615 
 
 667,349 
 2,067,261 
 2,345,615 
 2,876,051 
 3,885,003 
 3,632,653 
 
 £ 
 
 298,292 
 
 390,745 
 
 360,710 
 
 475,884 
 
 1,453,636 
 
 1,591,381 
 
 1,643,204 
 
 2,314,141 
 
 2,298,3()7 
 
 The principal exports from France into the United Kingdom in the year 1839 were as follow : — 
 Apples (official value), £20,651; baskets, £5660; books, £13,729; boracic acid, 211,093 lbs.; 
 boxes, £13,593; brimstone, 199,104 cwts. ; clocks, £27,069; cork, 2531 cwts. ; wheat, 278,181 
 quarters; barley, 105,326 quarters; beans, 27,004 quarters; other grain, 8806 quarters; flour, 
 115,502 cwts. ; cotton manufactures, £41,700; eggs, No. 90,834,163; needlework, £19,683; flax 
 and tow, 78,607 cwts. ; flowers, artificial, £20,933 ; furs, martin, No. 13,826; glass bottles, 1,215,426 
 qts. Imp. measure ; hair, human, 8861 lbs. ; hats of straw, No. 5801 ; hemp, 19,546 cwts ; leather 
 manufactures, viz. gloves, 1 ,007,889 pairs ; boots and shoes, 48,824 pairs; and other articles, £5748 ; 
 linen articles, viz. cambrics and bordered handkerchiefs, 34,598 pieces ; and of other sorts, £7612 ; 
 madder, 58,044 cwts. ; madder-root, 13,211 cwts; nuts, viz. walnuts, 14,131 bushels; oil of olives, 
 11 ,113 gallons ; and of thyme, 6567 lbs. : ochre, 3779 cwts. ; paper for hangings, 29,444 sq. yds., and 
 other sorts, 61,946 lbs.; pictures, No. 2316 ; platting, &c. for straw bonnets, 34,957 lbs" ; plums 
 and prunelloes, 8169 cwts. ; prunes, 18,998 cwts. ; prints and drawings, No. 113,803 ; quinine (sul- 
 phate of), 55,477 ounces ; rapeseed and other oil cakes, 287,933 cwts ; salt, 39,476 bushels ; seeds, 
 clover, 26,530 cwts. ; onion, 42,399 lbs. ; tares, 22,040 bushels; silk (chiefly re-exported from Italy), 
 raw, 1,018,901 lbs.; waste, knubs, and husks, 568,754 lbs.; thrown, dyed 1711 lbs., and undyed 
 212,820 lbs. ; silk manufactures, namely, plain or figured, including ribands, 220,517 lbs. ; gauze 
 and gauze ribands, 18,127 lbs. ; crape, 3295 lbs. ; velvet, 9254 lbs. ; fancy silk net, 3582 lbs. ; lace, 
 1733 lbs. ; other sorts, £120,925: skins, kid, 529,995; spirits, brandy, 1,936,172 gallons; verde- 
 gris, 62,859 lbs. ; washes, £17,963 ; water, Cologne, 54,685 flasks; wine, 485,051 gallons; wool, 
 sheep's, 83,141 lbs. ; /oollen manufactures, £132,719. The chief articles on which an increase has 
 taken place of late years are, raw silk and silk manufactures, wine, glass bottles, eggs, gloves, 
 boxes, brimstone, clocks and watches, straw platting, quinine, oil-cake. 
 
 The principal articles of British produce and manufactures imported into France from the United 
 Kingdom in the sane year were as follow :— Apothecary wares (declared value), £11,049; ap- 
 parel, &c. £22,696; irsenic, 5047 cwts. ; books, £8347; coals, 340,373 tons, £116,961 ; copper 
 smelted from foreign ore, 84,567 cwts. £363,637 ; cotton manufactures, namely, calicoes, muslins, 
 fustians, &e., 2,721,568 yds., £58,528; lace and patent net, 11,849,800 yds., £53,092; hosieryand 
 small wares, £40,259; cotton twist and yarn, 70,191 lbs., £37,884; earthenware, £3099; hard- 
 wares and cutlery, £67,478; horses, No. 418, £l9,565; iron and steel unwrought, £76,3^5; iron, 
 wrought, £16,964 ; lead and shot, £12,776 ; linen manufactures, £247,686 ; and yarn, 12,259,254 
 lbs., £644,144; machinery, £182,329 ; silk manufactures, £11,648 ; silk twist and yarn, £32,980; 
 tin, unwrought, 9795 cwts., £37,020; tin plates, £8796; wool, sheep's, 876,166 lbs., £68,176; 
 woollen and worsted yarn, 153,329 lbs., £29,495 ; woollen manufactures, £51,493. The increase of 
 late years has chiefly occurred on the following articles, namely : — Linen manufactures and yarn 
 (which now amount to about two-fifths of the whole), coal, copper smelted from foreign ore, cotton 
 lace and net, small wares, twist and yam, hardware, machinery, silk twist and yarn, and woollen 
 yarn. Besides British products, various foreign and colonial articles are imported from the United 
 Kingdom, the principal being, cinnamon, cochineal, unwrought copper, cocoa, Indian silks (chiefly 
 
FRA 31 1 FRA 
 
 bandanas and handkerchiefs) and cottons, shellac, goat's hair manufactures, indigo, castor oil, 
 pepper, quicksilver, precious stones, saltpetre, spelter, and cotton wool. 
 
 In addition to the trade just described, a considerable intercourse is conducted by those effectual 
 reformers of faulty tariffs,— the smugglers. This illicit trade chiefly consists in conveying brandy 
 from France to theS. coast of England, and in introducing some descriptions of yarns and lace into 
 the former, across the frontier by way of Belgium. A great deal of curious information upon this 
 subject is to be found in the Reports in 1832 and 1834, by Mr Villiers and Dr Bowring, on 
 the commercial relations between France and Great Britain ; though, since these reports were 
 made, it is believed that in some branches, especially that of yams, the irregular trade has 
 decreased. 
 
 Principal Ports on the Atlantic. 
 
 These, stated in their order along the coast from N. to S., are, Dunkirk, Calais, Boulogne, St 
 Valery-sur Somme, Dieppe, Fecamp, Harfleur, Le Havre, Honfleur, Caen, Cherbourg, Gran- 
 ville, St Malo, Brest, L'Orient, Nantes, Ln Rochelle, Rochefort on the Charente, Bordeaux, and 
 Bayonne. Those of Cherbourg, Brest, and L'Orient are, as is well known, principal stations of 
 the French navv. Of the mercantile ports the chief are the following : — 
 
 Dunkirk, the* most northerly, lies in lat. 51° 2' N., long. 2° 22' E. ; pop. 25,000. The har- 
 bour is large and commodious ; but there is a dangerous bar at its mouth. It is a free port ; and, 
 being connected with several of the canals which intersect Belgium, it is a considerable emporium 
 for wine, brandy, and other articles of French produce, for th^supply of that country. The New- 
 foundland cod-fishery and the herring-fishery are also prosecute* to some extent. During the late 
 war between Great Britain and France, numerous privateers were fitted out from it. 
 
 Le Havre, in lat. 49 s 2!/ N., long. 0° 6" E. is, next to Marseilles^ the principal commercial sea- 
 port of France. It is situated on the right bank of the Seine, $t its mouth, which is several 
 miles wide; distant 127 miles from Paris (by road), and 42 miles frpm Rouen; pop. exclusive of 
 seamen, 25.61& The site of the town is low. The port is comprehended within the circuit of the 
 town, and has communicating with it three basins, capable of accommodating about 500 vessels ; 
 but this is inadequate to the growing importance of its trade. At its entrance, which is fortified, 
 is an old tower, built by Francis I., 70 feet in height, from whence signals are made. There are 
 two roadsteads, — the outer or great road, in which large ships always lie, about a league from 
 Havre, and having from 6 to 71 fathoms water at ebb ; the inner or little road, separated from the 
 former by a sand-bank, about half a league distant, having from 3 to 3£ fathoms at ebb, but the 
 rise of tide being about 25 feet, the largest merchantmen are enabled to enter the harbour. Being 
 the principal port of Paris, most of the foreign and colonial produce destined for the consumption 
 of that city is conveyed into it ; while its proximity to the district, of which Rouen is the capital, 
 renders it the chief place in France for the importation of cotton, as well as the great centre of the 
 trade with the United States, with which there is a regular communication by means of packets, 
 as at Liverpool. The annual value of the imports is about fr. 200,000,000, or £8,000,000. The 
 chief exports are silk and woollen stuffs, lace, gloves, trinkets, perfumery, wines, and brandy ; 
 corn being sometimes exported, and at other times imported. In 1838, the total number of ves- 
 sels that entered from foreign countries and French colonies was 1381, burden 335,687 tons ; where- 
 of belonged to France 563, burden 129,172 tons ; to the United States 241, burden 100,860 tons; 
 to Britain 361, burden 59,5<>3 tons. In the same year, the number of coasting vessels which 
 entered was 3n34, burden 257,505 tons. At Havre an active intercourse is kept up, not only with 
 Paris and various places on the coast, but with the principal ports of England, and of the N. and 
 S. of Europe. In 1838, the number of steamers which entered was 558, burden 101,561 tons. 
 
 Nantes, in lat. 47" 13' N., long. 1° 33' YV., is situated on the N. bank of the.Loire, and derives its 
 importance and prosperity from being the port of that river. The town is ancient and of historical 
 celebrity ; pop. 87,191. At spring-tides vessels of 200 tons come up to it ; but at other times this 
 can be accomplished only by craft not exceeding 100 tons. Larger ships either remain at Paim- 
 bceuf, 25 miles lower down, near the mouth of the river, or at least discharge part of their cargo 
 there. Nantes co:. tains several extensive manufactories, shipbuilding yards, and a victualling 
 establishment for the navy, — provisions being very cheap. The exports are wine, brandy, vinegar, 
 grain, flour, biscuit, butter, silks, woollens, and linens. The chief imports are colonial produce, 
 cotton, indigo, and timber. In 1838, 437 vessels, burden 65,989 tons, entered from foreign coun- 
 tries and French colonies, and 4003 coasters, burden 135,180 tons. 
 
 Bordeaux, in lat. 44- W N., long. 0°35 / W., is situated in the department of Gironde, on 
 the W. bank of the Garonne, which here makes a considerable bend, having the city and its ex- 
 tensive quays on its concave bank, in the form of the crescent moon. It is a very ancient town, and 
 deservedly celebrated. Many of the houses are exceedingly elegant, and the general style of living 
 is luxurious in a higher degree than in any other part of France, except Paris ; pop. 95,000. The 
 approach by water is magnificent The river at its narrowest part is 720 yards ae -oss, with a depth 
 of 16 feet at low, and nearly 30 feet at high water. The port is capable of accomi lodating upwards 
 of 1000 vessels, and such as* do not exceed 500 or 600 tons may enter at all times of the tide. Bor- 
 deanz is the principal outlet for the wines of the W. districts of France, and even of the southern 
 and midland districts ; and these, more especially claret, form its staple trade. The other exports 
 if brandy, refined sugar, cattle, hides, provisions, flour, clover-seed, • imonds, prunes, 
 chesnuts, walnuts, cork, turpentine, resin, tartar, verdigris, linens, and coloni i produce; those 
 are shipped to various parts of Europe, America, the French colonies, or to Ind*a. The chief im- 
 ports are, sugar, coffee, cocoa, cotton, indigo, and tobacco, mostly from the colonies; tin, lead, 
 copper, coals, hardware, timber, hides, hemp, horns, beef, and fish, from Great Britain, the N. 
 of Europe, and America. Its trade is greatly promoted by the Canal of Languedoc, which joins 
 the Garonne, and of which Bordeaux forms the embouchure towards the Atlantic. Shipbuilding 
 and various manufactures are carried on extensively ; and there are two large fairs, one of which 
 opens 1st March, the other on the 15th October. In 1838, 692 vessels, burden 112,025 tons, 
 entered the port from foreign countries and French colonies, of which 99 vessels, burden 17,607 
 tons were British ; besides these there entered 5920 coasters, burden 233,210 tons. 
 Principal Ports on thk Mediterranean. 
 
 These, stated in their order from E. to W. are, Toulon Ca celebrated station of the French navy), 
 Marseilles, Aries, Cette, Agde, Port-Vendres. 
 
FRA 
 
 312 
 
 FRA 
 
 Cette, in lat. 43° 24' N., long. 3° 42' E., is situated in the department of Herault, on the narrow 
 stripe of land which separates the etang or lagoon of Thau from the sea. It forms one embouchure 
 of the Great Canal of Languedoc, a circumstance to which its rise and prosperity is alone attribut- 
 able, as the port is not very good, nor has it the natural facilities for becoming so : it has also a 
 canal communication with the Rhone ; pop. 11,648. The harbour, which has from 16 to 19 feet 
 water, and can accommodate about 400 vessels, is formed by two lateral moles, with a breakwater 
 across the entrance. The moles are fortified, and on the principal one is a lighthouse, elevated 84 
 feet above the level of the sea. A considerable trade is carried on in the wines and brandies of Lan- 
 guedoc, of which Cette is the depot. The salt-works on the adjoining lagoon are pretty extensive ; 
 as are also the fisheries, particularly that of sardines. About 130,000 tons of shipping (including 
 coasters) enter annually. 
 
 Marseilles, in lat. 43° 17' N., long. 5° 22' E., is the principal commercial city and port of France. 
 It is seated at the upper end of a gulf, covered and defended by many small islands, and is divided 
 into the old town, or the city, and the new. In the former, the streets are narrow, and the houses 
 mean ; but in the latter, which communicates with the old by a fine street, the squares and build- 
 ings are beautiful ; pop. about 125,000. Marseilles has been called Europe in miniature ; it is the 
 resort of foreigners of all nations, and the variety, continual bustle, and medley of languages which 
 this occasions, are among its most striking features. The harbour is an oval, of more than half a 
 mile long, and about a quarter of a mile broad, formed by a small inlet of the sea, running east- 
 ward into the heart of the city, which is built round it ; and is capable of accommodating about 
 1200 vessels. It is very safe but not deep, and frigates cannot enter without difficulty. Opposite 
 the mouth of it, which is narrow, not permitting the entry of more than one ship at a time, are the 
 three small islands of If, Rattonneau, and Pomegue ; and between the two last is a secure an- 
 chorage, where vessels perform quarantine. Exports, chiefly wines, brandy, silks, woollens, 
 hosiery, linens, corn, dried fruits, oil, soap, leather, and colonial articles. Marseilles is a great 
 emporium for Levant produce, and it also carries on an active intercourse with Italy, Spain, the 
 Black Sea, Algiers, and other parts of Barbary. In 1838, the number of vessels which entered 
 from foreign countries and French colonies was 3247, burden 481 ,355 tons ; and the number of 
 coasters 3900, burden 264,810 tons. In the same year, the number of steamers that entered was 
 621, burden 150,456 tons. The customs and other dues collected are estimated at £1,000,000 
 annually. 
 
 Corsican Ports. 
 
 Bastia, the principal town and port, is situated on the E. coast, in lat. 42° 43' N., long. 9° 26' 
 E. ; pop. 12,846. The port is unsafe, and not adapted for large vessels. At its entrance is the 
 celebrated rock " II Leone," so called from its resemblance to a lion in repose, which answers the 
 purpose of a breakwater. Exports, oil, wine, cattle, hides, goat-skins, coral, and wood. It carries 
 on a considerable intercourse with Leghorn, from whence British manufactures and tobacco are 
 smuggled into the island. 
 
 Ajaccio lies in a gulf on the N. side, in lat. 41° 55' N., long. 8° 44' E. ; pop. 9000. Exports, 
 wine, oil, and coral. 
 
 Measures, Weights, Money, Finances, 
 
 Measures and Weights. 
 The French measures and weights may be 
 classed under three heads: — 1. The Metrical 
 System. 2. The Systeme Usuel. 3. The An- 
 cient System. 
 
 1. The Metrical System, 
 Instituted in 1795, is used in government transac- 
 tions, in wholesale trade, and for scientific pur- 
 poses. It is founded upon the distance of the pole 
 from the equator, the ten millionth part of which, 
 denominated a mitre, is decreed to be the unit of 
 length. The other units are — of surface, the are; 
 of solidity, thestere,- of capacity, thelitre,- and of 
 weight.the^rammc/ and the Latin derivatives deci 
 (tenth of), centi (hundredth of) , inilli (thousandth 
 of), being prefixed to that expressing the unit, 
 serve to denominate its subdivisions ; while the 
 Greek derivatives deca ( ten ) , hecto ( one hundred ) , 
 kilo (thousand), myria (ten thousand), express 
 its multiples. Thus d^ci-metre denotes the ^th 
 of a metre, and d£ca-metre 10 metres. 
 
 Metre of 10 decimetres, 100 centi-metres, or 
 1000 millimetres = 1093633 Imp. yard, or nearly 
 39$ Imp. inches ; and 32 metres = 35 Imp. yds. 
 nearly :— 1000 metres, 100 decametres, or 10 
 hectometres = 1 kilometre, or metrical mile = 
 3280-899 Imp. feet = about 1093| Imp. yds., or 
 nearly 5 furlongs ; and 10 kilometres = 1 myria- 
 metre, or metrical league = 6*213824 Imp. miles, 
 or = 6 miles, 1 furlong, 28 poles, and 2£ yds. 
 
 Are (100 sq. metres), or metrical perch of 10 
 deciares, or 100 centiares = 119-6033 Imp. sq. 
 yds., or nearly 3 sq. poles and 29 sq. yds. ; 100 
 ares, or 10 decares = 1 hectare = 2-471 143 Imp. 
 acres = 2 acres, 1 rood, 35 sq. poles, 11$ sq. yds.; 
 or 17 hectares = 42 Imp. acres nearly. 
 
 Stere (or cubic metre) of 10 decisteres = 
 
 &c. 
 
 35-316581 Imp. cubic feet or 1-308022 Imp. cubic 
 yd. ; and 10 steres = 1 decastere. 
 Litre (or cubic decimetre), of 10 decilitres, or 
 
 1 100 centilitres = 61-027052 Imp. cubic inches = 
 0.220097 Imp. gall., or about 13 Imp. pint; and 
 50 litres = 11 Imp. galls, nearly. 100 litres, or 
 10 decalitres = 1 hectolitre = 2751207, or about 
 2| Imp. bush. ; and 32 hectolitres = 11 Imp. qrs. 
 nearly. 100 hectolitres, or 10 kilolitres (or cubic 
 
 ! metres) = 1 myrialitre = 34-390086, or about 34 
 
 I Imp. qrs. 3\ bush. 
 
 I Gramme, weighing 1 cubic centimetre of water 
 
 j at its maximum of density, and containing 10 
 decigrammes, or 100 centigrammes = 15-434 
 troy grains; 1000 grammes, 100 decagrammes, 
 
 | or 10 hectogrammes = 1 kilogramme = 2 lbs. 
 3 oz. and 4^ drams, or 2-204857 lbs. avoirdupois ; 
 and 288 kilogrammes = 635 lbs. avoirdupois 
 nearly ; 100 kilogrammes, or 10 myriagrammes 
 = 1 metrical quintal = 220-486 lbs. avoirdu- 
 pois or 1 cwt. 3 qrs. 24 lbs. 71 ounces nearly; 
 and 10 quintals, the weight of a cubic metre of 
 water = 1 millier or marine ton = 19 cwt. 2 qrs. 
 20 lbs. 13| oz. 
 
 2. The Systeme Usuel 
 
 Was established in 1812 for the purposes of retail 
 trade, in consequence of the aversion shown by 
 the common people to the innovations of the 
 metrical system. It tolerates the names of the 
 old measures necessary in the inferior depart- 
 ments of trade, while, by a slight alteration, the 
 value of these measures is so fixed as to bear 
 certain definite proportionsto the metrical system. 
 Its divisions, also, instead of being decimal, are 
 chiefly binary, from the greater convenience of 
 the latter in small transactions. 
 
FRA 
 
 313 
 
 FRA 
 
 Toise usuelle = 2 metres = 6 Imp. feet 63 ; The par of exchange with London, deduced 
 inches. [from the gold coins, is 25 francs 22J cents, and 
 
 Pied usuel = |th of the toise. | from the silver coins, 25 francs 57 cents for £) , 
 
 Aune usuelle = 12 decimetres = 47i Imp. the value of the franc being in the former case 
 
 inches. 9*52d., in the latter 9*39d. ; but these rates are 
 
 Litron usuel = 1 litre = 1| Imp. pint nearly. ' of little use in practice, as, while in this country 
 
 Boisseau usuel = £ hectolitre = 1 Imp. peck | gold forms the established medium of payment, 
 
 ' in France, being undervalued by the mint re- 
 
 and 3 quarts, or If peck nearly 
 
 Livre usuelle = 4 kilogramme = 1 lb. 1 oz. 
 10| drams avoird., or 7717 troy grains. 
 
 3. The Ancient System 
 Is still partially employed, particularly in road 
 measure?. 
 
 Toise of 6 pieds de roi = 1*9490 metre = 2*1315 
 Imp. yards, or about 6 feet 4| inches 
 
 gulations in respect to silver, it cannot (at least 
 in large transactions) be obtained at the rate 
 legally or nominally given to the coin, but must 
 be purchased at its current market-price or pre- 
 mium. This premium, therefore, must always 
 be taken into account in computing the metallic 
 I par for the purpose of the London exchange. 
 AunT^f'pJS^lTmm^L 46f Imp. ! ±* *•"*»-, J*f uar y * 1840, the quotation for 
 inches * i gold was " 7i per mille premium," which at the 
 
 Post league, of 2000 toises or 2 miles = 3*898 **% of £*> Vf lojd. per ounce (British stand- 
 kilometres or 4263 Imp. yards; Marine league ard >»_ Produced an exchange of 2o francs 34 cents 
 of 20 to the degree, or 60 marine miles = 5*555 *%P> and ma r d 1 e ., t l he i ranc equaled, 
 kilometres = 6"76 Imp. vards ; League of 25 to : . . J he us 3 nc « of b^^^shout France, and of 
 the degree = 4*444 kilometres = 4860 Imp. vards. blUs on Lo 1 i , ldon i u - 30 **** date « No days of 
 
 Arpent deseaux-et-forets = 51*072 ares = i -2*3*2 
 Imp. acre : Arpent commun = 42*2208 ares = 
 1*043 Imp. acre ; Arpent de Paris = 34*1887 ares 
 = 0-845 Imp. acre. 
 
 Muid, wine measure, of 36 setiers, 144 quarts, 
 or 288 pintes = 2 -J8 litres = 58*985 Imp. gallons. 
 
 Muid, corn measure of Paris, of 12 setiers, 24 
 mines. 48 minots, 144 bois-seaux, or 2304 litrons 
 = 18*72 hectolitres = 51*508 Imp. bushels. 
 
 Livre (Poids de Marc), of 2 marcs. 16 onces, y, 
 128 gros, 384 deniers, 9216 grains = 489*5 gram- < ^f'^ K) ;^ 0) - ™e bank has since repurchased 
 mes = 7555 troy grains ; the quintal of 100 livres 22 'Vj°°' tt ^;£ a «-**» Sf"*? reducing its actual 
 
 grace are allowed. 
 
 Banks, &c 
 The Bank of France was established on its 
 present footing in Paris in 1803, but a similar 
 national institution existed in that city under 
 different forms and designations, from the year 
 1716. It received a grant for 40 years; and its 
 original capital was fr. 70,000,000, divided into 
 70,000 shares (actions), each of fr. 1000, which, 
 however, was soon increased to fr. 90,0<>0,<00 
 
 = 107*928 lbs. avoird. 
 
 Bordeaux. — Tun of 4 barriques •*= 912 litres 
 
 = 200*73 Imp. galls. Velte = If Imp. galls, nearly. 
 
 Money. 
 
 The integer of account is the franc, which is 
 
 capital to fr. 67,900,000 (£2,716,000). It cir- 
 culates notes for fr. 500 and upwards, payable in 
 specie on demand, receives deposits, and dis- 
 counts bills of exchange ; it also makes advances 
 on bullion and other securities. It likewise un- 
 i dertakes the care of plate, jewels, title-deeds, 
 divided into 100 centimes, and is equivalent to and securities of all kinds; the charge for which 
 about 9Jd. sterling. Prior to 1797, the money of . ^ i t h per cent, on their value for every period of 
 account was the livre tournois of 20 sous each, 6 m0 nths or under. Its affairs are managed by 
 of 12 deniers. 81 livres are equal to 80 francs. 1 a governor and deputv-governor, nominated bv 
 The modern coins are as follow :— Gold pieces the king, and by 17 regents, and 3 censors, elected 
 °l i°/ rancs ' worth . 31s * 8 *, d - 8t « rlin ?' and P ieces by 200 of the principal shareholders. A state- 
 of 20 francs, sometimes called Napoleons, or new ment {comp t e rendu) of the bank's affairs is 
 Louis, equal to 15s. 10id. ; theseare minted at the published montniv, and the following is a copy 
 rate of 3099 francs from the kilogramme of f that issued in April 1841 :— 
 standard metal of the fineness of 9oo milliemes »___4 nt K .,n; 1 j » OJ . m. .„.„ 
 
 the remedy of the mint, allowed both on the A^„„* 0f J^„„ ^ n ^„*'„^ ' O0O ' OO0H)O 
 weight and on the fineness, varying from 3 mil- A Sw^f 1M4 * according to 1 10,000,000*00 
 
 Son l^Pie^-iBmonS co'pTer^S Amount vested in public se C urities J 5O,l 7 7,a32*80 
 
 pieces for 10 centimes, or 1 decime, contain ith &unanes 457,74673 
 
 478,958,557*04 
 
 ,500,000-00 
 
 part of silver. Of the old coins the principal are 
 the louis d'or of 24 livres, worth about 18s. 95d., 
 the double louis d'or, and the silver ecu of 6 
 livres, worth about 4s. 6Jd., with halves, quar- 
 ters, &c. ; also the copper sou, accounted equal 
 
 to -5i 1 Cent ^ ,es * * * t, *■ -. Notes pavable to order 
 
 <. S'nf f*£X *2 a^ ChaTg t'- , aCCordin & *° *u Treasury account-current . 
 
 tariff of 1803, is 9 francs per kilogramme of gold Sundrv accounts-current 
 
 of the purity of 900 millieme* », or ■ 10 francs per £^t»1£Ste S*S . \ 
 
 kilogramme of fine gold, and li per cent, on Capital of the bank 
 
 silver. Hence, if a kilogramme of gold T 9 c ths fine Reserve, according to law of 1834 
 
 be earned to the mint, the amount returned in Fixed reserve -*" •**" "■ - , °*-" 
 
 f™)****^™*™}** *™*****' the : Unclaimed dividends '.".'. 428,19573 
 
 of m ilvir Sh.VnV'i^ iotV ° r * kllogra . mi S e Draughts of branch banks outstanding 254,849*53 
 
 of wherftths fine_ also, 197 francs only will be Sundry accounts . . . 3,753,228*34 
 
 Contra. 
 Bank notes in circulation , not \ fr 003 
 comprising branch banks J ' 
 
 1,219,310*50 
 90,950,412*96 
 62,518,059*98 
 4,434,500*00 
 67,900,000*00 
 10,000,000*00 
 4,000,000*00 
 
 returned instead of 200 francs. The fixed mint 
 prices at which gold and silver are thus issued 
 are termed tariff rates, and all variations in their 
 market-prices are expressed in agios or premiums 
 upon such rates. 
 
 478,958,557*04 
 
 The Bank of France has branches in various 
 places ; in addition to which, there %vere in 1838 
 
FRA 
 
 314 
 
 FRA 
 
 the following other estahlishments issuing paper ; 
 namely, the banks of Bordeaux, Rouen, Lyons, 
 Nantes, Marseilles, and Lille. Of these six de- 
 partmental banks, the aggregate capital, in the 
 year just mentioned, was fr. 14,550,000 ; specie 
 on hand, fr. 14,583,000; notes in circulation, 
 fr. 35,199,000; deposits, fr. 7,971,000. 
 
 Besides these, there is the Havre, and a variety 
 of other joint-stock banks in the provinces. The 
 Lahtte Bank, lately established at Paris, issues 
 ** bank bills" bearing interest. 
 
 The French commercial code recognises three 
 kinds of commercial societies for purposes of a 
 permanent nature; namely, 1st, Societies " en 
 nom Collectif," or common partnerships; 2d, 
 Societies " en Commandite," the nature of which 
 we have already described [Company] ; and 3d, 
 Anonymous societies. These last resemble j oint- 
 stock companies in this country. Their capital 
 is divided into shares ; each holder is liable only 
 to the amount of those which he possesses ; and 
 the business is carried on by a few individuals 
 elected by the shareholders, who are not per- 
 sonally responsible to the public. According to 
 a report of the French Chambers, the number 
 of companies of the two latter classes established 
 in France from 1826 to the close of 1837, wa3,— 
 Societies en Commandite, 1106 ; joint-stock com- 
 panies, 157. Of the former, there relate to jour- 
 nals, periodicals, and books, 401 ; manufactures, 
 95; coaches and modes of conveyance, 93; forges, 
 metals, and the coal trade, 60; navigation, 52 ; 
 banks, 40 ; insurancj, 27 ; agriculture, 25 ; 
 theatres, 24 ; miscellaneous, 289. The shares of 
 the companies are generally divided into very 
 small sums, some as low as lo and 5 francs. 
 Finances. 
 
 The following is an account of the public rev- 
 enue and expenditure for the year 1838 :— 
 
 261,852,762 
 55,289,000 
 29,279,107 
 35,6U6,000 
 
 Land-tax, &c. . . 
 Poll-tax & house-tax 
 Door & window taxes 
 License duties . . 
 Registration duties, fr. 174,960,000 
 Stamps .... 31,200,000 
 Sale & auction duties 5,650,000 
 
 Timber & other forest 
 
 produce . . . 32,478,633 
 Fishing duties . . 400,000 
 
 Customs duties, &c. 
 Salt tax .... 
 Excise duties on li- 
 quors, &c. . . . 
 Sale of tobacco . . 
 Sale of gunpowder . 
 Sundries .... 
 
 Postage of letters . 
 Packets, &c . . 
 
 Weights & measures, 
 brevets, &c. . . 
 
 Sum of ordinary taxes 
 Revenue from Algiers 
 Revenue from India 
 Interest on Spanish 
 
 loan 
 
 Sundries, including re- 
 payment of loans to 
 commercial houses 
 in 1830 .... 
 
 105,126,000 
 55,534,000 
 
 85,040,000 
 77,850,000 
 4,720,000 
 37,895,000 
 
 35,900,000 
 9,355,000 
 
 211,810,000 
 
 32,878,633 
 
 366,165,000 
 
 45,255,000 
 9,076,0C0 
 
 1,700,000 
 1,000,000 
 
 1,892,576 
 
 1,800,000 
 
 1,047,211,502 
 
 6,392,576 
 
 Total fr. 1,053,604,078 
 Or £42,144,163 
 
 Expenditure. 
 Interest, &c. on public 
 
 debt 
 
 Pensions 
 
 Civil list .... 
 Chambers of peers and 
 deputies, and legion 
 of honour . . . 
 Ministry of Justice . 
 
 Religion . . . 
 
 — Foreign affairs 
 
 Public instruction 
 
 1 Interior . . . 
 
 Public works, viz. 
 
 Royal roads Abridges 23,260,000 
 Ports & internal nav- 
 igation . . . 13,135,000 
 Other expenses . . 17,934,878 
 
 Ministry of war, viz. 
 Expenditure inFrance 2i)2,189,055 
 Occupation of Ancona 791,552 
 African possessions 25,743,309 
 
 Ministry of marine and 
 colonies : — 
 
 Seamen and marines 22,966,300 
 Shipbuilding . . 18,(69,600 
 Colonies .... 7,620,600 
 Sundries .... 16,343,500 
 
 Administration 
 
 finance . . . 
 Collection of taxes 
 Reimbursements 
 
 of 
 
 119,870,150 
 53,828,134 
 
 276,016,496 
 52,540,000 
 13,000,000 
 
 3,205,300 
 18,685,045 
 35,439,50C 
 
 7,370,622 
 12,997,673 
 74,727,276 
 
 54,329,878 
 
 228,723,916 
 
 65,000,000 
 21,534,060 
 
 173,698,284 
 
 Total fr. 1,037,268,050 
 
 Or £41,490,722 
 Besides the state revenues, various taxes are 
 levied by the communes, for defraying their 
 own expenses: Of these the principal is the 
 octrois, or duties levied in the towns on all goods 
 which pass through their barriers, the produce 
 of which is applied to defray the expenses of hos- 
 pitals, poor-houses, and other local charges. 
 Debt. 
 The annual charge on account of the public 
 debt on 1st January 1838, consisted of the fol- 
 lowing sums : — 
 Rentes, 5 per cent. . . fr. 147,053,472 
 
 4i per cent. . . 1,026,600 
 
 4 per cent. . . . 11,978,265 
 
 3 per cent. . . 35,905,696 
 
 Sinking fund . . . 44,616,463 
 
 Interest and sinking fund on loans 
 for canals and bridges . . 9,936,000 
 
 Consolidated debt and sinking fund 250,516,496 
 Interest of Capitatu des cautionne- 
 
 ments . . . 9,000,000 
 
 Floating debt . . . 10,000,000 
 
 Annuities and pensions . . 58,050,000 
 
 Total fr. 327,566,496 
 
 Or £13,102,660 
 The dividends on the 5, 4 J and 4 per cent, 
 rentes are payable on 22d March and 22d Sep- 
 tember ; those on the 3 per cents on 22d June 
 and 22d December. 
 
 The rentes are the only French securities ne- 
 gotiable in England. They are either in bonds 
 of various amounts, payable to the bearer, or 
 are inscribed in the name of the holder in the 
 record of the public debt. The former pass from 
 hand to hand without the necessity of a written 
 assignment; and the dividends to English holders 
 
FRA 
 
 315 
 
 FRA 
 
 are payable by Messrs Rothschild, at the current in the first four years of the period owing 
 rate of exchange, upon the coupons being left for to the expenses of the army of occupation 
 a few days at their office. In order to assign (£18,985,524), and the contributions paid to the 
 the inscribed rentes, however, the seller must allies (£53,585,524). A considerable augmenta- 
 grant a power of attorney, authorizing some tion of charge was also occasioned between 1821 
 party in Paris to sign the transfer in the record and 1823 by the invasion of Spain ; in 1828, by 
 book ; on completing which, a certificate of the the invasion of the Morea ; and in 1830, and sub- 
 inscription is issued, which must be returned in sequent years, by the occupation of Algiers, 
 case of a new assignment. The dividends on the and the state of circumstances which arose out 
 inscribed rentes are payable in Paris, where they of the revolution in July in that year. At the 
 can be received by an agent, duly authorized commencement of 1836, it was stated by M. 
 by power of attorney. Humann, minister of finance, that the debt 
 
 The public debt of France, after deducting the had been increased since July 1830 by about 
 sinking fund, now exceeds £200,000,000 ster- fr. 800,000,000 (£32,000,000), entailing a charge 
 ling. It has increased considerably since the of fr. 40,000,000 (£1,600, ooo) per annum. To 
 conclusion of the war in 1815 ; the ordinary these causes of increased debt has to be added 
 revenues during the 26 years that have since the hostile demonstrations which arose out of 
 elapsed having been seldom equal to the expen- the line of policy adopted by M. Thiers in 1840, 
 diture. This was more particularly the case and the fortifications of Paris. 
 
 Abstract of Convention of Commerce and Navigation between Great Britain 
 and France, January 26, 1826. (Her Islet' s Treaties, vol. iii. p. 123.) 
 
 The two powers being animated by the de-ire III. All goods which may be legally exported 
 offacilitatingtheconimercial intercourse between j from either of the two countries, shall, on their 
 their respective subjects; and being persuaded , export, pay the same duties, whether such ex- 
 that nothing can more contribute to this object ! portation be made in British or French vessels, 
 than to simplify and equalize the navigation re- ! provided they proceed direct from the one coun- 
 gulations of both kingdoms, by the reciprocal try to the other. And all such goods shall be 
 abrogation of all discriminating duties levied ! reciprocally entitled to the same bounties, draw- 
 upon the vessels of either of the two nations in ; backs, and other allowances, 
 the ports of the other ; — have named as their | IV. The vessels of any third power shall in no 
 plenipotentiaries, to conclude a convention for case obtain more favourable conditions than those 
 this purpose, that is to say, his Majesty the King herein stipulated. 
 
 of Great Britain and Ireland, the Right Hon- i V. Fishing boats of either country forced by 
 ourable George Canning and the Right Hon- i stress of weather to seek shelter in"the other, 
 ourable William Huskisson ; and his Majesty | not subject to duties or port -charges, provided 
 the King of France and Navarre, the Prince ! they have not effected any landing or shipment 
 Jules, Count de Polignac ; who have agreed j of goods, 
 upon and concluded the following articles: — I VI. This convention shall be reciprocally in 
 
 I. French vessels coming from or departing for iforce in all European possessions of the two 
 France, or, if in ballast, from any place, shall i powers. 
 
 not be subject in the ports of the U. K. to any VH. The cnnvc ntion to exist for 10 years from 
 higher duties of tonnage, harbour, light, pilot- April 5, 1826; and further, until the* end of 12 
 age, or other similar duties than those to which ! months after either of the parties shall hi ve given 
 British vessels, in respect to the same voyages, ; notice to the othtr of its intention to terminate 
 are subject ; and, reciprocally, British vessels | its operation, 
 placed on the same footing in the ports of France. 
 
 But the French king reserves to himself to regu- 
 late the amount of such duties in France accord- 
 ing to the rate at which they may be established 
 in the U. K. ; with the disposition, however, to 
 reduce the amount of the said burthens in France 
 in proportion to any reduction hereafter made 
 of those now levied in the U. K. 
 
 II. Goods which may be legally imported into 
 
 the U. K. from France, if imported in French 
 
 - . shall be subject to no higher duties than 
 
 Additional Article* (Jan. 26, 1826). 
 I. French vessels allowed to sail from any 
 French possession to all British possessions (ex- 
 cept those of East India Co.), and to import 
 into them all kinds of goods produced in French 
 possessions, except such as are prohibited to be 
 imported into said colonies, or are only permit- 
 ted from British possessions ; and the said French 
 vessels and merchandise shall not be subject to 
 higher duties than British vessels importing the 
 
 if imported in British vessels ; and reciprocally i same merchandise from any foreign country, or 
 as regards importations in British vessels into ~ 
 France. The produce of Asia, Africa, and Ame- 
 rica, not being allowed to be imported into the 
 U. K. (except for warehousing and re-exporta- 
 tion) in French vessels, nor from France in Bri- 
 tish vessels, the King of France reserves to him- 
 self to direct, that, in like manner, such produce 
 shall not be imported into France (except for 
 warehousing and re-exportation) in British ves- 
 sels, nor from the U. K. in French vessels. 
 
 With regard to European productions, it is 
 understood that such shall not be imported in 
 British ships into France for consumption, un- 
 less laden therewith in some port of the U. K. ; 
 and the British kin? may adopt, if he think fit, 
 some corresponding restrictive measure with re- 
 
 which are imposed on the merchandise itself. 
 
 The same facilities shall be granted recipro- 
 cally in the colonies of France. And as all for- 
 eign merchandise may now be imported into 
 British colonies in the ships of the country pro- 
 ducing the same, except a limited list of articles, 
 which can only be imported in British ships, 
 the king of the TJ. K. reserves the power of add- 
 ing to such excepted articles any other of French 
 produce which may appear necessary for placing 
 the colonies of the two countries upon a fair 
 footing of reciprocity. 
 
 H. Similar privileges, reciprocally granted to 
 the vessels of the two powers exporting mer- 
 chandise from their respective colonies. 
 
 These two articles to have the same validity 
 as if inserted in foresaid convention. 
 
 ference to French vessels 
 
 FRANKFORT, a small republican state on the confines of Bavaria, consisting 
 of the city of Frankfort on the Maine and the adjacent territory. Area, 90 sq. 
 miles. Population, 63,936. The government is vested in a senate, a permanent 
 committee of burgesses, and a legislative body. 
 
 The city of Frankfort is now the chief money market of Central Germany, and banking, including 
 exchange operations, is its principal source of wealth. It is likewise a place of considerable transit 
 
FRA 316 FRI 
 
 for wines, English, French, and Italian goods, German wools and manufactures, and colonial 
 produce ; while the inhabitants of the adjacent villages, within the republic, follow the occupation 
 of carriers through many states of Germany. Two extensive fairs are held in the city ; one be- 
 ginning properly on Easter Tuesday, the other on the Monday nearest to the 8th of September ; 
 but they usually commence from one to two weeks previously. The trade at these fairs, however, 
 as well as of the town in general, which is that of an entrepdt, has declined since the establishment 
 of the Prussian Commercial Union, the effect of which has been to remove those obstacles to free 
 intercourse which previously existed between many of the German States. This Union was at 
 first resisted by Frankfort, but being surrounded on all sides by confederated states, it wa3 obliged 
 to give its accession, in order to prevent the greater evil of absolute isolation. 
 
 ing to the standard of the money in which they 
 are reckoned. Official payments are commonly 
 made in Convention (or 20 florin rate) money ; 
 ordinary payments in the new (24$ florin rate) 
 standard introduced in 1838, in which the value 
 of the florin is 19-90d., or about Is. 8d. [Ger- 
 many] ; and bills in Wechsel - Zahlung, or 
 exchange-reckoning. The last is an imaginary 
 money, valued at the rate of 9 florins, 12 kreu- 
 sers for the gold carolin,— the same coin being 
 reckoned in Convention money at 9 florins 10 
 kreusers. Hence 276 exchange florins = 275 
 Convention florins ; and as the value of the Con- 
 vention florin is 24'37d., we have in Wechsel- 
 Zahlung the florin = 24-29d., the rixdollar = 
 36*43d., the batze, in which the exchange with 
 London is reckoned — l-62d., and the par 148£ 
 batzen per £l. 
 
 Usance of bills not payable at the fairs is 14 
 days' sight. The days of grace are 4 ; but none 
 are allowed on bills at less than 4 days' sight or 
 date. 
 
 Finances. — Annual revenue about £67,000. 
 Public debt nearly £750,000. 
 
 Measures and Weights.— The foot = 11'42, 
 and the ell 21*54 Imp. inches, or 100 ells = 59-85 
 Imp. yards ; Dutch commodities, however, are 
 commonly sold by the Brabant ell, and French 
 commodities by the Paris aune. 
 
 The ohm of 20 viertels, 80 old mass, or 90 new 
 mass (each mass of 4 schoppen) = 31-57 Imp. 
 gallons. 
 
 The achtel or malter of 4 simmers, 8 metzen, 
 or 16 sechters = 3-16 Imp. bushels. 
 
 The heavy pound contains 2 marcs, 32 loths, 
 or 128 drachmes ; the light pound is similarly 
 divided, and 100 heavy lbs. or centner weight = 
 108 lbs. light weight ; also 100 lbs. heavy weight 
 = 111-43 lbs. avoird., and 100 lbs. lightweight 
 -= 103*18 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 Gold and silver are weighed by the Cologne 
 mark, the Frankfort standard of which contains 
 361 1 troy grains, and their fineness is expressed 
 in the manner explained under the head Ger- 
 many. 
 
 .Money.— Accounts are stated in florins of 60 
 kreusers, or in rixdollars current of 90 kreusers ; 
 and 1 rixdollar = If florin = 22* batzen. These 
 denominations, however, differ in value accord- 
 
 FRANKINCENSE, a name given to two very different Substances ; namely, 
 Olibanum and Burgundy Pitch, under which heads they are respectively described ; 
 the former is the Thus or frankincense of the ancients. 
 
 FREIGHT in the contract of affreightment [Affreightment] is the sum which 
 the merchant pays for the safe conveyance of cargo or the use of the vessel. 
 Freight is generally said not to be strictly due, except on the arrival of the vessel 
 with the cargo. If it has been necessary to abandon the vessel, however, freight 
 will be earned by conveying the goods to their destination by the best method which 
 circumstances will admit of. Freight will not be lost in consequence of interruption, 
 such as capture and recapture. If goods be thrown overboard, in pursuance of 
 the Lex Rhodia de jactis, freight must be paid, and ranked [Average]. If the 
 freight is calculated by time, it begins to run from the period of the ship's breaking 
 ground and commencing her voyage. When, in the case of a charter-party, in 
 which the merchant bargains for carrying so much cargo, and he fail to produce 
 the full quantity, compensation is due for the damage to the owner, by reason of 
 his having to look out for another cargo, or to let his vessel lie partly unoccupied : 
 this is occasionally called Dead Freight. The shipmaster has a lien on the 
 cargo for freight; but there is none on the goods conveyed for dead freight. If the 
 merchant demand his goods before the stipulated voyage has been accomplished, 
 full freight is due. In a charter-party, the shipper is liable for freight, unless there 
 be a stipulation to the contrary, and where the ship is on general freight, he is 
 likewise in the ordinary case liable ; but there may be circumstances in which the 
 responsibility is transferred to the consignee. " The consignee or indorsee of the 
 bill of lading may be sued, if he have received the goods in pursuance of a bill of 
 lading, imposing the payment of freight upon him ; at all events, in cases where 
 there is no charter-party. But the acceptance of the goods is not of itself sufficient 
 to impose charges in respect thereof, although other circumstances concurring with 
 acceptance may ; and it there be not only a bill of lading, but a charter-party 
 containing an express contract by the charterer to pay freight, the law will not, 
 from his mere receipt of goods under the bill of lading, raise an implied promise 
 from an indorsee to do so, in the absence of an express one." (Smiths Mercantile 
 £.,258, 259. Sltee's A bbot, 359-424.) 
 
 FRIENDLY, or BENEFIT SOCIETY, is in a late act defined somewhat 
 vaguely to be an association " for the mutual relief and maintenance of all and 
 every the members thereof, their wives, children, relations, or nominees, in sick- 
 ness, infancy, advanced age, widowhood, or any other natural state or contingency 
 whereof the occurrence is susceptible of calculation by way of average." But in 
 practice such societies generally aim at only three objects,— 1st, The making pro- 
 
FRI ai7 FRI 
 
 vision for an allowance to their members during sickness ; 2d, For an allowance 
 in old age ; and 3d, For a payment at death. 
 
 It would be difficult to trace at what precise time friendly societies in their present 
 form took their rise. The advantages of associations of this kind, however, seems 
 to have been appreciated at a very early period, although they did not attract the 
 attention of the legislature until 1773, and there was no statutory enactment for 
 their regulation prior to the year 1793, when the act was passed which is known 
 by the name of its author, Mr George Rose. The provisions of that statute were 
 extended and improved by others in 1795, 1803, 1809, 1817, and 1819, by which 
 time the number of societies that had been formed in the United Kingdom was 
 very great. But the principles upon which they should be conducted were so little 
 understood, and their management so often confided to persons unqualified for 
 the trust, that the common result was a speedy dissolution. Even in the best 
 regulated, the sickness contributions had to be founded on supposition, as no steps 
 were taken to ascertain, from actual observation, the average rates adapted to 
 different periods of life, until this was undertaken by the Highland Society. 
 Their report, published in 1824, was the means of arousing public attention to the 
 errors and defects of friendly societies as then constituted ; and in 1825 and 1827 
 further light was thrown upon the subject by the reports of the Select Committees 
 of the House of Commons appointed in those years. These reports prepared the 
 way for the passing of the act 10 Geo. IV. c. 56, which, with the 4 & 5 Wm. IV. 
 c. 40, and 3 & 4 Vict, c 73, embodies the whole of the existing statutory regulations 
 for the guidance of friendly societies. The following are the principal enactments : — 
 
 The rules, before being sanctioned, must specify the purpose of the society, and embody direc- 
 tions for the application of the funds for such purpose, in terms of the provisions of the acts, and 
 in consistency with the privileges conceded by them. They must specify the place of meeting of 
 the society, and contain provisions as to the powers and duties of the members at large, and of 
 the committees and office-bearers ; also whether disputes are to be referred to the justices of the 
 peace or to arbiters. (10 Geo. IV. c. 56, §§3, 10, 27.) 
 
 Two transcripts of the rules, signed by three members, and countersigned by the clerk or secre- 
 tary (accompanied, in the case of an alteration or amendment of the rules, with an affidavit of one 
 of the officers of the society, that the statutory provisions have been complied with), with all speed, 
 after the same shall be made, altered, or amended, and so from time to time, after every making, 
 altering, or amending thereof, shall be submitted in England and Wales to the barrister-at-law 
 (at present John Tidd Pratt, Esq., No. 4, Elm Court, Temple, London), appointed to certify 
 the rules of savings banks ; and in Scotland to the Lord Advocate, or any depute appointed by him 
 for that purpose : and in Ireland to such barrister as may be named by the Attorney General ; 
 who shall ascertain whether such rules, alterations, or amendments are calculated to carry 
 into effect the intention of the parties, and are in conformity to law, and to the said acts, 
 and shall give certificate of the same on each of the said transcripts, or point out in what respect 
 the said rules are repugnant thereto ; for all which the said barrister or advocate shall receive no 
 further fee at any one time than a guinea ; and one of such certified transcripts shall be returned 
 to the society, and the other transmitted by the barrister or advocate to the clerk of the peace for 
 the county wherein such society shall be formed, and by him laid before the Justices at the General 
 Quarter Sessions, or adjournment thereof, held next after the time when such certified transcript 
 shall have been transmitted to him; and the said Justices are authorized and required, without 
 motion, to allow and confirm the same ; and such transcript shall be enrolled without fee, and all 
 rules, alterations, and amendments, shall be binding from the time when certified. (4 & 5 Wm. 
 IV. c 40, § 4.) 
 
 Barrister not to be entitled to fee in respect of alterations within three years ; nor for certificate 
 to rules, being copies of those already enrolled. (lb. § 5.) 
 
 The rules shall provide, that, once a-year at least, a general statement of the funds of the society 
 shall be prepared ; and every member shall be entitled to receive a copy thereof, on payment of a 
 sum not exceeding 6d. (10 Geo. IV. c. 56, § 33.) 
 
 In order to secure data for correct calculations of tables of payments and allowances, every 
 society established under the acts shall, within 3 months after December 1835, and again, within 
 3 months after the expiration of every further period of 5 years, transmit to the certifying barrister 
 or advocate a return of the rate of sickness and mortality experienced within the before-mentioned 
 period of 5 years, according to the form prescribed in the act. (lb. §34, and 4 &5 Wm. IV.c.40, §6.) 
 
 The office-bearers, as provided by the rules, are authorized and required, with consent of the 
 society, to invest the funds in real or heritable securities or property, government securities, 
 savings banks, or the chartered banks in Scotland, and not otherwise. (10 Geo. IV. c. 56, § 13.) 
 
 Every society established under the acts is empowered to invest the whole, or any part of its 
 funds, in savings banks instituted under 9 Geo. IV. c. 92, and that without any restriction as to 
 amount. (4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 40, § 9.) 
 
 A society may also lodge any sum, not being less than £50, with the Bank of England, to the 
 account of the Commissioners "for the Reduction of the National Debt, on a declaration by two or 
 more treasurers, or trustees, that the money exclusively belongs to the society, and with the same 
 formalities in other respects as are followed by savings banks. The interest allowed is 2J<L per 
 cent, per diem, or £3, 16s. OJd. per year. (10 Geo. IV. c 56, § 31, and 9 Geo. IV. c. 92, § 16.) 
 
 U the person who, as treasurer or other officer, has any of the property of the society in his 
 hands, die or become insolvent or bankrupt, the person having, as executor, creditor, or other- 
 wise, access to the estate, must, within 40 days after a demand made in writing, pay whatever is 
 due to the society in preference to other claims. (lb. § 12.) 
 
 All the property is vested in the treasurer or trustee for the time being, without any conveyance 
 from predecessor to successor, except a transfer in the case of public stock ; and such office-bearer 
 
FRI 
 
 318 
 
 FRI 
 
 may sue or be sued in his capacity of office-bearer, and may bring or defend actions when sanc- 
 tioned by a majority of the society. (10 Geo. IV. c. 56, § 21.) 
 
 When a member dies, entitled to a sum not exceeding £20, the office-bearer, if assured that he 
 has left no will, and that no administration or confirmation is to be taken out, may apply the sum 
 according to the rules ; or, if there are no rules on the subject, may divide it among the persons 
 entitled to succeed to the effects of the deceased without administration or confirmation. (lb. § 24.) 
 
 No stamp-duty is payable in respect of the transactions, receipts, payments, or deeds of societies 
 constituted under the acts. (lb. §37.) 
 
 Exemption from stamp-duties not to extend to societies in which the sum assured to an indivi- 
 dual exceeds £200. No society, by the rules of which a sum exceeding £200 may be assured to 
 an individual, to invest its funds in savings banks, or with the National Debt Commissioners, 
 except so much as may be received on account of assurances made previous to the act. (3 & 4 Vict. 
 c. 73, §§ 1, 2.) 
 
 No society, when once regularly constituted, can be dissolved before the purposes for which it 
 was instituted have been carried into effect, without the consent of five-sixths in value of the 
 members, and of all the individuals entitled to relief. (10 Geo. IV. c. 56, § 26.) 
 
 In the constitution of friendly societies, the chief difficulty will always be the 
 adjustment of the sickness contributions and allowances ; as, even supposing the 
 general law, or average rate of sickness to be ascertained, very great care will be 
 required in determining the modifications to which it must be subjected before 
 being applied to particular classes of persons. Hitherto only two attempts have 
 been made on a large scale to ascertain the average rate of sickness. The first is 
 that of the Highland Society, already mentioned, which is founded on numerous 
 returns by Scotch friendly societies. The second is founded on similar returns 
 by English friendly societies made to the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Know- 
 ledge, the results of which were published in 1835 by Mr Ansell, in his " Treatise 
 on Friendly Societies." The following shows the mean annual sickness at different 
 ages, deduced from these returns : — 
 
 Age, XL Age, 30. Age, 40. Age, 50. Age, 60. Age, 70. 
 
 Days. Hours. Days. Hours. Days. Hours. Days. Hours. Days. Hours. Days. Hours. 
 
 Scotch societies, 4 1 4 8 5 7 9 13 16 10 74 22 
 
 English societies, 5 13 6 20 8 3 12 2 22 2 81 19 
 
 The returns to the Highland Society did not furnish data for a table of mortality, 
 and their calculations proceeded upon an average of the Northampton, Carlisle, and 
 latest Swedish tables. In Mr Ansell's work, however, a table is given, deduced for 
 ages 20 to 70, from the experience of the English societies ; but the imperfect na- 
 ture of the materials furnished to him renders it undeserving of much confidence. 
 
 Of the modern friendly societies there is probably none deserving of higher 
 reputation than the " Edinburgh School of Arts Friendly Society," instituted in 
 1828, the tables of which were framed by Mr John Lyon, the gentleman employed 
 to digest the returns to the Highland Society, and revised by the late Mr Patrick 
 Cockburn, an eminent accountant in Edinburgh ; and the following extracts from 
 their tables will furnish a good example of the contributions and allowances adapt- 
 ed to a society composed of respectable working-men in a large city. They were 
 constructed by adding 50 per cent, to the rates of sickness exhibited by the tables 
 of the Highland Society (as these were ascertained to be too low), by assuming the 
 rate of mortality of these tables, and by taking the rate of interest at 4 per cent. 
 They give entrants the option of joining sickness schemes up to the ages of 60 or 65, 
 with annuities to commence at these ages respectively ; but it may be observed 
 that a very general preference is given by members to the former. 
 I. Sickness Fund. {Entry Money, 2s. 6d. Males only admissible.) A weekly 
 allowance of 10s. constitutes one share, and any member may take one, one 
 and a half, or two shares. The full allowance to be paid for 52 weeks of 
 sickness ; three-fourths for other 52 weeks ; and one-half for the remainder of 
 all temporary or permanent sickness up to the age of 60 or 65 y when the an- 
 nuity, or permanent provision for old age (shown in Scheme II.), is to commence. 
 Annual Contributions for One Shark. 
 
 As;e next 
 
 To cease at 
 
 To cease at'Age next 
 
 To cease at 
 
 To cease at 
 
 Age next 
 
 To cease at 
 
 To cease at 
 
 birthday. 
 
 60. 
 
 65. 
 
 birthday. 
 
 60. 
 
 65. 
 
 birthday. 
 
 60. 
 
 65. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 19 
 
 116 
 
 12 4 
 
 30 
 
 14 3 
 
 15 9 
 
 41 
 
 19 5 
 
 1 2 2 
 
 20 
 
 11 8J 
 
 12 7 
 
 31 
 
 14 7 
 
 16 2 
 
 42 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 2 11| 
 
 21 
 
 11 11 
 
 12 10 
 
 32 
 
 14 11 
 
 16 71 
 
 43 
 
 1 9| 
 
 1 3 10 
 
 22 
 
 12 14. 
 
 13 1} 
 13 4 
 
 33 
 
 15 3J 
 
 17 1* 
 
 44 
 
 1 1 7 
 
 1 4 9i 
 
 23 
 
 12 4 
 
 34 
 
 15 84 17 7i 
 
 45 
 
 1 2 44 
 
 1 5 9 
 
 24 
 
 12 6} 
 
 13 8 
 
 35 
 
 16 2 j 18 1| 
 
 46 
 
 1 3 2| 
 
 1 6 9 
 
 25 
 
 12 94 
 13 0i 
 
 13 Hi 
 
 36 
 
 16 7i 18 8* 
 
 47 
 
 1 4 oj 
 
 1 7 9i 
 
 26 
 
 14 3i 
 
 37 
 
 17 1 I 19 3| 
 
 48 
 
 1 4 104 
 
 1 8 10i 
 
 27 
 
 13 4 
 
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 49 
 
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 28 
 
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 39 
 
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 50 
 
 1 6 7 
 
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 29 
 
 13 11 
 
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 40 
 
 
 
 
FRI 
 
 319 
 
 FRI 
 
 II. Deferrkd Annuity Fund. (Entry Money, 2s. 6d. Females admissible.) An 
 annuity of £8, payable quarterly, commencing at the age of 60 or 65, whether 
 in sickness or in health, constitutes one share ; and any member may take one, 
 two, three, or four shares. 
 
 Annual Contractions for One Shark. 
 
 {Females pay One-Fourth more.) 
 
 Age next 
 
 To c ea-e at 
 
 To cease at^Age next 
 
 To cease at 
 
 To cease at Age next 
 
 To cease at 
 
 To cease at 
 
 birthday. 
 
 60. 
 
 65. 
 
 birthday. 
 
 60. 
 
 65 
 
 
 birthday. 
 
 60 
 
 65. 
 
 
 £ s. d. I £ s. d. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ u d. 
 
 19 
 
 8 4 I 4 10A 
 9 3J 1 5 2} 
 
 30 
 
 17 5 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 41 
 
 1 19 2* 
 
 1 3 
 
 20 
 
 31 
 
 18 7J 
 
 10 
 
 a 
 
 42 
 
 2 2 8 
 
 1 1 10i 
 
 21 
 
 9 11 5 lii 
 10 6i ; 5 lOl 
 
 32 
 
 19 11 
 
 10 
 
 43 
 
 2 6 7* 
 
 1 3 8 
 
 22 
 
 33 
 
 1 1 4 
 
 11 
 
 ii 
 
 44 
 
 2 11 1 
 
 1 5 8 
 
 23 
 
 11 2i ii 6 3 
 
 34 
 
 1 2 104 
 1 4 7* 
 
 12 
 
 Si 
 
 45 
 
 2 16 2 
 
 1 7 10| 
 
 24 
 
 11 10 J 1 6 7 
 
 35 
 
 13 
 
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 46 
 
 3 2 
 
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 25 
 
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 36 
 
 1 6 5£ 
 
 14 
 
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 26 
 
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 37 
 
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 27 
 
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 38 
 
 1 10 9£ 16 
 
 i 
 
 49 
 
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 28 
 
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 39 
 
 I 13 3£ 17 
 
 a 
 
 50 
 
 4 16 11 
 
 2 3 11 
 
 29 
 
 16 3± ■ 8 11 
 
 40 
 
 1 16 1 1 18 
 
 
 
 
 III. Ltfe Assurance Fund. (Entry Money, 2s. 6d. Females admissible.) The 
 sum of £10 payable at death, constitutes one share ; and any member may take 
 from one to three shares. 
 
 Annual Contributions for One Share 
 
 (Females pay One-Sixth lets). 
 
 
 Age next To cease at To cease at 
 
 Age next 
 
 To cease at To cease at 
 
 Age next 
 
 To cease at 
 
 To cease at 
 
 birthday. 
 
 60. 65. 
 
 birthday. 
 
 60. 65. 
 
 birthday. 
 
 60. 
 
 65. 
 
 
 £ a. & 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 
 £ s. d. ' £ s. d. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ 6. d. 
 
 19 
 
 3 4 
 
 3 3 
 
 30 
 
 4 6i 
 
 4 4} 
 
 41 
 
 7 0} 
 
 6 4} 
 
 20 
 
 3 5 
 
 3 4 
 
 31 
 
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 9 4 
 
 28 
 
 4 3 
 
 4 1 
 
 39 
 
 6 5} 
 
 5 11 
 
 50 
 
 12 5} 
 
 9 11 
 
 29 
 
 4 5 
 
 4 21 
 
 40 
 
 6 9 
 
 6 1} 
 
 
 
 
 Summary of the Rules of the Edinburgh School of Arts Friendly Society. 
 
 1 . No person admitted after the age of 50. 
 
 2. Ages of applicants require to be certified by 
 parish certificates, or, if such cannot be procured, 
 by some other satisfactory evidence. 
 
 3. Male candidates for admission must apply 
 personally to the committee on the first Monday 
 evening of any month, and pay their entry- 
 money. Any applicant who may be rejected by 
 the committee will receive back all his payments, 
 with the exception of 6d. for each fund for which 
 he proposes becoming a member. 
 
 4. The benefits of each fund may be secured 
 either by a single payment on admission, or by 
 
 of one year from their enrolment. Should any 
 one die before that period, all payments will be 
 returned to his representatives, with the exception 
 of interest, fines, and entry-money. Likewise, 
 any member leaving the country, or unable to 
 continue his payments, will, on withdrawing 
 from the society, receive a proportion of his past 
 contributions. 
 
 8. The only other payments exigible beyond 
 the sums specified in the tables are, Id. per 
 month for management on the first share in each 
 fund, Is. 6d. for a copy of the full set of rules, 
 interest on arrears, a'nd small fines for non- 
 
 an annual or monthly contribution per advance, [attendance at general meetings, 
 corresponding to the number of shares held, and ) 9. There is a fund distinct from those for the 
 to the age at entry ; and members may also at benefits, for defraying the expenses of manage- 
 any time reduce, or entirely redeem, their future ment, consisting of sums received from the 
 
 honorary auxiliary fund, entry-moneys, contri- 
 
 annual or monthly contributions, by payments 
 of not less than £1 to account. 
 
 5. Persons entering the sickness fund must 
 take at least one share in the annuity fund. 
 
 6. Members not having at first taken the ut- 
 
 butions for management, and payments from 
 other sources which need not be more particularly 
 mentioned. 
 
 10. All the operations of each of the three 
 
 most extent of benefits allowed, and wishing , schemes are kept sepgrate ; the funds in posses- 
 afterwards to increase their shares, may do so sion and the value ofthe future contributions are 
 upon the same conditions as new entrants. | balanced at the end of every five years with the 
 
 7- Members are entitled to benefit from the j value of the future allowances, and the real state 
 sickness and life assurance funds upon the expiry | of the society's affairs satisfactorily ascertained. 
 
 Benefit Building Societies are associations instituted under the act 6 & 7 Wm. 
 IV. c. 32, for the purpose of raising, by periodical subscriptions of not more than 
 £1 per month, shares not exceeding £150, for the purpose of enabling the holder 
 
FUL 320 FUN 
 
 to receive the value, and therewith erect or purchase a dwelling-house, or other 
 real or leasehold estate, to be secured by mortgage to the society, till the amount 
 of the share and all expenses have been paid, with interest ; it being competent for 
 such societies to receive a bonus from any member, in consideration of his receiving 
 his share in advance, and to appoint forms of conveyance for the sale and mort- 
 gaging of the property. The regulations as to friendly societies in general, apply 
 to benefit building societies, in so far as they may be applicable to the peculiar 
 purposes of the latter. (lb. § 4.) 
 
 FULLER'S EARTH, a soft, dull, greasy kind of clay, usually of a greenish- 
 brown colour. It is found in various parts of the south of England, particularly in 
 Surrey,near Nuthill and Ryegate. It is used in the fulling of cloth, from its property 
 of absorbing oil and greasy matter. In Surrey, two kinds are distinguished ; yel- 
 low earth, the best, employed for the finer cloths of Wiltshire and Gloucestershire; 
 and blue earth, principally used in fulling coarser cloths in Yorkshire. 
 
 FUNDS, a term used in reference to those government obligations which consti- 
 tute what is called the funded debt of the United Kingdom. The condition of 
 mankind, in ancient times, made the decision of national contests dependent upon 
 the numbers, courage, and military talents of the contending nations ; but the 
 
 great alteration in the modern state of society, and changes in the art of war, 
 have introduced a different principle ; and money is now said to supply the sinews 
 of war, and gold rather than steel is accounted the instrument which leads to vic- 
 
 tory. In the middle ages, the general state of wealth was insufficient to furnish the 
 means of long-continued hostilities. For those that were undertaken, supplies from 
 the people were obtained to a certain extent, either in the shape of money or of 
 feudal services ; loans also were raised, partly compulsory, and sometimes by 
 pledging the crown lands and jewels. But the irregular mode of borrowing in 
 those days bore but little analogy to that which has since obtained under the name 
 of the funding system, and supplied the expense of those extensive and lasting 
 wars which have been waged in later times. 
 
 This system is commonly said to have originated in the 15th century in Venice, 
 where money capital first became abundant. It was next adopted by Holland; 
 and was introduced into England shortly after the revolution of 1688. At first the 
 term fund meant the taxes appropriated to the discharge of the principal and 
 interest of the loans ; those wno held government securities, and sold them to 
 others, selling of course a corresponding claim upon some fund. But afterwards, 
 and when this mode of appropriating taxes was abandoned, the meaning attached 
 to the term was gradually changed ; and instead of denoting the revenues upon 
 the security of which the loans were advanced, it has for a long time signified the 
 principal of the loans themselves. The term stock is used in the same sense, and 
 is also applied to the sums which form the capital of the Bank of England, East 
 India Company, and other public societies. 
 
 The fundholder or public creditor is differently situated from an ordinary cre- 
 ditor. He is viewed not as having lent his money, but as having invested it in the 
 purchase of a perpetual annuity, subject to the condition that it may be redeemed 
 on the terms stipulated at the time of granting it, whenever the state shall think fit. 
 But, although he thus gives up the right of ever demanding repayment of the 
 principal of his debt, he may sell to another person the annuity which he has pur- 
 chased from the state ; and the mode of transferring it, even in small sums, is so 
 conveniently arranged, and the annuities or dividends are, in this country, so regu- 
 larly paid, that it is always considered an eligible property. 
 
 Manner of Creating Loans. 
 
 At the first introduction of the funding system into this kingdom, the capital of 
 the loan was fixed, and the interest, as in the case of an ordinary debt, was ar- 
 ranged according to the state of the money market ; but about the middle of last 
 century the practice was introduced of fixing the rate of interest or annuity, and 
 bargaining with the contractors for a larger or smaller amount of capital stock. 
 Thus, if it were agreed to negotiate the loan in a 3 per cent, stock, while the 
 market rate of interest was 6 per cent., this would be effected by giving for 
 each £100 paid £200 of 3 per cent, stock ; while, again, if the market rate were 
 4£ per cent., this would be effected by assigning £150 of such stock. 
 
 All loans are effected under the authority of Parliament ; but in practice it is 
 usual for the Chancellor of Exchequer to arrange the terms of the loan with con- 
 tractors before the act has been obtained, the negotiation being subject to the rati- 
 fication of the legislature. When a new loan is made, it is thrown open to 
 
rrx 321 FUN 
 
 competition. " The Chancellor of Exchequer fixes upou the fund3 in which tho 
 loan is to be made. These are often of different kind.-, and not unfrequently a long 
 annuity forms part of the emolument. He then gives public intimation that he is 
 ready on a certain day to receive offers and assign the loan to those who are will- 
 ing to accept of the lowest terms. If a long annuity be a part of the proposed 
 emolument, the other funds to be assigned to the lenders are fixed at a rate some- 
 what lower than the estimated value tor each £100 borrowed, and the bidding is 
 on the long annuity ; the loan being granted to those who will accept of the least 
 annuity in addition to the capital offered. If the loan be in different funds, but 
 without an annuity, the capitals in all the funds, except one, are previously fixed, 
 and the bidding is on that fund ; the loan being granted to those who will accept 
 of the least capital. The Chancellor of Exchequer is generally attended at the 
 time appointed by several of the principal bankers in London, who deliver their 
 offers, having previously made up a list of persons who are willing to share with 
 them to a certain extent in case their offer be accepted ; and the loan is assigned 
 to the offerer who proposes the lowest terms. 
 
 " The loans are always payable by instalments at different periods of the year. 
 But the dividends are payable on the whole from the first usual term of the funds 
 in which the loan is made. Thus, the lender receives dividends during the whole 
 of the first year, although he only advances the money on the days appointed for 
 payment of the instalments ; or if he advances the whole at first,* he is allowed a 
 suitable discount, and he derives part of his profit from these allowances ; and, 
 according to the terms of the loan, he is generally possessed of several interests ; 
 so much, perhaps, in a 3 per cent, fund, so much in a five per cent, fund, so much 
 in a long annuity, and formerly so much in lottery tickets. After the loan is com- 
 pleted, these interests are assignable separately ; but when the loan is in progress, 
 they may be either assigned separately or together. The separate parts in this 
 stage of the business are called scrip, and their united amount is called omnium. 
 In order to obtain a loan, it is necessary that the value of omnium at the time 
 should be above par. This difference, which often amounts to 5 per cent, or up- 
 wards, is called the bonus to the lenders. Instances, however, have occurred in 
 which the price of omnium fell below par before the loan was completed. Lenders 
 who do not pay their instalments at the appointed terms forfeit their subscrip- 
 tions. The Bank of England not unfrequently lends its aid in advancing some of 
 the instalments. 
 
 " The value of scrip, after any given number of payments have been made thereon, 
 is computed by deducting the amount of the remaining payments from the value 
 of the stock at the market price." (.Hamilton on the National Debt, 2d edit. p. 244.) 
 
 Progress and Present State of the National Debt. 
 
 The public debt of this country, which was inconsiderable at the Revolution, 
 increased in little more than a century to an extent far beyond what was ever 
 known in any other age or nation; indeed, far beyond what any person at its 
 commencement, or even a long time afterwards, believed to be practicable. Down 
 to the accession of George I\ ., the increase during every reign, except the pacific 
 administration of George I., was greater than during the preceding. The increase 
 during every war was greater than during the preceding. The increase during the 
 latter period of every war was greater than during the early period. The increase 
 by every national exertion has been greater than was held forth when hostilities 
 were commenced. The part paid off during the intervals of peace has borne a small 
 proportion to that contracted in the preceding war. No one can foresee how far 
 this system may be carried, or in what manner it will terminate. 
 
 The following table shows the amount of the national debt at various periods 
 since the Revolution : — 
 
 At the Revolution 1689. . £664,263 Peace of Paris 1763£l39,000,0<:0 
 
 Peace of Rys wick 1697. .21,515,742 j Commencement of American 
 
 Commencement of the War 1701. .16,394.701 1 War 1779. .129,000,000 
 
 Peace of Utrecht 1714. .53,681,076 \ Peace of Versailles 1/83. .268,000,000 
 
 Commencement of the Spanish Commencement of French 
 
 War 1740. .46,449,568 War 1793.-261,735,059 
 
 Peace of Aix-la Chapelle 1748. .78,293,313 Annual charge, £9,471 ,675 
 
 Commencement of "Seven \ On January 5, 1816 885,186,325 
 
 Years' War - 1756. .75,000,000 1 Ou January 5, 1841 849,998,073 
 
 This table includes both the funded and unfunded portions of the debt ; the 
 latter consisting generally of Exchequer bills. [Exchequer Bills ] In the years 
 
FUN 
 
 322 
 
 FUN 
 
 1816 and 1841, the constituent parts of the capital of the debt, and the annual 
 charges thereon, were respectively as follow : — 
 
 3 per cent, stock £ 
 
 Perpetual annuities £ 
 
 Terminable annuities 
 
 Unfunded debt not provided for 
 
 Charge for management 
 
 Capital. 
 
 1816. 
 
 1841. 
 
 580,916,019 513,776,749 
 10,740,013 249,530,456 
 75,725,504 1,615,3415 
 
 148,930,403 1,449,135 
 
 816,311,939 766,371,725 
 30,080,347 53,000,000 
 38,794,038 21,626,350 
 
 Total unredeemed debt £885,186,324 840.998,075 \ 32,457,142 29,296,378 
 
 Annual Charge. 
 
 1816. 
 
 1841. i 
 
 
 15,413,3021 
 
 8,733,566! 
 
 64,615) 
 
 72,457 
 
 28,278,920 
 
 1,894,612 
 
 1,998,937 
 
 284,673 
 
 24,283,940 ! 
 
 4,114,021' 
 
 740,054 
 
 158,363 
 
 The reduction on the capital of the debt from 1816 to 1841, it will be thus 
 observed, is only £37,288,249, which is the excess of the sums redeemed beyond 
 those added in that period. The former was effected, partly by the direct appli- 
 cation of surplus revenue, and partly by converting the perpetual annuities into 
 terminable annuities, as afterwards explained. The excess of income over expen- 
 diture from 5th January 1816 to 5th January 1837, is stated by Mr Porter (Pro- 
 gress of the Nation, sec. iv. c. 2, p. 301) to nave been £46,086,321 ; but between 
 5th January 1837 and 5th January 1841, there has been an annual deficiency of 
 revenue, amounting on the whole to £4,300,760, which reduces the net surplus in 
 the 25 years from 1816 to £41,785,561. The amount redeemed by converting 
 perpetual into terminable annuities has not been published ; but it appears, from 
 the statements of the government actuary, that, for some years past, the annual 
 charge on account of the latter has exceeded their equivalent perpetuities by 
 upwards of £2,000,000. The chief additions to the debt, in the period under notice, 
 were created by the parliamentary grant of £20,000,000, for the emancipation of 
 the negro slaves in the colonies ;* and by the financial operation in the year 1822 
 (noticed below), for the reduction of the interest on a portion of the debt, — a mea- 
 sure which had the effect of adding £7,481,393 to the capital. 
 
 Greater progress, however, has been made in the reduction of the annual charge, 
 the difference on the gross amounts in 1816 and 1841 respectively being (£32,457,142 
 —29,296,378) £3,160,764 ; while, if the terminable annuities at both periods be 
 converted into their equivalent perpetuities, the difference will be found to be 
 nearly £4,500,000,+ being a diminution of 14 per cent. This has been effected 
 mainly by the reduction of the capital of the debt already explained, and (to the ex- 
 tent of £2,355,845) by the fall of the market rate of interest at different periods 
 below the nominal rates of 4 and 5 per cent, formerly borne by different species of 
 stock. The latter operations, which took place in 1822, 1824, 1830, and 1834, may 
 be explained as follow :— 
 
 In 1822, the reduction in the market rate of interest caused an advance of the 5 
 per cent, stock to 6 or 8 per cent, above par, and advantage was taken of this cir- 
 cumstance to induce the holders to exchange each £100 of 5 per cents for £105 of 
 4 per cents. Only a very small proportion of the holders dissented from the pro- 
 posal, £149,627,825 of 5 per cents being exchanged for £157,109,218 of 4 per cents; 
 and thus while the capital of the debt was increased by £7,481,393, the annual 
 
 * The capital created on account of this grant consisted of £5,171,624, 4s. 5d. in the 3J per cents, 
 procured by an arrangement (5 & 6 Wm. IV. c. 45, and 6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 82) with the Commis- 
 sioners for the Reduction of the National Debt ; and a direct loan, in 1835, of £15,000,000 (3 & 4 
 Wm. IV. c. 73), the consideration for which was an equivalent amount in 3 percent, stock, 
 namely, 75 per cent, in the 3 per cent, consols, and 25 per cent, in the 3 per cent, reduced annui- 
 ties, besides a long annuity of 13s. 7d. per cent, per annum, expiring in 1860, and amounting to 
 £101,875. 
 
 Any other loans necessary since 1815 have been usually created by the issue of Exchequer bills, 
 which have been funded as occasion required. 
 
 T The annual charge in 1816 was £32,457,141 ; but if instead of the £1,894,612 of terminable an- 
 nuities included therein, there be substituted their equivalent perpetuities, estimated at £830,000, 
 the amount will be reduced to £31,392,529. Again, the annual charge in 1841 was £29,296,378, 
 and, substituting for the £4,114,021 of terminable annuities included therein, their equivalent 
 perpetuities, estimated at £l ,750,000, the amount will be reduced to £26,932,357. The difference 
 between the two, £4,460,172, may be viewed as the extent to which the permanent annual charge 
 on the debt has been reduced since 1816. 
 
FUN 323 FUN 
 
 charge was reduced by £1 ,1 97,02.?. In 1824, another saving of £350,597 per annum 
 was effected, by reducing to 3.^ per cent, the interest payable on £70,105,403 of 4 
 per cent, annuities. Again, in 1830, a saving to the extent of £755,110 was 
 effected by transferring into a 3A per cent, stock the 4 per cents created on the 
 reduction of the 5 per cents in 1822 ; and in 1834 a further saving of £53,116 was 
 effected by transferring the " 4 per cents 1826" to a 3£ per cent, stock. 
 
 On the occasion of the reduction of 1830, an option was offered to the holders of 
 every £100 of 4 per cents to receive either £100 of 3g per cents, or, what would 
 produce an equal return, £70 of new 5 per cents, the government engaging not to 
 pay off this 5 per cent, stock, or to reduce the interest upon it, until after the expira- 
 tion of 45 years from its creation. But the option thus given was embraced to a 
 very small extent, the amount of 5 per cents created having been only £474,374. 
 Such holders of 4 per cents as refused to receive the diminished rate of 3g per cent, 
 were paid off at par. The amount of stock held by these dissentients, about 2\ mil- 
 lions, was liquidated by means of an issue of Exchequer bills. 
 
 Explanation of the different Funds or Stocks. 
 
 British Perpetual Annuities. 
 
 South Sea Stock and Annuities.— These have all, by successive parliamentary 
 arrangements, been created out of the capital of the celebrated South Sea Company, 
 an account of which will be found under that head. They comprise four descrip- 
 tions of stock, namely : — 
 
 South Sea Stock, 1733, £3,662,784, 8s. 6hd. This is the trading stock of the 
 company, upon which the interest paid by the state is 3 per cent. ; but an addi- 
 tional half per cent, is paid to the proprietors from certain fines to which the com- 
 pany are entitled from ships trading within the bounds of their charter, and from 
 the allowances made for the management of this portion of the public debt. Should 
 these fail, however, to produce the full half per cent., government is bound to supply 
 the deficiency. 
 
 3 per cent. Old South Sea Annuities, £3,497,870, 2s. 7d. This was created a 3 
 
 K:r cent, fund in 1757, having previously borne interest at 5, 4, and 3£ per cent, 
 ividends due April 5, and October 10. 
 
 3 per cent. New South Sea Annuities, £2,460,830, 2s. lOd. In the same condition 
 as that last mentioned. Dividends due January 5 and July 5. 
 
 3 per cent. South Sea Annuities, 1751, £523,100. This stock originated in a loan 
 which was raised in the year just mentioned, to pay off those who dissented from 
 a reduction of interest which was then made in the old and new annuities. Divi- 
 dends due January 5 and July 5. 
 
 3 per cent. Bank Annuities, 1726, £825,251, 19s. This stock, originally £1,000,000, 
 was created by a lottery to pay off certain Exchequer bills. Dividends due 
 January 5 and July 5. 
 
 3 per cent. Consolidated Annuities, commonly called Consols, 1751, £362,542,977, 
 8s. 0£d. This stock, originally only £9,137,821, derives its name from having 
 been formed by the consolidation of several stocks which had before been kept 
 separate. It is by far the largest of the public funds, a circumstance which, joined 
 to the proportionally great number of its holders, renders it the most liable to be 
 affected by those circumstances which tend to elevate or depress the price of the 
 stocks : on this account it is preferred by speculators. Dividends due January 5 
 and July 5. 
 
 3 per cent. Reduced Annuities, 1757, £125,861,030, 7s. lOd. The name of thi3 
 stock is derived from the circumstance of its interest having been reduced from a 
 higher rate, 3| per cent., which it bore prior to 1757. Its price is regulated by 
 that of the preceding ; being however generally about | per cent, higher or lower 
 (according to the time of year), in consequence of its dividends becoming due at 
 different periods from those on consols. Dividends due April 5 and October 10. 
 
 U per cent. Consolidated Annuities, 1818, £10,159,721, 17s. Id. This stock was 
 created partly by the funding of Exchequer Bills, and partly by the conversion of 
 certain 3 per cents— the holders of the latter purchasing the additional half per 
 cent, by a money subscription, then given in aid of the sinking fund. In 1829, it 
 became redeemable at par, upon six months' notice being given in the Gazette, 
 and affixed upon the Royal Exchange, by payments of not less than £500,000 at 
 one time. Dividends due April 5 and October 10. 
 
 Shper cent. Reduced Annuities, 1825, £66,259,849. 12s. 9d. This stock was 
 created by the conversion of the " Old Four per cents. ' It is now also, as well as 
 the preceding, redeemable at par. Dividends due April 5 and October 10. 
 
FUN 324 FUN 
 
 New 3| per cent. Annuities, 1830, £145,225,865, 13s. 2d. Formed by conversion 
 of the " New Four per cents ;" to which, in 1834, was added £10,708,409 of " Four 
 per cents, 1826." It became redeemable after 5th January 1840. Dividends due 
 January 5 and July 5. 
 
 New 5 per cent. Annuities, 1830, £428,076, 15s. 4d. This stock originated in the 
 same manner as the New 3£ per cents. It is not redeemable until 1875. Dividends 
 due January 5 and July 5. 
 
 These, added to £11,015,100 of debt due to the Bank of England, bearing 3 per 
 cent, interest, make £732,462,458, 7s. l|d., the unredeemed capital of the British 
 Funded Debt, at 5th January 1841. At that date the amount of the redeemed 
 capital standing in the name of the Commissioners for the Reduction of the National 
 Debt, was £1,574,326, 7s. Id., vested, almost wholly, in 3 per cent. Reduced An- 
 nuities and Consols. 
 
 The dividends are payable on the third day after they become due, but if a Sun- 
 day intervene, they are not payable until the fourth day. Those on the South Sea 
 Stock and Annuities are payable at the South Sea House ; the others at the Bank 
 of England. 
 
 Irish Perpetual Annuities. 
 
 These consist of 3 per cent. Irish Consolidated Annuities, £3,272,607, 7s. Id.; 
 3 per cent. Reduced Annuities, £115,197, 10s. 10d.; Sh per cent. Debentures and 
 Stock, £14,567,562, 7s. 2d.; Reduced 3^ per cent. Annuities, £926,633, 7s. 3d.; New 
 3£ per cent. Annuities, £12,390,823, 18s. 10d.; New 5 per cent. Annuities, £5672, 
 19s. Adding to which, £2,630,769, 4s. 8d. due to the Bank of Ireland, namely, 
 £1,615,384, 12s. 4d. at 4 per cent., and £1,015,384, 12s. 4d. at 5 per cent., makes 
 £33,909,266, 14s. 10d., the amount of the capital of the Irish Funded Debt at 5th 
 January 1841. The dividends on the Irish Stocks are payable at the Bank of 
 Ireland. 
 
 Terminable Annuities. 
 
 In the year 1808, the Commissioners for the Reduction of the National Debt 
 were empowered to grant annuities for the life either of the purchaser or his 
 nominee, upon such an amount of perpetual annuities being transferred to the 
 Commissioners as, when calculated according to a scale varying with the fluctuating 
 prices of the stocks, was considered equivalent to the present value of the annuity. 
 But it is singular, that with the experience which could then have been brought to 
 the correct elucidation of this subject, the tables adopted were incorrect to a degree 
 which entailed a very heavy loss upon the public. In 1827, when the matter was 
 investigated by the government actuary, the loss, through miscalculation in these 
 tables, was proceeding at the rate of about £400,000 a-year. This blunder was 
 pointed out to the finance minister as early as 1 81 9, but no active steps were taken 
 to remedy it until 1828, and even then the rates at which annuities were granted 
 upon the lives of old persons were found to be so unprofitable to the public, that 
 government had again, after a time, to interfere, and to limit the ages upon which 
 they could be obtained. They are now granted under authority of the act 10 Geo. 
 IV. c. 24, upon conditions which are explained under the head Annuities ;* besides 
 which they are, by a later act, 3 Wm. IV. c. 14, granted on a modified scale through 
 the medium of savings banks. [Banks for Savings.] The whole payable in 1841 
 were as follow : — 
 Life Annuities, per 48 Geo. III. c. 142, 10 Geo. IV. c. 24, and 3 Wm. IV. c. 14 . £857,857 
 
 Other Life Annuities, per various acts 61,023 
 
 Annuities for a limited term of years, per 59 Geo. III. c. 34, 10 Geo. IV. c. 24, and 
 
 3 Win. IV. c. 14 . 1,314,928 
 
 Dead Weight Annuity, payable to the Bank of England, per 4 Geo. IV. c. 22 [Dbad 
 
 Weight], expires 1867 ....... . 585,740 
 
 Long Annuities, or Annuities for a term of years, expiring January 5, 1860, granted 
 
 chiefly as premiums to the subscribers to loans ..... 1,294,473 
 
 £4,114,021 
 Deferred Annuities were besides outstanding to the amount of £5,908. 
 
 The life annuities are payable at the National Debt Office, Old Jewry; the others 
 at the Bank of England. 
 
 Purchase and Sale of Funded Stock. 
 
 In a general point of view, it might be supposed that the price of a certain 
 nominal amount of stock in any particular fund would bear to its price in any 
 other fund the same relation which subsists between the rates of interest in the 
 
 * By a late regulation no person can be nominated above the age of 65, unless possessing a bene- 
 ficial interest in the annuity. 
 
FUN 325 FUN 
 
 two funds; and that, for example, if £100 in a 3 per cent, stock cost £90, the same 
 amount would cost £105 in a 3^ per cent, stock, £120 in a 4 per cent, stock, and 
 £150 in a 5 per cent, stock, as each of these investments would yield the same 
 return of interest,— namely, £3, 6s. 8d. per cent. But there are peculiar cir- 
 cumstances which render this rule subject to variations. Thus, the exchangeable 
 value of 3 per cent, stock is always greater than that of funds bearing a higher 
 rate of interest, in consequence of the liability to which the latter are exposed of being 
 sooner discharged at par, by means of creating other stock bearing a lower rate. 
 Again, those funds in which, either from their small amount, or some other cause, 
 there are comparatively few transactions, will not commonly bear so high a price 
 as those in which more frequent operations, and consequently greater fluctuations, 
 offer a more attractive lure to speculation. It is from this cause that the 3 per 
 cent. Bank Annuities of 1726, the entire amount of which is only about £850,000, 
 are generally at least 1 per cent, lower in price than the 3 per cent, consols. In 
 other cases, however, it is difficult to account satisfactorily for the preference shown 
 by the public for one description of stock over another. 
 
 Investments in the funds being made with various objects, the choice of the stock 
 must, in some respects, be regulated by the ulterior views of the purchasers. When 
 made for temporary purposes, stocks bearing the higher rate of interest may com- 
 monly be selected without much risk of loss from such a source. The same liability 
 of being redeemed which admits of the purchase being made at the lower rate will 
 indeed equally exist, and affect the price whenever a sale is made ; but in the in- 
 terval an advantage in point of income will have been secured. 
 
 The general causes which affect the price of stocks are changes in the market- 
 rate of interest, or in the political or financial condition of the country. " In 
 ordinary times, the public funds, from the certainty and regularity in the payment 
 of the dividends, ana the great facility with which transfers may be made, offer as 
 advantageous an investment as any other which is open to capitalists; and the 
 price of stocks, accordingly, will commonly be so high as not to afford the pur- 
 chaser more than the current rate of interest for money lent upon good security. 
 The chances of fluctuation, however, will in general prevent the price from rising 
 much beyond this point. On the other hand, it will be apt to be depressed to a 
 lower level, not only by any actual derangement in the public finances, but also by 
 whatever may be supposed to have ever so indirect or remote a tendency to affect 
 the ability of the state to fulfil its pecuniary engagements. Whenever a new loan 
 is raised/inasmuch as the burden of the debt is thereby increased, the price of 
 stock is generally lowered for the moment. Again, it is usually lower in time of 
 war than in time of peace; and during an unfortunate than during a successful 
 war. It is often affected by the apparent stability of the administration, as depend- 
 ent upon the issue of the party contests in parliament. Sometimes the price of the 
 funds has been brought down by the imposition of a tax, sometimes by the repeal 
 of one. In the former case, the delicate and apprehensive pulse of the money- 
 market may be supposed to have been acted npon, commonly either by a dread of 
 the public impatience under a new burden, or by the view taken of the measure as 
 an indication of increased financial difficulties on the part of the state ; in the 
 latter, by a feeling of the security of the fundholder being in some degree dimin- 
 ished, in consequence of the extinction of one of the usual sources from which the 
 dividends, together with the other expenses of the government, have been paid. 
 But it would be scarcely possible to arrange, under any number of general heads, 
 all ' the skyey influences that are capable of elevating or depressing this most 
 sensitive barometer, the nature of which is to be agitated by every breeze of 
 popular exhilaration or nervous despondency, by every fit of suspicion or confidence, 
 by every hope and fear, almost by every passion, imagination, and caprice of the 
 human heart. It may be observed, however, that in the fluctuations of the funds, 
 a fall of prices by what we may call a start or a leap, has been a much more fre- 
 
 Suent phenomenon than an equally sudden rise to any considerable extent. The 
 epression which is at once produced by a panic is generally recovered from only 
 by degrees." {Companion to the Newspaper, No. 40, p. 69.) 
 
 The manner of transferring stock is described by Dr Hamilton as follows : — 
 " Agreements for the sale of stock are generally made at the Stock Exchange, which is fre- 
 quented by a set of middlemen called jobbers, whose business is to accommodate buyers and sellers 
 with the exact sums they want. A jobber must be possessed of considerable property in the funds ; 
 and he declares a price, "suppose 59i or 598 in the three per cent, consols ; that is, he is willing to 
 buy any sum from any person at 59$, or sell him at 598. By this means, one who wishes to sell, 
 suppose £'375, 10s. and could hardly find a purchaser for that precise sum without the assistance 
 of a jobber, obtains his purpose, and the smallest sums are purchased and sold with the utmost 
 
FUN 
 
 826 
 
 FUN 
 
 •facility. The jobber's profit is generally 4 per cent., for which he transacts both a sale and a pur- 
 chase ; and these persons often engage in no other stock speculation, but go away when the bubi- 
 ness of the day is over, possessed of the exact sum of stock they had in the morning. 
 
 " The bargain being agreed on, is carried into execution at the Transfer Office, at the Bank, or 
 at the South Sea House. For this purpose the seller makes out a note in writing, which contains 
 the name and designation of the seller and purchaser, and the sum and description of the stock to 
 be transferred. He delivers this to the proper clerk, and then fills up a receipt, a printed form of 
 which, with blanks, is obtained at the office. The clerk, in the meantime, examines the seller's 
 account, and if he find him possessed of the stock proposed to be sold, he makes out the transfer. 
 This is signed in the book by the seller, who delivers the receipt to the clerk ; and upon the pur- 
 chaser's signing his acceptance in the book, the clerk signs the receipt as witness. It is then de- 
 livered to the purchaser upon payment of the money, and thus the business is completed. 
 
 " This business is generally transacted by brokers, who derive their authority from their 
 employers by powers of attorney. Forms of these are obtained at the respective offices. Some 
 authorize the broker to sell, others to accept a purchase, and others to receive the dividends. 
 Some comprehend all these objects, and the two last are generally united. Powers of attorney 
 authorizing to sell , must be deposited in the proper office for examination one day before selling. 
 A stockholder acting personally after granting a letter of attorney, revokes it by implication. 
 
 " The person in whose name the stock is invested when the books are shut, previous to the pay- 
 ment of the dividends, receives the dividend for the half-year preceding; and, therefore, a pur- 
 chaser, during the currency of the half-year, has the benefit of the interest on the stock he buys, 
 from the last term of payment to the day of transfer. The price of stock, therefore, rises gradually, 
 cceteris paribus, from term to term; and when the dividend is paid, it undergoes a fell equal 
 thereto. Thus the 3 per cent, consols should be higher than the 3 per cent, reduced, by § per cent, 
 from 5th April to 5th July, and from 10th October to 5th January ; and should be as much lower 
 from 5th January to 5th March, and from 5th July to 10th October ; and this is nearly the case. 
 Accidental circumstances may occasion a slight deviation. 
 
 '* The dividends on the different stocks being payable at different terms, it is in the power of the 
 stockholders to invest their property in such a manner as to draw their income quarterly. 
 
 " The business of speculating in the stocks is founded on the variation of the price of stock, which 
 it probably tends, in some measure, to support. It consists in buying or selling stock, according to the 
 views entertained by those engaged in this business of the probability of the value rising or falling. 
 
 " This business is partly conducted by persons who have property in the funds. But a practice 
 also prevails among those who have no such property of contracting for the sale of stock, on a 
 future day at a price now agreed on. For example, A may agree to sell B £10,000 of three per 
 cent, stock, to be transferred in twenty days, for £6000. A has, in fact, no such stock ; but, if the 
 price on the day appointed for the transfer be only 58, he may purchase as much as will enable 
 him to fulfil his bargain for £5800, and thus gain £200 by the transaction. On the other hand, if 
 the price of that stock should rise to 62, he will lose £200. The business is generally settled with- 
 out any actual purchase of stock or transfer, by A paying to B, or receiving from him, the differ- 
 ence between the price of stock on the day of settlement and the price agreed on. 
 
 " This practice, which amounts to nothing else than a wager concerning the price of stock, is 
 not sanctioned by law, yet it is carried on to a great extent ; and as neither party can be com- 
 pelled by law to implement these bargains, their sense of honour and the disgrace attending a 
 breach of contract, are the principles by which the business is supported. In the language of the 
 Stock Exchange, the buyer is called a Bull, and the seller a Bear, and the person who refuses to 
 pay his loss is called a Lame Buck ,■ and the names of these defaulters are exhibited in the hall of 
 the Stock Exchange, where they dare not appear afterwards. 
 
 " The most usual times for which bargains of this sort are made, are the first transfer days in 
 February, May, August, and November. These are called rencontre, or settling days. Some- 
 times instead of paying the difference on the rencontre-days, the settlement is deferred to a future 
 day on such terms as the parties agree on. This is called a continuation." (Hamilton on tite 
 National Debt, p. 248.) 
 
 Transfer Regulations. 
 
 Bank of England. 
 
 Transfer Days. 
 
 New 5 per Cent Tu. W. Fri. 
 
 New 3i per Cent Tu.W.Th.Fr. 
 
 3 per Cent. Consols Tu.W.Th.Fr. 
 
 3 per Cent. 1726 Tu. Th. 
 
 Anns, for Terms of Yrs. Mon. W. Fr. 
 
 Bank Stock Tues. Th. Fr. 
 
 3J per Ct. Consols, 1818 Tues. Th. Fr. 
 3i per Cent. Reduced. . Tu.W.Th.Fr. 
 3 per Cent. Reduced.. . Tu.W.Th.Fr. 
 
 LongAnnuities Mon. W. Sat. 
 
 Anns, for Terms of Yrs. Tues. Th. J 
 South Sea House. 
 
 South Sea Stock Mond.W. Fri. "I Jan. 5 
 
 3 per Ct. New S. S. An. Tues. Th. Sat. V and 
 3 per Cent. 1751 Tues. Th. Sat. ) July 5. 
 
 ) April 5 
 3 per Ct. Old S. S. Anns. Mon. W. Fr. } and 
 
 j Oct. 10 
 
 Jan. 5 
 
 and 
 July 5. 
 
 April 5 
 
 and 
 Oct. 10. 
 
 duty upon transfers of government stock ; but 
 the transfer of South Sea stock under £100 is 
 9s. 6d., above it, 12s. 
 
 The books at the transfer offices are always 
 shut for about six weeks previous to the days of 
 payment, during which period no transfers can 
 be regularly made. 
 
 The expense of a power of attorney is £1, Is. 
 6d. for each government stock, and for South 
 Sea stock, £l, lis. 6d. 
 
 Tickets for preparing transfers must be de- 
 posited in the respective offices before one o'clock, 
 otherwise a fee of 2s. 6d. is demanded for each ; 
 on the payment of this fee, however, transfers 
 may be made on any day of the week up to 3 o'clock 
 at the Bank, and half-past 2 o'clock at the South 
 Sea House, provided the books are not shut 
 for the dividend. Transfers forwarded in the 
 usual manner, without fee, are made void if not 
 executed by half-past 2 o'clock. These regu- 
 lations apply both to the Bank and South Sea 
 House. 
 
 The rate of brokerage is 2s. 6d. on the £100 
 upon the stock transferred. There is no stamp- 
 
 The following tables will serve to facilitate computations respecting the value of 
 the different stocks,— the first by showing the portion of accruing interest or divi- 
 dend necessary to be deducted from their price as usually quoted in the market, 
 
FUN 
 
 327 
 
 FUN 
 
 before comparing them with each other,— the second by showing their proportional 
 amount in reference to the same yearly return of interest. The use of these tables 
 has been extended, it will be observed, to other descriptions of stock besides those 
 of the government. 
 
 Table showing the Amount of Dividend which has accrued upon various Stocks 
 on the first Day of each Month. 
 
 January 
 
 Dividends due Jan. 5 & July 5. 
 
 Dividends due April 5 & Oct. 10. 
 
 Consols 
 3 per cents. 
 
 New 
 3} per cent 
 
 E. I. Stock. 
 10} per cent 
 
 Reduced 
 3 per cents. 
 
 Reduced 
 3} per cents. 
 
 B.ofE.Stock 
 7 per cent 
 
 £ s. d. 
 1 9 4 
 4 6 
 9 1 
 14 3 
 
 19 3 
 
 1 4 4 
 1 9 4 
 4 5 
 9 5 
 14 4 
 19 5 
 14 4 
 
 £ s. d. 
 1 14 3 
 5 3 
 10 8 
 
 16 8 
 
 1 2 5 
 1 8 5 
 1 14 3 
 5 2 
 11 
 
 16 9 
 
 1 2 8 
 1 8 4 
 
 £ s. d. 
 5 2 9 
 
 15 8 
 
 1 11 11 
 
 2 9 11 
 
 3 7 4 
 
 4 5 3 
 
 5 2 8 
 
 15 5 
 
 1 13 1 
 
 2 10 3 
 
 3 7 11 
 
 4 5 
 
 £ s. d. 
 14 1 
 
 19 4 
 
 1 4 1 
 1 9 4 
 4 2 
 9 1 
 13 10 
 
 18 10 
 
 1 3 9 
 1 8 7 
 3 9 
 8 10 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 16 5 
 
 1 2 7 
 1 8 1 
 1 14 3 
 4 10 
 10 7 
 
 16 2 
 
 1 1 11 
 1 7 9 
 1 13 4 
 4 4 
 10 3 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1 12 10 
 
 2 5 2 
 
 2 16 2 
 
 3 8 6 
 
 9 8 
 
 1 1 2 
 
 1 12 4 
 
 2 3 10 
 
 2 15 6 
 
 3 6 8 
 
 8 8 
 
 1 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 July 
 
 September 
 
 
 December 
 
 Table showing the Prices which Stocks, yielding different Rates of Dividend, 
 should respectively bear, in order to produce the same Return of Interest ; also 
 the corresponding Number of Years' Purchase for Perpetual Annuities. 
 
 Years' 
 
 Interest 3 per 
 
 3} per 4 per 4} per 5 per 
 
 5} per 
 
 6per 
 
 61 per 7perJ7}per'8per'lO}p. 
 
 Purchase. 
 
 Yearly. 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. cent. cent, cent 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent 
 
 cent i cent cent^ cent. cent. 
 
 33$ 
 
 £ s. d. 
 3 
 
 100 
 
 116| 1331 150 WW! 
 
 1834 
 
 200 
 
 | j 
 216| 2334 '250 266| 350 
 
 33 
 
 3 7 
 
 99 
 
 115} 132 148} 165 
 
 181} 
 
 198 
 
 214} 231' 1 247} 264 
 
 346} 
 
 32i 
 
 3 1 6 
 
 971 
 
 113} 
 
 130 1464:1624 
 
 178} 
 
 195 
 
 21 14 227} 243} 260 
 
 3414 
 
 32 
 
 3 2 6 
 
 96 
 
 112 
 
 128 144 160 
 
 176 
 
 192 
 
 208 2-24 | 240 1 256 
 
 336 
 
 31} 
 
 3 3 6 
 
 941 
 
 1104 
 
 126 141} 1574 
 
 1734 
 
 189 
 
 204} 2.0} 2364 252 
 
 330} 
 
 31 
 
 3 4 6 
 
 93 
 
 108} 
 
 124 139}| 155 
 
 170} 
 
 186 
 
 201} 217 1232} 248 
 
 325} 
 
 30} 
 
 3 5 7 
 
 911 
 
 1061 
 
 122 
 
 1374 152} 
 
 167} 183 
 
 1984 213} 228} 244 
 
 3204 
 
 30 
 
 3 6 8 
 
 90 
 
 105 
 
 120 
 
 135 150 
 
 165 1180 
 
 195 210 1 225 240 
 
 315 
 
 294 
 
 3 7 10 
 
 881 
 
 1034 
 
 118 
 
 132} I 147} 
 
 1624 177 
 
 191} 206} 1 2214 236 
 
 309} 
 
 29 
 
 3 9 
 
 87 
 
 101} 
 
 116 
 
 130} 145 
 
 159} 1 174 
 
 188} 203 |217} 232 
 
 304} 
 
 28} 
 
 3 10 2 
 
 851 
 
 99} 
 
 114 
 
 1284 142} 
 
 156} 171 
 
 1854 199} 213} 228 
 
 2994 
 
 28 
 
 3 11 5 
 
 84 
 
 98 
 
 112 
 
 126 
 
 140 
 
 154 
 
 168 
 
 182 196 
 
 2Ki 224 294 
 
 27* 
 
 3 12 9 
 
 821 
 
 M| 
 
 110 
 
 123} 
 
 1374 
 
 1514 
 
 165 
 
 178} 192} 
 
 2064 220 288} 
 
 27 
 
 3 14 1 
 
 81 
 
 94} 
 
 108 
 
 121} 
 
 135 
 
 148} 
 
 162 
 
 175} 
 
 189 
 
 202} 216 283} 
 
 26J 
 
 3 15 6 
 
 791 
 
 92| 
 
 106 
 
 1194 
 
 132} 
 
 145} 
 
 159 
 
 1724 
 
 185} 
 
 198} 212 2784 
 
 26 
 
 3 16 11 
 
 78 
 
 91 
 
 104 
 
 117 
 
 130 
 
 143 
 
 156 
 
 169 
 
 182 
 
 195 208 273 
 
 251 
 
 3 18 5 
 
 76} 
 
 Mi 
 
 102 
 
 114} 
 
 127} 
 
 1404 
 
 153 
 
 165} 
 
 178} 
 
 1914 20 i *;;} 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 75 
 
 871 
 
 100 
 
 112} 125 
 
 137} 
 
 150 
 
 162} 
 
 175 
 
 187} 200 262} 
 
 24} 
 
 4 1 7 
 
 73} 
 
 85| 
 
 98 
 
 1104 122} 
 
 134} 
 
 147 
 
 1594 
 
 1711 
 
 183} 196 2574 
 
 24 
 
 4 3 4 
 
 72 
 
 84 
 
 96 
 
 108 1 120 
 
 132 
 
 144 
 
 156 
 
 168 
 
 180 192 252 
 
 23} 
 
 4 5 1 
 
 704 
 
 824 
 
 94 
 
 105| 117} 
 
 1294 
 
 141 
 
 152} 
 
 164} 
 
 1764 188 246} 
 
 23 
 
 4 6 11 
 
 69 
 
 80} 
 
 92 
 
 103} 115 
 
 126} 
 
 138 
 
 149} 
 
 161 
 
 172} 184 241} 
 
 22$ 
 
 4 8 11 
 
 671 
 
 781 
 
 90 
 
 1014 H2i 
 
 123} 
 
 135 
 
 1464 
 
 157} 
 
 168} 180 2364 
 
 22 
 
 4 10 11 
 
 66 
 
 77 
 
 88 
 
 99 | 110 
 
 121 
 
 132 
 
 143 
 
 154 
 
 165 176 231 
 
 211 
 
 4 13 
 
 64} 
 
 754 
 
 86 
 
 96} 107} 
 
 1184 
 
 129 
 
 139} 
 
 150} 
 
 1614 172 225} 
 
 21 
 
 4 15 3 
 
 63 
 
 73} 
 
 84 
 
 94} 105 
 
 115} 
 
 126 
 
 136} 
 
 147 
 
 157} 168 220} 
 
 20} 
 
 4 17 7 
 
 61} 
 
 7H 
 
 82 
 
 924 102} 
 
 112} 
 
 123 
 
 1334 
 
 143J 
 
 153} 164 2154 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 110 
 
 120 
 
 130 
 
 140 
 
 150 1 160 210 
 
 19 
 
 5 5 3 
 
 57 
 
 66} 
 
 76 
 
 85} 
 
 95 
 
 104} 
 
 114 
 
 123} 
 
 133 
 
 142} ' 152 199} 
 
 18 
 
 5 11 1 
 
 54 
 
 63 
 
 72 
 
 81 
 
 90 
 
 99 
 
 108 
 
 117 
 
 126 
 
 135 I 144 189 
 
 17 
 
 5 17 8 
 
 51 
 
 59} 
 
 68 
 
 76} 
 
 85 
 
 93} 
 
 102 
 
 110} 
 
 119 
 
 1274 136 178} 
 
 16| 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 581 
 
 66| 
 
 75 
 
 834 
 
 91] 
 
 100 
 
 1084 
 
 116| 
 
 125 133} 175 
 
 16 
 
 6 5 
 
 48 
 
 56 
 
 64 
 
 72 
 
 80 
 
 88 
 
 96 
 
 104 
 
 112 
 
 120 128 168 
 
 15 
 
 6 13 4 
 
 45 
 
 52} 
 
 60 
 
 67} 
 
 75 
 
 82} 
 
 90 
 
 97} 
 
 105 
 
 112} 120 157} 
 
 m 
 
 7 10 
 
 40 
 
 3 
 
 53* 
 
 60 
 
 a 
 
 S) 
 
 80 
 
 863 
 
 934 
 
 100 i 106J 140 
 
 12} 
 
 8 
 
 371 
 
 50 
 
 564 
 
 75 
 
 814 
 
 87} 
 
 93} UK) 1314 
 
 12 
 
 8 6 8 
 
 36 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 54 
 
 60 
 
 66 
 
 72 
 
 78 
 
 84 
 
 90 1 96 126 
 
 HI 
 
 10 O 30 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 75 1 80 1(5 
 
 The highest price of 3 per cent, stock was in 1737, when it reached 107, the 
 lowest in September 1797, when, owing to the mutiny in the fleet, the failure of an 
 attempt to negotiate with the French Republic, and other circumstances, it fell to 
 47 1. Since 1820, it has been rarely above 93 or below 75. 
 
FUN 328 FUN 
 
 Plans for the Reduction op the Public Debt, &c. 
 
 1. A scheme for the gradual extinction of the National Debt, by the establish- 
 ment of a sinking fund, was projected, but only partially applied, by Sir Robert 
 Walpole in 1716 (3 Geo. I. c. 27). It served, however, in some respects, as the 
 model of the plan of the celebrated sinking fund, suggested by Dr Price, and 
 brought forward by Mr Pitt in March 1786 (26 Geo. III. c. 31), according to which 
 it was proposed to raise and apply (through the medium of certain commissioners) 
 one million sterling per annum, regularly and progressively to the purchase of 
 stock, the interest accruing thereon being applied in like manner, so that the whole 
 would operate in a progressive accelerated ratio at compound interest. Other sums 
 were rendered accessory to the scheme, and at the expiry of 28 years it was cal- 
 culated that the fund would include a yearly income of four millions, a part of 
 which might then be applied towards the relief of the public. Had this sinking fund 
 been always confined to the legitimate end first proposed, there could not have been 
 any doubt with regard to its benefits. But its operation was continued and enlarged 
 after the commencement of the war of 1793, during periods when no surplus revenue 
 existed, and when the sums devoted to it had to be borrowed for the purpose at a 
 high rate of interest. In this way every addition to the sinking fund was cancelled 
 by a corresponding addition to the debt, and the burden of an expensive establish- 
 ment of officers and clerks was maintained for no beneficial purpose imaginable. 
 This, however, was the least part of the evil. It is well known that the price 
 of the public stocks has a tendency to fall at the period of every new creation of 
 debt, and that the degree of such fall is influenced by the amount of new stock 
 which it is desired to create; while at intervening periods the tendency is of an 
 opposite character, so that the redemption of any portion of debt will not be 
 effected on terms so low as the minister has accepted at the period of its creation. 
 " The average rate," says Mr Porter, " at which 3 per cent, stock was created 
 between 1793 and 1801, was £57, 7s. 6d. of money for £100 stock, and the average 
 market-price during that period was £61, 17s. 6d. for £100 stock. The loss to the 
 public upon the additional sum borrowed, in order that it might be redeemed du- 
 ring that period, which was £49,655,531, amounted to 4^ per cent., or £2,234,500. 
 Between 1803 and the termination of the war, the average price at which loans 
 were contracted was £60, 7s. 6d. per £100 stock, and the average market price 
 during that time was £62, 17s. 6d. per £100. The loss was therefore 2i per cent, 
 upon the sum redeemed during that time, £176,173,240, or £4,404,331, making 
 together an amount of £6,638,831 absolutely lost to the public by these operations. 
 This amount, reckoned at the average price of the various loans, is equivalent to 
 a capital of more than eleven millions of 3 per cent, stock, with which the country 
 is now additionally burdened through the measure of borrowing in a depressed 
 market more money than was wanted, in order to its being repaid when the market 
 for public securities was certain to be higher." {Progress of the Nation, sec. 4, 
 c. 2, p. 292.) 
 
 The fallacy of borrowing larger sums than were wanted, and paying in conse- 
 quence more dearly for the loan of what was actually required, in order to accu- 
 mulate the surplus into a fund for buying up the debt at a higher price than that 
 at which it was contracted, appears now sufficiently obvious. The Sinking Fund 
 Scheme, however, was presented in such a flattering point of view, that it long 
 deluded the public, and the prospect which it enabled the minister to hold out of 
 the speedy redemption of the debt, had the effect of reconciling the people to the 
 imposition of a higher amount of taxes than they would otherwise have borne. Its 
 absurdity was first satisfactorily exposed in 1812 by Dr Hamilton, who proved that 
 " the excess of revenue above expenditure is the only real sinking fund by which 
 public debt can be discharged. The increase of the revenue, and the diminution of 
 expense, are the only means by which this sinking fund can be enlarged, and its 
 operations rendered more effectual : and all schemes for discharging the national 
 debt, by sinking funds operating by compound interest, or in any other manner, 
 unless so far as they are founded upon this principle, are illusory." 
 
 Dr Hamilton's exposition was not immediately successful ; for although, on the 
 return of peace in 1815, it was found impossible, exhausted as the nation then was 
 by the stupendous efforts it had made during the war, to continue the collection of 
 the taxes required for maintaining the integrity of the sinking fund, yet for some 
 years a semblance of this was kept up by means of various expedients, and it was 
 not until the passing of the act 10 Geo. IV. c. 27, that the system was entirely 
 abandoned. By that act it was provided, that, from the 5th of July 1829, there 
 
FUN 329 FUN 
 
 shall be issued out of the consolidated fund only such annual sum as shall appear 
 to be the actual surplus revenue of the United Kingdom, to be applied towards the 
 reduction of the national debt, by the commissioners appointed for that purpose ; 
 namely, the Speaker of the House of Commons, the Chancellor of Exchequer, the 
 Master of the Rolls, the Accountant-general of the Court of Chancery, and the 
 Governor and Deputy-governor of the Bank of England, for the time being ; and 
 that the Lords of the Treasury shall, every quarter, make up accounts of the 
 annual revenue for the four preceding quarters, and one-fourth of the annual 
 surplus to be issued to the said commissioners, who are to publish, in the London 
 Gazette, the sum which will be so applicable in the ensuing quarter. It was also 
 provided that all stock and annuities standing in their names on 5th July 1829 
 should be cancelled, and the dividends cease to be paid ; and that in future all 
 stock purchased by them should be cancelled from the day of transfer. 
 
 2. The conversion of the perpetual annuities payable on the capital of the funded 
 debt into annuities payable only for a limited term of years, already explained, 
 operates indirectly as "a sinking fund ; and so long as it proceeds upon equitable 
 principles, and as the increased annual charge which it occasions is defrayed from a 
 bona jide revenue, and is not carried so far as to interfere with the onward progress 
 of the country through excessive taxation, it appears to be liable to little objection. 
 A considerable relief may be expected from this mode of redemption in the course 
 of the next twenty years, particularly after 1860, when the long annuities expire. 
 
 It is objected by some that the principle of this system is subversive of the spirit 
 of accumulation, by encouraging individuals to consume their whole property dur- 
 ing their lifetime, and as such, improper for the adoption of government, whose 
 object ought rather to be to diffuse a spirit of forethought, and induce people 
 to live for others as well as themselves. But the terms upon which annuities are 
 now granted by government are not such as to give an increased stimulus to this 
 method of investment. Annuities are, and have always been, granted by respect- 
 able insurance companies, and in every large community there must be numerous 
 persons to whom the conversion of their capital into an annuity is a matter less of 
 choice than of necessity. 
 
 3. Loans during war, it is now said, should be funded in stock bearing a rate of 
 interest equivalent to the market-rate when they were contracted for, rather than 
 in stock bearing a low rate of interest with a corresponding increase of capital, in 
 order that advantage may be taken of the fall of interest at the return of peace. 
 This opinion was advocated by Dr Price and Dr Hamilton; and since we expe- 
 rienced the beneficial effects of the late reductions of interest, it has been again 
 brought forward by the Edinburgh Review (No. xciii., Jan. 1828), by Mr M'Culloch 
 in his " Statistics of the British Empire " and other writings, and by Mr Porter 
 in his " Progress of the Nation." In the last-mentioned work (sec. 4, c. 2, p. 294) it is 
 shown that if at the expense of a small present sacrifice of \ per cent, interest, the 
 loans during the last wars had been contracted in 5 per cent- annuities, and if 
 government had so far taken advantage of the subsequent lowering of the rate of 
 interest as to procure their conversion into annuities of 3| per cent., the unre- 
 deemed debt at the present time would, in all probability, not have exceeded six 
 hundred millions, while the annual charge upon the same would have been twenty- 
 one millions. 
 
 Many of the loans during the last war were raised in a very improvident man- 
 ner, and there can be little doubt that had the object above contended for been 
 kept more steadily in view by the government, our present burdens would have 
 been less ; but whether to the extent supposed by Mr Porter, it is not now 
 necessary to inquire. It would appear, however, that the comparative eligi- 
 bility of funding in a stock bearing a high or low rate of interest must depend 
 in a considerable degree on their prices in the market. " At all times," says 
 Mr Ricardo, " the 5 per cents bear a very low relative price to the 3 per cents. 
 Here, then, is one disadvantage to be put against another, and it must depend 
 upon the degree in which the prices of the 3 per cents and 5 per cents differ, 
 whether it be more desirable to raise the loan in the one or in the other. We have 
 little doubt, that during many periods of the war there would have been a decided 
 disadvantage in making the loan in 5 per cent, stock in preference to 3 per cent, 
 stock. The market in 5 per cent, stock, too, is limited ; a sale cannot be forced in 
 it without causing a considerable fall,— a circumstance known to the contractors, 
 and against which they would naturally take some security in the price which 
 they bid for a large loan if in that stock." {Ency. Brit., art. Funding System, 
 vol. x. p. 253.) 
 
FUR 330 FUR 
 
 The question as to the hest method of funding, therefore, is one, the solution of 
 which must depend in a great measure on the state of circumstances at the time 
 a loan becomes necessary. Meanwhile, it is satisfactory to reflect that the public 
 mind is now too much enlightened on the subject of finance to permit any 
 further imposition with respect to schemes that can be brought to the test of 
 arithmetical calculation ; and that although there is but little prospect of any im- 
 
 Eortant reduction in the absolute amount of our public debt, yet that its relative 
 urden will become gradually but effectually lightened through the advancing 
 wealth of the country. [Revenue and Expenditure.] 
 
 FURLONG, an English measure of length, equal 660 feet, or one-eighth of a 
 mile. 
 
 FURS, or PELTRIES. The term peltry is applied by traders to the raw skin ; 
 and fur to the skin after the inner side is converted into a kind of leather. The use 
 of furs originated in those regions of the N. of Europe and Asia where they most 
 abound, and where the severity of the climate renders that species of clothing 
 necessary. They were unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and were 
 probably introduced into civilized Europe by the northern conquerors. In the 12th, 
 13th, and 14th centuries, furs, especially those of the sable and ermine, formed part 
 of the fashionable magnificence of courts. At that time they were chiefly procured 
 from the north of Asia by the traders of Italy, by whom they were distributed 
 throughout France, England, and other countries. Since the discovery and settlement 
 of Canada, however, they have been mostly obtained from the northern parts of 
 America; and there is not perhaps a single article of commerce which has called 
 forth a more daring and adventurous spirit, or given rise to a more courageous 
 endurance of dangers and privations, than have been manifested throughout the 
 prosecution of the trade in those bleak and savage regions. 
 
 The fur-trade was brought into repute by the French soon after their settlement 
 in Canada in 1608, and their success encouraged the formation of the English 
 Hudson's Bay Company, which was chartered by Charles II. in 1670, with the 
 exclusive privilege of trading with the Indians in the vast territories adjoining 
 the inlet from which the corporation takes its name. But their charter never 
 having been confirmed by Parliament, hunting in those regions was still considered 
 to be open to all British subjects, and not a few engaged in it. This irregular trade 
 was suspended after the expulsion of the French from Canada in 1759, but it soon 
 afterwards revived and increased. In 1766. private adventurers began to traffic from 
 Michillimakinac, whose success incited otners to follow their example ; and inde- 
 pendent traders gradually spread over every part of the country, until 1787, when 
 these scattered parties were united into one great body, under the name of the 
 " North-West Company." The rivalry of this association had the effect of inspiriting 
 and extending the trade, but it was carried on by them in many respects beyond 
 legitimate limits, and often accompanied by open violence and bloodsned, in which 
 both Europeans and natives were alike sufferers. Never indeed was a more furious 
 contest waged between two mercantile bodies than between the North-West and 
 Hudson's Bay Companies. At length, in 1821, the two concerns were united, under 
 the firm of the " Hudson's Bay Fur Company," with much advantage to the peace 
 of the fur countries, and perhaps to the permanent interests of the trade. The 
 skins collected by this Company are all shipped to London, mostly from their fac- 
 tories of York Fort and Moose Fort in Hudson's Bay; others from Fort Van- 
 couver, on the Columbia, on the N. W. coast, and from Montreal. This last, 
 which was the principal seat of the North-West Company, has, since the union, 
 sunk into a subordinate station. 
 
 On the part of the United States, the fur-trade is chiefly prosecuted by the 
 " North American Fur Company," whose principal establishment is at Michilli- 
 makinac, where it receives skins from the post depending on that station, and from 
 those on the Mississippi, Missouri, and Yellowstone rivers, and the great range of 
 country extending thence to the Rocky Mountains. This Company penetrates into 
 the bosom of these distant regions by means of steam-boats. Of other associations 
 in the United States, the most celebrated are Ashley's Company from St Louis, and 
 Captain Bonneville's, formed at New York in 1831; which last has pushed its 
 enterprises into tracts between the Rocky Mountains and the coasts of Monterrey 
 and Upper California. Indeed the whole of the districts from the Mississippi to 
 the Pacific, and from the Arctic Sea to the Gulf of Mexico, are now traversed in 
 every direction by the hunter. Almost all the American furs which do not belong 
 to the Hudson's Bay Company find their way to New York, where they are either 
 dibtributed for home consumption or exported chiefly to London. 
 
FUR 331 FUR 
 
 The fur-trade is also extensively pursued by the Russians in the N. of Asia and 
 the N. W. coast of America. Their chief association is the Russian American 
 Company of Moscow ; and the principal markets for their furs are the fairs of 
 Kiacnta, Novgorod, and Leipsic. 
 
 Furs may be divided into two distinct classes ; those employed for clothing or 
 ornamental purposes, and those used in felting or hat-making. Of the former, the 
 principal are the grav, silver, and black fox, the ermine, sable, chinchilla, fitchet, 
 bear, martin, mink, lynx, and wolf ; of the latter, the beaver, nutria, otter, hare, 
 rabbit, and racoon ; but several of the skins used for felting purposes are manu- 
 factured for dress. Furs, and especially those used for felting, are further distin- 
 guished into seasoned and unseasoned skins ; the former being those which are 
 taken off the animal in winter when the fur is at its full growth, and in the highest 
 state of perfection as to fineness ; the latter, those obtained in spring, summer, and 
 autumn, when it is short, coarse, and hairy, and generally not worth more than a 
 third of the value of that found on the best seasoned skins. 
 
 The more valuable and scarce furs are chiefly procured in Asiatic Russia. The 
 " precious ermine" and sable, both of the genus mustela (weasel), are obtained of 
 the best quality only in the cold regions of that country and the N. of Europe. The 
 snowy whiteness of the former, and the rich dark shades of the latter, with the 
 great depth, and the peculiar, almost flowing softness of their skins and fur, have 
 combined to give them a preference in all ages and countries, and they still main- 
 tain the same relative estimate in regard to other furs, as when they marked the 
 rank of the crusader, and were emblazoned in heraldry. The martin resembles 
 the sable ; the best are from Kamtschatka and N. Asia, but in every pack of 
 American skins, some are to be found of a beautiful shade, and a deep rich olive 
 colour. Next to these in value are the sea-otter, the mink, and the fiery fox. The 
 sea-otter, procured in Behring's Island, Kamtschatka, and opposite coasts of 
 America, is an exceedingly fine, soft, close fur, jet black in winter, with a silken 
 
 floss ; the fur of the young animal being, however, of a beautiful brown colour, 
 'he sea-otter is confined to the N. W. coast of America, and the number is now so 
 much reduced as to render the chase an object of little consequence. The land- 
 otter abounds on the borders of all the interior lakes of that country ; but its skin, 
 chiefly used for collars and linings, is comparatively of small value. The mink is a 
 diminutive species of otter. The fiery fox, the bright red of Asia, more brilliantly 
 coloured and finer than any other of the genus, is highly esteemed, and is the 
 standard of value on the north-eastern coast of that quarter of the world. Of the 
 American fox there are many varieties, as the black, red, gray, white, cross, silver, 
 and dun coloured. The silver fox is a rare animal, a native of the woody dis- 
 trict below the falls of the Columbia river. Bear skins of various kinds and 
 colours are procured in N. America, and are much used in the northern countries 
 of Europe both for warmth and ornament, particularly on the outside of carriages. 
 The hide of the wolf is considered peculiarly fitted for knapsacks and similar pur- 
 poses, for which it is much employed in Germany. 
 
 The beaver's fur is an article of great importance, owing to its abundance 
 (though this is now much less than formerly) and the large and sure demand for it 
 in the hat manufacture. It appears to be indigenous in all the northern parts of 
 America, though in the settled countries and in even those open to private hunters, 
 it is now nearly exterminated. The skins are divided into parchment, or those of 
 the old animals, and cub, or those of the young ones. The latter are the finest, but 
 from their smaller size are not of equal value with the others, and they have become 
 comparatively rare, as the capture of the young animals is now prohibited by the 
 Company. The musquash, a species of diminutive beaver, is found principally 
 in the vicinity of Hudson's Bay, and the vast number taken renders its skin 
 an article of importance ; the fur is used in the manufacture of inferior hats. Nu- 
 tria skins have become of considerable importance only within the last twenty 
 years ; they are imported from S. America, principally from La Plata. Of the other 
 foreign furs it is unnecessary to speak, as a description of all those of much inter- 
 est will be found under their respective heads. The only British ones that need be 
 noticed are those of the rabbit and the hare, which are both extensively used for 
 felting ; the hair of the silver-tipped rabbit of Lincolnshire, however, is highly 
 esteemed for dress, — a purpose for which it is exported both to Russia and China. 
 Furs are not only used and valued in those countries where they are needed 
 for defence against the severity of the seasons, but also among the inhabitants of 
 milder climates, who, being of Tartar or Sclavonian descent, are said to inherit an 
 attachment to that species of clothing. Such are the inhabitants of Poland, Southern 
 
FUR 
 
 332 
 
 FUS 
 
 Russia, China, Persia, Turkey, and many of the nations of the middle and western 
 parts of Europe. In Syria, Egypt, Bucharia, and Independent Tartary, there is 
 also a great consumption where there exists no physical necessity. 
 
 The principal emporium of the fur-trade is London, where the vessels of the 
 Hudson's Bay Company arrive about the end of September ; and the public sales 
 afterwards held by them are attended by many foreign merchants, whose purchases 
 are chiefly sent to the great fairs of Leipsic, whence they are distributed through 
 various parts of the Continent. The following is an account of the furs exposed for 
 sale by the Company in December of the three years 1835, 1836, and 1837 :- 
 
 Skins of 
 Heaver 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 82,927 
 
 156,168 
 
 15,934 
 
 2,147 
 22,861 
 838,549 
 
 7,563 
 
 Skins of 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 78 900 ifi nfi.1 
 
 2,479 
 6,990 
 17,809 
 3,722 
 1,263 
 698 
 4,703 
 522 
 
 1,327 
 
 3,762 
 
 12,228 
 
 307 
 
 143 
 
 201 
 
 12 
 
 99 
 
 6,115 
 31,887 
 27,750 
 7,031 
 2,166 
 754 
 6,600 
 585 
 
 61,005 
 15,487 
 
 910 
 
 8,704 
 
 1,111,646 
 
 4,127 
 
 52,749 
 8,432 
 
 471 
 
 1,924 
 
 160,996 
 
 1,715 
 
 
 
 Mink 
 
 Fox, Silver and 
 
 Wolf 
 
 Wolverene 
 
 Other Foxes 
 
 Musquash 
 
 Bear 
 
 
 Racoon 
 
 The value of furs, especially of those which are articles of luxury and fashion, 
 varies in an extraordinary manner, in consequence of the great inequality of the 
 supply and the demand ; and the fluctuations in price in the course of a single 
 year often exceed 300 per cent. The following has been obligingly furnished to 
 the publishers of this work by the Hudson's Bay Company, as the average prices 
 of each description in the sales of 1836, which are considered as affording a good 
 general idea of the course of the trade :- 
 
 Fisher 14 
 
 Lynx 
 
 Mink 
 
 Wolf 
 
 Wolverene. 
 Swan 
 
 £ t. A 
 
 Fox, Silver 10 
 
 .... Cross 1 12 6 
 
 .... Red 10 
 
 .... White 9 
 
 .... Kit 3 
 
 Musquash 6 
 
 Bear 18 6 
 
 The following is an account of the chief imports of fur into the United Kingdom 
 in 1839 :— S 
 
 Beaver, parchment, per 
 
 skin 1 12 
 
 .... Cub 12 
 
 Coat, per lb 12 
 
 Martin, per skin 15 
 
 Otter, Sea 9 10 
 
 Land 1 3 
 
 Racoon 2 
 
 Bear No. 
 
 British 
 America. 
 
 United 
 
 States. 
 
 La Plata 
 
 States. 
 
 North of 
 Europe. 
 
 4,313 
 
 57,827 
 
 74,046 
 26,956 
 594,994 
 
 14,898 
 
 4.809 
 10,876 
 
 26,721 
 82,211 
 211,156 
 
 *"371 
 
 214,324 
 
 196 
 
 26 
 
 102,451 
 
 127,317 
 
 3,659 
 
 6,554 
 
 2 
 
 865 
 
 Fitch 
 
 
 Mink 
 
 
 Nutria 
 
 Otter 
 
 FUSTIAN, a coarse thick cotton stuff, generally tweeled, and of a dark colour. 
 The most common kind is named pillow ; but the fabrics called barragan, corduroy, 
 velveret, velveteen, beaverteen, and thickset, are also fustians. These cloths are 
 made in Lancashire and Yorkshire. 
 
 FUSTIC (Fr. Dois Jaune. Ger. Gelbholz. Sp. Palo del Brasilamarillo), a dye- 
 wood, the produce of a large tree, a species of mulberry (Morus tinctoria),^ native 
 of tropical America and the West Indies ; the best being that of Cuba. It is of a 
 sulphur colour with orange veins, hard and strong, and is imported in the form of 
 logs or large blocks. The yellow dye which it affords, though extremely durable 
 when in combination with an aluminous base, yet, being dull and muddy, is chiefly 
 employed in compound colours. About 10,000 tons of the timber are annually im- 
 ported, of which upwards of four-fifths are entered for home consumption. Nearly 
 one-half of |the importations are from Colombia ; the remainder chiefly from Ja- 
 maica, Cuba, and the United States. 
 
 Zante Fustic, or Fustet, vulgarly called young fustic, in distinction from the 
 preceding, which is sometimes termed old fustic, is the produce of the Venetian 
 sumach {Rhus cotinus), a shrub growing principally in Italy, the S. of France, and 
 Greece. Both the root and the stem afford a fugitive yellow colour ; but it is 
 seldom used alone, being chiefly employed as an accessory to heighten cochineal 
 and other dyes, and to give them a yellowish tinge. This wood is imported in 
 small quantities from Patras in the Morea, the Ionian Islands, and other places. 
 
GAL 333 GAL 
 
 G. 
 
 GALANGAL (Fr. Galanga. Ger. Galgant), a brown tuberose root, with a faint 
 aromatic smell and pungent taste, like a mixture of pepper and ginger. There are 
 two kinds, galangal major (A/pinia Galanga) and galangal minor, of which the 
 latter is the strongest in all its qualities, and by far the more valuable. It may be 
 distinguished by its colour on the outside being browner, and in the inside reddish, 
 whilst the greater root is brownish on the outside, of a dirty white within, and 
 covered with rings about one-fourth of an inch distant. They are produced in 
 China, Sumatra, and Java, and used in medicine. 
 
 GALBANUM (Arab. Barzud. Fr. Galbanum. Ger. Mutterharx. Pers. Beer- 
 snd), a medicinal gum-resin, produced by a perennial plant (Bubon- Galbanum) 
 indigenous to Africa. It has a peculiar strong odour, not unlike that of turpen- 
 tine, and a nauseous bitter taste. Sp. gr. 1"212. The best occurs in pale-coloured 
 pieces about the size of a hazel-nut, composed of clear white tears. A more com- 
 mon kind is in agglutinated masses, consisting of yellowish or reddish and clear 
 white tears, mixed with seeds and leaves. When blackish, of a weak smell, soft, 
 and mixed with sand and other impurities, it is bad. It is exported from Syria, 
 the Levant, and the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 GALENA (Fr. Plomb sulfure. Ger. Bleiglanz), or lead-glance, is a native sul- 
 phuret of lead, found at Leadhills in Lanarkshire, and other places. ^ It is the 
 richest ore of that metal, and nearly all the lead of commerce is obtained from 
 galena. It usually occurs in heavy, shining, black, or blueish lead-coloured cubical 
 masses. It is used in the form of powder, called Alquifoux, for glazing pottery. 
 
 GALLEON, a name formerly given to the vessels of war used by the Spaniards 
 and Portuguese, and in later times to those large ships in which the former 
 transported treasure from their American colonies. 
 
 GALLEY, a long, narrow, flat- built vessel, with one deck, propelled by sails 
 and oars, which was much used, especially by the Italians, uutil of late years, when 
 it was superseded by the steam-boat. It carried two masts with lateen sails, 
 and, drawing but little water, was well adapted for coast navigation ; while, by 
 means of its oars, it had an advantage over sailing vessels in the dead calms so 
 frequent in the Mediterranean. 
 
 GALLIC ACID, discovered by Scheele in 1786, exists in most astringent vege- 
 tables, and especiallv in gall-nuts. Its constituents are carbon, oxygen, and 
 hydrogen. It is a solid, in taste slightly sour and astringent, inodorous, crystal- 
 lizing in white silky needles. In boiling water it is freely soluble, but it requires 
 100 parts of cold water for solution ; it dissolves also in ether and alcohol. In 
 the form of tincture of galls it is much employed as a chemical reagent. With 
 bases it combines to form salts, called gallates. 
 
 GALLIOT, a name given to a Dutch vessel, of which the bow and stern are 
 similar, round, and bluff, and the bottom flat, so as to draw little water ; and having 
 on each side, suspended by an iron bolt, a flat piece of wood, called a lee-board, 
 which, when required, is let down on the lee- side of the vessel, to prevent her 
 drifting so fast to leeward as she would otherwise do. The galliot has two masts ; 
 the foremast, the tallest, is rigged as a sloop ; while the aftermast carries a small 
 sail termed the mizzen. This vessel is chiefly adapted for the shallows off the coast 
 of Holland. 
 
 GALLON, the unit of the imperial measures of capacity, contains 10 lbs. avoir- 
 dupois, or 277*274 cubic inches of distilled water. It contains almost exactly one- 
 fifth more than the former English wine gallon, or 5 Imp. gallons = 6 wine gallons 
 nearly. Also 60 Imp. gallons = 59 old ale gallons nearly. [Measures a.nd 
 Weights.] 
 
 GALLOON, a narrow thick ferret or lace, commonly made of mohair or silk ; 
 but sometimes of wool, thread, gold, or silver. It is used as edging, and is largely 
 employed in binding hats. The finer kind is manufactured at Coventry, and the 
 coarser at Spitalfields. 
 
 GALLS (Fr. Noix de Galle. Ger. Gallapfel. It. Galle. Sp. Agallas), a kind of 
 nuts or vegetable wens, from one-fourth of an inch to an inch in diameter, produced 
 on several species of oak trees, by the perforation of insects for the deposition of their 
 eggs. This nest increases in size, together with the larva enclosed in it, which, oa 
 arriving at maturity, eats its way out, and hence gall-nuts are generally found 
 with a hole in them. They are in perfection when they have acquired their full 
 
GAM 334 GAS 
 
 size and weight, but before the young insect has pierced them ; after which, they 
 become of a brighter colour, and lose part of their weight. The nuts first gathered 
 are called blue and green galls ; those later are very inferior in value, and are 
 called white galls. They are sometimes smooth, sometimes covered with spines, of 
 an ash gray, or greenish, or blackish-brown colour. Those which are heavy and not 
 perforated are preferred ; but in commerce they are almost invariably found in a 
 pierced state. They are produced abundantly throughout Asia Minor from a 
 small species of oak {Quercus infectoria), and the best are those of Aleppo or Mo- 
 sul, which are about the size of a nutmeg, and mostly of a blueish or grayish colour, 
 hard, heavy, compact, with numerous small tubercles on their surface. The Eu- 
 ropean variety is pale white or brownish, smooth, light, easily broken, and much 
 weaker than the Eastern. Galls abound in astringent matter or tannin, and are 
 largely used in dyeing, inkmaking, and in medicine. They are imported in bags 
 weighing 1 cwt., and in chests weighing from 2 to 3 cwt. each. 
 
 GAMBOGE, or CAMBOGE (Fr. Gomme Gutte. Ger. Gummigutt), a gum- 
 resin, the product of a tree in Siam, the name of which is doubtful. It is inodor- 
 ous and nearly insipid to the taste. The best, the pipe-gamboge, is in rolls of 
 a dull orange colour, having a conchoidal fracture, of a deep orange yellow, and 
 a waxy rather than resinous lustre. It also occurs in cakes, fracture uneven, 
 slightly porous, colour less bright, and lustre more resinous. The larger cakes, 
 and such as are dark coloured, should be rejected. Genuine gamboge comes 
 from Siam, and is imported to this country generally by the way of Singapore or 
 China. It is used as a pigment in water-colours, and as an ingredient in some 
 varnishes. It is also a rough and violent cathartic. 
 
 GARBLE, the dross and refuse of spices and drugs. 
 
 GARBLING, picking out the worst of any commodity. 
 
 GARLIC, a perennial plant (Allium sativum), a native of Sicily, and cultivated 
 in this country for its root, which consists of pungent acrimonious bulbs, of a strong 
 and offensive smell. It is employed as a condiment, and is an ingredient in curries : 
 it is also used in medicine. 
 
 GARNET (from Fr. Grenat, of the colour of pomegranate seeds) is a precious 
 stone, of which there are different kinds. The most valuable is the Almandine. 
 precious. garnet, or carbuncle, a beautiful crystallized mineral, of various shades of 
 red, with sometimes a tinge of yellow or blue, or a smoky aspect. It is commonly 
 translucent, often transparent. Principal localities, Ceylon, Pegu, and Greenland. 
 Common garnet differs from the preceding, in being commonly opaque or only 
 translucent ; colour reddish, yellowish, greenish, or blackish brown. It is found 
 iu Scotland, Sweden, and other countries. Pyrope is a deep blood-red variety, in 
 roundish and angular grains, completely transparent ; chief localities, Germany 
 and Ceylon. Others are distinguished by different names ; as, pyreneite, which is 
 a black variety ; grossular, of a bight olive-green colour ; aplome, usually of a deep 
 brown or orange-brown, and opaque ; manganesian garnet, of a deep hyacinth 
 or brownish-red ; melanite, usually quite black and opaque ; colophonite, of a 
 greenish, yellowish -brown, or orange-red colour ; allochroite, of a grayish, dingy 
 yellow, or reddish hue, and opaque ; and topazolite, which is of a topaz-yellow. 
 
 GAS-LIGHT. Gaseous compounds fitted for the purposes of illumination are 
 abundantly produced during the decomposition or destructive distillation of 
 different inflammable substances. These are decomposed in establishments formed 
 for the purpose, and the pure inflammable gases are conducted through pipes to 
 the situations where they are required, and where their consumption may be regu- 
 lated to the greatest nicety according to circumstances. Coal, oil, and resin are the 
 substances which have been employed in this manufacture. 
 
 Coal gas was the kind first used, and it is still that which is chiefly consumed. 
 The person who first applied it to useful purposes was Mr William Murdoch, of 
 Soho, who, in 1792, employed it for the purpose of lighting his house and offices, 
 then at Redruth in Cornwall. Little further appears to have been done for several 
 years towards making the discovery public. Betwixt 1800 and 1805, however, 
 gas-lights were introduced into several private manufactories, and also exhibited 
 in Paris and London. In 1814, they came into common use in London ; in 1818, 
 in Edinburgh ; and they are now generally employed in all the large towns in 
 this country, and in many on the Continent. 
 
 Coal gas is generated from coal subjected to distillation in iron cylinders or 
 retorts at a red heat. It is contaminated at first with tar, ammoniacal and other 
 vapours, from which it is freed in a condensing vessel, and also with more or less 
 sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid gases, from which it is separated by 
 
GAU 335 GAZ 
 
 means of lime, in vessels called pvrifiers. The carburetted hydrogen gas, suffi- 
 ciently pure for use, is then transmitted into gasometers, whence the pipes issue 
 for the supply of houses and other purposes. A quantity of coke is left in the 
 retort, which^ with the tar, ammoniacal liquor, and other refuse matter, is applied 
 to different uses in the arts. 
 
 The purification of coal gas is of great importance, because, if the sulphuretted 
 hydrogen be allowed to remain, it is not only highly noxious during combustion, but 
 in the event of the gas escaping it is no less an evil. It is fetid and unwholesome, 
 and causes the immediate tarnishing of silver and other metals : fortunately its 
 presence is readily detected by a piece of paper moistened with a solution of sugar 
 of lead, and no gas should be burned which blackens it. The specific gravity of 
 purified coal gas varies from '450 to "650. 
 
 The coal best suited for distillation is that which contains most bitumen and 
 least sulphur ; and hence the superior purity of the gas procured from the Scotch 
 cannel or parrot coal, owing to the comparatively small quantity of sulphur 
 which it contains, and the more general use of this light in dwelling-houses in 
 Scotland than in England. A chaldron of coals should yield about 12,000 cubical 
 feet of purified gas, of which each argand burner, equal to six wax candles, may 
 be considered as consuming from four to five cubical feet per hour. 
 
 Oil Gas is procured abundantly by the decomposition of oil trickled into a red- 
 hot retort, half-filled with coke or brick. It contains no sulphuretted hydrogen, 
 requires no purification, and is much richer in carburetted hydrogen than coal gas. 
 Sp. fp. about *900. Mr Brande states that " a gallon of whale oil affords about 
 90 cubical feet of gas, of an average specific gravity of "900, and an argand burner, 
 equal to seven candles, consumes a cubical foot and a half per hour. Less of it 
 i- thus required than of coal gas for any given quantity of light, and the atmosphere 
 of a room is less heated and contaminated by its combustion ; but notwithstanding 
 ivantages, the great expense has led nearly to the entire disuse of this kind 
 
 Restn Gas, equal in quality to that from oil, is procured in abundance by a 
 peculiar treatment of resin, and considerable hopes were some years ago enter- 
 tained that it would come into general use ; but later experiments seem to prove 
 that in this country at least it cannot in point of economy compete with that pro- 
 duced from coal. 
 
 The economy of gas light is variously estimated. According to Mr Brande, a 
 chaldron of coals at 25s. should afford l| chaldron of coke at 13s. . £0 16 3 
 
 24 gallons of tar, ammoniacal liquor, and other products at Id. . 2 
 
 12,0(M)cubicfeet of ga3at 10s. per 1000 C. F. . . . 6 
 
 £6 18 3 
 " The cost of a lamp fed by gas, and giving the light of 7 candles, will be fd. 
 per hour ; of Argand's lamp with spermaceti oil, 3d. ; of mould candles, 3.3d.; and 
 of wax candles, Is. 2d. per hour." Dr Ure, in estimating the comparative economy 
 of different kinds of light, and assuming the illuminating power from wax to be 
 indicated by 100, states that from tallow to be 28'6 ; oil, 14*3; coal gas, 476; thus 
 making the cost of wax about three and a half times that of tallow, and tallow 
 about six times that of coal gas. 
 
 The light from gas, however, besides being procured at a smaller expense, is 
 also more generally convenient than that yielded by other substances in the 
 ordinary mode, as it may be reduced in an instant from the greatest splendour 
 to the faintest degree of illumination by the simple adjustment of the stop-cock. 
 Its uses in buildings of all kinds, whether for industrial or domestic purposes, 
 are universally known and appreciated. Still more conspicuous, perhaps, is its 
 superiority as a street light ; and there can be no doubt that, from its application 
 in this manner, our large towns have derived great additional security against the 
 perpetration 01 crimes. S 
 
 In London there are 18 public gas establishments, and 12 companies, and the 
 capital invested in works and apparatus is estimated at £3,000,000. [Stocks.] 
 
 GAUZE (Fr. Gaze), a very light and transparent silken fabric, supposed to 
 have been first made in Gaza, a city of Palestine, from which it derives its name. 
 British gauze is made chiefly at Paisley ; but it is inferior to that manufactured in 
 France. [Silk Manufacture.] 
 
 GAZETTE, a term applied to newspapers in several parts of the Continent. It 
 is said to be derived from gazetta, the name of a small Venetian coin, the usual 
 price of those first published in Italy. In this country the term is chiefly used in 
 
GEN 336 GER 
 
 reference to the official newspapers. The first English gazette was published at 
 Oxford, whilst the court resided there, on 7th November 1665. On the removal of 
 the royal family to the metropolis, the title was changed to the London Gazette, 
 which is now published on Tuesdays and Fridays. There are also official gazettes 
 issued on these days in Edinburgh and Dublin. 
 
 GENEVA (Du. Genever. Fr. Genievre), a spiritous liquor procured by fer- 
 menting a mixture of malt and rye, and distilling the product with juniper berries, 
 by which a spirit is obtained having a peculiar flavour, derived from a volatile oil 
 contained in the fruit. It is powerfully stimulating ; and the volatile oil of the 
 junipers having a special action on the kidneys, has led to its being used medicinally 
 in dropsy and other diseases. Geneva is principally made in the Netherlands, 
 and chiefly at Schiedam, a town of S. Holland, about six miles from Rotterdam, 
 from whence it is exported in considerable quantities, especially to this country, 
 the East Indies, and the United States. In the United Kingdom, the annual 
 consumption about the beginning of the present century was nearly 700,000 gallons; 
 but under the blighting influence of the heavy duty shortly afterwards imposed by 
 Mr Vansittart, it gradually fell off, and is now only about 18,000 gallons, though a 
 considerable quantity, about 600,000 gallons, is still imported for re-exportation to 
 the colonies, especially the North American and Australian settlements. [Gin. 
 Spirits.] S 
 
 GENOA. [Sardinia.] 
 
 GENTIAN (Ger. Gelber Enzian. Fr. Gentiane Jaune), a perennial plant 
 (Gentiana luted) abundant in the Alps and in the mountain forests of Germany, 
 the roots of which are used as stomachic bitters. They are about an inch thick, 
 externally reddish-brown ; smell weakly aromatic ; taste at first sweetish, then 
 intensely bitter. They also occur of a paler colour ; but care should be taken 
 that they are not intermixed with those of white hellebore. 
 
 GERMAN SILVER, sometimes called white copper, or pakfong, is an alloy 
 composed generally of copper, zinc, and nickel, the proportions varying according 
 to circumstances. When intended as a substitute for silver, they are — copper 50 
 parts, nickel 25, and zinc 25. But the proportions in the genuine German silver, 
 as made from the original ore found in Hildburghausen, are given by Keferstein as 
 follows : — Copper, 40*4 ; nickel, 31'6 ; zinc, 25"4 ; iron, 2'6. 
 
 GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland), an extensive country situate in the centre 
 of Europe, between lat. 45° 5' and 57° 50' N., and long. 6° 20' and 20° 10' E., 
 bounded W. by Holland, Belgium, and France ; S. by Switzerland and Austrian 
 Italy ; E. by Hungary, Galicia, Poland, and Russian Poland ; N. by the Baltic. 
 Area, 244,000 sq. miles. Population in 1838, 41,000,000. It is divided into 38 
 different states, independent as regards their interior administration, but, by the 
 treaty of Vienna (1815), united into one body, called the Germanic Confederation, 
 which, by means of a federative diet, professes to maintain the external and internal 
 security of the country. The ordinary business of the diet is transacted by a perma- 
 nent minor council, composed of 17 votes, of which 1 1 principal states, namely, the 
 Austrian empire, the kingdoms of Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and Wurtem- 
 berg, grand duchies of Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Luxemburg, electorate of 
 Hesse-Cassel, and duchy of Holstein, have each 1, and the other 27 only 6 votes ; 
 but when weighty affairs are under consideration, the diet forms itself into a general 
 assembly, called Plenum, which contains 69 votes, of which Austria and the 5 
 German kingdoms have each 4 votes, and the others are distributed among the 
 remaining states, according to their importance. The members convene at Frank- 
 fort on the Maine, and the presidency is vested in Austria. 
 
 The country, considered in a general point of view, is divided into two great portions by the Su- 
 detic chain of mountains, — the northern and southern. The former is almost entirely level, includ- 
 ing vast tracts of low sandy soil in the N.E., and swamps and marshes in the N.W. ; and the 
 coast is in some places so low as to require dikes to defend it from the sea; in this division, the 
 soil, except in Saxony, is in general poor, but not unsusceptible of improvement. The southern 
 portion is more diversified, presenting great ranges of hills, and in some districts extensive plains ; 
 the land is also superior, and in many places extremely fertile. 
 
 The climate of Germany is less variable than the nature of its mountain system, and the range 
 of latitudes within which it lies, would lead us to imagine ; and its vegetation resembles, in its 
 general character, that of England, or rather the N. of France. The chief products are, corn, 
 maize, buckwheat, garden fruits, pulse, potatoes, hemp, flax, hops, rapeseed, madder, wood, 
 saffron, aniseed, liquorice wood, coriander seeds, mustard. The most common trees are, oaks, 
 beeches, firs, pines, larches, alders, birch. The vine, except in situations peculiarly sheltered, 
 does not grow north of lat. 51° N. The wine country commences about the junction of the Neckar 
 with the Rhine, and stretches southward ; and about thirteen millions of eimers are annually made 
 on the Rhine, Neckar, Maine near Meissen, and Naumberg in Saxony, in Austria and Bohemia. 
 The best are the Rhenish wines, and next to them are those from the banks of the Moselle, and 
 
GER 337 GER 
 
 some of the Austrian provinces. The domestic animals do not differ materially from those of the 
 neighbouring countries. The Merino breed of sheep has been introduced into Saxon v and other 
 states, where it has succeeded so well that, after supplying a great internal demand, immense 
 quantities of wool are now exported to Britain and other places, of a quality so fine that the 
 Spanish wool trade has been nearly extinguished. 
 
 Germany is rich in minerals, particularly the Hartz mountains and Erzgeberge. According to 
 a recent authority (Hawkins' Germany), the principal are, silver, 123,000 marks annually, 
 found chiefly in the Erzgeberge and in the Hartz ; gold, 182 marks ; iron, 3,000,000 cwt. ; copper, 
 39,000 cwt. ; tin, 800U cwt. ; lead, 200,000 cwt. ; quicksilver, 6180 cwt., in Idriaand Zweibrucken ; 
 cinnabar, 8000 cwt. ; cobalt, 16,000 cwt. ; zinc, sulphur, coal, marble, alabaster, gypsum, alum; 
 vitriol, bismuth, antimony, saltpetre, lime, asbestos, slate; rolling, mill, sand, and pumice stones; 
 calcedony, basalt, agate, amethysts, granite, porphyry, precious stones; and great quantities of 
 spring and rock salt— 6,000,000 cwts. are produced by 76 salt-works now in operation. 
 
 The industrious spirit of the Germans has urged them forward, notwithstanding numerous dis- 
 advantages, to considerable progress in manufactures. The principal are those of linen, in Silesia, 
 Bohemia, Westphalia ; of woollen goods, on the Lower Rhine, in Saxony, Silesia, and Branden- 
 burg ; of silk, leather, cotton goods, and lace, in the Erzgeberge ; of tapestry, paper, and glass, 
 in Bohemia and Silesia ; of mirrors, near Nuremberg ; of china, at Berlin, Meissen, and Vienna ; 
 of delft ware, in various places ; of jewellery, at Berlin and Augsburg ; of iron wares, in Westphalia 
 and the Rhenish countries ; of firearms and swordblades, at Spandau, Potsdam, and some other 
 places ; of cannon, at several capitals ; of gunpowder, tobacco, artificial flowers, straw hats, 
 musical and other instruments, beer, brandy, liqueurs, vitriol, and sugar. The Germans are 
 celebrated as sugar refiners. The manufactures of cotton were established during the war, in 
 emulation of those of Britain ; but their inferior machinery, and the scarcity of fuel, enable them 
 to maintain this manufacture and most of the others only under heavy protecting duties. The 
 broad cloth of Saxony, however, and its thread, lace, linen, paper, and porcelain, are of superior 
 quality. 
 
 The mental energy of the Germans has long rendered their book-trade a business of great 
 importance ; and of late years, owing to the continuance of peace and the growing demand in foreign 
 countries for German books, this branch has greatly increased, and is now in some respects un- 
 equalled in the world. Before 1814, the annual amount of works published was about 2000 ; in 
 1816, the number was 3197 ; in 1827 5108; in 1834, 6074. The publications are announced in cata- 
 logues circulated at the fairs held at Leipsic, at Easter and Michaelmas, which are attended by 
 all the German booksellers, and by many from the adjoining countries. The catalogue of the 
 Ea3ter fair of 1837 contained 4353 new books and pamphlets, or new editions. Of these 3924 were 
 issued in Germany (including Switzerland, Hungary, and the part of Prussia not belonging to 
 the Germanic Confederation), and were produced by 561 publishers. The works were contributed 
 by the different states in the following proportions : Austria, 226 ; Prussia, 1151 ; Bavaria, 469; 
 Saxony, 669, including 556 for Leipsic alone ; Wurtemberg, 331 ; Baden, 156 ; Hamburg, 123 ; 
 Hanover, 106; other states, 693. The number of booksellers and publishers is at present estimated 
 at more than 1000 ; and, according to Dr Bo wring, the number of persons engaged in the literary 
 profession in Germany is reported to be about 18,000, independently of 4000 translators from 
 foreign languages. This immense production is attributed to the general diffusion of education ; 
 to the demand for public functionaries and professional persons by the subdivision of the country 
 into many different states ; and, lastly, to the industry of the educated classes being directed 
 into this channel by their want of political liberty. The result, however, is still extraordinary, 
 more especially when it is considered that every work or journal, before it can be printed, must 
 be examined by a public censor, and that no general copyright law exists among them. In some 
 states, literary property is protected ; in Prussia, by a law passed in 1838, it is secured to authors 
 until their death, and to their representatives for 30 years afterwards. In other states, — as for 
 example, in Wurtemberg and in Austria, any work may be pirated which has not been published 
 under the especial protection of the respective governments. Before the publisher could under- 
 take the edition of Goethe's works, which appeared about 12 years ago, he was obliged to solicit 
 protection against piracy from each of the thirty-eight sovereignties ; and it was granted to him in 
 all cases as a privilege ; and this is the only work which has appeared with the " privilege of pro- 
 tection " from the whole German Confederacy. 
 
 The internal commerce of Germany is considerable, and is facilitated by means of its inland 
 communication, in which it is more favoured by nature than any other European country. Of 
 rivers, the Rhine runs upwards of 700 miles, throughout the greater part of which it continues 
 navigable ; the Elbe, also a navigable stream, extends 575 miles ; there are likewise the Oder, 
 Weser, Ems, Maine, and Neckar ; and the mighty Danube, which, though scarcely yet rendered 
 fully available, appears destined to surpass all the others in political importance : the total number 
 of navigable rivers, including tributary streams, are stated by Balbi at sixty. The canals are not 
 numerous ; the principal are the Eider canal ; the Planen canal, between the Elbe and the Havel ; 
 the Finow canal ; the Mullroese canal, between the Spree and the Oder; the Bavarian canal, 
 between the Iser and the Anamer ; the Papenburg canals ; the canal from Vienna to beyond 
 Nieustadt ; and the canal which unites the Steckenitz with the Trave at Lubec Railroads are 
 not neglected in Germany, though their extension depends on the will of the governments, which 
 does not always correspond with the interests of individuals. Many of the great towns are already 
 united by this means ; but the whole of Central Germany, and particularly the wealthy land of 
 Saxony, is still separated from the sea and Belgium by a considerable space between Frankfort 
 and Leipsic. A railroad connecting these cities is however in contemplation, and when finished 
 will complete the junction, by this mode of conveyance, of Berlin, Dresden, and Brussels. From 
 this great commercial road important lines would branch off, connecting Bavaria and the duchies 
 of Coburg and Mdnengen on one side with the North Sea by Casscl and Bremen, and on the 
 other with the Rhine and the Belgian railroads. 
 
 The maritime commerce of Germany is comparatively of limited amount, owing to its small 
 extent of seacoast, which embraces only about 630 British miles, namely, 330 on the Baltic, 140 on 
 the North Sea, and 160 on the Adriatic. Several towns, however, on the shores and the principal 
 rivers, enjoy a very extensive trade. Of these, the chief on the Baltic are Stettin, Stralsund, 
 
 Y 
 
GER 
 
 338 
 
 GER 
 
 Rostock, Wismar, and Lubcc ; on the North Sea, Hamburg, Altona, Bremen, and Embden ; and 
 Trieste on the Adriatic. The principal exports are wool, linen, wine, corn, wood, smoked and 
 salted provisions, thread, iron, steel, Nuremberg wares, quicksilver and cinnabar, glass, mirrors, 
 cattle, fruit, salt, potash, porcelain, and earthenware, wax, leather, lead, woollen and cotton 
 goods, rags, bones, quills, skins, alum, lead, and vitriol. The chief imports are tropical and 
 colonial produce, mostly at Hamburg and Trieste ; British manufactures, principally twist and 
 yarns, with cotton, woollen, and metal goods; wine, tobacco, southern fruits, fancy goods and 
 linseed. The chief port for emigration from Germany is Bremen. 
 
 The manufacturing and commercial prosperity of Germany was formerly much obstructed by 
 the partition of its territory among so many separate communities, which not only gave rise to 
 many factitious interests and conflicting systems of internal regulation, but prevented the ne- 
 cessary unity of effort and combination of resources. Of late years, however, this obstruction 
 has been in a great measure removed by the commercial union or league, first formed in 1831, 
 under the auspices of Prussia, and which has been since gradually joined by most of the other 
 states. The professed object of this combination is to establish an entire freedom of trade among 
 the German states, and to subject foreign trade to such restrictions only as the protection of 
 national manufactures, or financial circumstances, may render necessary. Under the head Prus- 
 sian Commercial Union, a detailed account is given of this celebrated league, and of its influ- 
 ence, viewed in connexion with the present state and prospects of the trade of Germany. Further 
 information will be found in the articles devoted to the principal states, and the free cities or 
 republics, Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort, and Lubec. 
 
 Measures, Weights, and Monies. 
 
 The monies, weights, and measures of the dif- 
 ferent states are described under their respective 
 heads ; but an opportunity will be taken here of 
 explaining soma general usages, particularly 
 those which have arisen out of the German fed- 
 erative system. 
 
 The Measures of capacity and length vary, 
 but the divisions of the latter are generally the 
 same, namely, the ruthe = 2 clafters, 6 ells, 12 
 feet, or 144 inches ; the Rhineland or land-sur- 
 veyor's foot = 12-36* Imp. inches. 
 
 The geographical mile = 8101 Imp. yards, or 
 4-60 Imp. miles ; the long mile = 10,126 Imp. 
 yards ; the short mile = 6859 Imp. yards. 
 
 The Rhineland morgen = 10,185 Imp. square 
 yards, or 4^ Rhineland morgens = 10 Imp. acres 
 nearly. 
 
 The commercial pound contains 2 marks, 16 
 ounces, 32 loths, 128 quentins, 312 pfennings, or 
 1024 hellers ; the apothecaries' pound of 12 
 ounces, 96 drams, 288 scruples, or 5760 grains 
 = 5527 troy grains ; the carat for jewels = 3-171 
 troy grains. 
 
 Gold and silver are weighed by the Cologne 
 mark of 8 ounces, 16 loths, 64 quentins, 256 
 pfennings, 512 hellers, or 4852 eschen = 36i»8 
 troy grains ; the fineness of gold is expressed by 
 dividing the mark fine or other weight into 24 
 carats, each of 12 grains ; the fineness of silver, 
 by dividing the mark fine into 16 loths, each of 
 18 grains ; in both cases the mark fine contain- 
 ing 288 grains. 
 
 Money.— The integer of account (except in 
 the few places where the Lubec currency is used ) , 
 is either the florin (guldcji), or the dollar {(ha- 
 ter), called also the rixdollar, and sometimes the 
 crown. The florin is commonly divided into 60 
 kreusers, each of 12 pfennings, and the dollar 
 current, or of account (a nominal or fictitious 
 money equal 1J florin), into 9(> kreusers. In 
 North Germany, however, the dollar is in gen- 
 eral divided either into 24 good groschen, each 
 of 12 pfennings, or as in Prussia, where the 
 
 Convention Money, introduced in 1763, is va- 
 lued at the rate of 20 florins to the Cologne 
 mark of pure silver, whence it is also termed 20 
 Gulden-fuss (florin-foot). The florin is minted 
 13$ loths, or fths fine, and its full weight is 216J 
 troy grains. Two florins = 1 J rixdollar current 
 = 1 rixdollar specie (or German specie-dollar) 
 =• 48*757d. or 4s. OJd. Hence the florin = 
 2s. OJd nearly, and the rixdollar current (=11 
 florin), 3s. OJd. There are likewise pieces for J, 
 I, and T V, rixdollar current ; also for 20 kreusers 
 (kopstuck or zwanziger), and 10 kreusers. Con- 
 vention money is in general use in Austria and 
 Saxony ; in other states its employment is. con- 
 fined principally to the higher departments of 
 business. 
 
 Reichsgeld, or 24 Gulden-fuss, is estimated at 
 the rate of 24 florins to the Cologne mark of pure 
 silver, whence the florin = 20-315d., or about 
 Is. 8id. ; and the rixdollar current (li florin) = 
 2s. 6|d. These, however, are chiefly nominal 
 valuations of Convention money, at a rate \th 
 higher than in that standard, — the Convention 
 florin being estimated in Reichsgeld at \\ florin, 
 and the other denominations in proportion. 
 Prior to 1838, Reichsgeld was in common use in 
 Rhenish-Germany, but is now mostly super- 
 seded by the new 24J florin rate. 
 
 9 Constitution florins or current rixdollars = 
 10 in Convention money = 12 in Reichsgeld. 
 
 The New Crown Standard, introduced in 
 1838, is valued at the rate of 24J florins to the 
 Cologne mark of pure silver, whence the florin 
 = 1 9 T 9 a d. or about Is. 8d. This florin is a coin 
 which has been adopted as the integer of account 
 by the states of Southern and Western Ger- 
 many, including Baden, Bavaria, Frankfort, 
 Hesse-Darmstadt, Nassau, and Wurtemberg. 
 The other coins of this standard are the half- 
 florin, and the crown (kronenthaler) = 5s. 9jd. 
 There are besides pieces in billon for 1, 3, and 6 
 kreusers. 
 
 The Prussian System is described under the 
 
 dollar of account is a coin, into 30 silver gros- 1 head Prussia. In 1834, the dollar in this system 
 
 chen, each of 12 pfennings. The different stand 
 ards by which these denominations are valued 
 may be described as follows : — 
 
 Leipsic or Constitution Money, introduced in 
 1690, and which formed the general standard of 
 the empire from 1738 to 1763, was estimated at 
 
 was adopted as the integer of account by several 
 states of North Germany, including Hanover, 
 Brunswick, and Hesse-Electoral or Cassel. 
 
 These standards consist wholly of silver, 
 which is the general measure of value. A va- 
 riety of gold coins, however, circulate. The 
 
 the rate of 9 rixdollar specie (or Old Imperial principal are the ducat (minted 67 to the Co 
 dollars), 12 rixdollars current, or 18 florins, to I logne mark 23§ carats fine), worth about 9s. 4d. ; 
 the Cologne mark of fine silver, making the I the gold florin 6s. lid.; the Bavarian carolin 
 value of, each of these monies in sterling 4s. 6id., ! 20s. 4d. ; and the pistoles termed Frederick d'or, 
 3s. 4|d., and 2s. 3d. respectively. The Leipsic i Carl d'or, August d'or, George d'or, Christian 
 rixdollar current is now nearly obsolete, and the i d'or, &c, each worth nearly 16s. 4d. ; these 
 coins ;ire comparatively rare. 'pistoles (minted 35 to the Cologne mark 21} 
 
339 GIB 
 
 Of foreign coins, the mo 
 Dutch gold pieces for 10 and 
 Brabant crown, originally struck by' the em- 
 peror in the Low Countries, equal about 
 
 Of foreign coins, the most common arc th« 
 Dutch gold pieces for 10 and 5 guilders, and 
 
 carats fine), were all reckoned originally at 5 
 Convention rixdollars current, but they now 
 bear an agio corresponding to the increased va- 
 lue of gold in relation to silver. Several of the 
 gold coins have doubles and halves of propor- 1 4s. 6<L 
 tional value. ' 
 
 GHEE, in Oriental commerce, is clarified butter, made generally from the milk 
 of buffaloes, and is an article of great importance in India, Arabia, and other 
 Eastern countries. It will keep fresh for a considerable time, and is commonly 
 conveyed in bottles made of hide, called duppers, which contain from 10 to 40 
 gallons each. 
 
 GIBRALTAR, an important military and commercial station belonging to 
 Great Britain, situated on a mountainous promontory on the S. coast of Spain, at 
 the entrance from the Atlantic into the Mediterranean, near the part where the sea 
 between Europe and Africa is narrowest ; the mole being in lat. 36° 7' N. and 
 long. 5° 21' w. It consists of a town and a strongly fortified rock, having bat- 
 teries mounting upwards of 1000 cannon. Population about 15,000, composed chiefly 
 of British, Spaniards, Italians, and Jews, besides a garrison of nearly 3500 troops. 
 It is ruled by a military governor. 
 
 The promontory of Gibraltar consists of a vast mass of rock, extremely cavernous, and rising 
 from 1200 to 1400 feet above the sea. It is about 3 miles in length from N. to S., varies in width 
 from J mile to f of a mile, and is joined to the Spanish main by a low sandy isthmus about 1$ 
 mile in length. The rock on the N. side, fronting this isthmus, is perpendicular and wholly inac- 
 cessible ; the E. and S. sides are also steep and rugged ; but on the W. side, fronting the bay, 
 where the town is built, the rock declines into the sea. Here, however, the fortifications are such 
 as to seem impregnable. The town, consisting chiefly of one long street, is not neat, and formerly 
 was ill-ventilated and dirty, but of late it has been considerably improved in these respects. Pro- 
 visions are principally derived from Africa, and water is collected in tanks during the rainy season, 
 the nearest spring, which is brackish, being on the neutral ground. The climate is generally 
 healthy, though rather warm, the temperature ranging from about 85° in July to 50° in January. 
 The winds are commonly east or west ; the former prevailing mostly in July, August, and Sep- 
 tember ; the latter in December, January, and May. 
 
 Gibraltar forms a convenient naval station, being situated in a bay 4£ miles broad, and 9 miles 
 long, which is protected from all the more dangerous winds, while the harbour is secured by two 
 long moles. Being also a free port, subject to few or no duties or restrictions, it is a convenient 
 entrepfit for merchandise destined for the neighbouring countries, particularly those of Spain 
 and Africa. During the last war, it became the seat of an immense commerce, and in one year 
 the value of British manufactures exported into it, exclusive of colonial produce, is stated by 
 Mr Martin to have amounted to nearly £3,000,000. But various circumstances have since oc- 
 curred to diminish this trade ; the chief being the opening of other ports in the Mediterranean 
 to a more extended intercourse with Great Britain, the dread of yellow fever, which, in the years 
 1804 and 1828, produced great mortality in the town (but against which greater security now 
 exists owing to the recent opening up of the streets) , and the various edicts of the Spanish govern- 
 ment, which place it almost in a state of commercial non-intercourse with that country, under the 
 plea of preventing smuggling into the provinces adjacent to the fortress. The illicit intercourse 
 with Spain, however, is still, notwithstanding, pretty considerable, and of late years the general 
 trade of the port exhibits symptoms of revival. The declared value of British manufactures and 
 produce sent to Gibraltar was, in 1821, £1,218,183; in 1825, £908,722; in 1830, £292,760; in 
 1835, £602,530; and in 1839, £1,170,702; consisting mainly of cotton manufactures, but com- 
 prehending also linen and woollen goods, apparel, iron, hardware, cutlery, earthenware, and coals. 
 A considerable quantity of foreign and colonial articles, such as spices, tobacco, India cottons 
 and silks, rum and indigo, are likewise carried thither from England. The goods exported to this 
 country from Gibraltar consist of Spanish wine, sheep's wool, and a few other articles, the amount 
 in all being, however, quite trifling. A considerable intercourse is also maintained with the 
 countries adjoining the Mediterranean, as well as the United States and West Indies ; and the 
 total number of vessels which entered the port in 1839 was 3618, burden 282,872 tons; whereof 
 from Great Britain, 52,547 tons ; British colonies, 11,399 tons ; United States, 18,955 tons ; foreign 
 countries, 199,971 tons. 
 
 Mercantile differences are commonly referred to the judge-advocate : from his award an ap- 
 peal may be made to the governor, whose decision is final, unless the sum in dispute exceed £300, 
 when a further appeal may be made to the privy-council. The increase of new residents is dis- 
 countenanced ; but foreigners are allowed percussion to remain during specified periods, on giving 
 security. 
 
 Measures, Weights, Money, Finances, &c 
 
 Measures and Weights.— British measures and I 3 current reals = 5 Spanish reals vellon. 
 weights are employed; also the following Spanish, Formerly the money of account was the cur- 
 namely, the pipe of 117 galls. = 126 English wine | rent dollar of 8 reals, a fictitious money equal 
 galls., or 105 Imp. galls. ; the arroba liquid mea- ! two-thirds of the hard dollar, the reals and 
 sure = 2\ English wine galls., or 277 Imp. galls.; ' quartos of both being the same. The currency 
 the arroba weight = 26 lbs. avoird. ; the quintal is composed of dollars, pesetas, gold doubloons 
 cf 100 lbs. = 101J lbs. avoird. ; 5 fanegas of grain ! of 16 dollars, and of a small quantity of British 
 (strike measure) = 8 Winchester, or 73 Imp. silver and copper coins ; no paper money is in 
 bushels. circulation. 
 
 Money.— The integer of account is the Spanish Bills on London, Marseilles, Paris, and Genoa, 
 hard dollar (or cob) divided into 12 current reals, , are drawn at 90 days' date ; and on Cadiz, Ma- 
 each of 16 quartos, or into 100 cents. laga, Madrid, and Seville, at 8 days' sight. The 
 
GIN 
 
 .340 
 
 GLA 
 
 days of grace are 3, except when the term 
 " fixed " is inserted. The exchange on London 
 (90 days' date) is usually at from 60d. to 51d. 
 per dollar, — the pillar dollar, however, bearing 
 i to 3 per cent, premium. 
 
 Shipping Duties are now levied on all vessels 
 arriving or touching at the port or anchorage in 
 lieu of the former quarantine rates ; namely, for 
 every square-rigged ship having 3 masts, £2, 3s. 
 4d. ; brig, £1, 14s. 8d. ; schooner, sloop, zebeque, 
 galliot, or like rigged fore and aft vessels, £1, 
 Is. 8d. ; small coasting-vessel, 17s. 4d. ; with 
 8s. 8d. in addition when the vessel is liable to 
 
 quarantine. For every day's attendance by a 
 health-guard, when embarked, 4s. 4d. ; for every 
 visit by a health-guard to a vessel in quarantine, 
 2s. 2d. ; for every day's attendance by a health- 
 guard in superintending the discharge of a vessel 
 in quarantine, 8s. 8d. ; for every bill of health, 
 4s. 4d. ; and indorsement thereof, 4s. 4d.* 
 
 Finances.— The annual revenue, £30,000, is 
 about equal to the civil expenditure. In the 
 year 1835-1836, the military charges, defrayed 
 by the home government, amounted to about 
 £140,000. 
 
 The S. part of the promontory, called Europa Point, is distant 11 j miles from Ceuta, 
 on the opposite coast of Africa. Gibraltar is the Calpe of the Greeks, who gave to it and 
 Abyla, on the African coast, the name of "the Pillars of Hercules." It was long in the 
 possession of the Moors, and did not become an appanage of Spain until 1462. It was first for- 
 tified in the modern style by Charles V. In 1704, it was captured by the British, in whose pos- 
 session it has since remained, but not without several attempts to retake it by Spain ; these 
 occurred in 1705, 1727, and 1779. The last was the most memorable, and lasted until 1783. 
 
 GIN, a spiritous liquor made in England, in imitation of Dutch Geneva. 
 [Geneva.] It is generally prepared by adding various flavouring ingredients 
 during the rectification of spirits made from barley or oats. The principal and 
 only acknowledged one is the juniper berry ; but oil of turpentine and other 
 substances are said to be also used. The consumption of gin is chiefly confined to 
 the labouring classes in England, and especially London. In Scotland and Ire- 
 land a preference is given to whisky. [Spirits.] 
 
 GINGER (Fr. Gingembre. Ger. Ingwer. Por. Gengivre. It. Zenzero. Rus. 
 Inbir. Sp. Jenjibre), the root of a plant (Amomum zingiber) cultivated throughout 
 both the East and West Indies and China. It occurs in knotty branched pieces, 
 having a pleasant aromatic odour, and biting taste. There are two varieties, the 
 black and the white. Black ginger consists of the inferior roots, which have been 
 immersed in boiling water previously to being dried, and has thus a horny texture. 
 White ginger consists of the fairest and roundest roots, peeled when fresh, and dried 
 in the sun. It is firm and resinous, more pungent than the black, and generally 
 one-third dearer, The roots which are worm-eaten, light or soft, and very fibrous, 
 are to be rejected. Preserved ginger, as manufactured in Europe, is dark and 
 fibrous ; but when prepared in the East or West Indies or China, from the young 
 roots, it is almost transparent. It is imported in jars, and should be chosen in 
 large pieces of a bright yellow colour. 
 
 GINSENG (Fr. It. Du. & Ger. Ginseng. Sp. Jinseng. Por. Ginsao. Chin. 
 Yansam), the root of a plant (.Panax quinquefoliuni) indigenous to Chinese 
 Tartary, but cultivated in Kentucky in North America, from whence the root 
 is exported to China. It occurs in pieces about three or four inches long, frequently 
 forked, transversely wrinkled, and of a yellowish colour ; it has little or no smell, 
 but a sweetish and slightly bitter -warm taste. 
 
 Ginseng is discarded from the British materia medica, but it is in great repute in China, where, 
 from immemorial ages, it has been extolled as a panacea or universal medicine : whence its present 
 generic name, which signifies a remedy for all things. Pdre Jartroux says that the most celebrated 
 Chinese physicians have written volumes on the Gcn-seng, which they affirm to be able to ward off 
 or to remove fatigue, to invigorate the enfeebled frame, to restore the exhausted animal powers, 
 to make old people young, and, in a word, to render man immortal ; this saving clause being, 
 however, added by the more cautious, " if any thing on earth can do so." Hence the name gen- 
 seng signifies the " wonder of the world," or " the dose for immortality." In 1709, the emperor 
 sent an army of 10,000 Tartars in search of it, on condition that each soldier should give him 
 two catties of the best, and sell the rest for its weight in silver. 
 
 GLASS (Fr. Verre. Ger. Glas), a well-known substance, in a high degree solid, 
 brittle, and transparent, formed by the fusion of siliceous and alkaline matter. 
 Five kinds are usually distinguished in this country : — 1. Bottle-glass, the coarsest 
 and most simple of any ; 2. Broad-glass, a coarse window-glass, but of which there 
 is an improved kind now made, termed British or German sheet ; 3. Crown-glass, 
 or the best window-glass, formed in large circular plates ; 4. Flint-glass, or crystal; 
 5. Plate, or fine mirror -glass. These varieties are produced by differences in the 
 proportion of the constituents, the nature of the alkali, the presence of foreign 
 matters, or tho processes of manufacture. Thus, green bottle-glass is made of im- 
 pure materials, such as sea or river sand, which contains iron, and the most com- 
 
 * In these charges the dollar appears to be estimated at 4s. 4d. sterling, according to Order in 
 Council. 
 
GLA 341 GLA 
 
 mon kind of kelp or pearl-ashes. Window-glass is made of a purer alkali, and 
 sand which is free from iron. Plate-glass is composed of sand and alkali in their 
 purest state ; and in the formation of flint-glass, hesides these pure ingredients, a 
 considerable quantity of litharge, or red lead, is employed. A small quantity of 
 peroxide of manganese is also used, in order to oxidize carbonaceous matters con- 
 tained in the materials of the glass ; and nitre is sometimes added with the same 
 intention. According to Mr Faraday, ordinary flint-glass contains 51*93 per cent, 
 of silica, 33*28 oxide of lead, and 13*77 of potash. The finest sand used in our 
 glass-houses is procured from Lynn in Norfolk, and Alum Bay in the Isle of 
 Wight. 
 
 In this country, the glass manufacture was at an early period of its history made 
 an object of taxation, and in 1694, duties were imposed, which acted so injuriously 
 that in a very few years the whole were repealed. About half a century later 
 (1746), when the manufacture was in a more advanced state, a duty was again 
 imposed, at the rate of one farthing per pound on the materials used for making 
 bottle-glass, and one penny per pound on those used for crown, plate, and flint- 
 glass. These rates were advanced from time to time in common with most other 
 duties, and in 1793, stood as follows : — Bottle-glass, 4s. O^d. per cwt. ; broad-glass, 
 8s. OM. per cwt. ; crown-glass, 16s. l|d. per cwt. ; and for plate and flint glass, 
 21s. 5id. per cwt. Further augmentations were afterwards made ; and in 1813, 
 when the former rates were doubled, they were — for bottle-glass, 8s. 2d. per 
 cwt. ; broad-glass, 24s. 6d. per cwt. ; crown-glass, 73s. 6d. per cwt. ; and for plate 
 and flint-glass, 98s. per cwt. These rates were partially abated or modified in the 
 years 1819, 1825, 1830, and 1835 ; and in 1838, they were fixed (1 & 2 Vict. c. 44) 
 as follow : — Bottle-glass, 7s. per cwt. ; broad-glass, or spread window-glass, 30s. 
 per cwt. ; crown-glass, and German sheet-glass, 73s. 6d. per cwt. ; for material 
 employed in the making of plate-glass, 60s. per cwt. ; and on the fluxed materials 
 or other preparation employed in making flint-glass, 6s. 8d. per cwt. By a later 
 act (2 & 3 \ ict. c. 25) it is explained that no glass is to be deemed broad or spread 
 glass, and so to have the privilege of the low duties, unless it be blown in cones 
 and spread on sand ; and by 3 & 4 Vict. c. 22, the same duties were imposed upon 
 broaa or spread glass that are payable upon German sheet-glass. 
 
 These excessive duties have materially checked the use of glass in this country, 
 and until within the last few years, "the quantity made was less than before 
 the war of 1793, notwithstanding the great increase of population in the interval. 
 The vexatious and complicated regulations necessary for the collection of the 
 duties have also so interfered with the manufacture as to prevent the introduction 
 of many improvements, — especially in the economical processes. Hence, notwith- 
 standing the advantages which Great Britain enjoys as to fuel, which forms a 
 large part of the cost of the manufacture, and although she likewise possesses 
 nearly all the materials of which glass is composed, and can procure the rest as 
 cheaply as any other manufacturing country, yet there is not any other in which 
 glass is made where its price allows our produce to be brought into competition 
 with their own. The quality of British glass, however, is good, and our plate- 
 glass now rivals that of France. Of late years also, a gradual fall of prices has 
 taken place, which may be held as an indication that some economical improve- 
 ments have been introduced, notwithstanding the obstacles presented by the excise 
 laws. 
 
 A separate cause of the disadvantageous contrast which the glass manufacture 
 presents to our other branches of industry, is perhaps to be found in the fact that 
 in order to work profitably under the excise regulations, it is necessary to conduct 
 the processes upon so large a scale as to create a virtual monopoly of the manu- 
 facture in the hands of a few, — a state of things unfavourable to improvement. 
 In the year 1839, the number of glass manufacturers in the United Kingdom was 
 only 148; of whom, 124 were in England, 15 in Scotland, and 9 in Ireland. The prin- 
 cipal English works are situated at Newcastle upon Tyne and Shields, owing to 
 the cheap rate at which fuel can be obtained in those places ; the others are mostly 
 in or near Stourbridge, Liverpool, Bristol, St Helens, Warrington, Birmingham, 
 Leeds, and London. The Scottish are chiefly in the districts of Edinburgh and Glas- 
 gow, and at Alloa. The Irish at Dublin, Cork, Belfast, Waterford, and Newry. 
 
 The statutory regulations of the manufacture are chiefly embodied in the glass 
 consolidation duties act, I & 2 Vict. c. 44, and the 2 & 3 Vict. c. 25, already alluded 
 to. These, especially the first, contain a multitude of minute technical provisions, 
 to which, as the originals will doubtless be in the hands of all persons interested, 
 it is not thought expedient to devote space here. See Supplement, 
 
GLA 
 
 342 
 
 GLA 
 
 The following tables, the first of which is abridged from Mr Porter's " Progress 
 of the Nation," will serve to illustrate the recent history and present condition of 
 the manufacture : — 
 
 Account of the Progress of the Glass Manufacture from 1790 to 1830. 
 
 Manufactured and retained for Home 
 Consumption. 
 
 Common Bottle Cwt. 
 
 Broad Cwt. 
 
 Crown or German sheet Cwt. 
 
 Plate Cwt. 
 
 Flint Cwt. 
 
 Plate, &c. imported { 5?jj 
 
 Net Revenue of Customs' and Excise. 
 
 1790. 
 
 215,034 
 21,302 
 81,285 
 
 ■ 44,527 
 
 1,270 
 11,375 
 
 £160,058 
 
 159,334 
 19,874 
 55,821 
 
 61,748 
 
 2,235 
 1,958 
 
 £188,240 
 
 1810. 
 
 252,872 
 9,176 
 69,252 
 
 68,872 
 
 120 
 
 £318,832 
 
 ,208 
 ,7«2 
 ,253 
 ,822 
 ,437 
 21.12 
 
 165,549 
 
 4,845 
 
 84,178 
 
 13,057 
 
 48,063 
 
 104 
 
 1,436 
 
 £469,609 I £542,595 
 
 Table showing the Quantities of the different Kinds of Glass charged with Excise 
 Duty, the gross Duty levied, the Duty drawn back on Exportation, and the net 
 Revenue in the Year 1839. 
 
 
 Quantities Charged. 
 
 Gross 
 Duty. 
 
 Draw- 
 back. 
 
 Net 
 Revenue. 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Cut. 
 
 366,039 
 8,514 
 
 131,333 
 28,413 
 90,084 
 
 Cwt. 
 107,021 
 
 5,379 
 
 7,467 
 
 Cwfc 
 
 12,106 
 
 V.407 
 
 Cwt. 
 485,166 
 8,514 
 136,712 
 
 28,413 
 104.955 
 
 £ 
 
 169,808 
 12,771 
 
 502,417 
 85,239 
 97,958 
 
 £ 
 81,327 
 
 66,892 
 5,846 
 21,142 
 
 £ 
 88,481 
 12,771 
 435,525 
 79,393 
 76,816 
 
 
 Crown and German sheet 
 
 Plate- 
 
 Flint 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 868,193 175,21)7 
 
 692,986 
 
 The declared value of the exports has been for a late series of years as follows:— 
 
 1830. 1835. 1836. 1837- 1838. 1839. 1840. 
 
 £401,543 £640,410 £553,384 £477,767 £377,283 £371,208 £416,526 
 These exports, consisting principally of bottle-glass, crown and German sheet-glass, 
 chiefly take place to the British colonies and India, which, indeed, take fully two- 
 thirds of the whole ; of the remainder, about £50,000 goes to the United States, 
 £20,000 to Brazil, and the rest in very trifling quantities to various places. 
 
 The glass manufacturers are among the very few who seek for protection against 
 foreign competition, and the import duty on foreign glass ranges generally from 
 about 30 to 40 per cent, above the excise duty ; it is, in fact, prohibitory ; and 
 although the difference of price in this country is from 100 to 200 per cent, higher 
 upon inferior articles, such as bottles and common window glass, than in France 
 and Germany, there is, owing to the bulky and brittle nature of these articles, no 
 contraband trade. A small sum of customs duty appears annually in the public 
 accounts, but this is derived almost wholly from bottles imported full of wine or 
 spirits. 
 
 The common account of the origin of glass is that of Pliny, who relates that some sailors having 
 landed on the shore of Phoenicia, at the mouth of the Belus, and wishing to cook their provisions, 
 placed some pieces of salt (of which their cargo consisted) under their pots to support them, there 
 being no stones in the neighbourhood, when the heat formed the salt and the sand of the shore 
 into a transparent liquid vitrified mass. This production was picked up by a Tyrian merchant, 
 who was led to investigate its origin, and after many attempts succeeded in making glass. The 
 Tyrian glass manufactures are known to be of high antiquity ; and it is not improbable that an 
 accidental vitrification might give rise to the discovery of glass ; but Pliny's story is now accounted 
 to be fabulous, as it has been lately ascertained that the art must have been known to the ancient 
 Egyptians. Of this we have evidence not only from numerous specimens of glass found in the 
 tombs and among the ruins of the temples, but also from the painted representations of the manu- 
 facturing processes preserved in the same places, and which prove that they were not only skilled 
 in the art of fusing the materials, but also in the use of the blow-pipe, — an invention so ingenious 
 as to indicate a high degree of civilisation. From Egypt the art appears to have been diffused 
 among the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans. In Rome, the glass makers, who had a particular 
 street assigned to them, were chiefly employed in the manufacture of bottles and ornamental vases, 
 and proofs of their skill may be seen in the British Museum, though the " metal " is usually thick 
 and coloured. According to some authorities, glass was also employed by the Romans in glazing 
 windows, but the first undoubted testimony of its application in this way is that of Lactantius in 
 the fourth century, who compared a penetrating mind to one looking through a glass window. It 
 
GLA 343 GLO 
 
 seems to have been first used in the glazing of religious edifices,— a purpose for which it was at a 
 very early period imported into Britain. 
 
 In the middle ages, the art appears to have been confined to Italy and Germany. In the 
 thirteenth century, the manufactories of Venice supplied the greatest part of the glass used in 
 Europe. The artists of Bohemia were also held in considerable estimation. In England, glass* 
 making was first practised in the year 1557, when a manufactory was erected at Crutched Friars 
 in London ; and shortly after, another at the Savoy in the Strand. These establishments chiefly 
 confined themselves to common bottle and window glass, all the finer articles being still imported 
 from Venice. In 1673, a manufactory of plate-glass was established at Lambeth by the celebrated 
 Duke of Buckingham, who brought workmen for that purpose from Italy. But this establishment 
 was soon after abandoned ; and it was a century later before the manufacture of mirrors and fine 
 glass was prosecuted on a large scale. The use of glass casements was long confined to the higher 
 ranks, and it was near the end of the seventeenth century before the glazing of windows became 
 general in this country. 
 
 GLAUBER SALT, sulphate of soda. [Soda]. 
 
 GLOVES (Du. Handschoenen. Ft. Gants. Ger. Handschuhe. It. Guanti. 
 Por. Luvas. Rus. Rukawizii. Sp. Guantes), coverings for the hands, made 
 generally of leather, but frequently also of cotton, silk, worsted, and linen. Of 
 the first, the finest are those made from the skin of the kid, which are extensively 
 manufactured in this country, though of a quality inferior to those imported from 
 France. In England, the chief seats of the leather glove manufacture are, Wood- 
 stock (distinguished for those of fine quality), Worcester, Yeovil in Somersetshire, 
 Loudon, Ludlow, and Leominster ; in Scotland, superior gloves are made at 
 Dundee. Cotton gloves are chiefly manufactured at Nottingham and Leicester. 
 [Hosiery.] The principal kinds of gloves are described by Mr Perkins, in his 
 useful " Treatise on Haberdashery and Hosiery," as follows : — 
 
 " Kid is valuable in proportion to its elasticity. When this quality is united with closeness of 
 texture, the gloves called ' town-made' are so superior to most others of our own manufacture, 
 as to rival the French, and disprove the prevailing opinion of the superiority of the latter. Inde- 
 pendent of the quality of the kid, a good glove is distinguished, first, by its being neatly sewed; 
 secondly, by the thumb-seam not extending too far into the palm ; and, lastly, by the colour of 
 the exterior not having soiled the inside. Most of the lower-priced English gloves, offered as 
 ' kid,' are in reality made of lamb-skin. "When what is called a kid glove feels unusually stout, it 
 may be considered "highly probable that it is only lamb-skin in imitation. It must consequently 
 be understood that all good kid, in addition to the qualities already described, must be reasonably 
 thin. Three-fourths of those passing under the title of French gloves are made in this country ; 
 French kid gloves are made in this country of French or Italian skins ; and it is usual to apply to 
 these the name which properly belongs to the former. The best skins are most deci edly the 
 French ; next, the Italian ; and, lastly, those from Ireland. Limerick is a very sleazy and some- 
 what gritty feeling glove of the kid kind, made in Ireland ; very little in demand except in that 
 country. Beaver, though the quality is various, forms the commonest description of leather 
 gloves." The Woodstock is a very superior beaver, to which much attention is paid both to the 
 shape and sewing. Doeskin is a more thick, durable, and soft leather than the Beaver or Wood- 
 stock : in its make it does not excel the latter, though it surpasses the former. Buckskin is the 
 closest grained, and consequently the strongest leather of which gloves are made. Its elasticity, 
 though trifling, is sufficient. It also bears cleaning better than any other kind. It may be had 
 in white, drab, or buff. Sheepskin is generally white, and most usually made by contract for the 
 army. Tan is of three qualities, common, drawn, and York. This is a very serviceable and 
 cheap glove for gardening, riding, or driving. The strongest of each class is sewed peculiarly, and 
 termed pricked seam. The quality of silk gloves is determined by weight and neatness of sewing. 
 They may be had in white, black, French white, and colours. Thread gloves are made of hemp, 
 and are neater in appearance, though much resembling those made of cotton. Neither of them, 
 however, can be recommended, except on the score of economy. Berlin gloves were originally 
 imported from Berlin and some parts of Switzerland, but are now manufactured by ourselves. 
 They are certainly a great improvement on the old cotton gloves." (6th Edition, p. 106.) 
 
 The introduction of foreign gloves into the United Kingdom was prohibited until 
 1825, when it was allowed, on payment of a duty which ranges from 20 to 40 per 
 cent., according to circumstances. The effect of this measure was to create a 
 considerable competition between our manufacturers and those of France, and an 
 improvement both in the quality and economy of the gloves made by the former. 
 As a great increase also occurred at the same time in the importation of foreign 
 goat, kid, and lamb skins, it may be inferred that the impetus produced by the 
 change was likewise productive of a considerable augmentation in the quantity of 
 leather gloves of home manufacture, although more recently this branch of the 
 trade has received a check from the increased use of cotton gloves, especially the 
 Berlin kind. 
 
 The quantity of leather gloves imported in a legal manner, at present averages 
 about 1,200,000 pairs a-year, brought almost wholly from France, and yielding 
 about £23,000 of duty. This, however, is much short of the actual importation, as 
 the existing duties are still so high as to lead to a considerable smuggling trade, 
 which Mr M'Gregor states can be conducted for a charge upon the fine gloves of 
 only nine per cent. " I consider," says that gentleman, " that if the duty were 
 
GLU 344 GOL 
 
 reduced one-half upon its present amount, the actual consumption of gloves would 
 not be much greater than it is at present, but that it would tend nearly altogether 
 to stop smuggling" {Par. Report on Import Duties, p. 12). Again, on being 
 asked hy the committee what advantages the French possessed over the English 
 in producing gloves, he states, " The only advantages the French can have over 
 the English in producing gloves are, first, that they have some method of pre- 
 
 {>aring leather which is considered superior to ours, and the other is the price of 
 abour ; these, with greater skill and thrift, can be the only advantages" {Ibid. 
 p. 13.) [Skins.] s 
 
 Leather gloves must be imported in packages, each of which shall contain 100 dozen pairs of such 
 gloves, and in ships of 70 tons burden or upwards, under penalty of forfeiture. (3 & 4 Wm. IV. 
 c. 52, § 5».) 
 
 Cotton, woollen, and linen gloves are to be admitted to entry at the ad valorem duties charge- 
 able on cotton, woollen, and linen manufactures respectively. (Treas. 0. Dec. 3, 1830.) 
 
 GLUE (Fr. Colle. Ger. Leim), a well-known commodity employed for cementing 
 wood. It is extracted from refuse animal substances, and differs in quality accord- 
 ing to the materials employed ; the best being obtained from the skins of old animals. 
 It generally occurs in square cakes, and when good, is hard and brittle, of a semi- 
 transparent and deep brown colour, and free from clouds and spots. That which 
 is soluble in cold water is weak. The parings of hides, pelts from furriers, the 
 hoofs and ears of horses, oxen, calves, and sheep, are largely imported for its 
 manufacture. 
 
 GOAT, a well-known quadruped {Capra), nearly the size of the sheep, to which 
 it is allied, but stronger, less timid, and more agile ; and having horns, hollow, 
 erect, and scabrous. *" Species of this animal are found in many parts of the world, 
 but that which is domesticated in Europe (G Hircus) is perhaps peculiar to this 
 quarter of the globe. In most parts of the United Kingdom it is kept rather as a 
 pet than for use ; and even in Wales, where it was formerly plentiful, it is now 
 comparatively rare, except in Glamorganshire, where some still exist in a wild 
 state. In the S. of Europe, particularly Spain and Italy, goats are more exten- 
 sively reared, and flocks of them are very common. The animal is not long lived. 
 Its young are brought forth in March or April, and two are commonly produced 
 at a birth. It feeds on the coarsest herbage, delights to frequent rocks and moun- 
 tains, and may be reared profitably in such districts as will not carry sheep. Its 
 flesh is esteemed as food in the countries where it abounds, and the haunches are 
 frequently salted and dried ; the female is in request for her milk ; the horns are 
 useful for knife-handles ; and superior caudles may be made of the suet ; but the 
 part most valued is the skin, particularly that of the kid, which is extensively used 
 in the glove manufacture. In the age of wigs, the hair of the goat was in great 
 request, and even yet the pure white wigs sometimes worn by lawyers and 
 clergymen are made of it, — the long thick hair on the haunches being that generally 
 preferred. 
 
 The Angora Goat, inhabiting the district around Angora and Beibazar, in Asiatic 
 Turkey, is in high estimation for its soft and silky hair. The Cashmere or Thibet 
 Goat, is a small beautiful creature, greatly valued for a delicate wool procured from 
 between its long hairs. [Shawls.] Attempts have been made to acclimatize this 
 animal in Europe ; and some success has attended the introduction into France of a 
 Tartar half-breed which had been found to thrive in a colder climate. More lately 
 (1836), a cross is said to have been obtained, at Frankfort on the Maine, between 
 the Thibet goat and Merino sheep ; but the fruitfulness of the hybrid progeny, and 
 success of the experiment in a commercial point of view, have not yet been ascer- 
 tained. 
 
 GOGUL,a species of bitumen much used in India for painting the bottoms of ships. 
 
 GOLD (Dan. Guld. Du. Goud. Fr. Or. Ger. Gold. It. Oro. Por. Oiro, Ouro. 
 Rus. Soloto. Sp. Oro. Sw. Guld. Arab. Tibr), a beautiful metal, of a deep and 
 peculiar yellow colour. It exceeds all others in ductility and malleability. It may 
 be beaten into leaves 1 -282,000th of an inch in thickness, and a single grain may 
 be drawn out into 500 feet of wire. Sp. gr. 19'3. Fusing point, 2016° Fahr. Gold 
 is not acted upon by any solvent except aqua regia, a mixture of muriatic and nitric 
 acids. It is unchanged by fire with access of air, — the hottest furnace producing 
 no other effect upon it than to keep it in fusion, when it appears of a brilliant 
 greenish colour. It, however, contracts more tnan any other metal in cooling. 
 The uses of gold are numerous. Alloyed with copper or silver it is employed for 
 coin, plate, and a variety of articles of luxury and ornament, for which purposes 
 it is in the highest request, from its great beauty, unchangeableness, and lustre, 
 
GOM 345 GRE 
 
 In the arts it is extensively used for gilding.^ Gold is found in the native state, 
 in combination with silver, and often mixed with metallic sulphurets and 
 arseniuxets. It occurs in greater or less abundance in almost every part of the 
 globe. It is obtained chiefly in the form of a fine sand from the Peruvian, Mexican, 
 and Brazilian rivers, and from some of the African : in Europe, the Danube, the 
 Rhine, the Rhone, and the streams of Hungary and Transylvania, afford small 
 quantities. It also occurs in mineral veins in primitive mountains, but not of the 
 oldest formatiou : it is thus found in Brazil, Peru, Mexico, Hungary, and Transyl- 
 vania. It has been also found in grains and rounded masses in soils, evidently the 
 ruin of rocks, which contained it in its natural situation ; in this state it occurs 
 on the coast of California, in Wicklow in Ireland, and in Cornwall. Of late years 
 considerable quantities have been obtained in the Ural Mountains in Russia, in 
 North and South Carolina, and in the adjoining Atlantic tracts of the United 
 States. [Bullion. Coin. Plate.] S 
 
 GOMCTI. [Ejoo.] 
 
 GOODS, a general name for moveables, but usually restricted to merchandise. 
 
 GOOSE. [Poultry.] 
 
 GOOSEBERRY, the well-known fruit of a bush (Ribes Grossularid) abundant 
 in this country, alike in the garden of the nobleman and of the cottager. The 
 catalogue of the Horticultural Society enumerates "200 kinds, but all prefer the 
 temperate climates, with an inclination rather towards the cold than the warm. 
 Hence the flavour of the Scotch berries is much superior to that of those produced 
 in any part of England. In size and appearance, however, the gooseberries of 
 Lancashire are said to be unequalled by any in the world ; and there, as well as in 
 Cheshire, Staffordshire, and "Warwickshire, striking improvements have been intro- 
 duced into the cultivation of this cheap and agreeable fruit. 
 
 GRACE. [Days of Grace.] 
 
 GRAM, in oriental commerce, a name given to the produce of various legumi- 
 nous plants cultivated in India. 
 
 GRAMME, the unit of the French measures of weight, is equivalent to a cubic 
 centimetre of pure water, or 15 - 434 troy grains. 
 
 GRANILLA, the dust or small fragments of the cochineal insect. 
 
 GRAPES (Fr. Raisins. Ger. Trauben. It. Grappi, Grappoli. Por. Uvas. 
 Sp. Ubas), the fruit of the grape-vine ( Vitis vinifera), a tree with long slender 
 branches, generally found indigenous in countries lying between 26° and 44° 
 N. lat., and between 26° and 75° E. long., but the growth of which in the open air 
 has been extended by cultivation 10° on each side of that range. This fruit is 
 made an object of attention chiefly in the countries of the S. of Europe, although 
 in none have grapes been produced equal to those of Syria, as regards the size of 
 the berries and weight of the branches. Grapes are chiefly used in the manufac- 
 ture of wine, but they are also extensively consumed as food, and in this country 
 are a common article of the dessert. For the latter purpose they are mostly im- 
 ported in a dried state [Raisins] from Spain and Turkey ; while a small kind, much 
 used in puddings [Currants], are brougnt from the Ionian islands and Greece. A 
 considerable quantity of undried grapes are also imported, principally from Por- 
 tugal, in jars. In Great Britain, they are grown for the dessert in hot-houses, 
 except in the counties of the S. of England, where some species thrive in the open 
 air. In former times, indeed, wine was largely made in those districts, from the 
 grape; and in Devonshire there are reported to be still two or three vineyards 
 maintained for that purpose. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. [United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.] 
 
 GREECE, a kingdom in the S. W. extremity of Europe, lying between lat. 36° 
 1(3' and 39° 34' N., and long. 20° 43' and 26° 28' E. It comprises Continental Greece, 
 naturally divided by the Isthmus of Corinth into two portions, Hellas (called also 
 E. and \V. Greece), and the Morea, with the island of Eubcea, the Cyclades, and 
 the N. and W. Sporades. It is surrounded by the Mediterranean, except on the 
 N., where the continental part is bounded by Turkey. Area, 15,000 square miles. 
 Population estimated at 900,000. The whole was divided in 1833 into 10 nomarchies 
 (nomoi), which were subdivided into 54 eparchies, and these again into 468 parishes 
 (demoi). Capital, Athens ; pop. 17,000. Government, a hereditary monarchy, 
 nearly absolute. 
 
 The surface of the kingdom is in general mountainous, and the only extensive level tracts are 
 L-i W. Hellas, and on the northern shores of the Morea ; these, with small plains scattered through 
 E. Greece, are the most productive districts. The climate is for the most part healthy, except in 
 the marshy tracts adjoining the coast and lakes ; and in the plains the medium temperature of 
 the year is about 60° Fahr. About 3-4ths of the surface belong to the state and to the church, 
 
GRE 346 GRE 
 
 and the rest to individuals; but only about l-10th part is cultivated, the country being more 
 pastoral than agricultural. The vegetable products have a great similarity to those of the S. of 
 Italy. Hellas possesses the best corn districts, the richest being perhaps Boeotia, though the 
 wheat of the Morea is that in highest repute ; but the supply being insufficient for the consumption, 
 large quantities are imported. The olive and currant-grape are also cultivated extensively. The 
 mineral products are numerous, but only an insignificant quantity of any of them is obtained at 
 present, except copper and salt, which last is procured in abundance in the lagoons near Mis- 
 solonghi and elsewhere. The manufactures are mostly domestic, and quite inconsiderable. 
 
 Greece is indeed naturally adapted for being a commercial rather than an agricultural or manu- 
 facturing state ; and though none of the rivers are navigable, and there are few roads, these are 
 rendered less necessary than in most other countries, by the numerous bays and inlets on the 
 coast, along which, as well as between the various islands, there is a perpetual intercourse. To 
 this is in a great measure to be attributed the maritime habits of the Greeks, and the extent of 
 their mercantile navy, which, including small craft, amounts to about 4500 vessels, navigated by 
 nearly 16,000 frugal, active, and hardy seamen. This is exclusive of about 5000 men in the service 
 of Turkey and Egypt. Most of the large vessels are engaged in the carrying trade between the 
 ports of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. 
 
 The exports consist of raw silk, currants, wool, oil, copper, wine, wax, mastic, and a variety 
 of other articles ; the imports principally of corn, cotton, silk and woollen manufactures, sugar, 
 and coffee. Nearly the whole foreign trade is centred in the ports of Missolonghi and Galaxidi, 
 on the W. coast of Hellas ; Piraeus (the port of Athens), on the E. coast of Hellas ; Nauplia, Pa- 
 tras, and Corinth, in the Morea ; and Syra, Hydra, and Spezzia, in the respective islands of these 
 names. Of these the chief are the following : — 
 
 Patras, on the N. coast of the Morea, is situated about 6 miles S. W. of the entrance of the 
 Gulf of Lepanto, in lat. 38° 14' N., long. 21° 44' E. ; pop. 8000. It was formerly the emporium of 
 the trade of the Morea, as well as that of W. Greece ; but the town was ruined during the war of 
 the Revolution, and its prosperity has since been only in part restored. Its chief exports are cur- 
 rants, grown in the adjoining plain. About 30,000 tons of shipping enter annually, whereof 6000 
 are British ; the aggregate value of the outward cargoes of the latter is estimated at £'160,000. 
 
 Napoli di Romania lies on a rocky promontory at the N. E. extremity of the Gulf of Nauplia, 
 in lat. 37° 34' N., long. 22° 48' E. ; pop. estimated some years ago at 12,000, but now less. 
 The harbour between the promontory and the N. coast is tolerably large and safe, but too shallow 
 to admit large vessels. The town is defended by a small fortified island at the mouth of the har- 
 bour, and a strong castle. About 6000 tons of shipping enter annually. 
 
 Syra, in lat. 37° 30' N., long. 24° 55' E. is advantageously situated in the island of that name. 
 The town is handsome, and covers a conical hill, at the base of which is an excellent port, with 
 docks, warehouses, and lazarettos. Since the decay of Hydra, Syra may be regarded as the 
 principal emporium of the kingdom. In 1837, the number of vessels cleared was 2(569 ; burden, 
 111,618 tons ; value of cargoes, £332,185: And there entered 1438 vessels ; burden, 103,598 tons ; 
 value of cargoes, £398,057. About one-third of the imports are in British vessels. S 
 
 Measures, Weights, Money, &c. 
 The Measures and Weights decreed for the use 
 of the kingdom are those of the metrical system 
 
 of France, but the following are those chiefly in 
 use: — The oke = 2 lbs. 11 \ oz. avoird. ; the 
 kilo = 22 okes ; and the can'tar or quintal = 44 
 okes, or 119 lbs. avoird. nearly. The strema of 
 land is 40 paces square; and the arpent is H 
 acre nearly. 
 
 Distance is usually computed by the hour, 
 estimated at about 3 miles. Time is reckoned 
 by the old style. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are stated in drachmas of 
 100 centimes. The drachma is a silver coin 
 weighing 69 grains troy, T 9 ths fine, and equal 
 83d. sterling, or nearly ^ths of the French franc ; 
 and 28 drachmas, 15 centimes, =£1. There are 
 also silver pieces of 5, 4, and £ drachmas. The 
 gold pieces are for 40 and 20 drachmas ; the 
 latter weighing 89 grains troy -j%ths fine = 14s. 2id. 
 The copper coins are for 1, 2, 5, and 10 centimes. 
 
 In December 1839, an ordinance was issued for 
 the institution of a National Bank. 
 
 The Finances were hi a miserable condition for 
 some years after the conclusion of the war, and, 
 though now improved, the income is still unequal 
 to the expenditure. In the budget for 1837, the 
 revenue was stated at 12,381,007 drachmas, and 
 
 the expenditure at 16,447,126 drachmas, leaving 
 a deficit of 4,066, 1 19 drachmas. The expenditure 
 includes 2,801,399 drachmas of interest on the 
 home debt. 
 
 The foreign debt consists of three loans con- 
 tracted in this country, namely, 1st, £800,000 
 in 1824, at 59 percent. ; 2d, £2,000,000 in 1825, 
 at 56i per cent. ; and 3d, £2,343,750 in 1833. 
 The whole are in bonds bearing interest at 5 per 
 cent. ; but no dividend has been paid upon the 
 first since July 1826, nor upon the second since 
 July 1827. The third, being guaranteed by 
 Great Britain, France, and Russia, in equal 
 portions, the interest upon it is paid regularly in 
 London, on 1st March and 1st September ; and 
 a certain portion of the bonds (which are in sums 
 for £40 each) are annually redeemed by a sink- 
 ing fund of 1 per cent. 
 
 The Duties on exports average about 3 per cent. 
 ad valorem, but none are exacted on olive oil. 
 
 A Treaty of Commerce between Great Britain 
 and Greece was concluded October 4, 1 837. It 
 provides for equal and reciprocal rights as to 
 shipping and port-duties, and complete tolera- 
 tion and protection to the subjects of the two 
 powers within the dominions of each other re- 
 spectively. (Hertslet's Treaties, vol. v. p. 288.) 
 
 Prior to 1820, Greece formed a portion of the Turkish empire, but in that year a revolutionary 
 struggle commenced, which, after many vicissitudes and atrocities, was brought to a termination 
 by the interference of Great Britain, France, and Russia, and in 1829 its independence was acknow- 
 ledged by the Porte. The government, however, remained disorderly until 1832, when, under 
 the influence of the allied powers, the crown was vested in Otho, a son of the King of Bavaria. 
 
 GREENLAND, an extensive island situated between Iceland and the continent 
 of N. America. It is subject to Denmark. Population vaguely estimated at 
 10,000, all Esquimaux, except about 250 Danish settlers. 
 
 The country is described as " a mass of rocks, intermingled with immense blocks of ice." T';. 
 interior has not been explored by Europeans ; nor is any thing known of the E. coast, except tl. i 
 
GRI 347 GUA 
 
 the shore consists almost wholly of one uninterrupted glacier. The west coast, though high, rug- 
 ged, and barren, is less cold and miserable than the other ; and it is here that the Danes have 
 established a few colonies, chiefly commercial and missionary establishments. The most ancient, 
 called Good Hope, in lat. 6i J 10', possesses an excellent harbour. Uppernavic, in lat. 72 s 48', is the 
 most northerly station. The vegetation is scanty, composed chiefly of mosses and lichens, with a 
 few shrubs bearing edible berries. Rein-deer, hares, foxes, white bears, and dogs, exist on shore ; 
 but it is aquatic animals that constitute the principal source of wealth. The ordinary food of the 
 natives consists of the caplin and the seal ; the skin of the last supplies them also with dress. 
 Whales are likewise common, especially towards the north ; and walruses are met with in Davis* 
 Straits. The Danes export from their different settlements train-oil, fish, whalebone, sealskins, 
 fur, and eider-downs, the trade giving employment to about five or six vessels ; while the seas within 
 Baffin's Bay and Davis' Straits are frequented by vessels from most of the maritime states for the 
 prosecution of the whale-fishery. 
 
 GRINDSTONES, circular stones on which edged instruments are sharpened. 
 They are formed of a species of hard sandstones, known in the N. of England 
 under the name of grindstone-grit. The celebrated " Newcastle grindstones," 
 exported to all parts of the world, are obtained from the quarries of Gateshead 
 Fell, in the county of Durham ; but the stones chiefly used in Sheffield are pro- 
 cured at Wickersley, in Yorkshire. 
 
 GROAT, an English silver coin, equivalent to four pennies, first minted in the 
 reign of Edward I. 
 
 GROSCHE, a small silver coin and money of account in various parts of Ger- 
 many, equivalent to nearly lgd. sterling. 
 
 GROS DE NAPLES, a plain silken fabric made of stouter and harder thrown 
 organzine silk than sarsnet or persian, and woven with more care and labour. 
 
 GROS DES INDES, a silken fabric having a stripe formed transversely to its 
 length. 
 
 GROSS, in numeration, signifies twelve dozen. Gross-weight is the weight of 
 merchandise including the package and dross around it. 
 
 GROUNDAGE, a duty payable in some places by ships coming to anchor. 
 
 GUACHAPELI-WOOD, the name given to a strong species of timber, the 
 product of a tree found in Colombia. It is largely exported from Guayaquil. 
 
 GUAIAC, or GUM GUAIACUM, is a resinous substance obtained in various 
 ways from the guaiacum tree. It occurs in large amorphous hard pieces, with 
 bits of bark sometimes adhering to them. It is of a friable texture, and naturally 
 of a reddish-brown colour, but from the action of the air, the surface is generally 
 of a deep greenish colour ; it has a pungent acrid taste, but little or no smell, unless 
 when heated. Sp. gr. 1"23. Those pieces are to be preferred which have slips of the 
 bark adhering to them, and that easily separate from it by a quick blow. It is an 
 article of the materia medica. 
 
 GUAIACUM, or LIGNUM VIT^E (Fr. Gayac. Ger. Pockhaln. Sp. Guagaco), 
 a tree which grows to a great size in Jamaica, Hayti, and other West India islands. 
 Its timber is resinous, colour greenish-black, taste acrid, and when kindled it gives 
 out a pleasant odour. It is very hard; sp. gr. 1*333, being heavier than water, and 
 indeed the weightiest timber known, and the most difficult to work. It is well 
 adapted for stampers and mallets, for friction-rollers, castors, and turnery-ware ; 
 also for the sheaves or pulleys of blocks, a purpose for which it is much used ; and 
 its application may be seen upon a grand scale in the beautiful block-machinery at 
 Portsmouth. A decoction of the capsules, wood, or bark, is also used in medicine. 
 
 GUANO, a highly concentrated manure, is a dark yellow substance, of a strong 
 ambrosial odour, found in deposits 50 or 60 feet thick, and of considerable ex- 
 tent, upon the coasts of Peru, the islands of Chinche, near Pisco, and other places 
 more to the south. It is said to be an accumulation of the excrements of herons, 
 flamands, and other birds inhabiting these localities. This substance has of late 
 become an object of considerable trade. S 
 
 GUARANTY (or as it is generally but loosely called Guarantee), is an 
 engagement to perform some act, or pay some debt, in case another person prim- 
 arily liable fails to do so. In England, the term is generally used to express the 
 contract of suretyship, whether for the payment of money or the performance of other 
 obligations. In Scotland, a distinction is taken between what is termed a " cau- 
 tionary obligation," and a guaranty or letter of credit, the former being a regular 
 contract indigenous to the Scottish jurisprudence, while the latter was introduced 
 from the English law by the progress of commerce. " It [guaranty] is distinguished 
 from a formal cautionary obligation," says Professor Bell, " chiefly by the looser 
 epistolary form of the writing," and the chief practical distinction seems to be in 
 the privileges accruing to the formalities employed in giving expression to the 
 latter. [Cautionary Obligation.] In England, guaranty is affected by the 4th 
 
GUA 348 CUA 
 
 section of the statute of frauds (29 Chas. II. c. 3), which enacts, " That no action 
 shall be brought .... whereby to charge the defendant upon any special promise to 
 answer for the debt, default, or miscarriage of another person .... unless the agree- 
 ment upon which such action shall be brought, or some memorandum or note 
 thereof, shall be in writing, and signed by the party to be charged therewith, or 
 some other person thereunto by him lawfully authorized." Where a person has used 
 expressions which bind himself in the first instance, and not merely on failure of 
 another, the agreement does not come within the statute, nor does it, where the 
 promise is to pay, not in the event of another failing to do so, but in consideration 
 of the creditor performing some act which may be held a consideration between 
 the creditor and the person who promises; as, abandoning a lien or security. 
 Money paid or lodged in court, in fulfilment of a verbal guaranty, cannot however 
 be recovered. There is no statutory provision resembling the statute of frauds 
 .applicable to Scotland ; but " in Scotland the rule is, that no cautionary obligation 
 'or guarantee can be constituted by parole agreement ; so that an acknowledgment 
 or a reference to oath will not constitute an effectual guarantee. But this is not 
 carried so far as, in England, the words of the statute have compelled the courts 
 to go : If goods be furnished, or money paid, or indulgence given from the imme- 
 diate execution of diligence, on the faith of the engagement, though verbal, and 
 with the knowledge of the person so engaging, the obligation will be effectual by 
 the law of Scotland." {Bell's Com. I. 371.) 
 
 By another doctrine peculiar to the law of England, the use of the term 
 " agreement," in the above-cited section of the statute of frauds, renders it neces- 
 sary that there should be a " consideration" appearing on the face of the writing 
 [Contract]. A consideration to this effect will consist in the creditor doing some 
 act which, but for the guaranty, he would not have done. " It is enough," says 
 Chief Justice Best, " if the person for whom the guarantor becomes security 
 receives a benefit, or the person to whom the guaranty is given suffers inconveni- 
 ence, as an inducement to the surety to become guarantee for the principal debtor " 
 (Morley v. Boothby, 3 Bing. 113). Where the guaranty refers to future transac- 
 tions, a simple reference to them will express a sufficient consideration ; thus, " I 
 guarantee the payment of any goods which A shall deliver to B," is sufficient, 
 because A will have given a consideration before the time when the guaranty is 
 intended to be effectual. But the following, " to the amount of £100, consider 
 me as a security on J G's account," was void, as not expressing any consideration. 
 " But where the agreement is retrospective, and refers to a past consideration, 
 which it, however, states to have been moved by an antecedent request, from the 
 guarantor, there it will be sufficient ; for such a consideration would be sufficient 
 at common law to support a promise, and the statute of frauds has made no 
 alteration whatever with regard to the sufficiency of the consideration, but only 
 requires that it should be in writing." (Smith's Mercantile L. 383, 384.) 
 
 In construing guaranties, the expressions are allowed to bear their full meaning 
 against the surety, but he cannot be held to have bound himself by implication 
 farther than he expresses himself. The terms must be strictly complied with on 
 the part of the person who takes the surety; and so where the guaranty contained 
 a condition that 18 months' credit should be given, the taker, after having granted 
 but 12 months' credit, was not allowed, after the additional 6 months, to come upon 
 the guarantor (Bacon v. Chesney, 1 Starkie, N. P. C. 192). The taker is bound to 
 inform the surety of the nature of the contract, and a fraudulent concealment will 
 vitiate the guaranty— this was held where one guaranteed the payment of £200 value, 
 to be delivered in pig iron, and there was a private agreement that besides the market- 
 price of the iron, 10s. per ton should be paid towards the extinction of an old debt 
 (Pidcock v. Bishop, 3 Barn. $ Cress. 605). Whether a guaranty is general and con- 
 tinuous, and to be held to cover the balance on a series of transactions, or is only ap- 
 plicable to one transaction, is a question which must be determined by the expressions 
 used, and is often one of extreme nicety. On the one side, courts will not allow a 
 dealer to reimburse himself by means of a guaranty evidently intended to apply to 
 only one transaction, for losses on a general balance incurred in dealings originally 
 undertaken at his own risk ; while, on the other hand, they will not protect the person 
 who grants such a general engagement as justifies a trader in continuing to rely on it, 
 from the consequences. " If a party," said Lord Ellenborough, " means to be surety 
 only for a single dealing, he should take care to say so." And he decided that tho 
 introduction of the words " any debts," though the amount was limited, made the 
 guaranty continuous (Merle v. Wells, 1810, 2 Camp. 413). Where a particular 
 transaction is specified, or distinctly connected with the guaranty (as in the case of 
 
GI 349 GUI 
 
 its accompanying an order of goods to the amount guaranteed), the natural inter- 
 pretation will be that the guaranty is not continuous. A guaranty will not have a 
 retrospective effect, unless it be so expressed ; but where one offered to purchase 
 goods, which would not be delivered without a respectable reference, and next day 
 brought a letter stating that if such goods as the purchaser wished to buy were 
 supplied, the defendant would guarantee the payment, not exceeding £50, he was 
 hela responsible for the price of the goods bought but not delivered (Simmons v. 
 Keating, 1819 ; 2 Starkie, 426). 
 
 In Scotland, a species of guaranty may be raised by the conduct of the grantor 
 out of a mere letter of recommendation. A simple recommendation is not Tield to 
 bind the grantor ; but if it contains fraudulent and false information, to which the 
 person to whom it is addressed has given credit, and has thereby been deceived, 
 the writer is responsible as for a guaranty. Thus, where A wrote to B of a man 
 whom he knew to be merely a labourer, saying " he had requested my line to some- 
 budy in the trade in Glasgow : and if you and he can agree as to the price, I have no 
 doubt of your dealing to a considerable extent," he was held responsible (Corbet agt. 
 Gray, 27th February 1794 ; B. C. I. 372). Independently of false information, a 
 recommendation may be interpreted as a guaranty if it refer to any particular 
 transaction, or to the credit of the party. Thus, where a letter introduced an 
 individual " as intending to open for a sale of spirits and ale at the term," and 
 continued, " the lad has always behaved with propriety hitherto, and I doubt not 
 will give satisfaction in any transactions he may have with you," the first part was 
 held as a mere introduction, but the latter as a guaranty (Ranken agt. Murray, loth 
 May 1812 ; F. C). Where the recommendation is given in answer to inquiries by 
 the person who acts on it, the expressions are interpreted more widely, and in 
 favour of the writer. 
 
 A guaranty is discharged by the creditor giving the debtor time, or " extending 
 the period at which, by the contract between them, the principal debtor was ori- 
 ginally liable to pay the creditor, and extending it by a new and valid contract 
 between the creditor and principal debtor, to which the surety does not assent" 
 (Howell v. Jones ; 1 Or. M. § R. 107). This principle will operate where credit is 
 given, beyond what has been usual in the course of dealing between the parties, 
 but not in the case of mere forbearance. Laches or negligence will discharge the 
 guaranty— neglect of notice of dishonour of a bill of exchange, payment of which 
 is guaranteed, may be adduced as an example. When the surety has been brought 
 under liability to pay, he has recourse against the principal. In equity he is 
 entitled to be substituted to the creditor on any security charged with the principal 
 debt. " Nay, it appears, that if the surety be under a disability, which prevents 
 him from obtaining, in his own person, tbp benefit of securities which have been 
 set apart for the creditor, equity will restrain the creditor from proceeding against 
 the surety till he has resorted to those securities ; though such circumstances 
 would furnish no defence at law. And where the principal has assigned his effects 
 to a trustee for his creditors, a creditor who has a guaranty will be forced, even 
 at law, to apply, in discharge thereof, a rateable part of any payment he may re- 
 ceive from the trustee." {Smith's Mercantile L., 389.) 
 
 Each surety, where there are more than one, has a right to reimbursement from 
 his co-sureties. This right is called the right of contribution. It is not affected 
 by the questions, — whether the sureties bound themselves jointly and severally by 
 one instrument, or by several instruments, and whether or not they were aware of 
 each other's engagements. By common law, the contribution is according to num- 
 bers, but equity has regard to the insolvency of any of the sureties. " Thus, if A, 
 B, and C, be co-sureties, A, having paid the debt, would be entitled to recover at 
 law a third only from B, though C may have become insolvent ; whereas, in equity, 
 he will be entitled to one-half. But both in law and equity, if he have been re- 
 imbursed in part, the contribution must be calculated on the residue. And, it is 
 said, that where one surety becomes so at the instance of another, that other can- 
 not call on him for contribution" {Smith's Mercantile £., 390). As to recourse on 
 the principal debtor and co-sureties in Scotland, see Cautionary Obligations. 
 {Fell on Guaranties. Pitman on Principal and Surety. Smith's Mercantile L. 
 ut supra. Morton on Vendors and Purchasers, 377-393. Bell's Com. ut supra.) 
 
 GUATIMALA. [Central America.] S 
 
 GUERNSEY. [Jersey.] 
 
 GUIANA, or GUYANA, the name formerly given to the north-eastern portion 
 of S. America, lying between the rivers Orinoco and Amazon ; but as about five- 
 sixths of this territory have been included within Brazil and Venezuela, the term is 
 
GUI 
 
 350 
 
 GUI 
 
 now generally applied to the remaining part, comprehending the settlements of 
 Great Britain, Holland, and France. 
 
 GUIANA (BRITISH), the most westerly portion of this territory, extends, as 
 claimed by our government, from lat. 0° 40' to 8° 40' N., and from long. 57° to 61° 
 W. ; and includes the former Dutch settlements of Berbice, Demerara, and Esse- 
 quibo. It is bounded N. and N. E. for nearly 350 miles by the Atlantic ; W. Ve- 
 nezuela; S. Brazil; and E. Dutch Guiana, from which it is separated by the river 
 Corentyn. Area about 75,000 square miles ; of which, however, considerable por- 
 tions are claimed by Brazil and Venezuela. Population in 1840 estimated, exclusive 
 of American aborigines, at 98,000 ; the number of whites being about 4000, partly 
 of Dutch descent, and the rest negroes and mixed races. The government is vested 
 in a governor, and a " Court of Policy," consisting, besides that officer and his 
 secretary, of the chief-justice, attorney -general, collector of customs, and five un- 
 official persons selected by the college of electors. All laws are enacted by the 
 governor and this court, except the " Annual Tax Ordinance," the privilege of dis- 
 cussing and voting which is vested in the " Combined Court," a body which 
 includes the governor, Court of Policy, and five financial representatives, elected 
 by the inhabitants. 
 
 The coast district of Guiana consists of an exceedingly rich alluvial flat, composed of strong blue 
 clay, highly impregnated with marine and vegetable matter, the surface of which is on a level with 
 the high water of the ocean ; and when the lands are drained, banked, and cultivated, they conso- 
 lidate, and become fully a foot lower, rendering necessary unremitting attention to the dams and 
 sluices to keep out the sea. This flat extends from about 20 to 50 miles inward, terminating in a 
 range of sand-hills, varying in height from about 50 to 150 feet. Beyond this, little was known of 
 the country until 1835, when it was explored by Mr Schomburgk, and found to consist of a high 
 land which stretches out in undulating plains, rising at some places into eminences. Further S. 
 ranges of hills occur, running N. \V. and S. B., the most elevated about 1100 feet, being in lat 5° 
 N. About 70 miles further S., and parallel to the preceding, are the Picaraima Mountains, 
 which, by means of the Concan chain running S. E., are connected with the Sierra Acaray, a 
 densely wooded range forming the S. boundary of Guiana. These successive chains of hills appear 
 to occupy an inconsiderable width, and the plains between them are of great extent. 
 
 The climate was formerly very destructive of human life, owing to the pestilential vapours arising 
 from the marshes of the coast, but draining and cultivation have so far altered its character, that it 
 is now deemed one of the healthiest in the W. Indies. The temperature is remarkably uniform ; the 
 average heat at Georgetown being, in the shade in summer, 86° Fahr., while in winter it falls only 
 to 82° or 83°. There are usually two wet seasons, a short one in January and February, and a 
 long one commencing with June ; but these, under the influence of cultivation, have been greatly 
 altered both as to intensity and duration. The trade winds blow steadily E. and N. E. for about 
 nine months, changing to S. E. and S. in July, August, and September, the unhealthy season. 
 
 The vigour and luxuriance of vegetation in Guiana are equalled by few countries in the world. 
 The number of indigenous plants is remarkable ; and nearly one-half of the surface is covered by 
 large forest trees, many of which furnish excellent timber; others are used for furniture, or afford 
 dye-wood ; and not a few are valued for their fruits, chiefly the banana, pine-apple, and cacao- 
 nut. As yet only a few places on the coast, and on the banks of the rivers Essequibo, Demerara, 
 Berbice, and Corentyn, have been cultivated.* The plantations are commonly ranged in allot- 
 ments, varying from about 500 to 1000 acres each. The dwelling-houses, elevated on piles of 
 timber, as a security against inundation, are generally close to the water-side, with a wharf oppo- 
 site for the convenience of shipping produce. The value of the public and private property of the 
 colony, moveable and immovable, is stated bv Mr Martin at £24,020,000, and of the property 
 annually created, at £3,789,160. In the year 1836, when the colony appears to have attained its 
 acme of prosperity, the quantities of the staple articles produced were, sugar, 107,806,249 lbs.; 
 rum, 2,980,296 gallons ; molasses, 4,035,569 gallons ; coffee, 5,875,732 lbs. ; and cotton, 656,902 lbs. 
 
 Of late years a considerable decrease has taken place in the produce of these staples, more espe- 
 cially sugar. This is attributed to various circumstances, but mainly to the aversion to work 
 shown by the emancipated negroes, the number of whom, including children, amounted to 82,824. 
 This cause, as is well known, has influenced the productive power of several of the West India 
 islands ; but in Guiana it has been felt with particular severity, owing to the great extent and fer- 
 tility of the unappropriated lands, from which the blacks can with little labour supply all their 
 wants. At present many of the plantations are lying waste ; and Mr Schomburgk lately reported 
 that of 80 estates on the Corentyn, 58 were abandoned. Various attempts have been made to 
 promote emigration into the colony ; and in 1839, about 400 Hill Coolies were brought from India, 
 who proved to be good labourers ; but there having been reason to believe that this was in fact a 
 revival of the slave-trade, the practice was stopped. More recently, measures have been adopted 
 for the encouragement of voluntary emigration from the coast of Africa and other places ; and the 
 resolute energy displayed by the colonists under all their difficulties, afford just grounds for 
 believing that their prosperity will be again restored. 
 
 The exports are almost wholly to the United Kingdom ; and the following is an account of their 
 amount for the last five years shown in our public accounts : — 
 
 Sugar ctot. 
 
 Rum galls. 
 
 Molasses cwt. 
 
 Coffee lbs. 
 
 Cotton lbs. 
 
 Arrow-root lbs. 
 
 1835. 
 
 886,861 
 1,990,656 
 
 227,007 
 
 3,166,091 
 
 1,140,361 
 
 9,973 
 
 1,077,848 
 2,004,588 
 264,206 
 3,467,442 
 1,080,697 
 10,009 
 
 1837- 
 
 943,388 
 1,482,129 
 
 299,824 
 5,118,642 
 
 993,388 
 6,107 
 
 835,300 
 1,508,946 
 
 253,477 
 3,799,298 
 
 663,639 
 6,723 
 
 1839. 
 
 566,852 
 1,442,550 
 
 117,238 
 1,673,232 
 
 551,325 
 2,220 
 
GUI 351 GUI 
 
 The other exports are mostly to our colonies in North America and West Indies; those to 
 foreign countries are trifling. The value of the exports in 1836 was estimated at £2,135,379 ; but 
 in 1839 the value hardlv exceeded £1,000,000. The imports consist of cod-fish, wood, and lumber, 
 wheat and rice, from N. America ; wine ; and British produce and manufactures, including ap- 
 parel and slops, cotton, linen, woollen, and leather goods, hats, glass, and earthenware, iron, and 
 a varietv of other articles ; the value of the whole imported into Demerara in 1836 amounting to 
 £770,839, and into Berbice, £140,738 ; total, £911,577- 
 
 The shipping entered inwards in 1836 consisted of 716 vessels, burden 111,425 tons; of which 
 from Great Britain, 66,914 tons; British colonies, 34,526 tons; United States, 7oOO tons; fo- 
 reign, 2985 tons. 
 
 The ports of the colonv deserving of notice are only two, Georgetown and New Amsterdam. 
 
 Georgetown, formerly called Stabroek, the capital and seat of government, is situated on the E. 
 bank of the Demerara, a short distance from its mouth, in lat. 6° 49' N., and long. 58° 12 7 W. ; pop. 
 20,000. The houses, made of wood, are generally two stories high, with porticos and balconies, 
 shaded by a projecting roof. The streets are wide and traversed by canals. Shops and stores are 
 numerous, and Huropean goods plentiful ; the markets also are good. There are likewise many com- 
 modious warehouses and wharfs ; but the latter can be safely approached only by small craft, 
 on account of the declivity of the bank, and the ebbing of the tide, the rise of which on the 
 coast is from 16 to 24 feet. Vessels not drawing more than 14 feet, load and discharge their car- 
 goes in the middle of the stream ; but those of greater draught cannot enter the river, owing to a 
 bar at its mouth, and must therefore complete their loading outside. Within a mile of the town, 
 near the mouth of the Demerara, is a small mud-fort, called Fort William Frederick. The town 
 being the depot of the produce of the countries adjacent to the Essequibo and Demerara, its 
 commerce is considerable. 
 
 New Amsterdam lies in lat. 6° 15' N., and long. 57° 21' W. at the confluence of the river Canjee 
 with the Berbice, near the entrance of the latter into the sea, and about 57 miles E. of the Demerara ; 
 pop. 3000. The coast here is encumbered with shallows, and the harbour, though good, is difficult of 
 access. From this town is exported the produce of the plantations on the rivers Berbice and Cor- 
 entvn. Vessels drawing 14 feet mav, it is said, sail 200 miles up the Berbice, while the Canjee is 
 navigable 50 miles for schooners, the entrance of the former is protected by three batteries. 
 Measures, Weights, Money, Finances, &c. 
 
 The Measures and Weights are chiefly British. 
 The Dutch ell of 26 inches = 27 Imp. inches ; 
 and 110 lbs. Dutch = 100 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 Monet/.— The monetary unit is now the dollar, 
 divided into 100 cents, and represented by Mex- 
 ican dollars and others of the standard weight. 
 The currency is composed of bank notes, dollars, 
 and British coins, principally silver. Gold doub- 
 loons are somedmes met with, especially when 
 the exchange is low, when they are sent from 
 Barbadoes and other W. I. islands to purchase 
 bills on England. 
 
 Prior to 1840, the integer of account was the 
 florin or guilder, of 20 stivers, each of 16 pen- 
 nings ; which, at the usual exchange of 14 flo- 
 rins per £1, was worth about Is. 5d. A govern- 
 ment paper money, formerly issued, was lately 
 called in, and exchanged for dollars. 
 
 The British Guiana Bank, incorporated in 
 1836, and the Colonial Bank, have establish- 
 ments in Georgetown and New Amsterdam ; and 
 issue notes for &5, §10, and $20 each, payable 
 in silver. 
 
 Finances. — In 1836, the revenue of Demerara 
 and Essequibo was £87.885, and of Berbice, 
 £18,196; total, £106,081 : the expenditure of 
 the two former, £97,371 ; of the latter, £16,575 ; 
 total, £1 13,946. The expense incurred by Great 
 Britain for military protection in the same year 
 was £45,421. 
 
 Duties. — The export rates and duties on pro- 
 duce are trifling. The general colonial duty on 
 imports is 2 per cent, ad valorem. The crown 
 duties, levied only on foreign goods, are de- 
 scribed under the head Colonies. S 
 
 Guiana is by some said to have been discovered by Columbus in 1498 ; according to others, that 
 honour is dueto Vaseo Nunez in 1504. In 1590, the Dutch settled on the Demerara ; and in 1634, 
 the English formed settlements in Surinam and the neighbourhood, which, however, were given 
 up to the Dutch in 1667. In 1796, the settlements of Demerara and Essequibo were surrendered 
 by Holland to Great Britain ; in 1802, they were restored ; but in 1803 were retaken, and have ever 
 since been retained. Surinam, which had likewise been captured by the British, was given up in 
 1814. Previous to 1831, our possessions were divided into three colonies, Essequibo, Demerara, 
 and Berbice ; but in that year they were united under one government called British Guiana. 
 In 1838, the slaves were emancipated. 
 
 GUIANA (DUTCH), or SURINAM, a colony partly the property of the city 
 of Amsterdam, extends along the coast about 200 miles, from the Corentyn river 
 to the Marony ; and between them to their sources, supposed to be in the Sierra 
 Acaray. Area about 30,000 sq. miles. Population, exclusive of Indians and 
 Maroons, 60,000 ; comprising between 6000 and 7000 whites, partly Jews and French, 
 and upwards of 50,000 negroes. The seat of the governor is at the fortress of Ze- 
 landia, near Paramaribo ; he is assisted in his administration by a high council. 
 
 The physical character of the coast is similar to that of British Guiana ; but the interior, in 
 which there is a kind of political society formed of maroons or runaway negroes, has not been 
 surveyed. The settlements and plantations are chiefly along the coast, and on the banks of the 
 rivers Surinam and Sarameca. The chief products are sugar, 25,000,000 lbs., and coffee, the 
 annual export of which is estimated at 4,000,000 lbs. ; the others are cocoa, cotton, rice, cassava, 
 yams, timber, gums, and drugs. The chief intercourse is with Holland; provisions are obtained 
 from the United States, in exchange for rum and syrup ; and a smuggling trade is carried on with 
 Venezuela. 
 
 Paramaribo, the capital, chief port, and commercial emporium of the colony, is situated on the 
 W. bank of the Surinam, 18 miles from its mouth, in lat. 5° 40* N., long. 55° 25' W. It is built in 
 the Dutch style, with wooden houses, and wide straight streets planted with orange trees; pop. 
 20,000. It maintains an active intercourse with Holland. 
 
GUI 352 GUM 
 
 Measures and Weights, those of Holland, but chiefly according to the old system. 
 Money.— Accounts are stated in florins or guilders of 100 cents, Netherlands currency* 
 
 GUIANA (FRENCH), or CAYENNE, extends about 200 miles along the 
 coast, from the river Marony, which separates it from Dutch Guiana, to the Oya- 
 pock, forming its boundary with Brazil. Its interior limits are unknown; but 
 its area is computed at 20,000 sq. miles. Population in 1837, 22,000, including 
 16,600 slaves. The administration is vested in a governor, assisted by a privy-council 
 of seven official functionaries, and a colonial council of 16 representatives. 
 
 The country was first settled by the French in 1604, and, with the exception of a few interrup- 
 tions during war, it has ever since been possessed by them. The settlements are neither so large 
 nor so numerous as in British or Dutch Guiana ; the plantations are chiefly on the island Cayenne, 
 and there are a few on the adjoining coast and the banks of the Organabo : the remainder of the 
 country is still possessed by the Indians. Besides the staples noticed under the preceding heads, 
 the French have transplanted the pepper-vine, clove, and nutmeg trees, from the Indian Archi- 
 pelago, and the first two, especially the clove, are said to thrive well. In 1836, the exports were 
 as follow :— sugar, 4,960,924 lbs. ; molasses, 1,036,283 lbs. ; rum, 12,765 gallons : cocoa, 74,964 
 lbs. ; coffee, 41,892 lbs. ; cloves, 183,000 lbs. ; pepper, 63,941 lbs. ; cotton, 566,654 lbs. ; arnatto, 
 639,408 lbs. ; besides wood for cabinet-making, vanilla, indigo, and tobacco, and a variety of 
 other articles ; the total value being £125,000, nearly the whole of which is shipped for France 
 or her colonies. The imports were about the same value, only one-sixth being from foreign coun- 
 tries. From 60 to 70 vessels enter annually. 
 
 Cayenne, the chief town and port, lies on the N. side of the island of that name, at the mouth 
 of the river Ozapoh, in lat. 4° 57' N., long. 52° 20' W. ; pop. 5000. The harbour is shallow, but 
 vessels can ride in security in the roadstead. 
 
 Measures, Weights, and Money, same as France. 
 
 GUILD, a name given anciently to those commercial associations, or frater- 
 nities of particular trades, which were common in many of the towns. In their 
 greatest prosperity, these companies, more especially in the metropolis, became 
 important bodies, in which nearly the whole community was enrolled ; each 
 had its distinct common- hall and property, and made by-laws for the regulation of 
 its members. 
 
 GUILDER. [Florin.] 
 
 GUINEA, the principal gold coin of the United Kingdom until the introduction 
 of the sovereign. It was so called from having been first coined out of gold 
 brought from the Guinea coast by the Royal African Company ; these are gen- 
 erally distinguished by an elephant under the head, or a castle. [Coin.] 
 
 GUINEA COAST. [Nigritia.] 
 1 GUM. Under this term are included several modifications of a distinct proxi- 
 mate principle of vegetables. To some of these the term mucilage is occasionally 
 applied ; and all the varieties may be referred to one or other of these species,— 
 gum-arabic furnishing a characteristic specimen of gum, and tragacanth or gum- 
 dragon of mucilage. Gum exudes in a liquid state from certain species of trees, 
 and becomes hard by exposure to the air. It is insoluble in alcohol, but extremely 
 soluble in water, being exactly opposed in this respect to the resins. On the appli- 
 cation of heat it swells and softens; it is infusible. Gum, from its adhesive quality, 
 is extensively used in the arts. In calico-printing it is largely employed to give a 
 proper consistency to the cloth, previously to the application of the mordants. The 
 gums which usually occur in commerce are, Gum-arabic, Gum- Senegal, and 
 Tragacanth or Gum-dragon. 
 
 The term gum has likewise, of late years, been applied to several artificial pro- 
 ducts. The chief of these, British gum, a substance obtained by roasting starch, 
 is often used as a substitute for gum-arabic in calico-printing, and for stiffening 
 different goods. Other kinds have been extracted from the seed of the carob tree, 
 commonly called St John's bread; and from several species of lichens indigenous 
 to this country. 
 
 Gum-Resin. The resins, as they exude from trees, are often mixed with gum, 
 when they form gum-resins. These substances are in their properties intermediate 
 to resins and gum, and are not therefore to be considered distinct vegetable prin- 
 ciples. They are not entirely soluble in water or in alcohol, but proof spirit dis- 
 solves the greater part of them. They also readily dissolve in alkaline solutions 
 when assisted by heat ; and the acids act upon them nearly as upon the resins. 
 To this class belong ammoniacum, gamboge, assafcetida, olibanum, aloes, myrrh, 
 opium, and others. 
 
 GUM-ARABIC (Fr. Gomme Arabique. Ger. Arabische gummi. It. Gomma 
 Arabica. Arab. Samagh Arebee,) is obtained from the Egyptian acacia (Acacia 
 nilotica or vera,) a tree indigenous to Arabia, but found abundantly in Africa. It 
 consists of rounded pieces or tears of various sizes. When pure it is brittle, trans- 
 parent, colourless, tasteless, and inodorous ; but it usually occurs of a pale yellow- 
 
GUM 353 GUN 
 
 ish or brownish colour. Sp. gr. about 1*4. The pieces which are most transparent, 
 and have least colour, are sometimes selected from the gum-arabic in sorts, and 
 sold for about double the price, under the name of picked gum. Gum-arabic dis- 
 solved in water yields a viscid mucilaginous solution which is much employed in 
 the arts. " This solution is sometimes used as a glaze or varnish, and to give a 
 gloss and stiffness to ribands, calico, &c. When substances in a state of minute 
 mechanical division are suspended in it, it prevents their subsidence ; hence, its 
 employment as an ingredient of writing ink, and of some paints" (Brande's Che- 
 mistry). It is also used in medicine. 
 
 Gum-arabic is imported direct from Barbary, the Levant, and the East In- 
 die?, and at second hand from other places. The best is called Turkey gum- 
 arabic ; the worst is the East Indian, which is, indeed, a spurious substauce, 
 the greater part of it being obtained from the Feronia Elephantum, and found 
 generally in stalactical fragments. About 25,000 cwts. are annually imported, 
 two-thirds of which are entered for home consumption. 
 
 GUM-SENEGAL, procured from a species of Acacia, is similar to gum-arabic, 
 but in longer and darker-coloured pieces, and of inferior quality. It is used for all 
 purposes to which gum-arabic is employed, more particularly calico printing and 
 dyeing. It is brought from Senegal and Barbary ; and between 30,000 and 40,000 
 cwts. are annually imported ; the quantity entered for home consumption being 
 about 25,000 cwts. 
 
 < i IX. The principal seat of the manufacture of small arms in this country is 
 Birmingham, where it was introduced so early as the reign of William III. ; and 
 since that period it has beeu gradually but greatly increasing. During last war, the 
 public contract for muskets alone extended upon an average to 360,000 a-year ; and 
 in the fifteen years prior to 1828, the number supplied to government and to private 
 traders averaged annually 200,000. In the year 1813, a proof-house was established 
 by act of parliament (53 Geo. III. c. 115), under the conduct of a master, wardens, 
 and trustees, where the fabric of all gun and pistol barrels is tested by a heavy 
 charge ; all those which sustain the explosion receive a stamp, to counterfeit which 
 is felony ; while severe fines are imposed on those who sell such barrels without 
 the stamp. 
 
 Great guns, or cannons, and mortars, are chiefly cast in the public founderies at 
 Woolwich, under the superintendence of the Board of Ordnance ; but they are also 
 made on a large scale at the Carron Works in the county of Stirling. Indeed the 
 peculiar variety called a carronade derived its name from having been originally 
 manufactured there. 
 
 Firearms form an important item in our list of exports. Our principal rival in 
 this branch of trade is Belgium, from whence they are sent in considerable quan- 
 tities to America, Egypt, Turkey, Germany, Italy, and Spain. They are chiefly 
 produced at Liege, where about 260,000 muskets and 90,000 pistols are made annually, 
 mostly of inferior quality. A vast number of this description are sent to Brazil for 
 re-exportation to the coast of Africa in exchange for negroes. [Gunpowder.] 
 
 GUNNY, a strong coarse fabric extensively manufactured in Bengal, chiefly 
 from the fibres of the plant called paat, or bhangee (Corchorus olitorius). It is used 
 in making bags or sacks for sugar and other similar commodities ; and the bags 
 themselves form a considerable article of export from Calcutta. S 
 
 GUNPOWDER (Du.Buskruid. Yv.Poudre. Ger.Pulver. It. Polvere. Por. 
 Polvora. Rus. Poroch. Sp. Polvora), a composition formed of nitre, sulphur, and 
 charcoal, finely powdered, and very accurately blended. The usual proportions 
 per cent, in this country are as follow : — 
 
 Common Government Shooting Shooting Miners' 
 
 Powder. Powder. Powder. Powder. Powder. 
 
 Nitre 75 75 78 76 65 
 
 Charcoal 12J 15 12 15 15 
 
 Sulphur 12J 10 10 9 20 
 
 The proportions of commercial powder, however, vary indefinitely, according to 
 the views of the manufacturer respecting markets and prices. The nitre being the 
 only expensive ingredient, the proportion of this is diminished, and those of the 
 other two increased, where cheapness is the leading object. The worst is that 
 made for the Guinea trade ; that usually exported to Canada and Turkey is also 
 of inferior quality. 
 
 In the manufacture of powder minute attention is paid to the purity of the ingre- 
 dients : they are mixed together with great caution, and pounded with wooden 
 
 z 
 
GUZ 354 HAD 
 
 pestles in water, and formed into a kind of paste. The mixture is granulated or 
 corned by being passed through sieves. After this it is glazed in revolving barrels, 
 and then carefully dried. The more minutely the materials are ground, and the 
 more intimately they are mixed, the greater is the explosive power. The strength 
 also depends in a great measure on the drying. When well prepared, the powder, 
 on being exploded on a piece of paper, should leave no residuum : if any particles 
 remain, it shows either that the ingredients have not been pure, or not in proper 
 proportion. The quality, however, is best tested by the eprouvette. Gunpowder, 
 if much exposed, absorbs moisture, and it should therefore be kept as much as 
 
 f>ossible excluded from the air. It is usually packed in barrels, each weighing 100 
 bs., half barrels of 50 lbs., or quarter barrels of 25 lbs. 
 
 The various uses of gunpowder are too well known to require description. The 
 quantity consumed in this country is immense ; besides which 4,000,000 lbs. are 
 estimated to be exported every year, the greater part of which is sent to the W. 
 coast of Africa. In the public accounts, its exportation is included under the head 
 " arms and ammunition," the annual declared value of the whole being about 
 £400,000, mostly sent to Africa, India, Mexico, Turkey, United States, Aus- 
 tralia, and Brazil ; considerable quantities, however, are likewise taken by 
 British America and West Indies, Spain, and Holland. 
 
 The manufacture and sale of gunpowder are regulated by different statutes, particularly the 12th 
 Geo. III. c 61, and 54 Geo. III. c. 159. 
 
 No dealer shall keep at one time more than 200 lbs., or if not a dealer, more than 50 lbs. within 
 London or Westminster, or three miles of these cities ; or within any other town, or within one mile 
 thereof ; or within two miles of any of the king's palaces or magazines ; or within half-a-mile of 
 any parish church ; or in any other part of Great Britain except in the usual mills and magazines, 
 on pain of forfeiture, and 2s. per- lb. But for the use of any mine or colliery 300 lbs. may be kept, 
 if within 200 yards thereof, and not within any of the above-mentioned limits. 
 
 Justices are to license the erection of mills and magazines for keeping unlimited quantities, 
 except within the above limits. 
 
 No more than 25 barrels of gunpowder to be carried at one time by land, nor more than 200 
 barrels by water (except for exportation or coastwise), and the barrels shall be closely joined with- 
 out iron ; and each shall not contain more than 100 lbs. 
 
 No master of any vessel, outward bound from London, shall receive on board, except for the 
 king's service, more than 25 lbs. before her arrival at Blackwall ; and the master of every vessel 
 coining into the Thames shall put on shore, in proper places, all the gunpowder on board exceeding 
 25 lbs., either before the arrival of such vessel at Blackwall, or after, within 24 hours, if the weather 
 permit, on pain of forfeiture, and 2s. per lb. The Trinity House empowered to appoint searchers. 
 
 Gunpowder may not be imported into the United Kingdom without license, such license to be 
 granted for the furnishing of her Majestv's stores only, on pain of forfeiture. Gunpowder may not 
 be warehoused. (3 & 4 Win. IV. c. 52, §§ 58, 59.) 
 
 The early history of gunpowder is involved in obscurity. It is said to have been used from 
 a very remote period in China and India ; but it was unknown in Europe before the latter part 
 of the 13th century. Early in the next century it was applied to the purposes of artillery. Bar- 
 bour narrates that " crakys of war" were used by Edward III. in his first campaign against 
 the Scots, a. d. 1327 ; and it is known that cannons were used by that monarch at the battle of 
 Cressy, as well as at the siege of Calais in 1346 ; but the ancient war-engines continued to be par- 
 tially employed in sieges for nearly two centuries afterwards. The use of muskets and other small 
 aims was subsequent to that of cannons ; and down to the end of the reign of Henry VIII., the 
 bow continued to be the principal weapon of the English army. During the reign of Elizabeth, 
 however, an entire change took place, and the use of firearms became general. 
 
 GUZ, an oriental measure of length, varying in different places from about 2 to 
 3 feet. 
 
 GYPSUM, a native sulphate of lime, different species of which are found in this 
 and many other countries. The crystals are softish, commonly transparent, and of 
 various colours. A beautiful fibrous variety called satin gypsum is found in Derby- 
 shire, applicable to ornamental purposes, such as beads and brooches. Vulpinite, 
 or Marbre di Bergamo, is a beautiful variety employed in statuary. A pure white 
 species is known under the name of Alabaster. A common kind of it is converted 
 into Paris plaster or stucco ; and in some places where it is abundant it is em- 
 ployed as mortar, and as a top-dressing for grass lands. 
 
 H. 
 
 HADDOCK, a fish of the cod family (Morrhua mglefinus, Cuv.), common 
 throughout the British seas, especially on the E. coast betwixt Yarmouth and the 
 Tyne ; ordinary weight 2 to 4 lbs. Haddocks swim in immense shoals. They 
 spawn in February and March, and are in the best condition for the table in 
 October, November, and December. Those cured at the village of Finnan, near 
 Aberdeen, are held in high estimation. 
 
IIAI 3:5 HAM 
 
 HAIR (Fr. Cheveu, Crin. Ger. Hoar.) Human hair forms an article of some 
 importance in trade, and a considerable quantity is imported, especially from 
 France, for the making of wigs. It is preferred when long, fine, and dark coloured. 
 The hair of the lower animals is applied to different purposes. That of the 
 minever, martin, badger, polecat, and other beasts, is used in the manufacture of 
 hair-pencils ; while the coarser hair of the dog, wild boar, hog, and others, is 
 made into brushes. Horse hair is extensively used by the upholsterer, and for 
 fishing-lines, as well as in a variety of the arts. As an object of trade, this is 
 classed into two kinds; the short curly, and the long straight. The former is spun 
 into a cord, and boiled, to give it the tortuous springy form. The latter is woven 
 into a kind of cloth, used for sieves, the damask haircloth of chair-bottoms, and 
 other purposes. 
 
 HAKE, a species of cod (Merlucius vulgaris, Cuv.) found in the northern seas 
 and Mediterranean. It is abundant on the S. coast of England, in the Bay of 
 Galway, and on the Nymph Bank off Waterford. From January to April is its 
 season for spawning. " It is a coarse fish, not admitted at the tables of the wealthy ; 
 but large quantities are annually preserved, both by salting and drying, part of 
 which are exported to Spain." (YarreWs British Fishes.) 
 
 HALIFAX. [Nova Scotia.] 
 
 HAMBURG, one of the Hanseatic states, is situated near the mouth of the 
 Elbe, between Hanover and Holstein, and comprises the city of that name and 
 adjacent territory, with some islands in the river, and a few parcels of land on the 
 south side of it. Area about 150 square miles. Population nearly 150,000, of 
 which the city contains 128,000, mostly Lutherans, but including a number of Jews. 
 The government is republican ; the executive and legislative powers are vested in a 
 senate of 36 ; but no laws can be made nor taxes imposed without the consent of the 
 lurgerschajffl, or general body of the citizens, who are represented by three colleges. 
 
 The city of Hamburg, the most important commercial emporium of the continent of Europe, is 
 situated in lat. 55° 33' N., long. 9° 58' E., on the N. bank of the estuary of the Elbe, and E. bank 
 of the Alster, about 75 miles from the North Sea. It was formerly fortified, but having suffered 
 much during the late war, its ramparts have been since levelled, and converted into public walks. 
 It, however, still resembles most of the old fortified towns of Germany, the streets being in gen- 
 eral narrow, dark, and dirty, and the houses commonly of brick, ill-built, and old-fashioned ; and 
 though some of the streets in the new town are broad and regular, the appearance of the whole 
 is uninteresting, almost the only enlivening feature being the inner lake of the Alster and the ad- 
 joining walks. Hamburg also resembles a Dutch town in being intersected by canals ; these are 
 rilled by the Ell>e and the Alster, and almost all the warehouses are close to them. The city pos- 
 sesses numerous sugar-refineries breweries, and distilleries ; also manufactures of ropes, sailcloth, 
 anchors, hats, soap, cotton, and woollen and linen fabrics, and a variety of other articles ; but 
 they are in some respects less prosperous than formerly. The shipping belonging to the port 
 (from 26,000 to 30,000 tons), which is inconsiderable compared with its trade, is mostly employed 
 in transatlantic commerce and in coasting. 
 
 The Elbe, in the lower part of its course between Harburg on its left bank, and Hamburg and 
 Altona on its right, is divided into several arms by five large and seven small islands, which 
 however unite again in a single channel at Blankenese, about five miles below Hamburg. The 
 arm opposite to the city, though not large, is deep enough at ordinary tides for vessels drawing 14 
 feet, and at spring-tides for those drawing 18 feet. There is a kind of inner harbour in the town, 
 formed by an arm of the Elbe, fitted for small craft ; but there are no docks nor quays, and ships of 
 moderate size are moored in the river to piles fixed a short distance from the shore ; while the largest 
 kind not unfrequently load and discharge their cargoes, bv means of lighters, off Cuxhaven, a small 
 town subject to Hamburg, at the mouth of the river, where also quarantine is performed. The 
 tide rises at Hamburg from 5 to 12 feet ; and flows for about 20 British miles above it. The scene 
 presented by the Elbe contiguous to the city is in a high degree animating, — a complete forest of 
 ships of all nations, and from every quarter of the globe. The number of sea-going vessels that 
 enter inwards annually is nearly 3000, about one-third being from Great Britain ; besides which 
 there are an equal number of river craft. The port is also frequented by numerous steamers, in- 
 cluding regular packets to London, Hull, Havre, and Amsterdam. 
 
 The immense commerce of Hamburg is produced by the liberal policy it has adopted, trade 
 being here as free as can be desired ; and by the situation of the town at the mouth of the Elbe 
 having rendered it the entrepot for the trade of the populous and industrious districts watered by 
 that river (navigable by barges to Melnick in Bohemia), and the numerous natural and artificial 
 communications with it. Of these last the principal are the connexion with the Oder, partly 
 by the Spree, and with Lubec and the Baltic by means of a canal which joins the Elbe to 
 the Trave. The trade may be said to embrace every thing that can be bought or sold, however 
 costly, or however mean ; and the total annual value of the exports and imports is estimated at 
 upwards of £15,000,000. The exports embrace all articles of German produce and manufacture, 
 besides corn, iron, tar, tallow, and many other commodities, brought from the countries adjoin- 
 ing the Baltic, of which Hamburg is also to some extent an emporium. The imports principally 
 consist of tropical produce; wine, brandy, olive-oil, fruit, and other articles from the S. of 
 Europe ; and above all of British manufactures. 
 
 Of tropical commodities, the principal are sugar and coffee, large quantities of which are brought 
 from Brazil, Cuba, Hayti, and Porto Rico. In 1838, the quantity of the former imported, includ- 
 ing also refined sugar (forming about 1 -6th of the whole), and svrup, was 97,005,000 lbs., and 
 the quantity imported by way of transit (that is, such as is brought to Hamburg direct, and not 
 
HAM 
 
 356 
 
 HAM 
 
 exchanged while in the city), 5,953,500 lbs. ; coffee, 48,900,000 lbs., and in transit, 8,960,600 lbs. 
 In the same year, there were brought of tobacco, 9,754,000 lbs., and in transit, 3,203,000 lbs. ; in- 
 digo, 1,582,000 lbs., and in transit, 1,418,600 lbs. ; cocoa, 1,505,000 lbs., and in transit, 152,000 
 lbs.: rice, 8,665,000 lbs., and in transit, 2,434,000 lbs.; cotton, 11,758,000 lbs., and in transit, 
 6,466,000 lbs. ; tea, 1,301,000 lbs., and in transit, 69,200 lbs. ; besides large quantities of S. Ame- 
 rican hides, cigars, ivory, saltpetre, cochineal, rum, and a variety of other articles. The quantity 
 of wine imported in 1838 was 48,940 hhds., and in transit, 15,770 hhds. ; olive-oil, 1,105,000 lbs., 
 and in transit, 707,200 lbs.; currants, 2,637,000 lbs., and in transit, 1,755,100 lbs.; raisins, 
 7,000,000 lbs., and in transit, 4,770,100 lbs. ; silk, 120,400 lbs., and in transit, 90,700 lbs. 
 
 The trade with the British islands forms a highly important, though scarcely an increasing 
 branch of the commerce of Hamburg. It is not shown separately in the public accounts ; but the 
 aggregate of the whole trade of the Hanse Towns with the United Kingdom is given for a series of 
 years in Dr Bowring's " Report on the Prussian Commercial Union" (App. p. 114). Of this by 
 far the greatest portion belongs to Hamburg ; that of Bremen being comparatively small, and of 
 Lubec quite trifling. The following are the averages of the amounts for each of the five years, 
 ending 1834 and 1838 respectively :— 
 
 Official Value of Imports into the United Kingdom 
 
 Exports from the United Kingdom, viz. 
 
 British Produce and Manufactures 
 
 Foreign and Colonial Merchandise 
 
 Declared Value of Exports of British Produce and Ma- 
 nufactures 
 
 Average of the 
 five years 1829-1833. 
 
 £1,404,216 
 
 8,801,920 
 1,687,996 
 
 4,358,650 
 
 Average of the 
 five years 1834-1838, 
 
 £1,548,709 
 
 8,654,861 
 1,827,391 
 
 4,665,767 
 
 Of British manufactures, nearly one-half now consists of cotton yarn and twist, for the supply 
 of the weavers of Saxony and other parts of Germany ; the chief other articles are cotton cloth, 
 woollens, and woollen yarn, iron and hardwares, linen yarn, linen cloth, machinery, and coals. 
 The exports from Hamburg to the United Kingdom consist principally of sheep's wool, and in 
 scarce years, of corn ; to which may be added seeds, especially rapeseed, smalts, wines, skins, 
 furs, particularly fitch and martin, bristles, geneva, and some descriptions of cotton and linen 
 goods. 
 
 The British trade likewise comprehends the importation into Hamburg of tea, wine, indigo, 
 tobacco, gums, especially shellac, furs, pepper, pimento, cassia, cotton-wool, rum, and other fo- 
 reign or colonial articles direct from the United Kingdom ; besides large quantities of coffee, 
 sugar, and other tropical productions from the places of growth, particularly Brazil ; while a con- 
 siderable portion of the general business of the town is conducted by English residents, of whom 
 there are from 1000 to 1500. In the year 1838, the aggregate burden of the British vessels which 
 arrived amounted to 168,186 tons; of which, steamers from the United Kingdom with general 
 cargoes, 62,046 tons; sailing vessels from do. with general cargoes, 47,161 tons, and with coals, 
 32,668 tons; from Brazil, 11,570 tons; from other parts of S. America, 299 tons ; from West In- 
 dies, 3137 tons ; from other countries, 3960 tons ; and in ballast, chiefly to load for Newfoundland, 
 which receives its salted provisions mostly from this port, 7345 tons. 
 
 The corn-trade is a department of considerable importance, Hamburg being, next to Dantzic, 
 the chief entrepdt where the grain of the N. of Europe (including the territory watered by the 
 Elbe) is deposited to wait for the best market. In dear times it is brought from parts so distant as 
 Bohemia ; but the principal supply is derived from Holstein and the Lower Elbe, the wheats pro- 
 duced in which being coarse and damp, causes the general average of prices to be lower in the 
 market of Hamburg than in Dantzic, where they are of superior quality. The quantity of wheat 
 exported in the ten years ending 1827 was 675,744 quarters, of which 403,535 quarters were sent 
 to Britain. In the next ten years, ending 1837, the exports of wheat amounted to 1,528,400 qrs. ; 
 barley, 255,700 qrs. ; rye, 352,200 qrs. ; oats, 83,600 qrs. ; beans, 31,050 qrs ; pease, 62,750 qrs. ; 
 brank, 8900 qrs. ; rape-seed, 130,050 qrs. In 1838, the quantity of wheat exported was 277,000 
 qrs. ; of which 220,700 qrs. were conveyed to Britain. 
 
 Hamburg is not a member of the Prussian Commercial Union, and it is not thought she will 
 willingly surrender those principles of free trade which have so much contributed to her reputa- 
 tion and prosperity. Still, however, opinions in favour of joining this association are spreading 
 among the merchants and wealthier classes, though not among the citizens, or burgerschaffl, who 
 have their property mostly invested in warehouses, whose value would be greatly lowered by an 
 adherence to the Union, as it is probable no goods would then be warehoused, except in govern- 
 ment bonding stores. On the 31st December 1839, a convention was concluded between Hamburg 
 and the Union, giving several facilities to trade. 
 
 Measures, Weights, Monies, Duties, &c 
 
 lbs. avoird. ; the centner of 112 Hamburg lbs., 
 or 8 lisponds = 119-64 lbs. avoird. ; 2i centners 
 — 1 shipfund. 
 
 A stone of wool or feathers is 10 Hamburg 
 lbs. ; a stone of fl-ix, 20 lbs. ; a small tonne of 
 butter, 224 lbs., a great do. 280 lbs. ; a quarteel of 
 train oil of 2 tonnes or 64 stubgen is reckoned at 
 ' centners or 448 lbs. net ; and a pipe of oil at 
 
 Measure* and Weights.'— The ell of 2 feet or 6 
 palms = 22-58 Imp. inches ; the Brabant ell - 
 27*58 Imp. inches. 
 
 The ohm, liquid measure, of 4 ankers, 5 eim- 
 ers, 20 viertels, 40 stubgen, or 160 quarters = 
 31-87 Imp. gallons ; 6 ohms = 1 fuder ; the faas 
 of wine is 4 oxhafts, or 6 tierces. 
 
 The wispel, corn measure, of 10 scheffels, 20 
 faas, or 40 himtens = 29 Imp. bushels ; 3 wispels J820 lbs. 
 = 1 last of wheat or rye, = 1 stock of barley or The mode of estimating the weight and fine- 
 oats, = 10J Imp. quarters; and 2 wispels - 1 ncss of the precious metals is explained under 
 last of barley or oats = 7i Imp. quarters. I the head Germany. 
 
 The pound consists of 2 marks, 16 ounces, 32 Money.— Accounts are stated in marks, divid- 
 106-82 I ed into 16 schillings, each schilling consisting of 
 
 loths, or 128 drachmes; and 100 lbs. 
 
ham 
 
 357 
 
 HAM 
 
 19 pfennings; and 3 marks .nake 1 dollar (or 
 reieiisthalor). These denominations are of dif- 
 ferent values, according as they are reckoned in 
 current money, or in banco. 
 
 Current money is composed of the coins in or- 
 dinary circulation, and which, as none have been 
 for some time minted in the city, consist of Dan- 
 ish and Hanoverian money, chiefly zweydrittels, 
 6ilver pieces equivalent to 2-3ds of the old Imp. 
 current dollar, or 2s. 3d. sterling ; each of these 
 being reckoned at 31 schillings, makes the current 
 mark equal Is. 2d. sterling. 
 
 Banco, used in wholesale trade and in ex- 
 changes, is the money of the Bank of Hamburg, 
 or rather the credits "inscribed in its books cor- 
 responding to equivalent deposits of silver bul- 
 lion, which, by means of orders or cheques, are 
 transferred from one party's account to another's 
 in payment of debts, — the bullion being seldom 
 or never withdrawn, except when required for 
 exportation. The silver deposited, which must 
 be 15 loths 12 grains (or ||) fine, is received at 
 the nominal rate of 442 schillings, and issued at 
 the rate of 444 schillings, or 273 marks banco, 
 for the Cologne mark weight (3608 troy grains) 
 of pure metal, — the difference of 4-9ths per cent, 
 being applied to defray expenses. The value of 
 the mark banco, estimating British Standard 
 silver at 5s. per ounce, is thus 17*57d. sterling, or 
 Is. aid. nearly ; making 13 marks banco 10* sch. 
 = £1 sterling. The agio upon banco, compared 
 to currency, is at this rate 25 per cent., but it is 
 continually varying. 
 
 The metallic rate of exchange, or par, is, in 
 London, commonly deduced from the market 
 price of gold. The quotation at Hamburg, Jan. 
 3, 1840, was 428 mks. bco. for the Cologne mark 
 weight fine, which, estimating British standard 
 gold at £3, 17s. l"|d. per ounce, made the rate 
 13 mks. bco. 6| sch. per £1, and the mark bco. 
 equal Is. 5-9d., or nearly Is. 6d. sterling. 
 
 Exchanges were formerly negotiated in pounds 
 Flemish of 20 schillings, or 240 grotes. The 
 pound Flemish = 74 marks banco, or 2J dollars. 
 
 Usance of bills from places in Germany, 14 
 days' sight ; from Holland, Britain, and France, 
 
 1 month's date; and from Portugal, Spain, Italy, 
 and Trieste, 2 months' date. Days of grace 12. 
 
 The Bank of Hamburg was instituted in 1619, 
 on the credit and under the guarantee of the 
 city, as a bullion deposit bank. It receives only 
 silver, upon the terms already specified. For- 
 merly, loans were granted on the security of gold 
 and other pledges, but this practice has been 
 abolished, except in so far as advances continue 
 to be made upon Spanish dollars, and upon 
 rough copper. The business and accounts of the 
 bank are always open to proper inquiries, and 
 its governors are all responsible. It is managed 
 by 5 directors, 2 counsellors, 2 treasurers, and 
 
 2 of the magistrates of the city ; and one of each 
 description goes out annually. Every treasury- 
 chest has five different locks, the keys to which 
 are distributed among the five directors respec- 
 tively, so that no treasury can be opened unless 
 all are present. Deposits are received only from 
 citizens of Hamburg ; but no servant of the bank 
 can have dealings with it ; nor is any account 
 opened for a less sum than 100 marks (about 
 £7, 10s.). The money in bank cannot be seized 
 or attached, except in the event of the depositor 
 becoming bankrupt, when his banco is delivered 
 to his creditors. The bank remains shut an- 
 nually for three days after the 31st December, 
 when its accounts are balanced. 
 
 This celebrated establishment gives great sta- 
 bility to the exchange business of most of the 
 countries of the north of Europe, as the greater 
 part of their foreign bills are settled in banco 
 through the medium of Hamburg. It has now 
 maintained the highest credit for upwards of 
 
 220 years, with the exception of two short inter- 
 ruptions. The first in 1069, when it was closed 
 nearly a year, after which it was re-opened 
 under improved regulations. The other was in 
 1813, when, on the advance of the French under 
 Davoust, most of the deposits were withdrawn, 
 and the remainder, amounting to 7,500,000 
 marks, seized by him for the support of his 
 army. The bank, however, soon resumed its 
 operations with its usual credit, and indemni- 
 fication was partially made by France at the 
 peace. 
 
 Finances. — The public revenues amount to 
 £l50,000perannum; of which, about £35,000 are 
 derived from customs duties. The public debt is 
 nearly £1,500,000. 
 
 Duties. — The general rate on imports is f per 
 cent, ad valorem, but corn, wool, linen, yarn, 
 twist, and some other articles are wholly free. 
 On exports the duty is } per cent. There is no 
 transit duty, a privilege which is limited to the 
 period of three months from receiving the tran- 
 sit ticket, but will be prolonged for other three 
 months on payment of £ per cent, ad valorem ,• 
 beyond this period, the goods become chargeable 
 with the ordinary duties. 
 
 The Stade-duties, an ancient impost levied by 
 Hanover on goods passing through the Elbe, are 
 properly payable at the Castle of Brunshausen, 
 near the town of Stade, but are collected at 
 Hamburg, where there is an officer for the pur- 
 pose. The rate originally intended to be exacted 
 was ^ per cent., or one schilling on 100 marks 
 value; but, from a late representation by the 
 authorities of Hamburg, it appears that this rate 
 is now the minimum, and that on the leading 
 articles of commerce it is from 4 to 24 per cent. 
 The duty is rated according to a tariff, and is 
 computed from the ship's papers ; Hamburg 
 vessels being, however, exempted. The yearly 
 average of ships on which it is levied is estima- 
 ted at 4500, and the average amount per vessel 
 at 210 marks, making an annual sum of £70,000. 
 The Stade impost is of a highly arbitrary, shift- 
 ing, and vexatious character, and the original 
 right to levy the tax has been repeatedly called 
 in question. 
 
 The transit duty levied by Denmark on the 
 land intercourse between the Elbe and the Bal- 
 tic is of considerable importance in reference to 
 the trade of Hamburg, from the sea communica- 
 tion being closed during the winter season. This 
 duty is not high, but the roads of Holstein and 
 I Schleswig are in so neglected a state, that the 
 plea of an impost for a service done cannot be 
 ] urged. A duty equivalent to 9d. per cwt. is pay- 
 ! able for traversing from Hamburg to Lubec ; 
 I while from Lubec to Hamburg it is 4Jd. per 
 cwt. Certain leading articles pay an ad valorem 
 I transit duty, as soap, 2 per cent. ; iron and 
 j tobacco, 3 per cent. ; lumps, 6 per cent., when 
 j coming from Lubec to Hamburg; and when 
 sent from Hamburg to Lubec, coffee pays 2 per 
 cent., tobacco and sugar 24, while dye-woods 
 I pay 10 per cent. The amount of transit trade 
 i in 1837 from Hamburg to Lubec was 24,455,8<>5 
 lbs. gross weight; that from Lubec to Ham- 
 ! burg 13,722,S6o lbs. : of this last amount about 
 l half consists of articles which are duty free. The 
 I whole gross receipts are 58,300 dollars. 
 I A Convention of Commerce was concluded be- 
 tween Great Britain and the Hanseatic republics 
 on 29th September 1825, which provides for the 
 reciprocal abrogation of all discriminating and 
 countervailing duties levied upon the ships of the 
 contracting parties, or upon the cargoes of such 
 ships in the ports of either ; the convention to 
 be in force for 10 years, and further until 12 
 months after notice by either of the parties of 
 their intention to terminate the same. (Herts- 
 let's Treaties, vol. iii. p. 226.) [Lubec] S 
 
HAM 350 HAN 
 
 HAMS (Du. Hammen. Fr. Jambons. Ger. Schinken. It. Prosciutti. Por. 
 Presuntas. Rus. Okoroku. Sp. Jamones), the thighs of the hog, salted, smoked, 
 and dried. [Hog.] 
 
 HANOVER, a kingdom situated in the N.W. angle of Germany, between lat. 
 51° 20' and 53° 51' N., and long. 6° 51' and 11° 51' E.; and bounded N.W. and N. 
 by the North Sea, Oldenburg, and the Elbe ; E. and S.E. by Prussia and Bruns- 
 wick ; S.W. by Hesse-Cassel, Lippe, and Prussia ; and W. by Holland. Area, 
 14,570 sq. miles. It is divided into the provinces of Hanover, Hildesheim, Lune- 
 burg, Stade, Osnaburg, and Aurich, and the mining intendancy of Clausthal. Pop- 
 ulation, 1,722,107. Capital, Hanover, an inland city ; pop. 28,000. The govern- 
 ment is reputed a constitutional monarchy. 
 
 With the exception of the Hartz, a chain of detached mountains on the S. frontier, the kingdom 
 consists of an immense plain, a considerable part of which, called the "Arabia of Germany," is com- 
 posed of vast sandy tracts, wholly unfit for tillage. The fertile lands are confined to the banks of the 
 rivers Elbe, Weser, and Ems, and their affluents ; and to the flat coast of the sea, where artificial 
 mounds have rescued from its ravages an expanse of very rich meadows, — the finest being the 
 alluvial plains at the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser. The disadvantages of nature are not re- 
 deemed by art to the same degree as in other parts of Germany. Potatoes, the chief food of the 
 poor, are universally reared, and rye is generally grown for bread ; barley and oats are also culti- 
 vated to an extent that leaves a surplus for exportation ; but the quantity of wheat raised is insuf- 
 ficient for the demand. About a sixth or a seventh part of the surface is covered with forests, which 
 yield about 52,000,000 cubic feet of timber yearly ; the principal woods are those of pine in the 
 Hartz district, and of beech and oak in Kalenberg, the Upper Weser, and the duchy of Bremen. 
 Grazing husbandry is extensively prosecuted, but, excepting the rearing of horses, is little under- 
 stood. The minor articles of rural produce are, flax, hemp, tobacco, hops, cranberries, and honey. 
 
 The mines form an important source of wealth, but they languish under the system of interfer- 
 ence exercised by the government. The most productive are those of lead and silver in the Hartz, 
 from the vast forests of which fuel is readily obtained for working them. Iron ore is also richly 
 diffused over the hilly districts, but the produce is comparatively inconsiderable. The chief other 
 minerals are salt, copper, zinc, and vitriol. 
 
 The manufactures are very numerous, but none of them extensive. Woollens and calicoes are 
 made at Gottingen, Munden, and some other towns ; but perhaps the most important is linen. 
 This is chiefly a domestic manufacture ; there are, however, about 5000 hands wholly occupied as 
 weavers, the linen cloths produced by whom are well known in foreign markets, under the names 
 of Osnaburgs and white rolls ; while the hempen fabrics are known as Hessians, Tecklenburgs, and 
 bagging. The linen manufacture, it may be mentioned, is maintained without protecting duties. 
 
 Notwithstanding the advantages possessed by the country in respect to mineral wealth and nav- 
 igable rivers, the trade is inconsiderable. The people have little enterprise, and the conveyance 
 of their surplus produce to other countries is mostly in the hands of the merchants of Bremen and 
 Hamburg. Hanover is not a member of the Prussian Commercial Union, but she is joined in a 
 similar league with the states of Brunswick, Oldenburg, and Schaumberg Lippe. The leading 
 articles of export are, linen, sheep's wool, corn, lead, butter, rapeseed, hemp, and flax ; and of 
 import, coffee, sugar, wine, tobacco, hardware, woollens, cottons, and twist. The number of ships 
 is stated by Dr Bowring at 422, containing about 15,000 lasts, or 27,000 tons, of which nearly 
 one-half is engaged in foreign trade ; but this is exclusive of small coasters and river-craft. The 
 principal commercial towns are, Munden, at the junction of the Werra and the Fulda, which has 
 an active intercourse with the interior of Germany and the port of Emden. 
 
 Emden or Embden, in lat. 53° 22' N., long. 7° 12' E., the chief commercial place in Hanover, is 
 situated in the province of Aurich, formerly E. Friesland, a little below the efflux of the river 
 Ems into the bay of Dollart ; pop. 12,500. It is very ancient and walled, and has the appear- 
 ance of a Dutch town, being intersected by canals. It is a free port, but the trade is inconsider- 
 able, and in modern times has declined, the harbour being shallow, and inaccessible except at 
 high-water, and even then not for vessels drawing more than 11 or 12 feet; there is, however, 
 a deep and safe roadstead. Shipbuilding and various manufactures are carried on, and the her- 
 ring-fishery is prosecuted to a small extent. The exports, however, consist chiefly of the rural 
 produce of E. Friesland and Munster, of which it is the emporium ; the imports, of Baltic pro- 
 duce, French wine, and other commodities. About 700 vessels, aggregate burden 17,000 lasts, 
 enter annually. The shipping which frequents the port consists now principally of inland craft. 
 
 Measures, Wkights, Monies, Finances, &c. 
 
 Measures and Weights.— The ell of 2 feet = 
 22*91 Imp. inches. The mile = 11,559 Imp. yds. 
 
 The morgen = 2 Imp. roods, 22J peiciies=-64 
 Imp. acre. 
 
 The ahm of 2* eimers, 4 ankers, 40,stubgens, 
 or 8o kannen = 34*24 Imp. galls. ; and 6 ahms or 
 
 equal to 2s. 103d. sterling. But exchanges are 
 commonly effected in dollars, valued at 5 to the 
 Louis d'or, as in Bremen. The principal gold 
 coins are the George d'or, worth 16s. 4d. ; the 
 florin, 6s. lid. ; and the ducat, 9s. 4d. : the silver 
 coins, since 1834, have been chiefly pieces minted 
 
 4 oxhafts = 1 fuder of wine. according to the Prussian rate, and the follow- 
 
 The com last of 2 wisnels. Ifi mnlfers. or flfi ing old pieces, namely, the constitution or cash 
 
 The corn last of 2 wispels, 16 malters, or 
 himtens = 82 Imp. bushels. 
 
 The pound = 7511 troy grains, and 100 lbs. =. 
 107 - 3 lbs. avoird. ; the stone of flax is 20 lbs. , and 
 of wool 10 lbs. ; the tonne of honey, containing 
 25| stubgens, weighs 300 lbs. ; the centner is 112 
 lbs. The last is 12 shipfunds, and the shipfund 
 = 20 lisponds, each of 14 lbs. Gold, silver, and 
 silk are weighed with the Cologne mark. 
 
 Money. — The integer of account is now the 
 Prussian dollar, or thaler of 30 silver groschen 
 
 specie-dollar, 4s. 6id., and the zweydrittel or fd. 
 piece, 2s. 3d. 
 
 The former money of account was the thaler 
 or rixdollar of 36 mariengroschen, each of 8 pfen- 
 nings cash (kassengeld) = 3s. 4Jd. ; or tbe con- 
 vention thaler of 24 good groschen, each of 12 
 pfennings = 3s. did. ; 9 thalers cash or constitu- 
 tion money s= 10 convention thalers. 
 
 Usance is 14 days' sight. The days of grace 
 are 8, except for bills at sight. S 
 
IIAX 3f)9 HAT 
 
 Finances.— The country := hearty taxed, ami and about 1,200,000 thalers arc derived from cus- 
 the revenue averages annually about G,5ou,<*>o i toius duties. The national debt is variously erti* 
 thalers. The direct impostsamounttoaboutl-3d, | mated at from 15,000,000 to 20,000,000 thalers. 
 
 II ANSE TOWNS, a name given to certain towns situated in the N. of Europe, 
 which formed in the 13th century an association called the Hanseatic league, having 
 for its object the protection of mercantile property. It was so called from an old 
 German word signifying union. The first point with the confederates was to 
 repress the seizure of merchant vessels by pirates, and the robbery of goods con- 
 veyed by land ; the next was to obtain justice in regard to the claims of merchants 
 in courts of law, — a matter of no small difficulty in those rude times. The town 
 which took the lead in forming this association was Lubec, the trade of which had 
 become considerable in the 13th century, chiefly from its position. Situated at the 
 south-eastern point of the Baltic, it was the natural entrepot for the trade of 
 Prussia, Poland, and Livonia, with the north-west of Germany ; in the same man- 
 ner as Hamburg, from its ready access to the North sea, was the fit port for com- 
 municating with the Netherlands and England. The distance between these towns 
 by land being small (only 40 miles), frequent conferences took place in regard to 
 their mutual interests ; and the result was their concluding a treaty in the year 
 124 1, by which they bound themselves to use their utmost efforts for the pro- 
 lection of trade. Brunswick, then the chief inland town in the north-west of 
 Germany, and connected in trade with both Lubec and Hamburg, acceded to 
 the treaty shortly afterwards ; and in 1252, deputies from each of the three met at 
 Lubec, where, among other arrangements of importance, they took steps for estab- 
 lishing factories in London, Bruges, and Novgorod in Russia. Being open to 
 new members, they were joined in the course of the next century by a number of 
 cities, such as Amsterdam and other ports in the Netherlands, Dantzic, as well 
 for itself as for the lesser towns in the north of Poland, and Cologne, for the 
 different trading places on the Rhine. The confederacy attained its greatest 
 power in the loth and 16th centuries, when the league comprised no fewer than 64 
 commercial places ; and was capable of conducting extensive naval operations, and 
 of asserting its rights by force of arms. As civilisation diffused itself, however, 
 in the north of Europe, and the different governments made a point of protecting 
 trade as well by sea as in their respective territories, less exertion was required on 
 the part of the Hanse Towns. It became evident also from the example of Holland, 
 that trade prospered most when each mercantile district or seaport was left to 
 manage its own concerns. Hence a gradual relaxation in the bonds of the con- 
 federacy, so that during the last two centuries the name of Hanse Towns has been 
 confined to Lubec, Hamburg, and Bremen. These towns have still mercantile 
 consuls in London and elsewhere ; but they are occupied with the concerns of their 
 constituents only, not with those of the former members of the league. 
 
 HARBOUR. [Port.] 
 
 HARDWARE (Fr. Clinquaillerie. Ger. Kurze waareri). [Iron Manufac- 
 tures, &c] 
 
 HARTSHORN. [Ammonia.] 
 
 HATS (Fr. Chapeaux. Ger. Hute. It. Cappellx. Por. Chapess. Sp. Som- 
 breros), well-known coverings for the head, are of several kinds. Beaver or stuff 
 hats, the finest, consist mainly of two parts, — the body, and the covering or nap ; 
 the former of which is made of fine wool and coarse fur (generally eight parts 
 rabbit's fur, three parts Saxony wool, and one part of lama, vicunia, or " red 
 wool "), mixed, felted, stiffened and shaped ; the latter of beaver-fur, made 
 to adhere to the body by the process of felting. Plate hats, a secondary kind, 
 have the nap composed of the fur of the musquash, nutria, or some other fur 
 of comparatively small value ; and for hats of inferior quality, coarse wool is 
 employed for the body, and coarser fur, or sometimes fine wool, for the nap. 
 Felt hats are a common kind without a nap ; and the black glazed japan 
 hats worn by sailors and others, have a body of coarse felted wool, and an outer 
 glossy covering formed of a thick coating of black varnish or japan. A description 
 of the processes of manufacture would be out of place here ; but it may be mentioned, 
 that from the time the materials are brought into the great factories (as Messrs 
 Christy's of London) till the hat is finished, they engage the attention of from 
 twenty to twenty-five distinct sets of workpeople. One of the most important is 
 that by which the hat is rendered waterproof, an operation which is performed upon 
 the felt body before the fur nap is added, by brushing on the former a composition 
 of shellac, sandarach, gum-mastic, resin, frankincense, copal, caoutchouc, spirits 
 of wine, and spirits of turpentine ; the rectified naphtha made from coal-tar being, 
 
HAV 3G0 HAY 
 
 however, sometimes substituted for spirits of wine. Hats are dyed black by means 
 of a bath composed of water, logwood, sulphate of iron, verdigris, and gall-nuts. 
 
 Silk hats, a cheap kind introduced of late years, are entirely different from the 
 preceding ; the body is composed of chip-straw, stiffened cambric, or coarse felted 
 wool, and a covering or hood of woven silk shag is fashioned to the required shape, 
 and drawn over it. The body is made in a rough way, and a resinous stiffening 
 composition laid over the outer surface, to which the hood is made to adhere by a 
 peculiar kind of varnish. 
 
 The finest stuff hats are made'in London ; but the bodies of many of those finish- 
 ed in that city are manufactured in Gloucestershire and Derbyshire. Plate hats 
 are made in Lancashire, Cheshire, Staffordshire, and other places ; felt hats at 
 Atherstone, Rudgeley, Bristol, and elsewhere ; silk hats in Manchester, London, 
 Glasgow, and other large towns. In Lancashire, hoods are also made on a large 
 scale, for the supply of places where they are worked up. The annual value of the 
 hat manufacture of the United Kingdom is supposed to be about £2,500,000, but 
 there are no data for forming a correct estimate. 
 
 Hats are exported in considerable quantities to the colonies ; they are also sent 
 to Brazil and to the United States ; the number taken by the last, however, is 
 comparatively inconsiderable. The exportations to other countries are of trifling 
 amount. The declared value of beaver and felt hats annually exported is stated 
 in the public accounts at nearly £100,000, which, however, is less than one-half 
 the amount of those exported in 1830, which was (77,061 doz.) £209,849. The 
 quantity imported is small, the duty of 10s. 6d. each operating as a prohibition. 
 
 Straw-hats, made chiefly of wheat-straw plaited in strips and sewed together, are 
 worn by men in some parts of the country, but only to a small extent. Straw 
 bonnets however are, as is well known, much used by females. An account of this 
 branch of trade will be found under the head Straw -Plat. 
 
 Coverings for the head, formed of willow, straw, bark, and other rude materials, we find 
 among the manufactures of nations in an early state of civilisation ; but the use of woollen or felt 
 for this purpose belongs to a later period. At what time felted wool was first employed for making 
 hats it would be difficult to say. It is known, however, to have been used in Western Europe 
 since the 14th century, though felted hats were long articles of luxury, and worn only by the rich. 
 In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, they became common ; and those of beaver were first introduced 
 Into general use. The hats worn at this period were of a great variety of shapes, some with crowns 
 peaked, some flat and broad, and others round; each kind being, besides, differently coloured and 
 trimmed. Shortly afterwards, the rim was made remarkably broad, and when worn, was liable 
 to hang down ; these were called slouched hats. 
 
 From the reign of Charles I. to that of William III., very broad brims were in fashion ; but 
 being found inconvenient, first one, and then two flaps, were made to turn up, until about the 
 time of Queen Anne, when a third flap was turned up, and the regular cocked hat formed. Dur- 
 ing the ensuing fifty or sixty years, cocked hats of various sorts were much in vogue ; and in the 
 Tatler and Spectator the " Monmouth cock," the " Ramillies cock," the " Hunting cock," and 
 the " Military cock," are alluded to. About 1750, round hats became prevalent among the lower 
 orders, and cocked hats were considered as a sort of distinction from them. About 1780, round 
 hats became fashionable ; and by 1790, cocked hats were no longer common. 
 
 HAVANA. [Cuba.] 
 
 HAWKER. [Pedlar.] 
 
 HAY (Fr. Foin. Ger. Hew), a name applied in this country to natural grass, 
 rye-grass, clover, or sainfoin, when cut and dried for use as forage. According to 
 Professor Low, no method of producing hay has been found comparable to that of 
 the cultivated grasses. That made of natural grass, however, termed meadow 
 hay, is the kind chiefly produced in England, especially in the western counties, 
 and in the districts adjoining London, in which last it is brought to the greatest 
 perfection : it is also the kind principally made in Ireland, and in the pastoral 
 districts of Scotland. Clover hay, either pure, or mixed with rye-grass, is most 
 common in the southern, eastern, and northern counties of England, and in the 
 cultivated districts of Scotland. Sainfoin hay is confined to those districts that 
 have a calcareous soil. In haymaking, the great object is to prepare it quickly, 
 and with as little exposure to the weather and waste of the natural juices as pos- 
 sible. When this is done the hay will be sweet, fragrant, and of a greenish colour. 
 Sometimes two crops are cut from the same ground in the year ; but the last is 
 never so good as the first in weight and quality. Clover hay commonly sells 20 per 
 cent, higher than meadow hay, or than clover and rye-grass mixed. 
 
 The produce of hay varies greatly with the season and the quality of the soil. 
 The usual weight of a crop of meadow hay is from 1 to 1^ ton per acre ; of clover 
 hay, from 1 to 3 tons ; of sainfoin, from 1 to 2 tons ; and of clover and rye-gras3 
 mixed, 2 tons per acre may be regarded as a good crop, but often the produce ia 
 
HAY 3G1 HAY 
 
 greatly more. Hay, in the field-rick, weighs somewhat more than 112 lbs. per 
 cubic yard; after being compressed in the stack, it weighs from 140 to 180 Ids., 
 and when old about 200 lbs. 
 
 The sale of hay within the district including 30 miles around London, is regulated by the act 36 
 Geo. III. c. 88, which provides that the load of new hay shall, until the 4th September, be sold 
 by the load of 36 trusses, each of 60 lbs. ; the load thus weighing 1 ton. After 4th September each 
 truss may weigh 56 lbs. only. 
 
 Straw is sold by the load "of 36 trusses, each truss weighing 36 lbs. 
 
 HAYTI, HISPAXIOLA, or ST DOMINGO, next to Cuba, the largest of 
 the Antilles, is situated between lat. 18° and 20° N., and long. 68° and 75° W. It 
 is separated on the E. from Porto Rico by the Mona Passage, and on the W. and 
 S. W. from Cuba and Jamaica by the Windward Passage. Length, 400 miles, 
 and breadth 150. Area 'about 25,000 sq. miles, nearly the extent of Ireland. Pop- 
 ulation vaguely estimated at 1,000,000, mainly consisting of mulattoes, and of the 
 descendants of aborigines mixed with Europeans and negroes ; the number of 
 whites and negroes of pure blood is small. Capital, Port-au-Prince. This island, 
 formerly divided between the Spaniards and French, is now an independent state, 
 with a government nominally republican; the executive power being in a president 
 chosen Tor life, and the legislative in a senate and a chamber of deputies : it is, 
 however, in fact a kind of military despotism with republican forms. 
 
 Hayti is a very fine island. In the centre rise the lofty mountains of Cibao, in some places 8000 
 feet high, which are covered nearly to the summit with vegetation and noble woods, and from them 
 descend numerous streams, which, uniting in four large rivers, bestow extreme fertility on the 
 valleys beneath. From the Cibao hilly ranges branch off in different directions, running mostly 
 from east to west. In some parts there are extensive plains ; the largest of these, called Los Llanos, 
 lies along the S. coast from the town of St Domingo eastward to Higuey, a distance of 80 miles in 
 length, and 30 in breadth ; but it is only a bare savannah, used for pasture-ground. It is sepa- 
 rated by a low range from the fertile but ill-cultivated plain of La Vega, about 50 miles long, and 
 30 in breadth. Except on the E., where low and swampy lands prevail, the shores are in general 
 bold, and almost every where surrounded by small uninhabited islands and dangerous reefs. The 
 climate of the lowlands is hot, humid, and, for Europeans, very unhealthy. As in other tropical 
 countries, the year is divided between the wet and dry seasons. [West Indies.] 
 
 Prior to IJfW, the island was celebrated for its extensive plantations of sugar, coffee, and cot- 
 ton ; and the average annual exports of the French portion consisted of 5X, 000,000 lbs. claved 
 sugar, 87,000,000 lbs. muscovado, 72,000,000 lbs. coffee, 7.000,000 lbs. cotton, 950,000 lbs. indigo, 
 23,0< hhds. molasses, besides rum, hides, and other articles, the value of the whole amounting 
 to nearly £5,000,000 sterling. But the present population having few wants, and being en- 
 abled, from the abundance of fertile land, to obtain the bare means of existence with facility, 
 engage only in the lighter kinds of labour ; and the plantations have now almost entirely disap- 
 peared, except those of coffee, which are also much reduced. Cotton continues to be reared only to 
 a very small extent. Maize, millet, cassava, plantains, and sweet potatoes are cultivated, and with 
 cocoa-nuts, cabbage-trees, pine-apples, and garden fruits, supply the chief subsistence of the na- 
 tives. But the principal commercial products are now derived from the forests, which yield ma- 
 hogany and various dye-woods in great luxuriance. In the plains in the eastern districts there 
 are numerous herds of cattle. The island contains mines of gold, silver, copper, tin, iron, and 
 rock-salt ; their produce, however, is at present trifling. The gold mines were at one time work- 
 ed, but they have been long since abandoned. 
 
 The exports of the great staples, on an average of the three years 1835, 1836, and 1837, con- 
 sisted of 38,953,482 lbs. coffee ; 8,699,292 lbs. logwood and other dye-woods ; 5,055,507 feet ma- 
 hogany ; 8nd 1,245,148 lbs. cotton ; considerable quantities of tobacco and cocoa were also ship- 
 ped ; the minor articles being hides, rags, wax, ginger, and sugar. These commodities are sent to 
 Great Britain, France, the United States, Germany (principally Hamburg and Trieste), and 
 Holland. The imports are, from Great Britain, cotton manufactures (£260,000); linen manu- 
 factures (£85.000) ; with small quantities of woollens, soap, and candles, earthenware and hard- 
 ware ; the whole, in 1839, amounting to about £400,000 : from France, wine, brandy, silks, 
 shawls, porcelain, gloves, and articles of bijouterie; from the United States, lumber and provi- 
 sions ; from Germany and Holland, linens, especially bagging, coarse woollens, and Rhenish wine*. 
 A contraband trade is besides carried on with Cuba and Jamaica, the intercourse with the lat- 
 ter being prohibited by the act 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 59. This illicit trade is chiefly prosecuted at 
 Cayes, a flourishing port on the S. W. shore, where there are several British houses established. 
 In 1836, the shipping that entered the six principal ports consisted of 369 vessels, burden 50,5»0 
 tons; and cleared 385 vessels, burden 52,485 tons. Of these there were of British ships, entered, 
 84 vessels, 12,807 tons ; and cleared, 99 vessels, 15,127 tons. 
 
 The external trade is entirely in the hands of foreigners, who are treated with much illiberality, 
 being burdened with a heavy license-duty, loaded with vexatious regulations in regard to their 
 dealings, and confined as to their residence to the free ports. These last are, Port-au-Prince, Cape 
 Haitien, Cayes, Jacmel, Gonaives, Puerta Plata, St Domingo, and Jeremie; the first being the 
 chief emporium of the island. 
 
 Port-au-Prince, the seat of government, lies on the W. coast, in lat. 18° 32' N., and long. 72° 
 23' W., in the innermost recess of the bay of Gonaives. The streets are commodious, but the 
 houses in general are low and mean ; pop. 30,000. It has two harbours, formed by some islets, 
 both of which afford secure anchorage. 
 
EEC 
 
 3G2 
 
 HEM 
 
 Measures, Weights, Months, Finances, &c. 
 
 must be paid in effective Spanish or North Ame- 
 rican dollars. 
 
 The Revenue in 1837 amounted to §2,082,522, 
 of which about one-half is derived from import 
 and export duties, three-eighths from territorial 
 imposts, and theremainder from stamps, licenses, 
 and petty taxes. In the same year, the expen- 
 diture was §2,713,102, including $536,305 to- 
 wards the national debt. S 
 
 The, Measures and Weights are chiefly those 
 of the old French system, including the " poids 
 de marc." The old English wine gallon is also 
 employed. 
 
 The carreau of land = 1*8125 acre. 
 
 The Money of account is the current dollar (or 
 gourde), of i00 cents, the precise value of which 
 cannot be assigned, as the coinage of the island, 
 besides being of a very low standard, is exceed- 
 ingly irregular. Since 1835, the customs duties 
 
 Hayti was discovered by Columbus on his first voyage (1495), and colonies were formed by the 
 Spaniards, which, however, were much neglected after the conquest of the American continent. 
 In 1697, the western districts were ceded to France, natives of which country, mostly buccaneers, 
 had previously settled there in an irregular manner. These districts were cultivated by the French 
 with great care, and additional parts of the island being afterwards obtained, Hayti became the 
 most valuable of their foreign possessions, especially after 1722, when the monopoly of trading 
 companies was abolished. The prosperity of the island was at its height when, in 1791, revolutionary 
 tumults arose among the blacks, which, in the course of a few years, led to the massacre or expul- 
 sion of all the whites. After a time two republics were formed ; but at length (1820) the whole 
 was united under the authority of President Boyer, who, in 1822, also subdued the Spanish portion 
 of the island. In 1825, the independence of Hayti was recognised by France, to whomfr. 150,000,000 
 were guaranteed as an indemnity for the losses of the colonists : this sum was afterwards reduced 
 to fr. 90,000,000, of which fr. 50,000,000 have been paid. 
 
 Under the existing constitution all Haytian citizens, of whatever origin, are distinguished by 
 the name of blacks. Whites are debarred" from either becoming citizens or proprietors of land; 
 but Indians, Africans, or their descendants, are entitled to these rights after one year's residence 
 in the island. The Roman Catholic religion is established ; but all other sects are tolerated. The 
 established religion, however, possesses no efficiency or influence in the state. Morals are gen- 
 erally disregarded ; and the private habits of the people are chiefly characterized by indolence, 
 ignorance, licentiousness, and filth. 
 
 HECTARE, the principal laud measure in France = 2*471 143 Imp. acres = 
 2 acres 1 rood, 35 sq. poles, 11 1 sq. yards ; or 17 hectares = 42 Imp. acres nearly. 
 
 HECTOLITRE, a French measure of capacity, = 22 Imp. gallons or 2| Imp. 
 bushels nearly. 
 
 HELENA, ST, a rocky but verdant island in the S. Atlantic, which formerly 
 belonged to the British E. I. Co., and was surrendered by them to H. M. govern- 
 ment at the expiry of their charter in 1833. Area, 47 sq. miles ; population, 
 exclusive of troops, 5000, consisting of Europeans, Chinese, and blacks. The island 
 is important solely as being a place of refreshment for ships, and as a naval station. 
 The climate is salubrious. James Town, the seat of government, and the only port, 
 is in 15° 55' S., and 5° 49' W. There is a good anchorage, but the surf upon the 
 shore is generally strong, particularly about Christmas. 
 
 HELIGOLAND, a small fortified island nearly 3 miles in circumference, lying 
 in the German ocean, in 54° 12' N., and 7° 53' E., about 30 miles from the mouths of 
 the Elbe, Weser, and Eyder ; population 2400, chiefly fishermen and pilots. It was 
 taken by the British from the Danes in 1807, and became a depot for goods which 
 were smuggled into the continental ports during the war. In 1814, it was formally 
 ceded to Great Britain, under whose government it still continues. Heligoland 
 has lost its former consequence, but it would be again valuable in the event of war 
 with any of the neighbouring powers. 
 
 HELIOTROPE, a variety of jasper occasionally marked with red spots, whence 
 its vulgar name of bloodstone. 
 
 HELLEBORE is of two kinds, black and white. Black hellebore is a plant 
 (Helleborus niger) indigenous to the Alps, Pyrenees, and Apennines, and cultivated 
 in our gardens for the radicles or small branches of the roots, which are used in 
 medicine as a purgative. White hellebore ( Veratrum alburn) grows spontaneously 
 in Switzerland and the mountainous parts of Germany, and its dried roots are 
 used in medicine, both internally and externally. 
 
 HEMP (Fr. Chanvre. Ger. Hanf. It. Canape. Rus. Konapli, Konopel. 
 Sp. Canamo), a valuable plant (Cannabis sativa) of the nettle tribe, remarkable 
 for the tenacity, durability, and elasticity of its fibres. It grows in Eastern coun- 
 tries, and from a remote period has been distributed over the N. E. of Europe. 
 At present it is reared principally in Russia and Poland, and in Italy, near 
 Naples. The plant is graceful in form, rising in northern latitudes to the height 
 of 5 or 6 feet, and on the fertile soils of warm countries to 12 feet. It prefers a 
 rich vegetable soil, though, according to an Italian saying, " Hemp may be grown 
 every where, but it cannot be produced fit for use, either in heaven or earth, with- 
 out manure/' It possesses the anomaly of growing upon the same spot for succes- 
 
HEM 363 HEM 
 
 sive years without degeneracy. The seed is sown in northern countries towards 
 the end of April or beginning of May, and the plant is pulled in autumn. Being 
 dioecious (i. e. with male and female flowers on different plants) there are two 
 harvests ; the first, of the male plants after they have discharged their pollen; the 
 second, of the female, or seed-bearing plants, about a month later, when the seeds 
 are ripened. The former is distinguished from the latter by its numerous flowers. 
 After being pulled and dried, the female plants, besides being slightly thrashed 
 in order to separate the capsules from the stems, hemp, like flax, is subjected to a 
 steeping or water- rotting process, in order to destroy the texture of the glutinous 
 substance which connects the fibres to the woody part of the stem. Sometimes 
 the steeping process is omitted, and the hemp is simply dew-rotted, by being 
 exposed, spread out on the ground, to the influence of rain and moisture. It then 
 undergoes the several processes of drying, bruising, and scutching ; after which it 
 is bound up in bunches and carried to market, — that which breaks off or is shaken 
 out in these operations, termed codilia, being of much less value. The best is of 
 an equal green colour, free from spills, and having a strong, fine, thin, and 
 long fibre. The produce of fibre varies from 30 to 50 stones and upwards per 
 acre. 
 
 Hemp then passes through various operations, according to the purpose to which 
 it is to be applied. First it is heckled, and arranged into sorts, — the coarser being 
 termed shorts and tow. It then passes into the hands of the spinner, of the whit- 
 ster, and of the weaver by whom it is made into sailcloth, sacks, common towels 
 and tablecloths, and other coarse fabrics. It is also very extensively used for the 
 manufacture of cordage, but its employment for this purpose is less general since 
 the introduction of chain-cables. 
 
 The plant is cultivated to some extent in the counties of Suffolk, York, Somerset, 
 and Lincoln ; but throughout this country generally it has been found less profitable 
 than corn ; and with the exception of small quantities from Italy, and a few trifling 
 shipments from other places, our manufacturers are almost exclusively supplied 
 from Russia. It is principally shipped from St Petersburg and Riga ; the latter 
 being, in general, the finest. 
 
 St Petersburg hemp, derived from the provinces of Kaluga, Orel, Kursk, Tula, Smolensk, Mo- 
 hileff, and Tsehernigoff, is distinguished by the braaek, or sworn inspectors, into three sorts,— clean, 
 outshot, and half-clean ; each in two classes, uncut and cut; the bulk consisting of the former 
 class. The distinctions of winter-dried, spring-dried, and middle-dried, sometimes noticed, afford 
 no criterion of quality, each proving sometimes better and at other times inferior to the others. It 
 is shipped in bundles"; that of clean weighs from 60 to 65 ; of outshot, from 50 to 60 ; and of half- 
 clean, from 40 to 50 poods ; 63 poods being equal to the ton of 20 cwt. The supplies are brought 
 from the interior chiefly by water, the principal part arriving in June and July, the rest later. 
 In the winter season (from November to May), purchases are sometimes made in anticipation 
 of the next supply, part or all the price being paid in advance, and sometimes purchases are made 
 of " remainders" of that of the preceding year. The latter will, of course, be ready for early 
 shipment, while the former, called " contract hemp," can seldom be exported before midsummer. 
 But during summer, purchases may be made with the advantage of a better choice of qualities ; 
 though in general not only the exchange but prices are then higher than during the contract 
 season, when dealers sometimes make cheap sales in order to raise money. The supply brought 
 annually to the St Petersburg market is valued bv Mr Clark in his " Russia Trader's Assistant," 
 {Exports, p. 59,) at £1,000,000, provided by 24 or 25 traders. 
 
 Ri'ja hemp is distinguished by the braaek as Ukraine, Polish, and Druyaner, each of these 
 kinds having the following gradations of qualitv :— Rhine, or 1st sorts, marked D R H, P R H, 
 and D R H : Outshot, or 2d sorts, marked U O H. and POH (none of Druvaner) : Pass, or 3d 
 sorts, marked U P H, P P H, and D P H : Codilia, marked H C. Purchases are made at this 
 port in the same manner as at St Petersburg. The annual exports from Riga amount to about 
 £350,0* 0. 
 
 The following from the Dundee price current of 9th August 1841 shows the comparative esti- 
 mate in which the different kinds are held in the principal British market :— 
 
 Riga, 
 
 Rhine, .. . 
 Outshot, . 
 Pass, 
 
 ..£41 
 ....38 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to £ . . 
 
 .'.' 36"o"o 
 .. 20 
 
 Petersburg, Clean,. . . 
 .... Half-Clean, 
 Codilia, 
 
 India Jute 
 
 .£39 
 ...33 
 ...18 10 
 ...15 
 
 to £40 
 .. 34 
 .. 19 
 .. 16 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Codilia,.. 
 
 ...19 
 
 (1 
 
 During the last war, the price of hemp was subject to great fluctuations ; rising 
 from £25 a-ton in 1792, to £118 a-ton, the rate at which it stood in 1808 under the 
 influence of the restrictions imposed by the Milan and Berlin decrees. Subse- 
 quently to 1815, it has oscillated between £24 and £50 a-ton. The import duty on 
 undressed hemp since 1832 has been only Id. per cwt. ; on dressed, it is £4, 15s. 
 pes cwt., which is prohibitory. 
 
 Besides common hemp, a variety of other vegetable substances of the same na- 
 ture, as coir, jute, and sunn, are imported into this countrv, in increasing quantities, 
 from Ceylon, India, and the Philippines, and applied to the same purposes; and the 
 
HEN 
 
 304 
 
 HER 
 
 whole of which are entered in the public accounts under the name of hemp. A 
 description of these substances will be found under their proper heads; and a 
 further account of the trade generally under Linen Manufactures, Rope, &c. 
 Account of the Quantities of undressed Hemp imported into the United Kingdom 
 
 from various Countries, and entered for Consumption in the five Years ended 
 
 5th January 1840 : — 
 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 lb39. 
 
 Cwts. 
 610,519 
 18,926 
 37 
 50,408 
 3,157 
 4,512 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 556,458 
 
 4,784 
 
 30 
 
 21,057 
 
 3,703 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 591 ,675 
 
 3,126 
 
 15 
 
 170,252 
 
 5,347 
 
 3,206 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 581,000 
 
 4,950 
 
 7,306 
 
 131,405 
 
 110 
 
 5,605 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 781,012 
 14,691 
 19, 546 
 
 167,139 
 2,226 
 11,079 
 
 Italy 
 
 
 
 America, chiefly United States 
 
 Total imported. . . . 
 . Entered for consumption 
 
 687,559 
 
 586,032 
 
 773,621 
 
 730,376 
 
 995,693 
 
 643,122 
 
 567,892 
 
 651,613 
 
 733,378 
 
 908,735 
 
 In 1840, the quantities were, imported, 684,921 cwts. ; entered for consumption, 737,291 cwts. 
 The importations of codilla and tow of hemp are not distinguished in the public accounts from 
 those of Flax. S 
 
 Hemp-seeds, the produce of the Cannabis sativa, abound in a thick mucilage, and 
 are sometimes used medicinally for the preparation of emulsions : a useful oil is 
 also obtained from them. About 10 or 12 bushels to the acre are considered 
 as a medium produce. The best are held to be those obtained from Riga ; but 
 wherever procured, care should be taken that they are fresh, which will be known 
 by their being heavy, and bright in the colour. About 3500 quarters are imported 
 annually. 
 
 Hemp-seed Oil, obtained from the seeds by pressure, is similar in its qualities 
 to linseed oil. It is of a green colour, and strongly impregnated with the peculiar 
 odour of the plant. It is made in immense quantities in Russia. 
 
 In ancient times the hemp-plant appears to have been valued more for its medicinal properties 
 than for its adaptation to the manufacture of cordage. It contains a deleterious narcotic secre- 
 tion of great energy ; and in various eastern countries, an infusion of the leaves is at present much 
 nsed for inducing the drowsy ecstatic feeling for which opium is esteemed. The leaves, chopped 
 very fine, are also mixed with tobacco for smoking. 
 
 HENNA, a reddish-brown substantive dye procured from the leaves of the 
 Egyptian privet (Lawsonia inermis), is used extensively by Egyptian and Asiatic 
 females for colouring certain parts of their hands and feet. It is also employed 
 in the east for dyeing ordinary stuffs. 
 
 HERRINGS (Du. Haringen. Fr. Harengs. Ger. H'dringe, Heringe. It. 
 Aringhe. Por. & Sp. Arenques. Rus. Seldi). The herring is a fish (Clupea ha- 
 rengus) ranked by Cuvier in the same order with the pilchard, sprat, shad, an- 
 chovy, and white bait. The body is covered with scales, the upper part is blue or 
 green according to the light, the lower part of a silvery white ; ordinary weight 
 5^ ounces, and length 10 to 12 inches ; owing to the gill-lids being very loose and 
 opening wide, it dies almost the instant it is taken out of the water. 
 
 The opinion of Pennant that the herring periodically migrates from within the 
 Arctic circle to the British seas to deposit its spawn is rejected by modern zoolo- 
 gists. " The herring inhabits the deep waters all round the British coasts, and 
 approaches the shores in the months of August and September for the purpose of de- 
 positing its spawn, which takes place in October or the beginning of November. It 
 is during these months that the great fishing is carried on, for after the spawning is 
 over it returns to deep water. The mode of fishing for herrings is by drift-nets, very 
 similar to those employed for taking mackerel and pilchard, with a slight difference 
 in the size of the mesh. The net is suspended by its upper edge from the drift rope 
 by various shorter and smaller ropes called buoy ropes ; and considerable practical 
 skill is required in the arrangement, that the net may hang with the meshes square, 
 smooth and even in the water, and at the proper depth; for according to the wind, 
 tide, situation of their food, and other causes, the herrings swim at various dis- 
 tances from the surface." — " The size of the boat used depends on the distance 
 from shore at which the fishery is carried on ; but whether in deep or in shallow 
 water, the nets are only in actual use during the night. It is found that the fish 
 strike the nets in much greater numbers when it is dark than when it is light ; the 
 darkest nights, therefore, and those in which the surface of the water is ruffled by 
 
HER 
 
 3G5 
 
 ITER 
 
 a breeze, are considered the most favourable. It is supposed that nets stretched 
 iu the daytime alarm the fish, and cause them to quit the places where that prac- 
 tice is followed ; it is therefore strictly forbidden." ( YarreWs British Fishes.) 
 
 The herring fishery has been prosecuted on the British shores from a remote pe- 
 riod ; but its early history is involved in obscurity. The progress of the Dutch 
 herring fishery is well known. There is a popular saying in Holland that " the 
 foundation of Amsterdam is laid on herring bones," in allusion to the fishery 
 having formerly been its great staple. Under the stadtholders this fishery was 
 considered as the right arm of the republic, and it was always entitled the " Grand 
 Fishery." When in the height of its prosperity (about 1650), the total number of 
 vessels which it employed, including those engaged in bringing salt and exporting 
 the fish, was stated at 6400, and the number of mariners and fishermen at 112,000. 
 The extraordinary progress of that people led to various measures in this country 
 for encouraging the British fisheries. These measures assumed a variety of 
 forms at different times, — such as fishing towns built at the public expense, — asso- 
 ciations under royal patronage,— the strict observance of Lent, — remission of the 
 salt duties, — the importation, duty free, of foreign commodities received in ex- 
 change for fish, — lotteries, — collections in churches, — rendering it obligatory upon 
 victuallers to take yearly a certain quantity at 30s. a-barrel,— and lastly, direct 
 bounties. These "encouragements" all failed in communicating any thing like 
 permanent prosperity to the fishery ; and some of them, particularly that of boun- 
 ties, led to great abuses ( Wealth of Nations, b. iv. c. 5). It would exceed the 
 limits of this article to specify the different changes which took place in the bounty 
 system. It may be mentioned, however, that in 1820, after various modifications, an 
 allowance of 20b. a-ton, increasing under certain circumstances to 50s., was 
 granted on all vessels of from 15 to 60 tons fitted out for the shore fishery, exclusive 
 of a premium of 4s. per barrel on herrings cured gutted, and of 2s. 8d. per barrel on 
 those exported. In a few years afterwards, the principle of bounties was aban- 
 doned; in 1826, the export bounty was withdrawn, and the bounty of 4s. was re- 
 duced Is. each succeeding year until 1830, when it ceased altogether. 
 
 The withdrawal of the bounties, so far from having injured the herring fishery, 
 has had a contrary effect. The fishermen, no longer encouraged to look to extra- 
 neous aid, and relieved from the intrusion of landsmen who engaged for a few 
 weeks in the fishery for the purpose of obtaining the bounty, have redoubled their 
 exertions, and are now better clothed, better fed, and more temperate than before ; 
 while in many cases they have been enabled by their industry to substitute for 
 the small boats formerly used others of much larger dimensions, and to provide 
 themselves with superior fishing materials. The following statement exhibits a 
 comparative view of the fishery both before and subsequent to the abolition of the 
 bounties : — 
 
 Year to 
 April 5. 
 
 No. of Barrels Cured. 
 
 Barrels 
 Branded. 
 
 No. of Barrels Exported. 
 
 Gutted. 
 
 Ungutted. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Gutted. 
 
 Ungutted. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1811 
 
 65,430 
 
 26,397 
 
 91,827 
 
 55,662 
 
 18,880 
 
 19,253 
 
 38,133 
 
 1815 
 
 105,372 
 
 54,767 
 
 160,139 
 
 83,376 
 
 68,938 
 
 72,367 
 
 141,305 
 
 1820 
 
 347,190 
 
 35,301 
 
 382,491 
 
 309,700 
 
 244,096 
 
 9,420 
 
 253,516 
 
 1825 
 
 303,397 
 
 44,268 
 
 347,665 
 
 270,844 
 
 201 ,882 
 
 134 
 
 202,016 
 
 1830 
 
 280,933 
 
 48,623 
 
 329,556 
 
 218,418 
 
 177,776 
 
 3,878 
 
 181,654 
 
 1835 
 
 217,242 
 
 60,075 
 
 277,317 
 
 85,079 
 
 156,225 
 
 2,580 
 
 158,805 
 
 1836 
 
 397,334 
 
 98.281 
 
 497,615 
 
 192,317 
 
 270,846 
 
 2,547 
 
 273,393 
 
 1837 
 
 290,077 
 
 107,660 
 
 397,737 
 
 114,192 
 
 187,238 
 
 2,027 
 
 189,265 
 
 1838 
 
 382,400 
 
 125,375 
 
 5-7.77.-- 
 
 141,552 
 
 229,160 
 
 5,997 
 
 235,158 
 
 1839 
 
 382,229 
 
 173,331 
 
 555,560 
 
 153,659 
 
 233,690 
 
 6,040 
 
 239,730 
 
 1840 
 
 410,332 
 
 138,465 
 
 548,798 
 
 152,231 
 
 253,883 
 
 1,968 
 
 255,851 
 
 Herrings are brought to market in three forms : fresh herrings are the condition 
 in which they are taken from the sea ; white or pickled herrings are merely salted 
 and put into barrels ; red herrings are gutted and salted, and afterwards hung up 
 and fired with the smoke of green wood. Fresh herrings are consumed in consid- 
 erable quantities in towns adjoining the coast ; but it is the pickled and red her- 
 rings which form the great objects of the fishery. The boat fishery is that chiefly 
 pursued when the fishing ground is not at a great distance from the shore. The 
 deep- sea fishery, where the fishermen go out to sea wherever the fish are to bo 
 found, requires vessels of a larger description (generally from 30 to 80 tons), as the 
 herrings are pickled and stowed on board. The vessels fitted out for this fishery 
 commonly meet with the earliest and best herrings ; and owing to the circumstance 
 
HIC 366 HOG 
 
 of the fish deserting parts of the coast which they have heen accustomed to fre- 
 quent, it is a more regular source of profit than the boat fishery, though it re- 
 quires larger capital. The British cured herrings, though now much better than 
 formerly, are still inferior to the Dutch; the British fishery, depending for its 
 prosperity upon quantity rather than quality. 
 
 The fishery is mostly on the N. E. coast, particularly at Wick and Dunbar ; it 
 is also pursued extensively in the Orkney and Shetland Isles, on the W. coast of 
 Scotland, Isle of Man, Yorkshire coast, and at Yarmouth, where red herrings are 
 largely cured for the home market. A great proportion of the Scotch cured 
 herrings is sent to Ireland, especially to Limerick, and exported to foreign parts. 
 In 1839, the total exportations from the U. K. were, to British W. Indies, 12,344 
 barrels ; Prussia, 62,073 ; Germany, 18,021 ; Russia, 6074; Italy and Sicily, 29,648 ; 
 Mauritius, 3340 ; Australia, 1760 ; other countries, 4429 ; total, 137,689 barrels ; 
 declared value, £143,067. The market abroad is much less extensive than it might 
 be if no impediments were offered by heavy duties. In Spain, Portugal, Italy, and 
 India, the consumption might be rendered much greater. 
 
 Notwithstanding the repeal of the bounties, the fishery is still under the surveil- 
 lance of a " Herring Board," which has officers at the different fishing stations, to 
 superintend the curing department, and who affix an official brand to barrels con- 
 taining a certain quality of fish. 
 
 The " British Society for extending the Fisheries and improving the Sea Coasts" 
 is a patriotic joint-stock company, which was incorporated in 1786, for building 
 stations in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland. No dividend has yet been 
 made by the corporation ; but it is still expected that their lands, harbours, and 
 buildings, may yield a rent. 
 
 The last of herrings is 13,000. The barrel is 32 old English wine, or 26§ Imp. 
 gallons. The cran is 45 wine, or 37 1 Imp. gallons. A cade is 500 herrings, s 
 
 HICKORY, a tree (Carya) common in this country, and growing on a large 
 scale in many parts of the United States. Several species are recognised, 
 though no difference can be distinguished in their timber, which is cross-grained, 
 red at the heart, heavy, and exceedingly tough and strong ; but it is subject to be 
 attacked by worms, and it decays quickly when exposed to the weather. It is 
 chiefly employed for carriage-shafts and springs, large screws, chair-backs, hoops, 
 whip-handles, and similar purposes. The hickory was formerly combined with the 
 Juglans or true walnut ; but it is distinguished by the shell of its nuts not being 
 deeply furrowed. The nuts of one species (C. olivaformis), called Pecan nuts, form 
 a small article of N. American trade. 
 
 HIDES (Du. Huiden. Fr. Peaux. Ger. Haute. It. Cuoja. Por. Pelles. 
 Rus. Koshi. Sp. Pellejos, Pieles), the skins of cattle, form an important branch 
 both of our inland and foreign trade. Various kinds are distinguished. Raw or 
 green hides are those in the state in which they are taken from the carcass ; salted 
 hides are those dressed or seasoned with salt, alum, or saltpetre, to prevent them 
 from putrefying; and tanned or cured hides. The animals whose hides are met with 
 in commerce are the ox, buffalo, and horse. The buffalo hide is larger and heavier 
 than that of the ox, and is, besides, distinguished by a tuft of hair on the shoulders. 
 Losh hides are buffalo and others dressed in oil in the same way as chamois 
 skins. Muscovy or Russian hides are tanned and coloured of a brown or red 
 colour. The quantity of untanned hides annually imported into the United King- 
 dom is now from 350,000 to 400,000 cwts., fully seven-eighths of which are entered 
 for home consumption. Upwards of one-half of the whole importations is from 
 Buenos Ayres ; considerable quantities are likewise brought from Brazil, the East 
 Indies, Cape of Good Hope, and United States ; while smaller shipments are made 
 from the N. of Europe, Morocco, Philippine Islands, W. Indies, Australia, and 
 other places. The importations of tanned hides, owing to the heavy duty, are 
 inconsiderable, seldom exceeding in a year 100,000 lbs. [Leather. Skins.] S 
 
 HIMTEN, a German corn measure, varying in different places. 
 
 HIRING. [Bailment. Carriers. Charter-Party. Shipping. Master 
 and Servant. Principal and Agent.] 
 
 HOG, one of the most useful and widely distributed of the domestic animals. It 
 possesses extraordinary fecundity, lives and thrives on almost every kind of food, 
 and converts a given quantity of aliment into fat sooner than any other animal. 
 Of the domestic hog (Sus aver) numerous varieties are distinguished. In England, 
 the chief are— the Chinese nog, of eastern origin, small in size, delicate of aspect, 
 and remarkable for its fecundity and disposition to fatten ; the Neapolitan, smooth 
 and black, also highly prolific, though not hardy ; the Berkshire, middle sized. 
 
HOG 367 HON 
 
 and reddish-white colour, with brown or black spots, is much esteemed, the most 
 
 fenerally spread of the native breeds, and is that commonly fed in distilleries; the 
 [ampshire, chiefly of a white colour, is the best of the larger classes. Other 
 varieties exist in various counties. In Scotland, there are several mixed kinds. 
 In Ireland, they are usually of a large size and coarse form. In the hog, the same 
 external characters indicate a disposition to fatten, as in other live stock. " The 
 chest should be deep and broad, the ribs largely arched, the neck short, and the 
 head and limbs small ; the bristles should be soft, approaching to hair, and the 
 skiu soft and elastic." {Low's Agriculture.) 
 
 The animal is fed for two purposes. The one is to yield pork, which may be 
 used either fresh, salted, or pickled, and for which the pigs are ready in 6 or 8 
 months ; the other is to produce bacon, prepared by salting and drying the flesh, 
 and for which they are ready in 10 or 12 months. The smaller class of early feed- 
 ing pigs is preferred for the former purpose, the larger class, as the Hampshire, for 
 the fatter. In the case of pickling pork, the carcass is cut into pieces, and packed 
 in kits or barrels. When designed for bacon, the body is cut so as to separate the 
 hams or legs from the flitches or sides : It is generally cured in the cold months, 
 from September to April. The flesh of the hog is highly nutritive, and it forms 
 a great part of the animal food of the labouring classes of many countries, espe- 
 cially England ; while, from its ready reception of salt, it is better fitted for pre- 
 servation than any other flesh, and is thus eminently adapted for sea voyages, 
 for which purpose it is largely used. 
 
 In England, Yorkshire and Westmoreland are distinguished for the quantity 
 and quality of their hams. The best bacon is made in Wilts, Hampshire, and 
 Berks. But the English hams and bacon are now confessedly rivalled by those of 
 the Scotch counties — Dumfries, Wigtown, and Kirkcudbright — large quantities 
 of which are shipped to Liverpool. In Ireland, hogs are very generally reared, 
 the pig being an inmate of almost every cottage ; and large quantities of pork, 
 bacon, and hams, are sent from thence to Liverpool, Bristol, and Glasgow. They 
 are comparatively coarse and ill flavoured, an inferiority resulting as well from 
 bad feeding as from want of skill and attention in the process of curing. The 
 shipments from Ireland to Britain in 1825 were, — bacon and hams, 362,278 cwts. ; 
 beef and pork (not separated in the public accounts), 604,253 cwts. ; and in 1835, 
 bacon and hams, 379,111 cwts., estimated value, £828,158; and beef and pork, 
 37(1.172 cwts., value, £723,935. 
 
 The exportations from the United Kingdom have increased of late years, and in 
 1839 the quantities and declared value were as follow, — bacon and hams, 31,519 
 cwts., £98,431 ; beef and pork, 66,222 barrels, £227,465 ; sent mostly to the W. 
 Indies, and in small quantities to British America, Australia, Cape of Good Hope, 
 Mauritius, India, Spain, and other places. The importations are now con- 
 siderable. 
 
 HOGSHEAD, a British measure of capacity prior to the introduction of the Im- 
 perial system. The wine hogshead contained 63 wine gallons = 52"49 Imp. galls. 
 The ale hogshead contained 54 ale gallons = 54*92 Imp. galls. 
 
 HOLIBUT, a large flat fish (Hippoglossus vulgaris), sometimes confounded 
 with turbot, but much inferior in quality. The flesh, though white and firm, is 
 dry, with but little flavour. Its capture is principally confined to the northern 
 fisheries. 
 
 HOLLAND [Netherlands, Kingdom of the]. S 
 
 HOLOGRAPH, in the law of Scotland, is an expression used to designate a 
 deed which, from being wholly in the handwriting of the granter, is, to a certain 
 extent, privileged, and probative without the solemnities which other deeds require 
 in their execution. 
 
 HONDURAS (BRITISH), a settlement extending along the E. coast of Central 
 America, between lat. 15° 54' and 18° 30' N., and long. 88° and 90° W. Area, 
 ill denned. Population in 1839, whites, 235 ; coloured, 7700 ; total, 7935. It is 
 governed by a superintendent, who is assisted by seven councillors elected annually. 
 
 The shore is studded with low coral isles, called keys, and the coast is rocky but flat ; the land, 
 however, gradually rises into a bold and lofty region, interspersed with rivers and lagoons, and 
 covered with noble forests. The country is rich in vegetable productions, and arrowroot and 
 rice are grown to a small extent, but cultivation is neglected, and the inhabitants chiefly employ 
 themselves in wood-cutting, principally the mahogany tree, of which this district is the chief seat, 
 and collecting natural produce. The exportations in 1836 consisted of 9,768,293 square feet of 
 mahogany, 992 tons logwood, 3585 tons cochineal, besides hides, cocoa-nuts, cedar, turtle, and 
 other articles. 
 
 Balizt, the only town and port, is built on both sides of the river of that name, in lat. 17° 30 / N., 
 long. 88° 8' W. The houses, constructed of wood, are raised 8 or 10 feet from the ground, on 
 
HON 3G3 HOP 
 
 pillars of mahogany ; pop. about 5000. There is excellent anchorage for vessels of moderate size, 
 which is protected 'by the numerous keys from the heavy swells of the open sea. Besides the ex- 
 
 i)ortation of the produce of the colony, Balize has of late years become the depot of British manu- 
 actures and foreign merchandise designed for the consumption of Central America, which are 
 forwarded thence to Izabal and Omoa. 
 
 The imports as well as exports of Balize, and the colony generally, are estimated to amount to 
 between £400,000 and £500,000. In 1839, 107 vessels entered, of which, belonging to Great 
 Britain, 81 ; British colonies, 4; United States, 22. 
 
 The measures and weights are British, and accounts are kept in pounds, shillings, and pence 
 currency. The nominal par of exchange with England is £140 Honduras currency per £100 
 sterling, but the premium on mercantile bills is always considerably higher. In 1837, the premium 
 was about 18 per cent., and in 1838, from 18 to 20 per cent. The Spanish dollar is valued at 6s. 8d. 
 currency, the doubloon at £5, 6s. 8d. currency. The public revenue amounts to about £20,000. 
 
 The British occupation of this coast appears to have been commenced by smugglers and logwood 
 cutters from Jamaica, in the 17th century. In 1754, the settlers were expelled by the Spaniards, 
 but permitted to return in 1763. In 1779, they were again expelled, but restored in 1783. The 
 colony was once more attacked by the Spaniards in 1798, but unsuccessfully ; and the coast from 
 the Rio Hondo, on the N., to the Sarstoon river on the S., with the adjacent country, is now con- 
 sidered to belong to Great Britain by right of conquest. S 
 
 HONE, a fine kind of stone, imported from Germany and Turkey, used for 
 sharpening or setting cutlery. It is of a green colour, inclining to yellow, often 
 marked with thin dendrical lines, and is moderately hard, having a fine close tex- 
 ture resembling indurated clay. 
 
 HONEY (Fr. Miel. Ger. Honig. It. Miile. Sp. Miel), a well-known product 
 of the bee. Its taste is pleasant and sweet ; smell balsamic, and various, according 
 to the flowers from which it is collected. When new, it is viscid, thick, and smooth ; 
 when old, crystalline and granulated. The best is that which is freest from colour, 
 and contains the largest grains when it concretes. That obtained from young bees, 
 and which flows spontaneously from the combs, is the purest and finest ; it is 
 known by the name of Virgin honey. Honey separated from the wax by expres- 
 sion is less pure ; and there is another sort still inferior, obtained by heating the 
 combs before they are pressed. It is often adulterated, or originally bad. When 
 collected where fetid flowers abound, as species of garlic, its smell is offensive. 
 Genuine honey does not ferment spontaneously or mould. It is often mixed with 
 water to increase its bulk,— a fraud known by its thinness, and having no tendency 
 to granulate. More commonly flour is added as well as water. This kind also 
 granulates very imperfectly, and the adulteration is detected by dissolving it in 
 cold water, when the flour subsides. Honey is abundantly produced in this country. 
 It is also imported from Narbonne in France and other places. S 
 
 HOONDEE, in India, a native bill of exchange. 
 
 HOOPS, the circular bindings of casks or barrels. 
 
 HOPS (Fr. Houblon. Ger. Hopfen). The hop, a dioecious plant (Humulus 
 lupulus), with a perennial root, is extensively cultivated in Kent, Sussex, and 
 Herefordshire, on account of the female catkins, which, after being picked and 
 kiln-dried, are used by brewers for giving a bitter flavour to beer, as well as for 
 preserving it. Hops vary in produce from 2 to 20 cwts. per acre ; from 10 to 14 
 cwts. is a favourable crop. The expense of forming new ground is frequently 
 little less than £100 Der acre. Warm seasons with little rain are required for good 
 crops. Great heat alter rains, and high winds, are particularly destructive, and 
 they are exposed to numerous diseases and the ravages of many insects, so that 
 their culture is both expensive and uncertain. 
 
 The finer flavoured and light coloured hops are pressed into pockets, or sacks, of 
 comparatively fine cloth, which weigh about 1| cwt. each, and are sold chiefly to 
 the ale-brewer. The strong flavoured and high coloured hops are put into bags of a 
 very coarse mat kind of texture, which contain generally double the weight of the 
 pockets. These are used by porter and small-beer brewers. The fine flavour or 
 aroma of hops does not exist a year. Beyond that time they become old hops ; and 
 are sold at a cheaper rate to the porter-brewer. A year or two longer, and the 
 bitter itself disappears ; and the whole becomes nothing better than chaff. The 
 Nottinghamshire or North-clay hops, have the pre-eminence in rankness, and, 
 accordingly, with a certain description of buyers, bear a higher price than the Kent, 
 though that is not so high as the general price of Farnham hops. Of the Kent hops, 
 the best are those grown near Canterbury (" Art of Brewing" Lib. of Useful 
 Knowledge). The strength of hops is judged by the thickness and solidity of the 
 catkins ; and the flavour by the smell. 
 
 From 50,000 to 60,000 acres in England are occupied with hop gardens, about one-half being in 
 Kent ; and an excise duty of 18s. 8d. per cwt. is levied upon their produce (45 Geo. III. c. 94), for 
 which, however, nearly a year's credit is allowed by 1 & 2 "Win. IV. c. 53. The quantities charged 
 
IIOR 369 IIOR 
 
 with dutv were, in 1835, 49,088,700 lbs. ; in 1836, 41,874,913 lbs.; in 1837, 37,295,304 lbs.; in 
 1838, 35,801,224 lbs. ; and in 1839, 42,898,629 lbs. The amount of duty in 1839 was £357,488. 
 British hops are exported to Hamburg, Antwerp, St Petersburg, New York, Australia, and other 
 The quantity imported is trifling, as the duty is of a prohibitory character. 
 British hops reimpbrted are to be deemed foreign.— (3 & 4 Wm, IV. c. 52, § 33.) S 
 HOREHOUND (WHITE), a common herb (Marrubium vulgare), the leaves 
 of which are an article of the materia medica. They are of a whitish-gray, woolly 
 appearance, and possess a faint odour, and a bitter, sharp taste. 
 
 HORN (Fr. Come. Ger. Horn) is distinguished from bone by being soft, tough, 
 semi-transparent, and susceptible of being cut and pressed into a variety of forms ; 
 properties which fit it for being employed in turnery, for knife-handles, and in the 
 manufacture of combs, snuffboxes, lanterns, and other articles. The horns of the 
 ox, goat, sheep, and other animals are largely used for these purposes ; and be- 
 sides those obtained in this country, about 30,000 cwts. are annually imported from 
 abroad, two-thirds of which are entered for home consumption. The horns of goats 
 and sheep are preferred from their being whiter and more transparent than those 
 of other animals. 
 
 HORNBEAM, an indigenous British tree {Carpinus betulus), common in 
 copses. In appearance it is graceful, resembling the beech. Its wood is tough, 
 and well suited for tool-handles, cogs, and for other purposes in which strength is 
 required ; but it is coarse, and unfit for cabinet work. 
 
 HORSE, a noble quadruped (Eouus caballus), whose beauty, strength, and doci- 
 lity have now connected him, directly or indirectly, with almost all the pur- 
 poses of life. The horse is strictly herbivorous. His stomach is comparatively 
 small, and he eats often. He sleeps very little, and frequently standing. The 
 foal is used for work when about 3 years old. The horse lives for 20 years, but 
 is seldom capable of much work after 15. The age can be ascertained by the 
 teeth till the eighth year ; after which he is said to be " past mark." In old ani- 
 mals, however, the gums shrink from the teeth, which are left very long, and 
 become of a yellow or brown colour. 
 
 The horse is vastly modified in his form and character by the physical condi- 
 tion of the countries in which he is naturalized. The pony of Norway or of the 
 Highlands of Scotland and the huge horse of the plains present extremes of 
 strength and size ; while, again, these contrast in a striking manner with the 
 light form and agile shape displayed by those fed on the arid plains and scanty 
 herbage of warmer countries. To the intermixture of the last with the former the 
 technical term blood is applied. Importations of them anciently took place from 
 Spain and Barbary; and at a later period from Arabia. The African and Arabian 
 horses, accordingly, have given their characters to the blood-horse of England and 
 its innumerable varieties. " The animal in which this effect of blood is the most 
 remarkable is the English race-horse. For the combination of speed with the ne- 
 cessary strength, this creature can scarcely be surpassed. He forms, however, a 
 race of artificial creation, admirably suited for a particular purpose, but not other- 
 wise deserving of cultivation, except from this, that it is the stallions of thi3 race 
 that continue the excellence and purity of the parent stock. The hunter is perhaps 
 the finest race of horses known. It combines the blood of the Arabian and other 
 races of the South and East with the powerful form of the horses of the N. of 
 Europe in a much happier proportion than the race-horse. From the hunter down- 
 wards to the races where no mixture of southern blood can be traced, the grada- 
 tions are innumerable. It is in this class that our road horses and hackneys, the 
 horses employed in our coaches and carriages of all kinds, nay, often in the mere 
 labour of heavy draught, are contained. It forms the most numerous class of horses 
 in the country. But a large proportion is bad, having lost the hardiness and 
 strength of the native race, without haviug arrived at the speed and other qualities 
 of good breeding. The remaining class of horses consists of those in which no mix- 
 ture, or a very slight one, of stranger blood is found. These are the ponies of our 
 mountains, or the larger horses of the plains" (Low's Agriculture). Of the lasr, 
 usually termed cart or farm horses, the most commonly enumerated breeds 
 are— 1. The Old English black horse, of very large size, chiefly bred in the midland 
 counties, from Lincolnshire to Staffordshire ; 2. The Clydesdale, or breed of the 
 central plains of Scotland ; 3. The Cleveland Bay, the origin of the better kind ot 
 coach-horse, bred over the whole of Yorkshire and Durham ; and 4. The Suffolk 
 Punch, so termed from its punchy form. 
 
 " In a horse where speed alone is required, the chest must not be too broad ; but 
 in ahorse in which we require the power of active motion, or, in technical language, 
 action, combined with endurance, there should be a sufficient breadth of chest, and 
 a medium, therefore, is what is desired in the hackuey and hunter. In the farm- 
 
 2 A 
 
HOR 370 HOR 
 
 horse the chest should be broad, because in the farm-horse we require the power of 
 draught, and not of speed. The chest of the horse behind the shoulders should be 
 deep ; his back, when we look for strength, without sacrificing this to mere speed, 
 should be short; the ribs should approach near to the pelvis, as indicating strength, 
 though if speed alone be required, this point may be sacrificed. The fore arm and 
 hind leg to the joints should be muscular, and below the joints tendinous. The 
 trunk should be barrel-shaped, but somewhat elliptical, and gently enlarging from 
 the breast backward." (Ibid.) 
 
 The demand for horses for the saddle, for carriages, and for the heavier labours of 
 every kind is very great. They are mostly produced on ordinary farms ; but the race- 
 horse and the finer animals for the saddle are bred chiefly in Yorkshire. A consider- 
 able number of blood horses are also reared in Ireland, especially in the rich grazing 
 counties of Meath and Roscommon ; they are smaller and clumsier than the Eng- 
 lish, but strong and hardy, full of fire and courage, and the best leapers in the world. 
 There are not any documents from which the number of horses kept in this 
 country can be ascertained. The elements for such a computation, which never 
 were very complete, have of late years been rendered much less so through the 
 repeal of the taxes levied upon such as are used for various employments. Mr 
 M Queen estimates the number in the United Kingdom at 2,118,195, but this we 
 consider an exaggeration. The exportation of horses has of late years grown into 
 importance. The quantity imported is inconsiderable. 
 
 The principal repositories in London for the sale of horses by public auction or 
 private contract, are : — Dixon's, Goswell Street, on Tuesdays and Fridays ; Horse 
 Bazaar, King Street, Portman Square, Tuesdays and Saturdays ; Morris', late 
 Aldridge's, Little St Martin's Lane, Wednesdays and Saturdays ; Tatter 'sail's, 
 Grosvenor Place, Hyde Park Corner, Mondays and Thursdays. 
 
 There are few sources of greater annoyance, both to the buyer and the seller of the horse, than 
 disputes with regard to soundness. " That horse is sound in whom there is no disease, nor any 
 alteration of structure in any part which impairs, or is likely to impair, his natural usefulness. 
 That horse is unsound that labours under disease, or that has some alteration of structure that 
 does interfere, or is likely to interfere, with his natural usefulness." "In the purchase of a horse, 
 the buyer usually receives, embodied in the receipt, what is termed a warranty. It should be 
 thus expressed : — 
 
 " Received of A B forty pounds for a gray mare, warranted only five years old, sound, free from 
 vice, and quiet to ride and drive. " C D." 
 
 " A receipt including merely the word ' warranted,' extends only to soundness, — ■ warranted 
 sound ' extends no further ; the age, freedom from vice, and quietness to ride and drive, should 
 be specially named. This warranty extends to every cause of unsoundness that can be detected, 
 or that lurks in the constitution at the time of sale, and to every vicious habit which the animal 
 has hitherto shown. To establish a breach of the warranty, and to be enabled to return the horse 
 or recover the price, the purchaser must prom that it was unsound or viciously disposed at the 
 time of sale. In case of cough, the horse must have been heard to cough previous to the purchase, 
 or as he was led home, or as soon as he had entered the stables of the purchaser. Coughing, even 
 on the following morning, will not be sufficient ; for it is possible that he might have caught cold 
 by change of stabling." " No price will imply a warranty, or be equivalent to one ; there must be 
 an express warranty." ** The warranty should be given at the time of sale. A warranty, or a pro- 
 mise to warrant the horse, given at any period antecedent to the sale, is invalid." " A warranty 
 after the sale is invalid, for it is given without any legal consideration. In order to complete the 
 purchase, there must be a transfer of the animal, or a memorandum of agreement, or the payment 
 of earnest-money : the least sum will suffice for earnest. No verbal promise to buy or to sell is 
 binding without one of these." " Where there is no warranty, an action may be brought on the 
 ground of fraud, but this is very difficult to be maintained, and few possibly will hazard it. It 
 will be necessary to prove that the dealer knew the defect, and that the purchaser was imposed 
 upon by his false representation ; and that, too, in a case in which a person of ordinary circum- 
 spection might have been imposed upon."— (The Horse, Lib. of Useful Know., p. 361-368.) 
 
 The repositories in London and other great towns for the periodical sale of horses by auction, 
 are of great convenience to the seller, who can at once get rid of a horse with which he wishes to 
 part, and who is relieved from the nuisance or fear of having it returned on account of the breach 
 of the warranty, because in these places only two days are allowed for the trial, and if the animal 
 is not returned within that period, he cannot be returned afterwards. They are also convenient 
 to the purchaser, who can thus soon find a horse that will suit him, and which, from this restric- 
 tion as to the returning of the animal, he will obtain 20 or 30 per cent, below the dealer's prices. 
 Assessed Taxes on H>rs"s & Mules in Britain.— And so on at the same rate for any number of 
 Ho rses for riding, or drawing carriages. | SU ch horses. £ s. d. 
 
 Race-horses, each 3 10 
 
 ( Horses let for hire without paying post- 
 
 I horse duty, each 1 8 9 
 
 Horses rode by butchers in their trade, 
 
 I each 1 8 9 
 
 J Where two only are kept, the second at 10 6 
 I Horses for riding, not exceeding the 
 
 height of 13 hands, each 1 1 
 
 Other horses and mules 13 hands high, 
 
 each 10 6 
 
 I Exemptions.— Horses used for the purposes of 
 
 No. 
 
 Each Hoikc. 
 
 No. 
 
 E<u-h Hone. 
 
 No. 
 
 Each Horse. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1 
 
 1 8 9 
 
 8 
 
 2 19 9 
 
 15 
 
 3 3 9 
 
 2 
 
 2 7 3 
 
 9 
 
 3 9 
 
 16 
 
 3 3 9 
 
 3 
 
 2 12 3 
 
 10 
 
 3 3 6 
 
 17 
 
 3 4 
 
 4 
 
 2 15 
 
 11 
 
 3 3 6 
 
 18 
 
 3 4 6 
 
 5 
 
 2 15 9 
 
 12 
 
 3 3 6 
 
 19 
 
 3 5 
 
 6 
 
 2 18 
 
 13 
 
 3 3 9 
 
 20 
 
 3 6 
 
 7 
 
 2 19 9 
 
 14 
 
 3 3 9 
 
 
 
HOR 371 HOS 
 
 husbandry or by market -garden ere in their or herdsman, where only one such horse is 
 business. | kept. 
 
 Farm -horses occasionally used for drawing bur- Horse used for the purpose of riding, or of 
 
 dens, or let for drawing, for hire or profit, if 
 not used for drawing any carriage chargeable 
 uith duty. 
 Horse used for the purpose of riding, or of draw- 
 ing any carriage not chargeable with duty, by 
 any tenant of a farm at a rack-rent under 
 £500 per annum, provided the person claim- 
 ing the exemption keep only one such horse. 
 
 drawing any carriage not chargeable with 
 duty, by any clergyman (including dissenters), 
 provided the person claiming the exemption 
 keep only one such horse, and have an in- 
 come, whether arising from his ecclesiastical 
 appointment or otherwise, under £120 per 
 
 Mares kept for the sole purpose of breeding. 
 
 and have no income exceeding £100 per an- Horses kept by licensed postmasters may be used 
 num from any other source. I for husbandry, and for drawing fuel, manure, 
 
 Horse used for'riding by any bailiff, shepherd, ! com, or fodder, free from duty. 
 
 Horsedealers in London and within the bills of mortality are assessed in pay- 
 ment of an annual duty of £25 ; and in other parts of Britain, £12 : 10. Exemp- 
 tions.— Persous who only sell horses bred by themselves or kept as farming-stock 
 at least 3 months. 
 
 HORSE-POWER, the dynamical unit employed to express the force of the 
 steam-engine, is estimated at 33,000 avoirdupois pounds weight, raised one foot 
 high in a minute ; being a force equal to that which the average strength of a horse 
 was believed capable of exerting. " There have been different estimates as to the 
 real power of horses, and it is now considered that, taking the most advantageous 
 rate for using horse-power, the medium power of that animal is equal to about 
 22,000 lbs. raised one foot high per minute. However, the other, 33,000 lbs., is 
 taken as the standard, and is what is meant when a horse-power is spoken of. In 
 comparing the power of a steam-engine with that of horses applied to do the same 
 work, it must be remembered that the engine horse-power is 33,000 lbs. raised one 
 foot per minute, the real horse-power only 22,000 lbs.; and that the engine will 
 work unceasingly for 24 hours, while the horse works at that rate only 8 hours. 
 The engine works three times as long as the horse,— hence, to do the same work in 
 a day as an engine of one horse-power, 4'5 horses would be required. The power 
 of a man may be estimated at l-5th of the real power of a horse, or 4400 lbs. raised 
 one foot per minute." — (Hugo Reid on the Steam-Engine.} 
 
 HORSE-RADISH, the pungent root of the Cochlearia armoracia, a perennial 
 plant, common in moist places. It is used as a condiment, and is besides an ar- 
 ticle of the materia medica. 
 
 HOSIERY. This manufacture may be held to date its origin from the intro- 
 duction of the stocking-frame, the first machine successfully used in England for 
 superseding hand-labour in the manufacture of clothing. It was invented by the 
 Rev. William Lea of St John's College, Cambridge, so early as the year 1589 ; and 
 though its value and importance were not at first understood, and a considerable 
 time elapsed before its produce superseded the trunk-hose then worn, the impulse 
 which it gave to trade was sensibly felt before the lapse of half a century ; and by 
 1669, there were about 660 frames in Britain, affording employment to 1200 work- 
 men. Successive improvements were afterwards devised : tuck-ribs were invented 
 in 1730, about which time also cotton was first used in the manufacture of stock- 
 ings ; and in 1759, Jedediah Strutt obtained his patent for Derby ribs ; but no very 
 considerable improvement was communicated to Lea's invention until lately, when 
 6tocking-frames with a rotatory action, and worked by steam-power, were brought 
 into use. 
 
 The counties of Leicester, Nottingham, and Derby, are the chief seats of the 
 manufacture in this country ; in the first, woollen hosiery is the principal branch, 
 in the second, cotton, and in the third, silk. Woollen hose are also made on a 
 considerable scale in Wales, and at Hawick, in Scotland. It is not possible to 
 make any comparative estimate of the growth of the hosiery manufacture, but there 
 cannot be a doubt that the home trade has been very greatly increased within the 
 last fifty years. Of the present extent and value of the manufacture, perhaps the 
 best estimate is that made a few years ago by Mr Felkin of Nottingham. This 
 gentleman calculates the value of cotton hosiery annually made at £880,000, that of 
 worsted at £870,000, and that of silk at £241,000. He estimates the number of 
 stockings manufactured yearly at 3,510,000 dozens, and in the production of these 
 there are used 4,584,000 lbs. of raw cotton, value £153,000; 140,000 lbs. of raw 
 silk, value £91,000; and 6,318,000 lbs. of English wool, value £316,000; making 
 the total value of the materials £560,000, which are ultimately converted into the 
 exchangeable value of £1,991,000. The total number of persons employed is 73,000. 
 The fixed and floating capital invested, taking the machines at their working 
 
HOY 372 HUD 
 
 value, may be thus stated : Fixed capital in mills and machinery for preparing 
 worsted, cotton, and silk yarn, £140,000; fixed capital in frames, £245,000; floating 
 capital in spinning, &c. £270,000 ; floating capital in hosiery, £780,000. Total 
 amount of fixed capital, £385,000 ; total amount of floating capital, £1,050,000 
 (Porter's Progress of the Nation, sec. 11. chap. 2. p. 246). In this estimate, however, 
 no allowance is made for the value of the stockings knitted by wires, which, 
 although very much diminished, is still considerable. 
 
 Neither the quantity nor the value of the hosiery exported can be stated, as our 
 custom-house returns include with stockings cotton-lace and a variety of articles 
 under the head of " small-wares ;" the annual declared value of the whole being 
 about £1,500,000. But there is little reason to believe that of late years it has 
 increased, at least in the cotton department (except perhaps to the colonies), owing 
 to the arduous competition which our manufacturers have now to sustain in this 
 branch with those of Germany. The principal seat of the German cotton-ho- 
 siery is Chemnitz, in Saxony, where stockings and socks are made with Lanca- 
 shire yarns, at prices which have not only excluded British goods from their mar- 
 kets, but, within these few years, have enabled them even to be entered for con- 
 sumption in this country, after paying a duty of 20 per cent. The following is a state- 
 ment of the quantities of cotton stockings and socks of foreign manufacture imported 
 and entered for home consumption in each of the five years to 5th January 1840 : — 
 
 1835. 183f>. 1837. 1838. 1839. 
 
 Imported, pairs . . 209,271 287,252 190,552 398,361 498,927 
 
 Entered for consumption, pairs 35,911 37,623 39,550 12,470 36,144 
 
 The advantage acquired by the Saxon manufacturers in cotton hosiery arises 
 from the comparatively low rate of wages paid by them, and the greater proportion 
 which the cost of labour bears to the cost of the material in that department of the 
 trade than in the others. In cotton-hosiery goods, the cost of labour constitutes 
 from two-thirds to five-sixths of their value, while in woollens it does not exceed 
 two-fifths, and in silk articles the proportion is still smaller. It does not appear 
 probable, therefore, that our manufacturers of woollen and silk hosiery have so 
 much to apprehend from foreign rivalry as those of cotton. 
 
 In Germany, according to Dr Bowring, the hosiery manufacture has grown up 
 spontaneously, without any protection, and is one of those that has made, and is mak- 
 ing, most progress in that part of Europe. " I believe," says he, " at this moment, 
 the cotton frames of Saxony are equal, if they do not exceed in number those of 
 this country." — (Report on Import Duties, 1840, p. 64.) S 
 
 HOY, a long, low, flat-bottomed vessel, with one or two masts, used for carry- 
 ing luggage and other articles along shore in smooth water. 
 
 HUCKABACK, a coarse hempen or linen fabric, commonly made into towels. 
 
 HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORY, the lands in North America granted to the 
 Hudson's Bay Company. The boundaries of these lands were never very satis- 
 factorily defined. They were declared to comprehend all districts in which was 
 contained the source of any stream which discharges its waters into Hudson's Bay ; 
 but since the union formed between this association and the North-west Company 
 in 1821, it claims a kind of proprietorship over the whole of British America, with 
 the exception of the settled provinces or governments. S 
 
 This territory forms the northern part of the great central plain of N. America. Little precise 
 information has heen obtained as to the soil, but a large part of it has a climate so unfriendly to 
 vegetation, that even the hardiest trees are incapable of withstanding its rigour. A great portion 
 of the S. part, however, is covered with woods, and at several places iron, copper, lead, coal, 
 and salt have been discovered ; but the present wealth of the country consists in the fur-bearing 
 animals, the skins of which form the principal object of traffic. Indeed, the interior must be 
 considered as little better than a hunting-ground, with, perhaps, the exception of a district about 
 the Red River of Lake Winnipeg, which was sold by the Company to Lord Selkirk, and is assum- 
 ing the form of a European settlement. The inhabitants of the coast are chiefly Esquimaux, and 
 of the central parts Indian tribes ; the whole supposed to amount to about 150,000. 
 
 The Hudson's Bay Company, chartered in 1670, and possessing the monopoly of the fur trade in 
 these regions, is now the only survivor of the numerous exclusive bodies to which many branches 
 of British trade were at one time subjected. The supreme direction is vested in a board consisting 
 of a governor, deputy-governor, and seven directors, who hold their sittings in London. A resi- 
 dent governor, appointed by them, has the superintendence of all the settlements, and is assisted 
 by local councils, composed of the principal officers in each district, who meet him at central 
 points during his annual tours of inspection. The acting officers consist of chief factors, each of 
 whom has charge of several posts, of principal and secondary traders, and of clerks. The higher 
 offices are filled up according to merit from the inferior ones ; so that it is perfectly open for a clerk 
 to rise to the rank of chief-factor. The company have at present in their employ about KiOO 
 Europeans and their descendants by Indian wives. They have 4 or 5 principal stations. York 
 Fort, the most important, commands all the vast region extending W. and N. of Hudson's Bay. 
 Moose Fort, at the S. extremity of Hudson's Bay, presides overall the country between that gulf 
 and the Canadian lakes. Ungava Bay, at the exterior entrance of Hudson's' Strait, contains a 
 
IIUN 373 ICE 
 
 small station for collecting the produce of the adjacent coast of Labrador, chiefly consisting of oil 
 from the seal and porpoise. Montreal is the centre of the transactions carried on in the Canadas. 
 Lastly, the Company have important stations to the west of the Rocky Mountains, particularly 
 Fort Vancouver on the Columbia, though the territory on that river is a subject of dispute 
 between Britain and the United States. [Furs.] 
 
 The Company's vessels, carrying out the stores to Hudson's Bay, sail from London on the 1st 
 June, so as to arrive about the end of August, when the navigation becomes open. They then 
 deposit their cargoes, which remain in store till the commencement of the ensuing season ; when 
 in return they receive furs and other articles which have been brought from the interior, and 
 commence their voyage to England, if possible, before the end of September. The ships employed 
 in the trade of the western territory leave the Thames in November, and sail round Cape Horn. 
 The trade employs 4 or 5 ships yearly. The annual value of the imports from this country is about 
 £55,000; while that of furs and other articles exported varies from about £35,000 to £70,000. 
 
 HUNDREDWEIGHT, the chief Biitish measure of weight for bulky articles, 
 contains 112 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 HUSBANDAGE, the commission given to a shipshusband, or managing owner. 
 
 HYPOTHEC is a hen or security over some piece of property, the custody of 
 which does not pass to the holder of the security, but remains with the proprietor 
 of the article. The term is employed only when the property is moveable. In 
 Scotland, the real security which the landlord has for his rent, over the produce of 
 a farm or the furniture of a house, is called a hypothec. The laws of this country 
 do not give encouragement to a species of security which carries so slight an indi- 
 cation of its existence, and admits so many opportunities for fraud. There can 
 scarcely be said to be any tacit hypothecs in existence, with the exception of those 
 just stated, and the only instance in which conventional ones are recognised, are in 
 the case of a security taken over a ship, or over a cargo, for necessaries on a 
 voyage. [Bottomry. Respondentia..] In France, where these securities admit 
 of being registered, they are more generally acknowledged. 
 
 I. 
 
 ICE is extensively used for a variety of economical purposes, such as cooling 
 liquors, packing salmon, and as an ingredient in some confections. In warm 
 climates it is prized as a luxury ; and in Bengal and other hot countries, artificial 
 means are regularly used for its manufacture. Of late years, however, the practice 
 has been adopted of shipping it from cold to warm countries. In September 1833, 
 a cargo of solid ice, shipped at Boston, was discharged at Calcutta. The price 
 at which it was offered was 3d. per lb., while the native ice could not be sold 
 under 6d. It was packed in solia masses, within chambers of double planking, 
 with a layer of refuse tan or bark between them ; but the Americans expected, by 
 improved methods of packing, to lower the price of future consignments one-half. 
 The whole quantity shipped was 180 tons, of which about 60 wasted on the voyage, 
 and "20 on the passage up the river to Calcutta, and in stowing away. Various 
 other vessels with similar cargoes have since arrived in India. It is also exported 
 from the United States to Brazil and other countries. S 
 
 Ice for the use of the fisheries is to be admitted duty free into Coleraine, Londonderry, and 
 Sligo. Treat. O., May 10, 1828. 
 
 ICELAND, a large volcanic island in the Northern Ocean, between lat. 63° 23' 
 and 66° 33' N., and long. 13° 20' and 24° 31' W. Area, 38,230 square miles. Popu- 
 lation 56,000. It is subject to the King of Denmark, by whom a stiftsamtmann or 
 governor is appointed every five years. 
 
 The aspect of Iceland is rugged, barren, and highly repulsive, — fire and ice seeming ever con- 
 joined, and yet ever contending for the mastery. " It looks almost like the fragment of some 
 former world that has alone escaped destruction, confirming the opinion which regards it as a por- 
 tion torn from the bottom of the sea by the expansive energies of fire." Only about one-ninth part 
 is inhabited, the remainder being covered with chains of naked mountains of ice, called jokuls, or 
 with valleys rendered equally desolate by lava and ashes ejected from numerous volcanoes, including 
 the celebrated Hekla. The island, though almost entirely in the temperate zone, approaches in 
 climate nearer to polar lands ; trees seldom rise above 10 feet, and very little corn is grown. The 
 main harvest is hay. the rearing of cattle forming, with fishing, the principal occupation of the 
 people. In 1832, according to Mr Barrow, the live stock on this island was 50,000 horses, nearly 
 40,000 cattle, and 500,000 sheep. There are no regular trades or manufactures. " Every farmer 
 is his own carpenter and smith, though it not unfrequently happens that the clergyman, by his 
 superior skill, monopolizes the trade of shoeing horses." Stockings and mittens, however, knitted 
 by the women, are largely exported ; the other exports consist of wool, skins, dried fish, o.l, salted 
 mutton, eider-down, sulphur, and tallow, the latter being chiefly shipped from the factory of 
 nu.-avik on the Skialfianda Fiord. The imports are rye, pease, barley, salt, brandy, iron, tar, 
 colonial produce, tishing lines, and cables. 
 
 The island is divided into four commercial districts ; — Reikiavik. Eske Fiord, Eyd Fiord, and 
 Isa Fiord ; and ships arriving in one are not allowed to go to another. The trade is mostly carried 
 on by the Danes, though a few British and Norwegian vessels sometimes pay the island a visit. 
 The chief port, and almost only town is Reikiavik, lying on the S. side of an inlet of the Faxe Fiord, 
 
ICE 374 IND 
 
 on the S. W. coast ; pop. 7M. The monies, weights, and measures, are the same as those of Den- 
 mark.— (Edin. Cab. Lib., No. XXVIII., Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands.) 
 
 ICELAND MOSS, a lichen (Cetraria Islandica) common in the N. of Europe 
 and N. America, which yields a nutritive starchy substance, sometimes employed 
 to make bread and gruel. It may be formed into a paste ; and from its possessing de- 
 mulcent qualities, as well as a bitter principle,it is extensively employed in consump- 
 tion and other diseases, being regarded as a dietetic as well as therapeutic agent. , 
 
 IMPORTATION. [Customs Regulations.] 
 
 IMPRESSMENT OF SEAMEN. The law on this subject is in a very vague 
 and unsatisfactory state. Parliament has never yet, except incidentally, entered 
 upon this subject, probably from a feeling that any legislation regarding it which 
 did not involve the abolition of the practice would be very unpopular. Hence 
 this formidable exercise of the royal prerogative has no better foundation than 
 vague usage, sanctioned by a few decisions of the courts, and restricted by occa- 
 sional statutes. There have been many discussions as to the origin of the practice, 
 and its legality has often been called in question. The existence of the power, 
 however, though its extent is very obscure, has been held to be acknowledged by 
 the judgments of the courts, and the restrictive clauses in the statutes. Of the 
 exemptions, which are thus the only branch that can be distinctly laid down, the 
 following is a general statement. 1st, Persons above 55 and under 18, foreigners 
 serving in British merchantmen, and able-bodied landsmen who have joined the 
 sea-service and have not been more than two years attached to it (13 Geo. II. c. 17). 
 2d, For every 50 tons of a ship in the coal-trade, one seaman, nominated by the 
 master and certified by a magistrate. This exemption is annual, from 15th April 
 to 1st January (6 & 7 Wm. III. c. 18, § 19). 3d, Masters of vessels, and others 
 employed in the coast-fishery, according to certain minute provisions in 50 Geo. III. 
 c. 108. 4th, Harpooners, line-managers, and boat-steerers of vessels in the south- 
 sea whale-fishery (26 Geo. III. c. 50, § 25). 
 
 By 4 Geo. IV. c. 24, § 4, all enrolled apprentices were exempted from serving in 
 the navy. That act was repealed by 5 & 6 Wm. IV. c. 19, which is less distinct 
 in its enactments, and which indeed, though professing to consolidate all the law3 
 of the mercantile navy, contains no exemptions from impressment in direot terms. 
 The act declares (§ 39) that " no parish or voluntary apprentice to the sea-service 
 shall be at liberty to enter into the naval service during the period of his apprentice- 
 ship without the consent of his master ; but if, nevertheless, he shall voluntarily 
 enter on board any of his Majesty's ships of war, and shall be allowed by his 
 master to continue therein," the master, on intimating his consent, becomes entitled 
 to the apprentice's wages earned up to the period of the expiry of his indenture. 
 There are clauses for authorizing registered mariners to break their agreements 
 for the purpose of entering the navy, and these also are expressed in such terms as 
 if there were no such practice as that of impressment. The whole statute will be 
 found abridged under the head Seamen. 
 
 INCH, in long measure, is the •j'gth of the foot. In this country it was anciently 
 subdivided into 3 barley-corns, but now more commonly into eighths or tenths. In 
 superficial measure, however, it is divided into 12 lines or parts, each part into 12 
 seconds, and each second into 12 thirds. These are called duodecimals. 
 
 INDIA (BRITISH). Under this head we intend to describe the territories of the 
 East India Company inHindostan, and the adjoining regions on the Asiatic continent ; 
 noticing generally at the same time, however, the native states in those countries 
 which are under British protection, as well as the few that still remain independent ; 
 as our possession (with trifling exceptions in favour of Sinde and some European 
 powers) of the whole coast, from the mouth of the river Indus on the W., to the 
 extremity of the Bay of Bengal on the E., enables us to exercise a sort of commercial 
 dominion over the whole. These regions, comprising, with the foregoing exceptions, 
 all Continental India, may be generally defined as extending from the Himmaleh 
 mountains on the N. to Cape Comorin in the Indian Ocean on the S., and from 
 the Indus on the W. to the Burmese territories on the E., — the extent and popula- 
 tion of the whole being as follows : — 
 
 Area in square miles. Population. 
 
 Presidencies of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, in- ) con nnn QQ Qnn nf . A 
 
 eluding the acquisitions from the Burmese in 1826, J" 6 * 30 ' 000 83,300,000 
 
 States under British protection,* 550,000 40,000,000 
 
 Nepaul, Lahore, and other independent states, 177,000 11,000,000 
 
 Total, 1,357,000 134,300,000 
 
 * Exclusive of the recent conquests of Scinde and the Punjab. 
 
IND 375 IND 
 
 The Company's Settlements of Malacca, Penang, and Singapore, and the Crown 
 Colony of Ceylon, commonly included in British India, are described under their 
 tive heads ; while under East India Company will be found an historical, 
 political, and financial account of that body. 
 
 The Geographical Features of India are distinguished at once by their grandeur and their 
 variety, it is, as it were, an epitome of the whole world. Its vast plains present the double 
 harvests, the luxuriant foliage, and even the burnin? deserts of the torrid zone ; the lower heights 
 are enriched by the fruits and grains of the temperate climates ; the upper steeps of the Himmaleh 
 are clothed with the vast pine forests of the north ; while the highest pinnacles are buried beneath 
 the perpetual snows of the arctic zone. 
 
 The main body as it were of India, — the chief scene of her matchless fertility, — is composed of 
 a plain, extending along the entire breadth from east to west, between the Brahmapootra and the 
 Indus, and reaching in point of latitude from the great chain of the Himmaleh to the high table- 
 land of the Southern Peninsula. It thus possesses a length of about 1500 miles, with an average 
 breadth of from 300 to 400. With the exception, perhaps, of the country watered by the great 
 river of China, it may be considered the finest and most fertile on the face of the earth. Of this 
 general character of the Indian plain, the province of Bengal presents the most complete and 
 striking example, — no part of it being diversified with a single rock or even a hillock. The Ganges 
 pours through it a continually widening stream, which, during the rainy season, covers a great 
 extent with its fertilizing inundation. From this deep, rich, well-watered soil, the sun awakens 
 an almost unrivalled power of vegetation, and makes it one entire field of waving grain. Bahar, 
 further up the current, has the same general aspect, though its surface is varied by some slight 
 elevations ; but Allahabad, higher still, is mostly low, warm, and fruitful, exactly like Bengal. 
 North of the river, the provinces of Oude and Rohilcund, sloping gradually upwards to the moun- 
 tains, enjoy a more cool and salubrious climate, and display in profusion the most valuable pro- 
 ducts both of Asia and Europe. Here the valley of the Ganges terminates, and is succeeded by 
 that of the Jumna, more elevated, and neither so well watered nor quite so fertile. The Doab, 
 or territory between the two rivers, requires in many places artificial irrigation. Its woods, how- 
 ever, are more luxuriant ; while the moderate cold of its winter permits a crop of wheat or other 
 European grain to be raised, and the summer is sufficiently hot to ripen one of rice. To the south of 
 the Jumna, and along the course of its tributary the Chumbul, the ground is broken by eminences, 
 extending from the hills of Malwa and Ajmere ; while, even amid its most level tracts, insulated 
 rocks, with perpendicular sides and level summits, form those almost impregnable hill-forts, so 
 much celebrated in Indian history. Westward of Delhi begins the Great Desert, — a sandy tract 
 which intervenes between the tributaries of the Ganges on the one side, and the Indus and its tri- 
 butaries on the other, and which is refreshed only by a few small rivulets that spring up and dis- 
 appear amid the waste. This entire region, about 600 miles long and 300 broad, presents an as- 
 pect nearly similar to the most dreary parts of Arabia and Africa. To the north and north-west 
 of this barren tract, however, lies the'plain of the Punjaub (subject to the Rajah of Lahore), where 
 the five tributaries of the Indus, rolling their ample streams, produce a degree of fertility equal 
 to that of the region watered by the Ganges. High cultivation, too frequently obstructed by public 
 disorders, is alone wanting to make it rival the finest portions of the more eastern territory. 
 
 Throughout nearly the whole of this vast plain, the wants of the population and the demands 
 of commerce have superseded the original productions of nature ; and, even under the most careful 
 management, few of those exquisite shrubs are now reared, which have given such celebrity to the ve- 
 getable kingdom of the east. Its staples consist of solid, rich, useful articles, produced by strong heat, 
 acting on a deep, moist, and fertile soil, — as rice, the eastern staff of life, sugar, opium, indigo, — 
 and, in the drier tracts, cotton. Such an entire subjection to the plough and the spade, joined to the 
 want of variety in the surface, gives to this great central region a tame and monotonous aspect. 
 
 The Deccan or Southern Peninsula presents none of those singular features which distinguish the 
 great central plain and its northern boundary. Hills, occasionally rising to the rank of mountains, 
 and enclosing table-lands of various elevations, diversify its surface, and procure for it at once the 
 climate and vegetation of the tropical and of the temperate zones. But the most prominent fea- 
 ture is a range of heights, corresponding to the triangular form of this part of the continent. The 
 northern border consists of the Vyndhya chain, — a tract of high country stretching from the Gulf 
 of Cambay to the Bay of Bengal, chiefly along both banks of the Nerbudda, and composing the 
 provinces of Malwa, Candeish, and Gundwana, to which has been given the name of Central 
 India. From its extremities extend southward the Ghauts, two parallel chains, which, at a 
 greater or less distance, girdle the whole of the opposite coasts of Malabar and Coromandel. 
 
 The Western Ghauts, rising from about 3000 feet in the N. to 6000 feet in the S., stand 
 generally at a small distance from the sea. The chief productions of this district, which includes 
 a great part of the Bombay presidency, are the pepper, vine, betel, and the areca, sago, and cocoa 
 palms ; while the highest tracts are crowned by forests of teak. At the boundary of Mysore there 
 crosses the continent a ridge, called the Nhilgerries, the loftiest in all this part of India, having 
 one peak 8700 feet in height, which has lately become an important sanitary retreat. Farther 
 south, the west coast is in general very low, and traversed by numerous streams flowing parallel to 
 the shore, thus affording great convenience for inland navigation. 
 
 The Eastern Ghauts, rising behind the Coromandel coast, and including a considerable portion 
 of the Madras Presidency, are generally less elevated, but spread into more numerous branches, and 
 over a wider surface. They leave also a broader plain between them and the sea ; yet, unless in 
 the deltas of the great rivers which, from the west, cross the Ghauts and fall into the Bay of 
 Bengal, this space bears somewhat of a naked and arid character. There occur even extensive 
 tracts of sandy soil impregnated with saline substances, which in some degree taint the atmos- 
 phere. More to the north, in Orissa and the Circars, the high grounds often advance close to the 
 sea, and consist to a great extent of mountain and jungle, continuing in a more uncultivated state, 
 and peopled by more uncivilized races, than almost any other part of India. Cuttack again, a dis- 
 trict approaching the Ganges, is so low as to be liable to frequent inundations from the sea, which 
 in 1830, 1831, 1832, and 1833, broke the barriers and overflowed numerous fields. 
 
 These three ranges enclose a table-land, nearly 2000 feet above the level of the ocean, and 
 
INI) 376 1ND 
 
 comprising the main body of Southern India. The south-western tract— the original seat of 
 Mahratta power — forms a hilly country ; but the central region, composing the once powerful 
 kingdom of Golconda and Bejapore, comprehends extensive fertile plains, secured by their eleva- 
 tion from the scorching heats which afflict the territory along the coast. The extreme southern 
 district, called the Carnatic, is divided into two table-lands, the Ballaghaut and the Mysore, con- 
 siderably higher than those of the Deccan, and on that account including a greater variety of 
 climate, soil, and production. 
 
 Of the rivers, the largest have their source in the great northern chain of the Himmaleh ; and 
 the rest, with few exceptions, in the table-land of Central and Southern India, which is supported 
 by the Ghauts. The following are the chief rivers of India and of the countries which border upon 
 it*, with their computed length of course. In Northern India, the Indus and its largest tribu- 
 tary, making together 20(H) miles; the Ganges, 1500; the Bralimapootra, 1600; the Jumna, 
 780; the Ganduck, 450 ; the Cosi, 300; the Gogra, 300 ; the Goomtee, 300 ; the Sone, 300; the 
 Betwa, 300 ; and the Chumbul, 500. In Southern India there are the Taptee, 460 ; the Nerbudda, 
 700 ; the Mah£, 380 ; the Saubermutty, 200 ; the Godaverv, 850 ; the Kistna, 700 ; and the Cavery, 
 700. 
 
 The Climate of India, though for the greater part situated nearer the equator, is not so hot as 
 that of Arabia or the adjacent countries. The course of the seasons is also more regular and 
 constant, being mostly regulated by those periodical winds called Monsoons. The south-west 
 monsoon, — the rainy season, — commences with thunder and tempests in Southern India in May 
 or the beginning of June, but later as we advance towards the north ; in July the rains are at their 
 height ; they afterwards gradually abate till the end of September, when they depart amidst storms 
 as they came. In the beginning of October a change takes place from the south-west to the north- 
 east monsoon. This monsoon is attended with dry weather throughout the Peninsula, excepting 
 on its eastern side, on the coast of Coromandel : on this coast it brings the periodical rains, which 
 last till the middle of December, — heat and drought on the other hand prevailing here from June 
 to October ; from December to the end of February, the north-east monsoon continues, but is now 
 every where a dry wind, producing cool and agreeable weather. The north-east winds cease about the 
 beginning of March, from which time to the beginning of June the winds are irregular and the heat 
 great all over the peninsula. The winds are chiefly from the south at this time in the Bay of Bengal 
 and on its shores, and are hot, moist, and relaxing. In general, the healthy season in India may 
 be said to be from November to the setting in of the rains, and the unhealthy season during the 
 period of the rains and a short time after their termination. 
 
 The Inhabitants of India, although prominently distinguished from those of other parts of the 
 world, are scarcely less varied among themselves than their soil and climate. The most numerous 
 are those who speak Hindostanee, — a dialect formed on the basis of an ancient Hindoo language by 
 superadding Persian, introduced by the Mohammedan conquerors, exactly as our own ianguage 
 has been formed by the addition of Norman-French to the Saxon. This people occupy the upper 
 valley of the Ganges, and their number is about 31,000,000. The Bengalees, inhabiting the del a 
 of the Ganges, are computed at 25,000,000. In Southern India the most numerous are the Telin- 
 gas, numbering about 8,000,000. The Tamul nation, in the extreme south, are not less titan 
 5,000,000. To the north of the Telingas we have the Oorias, estimated at 4,000,000. In the south 
 we have two other great nations, — the Carnatas and the Mahrattas, — whose numbers have not 
 been computed. To these great indigenous nations are to be added many minor ones ; — a variety 
 of wild and wandering races, with a crowd of foreign settlers or their descendants, as Arabs, 
 Persians, Afghans, Turks of Zagatay, Armenians, Jews, Portuguese, English, and a few French. 
 The most populous district is that watered by the Ganges, the entire valley of which contains 
 about 260 inhabitants to the square mile. Physically viewed, the Iudians are inferior in strength 
 and stature to the European race. There is, however, a great diversity of character among them. 
 The Bengalees are the smallest, feeblest, and most timid, though not the least ingenious and in- 
 dustrious. Many of the higher classes of the Hindoos beyond Bengal possess great courage, and 
 this character obtains both to the north and the south ; but still docility, incapacity of combina- 
 tion, and attachment to peace, are characteristics of the whole. With these features, it would be 
 extravagance to compare their labour with that of Europeans. On an average the productive power 
 of four natives is reckoned at not more than that of one Englishman, which, indeed, is the propor- 
 tional rate at which Indian seamen, or lascars, are received into shipping. The labouring classes 
 are wretchedly poor, — the average rate of earnings being only from 5s. to 8s. a-montb. They are in 
 consequence forced to have recourse to the lowest species of food ; while, as to raiment, a great 
 number have enough only to cover their nakedness, — the male sex a single clout, and the female 
 sex two. 
 
 The Productions of the Soil, for themost part, and especially those introduced into the European 
 market, bear a very low value, compared to the same articles raised in the southern and tropical 
 regions of America. This unfavourable distinction appears to arise less from any defect in the 
 land, or even in the species of products, than from the imperfect culture, and the slovenly manner 
 in which they are prepared. Rice is the food of every class except the lowest, and its production, 
 generally speaking, is only limited by the-means of "irrigation, which is essential to its growth. 
 The ground is prepared in March and April ; the seed is sown in May ; and the produce reaped in 
 August. If circumstances are favourable there are other harvests, — one between July and No- 
 vember, another between January and April, consisting sometimes of rice, but more commonly 
 of other grain, pulse, or cotton. In the higher territories, sloping upward to the Himmaleh, 
 wheat and barley prevail. Holcus or millet is also largely cultivated on inferior lands, and as an 
 intermediate crop ; and this with pulse, to which are added even vetches, wild roots, and herbs, 
 constitutes the chief food of the labouring class. In Guzerat some species of holcus are raised to 
 a considerable extent. But now the chief commercial product of India is opium, — an article pro- 
 duced almost exclusively in the central dictricts, especially Bahar, Benares, Patna, and Mafwa, 
 a full account of which will be found elsewhere. [Opium]. Cotton is also an article of great im- 
 portance, being used for the clothing of a large proportion of the people. That of Dacca, selected 
 for its muslins, is the finest in India, and perhaps in the world ; but it is limited to a range about 
 forty miles long and three broad, along the banks of the river Brahmapootra. Attempts were 
 made to spread it by distributing plants iu other districts, but without success. The largest 
 
IXD 377 INB 
 
 crops are raised In the Doab and others of the upper Gangetic provinces, from which Bengal is 
 almost entirely supplied ; but the best qualities are found in the Nagpore district, and in the 
 vicinitv of Surat and Bombay. These, however, have continued to be inferior to the American, 
 as they are rendered almost unmarketable by their foul state, being mingled with dirt and seed. 
 Great'exertions have been made by the Company to improve the quality ; and, since 1829, they have 
 redoubled their efforts, ordering experimental farms to be established, and sending out seeds of the 
 American and Egyptian species, also cleaning implements, particularly the American saw-gin. Its 
 application appeared at first completely successful ; but it was soon found that it shortened the 
 staple. It appears on the whole, however, that European superintendence, with an improvement 
 in the native modes of cleaning and packing, has of late raised the value. Silk is another mate- 
 rial native to India ; and, though its actual culture is not so widely diffused as that of cotton, it 
 could probably be produced in almost any desired quantity. Cossimbuzar, Commercolly, and 
 Rungpore are at present the principal districts whence it is derived. 
 
 Sugar is an article extensively raised and consumed in India, chiefly in the form of sweetmeats ; 
 and the whole quantity used has been estimated at 480,000 tons ; it is grown chiefly in the upper 
 part of the valley of the Ganges and in Guzerat, That used by the natives consists mostly of a 
 foul mass, in which the molasses are still included ; and only a certain portion is manufactured in 
 a state imperfectly granulated. The variety drawn from different species of the palm is preferred 
 in the south of India, being less costly, though coarser. Considerable exertions have been made 
 by the English to improve the manufacture of sugar ; and the Otaheite cane, considered decidedly 
 the best, and generally grown in the West Indies, has been introduced. Tobacco has been 
 planted by Europeans, and is in general use. The chief other products are, — indigo, extensively 
 grown along the alluvial tracts of Bengal, bordering on the Ganges ; pepper, raised amid the 
 wooded hills of Malabar and Canara ; saltpetre, an article of which Bengal, from some peculiarity 
 in its soil and climate, enjoys nearly a monopoly, being particularly abundant in the province of 
 Bahar, and giving value to arid and steril soils unfit for cultivation ; and wool, which was always 
 produced, though, till lately, of very inferior quality. In the territory of Bombay it has been 
 remarkably improved. 
 
 Our information regarding the mineralogy of India is defective. Coal exists in various places ; 
 the most remarkable field is that of the Damoda, a deposit worked in pits at a place about 40 
 miles N.E. of Raghunathpur, the produce of which is now consumed in Calcutta. Iron, copper, 
 lead, and other metals, occasionally present themselves, but their produce is trifling. Precious 
 stones, especially diamonds, are likewise found in certain districts. 
 
 The Manufactures of India have enjoyed a high reputation from the earliest antiquity. The 
 country containing a great number of inhabitants who are extremely poor, and a few who are 
 immensely rich, a demand is created on the one hand for a great mass of coarse fabrics, and on 
 the other for a small quantity that are exquisitely fine. To exhibit themselves in splendid robes 
 is a favourite object of oriental luxury ; accordingly, the produce of the loom had reached a per- 
 fection to which that of no other country, except Britain, and that very recently, could make even 
 an approach. The delicate and flexible" form of the Hindoo, the pliancy of his fingers, and the 
 exquisite sense with which they are endowed, even his quiet indefatigable perseverance, all render 
 him peculiarly fitted for this description of employment. The muslins of Dacca in fineness, the 
 calicoes and other piece goods of Coromandel in brilliant durable colours, have never been sur- 
 passed ; and yet they are produced without capital, machinery, division of labour, or any of those 
 means which give such facilities to the manufacturing skill of Europe, — the weaver being merely 
 a detached individual, with a loom of the rudest construction, consisting sometimes of a few branches 
 of trees or bars of wood roughly put together. The demand for these fine muslins and calicoes, how- 
 ever, has within the last fifty years greatly decreased, owing partly to the fall of so many splendid 
 courts where alone remunerating prices could be obtained, but mainly to the competition of the 
 cheap imitations of these fabrics, which are imported from Manchester, Glasgow, and Paisley. The 
 only cloths that now meet a sure sale are those coarse cotton robes, woven in almost every inland 
 village, for the use of the common people. The sole other manufacture deserving of notice is 
 that of silk, which is also of great antiquity in India, and carried to considerable perfection, though 
 not nearly equal to that of cotton. Bandanas and other handkerchiefs, crapes and taffetas, are the 
 forms in which it is chiefly produced. The shawls of Cashmere, worked on the northern border of 
 India from the wool of a species of goat, are also highly prized in every quarter of the world. 
 
 The Inland Trade comprehends not only the intercourse between one portion of the British 
 dominions and another, and the trade of the latter with the tributary and independent states of 
 Hindostan, but also the trade along a land frontier of about 2000 miles, with Sinde, Cabul, Lahore, 
 Nepaul, Bootan, and the Burmese dominions ; there being very few foreign or tropical productions 
 which these nations, the last excepted, can receive but through their connexion with us. 
 
 This internal intercourse, however, is much impeded by the defective means of communication. 
 What are called high-roads are in general little better than broad and bad pathways ; while the 
 number of bridges, in a country intersected by so many rivers or streams, is small, and the few that 
 exist are miserable. Of late considerable exertion has been made by the Company to remedy these 
 deficiencies, especially in Bengal ; and several extensive roads have been recently (1841 ) completed 
 — as the grand trunk-road from Calcutta, extending 770 miles through Bengal and the upper pro- 
 vinces ; the Jugurmath road, connecting Orissa with Bengal ; the road from Calcutta to Kishna- 
 gur ; that from Silhet to Gowhatty in Assam ; and the Deccan road from Mirzaporeto Jubbulpore, 
 besides various others, — all being without tolls ; but, taken as a whole, what has been accom- 
 plished is trifling compared with what is required. Few of the rivers are navigable for consider- 
 able shipping further than the range of the oceanic tide ; and, although there is throughout 
 the plain of the Ganges, as well as on the rivers of the south, a considerable inland navigation, 
 somewhat similar to what would in this country be called canal-navigation, yet much of that, 
 even of the larger rivers, is impracticable every where, except during the four months of the rainy 
 season, while even during that season it is of little avail for the return trade from the coast. The 
 greater part of the inland trade of India must therefore be conducted by land, and hence the import- 
 ance of good roads, which would be practicable at all seasons and in every part of the country. Goods 
 are conveyed partly in very rude cars drawn by oxen, but much the greater proportion are carried 
 by paek-builocks. On the north- we&t frontier camels and horses are used; and in the northern 
 
IND 
 
 378 
 
 IND 
 
 mountains small horses and even goats are employed. In all the hilly districts porters are 
 still more in use than any description of cattle. The charge for carrying goods by land in the 
 plains averages about 56s. per ton per 100 miles; and, by the Ganges, about 2s. per ton. 
 Thus the cost of conveying merchandise 101) miles by land in India is equal to more than one-half 
 the cost of conveyance from Calcutta to London ; and the rate of freight is three times as much 
 on the Ganges as between London and Calcutta.— (Commerce, Money, and Banking of India, 
 p. 22.) 
 
 The source of the internal trade of India is, like all others, the difference in the character of the 
 productive industry of the several countries and districts carrying it on. The principal articles 
 are corn, cotton, oil-giving plants, and sugar, salt, indigo, opium, silk, tobacco, saltpetre, drugs, 
 hides, lime, and timber. By far the greater part of the salt is produced on the coast, or imported 
 landways from foreign countries ; it is chiefly paid for in corn. Tbe cotton, sugar, and other 
 articles are paid for either in thft. tropical productions of the coast, or in foreign commodities, prin- 
 cipally consisting of the areca-nut, spiceries ; the metals, iron, zinc, tin, copper, and lead ; wool- 
 lens and cottons. Until lately the whole inland trade of British India was subject to transit 
 duties. These have been wisely abolished within the Bengal provinces ; and if they are not, ought 
 to be discontinued in our other possessions, where their operation is known to have been still more 
 pernicious. There remain for abolition the monopoly of the manufacture and sale of salt, and 
 of the culture of the poppy, and the preparation and sale of opium, — imposts which yield an an- 
 nual revenue of about two millions. 
 
 The External Trade of India is carried on with the following countries, which are given in the 
 order of their relative importance : — Great Britain, China, Persian and Arabian Gulfs, Eastern 
 Islands and Peninsula, France, United States, other continental nations of Europe than France, 
 Cape of Good Hope and Mauritius, South America, and Australia. An account of the course of trade 
 at the three principal ports is given below ; but there are no public documents which afford a 
 comprehensive view of the whole amount of the foreign imports and exports. In the work above 
 referred to, however (p. 39), the quantities and values of the staple articles of foreign export 
 are estimated as follows:— Opium, 24,000 chests, each of 140 lbs, £2,880,000; indigo, 10,000,000 
 lbs. £2,500,000; cotton wool, 100,000,000 lbs. £1,500,000; cotton manufactures, £250,000; raw 
 silk, 1,600,000 lbs. £950,000; silk manufactures, £200,000; corn and grain, 468,750 quarters, 
 £375,000; sugar, 16,000 tons, £256,000; saltpetre, 14,000 tons, £160,000; Total, £9,071,000. 
 
 The principal commercial relations of India are, as we have already stated, with Great Britain. 
 An account of the progress of the trade up to the renewal of the Company's Charter in 1833 has 
 been already given [East India Company] ; and the following tables exhibit the amounts of the 
 imports and exports for a series of years since that event. S 
 
 Quantities of the Principal Articles of the Produce and Manufacture of India 
 Imported into the United Kingdom from 1834 to 1839. 
 
 Cotton wool lbs 
 
 Cotton goods pieces 
 
 Raw silk lbs, 
 
 Bandanas, &c pieces 
 
 Indigo lbs. 
 
 Lac, shellac lbs 
 
 Sugar cwt. 
 
 Pepper lbs. 
 
 Saltpetre cwt. 
 
 Rice cwt. 
 
 Castor oil lbs. 
 
 1835. 
 
 32, 
 
 1,798 
 375 
 
 3,616 
 
 1,637 
 101 
 
 7,131 
 257 
 276 
 685 
 
 41,429 
 293 
 
 1,105 
 382 
 
 3,878 
 
 1,708 
 137 
 
 2,807 
 194 
 233 
 
 1,107 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 75,949,845! 51 
 368,160i 
 
 1,450,222 1 
 332,393 
 
 7,222,331 
 
 1,919,572 
 171,757 
 
 6,777,892 
 177,937 
 145,180 
 972,552 
 
 ,532,072 
 414,450 
 ,298,037 
 504,452 
 721,554 
 185,493 
 302,945 
 150,534 
 222,6«6 
 352,833 
 957,165 
 
 1838. 
 
 40,217. 
 204, 
 
 1,151, 
 492, 
 
 6,579, 
 
 3,753, 
 474, 
 
 3,326, 
 234, 
 203, 
 837, 
 
 734 47,172,939 
 271 348,446 
 
 1,387,944 
 477,482 
 
 4,654,226 
 
 4,342,729 
 587,142 
 
 9,090,898 
 272,429 
 419,319 
 916,37< 
 
 The chief other articles are sheep's wool, coffee, ginger, rum, gums, drugs, and skins. 
 
 Declared Value of Articles, the Produce or Manufacture of the United Kingdom, 
 Exported to the Territories of the East India Company and Ceylon in the same 
 Years. 
 
 Apparel, &c 
 
 Arms, ammunition 
 
 Beer, ale 
 
 Cotton manufactures.. .. 
 
 Cotton twist, yarn 
 
 Glass wares 
 
 Iron, steel 
 
 Hardware, cutlery 
 
 Brass and copper goods. 
 
 Machinery , 
 
 Linen manufactures 
 
 Woollen do 
 
 Other articles 
 
 Total 
 
 1834. 
 
 £ 
 
 27,646 
 
 29,880 
 
 52,049 
 
 959,221 
 
 315,583 
 
 77,002 
 
 104,340 
 48,756 
 
 345,561 
 35,992 
 17,238 
 25,697 
 
 539,604 
 
 1835. 
 
 £ 
 
 41,502 
 
 53,769 
 
 64,381 
 
 1,368,954 
 
 432,821 
 
 109,702 
 
 144,7%' 
 
 60,838 
 
 316,120 
 
 12,524 
 
 21,805 
 
 216,300 
 
 349,180 
 
 2,578.569 3,192.692 
 
 1836. 
 
 £ 
 
 67,921 
 46,985 
 82,635 
 2,020,343 
 561,878 
 129,796 
 134.893 
 86,671 
 350,292 
 7,550 
 40,481 
 324,670 
 431,714 
 
 4.285.829 
 
 1837- 
 
 1838. 
 
 50,608 
 
 54,2591 
 
 82,124| 
 
 1,558,693, 
 
 602,293 
 
 100,841 
 
 137,294 
 
 79,141 
 
 328,547 
 
 7,402 
 
 32,155 
 
 225,679 
 
 353,939 
 
 £ 
 
 61,945 
 
 46.002 
 
 75,544 
 
 1,805,449 
 
 640,205 
 84,209 
 
 137,7<>7 
 60,363 
 
 303.132 
 29,8:.9 
 36,240 
 
 204,900 
 
 390,631 
 
 1839. 
 
 £ 
 
 77,728 
 74,597 
 
 110,402 
 2,314,754 
 
 690,916 
 74,286 
 
 190,468 
 70,677 
 
 329,367 
 75,948 
 87,634 
 
 190,050 
 
 491 ,780 
 
 3.612.975 3,876. 196 1 4,748.607 
 
 Of the articles not specified the chief are plate, watches and jewellery, books and stationery, 
 earthenware, lead and shot, coals, leather and saddlery, silk-manufuctures, and tin-ware* 
 
IND 379 IND 
 
 The return* for 1H40, so far as published, are still more favourable ; the declared value of British 
 produce and manufactures exported amounting to no less than £6,023,192; and the imports of 
 cotton-wool to 7<i,703,295 lbs. : vhile in 1841 the latter were again increased to 87,463,584 lbs. 
 
 The commercial intercourse between Great Britain and Hindostan, though thus considerable, is 
 yet, we believe, of small amount compared to what it is destined to become. Hitherto, with some 
 raeent exceptions, there has been a strange propensity on the part of our statesmen to subject India 
 to many and great disadvantages as to trade, and pertinaciously to refuse to treat it as a member 
 of the empire, one and indivisible in respect to rights and interests. The discriminating duties, so 
 long continued upon sugar and rum for the advantage of the West India planters, have been re- 
 pealed on Bengal and Madras sugar. But they are still maintained upon the sugar produced in other 
 parts of India, and upon tobacco, coffee, and some minor articles ; while again, India is far 
 from being placed on a footing of reciprocity as regards the admission of her manufactures into 
 Great Britain. Thus the cotton and silk piece goods of England are imported into Calcutta at a 
 duty of 3J per cent. ; while the cottons of India, brought to a British port, pay in no case less than 
 10 per cent. ; and in regard to Indian silk piece goods the inequality is still greater,— they being 
 subjected in British ports to a duty of 20 per cent. This heavy duty on India silks is felt chiefly on 
 the white silk handerkchiefs called corahs, which might be largely introduced into this country 
 for printing and home consumption. The heavy duties levied in England on Indian drugs and 
 spices, amounting to from 100 to 300 per cent, on their value, is also much complained of by the 
 Directors of the Company [Lords' Report on Petition ofE. I. Company, 1840 : Par. Paper, No. 353). 
 But it is perhaps impossible to give a stronger proof of the unfavourable light in which our 
 statesmen have viewed India than the simple fact, that the term " British possessions," in 
 acts of parliament, tariffs, and the like, has been always held to be exclusive of that splendid por- 
 tion of the British dominions, merely because it is governed through the instrumentality of the East 
 India Company. The crown colonies, taking their cue from the conduct of the mother country, 
 have also regarded their sister dependency as an alien, treating goods imported from British India as 
 " foreign," and, as such, subjected to much higher duties than when brought from other colonies 
 or from the United Kingdom. The invidious distinction, however, has been modified by a late 
 order in council, which ordains that the duties now levied at the Cape, Ceylon, Australia, and 
 New Zealand, upon articles the produce and manufacture of British India, shall be reduced or 
 altered to the same rates as are now imposed upon similar articles the produce or manufacture 
 of the United Kingdom, or of other British possessions.— (London Gazette, May 1841.) 
 
 The capabilities of India have hitherto been but imperfectly known in Europe ; and indeed, 
 until the Act of 1833, which prohibited the East India Company from trading, and gave to 
 British-born subjects the right to settle for commercial and agricultural purposes in the Com- 
 pany's possessions, there was but little inducement to pursue that line of inquiry. Since 
 that right has been conceded, the attention of the public has been forcibly drawn to the sub- 
 ject ; and the improved fiscal treatment of India, indicated by the facts we have stated above, 
 — the recent extension of the banking system in that country, — and its increasing demands for 
 our manufactures, — are evidences of the awakened intelligence which now guides the enterprise 
 of England in her intercourse with her Eastern empire. The low quality and small exportable 
 quantity of the cotton, sugar, silk, tobacco, and other productions of those noble possessions, are 
 mainly attributable to one cause. India is miserably poor. What Mr Rogers said to a late Par- 
 liamentary Committee with respect to silk is true in regard to nearly all the other articles of raw 
 produce. " There is not sufficient private capital, or private credit in India, to produce one- 
 twentieth part of the silk that the country is capable of producing " (Par. Paper, 1840 : Evidence, 
 Q. 43.50). To remove this poverty, no means should be spared to afford to the public an increased 
 knowledge of the openings, the inducements, and the safeguards for and attending the investment 
 of capital in India. Guided by this, and the wiser commercial legislation now being recognised 
 and adopted, no doubt could be entertained of the success of British skill and capital in improving 
 both the quantity and quality of the chief Indian staples, and thereby raising quickly and greatly 
 her value as a customer, by augmenting the funds with which she pays for British merchandise. 
 
 The advantages which we derive from our colonies are usually estimated by the value of our 
 manufactures which thev purchase. India, as we have shown, buys our manufactures to a large 
 and increasing extent. But India is more than a customer. The circumstances in which she is 
 placed by us render her in a manner tributary to a large amount. Defrayingfrom her own resources 
 the whole charges of her internal government and military defence, subjected to the rule of British- 
 born subjects in all the higher and more lucrative and honourable offices of the state, India, with- 
 out any return, except in the small value of military stores, further transmits annually to this 
 country, on account of the "home expenditure " of the East India Company, a sum which their 
 secretary, Mr Melville, estimates at not less than £3,200,000.* This sum is in fact the price which 
 India pays for the connexion which subsists between her and England ; and there is no doubt that 
 the great bulk is fairly due by her, as it is right that she should pay the legitimate expenses of 
 her administration. Nor are the advantages of her relations to England dearly purchased even at 
 this high price ; especially if we allow ourselves to anticipate with confidence the adoption of a 
 just^r and more liberal policy towards this noble dependency than has been hitherto practised. 
 Besides this £3,200,000, it has to be noticed that the amount of private fortunes, transferred from 
 India to this country, is estimated at from £500,000 to £750,000 a-year ; making the amount of 
 public and private remittances from India, for which Great Britain gives no return except to 
 a small extent in military stores, nearlv £4,000,000 per annum. 
 
 TRADE OF THE PRINCIPAL PORTS. 
 Calcutta. 
 
 Calcutta, the capital of Bengal, and seat of the supreme government in India, is situated in lat. 
 v. and long. 88° 17' E., on the east side of the Hoogley, one of the branches of the Ganges, 
 about 100 miles from the sea. It extends nearly 4 miles along the river, with an average breadth 
 of II mile. The northern quarter, or the Black Town, inhabited by the native population, con- 
 Bists of narrow, dirty, unpaved streets, chiefly of mud hovels; the whole deep, black, and dingy, 
 and offering a complete contrast to the front parts possessed by Europeans. These last generally 
 
 * Chiefly consisting of dividends on India stock and debt, pensions to retired officers, claims 
 on account of Queen's troops in India, charges of home establishments, and stores exported. 
 
IND 
 
 380 
 
 IND 
 
 present handsome detached brick houses, which, being stuccoed, have so elegant an appearance 
 that Calcutta is sometimes called " the City of Palaces" and " the Indian Corinth." The stu- 
 pendous fortification of Fort William is situated about one-fourth of a mile below the town ; 
 and the intervening space, called the Esplanade, contains the magnificent residence of the governor- 
 general. Adjoining the esplanade and the river-bank of the city is the ' ' Strand," — a quay extend- 
 ing between 2 and 3 miles, and contiguous to which there is anchorage for ships of 600 tons ; while 
 Diamond Harbour, about 30 miles below, is sufficiently deep for the largest vessels. The access to 
 the port is intricate, owing to shifting banks of sand and mud ; but this disadvantage is out- 
 weighed by its ready intercourse, through the Ganges and its tributaries, with the richest and most 
 populous regions of Hindostan, and which, joined to its being the place of chief resort of civil and 
 military functionaries, have rendered Calcutta the principal commercial emporium of the east. 
 
 The external trade of Calcutta is exhibited in a series of tables, originated by Professor Wilson, 
 and, since his departure, continued by Mr Bell. From these have been drawn up the following 
 progressive view of the imports and exports since the opening of the trade. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Copper and nails. 
 
 Iron \ 
 
 Ironmongery . . / 
 
 Lead 
 
 Tin 
 
 Tutenague 
 
 Quicksilver 
 
 Spelter 
 
 Madeira wine 
 
 Claret 
 
 Port 
 
 Sherry, Cham- 
 pagne, &c 
 
 Spirits 
 
 Malt liquors 
 
 Woollens 
 
 Cotton piecegoods 
 
 Cotton yarn, &c. 
 
 H aberdashery . && 
 
 Books and Sta 
 tionery 
 
 Glassware 
 
 Hardware,cutlery, 
 &c 
 
 Jewellery 
 
 Paints and oil. 
 
 Groceries, &c. 
 
 Timber and spars 
 
 Cordage and coir. 1 
 
 Tea & China goods 1 
 
 Pepper and spices! 
 
 Coffee | 
 
 Salt 
 
 Sundries 
 
 1814-15.) 1827-28. I 1837-38. 
 
 £ 
 
 196,620 
 
 18,053 
 50,950 
 16,166 
 46,392 
 41 ,720 
 
 299,062 
 
 £ 
 
 399,208 
 
 5 7-58. J 
 
 Exports. 
 
 37,042 
 
 61,347 
 
 4,531 
 
 17,695 
 
 24,769 
 
 34,580 
 
 80,206 
 
 
 12,516 
 
 2,949 
 
 
 119,574 
 
 96,150 
 
 15,347 
 
 55,660 
 
 38,386 
 
 36,606 
 
 11,126 
 
 
 41,330 
 
 33,240 
 
 50,568 
 
 
 36,062 
 
 9,941 
 
 268,516 
 
 44,481 
 
 561,404 
 
 
 188,484 
 
 18,070 
 
 65,098 
 
 14,705 
 
 47,226 
 
 28,840 
 
 97,880 
 
 30,747 
 68,620 
 37,859 
 40,899 
 36,274 
 17,844 
 30,245 
 53,980 
 
 426,508 
 
 294 , 840!Cotton piecegoods 
 
 96,154'SHk do 
 
 . 18,193 Cotton 
 
 18,107 t Silk 
 
 56,593;Indigo 
 
 [Sugar 
 
 769,Saltpetre 
 
 25,418 Grain 
 
 4,700 Flour 
 
 21, 600 Opium 
 
 4,414 Castor oil 
 
 Ginger 
 
 36,996 Borax 
 
 18,743 Lac, lake 
 
 48,009 Shellac, &c 
 
 94,400 Shawls, &c 
 
 632,952 Bengal rum 
 
 512,256 Gunny bags 
 
 50,562 Hides, skins 
 
 Safflower 
 
 42,609 Linseed 
 
 29,670 Sundries 
 
 Re-exports 
 
 33,731 
 33,060 
 
 4,158 Treasure 
 
 12,660 
 
 45,400 Total 
 
 6,531 
 33. 927 
 73,972 
 9,628 
 134,901 
 590,836 
 
 ,165,720 2,799,756 2,985,789 
 Treasure 1,076,967 1,352,969 1,084,161 
 
 Total 2,242,687 4,152,725 4,069,950 
 
 1814-15. ' 1827-28. I 1837-38. 
 
 £ I 
 
 in K/inl 
 
 456,066 
 331,271 
 
 275,616 
 251 ,890' 
 326,286 
 855,398 
 
 724,934 1,917,160,1 
 
 211,469! 175,605 
 
 19,264 148,799 
 
 135,956 246,614 
 
 917,650 
 
 19,473 
 12,680 
 9,662 
 14,454 
 
 150,615 
 233,218 
 
 1,210,680 2 
 
 ' *2,898 
 1,847 
 85,288 
 22,036 
 6,689 
 840 
 17,200 
 
 108,657 
 299,207 
 
 4,086,272 5,952,710 
 15,463' 448,099 
 
 4,101,735,6,400,809 
 
 £ 
 
 69,625 
 
 378,798 
 
 186,116 
 
 465,451 
 
 ,124,768 
 
 671,891 
 
 263,286 
 
 286,967 
 
 6,429 
 
 ,129,238 
 
 12,544 
 
 22,051 
 
 9,852 
 
 40,364 
 
 109,392 
 
 16,758 
 
 7.528 
 
 38,340 
 
 80,321 
 
 21,841 
 
 9,120 
 
 197,268 
 
 324,959 
 
 472,907 
 31,688 
 
 6,504,595 
 
 In these tables we observe a general increase, and likewise remarkable variations respecting 
 particular articles. In the imports, cotton stuffs and yarn have been, the former nearly, the latter 
 wholly, created under the free trade ; and they now form by far the most considerable branches. 
 Woollens have varied strikingly. Wine has been materially diminished, and at the same time a 
 great alteration of taste exhibited. Madeira, formerly the favourite beverage, is now only intro- 
 duced with the view of being returned to Europe, improved by the climate and voyage. Port, too, 
 and even claret, have been largely superseded by sherry, champagne, and other white wines. 
 Among metals, there has been a steady demand for copper, which is the material used by the 
 natives in making cups and vessels for water. Iron, lead, and tin have much increased. The 
 tutenague of China has been superseded by spelter or zinc, which is cheaper. Timber and cordage 
 fell off during a certain period, owing to the discontinuance of shipbuilding in Calcutta, but the 
 former has materially revived. 
 
 In regard to exports, it is impossible not to remark the great diminution in cotton piece goods, 
 which, in the first year, ranked second only to opium. This drug, with indigo, sugar, saltpetre, 
 and lac-dye, have all considerably advanced. The trade in hides did not exist before 1827. 
 
 The following table shows the course of business in respect to the countries with which it is 
 conducted, comparing the years 1816-17 and 1837-38. The first has been chosen on account of 
 the interval which had then elapsed after the opening of the trade, during which different nations 
 attempted to establish an intercourse with India, which several of them, however, have been un- 
 able to maintain. 
 
IXD 
 
 381 
 
 IND 
 
 
 1816-17- 
 
 1837-38. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Export*. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exp- ns. 
 
 £805,111 
 
 12,192 
 
 13,242 
 
 533 
 
 '*;',763 
 
 62,840 
 4,518 
 74,515 
 16,873 
 91,079 
 317,038 
 
 85,949 
 
 133,436 
 5,982 
 33,187 
 18,925 
 61,049 
 
 " 3*365 
 6.243 
 96,710 
 
 £1,380,696 
 
 29,513 
 
 83,299 
 
 1,464 
 
 70*831 
 
 463,453 
 
 125.(49 
 
 18,995 
 
 378,520 
 
 9.673 
 
 443,277 
 
 1,067,896 
 
 149,718 
 
 93,857 
 33,850 
 15,536 
 125,066 
 204,643 
 
 '34*044 
 169,495 
 599,825 
 
 £2,052,833 
 i 03*791 
 
 '*3,*993 
 
 '87*359 
 8,387 
 
 170,938 
 13,259 
 85,942 
 
 122,464 
 
 187,039 
 
 1,856 
 
 2,434 
 
 68,150 
 
 "2*028 
 13,405 
 5,951 
 23,639 
 32,321 
 
 £2,701,358 
 22*1 ',806 
 
 "io',673 
 
 115*439 
 5,039 
 
 277,122 
 4,733 
 
 157,387 
 2,054,378 
 
 382,523 
 
 14,714 
 32,665 
 141,547 
 
 i54,*905 
 
 55,670 
 
 20,192 
 
 2,019 
 
 120,737 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Red Sea and Persian Gulf. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pegu 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £1,879,600 
 3,819,126 
 
 £5,498,700 
 16,900 
 
 £2,985,789 
 1,084,161 
 
 £6,472,907 
 31,688 
 
 
 £5,696,798 
 
 £5,515,600 
 
 £4,069,950 
 
 £6,504,595 
 
 This table, too, suggests some interesting observations. The intercourse with Portugal and 
 Spain, which was at one time very extensive, has entirely ceased. The wines of the former are 
 no longer in fashion, and the activity of British merchants enables them to supply these countries 
 with Indian produce more cheaply than by their own direct navigation. The same appears the 
 case in regard to Holland and the other northern states, except to a small extent with Sweden. 
 France alone, among European powers, holds a considerable a :d increasing traffic ; receiving in- 
 digo, saltpetre, and lac-dye, and giving her wines with a large balance in money. The trade has 
 also declined with the United States, which produce no commodities suited to the Indian market, 
 and in exchange for the indigo and silk can give only bullion or goods procured elsewhere. South 
 America, again, has fallen almost to nothing. In respect to China, the imports are small and 
 still diminis.hing, the exports large and increasing. The latter consist chiefly of opium and cotton, 
 in return for which are received tea, ornamental goods, and quicksilver. From the Eastern 
 Islands are imported the gold of Borneo and Sumatra, spices, tin, drugs, now almost entirely 
 through Singapore. From Coromandel are obtained chanks, an ornamental shell much used in 
 temples, cottons, and silks ; from Malabar, teak-timber, coir for cordage, cowries from the Mal- 
 dives ; from the Arabian and Persian Gulfs, almonds, dates, coffee, pearls. These different 
 branches have not increased, but rather diminished ; and it is stated that a direct trade has been 
 opened between Britain and many of those places with which intercourse was formerly carried on 
 through Calcutta. 
 
 The following are given as the amounts of the imports and exports of subsequent years : — 
 1858-59. 1839-40. 1840-41. 
 
 Imports £4,140,579 £5,065,918 £5,867,767- 
 
 Exports 6,480,080 7,040,611 8,369,329. 
 
 The amount of shipping which entered Calcutta in the year 1837-38, expressed in tons, was as 
 follows:— British, 130,181; Native, 9,339 : French, 16,137; Swedish, 262 ; Dutch, 1,261; Ameri- 
 can, 4.256; Arab, 6,303; Burmese, 596; Moorish, 919; total, 169,254 tons, and 563 vessels. Of 
 the British ships, 135, burthen, 66,008 tons, were from the United Kingdom. S 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 Bombay, the western capital of British India, is situated in lat. 18° 55' N., long. 72° 53' E., on 
 a small island of the same name, separated from the mainland by a narrow strait, and connected 
 with the larger island of Salsette by a causeway ; pop. 230,000, of whom 13,500 are Parsees. It 
 is strongly fortified, particularly towards the sea, and its harbour is the finest in India, being un- 
 equalled for safety ; while it is the only important one where the rise of tide is sufficient to allow 
 the formation of docks. The buildings connected with these docks are greatly admired for 
 their architectural beauty ; and the slips and basins are calculated for vessels of any size. They 
 lie within the fort, and, though the property of the Company, are entirely under the management 
 of Parsees, by whom many large vessels, including frigates and line-of-battle ships, have been 
 built from teak-timber, supplied from the forests of Malabar and Guzerat. The Parsees are also 
 the principal proprietors and merchants on the island, and a great part of the capital even of 
 European houses is supplied by Parsee partners. 
 
 The trade of Bombay is very considerable. The great export of Indian cotton to England is 
 from this port, to which the cotton from Oomrawattee and the Deccan, formerly carried to Cal- 
 cutta, via Mirzapoor, is now brought. About two-thirds of the whole trade between India and 
 China, so far as export is concerned, is now also carried on from Bombay [China]. The goods 
 sent to China comprise principally opium and cotton-wool. The imports from the United King- 
 
IND 382 IND 
 
 dom consist principally of British manufactures and metals, the greater part of which, with sugar 
 and other goods, the produce of Bengal and China, are re-exported in small vessels to all the ports 
 on the western side of India, and to the Arabian and Persian Gulfs, — the returns being made in 
 cotton-wool and cloths ; timber, oil, and grain from the northern ports of India ; from the south, 
 cotton, hemp, coir, timber, pepper, rice, and cocoa-nuts; and from the Arabian and Persian 
 Gulfs, raw silk, copper, pearls, galls, coffee, gum-arabic, copal, myrrh, olibanum, bdellium, 
 assafoetida, dried fruits, horses, and bullion. The exports to Great Britain consist of Persian silk, 
 cotton- wool, spices, gums, and drugs; those to Bengal are timber, coir, cocoa-nuts, sandal- wood 
 and cotton. 
 
 The inland trade with Central Asia, owing to the unsettled state of Afghanistan and the heavy 
 duties levied by the Ameers of Sinde at the mouth of the Indus, has hitherto been comparatively 
 trifling, having been conducted by means of a tedious and expensive land-route through Surat. 
 But the recent British conquests in Cabul and Afghanistan, and the navigation of the Indus by 
 steam, will, it is believed, erelong render Bombay the seat of an extensive commerce, not only 
 with these countries, but with the northern regions of Hindostan. 
 
 In the year 1836-37, the imports into Bombay amounted to £3,376,720 value in merchandise, 
 and £1,347,837 in treasure ; in all, £4,724,557. The commodities were chiefly from— the United 
 Kingdom, £1,324, 191; France, £52,585; Malabar, £758, 067; China, £400,566; Bengal, £253,810; 
 Arabian and Persian Gulfs, £233,010; Cutch and Sinde, £157,209; Penang and eastward, 
 £71,772; Coast of Africa, £34,953 ; Goa, Diu, and Demaun, £39,403 : the treasure was brought 
 almost wholly from China. The exports amounted to £5,784,990 in merchandise, and £205,6i»7 
 in treasure; in all, £5,990,597. Of the former, there were sent to China, £3,266,625; United 
 Kingdom, £1,352,932; Arabian and Persian Gulfs, £470,468; Cutch and Sinde, £232,735; 
 Malabar, £120,704; Bengal, £112,678; Penang and eastward, £68,574; Coast of Africa, 
 £59,333: the treasure was sent mostly to Malabar and Coromandel. 
 
 The amounts of the imports and exports in subsequent years were as follow : — 
 
 1837-58. 1838-39. 1839-40. 1840 41. 
 
 Imports £4,164,327 £4,778,739. .... £3,434,466 £5,160.769. 
 
 Exports 4,260,416 4,814,616. .... 4,043,116 5,577,315. 
 
 Of the imports in 1840-41, £1,946,200 were from Britain,— the increase being chiefly in piece 
 goods. 
 
 The shipping entered inwards in 1837-38 amounted to 202 vessels, burthen 91 ,187 tons. Of the 
 tonnage, 87,001 was under British colours, including 38,889 from the United Kingdom. S 
 
 Madras. 
 
 Madras, or Fort St George, situated on the Coromandel coast, in the Bay of Bengal, in lat. 
 13° 4' N., and long. 80° 16' E., is the capital and principal commercial city of Southern India; 
 pop. 462,000. It possesses no harbour, but only an open roadstead, ill adapted for trade, in 
 consequence of the rapid current which runs along the coast, and the violent surf which beats against 
 the shore. This last is so dangerous that ordinary ship boats do not approach beyond the back 
 of the surf, where their lading is transferred to a peculiar kind of Madras boats, which yield to the 
 shock without breaking when thrown upon the beach. The whole of the town is inhabited by 
 natives, except one handsome street in the north-east quarter, which contains the dwellings of 
 Europeans, though the greater part reside in garden-houses in the suburbs. 
 
 The trade of Madras is much less extensive than that of either Calcutta or Bombay. In the 
 tables for the year 1836-37, the latest published, the imports in that year are stated to amount to 
 £1,056,233 value in merchandise, and £456,352 in treasure; in all, £1,512,585. The former 
 was chiefly from the United Kingdom, £271,532; Bengal, £200,593; Bombay, £158,135; Pegu, 
 £135,028 ; Ceylon, £94,216 ; France, £25,494, and French ports in India, £35,672 ; Travancore, 
 £38,421; Tranquebar, £25,700; China, £17,470; Penang and eastward, £23,739: the treasure 
 was chiefly brought from Bombay and Bengal. The exports in the same period amounted to 
 £2,210,785 value in merchandise, and £574,690 in treasure ; total, £2,785,475. The goods were 
 sent chiefly to Bombay, £766,214; United Kingdom, £476,720; China, £270,063; Ceylon, 
 £183.538; Benjral, £110,207; Arabian and Persian Gulfs, £117,407; Penang and eastward, 
 £126,630 : the treasure was sent mostly to Bombay. S 
 
 MEASURES, WEIGHTS, MONEY, BANKS, DUTIES, &C 
 
 measures and WEIGHTS- l the corge of cloth is 20 pieces ; the Bengal com- 
 
 These vary greatly in different districts, and mon coss or mile = 2000 yards. [Coss.] 
 the only general standards are the weights de- The biggah of 20 cottahs = 1600 sq. yds. ; and 
 
 rived from the new tola or sicca, of late used in 
 the Company's tables of duties. These weights 
 are as follows . — 
 
 8 ruttees = 1 musha = 15 troy grains. 
 12 mushas = 1 tola = 180 troy grains 
 80 tolas = 1 seer = 2J lbs. troy, or (2-057 
 
 lbs.) nearly 2 lbs. 14f drams avoirdupois. 
 40 seers = 1 maund = 100 lbs. troy, or 82? lbs. 
 
 avoirdupois. 
 
 The maund of 80 tolas to the seer is thus al- 
 most exactly equal to the Calcutta bazar maund ; 
 in the latter the seer is reckoned at 80 siccas, 
 estimating however each sicca at 179| troy grains. 
 
 Grain is usually sold by weight throughout 
 India, as also liquids, except at Calcutta, Ma- 
 dras, and Bombay, where wines and spirits are 
 sold by Imperial measure. 
 
 The following are the principal local stand- 
 ards :— 
 Calcutta.— The guz of 2 cubits = 1 Imp. yard ; 
 
 30£ biggahs = 10 Imp. acres. 
 
 The factory maund of 40 seers, or 640 chittacks 
 = 74§ lbs. avoirdupois ; and 3 factory maunds = 
 2 cwt. ; the bazar maund, similarly divided, = 
 82,^ lbs. avoird. ; 10 bazar maunds = 11 factory 
 maunds. 
 
 Bombay. — The guz = 27 inches. 
 
 The maund of 40 seers = 28 lbs. avoird. ; the 
 candy of 20 maunds = 5 cwt. ; reckoned for 
 grain at 25 Winchester or 24i Imp. bushels. 
 
 At Surat, the candy of 20 maunds, each of 40 
 seers, = 746J lb3. avoird. 
 
 Madras.— The covid = 18f inches ; but the 
 cloth measure is the Imp. yard. 
 
 The cawney of 24 maunies = 57,600 sq. feet, or 
 about 1 acre 1 rood 11 J poles. 
 
 The garse of 80 parahs, 400 marcals, or 3200 
 measures = 300,000 cubic inches, or about 16£ 
 Imp. quarters, estimated by weight at 9256 A lbs. 
 avoird. 
 
 The maund of 8 vis, or 320 pollums, = 25 lbs. 
 
IXD 
 
 383 
 
 IND 
 
 avoird. ; and the candy of 20 maunds = 500 lbs. Imands gradually made for the deposits lodged 
 
 avoird. with them by raising money in every mode, sell- 
 
 woxey. ing at ruinois loss, and mortgaging all descrip- 
 
 The interer of account throughout India is! tions of property, till, at length, when they ac- 
 
 the rupee, which is generally divided into 16 tually fell, there remained for the general eredi- 
 
 ach of 12 pice. "Formerly rupees tor scarcely enough to pay 5s. a-pound. Theen- 
 
 of various kinds were coined; but the cur- j tire defalcations have been stated at £20, 000,000, 
 
 rency of the three presidencies was assimi- 1 and the loss to the public at £15,000,000; but a 
 
 lated in 1835, and the only one now minted is; writer in the Calcutta Monthly Journal for Fe- 
 
 the " Company's rupee," containing 180 troy ! bruary 1838, seemingly on precise data, gives 
 
 grains of silver, 91* per cent, fine (termed 91*66 the following statement : — 
 
 touch), or 165 grains of pure silver, and worth 
 
 intrii sieally Is. lt'id., though commonly esti 
 mated at 2s. The other silver coins are double 
 half, and quarter rupees. Smaller payments are 
 made in copper pice, or in little shells called 
 cowries. [Cowries.] 
 
 The Company's rupee is declared to be in 
 " vi.lue equal to the Madras, Bombay, Fur- 
 nickabad, and Surat rupee, and to 15-16ths of 
 the Calcutta sicca rupee." This last coin (weight 
 191-916 grains silver, 91*66 touch, or pure 
 175921 grains) is intrinsically worth Is. Hid 
 
 Palmer & Co. 
 Alexander & Co. 
 Macintosh & Co. 
 Ferguson & Co. 
 Colvin & Co. 
 Cruttenden & Co. 
 
 £2,600,000 
 3,440,000 
 
 . 2,470,000 
 3,260,000 
 
 . 1,210,000 
 1,350,000 
 
 £14,330,000 
 
 Of this sum only a fourth, according to sup- 
 position, being paid to the creditors, there re- 
 Formerlj* prices in Calcutta were sometimes! mained upwards of £10,000,000 of loss, 
 reckoned according to an ideal standard, called I The accommodation now derived from banking 
 the current rupee, 116 of which = Hm»S.R. ; the: is limited, though increasing. The Bank of 
 difference per cent, being termed batta. The prin- [ Bengal, founded in 1809, a fifth part of whose 
 cipal. 'old coinisthenewmohurofthesame weight ; stock is held by the Company, now possesses a 
 and fineness as the Company's rupee, and worth . capital of £1,000,000. It has a local charter, 
 L : it is a legal tender for 15 R. : the Cal- 1 and issues notes, which are taken in revenue 
 cutta mohur, of 20471 grains, 91*66 touch, worth : payments. The Union Bank of Calcutta, formed 
 £1, 13s. 2id., is a tender for 16 S. R. Gold, I chiefly by partners of the lapsed private firms, 
 however, being undervalued at these rates, is has now a capital of £800,010. Both, it is said, 
 not demandable in payment, and is rarely in intend to form branches in the interior. At Agra 
 circulation. Silver is," therefore, the general , there is one of £200,000, chiefly established 
 medium of exchange and standard of value. > by the servants of the Company. The Bank of 
 
 A lac is 100,0 rupees, or about £10,000 ; a Madras is a small government establishment for 
 crore is lo millions of rupees, or £1,000,000 ; a the convenience of the local authorities ; it is 
 mas is 100 crores. now being enlarged. At Bombay a bank was 
 
 In Indian notation, large sums are divided into lately founded, nearly on the same'footing as the 
 periods of two figures only, except the last three : Bank of Bengal. The shares of all these banks 
 Hence a sum containing nine figures is point- are now at high premiums; and another called 
 ed thus, 50, 84, 93, 327, and read fifty-six crores, the Bank of Asia has been recently (1841) pro- 
 eighty-four lacs, ninety-three thousand, three jeeted, with a capital of £1,000,000, and having 
 hundred, and twenty-seven. the general management vested in a Court of 
 
 Exchanges. — Bills on London are commonly j Directors in London, after the manner of the 
 drawn at Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, at 6 , British North American and other colonial 
 months' sight, or 10 months' date ; the usual banks, A joint stock bank at Madras is also 
 fluctuations being from Is. lid. to 2s. lid. per projected. 
 Company's rupee: the average rate (excluding | „The following were the rates charged by the 
 
 interest) at which the Company have of 
 years realized their remittances is 2s. per rupee. 
 Bills between the different presidencies are usu- 
 ally drawn at 30 days' sight. 
 banks, <tc. 
 The banking business, in the hands of British 
 subjects, has presented some peculiar forms, and 
 undergone considerable vicissitudes. In Cal- 
 cutta, it centred long in six great houses, with 
 which the members of the public service lodged 
 almost all their savings, and, receiving interest 
 at 10 per cent., were in no haste to transfer their 
 money to Britain. Deposits were thus accumu- 
 lated to the amount of manv millions, for which 
 
 Bank of Bengal in September 1841 :— Discount 
 on private bills, 3 months, 8 per cent. Discount 
 on government and salary bills, 6 per cent. In- 
 terest on loans on government paper, 6i per cent. 
 Among the natives, paper-money does not 
 exist ; and yet banking in certain branches is an 
 extensive occupation. One of its functions is to 
 transmit money by bills of exchange, called hoon- 
 dees, mostly of small amount, which are very 
 well managed by the native bankers, or shroffs. 
 All small payments, as already noticed, are made 
 in copper, or in cowrie shells of above 5000 to 
 the rupee, the furnishing of which occupies a 
 numerous class of money-changers. They some- 
 
 advantageous investment was found in advances times carry shells to the value of £15, which 
 to indigo planters, shipowners, and others ; also form a load for an ox, to market in the morning, 
 by acting as agents, and carrying on mercantile change them for rupees, and at the end of the 
 speculations of their own. By these means great day receive the cowries in return. They levy on 
 wealth, was accumulated ; but after 1814, when | the transaction l-36th, which it is supposed may 
 the trade was thrown open to the public, the j yield them in the year 3< per cent. ; but this is 
 bankers, unable to invest their deposits with the 1 in a great measurea recompense for their labour. 
 Si. me advantage as formerly, dispo.-ed of them] The main source of profit, however, among 
 in loans to improvident individuals, or in the the native bankers, arises from making advances, 
 purchase of houses, mills, ships, and other sub- which, through poverty and improvidence, are 
 jects, which could not be made available when a required by a large body of the people. In trans- 
 demand for money arose. Yet no alarm was actions with persons in good credit, the ordinary 
 
 tak.-n until the failure of Palmer and Co. in 
 1830 ; and even then confidence was not wholly 
 withdraw-n from the other houses, who continued 
 to struggle on several years, meeting the de- 
 
 rate of interest is 9 per cent. ; but a much higher 
 charge is made on loans to the agricultural pop- 
 ulation. Almost every native cultivator, or 
 ryot, at the beginning of the season, receives on 
 
IND 
 
 384 
 
 IND 
 
 credit seed-corn and subsistence till the next 
 harvest, the produce of which goes into the hands 
 of the money-lender. He has usually indeed an 
 account-current against him, which is never 
 fully cleared off ; and the interest is charged at 
 the ruinous rate of at least 40 per cent. The 
 zemindars are also obliged to have recourse to 
 them, paying from 24 to 30 per cent. These 
 usurious exactions are accompanied, and indeed 
 occasioned, by the risk of losing the principal ; 
 but when this is avoided, and a large business 
 carried on, enormous fortunes are accumulated. 
 Several native bankers in Calcutta, Benares, and 
 other large cities, are supposed to be worth nearly 
 a million sterling. 
 
 DUTIES. 
 
 Bengal Presidency. — The general rate of im- 
 port duty on goods brought in British vessels is 
 3J per cent, ad valorem, but in foreign vessels, 
 7 per cent. ; on marine stores and metals of Brit- 
 ish or colonial produce or manufacture, in Brit- 
 ish vessels, 3 per cent. ; on woollens, do. do. 2 
 per cent. ; coffee in British vessels, 7i percent. ; 
 tea, wines, liqueurs, and spices, do. 10 percent. ; 
 spirits do. 9 annas per Imp. gallon ; bullion, pre 
 
 ing: if the goods (saving opium and salt) are 
 re-exported in the same ship, without being 
 landed, no duty is exigible. 
 
 The general rate of export duty on country 
 articles not enumerated, Bent by British vessels, 
 is 3 per cent., by foreign vessels, 6 per cent. ; 
 grain in British vessels, J anna per maund ; in- 
 digo, do. 3 rupees per maund; on lac-dye and 
 shellac, do. 4 per cent. ; raw silk filature, do. 
 3i annas per seer ; Bengal wound silk, do. 3 an- 
 nas per seer ; tobacco, do. 4 annas per maund ; 
 double rates being exacted when exported in 
 foreign vessels. Bullion, precious stones, living 
 animals, and opium purchased at government 
 sales, are free; also cotton-wool, if exported to 
 Europe or America ; and sugar and rum, if ex- 
 ported to United Kingdom or colonies. — (Act of 
 Governor in Council, May 30, 1836.) 
 
 Bombay Presidency. — The import duties on 
 the articles mentioned above are the same as at 
 Calcutta. 
 
 The general rate of export duty is also, as at 
 Calcutta, 3 per cent, on country articles sent in 
 British vessels, and 6 per cent, when in foreign 
 vessels ; on tobacco, 1J rupee per maund of 80 
 
 cious stones, grain, horses, ice, coal, and English tolas to the seer ; cotton-wool exported to Europe 
 books are free. | or America in British vessels, bullion, precious 
 
 The duties are levied on the market value! stones, books, living animals, and opium covered 
 without deduction ; and the whole are returned, I by a pass, free ; opium not covered by a pass, 
 saving |th, if the goods (excepting opium and '■ prohibited. — (Act of Council, January 3, 1838.) 
 salt), are re-exported within two years of land- 1 
 
 INDIA (DANISH) is limited to the two petty settlements of Serampore in 
 Bengal, and Tranquebar on the Coromandel coast. 
 
 Serampore is situated on the Hoogley, 12 miles N. of Calcutta ; pop. 13,000. It has little or no 
 trade, but is celebrated as a missionary station, especially of the Baptists. 
 
 Tranquebar, a seaport and small territory on the Coromandel coast, is situate at one of the 
 mouths of the Cavery, in lat. 11° V N. long. 79° 55' E., about 145 miles S. from Madras. It was 
 purchased from the Rajah of Tanjore in 1616 ; pop. 20,000. Accounts are kept in rupees ; and the 
 maund weighs 68 lbs. Danish, or 744. lbs. avoird. 
 
 The trade with these settlements was formerly in the hands of the Danish East India Company, 
 i — an exclusive body which was dissolved in 1838. In their hands it was very inconsiderable, but 
 will now probably be increased. 
 
 INDIA (DUTCH). [Java. Eastern Islands.] 
 
 INDIA (FRENCH), according to Malte-Brun, comprehends Pondicherry and 
 Carical, with their dependencies on the Coromandel coast ; Yandon and its de- 
 pendencies, with the factory of Masulipatam in the Northern Circars ; Chander- 
 nagore and its territory, with Gorette and some other factories in Bengal ; and 
 Mahe", and factories at Calicut and Surat on the western coast. These are almost 
 all inconsiderable and declining places. The principal is Pondicherry, the chief 
 seat of government. 
 
 Pondicherry is situated in lat. 1 1° 57' N., long. 79° 54'E., 85 miles S.W, of Madras ; pop. 40,000. The 
 town is handsome, and, though destitute of a harbour, possesses a tolerable roadstead. Trade, how- 
 ever, is dull, — the British fiscal regulations being adverse to intercourse with the interior. Exports, 
 rice, drugs, sugar, indigo, and blue linens. The money of account is the pagoda = 3 rupees = 24 
 fanams = 5s. l()d. nearly. Grain is sold by the garse of 600 mercals = 10470 imp. bushels. The 
 maund = 8 vis = 25 lbs. 14 oz. 7 drams avoird. ; and 20 maunds = 1 candy = 518-05 lbs. avoird. 
 
 These places have been generally captured by the British during war, and restored on the return 
 of peace. All fortifications are destroyed ; and the French are debarred by treaty from rebuilding 
 them, or of maintaining any force beyond what is necessary for the purposes of police. 
 
 INDIA (PORTUGUESE) comprehends Damaun, Diu in Guzerat, and Goa ; 
 the last having a territory 40 miles in length by 20 in breadth, being the only 
 place of consideration. 
 
 Goa, in lat. 15° 28' N., long. 73° 51' E., is situated on an island of the same name, at the mouth 
 of the Mandona, 250 miles S. S. E. of Bombay. It was made by Albuquerque (by whom it was 
 captured in 1510) the capital of the Portuguese possessions in the East ; but it is now nearly 
 superseded by New Goa, or Panjim, situated 5 miles distant on the seashore, and possessing one 
 of the best harbours of India ; pop. 20,000. This port, though formerly the centre of eastern com- 
 merce, has now only an inconsiderable trade with the mother country and the Portuguese settle- 
 ments in China and Africa. Imports, chiefly piece goods, raw silk, ivory, sugar, woollens, glass, 
 and some other European articles. Exports, hemp, betel-nut, cowries and toys, beads, &c. for 
 Africa. 
 
 Accounts in Goa are kept in pardos, each divided into 4 good or 5bad tangas, also into 240 good 
 or 300 bad reas ; the pardo is equal 2s. 5d. nearly. The candy of 20 maunds = 495 lbs. avoird., 
 estimated in grain at 14 Winchester bushels. The other measures are Portuguese. 
 
 INDIA RUBBER. [Caoutchouc] 
 
IXD 385 IND 
 
 INDIGO (Du. Fr. & Ger. Indigo. It. Tndaco. Rus. Krutick, h 
 Anil), a fine blue dye extracted from various species of Indigofera, priuci 
 the /. tinctoria, a knotty shrubby plant commonly propagated annually by 
 The indigo plant has been called u the child of the sun ;" and a soil of the first 
 degree ot fertility, as well as a hot climate, are required to raise it in perfection. 
 The grounds formed by the alluvial deposits of the tropical rivers have been found 
 bv experience the best adapted for the purpose. The dye is extracted from the 
 plant by suffering it to ferment with water ; during which it undergoes chemical 
 changes that ultimately cause its deposition in the form of a blue feculent sub- 
 stance, which is collected and dried. Indigo, as met with in commerce, is in square 
 cakes, or cubical masses of a deep blue colour. However carefully prepared, it 
 always contains a considerable amount of impurities, the relative quantity of 
 these being ascertained by its specific gravity, which is light in proportion to its 
 purity. Mr Brande estimates the general amount of colouring matter at only 50 
 per cent {Chemistry, p. 943). In choosing indigo, the large regular-formed cakes 
 should be preferred, of a fine rich colour, externally free from white mould, and 
 of a clean net shape ; when broken, the fracture should be of a bright purple tint, 
 of a compact texture, free from white specks or sand, and when rubbed should have 
 a shining copper-like appearance : it should swim in water, and when burnt by the 
 candle it should fly like dust. This commodity is distinguished according to its dif- 
 ferent shades of colour. The principal shades are blue, which is the best, violet, 
 and copper colour ; and these are again subdivided into fine, good, and middling. 
 
 The indigo crop is subject to very great vicissitudes, both of quantity and qua- 
 I::y ; this leads to corresponding fluctuations of price; and it has been observed 
 that of all the productions that have been made objects of commercial speculation, 
 scarcely any has been a more fertile source of bankruptcies. 
 
 The chief localities of the indigo plant at present are Bengal and Guatimala, 
 though of late years the exportation from the latter has been materially checked 
 by the disturbed state of Central America. In the early period of our occupation 
 of India, indigo formed a leading branch of the Company's trade ; but the rude 
 manufacture of the native population was, in course of time, expelled from the 
 markets of Europe by the more skilfully prepared drug of America and the West 
 Indies. Soon after the peace of 1783, the West Indian process of manufacture was 
 introduced into Bengal, and the directors having relaxed their prohibitory system 
 so far as to permit the application of British capital and skill to the cultivation of 
 the plant on the alluvial depositions of the Ganges, the exportations were gra- 
 dually increased, and the American and West Indian article almost entirely driven 
 from the market. The manufacture was also introduced into Oude and the other 
 north-western districts of the great Gangetic plain ; and in later periods into some 
 of the Madras provinces, — into Java, and into the Philippine Islands. The indigo 
 produced every where else is, however, very secondary both in quantity and quality 
 to that of Bengal and Bahar, the soil and climate of which seem to be peculiarly 
 congenial to the plant. The average annual supply and consumption of indigo at 
 present may be estimated as follows : — Supply : Bengal provinces, 34,500 chests, 
 equal nearly 120,000 maunds, or 9,000,000 lbs. ; other countries, including Madras 
 and Guatimala, 8500 chests ; total, 43,000 chests. Of this there is consumed in the 
 United Kingdom 11,500 chests, or about 3,000,000 lbs. ; France, 8000 chests ; Ger- 
 manv and rest of Europe, 13,500 do. ; Persia, 3500 do. ; India,2500 do. ; United States, 
 2000' do. ; other countries, 2000 do. ; total, 43,000 chests, or upwards of 11,000,000 
 lbs. The consumption of late years has not increased in a ratio corresponding 
 to the expansion ot manufactures, — a circumstance which seems to be attributable 
 partly to the less common use of blue cloth, and partly, perhaps, to the introduc- 
 tion of cheap substitutes suggested by the advanced state of chemical knowledge. 
 
 The quautitv imported into the United Kingdom was, in 1820, 5,089,292 lbs. : in 
 1825, 6,793,631 lbs.; in 1830, 8,216,440 lbs.; in 1835, 4,168,395 lbs. In 1840, the 
 imports amounted to 5,831,269 lbs., and the quantity entered for home consump- 
 tion, 3,011,990 lbs. Upwards of 4-5ths of the imports are from the East Indies ; 
 the remainder chiefly from the West Indies, Guatimala, Peru, and the Philippine 
 Islands. The surplus imported beyond the quantity consumed is re-exported to 
 Germany, Russia, Italy, Holland, and other parts of the continent of Europe. 
 France and the United States derive their main supplies by direct importation 
 from Calcutta. 
 
 The following shows the prices in bond of the different kinds of indigo in the 
 London market according to Prince's Price Current of September 17, 1841. 
 
IND 386 INK 
 
 Gi:atiinala & Caraccas *. d. s. d. 
 
 Floras lb. 6 9 to 7 
 
 Sabres 5 3.. 6 6 
 
 Cortes 2 9.. 6 4 
 
 Bengal fine blue 7 9.. 8 3 
 
 Fine purple and violet 8 3 .. 9 
 
 Good do 7 9 .. 8 3 
 
 Middling 7 3 .. 7 6 
 
 Copper fine 7 6 .. 7 9 
 
 Good and middling 5 II) . . 7 3 
 
 *. d. s. d. 
 Bengal ordin. violet and copper lb. 5 6 to 5 9 
 Oude good and fine 4 6 .. 5 6 
 
 Low and middling 1 9 .. 4 3 
 
 Madras good and fine violet and 
 
 blue 5 3 .. 6 3 
 
 Ordinary & middling do 1 10 . . 5 
 
 Java. none. 
 
 Manilla good & fine none. 
 
 Ordinary and middling 1 9. .4 
 
 The American indigo is generally enclosed in sacks of coarse linen sewed into an 
 ox hide, a kind of package which is called a seron, and contains usually about 250 
 lbs. The East Indian is in chests of about 3£ factory maunds, or 260 lbs. S 
 
 INDORSATION : INDORSER. Indorsation is the assigning of a negotiable 
 document, such as a bill of exchange or promissory note, by a writing on the back. 
 The person who assigns is called the Inaorser, the person in whose favour the assig- 
 nation is made, the indorsee. Indorsement, in its full and common acceptation, 
 conveys to the indorsee all the rights previously existing in the indorser, with the 
 addition of a claim against the indorser himself. To enable this to be accomplished, 
 however, with an English or Irish bill, there must be words intimating an intention 
 on the part of the acceptor to pay to any bearer, or to any person holding right 
 through the original payee, such as, " or order," " or bearer," otherwise the bill 
 is a mere chose in action [Chose in Action], and the indorsement does not con- 
 vey a right against the maker, but merely a claim on the indorser. It is held, 
 however, that negotiable words omitted by mistake may be supplied (Chitty, p. 219). 
 In Scotland, every bill or note is negotiable, unless it bear a special restriction. A 
 bill payable simply " to bearer" is transferable without indorsement ; but the person 
 who delivers it does not by such act become a party. By 17 Geo. III. c. 30, bills 
 and notes for sums of 20s. and upwards, but under £5, can, in England, only be 
 indorsed before the time of payment, and must bear date at, and not before, the 
 time of making thereof, and must be attested by a subscribing witness. 
 
 There is no form of words necessary for an indorsement, — the mere signature of 
 
 the payee, called a blank indorsement, is a sufficient transference to the bearer. 
 An indorsement with the name of the indorsee, and instructions to pay to him, is 
 an indorsement in full. If a bill is once indorsed blank, it is assignable by delivery, 
 
 notwithstanding posterior indorsements in full, unless they be restrictive. A re- 
 strictive indorsement may restrain the negotiability of a bill. " Pay to A B only," 
 or " Pay to A B for my use," are forms of restrictive indorsements. Others may 
 be conditionally restrictive, so as to prohibit negotiability until the condition is 
 purified, as " Pay the contents to A B on my being gazetted ensign, before the 
 day of ." An indorsement is not restrictive from having a consideration 
 
 on the face of it. An indorsement may be qualified so as to bar the responsibility 
 of the indorser, and merely transfer to the indorsee the claim against the previous 
 parties. The usual form of accomplishing this is by appending to the signature the 
 words sans recours. A bill cannot be indorsed for part of its contents after accept- 
 ance; but if partly paid, it may be indorsed as to the residue. A person who has 
 delivered a bill without indorsement, when it was the understanding of parties that 
 it should be indorsed, may be compelled in equity to do so ; and if he die in the 
 mean time, his executor or administrator may indorse. 
 
 An indorsee of a bill, who has given value for it, is not liable to objections which 
 may be pleaded against a previous holder, unless aware of them when he took the 
 bill. In England, however, a person who takes a bill protested for non-acceptance 
 or overdue, does so with all the objections pleadable against the indorser. In 
 Scotland, it appears to be held that the circumstance of a bill being overdue does 
 not of itself affect the right of the indorsee, and is only a circumstance attended 
 with more or less suspicion. A bill paid by the party originally liable ceases to 
 be negotiable ; but not so a bill paid by an indorser. Where the illegality of the 
 original transaction makes a bill or note void, an indorsee, however onerous, can- 
 not recover from the original drawee, but the indorser is liable to him, both on the 
 bill and for the original debt. An indorser on whom recourse is intended to be had, 
 must receive notice of non-acceptance or non-payment ; and though, as between 
 the drawer and drawee, notice may be rendered unnecessary from want of value, 
 this will not affect the indorser 's right to notice. (Bailey on B., 120-170. Chitty 
 on B., 218-297. Thomson on B., 250-308.) 
 
 INGOT, a mass of metal. 
 
 INK (Fr. Encre. Ger. Dinte) is composed of different ingredients, according to 
 
DTK 3&J INS 
 
 the purposes to which it is to be applied. Printing Ink is a black paint, which, 
 from its drying nature, adheres readily to moist paper. It is chiefly composed of 
 nut or Unseed oil, which is ignited when in a boiling state, and suffered to burn 
 until it has acquired the necessary drying quality ; after which it is mixed with 
 lamp-black when black ink is required, and vermilion when it is wanted of a 
 red colour. Writing Ink is either black, red, or blue. The best black is made by 
 boiling Aleppo galls in water, and then adding sulphate of iron, — the precipitate 
 from these being kept suspended by gum-arabic : the proportions in general use 
 are 2 of galls to 1 of sulphate of iron and 1 of gum-arabic ; that of water is com- 
 monly 1 gallon to 1 lb. of galls. Logwood is sometimes used instead of galls for a 
 cheap ink, but it does not yield a permanent colour. Red ink is made by boiling 
 brazil-wood in weak vinegar, and adding alum. Blue ink is manufactured from 
 the ferro-prussiate of potash and oxide of iron. India, or China Ink, employed in 
 drawing, consists of fine lamp-black mixed with gum-water or fine size. The 
 writing inks anciently in use appear to have been all of this kind. Marking Ink, 
 for linen, is generally'a solution of nitrate of silver, which is written upon the fabric 
 after it has been impregnated with an alkaline solution, as carbonate of soda. 
 The inks in which lamp-black is the colouring matter will be always the most 
 durable ; but the common ink possesses the advantage of flowing easily from the 
 pen. The manufacture of printing ink is chiefly confined to London ; that of writ- 
 ing ink is more widely distributed. All kinds are exported, but the whole amount 
 is inconsiderable. 
 
 INKLE, a kind of broad linen tape made at Manchester. 
 
 INNS AND INNKEEPERS. The only department under this head, coming 
 within the limits of the present work, is the law in relation to the liability of inn- 
 keepers for the property of travellers coming under their roof. An innkeeper, by 
 adopting his trade, comes under a contract of insurance with each guest he re- 
 ceives, becoming liable to indemnify him for property lost, without reference to tho 
 manner in which the loss has been occasioned,— provided it have not originated in 
 the guest's own carelessness or misconduct. If loss be occasioned by the guest's 
 own companion or servant introduced by him to the inn, the loss is his own. The 
 responsibility is placed on the same principle as that of carriers, and is in almost 
 all respects the same, with the difference that it has not been yet limited by stat- 
 ute. [Carriers.] How far the innkeeper can limit his responsibility by warning 
 given to the guest, is a doubtful point. It is held that the law being fixed, the guest 
 entering an inn under the assurance of its protection, cannot be deprived of it 
 against his will by any warning or intimation which the landlord may choose to 
 
 five Walton's Justice, 1 33) : but if the guest acquiesce by taking the goods under 
 is own special charge, the responsibility is removed (Burgess v. Clements, 4 M. 
 4f Sel. 310). There is considerable nicety as to the extent to which the guest is 
 bound to see his property put in the right place, or deposited with the right person. 
 He who leaves valuable goods in a courtyard or passage, without drawing atten- 
 tion to them, will have no recourse : on the other hand, where it was the rule of 
 the house to deposit the guests' goods in their bedrooms, and a traveller directed 
 his luggage to be taken to the commercial room, where it was stolen, the landlord 
 was found responsible. It appears that he would not have been so, however, had 
 he expressly declined to take charge of the goods unless they were deposited in the 
 bedroom.— (Richmond v. Smith, 2 Mann. $ Ryl. 235.) 
 
 It is a farther obligation on an innkeeper, that he must receive every guest who 
 offers himself, until Ins establishment is filled. He is not bound, however, to give 
 credit, and before submitting to this his obligation to the public, he may require 
 reasonable remuneration to be first tendered. — (Chiity's Burn's Justice. Alehouse, 
 xvi. ^ Sir E. L. Tomlin's L. Dictionary, voce Inns.) 
 
 INSOLVENCY, in its most simple and extensive meaning, denotes a man's 
 inability to meet his debts. It is applied only to a person who is not under the 
 operation of the bankrupt statutes, whether from his not belonging to the class of 
 trading persons to whom the acts apply, or from that method of disposing of the 
 estate not having been adopted by the creditors. Every bankrupt must necessarily, 
 however, be an insolvent. In Scotland, the former expression is applied to all 
 persons, whether tradesmen or not, who have shown certain public symptoms of 
 inability to pay the debts demanded of them ; and these indications, to constitute 
 this species of bankruptcy, must always be accompanied by insolvency. In Eng- 
 land and Ireland, the term insolvent is now technically used with reference to such 
 persons as are taking advantage of, or subjected to the operation of the insolvency 
 acts, which provide a sort of bankruptcy system for those debtors who do not come 
 
INS 388 INS 
 
 within the operation of the traders' bankruptcy statutes. In Scotland, the name 
 by which the equivalent process is known is cessio bonorum ; and the term insolv- 
 ent is not there technically applied to a debtor undergoing this process. [Cessio.] 
 
 There have been three separate means of relief open to imprisoned debtors in 
 England, viz. the lords' act, the small debtors' act, and the general insolvent debtors' 
 act. The first of these, which was partly suspended by the earlier insolvent acts, 
 and partly in disuse, is entirely abrogated by the last insolvent act (1 & 2 Vict, 
 c. 110, § 119). The small debtors' act, 48 Geo. III. c. 123, provided for the release 
 of those who have been 12 months in prison, on debts not exceeding £20; but by 
 the latest insolvent act this also has been virtually superseded. 
 
 A separate court for the relief of insolvent debtors was first constituted by Lord 
 Redesdale's act, 53 Geo. III. c. 102, and was continued by four acts of the reign of 
 George IV., the last of which, 7 Geo. IV. c. 57, was the existing statute down to 
 the passing of Sir John Campbell's act, commonly called the Act for abolishing 
 Arrests in Mesne Process (1 & 2 Vict. c. 110), by which the insolvency system was 
 improved. The court consists of a chief and three ordinary commissioners, and is 
 a court of record, with full powers for enforcing its jurisdiction. An individual 
 commissioner may hold a plenary court ; and there are arrangements in the act 
 for enabling the commissioners to hold circuit courts. The act has two objects in 
 view : in the first place, the protection of debtors from oppressive imprisonment ; 
 in the second, the affording a summary process to creditors for distributing the 
 available property of a debtor. When a debtor applies for the benefit of the act, 
 he must be within the walls of a prison. The act may be taken advantage of by 
 the creditors of an insolvent, on his remaining 21 days in prison without satisfy- 
 ing the debt for which he was imprisoned. In either case, the operation of the 
 act is applied for by summary petition to the court. The result is, an order 
 vesting in the provisional assignee the whole property of the insolvent, real and 
 personal, existing or contingent, with the exception of apparel, bedding, and 
 other necessaries, and workmen's tools, not exceeding, on the whole, £20 in value. 
 There are specific provisions for the vesting and disposal of the several kinds of 
 property, and exceptional provisions for adjustment in the case of public officers, 
 clergymen, and others. The creditors have a partial control in the disposal of pro- 
 perty. There are arrangements for the examination of the insolvent, and for mak- 
 ing the necessary investigations into the amount of his property, the circumstances 
 out of which his involvements have arisen, and such like. After the examinations 
 are over, the debtor is to be discharged, either forthwith, or at such a time that his 
 imprisonment shall not, on the whole, exceed six months, computed from the order 
 vesting the estate in the assignee, unless there be special reason for punishing him 
 by a longer imprisonment. In certain cases of fraud connected with the proceedings 
 on the petition, the court may adjudge the confinement to continue for such a period 
 as shall not make it on the whole exceed three years (§ 77). In certain cases enu- 
 merated in the act,where the circumstances connected with the insolvent's embarrass- 
 ments show fraud or gross recklessness, the imprisonment may, in like manner, be 
 continued for two years. The result of a discharge is, that the debtor is relieved 
 from execution and imprisonment for the debts to which the discharge applies. 
 
 In Ireland, the system for the relief of insolvent debtors was adjusted on the 
 model of the English act by 3 & 4 Vict. c. 107. The amount to which the debtor's 
 wearing apparel, bedding and tools, are there privileged, is £15. 
 
 INSURANCE, in its legal definition, is a contract of indemnity, one party 
 engaging to make good to another the pecuniary loss that may be, or may be pre- 
 sumed to be occasioned by any future or contingent event, in consideration of a 
 sum certain received or promised. The most obvious subjects of insurance are 
 those which can be measured by a pecuniary value, and to this fair estimate of 
 loss, insurances by individuals on their own lives is the only exception ; a case in 
 which no mischief can arise from the insured valuing his life at the sum for which 
 he can pay the premium of insurance. In this contract, the person who insures is 
 called tne Insurer, and technically the Underwriter, from his writing his name (in 
 marine insurances) under the sum he will stand good for. The party obtaining 
 the insurance is called the Insured, or the Assured, and the deed by which the 
 insurer becomes bound is called a Policy of Insurance. 
 
 The principle of insurance is that of equalizing the accidents of life or fortune, 
 by many joining together and consenting that all shall bear the average lot of the 
 whole ; or, what is the same, of reducing to each individual, in every case, his pos- 
 sibility of loss down to the average loss of a great number of individuals or cases. 
 " Though based upon self-interest," says Professor De Morgan, " yet it is the most 
 
INS 389 INS 
 
 enlightened and benevolent form which the projects of self-interest ever took. It is, 
 in fact, in a limited sense, and a practicable method, the agreement of a community 
 to consider the goods of its individual members as common. It is an agreement that 
 those whose fortune it shall be to have more than average success, shall resign the 
 overplus in favour of those who have less. And though as yet it has only been ap- 
 plied to the reparation of the evils arising from storm, fire, premature death, disease, 
 and old age, yet there is no placing a limit to the extensions which its application 
 might receive, if the public were fully aware of its principles, and of the safety with 
 which they may be put in practice." — {Essay on Probabilities. Preface, p. xv.) 
 
 In this part of the work we shall consider the three great divisions of the contract, 
 namely, Fire, Life, and Marine Insurance ; but a variety of other information, di- 
 rectly or collaterally bearing upon the subject, will be found under the heads An- 
 nuity, Friendly Society, Interest and Annuities, and Reversions. 
 
 INSURANCE (FIRE) is a contract for indemnity against losses by fire within 
 a limited period. In this country such insurances are made by joint-stock societies, 
 of which two kinds are distinguished : proprietary companies, who insure at their 
 own risk and for their own profit ; and mutual or contribution societies, the par- 
 ties insured with which are members or partners, and participate in the profit or 
 loss. A particular account of the conditions on which insurances are granted may 
 be readily obtained from any of the offices, or their agencies, several of which are 
 to be found in every town throughout the kingdom. These conditions are always 
 printed in the policy ; and this document usually provides that the office shall pay 
 the loss and damage suffered by the assured, not exceeding the sum fixed, " accord- 
 ing to the tenor of the printed conditions hereunto annexed." 
 
 Merchants sometimes keep open a floating policy on " goods their own, in trust, 
 or on commission," by which means all the merchandise in their possession, where- 
 ever deposited (within the district over which the insurance is made to extend), 
 is covered either wholly or in part, according as the aggregate value of such mer- 
 chandise shall happen to be under or above the sum insured. A loss under such 
 a policy is settled on the average principle. Thus, if an insurance of £10,000 is 
 effected without specification, and a loss of £2000 incurred, the merchant would 
 be required to show the total value of the goods held by him. Supposing it to be 
 £20,000, double the amount insured, he would in such case be entitled to recover 
 only £1000, as he must bear his own risk on the £10,000 uninsured. 
 
 The " conditions " usually provide that persons insuring at the office must give 
 notice of any other insurance made elsewhere on their behalf on the same subject, and 
 cause such other insurance to be indorsed on their policies. This clause is intro- 
 duced to protect the offices against the fraud of persons attempting to recover 
 more than the loss sustained by them. 
 
 No precise account was ever published of the proportion of insured houses upon 
 which claims have arisen. The premiums, therefore, are not computed as in life 
 insurance, from exact data, but, as in marine insurance, simply from a loose gen- 
 eral estimate of the risk. The risks are usually divided by British offices into four 
 classes, termed Common, Hazardous, Doubly Hazardous, and Special or Extra- 
 ordinary. For the first, the annual premium is Is. 6d. per cent. ; for the second, 
 2s. 6d. ; for the third, 4s. 6d. ; for the special risks the premium varies of course ac- 
 cording to the particular circumstances of each case. But a duty is besides pay- 
 able to government of Is. for each policy, and of 3s. per cent, per annum on the sum 
 insured, except in the case of farm-produce, stock, and implements, which are 
 entirely exempted from duty. This advantage to the agricultural interest over 
 other classes of the community was granted by the act 3 and 4 W. IV. c. 23. 
 
 Fire insurance is of modern origin, having been little known before the Revolu- 
 tion. Since then the practice has become general throughout this kingdom, and 
 has, besides, been partially introduced into many foreign countries. The number 
 of British offices is at present about sixty. In the year 1840, the amount of duty 
 levied by several of the principal companies, and accounted for by them to govern- 
 ment, was as follows :— Sun, £162,109 ; Phoenix, £133,339 ; Royal Exchange, 
 £70,154 ; Norwich Union, £67,665 ; County, £45,481 ; West of England, £33,746 ; 
 Guardian, £33,251 ; Globe, £32,246 ; Imperial, £31,263 ; Alliance, £26,310 ; Atlas, 
 £25,688 ; Manchester, £20,881 ; Scottish Union, £20,553 ; Union, £19,355 ; West- 
 minster, £18,659 ; British, £18,478 : And by the other offices, £231,608 : Total, 
 £990,786,* which, as the duty is 3s. per cent., shows the value of the property 
 
 * This was the gross sum ; an allowance of 4 or 5 per cent., according to circumstances, is paid 
 to the offices for collecting the duty, which reduces the net revenue drawn by the government 
 from fire insurances in the above year to £944, 321. 
 
INS 390 INS 
 
 insured to have been £660,524,000. Adding to this, £54,715,016, the amount on 
 farming-stock, makes the total amount insured in 1840, £715,239,016, a sum which, 
 immense though it be, might be greatly increased, but for the oppressive duty, 
 which on common risks amounts to no less than 200 per cent, on the premium. — 
 {Par. Papers, 1841 : Nos. 173 & 326.) S 
 
 Law of Insurance against Fire. 
 
 This contract is ruled by the same principles which affect marine insurance [see 
 below], so far as these are applicable to the nature of the contract. There have 
 been fewer litigated cases illustrative of the law in this department, but the 
 authorities refer to the cases in marine insurance as precedents. The policy 
 is always an open, not a valued one, there being no abandonment. The con- 
 tract is generally renewable from year to year, on payment of the premium in 
 advance ; and it is usual to stipulate that the policy shall not lapse until after 
 some definite number of days beyond the expiry of the year. By 14 Geo. III. 
 c. 48, the insured must have an interest in the subject, as proprietor, creditor, 
 agent, or trustee : and it is said that a depositary or holder in pledge might 
 show a sufficient interest, subject to the rules established by the office, which have 
 the effect of stipulations between the parties. No more can be recovered than to 
 the extent of the interest, and so when the same subject is insured at more than 
 one office, each pays rateably. The risk insured against is fire, or ignition. To 
 enable the insured to recover, something must have been actually on fire which 
 ought not to have been on fire ; and so the effects of heat radiating from fire in its 
 proper place are not included. The business of sugar-refining was pursued in a 
 building of several stories, to each of which heat was communicated by a chimney 
 passing through the whole building, and at the top of the chimney there was a 
 regulator, kept closed at night to retain the heat, but which ought to be open while 
 the fire was burning. On one occasion it was shut at an improper time, and the 
 building was filled with smoke and sparks which occasioned damage. It was found 
 that the insured had no claim on the policy, though it warranted them " against 
 all the damage which they should suffer by fire" (Austin v. Drewe, 6 Taunt. 436). 
 If there be ignition, however, though not of the subject insured, the injury occa- 
 sioned by the event is within the policy, though more immediately caused by the 
 efforts to protect the subject from the fire, as by the removal of furniture. In 
 Scotland, where a neighbouring house had been consumed, a gable of which was 
 left standing unsupported, and in the attempt to take it down, it fell against the 
 insured premises, and destroyed manufactures contained in them, this was held a 
 loss within the policy. (Johnston v. West of Scotland Ins. Co. 1828, 7 S. $ D. 52.) 
 
 The extent of the insurance must often be interpreted from the general scope of 
 the definition. Where " stock in trade, household furniture, linen, wearing ap- 
 parel, and plate " were insured, the word " linen " from the context was held to 
 include only household linen, and not linen drapery goods purchased on speculation 
 (Watchorn v. Lanford, 3 Camp. 422). Warranties must be strictly complied with 
 as in marine insurance [Warranty] ; and so when there is a scale of risks, and 
 property is insured as of a lower class than that to which it belongs, the policy is 
 void. Some risks generally termed " extraordinary " are not included in the tables 
 of premiums, but must be the subject of special contract. A material misre- 
 presentation will vitiate the contract as in marine insurance. Concealment of a 
 circumstance materially affecting the risk will have the same effect, though it should 
 happen to be the result of mistake and not of fraud ; hence, where a fire had taken 
 place in the close vicinity of the property insured, and the fire was apparently ex- 
 tinguished, and persons employed to watch the place, and in the mean time the 
 insurance was negotiated, the circumstance was held one which ought to have been 
 communicated ; and the fire breaking out again two days afterwards and burn- 
 ing the premises mentioned in the policy, there was no recovery for the loss (Bufe 
 v. Turner, 6 Taunt. 338). It is a usual condition that " no loss or damage by fire hap- 
 pening by any invasion,foreign enemy, or any military or usurped power whatsoever, 
 will be made good. " The term "usurped power" has been held not to apply to a mob, 
 but only to embrace the case of rebellion, where there are armies and military 
 operations, during which the civil laws are silenced. The expression " civil com- 
 motion," however, will except all acts of popular violence. There is generally in- 
 dorsed on the policy the method of claiming for a loss, the period at which the 
 claim may be made, and certain articles of evidence which the claimant must ad- 
 duce. It is not unfreqnently a condition that he must produce " a certificate under 
 the hands of the minister and churchwardens [or in Scotland the elders], together 
 
INS 391 INS 
 
 with some other reputable inhabitants of the parish, not concerned in such loss, 
 importing that they are well acquainted with the character and circumstances of 
 the person insured, and do know or verily believe that he really and by misfortune, 
 without any fraud or evil practice, has sustained by such fire the loss and damage ; 
 but till such affidavit and certificate of such insured's loss shall be made and 
 produced, the loss-monev shall not be payable " {Ellis, 61, 62). In England, such 
 a clause has repeatedly "been held as a condition precedent, and of the nature of 
 a warranty which must be absolutely complied with before there can be a claim 
 for loss, — the unreasonableness of the refusal to sign the certificate not affecting the 
 question. In Scotland there seems to have been no case on the point. Professor 
 Bell, however, is of opinion {Comm. I. 168) that, though " the want of those com- 
 purgators will raise an unfavourable presumption against the insured," yet " it does 
 not seem to be law in Scotland that these are all absolute conditions precedent to 
 the recovery of a loss by fire, so as to have the effect of enabling persons hostilely 
 disposed towards the insured to extinguish his claim for loss." — {Park on Insurance, 
 653-670. Marshall on Insurance, 783-813. Ellis on Fire and Life Insurance.) 
 
 INSURANCE (LIFE) or ASSURANCE, a contract for payment of a certain 
 sum, or of an annuity, in the event of the death of a particular person, in considera- 
 tion of a premium paid at once, or periodically. Assurances are said to be absolute 
 when the sum assured is payable on the death of the party assured ; contingent, 
 when the payment of this sum depends upon some other event, as the existence or 
 antecedent death of some other person or persons. They may be also divided into 
 temporary assurances, where the sum is payable only in the event of the expiry of 
 the life icithin a certain limited time ; deferred assurances, where it is payable in 
 the event of the expiry of the life after a certain time ; and assurances for the 
 whole life, payable on the expiry of the life assured, at whatever time this may 
 happen. Assurances are also effected on joint-lives, under various contingencies ; 
 but the greater number are those made on policies for the whole period of a single 
 life, in consideration of an equal annual premium. 
 
 Utility of Life Assurance. — Life assurance maybe made subservient to many 
 purposes. Of these, the principal is enabling persons dependent on their own per- 
 sonal exertions, or whose income ceases at their death, to secure a provision for 
 their surviviug dependants ; but it is also highly useful in various commercial and 
 legal transactions. Among others, the following may be enumerated : — 
 
 Capital laid out in the purchase of annuities depending on a life will acquire permanence by 
 assuring such life. 
 
 Securities on life interests may, by assurance, be rendered eligible for the purpose of raising loans. 
 
 Fines may be applied for the renewal of leases, determinable upon the demise of a party or 
 parties. The guardians of a person who, at a certain age, will come into the possession of pro- 
 perty, may obtain a security for advances made in the interim, by assuring his life until he shall 
 arrive at the given age. Dependants on the lives of others may, by assuring such lives, be relieved 
 from the anxiety natural to their situation. 
 
 A debtor who is unable to satisfy the demands of his creditors immediately, but who may have 
 the means of liquidating the amour t in a certain time, should he live so long, may, by the aid of 
 a temporary assurance on his life, offer a satisfactory arrangement ; or, should his views fail in 
 discharging* his debts in the given time, and he or his creditors continue the assurance, the amount 
 will by that means be realized at his decease. 
 
 Persons having issued post obit bonds may realize their amount at the time they become pay- 
 able, by assuring the life or lives on whose failure they become due. 
 
 Marriage settlements may be effected advantageously through the means of life assurance, par- 
 ticularly where the husband is engaged in trade. For example; if the lady's fortune be £2* <»0, 
 one-half may be placed at the gentleman's disposal, and the remaining half be invested in the 
 funds, in the names of trustees, on behalf of the lady. The interest on this investment, employed 
 in an assurance on the gentleman's life (his age being 25), will realize £2000, the whole amount of 
 the lady's fortune, at his decease, which, with the principal money in the funds added, gives 
 £3000, the lady's original fortune increased by one-half, and independent of whatever the husband 
 may have made of the moiety he received. 
 
 It is, however, almost impossible to detail the various ramifications of the system, 
 or to limit the extent to which it may be carried in a country such as Great 
 Britain. It encourages all to the moral obligation of exercising forethought and 
 prudence, since through its means these virtues may be successfully practised, and 
 their ultimate reward secured. These are benefits which it confers upon the 
 individual. But the system is likewise highly beneficial to society at large, inas- 
 much as while the annual premiums are considered as a part of expenditure, they 
 and the accruing interest ou them are in truth so much added to the productive 
 capital of the community. It was therefore with much justice that Mr Morgan 
 considered " every assurance made for the purpose of providing for a surviving 
 family, in whatever office it is effected, not only as a private but as a public good. 
 
 Assurance Societies.— The assurers in this country are generally public companies 
 
INS 392 INS 
 
 or v. jices. The oldest 'of these is the Amicable, chartered in 1706 ; next, the Royal 
 Exchange, and London Corporation, both in 1720 ; then the Equitable, in 1762. 
 In 1792, the Westminster was founded ; then the Pelican in 1797; and the Globe 
 in 1799. Many other societies have been founded since the commencement of the 
 present century, and their number is at present nearly ninety, which is exclusive 
 of those whose operations are confined to particular professions or trades. The 
 premiums required are adjusted according to the age of the party on whose life 
 the assurance is made. They are lowest on young lives, and increase from year to 
 year as the expectancy of life diminishes. The rates of many of the offices are 
 calculated according to a table of the duration of life, founded on the Northampton 
 bills of mortality ; others, according to later tables formed from observations upon 
 the population of Carlisle, and on the mortality found to exist among the gov- 
 ernment life annuitants. [Interest and Annuities.] The Northampton tables, 
 principally used by the older offices, show a much higher (or more rapid) mortality 
 than is now found to obtain, and very large profits have in consequence been realized 
 by many establishments, particularly those, such as the Equitable, who have 
 besides reckoned upon money being improvable at only 3 per cent, interest. The 
 younger offices have commonly arranged their scales of premiums upon views 
 more favourable to the continuance of life. Yet even in those cases considerable 
 savings are generally realized, as the mortality prevailing among assured lives is 
 commonly less than that indicated by any of the tables at present in use, owing 
 to improvements in medical science, as well as in the habits of the people since 
 these tables were constructed ;* while, again, assurance offices have, by the purchase 
 of reversions and otherwise, frequent opportunities of investing their funds at a 
 much higher rate of interest than that at which their premiums are computed. 
 
 The annexed table shows in a classified form the annual premiums demanded by 
 nearly all the British offices, and by two foreign offices, for an assurance of £100 
 on the whole life, after the ages 30, 40, and 50. It also exhibits the precise rates 
 at these ages, according to different tables of mortality, reckoning interest at 3 per 
 cent., or the annual premium which, accumulated at the said rate of interest, would 
 exactly amount to £100 at the expiration of life, as shown by these tables. 
 
 1. The offices included in the first class are, proprietary, or joint stock compa- 
 nies, with a subscribed or paid-up capital, which assure to a person paying a fixed 
 premium a fixed sum at his death, and divide their profits entirely among their 
 shareholders. This system, therefore, is merely the sale of an insurance to those 
 who are disposed to purchase, at such prices as shall leave a profit to the proprietors. 
 
 2. The second class consist of mutual assurance societies, which have no pro- 
 prietary, but divide all their profits among the assured, after deducting the ex- 
 penses of management, and reserving a guarantee fund. The mode of calculating 
 profits, however, and the proportion reserved for a guarantee fund, appear to 
 differ in all. Thus — the Amicable distributes profits equally, share for share, 
 among the representatives of the deceased members, without reference to the time 
 during which the assurance may have continued : the Equitable divides theirs only 
 among the 5000 members who have been longest assured : the Norwich Union adds 
 septennially the whole of the surplus premiums to the policies in proportion to the 
 sums paid : the Scottish Widows Fund adds two-thirds of their surplus premiums 
 septennially to the policies, not only retrospectively in regard to the number of pre- 
 miums paid, but also prospectively in regard to all policies that may emerge before 
 the next stated period of investigation : and the Scottish Provident reserves the 
 surplus entire for those members who survive the period at which their premiums, 
 with accumulated interest, amount to the sums in their policies. These, as well 
 as the other plans, will be found more fully explained in the prospectuses issued 
 by the different offices. 
 
 3. The third class, called mixed mutual and proprietary associations, generally 
 divide their profits in a certain proportion betwixt a body of proprietors and the 
 parties assured at stated periods, commonly every five or seven years. The share of 
 the assured is, by many of the offices of this class, as well as of class 2d, either added 
 to the policy, or applied in reducing the annual premiums, in the option of the party. 
 The proportions allowed to the assured by the different offices, in so far as the same 
 have been made public, are as follow : — Five per cent., Westminster ; Two-thirds 
 
 * The principle acted upon by offices of rejecting bad lives might also be supposed to preserve 
 their rate of mortality above the average ; but this is counterbalanced by the adverse interests 
 which lead, notwithstanding every precaution, to policies being effected upon many such lives. 
 Hence the utmost vigilance is necessary on the part of offices to keep insured lives up to the ordin- 
 ary stanciard. 
 
INS 
 
 393 
 
 INS 
 
 Table of the Annual Rates of Premium charged by each British Office at the Ages 
 of 30, 40, and 50, for an Assurance of £100 upon a single Life. 
 
 £ 8. d. 
 Proprietary 
 Companies. 
 
 1 84< i A -ricultural 2 4 3 
 
 1805 Albion 2 6 
 
 1833 Argus 1 19 in 
 
 1824|A8ylum 2 2 
 
 1837 Britannia 2 8 
 
 1840 Fanners 2 4 1 
 
 1803 Globe 2 13 5 
 
 1797 Pelican 2 
 
 £s.d. 
 
 £s. d. 
 
 2 19 
 
 3 2 
 
 2 13 
 2 17 
 2 15 
 
 172i > Roynl Exchange. 
 
 1824 Yorkshire 
 
 1834 York & London. 
 
 2 13 
 2 5 
 2 3 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 114 
 34 
 93 
 14 
 
 14 
 11.4 
 11 4 
 
 74 
 
 (i 4 
 4 
 
 8 4 
 
 m 
 
 !)3 
 
 J 
 
 2 3 
 
 Mutual Asso 
 ciations.* 
 1706 Amicable 
 
 1837 Clergy 
 
 1762 Equitable 
 
 183(3 Hand in Hand ... 
 
 1838 London & West- 
 
 minster 2 
 
 1R3J Metropolitan 2 
 
 1834 Mutual 2 
 
 1835 National Provi 
 I dent 2 10 
 
 1808 Norwich Union . . 2 8 10 3 
 1825 Scottish Amicable 2 11 13 
 183o Scottish Equitable 2 11 13 5 
 1337ScottishProvident!2 1 6 2 14 
 1815 Scottish WidowsF. 2 11 13 5 
 'United Travellers 2 8 113 4 
 
 3. Mixed I 
 I and Proprietary. 
 1826 Aberdeen 
 
 1839 Active 
 
 1838 Alfred 
 
 1824 Alliance 
 
 18i'8 Atlas 
 
 1840 Australasian 2 
 
 1839 Benevolent |2 
 
 1838 British & Colonial 2 
 1820 Brit. Commercial 2 
 1838 British Empire ..2 
 1833 Caledonian 2 
 
 1838 Citv of Glasgow . . \2 
 
 1840 Church of England 2 
 
 1825 Clerical, Medical,! 
 
 &c 2 
 
 1 839 Commercial '2 
 
 1824 Crown 2 
 
 I807 Eagle 2 
 
 1823,Economic 2 
 
 1823 Edinburgh 2 
 
 1839 Edinburgh &Glas-j 
 
 I gow 2 
 
 6 34 
 
 6 4 4 
 
 7 64 
 
 6 34 
 
 2 04 
 
 5 64 
 
 5 64 
 
 94 
 
 64 
 
 114 
 
 5 7 2 19 7 4 
 
 6 103 1 64 
 13 5 3 7 H4 
 
 9 23 6 64 
 13 513 7 11 4 
 
 11 1 
 
 6 
 
 8 3 
 
 8 4 
 
 1 7 
 
 8 4 
 
 10 6 
 
 6 10 
 4 9 
 
 71: 
 
 ft J 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 2 15 3 4 1 
 
 12 
 
 84 
 
 8 10J3 
 
 13 5 3 
 
 8 43 
 
 9 lo 3 
 9 93 
 6 10 3 
 
 5 4 10 7 
 7 U 4 12 11 
 4 7 4 12 4 
 4 24 7 
 4 64 8 3 
 3 64 13 4 
 
 10 43 3 
 
 8 10 3 5 
 10 43 4 
 
 9 In 3 4 
 4 32 19 
 
 7 73 3 
 
 84 7 3 
 
 4 10 7 
 74 8 11 
 4 4 12 4 
 94 3 
 24 9 
 
 6 103 
 
 1 
 
 34 9 1 
 
 is is 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 3. Mixed conti- 
 nued. 
 1838' English aud Scot- 
 
 I tishLaw 2 9 
 
 18401 Equitable (New) j2 8 
 
 1819 European |2 9 
 
 1838 Familv Endowm'J2 9 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 93 6 
 
 13 3 
 
 £ 8. d. 
 
 2 5 
 2 8 
 2 
 
 2 8 
 2 10 
 2 10 
 
 1838 Freemasons 2 7 
 
 1838 Glasgow 2 
 
 1821 Guardian 2 10 
 
 1807, Hope 2 13 
 
 1820 Imperial 2 13 
 
 1823 Law Life 2 13 
 
 1836 Legal & General.. 2 10 
 1836 Lie . Victuallers. . 
 1841 Life Assoc, of Scot. 
 1721 LondonAssurance 2 11 
 
 1806 London Life 2 19 
 
 1840London, Edin- 
 burgh, & Dublin 
 
 1824 Manchester 
 
 1836 Minerva. 
 
 1837 National Endow- 
 | ment 
 
 1830!National 
 
 1837 National Loan Fd. 
 1809, North British 
 
 1836 North of Scotland 
 
 17517 Palladium 
 
 1826 Promoter 
 
 1835 Protector 
 
 1839 Protestant Dissen- 
 I tera 
 
 1806 Provident 2 13 
 
 1806 Rock |2 13 
 
 1837 Roval Naval and 
 
 ! Military J2 12 
 
 1824 Scottish Union ... 2 9 
 
 1825 Standard 2 10 
 
 1836 Standard of Eng 
 I land 
 
 1810Sun 
 
 1714 Union 2 13 5 
 
 1835! United Kingdom 2 8 2 
 
 1834 Universal 2 8 10 
 
 1825! University 
 
 1838 Victoria 2 9 2 
 
 1807 w ^t of England 2 
 1792 Westminster 2 13 
 
 6 4 10 9 
 
 514 8 9 
 
 34 8 6 
 
 9 4 10 6 
 
 6 11 
 8 
 10 8 
 
 11 4 10 
 
 4 10 
 
 4 10 
 
 34 9 
 
 14 13 
 
 4 16 
 
 5 4 
 
 10 3 5 
 
 73 5 
 
 73 5 
 
 63 2 
 
 53 7 
 
 33 5 
 
 53 6 
 
 8 2 19 
 
 513 7 
 
 23 6 
 
 73 5 
 
 4 10 7 
 
 4 8 
 
 4 8 
 
 oU 5 6 
 
 5 4 18 7 
 
 3 4 13 6 
 14 11 11 
 5|4 7 1 
 
 1114 10 8 
 
 6 4 14 2 
 
 04 8 
 
 2 11 
 
 113 7 
 53 7 11 
 53 7 11 
 
 1 19 
 
 2 9 
 2 13 
 2 8 
 2 8 
 
 10 
 
 Northampton 3 per 
 cent. 
 
 Carlisle 3 per cent. 
 
 Equitable Experi- 
 ence do 
 
 Gov. Males do 
 
 Gov. Females do. . 
 
 3 7 
 3 5 
 3 4 11 
 
 7 2 13 5 
 213 6 
 
 7 11 
 3 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 7 
 
 03 1 3 
 43 7 11 
 
 2 13 
 1 19 
 
 1 18 6 
 
 2 2 7 
 1 17 5 
 
 3 7 H 
 2 12 
 
 4 15 
 4 10 8 
 4 10 8 
 
 4 14 6 
 4 7 9 
 4 8 
 
 3 18 
 
 4 14 
 4 10 
 4 10 
 4 5 
 4 7 
 
 4 11 10 
 4 3 
 4 10 10 
 
 4 10 8 
 3 12 5 
 
 2 10 9 3 11 
 2 15 7|4 1 
 2 8 5'3 7 3 
 
 of one-fifth^ London Assurance and National ; One-third, Benevolent and Union ; 
 One-half , Australasian, Guardian, Protestant Dissenters, Sun, and Victoria ; Two- 
 thirds, Caledonian, City of Glasgow, Crown, Edinburgh and Glasgow, English and 
 Scottish Law, Equitable (New), European, Hope, Imperial, Licensed Victuallers, 
 Manchester, National Endowment, National Loan Fund, North British, Rock, 
 Scottish Union, and United Kingdom; Three-fourths, Active, Economic, Promoter, 
 Protector, and Universal; Four-fifths, Alfred, British and Colonial, Church of Eng- 
 land, Eagle, Edinburgh, Family Endowment, Law Life, Legal and General, Minerva, 
 Palladium, Royal Naval and Military, and University ; Five-sixths, Commercial ; 
 
 * Some of these have adopted separate lower scaks for temporary and non-participating assurances. 
 
IKS 394 INS 
 
 Nine-tenths, North of Scotland ; Seventeen-eighteenths, Provident ; Whole from 
 participation scale, Aberdeen, British Empire, Freemasons, and London, Edinburgh, 
 and Dublin, London Life, and Life Association of Scotland. But these proportions, 
 it has to be observed, form a very uncertain view of the advantage to the assured, 
 as the companies generally differ in their mode of estimating profits, expense of 
 management, and in the benefits reserved for their shareholders. In this uncer- 
 tainty, perhaps the safest guides are the statements which are published by some 
 of the offices of the profits actually assigned to the parties assured. 
 
 Many of the offices in this class have lower scales, under which the assured 
 remain independent of them, as in class first. In not a few also the rates of 
 premium on the lives of females are rather less than on those of males. 
 
 The selection of an office is sometimes a matter of considerable difficulty; and 
 can seldom indeed be fitly made by persons not conversant with life assurance 
 business. The mutual assurance and proprietary systems have each their advocates. 
 On behalf of the first, it is chiefly argued that the assured have the benefit of all the 
 profit realized ; while the proprietary companies state that their arrangement has 
 the advantage of simplicity, that the realization of profit by the assured under the 
 former system is uncertain, and that it entails upon them the responsibility of part- 
 ners for the losses of the society.* Each kind, however, has its advantages, accord- 
 ing to the objects of the party wishing to be assured. For family purposes, and 
 especially where the party is young, the mutual associations are generally preferred ; 
 while for temporary or " short assurances," and those connected with many kinds 
 of trust and money transactions, a liberal proprietary company is commonly 
 chosen : the mixed associations hold out the advantages of both methods. A pro- 
 prietary company making no returns will be selected on a joint consideration of 
 its respectability, rate of premium, and of the conditions annexed to its policy. 
 In the case of a mixed office sharing profits, regard will besides be paid to the 
 amount of their returns or bonus. In a mutual society, the rate of premium is by 
 some deemed of minor importance, as the surplus is divided wholly among the 
 assured, and the office may in so far be regarded as his savings bank ; but rates 
 greatly in excess lead to a needless amplitude of funds, — a condition not very favour- 
 able to economical management. 
 
 In the division of the surplus premiums or bonuses, the methods followed by the 
 offices seem to be fair, in so far as they make the chance of surplus the same for 
 one member as for another, at least of those who enter at the same age : if there 
 be any thing inequitable, it arises when the premiums, as is sometimes objected to 
 those computed from the Northampton Table, are disproportioned at different ages, 
 so that the surplus is differently levied upon different classes of members. But the 
 high respectability of most or all of the offices using the Northampton Table has 
 led to this alleged inequality being very generally disregarded. 
 
 Mode of Effecting Assurance. — The company delivers to the party proposing an 
 assurance a printed form, which, where the assurance is on his own life, he fills 
 up with his name and designation, the place and date of his birth, the sum to be 
 assured, and the duration of the assurance, along with various particulars regard- 
 ing his health, viz. : whether he has resided abroad, has had smallpox or cowpox, 
 been affected with palsy, apoplexy, fits, convulsions, spitting of blood, consumption; 
 or has been subject to gout, insanity, rupture, or to any other disease tending to 
 shorten life. This is followed by a certificate or declaration, warranting the truth 
 of these particulars, and declaring them to form the basis of the contract. Where 
 the assurance is intended to be on another life than that of the proposer, the same 
 particulars are furnished, and warranted, with a farther declaration that the pro- 
 
 Joser has an interest in the life of the other to the full amount to be assured thereon, 
 n both cases, references are besides given to two friends of the party on whom 
 the assurance is made. One of these must generally be the party s usual medical 
 attendant, from whom a very minute declaration is sometimes required, not only 
 on the above particulars regarding the party's health, but also as to his predisposi- 
 tion to disease, and his habits as to activity and temperance. When this is com- 
 
 * Every desirable security may be obtained on the mutual principle. The proprietary and 
 mixed companies offer, it is true, the guaranty of a subscribed or paid up capital in addition to 
 the premiums, but it has long been proved, that with proper tables and a fair amount of business 
 at starting, this capital is unnecessary. The only advantage of capital to an office seems to lie in 
 its enabling the directors justifiably to seek for investments on secondary securities, at a high rate 
 of interest ; investments which a mutual society must avoid, and which even other offices, especially 
 those on the mixed plan, should shun until a sum sufficient (with future premiums) to meet all 
 claims is set apart in the best securities which the state of society offers. 
 
INS 395 INS 
 
 pleted. the party whose life is to be assured generally makes his appearance before 
 a committee of the directors of the company, or their medical officer, by whom 
 farther inquiries are made ; and the result is entered in the company's books accord- 
 ingly. The declaration, certificates, and other papers, are then laid before the 
 board ; and from these documents, and frequently information derived from other 
 sources, their decision is formed, and communicated to the applicant. On payment 
 of the premium a receipt is given, containing the number of the policy, which is 
 then made out agreeably to the declaration, inspected by the board, signed by a 
 certain number of directors, and delivered to the party interested. 
 
 If the party over whose life the assurance is made cannot appear before the 
 directors, or any one appointed by them, a fine varying from 10s. to £1 per cent, 
 on the sum assured is usually charged for non-attendance. A few offices likewise 
 require a small deposit of 2s. 6d. per cent, on lodging the proposal ; others 5s. or 
 10s. per cent, as entry-money. In all cases, however, there is a duty to be paid to 
 government on the policy, which, when the sum is not above £50, is 2s. 6d. ; above 
 £50 and not above £100, 5s.; above £100 and under £500, £1 ; when £500 and 
 under £1000, £2 ; £1000 and under £3000, £3 ; £3000 and under £5000, £4 ; 
 £5000 and upwards, £5. There is thus always an addition to the first year's 
 premium ; but in the policy the premium only is named, as on the regular 
 payment of this sum its existence depends. The time allowed for payment of the 
 periodical premium varies in different offices from 15 days to 3 months after the 
 date it is due ; but in most offices the forfeiture of the policy may be prevented by 
 
 Eaying a fine of from 10s. to £1 per cent, on the sum assured, within a farther 
 mited time, and giving a warranty that t ; ^ual is in good health. 
 
 The consideration for an ordinary assu* - dy noticed, generally paid 
 
 in equal annual premiums ; but many other plans ut to suit the con- 
 
 venience of the assured. Thus, it may be paid —in b "rterly instal- 
 
 ments — according to ascending or descending scales i emiums, or bj premiums 
 payable during a limited number of years. Some offices u. half 
 
 of the annual premiums for the first five or seven years, leaving I , with 
 
 interest at 5 per cent., to be paid afterwards, or deducted at death from the amount 
 assured. 
 
 Exceptions are introduced into most policies declaratory of their being void in 
 the following cases : — 1. Death beyond the limits of Europe, or at sea, except in 
 passing from one part of the kingdom to another, or to or from the Continent, 
 within certain boundaries, — as betwixt Hamburg and Bordeaux. 2. Entering into 
 naval or military service without the previous consent of the company. 3. Death 
 by suicide. 4. Death by duelling ; and 5. Death by the hands of justice. The 
 three last, however, are not understood when the assurance is on another's life ; 
 and in some offices, onerous assignees to policies opened by persons on their own 
 lives may be similarly protected, to the extent of their bona fide interest. 
 
 Extra Risks are always the subject of special agreement. In this class are 
 comprehended lives above 60, persons going beyond the limits of Europe, and per 
 sons whose lives are on the ground of health or fr nra the nature of their employ- 
 ment, not assurable at the common rates of <-h risks ar« taken by 
 many offices ; but the assurance of lives av a is chiefly 
 the Asylum, the Globe, and a very few othe 
 
 The Assignation of the Policy is sanctioned uj .a.. , . it may form a security 
 for sums advanced, or become an object of sale. The holder of trie policy L 
 cases pays the future premiums, and his advantage consists in possessing a policy 
 at a less premium than he must have paid at the present age of the party on whose 
 life the assurance was effected. As the probability of life is continually diminish- 
 ing, the value of the policy will obviously depend upon the length of time it has 
 endured. Thus, if a policy of £100, originally granted on a life of 25, is exposed 
 to sale when the party attains the age of 60. the purchaser will, according to the 
 subjoined table, have to pay only £2, 2s. 5a. annually during the existence of the 
 policy ; whereas, if he had taken out one at the present age of the party, his 
 premium would be £6, 6s. 6d. ; and for the excess of the latter above the former, 
 namely, £4, 4s. Id., a price is fixed. The value of a policy may also depend upon 
 the future annual contributions being paid under a guarantee by the assigner, or 
 from a fund set apart by him ; or upon the premium having been paid in a gross 
 sum when the policy was opened. In general, however, it may be observed that a 
 policy must be most valuable to the party assured himself, and less so to others, 
 according to their convenience of paying the premiums, and obtaining proper 
 information respecting the party in whose life they are interested. On this account. 
 
INS 
 
 396 
 
 INS 
 
 and perhaps for the still weightier reason that all who sink capital to be drawn 
 back upon a contingency, stipulate for a much higher than common return of 
 interest (independent of the chances of life), policies are sold at very dispropor- 
 tionate prices. Most assurance companies are willing to treat for a renunciation 
 of the policy : but where it has been opened for family purposes, and the assured's 
 circumstances become reduced, an endeavour is frequently made, particularly 
 where the policy has endured for a considerable time, to retain it among his friends. 
 Of late years, several offices have adopted the plan of granting loans on the security 
 of their policies. 
 
 On the Expiry of the Life Assured the office requires production of certain 
 documents,— such as the register of the burial of the deceased, and references to the 
 medical persons and others who attended him in his last illness ; and, if he opened 
 the policy himself, the probate of his will, or, if it has been assigned, a copy of 
 the assignment. The time when the sum assured is paid varies in different offices ; 
 but is commonly within three months after proof of the death. In this interval 
 due investigation is made ; and every thing having been found satisfactory, 
 the claimant brings with him the policy, and a receipt for the sum, which is 
 immediately paid to him. "Where a claim is payable in the event of a person 
 being alive at a certain time, his appearance before the directors, or a person 
 appointed by them, is requisite, or sufficient proof must be given that he was alive 
 at the time defined by the policy. 
 
 The following, extracted from the tables of *\e Pelican, a proprietary company, 
 shows the rates payable at different period ife for assurances under different 
 
 circumstances :— 
 
 
 SING t 
 
 
 
 SURVIVORSHIPS. 
 
 Table of Anmj. 
 of £10" 
 it 
 
 tl Pren it for an 
 ngle Life for Oj '•> ;^r, seven 
 i of Life. 
 
 Assurance 
 Years, and 
 
 Annual Premiums required during the 
 Joint Lives of two Persons A and B, 
 to secure £100 payable at the Death 
 
 
 
 
 of A, provided B be then living. 
 
 Age. One 
 
 
 .viiole 
 
 Age. 
 
 One 
 
 
 Seven 
 
 Whole 
 
 Age of Annual 
 
 Age of 
 
 Annual 
 
 
 
 
 Life. 
 
 Year 
 
 
 Year 
 
 . 
 
 Life. 
 
 A I B Premium- 
 
 ~aT 
 
 B 
 
 Premium. 
 
 
 E b. d. 
 
 £s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £s. d. 
 
 
 £s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 2 17 7 
 
 10 
 
 17 6 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 1 13 6 
 
 38 
 
 1 12 
 
 2 
 
 1 15 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 lS 
 
 15 
 
 1 7 5 
 
 4o 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 11 
 
 19 
 
 1 
 
 1 14 3 
 
 39 
 
 1 13 
 
 2 
 
 1 16 
 
 8 
 
 3 1 9 
 
 
 20 
 
 16 8 
 
 
 20 
 
 2 16 8 
 2 14 5 
 2 11 2 
 
 17 
 
 18 4 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 1 15 
 
 40 
 
 1 14 
 
 3 
 
 1 17 
 
 7 
 
 3 3 7 
 
 
 30 
 
 15 1 
 1 3 6 
 
 
 30 
 
 18 
 
 18 9 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 15 10 
 
 41 
 
 1 15 
 
 4 
 
 I 18 10 
 
 3 5 6 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 40 
 
 19 
 
 19 2 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 16 8 
 
 42 
 
 1 16 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 7 6 
 
 
 50 
 
 1 1 11 
 
 
 on 
 
 2 7 2 
 
 20 
 
 19 7 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 1 17 7 
 
 43 
 
 1 17 
 
 9 
 
 2 1 
 
 7 
 
 3 9 7 
 
 
 GO 
 
 10 4 
 
 
 60 
 
 2 2 11 
 
 21 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 18 6 
 
 44 
 
 1 19 
 
 
 
 2 3 
 
 
 3 11 9 
 
 
 70 
 
 18 9 
 
 
 70 
 
 1 18 9 
 
 22 
 
 1 7 
 
 1 2 
 
 ] 
 
 1 19 5 
 
 45 
 
 2 
 
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 80 3 18 4 
 
 Law of Insurance on Lives. 
 The principles set forth in relation to the other two great branches of 
 the contract are to be considered as applicable to this branch, in so far as 
 they are not inconsistent with the different circumstances of the transaction. If 
 the policy be not on the life of the insurer himself, he must have some pecuniary 
 interest in the life insured, in terms of 14 Geo. III. c. 48 ; and no farther 
 sum can be recovered on a loss than to the extent of the interest. " Very few 
 questions, " says Mr Ellis, " have arisen upon the subject of interest, because the 
 offices are never in the habit of taking that objection, unless they are under the 
 necessity of resisting payment upon some other fair and proper ground, as fraudu- 
 lent misrepresentation or concealment ; and if they are driven to resist on such a 
 
INS INS 
 
 ground, they then, in order to make their case the stronger, sometimes also object 
 to the want of interest, when the policy is open to the objection" (123). Where 
 a policy of insurance in which there was no such interest as would found a claim 
 in law was sold, an action to recover back the purchase-money was dismissed, 
 as it was shown to be the practice of the office to pay in such cases (Bar- 
 ber v. Morris, 1831. Ellis, 124). A creditor has an insurable interest in his debtor, 
 but if the debt is paid in any manner, the interest ceases, as in the case of Mr Pitt's 
 coachmaker, who, with his other creditors, was paid from a parliamentary grant 
 (Godsal v. Boldero, 9 East. 72). [Policy.] The holder of a note for money won 
 at play has no insurable interest. Having to pay a fine, or as it is called in Scot- 
 land, a grassum, as the condition of a lease on the death of any individual, is an 
 ordinary insurable interest on his life. 
 
 Warranty and representation are of great importance in this species of insur- 
 ance. It is usual for the party to sign a specific declaration regarding his age, 
 health, and habits ; and if this be part of the policy, its contents are of the nature 
 of warranties. The warranty that the person " is in good health at the time of 
 making the policy " does not infer perfect freedom from disorder. The question is, 
 whether the life is " a good one, " which it is if there be nothing that positively 
 reduces the chance of the individual living as long as the average of other people. A 
 person slightly diseased, namely, by occasional rheumatism, may die of an increase 
 of the disorder ; but the chances of his doing so are scarcely more than that a man 
 in perfectly sound health may, within the same time, fall a victim to a deadly dis- 
 ease. If there be a fixed consumption, however, or disease of the heart, the seeds of 
 death are planted, — the subject is clearly a damaged one, and though it may hold out 
 for some time, the chances are against it, and it is far from being worth the same 
 sum with an undamaged commodity. It is now the practice to require some spe- 
 cific answers to certain questions as to the party's health, namely, if he has had the 
 smallpox, or has been inoculated ? If he has had the gout ? if he is ruptured ? 
 and, undoubtedly, false answers to such questions will vitiate the contract. It is 
 the practice to follow up with the question whether there be any disease tending 
 to shorten life \ And the answer must be given on the above principles. Where 
 the insurance office demands no warranty or special information, it takes the risk 
 of the life being a good one, subject to the exception of fraud. There may always 
 be fraud in the concealment of material facts. It is held that the person insuring 
 is not to be the judge of what is material, and that it will not avail him to prove 
 that he did not think the circumstance material, and, on that account, did not com- 
 municate it ; so that, whenever there is any thing in the position of the insured, 
 whether as to health or habits, which distinguishes him from the generality of men, 
 it is not safe to omit stating it. " The contrary doctrine," says Mr Justice Bay- 
 ley, " would lead to frequent suppression of information, and it would be extremely 
 difficult to show that the party neglecting to give the information thought it mate- 
 rial. But if it be held that all material facts must be disclosed, it will be the inter- 
 est of the assured to make a full and fair disclosure of all the information within 
 their reach" (Lindenau v. Desborough, Ellis, 114). If the person has been seri- 
 ously ill recently before the insurance is effected, that circumstance ought to be 
 mentioned, and reference should be made to the physician who attended him. A cer- 
 tificate is generally required from the usual medical attendant, and if, instead of the 
 physician who has been recently attending, one who attended at a distant period 
 only is adduced, the policy will be vitiated. It is usual to apply for information to 
 a private friend, the truth of whose statements is material to the validity of the 
 policy. In Scotland, in a case where the answer of the private friend to the ques- 
 tion " Can you give any and what information respecting his habits \ whether 
 active or sedentary ? temperate or free V was, "he takes moderate exercise, and 
 is temperate in his living ; " and that to the question " do you know any reason 
 why an assurance on his fife would be more than usually hazardous," was, " I 
 know of none ;"— the concealment of an excessive habit of opium- eating was held 
 material (Forbes & Co. agt. Ed. Life Assur. Co., 9th March, 1832, 10 S. <£• D. 451). 
 A person insuring on the life of another is in all respects in the same situation 
 which that person would be in if insuring on his own life, in respect to concealment, 
 representation, and warranty ; and his ignorance of the circumstances does not pro- 
 tect him if he give false information, or conceal material facts. — {Park, 636-652. 
 Marshall, 770-784. Ellis on Fire and Life Insurance.') 
 
 INSURANCE (MARINE) is insurance against perils of the sea and enemy, in- 
 cluding the chances of fire, piracy, and barratry. Its introduction is believed to 
 have beeu coeval with that extraordinary development of maritime and commercial 
 
INS 398 INS 
 
 enterprise which distinguishes the 15th century. But a long period elapsed before 
 its practice became general ; nor was it until after the middle of last century that 
 in tnis country it was subjected to clearly defined laws, — an advantage which was 
 then conferred upon it mainly by an admirable series of decisions by Lord Mans- 
 field, Chief-justice of the King's Bench between 1756 and 1788. It differs from fire 
 and life insurance both in the mode of transacting the business and in the diver- 
 sified nature of the risks against which security is sought. The great emporium 
 of marine insurance is London, where it is effected chiefly through means of indi- 
 vidual underwriters, who congregate at Lloyd's Subscription Rooms, in the Royal 
 Exchange. Indeed, until 1824, with an exception in favour of two chartered as- 
 sociations, the Royal Exchange and London Assurance Companies, it was not law- 
 ful in England for any two or more individuals to combine together for taking upon 
 themselves sea-risks ; but in that year an act was passed which allowed any number 
 of persons to associate themselves together for undertaking marine insurances ; 
 and many joint-stock companies have been since formed and put in action for that 
 purpose, both in London and other ports, though nearly all the great adventures, 
 and a large proportion of the other business, continue to be taken to individual 
 underwriters at Lloyd's. 
 
 The establishment of Lloyd's may be regarded as the focus of the maritime com- 
 merce of the world. [Lloyd's.] There is scarcely a seaport of any consequence 
 in which the committee has not an agent, whose duty it is to survey all ships 
 launched, and to continue from time to time to transmit all necessary information 
 about them ; also to give intelligence of all departures and arrivals, ships spoken 
 with at sea, wrecks, accidents, and the state of the weather ; likewise, in case of 
 damage to goods insured, to examine and report their condition, and generally to 
 watch over the interests of the underwriters. In this way that body of men are 
 supplied with every information which it concerns them to possess ; and as, besides 
 all British ships, a large proportion of those of other states are registered in their 
 books with every minute particular, they have seldom more hesitation in accepting 
 insurance on a foreign vessel than on one of this country. 
 
 Merchants and shipowners sometimes transact their own business at Lloyd's, 
 but more commonly insurances are effected through the medium of brokers, who 
 are remunerated, not by the assured — their employers — but by the underwriters, 
 with whom they have a current account ; their regular allowance is 5 per cent, on 
 the amount of the gross premium in each case, and, in addition, 12 per cent, upon 
 the net amount of premiums paid by them at the end of the year, half-year, or other 
 period, when the broker makes a settlement, after deducting all losses and averages 
 recovered for the assured. As some compensation for the 12 per cent., which he 
 foregoes in the case of loss, the broker charges the party assured 10s. per £100 
 upon the amount recovered. The underwriters seldom run a hazard to any large 
 amount upon one ship ; their principle of transacting business is to distribute their 
 risks over as many vessels as they can, so as to lessen the proportionate probability 
 of great loss ; and hence few will subscribe more than £500 or £600 on one ship ; 
 indeed, the average may be reckoned nearer to £200 ; but the policy is handed round 
 among the underwriters until the required amount is filled up ; and thus, when 
 an adequate premium is afforded, no difficulty is experienced in getting assurances 
 to almost an unlimited extent. 
 
 Insurances of moderate amount are in general effected with greater facility and 
 despatch with a company, — the risk being commonly accepted or rejected at once 
 by their manager. These companies, as at Lloyd's, all allow 5 per cent, discount or 
 brokerage on the premium ; but their practice is not uniform in other respects. 
 The following are the terms of the Marine Insurance Company of London : — " All 
 parties to be allowed 5 per cent, brokerage and 10 per cent, discount for cash. 
 Current credit accounts to be opened with the consent of a board of directors, the 
 same to close on the 31st of December in each year, and the balance to be paid on 
 or before the 5th of April following, when 12 per cent, discount will be allowed 
 upon the balance, such discount to be forfeited if the balance be not then paid." 
 
 In some places there are clubs, or mutual insurance associations, in which no 
 premium is paid, but each member is periodically called upon to defray a pro- 
 portion of the losses sustained, — the rate of his contribution depending upon the 
 value of the property hazarded by him. These clubs are usually confined to par- 
 ticular branches of trade, as the coal -trade, where the risks incurred by all the 
 members are commonly equal in degree, — a condition essential to render the asso- 
 ciation equitable. 
 
 The rate of premium varies of course according to the quality of the ship, the 
 
INS 399 INS 
 
 season of the year, and the nature of the voyage. It is not based, as in life assur- 
 ance, upon any systematic arrangement of facts, but is deduced, as in fire insur- 
 ance, merely from a loose general estimate of the risk. For an account of the 
 stamp duties payable, see the head Policy. 
 
 In effecting an insurance, merchants should take care that their policy covers not 
 only the full value of their property, but likewise the expenses of insurance and 
 recovery in case of loss or damage. 
 
 Law of Marine Insurance. 
 
 Parties. — Any individual, whether a British subject or an alien, may insure his 
 interest in a vessel, provided he be not an alien enemy. It has been generally pro- 
 vided by temporary acts during war, that no foreign enemy's interest shall be 
 insured in the United Kingdom, with penalties against underwriters contravening. 
 By common law, however, no alien enemy can recover on a policy during the 
 continuance of hostilities, whether it has been entered into before or after the de- 
 claration of war ; nor can an action be maintained by any one on an insurance on 
 the property of an alien enemy. A license to trade with this country granted to 
 an alien enemy, does not remove his personal disability to sue in his own name, 
 but it incidentally legalizes an insurance on his goods shipped for the benefit of 
 British subjects, so as to enable his agent here to sue upon it. No insurance 
 can be recovered on, for a loss occasioned by British capture, as was decided where 
 the insurance on a French vessel was made before the war in which she was cap- 
 tured, and action raised after the cessation of hostilities (Gamba v. Le Mesurier, 
 4 East. 407). It is held, indeed, that losses happening during the existence of hos- 
 tilities between the respective countries of the insured and insurer, must be con- 
 sidered as excluded from the perils in the policy. It is said that British pro- 
 perty may lawfully be insured against British capture, seizure, and detention, it 
 being presumed that any loss so occasioned would be caused by mistake. An 
 English subject living under the protection and acting for the benefit of a foreign 
 state, is looked on as an alien enemy in respect of any insurable interest. Mere 
 residence in a hostile territory, however, does not constitute such a disqua- 
 lification. A neutral, though residing in a hostile territory, and in partnership 
 with an enemy, may insure his share of the interest. The parties who, in this 
 country, are entitled to carry on the business of marine insurers or underwriters, 
 have been already described. 
 
 Subject: Interest. — The insured must have an interest in the subject. By 19 Geo. 
 II. c. 37, for the purpose of suppressing wager-policies, it was enacted that no 
 insurance " on any ship belonging to his majesty, or any of his subjects, or any 
 goods, merchandises, or effects, &c." should be made, " interest or no interest, or 
 without farther proof of interest than the policy, or by way of gaming or wagering, 
 or without benefit of salvage to the assurer ;" and assurances in contravention 
 of the act are null. There is an exception in favour of British privateers, on 
 which insurances may be made, interest or no interest, free of average, and 
 without benefit of salvage to the insurer ; and by § 3, effects coming from places 
 belonging to the crown of Spain or Portugal are excepted. It has been decided 
 that the statute does not extend to foreign property in foreign ships, and there- 
 fore a condition that the policy is to be deemed sufficient proof of interest, 
 in case of loss, in such a case is binding, and renders the policy sufficient proof 
 accordingly (Thellusson v. Fletcher, 1 Doug. 315). In cases where the act 
 requires an interest, if the person insured part with his interest, the insurance falls. 
 The indorsement of a bill of lading to a creditor is held on the face of the transac- 
 tion a transference, to the effect of terminating an insurance ; the parties, however, 
 are entitled to show that their understanding of the transaction was different. An 
 insurable interest does not require to be a direct right of property. Any valuable 
 interest arising from the subject, unless specially excluded (as is the case with 
 seamen's wages) may be insured, e. g. the commission, or privileges, of the cap- 
 tain, and money expended by him for the use of the ship, expected profits, freight, 
 and interest in bottomry and respondentia bonds. An owner may even insure, 
 under the head of freight, the benefit which he derives from carrying his own goods. 
 When freight is insured, it must be shown, before recovery, that but for the loss the 
 vessel would have earned her freight, or that she was iu the course of earning it, 
 viz. by having her cargo on board. The wages of seamen are not insurable on 
 grounds of public policy, it being considered necessary to exclude them from any 
 interest apart from the safety of the ship. Re-insurance, or insurance against the 
 loss to which the underwriter may be liable, is prohibited by 19 Geo. II. c. 37, 
 
INS 400 INS 
 
 unless in the case of the insurer becoming insolvent or bankrupt, or dying, in which 
 case his assignees, executors, or administrators may re-insure, provided it be set 
 forth on the policy that it is a re-insurance. A double insurance is not void, 
 though made with the view of double satisfaction in case of loss, but the insured 
 cannot recover on the policies collectively more than his loss. He can either sue 
 on both rateably, or on one, and in the latter case, the underwriters who pay have 
 relief against those in the other policy. As to the subject which forms the interest, 
 " in general it may be laid down as a rule, that no insurance can be made on any 
 species of goods and merchandises intended to be imported or exported, contrary 
 to the laws of this kingdom, or those of its dependencies, or to the law of nations ; 
 and that if the intended commerce be contrary to any of these laws, an insurance 
 made to protect it will be illegal and void " {Marshall, 52). When both parties 
 are aware of the illegality,— as in other illegal pactions, neither party has an 
 action against the other for performance of his covenant ; and so, though he may have 
 paid the premium, the insured cannot recover on a loss. By the act for consolidat- 
 ing the laws against smuggling, 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 53, § 46, there are penalties 
 against the parties engaged in such insurances. [Smuggling.] It is no defence, 
 however, in an action on a policy, that the subject-matter of the insurance has 
 come into existence through an infringement of the revenue law of some other 
 country. If a general insurance be effected on goods, part of which is of a nature 
 to make the voyage illegal, and the ship and cargo liable to be seized in terms of 
 the revenue laws, the policy is entirely vitiated ; but, if no part of the cargo but 
 that illegally conveyed is liable to forfeiture, the insurance will be good as to the 
 remainder. Insurance on contraband of war is void, and so on any trade carried 
 on in contravention of a British embargo. [Contraband. Embargo.] 
 
 Risks or Perils. — Perils usually insured against are as follow : — 
 
 1st, Of the Seas.— The expression comprehends those injuries or losses which 
 proceed directly from natural causes, and are not designedly done by the hand of 
 man ; it embraces injury from stress of weather, winds and waves, lightning, rocks, 
 sandbanks, &c. A loss arising from the misconduct or ignorance of the master 
 or crew is not considered as by a peril of the sea, nor is one from the internal con- 
 dition of the vessel, as where it becomes worm or rat eaten. It is a peril of the 
 sea when the vessel receives damage by taking the ground in a dry harbour, owing 
 to the tide having left her, or when one ship is run down by another, or when loss is 
 immediately caused by the convulsion of the elements, though remotely occasioned 
 by some act of carelessness. Where a vessel is driven ashore by stress of weather, 
 and there captured, it is not a peril of the sea, but of enemies. Where two of the 
 crew were sent on shore to make fast a rope, and were impressed before they could 
 do so, in consequence of which the ship went ashore nearly at high-water, where 
 she grounded, and was much strained, and made a great deal of water before she 
 could be got off— it was held a loss by peril of the sea. — (Hodgson v. Malcolm, 2. 
 N. R. 336.) 
 
 2d, From Fire. — Whether occasioned by the negligence of the master or crew, 
 by malicious design, or in furtherance of public policy,— as where a ship is burnt to 
 prevent her from falling into the hands ot an enemy. If goods are shipped in a dam- 
 aged state, and internal combustion arise, the insurers of such goods are not liable. 
 
 3c?, From Enemies The principal losses from this source are by capture. The 
 
 underwriter becomes liable from the moment of capture, and is not entitled to 
 wait for a formal alienation of the property by condemnation or otherwise ; retain- 
 ing, however, an equitable right in the case of recapture, to have his responsibility 
 reduced to the extent of the actual loss occasioned, as by salvage, &c. The under- 
 writer will not be relieved though he show that a capture was occasioned by 
 connivance with the master. The only manner in which there can be a deduction 
 from the full loss in the case of a captured vessel, is in the case of recapture ; the 
 ransoming captured vessels is prohibited under severe penalties (22 Geo. III. c. 25). 
 Detention by embargo is one of the perils from enemies, and it is generally specified 
 in the policy. [Embargo.] There can be no recovery on an insurance against 
 British capture. 
 
 4th, Pirates, Rovers, and Thieves. — This includes all those acts of violence and 
 fraud, which not being done by governments in the course of hostilities, resemble 
 robbery and theft on shore. Where a ship loaded with corn was compelled by stress 
 of weather to enter Ely harbour, where there was a scarcity of corn, and was forced 
 by a mob, it was held a loss by pirates. — {Marshall, 511.) 
 
 5th Jettison, and 6th Barratry. See these heads, and Average. 
 
 These particulars are usually followed in the policy by the general definition 
 
INS 4(1 INS 
 
 " all other perils, losses or misfortunes, that have or shall come, to the hurt, detri- 
 ment, or damage of the saids goods and merchandises, and ship, &c, or any part 
 thereof." This general expression has become limited by practice and law to 
 certain descriptions of loss. The destruction of the ship through any principle of 
 internal decay, — as by worms or rats, is not covered by it. Though loss occasioned 
 by capture be one of the risks specifically insured against, it would appear that 
 loss occasioned where the voyage is abandoned on account of the risk of capture, 
 does not come under the general clause ; so it was found in a case where, it having 
 been ascertained that the port of destination of an insured vessel was shut up against 
 the British, the ship proceeded elsewhere, and sold her cargo at a loss (Had- 
 kinson v. Robinson, 3 Bos. <§• Pul. 388). Where a vessel is fired on by mistake 
 for an enemy, the loss is held to be covered by the general clause. There are 
 some risks excluded from the insurance by what is termed the common me- 
 morandum. [Policy.] There are certain injuries to ship and goods which the 
 shipowners must bear, in relation to the former, and indemnify as to the latter, 
 notwithstanding insurance. If the ship was not seaworthy at the commencement 
 of the voyage, they are liable for all loss, as likewise for loss or damage arising from 
 the defect. 
 
 The Duration of the risk is a matter of importance. As to goods, if they are 
 insured to be loaded at a particular place, they will not be covered if loaded 
 elsewhere. Under the usual form of policy, the risk does not commence till 
 the goods are actually on board, " and it may be laid down as a general rule, 
 that the risk on goods continues no longer than they are actually on board the 
 ship mentioned in the policy, or in boats for the purpose of being landed ; and that 
 if they be removed from on board and landed, or put on board another ship with- 
 out the consent of the insurers, the contract is at an end, and the insurers are 
 discharged from all subsequent responsibility " (Marshall, 249). But if the vessel 
 be disabled on her voyage, and the goods be shifted on board another, to be 
 conveved to their destination, the insurers continue liable ; so also if it be a condi- 
 tion that the goods are at a particular place to be transhipped into other vessels, 
 and these other vessels not appearing, they are transferred to a storeship. As to 
 the ship, if the insurance be from the port, the risk commences when the vessel 
 breaks ground ; if at and from the port, it commences with her arrival at the port, 
 or, if she is there at the time, at the execution of the policy. In the former case, 
 however, the vessel must have arrived seaworthy, or at all events in a state to 
 be repaired and equipped for the voyage. If the insurance be on the ship " in 
 the same manner " as that on the goods, and the latter do not attach, the former 
 falls with it. It is usually stipulated that the risk shall continue ** until she hath 
 moored at anchor 24 hours in good safety," and when such is the case, a loss happen- 
 ing after the time is not insured against, though the cause existed before the vessel 
 was moored. The underwriter is indeed in all cases relieved if the loss does not ac- 
 tually take place till after the period fixed for the termination of the risk, though 
 the event by which it is occasioned, and one which could not but occasion a loss, has 
 happened before — as where a vessel springs a leak, and is kept afloat by pumping. 
 
 Premium. — The consideration on which the insurer undertakes to indemnify 
 the insured is so termed. In marine insurance there is this peculiarity, that there 
 is a claim on the part of the underwriter, for the stipulated premium, after receipt 
 of it is acknowledged in the policy. This practice was first employed to exclude 
 litigation on the ground of want of consideration in actions for loss : it afterwards 
 became a convenient arrangement for facilitating the transactions of this depart- 
 ment of business. The merchant has no time, at the critical moment when he wishes to 
 insure,to make inquiry as to who will undertake the risk in the particular case ; while 
 there are capitalists ready to incur such risks of any description, at a correspond- 
 ing premium. Between these two parties the insurance brokers drive their business, 
 finding for the underwriters merchants who wish to be insured, and for the mer- 
 chants underwriters who will undertake the risks. To facilitate this arrangement, 
 the broker takes on himself the relations of debtor and creditor between the parties. 
 He keeps an account, putting down all premiums to the underwriter's credit, as 
 already received, placing against them return premiums and losses, and settling 
 periodically with the underwriter. It was formerly held that the receipt did not 
 bar the underwriter's claim from the insured,hut it was decided otherwise in 1808 
 (Dalzell v. Main,l Ciwnp.532). It leaves, however, the claim of the underwriter against 
 the broker, and that of the broker against the insured, open. The premium and 
 the risk are counterparts of each other, and if the latter do not exist, the former can- 
 not be retained. If through mistake or misinformation an insurance be accomplished 
 
 2 C 
 
INS 402 INS 
 
 where there is no interest, or on an interest far below that nominally insured for, 
 there will be a claim for return of the whole premium in the one case, and for a 
 proportional part in the other. If there are several policies negotiated to an extent 
 far above the real interest, and without fraud,— as, in the case of loss each under- 
 writer would have to pay his proportion, without regard to priority, so each will 
 have to return a proportional part of the premium. Upon a wager policy the 
 insured cannot recover the premium after the risk is run, though it would appear 
 that he may do so before it is run; and " though there be nothing illegal in the 
 contract, and the insured effect the insurance in the conviction that he had a good 
 insurable interest ; yet, if the risk be run, and the ship arrive safe, he cannot come 
 upon the underwriters for a return of premium, on the ground that he had no legal 
 title to her. But if a loss happen, in the case of a bona fide insurance, and the 
 underwriters resist the claim of the insured on the ground of want of interest, 
 they will not be allowed to retain the premium " {Marshall, 652). The premium 
 is earned, and cannot be redemanded if the circumstances are such that at any 
 time, had a loss happened, the underwriter would have been liable to the full 
 amount insured for. Where the transaction is illegal, and the underwriter in con- 
 sequence resists payment of a loss, the law does not require the premium to be re- 
 turned. In the case of material fraud on the part of the insurer, the contract is void, 
 and the premium must be repaid. There is no return of premium where the con- 
 tract is vacated through the fraud of the insured or his agent, though this doctrine 
 was formerly much modified. Where the voyage is divisible into several distinct 
 risks, and some of these have not been run, a corresponding portion of the premium 
 is returnable. There can be no return of part of a premium where the risk is for 
 a term which has begun to run. A premium, or part of it, may be returnable by 
 stipulation on the policy. 
 
 Loss and Adjustment. — The loss in marine insurance is either total or partial. 
 The former does not infer the total extinction of the matter insured, but if it be 
 properly abandoned to the underwriters, on account of the extent of the loss, that 
 loss is considered total. [Abandonment.] Where the policy is valued, the amount of 
 a total loss is fixed and settled, subject to modification if fraud be proved. [Policy.] 
 Where the policy is not valued, the amount remains to be adjusted. " If the 
 policy be an open one, it is an invariable rule to estimate a total loss, not by any 
 supposed price which the goods might have been deemed worth, at the time of the 
 loss, or for which they might have been sold had they reached the market for 
 which they were destined, but according to the prime cost, that is, the invoice 
 price, and all duties and expenses incurred till they are put on board, together 
 with the premium of insurance. This is the only true, at least the only legal mode 
 of estimating a loss, whether total or partial, on goods ; and whether the goods 
 shall have arrived at a good or a bad market is always immaterial. Neither is 
 the difference of exchange to be at all regarded in the adjustment ; for the under- 
 writer does not insure against any loss arising from such causes." {Marshall, 632.) 
 
 The ship is valued at the sum she is worth at the time of sailing, including 
 expense of repairs, value of apparel, provisions, and stores, money advanced to 
 the sailors, and all other expenses of outfit, together with the premium of insurance. 
 A loss at first total may merge into a partial one ; as where the ship is captured 
 and recaptured. In the case of a partial loss on cargo, in an open policy, the 
 amount of indemnity to be paid by the underwriters is calculated on the same 
 principle as that above laid down for a total loss, viz. the cost of the goods— not the 
 price they may bring. To ascertain this, the sum they would bring if they arrived 
 uninjured at their destination is adopted, and the price they actually bring is 
 deducted. The sum they have cost being then stated, a sum bearing to that the 
 proportion which the actual proceeds bear to what would have been the proceeds 
 were the goods undamaged,is found, and deducted from the cost-price — the difference 
 is the sum to be paid. Thus, suppose the goods purchased at £100; that, if they 
 had arrived undamaged they would have brought £150, but, being damaged, have 
 only brought £50, then as 150 : 50 : : 100 to £33, 6s. 8d. That sum deducted from 
 £100, viz. £66, 13s. 4d. is the sum to be paid by the underwriters. Suppose the 
 same goods brought to a falling market, where if undamaged they would bring not 
 more than £75, and that being damaged they bring but £25— the same result would 
 follow. It thus happens that when the market is a good one, the merchant will 
 lose by his insurance— if a bad one he will gain. The underwriter is not respon- 
 sible for loss arising from the duties or charges to be paid on the goods at their 
 arrival ; and so the price which forms the datum for calculating the loss, is the 
 gross and not the net price. The premium of insurance and commission are added 
 
INS 403 INT 
 
 to the cost -price. In a valued policy, the sum at which the goods are valued (if there 
 be no fraud) should be taken instead of the cost-price ; a comparison between the 
 sum brought by the damaged goods and what they would have brought undamaged, 
 being taken as the medium of calculation, as above stated. Where the goods 
 are sold short of the port of destination, for behoof of the underwriters, the proper 
 sum to be paid by them is the difference between the value (if on a valued policy), 
 or the average price (if on an open policy), and the sum brought ; in other words, they 
 take the goods, and pay the original sum insured. Where partial loss is suffered on 
 a ship which is repaired by the owner, the sum to be paid is the cost of repairing, 
 with a deduction of one-third, in consideration of the value of the new materials. 
 
 The settling and ascertaining the amount of a loss, with the proportion of it 
 which each underwriter has to pay, is termed " adjustment." Being indorsed on 
 the policy, and signed by the underwriters, with a promise to pay within a given 
 time (as it generally is, except where the liability is disputed in toto), it amounts 
 to an admission of the claims of the insured as against them, and precludes them 
 from calling on him for farther proof. It is not, however, conclusive against the 
 underwriters, who, until payment, may plead any defence, going to the validity of 
 the transaction, such as misrepresentation or breach of warranty, but the proof 
 will lie with themselves, and they will have to make out a strong case. 
 
 Representation is the term technically applied to any material statement, either 
 verbally or in writing, by the insured to the insurer, if it contain collateral circum- 
 stances on which the latter may be supposed to calculate the extent of the risk. 
 Warranty is a condition, and unless it be fulfilled, the contract is void. Repre- 
 sentation is only the ground on which the contract is entered on, and if it be false, 
 the insurer can only be relieved by showing that he has been misled as to the na- 
 ture of the risk he nas insured against. A warranty appears on the face of the 
 policy, — representation is on a separate writing, or is parole [Warranty]. The 
 last representation is the obligatory one, and if it be inconsistent with an earlier 
 representation, will readily have the effect of neutralizing it. Thus, where a ship 
 was represented as American on presenting the slip, but at the subscribing of the 
 policy it was merely stated generally " that it was an insurance on goods in the 
 Hermon," the ship was held not to have been represented as American (Dawson 
 v. Atty, 7 East. 367). If there is no subsequent statement, however, a representa- 
 tion made at the time of signing the slip will rule. If there is a material misrepre- 
 sentation, it is not necessary for releasing the underwriter that it be shown to be 
 fraudulent. " A representation," says Lord Mansfield, " must be fair and true as 
 to all that the insured knows ; and if he represents facts without knowing the 
 truth, he takes the risk upon himself." And so, where the insured represented the 
 ship safe on the 11th, whereas she was lost on the 9th, this, though merely the re- 
 sult of his calculation, released the underwriter (Macdowall v. Fraser, 1 Doug. 260). 
 A wilful misrepresentation on a point material to the risk voids the contract, and 
 the insured will not recover though the loss arise from circumstances unconnected 
 with the representation. 
 
 A particular form has for two centuries been in use, in which the majority of 
 policies are effected in England, unless when there are peculiar conditions to be in- 
 serted. It will be found with its several clauses under the head Policy. If the 
 policy contain warranties on the part of the insured, these must turn out strictly 
 true, otherwise the obligation of tne underwriter ceases to be in operation from the 
 moment when they become untrue [Warranty]. There are certain duties on the 
 part of the insured deemed necessary for the security of the underwriter from 
 fraud, which are tacit obligations created by the existence of the contract, such as 
 that the vessel shall be seaworthy, and shall not deviate from her proper course. 
 [Seaworthiness. Deviation. Abandonment.] {Park on Insurances. Marshall 
 on Insurance.) 
 
 INTEREST is defined by economists to be the net profit of capital ; but, in the 
 commercial acceptation of the term, it may be more correctly described as the con- 
 sideration agreed to be paid for the use of money. The sum on which the interest 
 is reckoned is called the Principal, and the sum per cent, agreed on as interest, the 
 Rate. The latter, viewed apart from legislative interference, is in the general case 
 determined by, 1st, the average rate of profit derived from the employment of capital; 
 2</, the security afforded for the repayment of the principal ; and, 3d, the duration 
 or convertibility of the loan. 
 
 1. That the rate of interest allowed on borrowed capital must, in the general case, 
 bear a proportional relation to the average rate of profit yielded by its employment 
 
INT 404 INT 
 
 seems evident. Much will be given for the use of money when much can be made 
 of it ; but, on the other hand, no man will pay more for its use than he has a 
 prospect of making by its investment. Hence, in newly settled countries, where 
 the facilities for the advantageous employment of capital are great, interest is high ; 
 while, in older countries, where these facilities are comparatively less, interest is 
 low. In the United States, Canada, and Australia, interest varies from 6 to 15 
 per cent. ; but in Britain and Holland it rarely exceeds 5 per cent. 
 
 2. It must also vary according to the risk attending the repayment of the loan. 
 No person would lend on the personal security of an individual of doubtful 
 solvency at the same rate as on mortgage over a land estate ; nor would a capi- 
 talist advance money to a nation engaged in war, or distracted by civil commotions, 
 on terms so advantageous as to a state where the government is settled, and the 
 people industrious, contented, and civilized. 
 
 3. The duration or convertibility of the loan has also to be taken into account. 
 When the money lent continues available at all times, there exists an inducement 
 for the lender to prefer such an investment, even at a reduced rate of interest, as 
 he thereby retains every chance of its more profitable employment otherwise. On 
 the other hand, where the investment, however secure, requires the capital to be 
 locked up during a considerable time, the lender will naturally demand a higher 
 rate of interest, as all favourable chances are precluded until the expiration of 
 that time. So at present exchequer bills, and deposits in banks, yield only about 
 3 per cent., while 4 to 5 per cent, can be obtained on mortgage, or good personal 
 security, where the loan is to continue for a fixed time. This principle, however, 
 does not apply when the market rate of interest is unusually high, as the lender 
 may then consider it of advantage to secure an investment at that higher rate of 
 interest. 
 
 Though by these principles, as adjusted by the natural competition of borrowers 
 and lenders, the rate of interest is permanently regulated, yet in all highly com- 
 mercial communities there are a variety of other causes in operation, which lead 
 to temporary fluctuations. Thus overtrading, a stagnation of credit, public loans, 
 or any other circumstance which leads to a large amount of money capital being 
 withdrawn from the market, will produce for a time a rise of interest much above 
 the average rate ; as,on the other hand, a fall below this rate will be produced through 
 the disengagement of capital by a stoppage in any of the usual channels of trade, by 
 payments on account of the public debt (even slightly sometimes by the half-yearly 
 dividends), or by any other circumstance which leads to a large amount of money 
 capital being thrown on the market for investment. The state of war elevates 
 the rate of interest by the general feeling of insecurity which it engenders, as well 
 as by the extra demand created for loans by government. 
 
 Besides these influences, a considerable effect has, in most countries, been pro- 
 duced by the usury laws, which have interfered to prevent a fair and free market 
 rate of interest, by imposing heavy penalties on all such persons as shall take 
 more than a certain fixed rate. These laws originated in a mistaken inter- 
 pretation of a text in the Jewish law (Deut. c. 23, v. 20), and in the policy of 
 protecting the poor against tyrannical extortion ; but very little reflection is 
 necessary for discovering that, however well adapted they may have been to a 
 former state of society, the case is now widely altered, — money having become as 
 much a merchantable article as any other. In these times, such laws serve occa- 
 sionally to obstruct mutual accommodation upon terms justified by fair competition, 
 and by a due consideration of the greater or less risk that may attach to the 
 intended application of any capital. They are not less unjust than impolitic, 
 inasmuch as they fail to operate according to the principle of reciprocity: they are, 
 in fact, a direct infringement on the right of property to free disposal and to equal 
 protection, of whatever description such property may be : and they should be con- 
 sidered as holding a place amongst those remnants of barbarism which we are 
 always slow in eradicating. 
 
 The legal rate of interest, after successive reductions, was fixed in Britain 
 in 1714 (12 Anne, c. 16) at 5 per cent. ; and in Ireland, in 1732, at 6 per cent. 
 These rates, however, have been at various times considerably below the market 
 rate. In 1806, £5, 17s. per cent, was paid on a loan to government (on whom the 
 usury laws are not binding), and at various other periods during the war the rate 
 paid by government was above 5 per cent. Such being the interest on public 
 securities, a much higher fell to be exacted on that of private parties, and a great 
 variety of expedients were accordingly adopted for defeating the usury laws. 
 Landed proprietors borrowed at extravagant rates on redeemable bonds of an- 
 
INT 405 INT 
 
 nuity, while, by the mercantile classes, the law was evaded by collusive transac- 
 tions iu the funds, and by other less reputable devices, in which an extra per centage 
 was naturally levied by the creditor as a guarantee against the risk, and a recom- 
 pense for the odium attending a breach of the statute. It came at length to be seen 
 and acknowledged that the usury laws produced and magnified the evils they were 
 intended to remedy {.Commons' Report on Usury Laws, 1818); and in 1833, a clause 
 was introduced into the act renewing the charter of the Bank of England, by 
 which a higher rate than 5 per cent, may be charged on bills not having more than 
 3 months to run; while, by later acts (7 & 8 Wm. IV. and 3 & 4 Vict. c. 83) this 
 privilege is, until 1st January 1843, extended to bills not having more than 12 
 months to run ; all simple loans of sums above £10 are likewise exempt from the 
 usury laws during the same period, provided they be not on landed or other real 
 security. The act 3 & 4 Vict. c. 83 will doubtless be renewed, and perhaps ex- 
 tended ; so that in as far as the mercantile community is concerned, the usury laws 
 mav now be considered at an end. 
 
 The fluctuations in the market rate of interest in this country rarely exceed 1 per 
 cent., viz. from about 2 to 3, or rather 3i per cent, on Exchequer bills and deposits in 
 banks; from 3^ to 4 per cent, on the first class of land securities ; and from 4 to 5 per 
 cent, on bills of exchange, — the medium rate being thus about 3h per cent. Money, 
 however, like all other commodities, is found cheapest where it exists in greatest 
 abundance, and hence the rates in the metropolis are commonly lower than in the 
 provinces, though they are subject to greater fluctuations ; the discount on the same 
 class of paper varying at different periods from about 2£ to 5h per cent. The 
 general criterion for judging of the market rate at any particular time is the charge 
 made by the banks for discounting a good bill of exchange ; but in the higher com- 
 mercial circles of London, the rate and premium on Exchequer bills are supposed 
 to afford the best indication of the state of the money market ; the price of consols, 
 though frequently referred to, is a much more imperfect guide, particularly of late 
 years. 
 
 The average rate of interest, and its probable continuance, have of late been 
 a frequent subject of discussion, more especially in reference to Life Assurance 
 Companies and other institutions, whose operations are based on the continuance of 
 a certain fixed rate for a number of years. Mr Babbage and Mr Finlaison, found- 
 ing upon the price of stock for a lengthened period, have estimated the probable 
 average rate in this country for a considerable time to come at 4 per cent. {Treat, 
 on Assurance, p. 20, and Par. Paper, 1829, No. 284, p. 35) ; but, looking to the 
 principles by which interest is adjusted, it is manifest that estimates founded upon 
 such data are entitled to little confidence. The average rate of profit is the limit 
 to which all oscillations in the market rate of interest constantly gravitates ; and 
 as the tendency of profits is to fall in all countries as recourse is had to the culti- 
 vation of poorer soils, and industry becomes less productive, it follows that the 
 natural tendency of interest is to fall likewise. Happily, this tendency in profits is 
 checked at repeated intervals by improvements in machinery, discoveries in the 
 science of agriculture, better combinations of labour and capital, and greater free- 
 dom of commerce ; so that the present average rates will probably be maintained 
 for a considerable number of years. The subject is, however, one of acknowledged 
 difficulty ; and meantime, Mr De Morgan recommends that the rate assumed by 
 assurance offices should never exceed that at which the government can borrow. 
 — {Essay on Probabilities, p. 257.) 
 
 Interest is either simple where it is always calculated on the original principal 
 sum, or compound, where the interest itself is periodically accumulated, or con- 
 verted into principal. Simple interest is legally due in all cases in which it is stipu- 
 lated for, unless where it comes within the now limited operation of the usury 
 laws [Usury] ; and where not stipulated for, the right may be established by usage. 
 It is due on all bonds, bills, and promissory notes, from the time of payment. By 
 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 42, §§ 28, 29, it is provided that upon all debts or sums certain, 
 
 Sayable at a specified time or otherwise, the jury, on the trial of any issue of 
 amages, may allow interest to the creditor at a rate not exceeding the current 
 rate, from the time when the debts or sums certain were payable, if they be 
 payable by virtue of some written instrument at a fixed time, or if payable other- 
 wise, then from the time when a demand of payment has been made in writing, 
 with notice that interest will be claimed from its date, until the term of payment ; 
 interest being also payable in all cases in which it is payable by common law. It 
 is farther provided, that the jury, on the trial of any issue or inquisition, may give 
 damages in the nature of interest, over and above the value of the goods at the 
 
INT 406 INT 
 
 time of the conversion or seizure, in actions of trover or trespass de bonis asportatis, 
 and over and above the money recoverable in all actions on policies of insurance. 
 Where a writ of error has been sued out in any action personal, and judgment 
 given for the defendant, interest is to be allowed by the Court of Error for such 
 time as execution has been delayed. 
 
 This act does not extend to Scotland, but the practice there is similar. It is 
 usual in Scotland for bankers' and land-stewards' accounts to be periodically settled, 
 and the interest added to the principal. Compound interest is demandable in such 
 cases ; and indeed it is virtually charged in all cases of accounting where balances 
 are periodically accumulated ; it is also invariably charged in all calculations of 
 annuities, assurances, and reversions, as for periods beyond one year, it is, in 
 truth, the only method by which the value of money can be properly ascertained. 
 But the law never considers compound interest as directly chargeable on an ordinary 
 debt or loan; though in the generality of cases it would be equitable that this should 
 be done, seeing, that as soon as a sum of money is payable, it matters little whether 
 it be due under the name of principal or interest, — the use of it being of equal value 
 to the owner. 
 
 Interest Calculations.— The simple interest of any sum for one year at 5 per cent, is obviously 
 l-20th of such sum (or one shilling for each pound), and the interest for one day 1 -365th part of 
 this l-20th, or l-7300th part of the principal ; while this last, multiplied by any number, will evi- 
 dently give the interest corresponding to the same number of days. Hence,— 
 
 I. To calculate interest at 5 per cent., multiply the principal by the number of days, and di- 
 vide the product by 7300. 
 
 II. To calculate interest at any other rate, find what it comes to at 5 per cent., and take a cor- 
 responding proportion of the same for the rate required. 
 
 Ex. Required the interest on £1520, 16s. 8d. for 8 days at 4 per cent. 
 1520 16 8 or, by decimals 1520-833 
 
 73,00)121,66 13 4(113 4 73,00 ) 121, 66'664(1'666 = £1 13 4 
 
 Interest 5 per cent £1 13 4 1-666 
 
 Deduct | 6 8 ■ -333 
 
 Interest at 4 per cent £1 6 8 .1-333 = £1 6 8 
 
 Approximations are sometimes adopted in practice ; thus, interest at 5 per cent, is calculated 
 by taking one penny per pound per month. 
 Compound interest may be calculated in the same manner as simple, adding the interest to the 
 
 J>rincipal at each successive period ; but when the periods are numerous, recourse must be had to 
 ogarithms, or to tables in the manner pointed out in next article. 
 
 Simple Interest Tables. — Booth's 5 per cent., Stenhouse's 5 per cent., Dunn's (Decimal) 5 per cent., 
 Marshall's 4 per cent., Pohlman's, &c. 
 
 INTEREST (COMPOUND) and ANNUITIES. Under the head Annuity we 
 have given a brief account of that kind of property when viewed merely as a sub- 
 ject of commerce. In the present article we propose to explain briefly the principles 
 of compound interest and annuities, and to furnish popular rules and tables for the 
 solution of the cases which most commonly occur in practice. In so doing, we shall 
 first treat those cases which are founded upon the operation of compound interest 
 alone, and next, those wherein the operation of compound interest is combined 
 with the chances affecting the duration of human life. 
 
 I. Compound Interest and Annuities Certain. 
 
 The cases which occur under this head may, in a general point of view, be com- 
 prised in combinations of the five following quantities : — 
 
 The Principal, signifying either a principal sum put out at interest, the present 
 value of a sum due at a future period:, or of an annuity, or the sum which, being 
 immediately invested, will be exactly sufficient with its accumulations to provide 
 for the said sum due at a future period, or for the instalments of the annuity as they 
 fall due. Under the latter signification it is sometimes called the number of years' 
 purchase the annuity is worth. 
 
 The Time, or a certain number of years commencing from the present. 
 
 The Rale, or the ratio which the interest accruing in one year bears to the prin- 
 cipal producing it. Thus T g 5 = *05 is the rate when interest is at 5 per cent., 
 T fo = '04 when the rate is 4 per cent., the rate being thus, in all cases, equal to the 
 simple interest of £1 for one year. 
 
 The Annuity, or the sum falling due at the expiry of each year. 
 
 The Amount, denoting either the amount of the principal improved at interest 
 for the time, any capital due at a future period, which, by discount is reducible to 
 such principal, or the amount of an annuity for the said time accumulated at in- 
 terest. 
 
INT 407 INT 
 
 From the relation subsisting betwixt these five quantities, we are enabled, pro- 
 vided any three are supplied as data, to obtain the remaining two. In practice, 
 advantage is taken of this relation to form tables, in which the rate and the time 
 are always given quantities, while a third is denoted by unity. By means of such 
 tables we are enabled to solve, either directly or mediately, all the cases which 
 occur without the aid of analysis, excepting those in which the time and rate are 
 both among the unknown quantities. The tables introduced for that purpose at the 
 end of this article are four in number ;* and their construction may be explained as 
 follows : — 
 
 Table I.— Principal sum of £1 accumulated, or amount of £1 in any number of 
 years. 
 
 The interest of £1 for one year at 5 per cent, being -05, the sum of the principal and interest, 
 or the amount at the close of "the first year will be 1*05. This being the sum on which interest is 
 pavable during the next year, a proportional increase will take place at the close of the second 
 year, or 1 : 1-05 : : 1*05 : (1-05)-= 1-1025 ; for the third year, 1 : 1-05 : : (1-05) 2 : (1-05) 3 = 1-157625. 
 In the same manner, this last amount improved at interest during the fourth year will be in- 
 creased to (1-05)* = 1-215506 ; and so on for each following year, the amount at the end of any 
 number of years being always determined by raising the number which expresses the amount at the 
 end of the first year to the power of which the exponent is the number of years. These results are 
 exhibited in the table, and the same course is followed for the other rates. 
 
 Table II. — Principal sum of £1 discounted, or present value of £1 due at the 
 end of any number of years. 
 
 The present value of £1 to be received at the end of one year must be such a sum, as being im- 
 proved at interest for one year will exactly amount to £l, and must evidently bear the same pro- 
 portion to £l that £1 does to its amount in one year. Hence, at 5 per cent. 1-05 : 1 : : 1 .-T^i = 
 •952381, the present value of £1 to be received at the end of one year. In the same way, 
 1-05 : 1 : : r^p : 7T^? )2 = 'W029, the present value of £1 to be received at the expiration of two 
 
 years. It will also be found that the present value of £1 due 3 years hence is rrjSna = '863838 ; 
 
 (l uo) 
 
 and the same process followed for the remaining years, and for the other rates, will produce 
 the results exhibited in the table. 
 
 Table III.— Annuity of £1 accumulated, or amount of £1 per annum at the end 
 of any number of years. 
 
 The first payment of an annuity being considered due at the end of the first year from the time 
 of valuation, the second at the end of two years, and so on, it is obvious in considering the amount 
 of an annuity for any given term of years, that, at the expiration of the term, the payment due 
 will be £1 without interest; that due one year before will be £1 improved at interest for one 
 year ; that due two years before will be £1 improved at interest for two years, and so on until the 
 first payment, which will be £1 improved at interest for a term one year less than the duration 
 of the annuity. Hence Table III. may be readily obtained from Table I. ; the number against any 
 year in the former being just unity added to the sum of all those against the preceding years in the 
 latter. 
 
 Table IV.— Annuity of £1 discounted, or present value of an annuity of £1 per 
 annum for any number of years. 
 
 The present value of an annuity of £1 for any given term of years is obviously the sum of the 
 present values of £1 due at the expiry of one year, of £1 due at the expiry of two years, and so 
 on until the expiry of the term, which values are given in Table IL as already explained. The 
 number against any year in Table IV. will thus be equal to the sum of the numbers against that 
 and all the preceding years in Table II., from which, therefore, it may be readily formed. 
 
 With these preliminary explanations of the tables we shall now proceed to give 
 rules for the solution of the cases which most commonly occur in practice, employ- 
 ing for this purpose the decimal notation, the nature of which we have explained 
 under the head Decimal Fractions. 
 
 I. Principal Sums Accumulated or Dis- 
 counted. 
 
 Case 1. Principal, Rate, and Time given, to 
 find the Amount. 
 
 Rule. Find from Table I. the amount of £l 
 at the rate and for the time given, which mul- 
 tiply by the given principal. 
 
 Ex. Required the amount of £1500 in 10 
 years, reckoning interest at 4 per cent, per an- 
 num. 
 1-480244 X 1500 = 2220-366, or £2220, 7s. 4d. 
 
 Case 2. Amount, Rate, and Time given, to 
 find the Principal. 
 
 Rule. Find from Table II. the present value 
 
 * We have not deemed it necessary to introduce tables to exhibit the annuities whose amounts 
 and present values are respectively equivalent to unity, as the numbers in such tables would be 
 merely the reciprocals of those shown in Tables ILL and IV. ; i. e. the quotients of unity divided 
 by the numbers in the latter, and which accordingly can be readily made to supply their place by 
 being u.-ed as divisors in those cases where the corresponding numbers in the former would be em- 
 ployed as multipliers, and vice versa. 
 
INT 
 
 m 
 
 INT 
 
 of £1 at the rate and for the time given, which 
 multiply by the amount. 
 
 Ex. Required the present value of £1087, 
 
 5s. 7d. payable at the end of 15 years, or, what 
 
 is the same, the principal sum which will amount 
 
 to £1087, 5s. 7d. in 15 years ; interest 5 per cent. 
 
 •481017 X 1087*279 = £523. 
 
 Case 3. Principal, Rate, and Amount given, 
 to find the Time. 
 
 Rule. Divide the amount by the principal, 
 and the quotient will be the amount of £1 at 
 the given rate ; which look for in Table I. under 
 the same rate, and contiguous to the said 
 amount will be found the time required. 
 
 Ex. 1. In what time will £1000 amount to 
 £2813, 17s. 3d. at 3 per cent.? 
 
 Here, 2813-862 -4- 1000 = 2-813862; which, in 
 Table I. under 3 per cent., is found contiguous 
 to 35 years. 
 
 When the exact quotient is not found in the 
 table, take the difference between the next 
 highest and next lowest numbers, and also be- 
 twixt the quotient and the number nearest to it, 
 and the former will bear to the latter the pro- 
 portion which one year, or 365 days, will bear to 
 the number of days to be added to or deducted 
 from the years found contiguous to such nearest 
 number, according as it is less or greater than 
 the exact quotient, in order to make up the 
 time required. 
 
 Ex. 2. In what time will £100 amount to 
 £265, 12s. 5d. at 5 per cent. ? 
 
 Here, 265-6208 -f- 100 = 2-656208. By Table 
 I. the amount of £l in 20 years is 2-653298, and 
 in 21 years, 2-785963; difference -132665. But 
 2-656208 exceeds 2-653298 by -00291 only ; hence, 
 as -132665 : 365 : : -00291 : 8, the time required 
 is 20 years and 8 days. 
 
 Case 4. Principal, Amount, and Time given, 
 to find the Rate. 
 
 Rule. Divide the amount by the principal, 
 and the quotient will be the amount of £l in 
 the given time, which quotient will be found 
 contiguous to the said time in Table I. under 
 the rate required. 
 
 Ex. 1. At what rate per cent, per annum will 
 £400 amount to £569, 6s. 6d. in 9 years ? 
 
 569-435 -f- 400 = 1-42331 ; which, in Table T., is 
 found contiguous to 9 years, and under 4 per 
 cent. 
 
 When the exact quotient is not found in the 
 table, an approximation may be made to the 
 rate in a manner similar to that adopted in re- 
 gard to the time in Case 3.* 
 
 Ex. 2. At what rate per cent, per annum will 
 £100 amount to £179, 9s. 4d. in 17 years? 
 
 Here, 179-467 -^ 100 = 179467. By Table I. 
 the amount of £1 in 17 years, is at 3 per cent., 
 1-65284, and at 4 per cent., 1-94790 ; difference, 
 •29506. Hence, as 1-79467 exceeds 1-65284 by 
 •14183, we have -29506 : 1 per cent, (the dif- 
 ference between 3 and 4 per cent.) : : -14183 : 
 •48069 ; and the rate required is 3-48069, or about 
 3$ per cent. 
 
 II. Terminable Annuities. 
 
 Case 5. Annuity, Rate, and Time given, to 
 find the Amount. 
 
 Rule. Find in Table III. the amount of £l 
 per annum, at the rate and for the time given, 
 which multiply by the annuity. 
 
 Be Required the amount of an annuity of 
 £50 for 21 years, reckoning interest at 5 per 
 cent, per annum. 
 
 35-71925 X 50 = 1785-9625, or £1785, 19s. 3d. 
 
 Case 6. Annuity, Bate, and Time given, to 
 find the Principal or Present Value. 
 
 Rule. Find in Table IV. the present value of 
 £l per annum, at the rate and for the ti.i.e 
 given, which multiply by the annuity. 
 
 Ex. Required the present value of an annuity 
 of £1000 for 20 years at the rate of five per cent, 
 per annum. 
 
 12-46221 X 1000 = 12462-21, or £12,462, 4s. 2d. 
 
 Case 7. Principal, Rate, and Time given, to 
 find the annuity. 
 
 Rule. Find in Table IV. the present value of 
 an annuity of £1 at the rate and for the time 
 given, and divide the given principal there- 
 by ; the quotient will be the annuity required. 
 
 Ex. A gentleman is willing to sink £523 for 
 an annuity to be paid yearly for 15 years. What 
 annuity ought he to receive, reckoning interest 
 at 5 per cent, per annum ? 
 
 523 ~ 10-3796 = 50-387, or £50, 7s. 9d. 
 
 If the question had been, what annuity to 
 continue 15 years will pay off a debt of £523, 
 computing interest at 5 per cent., the answer 
 would have been the same. 
 
 Case 8. Principal or Present Value, Annuity, 
 and Rate given, to find the Time. 
 
 Rule. Divide the principal by the annuity, 
 and the quotient will be the present value of an 
 annuity of £1 at the given rate ; which quotient 
 will be found in Table IV., under that rate and 
 contiguous to the time required. 
 
 Ex. A sum of £523 is given for an annuity of 
 £50, 7s. 9d., interest at 5 per cent, per annum. 
 Required the duration of the annuity. 
 
 523 -=- 50-387 = 10-3796 ; which, under 5 per 
 cent, in Table IV., is found contiguous to 15 years. 
 
 H the question had been, In what time will 
 an annuity of £50, 7s. 9d. pay off a debt of 
 £523, computing interest at 5 per cent, per an- 
 num, the answer would have been the same. 
 
 Case 9. Principal or Present Value, Annuity, 
 and Time given, to find the Rate. 
 
 Rule. Divide the principal by the annuity, 
 and the quotient will be the present value of an 
 annuity of £l for the given time; which quo- 
 tient will be found contiguous to the said time 
 in Table IV. , under the rate required. 
 
 Ex. An annuity of £100 for 15 years is sold for 
 £1037, 19s. 4d., required the rate of interest per 
 annum allowed to the purchaser. 
 
 1037-9666 -f- 100 = 10-3/966 ; which in Table 
 IV., contiguous to 15 years, is found under 5 per 
 cent. 
 
 Case 10. Annuity, Rate, and Amount given, 
 to find the Time. 
 
 Rule. Divide the amount by the annuity, and 
 the quotient will be the amount of £1 per an- 
 num at the given rate ; which will be found in 
 Table III. under that rate, and contiguous to 
 the time required. 
 
 Ex. In what time will an annuity of £50, 
 7s. 9d. amount to £1087, 5s.' 7d. at 5 per cent, 
 per annum ? 
 
 1087-2794 4- 50-3870 = 21-5785 ; which, in Ta- 
 ble III., is found under the said rate, and contig- 
 uous to 15 years. 
 
 Case 11. Annuity, Time, and Amount given, 
 to find the Rate. 
 
 Rule. Divide the amount by the annuity, and 
 the quotient will be the amount of £1 per an- 
 num for the given time ; which quotient will be 
 found in Table III. contiguous to the said time, 
 and under the rate required. 
 
 Ex. At what rate per cent, per annum will an 
 annuity of £50, 7s. 9d. amount to £1087, 5s. 7d. 
 in 15 vears ? 
 
 1087-2794 -f- 50-3870 = 21 -57«5 ; which is found 
 in Table III. contiguous to 15 years, and under 
 5 per cent. 
 
 * These methods of approximating to the time and the rate are of general application to the 
 succeeding Cases. 
 
 
INT 
 
 409 
 
 INT 
 
 Case 12. Amount, Rate, and Time given, to 
 find the Annuity. 
 
 Rule. Find in Table III., under the rate, the 
 amount of an annuity of £1, in the given time ; 
 divide the given amount thereby, and the quo- 
 tient will be the annuity required. 
 
 Ex. Required, theannuitv which will amount in 
 15 vearsto £1087,5s.7J.,at5per cent, per annum. 
 
 1087-2785 + 21-5785 = 50-387 or £50, 7s. 9d. 
 III. Perpetual Annuities. 
 
 When an annuity continues payable without 
 termination, it is called a perpetual annuity, or 
 perpetuity. Of the five quantities considered 
 under the last head, two, namely, the amount 
 and the time, fall necessarily to be discarded, as 
 in perpetual annuities they become infinite, and 
 consequently unassignable" The three quantities 
 remaining to be noticed are, 1. The annuity; 
 2. The rate of interest ; and 3. The present value 
 of the annuity, or the principal, which, being 
 immediately laid out, will yield annually and 
 perpetually a sum equal to the annuity. 
 
 The simple interest of any sum for a year being 
 what may be produced annually by that sum, 
 without increasing or diminishing it, must be 
 evidently equal to the perpetual annuity of which 
 such sum will be the present value. And as 
 while the rate continues the same the annual 
 interests produced by any two sums are to each 
 other as the principals which produced them, it 
 follows that at 5 per cent. 5 : 1 : : TOO : TOO -f- 5 
 = 20 ; therefore, when the rate is 5 per cent., the 
 value of the perpetual annuity is 20 years' pur- 
 chase. In the same manner, when interest is at 
 4 per cent., 4 : 1 : : 100 : 100 -f- 4 = 25 ; and the 
 perpetual annuity is worth 25 years' purchase. 
 And it follows, that in every case the value of a 
 perpetual annuity may be found by dividing any 
 sum by its interest for one year. This being 
 premised, the solution of the three following cases 
 becomes nearly self-evident. 
 
 Case 13. Annuity and Rate given, to find the 
 Principal or Present Value. 
 
 Rule. Divide the annuity by the rate, and the 
 quotient will be the principal or present value 
 required. 
 
 Ex. Required the value of an estate of which 
 the yearly rent is £1500; reckoning interest at 
 3 per cent, per annum. 
 
 1500 -f- -03 = £50,000. 
 
 Case 14. Principal or Present Value and Rate 
 given, to find the Annuity. 
 
 Rule. Multiply the present value by the rate, 
 and the product "will be the annuity. 
 
 Ex. A gentleman purchases an estate for 
 £14,000; at what yearly rent must he let it in order 
 to have 4 per cent, per" annum upon the price ? 
 
 14000 X -04 = £560. 
 
 Case 15. Principal or Present Value and An- 
 nuity given, to find the Rate. 
 
 Rule. Divide the annuity by the present value. 
 
 Ex. An estate which cost £5000 is let for £150 
 per annum : what rate of interest has the pur- 
 chaser on the price. 
 
 U8 -h 5000 = -03, or 3 per cent. 
 
 When, as is assumed throughout the present 
 article, the interest is convertible into principal 
 at the same terms as the annuity is payable, no 
 difference arises in the valuation of perpetual 
 annuities from the circumstance of the instal- 
 ments being payable twice a-year, as the annuity 
 divided by the fate of interest for one year must 
 always produce the same quotient as half the 
 annuity divided by half the annual rate of interest. 
 IV. Deferred or Reversionary Annuities. 
 
 An annuity is said to be deferred when it is 
 not entered "upon immediately, but at tne ex- 
 piration of a certain time. Deferred annuities 
 may be either terminable or perpetual. The 
 chief cases are the following :— 
 
 1 . Deferred Term inable Annu ities. 
 
 Case 16. Annuity, Rate, Time deferred, and 
 Time of payment given, to find the Principal or 
 Present Value. 
 
 Rule. Find in Table IV., under the given 
 rate, the present value of £l per annum, first 
 for the time deferred, and then for the time de- 
 ferred and time of payment added together ; sub- 
 tract the former from the latter ; then multiply 
 the remainder by the given annuity, and the pro- 
 duct is the principal required. 
 
 Ex. What sum should now be given for the 
 reversion of a lease or annuity of £35 per an- 
 num, for 14 years after the next 7 years, in order 
 that the purchaser may make 5 per cent, per 
 annum of his monev. 
 
 12-82115— • 578637 = 7-03478, which, multi- 
 plied by 35, produces £246, 4s. 4d. 
 
 Case 17- Principal, Rate, Time deferred, and 
 Time of payment given, to find the Annuity. 
 
 Rule. Find by Case I what the principal will 
 amount to in the time deferred ; then find by 
 Case 7 what annuity that amount will purchase. 
 
 Ex. If the reversion of an estate for 14 years 
 after the next 7 years cost £246, 4s. 4d. , what" rent 
 ought it to produce in order that the purchaser 
 mav make 5 per cent, per annum of his monev ? 
 
 By Case 1 £246216 amounts in 7 years, at 5 
 per cent., to £"346-452 ; equivalent by Case 7 to 
 a rent for 14 years of £35. 
 
 Case 18. Principal, Annuity, Rate, and Time 
 deferred given, to find the Term of Payment. 
 
 Rule. Find by Case 1 the amount of the prin- 
 cipal at the given rate, at the expiry of the time 
 deferred ; then divide this amount by the given 
 annuity, and the quotient will be the value of an 
 annuity of £1 for the time of payment ; which 
 last will be found as in Case 8. 
 
 Ex. A debt of £816, 18s. 9d. is proposed to be 
 paid off by assigning an annuity of £175 per 
 annum, deferred for 9 years ; how many years 
 must the creditor enjoy such annuity in order to 
 have his debt paid, with interest, at the rate of 
 6 per cent, per annum ? 
 
 816-937 will, at 6 per cent., amount, at the 
 end of 9 years, to 1380198 : and 1380-198 -f- 175 
 = 7*886 ; which in Table IV., under 6 per cent., 
 will be found contiguous to 11 years. 
 
 2. Deferred Perpetual Annuities. 
 
 Case 19. Annuity, Time deferred, and Rate 
 given, to find the Present Value. 
 
 Rule. The excess of the present value of a per- 
 petual annuity of £1 at the given rate (Case 13), 
 above the present value of an annuity of £1 at the 
 same rate, for the time deferred (Case 6), gives 
 the present value of the reversion of a perpetual 
 annuity of £1 after the time deferred ; and this, 
 multiplied by the given annuity, will produce the 
 principal required. 
 
 Ex. What sum ought to be paid for the rever- 
 sion, after 40 years, of an estate in perpetuity, 
 of which the yearly rent is £7", reckoning in- 
 terest at 4 per cent, per annum. 
 
 25 — 19-79277 = 5-20723; which, multiplied by 
 70, gives £364, 10s. ljd. 
 
 V. Renewal of Leases. 
 
 Leaseholds and various other descriptions of 
 property, when their annual income is susceptible 
 of ascertainment, or of being reduced to a valua- 
 tion, may be assimilated in all respects to an- 
 nuities. In England, many societies, corpora- 
 tions, and colleges grant their leases for certain 
 periods, the most usual of which are for 10, tO, 
 21 , and 40 years ; and it is customary for them 
 to renew any number of years lapsed in such 
 leases, on payment of a sum, as fine, which is 
 agreed upon by the parties, the yearly rent or 
 quit-rent remaining the same. 
 
 Case 20. Required, the Fine payable for renew- 
 ing any number of Years in a Lease. 
 
INT 
 
 410 
 
 INT 
 
 Rule. From the present value of an annuity 
 to continue from the present time until the ex- 
 piration of the renewed term, subtract the present 
 value of an annuity to expire with the original 
 term of the lease. 
 
 Ex. Thirty years having expired in a lease for 
 40 years, required the fine for renewing 10 years 
 of the same, supposing the yearly rental £60, 
 and the rate of interest 5 per cent. 
 
 By Table IV. the value of £1 per annum for 
 20 years, the number until the expiration of the 
 renewed term, is 12-4622, and for 10 years, the 
 unexpired time, it is 77217 ; and 12-4622 — 7*7217 
 = 47405 ; which last, multiplied by 60, gives 
 284-430, or £284, 8s. 7d. 
 
 VI. Principal Sums increased yearly by a 
 Constant Quantity. 
 
 Case 21. Principal, Rate, Time, and Yearly 
 Increase given, to find the Amount. 
 
 Rule. Add the amount of the principal accu- 
 mulated, at the rate and for the time given 
 (Case 1), to the amount of the yearly increase 
 accumulated in the same way (Case 5), and the 
 sum will be the total amount required. 
 
 Case 22. Principal, Rate, Time, and Amount 
 given, to find the Yearly Increase. 
 
 Rule. From the given amount subtract the 
 amount of the principal at the rate and for the 
 time given (Case 1), and the remainder will be 
 the amount of the yearly increase for the given 
 
 time ; then divide this latter sum by the amount 
 of an annuity of £l for the given time as shown 
 in Table III., and the quotient will be the yearly 
 increase required. 
 
 VII. Principal Sums diminished yearly by 
 a Constant Quantity. 
 
 Case 23. Principal, Rate, Time, and Yearlj 
 Decrease given, required the Amount which will 
 remain unextinguished at the end of the given 
 Time. 
 
 Rule. From the amount of the principal, cor- 
 responding to the given rate and time (Case 1), 
 subtract the amount of the yearly decrease or 
 annuity accumulated in the same manner(Case 5), 
 and the remainder will be the unextinguished 
 amount required. 
 
 Case 24. Principal, Rate, Time, and Amount 
 unextinguished at the end of the Time given, re- 
 quired the Yearly Decrease. 
 
 Rule. From the amount of the principal, at 
 the rate and for the time given (Case 1), sub- 
 tract the amount unextinguished, and the re- 
 mainder will be the amount, corresponding to 
 the termly decrease ; which latter being divided 
 by the amount of an annuity of £l at the end of 
 the given number of years, as shown in Table 
 III., will give the termly decrease required. 
 
 N. B. The ordinary questions in relation to 
 Sinking Funds may be solved by the two pre- 
 ceding Cases, and Cases 7 and 8.* 
 
 * The preceding rules and the accompanying 
 tables furnish the means of solving the cases 
 which most commonly occur in practice; but 
 as computations must occasionally be made, 
 not only at other rates than 3, 4, 5, and 6 per 
 cent, per annum, — those to which our tables are 
 confined, — but likewise upon the supposition of 
 the interest, as well as the annuity, being pay- 
 able half-yearly, or at other terms, we here sub- 
 join formulae which will enable any one ac- 
 quainted with the elements of analysis to solve, 
 with the aid of a table of logarithms, nearly 
 all cases which can present themselves, except, 
 as afterwards explained, those where the rate is 
 the quantity sought. 
 
 Let p denote the principal or present va- 
 lue, and m the amount, in the sense in which 
 those terms are used on page 406. Also let a 
 signify the annuity, or one of the equal sums 
 successively payable at the expiration of equidis- 
 tant periods, whether yearly or half-yearly, &c. ; 
 n the number of those equidistant periods of time,- 
 and r the rate, or ratio of the interest in one 
 period to the principal, and which is equal in all 
 cases to the interest of £l for one period of time. 
 1. Principal Sums. 
 m = p (1 + r) n 
 2. Terminable Annuities. 
 _ (1 + r) n - 1 
 
 P = 
 
 a + r? 
 
 r(l-f-r)' 
 
 3. Perpetual Annuities. 
 
 a 
 P= r 
 
 4. Deferred Annuities. 
 
 Let d signify the deferred time, or the number 
 of periods which elapse before the annuity is en- 
 tered upon; n the number of periods during 
 which it is paid ; and the other symbols as before. 
 
 Deferred Terminable Annuities. 
 
 p = a 
 
 r)"- 
 
 r(l+r) 
 
 d +n 
 
 Deferred Perpetuities. 
 a 
 P=„ 
 
 r (1 + r)» 
 5. Principal Sums increased or diminished at each 
 
 equal Interval of Time by a constant Quantity. 
 
 Let a denote this quantity, the other symbols 
 being as at first. 
 
 When Principal increased. 
 
 (l +r ) n _l 
 m = p(l+r) n +a'~ v ~ 
 
 When Principal diminished. 
 
 (l+r) w -l 
 
 m = p (1 + r)' 
 
 extensions ok the preceding formula. 
 
 Hitherto we have supposed the annuity and 
 interest to be due at the same periods ; but as 
 these conditions have no necessary relation to 
 each other, we shall now exhibit those altera- 
 tions of the formulae which take place when the 
 interest is convertible into principal at shorter 
 periods than those at which the annuity is pay- 
 able, and vice versa. 
 
 Here let r denote the rate, or interest of £1 
 for one year ; a the annuity nominally payable 
 at the end of each year ; n the number of years ; 
 and m the amount, and p the principal or pre- 
 sent value as before ; these symbols all bearing 
 now the significations attached to them in the 
 text on page 406. Also let i denote the number 
 of equal intervals in each year in which the inter- 
 est is convertible into principal ; and * the num- 
 ber of equal instalments of the annuity in each 
 year. 
 
 Case I. When the interest is convertible into 
 principal a certain number of times in each in- 
 terval between the instalments of the annuity ; — 
 
 — being hence a whole number. 
 
 Terminable Annuities. 
 
 
INT 
 
 411 
 
 INT 
 
 II. Annuities on Lives. 
 
 t'nder this head may he classed not only annuities on lives, properly so called, 
 but every beneficial interest which terminates with the lives or any one or more 
 individuals, including salaries, and all that in law comes under the denomination 
 of a life estate. It comprehends, likewise, Reversions, or the interest which the next 
 proprietor has in any estate after the death of the present ; and Assurances, in 
 which the question is, what annuity must A pay to B during his life, in order that 
 B may pay a given sum to A's representatives at his death. 
 
 Tables of Mortality.— The basis of all questions having reference to the failure or 
 continuance of life must obviously be the law of human mortality. Tables of mor- 
 tality are those which exhibit this law through the whole extent of life, by show- 
 ing now many persons out of a certain number, as 10,000 born alive, die in each 
 year, and consequently how many complete each year of their age. The first table 
 of this kind was constructed by Dr Hawley, from observations at Breslau in 
 Silesia, and published in 1693. Similar tables were afterwards published both in 
 this country and on the Continent, of which there may be noticed Kerseboom's, 
 printed in 1738, from Registers of State Annuitants in Holland; Thomas Simpson's, 
 in 1742, founded on the London bills of mortality; De Parcieux's in 174G, from lists 
 of nominees in the French tontines of 1689 and 1696 ; Dupre de St Maur's in 1749, 
 from French parish registers. In 1769, Dr Price published his work on Rever- 
 sionary Payments, in which were given tables constructed from observations in 
 London, Norwich, and Northampton. In the 4th edition of Dr Price's work (1783) 
 the Northampton Table was extended and improved : at the same time various 
 other tables were furnished ; in particular the Chester Table, lately republished in a 
 corrected form by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in their work 
 on Probability; and a table for the kingdom of Sweden, in which the sexes were 
 distinguished, and the law of mortality determined for the bulk of the people. In 
 1815, Mr Milne, the eminent actuary of the Sun Office, published his treatise on 
 the valuation of Annuities and Assurances, in which were given new tables deduced 
 from the Swedish registers, and from observations at Carlisle and Montpellier. 
 Since then, Mr Davies and Mr Babbage have put forth tables deduced from the 
 experience of the Equitable Assurance Society; and the Parliamentary Reports 
 on Friendly Societies in 1825 and 1827, and the return made to the Treasury in 
 18*29 by Mr Finlaison, the government actuary, contains a variety of information 
 concerning the rate of mortality among the nominees of the government tontines 
 and annuities. Lastly, Mr Ansell, in his work (1835) on Friendly Societies, has, 
 from an extensive collection of returns made to him, deduced the law of mortality 
 which generally prevails among the members of these institutions. Of the tables 
 now noticed, De Parcieux's, the corrected Chester Table, the Swedish Table of 
 1776-1795, and the table founded on the experience of the Equitable Society, are 
 esteemed of high authority ; but in practical importance they are inferior to the 
 Northampton, Carlisle, and Government Tables, which, from their serving as the 
 
 Perpetual Annuities. 
 a 
 
 Case II. "When the instalments of the annui- 
 ty are payable a certain number of times in each 
 interval between the conversion of interest into 
 
 principal ; ^- being hence a whole number. 
 Terminable Annuities. 
 
 -{^-v-Yl^-r--} 
 
 Perpetual Annuities. 
 
 Formulae for deferred annuities, affected by 
 similar conditions, may be readily obtained from 
 the preceding, by deducting an annuity for the 
 period deferred from one for the period deferred 
 and in possession. 
 
 Demonstrations of all these formulae will be 
 found in the ' ' Treatise on the Valuation of An- 
 nuities and Assurances," by Mr Milne, and the 
 «• Doctrine of Compound Interest,'* by Mr Fran- 
 cis Corbaux. We have deemed it unnecessary to 
 give more than one formula for each class of 
 cases, as the others may be easily deduced from 
 the given equation, by transposition, except in 
 the case where the rate is the quantity sought. 
 In this case the formula becomes so exceedingly 
 complex, that recourse is generally had to ap- 
 proximate methods from tables in the manner 
 explained in the text. The tables best adapted 
 for this purpose are those appended to Mr Cor- 
 baux's work, where the values are exhibited for 
 each quarter per cent., from 3 to 6 per cent., on 
 the several suppositions of interest being improv- 
 able yearly, half-yearly, and quarterly. 
 
INT 412 INT 
 
 basis of almost all the annuity and assurance business in this country, are deserv- 
 ing of particular attention. 
 
 The Northampton Tables, formed by Dr Price from the registers of mortality kept at Northamp- 
 ton for 46 years from 1735 to 1780, were long the only ones in use, but they are now in much less 
 repute. The observations embrace a considerable number of deaths, but no enumerations of the 
 people were made to show how far the population was increasing, decreasing, or stationary (with- 
 out which Mr Milne has proved that no correct tables of mortality can be constructed), while, on 
 the other hand, no fixed rule appears to have been followed in interpolating the numbers dying 
 annually from those given for decennial periods by the registers. In the report of the House of 
 Commons on Friendly Societies in 1827, it is stated, upon the evidence of several of the most dis- 
 tinguished actuaries in the kingdom, " that these tables were originally formed in a degree upon 
 hypothetical data," that " in truth there is not even a prima facie case in their favour," and that 
 " the evidence appears to your committee to be strong and decisive in favour of the use of tables 
 which give an expectation of life higher than the Northampton." Nevertheless, the Northampton 
 Tables continue to be of high commercial importance, as they form the basis of the calculations of 
 nearly all the life assurance societies instituted prior to 1815, and of many of those established 
 subsequently. It may also be observed that the low value given by the Northampton Tables 
 applies chiefly to ages under 60. Above 60, they are represented by that table nearly if not quite 
 as good as by many other observations. 
 
 The Carlisle Tables, formed by Mr Milne from observations made by Dr Heysham in two par- 
 ishes in Carlisle, from 1779 to 1787, give a higher expectation of life than the Northampton 
 Tables. From the description of them, it appears that classified enumerations of the population 
 were made at the commencement and termination of the observations, while the deaths in the in- 
 tervening period were carefully recorded according to a similar classification ; and that the num- 
 ber of persons living in the parishes at the end of the observations was 8677, the number who died 
 in the 9 years, 1840 ; thus making the number the observations were made upon 10,517, exclusive 
 of those who emigrated. Owing to the accurate construction of these tables, they have deservedly 
 attained a very high celebrity. The Commons' report already alluded to describes them as ' ' more 
 complete than any which had previously existed in England; and the tables are, therefore, 
 Btrongly recommended." It has been objected that the number of deaths, 1840, is too small to 
 admit of subdivision ; but the confirmation which the tables have derived from a comparison 
 with other tables of reputation, has led practical men to disregard this circumstance, except for 
 extreme old age, where it appears to have led to some incongruities. Mr Milne also considers them 
 objectionable for ages below 10, in consequence of the introduction of vaccination since the ob- 
 servations were made. They are nevertheless supposed to contain at this time the best information 
 we possess both on old and young lives belonging to the middle and higher classes. Since the 
 publication of the Carlisle tables in 1815, they have, with certain modifications, been adopted by 
 several assurance companies of the highest character, such as the Sun and Alliance, and have 
 otherwise been the basis of very extensive calculations of value. 
 
 The Government Annuity Tables were prepared by Mr Finlaison, the actuary of the National 
 Debt Office, betwixt 1825 and 1829, from observations of the mortality among the nominees of the 
 tontines and other annuities granted by government. Owing to these nominees having been selected 
 individuals, they give rather a higher expectation of life than the Carlisle tables. They are chiefly 
 remarkable, however, for their distinguishing the sexes, and for the much higher value which 
 they give to female than to male lives. The greater duration of female lives had been previously 
 shown by the Chester, Swedish, and other tables ; but Mr Finlaison's tables give the value of 
 female lives so much higher than the others, that it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that some 
 peculiar reason has existed for this disproportion. They now form the basis of the value of the 
 government life annuities. 
 
 Probabilities and Expectation of Life, fyc. — These, in so far as necessary for tho 
 
 Eurposes of the present article, may be readily obtained from tables of mortality 
 y the following rules in the doctrine of probabilities : — 
 
 1. The probability of any event happening is measured by a fraction, whose 
 numerator is the number of ways in which it can happen, and whose denominator 
 is the number of ways in which it can either happen or fail. Thus, if there be 3 
 chances for the happening of an event, and 1 chance for its not happening, then 
 will the probability of the event happening be measured by the fraction f . 
 
 2. The probability of the happening of several events that are independent of 
 each other is equal to the product of the probabilities of the happening of each 
 event considered separately. Thus, if the probability of the happening of 2 inde- 
 
 Eendent events be \ and f respectively, then will a X f = $ measure the proba- 
 ility of the happening of both these events. 
 
 Applying these rules to the Carlisle Table of Mortality, we find that as at tho 
 age 30 the number of persons alive of 10,000 born is 5642, while at 40 this number 
 is reduced to 5075, the probability of a person aged 30 surviving 10 years will be 
 
 measured by the fraction -r f \ 2 ' *" ^ ne same wa y» the probability of a person aged 
 
 5362 
 
 25 surviving 10 years, will be ^=g» Again, the probability that 2 persons, of 
 
 5075 5362 
 
 the ages 30 and 25, shall jointly survive 10 years, will be ^ 642 x ' 5879 - 
 
 The average of forthcoming years, or what is improperly called by writers the 
 expectation of life, is the number of years which, taking lives of the same age one 
 with another, any one of these lives may be considered as sure of enjoying; thot;e 
 
INT 
 
 413 
 
 I XT 
 
 who live beyond that period enjoying as much more iu proportion to their number 
 as those who fall short of it enjoy less. Consequently, the rule for finding it will 
 be as follows :— Divide the sum of all the living at every age after the age of the 
 given life by the number of persons living at that age : half unity added to the 
 quotient will be the value required. Half unity is added, as the number of persons 
 taken at the given age who have not lived out one year may be considered as having 
 averaged one-half of a year's existence. The expectation of life at 90, by the 
 Northampton Table, will be thus found :— The numbers living at each age above 
 90, added together, give 34 4- 24 4 16 + 9 + 4 + 1 = 88 : the number living at 
 90 is 46, and the former divided by the latter gives 1*91, to which adding half 
 unity = '50, we have '2-4 1 for the expectation of life at 90. 
 
 The expectation of life is therefore different from the term of probable life, as the 
 latter must obviously be the term within which a stated number of persons of a 
 given age should be reduced to exactly one-half of the same number. Thus, ac- 
 cording to the Carlisle Table, the expectation of life at birth is 3872 years ; while 
 the term of probable life is about 41 years. 
 
 The following table shows the expectation of life at different ages, deduced from 
 the Northampton, Chester, Carlisle, and Government Tables ; Mr Davies' Table, 
 founded on the experience of the Equitable Society, Mr Milne's Table for the whole 
 population of Sweden, from 1776 to 1795, and De Parcieux's Table, founded on the 
 French tontines : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Government. 
 
 Chester. 
 
 
 
 North- 
 
 Equi- 
 table. 
 
 Depar- 
 cieux. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Age. 
 
 Carlisle. 
 
 ampton. 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 
 
 3872 
 
 25 18 
 
 
 
 3G-12 
 
 50-16 
 
 55-51 
 
 34-46 
 
 39-44 
 
 5 
 
 51-25 
 
 40-84 
 
 
 48-25 
 
 47-92 
 
 48-93 
 
 54-23 
 
 46-45 
 
 50-57 
 
 10 
 
 48-82 
 
 3978 
 
 48-83 
 
 4683 
 
 46-16 
 
 45-57 
 
 51-05 
 
 44-47 
 
 47-82 
 
 20 
 
 41-46 
 
 33-43 
 
 41-06 
 
 40-25 
 
 38-96 
 
 38-39 
 
 43-99 
 
 37-30 
 
 40-49 
 
 30 
 
 3434 
 
 2827 
 
 33-98 
 
 3408 
 
 32-12 
 
 3317 
 
 37-57 
 
 31-30 
 
 34-22 
 
 40 
 
 27-61 
 
 23-08 
 
 27-40 
 
 27-50 
 
 25-45 
 
 27-02 
 
 31-12 
 
 24-82 
 
 27-96 
 
 50 
 
 2111 
 
 1799 
 
 20-83 
 
 20-42 
 
 19-03 
 
 20-30 
 
 24-35 
 
 19-32 
 
 21-92 
 
 60 
 
 14-34 
 
 13-21 
 
 15-06 
 
 14-25 
 
 12-85 
 
 14-39 
 
 1732 
 
 13-96 
 
 15-40 
 
 70 
 
 918 
 
 8-60 
 
 9-84 
 
 8-67 
 
 8-01 
 
 9-22 
 
 10-99 
 
 9-63 
 
 9-98 
 
 80 
 
 5-5] 
 
 475 
 
 5-38 
 
 4-67 
 
 4-85 
 
 4-94 
 
 6-50 
 
 7-io 
 
 6-60 
 
 98 
 
 3-28 
 
 2-41 
 
 •2-65 
 
 175 
 
 3-03 
 
 1-05 
 
 2-83 
 
 4-32 
 
 5-01 
 
 Valuation of Life Annuities, §c. — The probabilities of life are, in these opera- 
 tions, combined with the interest of money. [Interest.] If a person has 9 
 chances in 10 to obtain possession of £100 at the expiry of a year, the present value 
 of his expectation (disregarding interest) is the product of 100 by the fraction T Q C 
 or £90 ; but, assuming interest at 5 per cent., it is obvious, as the £90 is not due 
 until the expiry of a year, that, in order to show its present value, it must be still 
 farther reduced by one year's interest or rather discount on that sum. Similarly, 
 if a person aged 30 is to acquire right to £1000 in the event of his attaining the age 
 of 40, the present value of his expectation will be obtained by multiplying the £1000 
 by the probability of his attaining that age, and then discounting the product for 10 
 years ; the latter operation being, as already shown (Case 2), performed by multiply- 
 ing the said product by the present value of £1 due at the end of 10 years. Thus, 
 in the case supposed, assuming interest at 5 per cent., and the probabilities of life as 
 
 at Carlisle, we shall have 1000 x |^ x '613913 = 552*216, or £552, 4s. 4d., the 
 
 present value required. In this way Endowments (Case 43) or Assurances on Sur- 
 vivorship of Time are calculated. 
 
 The value of life annuities may be obtained in the same manner, by finding the 
 present value of each year's rent as it becomes due from the given age to the oldest 
 in the table of mortality, and the sum of all these will be the total present value of 
 the annuity ; but in finding the value of annuities on a number of lives of several 
 successive ages, the process is considerably abridged by deducing the value of an 
 annuity on the next younger life from the value of an annuity on a life one year 
 older, as follows : — 
 
 Rule.—" Begin with the oldest life in the table of observations ; add unity to the 
 value of an annuity on that life (usually equal to 0), and multiply the sum by the 
 expectation of a life one year younger, receiving £1 at the end of a year ; the pro- 
 duct will be the value of an annuity on the life one year younger : this value being 
 substituted for the value of ari annuity on the oldest life, and the process repeated, 
 will give the value of an annuity on the next younger life, and so on till we come 
 to the age of the given life."— (Baily on Life Annuities, p. 31.) 
 
INT 414 INT 
 
 The value of annuities, as shown by the tables, is computed by this rule.* The 
 following is the procedure in the case of the Carlisle Table for single lives, assuming 
 the annuity to be £1, and interest at 5 per cent, per annum. 
 
 The oldest life in the Carlisle Table is 104, the value of an annuity on which 
 being evidently equal to 0, we proceed thus :— 
 
 
 j ^.v 1 >..«. i »~ ~, . 
 
 
 
 
 £l discounted 
 
 Value of 
 
 Ages. 
 
 Annuity -+• 1. 
 
 
 Probability. 
 
 
 for 1 Year. 
 
 
 Annuity. 
 
 103 
 
 (1+0) 
 
 X 
 
 1 
 
 X 
 
 •9524 
 
 = 
 
 0-317 
 
 102 
 
 1-317 
 
 X 
 
 i 
 
 X 
 
 •9524 
 
 = 
 
 0-753 
 
 101 
 
 1753 
 
 X 
 
 * 
 
 X 
 
 •9524 
 
 = 
 
 1-192 
 
 100 
 
 2-192 
 
 X 
 
 1 
 
 X 
 
 •9524 
 
 = 
 
 1-624 
 
 99 
 
 2-624 
 
 X 
 
 ft 
 
 X 
 
 •9524 
 
 = 
 
 2-045 
 
 98 
 
 3045 
 
 X 
 
 u 
 
 X 
 
 •9524 
 
 = 
 
 2-278 
 
 and so on till we come to the youngest age,— the operation being facilitated by the 
 use of logarithms. The same procedure is followed in computing the values for 
 joint lives. Thus assuming the Carlisle Table with interest at 5 per cent, as before, 
 and the difference of age betwixt the two lives to be 5 years, we shall have 
 
 £l discounted Value of 
 
 Ages. Annuity + 1. Probabilities. for 1 year. Annuity. 
 
 103 & 98 ( 1 + ) X * X U X '9524 = 0-249 
 
 102 & 97 1249 X 3 X 14 X -9524 = 0-555 
 
 5 X 18 
 
 101 & 96 1-555 X 5 X 18 X -9524 = 0828 
 
 7 X 23 
 and so on throughout. In this way tables have been formed of the value of an- 
 nuities on single lives at all ages and at the common rates of interest \ and also on 
 two joint lives : but cases which involve three lives are, in practice, solved by 
 methods of approximation from the tables for two lives ; as the variety of com- 
 binations which three lives admit would render the tables of very great length. 
 Their construction is, however, in principle the same as the tables for two lives. 
 
 At the close of this article tables are given for single lives founded on the North- 
 ampton observations, and for the various rates of 3, 4, 5, and 6 per cent, interest ; 
 and by the kind permission of Mr Milne, similar tables are given, founded on the 
 Carlisle observations, along with tables for joint lives. The tables for single lives 
 include all ages, and those for joint lives all the usual combinations betwixt the 
 ages 15 and 75. By means of these tables, nearly all the cases which occur iu prac- 
 tice may be solved with facility. 
 
 Annuities Payable Half-Yearly, 8>~c— The values shown in the tables are com- 
 puted on the supposition that the annuities are all payable yearly, and at the end of 
 each year ; but if they be payable more frequently, their value will be increased. 
 A person who receives a life annuity half-yearly, besides gaining one half-year's 
 interest on every moiety of his annuity, may live to receive a half-year's annuity 
 more than the person who receives an annuity once in and at the end of each year. 
 For similar reasons, an annuity payable quarterly will be of greater value than 
 that which is payable half-yearly. But however frequently the annuity may be 
 
 Eayable, it has been found that its increase of value on this account cannot exceed 
 alf-a-year's purchase, which is the extent to which it is increased in the hypo- 
 thetical case of the instalments being payable momently. Where the annuities are 
 payable half-yearly, the common practical rule is to add \ of a year's purchase to 
 their tabular value ; and when they are payable quarterly, to add § of a year's 
 purchase ; or expressing the same decimally, add to the tabular value of the 
 yearly annuity, if it be payable half-yearly, "250; quarterly, *37 5 ;— also, if payable 
 monthly, '458 ; weekly, '4.90; daily, *499 ; and in the hypothetical case of their 
 being payable momently, "500. (Milne, p. 273. Ansell on Friendly Societies, p. 80.) 
 Practical Solution of Cases. — With these prefatory explanations, we shall now 
 proceed to show the mode of solving by the tables the cases which usually occur in 
 practice. 
 
 I. Annuities on Single Lives. 
 
 Case 25. To find the Value of an Annuity on 
 the Life of a Person of a given Age. 
 
 Rule. Multiply the sum by the value of £\ 
 annuity on the assigned life. 
 
 Ex. Required the value of an annuity of £50 
 on the life of a person aged 45 ; Carlisle Table, 
 interest 4 per cent. 
 
 The value of an annuity of £\ on a life aged 
 45 is, by the Carlisle Table, 14-104, which, mul- 
 
 * Life contingencies are now sometimes computed by the method invented by Mr Barrett and 
 improved by Mr Griffith Davies, an account of which is given by M. De Morgan in the Com- 
 panions to the Almanac for 1840 and 1842. See also Jones on Annuities. 
 
INT 
 
 4-1 
 
 INT 
 
 tiplied by 50, gives 705-2, or £705, 4s., the va- j 
 lue required. 
 
 Case 26- To find the Annuity which any given 
 Sum will purchase during the Life of a Person of 
 a given . 
 
 Rule. Divide the given sum by the value of an 
 annuity of £1 on the assigned life. 
 
 Ex. Wliat annuity may be purchased for 
 4s. on a life aged 45; Carlisle Table, in- 
 terest 4 per cent. 
 
 £705-2 -=- 14-104 = £50. 
 
 Case 27. To find the Value of an Annuity De- 
 ferred for any given Number of Years. 
 
 Rule. Find the value of an annuity on a life 
 older by the deferred term than the proposed 
 life, which multiply by the present value of £1 j 
 payable at the end'of the said term, and also by \ 
 the probability that the life shall continue so : 
 long; the product will give the result required. I 
 
 Ex. A person aged 35 wishes to purchase an j 
 annuity for £50, for what may happen to re- 
 main of his life after 45 ; required the present 
 value thereof ; Carlisle Table, 4 per cent. 
 
 The value of an annuity of £50 at 45 is, by | 
 Case 25, £705, 2s. ; the present value of £1 to 
 be received at the end of 10 years is -675564 ; 
 also the probabilitv that a life aged 35 will con- 
 tinue 10 vears is 4727 ■*■ 5362 = -881574 : And 
 705-2 X -675564 X '881574 = 419-989, or 
 £419, 19s. 9d. 
 
 Case 28. To find the Value of a Temporary 
 Annuity. 
 
 Rule." Find by Case 27 the value of an annuity- 
 deferred for the proposed term ; which subtract 
 from the value of an annuity on a life of the 
 given age ; the difference will be the value re- 
 quired. 
 
 Ex. Required the value of an annuity of £50 
 for 10 years on a life aged 35 ; Carlisle Table, 4 
 per cent. 
 
 The value of an annuitv of £50 on a life aged 
 35, deferred for 10 years is, by Case 27, 419*989 ; 
 the value of an annuitv of £50 on the said life is 
 50 x 16-041, or 802-050; and 802-050 — 419-989 
 = 382-061, or £382, Is. 3d. 
 
 IL Annuities on Two Lives. 
 
 Case 29. To find the Value of an Annuity on 
 the Joint Continuance of Two Lives ; that is for 
 as long as they both continue alive together. 
 
 Rule. Multiply the sum by the value of £l 
 annuity on the two assigned lives. 
 
 Ex. Required the value of an annuity of £90 
 on the joint continuance of two lives, ages 40 
 and 60 ; Carlisle Table, 5 per cent. 
 
 Value at ages 40 and 60 bv Table IX., is 7-961 ; 
 and 7-961 X 90 = 71649, o'r £716, 9s. 10d. 
 
 The tables of annuities on joint lives give their 
 values only where the ages are equal, or their 
 difference 5 years or any multiple of 5 ; but 
 when the combination of ages of two proposed 
 lives is not contained in these tables, the value 
 of an annuity on their joint continuance may be 
 determined according to the following rule, 
 which is applicable to all cases where neither of 
 the lives is under 12 years of age. 
 
 " Extract from the tables the values of annu- 
 ities on the joint continuance of the oldest of the 
 propo-ed lives, and two others separately, which 
 are younger than that oldest life by the multiples 
 of 5, next greater and next less respectively than 
 the difference of age between the proposed* lives. 
 That one of four arithmetical mean propor- 
 tionals between these two values which corre- 
 sponds with the proposed combination of ages 
 will be nearly the value sought." — {Milne on 
 Annuities and Assurances, p. 290.) 
 
 Ex. Required the present value of an annuity 
 of £80 on two joint fives aged 27 and 46 ; Car- 
 ■ le, 4 percent. 
 
 The value corresponding to the ages 26 and 46 
 
 is 12-325, and that to 31 and 46 is 12-093; dif- 
 ference -232, the fifth part of which, -0464, being 
 continually deducted from the former of these 
 two values, gives the four arithmetical means 
 which are the values of annuities on the corre- 
 sponding combinations of lives omitted in the 
 tables. Hence, as 27 and 46 is the combination 
 of ages next in order to 26 and 46, we shall have 
 12-325 — -0464 = 12-2786, the value corresponding 
 to the combination 27 and 46 ; and 12*2786 x 90 
 = 1105-074, or £1105, Is. 6d., the value required. 
 
 The result would obviously have been the 
 same had 4 times the common difference, -0464, 
 or -1856, been added to the value corresponding 
 to the ages 31 and 46. Thus 12-093 + -1856 = 
 12-2786, as before. 
 
 Case 30. To find the Value of an Annuity on 
 the Longest of Two Lives, that is, for as long as 
 either of them continues alive. 
 
 Rule. From the sum of the values of annuities 
 on the two single lives subtract the value of an 
 annuity on the two joint lives, and the remainder 
 will be the result required. 
 
 Ex. Required the value of an annuity of £60 
 on the longest of two lives aged 30 and 60 ; Car- 
 lisle Table, 4 per cent 
 
 By Table VII., the value of a life aged 30 is 
 16-852, and of 60, 9*663 ; and the sum of these, 
 26-515 ; from which subtract the value of the 
 lives 30 and 60 by Table IX., 8-820, and the re- 
 mainder, 17*695, multiplied by 60, gives 1061*7, 
 or £1061, 14s. 
 
 m. An-ntities on Three Lives. 
 
 Case 31. To find the Value of an Annuity on 
 the Joint Continuance of Three Lives. 
 
 Rule. Take the value of the joint lives of the 
 two oldest lives by Case 29, and find in the table 
 for single lives the age of a single life equal, or 
 the most nearly equal, to that value : then find 
 the value of the joint lives of the youngest and 
 that now found ; the result will give the common 
 approximation to the value required. 
 
 Ex. Required the value of an annuity of £100 
 on three joint lives, aged 15, 20, and" 25 years 
 respectively ; Carlisle Table, 5 per cent. 
 
 The value of the joint lives, 20 and 25, is, by 
 Table IX., 13*398, which, in Table VII. corre- 
 sponds most nearly with a single life aged 40 ; and 
 the value of the joint lives, 15 and 40, being by 
 Table IX. 12*201, we have 12*201 X 100 = 12201, 
 or £1220, 2s. 
 
 Case 32. To find the Value of an Annuity on 
 the Longest of Three Lives. 
 
 Rule. From the sum of the values of annuities 
 on all the single fives subtract the sum of the 
 values of annuities on each pair of joint lives, 
 and to the remainder add the value of an annuity 
 on the three joint lives as found by last Case. 
 The result will give the value required. 
 
 Ex. Required the value of an annuity of £100 
 on the longest of three lives, aged 15, 20, and 
 25 ; Carlisle Table, 5 per cent. 
 
 By Table VII. the values of the single lives 
 are for 15, 16*227 ; for 20, 15*817 ; for 25, 15*303 ; 
 and their sum is 47*347- By Table IX. the values 
 of the joint lives are, for 15 and 20, 13*959; 
 for 15 and 25, 13*608; for 20 and 25, 13*398; 
 and their sum 40*965. Also the value of the 
 three joint lives is by preceding Case, 12*201. 
 Hence we have 47*347 — 40*9fi5 + 12*2-1 = 
 18*583, the value of annuity of £1 on the long- 
 est of the three lives, and 18*583 X 100 = 
 £1858, 6s., the value required. 
 
 Case 33. To find the Value of an Annuity 
 granted upon Three Lives on Condition of its 
 ceasing as soon as any Two of them become Ex- 
 tinct. 
 
 Rule. From the sum of the values of an- 
 nuities on each pair of joint lives, subtract twice 
 the value of the three joint lives. 
 
INT 
 
 416 
 
 INT 
 
 Ex. Let the annuity be £100, and the ages 15, 
 20, and 25 respectively ; Carlisle Table, 5 per ct. 
 
 The value of each pair of joint lives is, by 
 preceding Case, 40*965 ; that of the three joint 
 lives is, by Case 31 , 1 2-201 ; and 40-965 — ( 12-201 
 X 2) = 16-563; hence 16-563X100 =£1656, 6s., 
 the value required. 
 
 IV. Reversionary or Survivorship 
 Annuities. 
 
 Case 34. To find the Value of the Reversion 
 of an Estate in Fee, or Perpetual Annuity, after 
 the Death of a Person of a given Age, in a Single 
 Payment. 
 
 Rule. Deduct the value of the assigned life 
 from the perpetuity ; then multiply the remainder 
 by the rent or annuity. 
 
 Ex. Required the present value of the reversion 
 of an estate of £500 a-year, after the death of a 
 person aged 60 ; Carlisle Table, interest 6 per ct. 
 
 The value of a perpetuity at 6 per cent, is 
 16-667, and of an annuitv on a life of 60, 8-304 ; 
 then 16-667 — 8-304 = 8*363 ; and 8*363 X 500 
 = £4181, 10s. 
 
 Case 35. To find the Value of the Reversion 
 of an Annuity on a Single Life after another, 
 in a Single Payment. 
 
 Rule. From the value of the life in expecta- 
 tion, subtract the value of the two joint lives. 
 
 Ex. A person, aged 50, wishes to purchase an 
 annuity of £100 to his wife, aged 45, after his 
 death , provided she be the survivor ; what is the 
 present value thereof ; Carlisle Table, 4 per ct. 
 
 By Table VII., the value corresponding to 45 
 is 14-104; from which deducting 10*591, the 
 value corresponding to the lives 45, 50, by Table 
 IX., there remains 3-513; and 3-513 X 100 = 
 351-3, or £351, 6s., the value required. 
 
 To find the value in annual payments : Divide 
 the value in a single payment by the value of an 
 annuity on the joint lives, plus unity. Hence in 
 the above example the annual payment would 
 be 351*3 -=- 11*591 = 30*308, or £30, 6s. 2d. 
 
 Case 36. To find the Value of the Reversion of 
 an Annuity on a Single Life A, after the Longest 
 of Two Lives B and C, in a Single Payment. 
 
 Rule. From the sum of the values of an an- 
 nuity on the single life A, and on the three joint 
 lives, A, B, and C, subtract the sum of the 
 values of an annuity on each pair of joint fives, 
 A and B, and A and C. 
 
 A + ABC — (AB + AC). 
 
 Case 37. To find the Value of the Reversion 
 of an Annuity on Two Joint Lives, A B, on the 
 failure of a Single Life, C. 
 
 Rule. From the value of an annuity on the 
 joint lives A B, subtract the value of an annu- 
 ity on the three joint lives, A, B, and C. 
 AB — ABC. 
 
 Case 38. To find the Value of a Reversion of 
 an Annuitv on the Longest of Two Lives, A and 
 B, after a Single Life, C. 
 
 Rule. From the sum of the values of annui- 
 ties on the single lives in reversion A and B, and 
 of an annuity on the three joint lives, subtract 
 the sum of the values of an annuity on each pair 
 of joint lives, A B, AC, and B C ; the differ- 
 ence will give the value required. 
 
 A + B + ABC — (AB + AC + BC). 
 
 Case 39. To find the Value of the Reversion 
 of an Annuity on a Single Life A, on the failure 
 of the Joint Lives B and C. 
 
 Rule. From the value of an annuitv on the 
 
 life A, subtract the value of an annuity on the 
 three joint lives, A, B, and C. 
 A — ABC. 
 
 V. Assurances on Single and Joint Lives, 
 
 and on the Longest of Two Lives. 
 
 Case 40. To determine the present Value of a 
 given Sum, payable on the Death of a person of 
 an assigned Age, or to find how much must be 
 paid annually by a person of an assigned age, that 
 his heirs may receive a given sum on his decease. 
 
 Rule. Multiply the value of an annuity of £1 
 on the assigned life by the interest of £1 for one 
 year, and subtract theproduct from unity ; then, 
 dividing the remainder by the amount of £l for 
 one year, the result will give the value of an as- 
 surance of £1 ; and this last multiplied by the 
 given sum will produce the result required. 
 
 Ex. Required the present value of £ L000, pay- 
 able on the death of a person aged 47 ; Carlisle 
 Table, 3 per cent.* 
 
 The value of £l annuity on a life of 47 is here 
 15-294, which, multiplied by *03, the interest of 
 £1 for one year, gives -45882; and this subtracted 
 from unity leaves -54118 ; then -54118 -f- 1*03 = 
 •52542, and -52542 X 1000 = £525-42, or £525, 
 8s. 5d., as required. 
 To find the value in annual payments : Divide the 
 value in a single payment, found as above, by the 
 value of£lannuityontheassignedlife,plusunity.t 
 
 Hence, in the above example, we shall have 
 525*42--- 16-294 = 32-246, or £32, 4s. lid., the 
 annual premium for an assurance of £1000 on a 
 life of 47. 
 
 Case 41. To find the Value of a given Sum, 
 payable on the Extinction of either of Two Lives. 
 
 Rule. Substitute the value of an annuity on the 
 joint lives (Case 29), instead of the value of an 
 annuity ona single life, and proceed as in Case 40. 
 
 Case 42. To find the Value of a given Sum, pay- 
 able on theExtinction of theLongest of T woLives. 
 
 Rule. Substitute the value of an annuity on 
 the longest of two lives (Case 30), instead of the 
 value of an annuity on a single life, and proceed 
 as in Case 40. 
 
 VI. Endowments, or Assurances on Sur- 
 
 vivorship of Time. 
 
 Case 43. To find the present Value of agivenSum, 
 payable at the End of a given number of Years, 
 provided the Party assured survive that Period. 
 
 Rule. Multiply the present value of £1 dis- 
 counted for the given number of years by the 
 probability that the given life will continue that 
 period; and the product, multiplied by the 
 given sum, will give the value required. 
 
 Ex. Required thepresent value of£100, payable 
 at the end of 10 years, provided a person,* now 
 aged 20, be then alive ; Carlisle Table, 4 per cent. 
 
 The present value of £1 to be received at the 
 end of 10 years is *67556, and the probability 
 that a person aged 20 will live that period, is 
 5642 -*- 6090. Hence we have *67556 X 5642 
 -7- 6090 X 100 = 62-586, or £62, lls.9d. 
 
 To find the value in annual sums, payable at 
 the commencement of each year : Divide the pre- 
 ceding result by thevalue ofa temporary annuity, 
 plus unity, for one year less than the given term. 
 
 VII. Deferred andTemporary Assurances, 
 
 on Single Lives. 
 
 Case 44. To find the Value of a Deferred Assur- 
 ance on a Single Life in one present Payment. 
 
 Rule. Find the value of an assurance on a life as 
 many years older than the given life as are equal to 
 
 * Many of the assurance offices have framed their tables on this basis, but always with an addi- 
 tional per centage, varying from about 10 to 25 per cent, on the computed amount of premium, 
 to defray charges of management, and as a guaranty against contingencies. The addition of 25 per 
 cent., which we observe has been adopted by several young offices, as the British and Colonial, 
 the Commercial, and others, should yield a considerable surplus or profit. — See page 393. 
 
 t Unity is added because in life assurances the first annual premium i3 paid at the date of entry. 
 
INT 
 
 417 
 
 INT 
 
 the deferred term ; which multiply by the proba- 
 bility of the assigned life attaining that period, and 
 also bv£ldiscountedfor the given number ofyears. 
 
 Ex." Required the value of £100, payable on 
 the decease of a person aged 50, provided he sur- 
 vive 10 years ; Carlisle Table, 3 per cent 
 
 The value of an assurance of £100 on a life of 
 60 (50 + 10), Carlisle. 3 per cent, is (Case 40) 
 66*530 ; and as the probability of a life of 50 
 living to 60 is 3643 -•- 43!»7, and £l discounted 
 for 10 vears at 3 per cent, is by Table II. 744094, 
 we have 66.530 X i3«43 -=- 4397) X 744094 = 
 41-010, or £41, 0b. 2d. 
 
 To find the value in annual payments d ring 
 the deferred period : Divide the value in a single 
 payment by unity added to the value of a tem- 
 porary annuity on the life (Case 28) for one year 
 less than the deferred period. 
 
 To find the value in annual payments during 
 the whole life of the assured : Divide the value 
 in a single payment by unity added to the value 
 of £1 annuity on the'given life. 
 
 Case 45. To find the Value of a Temporary 
 Assurance of a given Sum on a Single Life in 
 one present Payment. 
 
 Rule. From the value of an assurance on the 
 whole life subtract the value of a deferred assur- 
 ance for the given term. 
 
 Ex. Required the value in a single payment 
 of a temporary assurance of .£100 for 7 years, 
 on the lite of a person aged 24 ; Northampton 
 Table, 3 per cent. 
 
 The value of an assurance of £100 on the 
 whole life of a person aged 24, found bv Case 
 40, is 44-/10 ; from which, subtracting 35-047, 
 the value of an assurance of £100 on the same 
 life, deferred for 7 years, found by Case 44, 
 leaves 9663, or £9, 13s. 3d., as required. 
 
 To find the value in Annual Payments : Di- 
 vide the value in a single payment by unity added 
 to the value of a temporary annuity on the life 
 for one year less than the given term. 
 VIII. Assurances on Single Lives by a 
 definite Number of Payments. 
 
 Case 46. To find the Value of an Assurance 
 of a given Sum on a Single Life by a definite 
 Number of Payments. 
 
 Rule. Divide the value of an assurance on the 
 whole life, in a single payment, by unity added to 
 the value of a temporary annuity on the life for 1 
 
 fear less than the given number of payments. 
 X- Assurances on Survivorship of Lives. 
 
 Case 47. To find the present Value of a given 
 Sum payable to B, on the Decease of A, provided 
 B survive A. 
 
 To illustrate the rule, suppose A's age to be 
 32, and B's 24. 
 
 Rule. 1st Term. Find, by Case 41, the value of 
 £l.payable on thedeceaseof the joint lives32&24. 
 
 2d. Find, by Case 29, the value of £1 annuity 
 on thejoint lives 33 and 24 (that is, taking A at 
 one year older), to which add unity, and mul- 
 tiply the sum by the number living at 33 ; then 
 divide the product by the amount of £1 in one 
 year multiplied by the number living at 32, and 
 the quotient will give the second term. 
 
 3d. Find, by Case 29, the value of £l annuity 
 on the joint lives 31 and 24 (that is, taking A 
 at one year younger), and multiply this value 
 by the number living at 31 ; then divide the pro- 
 duct by the number living at 32, and the quo- 
 tient will give the third term. 
 
 From the sum of the 1st and 3d terms subtract 
 the 2d tenn,and the remainder,multiplied by half 
 the given sum, will produce the value required. 
 
 To find the value in Annual Payments : Di- 
 vide the value in a single payment, found as 
 above, by the value of an annuity on the joint 
 lives, plus unity. 
 
 Ex. Required the present value of £400, p.iv- 
 
 j able to B, aged 24, on the decease of A, aged 32, 
 
 I provided B be then alive ; CarlisleTable, 5 per ct. 
 
 Proceeding as above directed, the first term 
 
 I will be found to be £-34962 ; the second £ 12-809 ; 
 
 1 the third £12-858 ; and the excess of the sum of 
 
 the 1st and 3dabove the 2d,£-39862 ; which,mul- 
 
 | tiplied by £20o, half the given sum, gives £79*724, 
 
 ; or £79, 14s. 6d., the value in a single payment. 
 
 And dividing this sum by £13-658, the value of 
 
 an annuity on thejoint lives 32 and 24, plus uni- 
 
 j ty, gives £5-8372, the annual payment required. 
 
 X. Valuation of Policies. 
 I Case 48. To find the Value of a Policy of As- 
 surance, effected for the whole Term of Life, 
 aft m any given Period of Endurance. 
 Rule." 1st. Find the present value of the sum 
 I assured as at the age of valuation ; 2d. Multiply 
 i the value of £1 annuity on the life at the age of 
 I valuation, plus unity,* by the annual premium 
 ! at entry ; the product will give the value of the 
 future annual premiums ; 3d. Subtract the value 
 of the future annual premiums from the present 
 i value of the sum assured as at the age of valua- 
 tion ; the remainder will give the value required. 
 Ex. Required the value (immediately before 
 1 the premium becomes due) of a policy for £100, 
 ' effected ten years ago on a life then aged 40; 
 Northampton Table, 3 per cent. 
 The present value of the sum assured as at 
 j 50 (Case 40), is 60*866. The annual premium 
 ' for an assurance of £100 on a life of 40 (Case 40), 
 is 3-398 ; which, multiplied by 13-436, the value of 
 £1 annuitv on a life of 50, plus unitv, gives 45-656; 
 and 60-866" — 45-656 = 15-211), or*£l5, 4s. 2Jd. 
 
 If the premium for the 1 1 th year has been just 
 paid, it falls to be added to the above value. 
 ! Hence in this case 15-210 + 3-398 = 18-608, or 
 I £18, 12s. 2d. 
 
 N. B. — In valuing the policy the same rate of 
 l interest and table of mortality are taken as in 
 calculating the value of the assurance ; but it 
 j may be observed that few or none of the offices 
 ! give the real worth of a policy, thus found, for 
 its surrender ; many of them deducting one-half, 
 j some one-fourth, others three-fifths. 
 
 XL Valuation of Bonuses. 
 
 Case 49. To find the Value of any given Amount 
 
 of Bonus, declared as an Addition to a Policy. 
 
 I Rule. Multiply the given amount of bonus 
 
 ! by the present value of £l, payable on the de- 
 
 j cease of the party. 
 
 Ex. Required the present value of a bonus of 
 £500, the present age of the party being 42; 
 t Northampton Table, 4 per cent. 
 
 The present value of £1, payable on the de- 
 
 ! cease of a life of 42, is (Case 4o) -46777 ; and 500 
 
 X -46777 = 233-885, or £233, 17s. 9d. 
 
 Case 50. To find what Reduction of the future 
 
 ! Annual Premium is equivalent to any assigned 
 
 j Bonus. 
 
 i Rule. Multiply the annual premium corres- 
 j ponding to the present value of £1 at the given 
 ' age, by the given amount of bonus ; the pro- 
 { fluct will give the equivalent reduction of the 
 ' future annual premium. 
 
 Ex. Required what reduction of annual pre- 
 
 ! mium is equivalent to a bonus of £100, declared 
 
 I on a policy of £1750, effected at the age of 47, 
 
 the annual premium being £56*43, and the 
 
 present age of the assured 55 years ; Carlisle 
 
 Table, 3 per cent. 
 
 The annual premium corresponding to the 
 present vaue of £ 1 at age 55 is (Case 40) -045019 ; 
 and -045019 X 100 = 4*5019, the equivalent re- 
 duction of annual premium required. Hence 
 56*43 — 4*5019 = 51-9281, or £51, 18s. 7d., the 
 future annual premium. 
 
 * Unity is added only if the Policy is renouncedimmediately before the annual premium becomes due. 
 
 2 D 
 
INT 
 
 418 
 
 INT 
 
 TABLE I. Amount of £l in any Number of 
 Years not exceeding Seventy-Five. 
 
 Vears. 
 
 TABLE II. Present Value of £1 due at 
 the End of any Number of Years not 
 exceeding Seventy-Five. 
 
 Q per cent 
 
 5 per cent. 1 
 
 4 per cent. 
 
 3 per cent. 
 
 3 I'ei cent. 
 
 4 Per cent. 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 6 per cut 
 
 1-060000 
 
 1-050000 
 
 1-040000 
 
 1-030000 
 
 1 
 
 •970874 
 
 •961538 
 
 •952381 
 
 •943396 
 
 1-123600 
 
 1-102500 
 
 1-081600 
 
 1-060900 
 
 2 
 
 •942596 
 
 •924556 
 
 •907029 
 
 •889996 
 
 1-191016 
 
 1-157625 
 
 1-124864 
 
 1-092727 
 
 3 
 
 •915142 
 
 •888996 
 
 •863838 
 
 •839619 
 
 1-262477 
 
 1-215506 
 
 1-169859 
 
 1-125509 
 
 4 
 
 •888487 
 
 •854804 
 
 •822702 
 
 •792094 
 
 1-338226 
 
 1-276282 
 
 1-216653 
 
 1-159274 
 
 5 
 
 •862609 
 
 •821927 
 
 •783526 
 
 •747258 
 
 1-418519 
 
 1-340096 
 
 1-265319 
 
 1-194052 
 
 6 
 
 •837484 
 
 •790315 
 
 •746215 
 
 •704961 
 
 1-503630 
 
 1-407100 
 
 1-315932 
 
 1-229874 
 
 7 
 
 •813092 
 
 -759918 
 
 •710681 
 
 •665057 
 
 1-593848 
 
 1-477455 
 
 1-368569 
 
 1-266770 
 
 8 
 
 •789409 
 
 •730690 
 
 •676839 
 
 •627412 
 
 1-689479 
 
 1-551328 
 
 1-423312 
 
 1-304773 
 
 9 
 
 •766417 
 
 •702587 
 
 •644609 
 
 •591898 
 
 1-790848 
 
 1-628895 
 
 1-480244 
 
 1-343916 
 
 10 
 
 •744094 
 
 •675564 
 
 •613913 
 
 •558395 
 
 1-898299 
 
 1710339 
 
 1-539454 
 
 1-384234 
 
 11 
 
 •722421 
 
 •649581 
 
 •584679 
 
 •526788 
 
 2-012196 
 
 1-795856 
 
 1-601032 
 
 1-425761 
 
 12 
 
 •701380 
 
 •624597 
 
 •556837 
 
 •496969 
 
 2-132928 
 
 1-885649 
 
 1-665074 
 
 1-468534 
 
 13 
 
 •680951 
 
 •600574 
 
 •530321 
 
 •468839 
 
 2-260904 
 
 1-979932 
 
 1-731676 
 
 1-512590 
 
 14 
 
 •661118 
 
 •577475 
 
 •505068 
 
 •442301 
 
 2-396558 
 
 2-078928 
 
 1-800944 
 
 1-557967 
 
 15 
 
 •641862 
 
 •555264 
 
 •481017 
 
 •417265 
 
 2-540352 
 
 2-182875 
 
 1-872981 
 
 1-604706 
 
 16 
 
 •623167 
 
 •533908 
 
 •458112 
 
 •393646 
 
 2-692773 
 
 2-292018 
 
 1-947900 
 
 1-652848 
 
 17 
 
 •605016 
 
 •513373 
 
 •436297 
 
 •371364 
 
 2-854339 
 
 2-406619 
 
 2-025817 
 
 1-702433 
 
 18 
 
 •587395 
 
 •493628 
 
 •415521 
 
 •350344 
 
 3-025599 
 
 2-526950 
 
 2*106849 
 
 1-753506 
 
 19 
 
 •570286 
 
 •474642 
 
 •395734 
 
 •330513 
 
 3-207135 
 
 2-653298 
 
 2*191123 
 
 1-806111 
 
 20 
 
 •553676 
 
 •456387 
 
 •376889 
 
 •311805 
 
 3-399564 
 
 2-785963 
 
 2-278768 
 
 1-860295 
 
 21 
 
 •537549 
 
 •438834 
 
 •358942 
 
 •294155 
 
 3-603537 
 
 2-925261 
 
 2-369919 
 
 1-916103 
 
 22 
 
 •521892 
 
 •421955 
 
 •341850 
 
 •277505 
 
 3-819750 
 
 3-071524 
 
 2-464716 
 
 1-973587 
 
 23 
 
 •506692 
 
 •405726 
 
 •325571 
 
 •261797 
 
 4*048935 
 
 3-225100 
 
 2-563304 
 
 2-032794 
 
 24 
 
 •491934 
 
 •390121 
 
 •310068 
 
 •246979 
 
 4-291871 
 
 3-386355 
 
 2-665836 
 
 2-093778 
 
 25 
 
 •477606 
 
 •375117 
 
 •295303 
 
 •232999 
 
 4-549383 
 
 3-555673 
 
 2-772470 
 
 2-156591 
 
 26 
 
 •463695 
 
 •360689 
 
 •281241 
 
 '219810 
 
 4-822346 
 
 3-733456 
 
 2-883369 
 
 2-221289 
 
 27 
 
 •450189 
 
 •346817 
 
 •267848 
 
 •207368 
 
 5-111687 
 
 3-920129 
 
 2-998703 
 
 2-287928 
 
 28 
 
 •437077 
 
 •333477 
 
 •255094 
 
 '195630 
 
 5-418388 
 
 4-116136 
 
 3-118651 
 
 2-356566 
 
 29 
 
 •424346 
 
 •320651 
 
 •242946 
 
 "184557 
 
 5-743491 
 
 4-321942 
 
 3-243398 
 
 2-427262 
 
 30 
 
 •411987 
 
 •308319 
 
 •231377 
 
 •174110 
 
 6-088101 
 
 4-538039 
 
 3*373133 
 
 2-500080 
 
 31 
 
 •399987 
 
 •296460 
 
 •220359 
 
 •164255 
 
 6-453387 
 
 4-764941 
 
 3-508059 
 
 2-575083 
 
 32 
 
 •388337 
 
 •285058 
 
 •209866 
 
 '154957 
 
 6-840590 
 
 5-003189 
 
 3-648381 
 
 2*652335 
 
 33 
 
 •377026 
 
 •274094 
 
 •199873 
 
 •146186 
 
 7-251025 
 
 5-253348 
 
 3794316 
 
 2-731905 
 
 34 
 
 •366045 
 
 •263552 
 
 •190355 
 
 •137912 
 
 7-686(187 
 
 5-516015 
 
 3-946089 
 
 2-813862 
 
 35 
 
 •355383 
 
 •253415 
 
 •181290 
 
 "130105 
 
 8-147252 
 
 5-791816 
 
 4-103933 
 
 2-898278 
 
 36 
 
 •345032 
 
 •243669 
 
 •172657 
 
 •122741 
 
 8-636087 
 
 6-081407 
 
 4-268090 
 
 2-985227 
 
 37 
 
 •334983 
 
 •234297 
 
 •164436 
 
 •115793 
 
 9-154252 
 
 6-385477 
 
 4-438813 
 
 3-074783 
 
 38 
 
 •325226 
 
 •225285 
 
 •156605 
 
 •109239 
 
 9-703507 
 
 6-704751 
 
 4-616366 
 
 3-167027 
 
 39 
 
 •315754 
 
 •216621 
 
 •149148 
 
 •103056 
 
 10-28572 
 
 7-039989 
 
 4-801021 
 
 3-262038 
 
 40 
 
 •306557 
 
 •208289 
 
 •142046 
 
 •097222 
 
 10-90286 
 
 7-391988 
 
 4-993061 
 
 3-359899 
 
 41 
 
 •297628 
 
 •200278 
 
 •135282 
 
 •091719 
 
 11-55703 
 
 7761588 
 
 5-192784 
 
 3-460696 
 
 42 
 
 •288959 
 
 •192575 
 
 •128840 
 
 "086527 
 
 1225045 
 
 8-149667 
 
 5-400495 
 
 3-564517 
 
 43 
 
 •280543 
 
 •185168 
 
 •122704 
 
 •081630 
 
 12-98548 
 
 8-557150 
 
 5-616515 
 
 3-671452 
 
 44 
 
 •272372 
 
 •178046 
 
 •116861 
 
 "077009 
 
 13-76461 
 
 8985008 
 
 5-841176 
 
 3781596 
 
 45 
 
 •264439 
 
 •171198 
 
 •111297 
 
 •072650 
 
 14-59049 
 
 9-434258 
 
 6-074823 
 
 3-895044 
 
 46 
 
 •256737 
 
 •164614 
 
 •105997 
 
 •068538 
 
 15-46592 
 
 9-905!)71 
 
 6317816 
 
 4-011895 
 
 47 
 
 •249259 
 
 •158283 
 
 •100949 
 
 •064658 
 
 16-.39387 
 
 10-40127 
 
 6570528 
 
 4-132252 
 
 48 
 
 •241999 
 
 •152195 
 
 •096142 
 
 •060998 
 
 17-37750 
 
 10-92133 
 
 6*833349 
 
 4-256219 
 
 49 
 
 •234950 
 
 •146341 
 
 •091564 
 
 •057546 
 
 18-42015 
 
 11-46740 
 
 7-106683 
 
 4-383906 
 
 50 
 
 •228107 
 
 •140713 
 
 •087204 
 
 •054288 
 
 19-52536 
 
 12-04077 
 
 7-390951 
 
 4*515423 
 
 51 
 
 •221463 
 
 •135301 
 
 •083051 
 
 '051215 
 
 20-69689 
 
 12-64281 
 
 7-686589 
 
 4-650886 
 
 52 
 
 •215013 
 
 •130097 
 
 •079096 
 
 •048316 
 
 21-93870 
 
 13-27495 
 
 7-994052 
 
 4-790412 
 
 53 
 
 •208750 
 
 •125093 
 
 •075330 
 
 •045582 
 
 23-25502 
 
 13-93870 
 
 8-313814 
 
 4-934125 
 
 54 
 
 •202670 
 
 •120282 
 
 •071743 
 
 •043001 
 
 24-65032 
 
 14-63563 
 
 8-646367 
 
 5-082149 
 
 55 
 
 •196767 
 
 •115656 
 
 •068326 
 
 •040567 
 
 26-12934 
 
 15-36741 
 
 8-992222 
 
 5-234613 
 
 56 
 
 •191036 
 
 •111207 
 
 •065073 
 
 •038271 
 
 27-69710 
 
 16-13578 
 
 9-351910 
 
 5-391651 
 
 57 
 
 •185472 
 
 •106930 
 
 •061974 
 
 •036105 
 
 29-35893 
 
 16-94257 
 
 9-725987 
 
 5*553401 
 
 58 
 
 •180070 
 
 •102817 
 
 •059023 
 
 •034061 
 
 31-12046 
 
 17-78970 
 
 10-11503 
 
 5*720003 
 
 59 
 
 •174825 
 
 •(•98863 
 
 •056212 
 
 •032133 
 
 32-98769 
 
 1867919 
 
 10-51963 
 
 5-891603 
 
 60 
 
 •169733 
 
 •095060 
 
 •053536 
 
 •030314 
 
 34-96695 
 
 19-61315 
 
 10-94041 
 
 6-068351 
 
 61 
 
 •164789 
 
 •091404 
 
 •050986 
 
 •028598 
 
 37*06497 
 
 20-59380 
 
 11-37803 
 
 6-250402 
 
 62 
 
 •159990 
 
 •087889 
 
 •048558 
 
 •026980 
 
 39-28887 
 
 21-62349 
 
 11-83315 
 
 6-437914 
 
 63 
 
 •155330 
 
 •084508 
 
 •046246 
 
 •025452 
 
 41-64620 
 
 2270467 
 
 12-30648 
 
 6-631051 
 
 64 
 
 •150806 
 
 •081258 
 
 •044044 
 
 •024012 
 
 44-14497 
 
 23-83990 
 
 12-79874 
 
 6-829983 
 
 65 
 
 •146413 
 
 •078133 
 
 •041946 
 
 •022653 
 
 46-79367 
 
 25-03190 
 
 13-31068 
 
 7-034882 
 
 66 
 
 •142149 
 
 •075128 
 
 •039949 
 
 •021370 
 
 49-60129 
 
 26-28349 
 
 13-84311 
 
 7*245929 
 
 67 
 
 •138009 
 
 •072238 
 
 •038047 
 
 •020161 
 
 52-57737 
 
 27-59766 
 
 14-39684 
 
 7*463307 
 
 68 
 
 •133989 
 
 •069460 
 
 •036235 
 
 •019020 
 
 55-73201 
 
 28-97755 
 
 14-97271 
 
 7-687206 
 
 69 
 
 •130086 
 
 •066788 
 
 •034509 
 
 •017943 
 
 59-07593 
 
 30-42643 
 
 15-57162 
 
 7-917822 
 
 70 
 
 •126297 
 
 •064219 
 
 •032866 
 
 •016927 
 
 62-62049 
 
 31-94775 
 
 1619448 
 
 8-155357 
 
 71 
 
 •122619 
 
 •061749 
 
 •031301 
 
 •015969 
 
 66-37772 
 
 33-54513 
 
 16-84226 
 
 8-400017 
 
 72 
 
 •119047 
 
 •059374 
 
 •02981 1 
 
 •015065 
 
 70-36038 
 
 35-22239 
 
 17*51595 
 
 8-652018 
 
 73 
 
 •115580 
 •112214 
 •108945 
 
 •057091 
 
 •028391 
 
 •014213 
 
 74-58200 
 1 79-(i5692 
 
 36-98351 
 
 18-21659 
 
 8-911578 
 
 74 
 
 •054895 
 
 •027039 
 
 •013408 
 
 38-83269 
 
 1894525 
 
 9-178926 
 
 75 
 
 ■052784 -025751 
 
 •012649 
 
I XT 
 
 410 
 
 TNT 
 
 TABLE 111. Amount of £1 per 
 
 Annum at 
 
 
 TABLE 
 
 IV. Present Value of £1 p* 
 
 the End of any Number of Years not ex- 
 
 
 Annum 
 
 for any Number of Years noi 
 
 ceeding Seventy-Five. 
 
 
 Vear.. 
 
 exceeding Seventy-Five. 
 
 
 (j per cent. 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 4 pel cent. 
 
 3percent- 
 
 «i per cent. 
 
 4 per cent. 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 6 per rent. 
 
 1-000000 
 
 1400000 
 
 1*800000 
 
 i-oooooc 
 
 1 
 
 •970874 
 
 •961538 
 
 •952381 
 
 •943396 
 
 2*060000 
 
 2-050000 
 
 2-04*000 
 
 2-030000 
 
 2 
 
 1-913470 
 
 1-886095 
 
 1-859410 
 
 1-833393 
 
 3*183600 
 
 3-152500 
 
 3121600 
 
 3-09O9O0 
 
 3 
 
 2-828611 
 
 2-775091 
 
 2723248 
 
 2-673012 
 
 4-374616 
 
 4-310125 
 
 4-246464 
 
 4-183627 
 
 4 
 
 3717098 
 
 3-629895 
 
 3-545950 
 
 3-4651 06 
 
 5-637093 
 
 5-525631 
 
 5-416323 
 
 5-309136 
 
 5 
 
 4-579707 
 
 4-451822 
 
 4-329477 
 
 4-212364 
 
 6-975319 
 
 6-801913 
 
 6-632975 
 
 6-468410 
 
 6 
 
 5-417191 
 
 5-242137 
 
 5-075692 
 
 4-917324 
 
 8-393838 
 
 8-142iKi« 
 
 7-898294 
 
 7-662462 
 
 7 
 
 6-230283 
 
 6-002055 
 
 5-786373 
 
 5-582381 
 
 9-897468 
 
 9-549H >9 
 
 9*214228 
 
 8892336 
 
 8 
 
 7-019692 
 
 6-732745 
 
 6-463213 
 
 6-209794 
 
 11-49132 
 
 11-02656 
 
 10-58280 
 
 10-15911 
 
 9 
 
 7-786109 
 
 7-435332 
 
 7-1(7822 
 
 6-801692 
 
 13-18^79 
 
 12-57789 
 
 12-00611 
 
 11-46388 
 
 10 
 
 8*590203 
 
 8-110896 
 
 7721735 
 
 7-360087 
 
 1497164 
 
 14-20679 
 
 13-48635 
 
 12-80780 
 
 11 
 
 9-252624 
 
 8-760477 
 
 8-306414 
 
 7*896876 
 
 16-86994 
 
 15-91713 
 
 15-02581 
 
 14-19203 
 
 12 
 
 9-954004 
 
 9-385(74 
 
 8-863252 
 
 8-383844 
 
 18-88214 
 
 17-71298 
 
 16-62684 
 
 1561779 
 
 13 
 
 10-63496 
 
 9-985648 
 
 9-393573 
 
 8-852683 
 
 21-01507 
 
 19-59863 
 
 18-29191 
 
 17-08632 
 
 14 
 
 11-29607 
 
 10-56312 
 
 9-898641 
 
 9-294984 
 
 23-27597 
 
 21-57856 
 
 2" 1 '2359 
 
 18-59891 
 
 15 
 
 11-93794 
 
 11-11839 
 
 10-37966 
 
 9-712249 
 
 25-67253 
 
 23-65749 
 
 21-82453 
 
 20*15688 
 
 16 
 
 12-56110 
 
 1 1^65230 
 
 10-83777 
 
 10-10590 
 
 28-21288 
 
 25*84037 
 
 2369751 
 
 2176159 
 
 17 
 
 13-16612 
 
 12-16567 
 
 11-27407 
 
 10-47726 
 
 30-90565 
 
 28-13238 
 
 25-64541 
 
 23-41444 
 
 18 
 
 1375351 
 
 1265930 
 
 11 -68959 
 
 10-82760 
 
 33-75999 
 
 30-53900 
 
 27-67123 
 
 25-11687 
 
 19 
 
 14-32380 
 
 1313394 
 
 12-08532 
 
 1115812 
 
 36-78559 
 
 33 -(6595 
 
 2977808 
 
 26-87037 
 
 20 
 
 14-87747 
 
 13-59033 
 
 12-46221 
 
 11-46992 
 
 98*99273 
 
 35-71925 
 
 31-96920 
 
 28-67649 
 
 21 
 
 15-41502 
 
 14-02916 
 
 12-82115 
 
 1176408 
 
 43-39229 
 
 38-50521 
 
 34-24797 
 
 30-53678 
 
 22 
 
 15-93692 
 
 1445112 
 
 13-16300 
 
 1204158 
 
 46-99583 
 
 41-43048 
 
 36-61789 
 
 32-45288 
 
 23 
 
 16-44361 
 
 14-85684 
 
 1348857 
 
 12-30338 
 
 50-81558 
 
 44-50200 
 
 39-08260 
 
 3442647 
 
 24 
 
 16-93554 
 
 1524696 
 
 1379864 
 
 12-55036 
 
 54-86451 
 
 4772710 
 
 41-64591 
 
 36-45926 
 
 25 
 
 17-41315 
 
 15-62208 
 
 14T9394 
 
 1278336 
 
 59-15638 
 
 51-11345 
 
 44-31174 
 
 38-55304 
 
 26 
 
 17-87684 
 
 15-98277 
 
 14-37519 
 
 13-00317 
 
 63-70577 
 
 5466913 
 
 47-08421 
 
 40-7" 963 
 
 27 
 
 18-32703 
 
 16-32959 
 
 14-64303 
 
 13-21053 
 
 6852811 
 
 58-40258 
 
 4996758 
 
 42-93092 
 
 28 
 
 1876411 
 
 1666306 
 
 1489813 
 
 13-40616 
 
 73-63980 
 
 62-32271 
 
 52-96629 
 
 45-21885 
 
 29 
 
 19-18845 
 
 16-98371 
 
 15-14107 
 
 13-59072 
 
 79-05819 
 
 66-43885 
 
 56-08494 
 
 4757542 
 
 30 
 
 19-60044 
 
 17-29203 
 
 15-37245 
 
 1376483 
 
 84-80168 
 
 7o-76079 
 
 59-32834 
 
 50-00268 
 
 31 
 
 20-00043 
 
 17*58849 
 
 15-59281 
 
 13-92909 
 
 9o-88978 
 
 75-29883 
 
 82*70147 
 
 52-50276 
 
 32 
 
 20-38877 
 
 1787355 
 
 15-80268 
 
 14-08404 
 
 97 34316 
 
 80-06377 
 
 66-20953 
 
 55-07784 
 
 33 
 
 20-76579 
 
 1814765 
 
 16-00255 
 
 14-23023 
 
 104-1838 
 
 85(6696 
 
 69-85791 
 
 5773018 
 
 34 
 
 21-13184 
 
 18-41120 
 
 16-19290 
 
 14-36814 
 
 111-4348 
 
 00-32031 
 
 73-65222 
 
 60-46208 
 
 35 
 
 21-48722 
 
 1866461 
 
 1637419 
 
 14-49825 
 
 119- 12i <9 
 
 95-83632 
 
 77-59831 
 
 63-27594 
 
 36 
 
 21-83225 
 
 18-90828 
 
 1654685 
 
 14-62099 
 
 127-2681 
 
 101-6281 
 
 81 70225 
 
 66-17422 
 
 37 
 
 22-16724 
 
 19-14258 
 
 167H29 
 
 1473678 
 
 135-9042 
 
 107-7095 
 
 85-97034 
 
 69-15945 
 
 38 
 
 22-49246 
 
 1936786 
 
 1686789 
 
 14-84602 
 
 145-0.585 
 
 114-0950 
 
 9o-4o915 
 
 72-23423 
 
 39 
 
 88*88889 
 
 1958448 
 
 17-01704 
 
 14-94907 
 
 154-7620 
 
 120-7998 
 
 95-02552 
 
 75-40126 
 
 40 
 
 23-11477 
 
 1979877 
 
 17-15909 
 
 15-04630 
 
 165-0477 
 
 127-8398 
 
 99-82654 
 
 78-66330 
 
 41 
 
 23-41240 
 
 19-99305 
 
 17-29437 
 
 15-13802 
 
 175-9505 
 
 135-2318 
 
 104-8196 
 
 82-02320 
 
 42 
 
 2370136 
 
 2018563 
 
 17-42321 
 
 15-22454 
 
 187-5076 
 
 142-9933 
 
 110-0124 
 
 85-48389 
 
 43 
 
 23-98190 
 
 20-37079 
 
 17 54591 
 
 15-30617 
 
 199-7580 
 
 151-1430 
 
 115-4129 
 
 89-04841 
 
 44 
 
 24-25427 
 
 20-54884 
 
 17-66277 
 
 15-38318 
 
 212-7435 
 
 140*7002 
 
 121-0294 
 
 9271986 
 
 45 
 
 2451871 
 
 9979804 
 
 1777407 
 
 1545583 
 
 226-5081 
 
 168-6852 
 
 126-8706 
 
 96-50146 
 
 46 
 
 2477545 
 
 20-88465 
 
 17*89097 
 
 15-52437 
 
 241-0986 
 
 178-1194 
 
 132-9454 
 
 100-3965 
 
 47 
 
 25-02471 
 
 2P04294 
 
 17-98102 
 
 15-58903 
 
 256-5645 
 
 188-0254 
 
 139-2632 
 
 104-4084 
 
 48 
 
 25-26671 
 
 2P19513 
 
 18-07716 
 
 15-65003 
 
 272-9584 
 
 198-4267 
 
 145-8337 
 
 108*6406 
 
 49 
 
 25*50166 
 
 2134147 
 
 18-16872 
 
 157(757 
 
 290-3359 
 
 209-3480 
 
 152-6671 
 
 1127969 
 
 50 
 
 2572976 
 
 21-48218 
 
 18-25593 
 
 15-76186 
 
 3087561 
 
 220-8154 
 
 1597738 
 
 117-1808 
 
 51 
 
 2595123 
 
 2161749 
 
 18-33898 
 
 15-81308 
 
 328-2814 
 
 232-8562 
 
 167-1647 
 
 121-6962 
 
 52 
 
 26-16624 
 
 2174758 
 
 18-418(7 
 
 15-86140 
 
 348-9783 
 
 245-4990 
 
 1748513 
 
 126-3471 
 
 53 
 
 26-37499 
 
 21-87267 
 
 18-49340 
 
 15-90697 
 
 370-9170 
 
 258-7739 
 
 182-8454 
 
 1311375 
 
 54 
 
 26-57766 
 
 21-99296 
 
 1856515 
 
 15-94998 
 
 394-1720 
 
 272-7126 
 
 191-1592 
 
 136-0716 
 
 55 
 
 2677443 
 
 22-10861 
 
 18-63347 
 
 15 99054 
 
 418-8223 
 
 2873482 
 
 199-8055 
 
 141-1538 
 
 56 
 
 26-96546 
 
 22-21982 
 
 18-69854 
 
 1602881 
 
 444-9517 
 
 9687107 
 
 2087978 
 
 146-3884 
 
 57 
 
 27-15094 
 
 22 32675 
 
 1876052 
 
 16-06488 
 
 472-6488 
 
 318-8514 
 
 2181497 
 
 1517800 
 
 58 
 
 27-33101 
 
 22-42957 
 
 18-81954 
 
 1609898 
 
 50-2-0077 
 
 335-7940 
 
 227-8757 
 
 1573334 
 
 59 
 
 27-50583 
 
 22*52843 
 
 18-87575 
 
 1613111 
 
 5331282 
 
 353-5837 
 
 237-9907 
 
 163-0534 
 
 60 
 
 2767556 
 
 22-62349 
 
 18-92929 
 
 1616143 
 
 566-1159 
 
 372-2629 
 
 248-5103 
 
 168-9450 
 
 61 
 
 27-84035 
 
 2271489 
 
 18-98028 
 
 16-19003 
 
 f 01 -0828 
 
 391-8760 
 
 259-4507 
 
 175-0134 
 
 62 
 
 98*80094 
 
 22*80278 
 
 1902883 
 
 1621701 
 
 638-1478 
 
 412-4699 
 
 270-8288 
 
 181-2638 
 
 63 
 
 28-15567 
 
 22-88729 
 
 19*07809 
 
 16-24246 
 
 677-4367 
 
 434-0933 
 
 282-6619 
 
 1877017 
 
 64 
 
 28-30648 
 
 22-96855 
 
 19-11912 
 
 16-26647 
 
 719-0829 
 
 456-7980 
 
 294-9684 
 
 194-3328 
 
 65 
 
 28-45289 
 
 23-04668 
 
 19-161(7 
 
 16-28912 
 
 763-2278 
 
 480-6379 
 
 3077671 
 
 201-1627 
 
 66 
 
 28-59504 
 
 23-12181 
 
 19-201(12 
 
 16-31049 
 
 810-0215 
 
 505-6698 
 
 32M778 
 
 2081976 
 
 67 
 
 2873305 
 
 23-19405 
 
 19-239(7 
 
 16-33*65 
 
 859-6228 
 
 531-9533 
 
 334-9209 
 
 215-4436 
 
 68 
 
 28-86704 
 
 2326351 
 
 19-27530 
 
 16-34967 
 
 912-2(Nr2 
 
 559-5510 
 
 349-3177 
 
 222-9009 
 
 69 
 
 28-99712 
 
 23-33030 
 
 19-30981 
 
 1636762 
 
 967-9322 
 
 588-5285 
 
 364-2905 
 
 230-5941 
 
 70 
 
 29-12342 
 
 2339451 
 
 19-34268 
 
 16-38454 
 
 1027 -000 
 
 6189549 
 
 379-8621 
 
 2385119 
 
 71 
 
 29-24604 
 
 2345626 
 
 19-37398 
 
 16-40051 
 
 1089-629 
 
 660-9027 
 
 396-0566 
 
 246-6672 
 
 72 
 
 29-36509 
 
 23-51564 
 
 19-40379 
 
 1641558 
 
 
 684-4478 
 
 1 412-8988 
 
 255-0673 
 
 73 
 
 29-48067 
 
 23-57273 
 
 1943218 
 
 16-42979 
 
 1226-367 
 
 7196702 
 
 4304148 
 
 2637193 
 
 74 
 
 29-59288 
 
 23-62762 
 
 19-45922 
 
 16-44320 
 
 1300-949 
 
 756-6537 
 
 1 448-6314 
 
 1 272-6309 
 
 75 
 
 2970183 
 
 23-68041 
 
 19-48497 
 
 16-45585 
 
 \ 
 
 Vain* 
 
 I of Perpetu. 
 
 il Annuity 
 
 33-33333 
 
 25-000*0 
 
 ■2 
 
 16-66667 
 
INT 
 
 420 
 
 INT 
 
 TABLE V. Exhibiting the Annual Decrements of Life, or Law of Mortality, according to 
 
 Observations made at Northampton and Carlisle. 
 
 
 i 
 
 Persons Living. 
 
 i 
 
 < 
 
 Persons Living. 
 
 | 
 < 
 
 Persons Living. 
 
 < 
 
 Persons Living 
 
 
 Persons Living 
 
 | 
 
 Pllsstis Living 
 
 North. 1 Car- 
 
 North- 
 
 Car- 
 
 North- 
 
 Car- 
 
 North- 
 
 Car- 
 
 North- 
 
 Car. 
 
 North. 
 
 Car- 
 
 
 a nip ton. lisle. 
 
 nmptou. 
 
 lisle. 
 
 an.pt. 
 
 lisle. 
 
 «pt 
 
 lisle. 
 
 ampt. 
 
 lUle. 
 
 
 ampt. 
 
 lisle. 
 
 
 
 11650 10000 
 
 18 
 
 5262 
 
 6176 
 
 30 
 
 3935 
 
 5307 
 
 54 
 
 2530 
 
 4143 
 
 71 
 
 1152 
 
 2277 
 
 88 
 
 83 
 
 232 
 
 1 
 
 8650 8461 
 
 19 
 
 5199 
 
 6133 
 
 37 
 
 3860 
 
 5251 
 
 55 
 
 2448 
 
 4073 
 
 72 
 
 1072 
 
 2143 
 
 86 
 
 t>2 
 
 181 
 
 2 
 
 7283 7779 
 
 20 
 
 5132 
 
 6090 
 
 38 
 
 3/85 
 
 5194 
 
 M 
 
 2366 
 
 4000 
 
 73 
 
 992 
 
 1997 
 
 80 
 
 46 
 
 142 
 
 9 
 
 6781 7274 
 
 21 
 
 5060 
 
 6047 
 
 30 
 
 3710 
 
 5136 
 
 57 
 
 2284 
 
 3924 
 
 74 
 
 912 
 
 1841 
 
 91 
 
 34 
 
 105 
 
 4 
 
 6446 6998 22 
 
 4985 
 
 6005 
 
 40 
 
 3635 
 
 5075 
 
 58 
 
 2202 
 
 3842 
 
 75 
 
 832 
 
 1675 
 
 92 
 
 24 
 
 75 
 
 s 
 
 6249 6797 
 
 23 
 
 4910 
 
 5963 
 
 41 
 
 3559 
 
 5009 
 
 50 
 
 2120 
 
 3749 
 
 76 
 
 752 
 
 1515 
 
 9.3 
 
 16 
 
 54 
 
 6 
 
 6065 6676 
 
 24 
 
 4835 
 
 5921 
 
 42 
 
 3482 
 
 4940 
 
 HO 
 
 2038 
 
 3643 
 
 77 
 
 675 
 
 1359 
 
 94 
 
 9 
 
 40 
 
 7 
 
 5925 6594 
 
 25 
 
 4760 
 
 5879 
 
 4,3 
 
 3404 
 
 4869 
 
 61 
 
 1956 
 
 3521 
 
 78 
 
 662 
 
 1213 
 
 95 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 5815 6536 
 
 26 
 
 4685 
 
 5836 
 
 44 
 
 3326 
 
 4798 
 
 n 
 
 1874 
 
 3395 
 
 79 
 
 534 
 
 1081 
 
 86 
 
 1 
 
 23 
 
 y 
 
 5735 6493 
 
 27 
 
 4610 
 
 5793 
 
 45 
 
 3248 
 
 4727 
 
 63 
 
 1793 3268 
 
 80 
 
 469 
 
 953 
 
 97 
 
 .. 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 5675 6460 
 
 28 
 
 4535 
 
 5748 
 
 40 
 
 3170 
 
 4657 
 
 64 
 
 1712 3143 
 
 81 
 
 406 
 
 837 
 
 98 
 
 
 14 
 
 ii 
 
 5623 6431 
 
 88 
 
 4460 
 
 5698 
 
 47 
 
 3092 
 
 45H8 
 
 65 
 
 1632 3018 
 
 82 
 
 346 
 
 725 
 
 99 
 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 5573 6400 
 
 30 
 
 4385 
 
 5642 
 
 48 3014 
 
 4521 
 
 66 
 
 1552 2894 
 
 83 
 
 289 
 
 623 
 
 100 
 
 
 9 
 
 id 
 
 5523 6368 
 
 31 
 
 4310 
 
 5585- 
 
 49 
 
 2936 
 
 4458 
 
 67 
 
 1472 2771 
 
 84 
 
 234 
 
 529 
 
 101 
 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 5473 6335 
 
 32 
 
 4235 
 
 5528 
 
 511 
 
 2857 
 
 4397 
 
 08 
 
 1392 2648 
 
 85 
 
 186 
 
 445 
 
 108 
 
 
 6 
 
 1.5 
 
 5423 6300 
 
 33 
 
 4160 
 
 5472 
 
 51 
 
 2776 
 
 4338 
 
 69 
 
 1312 2525 
 
 86 
 
 145 
 
 367 
 
 103 
 
 
 3 
 
 Id 
 
 5373 6261 
 
 34 
 
 4085 
 
 5417 
 
 52 
 
 2694 
 
 4276 
 
 70 1 1232 2401 
 
 87 
 
 111 
 
 296 
 
 104 
 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 5320 6219 
 
 38 
 
 4010 
 
 5362 
 
 r,:i 
 
 2612 
 
 4211 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE VI. V 
 
 Annuity of £1 on a 
 
 Single 
 
 Life (or Number of Years' Purchase of an 
 
 
 A 
 
 nnuity), according to the Probabilities of Life at Northampton. 
 
 
 Age. 
 
 O per cent. 
 
 4 Percent. 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 6 percent. 
 
 A*t 
 
 3 Fr« t 
 
 4 r«r cent 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 6 percent. 
 
 
 
 12-270 
 
 10-327 
 
 8-863 
 
 
 48 
 
 12-951 
 
 11-685 
 
 10-616 
 
 9707 
 
 1 
 
 16-021 
 
 13-465 
 
 11-563 
 
 10107 
 
 49 
 
 12-693 
 
 11-475 
 
 10-443 
 
 9-563 
 
 2 
 
 18-599 
 
 15-633 
 
 13-420 
 
 11-724 
 
 50 
 
 12-436 
 
 11-264 
 
 10-269 
 
 9-417 
 
 3 
 
 19-575 
 
 16-462 
 
 14-135 
 
 12-348 
 
 51 
 
 12-183 
 
 11-H57 
 
 10-097 
 
 9-273 
 
 4 
 
 20-210 
 
 17-010 
 
 14-613 
 
 12769 
 
 52 
 
 11-930 
 
 10-849 
 
 9-925 
 
 9-129 
 
 5 
 
 20-473 
 
 17-248 
 
 14-827 
 
 12-962 
 
 53 
 
 11-674 
 
 10-637 
 
 9-748 
 
 8-980 
 
 6 
 
 20-727 
 
 17-482 
 
 15-041 
 
 13-150 
 
 54 
 
 11-414 
 
 10-421 
 
 9-567 
 
 8-827 
 
 7 
 
 20-853 
 
 17-611 
 
 15-166 
 
 13-275 
 
 55 
 
 11-150 
 
 10-201 
 
 9-382 
 
 8-670 
 
 8 
 
 20885 
 
 17-662 
 
 15-226 
 
 13-337 
 
 56 
 
 10-882 
 
 9-977 
 
 9-193 
 
 8-509 
 
 9 
 
 20-812 
 
 17*625 
 
 15-210 
 
 13-335 
 
 57 
 
 10-611 
 
 9749 
 
 8-999 
 
 8-343 
 
 10 
 
 20-663 
 
 17523 
 
 15-139 
 
 13-285 
 
 58 
 
 10-337 
 
 9-516 
 
 8-801 
 
 8-173 
 
 11 
 
 20-480 
 
 17393 
 
 15-043 
 
 13-212 
 
 59 
 
 10-058 
 
 9-280 
 
 8-599 
 
 7-999 
 
 12 
 
 20-283 
 
 17-251 
 
 14-937 
 
 13-130 
 
 60 
 
 9-777 
 
 9-039 
 
 8-392 
 
 7-820 
 
 13 
 
 20-081 
 
 17-103 
 
 14-826 
 
 13-014 
 
 61 
 
 9-493 
 
 8-795 
 
 8-181 
 
 7-637 
 
 14 
 
 19-872 
 
 16-950 
 
 14710 
 
 12-953 
 
 62 
 
 9'205 
 
 8-547 
 
 7-966 
 
 7-449 
 
 15 
 
 19-657 
 
 16791 
 
 14-588 
 
 12-857 
 
 63 
 
 8-910 
 
 8-291 
 
 7742 
 
 7-253 
 
 16 
 
 19-435 
 
 16-625 
 
 14-460 
 
 12-755 
 
 64 
 
 8-611 
 
 8-030 
 
 7-514 
 
 7-052 
 
 17 
 
 19-218 
 
 16-462 
 
 14-334 
 
 12-655 
 
 65 
 
 8*304 
 
 7761 
 
 7-276 
 
 6-841 
 
 18 
 
 19013 
 
 16-309 
 
 14-217 
 
 12-562 
 
 66 
 
 7-994 
 
 7-488 
 
 7-034 
 
 6-625 
 
 19 
 
 18-820 
 
 16-167 
 
 14-108 
 
 12-477 
 
 67 
 
 7-682 
 
 7-211 
 
 6-787 
 
 6-405 
 
 20 
 
 18-638 
 
 16-033 
 
 14-0(7 
 
 12-398 
 
 68 
 
 7-367 
 
 6-930 
 
 6-536 
 
 6-179 
 
 21 
 
 18-470 
 
 15-912 
 
 13-917 
 
 12-329 
 
 69 
 
 7-051 
 
 6-647 
 
 6-281 
 
 5-949 
 
 22 
 
 18-311 
 
 15797 
 
 13-833 
 
 12-265 
 
 70 
 
 6734 
 
 6-361 
 
 6-023 
 
 5-716 
 
 23 
 
 18-148 
 
 15-680 
 
 13746 
 
 12-200 
 
 71 
 
 6-418 
 
 6-075 
 
 5764 
 
 5-479 
 
 24 
 
 17-983 
 
 15560 
 
 13-658 
 
 12-132 
 
 72 
 
 6103 
 
 5790 
 
 5-504 
 
 5-241 
 
 25 
 
 17-814 
 
 15-438 
 
 13-567 
 
 12-063 
 
 73 
 
 5794 
 
 5-507 
 
 5-245 
 
 5-004 
 
 26 
 
 17-642 
 
 15-312 
 
 13-473 
 
 11-992 
 
 74 
 
 5-491 
 
 5-230 
 
 4-990 
 
 4-769 
 
 27 
 
 17-467 
 
 15-184 
 
 13-377 
 
 11-917 
 
 75 
 
 5-199 
 
 4-962 
 
 4-744 
 
 4-542 
 
 28 
 
 17-289 
 
 15-053 
 
 13-278 
 
 11-841 
 
 76 
 
 4-925 
 
 4710 
 
 4-511 
 
 4-326 
 
 29 
 
 17-107 
 
 14-918 
 
 13-177 
 
 11763 
 
 77 
 
 4-652 
 
 4-457 
 
 4-277 
 
 4-109 
 
 30 
 
 16-922 
 
 14781 
 
 13-072 
 
 11-682 
 
 78 
 
 4-372 
 
 4-197 
 
 4-035 
 
 3-884 
 
 31 
 
 16-732 
 
 14-639 
 
 12-965 
 
 11-598 
 
 79 
 
 4-<77 
 
 3-921 
 
 3-776 
 
 3-641 
 
 32 
 
 16-540 
 
 14-495 
 
 12-854 
 
 11-512 
 
 80 
 
 3781 
 
 3-643 
 
 3-515 
 
 3-394 
 
 33 
 
 16-343 
 
 14-347 
 
 12740 
 
 11-423 
 
 81 
 
 3-499 
 
 3-377 
 
 3-263 
 
 3-156 
 
 34 
 
 16-142 
 
 14-195 
 
 12-623 
 
 11-331 
 
 82 
 
 3-229 
 
 3-122 
 
 3-020 
 
 2-926 
 
 35 
 
 15-938 
 
 14-039 
 
 12-502 
 
 11-236 
 
 83 
 
 2-982 
 
 2-887 
 
 2797 
 
 2713 
 
 36 
 
 15-729 
 
 13-880 
 
 12-377 
 
 11-137 
 
 84 
 
 2793 
 
 2-708 
 
 2-627 
 
 2-551 
 
 37 
 
 15-515 
 
 13716 
 
 12-249 
 
 11-035 
 
 85 
 
 2-620 
 
 2-543 
 
 2-471 
 
 2-402 
 
 38 
 
 15-298 
 
 13-548 
 
 12-116 
 
 10-929 
 
 86 
 
 2-462 
 
 2-393 
 
 2-328 
 
 2-266 
 
 39 
 
 15-075 
 
 13-375 
 
 11-979 
 
 10-819 
 
 87 
 
 2-312 
 
 2-251 
 
 2-193 
 
 2-138 
 
 40 
 
 14-848 
 
 13-197 
 
 11-837 
 
 10705 
 
 88 
 
 2-185 
 
 2-131 
 
 2-080 
 
 2-031 
 
 41 
 
 14-620 
 
 13-018 
 
 11-695 
 
 10*589 
 
 89 
 
 2-013 
 
 1-967 
 
 1-924 
 
 1-882 
 
 42 
 
 14-391 
 
 12-838 
 
 11-551 
 
 10*473 
 
 90 
 
 1794 
 
 1758 
 
 1-723 
 
 1-689 
 
 43 
 
 14-162 
 
 12-657 
 
 11-4(7 
 
 10-356 
 
 91 
 
 1-501 
 
 1-474 
 
 1-447 
 
 1*422 
 
 44 
 
 13-929 
 
 12-472 
 
 11-258 
 
 10-235 
 
 92 
 
 1-190 
 
 1-171 
 
 1-153 
 
 1-136 
 
 45 
 
 13-692 
 
 12-283 
 
 11-105 
 
 10-110 
 
 93 
 
 •839 
 
 •827 
 
 •816 
 
 •806 
 
 46 
 
 13-450 
 
 12-089 
 
 10-947 
 
 9-980 
 
 94 
 
 •536 
 
 •530 
 
 •524 
 
 •518 
 
 47 
 
 13-203 
 
 11-890 
 
 10'784 
 
 9-846 
 
 95 
 
 •242 
 
 •240 
 
 •238 
 
 •236 
 
INT 
 
 421 
 
 INT 
 
 TABLE VIL Value of an Annuity of £1 , on a Single Life (or 
 
 Number of Years' Purchase of 
 
 
 an Annuity 
 
 , according to the Probabilities of Life at Carlisle. 
 
 
 Age. 
 
 3 prr cent- 
 
 4 percent. 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
 Age. 
 
 3 Per cent. 
 
 4 per cent. 
 
 5 Per cent. 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
 
 
 17-320 
 
 14-283 
 
 12-083 
 
 10*439 
 
 52 
 
 13-558 
 
 12-258 
 
 11-154 
 
 10-208 
 
 1 
 
 20-085 
 
 16-556 
 
 13-995 
 
 12-078 
 
 53 
 
 13-180 
 
 11*945 
 
 10-892 
 
 9-988 
 
 2 
 
 21-501 
 
 17728 
 
 14-983 
 
 12925 
 
 54 
 
 12-798 
 
 11-627 
 
 10-624 
 
 9761 
 
 3 
 
 22-683 
 
 18717 
 
 15-824 
 
 13-652 
 
 55 
 
 12-408 
 
 11-300 
 
 10-347 
 
 9-524 
 
 4 
 
 23-285 
 
 19-233 
 
 16*271 
 
 14042 
 
 56 
 
 12-014 
 
 10-966 
 
 10-063 
 
 9-280 
 
 5 
 
 23693 
 
 19-594 
 
 16-590 
 
 14-325 
 
 57 
 
 11-614 
 
 10*625 
 
 9771 
 
 9-027 
 
 6 
 
 23-846 
 
 19-747 
 
 16735 
 
 14-460 
 
 58 
 
 11-218 
 
 10*286 
 
 9-478 
 
 8772 
 
 7 
 
 23-867 
 
 19-792 
 
 16790 
 
 14-518 
 
 59 
 
 10-841 
 
 9*963 
 
 9199 
 
 8-529 
 
 8 
 
 23-801 
 
 19-766 
 
 16786 
 
 14-526 
 
 60 
 
 10-491 
 
 9*663 
 
 8-940 
 
 8-304 
 
 9 
 
 23-677 
 
 19693 
 
 16-742 
 
 14-500 
 
 61 
 
 10-180 
 
 9*398 
 
 8712 
 
 8*108 
 
 10 
 
 23-512 
 
 19-585 
 
 16*669 
 
 14-448 
 
 62 
 
 9*875 
 
 9'137 
 
 8-487 
 
 7*913 
 
 11 
 
 23-327 
 
 19-460 
 
 16581 
 
 14-384 
 
 63 
 
 9*567 
 
 8*872 
 
 8-258 
 
 77U 
 
 19 
 
 23-143 
 
 19336 
 
 16*494 
 
 14-321 
 
 64 
 
 9*246 
 
 8*593 
 
 8-016 
 
 7*502 
 
 13 
 
 22-957 
 
 19-210 
 
 16*406 
 
 14-257 
 
 65 
 
 8-917 
 
 8-3(7 
 
 7-765 
 
 7~281 
 
 14 
 
 22769 
 
 19082 
 
 16*316 
 
 14-191 
 
 66 
 
 8-578 
 
 8'010 
 
 7-503 
 
 7-049 
 
 15 
 
 22582 
 
 18*956 
 
 16-227 
 
 14-126 
 
 67 
 
 8-228 
 
 7700 
 
 7-227 
 
 6*803 
 
 16 
 
 22*404 
 
 18*837 
 
 16-144 
 
 14-067 
 
 68 
 
 7*869 
 
 7'380 
 
 6*941 
 
 6*546 
 
 17 
 
 22232 
 
 18*723 
 
 16*066 
 
 14-012 
 
 69 
 
 7-499 
 
 7'049 
 
 6*643 
 
 6-277 
 
 18 
 
 22058 
 
 18*608 
 
 15*987 
 
 13-956 
 
 70 
 
 7-123 
 
 6709 
 
 6*336 
 
 5*998 
 
 19 
 
 21-879 
 
 18-488 
 
 15-904 
 
 13-897 
 
 71 
 
 6737 
 
 6358 
 
 6*015 
 
 5704 
 
 20 
 
 21*694 
 
 18-363 
 
 15-817 
 
 13*835 
 
 72 
 
 6*373 
 
 6"026 
 
 5711 
 
 5-424 
 
 21 
 
 21-504 
 
 18*233 
 
 15726 
 
 13769 
 
 73 
 
 6-044 
 
 5-725 
 
 5*435 
 
 6-170 
 
 22 
 
 21 -304 
 
 18*095 
 
 15*628 
 
 13*697 
 
 74 
 
 5-752 
 
 5*458 
 
 6*190 
 
 4-944 
 
 23 
 
 21'098 
 
 17-951 
 
 15*525 
 
 13621 
 
 75 
 
 5-512 
 
 5*239 
 
 4-989 
 
 4-760 
 
 24 
 
 20*885 
 
 17*801 
 
 15*417 
 
 13*541 
 
 76 
 
 5-277 
 
 5024 
 
 4792 
 
 4-579 
 
 25 
 
 20*665 
 
 17*645 
 
 15*303 
 
 13*456 
 
 77 
 
 5-059 
 
 4*825 
 
 4-609 
 
 4-410 
 
 26 
 
 2<> - 442 
 
 17-486 
 
 15*187 
 
 13*368 
 
 78 
 
 4-838 
 
 4*622 
 
 4-422 
 
 4-238 
 
 27 
 
 20*212 
 
 17*320 
 
 15*065 
 
 13*275 
 
 79 
 
 4-592 
 
 4-394 
 
 4-210 
 
 4-040 
 
 28 
 
 19*981 
 
 17*154 
 
 14*942 
 
 13*182 
 
 80 
 
 4-365 
 
 4-183 
 
 4*015 
 
 3-858 
 
 29 
 
 19761 
 
 16*997 
 
 14*827 
 
 13*096 
 
 81 
 
 4-119 
 
 3-953 
 
 3799 
 
 3656 
 
 30 
 
 19'556 
 
 16852 
 
 14723 
 
 13*020 
 
 82 
 
 3-898 
 
 3746 
 
 3-606 
 
 3-474 
 
 31 
 
 19*348 
 
 16*705 
 
 14*617 
 
 12*942 
 
 83 
 
 3-672 
 
 3*534 
 
 3-406 
 
 3-286 
 
 32 
 
 19*134 
 
 16*552 
 
 l4*oi 6 
 
 12*860 
 
 84 
 
 3-454 
 
 3*329 
 
 3-211 
 
 3-102 
 
 33 
 
 18*910 
 
 16-390 
 
 14*387 
 
 12771 
 
 85 
 
 3-229 
 
 3*115 
 
 3*009 
 
 2-909 
 
 34 
 
 18*675 
 
 16-219 
 
 14*260 
 
 12*675 
 
 86 
 
 3-033 
 
 2-928 
 
 2-830 
 
 2-739 
 
 35 
 
 18*433 
 
 16*041 
 
 14*127 
 
 12-573 
 
 87 
 
 2-873 
 
 2*776 
 
 2-685 
 
 2-599 
 
 36 
 
 18*183 
 
 15*856 
 
 13*987 
 
 12465 
 
 88 
 
 2-776 
 
 2*683 
 
 2-597 
 
 2-515 
 
 37 
 
 17*928 
 
 15*666 
 
 13*843 
 
 12-354 
 
 89 
 
 2-665 
 
 2*577 
 
 2*495 
 
 2-417 
 
 38 
 
 17-669 
 
 15-471 
 
 13*695 
 
 12-239 
 
 90 
 
 2-499 
 
 2*416 
 
 2-339 
 
 2-266 
 
 39 
 
 17*405 
 
 15*272 
 
 13*542 
 
 12-120 
 
 91 
 
 2-481 
 
 2-398 
 
 2-321 
 
 2-248 
 
 40 
 
 17*143 
 
 15-074 
 
 13*390 
 
 12-002 
 
 92 
 
 2-577 
 
 2-492 
 
 2-412 
 
 2-337 
 
 41 
 
 16*890 
 
 14*883 
 
 13*245 
 
 11*890 
 
 93 
 
 2-687 
 
 2-600 
 
 2*518 
 
 2-440 
 
 42 
 
 16*640 
 
 14*694 
 
 13*101 
 
 11779 
 
 94 
 
 2736 
 
 2-650 
 
 2-569 
 
 2-492 
 
 43 
 
 16*389 
 
 14*5<>5 
 
 12*957 
 
 11-668 
 
 95 
 
 2757 
 
 2-674 
 
 2*596 
 
 2-522 
 
 44 
 
 16*130 
 
 14-308 
 
 12*8<6 
 
 1T551 
 
 96 
 
 2704 
 
 2*628 
 
 2-555 
 
 2-486 
 
 45 
 
 15*863 
 
 14-104 
 
 12*648 
 
 11-428 
 
 97 
 
 2*559 
 
 2*492 
 
 2-428 
 
 2-368 
 
 46 
 
 15*585 
 
 13-889 
 
 12*480 
 
 11-296 
 
 98 
 
 2*388 
 
 2-332 
 
 2-278 
 
 2-227 
 
 47 
 
 15*294 
 
 13-662 
 
 12*301 
 
 11-154 
 
 ■ 
 
 2-131 
 
 2-087 
 
 2-045 
 
 2-004 
 
 48 
 
 14*986 
 
 13-419 
 
 12*107 
 
 10*998 
 
 100 
 
 1-683 
 
 1-653 
 
 1-624 
 
 1-596 
 
 49 
 
 14*654 
 
 13153 
 
 11*892 
 
 10-823 
 
 101 
 
 1-228 
 
 "•210 
 
 1-192 
 
 1-175 
 
 50 
 
 14-303 
 
 12*869 
 
 11*660 
 
 10*631 
 
 102 
 
 771 
 
 762 
 
 753 
 
 744 
 
 51 
 
 13*932 
 
 12-566 
 
 11*410 
 
 1IV422 
 
 103 
 
 •324 
 
 •321 
 
 •317 
 
 •314 
 
 TABLE VITL Value of an Annuity of £1 on a Single Life (or Number of Years' Purchase of an 
 
 Annuity), according to the Probabilities of Life among the Government Annuitants 
 
 , reckon- 
 
 ing Interest at the rate of 5 
 
 per cent. 
 
 per Annum. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aire. Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 14 15614 
 
 16-336 
 
 29 
 
 14-475 
 
 15-302 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 12-581 
 
 13713 
 
 59 
 
 9-226 
 
 10-597 
 
 15 
 
 15-484 
 
 16-244 
 
 30 
 
 14-393 
 
 15-216 
 
 12-392 
 
 13-568 
 
 60 
 
 8-995 
 
 10-330 
 
 16 
 
 15-356 
 
 16-174 
 
 31 
 
 14-306 
 
 15-126 
 
 46 
 
 12-192 
 
 13-414 
 
 61 
 
 8752 
 
 10-052 
 
 17 
 
 15-235 
 
 16-112 
 
 32 
 
 14-214 
 
 15-033 
 
 47 
 
 11-976 
 
 13-251 
 
 62 
 
 8-494 
 
 9766 
 
 18 
 
 15125 
 
 16-054 
 
 33 
 
 14-114 
 
 14-938 
 
 48 
 
 11*749 
 
 13-080 
 
 63 
 
 8-225 
 
 9-476 
 
 19 
 
 15-031 
 
 16-000 
 
 34 
 
 14-007 
 
 14-842 
 
 49 
 
 11-515 
 
 12-900 
 
 64 
 
 7-954 
 
 9-181 
 
 20 
 
 14-950 
 
 15-946 
 
 35 
 
 13-892 
 
 14744 
 
 50 
 
 11-274 
 
 12-710 
 
 65 
 
 7*682 
 
 8-884 
 
 21 
 
 14-883 
 
 15-886 
 
 36 
 
 13770 
 
 14-648 
 
 51 
 
 11 -(132 
 
 12-508 
 
 66 
 
 7-409 
 
 8-584 
 
 22 
 
 14-840 
 
 15-824 
 
 37 
 
 13-643 
 
 14-549 
 
 52 
 
 10797 
 
 12-295 
 
 67 
 
 7*153 
 
 8284 
 
 23 
 
 14-803 
 
 15759 
 
 38 
 
 13-512 
 
 14-447 
 
 53 
 
 10-564 
 
 12073 
 
 68 
 
 6*900 
 
 7*982 
 
 24 
 
 14706 
 
 15-691 
 
 39 
 
 13-376 
 
 14-339 
 
 54 
 
 10-336 
 
 11-842 
 
 69 
 
 6-648 
 
 7*676 
 
 25 
 
 
 15619 
 
 40 
 
 13-235 
 
 14-227 
 
 55 
 
 10-112 
 
 11*604 
 
 70 
 
 6-399 
 
 7*»;9 
 
 26 
 
 14-683 
 
 15-544 
 
 41 
 
 13-087 
 
 14-107 
 
 56 
 
 9-900 
 
 11-361 
 
 71 
 
 6-1.7 
 
 7-<72 
 
 27 
 
 14-620 
 
 15-466 
 
 42 
 
 12-927 
 
 13-982 
 
 57 
 
 9*670 
 
 11-112 
 
 72 
 
 5-919 
 
 6778 
 
 •2H 
 
 14-550 
 
 15-385 
 
 43 
 
 12760 
 
 13-851 
 
 58 
 
 9-450 
 
 1' «S7 
 
 
 
 
INT 
 
 422 
 
 INT 
 
 TABLE IX. Value of an Annuity of £1 (or Number of Years' Purchase of an Annuity ) on the 
 
 Joint Continuance St Two 
 
 Lives not under 15, 
 
 nor exceeding 75 Years of Age, according to the 
 
 Carlisle Table of Mortality, and reckoning Interest at the several Rates of 3, 4, 5, and 6 
 
 per cent, per Annum. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 As 
 
 ,-» 
 
 3 p"x cent. 
 
 4 per cent. 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 6 percent. 
 
 •Res. 
 
 3 per cent. 
 
 4 P" cent 
 
 L 
 
 O percent 
 
 6* percent. 
 
 £q 
 
 
 Diff. 5 Years. 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 18-908 
 
 16-272 
 
 14-215 
 
 12-578 
 
 2a 
 
 28 
 
 16747 
 
 14-670 
 
 13-000 
 
 11-637 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 18-719 
 
 16-134 
 
 14-112 
 
 12-499 
 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 16-524 
 
 14-500 
 
 12-8f>7 
 
 11-532 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 18-542 
 
 16-007 
 
 14-018 
 
 12-428 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 16-311 
 
 14-339 
 
 12742 
 
 11-433 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 18-365 
 
 15-880 
 
 13-925 
 
 12-358 
 
 26 
 
 31 
 
 16-097 
 
 14-176 
 
 12-615 
 
 11-333 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 18-182 
 
 15-748 
 
 13-827 
 
 12-284 
 
 27 
 
 32 
 
 15-875 
 
 14-006 
 
 12-482 
 
 11-227 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 17-993 
 
 15-610 
 
 13724 
 
 12-206 
 
 28 
 
 33 
 
 15-648 
 
 13-830 
 
 12-344 
 
 11-116 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 17797 
 
 15-466 
 
 13-616 
 
 12-123 
 
 29 
 
 34 
 
 15-424 
 
 13-657 
 
 12-208 
 
 11-007 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 17-588 
 
 15-310 
 
 13-497 
 
 12031 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 15-209 
 
 13-491 
 
 12-078 
 
 10-904 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 17-372 
 
 15-148 
 
 13-372 
 
 11-933 
 
 31 
 
 36 
 
 14-989 
 
 13-321 
 
 11-944 
 
 10797 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 17'148 
 
 14-978 
 
 13-240 
 
 1 1-829 
 
 32 
 
 37 
 
 14764 
 
 13-146 
 
 11-806 
 
 10-686 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 16-916 
 
 14-800 
 
 13-101 
 
 H718 
 
 33 
 
 38 
 
 14-531 
 
 12*964 
 
 11 -(61 
 
 10-569 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 16-681 
 
 14-620 
 
 12-960 
 
 11-605 
 
 34 
 
 39 
 
 14-290 
 
 12773 
 
 11-508 
 
 10-445 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 16-437 
 
 14-431 
 
 12-811 
 
 11-485 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 14-048 
 
 12-581 
 
 11-354 
 
 10-320 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 16-196 
 
 14-244 
 
 12-663 
 
 11-365 
 
 36 
 
 41 
 
 13812 
 
 12-394 
 
 11-204 
 
 10-198 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 15-976 
 
 14-075 
 
 12-530 
 
 11-259 
 
 37 
 
 42 
 
 13-579 
 
 12-209 
 
 11-056 
 
 10-078 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 15-784 
 
 13-930 
 
 12-419 
 
 11-173 
 
 38 
 
 43 
 
 13-346 
 
 12-024 
 
 10-907 
 
 9-957 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 15-591 
 
 13-784 
 
 12-308 
 
 11-086 
 
 39 
 
 44 
 
 13-107 
 
 11-833 
 
 10-753 
 
 9-831 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 15-392 
 
 13-632 
 
 12-191 
 
 10-995 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 12-868 
 
 11-641 
 
 10-598 
 
 9-705 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 15-180 
 
 13-469 
 
 12-064 
 
 10-894 
 
 41 
 
 46 
 
 12-630 
 
 U-450 
 
 10-444 
 
 9-579 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 14-954 
 
 13-294 
 
 11-926 
 
 10-783 
 
 42 
 
 47 
 
 12-389 
 
 11-256 
 
 10-287 
 
 9-450 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 14-720 
 
 13-111 
 
 11780 
 
 10-666 
 
 43 
 
 48 
 
 12-139 
 
 11-053 
 
 10-121 
 
 9-314 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 14-477 
 
 12-919 
 
 11-627 
 
 10-541 
 
 44 
 
 49 
 
 11-868 
 
 10*830 
 
 9-937 
 
 9-161 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 14-231 
 
 12724 
 
 11-470 
 
 10-413 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 11-580 
 
 10*591 
 
 9737 
 
 8-994 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 13-981 
 
 12-525 
 
 11-309 
 
 10-281 
 
 46 
 
 51 
 
 11-271 
 
 10*332 
 
 9-519 
 
 8-808 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 13-727 
 
 12-322 
 
 11-144 
 
 10-145 
 
 47 
 
 52 
 
 10-955 
 
 10-065 
 
 9-292 
 
 8-614 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 13-481 
 
 12-125 
 
 10-984 
 
 10-014 
 
 48 
 
 53 
 
 10-628 
 
 9-787 
 
 9-054 
 
 8-410 
 
 41 
 
 41 
 
 13-254 
 
 11-945 
 
 10-839 
 
 9-896 
 
 49 
 
 54 
 
 10-284 
 
 9-492 
 
 8799 
 
 8-189 
 
 42 
 
 42 
 
 13036 
 
 11-772 
 
 10-701 
 
 9-785 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 9-924 
 
 9-181 
 
 8-528 
 
 7-952 
 
 43 
 
 43 
 
 12-822 
 
 11-602 
 
 10-566 
 
 9-677 
 
 51 
 
 56 
 
 9-550 
 
 8-855 
 
 8-242 
 
 7-699 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 12-600 
 
 11-426 
 
 10-425 
 
 9-563 
 
 52 
 
 57 
 
 9-172 
 
 8*524 
 
 7*950 
 
 7*440 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 12-371 
 
 11-243 
 
 10-278 
 
 9-444 
 
 53 
 
 58 
 
 8797 
 
 8-194 
 
 7-657 
 
 7-179 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 12-128 
 
 11-047 
 
 10-119 
 
 9-314 
 
 54 
 
 59 
 
 8-439 
 
 7-876 
 
 7-375 
 
 6-926 
 
 47 
 
 47 
 
 11-870 
 
 10-837 
 
 9-947 
 
 9-172 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 8-098 
 
 7-574 
 
 7-106 
 
 6-685 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 11-591 
 
 10-607 
 
 9756 
 
 9-013 
 
 56 
 
 61 
 
 7788 
 
 7-299 
 
 6-860 
 
 6-466 
 
 49 
 
 49 
 
 11-279 
 
 10-345 
 
 9-535 
 
 8-826 
 
 57 
 
 62 
 
 7-480 
 
 7-025 
 
 6-615 
 
 6-246 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 10-942 
 
 10-059 
 
 9-291 
 
 8-617 
 
 58 
 
 63 
 
 7-175 
 
 6752 
 
 6-370 
 
 6-024 
 
 51 
 
 51 
 
 10-579 
 
 9748 
 
 9-023 
 
 8-384 
 
 59 
 
 64 
 
 6875 
 
 6-482 
 
 6-127 
 
 5-805 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 10-215 
 
 9-434 
 
 8751 
 
 8-147 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 6-589 
 
 6-225 
 
 5-R95 
 
 5-594 
 
 53 
 
 53 
 
 9-849 
 
 9-117 
 
 8-474 
 
 7-905 
 
 61 
 
 66 
 
 6323 
 
 5-986 
 
 5-678 
 
 5-398 
 
 54 
 
 54 
 
 9-480 
 
 8-796 
 
 8-192 
 
 7-656 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 6-054 
 
 5-743 
 
 5-458 
 
 5-198 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 9-103 
 
 8-465 
 
 7-900 
 
 7-397 
 
 63 
 
 68 
 
 5779 
 
 5-493 
 
 5-230 
 
 4-990 
 
 56 
 
 56 
 
 8-721 
 
 8-128 
 
 7*600 
 
 7-130 
 
 64 
 
 69 
 
 5-490 
 
 5-2^9 
 
 4-988 
 
 4767 
 
 57 
 
 57 
 
 8-334 
 
 7783 
 
 7-293 
 
 6-853 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 5-193 
 
 4-956 
 
 4737 
 
 4-534 
 
 58 
 
 58 
 
 7-954 
 
 7-444 
 
 6-988 
 
 6-577 
 
 66 
 
 71 
 
 4-882 
 
 4-667 
 
 4-469 
 
 4-285 
 
 59 
 
 59 
 
 7-605 
 
 7-131 
 
 6705 
 
 6-322 
 
 67 
 
 72 
 
 4-580 
 
 4-386 
 
 4-207 
 
 4-041 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 7-295 
 
 6-854 
 
 6-456 
 
 6-097 
 
 68 
 
 73 
 
 4-297 
 
 4-123 
 
 3-961 
 
 3-810 
 
 61 
 
 61 
 
 7-044 
 
 6-630 
 
 6-257 
 
 5-919 
 
 69 
 
 74 
 
 4-035 
 
 3-8/8 
 
 3731 
 
 3-594 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 63 
 
 6-804 
 
 6-417 
 
 6-067 
 
 5-748 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 3-804 
 
 3-661 
 
 3528 
 
 3-403 
 
 63 
 
 6563 
 
 6-202 
 
 5-875 
 
 5-576 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 64 
 65 
 66 
 67 
 68 
 69 
 70 
 71 
 
 72 
 
 64 
 65 
 66 
 67 
 68 
 69 
 70 
 71 
 72 
 
 6-308 
 
 5-974 
 
 5-669 
 
 5-390 
 
 Diff. 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6-047 
 5-774 
 5-486 
 5-188 
 4-877 
 4-556 
 4-217 
 3-904 
 
 5738 
 5-490 
 5-228 
 4-954 
 4-666 
 4-367 
 4-050 
 3755 
 3-497 
 3-279 
 3-119 
 
 5-456 
 5-230 
 4-990 
 4-737 
 4-471 
 4-191 
 3-893 
 3-615 
 3-371 
 3-165 
 3-015 
 
 5-197 
 4-991 
 
 4-770 
 
 4-537 
 4-289 
 4-028 
 3748 
 3-485 
 3-254 
 3-058 
 2-916 
 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 
 25 
 26 
 27 
 28 
 29 
 30 
 31 
 
 17794 
 17-578 
 17-363 
 17-149 
 16-943 
 16749 
 16-551 
 
 15-460 
 15-298 
 15-136 
 14-975 
 14-821 
 14-677 
 14-530 
 
 13-608 
 13-483 
 13-359 
 13-235 
 
 13-117 
 13-008 
 12-896 
 
 12-115 
 
 12-017 
 11-919 
 11-822 
 11-730 
 11-646 
 11-559 
 
 73 
 74 
 75 
 
 73 
 
 74 
 75 
 
 3-631 
 3-400 
 3-231 
 
 22 
 23 
 24 
 25 
 
 32 
 33 
 34 
 35 
 
 16-344 
 16-126 
 15-897 
 15-660 
 
 14-374 
 14-208 
 14-032 
 13-848 
 
 12776 
 12-648 
 12-510 
 12-365 
 
 11-466 
 11-365 
 11-255 
 11-139 
 
 IHff. 5 
 
 Year*. 
 
 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 36 
 
 15-417 
 
 13-658 
 
 12-214 
 
 11-018 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 18-423 
 
 15-922 
 
 13-959 
 
 12385 
 
 27 
 
 37 
 
 15-168 
 
 13-462 
 
 12-058 
 
 10-891 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 18-230 
 
 15781 
 
 13-853 
 
 12-304 
 
 28 
 
 38 
 
 14-918 
 
 13-265 
 
 11-900 
 
 10763 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 18-036 
 
 15-639 
 
 13746 
 
 12-222 
 
 29 
 
 39 
 
 14-675 
 
 13M74 
 
 11747 
 
 10-639 
 
 18 
 
 23 
 
 17-838 
 
 15-493 
 
 1 3-6.*56 
 
 12-137 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 14-449 
 
 12-897 
 
 11-607 
 
 10-526 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 17 633 
 
 15-341 
 
 13-520 
 
 12-047 
 
 31 
 
 41 
 
 14-232 
 
 12728 
 
 11-474 
 
 10-420 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 17-421 
 
 15-182 
 
 13-398 
 
 11-952 
 
 32 
 
 42 
 
 14-017 
 
 12-560 
 
 11-342 
 
 10-315 
 
 21 
 
 26 
 
 17-204 
 
 15-019 
 
 13-272 
 
 11-853 
 
 33 
 
 43 
 
 13798 
 
 12-389 
 
 11-207 
 
 10-207 
 
 22 
 
 *7 
 
 1 16-977 
 
 14-846 
 
 13137 
 
 1174!", 
 
 34 
 
 44 
 
 13-369 
 
 12-208 
 
 11-063 
 
 10-091 
 
INT 
 
 423 
 
 INT 
 
 1 w 
 
 J percent. 4 per cent. 
 
 ) per cent. 
 
 6 r«' <•-"■•[ 
 
 Age*. 
 
 3 per cent. 
 
 4 per cent. 
 
 5 percent. 
 
 per cent. 
 
 |U:r. I«wn 
 
 Dif. 20ye»rj. 
 
 « 35 
 
 45 
 
 13-331 
 
 12-019 
 
 10-912 
 
 9-968 | 
 
 15 
 
 M 
 
 16-295 
 
 14-347 
 
 12765 
 
 11-462 
 
 36 
 
 46 
 
 13-082 
 
 11-819 
 
 IO750 
 
 9-836 1 
 
 16 
 
 aa 
 
 16-063 
 
 14-169 
 
 12-626 
 
 11-352 
 
 37 
 
 47 
 
 12-823 
 
 11-610 
 
 10-57!) 
 
 9-696 1 
 
 17 
 
 37 
 
 15-834 
 
 13-993 
 
 12-489 
 
 11-244 
 
 38 
 
 48 
 
 12-550 
 
 11-388 
 
 10-396 
 
 9-545 
 
 18 
 
 38 
 
 15-603 
 
 13-815 
 
 12-350 
 
 11-133 
 
 39 
 
 49 
 
 12-257 
 
 11-146 
 
 10-195 
 
 9376 
 
 19 
 
 39 
 
 15-367 
 
 13-632 
 
 12-206 
 
 11-018 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 1 1-954 
 
 10-894 
 
 9-984 
 
 9-117 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 15-131 
 
 13-449 
 
 12-062 
 
 10*903 
 
 41 
 
 51 
 
 n-645 ; 
 
 10-635 
 
 9766 
 
 9-012 
 
 21 
 
 41 
 
 14-903 
 
 13-272 
 
 11-923 
 
 I0793 
 
 42 i 
 
 52 
 
 11-338 l 
 
 10-378 
 
 9-548 
 
 8-827 
 
 22 
 
 42 
 
 14-673 
 
 13-094 
 
 11783 
 
 10-681 
 
 43 
 
 53 
 
 11-031 
 
 10-120 
 
 9-329 
 
 8-639 
 
 23 
 
 43 
 
 14-442 
 
 12-914 
 
 11-641 
 
 10-568 
 
 44 
 
 54 
 
 10-720 
 
 9-856 
 
 9-104 
 
 8445 
 
 24 
 
 44 
 
 14-202 
 
 12726 
 
 11-492 
 
 10-449 
 
 45 
 
 55 
 
 10-400 i 
 
 9-583 
 
 8-870 
 
 8-243 
 
 25 
 
 45 
 
 13-954 
 
 12-530 
 
 11-335 
 
 10-323 
 
 46 
 
 56 
 
 10-071 
 
 9.301 
 
 8-626 
 
 8-031 
 
 26 
 
 41 
 
 13-696 
 
 12-325 
 
 11-170 
 
 10-189 
 
 47 
 
 57 
 
 9-733 | 
 
 9-009 
 
 8372 
 
 7-808 
 
 27 
 
 47 
 
 13-425 
 
 12-107 
 
 10-993 
 
 10-044 
 
 48 
 
 58 
 
 9-392 | 
 
 87H 
 
 8111 
 
 7-578 
 
 28 
 
 48 
 
 13-143 
 
 11-878 
 
 10-805 
 
 9-889 
 
 49 
 
 59 
 
 9-053 | 
 
 8416 
 
 7*851 
 
 7-348 
 
 29 
 
 48 
 
 12-849 
 
 11-638 
 
 10-617 
 
 9-724 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 8729 i 
 
 8-132 
 
 7-601 
 
 7-127 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 12-551 
 
 11-393 
 
 10-404 
 
 9-554 
 
 51 
 
 61 
 
 8-429 
 
 7-869 
 
 7-370 
 
 6-923 
 
 31 
 
 51 
 
 12-237 
 
 11-132 
 
 10-186 
 
 9-370 
 
 52| 
 
 62 
 
 81 35 i 
 
 7-611 
 
 7-142 
 
 6721 
 
 32 
 
 52 
 
 11-919 
 
 10-866 
 
 9-962 
 
 9-180 
 
 53 
 
 63 
 
 7839 1 
 
 7-350 
 
 6911 
 
 6-515 
 
 33 
 
 53 
 
 11-594 
 
 10-593 
 
 9730 
 
 8-982 
 
 54 
 
 64 
 
 7533 ; 
 
 7-078 
 
 6-669 
 
 6-299 
 
 34 
 
 54 
 
 11-261 
 
 10-311 
 
 9-490 
 
 8775 
 
 55 
 
 65 
 
 7~219 
 
 6798 
 
 6418 
 
 6-073 
 
 35 
 
 60 
 
 10-919 
 
 10-020 
 
 9-240 
 
 8-559 
 
 56 
 
 66 
 
 6-896 
 
 6-508 
 
 6156 
 
 5-836 
 
 36 
 
 66 
 
 10-570 
 
 9721 
 
 8-981 
 
 8-334 
 
 57 
 
 67 
 
 6-562 
 
 6-.V5 
 
 5881 
 
 5-585 
 
 37 
 
 57 
 
 10-216 
 
 9-416 
 
 8716 
 
 8-101 
 
 58 
 
 68 
 
 6-224 
 
 5897 
 
 5-600 
 
 5-328 
 
 38 
 
 58 
 
 9-865 
 
 9111 
 
 8-449 
 
 7*866 
 
 ■0 
 
 69 
 
 5-890 
 
 5-591 
 
 5319 
 
 5-069 
 
 39 
 
 59 
 
 9-531 
 
 8-820 
 
 8-194 
 
 7-642 
 
 00 
 
 70 
 
 5-565 
 
 5-293 
 
 5-044 
 
 4-816 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 9*224 
 
 8-553 
 
 7-961 
 
 7-436 
 
 61 
 
 71 
 
 5-254 
 
 5-006 
 
 4779 
 
 4-569 
 
 41 
 
 61 
 
 8-960 
 
 8-325 
 
 7763 
 
 7263 
 
 62 
 
 72 
 
 4-963 
 
 4737 
 
 4-529 
 
 4-337 
 
 42 
 
 61 
 
 8705 
 
 8-104 
 
 7-571 
 
 7-096 
 
 63 
 
 73 
 
 4-699 
 
 4-492 
 
 4-302 
 
 4-125 
 
 43 
 
 63 
 
 8-450 
 
 7884 
 
 7-379 
 
 6-928 
 
 64 
 
 74 
 
 4-459 
 
 4-269 
 
 4-094 
 
 3931 
 
 44 
 
 64 
 
 8-183 
 
 7-651 
 
 7-175 
 
 6749 
 
 65 
 
 75 
 
 4-257 
 
 4-082 
 
 3921 
 
 3-770 
 
 45 
 
 05 
 
 7-910 
 
 7-411 
 
 6-964 
 
 6-562 
 
 Dif. 15 ve»n. 
 
 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 66 
 
 7-624 
 
 7159 
 
 6740 
 
 6-362 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 17-063 
 
 14-918 
 
 13-195 
 
 11-793 
 
 47 
 
 63 
 
 7-325 
 
 6-893 
 
 6-503 
 
 6-149 
 
 16 
 
 31 
 
 16-165 
 
 14771 
 
 13-083 
 
 11707 
 
 48 
 
 68 
 
 7-012 
 
 6-612 
 
 6-251 
 
 5-922 
 
 17 
 
 32 
 
 16-669 
 
 14-625 
 
 12-973 
 
 11-622 
 
 49 
 
 69 
 
 6-682 
 
 6-314 
 
 5-980 
 
 5-676 
 
 18 
 
 33 
 
 16-466 
 
 14-473 
 
 12-857 
 
 11-532 
 
 50 
 
 7" 
 
 6-338 
 
 6-001 
 
 5-695 
 
 5-415 
 
 19 
 
 34 
 
 16-252 
 
 14-311 
 
 12-733 
 
 11 -4:5 
 
 51 
 
 71 
 
 5-977 
 
 5-671 
 
 5-391 
 
 5-135 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 16-031 
 
 14-142 
 
 12-602 
 
 11-332 
 
 52 
 
 72 
 
 5-636 
 
 5-357 
 
 5102 
 
 4-867 
 
 21 
 
 36 
 
 15-8* '2 
 
 13-966 
 
 12-464 
 
 11-223 
 
 53 
 
 73 
 
 5-326 
 
 5-071 
 
 4-837 
 
 4-622 
 
 22 
 
 37 
 
 15-565 
 
 13782 
 
 12-319 
 
 11 K7 
 
 54 
 
 74 
 
 5-048 
 
 4-815 
 
 4-600 
 
 4-402 
 
 23 
 
 38 
 
 15-322 
 15073 
 
 13-593 
 13-398 
 
 12-169 
 12-013 
 
 10-986 
 
 55 
 
 75 
 
 4-813 
 
 4-598 
 
 4-400 
 
 4-217 
 
 24 
 
 39 
 
 10-860 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 40 
 
 14-824 
 
 13-202 
 
 1 1-856 
 
 10733 
 
 If 
 
 41 
 
 15-348 
 
 13-623 
 
 12-201 
 
 11-019 
 
 26 
 
 41 
 
 14-584 
 
 13-014 
 
 H-706 
 
 10612 
 
 16 
 
 41 
 
 15-116 
 
 13-444 
 
 12-061 
 
 10-908 
 
 27 
 
 42 
 
 14344 
 
 12-825 
 
 1 1-556 
 
 10-491 
 
 17 
 
 42 
 
 14-894 
 
 13-273 
 
 11-928 
 
 10-803 
 
 28 
 
 43 
 
 14-M7 
 
 12-638 
 
 1 1-407 
 
 10-371 
 
 18 
 
 43 
 
 14-673 
 
 13-103 
 
 11796 
 
 10-699 
 
 29 
 
 44 
 
 13875 
 
 12-455 
 
 U-261 
 
 10-254 
 
 19 
 
 44 
 
 14-444 
 
 12-926 
 
 11-657 
 
 10-589 
 
 30 
 
 45 
 
 13-650 
 
 12 --78 
 
 U121 
 
 10-142 
 
 20 
 
 45 
 
 14207 
 
 12-741 
 
 11-511 
 
 10-473 
 
 31 
 
 1 46 
 
 13416 
 
 12-093 
 
 10974 
 
 10-024 
 
 21 
 
 4fl 
 
 13-959 
 
 12-545 
 
 11-355 
 
 10-348 
 
 32 
 
 47 
 
 13-171 
 
 11-897 
 
 10-817 
 
 9896 
 
 22 
 
 47 
 
 13-696 
 
 12-336 
 
 11-187 
 
 10-212 
 
 33 
 
 48 
 
 12-908 
 
 11-685 
 
 l"-644 
 
 9754 
 
 23 
 
 48 
 
 13-417 
 
 12-111 
 
 11-004 
 
 10-062 
 
 34 
 
 49 
 
 12-6-20 
 
 11-449 
 
 10-449 
 
 9-592 
 
 24 
 
 40 
 
 13-114 
 
 11-864 
 
 10-801 
 
 9-893 
 
 35 
 
 50 
 
 12-314 
 
 11-196 
 
 10-238 
 
 9-414 
 
 25 
 
 SO 
 
 12793 
 
 11-599 
 
 10-581 
 
 9708 
 
 36 
 
 51 
 
 11-989 
 
 10-924 
 
 10-009 
 
 9-219 
 
 26 
 
 51 
 
 12-454 
 
 11-317 
 
 10-344 
 
 9-5(7 
 
 37 
 
 52 
 
 11-661 
 
 10-649 
 
 9776 
 
 9-020 
 
 27 
 
 52 
 
 12-110 
 
 11-029 
 
 10-100 
 
 9-299 
 
 38 
 
 53 
 
 11-330 
 
 10*369 
 
 9-538 
 
 8-815 
 
 28 
 
 53 
 
 U765 
 
 10738 
 
 9-853 
 
 9-087 
 
 39 
 
 54 
 
 10-995 
 
 10-084 
 
 9-294 
 
 8-605 
 
 29 
 
 54 
 
 11-425 
 
 10*450 
 
 9-608 
 
 8-876 
 
 40 
 
 55 
 
 10-658 
 
 9796 
 
 9-046 
 
 8-389 
 
 30 
 
 66 
 
 11-089 
 
 10-164 
 
 9-364 
 
 8-666 
 
 41 
 
 56 
 
 10-325 
 
 9-510 
 
 8-799 
 
 8-175 
 
 31 
 
 56 
 
 10749 
 
 9873 
 
 9-114 
 
 8-449 
 
 42 
 
 57 
 
 9-992 
 
 9-223 
 
 8-549 
 
 7-956 
 
 32 
 
 ^7 
 
 10-402 
 
 9-575 
 
 8-855 
 
 8-223 
 
 43 
 
 58 
 
 9-665 
 
 8-940 
 
 8-302 
 
 7739 
 
 33 
 
 58 
 
 10-055 
 
 9-275 
 
 8594 
 
 7*994 
 
 44 
 
 50 
 
 9-353 
 
 8-669 
 
 8-066 
 
 7532 
 
 34 
 
 50 
 
 9721 
 
 8-986 
 
 8341 
 
 7772 
 
 45 
 
 60 
 
 9-063 
 
 8-417 
 
 7-846 
 
 7-339 
 
 35 
 
 60 
 
 9410 
 
 8716 
 
 8-105 
 
 7-565 
 
 46 
 
 61 
 
 8-803 
 
 8193 
 
 7-652 
 
 7-170 
 
 36 
 
 61 
 
 9132 
 
 8476 
 
 7-897 
 
 7-382 
 
 47 
 
 62 
 
 8-545 
 
 7-970 
 
 7-458 
 
 7-001 
 
 37 
 
 62 
 
 8-859 
 
 8-239 
 
 7-691 
 
 7-202 
 
 48 
 
 |63 
 
 8-279 
 
 7-739 
 
 7-256 
 
 6-824 
 
 38 
 
 63 
 
 8-584 
 
 8-000 
 
 7-481 
 
 7*018 
 
 49 
 
 64 
 
 7-992 
 
 7487 
 
 7-034 
 
 6-627 
 
 39 
 
 64 
 
 8-296 
 
 7748 
 
 7-260 
 
 6-822 
 
 SO 
 
 65 
 
 7-691 
 
 7-221 
 
 6799 
 
 6-417 
 
 40 
 
 65 
 
 8-006 
 
 7493 
 
 7-034 
 
 6-622 
 
 51 
 
 66 
 
 7-374 
 
 6-939 
 
 6-546 
 
 6-190 
 
 41 
 
 66 
 
 7713 
 
 7*234 
 
 6804 
 
 6-416 
 
 52 
 
 67 
 
 7-047 
 
 6-646 
 
 6-282 
 
 5-952 
 
 42 
 
 6? 
 
 7413 
 
 6-967 
 
 6-565 
 
 6-202 
 
 53 
 
 68 
 
 6713 
 
 6-344 
 
 6-009 
 
 5704 
 
 43 
 
 68 
 
 7-106 
 
 6-692 
 
 6319 
 
 5-980 
 
 54 
 
 
 6-370 
 
 6-033 
 
 5725 
 
 5-445 
 
 44 
 
 60 
 
 6790 
 
 6-407 
 
 6-061 
 
 5746 
 
 55 
 
 70 
 
 6-019 
 
 5712 
 
 5-431 
 
 5-174 
 
 45 
 
 7" 
 
 6-465 
 
 6113 
 
 5793 
 
 5-502 
 
 56 
 
 71 
 
 5-656 
 
 5-378 
 
 5-123 
 
 4-888 
 
 46 
 
 71 
 
 6-127 
 
 5-804 
 
 5-510 
 
 5-242 
 
 57 
 
 72 
 
 5-310 
 
 5058 
 
 4-826 
 
 4-612 
 
 47 
 
 72 
 
 5-806 
 
 5-510 
 
 5-240 
 
 4-993 
 
 58 
 
 73 
 
 4-995 
 
 4765 
 
 4-553 
 
 4-358 
 
 48 73 
 
 5-513 
 
 5-241 
 
 4-992 
 
 4763 
 
 50 
 
 74 
 
 4719 
 
 4-509 
 
 4-315 
 
 4-136 
 
 49 74 
 
 5-247 
 
 4-996 
 
 4766 
 
 4-555 
 
 607; 
 
 4-408 
 
 4*904 
 
 4-125 
 
 3-959 
 
 50 75 
 
 5-022 
 
 4-790 
 
 4-577 
 
 4-380 
 
int 
 
 424 
 
 INT 
 
 Ages. 
 
 3 per cent 
 
 4 per cent. 
 
 5perce,.t. 
 
 Q per cent. 
 
 Apes. 
 
 3 per cent. 
 
 ipereent. 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
 Dif. 3oye»r„. 
 
 Dif. 4o year*. 
 
 15 
 
 45 
 
 14-381 
 
 12-884 
 
 11-630 
 
 10-570 
 
 15 i 55 
 
 11-528 
 
 10-543 
 
 9-692 
 
 8-953 
 
 16 
 
 46 
 
 14-129 
 
 12-685 
 
 11-472 
 
 ld-443 
 
 16 
 
 56 
 
 11-166 
 
 10-234 
 
 9-427 
 
 8724 
 
 17 
 
 47 
 
 1 3-872 
 
 12-481 
 
 11-309 
 
 10-312 
 
 17 
 
 57 
 
 10-803 
 
 9-923 
 
 9-158 
 
 8-490 
 
 18 
 
 48 
 
 13-601 
 
 12-264 
 
 11-134 
 
 10-170 
 
 18 
 
 58 
 
 10-444 
 
 9614 
 
 8-890 
 
 8-255 
 
 19 
 
 49 
 
 13-3(7 
 
 12-025 
 
 10-939 
 
 10-0H9 
 
 19 
 
 59 
 
 10-101 
 
 9-318 
 
 8-633 
 
 8-030 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 12-995 
 
 11-769 
 
 10727 
 
 9-&33 
 
 20 
 
 (30 
 
 9-782 
 
 9-043 
 
 8-394 
 
 7-822 
 
 21 
 
 51 
 
 12663 
 
 11-494 
 
 10-498 
 
 9-640 
 
 21 
 
 61 
 
 9-499 
 
 8-800 
 
 8-184 
 
 7-639 
 
 22 
 
 52 
 
 12-325 
 
 11-212 
 
 10-261 
 
 9-439 
 
 22 
 
 62 
 
 9-218 
 
 8-558 
 
 7-975 
 
 7-457 
 
 23 
 
 53 
 
 11-981 
 
 10-924 
 
 10-017 
 
 9-231 
 
 23 
 
 63 
 
 8-933 
 
 8-311 
 
 7760 
 
 7-269 
 
 24 
 
 54 
 
 11-632 
 
 10629 
 
 9766 
 
 9-016 
 
 24 
 
 64 
 
 8-635 
 
 8-051 
 
 7-532 
 
 7-069 
 
 25 
 
 55 
 
 11-274 
 
 10-325 
 
 9-505 
 
 8790 
 
 25 
 
 65 
 
 8-329 
 
 7783 
 
 7-295 
 
 6-859 
 
 26 
 
 56 
 
 10-911 
 
 10-015 
 
 9-237 
 
 8-558 
 
 26 
 
 66 
 
 8-012 
 
 7-503 
 
 7-047 
 
 6-638 
 
 27 
 
 57 
 
 10-541 
 
 9-696 
 
 8-960 
 
 8-316 
 
 27 
 
 67 
 
 7-683 
 
 7-210 
 
 6785 
 
 6-403 
 
 28 
 
 58 
 
 10-176 
 
 9-380 
 
 8-684 
 
 8-073 
 
 28 
 
 68 
 
 7-345 
 
 6-908 
 
 6-514 
 
 6-158 
 
 29 
 
 59 
 
 9-836 
 
 9-085 
 
 8-427 
 
 7-847 
 
 29 
 
 69 
 
 7-004 
 
 6-600 
 
 6-236 
 
 5-905 
 
 30 
 
 60 
 
 9-529 
 
 8-820 
 
 8-19(5 
 
 7-645 
 
 30 
 
 70 
 
 6-662 
 
 6-291 
 
 5-954 
 
 5-648 
 
 31 
 
 61 
 
 9-259 
 
 8-587 
 
 7-995 
 
 7-470 
 
 31 
 
 71 
 
 6-309 
 
 5-969 
 
 5-660 
 
 5-378 
 
 32 
 
 62 
 
 8-993 
 
 8-358 
 
 7796 
 
 7-296 
 
 32 
 
 72 
 
 5-976 
 
 5-664 
 
 5-379 
 
 5-119 
 
 33 
 
 63 
 
 8721 
 
 8-122 
 
 7-591 
 
 7-117 
 
 33 
 
 73 
 
 5-673 
 
 5-386 
 
 5-123 
 
 4-883 
 
 34 
 
 64 
 
 8-434 
 
 7-872 
 
 7-372 
 
 6-924 
 
 34 
 
 74 
 
 5-403 
 
 5-137 
 
 4-894 
 
 4-671 
 
 35 
 36 
 
 65 
 66 
 
 8*140 
 7-834 
 
 7-614 
 7-343 
 
 7-143 
 6-903 
 
 6721 
 6-507 
 
 35 
 
 75 
 
 5-179 
 
 4-933 
 
 4706 
 
 4-498 
 
 Dif. 45 years. 
 
 37 
 
 67 
 
 7-517 
 
 7-061 
 
 6-651 
 
 6-280 
 
 15 60 
 
 9-852 
 
 9-103 
 
 8-446 
 
 7-867 
 
 38 
 
 68 
 
 7*191 
 
 6-769 
 
 6-388 
 
 6-043 
 
 16 61 
 
 9-565 
 
 8-857 
 
 8233 
 
 7-682 
 
 39 
 
 69 
 
 6-856 
 
 6-466 
 
 6-113 
 
 5793 
 
 17 62 
 
 9-287 
 
 8-617 
 
 8-026 
 
 7*502 
 
 40 
 
 70 
 
 6-515 
 
 6157 
 
 5-832 
 
 5-536 
 
 18 63 
 
 9-006 
 
 8-375 
 
 7-816 
 
 7-318 
 
 41 
 
 71 
 
 6-169 
 
 5-841 
 
 5-542 
 
 5-269 
 
 19 64 
 
 8712 
 
 8-120 
 
 7-593 
 
 7-123 
 
 42 
 
 72 
 
 5-846 
 
 5-544 
 
 5-269 
 
 5-017 
 
 20 65 
 
 8-411 
 
 7-856 
 
 7-361 
 
 6-918 
 
 43 
 
 73 
 
 5-556 
 
 5278 
 
 5-023 
 
 4790 
 
 21 66 
 
 8-099 
 
 7-581 
 
 7-118 
 
 6-702 
 
 44 
 
 74 
 
 5-299 
 
 5-042 
 
 4-806 
 
 4-589 
 
 22 67 
 
 7773 
 
 7-292 
 
 6-860 
 
 6-471 
 
 45 
 
 75 
 
 5-089 
 
 4-850 
 
 4-630 
 
 4-427 
 
 23 68 
 24 ! 69 
 
 7-438 
 7-091 
 
 6-992 
 6-680 
 
 6-591 
 6-309 
 
 6-229 
 5-973 
 
 
 Dif. 35 years. 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 70 
 
 6-736 
 
 6-358 
 
 6-017 
 
 5-706 
 
 15 
 
 50 
 
 13-131 
 
 11-882 
 
 10-822 
 
 9-913 
 
 26i71 
 
 6*369 
 
 6-024 
 
 5710 
 
 5-425 
 
 16 
 
 51 
 
 12-794 
 
 11-6(13 
 
 10-589 
 
 9717 
 
 27J72 
 
 6-022 
 
 5-706 
 
 5-418 
 
 5-155 
 
 17 
 
 52 
 
 12-459 
 
 11-325 
 
 10-356 
 
 9-520 
 
 28 73 
 
 5709 
 
 5-418 
 
 5-153 
 
 4-910 
 
 18 
 
 53 
 
 12-122 
 
 11-043 
 
 10-119 
 
 9-318 
 
 29 74 
 
 5-434 
 
 5-166 
 
 4-920 
 
 4-695 
 
 19 
 
 54 
 
 11-780 
 
 10-755 
 
 98/5 
 
 9-109 
 
 30 75 
 
 5-213 
 
 4-964 
 
 4735 
 
 4-524 
 
 20 
 
 55 
 
 11-429 
 
 10-458 
 
 9-621 
 
 8-891 
 
 Dif. BO vears. 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 56 
 
 11-072 
 
 10-154 
 
 9-359 
 
 8-665 
 
 15 65 
 
 8458 
 
 7-897 
 
 7-398 
 
 6-950 
 
 22 
 
 57 
 
 10-706 
 
 9-840 
 
 9-087 
 
 8-428 
 
 16 66 
 
 8-142 
 
 7-618 
 
 7-151 
 
 6731 
 
 23 
 
 58 
 
 10-342 
 
 9-526 
 
 8814 
 
 8-189 
 
 17 67 
 
 7-817 
 
 7-331 
 
 6-894 
 
 6-501 
 
 24 
 
 59 
 
 9-994 
 
 9-225 
 
 8-551 
 
 7-959 
 
 18 68 
 
 7-485 
 
 7-034 
 
 6-628 
 
 6-262 
 
 25 
 
 60 
 
 9-669 
 
 8-943 
 
 8-306 
 
 7744 
 
 19 69 
 
 7-141 
 
 6-725 
 
 6-350 
 
 6-010 
 
 26 
 
 61 
 
 9-380 
 
 8-694 
 
 8-090 
 
 7-555 
 
 20 70 
 
 6790 
 
 6-4(7 
 
 6-061 
 
 5746 
 
 27 
 
 62 
 
 9-094 
 
 8-447 
 
 7-875 
 
 7-367 
 
 21 71 
 
 6-427 
 
 6-076 
 
 5758 
 
 5-469 
 
 28 
 
 63 
 
 8-807 
 
 8-198 
 
 7-658 
 
 7-177 
 
 22 72 
 
 6-083 
 
 5762 
 
 5-469 
 
 5-202 
 
 29 
 
 64 
 
 8-515 
 
 7-943 
 
 7-434 
 
 6-979 
 
 23 73 
 
 5771 
 
 5-475 
 
 5-206 
 
 4-959 
 
 30 
 
 65 
 
 8-224 
 
 7-688 
 
 7-210 
 
 6781 
 
 24,74 
 
 5-493 
 
 5-221 
 
 4-971 
 
 4743 
 
 31 
 
 66 
 
 7-924 
 
 7423 
 
 6-975 
 
 6-572 
 
 25 75 
 
 5-263 
 
 5-010 
 
 4-778 
 
 4-565 
 
 32 
 
 67 
 
 7-612 
 
 7-146 
 
 6728 
 
 6351 
 
 Dif. .i.i voari. 
 
 
 
 
 
 33 68 
 
 7-288 
 
 6-857 
 
 6-468 
 
 6-116 
 
 15 70 
 
 6-818 
 
 6-433 
 
 6-084 
 
 5767 
 
 34 69 
 
 6-952 
 
 6-554 
 
 6-194 
 
 5-868 
 
 16 71 
 
 6-452 
 
 6-0.98 
 
 5-778 
 
 5-486 
 
 35 70 
 
 6-608 
 
 6-242 
 
 5-910 
 
 5-0K9 
 
 17 72 
 
 6-108 
 
 5-784 
 
 5-4.90 
 
 5-221 
 
 36 71 
 
 6-251 
 
 5-916 
 
 5-611 
 
 5-334 
 
 18 73 
 
 5799 
 
 5-501) 
 
 5-228 
 
 4-980 
 
 37 72 
 
 5-914 
 
 5-6(7 
 
 5-327 
 
 5-071 
 
 19 74 
 
 5-524 
 
 5-249 
 
 4-997 
 
 4-766 
 
 38 73 
 
 39 74 
 
 5-609 
 5-337 
 
 5-326 
 5-076 
 
 5-063 
 4-838 
 
 4-832 
 4-619 
 
 20l75 
 
 5-298 
 
 5-042 
 
 4-807 
 
 4-592 
 
 Dif. 6> yaw. 
 
 40 75 
 
 5-115 
 
 4-872 
 
 4-650 
 
 4-44G 
 
 15 175 
 
 5-315 
 
 5-057 
 
 4-821 
 
 4-604 
 
 Principal Works on Annuities and Assurances.— Baily's Doctrine of Life Annuities and As- 
 surances, 1813. Milne's Treatise on the "Valuation of Annuities and Assurances, and Construction 
 of Tables of Mortality, 1815. Corbaux's Doctrine of Compound Interest, 1825. Article Annuities 
 in Encyclopaedia Britannica. Jones's Treatise on Annuities and Reversionary Payments, pub- 
 lished by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, a work chiefly distinguished for the 
 numerous tables which it contains, including a series computed by Barrett's method. See also 
 other works referred to in this article, and in that on Insurance on Lives. 
 
 INVOICE, a mercantile document containing a description of goods sold or 
 consigned, with an account of the charges, if any, that are made against the buyer 
 or consignee. Inland invoices are generally made out in the form of bills of par- 
 cels, containing in the title the place, date, and names of the parties. Shipping or 
 exportation invoices are usually headed with a short account of the goods, the 
 names of the vessel and captain, the port of destination, the name of the consignee, 
 and a specification of the account on which the goods are sent. 
 
 Pro forma invoices are statements of supposititious transactions, sometimes made 
 out in order to show the ordinary allowances and charges on goods, and conse- 
 quently, with the prices, to exhibit the estimated net proceeds. 
 
IOD 425 ION 
 
 IODINE, a substance obtained by a chemical process from kelp, from soap- 
 makers' black ash, or from the brown residuary kelp-liquor of the soapboilers. It 
 is soft and friable, of a blueish-black colour, and metallic lustre. Sp. gr. 4'946. 
 It is extremely volatile. Its smell resembles that of diluted chlorine ; its taste is 
 acrid. Iodine was discovered in 1812 by M. Courtois of Paris, and its compounds 
 are as yet employed principally in medicine, where it is used in glandular diseases, 
 and as an alterative. Mr Brande is of opinion, however, that from the rich colours 
 of some of its metallic combinations, it might be employed in calico-printing. 
 
 IONIAN ISLANDS (UNITED STATES OF THE), a republic, under Brit- 
 ish protection, situate on the W. and S. coasts of Greece, consisting (besides islets) 
 of seven principal islands ; namely, Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Santa Maura, Ithaca, 
 Cerigo, and Paxo. Area, 1041 sq. miles. Population in 1839, 221,057. The 
 government is vested in a high commissioner residing at Corfu, who represents the 
 sovereign of Great Britain, — a legislative assembly of 29 members elected by the 
 syncleta or nobles, and 11, styled integral, appointed by the commissioner,— and a 
 senate composed of 5 members elected by the legislative assembly, and a president 
 nominated by the commissioner. 
 
 These islands are almost all of an irregular form ; their coasts are rugged and indented ; and 
 barren rocks and heath-covered hills form nearly half their whole contents. The climate is mild, 
 but subject to sudden changes ; hurricanes and earthquakes are frequent, especially in Zante, and 
 the sirocco occasionally makes the heat oppressive. The land is mostly in the hands of small 
 proprietors, who let it out on the metayer system to tenants paying half the produce as rent. 
 Being more favourable to grape cultivation than to the raising of corn, upwards of three-fourths 
 of the surface available for tillage is laid out in currant grounds, vineyards, and olive-plantations, 
 which are generally well managed. Cephalonia and Zante, however, are the only islands in which 
 currants are grown, with the exception of Ithaca and Santa Maura, in which a few acres are em- 
 ployed for that purpose- Oil and wine are chiefly the produce of Corfu, but in all the islands 
 the olive-tree is more or less cultivated. The currants are gathered in the middle of September ; 
 the olives in December. The quantity of bread-corn grown is equal to only one-fourth of the 
 consumption. 
 
 In Corfu and Zante, soap is made to some extent ; at the latter also, silk, gros-de-naples, and 
 handkerchiefs are woven. In other respects manufactures, properly so termed, can scarcely be 
 said to exist. The wives of the peasants, however, spin and weave a coarse kind of woollen cloth, 
 nearly sufficient for the use of their families ; and some coarse blankets and linens are also made. 
 
 The imports into the Ionian Islands, on an average of the three years ending 1839, amounted 
 to £657,099 ; about one-third of which consisted of wheat, brought mostly from Odessa; the 
 chief other articles were Indian corn, live-stock (from Albania and Greece), colonial produce, 
 British manufactures, and dried fish. Of exports, the annual amount, on an average of the same 
 three years, was £334, 356; consisting mostly of currants (17,746,648 lbs., £229,299) sent almost 
 wholly to Great Britain ; with about 30,833 barrels (each of 16 gallons) of olive ofl, and 1,782,770 
 lbs. soap ; the other articles were of very trifling value. 
 
 The amount of shipping possessed by "the islanders is considerable ; much of it is employed in 
 the Levant trade. Of 265,253 tons entered inwards the ports of the different islands in 1839, no 
 fewer than 127,356 tons were Ionian; the remainder was chiefly Greek, Austrian, British, and 
 Russian. 
 
 Corfu, situated in the island of that name, in lat 39°36' N., long. 19°54'E., is the principal port 
 and seat of government. Pop. 16,000, of whom 4000 are Jews. The town is very strongly fortified. 
 The harbour, which is one of the best in the Levant, and has a depth of about 80 feet, is formed 
 by the Island of Vido, the rocks called Condilonisi, the Lazaretto island, and the New Fort. 
 
 The chief other ports are Zante, in the island of the same name, and Argoatoli, in Cephalonia. 
 Measures, Weights, Money, Ditties, &c 
 
 Measures and Weight*. — The Imperial system 
 was introduced in 1828, when the stadio of 40 
 carnaco was made equal to 1 Imp. furlong ; the 
 barrel to 16 Imp. gallons, or 128 dicatoli or pints ; 
 the kilo, corn measure, to 1 Imp. bushel; the 
 libbra sottile to 1 lb. trov ; the libbra grossa to 
 1 lb. avoird. ; and the tafanto to 100 lbs. avoird. 
 
 The chief old measures are the Zante cloth 
 braccio = 27-18 inches; and silk braccio = 25-37 
 inches ; the Zante barile = 14-68 Imp. galls. ; the 
 Corfu barile = 15Imp. galls. ; the Corfu moggio, 
 grain measure, of 8 misure = 4-63 Imp. bushels; 
 the moggio, land-measure, of 8 misure, or 24 
 zappade = 2 Imp. acres, 1 rood, 24 perches ; the 
 quintal of 44 okes = 123-15 lbs. avoird.; and 
 10 okes = 28 lbs. avoird. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are kept in taleri or dollars, 
 each of 100 oboli ; also in British money ; and in 
 
 some places in Turkish piastres of 40 paras. The 
 circulating medium is composed of Spanish, 
 American, Austrian and Venetian dollars, the 
 first being reckoned at 104 oboli, the two last at 
 100 oboli ; Spanish doubloons ; British silver 
 coins ; and Ionian currency, consisting of silver 
 threepences, and copper pieces for 4th and ^,th 
 of a penny. No paper money is in circulation. 
 
 Exchange on London fluctuates from about 
 50id. to 514d. per Spanish dollar. 
 
 Duties on exports : oil and currants, 191 per 
 cent. ; wine, 6 per cent. ; soap, 8 per cent., ad 
 valorem. The import duty is regulated accord- 
 ing to a tariff, non-enumerated articles in which 
 pay 7 or 8 per cent., ad valorem. 
 
 The Revenue amounts to about £160,000, de- 
 rived chiefly from export duties and customs ; 
 the direct taxes are trifling. 
 
 These islands, after many changes, became, in the 15th century, subject to the dominion of 
 Venice- After the downfal of that republic, they were the cause of frequent contention among 
 the Mediterranean powers, whose mutual jealousies led to their being formed, in 1815, into au 
 independent state, under the protection of Great Britain, by whom they are garrisoned with a 
 force of about 3000 men. S 
 
IPE 420 IRO 
 
 IPECACUANHA, a medicinal root derived, from several plants growing in 
 S. America. The best is the annulated, yielded by a small shrubby plant (Cephaii- 
 lis Ipecacuanha), found in moist situations in Brazil and New Granada. It occurs 
 brown, red, and gray, or grayish- white. This kind, sometimes called Brazilian or 
 Lisbon ipecacuan, is exported from Rio Janeiro in bales and barrels. The root 
 is in short pieces, of the thickness of a goose-quill, with numerous circular depres- 
 sions or clefts, and much twisted ; and having a central woody fibre, surrounded 
 by a cortical part, in which its virtues chiefly reside : the larger, therefore, its 
 relative proportions the better. 
 
 Another kind, black and weaker, the product of the Psychotria emetica, a native 
 of Peru, is sometimes exported from Carthagena. 
 
 The primary effect of ipecacuanha is that of stimulating the stomach. If the dose 
 be sufficiently large it acts as an emetic, a purpose for which it is much employed. 
 It was first imperfectly described by Piso in 1648 ; but it did not come into general 
 use till about 1686, when Helvetius, under the patronage of Louis XIV., introduced 
 it into practice. 
 
 IRIDIUM, a rare metal discovered in 1803 by Mr Tennant. It is heavy, brittle, 
 whitish, and when carefully polished, resembles platinum. One of its most remark- 
 able characters is the difficulty with which it is acted upon by acids. 
 
 IRON (Dan. Iern. Du. Yzer. Fr. Fer. Ger. Eisen. It. & Por. Ferro. Rus. 
 Scheleso. Sp. Hierro. Sw. Iern) is at once the most diffused, the most abundant, 
 and the most important of the metals. It has a peculiar gray colour, and strong 
 metallic lustre, which is susceptible of being heightened by polishing. In duc- 
 tility and malleability it is inferior to several metals, but exceeds them all in 
 tenacity. At common temperatures it is very hard and unyielding ; and it is one 
 of the most infusible of the metals ; but this disadvantage is counterbalanced for 
 all practical purposes by its possessing the property of welding in high perfection. 
 Fusing point, 3479° Fahr. Sp. gr. 7*78. When exposed to the atmosphere it absorbs 
 oxygen, and becomes an oxide, or rusts. It is attracted by the magnet, and may 
 itself be rendered permanently magnetic. Its uses are almost innumerable. " Iron, 
 says Dr Ure, " accommodates itself to all our wants, our desires, and even our 
 caprices ; it is equally serviceable to the arts, the sciences, to agriculture, and war; 
 the same ore furnishes the sword, the ploughshare, the spring of a watch or of a 
 carriage, the chisel, the chain, the anchor, the compass, the cannon, and the bomb : 
 it is a medicine of much virtue, and the only metal friendly to the human frame." 
 And it was forcibly remarked by Locke, that he who first made known the use of 
 iron " may be truly styled the Father of Arts and Author of Plenty." 
 
 This metal is found native in very small quantities ; but its ores are numerous, 
 and widely diffused. The principal are the following : — The red oxides of iron 
 included under the name of red hsematite ; the brown haematite of mineralogists ; 
 the black oxide, or magnetic iron ore ; and protocarbonate of iron, either pure or 
 in the form of clay iron ore. The three former occur most abundantly in primary 
 districts, and supply the finest kinds of iron, — as those of Sweden and India; while 
 clay ironstone, from which most of the British iron is extracted, occurs in second- 
 ary deposits, and chiefly in the coal formation ; being found in layers in slaty clay 
 between the beds of coal. 
 
 Iron is divided into two distinct qualities ; pig or cast iron, the metal in its 
 crudest state, and malleable or bar iron, the same when freed from impurities by 
 an extension of the processes requisite for the production of the first kind. 
 
 Pig or Cast Iron.— The first process is that of roasting or calcining the ore in a kiln, in order 
 to drive off the water, sulphur, and arsenic, with which it is more or less combined in its native 
 state, an operation by which it loses one-sixth part of its weight. The roasted ore is then subjected 
 to the process of smelting, by which it is reduced into a metallic state by means of fusion. This 
 operation is conducted in a blast-furnace, charged from the top with certain proportions of iron- 
 ore, of coke or coal, and of limestone; the use of the last being to act as a flux to the ore, and 
 {>romote its fusion. In order to produce the degree of heat necessary for the fusion of the ore, its 
 ntenseness is promoted by the forcing in of a current of air, for which purpose the agency of steam 
 is now commonly employed. The fluid metal is allowed to run out from time to time, and con- 
 ducted into moulds formed in the sand of the smelting-house floor, for the various things made of 
 cast-iron, — from vast beams, wheels, and cylinders of steam-engines, to the smallest articles of 
 domestic use, — or it is conveyed into channels for the pigs, the form in which cast-iron is sold as 
 a raw material, and the produce of which from the ore averages about 60 per cent. The term 
 " pig-iron " was given by the workmen : the metal is run off into a main channel which they call 
 the sow, and the bars at right angles to it they liken to pigs sucking the teats of the sow. 
 
 The quality of pig-iron depends not only upon the nature of the ore, but also upon that of the 
 fuel. The principal subdivision is into foundery-iron and forge-iron. 
 
 Foundery-iron is used in the state of pigs for casting ; it is of three qualities, distinguished by 
 the numbers 1 , 2, and 3 :— 
 
IRO 427 IRO 
 
 No. 1 contains a large proportion of carbon which it has acquired from the coke used for smelt- 
 in-: ; it is soft and very fluid when melted, so that it will mould into the most delicate forms. 
 
 No. 2 contains a smaller proportion of carbon than No. 1 ; it is also harder, closer grained, and 
 of more regular fracture, more refractory in the furnace, and does not run so freely when melted ; 
 but being harder and stronger, it is preferred for purposes where strength and durability are 
 required in preference to delicacy of form. 
 
 No. 3, sometimes called dark-gray iron, the only one of the three kinds fit for conversion into 
 bar-iron, varies in the same direction as No. 2 from the qualities of No. 1, but in a greater degree ; 
 it is used for heavy work, where it has to bear great strains, and is exposed to constant wear. 
 
 Forge-iron is also divided into three qualities,— bright, mottled, and white, appellations which 
 are indicative of their appearance. They all contain carbon, in proportions less than foundery-iron, 
 and diminishing in the order in which they are here mentioned. Bright iron is used extensively 
 f<r large castings ; but the others are applicable only to the manufacture of bar-iron ; being from 
 their nature too thick when melted to run into the shape of the mould, and when cold too weak 
 and brittle to be serviceable as cast-iron, even if the other objection did not exist. 
 
 Bar, or Malleable Iron. — In order to convert pig into bar iron, it is first refined, an operation 
 chieflyconductedinthe "puddling furnace," by exposure to a strong heat, while a current of airplays 
 upon its surface. By this means any undecomposed ore is reduced, earthy impurities rise to the 
 surface as slag, and carbonaceous matter is burned ; and the more complete the separation from 
 these, the better is the iron. As the purity of the metal increases, its fusibility diminishes, until 
 at length, though the temperature continue the same, the iron becomes solid. It is then, while 
 still hot, beaten under the " forge hammer," or (as generally in this country) subjected to the 
 operation of rolling, by which its particles are approximated, and its tenacity greatly increased. 
 By these several processes the meial is converted from a fusible, hard, and brittle substance, to 
 a tough and elastic bar, which is hardly fusible, and which, from its property of yielding and 
 altering its form under the hammer, has acquired the name of malleable iron. In trade, three 
 qualities are distinguished, — common iron, best, and best best, or chain-cable iron. — (Manufacture 
 of Iron, Lib. of Useful Know. ; Turner's Chemistry, Sfc.) 
 
 Bar-iron is converted into steel by being exposed to the action of heat, in contact with carbon- 
 aceous matter, which penetrates its substance, and is tempered when red-hot by immersion in 
 water, by which it becomes harder, more elastic, and brittle. 
 
 Iron is believed to have been made in Britain on a small scale in the time of the 
 Romans ; but we have little authentic information respecting the progress of the 
 trade until we arrive at a comparatively recent period. Down to the 1 7th century 
 the ore was entirely smelted with charcoal ; and there was a considerable number 
 of furnaces in those districts where wood and iron ores were plentiful,— particularly 
 the Weald of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex ; but in course of time, wood-fuel becoming 
 scarce, the trade was threatened with decay. Many attempts were made, during 
 the 17th and early part of the 18th century, to retard the decline by the use of 
 pit -coal, but without effect ; the simple hand -worked bellows, or the more power- 
 ful water-movement, which produced a sufficiency of blast for charcoal, having 
 little effect upon coal ; and the number of furnaces, which in 1619 was estimated by 
 Lord Dudley (who in that year obtained a patent for smelting with coal) at 300, fell 
 off towards the middle of the 18th century to 59. Science, however, came to the 
 rescue of one of our greatest staple manufactures. In 1760, Smeaton erected 
 a cylinder blasting-machine for the Carron Company, which, after some improve- 
 ments, enabled the same furnace that formerly yielded only 10 or 12 tons weekly, 
 to produce 40. Shortly after this, Watt's improvement of the steam-engine, and 
 its application to iron-works, not only revived the trade, but enabled it to distance 
 all foreign competition. Ores that formerly could not be worked with profit, either 
 from their inherent intractableness, or from the small proportion of iron which 
 they contained, were now advantageously submitted to the furnace, and more metal 
 was extracted from the richest ores. Various improvements also took place in the 
 manufacture of bar-iron, particularly by the substitution of hammering machinery 
 for hand-labour, by Mr Cort's invention of "puddling" (patented 1783)— the great 
 distinction of coal-made iron, and also by that gentleman's patent (1784) for the 
 rolling of iron, — while at the same time the extent of the iron-works were greatly 
 enlarged, and improvements made in the form of the furnaces. Of recent inven- 
 tions, by far the most important is the substitution of the hot for the cold blast, by 
 artificially heating the currents of air impelled into the furnace. This discovery 
 of Mr Neilson of the Gyde Iron- Works, operates by obtaining a larger quantity 
 of metal with a less degree of fuel. In 1829, with cold air, 1 ton of iron consumed 
 8 tons 1 cwt. of coal ; in 1833, with hot air, the same quantity of iron was procured 
 with only 2 tons 5 cwt. The nature both of the coal and the ore, however, is said 
 to have much to do with this discovery, as in the south the gain in the consumption 
 of fuel has not been so great ; and a prejudice exists among the English iron- 
 masters against the quality of the hot-blast metal. 
 
 The result of these inventions and improvements presents some of the most 
 extraordinary facts in the history of manufactures, excepting perhaps the cotton- 
 trade. In 1740, the quantity of iron made in England and Wales had sunk to 
 17,350 tons ; in 1788, after the cylinder invention, the total annual produce was 
 
IRO 428 IRO 
 
 60,300 tons. By 1796 it was 108,793 tons, or, including Scotland, 124,879 ; the iron 
 trade in that country having more than doubled in eight years. In 1802, the annual 
 produce of Great Britain was estimated at 170,000 tons ; in 1823, it had grown to 
 442,066 tons ; and in 1828, to 702,584 tons {Porter's Progress of the Nation, sec. 2, 
 ch. 6). But, owing to the recently extended applications of iron to railways, ma- 
 chinery, gas-apparatus, roofs, columns, windows, and furniture, this rapid advance 
 was nothing to its progress in the next decade. " In 1835," says Sir John J. Guest, 
 an experienced ironmaster, "it was estimated at about a million of tons; in 1836, 
 it was estimated at 1,200,000 tons ; and the estimate made by a very intelligent 
 person who went round the works in 1839 was 1,512,000 tons, which is rather 
 increasing"* {Report on Import Duties, 1840. Evidence, Q. 392). This increase 
 was proportionally greatest in Scotland, where such was the expansion of the iron- 
 trade, that the produce, though only 37,700 tons in 1828, was, according to a report 
 laid before the Glasgow Chamber of Commerce, augmented in 1840 to 250,000 tons, 
 a quantity greater by 47 per cent, than the total produce of all Britain in 1802. 
 
 The price of iron has been subject to very great fluctuations, — especially of late 
 years. In September 1824, the current price of common bars at the shipping port 
 was £9 a-ton ; in March 1825, a period of great speculation, it rose to £14 ; but by 
 March 1830, owing to the extended production consequent on this high rate, it fell 
 to £5, 5s. a-ton. Since that period, in consequence of the increased demand for rail- 
 ways and other purposes, the price has risen considerably, and at present (February 
 1842) it is quoted, in bars, at £6, 15s. a-ton ; that of pig being £4. Taking the 
 quantity stated above, 1,500,000 tons, as the present annual produce, and applying 
 this last price of £4, gives the value in pig at £6,000,000; to which, adding £3,000,000 
 as the cost of converting seven-tenths thereof (the common estimate) into bars, 
 bolts, rods, sheets, and the other forms of wrought iron, makes the total annual 
 value of the manufacture £9,000,000. 
 
 The great seats of the trade are,— in Staffordshire, near Birmingham, around 
 Walsall, Bilston, and Dudley; — in S. Wales, around Merthyr Tydvil, in Glamor- 
 ganshire, and in the Forest of Dean on the border of Wales; — in Shropshire, in 
 and around Colebrook Dale. There are besides many works in Yorkshire, Lanca- 
 shire, and Derbyshire. In Scotland, the works are almost all in the neighbourhood 
 of Glasgow and Falkirk; the chief are those of Calder, Gartsherrie, Clyde, Dun- 
 dyvan, Monkland, and Carron. In Ireland there are no iron-works of any im- 
 portance. 
 
 The exportation of British iron has increased in a degree corresponding to its 
 production, notwithstanding the high duties with which it is loaded in almost all 
 foreign countries. In 1820, the quantity of wrought and unwrought iron and steel 
 shipped was 85,066 tons, of the declared value of £1,131,788 ; in 1839,247,912 tons, 
 and value £2,719,824; and in 1840, 268,328 tons, value £2,524,859: in 1841 the 
 value was £2,867,950. The exportations in 1839 consisted of 124,138 tons bar- 
 iron, about one-half of which was sent to the United States, and the remainder 
 chiefly to Italy, Holland, India, and the colonies; 12,315 tons in bolts and rods, 
 sent to Portugal, Italy, Germany, and India; 43,460 tons pig-iron, shipped mostly to 
 the United States, France, and Holland; 10,837 tons cast-iron, chiefly to the United 
 States and British colonies ; 777 tons wire to Belgium, Germany, United States, 
 &c; 3108 tons of anchors and grapnels, 11,225 tons hoops, 7195 tons nails, and 
 30,334 tons of all other sorts of wrought-iron (except ordnance), chiefly sent to the 
 colonies, India, United States, Holland, Germany, and S. of Europe ; 549 tons old 
 iron ; and 3974 tons unwrought steel, mostly to the United States. 
 
 The superiority of Great Britain above all the other countries of the world, in 
 the production of iron, does not extend beyond quantity and cheapness ; in point of 
 quality the British iron is greatly inferior to that of Sweden, Norway, Russia, 
 India, and other countries, which, besides possessing a superior ore, have the means 
 of converting it into metal by the aid of charcoal, an agent preferred to coal, at least 
 in the preparation of bar-iron. Hence a preference is given to foreign iron in the 
 manufacture of cutlery ; and about 20,000 tons are annually imported for that 
 purpose, mostly at Hull, for transmission to Sheffield. It is principally brought 
 
 * In Mr Scrivenor's History of the Iron Trade, the number of furnaces in blast,, and estimated 
 annual make of iron in the different districts in 1839, was stated as follows : — South Wales and Forest 
 of Dean, 125 furnaces, 532,480 tons; South Staffordshire, 108 furnaces, 338,730 tons; North 
 Staffordshire, 10 furnaces, 28,600 tons; Shropshire, 24 furnaces, 86,060 tons; Yorkshire, 31 fur- 
 naces, 89,960 tons ; Derbyshire, 13 furnaces, 37,440 tons; North Wales, 12furnaces, 28,080 tons ; 
 Newcastle-on-Tyne, 6 furnaces, 11,440 tons; Scotland, 50 furnaces, 195,000 tons. Total, 378 
 furnaces, 1,347,790 tons. 
 
IRO 429 IRO 
 
 from Sweden, where the bar-iron is prepared by hammering instead of rolling ; 
 the finest being that made from the magnetical ore of the celebrated mines of 
 Daunemora* near Upsala ; and Taberg, near Lake Wetter. Except for the purposes 
 of steel, Great Britain has not been an importing country of iron since 1790. 
 
 The present annual produce in foreign countries, in so far as it is known or 
 has been estimated, may be stated as follows : — France possesses 475 furnaces, 
 which produce 347,700 tons of cast-metal (fonte), worth £2,520,000 ; and 1500 
 refining furnaces, which produce 224,100 tons of malleable iron (grosfer), worth 
 £3,720,000 (Report of Minister of Commerce, 1841) : Sweden, 100,000 tons : United 
 States (in 1837), 250,000 tons : Belgium (in 1837), 135,000 tons, from 89 furnaces : 
 Saxony, 99,427 quintals, from 19 furnaces : Styria, 20,000 tons : Spain, 8000 tons. — 
 (Scrivenor's History of the Iron Trade.) S 
 
 IRON MANUFACTURES, or HARDWARE AND CUTLERY. These 
 branches of industry have been in part described in the preceding pages. The 
 larger and coarser articles are mostly cast at the founderies in S. Wales and other 
 districts ; but the smaller and finer articles are principally made at Birmingham 
 and Sheffield, the two greatest seats in the world of the manufactures from iron 
 and steel. 
 
 Birmingham lies in the N. W. corner of Warwickshire, at a moderate distance 
 from the Staffordshire mines, — a proximity which has rendered it, to a certain 
 extent, the seat of iron manufactures from a remote time. These, however, were 
 comparatively trifling until after 1790, when the discovery of the improved methods 
 of smelting with coal, and the construction of canals from the town towards the 
 principal points of commercial distribution, caused such a rapid advance of pro- 
 sperity that the population which in 1789 was only 53,735, grew in 1801 to 73,670; 
 in 1821 to 106,722, and in 1841 to 190,467. The manufacture now comprehends 
 the making of firearms, swords, bayonets, steam-engines, anvils, kitchen-furniture, 
 nails, tools, locks, hinges, buttons, harness, tea-urns, chains, wire, and in short 
 almost every kind of iron work, down to needles, pins, and the minutest article of 
 a lady's toilet. Of late years, the manufacture of cast-iron goods has been rapidly 
 improving and extending. Formerly the principal castings were heavy kitchen- 
 furniture ; but increased care in the selection of the metal, and a desire to produce 
 elegant forms at a cheap rate, has led to cast-iron articles being fabricated of 
 small size, and of light and tasteful patterns, which, when coloured by bronzing, 
 almost equal the more expensive brass wares ; and in hollow vessels, such perfec- 
 tion in thinness and lightness is attained, that the use of beaten copper is almost 
 forgotten (Pen. Cyclop., art. Birmingham). Besides iron and steel goods, the town 
 is distinguished for the manufacture of brass, plated and japanned wares, toys and 
 trinkets. Of the latter the production is so immense, that Birmingham was called by 
 Mr Burke the "toy-shop of Europe." The production of so many and minute articles 
 has necessarily led to an almost inconceivable subdivision of employments ; while 
 the amount of business, of which some of these trifling articles form the subject, is 
 truly wonderful. In 1824, Mr Osier, a manufacturer, stated to a committee of the 
 House of Commons that he had received a single order for £500 worth of dolls' 
 eyes ! The manufacture of iron-wares, however, forms the great staple of Birming- 
 ham, as well as the district of which it is the metropolis, including the tract to 
 the N.W., which embraces the towns of Dudley, Wolverhampton, Bilston, Walsall, 
 Wednesbury, and Stourbridge. 
 
 Sheffield, in the W. Riding of Yorkshire, has been distinguished from a remote 
 period for her cutlery; though, as in the case of Birmingham, it is only since 1790 
 that the manufacture has risen into importance. The population of the town and 
 parish, which in 1801 was 45,776, grew in 1821 to 65,179, and in 1841 to 110,891. 
 Its staples are knives of every variety, razors, surgical instruments, files, scissors, 
 scythes, saws, and all sorts of edge-tools ; their quality being such as to lead to 
 their being deservedly held in the highest estimation throughout the world. The 
 conversion of iron into steel is also carried on to a greater extent in this town than 
 in any other part of the kingdom. The manufactures of Sheffield likewise embrace 
 grates and fireirons ; also white-metal, and silver-plated articles. 
 
 The chief other localities are, Manchester and Glasgow, for machinery ; fine tools 
 are made at Warrington and Prescott, in Lancashire ; needles and fish-hooks at 
 Redditch, in Worcestershire ; curriers' knives at Cirencester, in Gloucestershire ; 
 
 * The produce of the Dannemora mine (about 400o tons annually) is almost wholly sent to 
 Messrs Sykes of Hull, where it is calkd " Oregrund iron," a name derived from the port of ship- 
 ment. The first marks are hoop L, which sells at £40 a-ton ; and OO, and CL, £39. The best 
 Russian mark, CCND seldom brings more than £20 a-ton. 
 
IRO 430 IVO 
 
 fine fowling-pieces and pistols in the metropolis, where also the cutlery business is 
 carried on extensively, though most of the articles bearing the name of a London 
 vender are really made at Sheffield. 
 
 There are not many large capitalists in the hardware or cutlery manufactures. 
 At Birmingham, most of the factories or workshops are on a comparatively small 
 scale ; and a large portion of the articles are made by artizans who work in 
 their own houses. In Sheffield, this is even still more the case ; a cutler being not 
 unfrequently a journeyman one year and a master another, and conversely. In 
 both places, the articles are generally purchased from the manufacturers by whole- 
 sale ironmongers, who dispose of them to retailers for home consumption, and to 
 merchants for the export trade. 
 
 The extension of these branches of industry has been accompanied, or more pro- 
 
 Kerly has been occasioned, by improvements in the methods of production, which 
 ave lowered the prices of goods in a manner calculated to insure a continuance of 
 prosperity to the manufactures by extending the number of consumers. This was 
 more particularly the case between 1812 and 1832. Mr Babbage {Economy of Ma- 
 nufactures, § 148) has shown that during these 20 years, in a pretty extensive list 
 of articles, the reduction in price on some— as anvils, candlesticks, and bed-screws, 
 was from 40 to 45 per cent. ; on others, as fireirons, and such like, it was 53 per cent. ; 
 on some kinds of locks, 80 per cent.; while, in a separate table, the reduction on 
 several articles is shown to have considerably exceeded 100 per cent. None of tho 
 goods having ever been subject to duty, no means exist whereby to judge accurately 
 of the extent of the iron-manufactures ; but looking to what has been stated in the 
 preceding article, the annual value of all sorts of iron, and hardware and cutlery 
 articles produced in Great Britain, may be safely estimated at from £20,000,000 to 
 £25,000,000. 
 
 The reduction in the cost of these commodities has occasioned a great increase 
 in the number of foreign customers. The quantity and declared value of hardware 
 and cutlery exported (exclusive of pig and wrought iron), was in 1820, 6697 tons, 
 £949,085; in 1830, 13,269 tons, £1,410,936; in 1835, 20,197 tons, £1,833,043; in 
 1836, 21,072 tons, £2,271,313; in 1837, 13,371 tons, £1,460,807; in 1838, 15,295 
 tons, £1,498,327 ; in 1839, 21,176 tons, £1,828,521 ; and in 1840, 14,995 tons, 
 £1,349,137 : in 1841 the value was £1,625,191. About one-half is sent to the United 
 States ; the remainder to the colonies, India, Germany, and indeed most countries 
 with which we have commercial relations. Of late, the exports have been some- 
 what checked by foreign competition, chiefly that of Belgium and Germany. S 
 
 IRONWOOD, the product of an evergreen tree (Sideroocylori), remarkable for 
 the hardness and weight of its timber, which sinks in water. There are several 
 species found in the W. Indies, Africa, America, E. Indies, and Australia. The 
 smooth iron wood tree (S. in&rme) is a native of the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 ISINGLASS (Fr. Colle de poisson. Ger. Hausenblase. It. Cola di pesce. Rus. 
 Karluk), a gelatinous substance chiefly formed of the dried sounds of fish ; the 
 best is made in Russia, and is obtained from the sturgeon. It should have neithftr 
 taste nor smell, and be entirely soluble in warm water, but this is seldom the case, 
 in consequence of the presence of some albuminous parts. It is employed in mak- 
 ing medicinal jelly, blancmanges, court-plaster, and as a clarifier ; when concen- 
 trated and dried, it forms a choice kind of glue. S 
 
 IVORY (Fr. Ivoire. Ger. Elfenbien), the material composing the tusks of the 
 elephant, is extensively used for knife-handles, mathematical and musical instru- 
 ments, plates for miniatures, billiard-balls, and toys. The finest ivory is produced 
 from the tusks of the male Asiatic elephant (Elephas Indicus) termed Dauntelah ; 
 and specimens weighing 150 lbs. are sometimes exported from Pegu and Cochin- 
 China. In trade, however, they are seldom met with above 70 lbs. in weight ; 
 and do not weigh beyond 50 lbs. in Tiperah, which produces thousands of 
 elephants, and from whence, as well as the adjoining province of Chittagong, the 
 animals for the service of the East India Company are generally taken. The 
 importations into this country of tusks are chiefly from Ceylon and the west coast 
 of Africa ; the total annual amount is about 5000 cwts., of which fully four- fifths 
 are entered for home consumption. In London they are classed into six sorts : — 
 1st, Those weighing 70 lbs. and upwards ; 2d, from 56 to 70 lbs. ; Sd, from 38 to 
 55 lbs. ; 4th, from 28 to 37 lbs. ; 5th, from 22 to 27 lbs. ; 6th, scrivelloes, consist- 
 ing of the smallest teeth and fragments. In February 1842, the prices of these varied 
 according to size and quality from £10 to £30 per cwt. They should be chosen large, 
 straight, solid, and white ; free from flaws or decay, and not very hollow in the 
 stump. 
 
IVO 431 JAP 
 
 The tusks or teeth of the seahorse and hippopotamus are also used as ivory. 
 The latter, procured iu Africa, are harder and whiter than those of the elephant, 
 and do not turn yellow so soon. Fossil ivory from the tusks of the mammoth or 
 elephant is that principally used hy the Russian turners ; it is found plentifully 
 ana in a high state of preservation in the Laichovian isles, and on the shores of the 
 Frozen Sea. S 
 
 IVORY-BLACK, a kind of animal charcoal, procured by the incineration or 
 close distillation of ivory or the horns and bones of animals. It is used extensively 
 in the arts. 
 
 J. 
 
 JACKWOOD, the timber of a species of Bread-fruit-tree. 
 
 JADE (CHINESE), a mineral referred by Jameson to the species prehnite, which 
 is greatly valued in China, where it is termed yu. The finest is found in Yun- 
 nan ; but the greater number are brought from Ele and other districts in Tartary. 
 Its colour is greenish white passing into grayish green, and dark grass-green ; it 
 is semi-transparent and cloudy; fracture splintery; and splinters white. Sp.gr. 
 28 to 3*4. It is peculiarly difficult to cut ; yet the Chinese take pride in fashioning 
 it into various shapes, such as cups, saucers, bracelet clasps, Duckies, and even 
 animals ; and it holds the chief place " in that world of precious trifles which the 
 Chinese and Tartar ladies twine in their hair." Some of these articles require the 
 labour of nine or ten vears ; but nothing can exhaust the patience of the yu-tsiang, 
 or workers in yu. The gem presented by the emperor to Lord Macartney was of 
 this stone, worked in the form of a sceptre. — {Abel's Journey, p. 132-134, &c.) 
 
 JALAP (Fr. Jalap. Ger. Jalapp. Sp. Jalapa), the root of (Convolvulus 
 jalapa) a plant indigenous to Mexico. This root often weighs 50 lbs., but is divided 
 into portions, and in commerce occurs in dried pear-shaped masses, which when 
 good are hard, resinous, with a brown shining fracture, and a nauseous smell and 
 taste. It is often adulterated with portions of the root of white bryony, but these 
 may be distinguished by their lighter colour and less compact texture. Dried pears 
 are also sometimes substituted for it. The excellence of jalap depends on the 
 quantity of resin it contains, as this is the part which composes the well-known 
 drastic purgative. The annual consumption in this country is about 50,000 lbs. 
 It is chiefly imported from Vera Cruz. 
 
 JAMAICA. [West Indies.] 
 
 JAPAN, an empire in the eastern extremity of Asia, consisting of a very large 
 island, Niphon, about 800 miles long and 80 broad ; three smaller islands, Kiusiu, 
 Sikokf, and Jesso ; and numerous islets. Area, 260,000 square miles. Population 
 estimated at 25,000,000. Government, a pure despotism, but with this peculiarity, 
 that two sovereigns are acknowledged, — the Dairi, a spiritual sovereign, whose 
 capital is Miaco, in Niphon, pop. 500,000 ; and the Cubo, a temporal monarch, 
 whose capital is Jeddo, also in Niphon, pop. 1,200,000. The Cubo, although he pays 
 formal homage to the Dairi, is in possession of all the real power. S 
 
 The islands are intersected by chains of mountains, several of which are volcanic, and some so 
 lofty as to be covered with perpetual snow. Many of the valleys are fertile, though the soil is not 
 generally so ; but the ingenuity and industry of the inhabitants have rendered even the most bar- 
 ren spots productive. Rice forms the principal object of culture ; wheat, barley, and other grains 
 are raised in smaller quantities. The chief natural riches are those which belong to the mineral 
 kingdom. The precious metals, particularly gold, exist in considerable quantity ; and copper is 
 found in such plenty as to form nearly the entire basis of the foreign commerce of the country ; 
 sulphur is abundant ; and there are also ambergris, naphtha, pearls, with agates and other pre- 
 cious stones ; iron is rare. The Japanese, in point of civilisation, are scarcely inferior to the Chi- 
 nese ; and they have made nearly equal progress in manufactures. The articles in which they 
 chiefly excel, are lackered or japanned ware, porcelain, and silk, linen, and cotton cloths. The 
 inimitable varnish employed in their lackered ware is obtained from the rhus vernix, or varnish 
 tree, one of the most remarkable of their vegetable productions. 
 
 By the policy of its government, Japan is completely insulated from the rest of the world ; and 
 the people are wholly unacquainted with shipbuilding and navigation ; having no vessels except 
 fishing-boats. Considerable intercourse took place with the Portuguese in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury; but, owing chiefly to religious animosity, the settlers were massacred; and since 1638 all 
 foreigners have been jealously excluded, except the Chinese and Dutch. The Chinese trade em- 
 ploys about 10 junks, principally from Xing-po and Amoy, which make two voyages yearly; ex- 
 changing sugar, English woollens, and other commodities, for bar-copper, lackered ware, and 
 dried fish. The Dutch trade is restricted to two vessels annually to Nangasaki, in lat. 32° 45' N., 
 long. 129° 52' E., the chief city and port of Kiusiu ; pop. 70,000. In this place they have a 
 factory ; but the residents are restricted to eleven only ; and the ships are carefully watched, and 
 their crews, during their stay in port, completely secluded from the natives on the small island of 
 Djesima, close to the harbour. The ves-els sailannually from Java about the 1st of July, and re- 
 
 turn in January. In 1839, the Dutch imports into Japan (as valued at Batavia) amounted to 224,745 
 J, 729), principally consisting of sugar, cottons, and woollens. Their exports in t' 
 
JAP 432 JAV 
 
 same year amounted to fl. 680,800 (£56,733) ; comprising 7085 peculs bar-copper, valued at 
 fl. 513,675 ; 1190 bales camphor, fl. 113,050 ; with small quantities of linen and silk stuffs, japan 
 wares, gauze and crape. These amounts are subject to little variation from one year to another ; 
 and the trade exhibits no symptoms of increase. 
 
 The principal measure of length is the inc = 64 English feet. The measures of capacity have 
 not been determined. The weights are similar to those of China. Money accounts are kept in 
 taels, mace, and candareens, as in China. The tael = 3i Dutch florins = 6s. sterling. Most pay- 
 ments are made in silver ingots of various sizes, the values of which are determined by their 
 weight. The Spanish dollar is valued at from 70 to 74 candareens. 
 
 JAPANNED or LACKERED WARES. Those of British manufacture were 
 originally only coarse imitations of the lackered toys of Japan and China ; but the 
 improvements of John Taylor and of Baskerville, who introduced the light and 
 durable papier mache, have now given great elegance and extension to this branch 
 of industry. The chief articles are trays, waiters, snuff-boxes, and similar things. 
 Birmingham is the principal seat of the manufacture ; but it is also prosecuted on 
 a large scale at Bilston and Wolverhampton. 
 
 Upwards of £3000 worth of foreign lackered ware are annually imported, chiefly 
 from China. That of Japan is the most highly prized ; but it is brought only oc- 
 casionally, and in very small parcels, from Batavia or Holland. 
 
 JASPER, a name given to those varieties of quartz in which the colours are 
 red, brown, and black, and occasionally yellow or green, and which occur massive 
 and disseminated with a fracture ranging from conchoidal to earthy, and lustre 
 from glistening to dull. Jaspers are found in Scotland, Cornwall, and other 
 places. Striped or Ribbon Jasper presents various shades of green, yellow, and red, 
 — the finest being composed of equal and parallel layers of these colours. Chief 
 localities, the Ural Mountains, Saxony, and Devonshire. Egyptian Jasper is 
 generally of a brown colour without ; but internally of a lighter hue, sometimes 
 approaching to that of cream, surrounded with zones of brown, and sometimes 
 mixed with black spots.— {Jameson. Phillips.) 
 
 JAVA, a noble island subject to Holland, situate in the E. Indian Archipelago, 
 between fat. 6° and 9° S., and long. 105° and 115° E. Area, including the adjoining 
 island of Madura, 45,724 sq. miles. Population 5,000,000. Java and Madura are 
 divided into 20 provinces, or residences. Capital, Batavia, the seat of government 
 of the Dutch E. Indies. The Dutch have had settlements on this island since 1619 ; 
 but it is only of late years that it has been wholly subdued. It was taken by the 
 British in 1811, and restored in 1816. S 
 
 Java is divided nearly in its whole length by a range of mountains of volcanic origin, running 
 almost E. and W., and varying in their elevation from 5000 to 12,000 feet. The W. part is that 
 chiefly subjected to European influence, and is in general more level and capable of cultivation 
 than the E. part, which is mountainous and wooded, though diversifled with rich valleys. This 
 part is cultivated upon the native system, and is occupied by princes tributary to Holland. The 
 island is well watered, and, upon the whole, is the most fertile and most improved of all the 
 Eastern Islands, though it does not excel in the finer spices. The mineral products are trifling : 
 saltpetre is found ; and salt is manufactured on the coast near Batavia. The most important na- 
 tural production is teak, which would be largely exported were the trade not subjected to a rigid 
 monopoly. The chief objects of cultivation are rice, coffee, and sugar, the produce of which has 
 been very greatly increased of late years. Tobacco and a variety of other tropical articles are also 
 produced ; and immense sums have recently been expended by the government in attempts to 
 grow indigo, tea, and silk ; though, as respects the last two, with but little success. Edible birds' 
 nests are obtained in great quantity from the rocks, called Karang Bolang, on the south coast. 
 Arrack and sugar are manufactured extensively by the Chinese at Batavia. In other respects, 
 manufacturing industry is nearly confined to the coarse fabrics woven by the poorer natives. 
 
 Few places in the world can exhibit such an expansion of trade as has taken place of late years 
 in Java. This has arisen mainly from its great fertility, the low price at which labour can be 
 procured, and the pains which the government have taken to turn these advantages to the best 
 account by the formation of roads, and by encouraging the investment of European capital in 
 the culture of the soil. Much is also due to the accessibility of its northern coast to the richest 
 countries of Asia, and to the circumstance of its capital, Batavia, having been made the centre of 
 the trade between Europe and the extensive settlements of the Dutch in the Indian Archipelago. The 
 imports into the island, which, in 1827, including specie, amounted only to fl. 17,656,201, increased in 
 1839 to fl. 24,961,012 ; while, in the same period, the exports increasedfromfl. 14,868,227 to fl.56,718,833 
 or £4,726,570. Of the goods imported in 1839, there were from Europe and America, fl. 16, 172,865 
 (including fl. 10,875,108 from the Netherlands, and fl. 3,878,880 from Britain), chiefly consisting of 
 linen and cotton stuffs, iron and copper wares, wines and spirits, woollen goods, provisions, and 
 Levant opium; Eastern Archipelago, fl. 4,880,624, comprising principally wax, coffee, gambier, 
 gold-dust, sandal-wood, cotton wool, oil, rattans, spices, beche-de-mer ; China, Manilla, and Siam, 
 fl. 1 ,607,614 ; Japan, fl. 680,800 ; Western India and Bengal, fl. 647,877- The leading exports in 
 1839 were : coffee, 757,476 peculs, of the value of fl.23,860,499 ; sugar, 842,017peculs, fl. 10,946,222 ; 
 rice, 1,103,378 peculs, fl. 4,689,353; indigo, 1,191,636 lbs., fl. 3,574,909; Banca tin, 47,6314 pe- 
 culs, fl. 2,381,577 ; nutmegs, 5026 peculs, fl. 1,508,014; tobacco, 2809 kodies, fl. 842,892; maceand 
 cloves, fl. 712,707 ; birds' nests, 28o peculs, fl. 559,750 : the chief other articles were, sandal-wood, 
 yarns, rum, hides, copper-wares, pepper, and gold-dust. The principal places to which the ship- 
 ments were made, were : The Netherlands, fl. 49,092,471 ; Eastern Archipelago, fl. 9,033,716; 
 
JE.V 433 JER 
 
 China, fl. 2.093.882 : Britain, fl. 1,938,506; America, fl. 9.57,523; France, fl. 832,737 ; and Aus- 
 tralia, fl. 725,li>4. The Dutch trade is chiefly in the hands of the " Maatschappij," a commer- 
 cial association formed in 1825, whose capital now amounts to fl. 97,000,000 (about i'8,000,oi,0), of 
 which fl. 20,000,000 stand in the name of the abdicated king. 
 
 1 he principal ports, and those to which foreign trade is confined, are Batavia. Samarang, and 
 Sourabaya, on the N. coast, where the sea being usually smooth, and the weather moderate, good 
 anchorage may be found nearly at all seasons. The S. coast, owing to its complete exposure to 
 the Indian Ocean, has no good harbours, and is but little frequented. The best in this quarter 
 are Chelachap and Pachitan. Produce, especially rice, is shipped from most of these ports ; but 
 almost the whole external commerce of the island is concentrated at Batavia. About 105,000 lasts 
 of shipping enter the ports of Java and Madura annually, embracing 80,000 Dutch, 10,000 British, 
 and 15,i 00 lasts belonging to other countries. 
 
 Batavia, the chief port of Java, and indeed of the whole Eastern Islands, is advantageously situ- 
 ated at the mouth of the Jacatra, on the N.W. coast, in lat. 6° 10' S., long. 1<7 3 E., at the bot- 
 tom of an extensive bay. A circular range of islands shelters the roads, and ensures safe anchor- 
 age ; but the water is shallow, and large vessels lie about three miles from shore. The climate 
 is sultry, and varies little throughout the year. Fahrenheit ranges from 72 to 96 ; the rainy season 
 is generally from October to March, when westerly winds prevail ; the dry from June to October, 
 the period of the E. monsoon. The o'.d town was proverbially unhealthy, and though of late years 
 rendered more salubrious by the improvement of the canals, and the demolition of several streets, 
 is inhabited only by natives and Chinese ; Europeans, though they still transact their business 
 there, have their residences at Weltevreeden, a new town, several miles inland, where are like- 
 wise the government establishments. Batavia is the centre of an extensive commerce with Eu- 
 rope, India. China, and America. Besides exchanging the produce of Java for the imports from 
 these countries, it is an entrepot for the productions of all the Eastern Islands and Japan. 
 
 Measures, Weights, Money, &c 
 
 Meatwret and Weights. — The ell =271, and i Money. — Accounts are stated in Netherlands 
 the foot = 1236 Imp. inches. florins or guilders, each of 100 cents ; the florin 
 
 The kanne, liquid measure, = 91 Imp. cubic is a silver coin = Is. 8d. sterling. In 1828, a bank 
 inches ; and 33 kannes = 13 English galls, old was established at Batavia, with- a capital of 
 measure, or 10£ Imp. galls. ; a leaguer of arrack fl. 2,000,000 ; but it has lately suspended pay- 
 of 396 rands = 160 English wine galls., or 133$ ment. 
 Imp. galls. ; a leaguer of wine is 360 rands. j A treaty with Great Britain was concluded bv 
 
 The ordinary weights here, as well as through- Holland in 1824, which contained provisions for 
 out all the Eastern possessions of the Dutch, are regulating the intercourse between the subjects 
 those of China ; the pecul, however, instead of of the two governments in the East ; but its 
 133J lbs. avoird., is reckoned at 125 Dutch terms are alleged to have been violated by 
 troy lbs. = 135 lbs. 10 oz. avoird., but com- the Dutch authorities in Java, as well in the 
 monly estimated at 136 lbs. avoird. Grain is higher rates they have since imposed on Rrit- 
 sold in large quantities by the coyang of 3300 ish imports, as in the custom-house valuations 
 Dutch troy lbs. = 3581 lbs. avoird. ; in small on which these rates have been founded. An 
 quantities by thetimbang of 5 pectus, or 10 sacks, account of this treaty is given under the head 
 The kulack = 7£ catties ; and the last contains 46 Netherlands. 
 measures, each of 5 gantons. i 
 
 JEAN, a thick, strong, twilled cotton fabric, used for stays, jackets, trousers, 
 and similar articles. 
 
 JERQUING, the search of a ship performed by a custom-house officer (called 
 a jerquer), to ascertain if there are any unentered goods concealed. 
 
 JERSEY, GUERNSEY, ALDERNEY, and SARK, small islands in the 
 English Channel, off tbe coast of Normandy, subject to the British crown ; having 
 been originally part of the patrimony of the Norman kings. Area of the whole, 1 12 sq. 
 miles. Population, in 1841, 76,094. These islands have local legislatures, with 
 governors appointed by the crown ; their political constitution being separate from 
 that of the United Kingdom. 
 
 Jersey, the principal island, situate 13 miles W. of the coast of France, is 12miles in length, and about 
 7 in breadth. The surface is undulating and fertile, and chiefly laid out in pasturage and orchards ; 
 apples, cider, butter, and cows, forming, with oysters and potatoes, the principal exports to Eng- 
 land, in exchange for coals and manufactures. The trade in other respects is considerable. Nearly 
 Is (8fM>(i tons) are employed in the deep-sea cod-fishery, the produce of which is mostly 
 sent to Brazil ; and the Jersey merchants, besides carrying on an active intercourse with France, 
 import largely wine and brandy from Spain, Portugal, and Sicily, and sugar and coffee from Bra- 
 zil, which they exchange in the N. of Europe for corn, timber, hemp, and tallow. Shoes are ex- 
 tensively made from French leather, and about 13,000 pairs annually sent to British America. 
 Shipbuilding is carried on to a great extent, owing to foreign timber being allowed to be imported 
 free of duty, while, at the same time, the Jersey vessels are entitled to the privileges of British- 
 built shipping ; and the island now possesses about 250 ships (25,000 tons), exclusive of nearly 500 
 fishing-smacks. The chief town and port is St Helier, from whence steamers communicate with 
 Southampton and Weymouth. Revenue of the island about £15, (MM), and debt £60,000. Ex- 
 change 8 or 9 per cent, in favour of England, or £1 sterling = £l, Is. 8d. Jersey currency nearly. 
 r«y, about 18 miles N.W. of .Jersey, is 9 miles long, and 6 broad. It is not equal to Jer- 
 sey in point of fertility, but its productions are similar. The island possesses about 100 vessels, 
 burden 10,000 tons, which are chiefly employed in the carrying trade with Spain, Portugal, Bra- 
 zil, and N. of Europe. Before the introduction of the bonding system into Britain, it was much 
 used as a depot for wines and other goods; and an extensive illicit trade was carried on, which 
 has now, however, wholly ceased. The only town is St Peter's Port. 
 
 Alderney, a dependency of Guernsey, is 3J miles long, and | mile broad. It is chieflv celebrated 
 
 2E 
 
JET 434 JOI 
 
 for its small breed of cattle. It possesses no good harbour. Sark is another small island depend- 
 ent on Guernsey. 
 
 All articles of the growth, produce, or manufacture of these islands are admitted into this coun- 
 try on payment of the duties (if any) imposed on similar British commodities ; but their trade is 
 subjected to certain regulations intended to prevent contraband traffic. An account of these will 
 be found under the heads Customs Regulations and Navigation. 
 
 JET, or pitch coal, a species of coal of a deep black colour, with a brilliant 
 resinous lustre. It is found in detached fragments in the amber mines in Prussia, 
 where it is called black amber ; also in Germany, France, and Spain. It is used 
 as fuel ; but the finer and harder pieces are worked into trinkets. Sometimes also 
 it is used as an ingredient in varnishes and cements. 
 
 JETTISON or JACTURA, is the throwing overboard any part of a vessel or 
 her contents, for the safety of the remainder, by enabling her to weather a storm 
 or get off a shallow. When such an act takes place, the several persons inter- 
 ested divide the loss among them. [Average.] 
 
 JOANESE, or JOE, a Portuguese gold coin, worth about 36s. 
 
 JOCH, a German land-measure, containing 6889 sq. yds. 
 
 JOINT-ADVENTURE, a shipment made by two or more parties on joint- 
 account. [Partnership.] 
 
 JOINT STOCK COMPANIES are a species of partnership to which all the 
 laws affecting ordinary private companies apply, except in so far as they are in- 
 compatible with the nature of a public joint stock company. This is the position 
 of the law in general as to joint stock companies, but in practice they are in almost 
 every case materially distinct from private partnerships, by the special privileges re- 
 spectively conceded to them. The leading distinction between joint stock and private 
 companies is this, that, while the latter trade under the name of partners or pre- 
 sumed partners, and in all their transactions present to the public certain individuals 
 as the parties principally liable, the former trade under a descriptive name, on the 
 credit of their stock, and without any individuals appearing as responsible for the 
 engagements. Yet, by the mere creation of a joint stock company and the private 
 agreement of the undertakers, the relief from personal responsibility cannot be ac- 
 complished. Unless where there are some of the special privileges described 
 below, the general law of partnership still holds, so that each member is re- 
 sponsible for the debts of the whole ; though in Scotland it is doubted whether 
 this responsibility may not be obviated by holding out to the public that they are 
 to trust to the capital only, and not to the individuals. 
 
 The next peculiarity of a joint stock company, and one that is essential to the 
 existence of such a body, is, that the shares are transferable as articles of commerce, 
 without the consent of the partnership. How far this can be accomplished volun- 
 tarily by the members is a doubtful point. Before the repeal of the Bubble Act, 
 by 6 Geo. IV. c. 91, the creating transferable stock without proper authority, was one 
 of the offences against which the act was aimed ; but at the same time, whenever 
 there was any regulation for checking unlimited transferability, such as, that the 
 purchaser of the stock must sign the articles, or must be approved of by the 
 directors, the courts were accustomed to sanction the proceeding ; and it may bo 
 questioned if the transferability of stock can now be in any form suppressed. It 
 is another general characteristic of a joint stock company, that it pursues and 
 defends in the name of some office-bearer chosen for the "purpose ; but this is a 
 facility which it can never possess except through the means by which such 
 bodies acquire special privileges. 
 
 One of these means may be a charter of incorporation from the crown ; but as 
 this is an expensive and cumbersome arrangement, and gives but limited privileges, 
 it is seldom had recourse to by an ordinary commercial association [Corporation]. 
 Another method is by obtaining what is generally called a " private bill," but 
 more properly a public local act. The preliminaries for obtaining such a measure 
 are detailed under the head Company. Wherever it is in contemplation to compel 
 individuals to part with their property at a just valuation, or to exact the price of 
 the company's services in the form of a tax, an act is necessary. Hence an act 
 must always be obtained for a railway, canal, harbour, gas, or water company. 
 Since the passing of the statute by which the crown is authorized to issue letters 
 patent to companies (abridged below), local acts have ceased to be necessary for 
 mere commercial joint stock companies. 
 
 Shares in such companies may become the subject of ordinary commerce, and 
 will be held as transferred where there is evidence of a mutual consent and trans- 
 fer, independently of any fixed regulations by the company as to the form of pro- 
 ceeding. The managers of a joint stock company being in the position of trustees, 
 
JOU 435 JUN 
 
 are bound to adhere to the original obiects of the company. In a late case in Scot- 
 land where a company was organized for the purpose of carrying goods and pas- 
 sengers between Leith and Australia, the managers, who were empowered to ex- 
 port and import goods, were found not entitled to take consignments of goods 
 £iaranteeing the price on del credere, or to trade at ports not intermediate between 
 eith and Australia.— (Maxton agt. Brown, 17th January 1839.) 
 
 Deed of Settlement. — The regulations of a joint stock company are generally em- 
 bodied in the deed of settlement. This instrument "constitutes trustees of the 
 partnership property, directors of the partnership affairs, auditors of its accounts, 
 and such other officers as the objects of the society require, and contains covenants 
 for the performance of their respective duties, which are specifically set out, as are 
 those of the other partners or shareholders ; it also defines the number of shares, 
 the power and method of transferring them, and of calling for the instalments re- 
 quired to be made thereon ; the mode of convening general meetings of proprietors, 
 their rights when convened, and a variety of other rules suited to the exigencies of 
 that particular undertaking."— {Smith's Mercantile L., 58.) 
 
 Companies under the Patent Act (viz. 7 Wm. IV. & 1 Vict. c. 73).— Letters 
 patent may be granted under the great seal to individuals and their representa- 
 tives, empowering them to sue and be sued through one of two registered officers, 
 and limiting the amount of their individual responsibility to a certain sum per share. 
 The company must be constituted by a deed of partnership, containing its designa- 
 tion, object, and place of business, with the designations of the members, and ap- 
 pointing two officers to sue and be sued. Within three months after the date of the 
 letters patent a return of these particulars, and of the shares (as designated by their 
 numbers) held by each individual, together with the extent of responsibility of each, 
 must be made — in England or Ireland to the Enrolment Office of the Court of Chan- 
 cery, in Scotland to the Register-house ; and when transfers of shares are made a 
 similar notice must be sent within three months. No person is entitled to a share 
 of profits unless he be registered as a member, and every person is held to remain a 
 member, and continues to be responsible as such, until a return of his ceasing to be 
 so is registered. When responsibility is limited to a certain sum per share, no action 
 can be brought against a member for a larger sum than the unpaid balance of his 
 subscription. When application is made to the crown for such letters patent, it is 
 referred to the committee of privy council on trade and plantations ; and before the 
 letters are granted notice must be given by the applicants, in the London Gazette 
 and in some local paper three times, at intervals of a week. [Company. Partnership.] 
 — (Collyer on Partnership, 722-770. Smith, ut supra. Burton's Manual, 399-402.) 
 
 JOURNAL. [Book-keeping.] 
 
 JUJUBES, a fruit of the plum kind, produced in the south of Europe, Persia, 
 and other countries. The Asiatic is much darker than the European, which is of 
 a reddish yellow colour. The best are fresh, plump, and well dried. 
 
 JUMPER BERRIES (Du. Geneverbessen. It. Cocole di Ginepro. Ger. 
 Wacholder-beeren. Fr. Bates de Genievre), the well-known fruit of the Juniperus 
 communis, an evergreen shrub, growing on heaths and hilly grounds in all parts of 
 Europe. They are to be chosen fresh, plump, and of a strong taste. These berries 
 have stimulating and diuretic properties, and are an article of the materia medica, 
 but are chiefly used in distilleries in this country and Holland for flavouring gin 
 or geneva. Though indigenous in Britain, large quantities are imported from the 
 Continent, particularly from Italy and Holland. 
 
 JUNK, or tchevu, a vessel of a grotesque form, used in the coasting and foreign 
 trade of China, Siam, and Annam. The junks vary greatly in size ; some exceeding 
 1000 tons. The best are made at Bankok, in Siam. 
 
 The immutable policy of the Chinese government appears to have early fixed the form of the 
 
 junks, and now prohibits any change, under penalty of paying the high duties exacted from foreign 
 ships. They are -very much raised at both ends ; the fore part is an even surface like the stern, 
 and there is no keel. The masts (of a single spar each) are from two to four in number, and of 
 very unequal dimensions ; the mainmast being greatly larger than any of the rest ; and on each 
 ere is commonly a single square sail, made of split bamboos, and stretched by poles; 
 in some cases it furls and unfurls like a fan. Pumps are not made use of; the cables and rigging 
 are of rattan or coir, and the anchors of ironwood, having the flukes occasionally tipped with iron. 
 The hold is broad, thousrh not deep, and the bottom almost completely flat. There is only one 
 deck, but the hold is divided into about a dozen compartments, each belonging to a distinct 
 proprietor, and separated from the others by planks, caulked with a cement consisting of lime and 
 oil mixed with a few scrapings of bamboo. This arrangement, though it must diminish the stow- 
 age, has the advantage of preventing water from damaging the cargo in general, and even from 
 endangering the safety of the vessel. The junks seem to have been first contrived with the view 
 of plying in bays and rivers, for which thev are well adapted. But when steered into the ocean, 
 they do not take sufficient hold of the water to withstand those dreadful tempests which render the 
 
JUR 436 KNO 
 
 seas of China perhaps the most perilous in the globe. The voyages, however, being always under- 
 taken during a favourable monsoon, the Chinese set the head of their junk towards the quarter 
 they are bound to, and blunder on with much less damage than might be expected. 
 
 JUREMA BARK, an astringent substance, the product of the acacia jurema, 
 a native of Brazil. 
 
 JUTE, a kind of hemp, consists of the fibres of an annual plant (Corchorus 
 olitorius) extensively cultivated in Bengal. It is used for cordage in India, and is 
 now imported in considerable quantities into this country. The gunny bags in which 
 sugar is brought from India are composed of this material. S 
 
 K. 
 
 KEEL, a flat-bottomed vessel used on the Tyne to carry coals. It contains, on 
 an average, 8 Newcastle chaldrons = 15£ London chaldrons = 21 tons 4 cwt. 
 
 KEG, a wooden vessel or barrel containing 4 or 5 gallons. 
 
 KELP, an alkaline substance formerly prepared in large quantities on the N. 
 shores of Scotland, by burning seaweed. [Barilla.] 
 
 The kelp trade existed about two centuries ; but it was not till the year 1807, when the attention 
 of the English manufacturers was drawn to it, that it became of importance. The cost of carting 
 and burning the material, and lading it in boats, varied from 30s. to £3 a-ton in different places. 
 The whole expenditure, before the kelp reached the consumer, averaged £4, and the prices 
 obtained were generally £18, and sometimes even £22. These high rates only lasted till 
 1810, when the price gradually fell to £11, and subsequently to £8. Kelp ceased to be made at a 
 profit when the duty was removed from salt in 1817. The number of hands employed has been 
 variously estimated at from 50,000 to 100,000 ; but the occupation lasted only during a few weeks 
 in summer ; and having earned enough for subsistence, the peasant could remain idle during the 
 rest of the vear. The Highland estates became in this way burdened with a great surplus popula- 
 tion, whose removal by emigration has been since pressed with much force upon the government. 
 — (Par. Report on Highland Emigration : 1841.) 
 
 KENTLEDGE, pigs of iron used for ballast- 
 
 KERMES, or Coccus ilicis, an insect found in large quantities on a small 
 species of oak in many parts of Asia and the south of Europe, particularly Spain. 
 It contains a red colouring principle ; and, until the discovery of the cochineal 
 insect, was the only substance used in dyeing scarlet from the period when the 
 shell-fish producing the Tyrian purple of the Romans ceased to be employed. It 
 is still used in Barbary and the Levant for dyeing the scarlet caps so much worn 
 in those countries. In Europe it is almost entirely superseded by cochineal. 
 
 The same term is likewise applied to a factitious sulphuret of antimony, com- 
 monly met with in the form of a brown-red powder. 
 
 KERSEYMERE, a thin stuff generally woven plain from the finest wools, and 
 made chiefly in the west of England. Kersey is a very coarse stuff, usually ribbed, 
 and woven from long wool. It is chiefly manufactured in the north of England. 
 
 KILLOW, a Turkish corn-measure, varying in different places. [Turkey.] 
 
 KILOGRAMME, a French weight, equal 2} lbs. avoird. nearly. 
 
 KILOMETRE, a French itinerary measure, equal 1093f yards, or about 5 
 furlongs. 
 
 KINGWOOD, a fancy wood, the product of a small tree found in Brazil, 
 the botanical name of which is unknown. It is extremely hard, of a dark choco- 
 late colour, with black veins. It is chiefly employed for small cabinet-work. 
 
 KINO, an astringent gummy substance, of which there are several kinds. Much 
 uncertainty exists regarding the origin of this commodity. East Indian kino is said 
 to be the produce of the Butea frondosa (Roxb.), a tree or shrub common in that 
 part of Asia ; African kino is generally stated to be derived from the Pterocarpus 
 erinaceus (Linn.), a native of Gambia ; the Australian variety is procured from 
 the Eucalyptus resinefera (White); and the American is said to be the juice of the 
 Coccoloba uvifera of the West Indies. Kino generally occurs in shining grains, 
 of a rich ruby-red colour, readily pulverizable, and nearly all soluble in water and 
 in alcohol. In India it is used for communicating a nankeen colour to cotton. 
 It is also an article of the materia medica. 
 
 KIRSCHWASSER, an alcoholic liquor, made in Germany from Cherries. 
 
 KISSMISSES, the small kind of grape from which Shiraz wine is obtained. It 
 is produced in Persia, from whence considerable quantities are sent to India when 
 dried into raisins. Their price is regularly quoted in the Indian prices current. 
 
 KNIVES (Du. Messen. Fr. Couteaux. Ger. Messer. It. Coltelli. Por. Facas. 
 Rus. Noshi. Sp. Cuchillos). [Iron Manufactures.] 
 
 KNOT, in navigation, the division of the Log-Line, corresponding to one mile. 
 
KOR 437 LAC 
 
 * KORSEC, a Polish corn-measure, equal, at Warsaw, to 3. 1 , Imp. bushels. 
 
 KREOSOTE, or CREOSOTE, a peculiar liquid of recent discovery, which is 
 obtained by a complicated process from wood-tar. When pure, it is colourless 
 and transparent, ot a burning caustic taste, and a strong penetrating odour, re- 
 sembling that of smoked meat. Sp. gr. T037. It burns with a very sooty flame. 
 Kreosote possesses powerful antiseptic properties. Meat and fish are preserved 
 after having been brushed over with it and dried in the sun ; and it appears to be 
 the principle to which the antiseptic powers of wood-smoke and pyroligneous acid 
 are due. Its action upon the animal system is energetic. In medicine it is em- 
 ployed externally for toothach, cancer, &c. ; and internally as a stimulant. 
 
 KREUTZER, a German coin, worth about one-third of a penny. 
 
 L. 
 
 LABDANUM,a resinous substance, obtained from a small shrub (Cistus Creticm\ 
 which grows in Crete and Syria. It is used in the preparation of plasters. The 
 best is in dark- coloured masses, of a soft consistence, becoming still softer on being 
 handled. It is greatly adulterated by the addition of black sand. 
 
 LABURNUM, a well-known tree (L. Cytisus) which, when of sufficient dimen- 
 sions, is well adapted for cabinet-work. It possesses an oily property, which fits 
 it for pins of blocks, and cogs in mill -work, as its unctuous nature prevents 'it from 
 being abraded ; indeed, wherever any very hard and compact timber is required 
 in small pieces, there are few superior to it. Its natural colour, too, is good ; and 
 it may be rendered almost black by the application of lime-water. 
 
 LAC, in Hindoo numeration, denotes 100,000. A lac of rupees is, therefore, 
 nearly £10,000 sterling. 
 
 LAC (Arab. Laak. Du. Gomlac. Fr. Lacque. Ger. Lack. Hind. Lak'h. It. 
 Lacca. Por. Laca em pdos), a resinous or waxy substance, deposited by an insect 
 (Chermes lacca) on various kinds of trees in the East as a defence for its eggs, and 
 to supply food for the maggot in a more advanced state. It is known under 
 the names of stick-lac, seed-lac, lump or cake lac, and shell-lac. Stick-lac is the 
 substance in its natural state before its separation from the twigs which it incrusts, 
 being gathered before the insects have left their cells ; and the best is of a red 
 purplish colour. According to Mr Milburn, it may be had in almost any quantity ; 
 the only trouble in procuring it being to break the branches and carry them to 
 market. Seed-lac is the stick-lac separated from the twigs, appearing in a granu- 
 lated form, and deprived of part of its colouring matter by boiling : this is seldom 
 imported, it being almost all manufactured into shell-lac in India. Lump-lac 
 is the seed-lac melted and formed into cakes. Shell-lac, the most common form in 
 which it is known in Europe, is the substance liquefied, strained, and formed into 
 thin transparent laminae. The value is estimated according to its transparency 
 and lightness of colour. The best is of a bright orange ; the liver-coloured 
 is inferior ; and that which is very thick, dark, or speckled, should be avoided. 
 The quality of shell -lac has of late years been greatly improved ; and the quantity 
 imported is much increased. In the East it is used for making trinkets. In this 
 country it is the basis of the best sealing-wax, and is also used to form ink and var- 
 nishes. It is now likewise employed extensively in hatmaking. 
 
 Lac is an article of commerce in Bengal, Siam, Annam, Ceylon, Pegu ; and, ac- 
 cording to Mr Crawfurd, the insect exists in most of the forests of the Indian Islands. 
 About 3,000,000 lbs. of shell-lac are annually imported, wholly from Bengal,— 
 nearly one-half of which, however, is re-exported to Italy, Belgium, Russia, Ger- 
 many, and other parts of the Continent. S 
 
 LAC-DYE, LAC-LAKE, are two preparations of the colouring matter of stick- 
 lac : the former is by far the most valuable. They are imported in small square 
 cakes, similar to those of indigo. They should, when broken, look dark-coloured, 
 shining, smooth, and compact ; and when scraped or powdered, of a bright red 
 hue. They are used as red dyes for some purposes, instead of cochineal. Lac- 
 dye is a valuable dye-stuff, but it still admits of considerable improvement. Upwards 
 of 1,000,000 lbs. are annually imported, only from Bengal, — nearly one-half of 
 which is again exported to Italv, Germany, and other parts of the Continent. 
 
 LACE and BOBBIN-NET MA NUFACTURES. The origin and early history 
 of the lace-manufacture are involved in obscurity. It is supposed to have been 
 known to the ancients, and to have been introduced into this country, or at least 
 
LAC 438 LAC 
 
 materially improved, by Flemish refugees who settled in the counties of Bucking- 
 ham and Bedford. The original fabric, and that which is still in highest esteem, 
 is called pillow lace, — being worked by the hand upon a pillow or cushion, stuck, 
 according to the pattern, with pins, around which linen or silken threads are 
 twisted and woven off a series of bobbins, or small cylindrical pieces of wood. The 
 manufacture of this kind of lace is carried on in several of the midland counties, 
 in the west of England, and at Honiton in Devonshire, where the finest British 
 lace is made. On the Continent its chief seats are Brussels and Mechlin in Bel- 
 gium,— places which have long maintained a pre-eminence in this manufacture ; 
 and Valenciennes, Alencon, Caen, and Bayeux in the north of France. But lace- 
 making by the hand has now greatly declined, owing to the extreme cheapness of 
 that made by machines, called bobbin-net, — the manufacture of which has of late 
 years risen into high importance both in this country and in France. 
 
 The bobbin-net trade is a branch of the cotton manufacture ; the net being 
 almost invariably formed of that material. It originated in successive improve- 
 ments and alterations on the stocking-frame, by which it was adapted to the weav- 
 ing of lace ; though it is deserving of notice that it could have had no existence 
 but for Samuel Crompton's invention, the mule [Cotton Manufacture] which 
 spins yarn suitable for that delicate fabric. The application of the stocking-frame 
 to lacemaking was first attempted by a frame-work knitter of Nottingham, named 
 Hammond, about 1768 ; but it was not rendered completely successful till after 
 improvements by John Heathcoat,* also of Nottingham, for which a patent was 
 secured in 1809. His improvements were of so important a character as to en- 
 title him to be justly considered the inventor of the lace-frame, and the father 
 of the bobbin-net manufacture. The lace-frame was simplified in various ways 
 during the continuance of the patent ; and, on its expiry in 1823, so much ingen- 
 uity was brought to bear upon this machine, that its speed was increased twelve- 
 fold, and it was fitted to be propelled by steam and water power. Means were 
 besides discovered for making the net into slips of various widths, — some as wide 
 as 4 yards, — instead of only one broad piece, as at first ; and likewise to work 
 various ornaments into it by the aid of machinery, which, in point of complex 
 ingenuity, far surpasses that used in any other branch of human industry. " One 
 of Fisher's spotting-frames," according to Dr Ure, " is as much beyond the 
 most curious chronometer in multiplicity of mechanical device, as that is beyond 
 a common roasting-jack." The combined effect of these improvements is, that 
 fabrics, for which £5 were paid during the existence of Mr Heathcoat's patent, 
 may now be purchased for 2s. 6d. 
 
 The growth of the bobbin-net trade after 1823 was as rapid as that of the cotton 
 manufacture after the nullification of Arkwright's patent. But a vast amount 
 of capital was sunk during the development of the improvements on Mr Heath- 
 coat's frame : — out of 5000 machines, the 3500 first constructed at a cost of 
 £2,000,000, were, in the course of a few years, by this cause alone, depreciated to 
 one-tenth of their value, — to say nothing of the number of frames destroyed during 
 the Luddite crusade against machinery in the years 1811-12. Much distress was 
 also occasioned in the same period, by the decline of profits and wages, consequent 
 on the excessive amount of capital and labour which flowed into the trade. 
 
 The great seat of the bobbin-net trade in this country is Nottingham ; but it is 
 also extensively prosecuted at Leicester, Derby, Tiverton, and the west of England. 
 We possess no authoritative estimate of its amount more recent than 1836. In 
 that year the cotton yarn (mostly Nos. 180, 190, and 200) used in it required 
 1,850,000 lbs. of Sea-island wool, worth £185,000 ; and silk was consumed of the 
 value of £25,000 ; making the total worth of the raw material £210,000. The gross 
 return amounted to £2,212,000 ; consisting of plain net, £660,000 ; quillings, 
 £492,000 ; and embroidered goods, £1,060,000. The sales for home consumption 
 were in plain nets, about £320,000 ; quillings, £210,000 ; embroidered goods, 
 £580,000 ; total, £1,110,000. The foreign trade took off about £340,000 plain nets ; 
 £282,000 quillings ; and £480,000 figured goods ; total, £1,102,000. The progress 
 of our foreign trade since 1836 cannot be stated with precision, as bobbin-net does 
 
 * Mr Heathcoat removed to Tiverton soon after he had obtained his patent, owing to the riotous 
 attacks made on his lace-frames at Nottingham, — that town having become, through the ignorance 
 of the workmen, the head-quarters of an extensive conspiracy against machinery, known by the 
 name of Luddism, in the counties of York, Lancaster, Nottingham, Derby, and Chester; and 
 which was only put down after many men had atoned by their lives for their acts of outrage. Mr 
 "Heathcoat began life in humble circumstances, and made his fortune by his happy invention ; and, 
 being at once a man of talent and of business, he now fills the honourable station of member of 
 parliament for Tiverton. 
 
LAC 439 LAN 
 
 not appear under a separate head in the government returns ; but its amount is not 
 supposed to have increased. The exports are chiefly made to the United States, 
 Germany, Belgium, France, the British Colonies, and South America. S 
 
 The following are the principal kinds of lace usually met with in trade : — 
 
 British Lack. — Nine sorts may be distinguished :— 1st, Quilling Nets ; these differ in width from 
 a small fraction of an inch up to k yard ; which several widths are also sometimes denoted by the 
 number of meshes from selvage to selvage. The criteria of good quality are — perfect freedom "from 
 any fibrous appearance on the substance of the net ; clearness and distinctness in the meshes ; ab- 
 sence of knots and rags from the selvages, and of any unpleasant stiffness from the face generally. 
 2d, Bobbin or Piece Nets, to which the same observations apply, may be had of various widths, 
 from | to | yard. 3d and \th, Tattings and Pearls only differ from the preceding in width ; tatt- 
 ings vary in width from a quarter to the sixteenth of an inch ; pearls are still narrower : both are 
 used for the edging of nets. 5th, Oased Lace, or Urling's Lace, is a quilling net figured,— having a 
 threadlike appearance communicated to it by being passed rapidly through gas-flame, by which 
 the fibrous parts are destroyed, without injury to the net : it is merely a showy, low-priced sub- 
 stitute for — fith, Pillow or thread Lace, the only legitimate lace, and, taking durability into ac- 
 count, perhaps the cheapest: it occurs either white or black. 7th, Silk Net is either in quillings 
 or in piece,— the latter, when tolerably undressed, being sometimes called tulle: in each the meshes 
 ought to be free from gum (with which it is stiffened), the selvages free from rags, and the face 
 from knots and other imperfections. 8th, Blondes occur either black or white; these again are 
 either real, the best of which are imported from France, or in imitation : each kind may be had 
 of any width below i yard for trimmings, and of greater sizes for full-dress garments. 9th, Veils 
 should be perfectly free from stiffness ; and, if figured, the objects should be neatly finished ; the 
 net fine ; and, when intended to be black, not of a blueish tinge. In selecting lace, nets, or veils, 
 the more rapid the observation the better, for, the longer the eye is engaged on the meshes, the 
 less capable it is of accurate discrimination. — Perkins on Haberdashery, p. 121. 
 
 Foreign Lace. — The most valuable is Brussels, the peculiar qualities of which are delicate fine- 
 ness, and a great elegance and variety of design. It is made of flax grown near Hal and at Rebecque ; 
 and the spinning is performed in darkened rooms, with a beam of light admitted only upon the 
 work through a small aperture. The be?t specimens are produced by the houses of MM. Tardent- 
 Pirlet, and Ducpetiaux of Brussels. The second in rank is Mechlin,- but several other kinds are 
 likewise distinguished for great richness and elegance. 
 
 Lace is imported from France in considerable quantities, but, owing to the heavy duty, almost 
 wholly in an illicit manner, the charge for which is stated to be only from 5 to 10 per cent. Much 
 of this smuggled lace, however, is merely British lace with French embroidery. 
 
 LADING, BILL OF. [Bill of Lading.] 
 
 LAMP-BLACK, a substance obtained by burning the impurities left in the pre- 
 cipitation of tar and pitch, and collecting the particles carried off and deposited in 
 the form of soot. The finest kind is procured by collecting the smoke from a lamp 
 which supplies more oil than can be perfectly consumed. Its quality depends on 
 its lightness and fulness of colour. It is used in the arts, particularly in the 
 manufacture of printers' ink. 
 
 LAMPREY, a cartilaginous fish (Petromyzon marinns) resembling an eel, 
 common during spring and summer in some of the rivers on the south coast of 
 England, particularly the Severn, which it ascends from the sea for the purpose 
 of depositing its spawn. It is found in smaller numbers in several of the Irish and 
 Scottish streams. The potted lampreys of Worcester are in high estimation. 
 
 LANCEWOOD, the timber of a tree (Guatteria virqata) indigenous to Jamaica, 
 and which, though not of very great size, is highly valued from its exceeding even 
 ash in lightness, strength, and elasticity; hence, it is admirably calculated for shafts 
 to carriages, handles to spears, and similar purposes. It is neither so close-grained 
 nor so hard as box, but it turns well ; in colour it is lighter than box. 
 
 LAND-TAX or CESS, a British impost on rent, which became a permanent 
 source of revenue in the end of the 17th century, superseding the occasional sub- 
 sidies of the feudal government. It proceeded on valuations of the rental of the 
 kingdom, made in Scotland in 1674, and in England in 1692 ; on which last a tax of 
 Is. a-pound was calculated to yield a clear annual revenue of £500,000. These 
 valuations have ever since furnished the canons of assessment. The tax was granted 
 by parliament from year to year, at various rates, until 1798, when it was fixed 
 permanently at 4s. a-pound (38 Geo. III. c. 5, and c. 60). The object of rendering 
 the tax perpetual was to facilitate the raising of money by its redemption or pur- 
 chase by the proprietor of the land ; and various provisions were made for this 
 purpose, which, however, have been since modified, particularly in 1811 and 1812, 
 when the management was transferred from special commissioners to those for 
 the affairs of taxes. The assessment is levied under the authority of local commis- 
 sioners ; but by a late act (1 & 2 Vict. c. 58) the powers relating to its redemption 
 are transferred to the Treasury. 
 
 We possess no very recent account of the amount redeemed : but a report made 
 by the commissioners in May 1828 states, that down to that time the number 
 of sales effected had been 3593, the value thereof being £1,438,513 ; and the total 
 amount of tax redeemed thereby could not be fairly estimated at less than £63,100 
 
LAN 440 LEA 
 
 per annum. The sum remitted to the Exchequer in the year 1840 was, in Eng- 
 land, £1,145,082 ; in Scotland, £36,201 ; total, £1,181,283. In the last-mentioned 
 country the tax was limited by the Act of Union in 1707 to £48,000 (deducting 
 all expenses); and in 1798 it was fixed at £47,954, Is. 2d. 
 
 L ANDW AITER, a custom-house officer, whose duty it is to take an account of 
 goods imported. 
 LAPIS LAZULI. [Azure Stone.] 
 LARCH. [Pine.] 
 
 LARD, the fat of the omentum and mesentery of the pig. When properly freed 
 from membranes and blood by being picked, kneaded in water, melted and strained 
 through linen, it should be white, pultaceous, in thin layers, somewhat tough, 
 without smell, of a sweetish taste, and melting at 100° Fahr. It is to be kept in a 
 cool dry situation, in vessels with a cover, luted on with linen, smeared with white of 
 egg and powdered lime ; but notwithstanding every precaution it at length becomes 
 rancid. Lard is employed in the formation of ointments, plasters, liniments, and for 
 other medical purposes. It forms an article of export from Waterford, Limerick, 
 and other places. S 
 
 LAST, a metrical term, of German origin, used to express a load, burden, or 
 quantity of certain articles, commonly of a bulky nature. In this country the last 
 of corn is 10 quarters or 29*078 French hectolitres ; on the Continent, however, it is 
 generally rated higher. The last of herrings, tar, pitch, potash, cod-fish, meal, soap, 
 and other articles, is commonly reckoned at 12 barrels (12 Ch. 1 1., 38 Geo. III., &c.) ; 
 but the last of gunpowder is 24 barrels or 2400 lbs. The Prussian ship-last is 4000 
 Prussian lbs. = 4124 lbs. avoird. At Dantzic the last of timber is 80 cubic feet. 
 LASTING, a woollen stuff used in making women's shoes. 
 LATHS (Ger. Latten), long thin pieces of wood nailed to the rafters of a wall 
 or roof to receive the plaster. 
 LATTEN, a plate or sheet of iron, tinned over. 
 LAUDANUM, a soporific tincture made from Opium. 
 
 LAVENDER, a plant {Lavandula spica) yielding the well-known oil and dis- 
 tilled waters which bear its name. Both of these are obtained in greatest propor- 
 tion from the flower-spikes which have been gathered in dry weather before they 
 are fully expanded. Lavender is extensively cultivated near London, particularly 
 at Park Place, near Henley-on-Thames. The English oil is preferable to that 
 imported from the Continent. 
 
 LAWN, a fine sort of cambric. It is made in Scotland and Ireland, but the 
 best is imported from France. 
 
 LAY-DAYS, a certain number of days during which a merchant is entitled to 
 delay a vessel in loading and unloading. [Affreightment. Demurrage.] 
 
 LAZARETTO, a name given to those enclosed buildings, common in the Med- 
 iterranean ports, in which ships' crews, passengers, and goods arriving from places 
 where the plague is known to prevail, are lodged for the performance of Quaran- 
 tine. 
 
 LEAD (Fr. Plomb. Ger. Blei. It. Piombo. Du. Lood. Por. Chumbo. Rus. 
 Swinetz. Sp. Plomo), a soft and flexible metal, of a pale livid gray colour, easily 
 malleable, but slightly tenacious and not sonorous. Sp. gr. 11*35. It melts at 612° 
 Fahr., — a much lower heat than affects most other metals. Exposed in the open 
 air, it soon tarnishes ; but the oxidisement never proceeds far. Water when pure 
 does not act upon it, though it greatly facilitates the influence of the external air. 
 The lead mines of Britain are of great importance ; and those of Derbyshire are 
 said to have been wrought prior to the Roman invasion. The most productive at 
 present are situated in Northumberland, Cumberland, Durham, Derbyshire, 
 Flintshire, Snafield in Man, and at Leadhills in Scotland. The metal is rare in 
 Ireland. Nearly all the produce of the British mines is obtained from the 
 sulphuret called galena, in which lead is in combination with sulphur in the pro- 
 portion of 86 parts of metal to 14 of sulphur. The ore, after having been washed 
 and picked, is roasted in order to disengage the sulphur ; then mixed with fuel, 
 it is placed in the smelting furnace. When tapped from this it runs down a straight 
 channel technically called the sow, from which branch off on each side somo 
 smaller channels named pigs ; in these it cools, and from them receives the appel- 
 lation of pig lead. 
 
 Lead is of common and extensive use in the arts. Alloyed with tin, in different 
 proportions, it forms solder and pewter ; and with antimony it constitutes type metal. 
 Combined with oxygen it forms massicot, a protoxide of a pale yellow colour : 
 litharge, also a semi-crystalline protoxide, obtained in separating silver from lead 
 
LEA 441 LEA 
 
 ores, enters largely into the composition of flint-glass ; minium, or red lead, a 
 deutoxide, extensively used as a paint, and also in the manufacture of flint- 
 the carbonate of lead, or white lead, is a dense white powder, commonly 
 employed as a pigment ; the chromate of lead, of a beautiful yellow colour, is also 
 much used as a pigment ; and the acetate of lead, called sugar of lead, is employed 
 for various purposes. 
 
 i be pure metal is used for numerous machines and utensils ; but its chief employ- 
 ment is in the form of sheets, pipes, and shot. Sheet-lead is melted and cast ; the 
 thickness of the sheets being frequently reduced by means of heavy rollers worked 
 by steam-power. The sheet is of different thicknesses, but always weighs 9 cwt., 
 so that its length and breadth will be greater in proportion to the diminution of 
 its thickness. In trade, the sheets are described as being of so many pounds weight 
 to the superficial square foot. Lead pipes are sometimes made in a rough way by 
 bending sheet-lead over a mandrel, and soldering the edges together ; but more 
 commonly by casting the pipe in an iron cylinder, having a concentric iron rod or 
 core, and afterwards drawing the pipe through a succession of holes in steel plates, 
 diminishing gradually in diameter, whereby the pipe is lengthened, while its sub- 
 stance is reduced ; and the machinery employed for this process is now so perfect, 
 that a faulty pipe is rarely met with. Lead shot is prepared by pouring 
 molten lead, in a peculiar manner, through a colander, or perforated plate, placed 
 on the top of a high tower, from whence the globules descend into a tub of water 
 on the floor : the shot thus made is of various sizes, but it is afterwards sorted 
 by means of a series of sieves, having meshes of different degrees of fineness. 
 * The quantity of lead produced in this country is so considerable, that there is a 
 regular surplus for exportation. Mr Brande estimates the smelted lead annually 
 afforded by the British mines at 48,000 tons, which, at £19,10s. a-ton, the present price 
 of pig-lead, would make the produce worth £936,000. Little dependence, however, 
 can be placed upon the accuracy of such estimates, as the individuals by whom 
 some of the most productive of our mines are worked, studiously conceal the amount 
 of metal which they raise. Nor is much light thrown upon the subject by the 
 custom-house records, as the extent of our exports is, in a great degree, governed 
 by the comparative productiveness of foreign mines, and particularly by those of 
 Adra, in the province of Granada in Spain, the working of which is liable to 
 considerable fluctuation. In ordinary years, the produce of the latter may be 
 stated at 20,000 tons, two-thirds of which are sent to France, while from 1500 to 
 9000 tons are brought to this country, from whence again, however, it is almost 
 wholly re exported. The ordinary exports of British lead amount annually to 
 about 15,000 tons, four-fifths of which consist of pig and rolled lead and shot, the 
 remainder being white and red lead and litharge : it is chiefly sent to India, the 
 colonies, Russia, Germany, Holland, and Brazil. 
 
 There are many lead mines in Saxony, Bohemia, Silesia, and other parts of 
 German v ; they are also worked, though not on a great scale, in the United States, 
 principally in 5lissouri. S 
 
 The fodder of lead at London and Hull is 19J cwt. ; at Newcastle, 21 cwt. ; at Chester, 20 cwt.; 
 at Stockton, 22 cwt. ; at Derby, 22i cwt. The cwt. of lead at Hull and Chester is 120 lbs. The 
 load of lead ore of 9 dishes = 3 cwt. nearly. 
 
 LEAD, BLACK. [Plumbago.] 
 
 LEAGUE, an itinerary measure, reckoned in this country at 3 geographical or 
 nautical miles, or the twentieth part of a degree of latitude, which is very nearly 
 equivalent to 6076 yards, 3^ statute miles, or 5*555 French kilometres.^ The same 
 measure is generally used by foreign nations for nautical purposes. A variety of other 
 leagues are used on the Continent, particularly in France, where they are the cause 
 of much confusion. An account of the leagues used in foreign states will be found 
 under the heads of those states respectively. 
 
 LEAKAGE, an allowance made for waste or loss of liquors. 
 
 LEASE. [Interest, Compound, and Annuities.] 
 
 LEATHER (Fr. Cuir. Ger. Leder) consists of the dressed skins of animals. 
 For converting skins into leather, different processes are followed, according to 
 their nature and the kind of article required ; as tanning, or causing them, after 
 being freed from impurities, to unite with astringent vegetable matter, by which they 
 are rendered no longer liable to undergo putrefaction, insoluble in water, and in a 
 great measure impervious to it ; tawing or soaking them in alum and other salts, 
 with some animal substance ; and currying or besmearing them with oil to render 
 the leather soft and completely impervious to water. These processes are often 
 performed on the same skin, by which the leather is fitted for different purposes. Iho 
 
LED 442 LEE 
 
 thick hides, of which the soles of shoes are made, are merely tanned, while the 
 thin ones used for glove leather and morocco, are tawed, except when intended to 
 be dyed, when they also receive a slight tanning in an infusion of sumach. That 
 for the upper leather of boots and shoes is both tanned and curried, and fine Turkey 
 leather is first tawed and afterwards tanned. 
 
 The leather manufacture in this country is one of very great importance, but we 
 have not at present any means of ascertaining its amount, the excise-duty formerly 
 levied having been repealed in the year 1830. As at that time, however, the 
 quantity of unwrought leather produced in England and Scotland was nearly 
 60,000,000 lbs., we may estimate the present annual production of the United King- 
 dom at from 80,000,000 to 85,000,000 lbs., and its value at about £5,500,000. The 
 aggregate value of the leather goods is estimated by some at three times, and by 
 others at four times that of the raw material, making the amount of the manufacture, 
 on the former supposition, £16,500,000, on the latter, £22,000,000. The total num- 
 ber of persons employed in all the branches, including tanners, curriers, shoe- 
 makers, glovers, saddlers, &c, is computed at from 250,000 to 300,000. 
 
 The exports, though not considerable, are rather on the increase ; the quantity, 
 wrought and unwrought, annually shipped, amounts to nearly 2,500,000 lbs., of the 
 declared value of £380,000, besides saddlery and harness to the value of £90,000. 
 These exports are almost wholly to the colonies, especially India, the West Indies, 
 and the United States. 
 
 In 1821, the revenue derived from the duty of 3d. a-pound, which then existed 
 on leather, amounted to £600,282. In 1822, the rate was reduced one-half ; but, 
 owing to the greater stimulus given to consumption by this reduction, the revenue 
 suffered only to the extent of one-fourth, — the lower duty having produced on an 
 average of the seven following years, which elapsed before it was entirely repealed, 
 no less than £407,814. The reasons assigned for the abolition of this lignt and 
 productive duty were, that it was unequal in its operation, falling with dispro- 
 portionate pressure upon the humbler classes, and that the excise regulations, 
 under which the manufacture was placed, formed an obstacle to the improvement 
 of the quality. S 
 
 LEDGER, in book-keeping, the principal record of a merchant's transactions. 
 It is arranged so as to distinguish the debt or property belonging to each individual 
 or account respectively. 
 
 According to Dr Kelly, " the name of this book, in the Italian and other southern languages of 
 Europe, signifies the master-book; in French and Dutch, the great book; and in German and 
 other northern languages, the head book. The derivations given of ledger in our principal dic- 
 tionaries are fanciful and contradictory. According to Bailey, it comes from the Latin verb legere, 
 to gather ; and Dr Johnson says it is derived from the Dutch verb legger (a typographical error for 
 leggen), to lie or remain in a place. The word is perhaps derived from the liege)' books, kept in 
 feudal times for the purpose of recording the rents, services, and duties of tenants, who were called 
 liegemen." — (Book-keeping: Introd. p. vii.) 
 
 LEECH (Fr. Sangsue. Ger. Blutiget), a fat, slimy, annulose, parasitic worm (San- 
 guisuga, Savigny), generally inhabiting stagnant waters, celebrated for its medical 
 use in cases requiring local blood-letting. Two species have been chiefly employed 
 for this purpose : The German or gray leech (S. medicinalis), a native of the N. of 
 Europe, having a deep green body, marked with six longitudinal iron-coloured bands, 
 pretty clear, and spotted with black points ; its belly greenish, spotted, and bordered 
 with black ; and the segments of the body rough from granular eminences : The 
 Hungarian or green leech (S. officinalis), found in the S. of Europe, having a large 
 green, or light blackish green body, the back being marked with six iron- coloured 
 bands, spotted at their middle portion and edge ; the belly, yellowish green, without 
 spots, but broadly bordered with black ; and the segments of the body very smooth: 
 of this kind there are three varieties. One German leech is deemed equivalent to 
 two Hungarian leeches. These animals attain maturity in from 5 to 8 years, and 
 may live twenty. They are generally caught by the hand, or by a person wading 
 in the shallow waters during spring, when they adhere to his naked legs : in sum- 
 mer, when they retire to deeper waters, they are usually entangled by means of a 
 raft constructed of twigs and rushes. 
 
 As leeches are now scarce in Western Europe, nearly all our supplies come from 
 Hamburg dealers, who procure them from the Ukraine. " Having exhausted all 
 the lakes of Silesia, Bohemia, and other more frequented parts of Europe, the 
 buyers are now rolling gradually and implacably eastward, carrying death and 
 desolation among the leeches in their course— sweeping all before them, till now they 
 have got as far as Poltava, the pools and swamps about which are yielding them 
 great captures" {Bremner's Russia, vol. ii. p. 408 ; 1839). They are sometimes 
 
LEG 443 LET 
 
 imported in bags, but more usually in small barrels, each holding about 2000, the 
 head being made of stout canvass to admit the air. Many sicken and die on the 
 journey from the place of capture, especially during warm weather. Mr Pereira, 
 in Ins Materia Medica, states that the best vessels for preserving these animals 
 are unglazed brown pans or wooden tubs ; the leaden glazing being supposed inju- 
 rious. These pans snould be very little more than half-filled with soft water. In 
 very hot weather, when the water becomes discoloured, it should be changed every 
 day ; otherwise, in summer every four or five days, and in winter once a-month 
 is believed by large dealers to be sufficient. The consumption of leeches is enor- 
 mous. Some" years ago it was stated that four principal dealers in London im- 
 ported, on an average, no fewer than 600,000 monthly. 
 
 LEGHORN. [Tuscany.] 
 
 LEMONS {Yr.Limons. Ger. Limonem. It Limoni. Yor.Limoes. Sp. Limones), 
 the fruit of a tree of the citron or orange family {Citrus limonum), a native of 
 Eastern Asia, from whence it has spread to Greece, Italy, and other parts of the 
 S. of Europe. The fruit is oblong in shape, and its juice is analogous to that of 
 the orange, from which it only differs in containing more citric acid and less sugar. 
 The quantity of the former is very great (Citric acid), and, being an approved 
 specific in the prevention and cure of scurvy, a powerful and agreeable antiseptic, 
 as well as an ingredient in punch and many pleasant refrigerant drinks, it forms, 
 in an expressed state, an important article of trade, especially in Italy : being liable 
 to ferment, it is, when exported in this condition, secured in bottles, and covered with 
 a thin stratum of oil. The rind is a bitter aromatic, and is frequently employed in 
 stomachic tinctures, and for preserves and liqueurs ; it also yields an essential oil, 
 which is much used in perfumery. For these purposes, lemons are largely con- 
 sumed in this country ; the best are brought from Spain, but they are likewise 
 imported from other places, particularly Portugal and the Azores. 
 
 LETTER OF ATTORNEY, or POWER OF ATTORNEY, is simply a deed 
 authorizing some person to act for the granter in any matter which he has the 
 right of either transacting himself or delegating to another. It applies as well to 
 real as to personal property, but in its former capacity (in which, in Scotland, it is 
 called a procuratory) it is connected with a complicated system foreign to the pre- 
 sent work. The powers usually conveyed by the ordinary letter are to collect 
 debts, transfer stock, sell commodities, invest money, receive dividends, or similar 
 purposes. A pure letter of attorney to serve the objects for which such a document 
 is intended is revocable, but when it is used as a transfer or assignment, and does 
 not merely authorize the attorney to act for the granter, but puts him in his place 
 (e. g. where a party gets authority to collect accounts, as a consideration for money 
 advanced), the authority is irrevocable. A person holding a letter of attorney 
 represents his principal solely through that authority, and both he and third parties 
 are limited to its terms, and responsible when they are exceeded. There is thus 
 no room for those disputes regarding the powers implied in the nature of the con- 
 tract, which occur in the case of principal and agent. The power, however, may 
 be either special as to particular transactions, or general as to all a party's pro- 
 prietory affairs ; and it may or may not include a factorship or agency, the terms 
 of which must be interpreted according to the rules applicable to those branches. 
 [Factor. Principal and Agent.] A person acting under power of attorney 
 must do so in the name of his principal, and not in his own. A letter, unless it 
 contain an assignment, falls on the death of the principal. If not so terminated 
 or revoked, the power exists till its purpose is fulfilled, and if clearly expressed, 
 •will authorize the subsidiary procedure necessary to bring about the main end ; 
 thus a letter to sue for, receive, and recover a debt authorizes the attorney to arrest 
 the debtor. — (Comyns' Digest: Attorney, c. Paley on Principal and Agent, p. 
 180-192.) 
 
 LETTER OF CREDIT, a letter from one mercantile correspondent to another, 
 requesting him to advance money to a certain amount to the bearer, or a third 
 party named. The letter should also describe the manner in which the money is 
 to be reimbursed, and the nature of the voucher to be taken for it. The granting 
 of such a letter is generally announced in course of post to the correspondent ; a 
 duplicate of it being sent at same time, and the signature of the party in whose 
 favour the credit is established, or a description of him, in case the document 
 should fall into improper hands. 
 
 LETTERS OF MARQUE, in their original acceptation, mean a warrant by 
 a sovereign, authorizing a subject who has received injury from any inhabitants of 
 another state to make reprisals on that state. In this acceptation, the issuing 
 
LET 444 LIE 
 
 letters of marque does not necessarily accompany a declaration of war ; indeed it 
 would appear to be a measure of retaliation, to be resorted to when the aggression 
 on the other side is not sufficiently extensive or public to call for national hostilities. 
 Thus, the 4 Hen. V. c. 7, provides for the granting of letters to those who are 
 aggrieved by foreigners during time of truce. This species of warrant has, how- 
 ever, been lon^ in disuse ; and letters of marque have of late been granted in con- 
 formity with the provisions of acts for manning the navy, and are virtually com- 
 missions to privateers. They have two advantages, Is/, They authorize private 
 ve?sels to fight with enemies without becoming liable to a charge of piracy; and, 
 2dly, They preserve to the owners, officers, and crews, the prizes made by privateers, 
 which would otherwise fall to the crown. For the conditions under which letters 
 of marque have thus been in use to be granted, see 45 Geo. III. c. 72, § 9-15. 
 
 LETTUCE, a well-known succulent vegetable (Lactuca sativa), used as a salad. 
 After its flower-stem shoots, it abounds with a milky juice, possessing soporific 
 powers, and which, in the strong-scented wild lettuce (L. virosa), is so abundant 
 that it has been used as a substitute for laudanum and opium. 
 
 LEVANTINE, a stout, close-made, twilled, silken fabric, now little used. 
 
 LIABILITIES, a term applied in a comprehensive sense to all the pecuniary 
 obligations of an individual or company. 
 
 LIBRA, the Latin, Spanish, and Italian name for a pound in weight ; also a 
 Spanish money of account, varying in different provinces. 
 
 LICENSE, an official grant of permission. Licenses are required in this 
 country for prosecuting various trades and professions, as pawnbroking, appraising, 
 officiating as auctioneer, banking, dealing in plate, distilling spirits, beer-brewing, 
 malting, dealing in wine, spirits, beer, cider, coffee, and tobacco, and for the making 
 of glass, soap, and other commodities, an account of which will be found under 
 their appropriate heads. These licenses are issued by the Boards of Excise and 
 Stamps. Licenses are also required for certain kinds of vessels, luggers, and boats, 
 under the act for the prevention of Smuggling. 
 
 LIEN or RETENTION is a right which the law gives to individuals in certain 
 situations, to retain property of another which may be in their custody, until cer- 
 tain claims of the custodier against the proprietor be satisfied. To constitute lien, 
 the possession must have been legally obtained for the purpose out of which the 
 claim of lien arises, and must not be the result of force, fraud, or accident. The 
 possession must be actual, either through the creditor or one of his agents. Liens 
 are of two kinds, special and general. The former is the simple retention of the 
 property, which has been the subject of some contract, implying payment on the 
 one side and delivery on the other, — the delivery being delayed until the payment 
 is made. Persons bestowing labour or skill in improving the value of any move- 
 able, have generally a lien over it ; as, a miller, a shipwright, a tailor, a dyer, a 
 bleacher, — each on the commodity passing through his hands. Carriers and ship- 
 owners have a lien for the property they convey ; but there is none for dead-freight 
 or demurrage, unless it be stipulated for. There appears to be no lien on a pas- 
 senger or the clothes he wears, though there may be on his luggage. Innkeepers 
 and stablers, being under an obligation to receive guests and their cattle, arc 
 said to be provided by the law with this efficacious remedy as a counterpart of 
 their obligation. Livery stablers and agisters (or persons affording pasture to 
 cattle at so much per week) have no such lien in England ; in Scotland, however, 
 a different doctrine seems to be held, that " the lien would be given on the broad 
 principle, that it is the resulting security for the actio contraria in all cases" 
 (BelPs Com. II. 104). A speciallien is easily created by the usage of trade, and 
 may at any time be stipulated as an article in a contract. 
 
 General Lien is of a more complicated description, being the right to retain for 
 a general balance arising in the course of a series of transactions. An express 
 contract, or a contract to be clearly implied from the previous dealings of the par- 
 ties, or a distinct course of commercial usage, is required to constitute such a lien. 
 " To establish a general lien on the ground of usage, strong and satisfactory evidence 
 must be adduced of ancient, numerous, and important instances, in which the right 
 has been exercised. When the usage is general, and prevails to such an extent 
 that all parties contracting may be supposed conusant of it, they will, of necessity, 
 be bound by the custom : for the usage of trade amounts to evidence of contract ; 
 and where such usage is general, and has been so long established as to afford a 
 presumption of its being commonly known, it is only fair to conclude that the par- 
 ties contracted with reference to it" (Cross, 15). It would appear that the 
 usage of a district may have the effect of at least excluding a species of lien, ac- 
 
LIG 445 LIG 
 
 knowledged by the law to hold good in places where it is practised. A law-agent 
 or attorney has a general lien on the papers of his client coming into his hands in 
 the proper course of his business. Calico-printers, dyers, and wharfingers have 
 a general lien in their respective trades, — fullers have not (though they are said to 
 have such a right in the city of Exeter by ancient usage, Cross, 341-2). A factor 
 has a general lien on the goods in his possession, for the general balance on the whole 
 of the charges he is entitled to in the course of his factorage. If he shall have become 
 security for his principal with his consent, and has been compelled to pay the 
 sum, it is part of the balance on which he has a lien. In this, as in all other cases, 
 the lien may be defeated by the property being deposited with the factor for a 
 specific purpose, for which he is bound to hold it if he take possession of it, — as, 
 where goods were placed in his hands, in consequence of an agreement that they 
 were to be sold for the benefit of a particular creditor (Weymouth v. Boyer, 1 Ves. 
 Jim. 416). A general lien is held by packers, when they are of the nature of 
 factors, and by insurance-brokers. There is a general lien in favour of bankers 
 — on bills deposited with them for a general account, but not on those deposited 
 for a specific purpose, or on deeds casually left in their offices, after a refusal to 
 advance money on them. 
 
 Persons in the situation of being entitled to a lien lose it by relinquishing pos- 
 session of the property from which they derive it. A factor in a foreign country, 
 however, who has purchased goods for his principal on his own credit, is entitled to 
 stop them in transitu after shipment to him ; and where the creditor deposits 
 the subject with a third person, apprizing him of the lien, and appointing him to 
 keep possession as his servant, the lien is not parted with. {Montague on Lien. 
 Paley on Principal and Agent, 127-153. Cross on Lien.) 
 
 LIGHTER, a small vessel used for carrying goods to or from a ship in lading 
 or unlading. Lighterage is the expenses attendant upon the operation. 
 
 LIGHTHOUSE, an edifice constructed near the seacoast, in which lights are 
 exhibited for the guidance of ships. Anciently this purpose was served by fire- 
 towers, where also sacrifices were offered for the safety of the mariners. The most 
 celebrated of the ancient lighthouses was the Pharos of Alexandria, erected B. C. 
 283 ; its height is stated, though probably with much exaggeration, to have been 
 400 feet ; and it was accounted one of the seven wonders of the world. The most re- 
 markable in modern times are, the Tour de Cordouan, erected in 1611, at the entrance 
 of the Gironde in France, the height of which is said to be 186 feet ; the Eddy stone, 
 a circular tower, constructed (1756-59), on a rock distant 4 leagues S.W. from 
 Plymouth Sound ; it sweeps up with a gentle curve to the height of 863 feet ; and 
 its utility, beauty, strength, and originality, have shed lustre on the name of the en- 
 gineer, John Smeaton : and the Bell Rock, erected near the entrance of the Tay in 
 Scotland, on the model of the Eddystone, by Mr Stevenson (1812) ; its height is 
 113 feet above low water. Besides lighthouses, there are in many places, especially 
 in the estuaries of rivers, " floating lights" attached to vessels moored in certain 
 positions, to indicate the existence of shoals or sunken rocks. 
 
 The lights on our coasts generally consist of argand burners, placed on the foci 
 of parabolic reflectors made of silver strengthenedwith copper; the reflectors being 
 arranged, and the lights exhibited in such a manner that those on the same line of 
 coast should have some essential distinction : thus, some of them are revolving 
 or intermittent, many are fixed, others are placed one above another ; some flash 
 once every five seconds, and not a few become alternately red and white. The 
 whole are divided into harbour lights " and " general lights." Many of the latter 
 were formerly private property, but they are now almost all vested in public boards, 
 one of which, called the Trinity House, possesses besides a controlling power over 
 all the marine beacons of the United Kingdom. 
 
 The Trinity House of Deptford Strond was incorporated by Henry VIII. in 
 1515 for regulating pilots, erecting lighthouses and beacons, and other objects 
 connected with navigation. It possesses an elegant hall in London near the Tower ; 
 and is governed by a master, four wardens, eight assistants, and thirty-one elder 
 brethren, most of them persons of distinction ; and there are, besides, numerous 
 inferior members termed younger brethren. The powers of the corporation in re- 
 gard to lights and other seamarks are at present regulated by an act passed in 1836, 
 6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 79. This act invested them for the first time with the supervision 
 of the Scotch and Irish lights ; and likewise provided for their purchasing the 
 property of certain others, then in the hands of private parties. The number of 
 English general lights under their immediate management is 74, including 20 
 floating lights. In 1838, the gross amount of dues levied for lighthouses, vested 
 
L1G 446 LIM 
 
 in them prior to the act of 1836, was £119,190 ; for those transferred to them 
 under that act, £49,810; and for buoys and beacons, £13,141 ; total, £182,141 ; 
 yielding, after paying charges, a surplus of £55,005 ; of which £32,502, arising 
 from lights held by them before 1836, was applicable to the relief of poor seamen, 
 widows, orphans, and other charitable purposes, and £22,443 to the account for 
 private lights since transferred to them {Par. Paper, 1840, No. 362). The only 
 private lighthouses not yet made over to the Trinity House are those of the Skerries, 
 Spurn Point, and Tynemouth. 
 
 In Scotland, the lights are under the management of the " Commissioners for 
 Northern Lights," — a corporation (38 Geo. III. c. 58) consisting of the Lord Ad- 
 vocate, the Solicitor General, and twenty-three municipal officers. Their services 
 are gratuitous. The number under their charge is 27; and the net amount of dues 
 levied in 1839 was £42,955, applicable, after paying charges, to the erection of new 
 works. They are, besides, vested by the act 6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 79, with a general 
 charge of the local or harbour lights. 
 
 In Ireland, the lights are under the management of the Corporation (52 Geo. III. c. 
 115), for improving and extending the Port of Dublin, a body consisting of the Lord 
 Mayor and two Sheriffs of Dublin, three Aldermen chosen "by the Board of Alder- 
 men, and seventeen other individuals appointed in the first instance by the act of 
 incorporation, but who have the power of filling up the vacancies. The number of 
 public lights possessed by them is 29, besides 16 harbour-lighthouses, including 
 5 for which no rates are exacted ; their gross revenue in 1832 was £42,061. This 
 corporation has likewise a general charge of all the other local lights. 
 
 The Scottish and Irish Boards must give six months' notice to the Trinity House 
 before erecting any new lighthouses, or making any alterations on those already 
 erected : notice of any changes must be likewise given to the public through the 
 Gazette and other newspapers (§ 46). In the event of any difference between the 
 Trinity House and the other Boards, the latter may appeal to the Qneen in Council. 
 
 We have no recent accounts of the local lights ; but, including the 16 Irish har- 
 bour-lights already noticed, the number in the United Kingdom may be taken at 
 95 ; making the total of public and local lights on the British and Irish coasts 
 about 225. 
 
 The rates of duty levied on vessels passing within certain limits vary greatly in 
 respect to different lights : for some of the English ones, only |d. per ton is charged 
 on British, and £d. per ton on vessels belonging to foreign powers with whom we 
 have no treaties of reciprocity ; while for others, the charges are as high as Id. 
 and 2d. per ton on British and unprivileged foreign ships respectively. In Scot- 
 land, the charge on coasting vessels (not wholly in ballast) is ^d. per ton for each 
 time of passing every lighthouse, or deriving benefit thereby, except that on the 
 Bell Rock, for which Id. per ton is chargeable ; on British vessels on foreign 
 voyages, Id. and 2d. per ton are respectively payable for these lights ; unprivileged 
 foreign vessels pay double rates (§ 40). In Ireland, the charge is |d. per ton for 
 each light, except on vessels wholly in ballast and without passengers, which are 
 exempted ; double rates are payable for unprivileged foreign vessels, s 
 
 LIGNUM VITvE. [Guaiacum.] 
 
 LIME, the protoxide of calcium, is found abundantly in most countries, in a 
 combined state with other substances, particularly in limestone, chalk, and marble, 
 which are carbonates of lime. The common method of obtaining it is by the process 
 of burning, in which limestone, mixed with coal or charcoal, is exposed to a 
 strong heat ; in this way the carbonic acid is expelled, and the product, called 
 quick-lime, is the substance in a state of purity. It is white, or of a pale gray 
 tint, opaque, inodorous, and its taste is acrid and alkaline. When water is 
 poured upon quick-lime it heats, cracks, swells, and a bulky white powder is ob- 
 tained, called slaked lime. The limpid, colourless fluid, called lime-ioater, used as 
 an antacid, is prepared by mixing powdered lime with warm water ; and what 
 is termed milk or cream of lime, is merely slaked lime diffused through lime-water. 
 Lime is used in immense quantities in this country as a manure, and as an ingre- 
 dient in mortar. In several metallurgic processes it is used as a cheap and powerful 
 flux : it is also employed extensively in soap-making, leather- dressing, dyeing, and 
 medicine, besides many other purposes in common life and the arts. 
 
 By 36 Geo. III. c. 110, lime and limestone may be shipped and landed coastwise without any 
 customs document whatever. 
 
 LIME, the fruit of a tree {Citrus limetla) which grows in Spain, Portugal, France, 
 and East and West Indies. In appearance and natural qualities it resembles the 
 lemon, differing only in being smaller, and nearly round, with a smooth rind, and 
 
LIM 447 LIN 
 
 in tho pulp not having such a sharp and powerful acid, but being, on the contrary, 
 flat and slightly bitter. The flavour of the lime is, however, reckoned superior to 
 that of the lemon. It is used for punch, sherbet, and other liquors. 
 
 LIME, or LINDEN, a timber tree (Tilia Enropcea), of which there are several 
 varieties ; the most valuable being the " common lime," a large, fast-growing, 
 beautiful tree, reared in most parts of Britain, but thriving best in rich loam, and 
 in warm and rather moist situations. Its wood is soft and weak, but being close 
 
 framed, delicately white, and of a uniform colour, it is well adapted for all 
 ight works that are to be partially painted, and then varnished. Possessing, 
 even in a higher degree than the maple, the property of not warping, it is used 
 for cutting-boards, and for the keys of musical instruments ; while, from its 
 standing the tool well, it is employed by carvers for most part of their wooden 
 ornaments ; whence the lime is called, by way of eminence, " the carver's tree." 
 The bark divided into the narrow slips called bast, is in the N. of Europe ex- 
 tensively plaited into ropes, and worked into the mats in which flax and hemp 
 are imported from the Baltic. 
 
 LIMITATION, in the law of England and Ireland, is the expiry of a right 
 through lapse of time. In Scotland, the analogous provision of law is called Pre- 
 scription. Perhaps the most important operation of limitation is its creation of a 
 title to real property, which it does by conferring a positive right on the possessor, 
 and creating a personal exception against other claimants ; but it is only as a 
 bar to claims connected with commercial transactions that it can be here considered. 
 Limitation may either be a bar to a substantive claim, or to a particular means of 
 proving it. 
 
 By the statutes of Limitations (English act, 21 Jas. I. c. 16 ; Irish, 10 Cha. I. Sess. 
 2, c. 6) " All actions of account and upon the case, other than such accounts as 
 concern the trade of merchandise between merchant and merchant, their factors 
 or servants : all actions of debt grounded upon any lending or contract without 
 specialty .... shall be commenced and sued .... within six years next 
 after the cause of such actions or suit, and not after." The period of limitation 
 begins to run when the obligation is exigible ; and so when credit is stipulated 
 for, its currency commences on the expiry of the credit. It applies to bills and 
 promissory notes, running from the day when they become due. Notes payable 
 on demand are held as exigible from the date of their completion, and the limitation 
 then begins to run. The exception of " such accounts as concern the trade of mer- 
 chandise " caused considerable discussion as to whether all merchants' accounts and 
 charges for the price of commodities were intended to be exempt from limitation. 
 " But it is now settled, that accounts open and current only are within [the excep- 
 tion of] the statute : that therefore, if an account be stated and settled between 
 merchant and merchant, and a sum certain agreed to be due to one of them, if in 
 such case he to whom the money is due does not bring his action within the limited 
 time, he is barred by the statute " {Sir E. Tomlins). In accounts by tradesmen 
 against their customers, limitation runs on each article, so that the creditor can 
 only recover for those sold within the six years. The currency of the limitation 
 may be stopped and a new period commenced, by such an acknowledgment on the 
 part of the debtor as may suffice to create a new agreement. By the 9th Geo. IV. 
 c. 14, to produce this effect, the acknowledgment must be in writing, and it binds 
 only the party making it, and is not pleadable against co-obligants. 
 
 LINEN (Dn. Lynwaat. Fr.Toile. Ger.Linnen. It. Tela. Por. Panno de linho. 
 Sp. Tela de lino. Rus. Polotno) is strictly cloth woven from the fibres of the 
 flax plant, though the term is now likewise understood to comprehend all kinds 
 of hempen cloth. This manufacture is of the highest antiquity. It appears to 
 have originated in Egypt where the plant is indigenous, and where the mummies 
 are generally found swathed in linen, some of which is stated by Belzoni to be 
 " quite as fine as our common muslin, very strong, and of an even texture." 
 Little is known regarding the state or progress of the manufacture among other 
 ancient nations, or during the middle ages ; and the period of its introduction into 
 this country cannot be ascertained. In 1 175, flax and hemp were classed in England 
 among the titheable productions ; and for long afterwards the government encour- 
 aged their growth for the supply of the home manufacture ; but the greater part of 
 our linens was imported from Flanders and the north of Europe until last century, 
 when the trade rose into some importance, particularly in Scotland and Ireland. 
 It is, however, only within late years that our liuen manufacture can be said to 
 have become a truly national branch of industry, a distinction which it owes mainly 
 to the reduction of the duties on foreign flax and hemp, and the adaptation and 
 
LIN 443 LIN 
 
 application of the inventions of Hargreaves and Arkwright to the spinning of 
 yarn by means of machinery. 
 
 In Scotland, at the period of the Union, the linen manufacture, though then 
 styled " the great national staple," was very trifling, and almost wholly domestic. 
 But a board having been appointed (1727) for its encouragement by means of pre- 
 miums, and bounties granted on the cloth exported, the trade was in course of time 
 greatly extended, so that in 1800 the quantity stamped for sale by the officers of the 
 board was 24,235,633 yards, valued at £1,047,598, which was exclusive of that 
 woven for domestic use. The operation of spinning, — hitherto altogether performed by 
 women in their own dwellings, — was now in part executed by means of flax mills ; 
 and in 1814, some of the mill-spinners became also manufacturers. The subsequent 
 
 Erogress of the trade, especially after the reduction of the import-duty on flax in 1825, 
 as been most remarkable. This has been more particularly the case at Dundee, now 
 the chief emporium of the linen-trade of the United Kingdom. In 1814, the quan- 
 tity of flax imported into that place did not exceed 3000 tons, but in 1841 it amounted 
 to 25,865 tons, besides 4181 tons of hemp, the value of the whole being £905,086 ; 
 while the population of the town increased in the same interval from about 30,000 to 
 63,825. The manufactures of Dundee are chiefly of the coarser kinds ; but of late 
 years the spinning of fine yarns has been introduced, a part of which is woven in 
 the place, and the remainder exported. The shipments from this port in the year 
 ending May 1841 amounted to 697,295 pieces cloth, of the value of £1,322,835 ; 
 and 122,064 cwts. yarn, amounting to £488,256 ; the former comprising 208,415 
 pieces sheeting ; 137,834 pieces sailcloth ; 170,581 pieces sacking and bagging ; 
 79,564 pieces dowlas ; 72,313 pieces osnaburgs ; and 28,588 pieces sundries. The 
 number of spinning-mills in Forfarshire was stated in 1839 to be nearly 100, of 
 which 41, possessing 1695 horse-power, were situated within the town of Dundee. 
 The weavers often work in their own houses, but sometimes in factories, — the 
 master in the latter case furnishing the loom, which is generally the common one 
 with the fly-shuttle. Of late the power-loom has been successfully applied to the 
 weaving of dowlas, sheeting, and other fabrics. Besides Dundee and the adjacent 
 district, the linen-trade is prosecuted extensively in Aberdeen, where there are 
 some very large flax-mills ; and in Fifeshire, particularly at Dunfermline, a thriving 
 town which has been long celebrated for the manufacture of damasks, table-linen, 
 diaper, and fine shirting. 
 
 In Ireland, the linen manufacture first owed its extension to the jealousy of the 
 English, on account of the progress which that country was making in the woollen 
 manufacture, in the reign of William III., and who, at their instigation, introduced 
 a seriesof laws which had the effect of crushing the latter, and introducing the 
 former in its stead. A board was afterwards appointed for its superintendence ; 
 bounties also were granted on exportation ; and, what was of more importance, 
 the consumption of England, as regarded the finer qualities, was virtually secured 
 to the Irish manufacturers by the prohibitory duties imposed on foreign linens. 
 The trade in consequence progressively increased. In 1800, no fewer than 31,978,039 
 yards were imported from Ireland into Britain, besides 2,585,829 yards shipped to 
 other countries ; in 1825, the exports were, to Britain, 52,559,678 yards, to other 
 countries, 2,553,587 yards. Since 1825, no account has been taken at the custom- 
 house of the commercial intercourse between the two islands, which was then placed 
 on the footing of a coasting-trade ; but according to a report of the railway com- 
 missioners, the shipments from Ireland in 1835 amounted to 70,209,572 yards, of 
 the value of £3,730,854. The province of Ulster is that wherein the manufacture 
 is chiefly prosecuted, its principal seat being Belfast ; and the cloths woven are 
 mostly of the finer kinds. Spinning machinery was introduced in 1806 or 1808 ; 
 and in 1839, the number of flax-mills in Belfast was 20, employing 7000 hands. A 
 great proportion of the yarn worked up, however, is sent from England. 
 
 In England, various branches of the linen trade are carried on in Lancashire 
 and the West Riding of Yorkshire, as well as in Dorset, Durham, and Somerset ; 
 but that part of the United Kingdom is now chiefly distinguished for the spinning 
 of yarn, a branch which has of late risen into high importance, particularly at 
 Leeds, where some of the flax-mills are of the most magnificent description. In 
 1839, the number was 44 ; comprising a horse-power of 1259. Of the yarn produced 
 a portion is worked up in the town and adjoining district, but the greater part is 
 sent to other places, especially Ireland and France. 
 
 We possess no very recent account of the extent of that part of the manufacture 
 which is carried on in factories. According to returns made by the inspectors in 
 1835, the number of factories then at work was, in England, 152 ; in Scotland, 170; 
 
LIN 
 
 449 
 
 LIN 
 
 in Ireland, "25 ; in all, 347 : and the number of males employed therein was 10,395, 
 and of females, 22,888 ; total, 33,283, about one-half of whom were young persona 
 under 18 years of age. 
 
 A spindle of linen yarn contains 14,400 yards : it is divided into 24 heers, 48 
 leas or cuts, or 11,520 threads ; each thread being thus 90 inches : the bundle of 
 yarn is 4^ spindles, or 60,000 yards. The quality of yarn is expressed in England 
 by figures denoting the number of leas or cuts (each of 300 yards) contained in a 
 pound weight ; in Scotland by the number of pounds in a spindle, or 48 leas. Thus, 
 No. 48 yarn in England is called 1 lb. yarn in Scotland. The range of the qualities 
 is considerable, but it is seldom spun of greater fineness than No. 200, the quality 
 fitted for good cambric, though at Leeds it is now produced up to 240. 
 
 The improvements introduced into the spinning processes have been such, that 
 while the length of a pound of yarn of average fineness was in 1813 and 1814 only 
 3330 yards; in 1833, the same weight of average yarn contained 11,170 yards (Por- 
 ter's Progress of the Nation, vol. i. p. 269); and, since the year last mentioned, the 
 average quality has been carried even to a much higher point, the cost of the 
 manufacture being at the same time greatly economized. This perfection of our 
 spinning machinery has not only rendered us entirely independent of Flanders and 
 other parts of the "Continent for the supply of yarn, of which, so lately as 1827, 
 nearly 4,000,000 lbs. were imported for the use of our weavers, but it has opened up 
 the entirely new trade of exporting yarn, and has been, besides, as already noticed, 
 mainly the cause of that cheapness of our linens, which, notwithstanding the entire 
 abolition of the bounty system,* has enabled us successfully to compete with other 
 countries, formerly our superiors, in the general markets of the world. The fol- 
 lowing table shows the progress of our exports since 1820, in so far as we are 
 enabled to furnish details ; distinguishing the shipments to the United States and 
 Francef respectively, our principal customers for cloths and yarns : — 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Linen Manufactures Exported. 
 
 Linen Yarn Exported. 
 
 Entered by the Yard. 
 
 Small 
 Wares. 
 
 Total 
 Value. 
 
 Exports to 
 Unit. States. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 TotalValue. 
 
 Exports to 
 France. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 Yards. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1820 
 
 38,077,898 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1825 
 
 52,0811,185 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 _ 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 1826 
 
 39,986,715 
 
 ■ — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 1827 
 
 55.132.189 2,057,351 
 
 71,032 
 
 2,128,383 
 
 762.713 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 1828 
 
 60,287,814; 2,120,276 
 
 66,146 
 
 2,186,422 
 
 670,778 
 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 57,698,372! 1,953,607 
 
 52,037 
 
 2,006,644 
 
 653,298 
 
 
 
 
 1830 
 
 61,919,9631 2,017,776 
 
 48,648 
 
 2,066,424 
 
 725,513 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 1831 
 
 69,233,892; 2,400,043 
 
 61,661 
 
 2,461,704 
 
 1,021,696 
 
 
 
 
 1832 
 
 49,531,057 1,716,084 
 
 58,643 
 
 1,774,727 
 
 414,160 
 
 iib',188 
 
 8,705 
 
 *6,516 
 
 1833 
 
 63,232,509 2,097,273 
 
 69,751 
 
 2,167,024 
 
 830,820 
 
 935,682 
 
 72,006 
 
 68,299 
 
 1834 
 
 67,834.305 2,357,991 
 
 85.355 
 
 2,443,346 
 
 1,047,744 
 
 1,533,325 
 
 136,312 
 
 130,561 
 
 1835 
 
 :93,139 
 
 99,004 
 
 2,992,143 
 
 1,564,826 
 
 2,611,215 
 
 216,635 
 
 198,823 
 
 1836 
 
 82,088,760' 3.238,031 
 
 88.294 
 
 3,326,325 
 
 1,687,877 
 
 4,574,504 
 
 318,772 
 
 276,942 
 
 1837 
 
 58,426,333 2.(63.425 
 
 64,020 
 
 2,127,445 
 
 584,597 
 
 8,373,100 
 
 479,307 
 
 401,007 
 
 1838 
 
 >,894 2,717.979 
 
 102,293 
 
 2,820,272 
 
 941,281 
 
 14,923,329 
 
 746,163 
 
 600,806 
 
 1839 85,256,542 3.292,220 
 
 122,747 
 
 3,414,967 
 
 1,264,008 
 
 16,314,615 
 
 818,485 
 
 644,144 
 
 89,373,431 3,194,827 
 
 111,261 
 
 3,306,088 
 
 975,586 
 
 17,733,575 
 
 822,876 
 
 629,533 
 
 1841 
 
 
 
 3,356,030 
 
 
 
 
 
 970,840 
 
 
 
 Besides the United States (whose demand, it will be observed, is subject to 
 striking fluctuations) linens are largely exported to British America, the W. Indies, 
 S. America, especially Brazil, and to France, Spain, and Gibraltar : they also enter 
 pretty largely into our trade with Italy, Portugal, the East Indies, and Australia ; 
 and small quantities are sent to Germany, Africa, and other parts. The only other 
 countries, besides France, to which yarn is sent to any amount, are Germany, 
 Holland, Belgium, and Italy, though to a small extent in the last case. No foreign 
 linens are entered for consumption in this country, except certain fine qualities of 
 cambric, including pocket handkerchiefs, which are still imported from France. 
 Some plain cloths are besides brought, though not to any great extent, from Russia 
 and Germany, for re-exportation to the W. Indies, United States, and S. America. 
 
 We possess no data for calculating the present value of the linen manufacture of 
 the United Kingdom, but do not believe we shall err greatly in estimating its 
 
 * The bounties ranged from Jd. to 1 id. a-vard, according to quality and value ; and the amount 
 generally paid was from £300,000 to £40o",000. Their abolition, which was gradual, began in 
 1825, and the payments ceased on 5th January 1832. [Bounty.] 
 
 t A considerable addition was made to the French duties on linens and yarns by ordonnance, 
 June 26, 1842, which, unless retracted or modified, will materially influence our future exports. 
 
 2 V 
 
LIN 450 LIQ, 
 
 annual amount at from £9,000,000 to £9,500,000, or nearly one-fourth that of the 
 cotton manufacture. [Flax. Hemp.] S 
 
 LING, a valuable species of cod {Lota moha, Cuv.), having a slender body, 
 usually from 3 to 4 feet in length. Large quantities are caught among the He- 
 brides, in the Orkneys, and on the Yorkshire coast ; in Cornwall and the Scilly Isles ; 
 also on the Irish coast. In Zetland, the principal fishing is from May to August ; 
 whereas in Cornwall, they are caught in January and February. Besides a portion 
 that is consumed fresh, the fish are split from head to tail, cleaned, salted in brine, 
 washed, and dried : but the demand generally falls short of the quantity cured. 
 The ports of Spain are the foreign markets chiefly supplied. The air-bladders, or 
 sounds, are prepared separately, and with those of the cod-fish are sold pickled. 
 
 LINSEED (Da. Horrfroe. Du. Lynzaad. Fr. Graine de lin. Ger. Leinsaat. 
 It. Linseme. Rus. Semja lenjanoe), the produce of the flax-plant, consists of small, 
 bright, grayish-brown, 'slippery, elongated bodies, containing a mealy oleaginous 
 albumen, which yields, by expression, oil in such great abundance that the seed 
 forms for this purpose, as well as for reproduction, an important article of trade. 
 Linseed is preferred when bright and heavy, and especially that which, when 
 bruised, appears of a light or yellowish green colour, fresh and oily. It is produced 
 only in small quantities in the United Kingdom ; but nearly 4,000,000 bushels aro 
 now annually imported ; three-fourths of which come from Russia : the remainder 
 is chiefly from Prussia, Italy, and India ; but small parcels are likewise brought 
 from N. America, Holland, Sweden, Denmark, Turkey, and Egypt. About one- 
 fifth of the importations is used in Ireland for sowing, for which purpose the 
 Dutch seed is preferred. [Flax.] S 
 
 In Russia, the great seat of this trade, the crop fluctuates exceedingly, the exports varying from 
 ahout 400,000 to 700,000 Imperial quarters. The principal ports of shipment are Riga and St 
 Petersburg. The chief general distinctions of linseed are those of sowing and of crushing seed. 
 M The former," says Mr Clark, " is understood to be a select article shipped from Riga, Windau, 
 Liebau, and Pernau, in casks, with official marks warranting'the seed to be fresh and fit for sowing ; 
 the latter is of various quality, intended to be used and fit for crushing only, and shipped from ail 
 ports of Russia, either in bulk, or in mat bags, called ' kools.' 
 
 At St Petersburg but a small part of the annual supply derived from the nearer flax-districts 
 
 arrives and is ready for shipment in May, June, and the fore-part of July ; for the principal part 
 reaches that market from the middle of July till the end of September, and comprises what is called 
 Morshansk and.Saratoff linseed, and uses to be of a quality superior to the earlier arrivals. The 
 shipment is made chiefly in the mat bags above alluded to, which are not paid for separately. The 
 article sells there by the chetvert measure, forming the contents of a kool. 
 
 " Contract purchases. for forward delivery are made in autumn, winter, and spring, either with 
 the whole price agreed for, or part .thereof, most frequently 25 to 50 per cent, paid down cash, in 
 advanceat once, or by instalments; the remainder being payable on delivery." — {Russia Trader's 
 Assistant: Exports, p. 70.) 
 
 All the seed not exported before winter is sent to Holland to be crushed for oil. 
 
 Linseed-Oil is what is called a drying oil. Cold-drawn, it is greenish-yellow, 
 and more viscid than when hot-drawn. Sp. gr. "934. It is one of the cheapest 
 fixed oils ; and is used in the manufacture of paints, varnishes, and printing ink. 
 
 Linseed-Oil Cake, the substance which remains after the oil is expressed, con- 
 tains the albuminous and mucilaginous part of the seed, and is used for fattening 
 
 LINSEY, or LINSEY WOOLSEY, a kind of flannel, of which, however, only 
 the woof is composed of wool, the warp being thread. 
 
 LIQUORICE ROOTS (Fr. Bois de reglisse. Ger. Sussholz. It. Legorizia), 
 the roots of a perennial plant (Glycyrhiza glabra), a native of the south of Europe, 
 but cultivated in England, particularly at Pontefract, in Yorkshire. They are very 
 long, about an inch thick, flexible, fibrous ; of a brown colour, and when fresh, 
 juicy ; taste sweet, and slightly bitter. They are extremely apt to spoil, and it is 
 necessary to preserve them in sand, or in some very dry place. Liquorice roots 
 are an article of the materia medica, and are also in demand by brewers and 
 druggists. They are used both in the form of extract and of powder. 
 
 LIQUORICE JUICE (It. Sugo di regolizia. Sp. Regaliz en bollos o' pastillas), 
 called also Spanish juice, black sugar, or succus liquoritia, is the inspissated juice 
 of the fresh roots just specified ; and is imported from Sicily, Italy, and Spain, in 
 cylindrical rolls, covered with bay leaves. It should be quite black, brittle when 
 cold, and break with a smooth glossy fracture, have a sweet taste without empy- 
 reuma, and be almost entirely soluble in water. It is used in medicine, particularly 
 in tickling coughs. The Italian is the best ; that from Spain is scarcely marketable. 
 About 8000 cwts. are annually imported, almost wholly from Sicily and Italy. 
 Little or no liquorice juice is made in this country, except in Yorkshire, where an 
 extract is prepared under the name of Pontefract cakes. 
 
LIS 451 LIT 
 
 Refined Liquorice, or rather what is commonly called so, is generally prepared 
 in this country by compounding inferior juice with glue or mucilage. It is in small 
 cylindrical pieces, not thicker than a goose-quill. 
 "LISBON; [Portugal.] 
 
 LISPOND, a German weight, generally equal to about 14 lbs. 
 
 LITERARY PROPERTY may be defined as the produce of intellectual exer- 
 tion, published to the world, but in such terms and under such conditions that the 
 right of publication and the benefits derivable therefrom are matter of property. 
 The peculiarity of this species of property consists in its untangible nature, which 
 leaves no room for applying to it the ordinary criteria of possession or occupancy, 
 by which physical property is ascertained ; and a peculiar code has thus been ren- 
 dered necessary for its regulation. A manuscript or a painting, while the former is 
 not printed or the latter engraved, are each viewed as pieces of physical property, 
 subject to the ordinary rules of possession. It is when copies come to be multiplied 
 for publication that literary property is constituted and brought into existence. 
 
 The law of copyright is now embodied in 5 & 6 Vict. c. 45. As to all works published 
 after the date of the act (1st July 1842), it extends to the lifetime of the author, and 
 to 7 years after Ins death ; but if these 7 years should expire within 42 years from 
 the first publication, the copyright is to exist till the termination of 42 years from 
 the date of publishing. The copyright of a book published after the author's death, 
 and after 1st July 1842, is to exist 42 years, in the person of the proprietor of 
 the MS. (§ 3). The same period of copyright is extended to the authors of books 
 
 Eublished before 1st July 1842, and to their representatives ; but publishers who 
 ave acquired the copyright of them, hold it only to the extent of the old law (viz. 
 28 years or the lifetime of the author), unless the author, or his representative 
 holding the copyright, consent to accept the benefits of the act, and enter a minute 
 to that effect in the register at Stationers' Hall, when the remaining copyright 
 " shall be the property of such person or persons as in such minute shall be ex- 
 pressed " (§ 4). Where the holder of a copyright after the author's death refuses 
 to give the world the benefit of the work, the judicial committee of the privy 
 council may grant a license to publish it, on its being shown to be advantageous to 
 the public (§5). 
 
 Entry at Stationers' Hall. — Proprietors of the copyright of books to be published 
 may enter in the register of the Stationers' Company, the title, time of publication, 
 name and abode of publisher, and the name and abode of the proprietor of the 
 copyright, or of any portion of it, defining what portion : 5s. is payable to the com- 
 pany's officer (§ 13). Any person aggrieved by such an entry, may have it cor- 
 rected by application to any of the courts at Westminster" Hall (§ 14). The 
 register may be consulted by any one, on payment of Is. for ea,ch entry inspected. 
 A certified extract may be obtained on payment of 5s. (§ 11). 
 
 Copies to Public Libraries.— Ho the British Museum, a copy of each book must 
 be sent, on the best paper used in the impression, with all plates, &c, that may 
 belong to it, finished in the best manner, and a like copy of every subsequent edi- 
 tion, if there be alterations. If the work be published within the "bills of mortality, 
 the delivery must be within one month — if elsewhere, within three (§ 6). The 
 following libraries are entitled each to a copy of the ordinary impression of every 
 book :— The Bodleian, at Oxford ; the Public Library, at Cambridge ; the Advo- 
 Library, at Edinburgh ; and Trinity College Library, at Dublin. The book 
 must be given within a mouth after any demand in writing by the proper officer of 
 the Stationers' Co., or by a librarian of the privileged library, demanding the copy, 
 the notice being given within a year after the pubUcation (§ 8). The copy for any 
 library may be delivered to the librarian, a receipt being obtained from him (§ 9). 
 oalty for not delivering each copy is, besides the value of the copy, a sum 
 not exceeding £.5, recoverable either summarily before two justices, or by an ordin- 
 ary action (§ 10). When entry is omitted, in the case of a book published after 
 the date of the act, the remedies specially conferred by the act for infringement of 
 copyright are lost ( § 24). 
 
 Constitution and Transmission of Property. — The man who projects and composes 
 a book is the proprietor of the copyright, unless he have conveyed it away. A 
 simple method of conveyance is appointed by the act, viz. an entry of assignment 
 in the register at Stationers' Hall (§ 13). The law was formerly in a very doubt- 
 ful state as to proprietorship, where the author was employed by publishers ; and 
 especially in the case of contributions to periodicals and works of reference. It 
 has now been distinctively fixed by the followiug clause in the new act : 
 
 " That when any publisher or other person shall, before or at the time of the pass- 
 
LIT 452 LIT 
 
 ing of this act, have projected, conducted, and carried on, or shall hereafter project, 
 conduct, and carry on, or be the proprietor of any encyclopaedia, review, magazine, 
 periodical work, or work published in a series of books or parts, or any book what- 
 soever, and shall have employed or shall employ any persons to compose the same, or 
 any volumes, parts, essays, articles, or portions thereof, for publication in or as 
 
 Eart of the same, and such work, volumes, parts, essays, articles, or portions shall 
 ave been or shall hereafter be composed under such employment, on the terms 
 that the copyright therein shall belong to such proprietor, projector, publisher, or 
 conductor, and paid for by such proprietor, projector, publisher, or conductor, the 
 copyright in every such encyclopaedia, review, magazine, periodical work, and 
 work published in a series of books or parts, and in every volume, part, essay, 
 article, and portion so composed and paid for, shall be the property of such pro- 
 prietor, projector, publisher, or other conductor, who shall enjoy the same rights 
 as if he were the actual author thereof, and shall have such term of copyright 
 therein as is given to the authors of books by this act ; except only that, in the case 
 of essays, articles, or portions forming part of and first published in reviews, maga- 
 zines, or other periodical works of a like nature, after the term of 28 years from 
 the first publication thereof respectively, the right of publishing the same in a se- 
 parate form shall revert to the author for the remainder of the term given by this 
 act ; provided always, that during the term of 28 years the said proprietor, pro- 
 jector, publisher, or conductor shall not publish any such essay, article, or portion 
 separately or singly without the consent previously obtained of the author thereof, 
 or his assigns : provided also, that nothing herein contained shall alter or affect 
 the right of any person who shall have been or who shall be so employed as afore- 
 said to publish any such his composition in a separate form, who by any con- 
 tract, express or implied, may have reserved or may hereafter reserve to himself 
 such right ; but every author reserving, retaining, or having such right, shall be 
 entitled to the copyright in such composition when published in a separate form, 
 according to this act, without prejudice to the right of such proprietor, projector, 
 publisher, or conductor as aforesaid. The entry of such works in series may be 
 made at Stationers' Hall, at the commencement of the issue, once for all" (§ 11). 
 
 Copyright is declared by the act to be personal property (§25). 
 
 Remedies against Piracy. — The remedy is by an ordinary action of damages, 
 against any party publishing or selling without license a work belonging to another, 
 or importing copies of it from abroad (§ 15). Where a person pursued for piracy 
 intends to question the pursuer's title, he must send specific notice before trial, 
 stating the facts as to composition and proprietorship, on which he founds (§ 16). 
 All actions must be commenced within twelve months after the cause of action has 
 arisen (§ 26). Pirated copies of books become the property of the owner of the 
 copyright (§ 23). Any person accessory to importing for sale or hire copies of 
 books in which there is copyright, on conviction before two justices of peace, for- 
 feits for each offence £10, and double the value of the copies imported. Officers of 
 customs and excise are authorized to seize such illegally imported copies ; and, on 
 the recovery of the penalty, £5 goes to the officer seizing,— the remainder to the 
 proprietor of the copyright (§ 17). 
 
 It is sometimes very difficult to determine whether a copyright has been infringed, 
 and how far. In the case of books of reference, especially those belonging to the 
 exact sciences, — in road-books, calculation-tables, and almanacs, it will often 
 happen that parties cannot go over the same ground without producing the same 
 result, so that identity is not in every case (as in ordinary literary works) proof 
 of plagiarism. The difficulty, however, is greatly overcome by keeping in view 
 the principle at the foundation of literary property,— that no man is entitled to 
 make use of the labours of his neighbours for his own behoof. The chief difficulty 
 in such case rests in the evidence of adaptation, and this must often be incidental, — 
 it will arise from peculiarities in order and method which the plagiarist has been 
 found to have mechanically employed without knowing their application ; from 
 the use of exclusive information, to which the plagiarist had no access ; and it may 
 even arise in the adoption of the typographical errors of the original. The most 
 clear evidence generally obtainable, is the distribution of part of the original work 
 in the printing-office as " copy " to the compositors. 
 
 International Copyright. — By a late act, copyright may be secured in works first 
 published abroad, if the publication have been in a country which grants a reci- 
 
 5rocal privilege to books first published in the United Kingdom (1 & 2 Vict. c. 59). 
 'he privilege is proclaimed by order in council. It cannot exceed the amount of 
 copyright privilege which the acts allow to the publications of this country (§ 1), but 
 
LIT 453 LLO 
 
 it may be for any shorter period that the order in council may direct (§ 7). The 
 title of the book, name and place of the author, and time and place of first publica- 
 tion abroad, must be entered at Stationers' Hall, and a copy must be deposited in 
 the British Museum within a time specified in the order (§ 1). No copyright in a 
 work first published abroad can be enjoyed in the United Kingdom, except in terms 
 of the act, which includes music, maps, charts, and plans (§§ 13, 16). 
 
 In Dramatic Compositions there is now, by 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 15, a copyright as 
 against performance on the stage. It extends absolutely to all pieces not printed 
 and published at the passing of the act, and to all that have been printed and 
 
 Sublished at any time not more than ten years before the date of the act (10th 
 une 1833), in both cases for twenty-eight years from the date of publication, and 
 thence during the author's life. By 5 & 6 Vict. c. 45, above mentioned, the 
 period extended by the act to other literary property is extended to dramatic re- 
 presentations : and it is provided that an assignment for publication of a dramatic 
 piece is not to convey the right to represent it (§§ 20, 21). The penalty for infringe- 
 ment of this species of copyright is 40s., or damages to the extent of the sum cleared 
 by the representation, and double costs. 
 
 "in Musical Compositions there is a copyright which, by §§ 20 & 21 of 5 & 6 
 Vict., is made precisely the same as that in dramatic compositions. 
 
 Lectures. — Another late statute (5 & 6 Wm. IV. c. 65) constitutes a copyright 
 in lectures delivered, which are not to be published without the lecturer's consent, 
 either by persons who have obtained liberty to attend them, through the payment of 
 fees, or by any other unauthorized person. * The privilege extends by the statute to 
 the usual period of copyright, which, at the time the act was passed, was 28 years. 
 There is no mention of this species of copyright in 5 & 6 Vict. 
 
 LITHARGE (Fr. Litharge. Ger. Gl'dtte), a semi-vitrified oxide of lead, in 
 the form of small shining heavy scales, or more or less agglutinated masses. It is 
 usually produced in the purification of silver from lead, and the refining of gold 
 and silver by means of this metal. According to the degree of fire and state of 
 oxidation, it has a pale or a deep colour, — the one is called litharge of silver, and the 
 other litharge of gold. Litharge is employed in medicine, and by potters, glass- 
 makers, painters, and others. About 500 tons are annually exported, chiefly to 
 Germany and Russia. 
 
 LITMUS (Fr. Tournesol. Ger. Lackmus), a violet-blue dye, prepared chiefly 
 in Holland from a lichen (Lecomora tartarea), which grows in the Canary and Cape 
 de Verde Islands. It is imported in small cubical cakes, of a dusky blue colour, light, 
 and easily pulverized. It is employed to stain marble ; also as a chemical test of 
 acidity,being reddened by acids, while the blue is restored by alkalis ; for this purpose 
 it is employed either in the form of a tincture, or of unsized paper coloured with it. 
 
 LITRE, a French measure of capacity equal 1^ Imp. pint nearly. 
 
 LI VRE, the integer of account in the old system of France, is equivalent to 9hd. 
 nearly ; and 81 livres = 80 francs. Livre is also the French name for a pound 
 weight. The livre usuel = 1 lb. 1 oz. 10 1 drams avoird. 
 
 LLOYD'S, the name of a subscription coffeehouse in London, celebrated on 
 account ot its being the office of the Society of Underwriters. [Insurance, 
 Marine ] It is situated in a gallery of the Royal Exchange, Cornhill, and 
 its rooms are private to the subscribers. Few or none of the commercial 
 institutions of Britain have excited in a higher degree the admiration of intelligent 
 foreigners. " The establishment of insurances at Lloyd's," says Baron Dupin, 
 ** has rendered signal services both to the commerce of the British empire and to 
 that of other states. The society has agents in most of the principal ports of all 
 parts of the world ; it makes public the events, both commercial and maritime, 
 which it learns through their means : these accounts are received by the public 
 with a confidence which nothing for more than a century has tended to destroy." 
 " At Lloyd's," says Von Raumer* " close to the dial which tells the hour, is one 
 still more interesting here, which tells the direction of the wind, and is connected 
 with the weathercock on the roof. Intelligence of the arrivals and departures of 
 ships, — of the existence and fate of vessels in all parts of the world,— reports from 
 consuls and commissioners resident in every foreign town, — newspapers and 
 gazettes from every country, are here to be found, arranged in such perfect and con- 
 venient order, that the entire actual state of the commercial world may be seen in 
 a few minutes, and any of the countless threads that converge to this centre may 
 be followed out with more or less minuteness. The whole earth, or the whole 
 
 * The Prussian traveller's description refers to the rooms in the Old Exchange, but their gen- 
 eral characteristics continue preserved in the new edifice. 
 
LLO 4.54 LLO 
 
 commercial machinery of the earth, appeared to me to be placed in the hands of 
 the directors of Lloyd's coffeehouse." 
 
 In order to become a subscriber to this institution, the candidate must be proposed 
 by six members, and afterwards accepted by the managing committee. The rooms 
 are open for the transaction of insurance business from 10 a. m. to 5 p.m. S 
 Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign Shipping. 
 
 For many years a committee of gentlemen connected with Lloyd's has superin- 
 tended a registry of the qualifications of ships ; which, upon the reports made of 
 them by surveyors, are ranked in different classes, and a preference given as 
 to employment and insurance, according to the place assigned to them. Until 
 1834, the age of the ship was held to be conclusive evidence as to her deterioration, 
 without reference to original quality or repairs ; but this regulation having led to 
 the building of ships with little regard to durability, and to the application of re- 
 pairs as sparingly as possible, the system of classification was in that year thoroughly 
 reformed. Ships are now classed according to their real and intrinsic qualities at 
 the time of survey ; and thus every inducement is presented to build them in a 
 substantial manner, and to give them thorough repairs as often as needed. Tho 
 rules for the guidance of owners are stated in detail in the Register Book. The 
 principal are the following : — 
 
 First Class Ships.— First Description comprises all which have not passed a prescribed age, 
 provided they are kept iu a state of complete repair and efficiency ; and they are designated by 
 the letter A (§33). 
 
 The period of continuance in this class varies from four to twelve years, according to the original 
 construction and quality of the vessel, the materials employed, and the mode of building ; but 
 after the expiration of the prescribed period, ships are permitted to remain in this rank, or to be 
 restored thereto for a further limited period, on the conditions after mentioned. 
 
 If, on the termination of the period of original designation, a shipowner should wish to have his 
 ship remain on the letter A, he is to send a written notice thereof to the committee, who then 
 direct a special survey to be held ; and if, from the report of such special survey, the ship shall 
 appear to be in all respects in a sound and efficient state, and to have preserved her original form 
 unaltered, the committee will continue such ship on the letter A for such further period as they 
 may think fit, — not exceeding, however, one-third of the number of years which had been origin- 
 ally assigned (§ 54). 
 
 If, at any time before the expiration of two-thirds of the number of years, beyond the period for 
 which ships may have been originally assigned to remain in the First Description of the First 
 Class, an owner be desirous to have his ship restored to that description, such restoration (after 
 survey and repairs) will be granted for a period not exceeding two-thirds of the time originally 
 assigned for the remaining therein ; the same to be calculated from the date of such repairs ( § 55). 
 
 If, at any age of a vessel, an owner be desirous to have the ship restored to the First Descrip- 
 tion of the First Class, such restoration (after survey and repairs) will be granted for so long a 
 period as may be deemed expedient by the committee, not exceeding in any case the term of six 
 years (§ 57). 
 
 On the same principle of giving every proper advantage to ships which shall be actually proved 
 to be superior of their class, and in excellent condition, ships which have been restored to the 
 class A shall be entitled to an extension of the time ; but the term of such extended continuance 
 shall be limited to a period not exceeding one-third of the number of years for which the ships 
 may respectively have been restored, without any reference whatever to the period originally as- 
 signed to them (§59). 
 
 Second Description comprises &\\ ships which, having passed the prescribed age, but have not 
 undergone the repairs which would entitle them to be continued in or restored to the First De- 
 scription, or having been continued or restored, and the additional period thus assigned having 
 expired,— appear on survey to be still in a condition for the safe conveyance of dry and perishable 
 cargoes ; and they are designated by the diphthong M : but such of the ships of this class as are 
 found on survey to be of superior description, being fit for the conveyance of dry and perishable 
 goods to andfromall parts of the world, are distinguished by an asterisk, thus prefixed, *M (§ 60). 
 
 For the purpose of continuing a ship in this class a careful survey is required annually, or on 
 the return from every forei<m voyage ; but if not surveyed within twelve months after entering the 
 Second Description of the First Class, such ship having been during that time in some port in the 
 United Kingdom, the character will be omitted until such survey be held ; or, as the case may be, 
 6he will be allowed to pass into the class E (§61). 
 
 British North American built ships, and ships built in India, are subject to special rules of 
 classification (§§62, 63, 70). 
 
 Second Class Ships comprise all found on survey unfit for carrying dry cargoes, but perfectly 
 fit for the conveyance to and from all parts of the world of cargoes not in their nature subject to 
 sea-damage, and they are designated by the letter E. Subject to occasional inspection, ships 
 are continued in this class so long as their condition shall, in the opinion of the committee, entitle 
 them thereto (§§64, 65). 
 
 Third Class Ships comprise those in good condition, and found on survey fit for the convey- 
 ance on short voyages (not out of Europe) of cargoes in their nature not subject to sea-damage; 
 and they are designated by the letter I (§ 66). 
 
 Steam Ships require to be surveyed twice in each year, when a character is assigned to them 
 according to the report of survey as regards the classification of the hull and materials of the 
 vessel. That, with respect to the boilers and machinery, the letters " M C " are inserted in the 
 Registry Book, when at those periods the owners have delivered to the surveyors the certificate 
 of a competent master- engineer that they are in good order (§§78, 79). 
 
LOA 455 LOC 
 
 The stores of all classes of vessels are designated by the figures 1 and 2,-1 signifying that the 
 well and sufficiently found, 2 that she is deficient in either quantity or quality. Thus, 
 " 12 A 1 " denotes a twelve-years ship of the first description of the first class, with stores well 
 ami sufficiently found. 
 
 The case of damages to ships is subject to special regulations ; but the class of a ship is never 
 reduced before communicating in writing with the owner, master, or agent (§ 21-25). 
 
 The office of Lloyd's Register Society is 2 "White Lion Court, Cornhill, London. The subscrip- 
 tion is £3, 3s. per annum, for which a Register Book and Supplements are delivered annually. 
 In the book for the year 1841-42, there were of class A, 5961 ships ; M, 3568 ; E, 890 ; I, 54 ; no 
 character assigned, 1856; in all, 12,329. S 
 
 LOADSTONE. [Magnet.] 
 
 LOAN FUND SOCIETIES, benevolent associations for accommodating the 
 industrious poor with small loans. Societies of this kind have been long common 
 in the sister island ; and Mr Inglis, in his " Ireland in 1834," testifies to their 
 utility. Since that year they have, under the protection and regulation of a new sta- 
 tute, "and a " Central Loan Fund Board " established in Dublin, been greatly increas- 
 ed. In the beginning of 1841, the number enrolled under this Board was 243, which 
 was exclusive of numerous societies in connexion with a London association termed 
 the " Irish Reproductive Loan Institution." Of these 243 societies, 215 had made 
 returns to the board, showing that in 1840 the amount circulated by them was no 
 less than £1,164,046; the number of borrowers, 463,750 ; the profit, after paying 
 interest to depositors and expenses of management, £15,838; deducting from which 
 the loss of 17 societies, £361, left of net profit, £15,477. A few of these societies 
 partake of the nature of Monts de Piete, but in general they are petty banks, 
 receiving ou deposit the small savings of one class, and lending them out to another 
 in loans ; each individual borrower giving two joint-securities. Sometimes funds 
 are raised by deposits from the gentry, free of interest, but more commonly on 
 debentures bearing 5 or 6 per cent. The managing committee is formed of the 
 resident clergy and others, who act gratuitously ; and the net profit is appropriated 
 towards a dispensary, school, clothing and fuel for the poor, or supplying indigent 
 farmers with seed at prime cost. The general tendency of these associations appears 
 to be to engender and foster habits of industry, sobriety, and punctuality ; and 
 the board are of opinion that the prosperity of the system is in no small degree 
 attributable to the societies being upheld by their own resources and exertions." 
 For a fuller account of the working of the system, we must refer to the annual 
 reports of the board presented to Parliament. 
 
 In England, these societies are mostly confined to the metropolitan district; and 
 the accounts laid before Parliament in 1841 by Mr Pratt, the barrister appointed 
 to certify the rules of savings banks, show their number on 31st December 1840 
 to have been only 45 ; the amount circulated in the previous year, £67,711; and 
 the number of borrowers, 11,438. Neither the English nor the Irish accounts 
 show the proportional amount of the loans repaid by the securities. 
 
 The Irish societies are regulated by the act 6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 55, as amended by 
 1 & 2 Vict. c. 78. These acts provide for the establishment of a Central Board in 
 Dublin ; the revision of the societies' rules by a barrister ; the limitation of loans 
 to £10 at one time, and the interest to 6d. a-pound for 20 weeks ; the appointment 
 of officers, managers, and trustees ; the exemption of documents from stamp-duty ; 
 the recovery of the loans before justices ; and a variety of other rules as to their 
 economy, safety, and good order. In England, the regulating statute is 3 & 4 Vict. 
 c. 110, which contains provisions somewhat similar ; allowing, however, a loan of 
 £15 to one individual, and limiting the interest to 5 per cent. 
 
 The loan society system is not practised in Scotland. 
 
 LOBSTER, a long-tailed crustaceous animal (Astacus marinus) found in abund- 
 ance on the rocky coasts of Britain and other parts of Europe, particularly Norway, 
 from whence large quantities are brought to London : the number annually sold at 
 Billingsgate is nearly 2,000,000. They are caught by traps or pots made of twigs, 
 baited with garbage ; also by baited nets ; and in some countries by torch-light, 
 with the aid of a kind of wooden forceps. In summer, when they deposit their 
 eggs, they are found near the shore ; in winter they are seldom taken in less than 
 12 or 15 fathoms. A sizeable animal is from 1 to 2 lbs. in weight. 
 
 No lobsters must be taken on the coast of Scotland between 1st June and 1st September, under 
 a penalty of £5 for each offence ; 9 Geo. II. c. 33, § 4. 
 
 Fresh lobsters, however taken or imported, mav be landed in the United Kingdom without 
 report, entry, or warrant ; 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 52, § 2. 
 
 LOCKS (Fr. Serrures. Ger. Schlosser. It. Serrature. Por. Fechaduras. Rus. 
 Samki. Sp. Cerraduras) are in this country principally manufactured at Wolver- 
 hampton in Staffordshire ; but a lar^e share of the trade is likewise possessed by 
 
LOG 456 LOT 
 
 Birmingham and London, where those of the finest quality are made. [Iron 
 Manufactures.] 
 
 LOG, the apparatus used for measuring the velocity of a ship's motion, consists 
 of the log-ship and line attached to it. The former, a small thin wooden quadrant, 
 having the circular edge loaded with lead to make it stand upright, keeps its place 
 in the water when thrown out, while the line is unwound from a reel in the snip's 
 gallery ; and the length unwound in a certain time gives the rate of sailing. This 
 is calculated by knots made on the line, the length between which, usually 40 or 
 50 feet, is so proportioned to the time measured by a sand-glass, that the num- 
 ber unwound shows the number of miles which the ship is sailing in the hour. 
 The log-book— the ship's journal — contains an account of the progress made as de- 
 duced from observations of the log. It is posted daily from the log-board, where 
 these are first recorded. It also contains the state of the weather, direction of 
 currents, position of rocks or shoals, seeing or speaking other vessels, and, in short, 
 all matters relating to the ship's place, not only for present convenience, but as 
 matter of intelligence, or of evidence in case of future inquiry. The course and 
 distance run, computed from the log-book, termed by seamen dead-reckoning, fur- 
 nishes an approximative estimate of the ship's position, which is necessarily used 
 until an opportunity is afforded of taking observations of longitude and latitude, 
 or of approaching land. Men-of-war steamers keep two log-books, — the ordinary 
 ship's log, and an account of the engine. 
 
 LOGWOOD (Fr. Bois de Camptche. Ger. Blauholz. It. Campeggio. Sp. Palo 
 de Campeche), a dyewood obtained from the Hcematoxylon Campechianum, a tree 
 which grows in Campeachy and Jamaica, especially the former, from whence the 
 finest wood is procured. It is hard, heavy, of a deep orange colour, a sweetish 
 astringent taste, and peculiar odour ; and is brought to us in large blocks or 
 billets, which are afterwards reduced to chips. Logwood is extensively employed 
 for compound colours, but its chief use is for blacks, and certain shades of gray : 
 an extract from it is also used in medicine. From 25,000 to 30,000 tons are annu- 
 ally imported, — nearly one-fourth of which, however, is re-exported to Russia, 
 Prussia, and other parts of northern Europe. 
 
 LOMBARD, a bank for lending money on pawn. 
 
 LOSS. [Insurance, Marine.] 
 
 LOTTERIES, PUBLIC or STATE. The first English lottery on record was in 
 1569, for the benefit of the harbours and other works. Licenses for various schemes 
 were afterwards occasionally granted ; and in 1694, state-lotteries were introduced 
 in aid of the finances. The principle upon which the public lotteries were con- 
 ducted was that of selling a certain number of chances or tickets, and distributing 
 by lot a part only of the money collected among a small number of the ticket- 
 holders. The immorality of the government in thus encouraging a spirit of gam- 
 bling among the people, and misleading them from those habits of continued in- 
 dustry essential to the prosperity of a commercial nation, soon became apparent, 
 and in course of time was forced upon the attention of Parliament. In 1808, a 
 Committee of the House of Commons reported, " that by the effects of the lottery, 
 even under its present restrictions, idleness, dissipation, and poverty are increased, 
 — the most sacred and confidential trusts are betrayed, — domestic comfort is de- 
 stroyed, — madness often created, — crimes subjecting the perpetrators of them to 
 the punishment of death are committed, — and even suicide itself is produced, as will 
 fully appear by the evidence submitted to the House." — " No mode of raising money- 
 appears to your Committee so burdensome, so pernicious, and so unproductive. 
 Notwithstanding this just denunciation, government persisted in raising about a 
 quarter of a million annually by contributions which, to use the forcible words of 
 M. Say, were in most cases taken " from the bread of misery, if not from the fruit 
 of crime," until 1 823, the year when the last act was sanctioned for the sale of 
 lottery- tickets. This act likewise contained provisions for the suppression of all 
 
 Srivate lotteries ? and the sale in this kingdom of shares in any foreign lottery. 
 'his latter provision being extensively evaded, another statute was passed in 1836 
 (6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 66), imposing a penalty of £50 for advertising foreign and other 
 illegal lotteries. Devices are used, however, for the evasion even of this act. 
 
 Lotteries have been abolished in France, but they still exist in many other parts 
 of the Continent. In Italy, their pestilential influence affects every town and all 
 classes : each government has one, the tickets for which are sold in all the other 
 states, and a drawing takes place every week or two ; while, the tickets being in- 
 finitesimally divisible, chances may be purchased by day-labourers and beggars, 
 who are there the most eager of all gamblers (Spalding's Italy and the Italian 
 
LUB 
 
 457 
 
 LUC 
 
 Ixlani/s, vol. iii. p. 249). Lotteries are also (or were lately) sanctioned for public 
 purposes in several parts of the United States. 
 
 LUBEC, one of the Hanseatic states, consists of a town and small territory, 
 lying chiefly at the mouth of the Trave, between Holstein and Mecklenburg. Area, 
 including detached lands shared with Hamburg, 130 sq. miles. Population, 46,500 ; 
 that of the city being 26,000. The government is vested in a senate and house of 
 burgesses. S 
 
 The city is clean, cheerful, and pleasantly situated, in lat. 53° 5? N., long. 10° 41' E., on an 
 erainence'between the Wakenitz and Trave, about 10 or 12 miles from the mouth of the latter, 
 where is Travemunde, its port, with which it communicates by means of lighters and steamers. 
 Although by no means so important as formerly, it still may be considered a thriving town. It 
 possesses various small manufactures, a considerable share of the carrying trade in Russian pro- 
 duce, and an extensive transit trade, particularly with Hamburg, distant only 36 miles, with 
 which it is connected by means of the Trave and a canal. Exports, chiefly corn. Imports, 
 French wines and silks, British manufactures, and colonial produce. From Travemunde : 
 packets sail regularly for Petersburg, Copenhagen, and Stockholm. 
 
 Measures, Weights, Monies, Duties, &c. 
 
 Measures and Weights.— The ell of 2 feet = 
 2270 Imp. inches. 
 
 The ahm of 20 viertels, 40 stubgen, or 80 kan- 
 nes = 31 - 87 Imp. gallons. 
 
 The last of wheat or rye of 8 dromts, 24 barrels, 
 or 96 scheffels = 11-04 Imp. quarters: the last 
 of oats, similarly divided, = 12*95 do. 
 
 The centner of 8 lisponds or 112 Lubec lbs. 
 
 than formerly with the Hanse Towns. It is dated 
 London, August 3, 1841. 
 
 Art. 1. Provides that all British vessels enter- 
 ing the Hanseatic ports from countries not the 
 dominions of Britain, shall not pay other or 
 higher dues than are exigible on Hanse vessels in 
 similar circumstances ; and the duties on their 
 cargoes shall be the same as if such cargoes had 
 
 119-67 lbs. avoird. ; and 100 Lubec lbs. = 106-85 \ been in Hanse vessels. On the other hand, 
 lb?, avoird. Gold and silver are weighed with Hanse vessels from Hanse ports shall be admitted 
 the Cologne mark of 3608 troy grains. | to the ports of all British possessions, on pay- 
 
 Money. — Accounts are stated in marks of 16 , ment of the same dues as are exigible on British 
 schillings, each of 12 pfennings Lubec currency , vessels in similar circumstances ; and the duties 
 or Lubs. The mark, valued at the rate of 34 to on their cargoes shall be the same as if such car- 
 the Cologne mark weight of fine silver, is equal goes had been in British vessels. 
 Is. 2£d. ; and 16 marks 113 schill. = £1. The j Art. 2. Britain likewise agrees that all goods, 
 dollar contains 3 marks. Foreign exchanges are , the produce of the Hanse states, the other Ger- 
 transacted through the medium of Hamburg, ; man states, or of the German Customs Union, 
 in marks banco, the agio on which, compared! which may be imported in any foreign vessel 
 with Lubec currency, is usually about 23 per cent, from the Hanse ports, or any port on the Elbe 
 
 Finances. — The public revenue is about 750,000 or Weser, into the ports of the British posses- 
 marks : the debt in 1836 amounted to 5,500,000 sions abroad, including Gibraltar and Malta, 
 marks, but it has since been reduced. I shall also be permitted to be imported from the 
 
 Duties. — On imports, J per cent, ad valorem ; ' Hanse ports into those of said B. P. abroad, 
 on exports, nil : the transit duty is from i to 1 in Hanse vessels ; and such goods imported into, 
 per cent. j and all goods exported to any foreign country 
 
 Treaty tcith Britain. — Since the article Ham- . whatever from the ports of said B. P. abroad, 
 burg was written, a treaty supplementary to the! in Hanse vessels, shall pay the same duties as 
 one described under that head has been published, j if they were imported or exported in British 
 which provides for a more liberal intercourse vessels. 
 
 LUCCA, an Italian duchy, situated on the W. coast, immediately N. of Tuscany. 
 Area, 420 square miles ; population, 168,198. The capital, which bears the same 
 name, has a population of 24,092. Government, an absolute monarchy. 
 
 The country is naturally divided into the Apennine region ; the valley of the Serchio, including 
 the highly cultivated plain of Lucca ; and the coast district, in part marshy, but producing good 
 pasture. Owing chiefly to the minute subdivision of land, there are no fewer than 25,000 petty 
 proprietors, and from this circumstance the country is the most densely peopled of Italy, and 
 indeed of Europe. The Lucchese are, however, industrious and shrewd ; and many of them emi- 
 grate to foreign lands, where they work as stucco-image and plaster-cast makers. The duchy, 
 though mainly agricultural, possesses a few manufactures of silks, woollens, cottons, linens, paper, 
 and iron. Its commercial intercourse is principally with Tuscany, especially Leghorn, between 
 which place and the town of Lucca, by way of Pisa, a railway is in progress. Exports, mostly olive- 
 oil (the best in Italy), with silk, timber, chestnuts, and fish. Imports, grain, seeds, wines, spirits, 
 cattle, hemp, flax, cottons and other manufactured goods, tropical produce, salted provisions, and 
 pig-iron. " The export trade," says Dr Bowring, " is about four millions of francs (£160,000) ; 
 that of oil amounts to 800,000 fr., and that of fresh fish gives to the district of Viareggio an annual 
 sum of 250,000 fr. The imports nearly balance the exports ; but considerable quantities of bul- 
 lion enter the duchy in payment of articles, of which (from their not being charged with export 
 duty) no account is kept at the customhouse."— {Report on Italian States, p. 66.) The only port 
 is Viareggio, which possesses a roadstead frequented by coasting- vessels. 
 
 Measures, Weights, Monies, &c. 
 Measures and Weights. — The woollen braccio ' but the pound " peso grosso" = 11 Leghorn 
 = 23-8 Imp. inches ; the silk braccio = 22-8 1 lbs. = 8-234 lbs. avoird. 
 
 Imp. inches; 4 braccia = 1 canna. The oil | Money. — Accounts are generally stated in Luc- 
 coppo, reckoned generally at 24 lbs. peso grosso I chese lire of 20 soldi, each of 12 denari di lira. 
 = 21-97 Imp. gallons. The wine measure is the | Payments are made chiefly in the money of Tus- 
 Leghorn Larile of 20 fiasci. The corn staja = jj cany ; and 6 lire 6J soldi of Lucca are reckoned 
 Imp. bushel. The pound = 5213J troy grains'; equal to the Leghorn pezza of 8 reals. Foreign 
 
LUG 458 MAC 
 
 exchanges and the usances of bills are regulated 
 
 entirely by the custom of Leghorn 
 
 Tradesmen sometimes reckon in gold crowns 
 (scudi d'oro) of 20 soldi, each of 12 denari d'oro. 
 The gold crown s= 7i lire. 
 
 Principal Duties. — Cotton and linen manu- 
 
 factures, 10 per cent, ad valorem i cotton twist, 
 L3 per 100 lbs. ; woollens and hardware, 12 per 
 cent. ; coffee and loaf-sugar, L15 per 100 lbs. ; 
 brown sugar, L8 per 100 lbs. 
 
 Finances. — The state revenue is about£80,000. 
 There are no public debts beyond pensions, &c. 
 
 LUGGER, a vessel with two or three masts, up and down which lug-sails are 
 made to traverse, so that they may be readily set or taken in without going aloft. 
 Slight, quick-sailing craft of this kind were used as privateers by the French in 
 the last war. On the E. coast of England strong-built luggers are much employed 
 in the herring and mackerel fishery. 
 
 LUMBER, a term applied, chiefly in America, to timber through all its pre- 
 paratory stages, from its growing in the woods until it be put into the hands of 
 the artificer for the purpose of being worked up. It occurs principally in the 
 form of scantling, deals, inch-thick boards, clap-boards, shingles, staves, and hoops. 
 Varieties of pine constitute the great bulk of what is usually denominated lumber 
 in British America. 
 
 LUSTRE, a plain silk and worsted fabric, similar to poplin. 
 
 LUTESTRING, a plain, stout, silken fabric, forming, with gros de Naples, of 
 which indeed it is merely a fine kind, " the staple of silks." 
 
 LYCOPODIUM, an inflammable powder used in fireworks, obtained from a 
 common moss-like plant of the same name. 
 
 M. 
 
 MACAO, a Portuguese settlement in China, lying in lat. 22° 12' N., long. 113° 
 34' E., on the west side of the entrance of the Canton river, on a peninsula project- 
 ing from a small territory separated from the continent by river-channels. Cir- 
 cuit about 8 miles. Population said to be 30,000, mostly Chinese. It is jointly 
 ruled by Portuguese officers and a Chinese mandarin, — the latter possessing, how- 
 ever, all the real power. 
 
 This place was granted to the Portuguese in 1586, in return for assistance afforded by them 
 against pirates that had infested the coast ; and it was at one time the centre of their intercourse 
 with China, Annam, Siam, and Japan ; but having suffered from that supine sloth which has 
 involved all their Eastern empire, its trade is now quite inconsiderable. Of late, its chief or 
 rather sole importance has been derived from its containing the dwellings of the Europeans trading 
 with Canton, at which place they are only allowed to reside during the tea-season. Even at Macao 
 the Portuguese and other strangers are jealously watched by the Chinese, who have a fortified 
 barrier across the isthmus, beyond which foreigners are not allowed to pass. A ground rent of 
 5()0 taels per annum is paid for this settlement by the Portuguese to the Chinese government, which, 
 besides, levies a duty on the shipping. [China.] 
 
 MACCARONI is composed of wheaten flour, flavoured with other articles, and 
 worked up with water into a paste, to which, by a peculiar process, a tubular or 
 pipe form is given, in order that it may cook more readily in hot water ; that of 
 smaller diameter than maccaroni (which is about the thickness of a goose-quill) 
 is called vermicelli, and when smaller still, fedelini. The finest is made from the 
 flour of the hard-grained Black Sea wheat. Maccaroni is the principal article of 
 food in many parts of Italy, particularly Naples, where the best is manufactured, and 
 from whence also it is exported in considerable quantities. In this country mac- 
 caroni and vermicelli are sometimes used in soups. 
 
 MACE (Du. Foely. Fr. Macis. Ger. Muskatenblute. Por. Maxcis), a spice 
 composed of the membranous tunic or covering investing the black shell in which 
 the nutmeg is contained, and is first disclosed on the fruit ripening and burst- 
 ing. When good it is thin, flexible, oily, of a bright reddish-yellow colour, has 
 the spicy odour of the nutmeg, but more pungent ; and an aromatic, bitterish, 
 acrid taste. That which is brittle, pale, and of little smell or taste, is to be avoided. 
 Mace, though chiefly used for culinary purposes, is occasionally employed medicin- 
 ally as an aromatic and stimulant. About 20,000 lbs. are annually entered for 
 home consumption. [Nutmeg.] S 
 
 MACHINERY for cotton-spinning and weaving is constructed on a great scale 
 at Manchester ; flax-mills at Leeds ; marine steam-engines at Glasgow ; and 
 woollen and lace machines, locomotives, and an innumerable variety of other arti- 
 cles, at many places in Britain. We possess no means of computing the total 
 extent of these manufactures; but in a late Report by a Committee of the House 
 of Commons on the exportation of machinery (Par. Paper, 1841, p. 230) it is estim- 
 ated that in eleven towns in Lancashire there are 115 mechanical establishments^ 
 
 
MAC 450 MAC 
 
 which have of capital invested, £1,515,000 ; and of horse-power, 1811 ; the whole 
 capable of employing 17,382 hands. The trade owes its origin mainly to the dis- 
 coveries of Hargreaves, Arkwright, Crompton, Watt, and Cartwright ; and it is 
 sustained almost wholly by the demands created in different branches of industry by 
 these inventors, and others in the same walk, within our own country, as the ex- 
 portation of machinery (excepting engines and common mill-gear) has from an early 
 period been jealously prohibited, or restricted within narrow limits, with the view 
 of protecting the home manufacturers. This began in 1696, by the prohibition of 
 Leas' stocking-frame ; other acts were passed in 1750 and 1774 ; after which the 
 system appears to have been in much favour, as prohibitory acts then followed 
 each other with great rapidity, and descending in some cases to very trifling ob- 
 jects. The existing eDactments will be found under the head Customs Regula- 
 tions (3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 52, § 104) ; but, in pursuance of the recommendation of a 
 Parliamentary Committee in 1825, a discretionary power of relaxing the law was in 
 that vear given to the Board of Trade, upon whose report an export^icense (subject 
 to a fee of £2, 2s.) is issued by the Treasury. The former decides upon each ap- 
 plication to export according to its merits ; and the rule adopted is described by 
 Air J. D. Hume, their former secretary, as follows : — " The license is freely given 
 for all processes that are merely for dressing and preparing the fibrous substance, 
 wool, cotton, flax, or silk ; that while this substance remains only as a quantity 
 of cotton or a quantity of wool, the prohibition is kept back and not allowed to 
 apply ; but that in the case of any machine which once takes the very first move- 
 ment to the dividing of this substance preparatory to the spinning, the prohibition 
 has been strictly enforced, and no license ever given. The retained part, therefore, 
 is that which applies to the spinning or the dividing of the substance for the pur- 
 poses of spinning ; the handiug it over, as it were, to a spindle to be spun." — 
 Ibid. p. 4. 
 
 The policy of still farther opening up the export-trade has been much discussed, 
 more especially since the Report of the Committee of the House of Commons in 
 1841. This committee did not state any opinion upon the subject ; but they laid 
 before Parliament a mass of evidence, adduced from experienced customhouse 
 officers, manufacturers, and engineers, which renders it no longer doubtful that 
 " the mounds and fences " by which the shipment of machinery is restrained, are 
 not only futile and unnecessary, but hurtful. It is shown to be impossible to pre- 
 vent the illicit exportation of the forbidden kinds, more especially of the important 
 parts, which are almost all of a minute description, and in separate pieces, such as 
 bobbins, spindles, and rollers ; further, that the prohibitory system, serving as a 
 bonus to foreign machine-making, has tempted capitalists to embark in the trade ; 
 and Belgium, and many parts ot Germany, France, Switzerland, and the United 
 States, now abound in machine-factories, full of British tools, superintended by 
 British workmen, and supplied early and systematically with drawings, models, 
 or model-machines, as may be deemed best, of all new and improved apparatus ; 
 by which means the mechanists of those countries — Belgium especially — not only 
 supply in most departments the home demand, but are beginning to export to 
 Russia and to S. America. In this way British inventors are compelled either to 
 erect works abroad, or to enter into engagements with existing establishments for 
 the supply to the Continent of their prohibited inventions, and enormous loss is 
 inflicted on the field of labour of this country, which, but for these restrictions, 
 would, from its natural and acquired advantages, have been the machine-shop of 
 the world. It is likewise shown that many other facilities besides the possession 
 of improved machinery, require to be blended and enjoyed by foreign manufacturers 
 before they can rival those of Britain ; such as highly skilled, steady, and per- 
 severing artisans — minute subdivision, with at the same time combination and 
 compactness of labour— contiguity of manufactories to the machine-shops, and the 
 interchange of ideas thereby occasioned — the proximity of a cheap and plentiful 
 supply of fuel and iron— the best markets for the raw material, and extended 
 demand for manufactures — abundant capital— the first use of inventions — and, 
 above all, security of property and freedom of industry. 
 
 The declared value of the shipments of machinery and mill-gearing in 1822 was 
 £116,220 ; in 1825, £212,420 ; in 1830, £208,767 ; in 1835, £307,951 ; and in 1840, 
 £593,064. This last sum included £294,148 for steam apparatus sent principally 
 to France, Germany, and other parts of the European continent, and to India ; 
 £227,672 for all kinds of mill-work and machinery allowed to be exported by law, 
 shipped generally to most parts of the world ; and £71,244 for machinery exported 
 under license, and sent chiefly to Germany, Russia, Belgium, and France. 
 
MAC 460 MAD 
 
 The importation of foreign inventions is encouraged by the allowance of a patent 
 for a limited time to the first user. See Iron, in Supplement. 
 
 MACKEREL, a fish (Scomber scombrus) well known for its beauty and its 
 intrinsic value as an article of food. It is caught on some parts of our coast in 
 every month of the year, but those taken in May and June are generally preferred. 
 They are found in abundance on the south and south-east shores of England ; and 
 the mackerel season at the various fishing towns is one of great bustle and activity. 
 They are plentiful on the Devonshire coast, and swarm in West Bay about June. 
 On the Hampshire and Sussex coasts they generally arrive in March. At Lowe- 
 stoff and Yarmouth, the great harvest is in May and June. Their ordinary weight 
 is about 2 lbs. each. The largest are not considered the best. They require to be 
 eaten very fresh, as they soon become unfit for food ; and on this account they are 
 allowed to be cried through the streets of London on Sundays, — a practice which 
 has prevailed since 1698. During the season, about 100,000 are brought to Billings- 
 gate in one week. A last of mackerel is 10,000. S 
 
 MADAGASCAR, a large island lying between lat. 12° and 25° 45' S., about 240 
 miles distant from the E. coast of Africa, from which it is separated by the channel 
 of Mozambique. Area, about 225,000 sq. miles. Population vaguely estimated at 
 5,000,000, composed of numerous tribes, one of which, the Ovahs, exercises a nom- 
 inal sovereignty over the whole. 
 
 The island contains extensive and fertile plains, interspersed with mountainous districts, which 
 render the climate of the interior milder than might be expected from the latitude ; but the coast, 
 being generally low and in many places swampy, is oppressively hot and unhealthy. The inhabit- 
 ants are almost all naked barbarians, except the Ovahs, who possess a civilisation akin to that of 
 the Javanese ; and many European arts were introduced among them by King Radama, an energetic 
 reformer, who died in 1828. The chief places of commercial resort are Bembatooka Bay, on 
 the \V., and Tamatave on the E., from whence rice, cattle, tortoise-shell, amber, &c. are" sent 
 to Mauritius. The French have settlements on the Isle St Marie, and at Foul Point Bay, St 
 Luce Bay, and Fort Dauphin, where they cultivate sugar and coffee for exportation to Bourbon. 
 
 MADDER (Du. Mee, Krap. Fr. A lizari, Garance. Ger. Krapp, F'drberrdthe. 
 It. Bobbin. Sp. Granza, Rubia), a cheap, durable red dye, obtained from the root 
 of a trailing plant (Rubia), cultivated in Alsace and Provence in France, especially 
 near Avignon, in Dutch Zealand, Asiatic Turkey, and in Italy ; from which places 
 it is largely exported. The Turkey and Provence madder is procured from the 
 variety termed Rubia peregrina ; the remainder from the Rubia tinctoria. The 
 substance contains at least two distinct colouring principles, a fawn and a red ; 
 yielding two tints, namely, madder-red, which contains the whole of the colouring 
 matter, and Turkey-red, the superior brilliancy of which arises from the red por- 
 tion being alone preserved. Madder is extensively used for dyeing calico, linen, 
 and woollen cloth, and in the preparation of madder-lakes. The roots are taken 
 up at the end of September and kiln-dried. The best are about the thickness of a 
 goose-quill, semi-transparent ; when broken, of a reddish colour, verging towards 
 purple, possessing a strong smell, and having the bark smooth : a yellow hue indi- 
 cates inferiority. The importations from Turkey (via Smyrna) and Italy consist 
 entirely of the roots in their natural state ; but the whole of the Zealand madder, 
 and the greater part of the French, is shipped in the state of powder. In Zealand, 
 previous to grinding, the roots are carefully assorted : the interior bright part of 
 the finest makes crop-madder ; ombro is prepared from good roots not peeled ; 
 gamene is the ordinary powder ; and mull, made from peelings and refuse, is an 
 inferior sort used for cheap dark colours. In France, it is prepared nearly in the 
 same manner. Madder may be preserved a long time, but being injured by moist- 
 ure, which it readily absorbs, it should be kept in a dry place. 
 
 The importations of this commodity for home consumption have been doubled 
 within the last ten years, and now rather exceed 200,000 cwts. ; about one-half 
 being in the form of powder, and the remainder the roots in their natural state. 
 The former is brought wholly from France and Holland; the latter principally 
 from Turkey, and in smaller quantities from Italy and France. Small parcels of 
 madder are also brought from Spain. [Munjeet.] S 
 
 The following extract from the London Price Current of February 1842, gives a 
 comparative view of the estimation in which the different kinds are held in the 
 British market : — 
 
 Madder Roots.— Turkey, £2, 8s. to £2, 10s. per cwt. 
 
 Madder.— Butch, crop, per cwt., £3, 5s. to £4, 10s. ; Ombro, £2, 8s. to £3 ; Gamene, £1, 10s. 
 to £2 ; Mull, 7s. Gd. to £1 ; French, £2, 10s. to £3, 5s. ; Spanish, £1, 8s. to £l, 15s. 
 
 MADEIRA, a fertile and beautiful island belonging to Portugal, lying about 450 
 miles W. from the coast of Morocco. Area, 300 sq. miles. Population, including 
 Porto Santo, about 112,500. Funchal, the clrief city and port, pop. 20,000, is the 
 
MAG 4G1 MAI 
 
 residence of the governor of this island and of the adjoining islets, Porto Santo 
 and Desertas. S 
 
 Madeira consists of one large mountain, with branches rising every where from the sea towards 
 the centre of the island. The climate is very mild and healthy ; the mean temperature of tin 
 year not exceeding 65°. Vines form the chief object of cultivation, and large quantities of the 
 wine produced are exported, particularly to England, where its consumption was facilitated by 
 the Methven treaty [Wine], and to the United States. A tenth part of the whole is taken 
 for taxes ; the rest "is divided between the proprietor and farmer. The growth of the island was 
 formerlv estimated at 30,000 pipes, but it does not now exceed 18,000, of which only the better 
 sorts are exported, the remainder being made into brandy for the Brazils, converted into vinegar, 
 or used at home. This decline, attributed partly to the frequency of adulteration, and partly to 
 the preference given to sherry and French wines, has led to a great part of the soil being applied 
 to other purposes. The culture of potatoes and other provisions has been extended on the higher 
 grounds. The planting of coffee has also become very general in the island, and with considerable 
 success. The sugar-cane has been tried, but does not repay its expense. 
 
 The only port is Funchal, in long. 17° 6' W., lat. 32°37' N., an irregularly built, dirty town, 
 situate in the centre of a large bay. It is strongly fortified, but has no harbour, and the roadstead 
 is not secure, especially in winter. The merchants are chiefly English. 
 
 The exports, amounting annually to about £240,000, consist principally of wine, with fruits, 
 dragon's-blood, honey, wax, orchil, tobacco, and ship-provisions. The imports are chiefly cot- 
 tons, woollens, and other manufactures from Britain ; sheep, salted provisions, fish, oil, timber, 
 and corn ; with tropical produce of different kinds from United States, Portugal, Genoa, and other 
 places. About 50,000 tons of shipping enter the port annually, of which about 3-5ths are British. 
 
 Measures and Weights in general those of Portugal ; but 23 corn alquieres of Madeira equal 24 
 of Lisbon ; and 12 wine almudes of Madeira equal 1 3 of Lisbon. Money accounts are kept in milreas, 
 each equal to the Spanish dollar. In exchanges the milrea is converted into sterling at a nominal 
 cr assumed par of 58 pence, allowing a premium for bills on London, varying from about 25 to 
 30 per cent. Import duty, 20 per cent, on all articles except provisions. 
 
 MAGNA 6RJECIA WARE, a term applied by customhouse officers to Etrus- 
 can vases, urns, and other kinds of ancient pottery. 
 
 MAGNESIA, a well-known medicinal earth, commonly obtained by burning the 
 carbonate of magnesia, whence it is sometimes called calcined magnesia. It is a 
 white, soft powder, and possesses neither taste nor smell. The carbonate of mag- 
 nesia is found in a natural state in Piedmont, Moravia, Hoboken in N. America, 
 and in the East Indies, but it is usually manufactured from the bittern of sea-salt 
 works. It is a white, light powder, resembling the pure earth, but possessing only 
 about one-half of its strength. 
 
 MAGNET, a combination of the protoxide and peroxide of iron. [Compass.] 
 
 MAHOGANY (Sp. Caoba), the timber of a stupendous tree, of which there are 
 several varieties, the principal being the Swietenia mahagoni, a native of the West 
 Indies and Central America, and found in luxuriant condition in the rich valleys 
 among the mountains of Cuba, and those that open upon the bay of Honduras. It 
 is supposed to take about 200 years to arrive at maturity. This wood was first 
 introduced into England in the beginning of last century, since which, though 
 costly, it has become the principal timber for furniture and cabinet making, 
 having entirely supplanted the walnut, formerly in general use for the same pur- 
 poses. From 20,000 to 25,000 tons are now annually imported into Britain ; three- 
 fourths of which are brought from Honduras, and the remainder from Cuba and 
 Hayti. S 
 
 The timber is best upon the coldest soils and in the most exposed situations. ^ When it grows 
 upon moist and warm lands, it is soft, coarse, spongy, and contains sap-wood, into which some 
 worms will eat. That which is most accessible at Honduras is of this description ; and therefore 
 it is only used for coarser works, or for a ground on which to lay veneers of the choicer sorts. 
 When grown among rocks and much exposed, the size is inferior; but the timber is superior in 
 strength, and the colour is richer. " 8ince the produce of Jamaica has been nearly exhausted, 
 there are only two kinds known in the market, — Bay-wood, or that which is got from the conti- 
 nent of America, and Spanish-wood, or the produce of the islands, chiefly of Cuba and HaytL 
 Though the Bay-wood is inferior to the other, both in value and in price, it is often very beauti- 
 ful, and may be obtained in logs as large as six feet square. It is, however, not nearly so compact 
 as the other; the grain is apt to rise in polishing, and, if it be not covered by a water-proof 
 varnish, it is very easily stained. It also gives to the tool in carving, and is not well adapted for 
 ornaments. Spanish- wood cuts well, takes a fine polish, resists scratches, stains, and fractures 
 much better, and is generally the only sort upon which much or delicate workmanship should be 
 expended."— (Lib. of Ent. Knotcledge: Veg. Substances, voL i. p. 151.) 
 
 There are two East Indian species, but they are not imported in any quantities into this coun- 
 try : The S.febrifuga, likewise a gigantic tree, grows in the mountainous parts of Central Hindos- 
 tan ; its wood is of a dull red colour, hard, heavy, and durable: and the S. chloroxylon, a smaller 
 tree, found in the mountains of the Circars ; its "wood is of a yellow colour, resembling box. 
 
 MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN (Zea Mags), the most productive, and at the same 
 time the most unequal in its produce, of all the grains. The ears consist of a 
 cylindrical substance, over which the seeds are ranged in eight or more straight 
 rows, each of thirty or forty grains. The prevailing hue of the corn is yellow of 
 various shades. The produce varies in the same field, according to the season, 
 
MAL 
 
 462 
 
 MAL 
 
 from 40 to 200 or 300 for one. Fertile lands usually afford a return of 300 or 400 
 fold. Maize does not suffer from cold until the mean temperature falls to 45°, and 
 no heat is injurious to it. It forms a principal food in the United States, Mexico, 
 Africa, and some parts of the East Indies. In the East it is considered as an 
 inferior grain, and bears the same rank in relation to rice that oats or barley does to 
 wheat in Britain. A small variety is partially cultivated in the south of Europe ; 
 but the attempts made to introduce it into this country have been unsuccessful. S 
 
 MALACCA, a settlement of the East India Company, extending about 40 miles 
 along the shore of the Malay peninsula, by 30 inland. Area, 800 sq. miles. Popu- 
 lation, 22,000, chiefly Malays. The town is in lat. 2° 14' N., and long. 102° 12' E. ; 
 pop. 12,000. The government is vested in a resident, deputy to a chief resident 
 at Singapore. 
 
 Malacca was taken from the Dutch during last war, and restored at the peace in 1815 ; but in 
 1825 it was received from them in exchange for settlements in Sumatra. It is not a place of much 
 value. The soil is deficient in fertility ; and its foreign trade has been supplanted by the two great 
 emporiums in its neighbourhood, Singapore and Penang. The climate is reckoned healthy, 
 Fahrenheit ranging only from 72° to 85°. The productions are tin and fruit, with a little gold. 
 Provisions are cheap. Large ships anchor about 1J mile from the town. 
 
 Measures and Weights. — The covid = \Q\ Imp. inches. The Malay pecul of 100 catties = 135 
 lbs. avoird. ; 3 peculs = 1 bahar ; the last of 50 measures or 500 gantons = 29 cwts. avoird. nearly ; 
 the coyan of rice or salt is 40 peculs ; the kip of tin is-equal about 403 lbs. avoird. Gold and silver 
 are weighed by the buncal of 832 troy grains. Money accounts are stated in Spanish dollars of 
 100 cents, which form the general currency of the " Straits." A variety of Indian and Dutch 
 coins are also in circulation. 
 
 MALT, barley-corn which has been subjected to artificial germination, and then 
 dried in a kiln, processes by which its farina is mellowed or sweetened, and so fit- 
 ted for the purposes of the brewer. [Beer.] The first operation is that of steep- 
 ing the grain in water, when it absorbs moisture, softens, and swells ; it is then 
 subjected to couching and flooring, by which it becomes warm and sweetens, and 
 germination is allowed to proceed until the acrospire, or rudiment of the future 
 stalk, is ready to burst the shell, at which stage it has acquired its maximum of 
 saccharification. It is then kiln-dried at a low or high heat, according as it is 
 wanted to be pale, amber, or brown. The pale or amber malt, the only kinds 
 which yield the saccharine or fermentable extract, should, when good, be compact 
 but friable, white and mealy in their fracture, of an agreeable somewhat pungent 
 smell, not smoky, and of a pleasant sweet taste. The brown malt is not ferment- 
 able, but is employed to impart flavour. Besides these there is black or patent malt, 
 a roasted kind, employed instead of burnt sugar merely to colour porter. Malting 
 is not usually conducted during summer, because in hot weather the grain is apt to 
 become mouldy. 
 
 The quantity of malt consumed in England has been long very considerable ; 
 but it has not increased in a degree proportional to the increase of the population, 
 — a circumstance attributed partly to the more general use of tea, coffee, and other 
 beverages, and partly to the higher price of malt liquors arising from the augmented 
 duties on malt and beer, and the limited supply to be obtained in this country of 
 fine barley suited for malting. Thus the quantity charged with duty in England 
 was, in 1703, 26,754,505 bushels ; in 1750, 29,284,780 bushels ; in 1790, 21,976,959 
 bushels ; and in 1810, 23,546,346 bushels. Little difference occurred in these quan- 
 tities until of late years, when a stimulus was given to consumption by the reduction 
 of the duty on malt in 1822, and still more by the abolition in 1830 of the beer 
 duties, as will be seen by the following table, which shows the quantity of malt 
 charged with duty, and the amount of revenue received thereon in various years 
 since 1820, in the different divisions of the kingdom : — 
 
 Years. 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland- 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Net Duty. 
 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Bushtls. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 £ 
 
 1820 
 
 23,884,242 
 
 1,182,208 
 
 1 ,793,671 
 
 26,860,121 
 
 5,088,195 
 
 1825 
 
 29,572,741 
 
 3,925,847 
 
 2,706,862 
 
 36,205,450 
 
 4,384,163 
 
 1830 
 
 26,900,902 
 
 4,101,946 
 
 1,959,6(6 
 
 32,962,454 
 
 3,436,2/1 
 
 1835 
 
 36,078,856 
 
 4,459,553 
 
 2,353,645 
 
 42,892,054 
 
 5,499,883 
 
 1836 
 
 37,196,997 
 
 4,903,187 
 
 2,287,535 
 
 44,387,719 
 
 5,699,879 
 
 1837 
 
 33,692,356 
 
 4,583,446 
 
 2,275,347 
 
 40,551,149 
 
 5,216,967 
 
 1838 
 
 33,823,985 
 
 4,419,141 
 
 2,262,440 
 
 40,5(5,566 
 
 4,932,080 
 
 1839 
 
 33,826,016 
 
 4,360,373 
 
 1,744,552 
 
 39,930,941 
 
 4,845,949 
 
 1840 
 1841 
 
 36,653,440 
 
 4,397,304 
 
 1,406,112 
 
 42,456,856 
 
 4,983,602 
 
 Of the sixty excise " collections " into which England and Wales are divided, 
 the ten following are those from which the largest amount of malt duty is obtained : 
 
MAL 4G3 MAL 
 
 Leeds, Suffolk, Bedford, Cambridge, Hertford, Surrey, Grantham, Norwich, Essex, 
 and Lincoln. S 
 
 The Duty on malt in England was first imposed in 1697t when it was fixed at the rate (reckoned in 
 Imperial measure) of 6i?d. per bushel ; which, in 1760, was increased to 9i ^d. ; in 1780, to Is. 44,d. ; 
 in 1791, to Is. 7*d. ; Due in 1792 it was reduced to its former rate of Is. 44d. ; in 1802, it was in- 
 creased to 2s. 5<L ; in 1803, to 4s. 5jd. ; in 1816, it was again reduced to 2s. 5<L, which rate lasted 
 only till 1819, when it was raised to 3s. 7id. ; in 1822, it was fixed at 2s. 7d. per bushel ; since which 
 no alteration has been made. 
 
 In Scotland, the duty commenced in 1713, and in Ireland in 1785 ; and after various fluctuations 
 was fixed, in 1822, in both countries, at 2s. 7<h, as in England,— that made from bere or bigg, 
 however, being only 2s. per bushel. 
 
 The charging and collection of the duty are regulated by the acts 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 52, 53, and 
 81 ; 11 Geo. iV. c. 17 ; and 7 & 8 Wm. IV. and 1 Vict, c 49. By the first -mentioned act every 
 person making malt is required to enter his premises and utensils with the excise. An individual 
 residing in a remote part of any collection, and making malt solely for domestic use, may be en- 
 tered as a by-maltster; but the excise officer must take a gauge of each steeping, after which his 
 surveys are not required to be made oftener than once a- week, until the grain is dried oft If malt 
 be made for private use in considerable quantities, the person making it ceases to be considered a 
 by-maltster. 
 
 The act 7 & 8 Wm. IV. and 1 Vict, c 49, § 9, fixes the following allowances to be made for the 
 increase in the several gauges, in consequence of the swell of the corn ; namely, while the grain is 
 in the cistern, or in the couch, or directed to be deemed so, an allowance of 18$ bushels per 100 ; 
 when the grain is on the floor, or on the kiln, after the expiration of 26 hours, if it has been previ- 
 ously gauged, or if it has not been so after the expiration of 30 hours, an allowance of one-half; 
 the duty to be charged on the best gauge. 
 
 For the other regulations we must refer to the acts themselves. [Corn.] 
 
 MALTA, an island possessed by Great Britain in the Mediterranean, about 60 
 miles S.S.W. of Sicily. Extreme length, 17| miles, and breadth, 9| miles. Area, 
 95 sq. mile3. Population in 1839, 105,456, including 5204 British, and 4661 aliens. 
 The local government is vested in a military commander, who, in legislative matters, 
 is assisted by a council of six persons nominated by the crown. S 
 
 The S. coast is rocky and inaccessible, but the ground slopes from thence to the N. side, and 
 the island is in general flat. It possesses no rivers, and few springs ; and its aspect is sterile. 
 About one-half of the whole surface, however, has been subjected to cultivation. The staple pro- 
 duce is cotton ; the chief other productions are wheat, barley, pulse, fruit, especially oranges, 
 potatoes, salt, and cummin seed ; but the grain raised is equal only to about one-third of the con- 
 sumption, and very few cattle or sheep are bred. Imports, chiefly wheat and other grain from the 
 Black Sea and Sicily ; British manufactures ; sugar, coffee, and leaf tobacco ; live-stock, chiefly 
 from Africa ; oil and wine from Sicily and Italy ; spirits, wood, coals, and cheese, with a variety 
 of other articles ; the whole amounting annually to about £600,000. Exports, cottons, sail-cloth, 
 and yarns of Maltese manufacture ; also cabinet-work, gold and silver filigree work, and cut- 
 stone, segars ; with reshipments of colonial produce, grain, British manufactures, and wine ; the 
 whole amount being from £300,000 to £400,000. About 1800 vessels annually arrive, having an 
 aggregate burthen of 190,000 tons ; of which, however, 680 vessels, burthen 13,000 tons, consist of 
 small craft chiefly trading with Sicily. The Maltese are expert carpenters and active seamen ; and 
 shipbuilding is on the increase, the vessels being registered as British : about 1600 tons were built 
 in 1839. 
 
 La Yaletta, the port, citadel, and seat of government, lies in lat. 35° 54' N., long. 14° 31' E., on 
 the N.E. coast, on a narrow neck of land forming two harbours, the whole of which is defended 
 by stupendous fortifications. The northern harbour is solely appropriated to the purposes of 
 quarantine. The Southern or Grand Port is large, safe, and commodious, running up 13 mile in 
 a S.W. direction ; and the shore is so bold that a line-of- battle ship may lie close to it. On the 
 Valetta side it is one continued line of wharfs for the accommodation of merchantmen. Popula- 
 tion, including the three districts of Cospicua, Vittoriosa, and Senglea, on the opposite side of the 
 harbour, about 50,000. Provisions are abundant and cheap, and water is supplied from tanks. 
 The climate, though warm, is in general salubrious, especially between October and May. The 
 " sirocco," or S. E. wind, which mostly prevails in September, is oppressive and enervating; 
 though the " gregale," or N. E. wind, in winter, is that which blows with the greatest fury. 
 
 Malta was a place of great importance during last war, having become the emporium of that 
 commerce which was shut out from the Continent by the operation of the Berlin and Milan de- 
 crees ; but it received a sudden interruption from the plague, which broke out in 1813 ; and the 
 quarantine regulations afterwards maintained in Italy and France on vessels arriving from the 
 island, operated for a long time most prejudicially to trade. In 1 826, these restrictions were repealed. 
 More recently, Valetta has been made a free port,— a circumstance which, joined to its being the 
 principal British naval station in the Mediterranean, as well as the most advantageous point of 
 rendezvous for steam-vessels plying between Italy, France, and England, and the Levant, to supply 
 themselves with coals, render it of great importance both in a political end commercial view. 
 The island, it may be observed, likewise promises to become an extensive entrepot for the corn of 
 the Black Sea and Mediterranean, no less from its central position than from its caricatori, 
 which, being excavated in the rock, are admirably adapted for the safe keeping of grain. 
 
 Gozo, Comino, and FHfla, are islet dependencies of Malta. The first, 10 miles long, by 5i in 
 breadth, has a population of 16,472 ; but it has no port, and is only approachable by small craft. 
 
 Measures, Weights, Monies, &c 
 
 Measures and Weights.— The canna of 8 pal- 
 mi = 82 Imp. inches, but 3J palmi are commonly 
 reckoned equal to 1 yard. The salma of land of 
 16 square tumoli = 4-44 Imp. acres. The barile 
 
 of wine = 9\ Imp. gallons ; the caffiso of oil = 
 4| Imp. gallons ; and 2 caffisos = 1 barile of oil. 
 The salma of corn (stricken measure) = 7£ Imp. 
 bushels. 
 
MAL 
 
 4(34 
 
 MAN 
 
 The cantaro of 100 rottoli or pounds = 174 J 
 lbs. avoirdupois, but is commonly reckoned at 
 175. The pound of 12 ounces, used in weighing 
 gold and silver = 4886 troy grains. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are kept by the govern- 
 ment in sterling, but by the mercantile classes 
 in scudi of 12 tari, each of 20 grani. 2J scudi 
 = 1 pezza or Sicilian dollar = 47£d. valued in 
 silver, or 49Jd. in gold; but is commonly es- 
 timated at 4s. 2d., and the Maltese scudo at 
 Is. 8d. The other monies consist chiefly of 
 Spanish and American dollars, and of British 
 silver and copper. Notes are issued by two 
 banks (established en commandite), but only to 
 
 a small extent, not exceeding £20,000 ; while 
 the coin in circulation is estimated at £150,000. 
 
 Bills on London are commonly drawn at 30 and 
 60days'sight; and the ordinary fluctuationsofthe 
 exchange are from about 48|d. to 50d. per pezza. 
 
 The Revenue averages £100,000 per annum ; 
 of which, derived from crown property, £28,000 ; 
 corn duty, £30,000; customs and port dues, 
 £14,000; excise, £16,000; quarantine dues, 
 £5000 ; judicial fees, £4000 ; minor taxes, 
 £3000. The customs and port duties and ware- 
 house rent are exceedingly small, imposed for 
 the sake of revenue only, and without regard to 
 the country from whence the vessels arrive. 
 
 The importance of Malta began in the 16th century, when it was ceded by Charles V. to the 
 Knights of St John of Jerusalem. In 1798, after a mere show of resistance, it was taken by Napol- 
 eon ; and in 1800 it was reduced by the United British and Maltese by blockade. 
 
 MALTER, a German corn measure, varying in different places. 
 MALTHA, a variety of bitumen supposed to be inspissated Petroleum. 
 MAN, ISLE OF, is situated between Cumberland and the N. of Ireland. Area, 
 220 sq. miles. Population in 1841, 47,985. It was long held in feudal sovereignty 
 by the Earls of Derby, descending from them to the Dukes of Atholl, from whom 
 it was purchased in 1765 ; the island retaining, however, most of its peculiar laws. 
 The administration is vested in a governor and council, and the " House of Keys," 
 a self-elected body; the whole forming what is called the Court of Tynwald. 
 
 The island is intersected by a ridge of mountains which run from N.E. to S.W., and many parts 
 of the coast are rocky ; but there is still a considerable extent of level territory, though no part is 
 very productive, and improvement has been retarded by the division of the land into small farms. 
 Of late, however, the decay of the herring-fishery has led to more attention being given to agri- 
 culture, the advancement of which is facilitated by the quantity of sea-weed fitted for manure 
 which is thrown upon the shores ; while the industry of the islanders has been promoted by im- 
 proved fiscal regulations, and their increased intercourse with Liverpool, Glasgow, and other 
 places, since the development of steam-navigation. The exports consist principally of grain, 
 potatoes, eggs, lime, lead and copper ore, herrings, linen, and paper, mostly all sent to Liverpool. 
 Douglas, on the S.E. coast, is the only port of consequence. 
 Currency, Duties, &c. 
 
 cut.), Is. per cwt. ; bohea tea (70,000 lbs.), 6d. 
 per lb. ; green tea (5000 lbs.), Is. per lb. ; tobacco 
 (60,000 lbs.), Is. 6d. per lb. ; wine (27,720 galls.), 
 fc'10 per tun of 252 galls, for French, and £12 
 per tun other sorts : foreign timber and deals, 
 admitted free 
 
 Goods from U. K., ar.d entitled to any draw- 
 back on exportation from thence, and not before 
 enumerated, 5 per cent. ; goods from U. K., and 
 not herein before charged, 2J per cent. ; goods 
 from any place whei ce such goods may be 
 imported into Man, and not before charged, 15 
 per cent. 
 
 Exempted from duty : coals, flax, and flesh ; 
 British linen, hemp, cattle, utensils, bricks, 
 tiles, salt, timber, &c. in British ships ; and 
 colonial naval stores, indigo, lumber, &c. if 
 
 Manx Currency is in value $th less than that 
 of Britain, — the British shilling being reckoned 
 at 14 Manx pennies, or £100 sterling = £116, 
 13s. 4d. Manx; but by act of Tynwald of Nov. 
 8, 1839, all transactions are now held to be in 
 sterling. Measures and weights are now also 
 reckoned by the Imperial standards. 
 
 A joint-stock bank has been established, with 
 a paid-up capital of £30,000. 
 
 The Duties in Man are in general considerably 
 lower than those payable in Britain. The dis- 
 tinction led formerly to a great deal of smuggling; 
 but this is now checked by allowing only certain 
 quantities of those commodities which had been 
 the subject of the contraband trade, to be im- 
 ported into the island under a customs license. 
 The existing regulations are embodied in the act 
 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 60 ; and the following are the 
 principal duties, with the quantities of those 
 goods admitted only under license : — 
 
 Coffee, 4d. per lb. ; hemp, Id. per cwt. ; Bri- 
 tish hops, lid. per lb. ; foreign spirits (20,000 
 gallons). 4s. 6d. per gall. ; colonial rum (60,000 
 galls.), 3s. per gall. ; colonial raw sugar (10,000 
 
 from U. K. in British ships. 
 
 Licensed goods must be imported into Douglas 
 in British ships of 50 tons or upwards. 
 
 Foreign goods cannot be exported from Man 
 to the U. K., §11. 
 
 Foreign corn is subject to same duties as in 
 U.K. 
 
 MANDATE. [Principal and Agent.] 
 
 MANDIOC. [Cassava.] 
 
 MANGANESE, a very brittle metal of a dusky white colour, and without either 
 malleability or ductility. Sp. gr. 8. Tli8 substance known in commerce under 
 that name, however, is the peroxide, or black oxide, of the metal. It occurs native 
 in the Mendip Hills in Somerset, and in the counties of Devon and Aberdeen. It is 
 found in a variety of forms ; most commonly it is of an earthy appearance, and 
 mixed with other ingredients ; but sometimes in crystals of a black colour and 
 metallic lustre. Peroxide of manganese is largely consumed in the manufacture of 
 bleaching compounds ; it is also used by potters and glassmakers ; and in tbe 
 laboratory it is considered the cheapest material from which to procure oxygen. 
 
 MANGEL WURZEL, a species of beet, used as winter food for cattle, a pur- 
 pose to which it has been long applied in Germany, though its introduction into 
 
MAX 405 MAR 
 
 this country dates only from the end of last century. The plant is nearly of the 
 same duration aud habits as the turnip ; and though the Swedish variety of the 
 latter exceeds it, weight for weight, in the quantity of nourishment, yet, on good 
 light soils, the produce of beet is much greater. In Guernsey, crops have heen 
 raised of 100 tons per acre. 
 
 MANGO, the fruit of the Manyifera Indica, sometimes imported from India as 
 a pickle. It is kidney-shaped, of a delicious flavour, and contains a flattened stone. 
 There are, however, many varieties. 
 
 MANHEIM GOLD, or Similor, consists of 3 parts of copper and 1 of zinc. A 
 little tin is sometimes added, which, though it may improve the colour, impairs the 
 malleability of the alloy. It is from this that the spurious leaf-gold, laces, and 
 other articles, are manufactured. 
 
 MANILLA. [Philippine Islands.] 
 
 MANIFEST, a document containing a specific description of a ship, her cargo, 
 and passengers ; it is signed by the master at the place of lading. 
 
 MANNA, the concrete juice of the manna ash (Frajrinus ornus), collected prin- 
 cipally in Calabria aud Sicily. The best, called flake manna, is in oblong, fight, 
 friable pieces, of a whitish colour, and somewhat transparent, with a sweetish, 
 sharp taste, and a weak smell. The inferior kinds are moist, unctuous, and dark- 
 coloured. It is a mild aperient medicine. 
 
 MAPLE, a timber-tree, of which there are many varieties. The common British 
 maple {Acer campestre), is a small tree, the wood of which is of little value, except 
 to the turner, who makes it into cups, bowls, &c. The sycamore maple, called in 
 Scotland the plane-tree (A. pseudo platanus), is chiefly used for coarse work where 
 lightness and toughness are required. The sugar maple {A. saccharinum), abun- 
 dant in N. America, is so called from the saccharine matter obtained by tapping 
 its trunk in spring, and which in Canada is largely manufactured into sugar ; its 
 wood is hard, and has a satiny lustre, but being readily attacked by insects, it is 
 not of much value, except when its grain is waved, and then it is in request for 
 cabinet-work : the wood of old trees is esteemed for inlaying mahogany, and is 
 termed bird's-eye maple. 
 
 MARBLE, the granular limestone, or carbonate of lime, of mineralogists, is a 
 massive beautiful kind of stone, somewhat translucent, of various colours, and 
 frequently veined or spotted. Sp. gr. 2*5 to 2'8. S 
 
 Granular limestone is found in many, if not in most primitive countries ; it sometimes forms 
 entire mountains, but more often occurs in beds. The most celebrated statuary marbles of 
 ancient times were found in the islands of Paros, Xaxos, and Tenos, in the Archipelago. Parian 
 marble is white, large grained, and considerably translucent. The Pentelicon, taken from quarries 
 on a mountain called Pentelicus, near Athens, is traversed by greenish or grayish veins, which 
 are commonly micaceous. The marble of Carrara has a finer grain and closer texture, and is that 
 now usually employed by statuaries ; the quarries of this marble are on the eastern coast of the 
 Gulf of Genoa, and are worked on the face of a mountain to the height of about 800 feet. 
 
 Beautiful marbles for chimney-pieces and ornaments are found in various parts of the United 
 Kingdom, and in other countries. In England, they are abundant in the counties of Derby, Devon, 
 and Anglesea, the last being of a green colour ; in Scotland, at Assynt, in Sutherlandshire ; Balla- 
 chulish, in Argyllshire ; and in the islands of Tiree, Skye, and Jura ; in Ireland, in Kilkenny 
 and other places. The Kilkenny marble is black, and encloses shells of a whitish colour, which, 
 when cut, presents segments of circles. The Cothain, Ruin, or Landscape marble of Bristol, 
 exhibits when polished the appearance of a landscape or ruins ; it is common in the Val d* Arno, 
 near Florence. The Lumachelli or Fire Marble, found at Bleyberg, in Carinthia, exhibits beau- 
 tiful iridescent colours, which are sometimes prismatic internally, but more commonly of various 
 shades of orange or red. 
 
 MARITIME LAW. [Master. Navigation. Seamen. Shipping, &c] 
 MARK, the name given to a money of account in Hamburg, Lubec, Denmark, 
 
 and Norway; to a weight, used chiefly for gold and silver, in different parts of the 
 
 Continent, varying from about 3500 to 3700 troy grains ; and to an ancient money 
 
 of England and Scotland. [Coin.] 
 MARKET, a kind of minor Fair, usually held once or twice a-week in most 
 
 towns, for the sale of provisions or live-stock. The following are the principal 
 
 markets of the metropolis : — 
 
 SmithfieM cattle-market is held every Mondav morning ; also, though on a smaller scale, on 
 Friday. In Mr Knight's valuable work " London " (vol. ii. p. 325' , the sales in 1 839 are statedas fol- 
 low :— 180,780 cattle, 1,360,250 sheep and lambs, 254,672 pigs, 22,500 calves; and, taking the average 
 weight of the cattle at 640 lbs., of the sheep and pigs at 96 lbs., and of the calves at 140 lbs., the 
 total number of lbs. of meat is 273,881,712; which, at the average price of 6d. per lb., would 
 amount to £6,847,042 ; while at 7d. it would be £7,988,216. Smithfield is the only cattle-market 
 in London ; but large quantities of " country-killed meat " are now sent up by steam-boats and 
 railways, principally to the carcass-butchers'of Newgate and Leadenhall markets. The graziers 
 usually consign their animals to salesmen, whose drovers meet the country drovers at the outskirts 
 
 2G 
 
MAR 466 MAS 
 
 of London. The salesmen charge 2s. 4d. for each " benst." The city derives a gross revenue of 
 
 £6000, and a net revenue of £3000 a-year from the market. 
 
 Fur details of removal of Smithfield market. See Markets, in Supplement. 
 
 Mark Lane corn-market consists of two buildings. The first is a quadrangular paved court, sur- 
 rounded by a colonnade, in which are seats for the corn-factors, who have each a desk containing 
 samples. The second is a splendid Greek Doric building, which was erected in 1828 at an expense 
 of £90,000. The interior consists of the sale-room,— a spacious and well-lighted hall, comprising 
 the corn and seed markets, containing 82 stands for the factors. A hotel, coffeehouse, and read- 
 ing-room are attached to the institution. The chief business is transacted here on Mondays, 
 though Wednesdays and Fridays are likewise market-days. [Corn.] 
 
 Billingsgate fish-market, situated at the western extremity of the customhouse, is held daily; 
 mackerel alone, however, being allowed to be sold on Sunday. Separate divisions are assigned for 
 each kind of fish. From 4000 to 5000 fishing-vessels are annually entered at the customhouse. 
 The cargoes are consigned to an intermediate class between the fishermen and the retail dealers, 
 termed salesmen, who alone have stalls in the market, and who are obliged by the regulations to 
 fix up in a conspicuous place a statement of the kind and amount of their stock. Their sale begins 
 at 5 a. m., on the ringing of the market-bell, except that for oysters, which does not commence 
 till 6 o'clock. S 
 
 MARL, a mixture of limestone and clay, produced by the decomposition of shells 
 in bogs and standing water. It is of a yellow or reddish-gray colour, and falls to 
 pieces on exposure to the air. It exists in many parts of the United Kingdom, and 
 is much used as a manure. 
 
 MARMALADE, a confection generally made of oranges boiled with sugar. 
 
 MARSH-MALLOW, a perennial indigenous plant common in marshes near the 
 sea, but in some parts of the Continent cultivated for its root, which is used in 
 medicine for all cases in which emollient or demulcent substances are required. 
 The root is about the size of a finger, white, and carrot-shaped. 
 
 M ASLIN, a mixture of rye and wheat. It is very extensively grown in Durham, 
 where bread made of this compound is in general use. It is mixed in all propor- 
 tions, from | of wheat to f of rye, and from £ of rye to g of wheat, according to 
 the soil. 
 
 MASSICOT, an oxide of lead prepared from the dross of the melted metal. It 
 is of a pale yellow colour, and is used as a pigment. 
 
 MASTER or CAPTAIN OF A SHIP is the person put in charge and com- 
 mand of a ship during her voyage. The master of a British ship must be of the 
 class of persons pointed out by the act for the encouragement of British shipping 
 (3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 54, § 16). [Navigation.] The master is an agent [Principal 
 and Agent], with ample powers to represent the owners in the management of the 
 concerns committed to him. They are liable for such engagements as he may enter 
 into for the necessary and usual employment of the ship, and for such acts as he 
 may do in his character of master within this limit. If the owners themselves 
 appear, and make a special contract regarding the service of the ship, the master 
 cannot substitute another on his own authority. Where the authority of the master 
 is questioned, the law on the subject will generally be influenced by the custom of 
 merchants. Charter-parties [which see] are generally the sole act of the owners 
 themselves ; but the master may be empowered to enter on a charter-party, and to 
 bind the owners ; and when he is abroad, this right is inherent in his office. In the 
 case of a general ship, the owners rarely interfere to regulate the engagements with 
 the particular merchants who furnish the cargo, and they are undoubtedly bound 
 by every engagement made by the master relative to the usual employment of such 
 a vessel. When the master binds the owners to repay money borrowed to accom- 
 plish repairs, or the price of repairs, stores, and provisions, he becomes, in the first 
 place, himself personally bound, unless he, in express terms, confine the obligation 
 to the owners. " But such a contract made by the owners themselves, or under 
 circumstances which show that credit was given to them alone, gives the creditor 
 no right of action against the master " (Shee's Abbot, 115). To render the 
 owners liable,— when supplies are furnished, they must be reasonably proper for the 
 occasion; and when repairs are undertaken, they must be necessary. The general 
 rule on which the master should act is, to restrict himself to those obligations which 
 a prudent owner would himself incur in the circumstances, " The creditor is re- 
 quired to prove the actual existence of the necessity of those things which give rise 
 to his demand. The authority of the master is to provide necessaries ; if, therefore, 
 a person trust him for a thing not necessary, he trusts him for that which it is not 
 within the scope of his authority to provide " (Abbot, 120). If the master expend 
 money of his own for such purposes, he is entitled to demand repayment. In a 
 home port the authority of the master to incur such obligations may be superseded 
 by that of the owners or a shipshusband ; but the master's presumed power war- 
 
407 MAS 
 
 rants individuals in contracting with him, unless they are aware of his being so 
 superseded. The master may hypothecate the ship, or give the creditor a right to 
 a security over it, for the expense of repairs in a foreign but not in a home port. 
 Ireland has, for this purpose, been held a foreign country in the case of an English 
 ship. [Bottomry and Respondentia.] It has been found that the master has no 
 hen on the ship, for expenditure which he may have himself undertaken for repairs, 
 or for recourse in the case of his having had to make good obligations incurred on 
 account of repairs (Hussey v. Christie, 9 East. 426). It is the duty of the master, 
 like every other agent, to use his own endeavours for furthering the interest of his 
 constituents in the matter committed to his charge ; and the greater importance 
 of the trust calls on him for a corresponding exercise of vigilance and skill as an 
 agent. He is responsible for losses occasioned by his misconduct or blunder. 
 [Barratry. Insurance. Shipping.] There are many statutory regulations to 
 which he must attend, in the laws for the collection of the revenue, which will be 
 found abridged under the various heads of Customs, Shipping, Warehousing, 
 and in the act for consolidating the laws relating to merchant-seamen (5 & 6 Wm. 
 IV. c. 19), which will be found under the head of Seamen. — (Holt on Shipping, 
 2 1 5-2.58. A bbot on Shipping, 6th edition by Shee, 1 02- 1 60.) 
 
 MASTER AND SERVANT. The more important of the legal principles con- 
 nected with this head, and coming within the scope of the present work, refer to 
 the relations, obligations, and responsibilities of the parties in their transactions 
 with the public. These will be presented under the head of Principal and Agent; 
 and it only remains to give here a brief view of the nature of the engagement and 
 the manner in which it is incurred, and the more usual remedies which parties 
 may adopt when they feel aggrieved. The contract need not be in writing, unless 
 it be intended to last longer than a year. In the case of clerks, warehousemen, 
 shopmen, and in general all classes of persons who are in the way of being em- 
 ployed as permanent members of an establishment, a hiring without condition is 
 a hiring for a year, and to make it terminable at a shorter period, there must be 
 some specialty in the agreement, to show that the parties intended it to be for a 
 shorter time. " By the general understanding on the subject, and without an 
 express agreement or understanding to the contrary, domestic or menial servants, 
 though hired by the year, are subject to be dismissed or to depart at any time on 
 a month's notice given by either, or a month's pay by the master " (Burn's Jus- 
 tice, Servants, ii.). This doctrine applies to England ; in Scotland, the matter 
 is regulated by local usage. A general hiring at so much per month, or so much 
 per week, is a monthly or weekly hiring ; but it is open to proof that the hiring 
 was intended to be for a longer period, and that the expression was merely 
 employed in rating the wages. In the case of such hiring by the year, or 
 other consuetudinary period, if the servant continue in his employment after its ex- 
 piry, the parties are held to have contracted with each other again for a like period. 
 
 Statutory Provisions. — There are several statutory provisions for regulating the intercourse be- 
 tween employers and employed, the more important of which only can be here briefly noticed. 
 
 The 4th Geo. IV. c. 34, applies to the case of farm-servants, artificers, calico-printers, handi- 
 craftsmen, miners, colliers, keelmen, pitmen, glassmen, potters, and other labourers. In the cir- 
 cumstances of any such person refusing — if hired by a signed written contract — to commence, or 
 (whether there be writing or not) deserting his service, or committing any misconduct, the hirer 
 or his steward may complain on oath to a justice, who, on investigation, may abate the workman's 
 wages, or imprison him for a period not exceeding three months, or discharge him. To facilitate 
 the recovery of the wages of such workmen in case of the non-residence of their employers, justices, 
 on their complaint, may summon the steward or foreman, award the wages (provided they do not 
 exceed £ 10), and on non-payment within 21 days, levy the sum by distress and sale. 
 
 Truck System.— The act for abolishing the truck system (1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 37) applies to miners, 
 quarriers, saltmakers, brickmakers, cutlers and other workers of metals, japanners, tanners, and 
 hemp, woollen, cotton, and silk manufacturers. It renders void all contracts where the engage- 
 ment is not to pay in the current coin, or where there is a stipulation as to how the wages are to 
 be spent. It is illegal to remunerate the artificer with goods, and these cannot be set off against 
 his claim for full wages. Any employer transgressing is liable to a penalty — viz. for the first offence, 
 not less than £5 or more than £10"; for the second, not less than £10 or more than £20 ; and for 
 the third, not exceeding £100. 
 
 Arbitration. — Disputes between a master and workman may be referred by any writing under 
 their hands to the final and summary determination of any justice of the peace or magistrate, 
 within whose jurisdiction the party complained against resides. The disputes which may be so 
 referred are, 1st, Disputes as to the price of work, whether arising as to payment of wages, hours 
 of work, injury done to the work, delay in finishing it, or bad materials ; 2d, Where workmen are 
 employed at any new pattern which may require them to purchase any new implements, or alter 
 their old ones, and the parties cannot agree as to compensation ; 3d, Disputes as to the dimension' 
 and quality of goods, " or, in case of cotton manufacture, the yarn thereof, or the quantity and 
 quality of the wool thereof;" 4th, Disputes regarding the remuneration for pieces of goods of any 
 extraordinary length ; bth, Disputes in the cotton manufacture, as to the manufacture of cravats, 
 
MAS 4G8 MAU 
 
 shawls, pullicat, roomal and other handkerchiefs, and the number to be contained in a piece ; and, 
 6th, Disputes arising from the particular trade or manufacture, or relative contracts, which can- 
 not be otherwise settled. 5 Geo. IV. c. 96. 
 
 [Factor. Principal and Agent. Shipping.] (Acts as quoted. Burn's Justice. Smith's 
 Mercantile L. 352-356. Burton's Manual of the Law of Scotland, 475-470.) 
 
 MASTIC (Arab. Arah. Fr. Mastic. Ger. Mastix. It. Mastice), a resinous 
 exudation from the Pistacia lentiscus, a shrubby tree found chiefly in the island of 
 Scio, of which indeed it is the most celebrated production. When good, it occurs 
 in pale yellow, brittle, transparent drops, of an astringent taste, and light agree- 
 able odour, especially when heated. Such as inclines to black, green, or is dirty, 
 should be avoided. " It forms the basis of several dyeing varnishes, is one of the 
 ingredients used in fumigations, and is considered to be efficacious in promoting a 
 healthy state of the mouth : for this latter purpose it is held in much esteem by 
 the Turks, Greeks, and all the people of the Levant, who constantly chew it. The 
 women of Scio, Smyrna, and Constantinople, have almost always a piece of it in 
 their mouths." — {Lib. of Ent. Knowledge : Veg. Substances, vol. iii. p. 422.) Up- 
 wards of 300 cwts. are annually imported for consumption. 
 
 MAT, MATTING (Fr. Nattes. Ger. Matten. Rus. Progoshki), a texture 
 formed of rushes or the bark of trees interwoven, and used for coarse floor-covering, 
 for packages^and other purposes. Mats are imported from various countries, but 
 chiefly from Russia, where a kind called bast mats are manufactured on a large 
 scale from the inner bark of the lime-tree. The matting bags in which sugar is 
 imported from Mauritius have of late years been also much in request ; they are 
 made of the leaves of a tree called in that island the racoa. Floor and table mats 
 made from rattans and rushes are likewise occasionally brought from China. 
 
 MATE, the deputy of the master in a merchant ship. The first mate of every 
 vessel exceeding 80 tons in burthen, and the first and second mate of every vessel 
 exceeding 300 tons, when regularlv entered as such, are exempt from impressment 
 (4 Geo. IV. c. 25, § 7). [Seamen.] 
 
 MATFj, YERBA, or PARAGUAY TEA, the leaves of an evergreen, shrubby 
 plant (Ilex Paraguayensis), largely consumed in the manner of tea in many parts 
 of South America, where they are the subject of an extensive commerce. 
 
 The plant grows wild in all the woods bordering the affluents of the Uraguay and Parana, as 
 well as those of the Paraguay from the east, from lat. 24° 30' northward. The leaves are first 
 slightly scorched, by drawing the branch itself through fire ; they are then roasted, broken down, 
 and packed under strong pressure. The custom of using this herb was derived by the Spaniards 
 from the Indians of Maracaya; and it is now general in Paraguay, and even in Chili, Peru, and 
 Quito. A pinch of the leaves is put into a small cup of warm water, and the infusion is imbibed 
 through a little tube pierced with small holes in the lower part, which only allow the passage of 
 the water, and keep back the leaves. The same leaves serve for three infusions. Some drink it 
 with sugar or lemon-juice, and it is taken at all times. [Paraguay.] 
 
 MAUND, an eastern weight, much used in India. 
 
 MAUNDY MONEY, a name given to certain small silver coins distributed by 
 the Queen as alms on Maundy Thursday. [Coin.] 
 
 MAURITIUS, or ISLE OF FRANCE, a British colony in the Indian Sea, 
 about 600 miles E. of Madagascar. Discovered by Portuguese, 1505. Possession 
 taken by Dutch, 1598. Abandoned by Dutch and colonised by French, 1715. Be- 
 came subject to Britain, 1810. Area, 676 sq. miles. Population (1839), 135,197, 
 mostly negroes, but including about 9000 whites, chiefly of French extraction, and 
 12,000 Indians. The administration is vested in a governor and council. S 
 
 The island is in general mountainous, the land rising from the coast towards the centre ; and a 
 considerable portion of the interior is composed of an extended table-laud. The climate on the 
 elevated plains is very moist, but on the whole the island is salubrious, and indeed is visited on 
 this account by invalids from India. The chief disadvantage under which it labours is its great 
 exposure to hurricanes. These occur mostly between December and May, a period corresponding 
 nearly with the rainy season. Mauritius is not generally a fertile island, and it is dependent for 
 provisions on India, the Cipe, and other places; but in some parts the soil is exceedingly rich, 
 and tropical commodities are produced in great abundance. The spices of Ceylon have been intro- 
 duced, but not with much success ; and since 1825, when the importation of the produce of the 
 island into Britain was allowed on the same footing as the West India colonies, the planters have 
 given nearly their exclusive attention to the sugar-cane, the cultivation of which has since been 
 very greatly extended, though it is now supposed to have attained its maximum. In the year 
 1839, there were under crop 70,292 acres sugar-cane, 3145 maize, 6533mandioc, 1833 potatoes, 388 
 coffee, 76 cloves, and 5 nutmegs ; and there were exported of staples, 661,239 cwts. sugar, 60, 
 gallons rum, and 212,639 gallons molasses. 
 
 Mauritius is favourably situated for trade ; and the last published accounts, those for 1837, state 
 the amount of imports at £1,034,242 ; of which, from Britain, £344,739, chiefly cotton manufac- 
 tures, machinery, mill-work, and carriages, metals, dried provisions, and ale ; from British India, 
 £281,235, mostly rice and corn ; from Fiance, £122,651, comprehending wines, live-stock, spirits, 
 silks, cabinet wares, &c. ; from Pondicherry, £79,872, chiefly cotton piece goods, rice, soap, 
 candles, and skins ; the chief other imports were corn, provisions, and live-stock, from the Cape, 
 
MEA 4(>9 MEA 
 
 £70,790 ; live-stock, rice, &c. from Madagascar, £58,633 ; bags, skins, and French goods, from 
 Bourbon, £35,890 ; besides articles of smaller amount from Australia, Java, &c, and of oil from 
 the fisheries. The exports in the same year, consisting almost wholly of the island staples, 
 amounted to £831,132; of which, to Britain, £637,870; Australia, £79,940; Cape, £44,767; 
 Bourbon, £20,155 ; Madagascar, £15,716; British India, £13,965 ; Pondicherry, £7581; France, 
 £6355 ; besides smaller amounts to Java and other places. 
 
 There are two ports ; Port Louis, the capital, in lat. 20° 10' S., long. 57° 29' E., pop. 26,000, 
 lies in the N.W. extremity, within a narrow inlet; and Mahebourg, on the S.E. coast : the 
 harbours of both are good, and safe, except in the hurricane seasons. From 100,000 to 120,000 
 tons of shipping enter annually. 
 
 MEASURES, MONEY, DUTIES, &C 
 
 Measures and Weights.— The Imperial meas- 
 ures and weights are employed in government 
 transactions, but the old system of France is 
 that in ordinary use. The common practical 
 equations are, 15 French feet = 16 Brit, feet ; 7 
 aunes = 9 Brit, yards ; 1 arpent = 1 Brit, acre, 
 7 perches ; 1 velt = 2 old English wine gallons, 
 and 30 velts = 1 cask ; the quintal of 100 lbs. 
 French poids de marc = 108 lbs. avoirdupois, 
 and 20 quintals = 1 French ton. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are kept in sterling ; also 
 in dollars of 100 cents or 10 colonial francs. The 
 circulating medium is composed of notes for £2 
 and upwards, issued by the Mauritius Bank, 
 established in 1832, and the Mauritius Commer- 
 
 cial Bank, founded in 1838, and of a variety of 
 coins. The dollar coined for the colony is of the 
 same value as the Spanish dollar. Private bills 
 are drawn in Europe at 90 d. s. ; on India, 30 
 d. s. ; on Bourbon, 15 d. s. ; and commissariat 
 bills on Britain are granted at 30 days' sight. 
 
 The Duty on British or colonial produce or 
 manufactures imported in British ships is 6 per 
 cent. ; wheat, rice, and cattle, in British ships, 
 free. Export duty on sugar, Is. 2Jd. per 100 lbs. 
 when in British ships, and 2s. 2d. in foreign do. 
 Entrepot tax 1 per cent, on British; and 1J 
 per cent, on foreign goods. 
 
 The Colonial Revenue is about £180,000. 
 
 MEAD or METHLEGIN, a liquor of ancient use in Britain, prepared by fer- 
 menting honey and water with a small quantity of spices and ground malt. 
 MEASURES are, in commerce, of two kinds : those which have reference to 
 
 geometrical qualities, or the attributes which belong to extension ; and those which 
 ave regard to the physical quality of gravity, or weight. But as all the physical 
 properties of matter have an inseparable connexion with extension, the unit of the 
 measures of length may be held as the elementary foundation of both : its square 
 affords the unit of the measures of surface, and its cube the unit of the measures of 
 capacity ; while from this last may be derived the unit of the measures of weight, — 
 a vessel of any stated capacity filled with water, or any other homogeneous fluid, 
 always weighing the same in the same latitude. 
 
 Standards are those measures of public or acknowledged authority by which 
 others are adjusted. The importance of accurate standards has always rendered 
 their adjustment and preservation objects of the highest interest. Until of late 
 years, however, none of those in use could be considered as strictly invariable, in 
 consequence of the artificial bases on which they were established, and their ten- 
 dency, as material substances, to gradual decay. But in several countries, the 
 continued accuracy of the standards is now secured by their relation being fixed to 
 some unchangeable object of nature. The objects preferred for this purpose have 
 been, 1*/, The length of a portion of the meridional circle ; and, 2c?, The length of 
 a pendulum vibrating seconds of mean time. The first was adopted by the French 
 in the year 1795, when the metre, which is the foundation of their present system 
 of measures, was fixed at the ten-millionth part of the quadrant of the meridian, 
 or 39*37079 inches ; and the second was so far adopted by the British government 
 on the introduction of the Imperial system, that the length of the standard yard, 
 as compared with that of a pendulum vibrating seconds in the latitude of London 
 (at 62° Fahrenheit, and in a vacuum at the level of the sea), is determined to be in 
 the proportion of 36 inches to 39*1393 inches.* 
 
 * Since the above was written, a Report (December 21, 1841) has appeared from Messrs Airy, 
 Baily, Bethune, Herschel, and other scientific commissioners appointed by government to consider 
 the steps to be taken for restoration of the metrical standards which were destroyed in the burning 
 of the Houses of Parliament in 1834. From this report it appears that the use of the natural 
 constants referred to in the text will not reproduce the values of the original standards without 
 sensible error ; and that in future it will be best to adopt a certain brass rod, and a certain brass 
 weight, as the standards of extension and weight, respectively; which, with four parliamen- 
 tary copies, the commissioners recommend should be fabricated from the best existing copies of 
 the former standards, and placed securely in public repositories. They at the same time suggest, 
 that the avoirdupois pound should be assumed as the unit of weight; and that the troy pound, 
 the avoirdupois weights above 10 lbs. (as the stone, hundredweight, &c), and the avoirdupois 
 dram, should be abolished, and other weights in the ascending decimal scale of troy ounces and 
 avoirdupois pounds, and in the descending decimal scale from the avoirdupois pound, should 
 be substituted in their place. Other moderate changes of a systematic kind are recommended, 
 particularly with the view of introducing the decimal scale — as a milyard, or mile of 1000 yards, a 
 10 gallon measure, and the more complete incorporation of the land-chain and its decimal multiples 
 and divisions, with both our measures of length and of surface. The commissioners likewise direct 
 public attention to the advantage of a decimal system of coinage. [Money.] 
 
MEA 
 
 470 
 
 MEA 
 
 The Imperial measures were introduced by the act 5 Geo. IV. c. 74 (1824), and 
 came into operation on January 1, 1826. This law, however, failed to produce a 
 satisfactory uniformity in practice; and it was not until after the abolition of the 
 heaped measures, and the introduction of the regulations of the act 5 & 6 Wm. IV 
 c. 63 (September 9, 1835), that they were generally adopted. In the Imperial 
 system, the legal measures of extension and weight are continued as before ; but a 
 new measure of capacity is substituted for a variety of corn, wine, and beer meas- 
 ures, previously in use throughout the kingdom. The standards fixed were as fol- 
 lows : — The " Imperial standard yard," or brass " standard yard of 1760," bearing 
 the proportion to the pendulum already mentioned. The " Imperial standard 
 gallon, containing 10 lbs. avoirdupois, or 277*274 cubic inches of distilled water 
 at 62° Fahrenheit, the barometer being at 30 inches. The old troy pound of 1758, 
 containing 5760 grains; one cubic inch of distilled water at 62° Fahrenheit, the 
 barometer being at 30 inches, weighing 252*458 of such grains ; and 7000 of such 
 grains are declared to be equivalent to the avoirdupois pound. The chief other 
 provisions in the act are the following : — 
 
 "Weights and measures must be duly stamped by the inspectors, after being compared with the 
 copies ; and those using them either not stamped, or found light or unjust, forfeit a sum not 
 exceeding £5, with the weights or measures, and the contract is annulled. No weight above 56 lbs., 
 or wooden or wicker measure used in the sale of lime, or glass or earthenware drinking- vessel, 
 requires to be stamped ; but any person, buying by any such measure represented as of any amount 
 of imperial measure, may require the same to be tested by a stamped measure, and if the seller 
 refuse to do so, or the measure is found deficient, he becomes liable to the above penalty. Weights 
 made of pewter or lead cannot be stamped or used unless cased with brass, copper, or iron. 
 
 Weights of 1 lb. or more must have the number of pounds, and measures must have their con- 
 tents, denominated in legible figures and letters. 
 
 Justices and magistrates, or any inspector authorized by them in writing, may, at all seasonable 
 times, enter any shop, warehouse, or other place, within their jurisdiction, where goods are sold 
 or weighed, and examine the weights, weighing-machines, and measures used there ; and on any 
 of these being found illegal or fraudulent, or their not being produced, or the investigation being 
 obstructed, parties become liable in a penalty not exceeding £5. 
 
 Local and customary measures, including the Winchester bushel and Scotch ell, abolished, and 
 not to be used under a penalty not exceeding 40s. ; but any vessel not represented as containing 
 any imperial, fixed, or customary measure, may be used in the sale of articles. 
 
 The use of the heaped measure is prohibited ;' and coal, slack, culm, or cannel, must be sold by 
 weight. All articles sold by weight must be sold by avoirdupois weight, except gold, silver, platina, 
 diamonds or other precious stones, which may be sold by troy weight ; and drugs, which, when 
 sold by retail, may be sold by apothecaries* weight. A stone- weight is to consist of fourteen pounds 
 avoirdupois. The fiar prices in Scotland must be struck by the Imperial quarter. 
 
 Persons printing, or clerks of markets returning price-lists, journals, or papers, with a denomina- 
 tion of weights and measures greater or less than the Imperial, forfeit a sum not exceeding 10s. 
 for every copy. 
 
 BRITISH MEASURES ACCORDING TO THE IMPERIAL STANDARDS, WITH 
 THEIR EQUIVALENTS IN THE METRICAL SYSTEM OF FRANCE. 
 
 I. Measures of Length. Metres. 
 
 12 inches = 1 foot 0-30479 
 
 3 feet = 1 yard. 0-91438 
 
 5J yards = 1 pole, rod, or 
 
 perch. 5-02911 
 
 40 poles = 1 furlong. 201-16436 
 
 8 furlongs or 
 
 1760 yards = 1 mile. 1609-31492 
 
 Special Measures of Length.— The hand = 
 4 inches ; the pace = 5 feet ; and the fathom = 
 6 feet. The geographical degree = 20 nautical 
 leagues, or 69*121 miles. In land measure, the 
 chain of 100 links = 66 feet. 
 
 II. Measures of Surface. 
 
 Ares. 
 144 square inches = 1 sq. foot. 0-000929 
 
 9 square feet = 1 sq. yard. 
 30J sq. yards, or 
 
 2724 sq. feet = 1 sq. pole. 
 40 square poles = 1 rood. 
 4 roods, or 4840 
 
 square yards = 1 acre. 
 
 The acre also contains 10 square chains ; and 
 
 640 acres make 1 sq. mile, equal 258-989 hectares. 
 
 0-008361 
 
 0-252919 
 10-116775 
 
 40-467102 
 
 III. Measures of Capacity. 
 1. General Measure of Solidity. 
 
 I Cu>). Metre. 
 1728 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot. 0-028315 
 27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard. ' 0764513 
 The ton measurement for shipping contains 8 
 barrel-bulk, or 40 cubic feet. 
 
 2. Measures for Liquids and Corn.* 
 Litres. 
 8665 cubic inches = 1 gill 
 
 4 gills 
 2 pints 
 4 quarts 
 2 gallons 
 4 pecks 
 8 bushels 
 10 quarters 
 
 1 pint. 
 = 1 quart. 
 = 1 gallon. 
 = 1 peck. 
 = 1 bushel. 
 = 1 quarter. 
 = 1 last. 
 
 0-142 
 
 0-568 
 
 1-136 
 
 4-543 
 
 9-087 
 
 36-348 
 
 290-781 
 
 2907-815 
 
 The measures higher than the gallon are not 
 used for liquids. 
 
 In Beer Measure, the barrel contains 4 firkins 
 or 36 galls. ; and the hogshead 1 1 barrel or 54 galls. 
 
 In Wine Measure, besides the gallon and its 
 subdivisions, various denominations are used, 
 
 * In Ireland, grain is commonly sold by weight ; a practice which is also followed in Liverpool, 
 except in sales of malt and barley for malting purposes. In the latter place, wheat is sold by the 
 70 lbs. ; oats by the 45 lbs. ; and barley for grinding by the 60 lbs. weight. [Corn.J 
 
MEA 
 
 471 
 
 MEA 
 
 as the butt, pipe, and others specified below ; 
 but these are now to be considered rather as the 
 names of casks than as expressing any definite 
 number of gallons- The standard gauges recog- 
 nised in trade are described in the article Wine. 
 IV. Measures of Weight. 
 I. Avoirdupois or Commercial Weight. 
 
 Kilogrammes. 
 
 2. Troy, or Gold and Silver Weight. 
 
 Grammes. 
 24 grains = 1 penny wgt. 1-555 
 
 20 pennyweights = 1 ounce. 31-100 
 
 12 ounces, or 
 5760 grains = 1 pound. 373*202 
 
 The troy pound is less than the avoirdupois 
 in the proportion of 14 to 17 nearly ; but the troy 
 ounce is greater than the avoirdupois in the pro- 
 portion of 79 to 72 nearly. 
 
 The mode of expressing the fineness of gold and 
 
 silver is explained in the articles Coin and Plate. 
 
 Diamond Weight. — Diamonds are weighed by 
 
 carats, 151 i of which make one ounce troy ; the 
 
 carat is therefore equal to 3$ troy grains. 
 
 Pearl Weight.— The troy ounce contains 600 
 pearl grains, and hence one pearl grain is |ths 
 of a troy grain. 
 Apothecaries' Weight — 20 troy grains make 1 
 Flour Weight. — 1 peck = 14 pounds ; 1 boll scruple, 3 scruples make 1 dram, and 8 drams 
 = 140 pounds ; 1 sack = 280 pounds, or 2 J hun- make 1 troy ounce. This weight is used in med- 
 dredweight ; 1 barrel = 19 i pounds. ical prescriptions only. 
 
 Tables for the mutual Conversion of the British and French Measures.* 
 
 •34 troy grains = 1 dram. 
 
 0-0018 
 
 16 drains = 1 ounce. 
 
 00283 
 
 16 ounces, or 
 
 
 7000 grains = 1 pound. 
 
 0-4535 
 
 14 pounds = 1 stone. 
 
 6-3496 
 
 28 pounds = 1 quarter. 
 
 12-6992 
 
 4 quarters, or 
 
 
 112 pounds = 1 hundred- 
 
 
 weight. 
 
 507969 
 
 20hundredwgts. 
 
 
 or 2240 pounds = 1 ton. 
 
 1015-9388 
 
 tret. ( Yard*- 
 
 Hec- 
 tare*. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Litre* gXEs. 
 
 Hecto- 
 litres. 
 
 quart es. 
 
 Grammes 
 
 Troy 
 
 grains. 
 
 Kilo. 
 rrammes. 
 
 Lbs. 
 avoird. 
 
 1 1-09363 
 
 1 
 
 2-47114 
 
 1 
 
 0-22010 
 
 1 
 
 0-34390 
 
 1 
 
 15-434 
 
 1 
 
 2-20486 
 
 2 218727 
 
 2 
 
 4-94229 
 
 2 
 
 0-44019 
 
 2 
 
 0-68780 
 
 2 
 
 30-868 
 
 2 
 
 4-40971 
 
 3 3-28( 190 
 
 3 
 
 7-41343 
 
 3 
 
 0-66029 
 
 3 
 
 1-03170 
 
 3 
 
 46-302 
 
 3 
 
 661457 
 
 4 4-37453 
 
 4 
 
 9-88457 
 
 4 
 
 0-88039 
 
 4 
 
 1-37560 
 
 4 
 
 61-736 
 
 4 
 
 8-81943 
 
 5 5-46817 
 
 5 
 
 12-35572 
 
 5 
 
 1-10048 
 
 5 
 
 1-71950 
 
 5 
 
 77*170 
 
 5 
 
 11-02429 
 
 6 6-56180 
 
 6 
 
 14-82686 
 
 6 
 
 1-32058 
 
 6 
 
 2-06341 
 
 6 
 
 92-604 
 
 6 
 
 13-22914 
 
 7 7-65543 
 
 7 
 
 17-29800 
 
 7 
 
 1-54068 
 
 7 
 
 2-40731 
 
 7 
 
 108-038 
 
 7 
 
 15-43400 
 
 8 8-74906 
 
 8 
 
 19-76914 
 
 8 
 
 1-76077 
 
 8 
 
 2-75121 
 
 8 
 
 123-472 
 
 8 
 
 17*63886 
 
 9 9-84270 
 
 9 
 
 22-24029 
 
 _9_ 
 
 1-98087 
 
 9 
 
 3-09511 
 
 9 
 
 138-906 
 
 9 
 
 19-84371 
 
 Yards. Metres. 
 
 Acre*. 
 
 Hectares. 
 
 galls. 
 
 Litres. 
 
 Imp. 
 qrs. 
 
 Hecto- 
 litres, 
 
 Troy 
 (Trains. 
 
 Grammes. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Kilo- 
 grammes. 
 
 1 0-91438 
 
 1 
 
 0-40467 
 
 1 
 
 4-54346 
 
 1 
 
 2-90781 
 
 1 
 
 0-06479 
 
 1 
 
 0-45354 
 
 2 1-82877 
 
 2 
 
 0-80934 
 
 2 
 
 9-08692 
 
 2 
 
 5-81563 
 
 2 
 
 0-12958 
 
 2 
 
 0-90709 
 
 3 
 
 2-74315 
 
 3 
 
 1-21401 
 
 3 
 
 13-63038 
 
 3 
 
 8-72344 
 
 3 
 
 0-19438 
 
 3 
 
 1-36063 
 
 4 
 
 3-65753 
 
 4 
 
 1-61868 
 
 4 
 
 1817384 
 
 4 
 
 11-63126 
 
 4 
 
 0-25917 
 
 4 
 
 1-81418 
 
 5 
 
 4-57192 
 
 5 
 
 2-02336 
 
 5 
 
 22-71730 
 
 5 
 
 1453907 
 
 5 
 
 0-32396 
 
 5 
 
 2-20772 
 
 6 
 
 5-48630 
 
 6 
 
 2-42803 
 
 6 27*26076 
 
 6 
 
 17-44689 
 
 6 
 
 0-38875 
 
 6 
 
 2-72126 
 
 7 
 
 6-40068 
 
 7 
 
 2-83270 
 
 7 31-80422 
 
 8 36-34768 
 
 7 
 
 20-35470 
 
 7 
 
 0-45354 
 
 7 
 
 317481 
 
 8 
 
 7-31507 
 
 8 
 
 3-23737 
 
 8 
 
 23-26252 
 
 8 
 
 0-51834 
 
 8 
 
 3-62835 
 
 9 
 
 8-22945 
 
 9 
 
 3-64204 
 
 9 140-89114 
 
 9 
 
 26-17033 
 
 9 
 
 058313 
 
 9 
 
 4-08190 
 
 These tables are also equalization tables of prices, as well as of measures and weights, but in 
 the inverse ratio of the latter. Thus, for example, 9 lbs. = 4*0819 kilogrammes ; but when the 
 price of a kilogramme = 9 francs or shillings, the price of a pound = 4-0819 francs or shillings : 
 also 9 kilogrammes = 19-84371 lbs. ; but when the price of 1 lb. = 9 francs or shillings, the price 
 of 1 kilogramme = 19*84371 francs or shillings. — ( Vide note on p. 472.) 
 
 PRINCIPAL OLD MEASURES SUPERSEDED BY THE IMPERIAL SYSTEM. 
 
 England. j convert Imperial gallons into wine gallons, add 
 
 Measure 0/ Length.— The ell = 45 inches. |th to the former ; and to convert prices per Im- 
 
 Wine Measure. — The gallon equal 4 quarts, 8 1 perial gallon into prices per wine gallon, deduct 
 pints, or 32 gills, and contained 231 cubic inches, i |th from the former. 
 
 or 3785 French litres. Of these gallons the an 
 ker contained 10, the rundlet 18, the tierce 42, 
 the hogshead 63, the puncheon 84, the pipe or 
 butt 126, and the tun 252. 
 
 The Imperial gallon contains 277*274 cubic 
 inches; therefore 1 wine gallon equal 0-833111 
 Imperial gallon ; and 1 Imperial gallon equal 
 1*200320 wine gallon. The wine gallon is thus 
 almost exactly |th less than the Imperial ; or 5 
 Imperial gallons equal 6 wine gallons. Hence, to 
 convert wine gallons into Imperial gallons, de- 
 duct l;th from the former ; and to convert prices 
 per wine gallon into prices per Imperial gallon, 
 add *th or 20 per cent, to the former. Again, to 
 
 Ale and Beer Measure.— -The gallon divided 
 in the same manner as the wine gallon, and equal 
 282 cubic inches, or 4-6209 French litres. Of 
 these gallons the firkin contained 9, the kilder- 
 kin 18, the barrel 36, the hogshead 54, the pun- 
 cheon 72, the butt 108, and the tun 216. 
 
 One ale gallon equal 1*017045 Imperial gallon ; 
 or 1 Imperial gallon equal 0-983241 ale gallon ; 
 hence approximately 59 ale gallons equal 60 Im- 
 perial gallons. 
 
 Heaped Measure —The bushel 19J inches wide 
 from the outside, 8 inches deep, and measuring 
 2217-6 cubic inches ; but when heaped in the form 
 of a cone above the brim, 2815J. Three heaped 
 
 * The elementary equations used in the comparison of the French and British measures are as 
 follow :— For extension, the metre = 39-37i>79 ; for weight, the kilogramme = 15434 troy grains. 
 The former is stated 011 the authority of the second Report of the Parliamentary Commission on 
 British Weights and Measures, and of the Annuaire of the French Board of Longitude; the 
 latter according to the London Mint R.port on attested Standards, sent to Lord Castlereagh, by 
 D. R. Morier, Esq., Consul-general at Paris, 1820. 
 
MEA 
 
 472 
 
 MEA 
 
 bushels made a sack, 12 sacks a chaldron, and 21 
 chaldrons a score. This measure was used for 
 coals, culm, lime, fish, potatoes, and other com- 
 modities. Apples and pears were commonly sold 
 by the Winchester bushel heaped. 
 
 Winchester or English Standard Corn Mea- 
 sure. — The denominations of this measure were 
 the same as the Imperial. The Winchester 
 bushel contained 2150*42 cubic inches, or 35-237 
 French litres. The Imperial bushel contains 
 2218tl92 cubic inches ; hence 1 Winchester bushel 
 or quarter equal 0*969447 Imp. bushel or quarter, 
 and 1 Imp. bushel or quarter equal 1*031516 Win- 
 chester bushel or quarter ; or approximately 33 
 Winchester bushels or quarters equal 32Imperial. 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 Measures of Length.— The standard Scottish 
 ell of 36 Scots or 37*0598 Imperial inches. 6 ells 
 made 1 fall ; 40 falls 1 furlong ; and 8 furlongs 
 or 1920 ells made 1 mile, equal 1976*522 Imperial 
 yards. Hence 10 Scots miles equal 1 14 Imperial 
 or statute miles nearly. The chain of 100 links, 
 used for land measure, was equal to 24 ells, 
 74*1196 Imperial feet, or 1*123024 Imperial chains. 
 
 Weights.— The standard Scottish Troyes or 
 Dutch pound of 16 ounces, or 256 drops, equal 
 7608*95 troy grains, or about Ath heavier than 
 the avoird. pound. The Lanark stone contained 
 16 of these pounds, or 17*391885 lbs. avoird. The 
 Scottish tron weight used for butter and cheese 
 varied in different places. 
 
 The standard Scottish meal boll contained 8 
 stones Dutch, or 139*135 lbs. avoird. ; but usually 
 reckoned 140 lbs. in consequence of the Dutch or 
 Lanark stone being estimated at 17J lbs. avoird. 
 
 , Liquid Measures.— The Scots gallon of 8 pin ts, 
 ;16chopins,32mutchkins,orl28gills,equal3*00651, 
 or rather more, than 3 Imperial gallons. The 
 Scots anker of 20 pints equal about 7i Imp. galls. 
 
 Measures of Surface.— 36 square ells equal 1 
 square fall, 40 square falls equal 1 rood, and 4 
 roods equal 1 acre, equal 1*261183 Imperial acre. 
 To convert, therefore, Scots acres into Imperial, 
 multiply by 1*261183; and to convert Imperial 
 acres into Scots, multiply by 0*792906. Approxi- 
 mately, 23 Scots acres equal 29 Imperial acres ; 
 or more nearly, 134 Scots acres equal 169 Impe- 
 rial acres. • Hence Scots acres are convertible 
 into Imperial acres by multiplying the number 
 of the former by 169, and dividing the product 
 by 134. On the other hand, Imperial acres are 
 convertible into Scots acres by multiplying by 
 134, and dividing the product by 169. 
 
 Similarly to convert prices of land per Scotch 
 measure into prices per Imperial, multiply the 
 former by 0*792906 ; or approximately deduct £th, 
 or more nearly 4s. l|d. per £1 from the Scots 
 price. Again, to convert Imperial prices into 
 Scots, multiply the former by 1*261183 ; or ap- 
 proximately add ith, or more nearly 5s. 23d. per 
 £1 to the Imperial price. 
 
 Corn Measures.— See the article Boll. 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 100 Irish gallons = 78$ Imp. gallons. 
 11 Irish miles — 14 Imp. miles. 
 121 Irish Planta- 
 tion acres = 196 Imp. acres. 
 24 Cunningham 
 
 acres = 31 Imp. acres nearly. 
 
 Reciprocal Conversion of Winchester and Imperial Measures." 
 
 Winchester into Imperial. 
 
 Imperial into Winchester. 
 
 Win. 
 
 Imperial 
 
 Win. 
 
 Imperial 
 
 1 Win. 
 
 Imperial 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Winchester 
 
 Imp. 
 Bush. 
 
 Winchester 
 
 
 
 Qra. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Bush. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Pecks. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Pecks. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 1 
 
 0*969447 
 
 1 
 
 0*121181 
 
 1 
 
 •03030 
 
 1 
 
 1*031516 
 
 1 
 
 0*128939 
 
 1 
 
 •03223 
 
 2 
 
 1*938894 
 
 2 
 
 0*242362 
 
 2 
 
 •06059 
 
 2 
 
 2*063031 
 
 2 
 
 0*257879 
 
 2 
 
 •06447 
 
 3 
 
 2*908341 
 
 3 
 
 0*363543 
 
 3 
 
 •09089 
 
 a 
 
 3*094547 
 
 3 
 
 0*386818 
 
 3 
 
 •09670 
 
 4 
 
 3*877788 
 
 4 
 
 0*484723 
 
 Gals. 
 
 
 4 
 
 4*126063 
 
 4 
 
 0*515758 
 
 Oal. 
 
 
 5 
 
 4*847235 
 
 5 
 
 0*605904 
 
 1 
 
 •01515 
 
 5 
 
 5*157579 
 
 5 
 
 0*644697 
 
 1 
 
 •01612 
 
 6 
 
 5*816682 
 
 « 
 
 0*727085 
 
 Quarts. 
 
 
 6 
 
 6*189094 
 
 6 
 
 0*773637 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 6*786129 
 
 7 
 
 0*848266 
 
 1 
 
 •00379 
 
 7 
 
 7*220610 
 
 7 
 
 0*902576 
 
 1 
 
 •00403 
 
 8 
 
 7755576 
 
 8 
 
 0*969447 
 
 2 
 
 •00757 
 
 8 
 
 8-252126 
 
 8 
 
 1*031516 
 
 2 
 
 •00806 
 
 9 
 
 8725023 
 
 9 
 
 1*090628 
 
 3 
 
 •01136 
 
 9 
 
 9*283641 1 9 1*160455 
 
 3 
 
 ■01 209 
 
 As the Winchester and Imperial quarters are similarly divided, the first two columns in the 
 right-hand Table will also serve for the conversion of Winchester bushels, pecks, gallons, and 
 quarts respectively, into the same denominations in Imperial ; while the inverse operation may be 
 performed by means of the first two columns in the left-hand Table. 
 
 Reciprocal Conversion of Prices per Winchester and Imperial Measures. 
 
 Winchester into Imperial. 
 
 
 Imperial into Winchester. 
 
 
 Win. 
 
 Imperial. 
 
 Win. 
 
 Imperial. 
 
 Win. 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Winchester. 
 
 Imp. 
 
 Winchester. 
 
 
 Win. 
 
 a 
 
 
 s. 
 
 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 0i 
 
 20 
 
 20 7J 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 113 
 
 20 
 
 19 43 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 0| 
 
 25 
 
 25 9i 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 i m 
 
 25 
 
 24 23 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 li 
 
 30 
 
 30 \\k 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 11 
 
 30 
 
 29 1 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 li 
 
 35 
 
 36 U 
 
 4 
 
 41 
 
 4 
 
 3 10J 
 
 35 
 
 33 Hi 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 5 2 
 
 40 
 
 41 34 
 
 5 
 
 54 
 
 5 
 
 4 10* 
 
 40 
 
 38 94 
 
 5 
 
 43 
 
 6 
 
 6 2i 
 
 50 
 
 51 7 
 
 6 
 
 64 
 
 6 
 
 5 93 
 
 50 
 
 48 53 
 
 6 
 
 53 
 
 7 
 
 7 2| 
 
 60 
 
 61 103 
 
 7 
 
 74 
 
 7 
 
 6 9J 
 
 60 
 
 58 2 
 
 7 
 
 63 
 
 8 
 
 8 3 
 
 70 
 
 72 2i 
 
 8 
 
 84 
 
 8 
 
 7 9 
 
 70 
 
 67 104 
 
 8 
 
 73 
 
 9 
 
 9 3J 
 
 80 
 
 82 64 
 
 9 
 
 9i 
 
 9 
 
 8 83 
 
 80 
 
 77 63 
 
 9 
 
 83 
 
 10 
 
 10 M 
 
 90 
 
 92 10 
 
 10 
 
 104 
 
 10 
 
 9 8k 
 
 90 
 
 87 3 
 
 10 
 
 93 
 
 15 
 
 15 H 
 
 103 1| 
 
 11 
 
 114 
 
 15 
 
 14 6J 
 
 loo 
 
 96 114 
 
 11 
 
 103 
 
 * These tables being expressed decimally, we have deemed it unnecessary to go higher than the 
 nine digits, as the others can readily be obtained from them, merely by transposition of the decimal 
 point, and addition. Thus, as 9 Winchester qrs. = 8*725023 Imperial qrs. ; 90 Winchester qrs. 
 = 87*25023 Imp. qrs. , and adding these respective quantities, we have 99 Winchester qrs. = 95*9/5253 
 Imp qrs. [Decimal Fractions.] 
 
MEA 
 
 473 
 
 MEA 
 
 Table for Converting Scots Land Measure into Imperial ; and also for Converting 
 Prices per Scots Measure into Prices per Imperial Measure. 
 
 Scots into Imperial Land Measure. 
 
 Conversion of Prices. 
 
 Scots 
 
 J mi* nil 
 
 Scots 
 
 Imperial 
 
 Scots 
 
 Imperial 
 
 Scote. 
 
 Imperial 
 
 Scots. 
 
 Imperial. 
 
 Scots. 
 
 Imp. 
 
 •ere. 
 
 men. 
 
 
 acre. 
 
 
 acre. 
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 s. d 
 
 
 0. 
 
 ± 
 
 0-3152959 
 
 1 
 
 •00788 
 
 1 
 
 •00022 
 
 1 
 
 15 10i 
 
 1 
 
 9i 
 
 I 
 
 <H 
 
 1 
 
 0-6305917 
 
 2 
 
 •01576 
 
 2 
 
 •00044 
 
 2 
 
 1 11 8} 
 
 2 
 
 1 7 
 
 1 
 
 03 
 
 1 
 
 0-9458876 
 
 3 
 
 •02365 
 
 3 
 
 •00066 
 
 3 
 
 2 7 6j 
 
 3 
 
 2 41 
 
 2 
 
 li 
 
 1 
 
 1-2611834 
 
 4 
 
 •03153 
 
 4 
 
 •00088 
 
 4 
 
 3 3 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 2 
 
 3 
 
 2* 
 
 2 
 
 2-5223669 
 
 5 
 
 •03941 
 
 5 
 
 •00109 
 
 5 
 
 3 19 3i 
 
 a 
 
 3 11| 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 37835,503 
 
 6 
 
 •04729 
 
 6 
 
 •00131 
 
 6 
 
 4 15 1| 
 
 6 
 
 4 9 
 
 5 
 
 33 
 
 4 
 
 5-0447338 
 
 7 
 
 •05518 
 
 7 
 
 •00153 
 
 7 
 
 5 11 
 
 7 
 
 5 6* 
 
 6 
 
 43 
 
 5 
 
 6-3059172 
 
 8 
 
 •06306 
 
 8 
 
 •00175 
 
 8 
 
 6 6 10i 
 
 8 
 
 6 4 
 
 7 
 
 54 
 
 6 
 
 7-5671<M)7 
 
 9 
 
 •07094 
 
 9 
 
 •00197 
 
 9 
 
 7 2 83 
 
 9 
 
 7 U 
 
 8 
 
 6* 
 
 7 
 
 8-8282841 
 
 10 
 
 •07882 
 
 10 
 
 •00219 
 
 10 
 
 7 18 6J 
 
 10 
 
 7 11 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 10-0894676 
 
 20 
 
 •15765 
 
 20 
 
 •00438 
 
 20 
 
 15 17 2 
 
 11 
 
 8 8i 
 
 10 
 
 73 
 
 9 
 
 11-35I65M 30 
 
 •23647 
 
 30 
 
 •00657 
 
 30 
 
 23 15 9 
 
 15 
 
 11 10* 
 
 il 
 
 8i 
 
 Theftrst two columns will answer likewise for converting Scots roods into Imperial roods, and Scots 
 falls into Imperial poles or perches. The table for the conversion of prices shows the equivalents 
 per Imperial acre, rood, or perch, of the given rates per Scottish acre, rood, or fall, respectively. 
 
 MEASURES and DIVISIONS of TIME. The principal measures of time are 
 those furnished by nature in the rotation of the earth on its axis, the revolution of 
 the moon round the earth, and the revolution of the earth round the sun, — periods 
 respectively denoted by the terms Day, Month, and Year. For ordinary purposes, 
 however, these are reckoned by approximate or conventional methods. The Civil 
 Day is the mean solar day. The Lunar Month is, except in Eastern countries, 
 superseded by the Kalendar Month. The Civil Year, or mean solar year, was 
 adjusted by Julius Caesar (b. c. 45), who, estimating the solar revolution at 365 
 days 6 hours, fixed that the year should consist of 365 days in three successive 
 years, and 366 in the fourth, called leap year. This method, denominated Old Style, 
 was adopted and continued by all Christian nations until a. d. 1582, when it was 
 discovered that the Julian year was too long by about 11 minutes, — the true length 
 of the solar year being 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes nearly. To rectify this error, 
 which had then led to an advance of about 10 days, Pope Gregory XIII. ordained 
 that the year 1582 should consist of 355 days only ; and, to prevent a like irregular- 
 ity in future, it was decreed that when a number denoting a complete century is 
 not divisible by 4, as the 17th, 18th, and 19th, such years should be reckoned as 
 common years, — an arrangement involving an excess of but one day in 5200 years. 
 
 The Gregorian Kalendar, or New Style, was gradually adopted in all Christian 
 countries, except those which acknowledge the Greek Church, — Russia and Greece. 
 In Britain, it was adopted in 1752, when the difference of time being 11 days, 
 it was enacted that the 3d of September of that year should be called the 14th. 
 During the present century, the Old Style is to be reckoned 12 days later than the 
 New Style. Thus, a Russian or Greek bill dated the 10th day of any month, must 
 be reckoned from the 22d day of the same month in every place where the Grego- 
 rian Kalendar is used. 
 
 The Regnal Years of Sovereigns are commonly used in dating public docu- 
 ments. In the following table the periods when the sovereigns began to reign are 
 stated on the authority of Sir Harris Nicolas' " Chronology of History." 
 English Sovereigns from the Conquest. 
 
 Began to Reign. J 
 
 Began to Reign. 
 
 William I. (the 
 Conqueror). . . . 
 
 Wax. II. (Ru/iis). 
 
 Henry I. (Beau 
 clerc) 
 
 Stephen 
 
 Henry II 
 
 Richard I 
 
 John 
 
 Henry III 
 
 Edward I 
 
 Edward II 
 
 Edward III ' 
 
 Richard IL, ! 
 
 Henry IT I 
 
 IHenry V 
 
 1066 Dec. 25;HenryVI 
 
 1087 Sept. 26.£dward IV 
 
 (Edward V 
 
 1 100 Aug. 5|Richard III 
 
 1 135 Dec. 26]Henry VII 
 
 1 154 Dec. 193Henry VIII 
 
 1189 Sept. 3'Edward VI. 
 
 1199 May 27|Mary 
 
 1216 Oct. 28JElizabeth 
 
 1272 Nov. 202 James I 
 
 13<)7 July 8iCharlesI 
 
 1327 Jan. 25JCommon wealth ; 
 1377 June 221 from the execu- 
 1399 6ept. 30, tion of Charles I., 
 
 22 James 
 
 1413 Mar. 21 
 1422 Sept. 
 1461 Mar. 
 1483 April 
 1483 June 26| 
 1485 Aug. 
 1509 April 2fi|VVm 
 1547 Jan. 28|Wiir 
 1553 July 
 1558 Nov. 1 
 1603 Mar. 24 
 1625 Mar. 27 
 
 Jan. 30, 1649, to 
 the restoration of 
 Charles II. 
 95CharlesII. (resto 
 
 red*) 
 
 II , 
 
 (HI.) & Mary 
 ham III. alone 
 
 6|Anne. 
 
 George L 
 
 George II 
 
 George III 
 
 George IV 
 
 William I V.... 
 Victoria 
 
 to Reign. 
 
 1660 May 29 
 1685 Feb. 6 
 1689 Feb. 13 
 1694 Dec 28 
 17<»2 Mar. 8 
 1714 Aug. 1 
 1727 June 11 
 1760 Oct. 25 
 1820 Jan. 29 
 1830 June 
 1837 June 20 
 
 * In some historical, and in all legal documents, the reign of Charles II. is reckoned from the 
 death of his father, Charles I. 
 
MEA 
 
 474 
 
 MEA 
 
 The Terms recognised in the different divisions of the United Kingdom for leases 
 and money-payments are as follow : — 
 
 In England and Ireland: Lady Day, March 25; Midsummer, June 24; Michaelmas Day, 
 September 29 ; and Christmas, December 25. 
 
 In Scotland: Candlemas, February 2; Whitsunday, May 15 ; Lammas, August 1; and Mar- 
 tinmas, November 11. When any of these falls on Sunday, the following Monday is considered 
 to be the Term Day. 
 
 GENERAL KALENDAR FROM 1798 TO 1899. 
 
 Years. 
 
 G 
 
 1798 
 1804 
 1810 
 
 1821 
 1827 
 1832 
 1838 
 
 1855 
 1600 
 1866 
 
 1877 
 
 1883 
 1888 
 1884 
 
 F 
 
 1799 
 1805 
 1811 
 1816 
 1822 
 
 1833 
 1839 
 1844 
 1850 
 
 1861 
 
 E 
 
 1800 
 1806 
 
 1817 
 
 1823 
 
 I 1828 
 
 1834 
 
 1845 
 1851 
 1856 
 1862 
 
 1872 1873 
 1878 1879 
 1884 
 1889 1890 
 1895 
 
 D 
 1801 
 1807 
 
 1812 
 1818 
 
 C 
 
 1802 
 
 1813 
 1819 
 1824 
 
 1829 1830 
 
 1835 
 
 1840 
 
 1846 
 
 1857 
 1863 
 1868 
 1874 
 
 1885 
 
 1841 
 1847 
 1852 
 1858 
 
 1869 
 1875 
 
 1896 1897 
 
 1808 , 1809 
 
 1814 
 
 1815 
 1820 
 1826 
 
 1825 
 1831 
 1836 1837 
 1842 1843 
 
 1848 
 1853 1854 
 1859| 
 1864 1865 
 1870 . 1871 
 
 1876 
 1881 1882 
 18871 
 1892 1893 
 
 January "I 
 
 October / 
 
 May 
 
 August \ 
 
 February (leap year)., f 
 
 February \ 
 
 March > 
 
 November ) 
 
 June 
 
 September \ 
 
 December / 
 
 January (leap year) . . . S 
 
 April > 
 
 July ) 
 
 Sundays. 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 24 
 
 M 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 B C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 B 
 
 C D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 A 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 c 
 
 » 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 A 
 
 ii 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 G 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 Use. — To find the day of the week answering to May 4, 1840. — Above 1840 in the left-hand table, 
 is found the Dominical or Sunday Letter D ; and over D, contiguous to May, in the right-hand 
 table, is the figure 3, the date of Sunday ; the 4th, therefore, is Monday. 
 
 The converse of this operation, namely, to find the day of the month corresponding to the day 
 of the week, is too evident to require illustration. 
 
 The months January and February, it will be observed, are to be referred to separately in leap 
 years : such years may be known by a blank space always preceding them in the left-hand table. 
 
 The Mohammedan Kalendar dates from the flight of the prophet from Mecca 
 to Medina, which, according to the civil calculation, occurred on July 16, a.d. 622, 
 hence called the epoch of the era of the Hegira. The years of the Hegira are lunar 
 years, and contain 12 lunar months, each commencing with the new moon ; a prac- 
 tice which leads to great confusion, as each lunar month retrogrades through all 
 the different seasons in nearly 32.^ solar years. The months consist, like ours, of 
 weeks, each day of which begins in the evening after sunset. As the lunar year 
 consists of 354 days and ll-30ths of a day, a fraction which, in the course of 30 
 years, amounts to 11 days; the years of the Hegira are divided into cycles of 30 
 years; 19 of which are termed common years of 354 days each, and the 11 others 
 intercalary, or abounding years, from their consisting of one day more : these are 
 the 2d, 5th, 7th, 10th, 13th, 16th, 18th, 21st, 24th, 26th, and 29th. To ascertain 
 whether any given year be intercalary or not, divide it by 30 ; and if any of the 
 above numbers remain, the year is one of 355 days. In chronology, history, and 
 public documents, the Turks use months which contain alternately 30 and 29 days, 
 except the last month, which in intercalary years contains 30 days. The names of 
 these months, with the length of each, are as follow : — Moharram, 30; Saphar,29; 
 Rabia I. 30; Rabia II. 29 ; Guimadhi I. 30 ; Guimadhi II. 29 ; Redgeb, 30 ; Scha- 
 ban, 29; Ramadhan, 30; Schoual, 29; Dhu'l Kadah, 30; Dhu'l Hajjah,29, and in 
 intercalary years 30 days. 
 
 The day on which any year of the Hegira begins will be ascertained with toler- 
 able accuracy by the following calculations : — Multiply the years elapsed by 970203; 
 cut off six decimals; add 622*54, and the sum will be the year of the Christian era, 
 and decimal of the day following in old style. Again, to reduce the Christian era 
 to the Mohammedan, subtract 622 from the current year ; multiply by 1"0307; cut 
 off four decimals, and add '46 : the sum will be the year and decimal of the day, 
 old style. 
 
 The following table, derived from the splendid French work " L'Art de Ve- 
 rifier les Dates, shows the day of the Christian kalendar on which each Moham- 
 medan year begins, from a. d. 1840 to 1900; from which, and the preceding list of 
 months, the general correspondence of dates may be easily determined. 
 
MEC 
 
 475 
 
 MEE 
 
 Anno Hcf. 
 
 Anno Dum. 
 
 
 
 Anno Heg. 
 
 Anno Dom. 
 
 
 Anno Heg. 
 
 Auno Dom. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 4 
 
 1256* 
 
 1840 
 
 March 5 
 
 1277 
 
 I860 
 
 July 
 
 20 
 
 1298 
 
 1880 
 
 1-257 
 
 1841 
 
 Feb. 
 
 23 
 
 1278* 
 
 1861 
 
 July 
 
 9 
 
 1299 
 
 1881 
 
 Nov. 
 
 23 
 
 1S58 
 
 1842 
 
 Feb. 
 
 12 
 
 1279 
 
 1862 
 
 June 
 
 29 
 
 1300* 
 
 1882 
 
 Nov. 
 
 12 
 
 1259* 
 
 1843 
 
 Feb. 
 
 1 
 
 1280 
 
 1863 
 
 June 
 
 18 
 
 1301 
 
 1883 
 
 Nov. 
 
 2 
 
 1260 
 
 1844 
 
 Jan. 
 
 22 
 
 1281* 
 
 1864 
 
 June 
 
 6 
 
 1302 
 
 1884 
 
 Oct. 
 
 21 
 
 1261 
 
 1845 
 
 Jan. 
 
 10 
 
 1282 
 
 1865 
 
 May 
 
 27 
 
 1303* 
 
 1885 
 
 Oct. 
 
 10 
 
 1262* 
 
 1845 
 
 Dec. 
 
 30 
 
 1283 
 
 1866 
 
 May 
 
 16 
 
 1304 
 
 1886 
 
 Sept. 
 
 30 
 
 1263 
 
 1846 
 
 Dec. 
 
 20 
 
 1284* 
 
 1867 
 
 May 
 
 5 
 
 1305 
 
 1887 
 
 Sept. 
 
 19 
 
 1864 
 
 1847 
 
 Dec. 
 
 9 
 
 1285 
 
 1868 
 
 April 
 
 24 
 
 131)6* 
 
 1888 
 
 Sept. 
 
 7 
 
 1265* 
 
 1848 
 
 Nov. 
 
 27 
 
 1286* 
 
 1869 
 
 April 
 
 13 
 
 1307 
 
 1889 
 
 Aug. 
 
 28 
 
 1266 
 
 1849 
 
 Nov. 
 
 17 
 
 1287 
 
 1870 
 
 April 
 
 3 
 
 1308* 
 
 1890 
 
 Aug. 
 
 17 
 
 1267* 
 
 1850 
 
 Nov. 
 
 6 
 
 1288 
 
 1871 
 
 March 23 
 
 1309 
 
 1891 
 
 Aug. 
 
 7 
 
 1268 
 
 1851 
 
 Oct. 
 
 27 
 
 1289* 
 
 1872 
 
 March 11 
 
 1310 
 
 1892 
 
 July 
 
 26 
 
 1269 
 
 1852 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 1290 
 
 1873 
 
 March 1 
 
 1311* 
 
 1893 
 
 July 
 
 15 
 
 1270* 
 
 1853 
 
 Oct. 
 
 4 
 
 1291 
 
 1874 
 
 Feb. 
 
 18 
 
 1312 
 
 1894 
 
 July 
 
 5 
 
 1271 
 
 1854 
 
 Sept. 
 
 24 
 
 1292* 
 
 1875 
 
 Feb. 
 
 7 
 
 1313 
 
 1895 
 
 June 
 
 24 
 
 1272 
 
 1855 
 
 Sept. 
 
 13 
 
 1293 
 
 1876 
 
 Jan. 
 
 28 
 
 1314* 
 
 1896 
 
 June 
 
 12 
 
 1273* 
 
 1856 
 
 Sept. 
 
 1 
 
 1294 
 
 1877 
 
 Jan. 
 
 16 
 
 1315 
 
 1897 
 
 June 
 
 2 
 
 1274 
 
 1857 
 
 Aug. 
 
 22 
 
 1295* 
 
 1878 
 
 Jan. 
 
 5 
 
 1316* 
 
 1898 
 
 May 
 
 22 
 
 127 -> 
 
 1858 
 
 Aug. 
 
 11 
 
 1296 
 
 1878 
 
 Dec 
 
 26 
 
 1317 
 
 1899 
 
 May 
 
 12 
 
 1276* 
 
 1859 
 
 July 
 
 31 
 
 1297* 
 
 1879 
 
 Dec. 
 
 15 
 
 1318 
 
 1900 
 
 May 
 
 1 
 
 * Intercalary or abounding years. 
 In scientific computations, the Mohammedans use the solar year ; but always 
 according to the Julian kalendar or old style. 
 
 MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN, a grand-duchy lying inN. Germany, between 
 the Baltic and the Elbe, contiguous to Prussia, Hanover, and the territory of Lu- 
 bec. Area, 4788 sq. miles. Population, 494,530. Government, a constitutional 
 monarchy. 
 
 The country is generally level and fertile ; agriculture is the chief employment of the people ; 
 and the manufactures are inconsiderable, though some pains are bestowed on those of linen and 
 woollen. The exports consist almost wholly of farm-produce ; and, according to Mr Meek's re- 
 port {Par. Paper, 1842: No. 7), they amounted, on an average of the 3years 1839-1841, to 205,699 
 quarters wheat ; 72,674 qrs. rye ; 56,243 qrs. barley ; 29,665 qrs. oats ; and 28,587 qrs. pease ; 
 besides 800, Of K) lbs. wool, mostly of fine quality, 1,550,000 lbs. bones, rapeseed cake, hides, and 
 other articles. The imports embrace most kinds of manufactures and tropical produce, salt, wine, 
 tallow, hemp, &c. The foreign trade is conducted partly through Hamburg by the Elbe, but 
 chiefly at the ports of Rostock and Wismar on the Baltic, and the principal intercourse is with 
 England. The trade of the grand-duchy, however, is much checked by the vicinity of Hamburg 
 and Lubec, and the heavy duties imposed by the Prussian tariff. 
 
 Rostock, the chief port and largest town, lies in lat. 54° 5' N., long. 12° 20 7 E. on the river War- 
 now, about 9 miles from its mouth ; pop. 18,200. In 1840, 702 vessels entered the port; and 
 about 230 vessels, burthen 35,332 tons, belong to it. 
 
 In the S. of Mecklenburg, Prussian monies and 
 measures are common. 
 
 The Duties are levied according to a tariff 
 published in Rostock in 1748, called the Accise 
 Rolle ; and at that port they average, including 
 town duties, contributions, and bridge-money, 
 about 3 per cent. Those on exports do not ex- 
 ceed this rate. The port charges at Rostock are 
 very small, indeed lower than at any other place 
 in the Baltic 
 
 The Revenue is about £440,000, of which 
 nearly £250,000 are produced by the domains. 
 The debt is about £720,000. 
 
 Measures and Weights. — At Rostock the ell 
 of 2 feet = 225 Brit, inches. The liquid mea- 
 sures are the same as in Lubec. The Rostock 
 corn scheffel = 1-07 Brit, bushel. 100 Ros- 
 tock lbs. = 112 lbs. avoird. ; but the weights 
 chiefly used are those of Lubec and Hamburg. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are stated in thalers or 
 dollars of 48 schillings, each of 12 pfennings ; 
 also in marks of 16 schillings. The dollar = 
 3s. 4Ad. The principal coin is the Constitution 
 I piece, which is estimated at 32 schillings. 
 Foreign exchanges are transacted chiefly through 
 the medium of Hamburg, the usual rate being 
 130 dollars for 300 marks banco. 
 
 MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ,a grand-duchy contiguous to the foregoing, with 
 which indeed it is united by a compact called the Landes-Union, made in 1523. 
 Area, 1092 sq. miles ; pop. 89,528. Being situated at a distance from the ocean, 
 and of small size, it possesses no commercial interest. [Germany.] 
 
 MEDIDA5 a Brazilian measure equal 4f Imp. pints nearly. 
 
 MEDLAR, the fruit of the Mespilus Germanica, a native of the south of Eu- 
 rope, but cultivated, though to a small extent, in this country. It resembles the 
 smaller apples, and possesses considerable flavour, but does not attain the ripe- 
 ness fit for use until some time after it has been taken from the tree. The Notting- 
 ham medlar is the finest, but the Dutch, a larger variety, is the kind most prized 
 in England. 
 
 MEERSCHAUM, or earthy carbonate of magnesia, is a light substance, of a 
 wbite or yellowish colour; soft when first dug, but hardens on exposure to the air. 
 Principal localities, Samos, Negropont, Natofia, and Moravia. It is the material 
 used in the manufacture of Turkish pipes, and is also employed as fuller's earth. 
 
MER 476 MEX 
 
 MERCANTILE SYSTEM, a theory of political economy, formerly in high 
 repute, which was based on the principles that wealth consisted in gold and silver, 
 and that those metals could be brought into a country that had no mines only by 
 exporting to a greater amount than it imported. Its two great engines for en- 
 riching the country, therefore, were restraints upon importation, and encouragements 
 to exportation. Importation was restrained by imposing prohibitions or high 
 duties, — 1st, Upon such foreign goods for home consumption as could be produced 
 at home ; and, 2d, Upon goods of almost all kinds from those particular countries 
 with which the balance of trade was supposed to be disadvantageous. Exportation 
 again was encouraged by — 1st, Drawbacks ; 2d, Bounties ; 3d, Securing commercial 
 privileges in some foreign state beyond what were granted to other countries ; 
 and, 4th, Monopolizing wholly or partially the trade of the colonies. The mercantile 
 system was overthrown by Adam Smith, by whom it is discussed in the fourth 
 book of the Wealth of Nations, to which we must refer for a full exposition of its 
 fallacies. In the present work, further information will be found under the heads 
 Balance of Trade, Bounty, Colony, and Commerce. 
 
 MERCURY or QUICKSILVER (Ft. Mercure. Ger. Quecksilber. Sp.Azogue), 
 a brilliant silver- white metal, distinguished by being fluid at a natural temperature. 
 Sp. gr. 13'57. It boils at 670°. At 40° below zero it becomes solid. When thrown 
 on a table it collects into a globule, and, provided it is pure, runs without leaving 
 a tail. Mercury is found native in small quantities ; but for commercial purposes 
 it is always extracted from the ore called cinnabar, a bisulphuret of the metal, 
 found in Austria, Spain, Japan, China, and South America. The most productive 
 mines are those of Almaden, near Cordova in Spain, which have been worked up- 
 wards of 2000 years ; of Idria in Austria, and ot Huancavelica in Peru. It occurs 
 massive and crystallized, and of a red colour. Cinnabar is also prepared artificially 
 by a combination of 8 parts mercury and 1 of sulphur ; and the product is a red 
 crystallized mass, which, when reduced to powder, is a beautiful scarlet, extensively 
 employed as a pigment under the name of vermilion. 
 
 Mercury is principally employed for amalgamation with other metals, chiefly gold 
 and silver, so as to extract them from their ores. It is used also in gilding, in 
 silvering mirrors, and for various philosophical instruments. In medicine it is 
 employed in several forms. The whitish insipid powder termed calomel is the pro- 
 tocnloride of mercury; and the acrid nauseous white substance, known as corrosive 
 sublimate, is the bichloride. The latter has of late been likewise extensively em- 
 ployed for the prevention of dry-rot. See Quicksilver, in Supplement. 
 
 The imports of mercury into this country, almost wholly from Spain, amount 
 annually to about 2,000,000 lbs. ; of which about one-eighth only is entered for home 
 consumption. The remainder is re-exported chiefly to Mexico and Chili ; but in 
 considerable quantities also to Guatemala, the United States, and East Indies ; 
 while smaller shipments are made to Russia, Germany, Belgium, and other places. 
 
 Tares, in leather bags, 4 lbs. each ; in iron bottles, weighing 3 qrs. 8 lbs., 15 lbs. per bottle. 
 
 MERINO, a fine kind of woollen fabric. [Woollen Manufactures.] 
 
 METRE, the rudimentary unit of the metrical system of France, fixed at the 
 ten-millionth part of the quadrant of the meridian, is equal 39'37079 inches. 
 
 MEXICO, UNITED STATES OF, formerly the viceroyalty of New Spain, 
 is now a federative republic, occupying the S. part of North America and N. 
 part of Central America, betwixt 16° and 42° N. lat. It consists of 19 states, 5 
 territories, and a federal district, besides an extensive outlying tract. Area of the 
 states, 833,600 sq. miles. Population of the whole, variously estimated at from 
 6,000,000 to 8,000,000, of which about one-half are Indian aborigines, 1,250,000 
 whites, and the remainder mixed races. Capital, Mexico, an inland city ; pop. 
 140,000. The Congress of the union consists of a president, vice-president, and of 
 two legislative bodies — the Senate and the House of Representatives. 
 
 About one-half of the surface of Mexico is situate within the tropics, while the rest belongs to 
 the temperate zone ; but of the former more than three-fifths have a mild atmosphere, as 
 nearly the whole interior is composed of an immense table-land of the mean height of 7000 feet, 
 continuous with the Andes of S. America, and running from 18° to 40° N. latitude. In the course 
 of this tract, however, detached mountains occur which rise into the region of perpetual snow. 
 The table-land gradually declines towards the temperate zone ; but the descent towards the coasts, 
 especially the E. coast, is by a graduated series of terraces, which produce an extraordinary diver- 
 sity of vegetation, and at same time oppose great difficulties to the communication between 
 the maritime districts and the interior, rendering it difficult to transport merchandise, except on 
 muleback. In the equinoctial region there are only two seasons,— the wet, from June or July to 
 September or October, and the dry, which lasts eight months : in this district the different climates 
 rise as it were one above another from the shore, where the mean temperature is about 78° Fahr., 
 to the central plains, where it is about 62°. The coast is humid and unhealthy for strangers, but 
 
MEX 477 MEX 
 
 the table-land is remarkable for its salubrity ; most of the population of the country being concen- 
 trated upon the latter. The summit of the "table-land is almost destitute of vegetatioD, owing to the 
 absence of moisture ; but muriate of soda and other saline substances exist in great abundance. 
 The remaining districts are in general productive. Maize is the chief object of culture ; besides which, 
 the banana, manioc, the cereal grains, rice, and the potato, form the common food of the people. 
 The Mexican wheat is of the finest quality, and would form a staple export, but for the difficulty 
 of transporting it to the seacoast. The narrow insalubrious plain along the coast called the tierra 
 caliente, or hot country, is remarkable for its luxuriant vegetation. The chief productions are the 
 sugar-cane, cotton, cocoa, indigo, and tobacco. The southern part of the country, forming the 
 isthmus, is celebrated for the variety and importance of its woods and medicinal plants, — including 
 logwood, caoutchouc, vanilla, jalap, and storax, besides the tree which nourishes the cochineal 
 insect. Vast herds of horses, mules, and horned cattle cover the plains of the northern states. 
 
 The mines of Mexico, however, constitute the chief source of its wealth, particularly those of 
 silver, which indeed are by far the most valuable in the world. Gold is obtained, but only in 
 small quantities. Copper, tin, iron, lead, and mercury, are also to be found. The gold is procured 
 chiefly from river deposits by washing, particularly in the province of Sonora : the veins of this 
 metal are most common in Oaxaca. The silver is mostly procured from veins, and the following is a 
 list of the richest mines : — Guanaxuato, in state or province of that name ; Catorce, in San Luis 
 Potosi ; Zacatecas, in province of that name ; Real del Monte, near Mexico ; Bolanos, in Xalisco ; 
 Guarisamey, in Durango ; Sombrerete, in Zacatecas ; Tasco, near Mexico ; Batopilas, in Durango ; 
 Zuriapan, near Mextco ; Tresnillo, in Zacatecas ; Ramos, in San Luis de Potosi ; Parral, in Dur- 
 ango. 
 
 According to Mr Ward (Mexico in 1827, vol. ii. p. 38), the annual average produce of the mines 
 before the revolution in 1810 amounted to §24,000,000 (£4,800,000), and the average exports to 
 $22,000,000 (£4,400,000) ; but after that event, the unsettled state of the country, the emi- 
 gration of the Old Spaniards, and the withdrawing of the funds which kept the mines in operation, 
 caused a great falling off; and in 1821, when the separation from the mother-country became 
 inevitable, the coinage sunk to $8,067,560 (£1,613,512). In a few years afterwards, extraordinary 
 efforts began to be made by British capitalists to restore the mines, and during the speculative 
 excitement of 1825, many joint-stock companies were formed for this purpose. These associations 
 began with spirit, and their shares speedily attained extravagant premiums ; but it was soon found 
 that almost every thing had to be reconstructed. The expenses attending the preliminary opera- 
 tions absorbed nearly the whole subscribed capital ; while, owing to the defective mode of extract- 
 ing the ore, and the mismanagement of many of the companies' agents, the produce was much less 
 than was expected ; and, in consequence, many of the undertakings were abandoned. Within a 
 few years, no less than £3,000,000 of British capital were expended in enterprises connected with 
 these mines ; besides considerable investments by American and German companies. Notwith- 
 standing these exertions, and the more improved processes which are understood to have been 
 lately adopted, the silver produced at present is not estimated to exceed £2,300,000 ; nor the gold, 
 £100,000; the former being thus only about one-half, and the latter scarcely above one-third of 
 the amount produced before the revolution. [Bcllion.] The English companies at present in 
 operation are six in number, and the funds invested by each are estimated as follows : — Real del 
 Monte, £500,000; United Mexican, £1,200,000; Anglo- Mexican, £1,000,000; Bolanos, £150,000; 
 Halpuyahua, £180, 000; Catorce, £'60,000. The Bolanos is said to have been the most successful. 
 
 Manufactures in Mexico are generally in a rude state. The best were formerly those of gold 
 and silver-plated articles, though these have now probably declined ; coarse earthenware, woollens, 
 and cottons, are made in some parts of the interior ; also soda, soap, gunpowder, and leather. 
 
 The external commerce of Mexico, viewed comparatively with its population and natural re- 
 sources, is inconsiderable. This is occasioned partly by the difficult communication between the 
 interior and the coast, but mainly to the continued dissensions which have prevailed since the 
 revolution. The exports, which may be estimated at from £3,000,000 to £3,500,000 a-year, 
 consist chiefly of silver, which, with cochineal and gold, is mostly sent to Britain ; there are, be- 
 sides, sugar, copper (sent from Gaymas to China), indigo, coffee, cotton, hides (shipped from 
 Upper California), tobacco, jalap, sarsaparilla, vanilla, Campeachy wood, and other drugs and 
 dye-woods. 
 
 The principal import is quicksilver, of which about 6,000,000 lbs. are annually consumed 
 in the mines; it is mostly brought from England, into which it is carried from Spain; cot- 
 tons, woollens, and linens, are brought from Britain, also iron, hardware, arms, and earthen- 
 ware ; glass-ware and linen from Germany ; paper from Italy and France ; wine and brandy 
 from Spain and France ; olive-oil from Spain ; hats from France ; spices from England, East 
 Indies, and China ; silks from China, Britain, and France ; cocoa from Venezuela and Ecuador. 
 The declared value of British produce and manufactures sent annually to Mexico fluctuates gen- 
 erally between £400,000 and £700,000. An extensive trade is carried on with the United States, 
 where most of the Mexican products find a ready market, and are paid for in the manufactures of 
 those states or of Europe. 
 
 The Chief Ports for foreign trade are— in the Gulf of Mexico, Vera Cruz, Tampico, Campeachy, 
 Matamoras, Sisal, and Tabasco; on the Pacific, San Bias, Mazatlan, and Acapulco ; in the 
 Gulf of California, Guaymas ; and on the Sea of Upper California, Monterey. Of these, Vera 
 Cruz, on the east coast, in lat. 19"' 15' N. long. 96° 20' W., distant 90 leagues from Mexico, and for- 
 merly the sole port for European commerce, is still that to which the greatest amount of imports 
 are brought ; it has yet also the principal export-trade in all commodities except the precious metals, 
 which are mostly sent from Tampico, the port nearest to the richest mining districts. Vera Cruz 
 is defonded by the celebrated castle of San Juan de Ulloa ; it is very unhealthy ; and its harbour is 
 merely a bad anchorage, open to the north winds, which blow with dreadful impetuosity from 
 October till April. Indeed, scarcely any of the ports on the east side are good, — an accumulation 
 of sand being constantly driven into them by the trade-winds. The shipping frequenting the 
 Mexican ports is of inconsiderable amount, owing to the staples of its trade being mostly articles 
 containing great value in small bulk. 
 
MEX 
 
 47B 
 
 MIX 
 
 MEASURES, MONK 
 
 The Measures and Weiahts are in general those 
 of Spain ; but the British yard and French 
 aune are also used in the sale of European piece- 
 goods. 
 
 Money. — The principal money of account in 
 Mexico, and throughout Spanish America, is the 
 piastre or dol!ar($), which is divided into 8 reals, 
 or 100 cents. The real is also divided into 16 
 quartos or 34 maravedis ; into2medios, 4 quar- 
 tillos, or 8 ochavos ; and, as in paying duties, 
 into 12 granos. 
 
 The coins are, — In gold, doubloons or ounces 
 (nominally of 16 dollars), also 1, i, and 4 dou- 
 bloons : In silver, dollars, 1 dollars, i dollars or 
 pesetas, and reals of Mexican plate : In copper, 
 quartillos, and clacos or ochavos. The gold 
 coins throughout Spanish America are generally 
 minted, as in Spain, at the rate of 81 doubloons 
 to the Castile mark, 21 carats fine ; making the 
 doubloon, when of full weight, worth £3, 4s.8|d. 
 The silver coins (except in the Colombian states) 
 are also generally minted as in Spain at the rate 
 of 8J dollars, 17 half-dollars, 34 pesetas, or 68 
 reals to the Castilian mark. The standard of 
 the dollar, which is usually termed the hard 
 dollar (peso duro or fuerte) , and sometimes the 
 Spanish dollar, is 10| dineros fine in 12, and its 
 value, when of full weight, is 4s.21d. The half- 
 dollar is of proportional value. The pesetas and 
 reals, however, are always inferior. The Span- 
 ish standard for these smaller coins is 93 dineros 
 fine ; but in several of the new republics this 
 standard has been reduced: in Bolivia it is 
 now only 8 dineros, or § ds pure silver to £d of 
 alloy. 
 
 The dollar of account is reckoned both in the 
 small base coins (which form the ordinary cur- 
 rency of the Spanish-American states) and in 
 hard dollars ; the latter occur chiefly in foreign 
 trade. The usual exchange of the hard dollar 
 is about 48d. ; or, what is the same, $5 per £l, . 
 
 MICA, a finely foliated mineral substance, sometimes used as a substitute for 
 glass, particularly in certain kinds of stoves, to enclose the fire without concealing 
 the flame. The large sheets of mica met with in this country are mostly imported 
 from Siberia. 
 
 MILE, an itinerary measure, varying in different countries. [Measure.] 
 
 MILK (Fr. Lait. Ger. Milch), a secreted liquid intended for the nourishment 
 
 of the young of mammiferous animals. The milk of the cow is that chiefly used by 
 
 mankind. Butter is obtained from this fluid by agitation, and cheese by coagulation. 
 
 The cow yields her milk most plentifully for some time after calving ; then gradu- 
 
 forth 
 
 r, Finances, &c. 
 
 or $500 per £100. Remittances to Europe, 
 
 however, are commonly made in specie. 
 
 Duties on imports are regulated by a tariff, 
 non-enumerated articles in which pay 40 per 
 cent. ; quicksilver, tools, and seeds are free. 
 Articles, the produce of Mexico, may be exported 
 duty free, except the precious metals, which, in 
 the shape of ore, ingots, or dust, are prohibited ; 
 gold, wrought or coined, pays 2 per cent., and 
 silver 31 per cent. The import duties, being 
 generally high, they are evaded by many de- 
 vices, which are connived at by the customhouse 
 officers, who are notoriously corrupt. 
 
 Finances. — The public revenue was lately 
 stated to average about $12,500,000 (£2,500,000), 
 mostly derived from customs ; but this is ex- 
 ceeded by the charges upon it, and the finances 
 have been long in a disordered state. The dom- 
 estic debt is considerable ; and there is a foreign 
 debt, originally composed of two English loans ; 
 one inl824of £3,200,000,5 per cents, negotiated 
 at 58 per cent.; the other, in 1825, of the same 
 amount, of 6 per cents, raised at 89f . By a sub- 
 sequent arrangement, the unredeemed portion 
 of these loans, with the arrears of interest due 
 on them, were consolidated ; the 5 per cents 
 being taken at par, and the 6 per cents at 1121 
 per cent. ; and the whole created into a 5 per 
 cent, stock, amounting to £9,247,378, 8s. 6d, — 
 one-half, £4,623,689, 4s. 3d., bearing interest 
 from 1st October 1837 ; the other half, called 
 " Deferred Bonds," to bear interest from 1st 
 October 1847. Little has since been done towards 
 payment of the dividends. 
 
 A Treaty between Mexico and Great Britain 
 was executed on 26th December 1826, providing 
 for the protection and security of their com- 
 merce, and placing the two states respectively 
 towards each other on the footing of the most 
 favoured nations. S 
 
 where a proper breed of cows exists, the average yearly produce may be reckoned 
 at from 700 to 800 gallons for each. Two gallons of milk or a little more will yield 
 about 1 lb. of butter ; and from 7 to 8 pints will yield 1 lb. of cheese (Low's Agri- 
 culture). Milk is only raised for direct sale in the neighbourhood of towns : in 
 London and its environs, Mr Youatt estimates that 12,000 cows are kept at present 
 for that purpose alone. At greater distances from towns, milk is generally converted 
 into butter ; and in still more remote places into cheese, or into butter which is 
 salted. Mr M'Queen values the annual produce of the dairy in the U. K. as 
 follows : — Milk, £12,000,000; butter, £13,500,000; cheese, £7,000,000; total, 
 £32£00,000.-(Statistics, p. 48.) S 
 
 MILLET, a kind of grain (Holcus) imported into this country from Germany 
 and the south of Europe, chiefly for feeding small birds. There are a variety of 
 different species. In most countries lying under the warmer latitudes of the tem- 
 perate zone, the millets form a very essential article of domestic economy, being 
 deprived of the husk and used whole as rice, or ground into meal and flour, and 
 made into bread. 
 
 MILREA, the integer of account in Braztl and Portugal. 
 
 MINIUM, or RED LEAD, is massicot finely ground and calcined. It is a 
 
Mil* 479 MON 
 
 red powder, but with a liability to turn black. It is used in painting, in the manu- 
 facture ofgl&ss, and in surgery. 
 
 MI NOT, an old French measure, equal 1073 Imp. bushel. 
 
 MISCAL, an Oriental weight, equal 74 troy grains nearly. 
 
 MOCHA STONE, is a semi-transparent calcedony, including various ramified 
 forms produced by iron, or other mineral substances, but sometimes also by the 
 presence of vegetable bodies, such as mosses. The finest are found in Gujerat, but 
 received their name from having been brought from Mocha. An inferior sort is 
 also found in Germany. 
 
 MODENA, a ducal state in N. Italy, between the Papal States and Parma. 
 Area, 2080 sq. miles. Population in 1833, 403,500. The government is the most 
 absolute in Italy. 
 
 About one-half of the territory is covered by the chain of the Apennines and its offsets ; one- 
 third more forms part of the plain of Lombardy ; and a small but rich strip extends along the 
 shores of the Mediterranean. Principal towns, Modena and Reggio. Exports, horned cattle, 
 swine, fruit, silk, corn, brandy, wine, vinegar, and the marble of Carrara, both wrought and un- 
 wrought, which employs 1200 workmen, and yields annually about £30,000. A great fair takes 
 place at Reggio, in March. 
 
 The braccio of Modena = 24-31 Imp. inches ; the braccia of Reggio = 20-85 Imp. inches. The 
 biolca, land measure, of 72 tavole = 07009 Imp. acre. The stajo of corn = 1*94 Imp. bushel. 
 The quintal of 100 Modena lbs. = 70-45 lbs. avoird. ; and 100 Reggio lbs. = 7274 lbs. avoird. 
 
 The general money of account is the lira Italiana, divided into 100 centimes, and equal in value 
 to the French franc, or 9Jd. The old Modena lira of 20 soldi or 240 denari = 3jd. ; and the lira 
 of Regcrio = 2Jd. 
 
 MOGIO, an Italian measure of capacity, varying in different places. 
 
 MOHAIR, the hair of the Angora goat ; it is made into camlets, &c. S 
 
 MOHUR, the principal gold coin of India. 
 
 MOIDORE, or LISBONNINE, an old Portuguese gold coin, value 26s. Hid. 
 
 MOLASSES. [Sugab.] 
 
 MONEY, any commodity employed as a standard by which to measure the value 
 of others, as the equivalent given for them, and as a medium of exchange. Various 
 articles have, in different states of civilisation, been used to perform the functions 
 of money, — as cattle, salt, furs, tobacco, silk, cowry shells, and some others ; 
 but in almost all parts of the globe these are now superseded by silver and gold, 
 owing to their greater portability, divisibility, and indestructibility, and to their 
 being less liable than almost any other commodities to fluctuations of value. In 
 early ages, the denominations of money were identical with those of weight, and 
 the metals were circulated in ingots or small masses. But as civilisation advanced, 
 aud transactions increased, the constant trouble of weighing them, and, in most in- 
 stances, of also assaying them, produced a degree of inconvenience, that led to 
 the introduction of small pieces, impressed with a national stamp, which rendered 
 both operations unnecessary. These, under the name of Coins, became thus in 
 general use in transactions between individuals belonging to the same political 
 community ; though silver and gold, in their former state of ingots or bars, have 
 continued to be employed, in a greater or lesser degree, in international exchanges. 
 
 Some states, in their coinage, have made use of one metal only as standard 
 money, or legal tender to any amount ; others, of both gold and silver, at a certain 
 fixed relative value. In the United Kingdom the standard is gold, which is coined at 
 the rate of 1 869 sovereigns from 40 troy pounds of standard metal, or, what is the same, 
 at £3, 17s. 10hd. per ounce. In France, Austria, Russia, and most other continental 
 states, there are two standards ; but owing to the relative value of gold to silver 
 being fixed by their mint regulations at a rate higher than their relative valuo 
 in the market, the latter metal alone is practically in use as legal tender, and an 
 agio on the mint rate has to be paid in order to procure gold. In the United 
 States, where there are also two standards, this rule was reversed in 1834, when, 
 owing to a reduction in the weight of their gold coin [Eagle], that metal became 
 the general medium for large payments instead of silver. 
 
 Of the precious metals, gold, from its superior portability, has been always prefer- 
 red for large payments and foreign remittances. But, in the progress of society, it 
 became gradually apparent that the advantages of metallic money were chiefly 
 confined to its functions as a standard and equivalent of value ; as a medium of 
 exchange, its weight, the trouble of counting large sums, and the risk of losing 
 while removing what has so great an intrinsic value, rendered it unfit for the 
 extended operations of modern commerce. These inconveniences led, in the four- 
 teenth century, to the introduction of bills of exchange ; and, at a later period, to 
 that modification of these instruments which has obtained the name of paper- 
 money. The substitution of a cheap for an expensive medium of circulation, by 
 
MON 480 MON 
 
 this ■ coining of credit," is often pointed out as the chief advantage of paper- 
 money; but this is a narrow view of its conveniences. Metallic monev would not, 
 even supposing its quantity unlimited, suffice for carrying on so much perhaps as 
 a hundredth part of the transactions that take place in Britain alone ; while, in 
 the greater part of those between distant places, the inconvenience and cost of 
 transporting it from place to place would be so great, that direct exchange or 
 barter would be found the preferable mode of proceeding. 
 
 In the continental states, paper-money is generally supplied by their respective 
 governments, either directly, in the shape of treasury notes, or indirectly, through 
 the medium of banks under their control. In the United Kingdom, it is issued, 
 partly by chartered banks, invested with peculiar privileges, and partly by joint- 
 stock and private banks, the amount of the whole being commonly about £38,000,000 ; 
 which, with £25,000,000, the estimated amount in coin, makes the circulation in 
 all £63,000,000. But, in viewing this as the amount of our circulation, regard 
 must be had to the extent to which the use of money is economised, by the employ- 
 ment of bank-cheques and letters of credit, by the speedy, in many cases the imme- 
 diate return of notes, produced by the system of allowing interest on bank-deposits, 
 and by many other operations, not forgetting that of the Clearing-house, where 
 payments ranging from £1,500,000 to £6,250,000, are effected daily by the private 
 bankers of London with only about £200,000 of bank-notes.* In other countries, the 
 circulation is, from the absence of such facilities, comparatively much greater. In 
 France alone, the amount of coin in use is not under £100,000,000 ; that of bank- 
 notes, however, being only £12,000,000.— {Report on Banks of Issue, 1840, Q. 7570.) 
 
 The rate at which money exchanges for other articles is determined by its quan- 
 tity. " If," says Mr Mill, " we suppose that all the goods of the country are on 
 one side, all the money on the other, and that they are exchanged at once against 
 one another, it is obvious that one-tenth or one-hundredth, or any other part 
 of the goods, will exchange against one-tenth, or any part of the whole of the 
 money; and that this tenth will be a great quantity or small exactly in pro- 
 portion as the whole quantity of the money in the country is great or small " 
 (Polit. Econ. c. 3, § 7). The quantity of money, however, is to be estimated, not 
 merely by its proportion to the amount of trade or of payments, but also by the 
 relative rapidity of its circulation, and after allowing for the extent to which its 
 use is economised. Supposing the amount of trade and mode of circulation to 
 remain stationary, if the quantity of money be increased, its value will fall, and 
 the price of other commodities will proportionally rise, as the latter will then ex- 
 change against a greater amount of money : if, on the other hand, the quantity of 
 money be reduced, its value will be raised, and prices in a corresponding degree 
 diminished, as commodities will then have to be exchanged for a less amount of 
 money. The converse of these changes will take place if the variations occur in 
 the amount of trade and mode of circulation, and the quantity of money remain 
 stationary. " In whatever degree, therefore, the quantity of money is increased 
 or diminished, other things remaining the same, in that same proportion the value 
 of the whole and of every part is reciprocally diminished or increased " {Ibid.). 
 Gold and silver, however, as products of industry, possess an intrinsic value, like 
 all other commodities, equivalent to the cost of producing them ; and hence, in the 
 case of metallic money, if its value in any country be reduced below the level of 
 other countries, it will be used or exported as bullion ; while, on the other hand, 
 if its value be increased above that level, it will become an object to import bul- 
 lion to convert it into coin. The value of metallic money in any country can thus be 
 for only a short time above or below its level in other countries, or its cost of pro- 
 duction. A mixed currency, composed of coin, and paper convertible into coin, is 
 obviously regulated by the same laws. But such is not the case with an incon- 
 vertible paper-money ; for, though under equal limitations as to quantity, it may, 
 when constituted legal tender, be preserved of the same exchangeable value as 
 metallic money ; yet, wanting intrinsic value, it will not circulate in foreign coun- 
 
 * In the year 1839, the amount of payments made through the Clearing-house was £954,401,600, 
 which were effected with only £66,275,600 of bank-notes : thus giving £3,068,815 as the average 
 of the daily payments for the 311 business days ; £213,105 as the average amount of bank-notes 
 daily used ; and leaving £2,855,710 for the daily cancelments of the clearing transfers. These 
 sums, enormous though they be, are considered to fall far short of what they were formerly, when 
 the Bank of England less interfered with private business, when London joint-stock banks (which 
 are not admitted to the clearing-house) were not in existence, and when war-expenditure and 
 funding operations gave constant activity and extent to the money business. Several days' clear- 
 ances then ranged from £12,000,000 to £1 5,000,000.— ( Tate's Systemqf the London Bankers' Clear- 
 ances, p. 27.) 
 
MOX 481 MON 
 
 and hence, when issued in excess, it will become proportionally depre- 
 ciated; and this depreciation (which will be measured by the rate at which the 
 paper exchanges against bullion) may, by continued additions, go on increas- 
 ing, until its value as a medium of exchange is entirely dissipated. [Assignats. 
 Bank.] 
 
 But although fluctuations in the value of a metallic or mixed currency, owing 
 to variations in quantity, are subject to correction from the influence of the cur- 
 rencies of other countries, the case is different when any diminution is made 
 on the weight of the coin. In this case, though preserving the same name, 
 it will become permanently degraded ; and if reduced one-half, will as certain- 
 ly be lowered in real value to the same extent, as a quarter of wheat would be 
 by being reduced to four bushels. In ancient times, owing partly to erroneous 
 conceptions of the nature of money, but chiefly to the injustice of sovereigns, who 
 were thereby enabled to fulfil, in appearance, their engagements with a smaller 
 quantity of gold and silver than would otherwise have been requisite, the degrada- 
 tion of the coin was a common act of public policy ; and the English pound was, 
 in this way, reduced to l-3d, the Scottish to I -36th, and the French livre to l-66th 
 of their original values. Such an expedient is now almost unknown in civilized 
 communities ; but a similar effect may be produced by fraudulent paring or by 
 abrasion. When a seignorage is exacted higher than the expense of coinage, the 
 intrinsic value of the coin will of course be less than its nominal value, but such 
 coins can be used only, like British silver or copper, as a subordinate species of 
 money for small payments, and under certain limitations as to quantity. 
 
 A currency may be accounted in its most perfect state when it consists of paper 
 of a value precisely equal with the gold or silver which it professes to represent ; as 
 no other instrument can fulfil in a nigher degree the great requisites of a circulat- 
 ing medium, — convenience, cheapness, security, and steadiness of value. But con- 
 siderable difference of opinion prevails in reference to the method best adapted for 
 the practical attainment of these objects. Of late there has arisen a party, who, on 
 the allegation that undue expansions and contractions of the currency have been 
 the secret spring of all those alternations of commercial excitement and depression 
 which have taken place in modern times, — advocate the separation of the functions 
 of issue from those of banking, and the confining of the former to one state esta- 
 blishment, which should circulate a fixed amount of government paper-money (below 
 the point to which a purely metallic currency would ever be reduced), and leave 
 all fluctuations to take place in the precious metals alone, or in the notes of a bul- 
 lion deposit bank ; or which should in some other way regulate the amount of the 
 circulating medium, so that there should be no greater fluctuation than if it wholly 
 consisted of the precious metals. Such plans, however, are opposed both by those 
 who uphold the present system, and by those who, advocating the further exten- 
 sion of joint-stock banking, contend that the issues of paper are best regulated 
 by free competition. By the latter it is urged that experience has shown that no 
 single body can be safely intrusted with the privilege of issuing paper : That if 
 there was but one such body, there would be sometimes too much money and 
 sometimes too little for the wants of trade in different places : And that, after 
 declaring a certain coin to be the sole standard of value and legal tender, and 
 
 {►roviding for the public registration of all the partners of a bank, and their un- 
 imited responsibility for all its obligations, the lengthened experience of Scotland 
 has shown that were government to confine its further interference to enforcing 
 the fulfilment of contracts, it might safely be left to the parties themselves to judge 
 of the degree of credit they should give to each other's engagements, and to adopt 
 that mode of circulating such engagements which might appear to them to combine 
 the greatest security with the greatest cheapness and convenience. 
 
 Upon these and the other plans advocated by writers on the currency, however, 
 it is unnecessary to enlarge in this place. They form, as is well known, the subject 
 of two reports in 1840 and 1841 by Committees of the House of Commons ; and 
 such persons as feel an interest in the question will not satisfy themselves with any 
 second-hand arguments, but will of course refer to those reports, or to works where 
 the subject is treated in a manner suited to its importance. 
 
 In the preceding observations we have assumed gold and silver to be invariable 
 dards ; but in the article Bullion we have explained that in the course of 
 iese metals have themselves undergone great changes. In fact, no commo- 
 dity can be depended on as a permanent measure of value. The facilities of its 
 production will not always preserve the exact level of the average of other com- 
 modities, and move on in complete uniformity with the general progress of improve- 
 
MON 482 MOR 
 
 ment in the industrial arts. No kind of money at present in use, therefore, can 
 be free from the great variations of value to which the precious metals themselves 
 are liable. Such a currency, however, has been imagined. " It has been proposed," 
 says Mr Poulett Scrope, in his ingenious Treatise on Political Economy, " to correct 
 the legal standard of value (or at least to afford to individuals the means of ascer- 
 taining its errors) by the periodical publication of an authentic price-current, con- 
 taining a list of a large number of articles in general use, arranged in quantities 
 corresponding to their relative consumption, so as to give the rise or fall, from time 
 to time, of the mean of prices ; which will indicate, with all the exactness desir- 
 able for commercial purposes, the variations in the value of money, and enable 
 individuals, if they shall think fit, to regulate their pecuniary engagements by re- 
 ference to this Tabular Standard " (p. 407). This proposition, however, is of too 
 speculative a nature for consideration in the present work. 
 
 Monies of Account are those denominations and divisions of money in which ac- 
 counts are kept : in some countries these are not coins, but merely fixed proportions 
 to coins, as was the case with the British pound sterling before the coining of the 
 sovereign. In the Report by the Commissioners on the Standards of Weight and 
 Measure, of 21st December 1841, the attention of the government is invited to the 
 advantage and facility of establishing a decimal system of monies instead of that 
 presently in use in this country. The facility consists in the ease of interposing 
 between the sovereign (or pound) and the shilling, a new coin equivalent to two 
 shillings (to be called by a distinctive name) ; of considering the farthing (which 
 now passes as the 1 -960th part of the pound) as the 1 -1000th part of that unit ; of 
 establishing a coin of value equal to 1- 100th part of the pound ; and of circulating, 
 besides these decimal coins, others bearing a simple relation to them, including 
 the present shilling and sixpence. 
 
 MONOPOLY, a privilege granted by license, conferring on an individual or 
 company the sole right of purchasing and disposing of, making or using, a certain 
 specified article ; the term is likewise sometimes used to denote the engrossing of 
 commodities with the view of selling them at a high price. Monopolies were for- 
 merly granted by the sovereign, and they prevailed to a great extent in England in 
 Queen Elizabeth's time ; but, having become an intolerable grievance, they were 
 abolished in the succeeding reign (21 Jac. I. c. 3), with the exception of patents for 
 inventions or improvements for a limited number of years ; and a charter of mo- 
 nopoly cannot now be granted without an act of parliament. The same law has 
 been held to apply to Scotland. — (Bell's Com. vol. i. p. 108.) 
 
 MONSOONS, important modifications of the trade-winds which occur in the 
 Indian Ocean, the nature of which is not yet fully understood. 
 
 In the Arabian and Indian Seas, on the north side of the equator, the monsoon blows north- 
 east from November to March, and south-west from April to October ; the former producing in 
 India dry and agreeable weather, the latter rain and tempest. The change takes place gradually. 
 In the Chinese and Sooloo Seas, however, the wind is generally N.N.W. from November to March, 
 and S.S.E. from April to October. [India. Trade-Wind.] 
 
 MONT DE PIETE, a benevolent association for lending money on pledges at 
 a moderate interest ; and differing from ordinary pawnbroking establishments in 
 being founded rather for the benefit of the borrower than that of the lender. Such 
 institutions are said to have existed in Rome in the reigns of Augustus and Tibe- 
 rius. They were revived in modern Italy in the 15th century, where they received 
 every encouragement from the popes ; and they exist at present in all the large 
 towns in that country, the principal being the Sagro Monte de Pieta di Roma," 
 founded in 1539, and which in 1839 advanced no less than £211,554 on 306,161 
 pawns, the average amount of each being 14s. 2gd. The establishment likewise 
 acts as a petty bank in receiving deposits. Monts de Pie'te are also instituted in 
 many other parts of the Continent, particularly France. The " Mont de Pie'te de 
 Paris " charges interest at 9 per cent., and one-half per cent, to the valuators at 
 the time of releasing : the amount advanced by it in 1840 was £743,040 on 1,220,692 
 pawns, besides £230,553 on renewed articles. The loan is made for a fixed term, 
 at the expiration of which, if the principal and interest are not repaid, the pledges 
 are sold, and the surplus, after paying the debt, is restored to the owner : in most 
 instances, however, the term may be renewed on payment of the interest. The 
 profits are in some cases added to the capital, in others appropriated to charitable 
 purposes. Such institutions are common in several parts of Ireland, but they are 
 almost unknown in Britain, where their place is supplied by pawnbrokers. [Banks 
 for Savings. Loan Societies. Pawnbroker.] 
 
 MONTEVIDEO. [Uruguay, Republic of.] 
 
 MORGEN, a German land measure varying in different places. 
 
MOR 483 MOZ 
 
 MOROCCO, the most important of the Barbary States, is bounded W. by the 
 Atlantic ; N. by the Mediterranean ; E. by Algiers ; and S. by the Sahara or Great 
 Desert. Area, 274,000 sq. miles. Population, 8,500,000, mostly Arab Moors and 
 Berbers. The chief cities are, Morocco the capital, Fez, and Mequinez, all inland. 
 The government is a barbarous despotism, s 
 
 The loftiest part of the chain of the Atlas runs parallel to the coasts, changing its direction with 
 them from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean, and leaving an intermediate plain, the greater part 
 of which is finely watered, and unsurpassed in natural fertility. But though the inhahitants have 
 advanced greatly beyond the rude and roaming habits for which they were anciently distinguished, 
 they pay little attention to the improvement of the land, which indeed might be made one vast 
 corn-field. Beyond the Atlas, however, there is a more arid region, named Tafilet, unfit for grain, 
 but yielding fine dates, and rearing a breed of goats, whose skins afford the fine morocco leather. 
 The'climate is not so hot as might be expected from the latitude, and wheat and barley are exten- 
 sively raised ; sheep are numerous, and produce fine wool, which is manufactured into a coarse 
 fabric, forming the chief dress of the inhabitants. An active inland trade is carried on with Soudan, 
 Egypt, and Arabia by caravans, and with other countries by sea. 
 
 The maritime commerce has increased considerably of late years. The imports consist chiefly 
 of cotton, woollen, and silk manufactures and yarn, with raw silk, sugar, spices, dye-stuffs, metals, 
 cutlery, tea, and earthenware ; the exports of fruit, wool, olive-oil, wax, hides, corn, live-stock, 
 gum, bark, and leeches. In 1839, the regular importations by sea amounted to £580,880, including 
 £135, 4<M) in specie ; and the exportations to £480,360, including £94,400 in specie. But there is 
 besides an extensive contraband trade, which it is estimated will swell these values one- fourth. 
 Upwards of three-fourths of the trade is with the British : in 1839, the imports from England 
 amounted to £460,960, and the exports to> £356,560. A considerable part of our commerce is 
 carried on through Gibraltar and Malta. Almost the only other states which participate in the 
 maritime trade of Morocco, are France, the United States^ Spain, and Portugal. 
 
 The maritime intercourse is conducted on the Atlantic side at Mogadore, the port of the capital, 
 Saffee, Mazagan, Rabat the port of Fez, and Laraiche ; and on the Mediterranean side at Tan- 
 gier and Tetuan. In 1839, the entries inwards from foreign countries at all ports amounted to 
 372 ships, 20,003 tons ; whereof British, 253 ships, 13,664 tons. 
 
 At Mogadore, the canna, cloth measure, = 21 Imp. inches. The rottolo or commercial pound 
 = 833<> troy grains, and the quintal of 100 commercial lbs. = 119 lbs. avoird. : the market pound 
 for provisions, and by which also iron and bees' wax are sold, is 50 per cent, heavier. The mea- 
 sures of capacitv, though nominally those of Spain, are variable and uncertain. 
 
 The money of account is the mitkul of 10 ounces, 40 blankeels, or 96o flues. As 54 blankeels 
 are reckoned equal to the Spanish hard dollar, the mitkul is worth 3s. Id. The currency is com- 
 posed chiefly of dollars, doubloons, and madrids : the madrid, which is a gold coin minted at 
 Madrid for the Emperor of Morocco, is valued at 10 dollars. 
 
 MORPHIA, a vegetable alkaloid, procured by a chemical process from opium, 
 and is the narcotic principle of that substance. When obtained from its alcoholic 
 solution it is in small, brilliant, and colourless crystals, of a very bitter taste. The 
 quantity obtained averages about 1 oz. from the lb. of opium ; but it is very vari- 
 able ; the Turkey opium produces the most, and the East Indian and Egyptian the 
 least. [Opium.] 
 
 MOSAIC GOLD, a bisulphuret of tin, formed by heating the peroxide with its 
 weight in sulphur. It is produced in small, soft, shining flakes, of a golden yellow 
 colour. It is chiefly imported from Germany, and under the name of bronze powder 
 is much used for ornamental work, particularly paper-hangings. 
 
 MOTHER-OF-PEARL, the shell of the pearl-oyster. It is composed of alter- 
 nate layers of coagulated albumen and carbonate of lime. On the inside it is 
 exquisitely polished, and of the whiteness of the pearl ; and on the outside the 
 lustre is the same after the external laminae have been taken off. It is imported 
 into Europe from India and China, and is extensively used for inlaid works, toys, 
 and snuff-boxes. S 
 
 MOUSSELINE DE LA LAINE (in Fr. muslin of wool), a fine, thin, woollen 
 fabric, manufactured in France, and much used for the dress of ladies. An inferior 
 fabric, bearing the same name, and of similar appearance, though composed of wool 
 mixed with cotton, is now also extensively made in Britain. 
 
 MOZAMBIQUE, a territory claimed by the Portuguese, on the E. coast of 
 Africa, extending nominally from the Bay of Delagoa to Cape Delgado, and 
 divided into seven captaincies ; but their real possessions in this country are now 
 few and insecure, and confined chiefly to the town of Mozambique, and the settle- 
 ments of Quillimane, Senna, Tette, and Manica, on the Zambezi river. Melinda, 
 once a flourishing settlement on the adjoining coast of Zanguebar, is deserted. 
 
 Mozambique, the capital, and commercial emporium of the Portuguese possessions on the E. 
 cna»t flf Africa, is situated on a small island closely adjoining the continent, in lat. 15° 3' S., long. 
 40° 4^ E. ; pop. nearly 10,000, of whom only a few hundreds are Europeans. It possesses a good 
 roadstead and commodious pier; but in other respects it is situated unfavourably, being about 300 
 miles distant from the mouth of the Zambezi, the channel of intercourse with the interior. It is 
 also unhealthy. The chief articles to be obtained at these settlements are gold, ivory, ambergris, 
 Columbo root, tortoise-shell, and cowries. The export of slaves to Brazil was formerly consider- 
 able, and is believed to be still carried on to some extent. Provisions and refreshments are dear. 
 
MUD 484 MUS 
 
 Of late much -of the trade has been removed to Quillimane, at the mouth of the Zambezi, in lat. 
 17° 58' S., long. 36° 59' E. ; pop. 3000. Weights.— The bahar weight is 20 frazils = 240 lbs. avoird. 
 The currency is chiefly Spanish dollars and Portuguese coins. 
 
 MUDDE, a Dutch and Belgian measure = 2§ Imp. bushels, or 1 hectolitre. 
 
 MULE, a quadruped springing from the union of the male ass with the mare, or 
 of the horse with the female ass, — the former being the best. The mule is com- 
 monly found to be vicious, stubborn, and obstinate, to a proverb ; but it is hardy, 
 and valuable for its sureness of foot. It is also useful on account of the great load 
 which it can carry. Hence its common use in some parts of Spain, in Mexico, 
 South America, and in other mountainous countries without good roads. The 
 Persian mules, according to Mr Fraser, are of prodigious strength, usually carry- 
 ing loads of about 3 cwt., with which they travel day after day along the execrable 
 paths and over the rough cothuls of the country (still preserving their condition), 
 at the rate of from 25 to 50 miles a-day, according to the distance of the resting- 
 places. The mule is longer-lived than either the horse or the ass ; but it is seldom 
 used in this country. 
 
 MULLET, a fish (Mugil), greatly prized by the epicures of ancient Rome, and 
 the roe of which is at present largely made into Botarga, on the shores of the 
 Mediterranean. The mullet is gregarious in its habits, about 12 or 14 inches in 
 length, and of a peculiar form and brilliant appearance. One species, the red 
 mullet, is taken on the S. coast of England, particularly in May and June. It is 
 caught by the mackerel-nets, and in larger quantities by the trawl-net. 
 
 MUM, a fermented liquor, brewed principally from the malt of wheat. 
 
 MUN JEET, an inferior kind of madder- root imported from Calcutta. The roots 
 are long and slender, with a smell somewhat resembling liquorice-root ; when 
 broken they appear of a fine red colour, having a yellowish pith inside. Nearly 
 30,000 bales are on the average imported annually, each weighing 20 lbs. 
 
 MURIATIC ACID, or SPIRIT OF SALT, an aqueous solution of muriatic 
 acid gas, now called hydrochloric acid gas. It is commonly procured by distilling 
 a mixture of diluted sulphuric acid and common salt, equal weights being taken of 
 salt, acid, and water. This acid is generally of a yellow hue, a very pungent smell, 
 intensely sour taste, and emits fumes when exposed to air. Sp. gr. 1*170. The 
 yellow hue is produced, according to Dr Thomson, from a trace of bromine ; besides 
 which, the acid of commerce is almost always contaminated with iron and sulphuric 
 acid, and sometimes nitric acid. When pure it is colourless. Muriatic acid is 
 used in medicine, and in some of the arts as a solvent of metals. 
 . MUSCAT, a fortified seaport town on the E. coast of Arabia, and chief commer- 
 cial emporium of the Persian Gulf, lies in lat. 23° 38' N., long. 58° 41' E. Popula- 
 tion, including Muttrah, 60,000, composed of Arabs, Banyans, and a few Persian 
 merchants. It is the capital of a sultan, whose patrimonial dominion is the sur- 
 rounding territory of Oman, but who claims the whole coast from Cape Aden to 
 Cape Ras al Had, thence northwards as far as Bussorah, including the islands of 
 Bahrein, with all the African shore and adjacent islands from Cape Delgado to 
 Cape Guardafui. He rents, besides, sulphur mines and several estates in Persia. 
 
 The harbour of Muscat is formed by a small island, consisting of a huge mass of granite, 200 feet 
 high, situate so near the mainland as only to allow the free passage of small vessels. The town is one 
 of the hottest places in the world, Fahrenheit, though about 50° in January and February, rang- 
 ing between SO and 1 15° in July and August. The trade is considerable. Besides an extensive 
 intercourse with the interior by means of caravans, Muscat is frequented by vessels from the 
 shores of the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and from the east coast of Africa ; and the produce of 
 all the countries adjoining these places is generally found in the market. Trade is also-carried on 
 with Mauritius, India, China, and the Eastern Islands. The chief exports are dates, horses, 
 raisins, wheat, salted and dried fish, sharks'fins, pearls, and drugs. The imports are rice, cotton, 
 and woollen goods, iron, lead, sugar, and some spices ; and the value annually imported is esti- 
 mated at £900,000. 
 
 The maund of 24 cuchas = 8 lbs. 12 oz. avoird. The integer of account is the mahomodee of 20 
 gazees. The mahomodee is a silver coin, of which 1 1 are reckoned equal to a Spanish dollar. The 
 gazee is of copper ; as is also the shaka, valued at from 72 to 80 per dollar. Foreign coins circu- 
 late, but are generally transferred by weight. 
 
 A convention with Britain, dated May 31, 1839, and ratified July 22, 1840, contains, among other 
 provisions, a stipulation that no duty exceeding 5 per cent, shall be levied at the place of entry in 
 the sultan's dominions on British merchandise imported in British vessels, which shall be in full of 
 all import, export, tonnage, and license duties, and of any other government impost upon the ves- 
 sel, or upon the goods ; nor shall any charge be made on account of goods remaining on board 
 unsold, nor on vessels entering to refit or for refreshments. A similar treaty was effected by the 
 Americans on September 21, 1833. 
 
 The present sultan is distinguished for energy and intelligence ; and the protection he affords to 
 property is so efficient that the Banyans have formed a marine insurance society, of which the 
 Arab traders generally avail themselves. He possesses a considerable navy, and his subjects are 
 excellent seamen. 
 
MUS 485 MUS 
 
 MUSCLE, a shell-fish (Mytilus edulis), abundant on our seashores, and largely 
 used as food, though opinions differ as to its wholesomeness. The finest are the 
 " Hambleton Hookers" of Lancashire ; they are taken out of the sea, and fattened 
 in the river Wyre, within reach of the tide. 
 
 MUSHROOM, a tribe of fungus plants (Agaricus), some species of which are 
 used for pickling, catsup, powder, and for dressing fresh. Their season in England 
 is September ; and the most delicate are those ftnmd on old close-cropt pastures, 
 or open downs by the seashore. Many kinds are poisonous, and it is only by 
 experience that the eatable varieties can be distinguished. That usually cultivated 
 is the A. campestris. The properties of mushrooms are better understood on the 
 Continent than in England ; more particularly in Russia, where they constitute an 
 important article of food. 
 
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS may be arranged into three classes, namely, wind 
 instruments, stringed instruments, and those in which the sound is produced by 
 concussion. Their manufacture and sale affords employment to a considerable num- 
 ber of persons in this country, more especially in London, and, though to a smaller 
 extent, in Edinburgh and Dublin. But the peculiar nature of the trade places it in 
 a great degree beyond the scope of the present work ; some particulars, however, 
 deserving of notice, were furnisned to the parliamentary committee on import duties. 
 It appears that British pianos excel all others ; and that though in Germany, in 
 consequence of more diffused musical habits, they are currently made for £10 or 
 £12, our manufacturers do not dread the abolition of tariff protection, owing to the 
 superior tone and durability of their instruments ; the best harps and flutes are 
 also made in England ; but the finest brass wind-instruments are imported. The 
 timber employed for the sound boards of good stringed instruments is said to be 
 " Swiss deal ;" for those of an inferior kind, American pine is used. 
 
 With respect to the violin, the " sovereign of the orchestra," it has been 
 remarked, that " the best can now be said to be made nowhere." This instru- 
 ment, however, improves by age, and many of the old ones are of great value. The 
 finest in the world are those of the Amati family of Cremona, who flourished in 
 the 16th century. The chief other makers are Stradivarius, the elder and the 
 younger, and Guarnerius, also of Cremona, in the 17th century ; and Stainer, a 
 native of the Tyrol. A good-toned violin cannot be bought in England or France 
 for less than £50, and many have been sold for £250. An instrument made by 
 Stradivarius can always be sold for £100. 
 
 Musical instruments, mostly pianos, are exported in considerable quantities, 
 principally to the colonies, India, and S. America. The importations, embracing 
 a variety of instruments, amount annually to about £12,000. S 
 
 MUSK (Fr. Muse. Ger. Bisam. It. Muschio. Rus. Kabarga), a fragrant sub- 
 stance secreted in a glandular pouch under the belly of the male of the musk-deer 
 (Moschus Moschiferus), which inhabits the elevated regions of Asia. Musk in its 
 recent state has the consistence of an electuary of a reddish-brown colour ; but by 
 keeping it becomes dry and crumbly. The best comes from China in small round 
 bags, covered with brownish hairs, and containing at the most 1^ drachm, large- 
 grained, and of a deep brown colour, and a strong ammoniacal smell. The Sibe- 
 rian or Russian musk is greatly inferior. It is small-grained, light brown, of a 
 weaker and more fetid smell, with little ammoniacal odour ; the bags longer and 
 larger. Musk from its high price is often adulterated, more especially when pur- 
 chased in grains, and not in the natural bags of the animal. It is an article of the 
 materia medica, and is extensively used as a perfume. It should be preserved in 
 closely stopped glass bottles, in a place neither very dry nor too damp. 
 
 MUSQUASH, largely used as a " hatting-fur," is the skin of the musk-rat, a 
 diminutive species of beaver. [Fur.] 
 
 MUSLIN, a fine thin cotton fabric, extensively manufactured in Glasgow and 
 Manchester. It is used for handkerchiefs, ladies' caps, gowns, frills, and other 
 purposes ; and there is a great variety of kinds and qualities,— as book-muslin 
 (a starched or dressed kind), cambric-muslin, jaconet, mull, and others. Dacca, in 
 Bengal, was formerly celebrated for its muslins, some rare specimens of which have 
 been poetically described as " webs of woven wind." [Cotton Manufacture.] 
 
 MUSTARD (Du. Mostert. Fr. Moutarde. Ger. Mustert), a plant (Sinapis) 
 cultivated in Britain chiefly for its seeds. These when bruised form a bright yel- 
 low powder, of a pungent smell and acrid taste, called flour of mustard, which is 
 used as a condiment, and for various purposes in medicine. There are two kinds, 
 a black (S. nigra), and a white (S. Alba) ; the first was formerly preferred, 
 being more pungent, and of a much finer quality ; but as the flour made from it 
 
MYR 4f!6 NAP 
 
 retains a darkness of colour, from which that of the white variety is free, and 
 as, besides, less labour is required in the manufacture of the latter, it is now more 
 generally employed in Britain, either alone or in mixture with the other. The 
 manufacture of mustard was first understood and practised in Durham, but it is 
 now common in other parts of England. 
 
 MYROBALANS, a name given to several species of dried fruits of the plum 
 kind, employed in dyeing and medicine by the natives of India. Five species are 
 described by Mr Milburn in his Oriental Commerce. They are not used in this 
 country. S 
 
 MYRRH (Arab. Murr. Fr. Myrrhe. It. & Sp. Mirra. Ger. Myrrhen), a 
 gum resin, celebrated from the earliest ages for its aromatic and fragrant proper- 
 ties, is the product of a small tree {Balsamodendron myrrha) found in Nubia and 
 Arabia Felix. Several kinds are distinguished. The best, myrrh in tears, is when 
 good of a yellow or reddish-yellow colour, light, brittle, pellucid, and sometimes 
 shining ; fracture vitreous or conchoidal, of a bitter aromatic taste and peculiar 
 smell. Sp. gr. T36. It is mostly imported from the Levant. The East Indian 
 is in large opaque pieces, generally covered with a brownish-white powder. Myrrh 
 in sorts is the name given to a variety of inferior and adulterated kinds. This 
 gum-resin is at present used as a stimulating medicine, and as an ingredient in 
 tooth-powders. 
 
 N. 
 
 NAILS (Fr. Clous. Ger. Nagel, Spiker. It. Chiodi. Por. Pregos. Rus. 
 Giuosdi. Sp. Clavos) are made in most towns of the United Kingdom, but chiefly at 
 Dudley, Stourbridge, Walsall, and other places near Birmingham, where about 
 25,000 persons are employed in this manufacture. The best are made by the hand 
 at the common forge, but vast numbers are now produced by machinery. In 
 Birmingham, well-formed nails are cut out of sheet-iron with the greatest rapidity ; 
 neatly-shaped heads are given to them by powerful pressure ; while in the process 
 of annealing a tenacity is communicated to them which almost rivals the productions 
 of the forge. About 5500 tons are annually exported. 
 
 NANKIN, a Chinese cotton cloth, which, in point of strength, durability, and 
 essential cheapness, is unrivalled by any of the cotton fabrics of Europe. The 
 best is the produce of Kiang-nan or Nan-kin ; and an inferior description is manu- 
 factured in Quang-tung. It is either white, blue, or brownish-yellow ; the last 
 being the result of dye, and not the natural colour as vulgarly supposed. Nankin 
 is now little used in England; but the consumption in warm countries is still 
 considerable. The quantity got up at Canton for the foreign market is very vari- 
 able. Under the British flag alone, in 1831, there were exported 925,200 pieces, 
 valued at £107,323. In later years, the quantity has been much smaller ; in 1834, 
 it had fallen to 65,900 pieces. Imitation nankins are made in this country, but 
 they are inferior to those of China. 
 
 NAPHTHA, a peculiar liquid hydrocarbon or species of bitumen, which is both a 
 natural and artificial product. Natural naphtha is found at Baku on the Caspian, 
 at Hit on the Euphrates, and other places in Mesopotamia; in Italy, near Piacenza, 
 and of an inferior quality near Modena ; and a similar liquid is obtained by the 
 distillation of petroleum and caoutchouc. Coal naphtha or coal oil, the kind chiefly 
 used in this country, closely resembles the former, and is one of the results of the 
 distillation of pit-coal in gas-works, from which it is usually obtained. Naphtha 
 is of a yellowish- white colour, transparent, and fluid as water, inflammable, and 
 very volatile. The purest Persian and Italian variety has a strong bituminous but 
 not disagreeable odour ; Sp. gr. '760. The coal naphtha has a penetrating and 
 unpleasant odour ; Sp. gr. "840. It dissolves the greater number of the essential 
 oils, and the resins ; and is extensively used for dissolving caoutchouc to render 
 cloth waterproof, and for forming surgical instruments. It is also burnt instead 
 of alcohol in lamps for heating small vessels. In Genoa naphtha is used in the 
 street-lamps. 
 
 NAPLES, KINGDOM OF, forming with the island of Sicily, described sepa- 
 rately, the " Kingdom of the Two Sicilies," occupies the southern extremity of 
 Italy, being bounded N.W.by the Papal States, and on every other side by the sea. 
 Area 31,600 sq. miles. Population in 1838, 6,021,284. It contains 15 provinces, 
 which are divided into 53 districts, and subdivided into 1790 communes. The 
 government is a hereditary monarchy, with few restrictions. 
 
NAP 
 
 487 
 
 NAP 
 
 The territory of Naples, after forming for some space a continuation of the long narrow penin- 
 sula of Italy, "branches finally into the two smaller peninsulas of Otranto and Calabria, The 
 Apennines fill its interior, shooting out arms to its bounding promontories; in many places 
 spreading wider, and assuming still more rugged and awful forms than in the northern part of 
 their line. They leave, however, along the coast wide plains and extended valleys, blessed with 
 the richest soil, and (except in some marshy tracts on the coast) with the most genial climate of 
 any country in Europe. The rivers are numerous, but inconsiderable in point of size ; and from 
 bars at their entrance are impassable except for very small craft. 
 
 A stimulus was given to improvement during the French occupation, more especially by the 
 abolition of the feudal system by Joseph Bonaparte in 1806 ; still comparatively little has been 
 done to develop the great natural resources of the kingdom. In many places property is rendered 
 insecure by banditti, and the great bulk of the people are sunk in a state of brutish indolence. 
 Rock salt, coal, and other minerals abound, but scarcely any attempt has been made to work them. 
 Agriculture is in the most rude condition ; roads are neglected ; and corn (mostly wheat, maize, 
 and rye), wine, oil, silk, flax, hemp, cotton, and fruit, the staples of the soil, might be raised 
 in quantities equal to four or five times the consumption of the inhabitants. A miserable cotton 
 manufactory, a sort of government monopoly established at Salerno, the iron forge and mine at 
 Stilo, the glove and hat manufactories at Naples, with coarsely made linens and cloths, are stated 
 by Mr Macgregor to comprise nearly all the branches of manufacturing industry. 
 
 This low state of productive labour, joined to oppressive duties and impolitic prohibitions, 
 confines the external trade within comparatively narrow limits. The imports consist principally 
 of cottons, woollens, linens, hardware, and other manufactures ; cod-fish and pilchards ; colonial 
 
 Eroduce, dye-stuffs, and metals, especially iron. The exports embrace olive-oil, silk, flax and 
 emp, wool, wine, corn, Unseed, rags, ruaccaroni, cream of tartar, skins, liquorice, <kc Mr Mac- 
 gregor, in his Commercial Report (p. -63), states the amount of the former, in 1837, at £2,311,937, 
 and of the latter at £1 ,701,949. The chief commercial relations are with France, Britain, Austria, 
 and the Sardinian states. 
 
 Naples, the chief port, capital, and emporium of the foreign trade, is beautifully situated on a 
 hay of the same name, in the vicinity of Mount Vesuvius, in lat. 40° 50 7 N., long. 14° 16' E. Pop. 
 . The harbour is formed by a projecting mole, nearly in the form of the letter L, within 
 which the water is from 3 to 4 fathoms deep, but only small vessels can approach the town. The 
 bay is deep, and there is no bar, but it is a good deal exposed to S.W. winds. According to Mr 
 Macgregor (Report, Sfc. 1840), the principal exports in 1838 were 5,074,559 gallons olive-oil ; 2436 
 cask.-, 'wine; 595 ? 657 lbs. cream of tartar ; 286,111 lbs. silk; 362 tons argols ; 966 tons bones ; 10,790 
 bundles hoops ; 744 tons figs ; 1780 tons wheat ; 1 443 tons Unseed ; 1090 tons hemp ; 348,164 pairs 
 gloves ; 678 tons liquorice paste ; and 628 tons madder root. In the same year there cleared out 
 1227 vessels: whereof NeapoUtan, 1051; British, 80 ; French, 22; and Sardinian, 43. The cus- 
 toms duties amount annually to about £580,000. 
 
 The only other harbour on the Mediterranean coast is that of Gaeta ; on the eastern coasts are 
 the ports of Ban, Taranto, and Brindisi ; GailipoU, the great oU mart, has merely a roadstead. 
 
 B5EASCRES, WEIGHTS, MONEY, BANKS, &C 
 
 Measures and Weights.— The canna or ell of | 
 8 palmi or 96 inches = 83*05 Imp. inches ; the 
 passo is 7i palmi. The Neapolitan mile of 7ooO 
 palmi = 2t»18 Imp. yards. 
 
 The moggia, land measure, of 900 square passi 
 = 0-8315 Imp. acre. 
 
 The baril, wine or brandy measure, of 60 ca- 
 raffi = 9-60 Imp. gallons ; the carro is 2 botte, or 
 24 barili ; and the pipe is 14 barili : the salma, i 
 oil measure, of 16 staja, or 256 quarti = 34-91 
 Imp. gallons, and weighs about 324J lbs. avoird. 
 
 At Gallipoli, the oU salma of 10 staja or 320 
 pignatte = 34-11 Imp. gaUons. At Bari, the 
 salma = 36*42 Imp. gallons. 
 
 The tomolo, corn measure, of 2 mezzetti or 4 
 quarti = 1-519 Imp. bushel, or 100 tomoU = 19 
 Imp. quarters nearly ; the carro of 36 tomoU = 
 6*84 Imp. quarters. 
 
 The cantaro grosso of 100 rottoli = 196-45 lbs. 
 avoirdupois ; the cantaro piccola of 150 pounds 
 each of 12 oz. = 106-07 lbs. avoirdupois. Gold 
 and silver are weighed by the libbra or pound of 
 12 ounces, 360 trapesi, or 7200 acini = 4950 troy 
 grains ; their fineness is expressed decimally. 
 
 Money. — The integer of account is the ducat, 
 sometimes termed del R>gno, which is divided 
 into 100 grani, each of 10 cavalli ; also into 5 tari 
 or lOcarlini. The ducat being equal 3s. 3|d., 
 the tari is worth about 8d., the carlin 4d., and 
 the grano 2-5ths of a penny. 
 
 The coins, according to the system introduced 
 in 1818, are as follow :— In gold ; the oncetta of 
 3 ducats (weight 85 acini, fineness 996 mUIiemes) 
 = 10s. 3Jd. sterling, with pieces for 10, 5, and 2 
 oncetta in proportion : — In silver ; the ducat of 
 lOcarlini (weight 515 acini, fineness 833$ mil- 
 
 liemes, or |) = 3s. 3$d., with pieces for 12, 6, 5 
 2, and 1 carlini of proportional value :- 
 
 4,3, 
 
 in 
 
 copper ; pieces for 5, 3, 2, 1, and \ gram. There 
 are, besides, a variety of old coins. 
 
 The par of exchange with London, deduced 
 from the ducat in silver, which is the standard, 
 is 6 ducats 3| grani, or, as commonly expressed, 
 603| grani per £1. 
 
 Usance of bills from Britain, Portugal, and 
 Russia, 3 months' date ; from France, Spain, 
 Holland, and Germaay, 2 months' date; from 
 Leghorn, Rome, Genoa, and Sicily, 22 days' 
 sight. Inland bUls are drawn at 15 days' sight. 
 
 Banks, Sfc. — The Bank of the Two Sicihes is 
 a government deposit bank, the orders or checks 
 on which, being paid in cash on demand, circu- 
 late extensively in Naples, on the same footing 
 as specie. There is also a government discount 
 office ; and most of the principal merchants en- 
 gage more or less in banking operations. 
 
 Finances. — The annual revenue (including a 
 quota of nearly £500,000 from Sicily , amounts 
 to about £4,350,000, derived partly from direct 
 and partly from indirect taxes, the most im- 
 portant of the former being a land-tax of 25 per 
 cent. The principal other sources are customs, 
 tolls, a salt monopoly, lotteries, and registra- 
 tions. The whole national debt is estimated at 
 £20,000,000. 
 
 Of the Neapolitan debt, £2,500,000 were raised 
 in England in 1824, on 5 percent, bonds of £100 
 each, which were issued at 92 j per cent. : the 
 dividend couponds are payable February 1, and 
 Aug. 1, without deduction, at Messrs Rothschild. 
 The other securities are in bonds of 500 ducats 
 each, bearing 5 per cent, interest ; transactions 
 in which, in the London market, take place at 
 the fixed double exchange of fr. 4. 40 c. per ducat, 
 and fr. 25. 65 c. per £1. 
 
 The Duties on admitted articles are oppressive, 
 
NAT 483 NAV 
 
 ranging from 50 to 150 per cent, ad valorem, and fact, in point of commercial legislation, Naples 
 a great variety of foreign commodities are pro- 1 may be said to occupy the very lowest position 
 hibited. The export duties are also very high ; among states having any pretension to civilisa- 
 and the bonding of goods is not permitted. In | tion. S 
 
 NATAL. See Supplement. NATIONAL DEBT. [Funds.] 
 
 NATRON, a, native sesquicarbonate of soda, found in Egypt, Mexico, &c. 
 
 NAVIGATION LAWS, a name commonly applied to those statutes which have 
 for their object the securing of the carrying trade of the country to British-built 
 ships, owned and navigated by British subjects. Some traces of this legislation 
 are to be found in acts passed by Richard II. in 1381 and 1390 ; though in general 
 the ancient policy of England seems to have afforded no protection to the shipping 
 by means of exclusive privileges. Bacon, in his Life of Henry VII., remarks, that 
 " almost all the ancient statutes incite by all means to bring in all sorts of com- 
 modities, having for end cheapness, and not looking to the point of state concerning 
 the naval power." That monarch, however, from his " care to make his realm 
 potent at sea as well as by land," passed an act in 1485 prohibiting the importation 
 of Gascon wine, except by English vessels ; but it did not go the length of exclud- 
 ing foreign shipping in all circumstances : the " stranger's ship " was only to be 
 rejected if the merchant " might have sufficient freight in the same port in a deni- 
 zen's ship." Yet from this time we may date the commencement of that policy 
 which was matured in an act passed by the Long Parliament in 1651, a famous 
 statute, which, as afterwards confirmed (in 1660) by 12 Ch. II. c. 18, is known 
 by the name of the Navigation Act. It provided generally that no merchandise, 
 either of Asia, Africa, or America, should be imported into England in any but 
 English-built ships, navigated by an English commander, and manned, to the extent 
 of three-fourths of the crew, by Englishmen ; and that certain enumerated articles 
 of European merchandise (embracing, it may be remarked, all the bulky and most 
 important productions of the Continent), as well as all Russian and Turkish goods, 
 should not be imported in foreign ships, except such as should be brought directly 
 from the country or place of its growth or manufacture in ships belonging to such 
 country or place. Besides these exclusive privileges granted to English shipping, 
 the end aimed at was further attempted to be secured by the imposition of discri- 
 minating duties, so that goods which might still be imported in foreign ships from 
 Europe, were in that case more highly taxed than if imported in our own vessels. 
 
 The Navigation Act was mainly levelled at the Dutch, who, by superior economy 
 and skill, had succeeded in engrossing nearly the whole of the carrying trade of 
 Europe ; and there can be little doubt that it dealt a heavy blow at their maritime 
 prosperity ; though it does not follow that it benefited the English to the same 
 extent to which it injured their rivals. With the present amount of our knowledge, 
 it would be difficult to arrive at the conclusion that the trade of the country could 
 possibly be promoted by compelling our merchants to employ dear instead of cheap 
 ships. Nevertheless, the system above described was long looked upon as a monu- 
 ment of wisdom and prudence ; and the stimulus which it imparted to maritime 
 enterprise is alleged by its admirers to have had the effect of placing the naval 
 
 Eower of the country on a far broader and firmer basis than it ever could otherwise 
 ave attained. The first deviation from the system sanctioned by parliament was 
 effected by a treaty concluded by Mr Vansittart (now Lord Bexley), in 1815, with 
 the United States of America, which, soon after the establishment of their indepen- 
 dence, had followed our example, by enacting a navigation law copied from that 
 of the mother-country ; " and it affords," remarks Mr Porter, " an instructive 
 lesson that the practical carrying out of this restrictive system to its fullest extent 
 by the two nations, was found to be so unproductive of all good effect, as to call 
 for its abandonment. By this treaty, the ships of the two countries were placed 
 reciprocally upon the same footing in the ports of England and the United States, 
 and all discriminating duties chargeable upon the goods which they conveyed were 
 mutually repealed. It adds greatly to the value of this concession, that it was 
 made by no disciple of free-trade doctrines, but was forced, by the very consequences 
 of the system itself, from a government strenuously opposed to all change in the 
 direction of relaxation." — {Progress of the Nation, § 3, c. 9.) 
 
 In a few years afterwards, the progress both of opinions and of events forced 
 on further modifications of the exclusive system. In 1822, Mr (now Lord) 
 Wallace, then President of the Board of Trade, introduced five bills (3 Geo. IV. c. 
 41, 42, 43, 44, and 46), which mitigated to a large extent many of the provisions of 
 the law ; and in the following year circumstances arose which compelled a still 
 further relaxation. From various causes, foreign countries had up to this time, in 
 
NAV 
 
 489 
 
 NAV 
 
 general, submitted to the discriminating duties imposed upon their vessels in our 
 ports, without retaliation. But it now clearly appeared that this forbearance was 
 to be continued no longer. In 1823, Prussia notified, that until an alteration of 
 our system was made in favour of her vessels, similar heavy duties would be im- 
 posed upon British shipping that should enter any of her ports ; and it was 
 obvious that a corresponding movement would have soon followed in other coun- 
 tries. Our merchants having in consequence become clamorous for the interference 
 ot the government to obtain the removal of the retaliatory duties, Mr Huskisson 
 carried through parliament the celebrated Reciprocity Acts, 4 Geo. IV. c. 77, and 
 5 Geo. IV. c. 1. These statutes authorized the crown to permit the importation 
 and exportation of merchandise in foreign vessels at the same duties as were 
 chargeable when imported in British vessels, in favour of all such countries as 
 should not levy discriminating duties upon merchandise carried into their ports in 
 British vessels ; also to levy upon the vessels of such countries, when frequenting 
 our ports, the same tonnage rates as are chargeable upon our own vessels. At 
 the same time, the crown was empowered to impose additional duties upon goods 
 and shipping against any countries which should levy higher duties in the case of 
 the employment of British vessels in the trade with these countries. Under these 
 acts, reciprocity treaties were concluded in 1824 with Prussia, Hanover, Denmark, 
 and Oldenburg ; in 1825, with Mecklenburg, Bremen, Hamburg, Lubec, States of 
 La Plata, and Colombia ; in 1826, with France, Sweden and Norway, and Mexico ; 
 in 1827, with Brazil ; in 1829. with Austria ; in 1834, with Venezuela j in 1837, 
 with Greece, Holland, and Bolivia. 
 
 Other relaxations of the navigation laws have been since granted to particular 
 states by treaty, particularly Austria and the Hanse Towns, for an account of 
 which, we refer to the heads Austria, and Lubec ; while farther information on 
 the subject of this article will be found under Shipping. 
 
 The following is an abridgment of the Navigation Act at present in force : — 
 
 Abridgment of an Act for the Encouragement of British Shipping and Naviga- 
 tion, viz. 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 54, with the Amendments of later Enactments, viz. 
 4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 89 ; 1 & 2 Vict. c. 113 ; and 3 & 4 Vict. c. 95. 
 § 1. Act 6 Geo. IV. c. 109 and succeeding ' in ships of his dominions : Raw silk and Mohair 
 
 acts consolidated. 
 
 § 2. The sorts of goods after enumerated, 
 being the produce of Europe, viz. masts, timber, 
 boards, tar, tallow, hemp, flax, currants, rai- 
 sins, figs, prunes, olive oil, corn or grain, wine, 
 brandy, tobacco, wool, shumac, madders, mad- 
 der roots, barilla, brimstone, bark of oak, cork, 
 oranges, lemons, linseed, rapeseed, and clover- 
 seed, must not be imported for home use, ex- 
 cept in British ships, or in ships of the country 
 of which the goods are the produce, or in ships of 
 the country from which the goods are imported. 
 
 § 3. Goods, the produce of Asia, Africa, or 
 America, must not be imported from Europe 
 for home use, except the goods after mentioned, 
 viz. : — Goods, the produce of the dominions of the 
 Emperor of Morocco, which may be imported 
 from places in Europe within the Straits of Gib- 
 raltar : Goods, the produce of Asia or Africa, 
 which (having been brought into places in Eu- 
 rope within the Straits of Gibraltar, from or 
 through places in Asia or Africa within those 
 straits, and not by way of the Atlantic) may be 
 imported from places in Europe within the 
 Straits of Gibraltar: Goods, the produce of 
 places within the limits of the East India Com- 
 pany's charter, which (having been imported 
 from those places into Gibraltar or Malta in 
 British ships) may be imported from Gibraltar 
 or Malta : Goods taken by way of reprisal by- 
 British ships : bullion, diamonds, pearls, rubies, 
 emeralds, and other jewels or precious stones. 
 
 § 4. The produce of Asia, Africa, or America, 
 cannot be imported for home use in foreign 
 ships, unless these be of the country of which 
 the goods are the produce, and from "which they 
 are imported, except the goods after mentioned, 
 viz. :— Goods, the produce of the dominions of 
 the Grand Seignior in Asia Or Africa, which 
 may be imported from his dominions in Europe, 
 
 yarn, the produce of Asia, which may be im- 
 ported from the dominions of the Grand Seignior 
 in the Levant Seas, in ships of his dominions : 
 Bullion. [Authority is given to make treaties 
 with countries on the Mediterranean, that the 
 productions of Asia and Africa may be imported 
 in the ships of such countries, as well as in 
 British ships, 1 & 2 Vict. c. 113, § 30.] 
 
 § 5. Manufactured goods are deemed the pro- 
 duce of the country of which they are the manu- 
 facture. 
 
 § 6. No goods can be imported from Guern- 
 sey, Jersey, Aldemey, Sark, or Man, except 
 in British ships. 
 
 § 7- No goods can be exported to any British 
 possession in Asia, Africa, or America, nor to 
 Guernsey, Jersey, Aldemey, Sark, or Man, ex- 
 cept in British ships. 
 
 § 8. No goods can be carried coastwise, except 
 in British ships. 
 
 § 9. No goods can be carried from any of the 
 islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Aldemey, Sark, or 
 Man, to any other, nor from one part to another 
 of any one of these islands, except in British ships. 
 
 § 10. A similar rule applies to British posses- 
 sions in Asia, Africa, or America. 
 
 § 11. No goods can be imported into any Bri- 
 tish possession in Asia, Africa, or America, in 
 foreign ships, unless they be of the country of 
 which the goods are the produce, and from which 
 they are imported. 
 
 § 12. No ship is admitted to be a British ship 
 unless registered and navigated as such ; and 
 every British registered ship (so long as the re- 
 gistry is in force, or the certificate retained) must 
 be navigated during the whole of every voyage 
 (whether with a cargo or in ballast), by a mas- 
 ter who is a British subject, and by a crew, of 
 which three-fourths at least are British seamen ; 
 and if such ship be employed in coasting from 
 
NEE 
 
 490 
 
 NET 
 
 one part of the United Kingdom to another, or 
 between the United Kingdom and Guernsey, 
 Jersey, Alderney, Sark, or Man, or from one of 
 these to another, or from one part to another of 
 any one of these islands, or be employed in fish- 
 ing on the coasts of the United Kingdom, or of 
 any of these islands, the whole of the crew must 
 be British seamen. 
 
 § 13. But British-built vessels under fifteen 
 tons burthen, wholly owned and navigated by 
 British subjects, though not registered as British 
 ships, are admitted to be British vessels, in all 
 navigation in the rivers and upon the coasts of 
 the United Kingdom, or of the British posses- 
 sions abroad, and not proceeding over sea, ex- 
 cept within the limits of the respective colonial 
 governments within which the managing owners 
 respectively reside ; and all British-built vessels 
 wholly owned and navigated by British subjects, 
 not exceeding thirty tons, and not having a whole 
 or a fixed deck, and being employed solely in 
 fishing on the banks and shores of Newfoundland, 
 and parts adjacent, or on the banks and shores 
 of Canada, Nova Scotia, or New Brunswick, 
 adjacent to the Gulf of St Lawrence, or on the 
 north of Cape Canso, or of the islands within the 
 same, or in trading coastwise within the said 
 limits, are admitted to be British boats or vessels, 
 though not registered. 
 
 § 14. All ships built in the British settlements 
 at Honduras, and owned and navigated as Bri- 
 tish ships, are entitled to the privileges in all 
 direct trade with the United Kingdom or the 
 British possessions in America, provided the 
 master produce a certificate under the hand of 
 the superintendent of the settlements, that sat- 
 isfactory proof has been made before him that 
 the ship (describing the same) was built there, 
 and is wholly owned by British subjects; and 
 that the time of the clearance from the settle- 
 ments for every voyage be indorsed on the cer- 
 tificate by the superintendent. 
 
 § 15. No ship is admitted to be of any particu- 
 lar country, unless she be of the build thereof ; 
 or be a prize of war ; or forfeited to the country 
 under a law for the prevention of the slave-trade, 
 and condemned by a competent court; or be 
 British-built (not having been a prize of war 
 from British subjects to any other foreign coun- 
 try) ; nor unless the master and three-fourths of 
 the crew are subjects of the country ; nor unless 
 she be wholly owned by subjects of such country 
 usually residing therein, or under the dominion 
 thereof. The country of every ship is deemed to 
 include all places which are under the same do- 
 minion as the place to which the ship belongs. 
 
 § 16. No person is qualified to be a master of 
 a British ship, or a British seaman within the 
 meaning of the act, except British subjects or 
 persons who have served on board ships of war 
 in time of war for three years ; but natives of 
 places within the limits of the_ East India Com- 
 pany's charter, although under British domin- 
 ion, are not, upon the ground of being such na- 
 tives, deemed to be British seamen. Every ship 
 
 (except ships required to be wholly navigated by 
 British seamen) navigated by one British seaman 
 (if a British ship, or one seaman of the country 
 of such ship, if a foreign ship) for every twenty 
 tons, is deemed duly navigated, though the num- 
 ber of other seamen should exceed one fourth, — 
 the act not to affect the laws with respect to 
 trade from and to places within the limits of the 
 East India Company's charter. 
 
 § 17- By royal proclamation during war, for- 
 eigners, having served two years on board any 
 ships of war in time of such war, may be declared 
 British seamen within the meaning of the act. 
 
 § 18. No British registered ship must be suf- 
 fered to depart to or for any British possession in 
 any part of the world ( whether with a cargo or in 
 ballast), unless duly navigated. British ships, 
 trading between places in America, may be nav- 
 igated by British negroes, and ships trading 
 eastward of the Cape of Good Hope within the 
 limits of the East India Company's charter may 
 be navigated by lascars, or other natives of 
 countries within those limits. 
 
 § 19. The master or owners of ships forfeit for 
 every foreign seaman on board, contrary to the 
 act, £10 ; but if a due proportion of British sea- 
 men cannot be procured in any foreign port, or 
 in any place within the limits of the East India 
 Company's charter ; or if the proportion be de- 
 stroyed during the voyage by any unavoidable 
 circumstance, and the master produce a certifi- 
 cate of such facts under the hand of any British 
 consul, or of two known British merchants, if 
 there be no consul at the place where such facts 
 can be ascertained, or from the British governor 
 of any place within the limits of the East India 
 Company's charter ; or, in the want of such cer- 
 tificate, make proof of the truth of such facts to 
 the satisfaction of the collector and comptroller 
 of any British port, or of any person authorized 
 in any other part of the world to inquire into the 
 navigation of such ship, she is deemed to be duly 
 navigated. 
 
 § 20. The necessary proportion of British sea- 
 men may at any time be reduced by proclamation. 
 § 21. Goods, not otherwise prohibited than by 
 the law of navigation, as above, may be imported 
 from any place in a British ship, and from any 
 place not being a British possession in a foreign 
 ship of any country, and however navigated, to 
 be warehoused for exportation only. 
 
 § 22. Goods imported, exported, or carried 
 coastwise, contrary to the law of navigation, are 
 forfeited, the master incurring a penalty of £100. 
 § 23. Penalties, &c, are recovered and used, 
 as directed by act 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 53, for the 
 prevention of smuggling. 
 
 [By 3 & 4 Vict. c. 95, the Queen in council 
 may appoint any port which is the most con- 
 venient for shipping the produce of a state, to be 
 held (under the limitations in the order) as a 
 shipping port for that state, though situated in 
 a different country. The act was passed to carry 
 out a treaty to admit Austrian vessels from the 
 Turkish ports on the Danube.] S 
 NEEDLES are made from the best steel, reduced by a wire-drawing machine 
 to the suitable diameter. The manufacture, supposed to have originated in Spain, 
 was introduced into England about 1565 by Elias Krause, a German, who then 
 settled in London. At present it is carried on chiefly at Redditch in Worcester- 
 shire, Hathersage in Derbyshire, and in and near Birmingham. 
 
 Dr Ure states that " the construction of a needle requires about 120 operations ; but they are 
 rapidly and uninterruptedly successive. A child can trim the eyes of 4<i()0 needles per hour. When 
 we survey a manufacture of this kind, we cannot fail to observe, that the diversity of operations 
 which the needles undergo bears the impress of great mechanical refinement. In the arts, to 
 divide labour, is to abridge it ; to multiply operations is to simplify them ; and to attach an opera- 
 tive exclusively to one process, is to render him much more economical and productive." — Dic- 
 tionary of Arte, &c. p. 885. 
 
 NETHERLANDS, KINGDOM OF THE, or HOLLAND, lies between lat. 
 51° 12' and 53° 28' IS 1 ., and between long. 3° 20 and 7° 12' E. ; and is bounded N. 
 
NET 491 NET 
 
 and W. by the North Sea, S. by Belgium, and E. by Rhenish Prussia and Hanover. 
 Provinces : N. Brabant, Guelderland, N. Holland, S. Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, 
 Friesland, Overyssel, Groningen, and Drenthe. Area, 11,860 sq. miles ; and pop- 
 ulation in 1838,2,583,271 : this is exclusive of the portions of Limburg and Luxem- 
 burg subject to the Netherlands crown, the joint area of which is 1738 sq. miles, 
 and population 332,000. Government, a constitutional monarchy : the executive 
 power is vested in the king ; the legislative in the king and the states-general, 
 :ing of a first chamber, the members of which are appointed by the king for 
 life, and a second chamber of deputies chosen by provincial assemblies. All new 
 laws are proposed by the king to the second chamber. 
 
 This country is composed of the lowest part of the great plain of Northern Europe, its level 
 being indeed in many places below that of the sea, against which it is protected, — partly, as in Zea- 
 land, Friesland. and Guelderland, by enormous dikes, and partly, as between the Helder and 
 the Hook of Holland, by sandhills or dune* cast up by the ocean upon the shores ; though, despite 
 every precaution, it has often suffered greatly from inundations. The whole, saving some slight 
 elevations in Guelderland, Utrecht, and Overyssel, forms one unbroken flat, without a hill or 
 rock, without forests, or, except in the south part, running waters; the land consisting mainly of 
 moor and marsh, traversed, like net-work, by numerous canals, which, while they are absolutely 
 necessary to drain it, and render it fit for cultivation, answer, for the most part, the purposes of 
 roads, — many of them indeed being navigable for large vessels. The astonishing ingenuity, in- 
 dustry, and perseverance by which the Netherlands is thus protected against inundation, and 
 rendered at once available for cultivation and internal communication, has been amply rewarded, 
 for the country is exceedingly fertile, and, excepting England, is, for its size, the richest, most 
 populous, and most powerful in the world. 
 
 In the northern provinces the principal natural feature is the Zuyder Zee, a shallow inland sea, 
 separating North Holland from Friesland and Overyssel : there are also numerous lakes, the chief 
 being the Haarlem-meer, a wide expanse in the vicinity of that city and Amsterdam. In the 
 southern provinces the leading feature is the Rhine or Waal, and its tributary the Meuse, which 
 enter the sea by various channels , though chiefly by way of Dort and Rotterdam. Several parts of the 
 kingdom are likewise distinguished for extensive marshes, — as the Bourtangon the N.E. frontier, 
 and the Peel in N. Brabant. The extraordinary number of water-courses throughout the country, 
 and its peculiar situation, render the climate moist and foggy ; and being besides excessively warm 
 in summer, and cold in winter, only that scrupulous attention to cleanliness for which the inhab- 
 itants are distinguished, caD protect tbem from the deleterious effects of their atmosphere. 
 
 The humidity of the climate, and the demand for animal food for the numerous cities, have 
 connected their rural industry principally with pasturage; and the produce of the dairy is 
 brought to such perfection as to form an important object of exportation. The number of horned 
 cattle is estimated at 1,000,000; of sheep at 700,000; and of horses at 200,000; swine also are 
 numerous. The corn raised, however, is insufficient for the home consumption. According to a 
 communication from Sir A. Ferrier to our government in 1842, the produce of the grain crop of 
 1841 {nearly an average one), was, in Imperial quarters, as follows: — Wheat, 645,000; rye, 537,500; 
 barley, 322,5(0; oats, 344,000; beans, 86,000; pease, 64,500 ; and buckwheat, 193,500. The chief 
 other products of the soil are, potatoes, flax near Dort, &c. ; hemp, tobacco (4000 tons), around 
 Amersfort, Rhenen, &c. ; madder, in S. Holland; rapeseed, chicory, mustard, and beet; and 
 flowers near Haarlem, <tc. The kingdom possesses few if any minerals. 
 
 The fisheries, once a principal source of wealth, have greatly declined. Only about 80 busses 
 are now employed in the herring-fishery ; the cod-fishery on the Dogger-bank, and the whale- 
 fishery, are also on a much smaller scale than formerly. 
 
 The principal manufactures are those of woollens in Leyden and Utrecht : silks in Utrecht, 
 Haarlem, and Amsterdam ; cottons at Haarlem ; tobacco pipes at Gouda ; and paper, leather, 
 sugar-refining, painters' colours, and cordage in various places. The distilling of geneva is pro- 
 secuted extensively at Schiedam ; and shipbuilding at Rotterdam and Amsterdam. The govern- 
 ment, with the view of encouraging manufactures, allow coal for their use to be imported free, 
 though a high duty is levied upon it for other purposes, in order to promote, by the consumption 
 of peat, thb formation of polders, a name given to marshy plots when enclosed and drained. 
 
 Commerce, however, has always been pre-eminently the national pursuit of the Dutch. The 
 greatness of the trade of Holland during the 17th century, and its decline in the 18th, have been 
 already noticed [Commerce]. After the revolution in France, Holland became first a vassal, 
 and then a province of that kingdom, and being in consequence engaged in a constant war with 
 Britain, it lost its ships, its colonies, its commerce, and its public credit. On the return of peace 
 the settlements of Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo, with the Cape of Good Hope and Ceylon, 
 were retained by Britain ; but she restored Java, the Moluccas, and other possessions in the 
 Eastern Islands, along with Surinam, several West India Islands, and various posts on the Guinea 
 coast. Trade afterwards revived in a very remarkable manner, though it has never recovered its 
 former magnitude. Of late years it has benefited greatly from the improved administration of 
 Java, which, with the other colonies, was retained by Holland on the dissolution of its union 
 with Belgium in 1830, and the possession of which has been since confirmed to her. [Java. 
 Eastern Islands. Guiana. Nigritia. West Indies, &c] 
 
 The imports into Holland consist at present chiefly of tropical and colonial produce ; corn, salt, 
 tea, wine, timber, coal, and hides; British, German, and French manufactures; freestone and 
 granite blocks for the dikes. The national exports consist mostly of cheese, butter, flax, hemp, 
 madder, geneva, oak-bark, rape and linseed oils, oil-cake, tobacco-pipes, and seeds. But the 
 exports likewise embrace the re^hipment of a large portion of the commodities of import ; and 
 more especially of those brought from the colonies, and from the Baltic and Rhenish States, which 
 are carried to the ports of Holland as a convenient entrepdt for their distribution. The port 
 which shares most largely in this transit or eiurepot trade is Rotterdam, owing to its position at 
 the mouth of the Riiine, and its general accessibility. We possess no account of the aggregate 
 amount of imports uud exports ; but, according to a" recent statement, the shipping cleared out- 
 
NET 192 NET 
 
 wards amounts annually to nearly 6000 vessels, having a burden of 800,000 tons ; of which, about 
 330,000 tons were under the national flag; British, 200,000 tons; and Norwegian, 100,000 tons. 
 In 1837, there belonged to Holland 1394 ships, of the burden of 1 1 1 ,824 lasts ; which was exclusive 
 of 5600 trek-schuyts, or canal barges, and 15,000 boats employed in the inland trade. The num- 
 ber of vessels trading to the E. Indies from the different ports is 320, in burden 185,000 tons. 
 
 The chief commercial relations are with Java and the other colonies, Britain, Germany, the 
 Baltic states, France, and America. The trade with England appears to be on the increase. In 1833, 
 1837, and 1840, the declared value of the produce and manufactures of the United Kingdom shipped 
 to Holland, was respectively, £2,181,893, £3,040,029, and £3,416,190: about one-half of the 
 whole consists of cotton yarn and twist; the chief other articles are cotton cloths, woollens, iron, 
 linen and woollen yarn, brass and copper wares, coal, painters' colours, and salt. A variety of 
 colonial and foreign commodities are likewise imported from Britain ; the principal being cotton- 
 wool, coffee, indigo, tobacco, shellac and lac, copper, tea, Peruvian bark, pepper, pimento, and 
 wine. The exports to the United Kingdom in 1840 consisted of 157,802 cwts. butter, 224,957 cwts. 
 cheese, 113,108 cwts. flax and codilla, 47,575 cwts. madder, 676,404 gallons geneva, 72,842 gallons 
 Rhenish wine, and 171,735 cwts. bark; besides corn, seeds, raw silk, coffee, smalts, nutmegs, and 
 mace from the Moluccas, linseed and rapeseed cakes and oil, fitch, furs, &c. 
 
 Corn forms an item of considerable importance in the commerce of Holland, partly from the 
 inadequacy of her own supply, and partly from the convenient situation of Rotterdam, the chief 
 seat of this trade, as an entrep6t for the produce of Rhenish Germany. This port is also, to 
 some extent, a depot for Baltic corn ; while, in certain seasons, her shipments of Netherlands 
 produce are considerable, — Zealand wheat, and Dutch oats, beans, and pease, being in high estima- 
 tion in Britain. But exports of Netherlands corn have always to be replaced by additional im- 
 ports. The bonding system, as applied to foreign grain in Holland, is extremely liberal and con- 
 venient to the holder. Of late, however, restrictions have been imposed upon importation for 
 consumption, with the view of protecting the agriculturists. From 1820 to 1830, a small fixed 
 duty existed, which, on wheat, was (fl. 7*50 c. per last), equivalent to Is. 2£d. per quarter: from 
 1830 to 1835, this was raised to 4s. 9d. per quarter, being quadrupled. In 1836, a sliding duty was 
 introduced, according to the following scale : — When the average price of wheat is lower than 
 23s. 9d., the duty is 14s. 3d. per quarter ; when price 23s. 9d. and under 26s. 2d., the duty is lis. loid. 
 per quarter ; when price 26s. 2d. and under 28s. 7d., the duty is 9s. 6d. ; price 28s. 7d. and under 
 33s. 4d., duty 7s. 1 Jd. ; price 33s. 4d. and under 38s. Id., duty 4s. 9d. ; price 38s. Id. and under 
 42s. 10d., duty 2s. 4Jd. ; and when the price is 42s. 10d., or above, the duty is Is. 2$d. Exporta- 
 tion is free till the price reach 42s. 10d., when a duty of 2s 10(1 is levied." The transit duty on 
 wheat is in all cases 5|d. per quarter. Besides the preceding import duties, there are heavy town 
 dues, as well as a tax upon grinding ; so that upon the whole the consumption of corn is rather 
 heavily burdened. 
 
 Ports. — Amsterdam, the capital of the kingdom, sometimes called the •* Venice of the North," 
 is situated in lat. 52° 22' N., long. 4° 53' E., at the confluence of the Amstel with the Y, an arm of 
 the Zuyder Zee. It is built on a marsh upon piles. The principal streets are magnificent, and the 
 city, which is crescent-shaped, is intersected by numerous canals, communicating by 280 bridges, 
 and ornamented with trees. Pop. 220,000. The harbour is capacious and secure, admitting the 
 largest vessels close to the quays and warehouses. At the mouth of the Y there is a bar called the 
 Pampus, to cross which large vessels must be lightened ; but this inconvenience, as well as the 
 delays and dangers attending the navigation of the Zuyder Zee, has been, since 1825, obviated 
 by a ship-canal, 50 J miles in length, and 20| feet in depth, which was then opened between Am- 
 sterdam and theHelder, — a noble work which gives to the former all the advantages of a deep-water 
 harbour on the most accessible part of the coast. Amsterdam possesses numerous manufactures, 
 but it is more distinguished for its trade, which, though now much reduced, is still very consider- 
 able. The exports, estimated at about £4,000,000 a-year, and the imports, nearly of the same 
 amount, comprehend almost all articles forming the subject of European commerce. 
 
 Rotterdam is situated on the Maese, a princioal arm of the Rhine, in lat. 51° 55' N., long. 4° 29' 
 E., about 20 miles from the North Sea. Pop. 80,000. The streets are intersected by canals, deep 
 enough to receive the largest ships, and the town possesses in other respects, as already noticed, 
 great facilities for trade. It has an extensive transit-trade with Germany, and is the chief seat of 
 the commerce with Britain, with many parts of which it maintains an active intercourse by steamers 
 and packets. It will shortly be connected with Amsterdam by railway. In the year 1840, the 
 number of vessels that entered was 1968, and departed, 2054 ; the latter, in burden, 265,000 tons. 
 In the same year, the total imports amounted to £7,186,240, including £3,180,480 from Britain ; 
 and the total exports, £5,982,200, including £1,097,280 to Britain. 
 
 The chief other ports are Harlingen, at the mouth of the canal of Leewarden, in Friesland, 
 Delfzyl on the Ems, Dordrecht on the Waal, and Middleburg and Flushing, in Walcheren. 
 
 MEASURES, MONEY, FINANCE, &C 
 
 Measures and Weights.—The modern system, 
 introduced in 1820, is the same as that of France, 
 but with the old Dutch nomenclature. 
 
 The elle or metre of 10 palms = 39| Imp. 
 inches nearly, and lOOelles = 10936 Imp. yards; 
 the mijle or kilometre = 1093| Imp. yards. 
 
 The vierkante bunder, or are, of 10 vierkante 
 roedes, or 100 vierkante elles = *02471 Imp. acre 
 = 3 Imp. perches and 29 square yards nearly. 
 
 The vat, or hectolitre (liquid measure), of 100 
 kans or litres = 22*009 Imp. gallons ; the kan 
 is divided into 10 maatjes, or 100 vingerhoeds. 
 
 The mudde, zak, or hectolitre (dry measure), 
 of 10 schepels, or 100 kops or litres = 2J Imp. 
 bushels nearly ; and 100 mudden = 34*390 Imp. 
 quarters, 
 
 troy grains ; the pond or kilogramme of 10 ors, 
 100 loods, or 1000 wigtjes = 2 lbs. 3 oz., and 
 4-h drams avoirdupois; and 100 ponden = 220*4«6 
 lbs. avoirdupois. The apothecaries' new pound 
 of 12 ounces, 96 drachms, 288 scruples, or 5760 
 grains = 5787 troy grains. 
 
 Gold and silver are weighed by the pond, as 
 above ; and their fineness is expressed in milli- 
 emes as in France. Gold is valued from the 
 fixed price of 1442 flor. 60 cents per pond, 
 with an agio that is usually about 13 per cent. ; 
 Silver is valued from the fine weight at a varia- 
 ble price per pond without agio. 
 
 The old measures and weights, still retained in 
 many places, are chiefly as follows : — The Am- 
 sterdam foot = 11*15 Imp. inches; the Rhine- 
 
 The wigtje or gramme of 10 korrels = 15*434 land foot = 12*36 Imp.' inches; the Amster 
 
NET 
 
 4 03 
 
 NET 
 
 dam ell = 27*08 Imp. inches; the Brabant or 
 Flemish ell = 27-58 Imp. inches. The Dutch 
 league, 19 to the degree, = 3 Imp. miles. 5 fur. 
 4 poles, 4*98 Amsterdam morgen of 600 square 
 perches, or 475 Rhineland morgen, = 10 Imp. 
 acres. The wine stekan of 8 stoops = 4-27 Imp. 
 galls.; the brandy stekan = 4*13 do.; and the 
 beer stekan = 4*32 do. : The Amsterdam ahm 
 of 4 ankers, 8 wine stekans, 64 stoops, 128 min- 
 gels, 256 pintes, or 512 mutjes ^ 34*16 Imp. 
 gallons ; the velte contains 3 stoops, the oxhoofd 
 96, the legger 240, and the vat 6 ahms or 384 
 stoops ; the Rotterdam ahm = 33*32 Imp. gal- 
 lons. The Amsterdam corn last of 27 mudden, 
 36 sacks, or 108 schepefe = 82*62 Imp. bushels. 
 The troy pound of 2 marks, 16 ounces, 320 eng- 
 els, or 10240 aas = 7596 troy grains ; 1 engel = 
 7J carats. The commercial" pound of 16 ounces 
 = 7625 troy grains ; and the centner of 100 lbs. 
 = 108*93 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 A last for freight is estimated at 4000 lbs., equal 
 to 2 British tons nearly. 
 
 Money. — The monetary unit is the florin or 
 guilder, divided into 100 cents, or 20 stivers, and 
 equal Is. 8d. sterling nearly ; the par of exchange 
 being in gold 12 fl. 10 c, and in silver, 11 fl. 97 c. 
 per £l. Formerly accounts were stated in florins 
 of 20 stivers, each of 16 pfennings ; and exchanges 
 were transacted in pounds Flemish of 20 schil- 
 lings, or 240 grotes. 6 florins = 1 pound Flemish. 
 The rixdollar = 2 J florins or 50 stivers. 
 
 The coins are : — In gold ; the 10 florin piece 
 (weight 103*85 troy grains, fineness 900 milli- 
 emes or T 9 ), equal 16s. 64d., and the piece of 5 
 florins : In silver ; the florin (weight 166*17 troy 
 grains, fineness 893 milliemes) equal 20*05d. ; 
 pieces for 3 and J florins ; also, but of a lower 
 standard, pieces for 25, 10, and 5 cents : In cop- 
 per; cents and i cents. The above form the 
 currency of the Netherlands, according to ordi- 
 nance of 1816; but a variety of old coins also 
 circulate, the principal being the gold ducat, 
 value 9s. 4d. ; the silver ducatoon, 5s. 3|d. ; and 
 the rixdollar, 4s. 2d. nearly. 
 
 Usance of bills from London and France, 1 
 month's date ; from Spain, Portugal, and Italy, 
 2 months' date ; from Germany, 14 days* sight ; 
 and from Dantzig, Riga, and Konigsberg, 30 
 days' sight. Days of grace, formerly 6, but now 
 in disuse. 
 
 The Bank of the Netherlands was founded in 
 1814 on the model of the Bank of England ; the 
 celebrated old deposit Bank of Amsterdam hav- 
 ing ceased to exist on the French invasion in 
 1796. Its original capital of fl. 5,000,000 (divid- 
 ed into shares or actions of fl. 1000) was doubled 
 in 1819. It issues notes, varying in amount from 
 fl. 20 to fl. 1000, discounts bills, and occasionally 
 makes advances on goods, deals in bullion, and 
 coins money for the state. 
 
 The Maatschappij, formed in 1825, is a com- 
 pany which has been the means of directing much 
 of the resources and energies of the country to 
 the Eastern trade. The original shares were for 
 fl.lOOOeach ; and the present capital fl.97,000,000 
 (£8,083,333), of which fl.20,000,000 stand in the 
 name of the abdicated king. It commenced 
 operations by lending fl. 8,000,000 to the colonial 
 government, receiving the consignment of the 
 produce sent to Europe, and exporting European 
 wares to supply the Indian market ; and in 
 course of time' their advances amounted to 
 fl. 39,0(10,000. By an arrangement in 1840, the 
 state became bound, 1st , to pay them fl. 5,000,000 
 annually for 9 years, by which the debt, with 5 
 percent, interest, would be paid off; and, 2d, 
 to consign all colonial produce raised or bought 
 on government account to their care, for ship- 
 ment and sale, allowing for this a commission of 
 4 per cent. : but both these rates of interest and 
 commission have been since reduced. 
 
 The government officers deliver the wares to 
 the factory of the company at Java, which con- 
 tracts to convey them to Europe for a fixed sum. 
 Only Netherlands or colonial shipping can be 
 employed ; and their sailing must be so arranged 
 that j& fall to the share of Amsterdam, Jg to 
 Rotterdam, & to Dordrecht, and & to Middle- 
 burg. In 1840, the shipping freighted amounted 
 to 138,000 tons. 
 
 The council of management consists of a pre- 
 sident, nominated by the king, 12 commissaries, 
 elected by the shareholders, and 3 paid directors. 
 
 The Maatschappij was not at first successful, 
 but it is said to have become so since 1830. 
 
 A Treaty of Commerce and Navigation between 
 the Netherlands and Britain, dated October 27, 
 1837, reciprocally places the subjects of the two 
 powers, in respect to duties, on the footing " of 
 the most favoured nation." It also, " in respect 
 of voyages between the two countries," places 
 their ships as to port-duties, drawbacks, &c, re- 
 ciprocally on the footing of national vessels. This 
 treaty, which is for the term of 10 years, and 
 12 months after notice, likewise contains various 
 provisions as to the valuation and warehousing 
 of merchandise, and in regard to wrecks.— See 
 Hertslet's Treaties, vol. v. p. 33a 
 
 Provision for the intercourse between the sub- 
 jects of the two powers in the East was made by 
 a treaty, dated March 17, 1824. 
 
 Art. 1. Their Eastern subjects to be admitted 
 to trade with their respective possessions upon 
 the footing of the most favoured nation. 
 
 2. " The subjects and vessels of one nation 
 shall not pay upon importation or exportation, 
 at the ports "of the other in the Eastern Seas, any 
 duty at a rate beyond the double of that at which 
 the "subjects and vessels of the nation to which 
 the port belongs are charged. The duties paid 
 on exports or imports at a British port on the 
 continent of India or in Ceylon, on Dutch bot- 
 toms, shall be arranged so as in no case to be 
 charged at more than double the amount of the 
 duties paid by British subjects and on British 
 bottoms. In regard to any article upon which 
 no duty is imposed, when imported or exported 
 by the subjects, or on the vessels of the nation to 
 which the port belongs, the duty charged upon 
 the subjects or vessels of the other shall in no 
 case exceed 6 per cent." 
 
 3. The parties engage that no treaty shall be 
 made by either with any native power, which 
 shall, by unequal duties or otherwise, tend to 
 exclude the trade of the others. Intimation to 
 be mutually made of treaties with native powers 
 in the Eastern Seas. 
 
 4. The two powers engage to order their offi- 
 cers ' ' to respect the freedom of trade establish- 
 ed by art. 1 , 2, and 3 ; and in no case to im- 
 pede a free communication of the natives in the 
 Eastern Archipelago with the ports of the two 
 governments respectively, or of the subjects of 
 the two governments with the ports belonging to 
 native powers." 
 
 The Molucca Islands are excepted from art. 1, 
 2, 3, and 4, during the existence of the spice 
 monopoly ; and the treaty, besides, contains 
 several provisions exclusively of a political na- 
 ture, for which see Hertslet, vol. iii. p. 284. 
 
 This treaty is said to have been since violated 
 by the Dutch colonial authorities ; and various 
 remonstrances on the subject have been made by 
 our ambassador at the Hague ; but they are of 
 a nature too voluminous to be here noticed. 
 
 I Finances.— The budget for the year 1842 esti- 
 mates the receipts at fl. 71 ,353,551 (£5,946,129), 
 and the expenditure at fl. 71,338,103, including 
 fl. 33,481 ,341 on account of the public debt. But 
 the brief abstract from which these figures are 
 
 ! taken does not show whether the ways and means 
 are confined to the produce of Netherlands 
 
NET 
 
 494 
 
 NEW 
 
 taxes, or include besides new loans or antici- 
 pated receipts from the colonies. The mode of 
 preparing the Dutch budgets has of late years 
 Been the subject of complaint. 
 
 The capital of the debt consists of fi. 768,858,300 
 of old 2J per cents, and of fl. 382,657,850 of new 
 debt, bearing interest at 3i ,4, 4J , and 5 per cent. ; 
 making together, fl. 1,151,516,150. Deducting 
 from which, fl. 200,000,000, the capital of the old 
 debt corresponding to fl. 5,000,000, the interest 
 stipulated to be annually paid by Belgium Treaty, 
 April 19, 1839, art. 13), leaves the debt of Hol- 
 land fl. 951,516,150 (£79,293,012) ; the present 
 annual charge on which, including the sinking 
 fund, is fl. 33,994,250. This is exclusive of 
 fl. 236,000,000 (£19,666,666) contracted in 1836, 
 
 1837, and 1838, on the credit of the colonial re- 
 venues, the interest on which, at 4 and 5 per 
 cent., is guaranteed by the state; also of the 
 fl. 45,000,000, stated above as due to the Maati- 
 chappij. 
 
 A portion of the Dutch 2J per cents is issued 
 in certificates of fl. 1200, or £100 each, the divi- 
 dends on which, due January 1 and July 1 , are 
 payable at Messrs Rothschild's, London," at the 
 fixed rate of fl. 12 per £1 . The dividends on a por- 
 tion of the colonial5 per cent, loan of 1837 are also 
 payable in London, at Messrs Salomon's, at the 
 same rate, the net amount of the half-yearly 
 coupon on each fl. 1000 bond being fl. 24*75, the 
 value in sterling is £2, Is. 3d. : these last are 
 payable in Holland on 1st April and 1st October. 
 
 NETS, FISHING, are rarely a subject of commerce, being almost all manu- 
 factured by the fishermen and their families. 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK, a province of British America, lies between lat. 45° and 
 48° 5' N., and long. 63° 48' and 67° 53' W.; and is bounded N. by Canada and Cha- 
 leur Bay ; E. by Gulf of St Lawrence, Northumberland Strait, and the Isthmus of 
 Chignecto, which separates it from Nova Scotia ; S. by the Bay of Fundy ; and W. 
 by Maine and Canada. Area, 26,000 sq. miles. Population in 1834, 119,557, chiefly 
 of British origin. The administration is vested in a lieutenant-governor (sub- 
 ordinate to the governor-general of British America), executive and legislative 
 councils, and a house of assembly of 28 members. S 
 
 The country, though mountainous towards the north, is mostly composed of bold undulations, 
 sometimes swelling into hills, and again subdividing into vale and lowlands, covered with magni- 
 ficent forests, and intersected by the river St John (the great feature of the province), and numer- 
 ous other streams, which afford water-communications in every direction to the pleasing settle- 
 ments scattered throughout the fertile alluvial spots termed intervales. The climate, similar to 
 that of Canada, is highly salubrious ; but agriculture, though recently improved, is in a very 
 backward condition. The most important article of produce is the potato ; the cereal grains are 
 not raised in sufficient quantity for the consumption ; and indeed the greater part of the country 
 is still in a state of nature. Gypsum abounds ; and mines of coal, iron, copper, and manganese 
 are worked, but only to a trifling extent. 
 
 The commercial wealth of New Brunswick is as yet therefore limited to its forests, especially 
 those of yellow pine ; and under the influence of the discriminating duties in Britain in favour of 
 colonial produce, the industry of the inhabitants is chiefly devoted to the timber trade. This 
 trade is conducted by " lumberers," who penetrate the forests at the close of autumn, and during 
 the winter cut down the trees, which are floated down the rivers by the " freshets," or melted 
 snows, about the end of April. A considerable portion of the wood is formed into deal, battens, 
 and shingles ; for which purpose there were, on 1st January 1836, 320 saw-mills in the colony, 
 valued at £420,000 ; but the greater portion is shipped in the log. The chief other branches of 
 industry are the fisheries and shipbuilding. The vessels built are considered by many to be too 
 slight : they are called slop or cabbage-stalk built, having their lower timbers of pine or spruce : 
 their construction, however, costing little more than £6 a- ton, is carried on to a considerable ex- 
 tent, amounting, in 1839, to 164 vessels, with a tonnage of 45,864. 
 
 New Brunswick being, from its position, not adapted for a depdt, its commerce consists mainly 
 of the exchange of its own surplus produce for articles of consumption. In 1833, 1835, and 1837, the 
 value of the exports (exclusive of new ships) was respectively £469,464, £577,211, and £588,397 ; 
 the last including £476,670 for wood and lumber, £34,677 for train oil, and £30,550 for fish, 
 chiefly dry cod ; the whole mostly shipped to Britain and the West Indies. The amount of im- 
 ports in the same three years was respectively £549,215, £621,500, and £730,563 ; the last includ- 
 ing £150,828 for corn and flour, chiefly from the United States and Germany ; the remaining imports 
 consist principally of manufactures, metals, coal, salt, tea, and other articles from Britain, and of 
 "West India produce. The above sums, it has to be observed, do not include the transactions with 
 the adjoining colonies. 
 
 Ports.— Fredericton, the seat of government, pop. 3000, lies on the St John, 85 miles from its 
 mouth, and, being accessible to sloops of 50 tons, carries on a considerable trade. The town of St 
 John, situated near the mouth of the river, is, however, the commercial capital of the province ; pop. 
 10,000. The chief other ports are, St Andrews, at the mouth of the St Croix ; Miramichi, Cha- 
 tham, and Newcastle, in Miramichi Bay ; and Dalhousie, in the Bay of Chaleur. St John, St 
 Andrews, and Miramichi are free ports; the two first being also warehousing ports. In 1839, 
 3527 vessels entered outwards, possessing a tonnage of 444,051 ; whereof Britain, 290,925 tons; 
 British colonies, 118,800 tons; United States, 33,698 tons ; foreign states, 638 tons. 
 
 The currency and mode of keeping accounts are the same as in Nova Scotia ; and the premium 
 for bills on England fluctuates from about 8 to 18 per cent. The average amount of paper in circu- 
 lation in 1838-39 was £350,000, consisting of the notes of five local banks and the Bank of British 
 America, and of notes issued by the Corporation of St John. 
 
 The public revenue, amounting annually to about £60,000, is chiefly derived from import du- 
 ties. The provincial duties are trifling ; on British manufactures 2J per cent, is levied, excepting, 
 however, articles required in shipbuilding, machinery, refined sugar, provisions, and books. The 
 crown duties (levied only on fore gn goods) are detailed under the head Co/.oxy. 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND, an island and British colony lying in the Atlantic Ocean, 
 E. from the Gulf of St Lawrence. Area, 57,000 sq. miles. Population in 1836, 
 
NEW 405 NJ.' 
 
 . mostly of Irish or Scotch origin. The administration is vested in a governor, 
 with executive and legislative councils, and a house of assembly of 15 members. 
 
 The island is triangular in form, and the shores are rugged and indented. Little is known of the 
 interior, except that it is in some parts hilly, is intersected by numerous lakes and streams, and 
 that tbe ral rocky and barren, and produces little good timber. The climate is humid, 
 
 and i;i winter intensely cold. The importance of Newfoundland is derived solely from the fisheries 
 . and those of the contiguous parts of Labrador, and upon the submarine banks 
 which lie to the S. E. ; and the settlements, which amount to 60 or 70, are confined to the Bhores ; 
 the greater part being on the eastern and southern, particularly the former. The principal town 
 and port is St John, situated on the peninsula at the extremity of Avalon, in lat. 47" 33' N. long., 
 W. ; population from about 10,000 to 15,000, according to the season. Harbour-Grace, 
 near St John, is the chief other trading place: both are free warehousing ports. 
 
 The fishery has been alreadv described under the head Cod. The quantities procured and dried 
 in the years *1837, 1838, and 1839, were, respectively, 848,0!)6, 724,515, and 865,377 quintals, each 
 of 112 lbs. : the chief other articles of produce in 1839 were seal and cod oil and blubber, 2,244,262 
 gallons; 437,501 seal skins; 20,806 barrels herrings; and 2922 tierces salmon. The value of the 
 exports amount annually from about £800,000 to £850,000. The agricultural produce being 
 limited to small quantities of potatoes, oats, and hay, the inland is almost entirely dependent upon 
 supplies from other countries : Corn and flour are imported from the United States, Germany, 
 &c. ; and beef, bread, biscuit, butter, and other provisions, from Ireland and Hamburg. The 
 remaining imports con-ist chiefly of manufactures, fishing-tackle, cordage, and apparel from Bri- 
 tain ; rum, molasses, and sugar* from the \V. Indies ; and salt from Britain, Portugal, and Spain. 
 The shipping which entered inwards in 1&39, amounted to 861 vessels, 91,661 tons : whereof Britain, 
 19,390 tons ; British colonies, 28,064 tons ; United States, 5207 tons ; and foreign, 39,000 tons. 
 
 The Currency and mode of keeping accounts are similar to those of Nova Scotia. The circulating 
 medium is composed of dollars, British coins, and of notes issued by the bank of British America, 
 which has a branch at St John. For other regulations see the article Colony. 
 
 Labrador, a dependency of Newfoundland, from which it is separated by the Straits of Belleisle, 
 is a wild and steril region between Hudson's Bay and the Atlantic. Its prevailing features are 
 rocks, swamps, and mountains covered with forests. Its shores, inhabited chiefly by Esquimaux, 
 are much resorted to in the prosecution of the cod fishery, especially the S. E. tract, s 
 
 NEW GRANADA, one of the three Colombian republics, occupies the most 
 northern portion of S. America, including part of the Isthmus of Darien : it lies be- 
 tween lat. 1° S. and 12° N., and between long. 68° and 83° W. ; and is bounded N. 
 bv the Caribbean Sea ; E. bv Venezuela ; S. by Ecuador ; and W. by the Pacific and 
 Central America. Area, about 380,000 sq. miles. Population in 1836, 1,686,038, 
 partly of Spanish origin, but chiefly Indians, negroes, and mixed races. Depart- 
 ments, Isthmo, Magdalena, Boyaca, Cundinamarca, and Cauca, which are sub- 
 divided into 20 provinces. Capital, Bogota, an inland city, pop. 40,000. The 
 legislative power is vested in a congress, consisting of a senate and house of repre- 
 sentatives ; the executive in a president and vice-president, as in the United States. 
 
 New Granada, like the other American states situated within the tropics and penetrated by the 
 Andes, is characterized by great diversities of soil and climate, and consequently of productions. 
 The European cerealia," potatoes, and the aracacha root, are objects of culture on the table- 
 land of Bogota, and in the districts along the western declivity of the Eastern Andes. In the vales 
 of the Magdalena, Cauca, and other great rivers, as well as on the low plains along the coast, 
 maize and plantains are reared as food ; while cotton (called in trade Carthagena cotton), cacao, 
 tobacco, and a little sugar, are cultivated as articles of commerce. Timber abounds, and many 
 drugs and dye-woods. Brasiletto ar.d fustic are obtained from the forests which enclose the Sierra 
 de Santa Martha. Ipecacuanha is collected on the banks of the Magdalena ; and cinchona on the 
 Andes of Merida and other places. The balsam of Tolu is procured on the banks of the Rio Sinn. 
 The plains of Casanare feed large herds of cattle, which supply abundance of jerked beef and hides. 
 
 The country, however, is chiefly distinguished for its minerals, which mostly occur on the western 
 declivity of the chains of the Andes. They consist of gold, silver, platina, mercury, copper, 
 lead, iron, and rock-salt. By far the most important is gold, which is more abundanthere than 
 in any other country of America. The greater part is obtained by washing auriferous soils in the pro- 
 vince" of Choca. At the beginning of the present century, the annual produce of gold was estimated 
 by Humboldt at 20,505 marks, value, £620,000 ; but the troubles consequent on the separation 
 from the dominion of Spain, and the smuggling produced by injudicious commercial regulations 
 and government monopolies, render it difficult to state the extent to which this or the other pro- 
 ductions of the country are at present available. 
 
 New Granada labours under many disadvantages as to trade; the coast districts being marshy 
 and unhealthy ; while the inland and healthy regions are so situated that no one can communicate 
 with any of the ports without very great expense, except the valley of the Upper Magdalena, the 
 produce of which is sent down that river to Santa Martha and Carthagena. This is more espe- 
 cially the case with the valley of the Upper Cauca, the most fertile tract of the republic, which is 
 every where surrounded by high mountains ; its produce is mostly sent to Buenaventura, over the 
 Western Andes, some parts of which are so steep that the merchandise has to be carried by men. 
 The produce of the most populous district, the mountainous country of Boyaca, is sent by the 
 ri\vr Zulia to the Venezuelian harbours of Maracavbo. In 1835, the total value of the exports 
 was $2,566,208 ; and of the imports, §3,292,625. 
 
 Ports on the Atlantic side, Rio Hacha, Santa Martha, Savinalla, Carthagena, and Portobello; 
 on the Pacific side, Chagres, Panama, Choco, and Buenaventura. 
 
 Carthagena, formerly considered the great bulwark of Spanish America, is a strongly fortified 
 and handsome city, and the chief naval arsenal of the republic ; it lies on a sandy peninsula in the 
 Caribbean Sea, in lat. 10° 25' N., long. 75 c 34' W. Pop. 18,000. The port, one of the best and 
 most capacious on the N. coast of S. America, is that whence the packets sail between Colombia 
 
NEW 496 NEW 
 
 and the United States and Europe. In 1837, the exports amounted to $l,799,094 t or £359,819 ; 
 whereof, £340,297 consisted of bullion, mostly gold, shipped in Queen's ships to England. 
 
 Santa Martha, about 100 miles N. E. from Carthageua, pop. 8000, has a good harbour and a 
 considerable trade : it exports dye-woods, and is the channel through which British manufactures 
 and other goods are forwarded to the Rio Magdalena. In the year ending May 31, 1838, the 
 exports amounted to $231,156; and the imports, mostly from Britain, France, and the United 
 States, to $1,209,878 ; the shipping entered in the same year amounted to 12,196 tons. 
 
 The Measures and Weights are the same as those of Spain. The integer of account is the piastre 
 or dollar, divided into 8 reals. At Carthagena and other places priees and exchanges are quoted 
 in ordinary dollars, commonly at the rate of $5 per £l. The Colombian, or " Macuquina dollar," 
 however, is different ; its usual rate of exchange being $6£ or $6 per £l. 
 
 The public Revenue in the year to August 31, 1835, amounted to $2,337,836, mostly from cus- 
 toms, the tobacco monopoly, and sales of land : the expenditure was nearly of the same amount, 
 but it did not embrace any payments on account of the interest on the foreign debt, explained 
 under Colombia, to which, in ] 837, the congress agreed to appropriate one-eighth of the import du- 
 ties, and one-half of the surplus revenues from 1st October 1836, as well as the net proceeds of the 
 tobacco monopoly : various items were at same time set aside for the redemption of the capital. S 
 
 NEW SOUTH WALES, a British colony, occupying the S. E. part of the 
 continent of Australia ; the settled portions chiefly embracing the district within 
 200 miles of the E. coast between Port Macquarrie, in lat. 31 ° 27' S., and the Murroo 
 River, in lat. 36° S. ; and the Port Phillip district on the S. coast. Population in 
 March 1841 : males, 85,168 ; females, 43,558 ; total, 128,726 ; whereof 26,976 were 
 transported convicts, — the colony having been originally founded (1788) as a penal 
 settlement. The administration of public affairs is vested in a governor ; an execu- 
 tive council appointed by the crown ; and a legislative assembly, consisting of 12 
 members nominated by the crown, and 18 elected by the colonists. The crown 
 originates money-votes ; and the colonial revenues are permanently charged with 
 £51,000 of salaries to judges and public officers, and £30,000 for public worship. 
 
 The principal geographical feature of the east coast district is a range of mountains, which, S. of 
 the parallel of 33°, where it is called the Blue Mountains, runs nearly N. and S., at an average dis- 
 tance of 40 or 50 miles from the shore ; but at that latitude it declines to the W. until 32°, where 
 its distance from the sea is 140 miles. It then turns suddenly to tbe E., and, under the name of 
 the " Liverpool Range," continues in this direction for about 50 miles, till it again resumes its 
 former course, at a distance of 80 or 100 miles from the shore. This mountainous ridge divides 
 the Murroo, Clyde, Shoalhaven, Hawkesbury, Hunter, Manning, Hastings, and other streams, 
 which intersect the E. coast, from the Darling, Macquarrie, Lachlan, and Morrumbidgee, which, 
 rising on its western side, flow for a considerable distance into the interior, until, taking a south- 
 erly course, they unite in the Murray, and fall into the shallow lake Alexandrina, contiguous to 
 Encounter Bay. 
 
 The country between the dividing range and the sea is undulating or hilly : the flats, mostly 
 along the shore, are generally of small breadth, though in some places they extend nearly to the 
 dividing range itself. These flats are almost free of timber, and have commonly a poor sandy soil, 
 though abounding with herbage for cattle ; but the hilly districts, which, in a few places, as at 
 Newcastle and Port Macquarrie, descend to the coast, are generally better, — the valleys having 
 commonly a strong soil, covered, in its natural state, with a vigorous vegetation, and yielding, 
 when cultivated, good crops of corn. The interior, or western declivities of the Blue Mountain 
 and Liverpool ranges, consist of a series of terraces, having a rich dry soil, admirably adapted for 
 sheep pasture, especially in the districts called Bathurst Plains, Liverpool Plains, and Yass Plains. 
 Beyond the meridian of 148°, these terraces descend to a very low level country, which, as far as 
 explored, is monotonous, deficient in vegetable matter, and, to a considerable extent, flooded 
 during the rainy season. 
 
 The rivers afford few or no facilities for inland navigation ; those on the coast side of the moun- 
 tain-range being generally of small size ; while those running into the interior, receiving few affluents, 
 shoal and narrow as they proceed, until by absorption and evaporation they are sometimes almost 
 wholly dried up. But numerous carriage roads have been constructed by the convicts ; these are 
 principally in the coast districts, though one is now made in the direction of Bathurst, across the 
 Blue Mountains, formerly deemed impassable in this way. 
 
 The Port Phillip district, the Australia Felix of Major Mitchell, by whom it was first explored 
 in 1836, lies on the S. coast, nearly opposite to Van Diemen's Land. It is separated from the east 
 coast district just described by the lofty Warra^ongs or Australian Alps, and an extensive unoc- 
 cupied territory. Being less arid and more fertile than the other part of the colony, it has, since 
 its capabilities were made known, been the favourite resort of emigrants ; and its advance in pros- 
 perity has amply justified the discoverer's self-congratulation of " being the harbinger of mighty 
 changes," — there being already many thousand acres under crop, besides a great extent of territory 
 located as pasture. 
 
 The climate, eminently salubrious, resembles that of Italy, but is drier ; the extremes of temper- 
 ature are also greater, the average heat less, and decreases more rapidly by elevation. The seasons 
 are the reverse of those of Britain,— January being the warmest month, and July the coldest; 
 but frost is rare, and snow never lies in the valleys. The rains mostly occur on the E. coast in May, 
 and in the interior in summer. On the former lahrenheit ranges in summer between 36° and 106°, 
 —its mean being 70° ; in winter, between 27° and 98°,— its mean being 66°. The most unfavourable 
 characteristic is the fearful droughts which periodically occur ; these are succeeded by excessive 
 rains, which decrease yearly until they again cease ; the cycle embracing 10 or 12 years. These 
 visitations will, however, be probably modified as cultivation is extended. 
 
 The vegetable productions are as yet unimportant. The timber, generally of the hard wood 
 kind, is not very valuable ; and the trees are rarely so numerous as to impede horse-travelling. 
 The finer fruits, however, have been introduced ; and, in 1840, about 3500 gallons of good wine 
 
NEW 49? NEW 
 
 were made by some German settlers ; the olive also thrives. Almost every kind of corn is cul- 
 tivated ; but owing to the preference given to sheep-husbandry, the supply "is insufficient for the 
 consumption. In 1838, the land under crop amounted only to 92,912 acres ; whereof 48,060 were 
 in wheat ; 25,043 in maize ; 2922 in in oats ; and 9939 in sown grasses : the remainder 
 
 was occupied with trifling quantities of rye, tobacco, potatoes, and millet. 
 
 The sheep-farming of New South Wales dates from 17^7, when Captain Macarthur, observing 
 the favourable influence of the soil and climate on the fleeces of ordinary stock, procured from the 
 Cape a few of the Merino kind, whose breed he continued pure, though the settlers generally gave 
 a preference to animals of heavier carcass, from their returning a more immediate profit," until 
 1821 or 1822 ; after which the Merinoos became the principal subject of attention, and their wool 
 the great staple of the colonv. In 1807, the quantity shipped was only 245 lbs. ; and, in 1820, not 
 above 99,415 ibs. ; itthen rose, in 1825, to 4! 1.600 lbs. ; in 1 a30, to 899,750 lbs. ; in 1835, to 3,776.191 
 lbs. ; and in 1840 (including 929,325 lbs. from Port Phillip), to 7,668,960 lbs. ! This rapid pro- 
 gression is, in a great degree, attributable to — what to many seemed the bane of the colony — the 
 transportation thither of cos.victs, of whom upwards of 80,000 were sent prior to 184". The greater 
 number being assigned to settlers, and proving (under the colonial discipline) efficient servants, 
 
 E laced this young and remote settlement in a position as to labour whicli it could not otherwise 
 ave attained. In August 184<>, farther transportation was stopped, owing to the difficulty which 
 began to be felt in combining convict with free labour, and other circumstances affectirg the 
 moral interests of the colony. This change has produced some embarrassment ; but the tide of 
 voluntary immigration has now, it is believed, set in too strongly to render its unfavourable in- 
 fluence o'ther than temporary. In the 10 years ending 1838, only 23,185 free immigrants arrived. 
 In 1840, however, no fewer than 14,392 left the United Kingdom for Australia, including 7648 to 
 Sydney ; and, in 1841, 28,724, including 17,492 to Sydney, and 9894 to Port Phillip. This increase 
 has been mainly owing to the allowance of bounties to labourers out of the land sales. 
 
 The branch of industry nest in importance is the South Sea whale-fishery, in which the colo- 
 ve a considerable" amount of shipping employed ; yielding of exportable produce, in 1840, 
 1854 tuns sperm, and 4298 tuns 1 lack whale oil, besides 25<i tons whalebone. 
 
 Manufactures, except a few distilleries, breweries, candle and soap works, can scarcely be said 
 to exist. Miner::!-, however, abound, especially iron and coal ; and mines of the latter are worked 
 at Newcastle on Uunter's River. 
 
 The principal commercial relations are with Britain, to which (excepting trifling quantities of 
 wool and oil to the United States) the whole produce of the colony is sent, and by which it is sup- 
 plied with everv kind of manufactured goods. The declared value of British manufactures and 
 produce sent to "all the Australian settlements, though oni\ £314,677 in 1830, amounted in 1838 to 
 £1.336,062 ; in 1839 to £1,679,390; and in 1840 to £2,004,385. A variety of foreign and tropical 
 articles are besides sent, including in 1840 460,753 galls, rum; 428,666 galls, brandy; 184,151 
 galls, geneva; 75* I, 322 galls, wine, mostly sherry and port; and 847,988 lbs. tobacco and snuif. 
 The great bulk of these were destined to New South Wale ; to which the chief other imports are 
 — sugar from Mauritius; corn from Van Diemen's Land and Chili; rice from India, Java, and 
 United States; coffee from Java ; tea from China ; and wine from the Cape These countries, 
 receiving few articles from the colony in return, a considerable balance has occasionally to be re- 
 mitted to them in specie. 
 
 The imports into New South Wales alone (including Port Phillip), in 1838, 1839, and 1840, were 
 valued thereat £1,383,759, £1,788,381, and £2,462,858 respectively : the last made up of— liquors 
 (including 2,260,774 galls, spirits!), £338,494; clothing, bedding, &c, £787,958; sugar, teas, 
 corn, and other edibles, £502,149; tobacco, salt, soap, candle-, &c, £193,022; furniture, car- 
 riages, and other articles for personal or domestic use, £122,249; hardware, metals, leather, 
 bagging, and other articles in use for agriculture, manufactures, and trade, £450,996 ; books, 
 printing materials, &c, £50,032 ; forage, £6,551 ; coin, £6,407. The exports, besides wool and 
 oil, consist of timber, chiefly cedar and blue gum, and the reshipment of imported commodities 
 to New Zealand and other places. Their amount is always considerably below that of the imports, 
 the difference being in general made up by government expenditure, and the investment of British 
 capital by new settlers and otherwise. In 1840, however, the excess of imports was forced 
 to an unnatural extent by over-exports from the mother-country ; a circumstance which, joined 
 to a vicious credit-system, and financial excitement in the colony, was productive of great em- 
 barrassment. 
 
 Ports. — Sydney, the seat of government and chief commercial emporium, lies on the E. coast, in 
 lat. 33° 51' S., long. 151° 14' E., on the S. side of the magnificent inlet called Port Jackson, 7 miles 
 from its mouth. Population in 1841, 29,973. It is a free warehousing port. The town is situated 
 partly in a narrow valley, and partly on a slope rising from the shore ; and its tastefully laid out 
 shops, well-corstructed houses, and numerous government, educational, religious, and commercial 
 establishments, indicate a stirring and flourishing community. It occupies a considerable space, 
 many of the houses having gardens ; but nearly two-thirds of its circuit are environed by the coves 
 of Port Jackson. This inlet affords excellent anchorage and protection to shipping, and is so deep, 
 that at Sydney the vessels come close up to the wharfs ; it is also navigable to Paramatta, 15 miles 
 above, the exports in 1840 amounted to £1,251,544 ; whereof wool, timber, &c, £562,172 ; oil 
 and whalebone, £265,920 ; and goods re-exported, £423,452. 
 
 Melbourne, on the S. coast, in lat. 37° 49' S., long. 145° E., is beautifully situated at the falls 
 of the river Yarra Yarra, a few miles from the bay of Port Phillip. Ships of 200 tons can be dis- 
 charged at the town, while the largest vessels have secure anchorage and shelter in the roadstead. 
 It is fast rising to great commercial importance, being the outlet of the range of fertile country 
 extending from the seacoast to the Murray, and also favourably situated for intercourse with 
 the other ports of Australia. The exports amounted, in 1840, to £154,050 ; and, in 1841 (includ- 
 ing 1,897,071 lbs. wool), to £139,100. The imports, in 1841, amounted to £335,052; and the 
 shipping entering inwards to 52,500 tons. It is a free warehousing port. S 
 
 Mkasires, Money, Baxks, DtrriK6, <fcc. 
 Measures and Weights, same as Britain. I ver, which, with bank-notes for £1 and upwards 
 
 Money.— Accounts' are kept in sterling; and (convertible into specie on demand), compose 
 thecoins are almost wholly British, chiefly sil- J the ordinary currency; though business is mostly 
 
NEW 498 NEW 
 
 transacted by means of bank-cheques ; the mass 
 of pecuniary transactions centring in Sydney. 
 
 Bills on London are commonly drawn at 30 
 or 60 days' sight ; and the course of exchange 
 varies usually from about 5 per cent, premium 
 to 5 per cent, discount. Few if any bills are 
 negotiated on foreign countries. 
 
 Banks.— Bank of Australia, founded 1826; 
 Bank of New South Wales, 1827 ; Commercial 
 Bank, 1834 ; Union Bank ; Sydney Banking 
 Company, and Bank of Australasia. The last, 
 a chartered body, has its head-office in London ; 
 the others are colonial joint-stock companies. 
 On March 31, 1841, their aggregate circulation 
 amounted to £222,802 ; specie, £342,130 ; 
 and bills and securities held, £2,615,299! 
 
 The interest generally allowed by the banks 
 on current accounts is 4 per cent., and discounts 
 are charged at 10 per cent, per annum. The 
 legal rate is 8 per cent. ; but 10 to 12J per cent. 
 is the ordinary rate demanded by individuals ; 
 and much higher is frequently given. 
 
 Besides banks, there are in Sydney insur- 
 ance, gas, and a variety of other joint-stock 
 companies. 
 
 Duties on spirits distilled from Australian 
 
 grain, 3s. per gallon ; on British or colonial 
 spirits imported from United Kingdom, 79. 9f d. 
 per gallon ; all other spirits, 9s. 2|d. per gallon. 
 On tobacco, manufactured, 2s. 6d. per lb. ; un- 
 manufactured, Is. 6d. per lb. British manufac- 
 tures.free. Foreign goods, 5 per cent, ad valorem. 
 Articles, the produce of British India, same as 
 similar articles of United Kingdom or colonies. 
 
 Revenue. — In 1840, the ordinary revenue was 
 £311,748; whereof £252,000 taxes ; £16,000 
 rents and dues; £17,800 office-fees; £14,000 
 post office ; the crown revenues, from land-sales, 
 quit-rents, licenses, &c, amounted to £332,737: 
 total, £644,485. 
 
 The land fund in 1840 (including £4,522 for 
 emigration ship-stores) amounted to £320,967 ; 
 charges thereon, £189,378; whereof, £26,347 
 for surveys and sales; £14,716 to aborigines; 
 and £148,315 for immigration: Leaving unap- 
 plied, £131,589. In the year to 30th June 1841, 
 the sales amounted at Sydney to £67,657, and 
 at Port Phillip to £182,762; total, £250,419: 
 charges, £34,830 ; surplus, £215,589. The pub- 
 lic land-sales are now (1842) made by auction, at 
 a minimum price never less than 12s. per acre, 
 instead of the fixed rate of £1 as formerly. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS, unless the Roman " Acta Diurna" can be so called, originated 
 in Venice in 1563, when the " Gazetta " first appeared in a written form. The first 
 printed sheet of intelligence is commonly said to have been the " English Mercurie," 
 published in 1588, while the Spanish Armada was in the Channel ; but the authen- 
 ticity of the copies of this paper in the British Museum is doubted ; while these 
 (if genuine), as well as the later " Packets of News," were only issued occasionally. 
 Of regular prints, the earliest was probably Butler's " News of the Present Week," 
 in 1622 ; about which time, likewise, newspapers began to be published on the 
 Continent. During the Great Rebellion, many were spread abroad by the different 
 partieSjSome interesting notices of which will be found in Mr D'Israeli's " Curiosities 
 of Literature." In 1663, after the Restoration, Roger L'Estrange brought out, 
 " with privilege," his *' Intelligencer ;" and two years afterwards, the " Gazette " 
 was issued. In Scotland, the first newspaper published was " A Diurnal of some 
 Passages and Affairs," originally printed in London, and reprinted at Leith in 
 1652 ; but the first written and printed was the " Mercurius Caledonius," at Edin- 
 burgh, December 31, 1660. In Dublin, the earliest was " Pue's Occurrences," 
 about 1700. The first provincial paper was the " Norwich Postman," 1706, for a 
 penny, but " a halfpenny not refused." Hitherto, the newspapers, though small 
 in size, were generally, in a dearth of news, left in part empty. On such occasions, 
 however, one publisher had recourse to the expedient of filling up with a sufficient 
 portion of the Bible ; others,— as the " Flying Post " and " Dawker's News Letter," 
 — were printed upon writing paper, so that the purchaser might use the blank space 
 for correspondence with his country friends. The first London daily paper was the 
 " Daily Courant," 1709. After this, newspapers became more common ; but with 
 the exception, perhaps, of Wilkes' scurrilous " North Briton," 1762, and the 
 " Englishman," in which Burke wrote several articles in 1766, they excited com- 
 paratively little interest until after 1771, when the Parliamentary Debates were 
 regularly published. The " Letters of Junius," in the " Public Advertiser " 
 (1769-1772), taught newspaper writers to come out boldly, and accustom their 
 readers to " the roll of the leading article." 
 
 The newspaper has since become, in this and all free countries, the established 
 medium for the concentration and expression of public opinion ; while, by the di- 
 vision of labour, mental as well as physical, assisted by powerful machinery, 
 it is now fitted to satisfy public curiosity, down to the very hour of printing, on all 
 the passing business of life. Of late years this rapidity has been followed up in 
 Britain in every stage of its circulation, through the agencies of the steam-engine 
 and the railroad, so that every pulsation in the heart of the kingdom is felt, with 
 almost electrical celerity, in its remote extremities. Of the commercial importance 
 of newspapers, it is almost unnecessary to speak. The very appearance of our 
 journals, and more especially of those published at the great seaports, with their 
 crowded columns of advertisements,— their announcements of ships departing and 
 arriving from all parts of the world, as well as of all wrecks and casualties at 
 sea,— their elaborate price currents, — and their almost interminable notices of home 
 and foreign markets, stocks, funds, and exchanges, convey to the mind a far more 
 
 
NEW 
 
 499 
 
 NEW 
 
 forcible impression of the utility and value of these vehicles of intelligence to the 
 merchant, than can be imparted by any language. 
 
 The number of newspapers in 1782 was 61, of which 50 were in England, 8 in 
 Scotland, and 3 in Ireland. In 1790, the total number was 114; in 18*21, 216 ; and, 
 in 1832, 369. In 1840, the number was 554 ; of which 137 were printed in London, 
 247 English provincial, 73 Scottish, and 97 Irish ; the total number of stamps issued 
 being 59,774,037, of which 31,405,243 were issued in London. In 1836, the total 
 number of stamps issued was 35,576,056, which, though 40 per cent, below the 
 year 1840, was nearly double the amount at the commencement of the century. 
 
 In 1712, as a remedy against " seditious papers and factious rumours," Queen 
 Anne's government imposed upon newspapers a stamp-duty of a halfpenny, after- 
 wards gradually increased to 4d. (with a discount of 20 per cent.); at which rate 
 it continued until 15th September 1836, when it was reduced to Id. by the act 
 6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 76. 
 
 Abridgment of the Act 6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 76. 
 
 § 1. Rates of duty : For every newspaper Id., 
 and where one side, exclusive of the margin, 
 contains a superficies exceeding 1530 inches, and 
 not exceeding 2295 inches, id. additional ; but 
 if exceeding 2295 inches, Id. additional. A sup- 
 plement not exceeding 765 inches, to a paper 
 charged with duty, is chargeable with Jd. Un- 
 der the head of newspapers are included, — 1st, 
 Papers containing public news, intelligence, or 
 occurrences, printed to be dispersed and made 
 public. 2d, Papers containing only or princi- 
 pally advertisements, printed at intervals not 
 exceeding 26 days. 3d, Any paper containing 
 public news, or remarks thereon, published per- 
 iodically, or in parts, at intervals not exceeding 
 26 days", where any of the numbers does not ex- 
 ceed two sheets (a sheet for the purposes of the 
 act being a piece of paper not less than 21 by 17 
 inches), exclusive of cover, &c, or is published 
 for less than 6d. exclusive of the duty. Exemp- 
 tions are, " Police Gazette, or Hue and Cry ;" 
 daily accounts, or bills of goods imported and 
 exported, or warrants or certificates for the de- 
 livery of goods ; weekly bills of mortality; lists 
 of prices current ; states of the market ; accounts 
 of the arrival, sailing, &c, of merchant vessels, 
 " or any other matter wholly of a commercial 
 nature." The duties commence on 15th Sep- 
 tember 1836. Other laws for enforcing stamps 
 to be applied so far as consistent with this act. 
 
 § 2. Discount of 25 per cent, allowed on news- 
 paper stamps in Ireland. 
 
 § 3. Dies with name or part name of paper to 
 be prepared, and (when required) altered, at ex- 
 pense of proprietor of each paper ; and any other 
 description of stamp to be of no avail. 
 
 § 5. Supplements must be of the same date 
 with papers, and have the word " Supplement 
 to " prefixed to the title of the paper, and the 
 aper must show in conspicuous characters 
 that a supplement is published with it, under 
 penalty of £20. Selling supplement apart from 
 paper incurs similar penalty. 
 
 9 6. Before publishing, declaration to be given 
 in to Stamp Office, stating title, place of print- 
 ing and of publishing, with name and address 
 of printer, publisher, and every proprietor out 
 of the kingdom ; or of every proprietor in the 
 kingdom if they do not exceed two, exclusive of 
 printer and publisher ; if more tlian two, of any 
 two whose individual shares are not less than 
 any other proprietor's residing in the kingdom, 
 exclusive of the printer and publisher, the amount 
 of the share of each being stated. The declara- 
 tion to be signed by the printer or publisher, and 
 by those proprietors named in it who are within 
 the kingdom. New declaration to be made on 
 any change which renders the original one inap- 
 plicable, and whenever a new declaration is re- 
 quired by notice from the Stamp Office. Person 
 making false declaration to be held guilty of mis- 
 
 (7.) Person failing to give declara- 
 tion to forfeit £50 for each publication, and to 
 ' be denied stamps. (8.) Declaration to be filed, 
 ; and be conclusive evidence of the connexion of 
 ' each person signing it with the newspaper, unless 
 I he have given in declaration to Stamp Office of 
 i his ceasing to be proprietor, &c, or -a new de- 
 ! claration has been given in as above, and not con- 
 [ curred in by him. Certified copy of declaration 
 can be obtained for Is., and where such certifi- 
 ; cate produced along with newspaper, not ne- 
 cessary to prove purchase of newspaper. Un- 
 ; qualified person granting certificate, or proper 
 , officer granting one falsely, to forfeit £100. 
 
 § 9. Service of process at the place of printing 
 I or publishing mentioned in declaration, to be 
 i sufficient against the individuals mentioned. 
 
 § 10. Titles and names of printers and pub- 
 i lishers to be entered in a book, and kept at head- 
 I office for inspection without fee. 
 
 § 11. Printer, publisher, and proprietors (one 
 i or more at discretion of Commissioners), and 
 I two approved sureties, to give bond for adver- 
 tisement-duty, renewable on alterations, and at 
 direction of Commissioners, on penalty of £100 
 for each publication. 
 
 § 12. Affidavit and bond given in previous to 
 commencement of act, to have same effect as 
 declaration and bond by the act, except where 
 such alterations take place as would require new 
 declaration. 
 
 § 13. Publisher in London, Edinburgh, or Dub- 
 lin district to deliver copy of each edition to Stamp 
 Office between 10 and 3on day of publication or 
 following day not a holiday, with his name and 
 address written by himself "or a person appointed 
 and intimated to the Stamp Office. The same to 
 be done in other districts within three days, two 
 copies being delivered. Penalty on failure. £20. 
 Price of newspaper to be paid weekly by Stamp 
 Office. Newspaper to be kept forthcoming as evi- 
 dence. On petition, publisher not in the Edin- 
 burgh district may be authorized by Commis- 
 sioners to lodge paper in a more convenient office 
 than that of his district. 
 
 § 14. At end of every newspaper, supplement, 
 or sheet, name and address of printer and 
 publisher, and place and times of printing and 
 publishing, to be stated, under penalty of £20. 
 § 15. None to vend stamps but those formally 
 authorized, and publishers not to supply one 
 another, or to purchase from unlicensed persons, 
 under penalty of £50. (16.) Persons publishing 
 without stamp to be liable for stamp-duty as a 
 I debt, independently of penalties. (17-) Persons 
 'publishing, selling", or possessing unstamped 
 ! papers, may be summarily fined £'20 for each, 
 or, on default, be imprisoned for not more than 
 I three or .less than one calendar month, by one 
 • Justice, on application of officer of stamps. 
 1(18.) Penalty of £50 for sending unstamped 
 
NEW 
 
 500 
 
 NIG 
 
 periodicals printed by him, renewed quarterly, 
 and notice of each new periodical at its com- 
 mencement. (25.) Persons adopting this arrange- 
 ment not liable for any periodical which would 
 require to be stamped, unless published after 
 notice is received from Stamp Office. 
 
 § 26. Actions under the act to be brought be- 
 fore Court of Exchequer, within three calendar 
 months, and after one month's notice. (27.) 
 Penalties to be pursued for before Court of Ex- 
 chequer, or before Justices where the penalty 
 does not exceed £20. Commissioners may mi- 
 tigate or stop proceedings. 
 
 § 28. Justices may convict on evidence without 
 presence of accused, may give warrant for levy- 
 ing penalty and costs by sale, or for incarceration 
 for not more than three or less than one calendar 
 month. Appeal on recognisances and notice lies 
 to next general or quarter sessions. 
 
 § 29-32. Forms of processes and acts repealed. 
 
 § 33. Acts not repealed as to arrears of duties, 
 &c. 
 
 § 34. "Where stamps rendered useless by the 
 reduction or change of die, on notice within six 
 months, others substituted to the same amount 
 in value. 
 
 newspapers abroad. Officers of stamps authorized 
 to seize unstamped papers without warrant. 
 
 § 19. Where any individual prosecutes for libel, 
 discovery of any person or matter connected 
 with the publication of a newspaper may be en- 
 forced by process. 
 
 § 20. Advertisement-duty to be paid within 
 28 days after the last day of each calendar month, 
 and on ten days' farther delay after notice, 
 stamps to be refused. 
 
 § 21. Copy of each work containing advertise- 
 ments to be lodged in the London, Edinburgh, 
 or Dublin district within six, in others within 
 ten, days of publication, and advertisement-duty 
 paid, under penalty of £20. 
 
 § 22. On information on oath as to transgres- 
 sions of the act, and application of officer of 
 stamps, Justice may grant warrant to search 
 premises in the daytime, and if unstamped papers 
 found, they, and all presses and types used for 
 printing them, and others in the same premises, 
 to be seized and forfeited. (23.) In execution of 
 warrant, doors may be broken open in the day- 
 time. Persons obstructing forfeit £20. Peace- 
 officer refusing to act forfeits £10. 
 
 § 24. A printer may deliver notice of his name, 
 address, and place of business, and a list of 
 
 Newspapers abound in all the British colonies, even in the youngest, New Zea- 
 land ; to which, indeed, materials for printing a journal were scut with the first 
 settlers. Several have been established in the West Indies by the coloured popula- 
 tion as their special organs, and are supported and conducted entirely by this class ; 
 while in India, besides those in English, there are many in the native languages. 
 In the United States nearly 100,000,000 copies are annually circulated : they have no 
 tax, and the postage, when they are not sent above 100 miles, is only a cent (.id.) ; 
 but their circulation is more essentially local than in Britain, owing to the thinness 
 of the population. In the absolute monarchies of the Continent, the press is fet- 
 tered by a rigorous censorship, and in several other states it is subjected to a 
 modified superintendence: their newspapers are from this cause, as well as the apathy 
 of the people, comparatively small in number, and less occupied with political sub- 
 jects. In France, however, the amount of periodical journals in 1837 was 776, of 
 which 326, including 27 daily papers, with an average sale of 90,000 copies, be- 
 longed to Paris. This is apparently a great excess over Britain ; but to make the 
 comparison complete it would be necessary to keep in view our unstamped period- 
 icals ; also, that in point of size and " getting up," the best Parisian journals do 
 not equal our ordinary provincial ones, and sink into insignificance when compared 
 with the giant of Printing-house Square. Again, notwithstanding the best French 
 newspapers are said to excel in the comprehensive, sober, and critical application 
 of general principles to political questions, being less biassed by party spirit — the 
 reproach of the British — and especially of the American press, yet they want 
 that species of power which characterizes our daily prints. Thus, though the 
 r Journalism of Paris " is supposed by those conversant with both countries to 
 exercise a greater influence in France than the London papers do in Britain, still 
 out of France the Parisian journals scarcely affect public opinion at all ; while, as 
 was proved by the slave-trade agitation, the influence of the London press is felt 
 over the civilized world. [Advertisements.] S 
 
 NEW YORK. [United States of North America.] 
 
 NEW ZEALAND. [Zealand, New.] 
 
 NICARAGUA or PEACH WOOD, an inferior kind of brazilwood, used to 
 dye a bright fugitive " fancy red." About 2500 tons are annually imported from 
 Central and South America. 
 
 NICKEL, a brilliant white metal resembling silver ; ductile and malleable, and 
 capable of receiving a high polish. Sp. gr. 8*5. It is usually procured from speise, 
 a compound of the metal with arsenic, found associated with cobalt in Germany. 
 Alloyed with copper it forms argentane or German silver ; and is besides used in 
 making mariners compasses and for other purposes. 
 
 NIGRITI A, a term applied by modern geographers to the whole of Central and 
 Western Africa inhabited by the Negro race. It extends from the Sahara or Great 
 Desert on the N. to 16 J S. lat., the parallel of Cape Negro ; thus embracing Sene- 
 
 fambia, Soudan, Guinea, Angola, and generally all countries watered by the 
 enegal, Gambia, Qnorra or Niger, Congo, and other rivers flowing into the At- 
 
NIG 501 NIG 
 
 lantic within the above limits, as well as those which run into Lake Tchad. Of 
 the interior of this vast region little is known beyond what is furnished by Park, 
 Deuham, Clapperton, Lander, and other travellers. A trade of some consequence 
 is carried on between it and the Barbary States, as well as Egypt, by means of 
 caravans which cross the Desert ; but our information regarding this intercourse 
 IB scanty, and not very recent. In the present article, therefore, we shall confine 
 our attention principally to the coast-district, where several of the European na- 
 tions have settlements. S 
 
 Nigritia, though containing the mountains of Kong and other lofty elevations, may yet be de- 
 scribed as upon the whole rather an undulating than hilly region. Being likewise wholly within 
 the tropics, and mostly well watered, it is in general capable of yielding the richest products of 
 the vegetable kingdom. These advantages, however, have been in only a trifling degree improved 
 by agriculture ; and, excepting small portions around the towns and villages, the great mass of 
 the country consists of dense forests and jungles, swarming with wild beasts and noxious reptiles. 
 The products of culture are chiefly maize and millet, to which in some places are added rice, yams, 
 coffee, sugar, and cotton ; but scarcely any of these have been raised for more than native use. 
 As yet, notwithstanding the exertions of Britain, the traffic in slaves forms the grand staple of the 
 intercourse with foreigners. [Slave.] Of the commodities which form the subjects of legitimate 
 commerce, the most important is the oil of the palm tree. [Palm Oil.] The chief others are — gold, 
 found principally in the mountainous districts at the heads of the Senegal and Gambia, and in Upper 
 Guinea, from whence it is carried down these rivers as well as to the Gold Coast; ivory or 
 elephants' teeth drawn also from the interior ; gums, particularly gum-senegal, procured from 
 forests in the half-desert tracts north of that river ; also teak and various kinds of ornamental and 
 dyewoods, especially that called cam-wood. These articles are exchanged for European goods, 
 — mostly cottons, arms and ammunition, iron and other metals, spirits, and cowries, which last 
 are largely introduced as a medium of circulation. 
 
 The principal European settlements,— as the French on the Senegal, the British on the Gambia, 
 and the Portuguese on the Rio Grande, — consist of fortified depdts at the mouths of rivers, from 
 whence the merchants set out in boats at certain seasons, and ascend the streams as far as they 
 are navigable ; stopping at tixed stations to which the natives bring their productions to exchange 
 for manufactures. In a few positions there are besides block-houses, wherein some black soldiers 
 with European officers are kept for the protection of trade. Enterprise, however, is checked both 
 by the savage habits of the natives and by the climate, which along the whole coast is highly in- 
 salubrious to European constitutions, and on the shores of Guinea is pestilential to a degree quite 
 unknown in any other part of the world. 
 
 British Settlements.— Bathurst, a fortified town on St Mary's, a low swampy island, com- 
 manding the entrance of the Gambia, in lat. 13° 28' N., long. 16° 35' W. ; pop. 3000. The British 
 likewise possess Fort Jama, 30 miles, and Macarthy't Island, 300 miles farther up the same 
 river, besides minor posts. Vessels of 300 tons navigate the Gambia for 60 leagues, and smaller 
 vessels as far as Barraconda, 250 leagues. The exports from these settlements, consisting princi- 
 pallv of bees' wax, gum, hides, ivory, mahogany, gold, and palm oil, amounted in the years 1837, 
 1838, and 1839 (including re-exports of tobacco, &c), respectively to £138,226, £129,498, and 
 £162,789 ; the imports to £99,763, £105,625, and £153,903 ; and the shipping employed in each 
 year amounted to about 15,000 tons. 
 
 I Leone, a colonv occupying a peninsula about 450 miles S. from the Gambia ; area, 393 
 sq. miles ; pop. in 1839," 39,133^ of which, however, only 99 were white. Freetown, the seat of 
 government, is in lat. 8° 30' N., long. 13 3 14' W. All the West India products have been intro- 
 duced, and generally succeed, especially coffee ; but the exports still consist mainly of timber, 
 palm oil, and cam- wood. The chief imports are Manchester and India goods, provisions, tobacco, 
 spirits, arms, and ammunition. In the vears 1837, 1838, and 1839, the exports amounted respect- 
 ively to £108,366, £64,996, and £58,440 ; and the imports to £79,472, £91,198, and £103,086. 
 The British likewise possess several islands contiguous to this coast. 
 
 Cape Coast Castle, on the Gold Coast, in lat. 5 ; 6' N., long. 1° 13' W., may be considered the 
 centre emporium between Sierra Leone and the delta of the Niger, for the introduction of British 
 goods in exchange for gold dust, palm oil, and ivory. The chief other British possession on this 
 coast is Accra, where a considerable trade is carried on with the Ashantees. 
 
 Frknch Settlements.— St Louis, on a sandbank at the mouth of the Senegal, in lat. 16°0'N., 
 . ll'W.; pop.l5,0on,i^cluding800 whites. Its chief advantages are confined to the gum-trade, 
 and the gold-trade with the kingdom of Bambouk, in Upper Senegal ; the last being chiefly car- 
 ried on at Batnbek, which, with Podhor, on the island of Morfil, are the chief other settlements in 
 the river. For navigation the Senegal is far inferior to the Gambia ; its ascent, indeed, being only 
 practicable in the wet season from May to October. 
 
 Portandic, on the coast, about 140 miles N. from the Senegal, derives its chief if not sole im- 
 portance from the gum-trade with the adjoining districts. 
 
 Considerable excitement has of late years been produced among the British merchants tradhig 
 to this coast, by their exclusion from Portandic, notwithstanding the right guaranteed to them by 
 art. 11 of the treaty of 1783 (Miice confirmed by the treaty of Paris), which provides : M As to the 
 
 fum-trade, the English shall have the right" of carrying it on from the mouth of the river St 
 ohn to the bay and fort of Portandic inclusive: provided that they shall not form any per- 
 manent settlement of whatsoever nature in the said river St John, upon the coasts, or in the 
 bay of Portandic." This matter is at present the subject of discussion between the two govern- 
 ments. 
 
 Albredar, a factory near Fort James, on the Gambia. This possession is disputed by the Brit- 
 ish, as being in contravention of the treat v above mentioned. 
 Portuguese Settlements.— Bissao, and other posts in the Rio Grande and adjoining coast. 
 Angola, at the extreme south of Nigritia, has been already noticed. [Angola.] 
 Ditch Settlements.— £7 Mina, on the Gold Coast, 9 miles W. from Cape Coast Castle ; also 
 r. this coast, and some minor posts. 
 
NIT 502 NIT 
 
 Banish Settlements.— Christianborg Castle, near Accra, and Ningpo, near the E. extremity 
 of the Gold Coast. 
 
 American Settlement.— Liberia, a small colony founded in 1821, at the mouth of the Mc- 
 surado, between Sierra Leone and Cape Palmas, as an asylum for liberated negroes. 
 
 Besides the intercourse at these settlements, there is a considerable floating traffic by vessels, 
 which trade along the coast, or enter some of the large rivers, where their cargoes are bartered 
 for produce. This trade, which is of course the only kind carried on in the Gulf of Guinea, be- 
 tween the Gold Coast and Angola, a tract where there are no European settlements, and which 
 includes the fertile and populous countries watered by the embouchures of the Quorra and other 
 large rivers, appears to be nearly as extensive as that conducted at the European settlements. Its 
 great staple is palm oil. According to Messrs Laird and Oldfield, " the best goods for this 
 trade are muskets, powder, red beads, white baft, common scarlet cloth, blue beads, bandanas, 
 romals, coarse stuff hats, pipes, tobacco in leaf, and looking-glasses. A puncheon of oil is termed 
 so many bars, varying according to the state of the market ; a gun is six bars ; a head of tobacco, 
 two bars; and so on in proportion. Cowries are taken at Eboe, and all up the country." This 
 traffic, however, is subject to frequent interruptions from the slave-trade. " In the Bonny, Cala- 
 bar, and Cameroon rivers, there are always British ships loading with palm oil and other African 
 produce ; their commanders and crews making every exertion to complete their cargoes, and the 
 natives actively engaged in collecting produce : " — " A slave-trader arrives in the river ; the trade 
 with the British vessels is instantly stopped ; the canoes of the natives are armed and equipped for 
 a marauding expedition to procure the slaves ; and until these slaves are procured, no legitimate 
 trade is pursued." — (Laird and OMJield's Africa, vol. ii. p. 357.) 
 
 The exports of British produce and manufactures to the west coast of Africa, in the three vears 
 1831, 1835, and 1840, amounted respectively to £234,768, £292.540, and £492,128: the last 
 mainly consisting of cottons, £261,297; arms and ammunition, £104,934; iron, £18,558; hard- 
 ware and cutlery, £14,090; brass and copper goods, £13,167; apparel, £8673 ; salt, £6620; be- 
 sides small quantities of woollens, soap, and candles, hats, silks, glass, earthenware, &c. In the 
 same year (1840), there were also sent from Britain 1,648,874 lbs. tobacco, besides India piece 
 goods, cocoa, coffee, and other tropical products. The chief imports into Britain (exclusive of 
 gold, which is not entered in the customs accounts) in 1840, consisted of 315,458 cwts. palm oil ; 
 12,541 loads teak; 1933 cwts. ivory; 3773 cwts. bees' wax; 3235 cwts. hides; 42,015 lbs. coffee; 
 49,530 lbs. pepper ; and 896 cwts. ginger. 
 
 Accounts are kept at the European settlements in the national denominations of money, or in 
 dollars, which, with cowries, form the principal currency along the coast. 
 
 NITRATE OF POTASH, or SALTPETRE (Fr. Nitre. Ger. Salpeter. It. 
 Nitro. Sp. & Por. Nitro, Salitre. Rus. Senitra. Per. Shorak. Hind. Bajee) t 
 a salt composed of nitric acid and potash. It crystallizes in general in six-sided 
 
 frisms, with striated surfaces, very brittle, has a saline cooling taste. Sp. gr. P933. 
 t undergoes no alteration in the air, though it attracts moisture in a saturated 
 atmosphere. On being exposed to heat it fuses, and in this state it is sometimes 
 moulded into little cakes or balls, and called sal prunella. Saltpetre is used for 
 making gunpowder, signal-lights, nitric and sulphuric acids ; also for preserving 
 meat. It is besides employed in metallurgy, dyeing, and in medicine. The supply 
 of this country is derived almost exclusively from Bengal, where it exists in the 
 soil, and from which the rough nitre or crude saltpetre of commerce is obtained by 
 lixiviation, crystallization, and evaporation : in this state it generally occurs in 
 brownish broken crystals, more or less deliquescent. It is shipped from Calcutta 
 in bags, each containing 164 lbs. ; and the trade has greatly increased since the 
 abolition of the Company's monopoly. From 200,000 to 260,000 cwts. are now an- 
 nually imported into the United Kingdom. In France, Germany, and Spain, 
 saltpetre is produced artificially on what are called nitre beds. S 
 
 NITRATE OF SODA, or CUBIC NITRE (Fr. Nitrate de sonde. Ger. Wilr- 
 felsalpeter), consists of nitric acid and soda. It is similar to saltpetre in its pro- 
 perties, differing chiefly in being more pungent in taste, more soluble in cold water, 
 more inclined to attract moisture from the atmosphere, and in crystallizing in a 
 rhomboid form. This salt is found in immense quantities in deposits in South 
 America, particularly in the districts of Atacama and Tarapaca in Peru, near to 
 the frontiers of Chili, where it is found sometimes efflorescent, sometimes crystal- 
 lized, but oftener confusedly mixed with clay and sand. Of late years it has been 
 imported in considerable quantities into this country, where it is highly esteemed 
 as a manure for pastures, and indeed for almost all sorts of agricultural produce, 
 except that grown upon heavy wet soils. It is also applied to many of the purposes 
 for which nitrate of potash is used, though, being more deliquescent than that salt, it 
 is not adapted for the manufacture of gunpowder. In 1840, 146,928 cwts. were 
 imported into the United Kingdom from Peru and Chili. S 
 
 NITRIC ACID (Fr. Acide nitrique. Ger. Salpetersailre), an intensely acid 
 liquid, procured by distilling nitre with strong sulphuric acid. When pure it is 
 colourless ; and when most concentrated it has a sp. gr. of 1*5, in which state it 
 contains 25 per cent, of water. It is eminently corrosive, and its taste is sour and 
 acrid. In commerce it is sometimes called aquafortis, and generally occurs of a 
 yellowish colour, owing to its containing nitrous acid in solution ; besides which, 
 
NOR 503 NOR 
 
 it is often highly diluted, and contaminated with sulphuric and muriatic acids, 
 as also with alkaline sulphates and muriates. Nitric acid is used in large quanti- 
 ties. It is employed in a great variety of chemical processes ; in metallurgy and 
 ing; for etching on iron and copper ; in dyeing ; and in medicine. 
 NORWAY, the western section of the Scandinavian peninsula, extends from 
 lat. 58 3 to 71° N., and from long. 5° to 31° E. Area, 134,309 sq. miles. Popula- 
 tion, 1,194,827. It was an appanage of the crown of Denmark until 1814, when, 
 by the convention of Kiel, it was united with Sweden ; retaining, however, its own 
 representative body, or Storthing. The executive power is vested in a viceroy and 
 council at Christiania. S 
 
 The general aspect of Norway is bleak, rugged, and steril. The shores are iron-bound, and on 
 the west lined by numerous small islands, and indented by bays (fjord*). The interior is mostly 
 covered with a rocky mass of mountains, or lofty plateaux ijjelds) ; and only about 100th part of 
 the surface is supposed to be productive, though the climate is less rigorous than that of Sweden, 
 particularly on the coast, owing to the prevalence of westerly winds. The lowest tracts, and those 
 to which cultivation is chiefly limited, occur around Christiania Fiord and the adjoining shores 
 of the Skager-rack, or to the S. and E. of the Bay of Drontheim. In other parts it is confined to 
 the narrow valleys by which the mountain -masses are indented. The land is mostly the property 
 of the farmers, and agriculture is in a rude state : the principal crop is rye, next oats, flax, and 
 potatoes ; but the grain raised is insufficient for the consumption. The manufactures are almost 
 wholly domestic ; and the internal trade is trifling, owing to the thinness of the population and 
 the defective means of communication. The rivers are numerous, but their course is impetuous, 
 broken, and unfit for navigation ; though some are in part used to float down timber from the 
 forests, which, with the fishings and mines, constitute as yet the chief sources of wealth. 
 
 The principal timber is pine ; the most extensive forests are those covering the eastern declivity 
 of the southern range, called the Norrska Fiellen, and the hilly country eastwards; the produce 
 of which is mostly shipped from Drammen, Langesund, Christiania, Christiansand, Frederickstadt, 
 Frederickshald, and other southern ports ; being previously, however, cut into balks, beams, 
 and deals, — an operation which affords employment to numerous saw-mills. In 1835, the quantity 
 exported was 225,772 lasts ; whereof 64,039 were sent to Holland; 62,737 to France; 55,995 to 
 the United Kingdom ; and 32,176 to Denmark. Before 1810 the exports to Britain were much 
 larger, but in that year a heavy duty was imposed on Baltic timber above Canadian, which led to 
 the substitution of the latter, though much inferior. The late modification of the timber-duty, 
 however, by Sir Robert Peel (1842), will perhaps stimulate the inhabitants to improve the means 
 of conveyance between the forests and the ports, and thus lead in time to increased shipments. 
 
 Fi.-hing is the chief branch of industry along the western coast. The principal station is the 
 Lofoden Isles, especially East Vagoe ; but the produce is exported from Bergen, Drontheim, Chris- 
 tiansand, and other western ports on the mainland. In 1835, the shipments consisted of 29,733,313 
 lbs. dried cod, &e., and 16,074,141 lbs. lubfish, sent chiefly to the S. of Europe; 470,712 barrels 
 herrings, mostly to the Baltic states ; 749,302 lobsters, to London ; 4,227,524 pots train oil, to 
 Holland, Prussia, Hamburg, &c ; besides salmon, anchovies, and other fish. 
 
 Iron occurs in immense layers in the E. declivity of the Norska Fiellen, in the province of 
 Christiansand ; and in 1835, 3,440,170 lbs. were shipped in bars, besides 330,083 lbs. in pig, mostly 
 to Denmark, from Oesteriisoeer, Langesund, and Christiania. Copper abounds in the Dovrefield 
 range, at Roraas, Medal, and Selby ; and in 1835, 2,460,000 lbs. ore were exported at Hammerfest, 
 chiefly to Britain ; besides 759,384 "lbs. refined metal at Drontheim, to the Netherlands and Altona. 
 Cobalt, found in the E. declivity of the Norrska Fiellen, is mostly shipped at Drammen, in the 
 form of smalts ; 228,477 lbs. being exported in 1835, chiefly to Holland and England. Silver is 
 worked at Kongsberg. Besides which, lead, zinc, marble, and slate, are found in various places, 
 though as yet they scarcely form articles of exportation. 
 
 The only other articles of export deserving of notice are bark, bones, and horns ; skins, especially 
 those of the rein-deer, the hunting of which is a leading occupation in the northern districts ; oil- 
 cake, feathers, and grindstones. 
 
 The imports consist principally of corn, butter, cheese, and provisions from Denmark ; colonial 
 produce from Altona, Hamburg", and Britain ; the last likewise furnishing earthenware and other 
 manufactures ; wine, brandy, fruit, and dressed leather from France ; cheese, iron pots, hoops, 
 flax, and rape and linseed oil from Holland ; and hemp, flax, and sailcloth from Russia. In 1835, 
 the shipping entered inwards from foreign countries amounted to 6599 vessels, 234,989 lasts ; 
 whereof, from Holland, 55,351 lasts; Britain, 49,634 lasts; France, 47,874 lasts; Denmark, 
 36,386 lasts : the chief ports of entrv were,— Drammen, 38,276 lasts ; Bergen, 22,764 lasts ; Lange- 
 sund, 19,866 lasts ; and Christiania," 19,545 lasts. 
 
 The shipping of Norway is slowly on the increase : in 1835, there belonged to it 2272 vessels, of 
 75,459 lasts, navigated by 1 1 ,279 men. Much of it is employed in the carrying trade of other coun- 
 tries ; while of the shipping entering from foreign ports, more than two-thirds is under the national 
 
 «* 
 
 Ports.— 1st, On the Skager Rack,— Christiania, the capital, in lat. 59° 54' N., long. 10° 45' E., 
 is picturesquely situated at the bottom of a deep fiord, uniting with the farthest N. point of the 
 Skager Rack, pop. 23,121. Drammen, a long straggling town, 20 miles S. W. of Christiania, pop. 
 7584, is the principal seat of the timber-trade. The chief others are Langesund, Frederickstadt, 
 Frederickshald, Laurwig, Kragercee, Oesteriisoeer, Arendal, and Christiansand. 
 
 2d, On the West Coast,— Bergen is "a strongly fortified tov^n in a bav, with a commodious har- 
 bour, though of dangerous access ; lat. 60° 24' N., long. 5° 18' E. ; pop. 22,339. Drontheim or 
 Trondheim, the ancient residence of the Norwegian kings, lies on a large fiord, in lat. 63 3 26' N., 
 long. 10° 24' E. ; pop. 12,700. The chief others are Christiansand, Stavanger, and Flekkefiord. 
 
 Measures, Money, &c. 
 Measure* and Weights, generally same as I Money.— Accounts are kept in species-dollars, 
 Denmark. | divided into 5 marks or orts, each of 24 ekillings. 
 
NOT 504 NOT 
 
 The silver species-dollar = 2 Danish rigsbank dol- 
 lars = 4s. 5d. sterling ; but money is reckoned in 
 the paper of the Bank of Norway. In 1836, the 
 Storthing fixed 115 and 110 paper dollars as the 
 maximum and minimum rates at which the bank 
 could pay lOOdollars in silver ; makingthe valueof 
 the bank dollar about 4s. This bank, established 
 in 1816, has its principal office at Drontheim, with 
 branches at Christiania, Bergen, and Christian- 
 sand. The notes for 24 shillings, 60 skillings, 
 and 1 species-dollar, are printed on white paper ; 
 those for 5 species-dollars on blue ; those for 10 
 
 species-dollars on yellow; and those for 50 species- 
 dollars on green paper. 
 
 There are no gold coins ; and although silver 
 dollars, and half dollars, are in circulation, yet 
 for all sums above 24 skillings (9Jd.), the value 
 of the lowest bank note, paper money is in gene- 
 ral use. The skillemynt, or small money, consists 
 of silver pieces of 4 and 2 skillings, and copper 
 coins of 1 and 2 skillings value. 
 
 Exchanges with foreign countries are usually 
 effected in banco, through the medium of Ham- 
 burg. 
 
 NOTICE, in the law of bills of exchange and promissory notes. A holder of a 
 bill is bound to give notice of non-acceptance or non-payment, to any party other 
 than the acceptor or maker, on whom he means to claim for recourse. Want of 
 notice of non-acceptance, however, is no bar to the claim of an onerous indorsee, 
 who has taken the bill before it becomes due, and without marks of dishonour. 
 If a conditional acceptance is taken, notice must be given, otherwise the parties 
 may be released. Notice is required, that the drawer and indorsers may take 
 measures, through their transactions with the drawee or otherwise, to secure their 
 remedy in the case of being compelled to take up the bill. It is a presumption of 
 law that damage is occasioned where notice is omitted ; and proof to the contrary 
 will not be received. If the bill is for the accommodation of the drawer, and the 
 drawee has no effects of his, and is not otherwise under any obligation to accept 
 or pay, the drawer is not entitled to notice of dishonour. But the nature of the 
 bill, as between the original parties, will not affect the right of an indorser who 
 has been an onerous holder, to notice. If the drawee has had any effects of the 
 drawer in his hands, " it would be dangerous and inconvenient, merely on account 
 of the shifting of a balance, to hold notice not to be necessary" (Chitty, 328). 
 It is no excuse for want of notice, where there are effects, that the drawee has 
 explained to the drawer that he would not be able to provide for the bill. Notice 
 from any party accrues to the benefit of every other party, between the person who 
 gives it and him to whom it is given. The notice must bear that the holder in- 
 tends to claim recourse, and so information of dishonour, casually obtained, or 
 communicated by a third party, will not suffice ; but a holder who sends notice to 
 his immediate indorser, may profit by its being conveyed to the drawer if without 
 delay, either directly from that indorser, or from him through another indorser. 
 It is prudent on the part of each party who intends to claim recourse to send 
 notice to every party against whom he thinks he may have any occasion to exer- 
 cise the right of recourse. In the case of a foreign bill, when the notice is to a 
 party abroad, information should be conveyed of protest having been taken. 
 [Protest.] 
 
 There is no particular form for notice ; it is sufficient that both the dishonour 
 and the intention to claim in recourse be distinctly stated. Notice should be sent 
 without delay ; it may be sent immediately on acceptance or payment being absolute- 
 ly refused, as such refusal is dishonour, though retracted. Where parties reside in 
 the same place, notice of non-payment should be given on the expiration of the 
 day following the refusal ; where they reside in different places, it should be posted 
 on such day following. " It is settled that it is never necessary to give or forward 
 notice of the non-payment on the same day when a bill or note falls due " (Chitty, 
 482). The same rule applies to non-acceptance of inland bills ; " but it is now 
 settled that in the case of a foreign bill, notice should be given on the day of the 
 dishonour, if any post or ordinary conveyance sets out on that day ; and if not, by 
 the next earliest conveyance" (.Chitty, 337). Each party has a day for giving 
 notice, and " he will be entitled to the whole day, though the post by which he is 
 to send it goes out within the day, and though there be no post the succeeding day 
 for the place to which he is to send. Therefore, where the notice is to be sent by 
 the post, it will be sufficient if it be sent by the post of the following day, or if 
 there be no post on the following day, on the day after " (Bayley, 270). Sunday 
 is not counted a day in notices ; and the person who receives one on that day is in 
 the same situation as if he received it on Monday. Days set apart by the religion 
 of the individual to be kept holy, seem generally to be held equivalent to Sunday. 
 Bills, the term of payment of which would happen on Sunday, Good Friday, or 
 Christmas-day, are payable on the previous day. [Grace, Days of.] By 7 & 8 
 Geo. IV. c. 15, when a bill becomes payable on the day before Good Friday or 
 Christmas-day, it is unnecessary to give notico until the day after such Good 
 Friday or Christmas-day ; and when Christmas occurs on Monday, notice of a bill, 
 
NOV 505 NOV 
 
 payable on Saturday, need not be given till Tuesday. By § 2 the same rules are made 
 applicable to days of fasting appointed by royal proclamation. These provisions 
 do not extend to Scotland. In England, by 3 & 4 Anne, c. 9, § 5, to obtain remedy 
 on inland bills for costs, damages, and interest, & protest must be taken and notice 
 Best of it within fourteen days. In extending a similar provision to Scotland, by 
 12 Geo. III. c. 72, § 41, the terms used were of such a general nature, that the 
 courts decided that notice of dishonour on inland bills may be sent at any time 
 within fourteen days, to preserve recourse. Bills between Scotland and England 
 are not considered "inland bills in as far as respects this act. It seems not to be 
 decided whether the notice ought to be received, or must only be despatched 
 within fourteen days. — (BelVs Com., i. 419.) 
 
 Delay to give immediate notice may be excused by the circumstances. The ab- 
 sence of the drawer from his usual place of business and residence, and the sudden 
 illness of the holder, may constitute an excuse ; but the absence of the holder, in 
 consequence of the sudden death of a near relative, is no excuse. A holder can 
 only be called upon to use due diligence to discover the party, and if there is any 
 impediment, notice, without undue delay after discovery has been made, suffices. 
 Due care must be taken to provide for the notice reaching the proper person. If 
 the holder knows the particular address of the drawer in a large town, where a 
 letter is not likely to reach him without that address, it should be given in full ; 
 but if the address cannot be ascertained, or the party is distinguishable by his 
 mere name and the town in which he lives, notice addressed in such form will 
 suffice. If the party is a bankrupt in England or sequestrated in Scotland, the 
 notice must be given to his assignee or trustee. Notice to a company through one 
 of the partners suffices. When a bill has been drawn by a firm upon one of the 
 partners, it is unnecessary to give notice of dishonour to the firm. If the holder 
 give time, and send notice of non-payment to the drawer, he will not require to 
 give second notice on expiry of the time without payment. An agent employed to 
 present a bill is responsible to his employer for neglect of notice. Notice may be 
 held as received by the party entitled to it. Payment of a part, promise to pay or 
 to see paid, a promise " to set the matter to rights," &c. have been held to amount 
 to a waiver. If a person has made a promise to pay, without having had notice, 
 it is now held as a waiver of that notice, though he made the promise in ignorance 
 of his right to found on want of notice, provided there is no fraud in the case. In 
 promissory notes, the only parties to receive notice are indorsers. — (Bat/ley on B.. 
 252-313. Chitty on B., 9th edition, 327-343, 433-506.) 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA, a province of British America, consisting of a peninsula of 
 irregular shape, connected with New Brunswick by the narrow Isthmus of Chig- 
 necto, and lying between lat. 43° 20' and 46° N., and long. 61° and 66° 20' W. 
 Area, 15,617 sq. miles. Population, in 1838, 154,991, mostly of British origin, but 
 including likewise a number of settlers of French descent, called Acadians, some 
 negroes, and a few aborigines. The administration is vested in a lieutenant-gov- 
 ernor, a council of 12 members appointed by the crown, and a house of assembly 
 of 41 members, elected by 40s. freeholders. S 
 
 The aspect of the shores is bleak, and in many parts rua-ged. The surface of the interior con- 
 sists mostly of bold undulations, but there is no considerable elevation, the highest land (Ardoise 
 Hill, near Windsor) being only 810 feet above the sea. A considerable portion is occupied by 
 hikes ; and the soil is not generally fertile, though there are some rich tracts on the banks of the 
 rivers and at the heads of the bays. The finest districts are Annapolis and the other counties 
 adjoining the Bay of Fundy, the most productive and best settled portion being the country 
 surrounding the Minas Basin ; but the most important part is the district of Halifax, the capital 
 on the opposite side, which communicates with the preceding by a canal and the river Shubena- 
 cadie. The climate is mild and salubrious ; oats, rye, and barley, are the principal objects of cul- 
 tivation ; wheat is also raised in choice situations, though not in quantities sufficient for the con- 
 sumption ; and there are numerous orchards ; but grazing is the chief branch of agricultural in- 
 dustry, and for which, indeed, the province is best adapted from its hilly surface and copious irri- 
 gation. A large portion of the country, however, is still covered with "forests, which, under the 
 stimulus of the discriminating duties imposed by the mother-country in favour of colonial produce, 
 leads here, as in New Brunswick and Canada/to the industry of a considerable portion of the in- 
 habitants being directed to the timber-trade. The wood is shipped mostly in the form of deals, 
 battens, boards, planks, shingles, and staves, to convert it into which affords employment, as in 
 the other provinces, to numerous saw-mills. The cod-fishery is also prosecuted extensively by 
 the colonists. Another important branch of industry is that of mining. Coal and iron are 
 abundant, and the former is pretty extensively worked at Pictou. Gypsum abounds in the western 
 districts ; and the " Nova Scotia blue grits," or grindstones, are celebrated all over America. 
 
 The situation of the province is advantageous, and its trade is steadily on the increase. The 
 exports in 1834 and 1837 amounted respectively to £404,647 and £478,461. The latter was made 
 up offish, £181,961, chiefly dry cod, but embracing likewise a considerable quantity of salmon, 
 mackerel, and herrings ; wood and lumber, £143,736 ; coals, 31,472 tons, value £26,894; train 
 oil, 199,333 gallons, £20,277; gypsum manure, 22,326 tons, £6738; grindstones, £12,085: the 
 
NUT 506 NUT 
 
 other articles consisting of cattle, seal-skins, furs, beef and pork, and reshipments of tropical produce. 
 They are sent mostly to the West Indies, United States, and Britain. The imports in 1834 and 
 1837 amounted respectively to £703,917 and £790,765 ; mainly composed of wheat and flour from 
 the United States and Germany, British manufactures, and West India produce. The preceding 
 valuations, it has to be observed, do not include the trade with the adjoining states of British 
 America. About 4<X)0 vessels, having a tonnage of 330,000, arrive annually ; and there are about 
 100,000 tons of shipping belonging to the province. 
 
 Ports. — Halifax, the chief port and capital, is situated on the S.E. side, in lat. 44° 3tf N. and long. 
 63° 37' W. ; pop. 20,000. Being directly open to the Atlantic, and its navigation scarcely ever 
 interrupted by ice, it is our chief naval station in N. America, and affords secure anchorage for 
 1000 ships. It is entered by a creek 16 miles long, which terminates in a sheet of water called Bed- 
 ford Basin, and is every where strongly fortified. Pictou, the port next in consequence, is situated 
 on the N. coast ; it carries on a considerable trade in lumber and coal. Both are free warehousing 
 ports. The other places frequented by shipping are Yarmouth, Liverpool, Lunenburg, Windsor, 
 Parsborough, Cumberland, Shelburne, and Digby. 
 
 Money, Duties, SfC. — Accounts are kept in pounds, shillings, and pence sterling ; in the same 
 denominations in a nominal currency explained in the article Canada ; or in dollars and cents. 
 The circulating medium is composed partly of British and American coins, and partly of notes 
 issued by the Treasury, and by a branch of the Bank of British America and several local ones. 
 The provincial revenue (exclusive of local assessments) amounts annually to about £60,000, de- 
 rived principally from excise and customs : both are moderate, — the general rate of import duty 
 on British manufactures being 2 J per cent. The crown duties, levied only on foreign goods, are 
 explained in the article Colony. 
 
 Cape Breton Island, a dependency of Nova Scotia, is separated from it on the N.E. coast by 
 the Gut of Canseau. Area 3000 sq. miles. Pop. 30,000. It is penetrated by a mediterranean sea, 
 called the Bras d'Or, which divides it nearly into two parts. The settlements are confined to the 
 shores. In 1837, the amount of the exports was £41,337, and of the imports £7591. The chief 
 ports are Arichat, on the islet of Madame, on the S. side, from whence there are exports of dry 
 and pickled fish ; and Sydney, the capital, on the N.E., which carries on a considerable trade in 
 coals, mines of which exist in the neighbourhood, as well as at Bridgeport. All the mines in 
 Cape Breton Island, with those in Nova Scotia, are let to the General Mining Association. 
 
 NUTMEG (Du. Muskaatnooten. Fr. Noix muscades. Ger. Muskatennusse)^ 
 a spice yielded by the fruit of a tree (Myristica moschata) indigenous to the Mo- 
 lucca Islands, which begins to bear when 10 years old, and goes on improving during 
 the space of a century. The fruit, which is singularly beautiful, is pear-shaped, about 
 the size of an apricot. As it ripens, the rind, which is nearly half an inch thick, 
 and of a whitish colour, opens and displays the nutmeg in its black and shining 
 shell, encircled by a net-work of scarlet Mace. It is gathered three times 
 a-year. In preparing it for use, the mace is first stripped off, and the nutmeg, 
 after being dried, is deprived of its shell, and soaked in sea-water and lime, in 
 order to preserve it from insects, and, by closing its pores, to prevent its strength 
 from evaporating. Three sorts are distinguished ; namely, the male or barren, the 
 royal, and the queen. The last, which are small and round, are preferred to the 
 others, which are large and oval. Nutmegs are solid, unctuous to the feel, of a 
 gray -brown colour, reticularly furrowed on the outside, and within yellow, varie- 
 gated with brown undulating lines ; odour fragrant and balsamic ; taste warm 
 and aromatic. They should be rejected when worm-eaten, light (from the oil being 
 expressed), musty, or variegated with black lines. The active part, however, is 
 confined to the dark-coloured veins, which are not apt to be worm-eaten. Dry lime 
 forms the best kind of package for this spice. 
 
 The Dutch East India Company possess a monopoly of the spices of the Moluccas; 
 and by their avaricious policy, the cultivation of the nutmeg-tree is confined to Ban- 
 da-Neira, Way, Run, and Gounong. In all the others it has been carefully extir- 
 pated, because, being at a distance from the seat of government, they were supposed 
 to afford better opportunities for smuggling. The tree has been introduced into 
 Sumatra, Mauritius, and other parts of the East ; attempts have also been made to 
 introduce it into Cayenne and Trinidad ; but the greater expense attending its 
 cultivation in these places has hitherto prevented any reduction of the monopoly 
 prices charged by the Dutch. About 120,000 lbs. are annually entered for con- 
 sumption in the United Kingdom. S 
 
 Oil of Nutmeg. — This spice contains a fixed or solid oil, and a volatile oil ; 
 both of which are used for medical purposes. Of the former there are two varie- 
 ties : the English, which is the best, occurs in pieces of about \ lb. in weight, wrap- 
 ped in leaves of the banana ; it has a uniform reddish yellow colour inside : and 
 the Dutch, in larger pieces, wrapped in leaves or paper, and of a lighter colour. 
 All kinds are frequently adulterated. 
 
 NUTRIA, or NEUTRIA, an aquatic rodent little quadruped {Myopotamus 
 coypus), inhabiting S. America, especially Chili, Buenos Ayres, and Tucuman ; 
 it is valued on account of its fur, which, like that of the beaver, is of two 
 kinds, — the long ruddy hair, and the brownish ash-coloured fur at its base. The 
 latter is now largely used in the hat manufacture j and about 220,000 skins are 
 
NUX 507 OAT 
 
 for this purpose annually imported into the United Kingdom from the States of 
 La Plata. S 
 
 NUTS, HAZEL (Fr. Norsettes, Avelines. It. Naccinnle,Avelane. Sip.Avellanas), 
 produced by diiferent species of coryli or hazel-trees [Filbert]. They are common 
 in this country, but the best are brought from the S. of Europe, principally Spain. 
 About 150,000 bushels are annually imported, s 
 
 X UX VOMICA, the fruit of the Strycknos nux vomica, a tree indigenous to Ma- 
 labar, Coromandel, and Ceylon. When ripe, it is about the size of an apple, is 
 covered with a shell of an orange colour, and contains a pulp in which from three 
 to five seeds are immersed. These seeds are round, flattish, and about f inch in 
 diameter, have a weak nauseous balsamic smell, an intense bitter taste, and contain a 
 virulent poison. They are used in medicine, and have, it is said, been employed in 
 brewing porter, though their use for the latter purpose is prohibited by statute. S 
 
 O. 
 
 OAK (Fr. Chtne. Ger. Eiche. It. Querela. Por. & Sp. Roble), a genus of trees 
 (Quercus) embracing about 150 species, two of which, common in our forests, excel 
 all the others in the production of timber. The common British oak (Q.pedunculata), 
 " the father of ships," that which chiefly abounds in our island and the N. of 
 Europe, is distinguished by having the acorns on footstalks : the sessile-cupped 
 oak (Q. Sessiliflora) bears the acorns without footstalks, but has the leaf-stalks 
 longer than the other ; it is found chiefly in the W. of England, N. Wales, and the 
 S. of Europe. The best oak is said to be that which grows in cold or elevated situa- 
 tions (if not stunted), on stiff, clayey soils, and is the longest in arriving at matu- 
 rity. The common species is of slower growth than the sessile-cupped, and is 
 commonly preferred to it ; but there is great difference of opinion as to which is 
 really the best ; much seems to depend on the soil and health of the individual tree. 
 
 The " unwedgeable and gnarled oak," when cut down at a proper age (about 
 60 years) is superior to all other timber in point of strength, durability, and gen- 
 eral application. It is eminently adapted for shipbuilding, particularly war- 
 vessels, from its not splintering by shot. It is not grown in this country sufficient 
 for the consumption ; and large quantities are imported, especially from Prussia 
 and Cauada. The kinds principally used in the Royal Dock Yards are Welsh, 
 Sussex, and Baltic,— the last being the most esteemed of the foreign kinds : the 
 Adriatic, formerly much used, has turned out ill. In domestic architecture oak 
 is only used in the largest and best buildings ; occasionally for the principal beams ; 
 but its chief use is for door and window frames, sills, sleepers, king-posts of roofs, 
 trussing for girders, sashes, gates of canal -locks, sluices, posts, and piles. 
 
 The white oak (Q. alba) of the United States is the kind chiefly used there for 
 shipbuilding, houses, and liquor-casks ; it is also imported into Britain. But the 
 live oak (Q. virens), abundant in Texas, is the best American species. " African 
 oak," sometimes used in shipbuilding in this country, is wood of a different genus. 
 
 OAKUM, old ropes pulled loose in order to be used in the caulking of ships. S 
 
 OATH. [Affidavit.] 
 
 OATS (Dan. Havre. Du. Haver. Fr. Avoine. Ger. Hafer. It. Vena. Por. 
 A vea. Rus. Owes. Sp. Avena. Sw. Ha/re), the hardiest of all the cereal grains 
 cultivated in Britain. Of the common species (Avena sativa) there are several 
 varieties, as black, gray, dun brown or red, and white. The two first being the 
 hardiest, are cultivated in Highland districts and on inferior soils in Scotland ; 
 but in England the black oat is now scarcely known, and the dun or red oat is 
 nearly confined to the moors of Cheshire, Derbyshire, and Staffordshire ; in Ire- 
 land, the black oat is the favourite kind in mountainous districts. The white oats, 
 though less hardy and requiring a better soil, are yet earlier and heavier than the 
 others, and are g'enerally preferred, especially the subvariety called the potato oat, 
 now almost the only kind cultivated on good land in England, the Scottish Low- 
 lands, and Ireland. The seed-time of oats is March and April ; four to six bushels 
 are sown on an acre ; and the produce varies, according to soil and preparation, 
 from about 30 to 70 bushels per acre. They weigh from 35 to 45 lbs. a-bushel ; 
 yielding about 8 lbs. meal for 14 lbs. corn. Drought and heat are unfavourable to 
 this grain, rendering it husky and tasteless. The nutritive quality of oats is smaller 
 in a given weight than that of any other of the cerealia ; but they are admirably 
 adapted for the feeding of horses, the purpose to which they are principally applied ; 
 though, when ground into meal, they are also largely consumed as food by a great 
 
OCH 508 OLI 
 
 portion of the population of Scotland, the N. of England, and Ireland. The best 
 oats are those of Scotland and Friesland in Holland. [Corn.] S 
 
 OCHRE, a native earthy mixture of alumina, silica, oxide of iron, and other 
 substances, found in beds in various places, particularly in England at Shotover 
 Hill near Oxford, and in Italy. It is generally of a yellow or brown colour, but 
 is sometimes reddened by calcination. It is prepared for use by grinding and 
 elubriation ; and is employed as an ingredient in painters' colours, and in the pol- 
 ishing of metals and stones. Nearly 5000 cwts. are annually imported, s 
 
 OIL, a substance expressed or distilled from certain vegetable and animal mat- 
 ters, the distinctive characters of which are inflammability, insolubility in water, 
 and (except palm oil and a very few others) fluidity in moderate temperatures. Oils 
 are either fixed or volatile. 
 
 Fixed Oils. — Vegetable fixed oils are usually contained in the seeds of plants; though olive 
 oil is extracted from the pulp which surrounds the stone. They are procured by bruising the seed, 
 and subjecting the pulpy matter to pressure in hempen bags, a gentle heat being generally employ- 
 ed at the same time to render the oil more liquid. They are commonly of a thickish consistence 
 and unctuous feel, and differ from volatile oils in leaving a greasy stain on paper which cannot be 
 removed by heat alone. They are sometimes colourless, occasionally of a greenish or yellowish 
 hue, when pure semitransparent, with little smell, and a mild taste. They are insoluble in alcohol, 
 and their specific gravity varies from *90 to '96. When kept for some time they become rancid ; 
 and, when exposed to air, gradually increase in consistence, till at last they become solid. Those 
 which retain their transparency after they have become solid, — as linseed, nut, poppy, and hemp- 
 seed,— are called drying oils; while others which assume the appearance of tallow or wax, and 
 become opaque, — as olive, almond, rape, and ben, — are called fat oils. The former are mostly 
 used for paints, varnishes, and printers' ink; the latter are consumed as food, in medicine, soap- 
 making, and other branches ; several of each kind being likewise extensively employed in the arts, 
 and in the lubrication of machinery. 
 
 Animal oils, derived from the fatty matter of the whale, cod, seal, and others, are very analogous 
 in composition and properties to the vegetable fixed oils; and in Britain, where the latter are 
 comparatively expensive, the former are employed, both for the purpose of giving light and for 
 the manufacture of soap. 
 
 Volatile or Essential Oil occurs in all odoriferous plants. It is found in all parts of them, 
 and sometimes different in different parts of the same plant. It is the odoriferous principle of 
 vegetables ; but its quantity is not always in proportion to their degree of smell ; nor is its degree 
 of pungency and acrimony by any means in proportion to those of the subject from which it is 
 drawn. The volatile oils are generally obtained by distilling the parts of the plants which afford 
 them with water in common stills ; a few are, however, obtained by expression, such as those of 
 lemon, orange, and bergamot, which are contained in distinct vesicles of the rind of those fruits. 
 They vary considerably in specific gravity. Oil of turpentine, the lightest, is '792 ; oil of sassafras, 
 the heaviest, 1-094. They are very numerous. The principal are, turpentine, clove, cinnamon, 
 caraway, juniper, nutmeg, rosemary, and sassafras. Their general characteristics are, — a pene- 
 trating odour and taste, and commonly a yellowish colour ; they are for the most part soluble in 
 alcohol, and very sparingly soluble in water. These solutions constitute perfumed essences and 
 distilled waters; the former principally employed in perfumery, the latter in pharmacy. The 
 high-priced kinds are not unfrequently adulterated with alcohol and fixed oils. The former addi- 
 tion is rendered evident by the action of water ; the latter by the greasy spot which they leave on 
 paper, and which does not evaporate when gently heated. The oils of commercial importance are 
 treated separately under their appropriate heads. 
 
 The cubtomhouse practice is not to gauge oils paying duty by the tun, but to weigh them, 
 reckoning every 9 lbs. of net weight equal to an imperial gallon. 
 
 OKE, a Turkish weight equivalent to 2^ lbs. avoirdupois nearly. 
 
 OLDENBURG, a German state composed of the duchy of the same name, 
 bordering on the N. Sea, and on the land side contiguous to Hanover, Bremen, and 
 the Weser ; and the small principalities of Lubec and Birkenfeld. Total area 
 2440 sq. miles. Pop. 269,000. Government monarchical, without any assembly of 
 estates. 
 
 The country is level, and the soil in general poor. Agriculture and cattle-rearing are the chief 
 occupations of the people. Exports, oxen, horses, linen, leather, beer, hides, rags, &c, chiefly 
 to Holland and the Hanse Towns, especially Bremen. In 1836, Oldenburg joined in a commer- 
 cial league with Hanover and Brunswick. [Bremen. Germany. Pkusso-German Customs 
 Union.] 
 
 OLIBANUM or FRANKINCENSE (Fr. Encens. Ger. Weihrauch. It. In- 
 censo), a gum-resiu procured from a plant (Boswellia Thurifera, Roxb.) found 
 in the mountainous parts of India. Two qualities are distinguished : olibanum 
 in grains, and common olibanum. The first occurs in small roundish pieces of a 
 light yellowish colour, very brittle, and semi-transparent ; taste acrid and slightly 
 bitter. The second is in larger pieces, mostly of a dark colour, and mixed with 
 impurities. The odour of olibanum is balsamic, and it burns with a clear light, 
 diffusing a fragrant smoke. It is used principally as incense in Roman Catholic 
 churches, and, though rarely, in medicine. 
 
 An Arabian kind of olibanum, formerly imported from the Levant, is now seldom 
 met with, and its origin is a matter of doubt. In America, various trees yield 
 substances analogous to olibanum, and used in a similar way. 
 
OLI 509 OPA 
 
 OLIVE, the fruit of a tree (Olea Europcea), a native of the south of Europe and 
 north of Africa, and extensively cultivated in France, Spain, and especially Italy. 
 It is a small, green, oval berry, containing a double-celled nut. Olives, when 
 fresh, have a harsh, bitter, and "extremely disagreeable taste ; and they are eaten 
 only after having been steeped for several days in a ley of wood-ashes, and then 
 pickled in a strong solution of muriate of soda. Flavoured with some spice, they 
 are occasionally used after dinner in Britain, but more abundantly on the Conti- 
 nent, to improve the flavour of certain wines. Olives are principally imported into 
 this country from France, in barrels of 28 gallons, and from Spain, in jars of two 
 gallons. An allowance of 3 to h is made at our custom-house for pickle. This 
 fruit is, however, chiefly valued for the oil obtained from it. 
 
 The matured wood of the olive is hard, compact, and reddish in colour. It takes 
 a fine gloss, and is made into snuff-boxes and trinkets. 
 
 OLIVE OIL (Fr. Huile d/olives. Ger. Baum'61. It. Olio d'uliva. Por. Oleo 
 das azeitonas. Sp. Aceite de aceitunas), the lightest of the fixed oils, is derived 
 from the fruit on its arriving at maturity in November. The olives are first 
 crushed in a mill, care being taken that the millstones are so placed that they 
 may not break the nuts. The mass being then put into bags, and subjected to 
 moderate pressure in a screw-press, yields a considerable quantity of virgin oil, of 
 superior quality. After this is completely expressed, the mass, stones and all, is 
 either returned to the mill, and the stones are broken, or the same effect is produced 
 by mixing up the whole with boiling water, and increasing the power of the press. 
 By this means the common kind of oil is obtained ; while, by repetition of the 
 process, an inferior sort is procured, valuable for the preparation of soap. Virgin 
 oil is of a very pale yellowish-green colour ; inodorous when fresh, but emitting 
 a peculiar smell when old ; taste bland and purely oily, but becoming in time 
 slightly rancid : it congeals at 38 3 Fahrenheit. Sp. gr. '915. The common kind is 
 of a brownish-yellow or greenish colour, and a taste or odour in a greater or less 
 degree subrancid. Olive oil, being high priced, is frequently adulterated with 
 cheaper kinds; but the fraud is known by a less tendency to congeal by reduction of 
 temperature. This oil, in the countries of production, is an important article of 
 subsistence to all classes ; and it is also employed to burn in lamps. In our country, 
 as food, it is used almost solely in cookery and for salads as a luxury; but consider- 
 able quantities are employed in the making of fine soap, in the woollen manufac- 
 ture, and in other arts. In medicine, it is used as an emollient, and to form cerates 
 and plasters. 
 
 Olive oil is prepared in immense quantities in Italy, especially in the provinces 
 of Apulia and Calabria in Naples, the produce of which is largely exported from 
 Gallipoli, the principal oil-mart of the peninsula : this kind is of fine quality, a 
 distinction partly due to the influence of the tufa cisterns in which the oil is puri- 
 fied at this port before being shipped. The Florence and Lucca oil shipped from 
 Leghorn is likewise in high esteem. The Sicilian kind is generally of low value. Olive 
 oil is also largely produced for exportation in Spain. In France, the best is made 
 in the provinces of Languedoc and Provence, the finest being that of Aix. About 
 2,000,000 gallons are annually imported into this country for consumption, chiefly 
 from Italy and Spain, and in smaller quantities from Portugal, the Ionian Islands, 
 Turkey, Barbary, and France. S 
 
 The customs tare, when imported in jars, is \ for each jar, and } for foot or sediment ; a 
 chest contains 80 flasks = 2 T \ Imperial gallons. [Oil.] 
 
 ONION (Fr. Oignon. Ger. Zwiebel. Por. Cebola. Sp. Cebolla), a well-known 
 biennial plant {Allium cepa), having a bulbous root varying in size according to 
 the kind, soil, and cultivation. The small are more pungent than the large; and 
 those which have a tinge of red or purple, than those which are white. The 
 ■ Strasburg" and its varieties are the hardiest in this country. But our onions 
 are surpassed by those imported from Portugal, Spain, and the south of France, 
 which are much larger, and more mild and succulent. Onion seed is also imported 
 in large quantities. S 
 
 ONYX, a species of agate, in which the siliceous particles are arranged in alter- 
 nating horizontal layers of opaque white and translucent blue gray or brown. It 
 is employed for cameos, the hgure being cut out of the opaque white, and the dark 
 part forming the ground, or the contrary. It is most valuable when the contrast 
 of colours is strong, and when the layer is thick enough to give a high relief to the 
 object to be engraved. 
 
 OPAL, a beautiful precious stone, of which there are many varieties. Sp. gr. 
 2 09. The most valuable is the noble or precious opal, of a white, bluish, or yel- 
 
OPI 510 OPI 
 
 lowish white colour, and when viewed by transmitted light, yellow. It exhibits 
 brilliant and changeable reflections of green, blue, yellow, and red,— a play of 
 colours which has not been satisfactorily explained. It is translucent ; fracture 
 conchoidal ; with a resinous lustre ; easily broken, but scratches glass. Its chief 
 localities are, Czervenitza in Hungary, the Faroes, Saxony, and at Gracias a Dios 
 in Honduras, whence it has been brought in specimens of considerable size and of 
 great splendour. This kind of opal is sometimes called the Nonnius opal, from the 
 senator Nonnius, possessor of the famous opal of Rome, worth 20,000 sesterces, 
 who preferred banishment to parting with it to Antony. 
 
 The common opal differs from the precious chiefly in wanting the play of colours; 
 it is found at the Giant's Causeway and the Hebrides. A variety has been met with 
 in India ; and Mr Milburn states, that a beautiful Oriental opal is worth double 
 the price of a sapphire of the same size. They occur from the size of a pin-head to 
 that of a walnut ; but a fine stone of this last size is extremely rare and precious. 
 Much care is necessary in purchasing them, as there are many counterfeits. 
 
 OPIUM (Fr. Opium. Ger. Mohnsaft. It. Opio. Arab. Mai. Ufyoon. Pers. 
 Sheerikhaskash. Hind. Ufeem. Turk. Madjoori), a narcotic drug, composed of 
 the inspissated juice of the unripe capsules or fruit of a species of poppy (Papaver 
 samniferum) extensively cultivated in Asia ; also to some extent in European 
 countries, principally for the oil of its seeds. The juice is collected in a pot, and 
 worked into masses or cakes, which are covered with leaves, to prevent their stick- 
 ing together, and then dried and packed into chests. Two kinds are chiefly dis- 
 tinguished, — Turkey and East India. 
 
 Turkey or Smyrna opium, so called from the place of shipment, is compact ; at 
 first, softish and reddish brown, but becomes hard and blackish ; lustre waxy ; 
 smell heavy and disagreeable ; taste at first nauseous bitter, afterwards acrid, 
 and rather warm ; highly inflammable ; and when good, not entirely soluble in 
 water. Sp. gr. P336. The best is in flat pieces, enveloped in large leaves, and, 
 besides, covered with the reddish capsules of a species of rumex. Other varieties 
 occur in the Levant trade, as " Constantinople opium," mostly sent to Germany, 
 " Egyptian opium," and " Trebizond opium ;" but they are inferior, and not so 
 commonly the subject of British commerce. 
 
 East India opium is less compact and softer than Turkey ; also darker, fainter 
 in odour, less bitter, and more nauseous and weaker ; containing less morphia. 
 But this inferiority is fast disappearing ; and, of late, that manufactured in some 
 districts is of the finest quality. It is produced almost exclusively within the Ben- 
 gal presidency, and in Malwa in Central India. In the former, the cultivation of 
 the poppy is confined to certain districts within Benares, and in Bahar near Patna, 
 in order to secure the monopoly of the Company, who purchase the crop from the 
 ryots, at the price of 1^ rupee per pound, and afterwards dispose of it at stated 
 public sales in Calcutta." At the sale of February 1840, the upset price was Rs. 400 
 per chest (of 2 factory maunds, or 149^ lbs. avoird.) ; but the rate paid at differ- 
 ent times is of course subject to variation. In Malwa, which belongs to native 
 rajahs, the trade is free. The Company made great exertions to procure the whole 
 of it by treaty ; but, in 1830, they relinquished this object, and agreed, for a transit 
 duty of Rs. 125 per chest, to grant passes for its conveyance to Bombay, from 
 whence this kind is wholly exported. 
 
 Opium is chiefly employed with us as a sedative medicine. But as the drug, 
 when taken in small dozes by those unaccustomed to it, communicates a peculiar 
 kind of exhilaration and energy to the mind, as well as a pleasurable condition to the 
 whole system, accompanied with increased capability of exertion, it is largely con- 
 sumed in the East in much the same way as wine and spirits are taken in Europe. 
 By degrees, as the habit becomes confirmed, the craving increases, and to produce 
 the desired feeling, the dose must constantly be augmented, till at length, — each 
 excess being followed by depression and torpor,— equal injury is produced as by 
 habitual dram-drinking. In Turkey and Persia opium-eating, once very common, 
 is on the decline, owing to the less rigid observance of Mohammed's injunctions 
 against inebriating liquors ; but in China the use of it is on the increase. In the 
 last country, however, it is smoked, a custom less pernicious than eating, owing 
 to the preparation which the drug has to undergo before being fitted for the pipe. 
 Indeed, taken in moderation in this way, it is said to have no bad consequences ; 
 and in regard to China, it may be observed^ that opium debauchees do not appear 
 to be more common there than drunkards m other countries. 
 
 The drug was formerly imported into Britain solely from the Levant, but, owing 
 to the improved quality of the Indian produce, a portion of our supply is now made 
 
OPO 511 OPO 
 
 up of the latter. The amount of foreign and Indian opium entered for consump- 
 tion in 1851 was 46,736 lbs., having nearly doubled within 10 years. This trade, 
 however, is insignificant when compared with that which has grown up between 
 India and China. Before 1800, the quantity sent to the latter was inconsiderable ; 
 and in the year 1817-18 did not exceed 2,435 chests, in value $2,951,100 ; but in 
 1832-33 it was augmented to 23,693 chests ; namely, 6,410 Bahar or Patna ; 1,880 
 Benares ; and 15,403 Malwa ; the total value being $15,352,429, or (estimating the 
 dollar at 4s. 2d.) £3,198,422 : So that in 15 years the quantity had increased about 
 tenfold, and the value between five and six fold ; the average price, meanwhile, 
 having declined from $1,212 to $647 per chest, nearly one-half. This was exclusive 
 of about 1000 chests Turkey opium, re-exported from Britain to China. The trade 
 has since been further extended. In 1837-38 the quantity of Bahar and Benares 
 opium exported was 19,307 chests, valued (in Calcutta) at £2,114,025; and nearly the 
 same amount was fixed for exposure at the government sales in 1840. Of Malwa, 
 passes were granted in the three years ending 1837-38 for 45,317 chests, or, on 
 an average, 15,106 a-year. Hence, the total annual export from India, when war 
 broke out in 1839, must have been about 35,000 chests, in value nearly £4,000,000 ; 
 which, excepting small parcels sent to the Malay Peninsula, Eastern Islands, and 
 England, was shipped wholly to China. The net revenue derived from the monopoly 
 in Bahar and Benares in the three years ending 1839, was Rs.3,46,96,196 ; and for 
 transit passes from Malwa to Bombay, Rs.60,49,230 ; total, Rs.4,07,45,426. {Par. 
 Paper, 1841, No. 22.) This gives, on an average, the net yearly revenue of the 
 Company from the drug Rs.l, 35,81,808, equal £1,273,296 sterling. 
 
 The opium-trade, though forbidden so early as 1796, attracted little notice from 
 the Chinese government before 1820. Macao was for some time its centre ; but, 
 owing to the misconduct of the Portuguese, it was removed to the small island of 
 Lintin, in the estuary of the Canton river. There, notwithstanding many " paper 
 prohibitions," it was conducted with regularity, under the immediate notice of the 
 imperial functionaries, — who, indeed, are the chief opium-smokers, — until the 
 arrival of Commissioner Lin at Canton in 1839, when the British superintendent, 
 Captain Elliot, and a number of merchants were seized (April 15), and retained 
 until the delivery (May 30) of the stock then on hand, 20,283 chests, valued at 
 £3,000,000. Since this atrocity, the trade has been pursued in a more irregular 
 manner ; mostly indeed by armed clippers, who, braving every danger, beat up 
 the China seas even in the very height of the monsoon, and, wandering along the 
 coast, dispose of their cargoes to junks, who bring out dollars and sycee silver 
 in exchange. The quantity thus sold is said to be nearly as great as ever, — a cir- 
 cumstance which can occasion little surprise when it is considered that, besides 
 the weakness and corruption of the imperial government, the drug, while its pro- 
 duce-cost in India is under Rs.400 a-chest, finds a market in China, notwithstand- 
 ing a late reduction of price, at from $400'to $500. 
 
 The motive usually assigned for the prohibition of this traffic is the demoralizing 
 tendency of opium. " If there exist a drug destructive of life, incessant efforts 
 should be made to keep it at a distance. The men accustomed to it can by no 
 means relinquish it ; their faces become as sharp as sparrows' ; and their heads, 
 sunk between the shoulders in the form of a dove ; the poison flows into their 
 inmost vitals ; physic cannot cure their disease ; repentance comes too late for 
 reform." Yet the poppy is cultivated in China in six different provinces, in one of 
 which the opium prepared is said annually to amount to several thousand chests. 
 Without restingupon this,however,it is quite certain that the moral reason is not the 
 only one. Formerly a large proportion of the British imports of tea were paid for 
 in bullion; but since the expansion of the opium-trade, the balance has been reversed, 
 and there is now a constant drain of treasure from China. The imperial govern- 
 ment, viewing the precious metals as the only true riches of a state, regard this 
 as a national grievance ; and the trade is accordingly denounced, in their state 
 papers, as one which occasions " an oozing out of silver, whereby the fathomless 
 gulf of the outer sea will soon be the receptacle of the easily exhaustible wealth of 
 the central spring ! " Nor, in looking to the influences which have guided the 
 Chinese, is it to be forgotten, that their increased rigour and jealousy has been 
 contemporaneous with the advance of the British to their south-west frontier and 
 the regions of Central Asia. S 
 
 OPOBALSAM, called also Balm of Gilead and Judiacum de Mecca, is a liquid 
 resin, obtained from the Amyris Giteadensis, a tree found in Arabia, Abyssinia, 
 and Syria. It is at first turbid and white ; of a pungent smell, resembling tur- 
 pentine, but sweeter ; and of a bitter, acrid, astringent taste : By age it becomes 
 
OPO 512 ORS 
 
 thin, limpid, of a greenish hue, then of a golden yellow, and at length of the colour 
 of honey. It is seldom obtained genuine in Europe ; the Canada balsam, which 
 is generally substituted for it, answering equally well. In Turkey it is used as a 
 cosmetic. Carpobalsamum and Xylobalsamum are inferior qualities obtained from 
 the fruit and twigs of the same tree. 
 
 OPOPONAX (Arab. Jawesheer), a medicinal gum-resin, obtained from the 
 stalk or resin of a tall plant {Opoponax Chironium, Koch) found in Asia Minor. 
 It occurs in small grains or drops, and in masses, — the latter, however, being gene- 
 rally mixed with foreign substances, and inferior ; colour internally, pale yellow, 
 frequently mixed with white, and externally, inclining to red or orange ; taste 
 bitter acrid ; and odour disagreeable. It is now scarcely used. 
 
 ORANG ES (Fr. Oranges. Ger. Pomeranzen. It. Melanarincino. Por. Laranjas. 
 Sp. Naranjas), are the product of a shrubby tree, of eastern and tropical origin, 
 but now extensively cultivated in the warmer parts of the temperate zone, parti- 
 cularly in the countries adjoining the Mediterranean, Portugal, and the Azores. 
 It belongs to the citron genus. Two species are principally distinguished,— the 
 sweet and the bitter. S 
 
 The Sweet Orange (Citrus Aurantium) ; flowers, white; fruit, roundish, seldom pointed, 
 golden-yellow, or tawny; and pulp very sweet. There are many varieties. Those principally 
 met with in Britain are the St Michael's, a small pale-yellow kind, with a thin rind, brought from 
 the Azores ; and the China, chiefly imported from Portugal. The former is the most esteemed. 
 
 The Bigarade, or Bitter Orange (C. Bigaradia) ; flowers also white, but larger and sweeter 
 than the preceding, on which account they are in demand by the perfumer ; fruit, uneven, globose, 
 deep-yellow, with a bitter and acid pulp. The Seville, a Spanish variety, is that chiefly imported into 
 Britain, where it is consumed in the preparation of candied orange-peel, bitter tinctures, and liqueurs. 
 
 The orange has been well called " the universal fruit of commerce." The aromatic oil and the 
 rind preserve it from the effects both of heat and of cold ; while the acridity of the former renders it 
 proof against the attacks of insects. It is thus long in rotting if the rind is uninjured, and 
 it is kept from moisture, and so ventilated as not to ferment. From these qualities, joined 
 to their abundance in the countries of production, oranges may be had fresh and cheap in every 
 region of the world, and at almost every season. They are gathered for exportation in October, 
 November, and December, while still green, that they may not spoil in the transport ; and they 
 are not fully ripe till spring has commenced. They are imported into Britain from the Azores 
 and Portugal ; Spain, especially Algarve and Andalusia ; and the Gulf of Genoa and Naples ; the 
 amount in 1840, including lemons (not separated in the public accounts), being 119,915 packages, 
 each not exceeding 5000 cubic inches ; 167,574 packages between 5000 and 7300 cubic inches ; and 
 44,674 between 73i:0 and 14,000 cubic inches; besides about 12,000 lbs. of orange-flower water, 
 and considerable quantities of oils and essences. 
 
 ORCHILL, or ARCHILL (Fr. Orseille. Ger. Orselje. It. Oricello. Sp. 
 Orchilla), a whitish lichen {Lichen orcella) found in Guernsey and Portland Island, 
 but chiefly obtained from the Canary, Cape Verde, and Madeira Islands. It 
 grows on rocks, about 3 inches in length, roundish, and many stalks proceed from 
 one root. The best is of a darkish colour. It is imported into Britain in the state 
 in which it is gathered; and about 500 cwts. are annually entered for consumption. 
 This weed yields a rich purple tincture, used chiefly in dyeing silks and ribbons, 
 but rarely employed alone, on account of the fugitive nature of the colour, and its 
 extreme clearness. Litmus is a preparation of orchill in square cakes. S 
 
 ORGOL, or ARGOL, a common name for crude Tartar. 
 ORPIMENT (Ger. Operment, Rauschyetb), or yellow sulphuret of arsenic, 
 generally occurs massive and lamellar, of a bright lemon or golden colour, some- 
 times running into red or brown ; soft and flexible, but not elastic ; insoluble in 
 water ; and inodorous. Sp. gr. 3*5. It is a natural product of China, South 
 America, and other countries. The finest, called golden orpiment, comes from 
 Persia. Artificial orpiment is manufactured chiefly in Saxony ; it occurs in the 
 form of a yellow powder. This substance is commonly employed in dyeing and 
 calico printing ; but the finer native varieties are reserved for artists. It is often 
 adulterated with king's yellow, an ill-made poisonous compound, frequently con- 
 taining nothing else than white arsenic and sulphur ; it is quite soluble in water. 
 The name red orpiment is sometimes given to Realgar. 
 
 ORRIS ROOT, or FLORENTINE ORRIS,is obtained from the Ms Florentina, 
 a native of the south of Europe. It is tuberous, oblong, about an inch thick, white ; 
 odour like that of the violet ; taste when dry bitter. The roots are imported from Leg- 
 horn ; and, after being ground into powder, are used by perfumers, and in medicine. 
 
 ORSEDEW (Ger. Flittergold), an article resembling gold leaf, made of copper 
 and zinc, chiefly at Manheim, in Germany, whence it is called Manheim Gold. It 
 is largely imported into this country, made up in books, and enclosed in casks and 
 cases. A part is entered for home consumption, chiefly in tinselling dolls and 
 toys, but the greater portion is reshipped to the East Tndies, where it is in demand 
 by the natives for decking their gods, priests, and dancers. 
 
OST 513 PAL 
 
 OSTEOCOLLA, an inferior kind of glue, manufactured from bones. 
 
 OSTRICH FEATHERS, a valuable article of ornamental dress. The ostrich 
 is found only in Africa, and the best plumes are imported from Barbary. The 
 finest are the brilliant white feathers from the wings of the male, which, in a bird 
 in full plumage, contain forty. S 
 
 OUNCE (l r ncia i a twelfth part), is a common division of the pound weight. 
 
 OXALIC ACID (Ger. Sauerkleesuure), a vegetable acid found in considerable 
 quantity in sorrel and rhubarb. It is most readily procured by the action of nitric 
 acid on sugar, and hence has been termed acid of sugar. It occurs crystallized, in 
 four-sided prisms, transparent, and so intensely sour, that if 1 grain be dissolved in 
 a rains of water, it will be perceptible to the taste ; while in 200,000 times its 
 weight of water it may be detected by means of a simple chemical test. This acid 
 is highly poisonous, and accidents have frequently occurred from its being admi- 
 nistered instead of Epsom salts, which it resembles in appearance. It is used in 
 calico-printiug, and by straw-hatmakers ; also for cleaning boot tops, and for re- 
 moving iron stains and ink spots from cloth. United with bases, it forms salts, 
 called oxalates, which are applied to various purposes. It is an object of consid- 
 erable manufacture, especially in Switzerland, where it is prepared from the juice 
 of wood sorrel. 
 
 OYSTER (Fr. Huitre), a testaceous fish (Ostrea edulis) common on the coasts of 
 Britain and most other countries. Several kinds are highly prized by epicures. In 
 London, the Colchester and Milton oysters are held in most esteem. Edinburgh 
 has her " whiskered Paudores," and latterly Aberdour oysters ; and Dubbin the 
 Carlingford and Powldoodies of Burran. For the convenience of obtaining a ready 
 supply, the oysters are often transported from their original beds, and laid down on 
 other places of the coast ; but these exiles are seldom found in such perfection as 
 natives. In France, the oysters of Cancalle in Brittany, and of Dieppe, are most 
 esteemed : the latter are of a greenish colour, communicated artificially. 
 
 The British trade in oysters ranks in importance with that in herrings and 
 salmon, and affords employment to a numerous body of men, who necessarily be- 
 come hardy seamen. In Jersey alone, 250 boats are employed, and 200,000 bushels 
 annually exported. Immense quantities are carried to Billingsgate, where the 
 season opens with great bustle on the 4th of August, at noon, and terminates on 
 the 12th of May. S 
 
 The private right in ovster-beds is protected in England by the act 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29, § 36 ; 
 and in Scotland by 3 & 4 Vict. c. 74. 
 
 A convention between Britain and France, August 2, 1839, provides, that the subjects of each 
 power shall enjoy the exclusive right of fishery within the distance of 3 geographical miles from 
 low-water mark along the whole of their respective coasts ; it being understood, however (Art. 9), 
 that upon that part of the coast of France which lies between Cape Carteret and Point Meinga, 
 French subjects shall enjoy the exclusive right of all kinds of fishery within the limits assigned in 
 Art. 1 (according to a chart), for the French oyster-fishery. With respect to bays, the mouths of 
 which exceed 10 miles in width, the limiting 3 miles is to be measured from a straight line drawn 
 from headland to headland. The oyster-fishery beyond the above limits is to be common to the 
 subjects of both countries. 
 
 PADDEE, or PADDY, a term applied to rice in the husk. 
 
 PAGODA, the name of numerous gold coins in India. They mostly weigh 
 about 5285 troy grains, and contain 44"39 troy grains of pure metal, the standard 
 of the Star pagoda, the former integer of account at Madras, and worth 7s. lOd. 
 
 PAINTERS' COLOURS. [Colour Trade.] 
 
 PAKFONG, a celebrated Chinese alloy, composed of copper, nickel, and zinc. 
 
 PALLADIUM, a rare metal obtained by Dr Wollaston from platinum ore. 
 It is hard, of a dull white colour, malleable, and ductile ; sp. gr. 11*3. Its pro- 
 perties are not yet fully known. 
 
 PALM-OIL, a fatty substance, obtained chiefly from the drupes of the Elceis 
 fruineensis, a species of palm common on the western shore of Africa. It has 
 the consistence of honey or butter, a golden yellow colour, the smell of violets, 
 and a sweetish taste. When spoiled it loses its yellow colour and pleasant smell ; 
 but when well preserved it keeps several years without becoming rancid. Sp. 
 gr. - 968. It is sometimes counterfeited with hog's lard, coloured with turmeric, 
 and scented with Florentine iris root. Palm-oil is much used by the negroes for 
 anointing the skin and in cooking. It is produced in abundance in the countries 
 adjoining the Guinea coast, particularly near Eboe and Brass in the Delta of the 
 Nijrer, where, according to Mr Laird, it can be bought for £4 or £5 a-tun. It 
 
 2 K. 
 
PAO 514 PAP 
 
 is collected in gourds, from which it is emptied into trade-puncheons. The quan- 
 tity imported into Britain, though only 164,700 cwts. in 1831, amounted in 1841 
 to 394,342 cwts., of which 303,849 cwts. were entered for home consumption, chiefly 
 for the manufacture of toilet soap, pomade, and perfumery. It is also used in 
 medicine and surgery. [Nigritia. Oil.] S 
 
 PAOLO, or PAUL, a small Italian silver coin, value 5d. sterling. 
 
 PAPAL STATES. [Roman States.] 
 
 PAPER (Du. Fr. & Ger. Papier. It. Carta. Sp. & Por. Papel. Rus. Bu- 
 maga). Writing materials were anciently formed of palm-leaves, inner bark, 
 skins, waxed tablets, and particularly of Egyptian papyrus, — several of the leaves 
 or other substances being generally sewed together and wound on a centre stick. 
 But these materials are now almost entirely superseded by paper made of vegetable 
 fibre, reduced in water to a pulp. This art is said to have originated in China 
 about a. d. 95 ; and to have been known in the seventh century to the Arabians, 
 by whom it was carried in the ninth or tenth century to Spain ; from whence, or, 
 as some contend, by way of Greece, it was gradually diffused throughout Europe. 
 It was introduced into England in the sixteenth century ; but scarcely any, except 
 wrapping-paper, was made before the Revolution, though the manufacture after- 
 wards advanced so rapidly that by 1760 Britain was almost wholly independent 
 of foreign supply. The vegetable substance preferred is linen, owing to the tough- 
 ness and fineness of its fibre ; the best kinds of linen cloth or rags [Rags] being used 
 for writing-paper of the first quality : for printing-paper linen and cotton rags 
 are employed ; and many kinds of coarse paper are made from hempen rags, cotton 
 waste, refuse of flax-mills, old cordage, and tarred ropes. Paper was entirely hand- 
 made until about 1803 ; but, except some writing-paper, all kinds are now manu- 
 factured by a machine, then introduced by Messrs Fourdrinier and Donkin, — a 
 contrivance which, with the improvements since communicated to it by others — 
 principally Mr Dickinson — is justly regarded as one of the most ingenious and 
 beautiful in the whole range of mechanical invention. 
 
 Manufacture. — The rags are first- separated from threads and buttons, cut, assorted, boiled 
 with an alkali, and afterwards washed; then, immersed in water, tliey are reduced by a cylin- 
 drical engine into pulp or stuff, and afterwards bleached by chlorine ; next, the pulp is further 
 bruised, and conducted to a vat wherein the fibrous matter is kept in suspension by agitation ; 
 and in this state, after being strained to exclude knots, it is received upon an endless web of wire- 
 gauze, having a lateral as well as a progressive movement, so regulated as to spread the pulp 
 equally, determine its thickness, and facilitate the draining of the water. The pulp, becoming solid 
 as it advances, is then projected through felt rollers, by which it is compressed and still further sep- 
 arated from moisture; next, passing over heated rollers, it is dried ; and, lastly, the filaments 
 being now felted into a strongly coherent paste, it is wound upon a reel as paper, — a process com- 
 pleted in less than two minutes after it is drawn from the vat : the paper is then cut by a machine 
 into sheets and calendered. This terminates the operations for printing and wrapping papers, 
 which are only " engine-sized," by the addition of rosin and soda to the pulp-vat; but writ- 
 ing paper, before being wound upon the reel, is conducted from the heated rollers through a 
 solution of glue; after which it is pressed and dried, and then cut and calendered as before: 
 writing paper is thus sized or varnished more highly than other kinds, in order that the ink may 
 not spread by capillary attraction. 
 
 Hand-made paper is' formed from pulp bruised with a much blunter engine than that necessary 
 for the machine ; and each sheet is made separately in a wooden frame, with a wire-cloth bottom, 
 into which the pulp is lifted, and the water shaken out ; the sheets are then piled between slips of 
 felt, and the superfluous water pressed out ; next, they are separated from the felt and subjected 
 to the vat-press ; and then dried, sized in a tub, again pressed, and finished. By this careful pre- 
 paration of each sheet, and especially by the fibre being preserved more entire in the bruising, 
 an advantage is given to the hand-made over the machine paper in firmness and quality. The 
 latter, however, being produced in webs of any desired breadth, is alone adapted for paper-hangings 
 and large newspaper sheets ; it besides has the advantage of cheapness ; while, owing to successive 
 improvements, the difference of quality, yearly diminishing, is now scarcely perceptible. 
 
 Paper, both handmade and machine, after being manufactured, is examined to remove specks 
 and lay aside damaged sheets; it is then counted into quires of 24 sheets, and folded ; and, lastly, 
 packed in reams of 20 quires, pressed, and tied up in a wrapper for sale. 
 
 Qualities and Sizes. — Writing and drawing papers, besides the differences already noticed, 
 are principally distinguished as laid (all hand-made) and wove,- the former exhibiting'the lined 
 .watermarks, derived from the wire-work of the mould whereon they are made ; while the latter 
 are perfectly smooth, in consequence of their mould being constructed of a very fine copper wire, 
 woven into a sort of cloth. A difference of colour is observable in writing paper ;" the yellow is near- 
 ly the colour of the rags, but the blue tint is imparted by the mixture of smalts with the pulp. 
 The general terms by which the qualities (independently of the sizes) of writing paper are known, 
 are laid, yellow-wove, and blue-wove. The following is the usual range of sizes of papers : — 
 
 Writing and Drawing Papers.— Pot, 15J by 12£ ; foolscap, 16J by 13J; small post, 20 by IRh ; 
 large post, 21 by 16i ; demy, 20 by 15J ; medium, 22 by 17 ; royal, 24 by 19 ; super-royal, 27 by 
 19 ; imperial, 29 by 21 ; elephant, 28 by 23 ; Colombier, 34 by 23 ; Atlas, 33 by 26 ; double ele- 
 phant, 40 by 26 ; and antiquarian, 52 by 30. The common letter paper of the shops is seldom of 
 the size in which the sheets are made ; these being generally halved, folded , and the edges smoothed. 
 
 Printing Papers.— Double foolscap, 27 inches bv 17 J ; demy, 22J by 173 ; royal, 25i by 20£ : ex- 
 tra royal, 27$ by 20| ; crown, 203 by 17* ; post and half, 24 by 19$. 
 
PAP 515 PAP 
 
 Paper-making is carried on extensively in the United Kingdom, chiefly in j\ent 
 (the chalky streams of which are said to be favourable to the manufacture), the 
 country around London, Lancashire, Yorkshire, and Durham ; in the vicinities of 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow ; and in the " Collection " of Naas in Kildare ; and the 
 number of mills, in 1839, was 512 ; whereof 411 were in England, 47 in Scotland, 
 and 54 in Ireland ; each paying an annual license costing £4. An excise on paper 
 was first levied in Britain in 1711 (10 Anne, c. 19); which, after many fluctuations, 
 was fixed, in 1803 (43 Geo. III. c. 69), at 3d. per lb. on first class paper, and l£d. 
 
 Ser lb. on second class, " made of old ropes or cordage only." In Ireland, the 
 uties, first levied in 1798 (by a license upon the engine, according to the contents 
 of the vat), were assimilated to the preceding in 1824. The high duty on the first 
 class, and the inconveniences, evasions, and frauds, attending the other regulations, 
 were long the subject of complaint. At length, on the recommendation of the 
 Fourteenth Report of the Commissioners of Excise Inquiry, the duty was, by 
 6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 52, imposed at a uniform rate of l^d. per lb. on all classes, 
 after 10th October 1836. This change has led to a considerable increase of trade, 
 and has been otherwise highly beneficial. In 1835, the quantity charged with duty 
 was, in England, 64,899,901 lbs.; in Scotland, 12,015,059 lbs.; and in Ireland, 
 2,702,352 lbs. ; total, 79,617,312 lbs. : the net produce of duty being £796,305. 
 But, in 1841, the quantity charged was, in England, 76,292,724 lbs. ; in Scotland, 
 16,821,354 lbs. ; and in Ireland, 3,991,472 lbs. ; total, 97,105,550 lbs : yielding, of 
 net duty, £587,380 ; the quantity having thus increased 22 per cent., while the 
 revenue has only fallen off 26 per cent. 
 
 The paper consumed in the United Kingdom is entirely of home manufacture, 
 except small quantities of engraving or drawing paper, and of paper-hangings 
 imported from France. But notwithstanding the unrivalled quality of British 
 paper, and our possession of many advantages as to capital and improved machinery, 
 the exportations, which, including stationery of all kinds, amounted in 1840 to 
 £282,403, are nearly confined to our own colonies and foreign dependencies. Ex- 
 cept some printing paper to America, very little is sent elsewhere, — a circumstance 
 mainly attributable to the fact, that the manufacture, requiring no great capital, 
 is pursued in most foreign countries, who again generally impose heavy duties upon 
 the introduction of all papers which compete with their own. Besides, the foreign 
 article, though mostly of low quality, is made at a cheap rate, particularly in Ger- 
 many, from whence large quantities are shipped to South America and other places. 
 In India, Chinese paper is extensively imported for common purposes. S 
 Chief Provisions or the Paper Duty Consolidation Act, 2 & 3 Vict. c. 23 (July 19, 1839). 
 
 Duty of lid. per lb. avoird. imposed on all ! the package; and provided the exporter shall 
 kinds of paper and pasteboard made in U. K. ; | mark on the outside of each package, in presence 
 which, however, is to be drawn back, \st, On all | of the packing-officer, the net weight of the 
 glazed or press papers bona fide used in pressing j paper of books entitled to drawback ; or paper 
 woollen cloths and stuffs ; 2d, On paper used in and books, the net weight of each : and the net 
 printing bibles, psalm and prayer books, or books! weight of the articles or books not entitled to 
 
 in Latin, Greek, or Oriental languages within the 
 Universities ; 3d, On all paper, pasteboard, print- 
 ed books in complete sets (except bibles, &c, as 
 above), or account-books, exported as merchan- 
 dise ; and, 4th, On stained, printed, or painted 
 paper exported ; on the last, the drawback to be 
 computed at 2d. per 12 square yards (§ 1). 
 
 Duties and drawbacks to be under excise (§ 2). 
 
 Paper-making premises to be entered at excise 
 
 drawback, packed with them; and the tare of 
 the package."] 
 
 Penalty of £100, and of the package, for the 
 opening thereof, after it is closed, or wilfully 
 defacing or altering the marks thereon (§54). 
 
 Exporters to give a shipping notice, and enter 
 into security ( § 55). 
 
 Packages to be produced to customs officer, 
 who shall see them shipped. A debenture for 
 
 and inspected by officers (§ 3-7). ! payment of drawback to be issued in six weeks 
 
 Every person intending to export, to give 12 from shipment (§ 56). 
 hours' notice thereof to excise, specifying time j Any stationer intending to cut, gild, colour, 
 and place, when and where,, and the person on or otherwise prepare paper before exportation, 
 whose account the paper, board, or books, is or to give notice thereof to excise ; and no paper so 
 are intended to be packed ; and officer shall weigh prepared to be packed for exportation on draw- 
 and take account of same (§ 52). back, which shall not be produced in wrappers 
 
 Such package and £200 to be forfeited if any having the labels thereof so marked by the officer 
 heavy substance or other matter be introduced as aforesaid (§61). 
 
 therein, except paper, board, or books, or ma- 1 Penalty of £200, &c. for fraudulently obtain- 
 terials necessary in packing ; or any device used ing, or endeavouring to obtain drawbacks (§62). 
 to hinder or deceive the officer from, or in taking ; Allowance of duty to be made on paper lost 
 a true account of the package (§ 53). [By excise by fire or wreck (§§ 63, 64). 
 order, October 31, 1839, no " objection made to : The other provisions chiefly relate to the mode 
 introduction of other articles of stationery, or of of making up, tying, and weighing the paper, 
 books not entitled to drawback ; provided, in the and to other regulations affecting the manufac- 
 former case, the quantity shall not exceed in i ture, which, as copies of the act are doubtless 
 weight |th that of the paper, and in the latter possessed by all paper-makers, it is unnecessary 
 case, ^th of the books entitled to drawback in to notice in this place. 
 
PAP 516 PAR 
 
 PAPER-HANGINGS, paper stained or printed with some design, in order to 
 be pasted on the walls of a room. They are usually made in pieces 12 yards in 
 length, and about 21 inches in breadth. There are many varieties. Besides com- 
 mon and striped papers, some have a glossy or " satin " ground ; others, called 
 " flock papers," have a portion of the pattern somewhat resembling woollen cloth. 
 Ornaments are frequently applied with bronze or imitation gold-powder ; while, in 
 expensive kinds, leaf-gold or silver is occasionally used. The papers are commonly 
 printed with size-colours, but some, to bear washing or cleaning, are stained with 
 such as are mixed with oil or varnish. The reduction of the paper-duty, mentioned 
 above, and the abolition of the additional duty on hangings of lfd. per square yard, 
 have led of late years to a great reduction in their price, and extension in their 
 consumption. They can now be procured so low as lOd. per piece. The patterns 
 have also been greatly improved ; though some of the more tasteful designs are 
 still imported from France. S 
 
 PAPIER-MACHE MANUFACTURES are properly composed of paper-pulp 
 boiled in a solution of gum or size to give it tenacity, and then pressed into 
 moulds ; though the term is likewise applied to trays, snuff-boxes, and other things 
 made by glueing different plies of paper together, and then varnishing. A great 
 variety of articles are now made at Birmingham of papier-mache ; which, from its 
 lightness and cheapness, has also been of late extensively used in the decorative 
 work of picture and mirror frames, and walls and ceilings, especially those of 
 steam-boat cabins and public buildings. 
 
 PARAGUAY, an inland S. American state, bounded N. and E. by Brazil, and 
 S. and W. by the Argentine Republic. Area, 90,000 sq. miles ; pop. 350,000. The 
 capital is Assumption, in lat. 25° 16' S., and long. 57° 37' W. ; pop. 12,000. This 
 state formed, until 1808, one of the provinces of the Spanish viceroyalty of Buenos 
 Ayres : the troubles which broke out at that period were artfully turned to account 
 by Dr Francia, a native lawyer, who in 1814 became dictator of the new state. 
 
 Paraguay is generally level, and abounds with numerous tributaries of the Plata, which, in the 
 rainy season, overflow their banks and inundate the adjacent country. It is highly fertile. The 
 most remarkable production is Mate Yerba, or Paraguay Tea, which is sent to Buenos Ayres, 
 and consumed in enormous quantities throughout the whole of the states of the Plata, Chili, and 
 Peru. The other productions are chiefly hides, tobacco, sugar, wood, drugs, honey, and wax. 
 Ships may ascend the Plata as far as Assumption, although 1000 miles from its mouth ; but the 
 late dictator Francia so successfully discouraged foreign intercourse, that commerce is now almost 
 annihilated. Prior to his tyrannical administration, the annual exports are stated to have been, 
 Yerba, 360,000 arrobas, value §1 ,080,000 ; tobacco, $360,000; wool, $225,000; sugar, spirits, 
 sweetmeats, tanned hides, cigars, cotton, cloth, &c, $150,000; total, $1,815,000, or £363,000. 
 The public revenue of Paraguay under the old regime was £75,000. Messrs Robertson estimated 
 Francia's annual expenditure (including the maintenance of 4000 troops), at £117,000. (Francia's 
 Reign of Terror, p. 216-221.) S 
 
 PARCHMENT, the prepared skin of the sheep or goat, was anciently much used 
 as a substitute for paper, and is still, along with Vellum, employed for charters and 
 other writings, for which great durability is desirable. 
 
 PAREIRA-BRAVA, a medicinal root procured from the Cissampelos Pareira, 
 a native of the West Indies and South America. 
 
 PARIS PLASTER, a paste made from gypsum or selenite, so called from being 
 prepared in large quantities from extensive strata at Montmartre, near Paris. It 
 is employed for taking impressions from moulds, and for making statues. Mixed 
 with lime, it is called stucco, and is formed into cornices and ornaments for ceilings. 
 
 PARMA, DUCHY OF, an inland state in N. Italy, lying between the Apennines 
 and the Po, by which river it is separated on the N. from Lombardy. Area, 2280 
 sq. miles. Population, 476,000. Government, an unlimited monarchy, without a 
 charter or any representative assemblies. S 
 
 About one-third of the duchy consists of a barren mountain region, the inhabitants of which 
 derive their chief subsistence from the forests of chestnut trees with which it is clothed : the re- 
 mainder, embracing the low hills and plains stretching from the Apennines to the Po, is fertile, 
 well cultivated, and populous ; the lands having a regular system of artificial irrigation as in Pied- 
 mont. The pasture grounds are very rich, and support numbers of horned cattle, many of which 
 are exported. Besides these, the exports embrace corn, silk, iron, a little wine, marble, timber, 
 and sulphur matches. 
 
 The silk braccio = 23-40 Imp. inches ; and the cloth braccio = 25*35 Imp. miles. The biolca, 
 land-measure, of 6 tari = 3 Imp. acre nearly. The stajo, grain measure, of 16 quarterole = 1-413 
 Imp. bushel. The rubbio of 25 lbs. = 18*08 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 Accounts are stated in lire of 20 soldi. The Parma lira = 2Jd. nearly. In 1833, the national re- 
 venue amounted to £275,834 ; and the debt to £428,000. 
 
 PARSNIP (Pastinaca Saliva), a biennial British plant, common in calcareous 
 soils, and used chiefly as a vegetable. It is next in value to white-beet, as a sac- 
 charine root, containing 9 per cent, of sugar. An ardent spirit of excellent quality 
 
TAR 517 TAR 
 
 is obtained from it; and parsnip-wine {Vide Mr Roberts' British Wine- Maker), 
 is said to possess a finer flavour than that obtained from any other British produce. 
 
 PARTNERSHIP is a contract by which two or more persons agree to bring 
 together certain articles of property, or valuable acts of service, uniting the com- 
 mercial proceeds in a common fund, divisible according to some particular rate 
 among the partners. One may bring money, another may bring his industry, 
 a third may bring professional talent, and a fourth, perhaps, his mere name 
 and influence in society, as their respective contributions to the common stock ; 
 the pecuniary results of which may be distributed among these partners in pro- 
 portions of corresponding variety. The position of a partner being, as between 
 the parties themselves, beneficiary, will require something more to prove it than 
 the mere consent of the individual. As respects third parties, however, the part- 
 ner's condition being onerous, there are acts of his own which will be sufficient 
 to place him in that position ; hence arises the natural division of the law of 
 partnership into the obligations of partners to each other, and the obligations 
 of partners to the public. 
 
 Obligations between the Partners. — All persons free to contract may enter into 
 partnership with each other for any lawful purpose ; and it may be formed either 
 by a regular contract, or by the mere act of mutual trading. In the former case, 
 the contract rules all transactions. A majority cannot alter it, or go beyond its 
 limits, against the will of the minority, unless it be part of the agreement that 
 a majority may bind the whole. There is a choice of persons in a partner- 
 ship, and so a majority cannot force a new partner on the minority. The execu- 
 tors of a deceased partner are not allowed to occupy his place, unless there be a 
 stipulation to that effect in the contract. The nature of the partnership, how- 
 ever, may be such, that, instead of there being a choice of persons, any one who 
 performs certain conditions is entitled to be a member, as m the formation of a 
 joint-stock company, where scrip is publicly sold. The respective amounts of 
 profit and loss accruing to the partners will generally be provided for by the 
 deed of partnership. Where there is no deed, or no provision on the subject, 
 equality is presumed. The partnership is considered in law a distinct person 
 from the individuals forming it. The property which each individual brings into 
 the concern, becomes the property of the company, and ceases to be that of the 
 individual. When there is capital embarked in the concern by one party, and 
 not by others, it will almost always be the case that the prospective right of pro- 
 perty in the stock, as distinct from the profits, will be fixed by agreement ; and 
 the cases where this has not taken place are so few that the law is not very dis- 
 tinct on the point. In one class of partnerships only— adventures, does there 
 appear to be a general rule, which is, that, " if a person agree to be interested 
 in the profit and loss of an adventure, this agreement alone will not constitute 
 him a partner in the goods which are the subject-matter of the adventure." \Coll- 
 yer, 107.) 
 
 An individual partner may buy or borrow from the firm, and the firm may do 
 so from him. The partners are individually bound to the company as its accre- 
 dited agents, in which capacity they are not allowed to entertain a separate in- 
 terest from it, by secretly carrying on the business for which the partnership was 
 established, or by using the knowledge acquired in its affairs to the purpose of 
 competing with the partnership in purchases, &c. Any advantages that may 
 happen to be so acquired by individual partners are generally adjudged to be held 
 by them in trust for the company. The partnership has a claim upon the time 
 and attention of each partner, either in terms of the agreement, or in accordance 
 with the circumstances, where there is no special provision. The position in which 
 the person was placed before the partnership commenced, will affect such a ques- 
 tion ; thus, professional manufacturers entering into partnership with an attorney 
 in good practice, whom they know to be fully occupied with his profession, would 
 undoubtedly not be entitled to insist on his bestowing the same attention on the 
 manufacturing business as themselves. A partner entitled to share in the profits, 
 is not, without express stipulation, entitled to special remuneration for any amount 
 of attention which he may bestow on the business of the establishment. 
 
 If the partners differ with each other on points such as those just discussed, 
 the courts will not, in any ordinary case, interfere to settle the accounts between 
 them without a dissolution. Where there are articles of partnership, there is a 
 remedy in the courts of common law in England, and the Court of Session in Scot- 
 land, for breach of performance of the stipulations. Where there are no articles, 
 the remedy, by account between the partners, can, in England, only be had in the 
 
PAR 518 PAR 
 
 courts of equity. Whore an account has been taken and a balance struck, a 
 partner may sue at law for what appears due to him on that balance ; and he may 
 so sue for cash advanced by him to his partner before the partnership. 
 
 Obligations to the Public- We now come to consider the manner in which per- 
 sons become liable to the public as partners. A man becomes a partner by allowing 
 the world in general to presume that he is one : as, by having his name on the sign 
 of a shop, or on the bills of parcels, invoices, or accounts, or by putting his name to 
 the negotiable instruments drawn on the firm. Where there are such manifesta- 
 tions of partnership, the party continues to be liable, though notice of dissolution 
 should be given in the Gazette ; and it is even said, that he will be liable though 
 the person claiming against him was ignorant at the time when he contracted 
 of the circumstances so inferring liability, and was not induced to contract with 
 the firm by the belief that such a person was liable as a partner for its engage- 
 ments. Where A took a promissory note from a firm, B stating that he had retired 
 from the firm, but that it had been stipulated that his name should remain in it for 
 some days, within which days the note was drawn, B was held liable (Brown v. 
 Leonard, 2 Chitty, 120). A person will not continue liable, however, for the 
 remissness of his partners in neglecting to disconnect his name with the company, 
 if he has not given his consent to its remaining, and if he has taken all proper steps 
 to give notice to all concerned. This is generally accomplished by advertisement 
 in the Gazette, and by special notice to the parties with whom the firm has deal- 
 ings. But there may be circumstantial notice, which a party will have to disregard 
 at his own peril ; as where there is a change in the wording of the checks, bills, 
 invoices, &c. The advertisement in the Gazette is sufficient notice to all who have 
 not had dealings with the concern. 
 
 Persons intending to agree for a share of the profits as the remuneration of 
 labour, generally involve themselves in the liability of a partner. " If a person agree 
 to pay another, for his labour in a concern, a given sum, in proportion to a given 
 quantum of the profits, it has been considered to be settled that this does not con- 
 stitute a partnership as to third persons ; but that it does constitute a partnership 
 if he have a specific interest in the profits themselves, as profits " (Montague, 10). 
 An agreement that a broker shall have for his profit whatever he can obtain upon 
 the sales above a certain sum, does not constitute partnership ; but one coal-dealer 
 having agreed with another to bring customers to the concern, receiving in return 
 an annuity and 2s. for every chaldron sold, was held a partner, she having allowed 
 her name to be used (Young v. Mrs Axtell, cited 2 Hy. Blackst. 242). If the company 
 be accommodated with money, the interest or return for which rises and falls with 
 the profit, it will undoubtedly make the lender a partner. In short, it may be safely 
 taken as a rule, that where any one has an interest in a concern, the extent of which 
 is solely measured by the result of the transactions of that concern, he is liable to 
 the world as a partner. When the circumstances on their original merits are sufficient 
 to found such responsibility, it will not affect the matter that the individuals have 
 otherwise arranged with each other, or even that third parties were ignorant of 
 the responsibility of an implied partner, and dealt without regard to his credit. 
 
 Each partner is liable, to the full extent of all he possesses, for the general obli- 
 gations of the company, and each is its accredited representative, entitled, like an 
 agent, to bind it to all suitable obligations. In England, a partner can only engage 
 the company in simple contracts ; he cannot bind it by deed, unless he be expressly 
 empowered by deed to do so. In Scotland, the distinction between simple contract 
 and deed does not exist ; but in practice, from the simply administratorial nature 
 of the acts which may be transacted by individuals, the law is very nearly identical 
 with that of England. " Although," says Professor Bell, " a partner be thus em- 
 powered by implied mandate to bind the company and his copartners in acts of 
 ordinary administration, and in the usual course of trade, he holds no such power 
 to bind in extraordinary acts out of the usual course. Thus, a reference to arbitra- 
 tion will not bind the company, if signed or agreed to by one of the partners, unless 
 expressly agreed to or homologated by the rest, or by the company" {Com. ii. 
 618). The engagements which a single partner can bind the company to, must be 
 acts of administration naturally connected with the business of the partnership. A 
 reference to arbitration and a guarantee are out of the ordinary course of business, 
 and would require special authority ; but a partner may pledge the goods belonging 
 to the company. The transaction does not require to be strictly confined to the 
 line of trade, as defined in the articles of partnership. The powers of individuals 
 may there, it is true, be limited; but the public, not aware of the limitation, are not 
 bound by it, and, when they see a partner ready to transact in the name of the 
 
PAR 519 PAR 
 
 firm such operations as it is natural that he would have to transact in the course of 
 the business for which the company exists, they are entitled to place faith in him. 
 able instruments are presumed to be in the way of business of every descrip- 
 tion of commercial partnership, and so each partner is entitled to draw, accept, 
 and indorse bills and notes for the company. If a bill be drawn on the partner- 
 ship, by its usual collective name, and be simply accepted by one member signing 
 his own name, he will bind the whole. But it is essential to this species of obliga- 
 tion, as to others, that it have the appearance of being contracted for the behoof of 
 the firm, and in the course of its legitimate business. In partnerships purely com- 
 mercial, the presumption will always be in its favour ; but it is otherwise in farm- 
 ing and mining speculations ; the presumption here is against the negotiable in- 
 strument being in the usual course of the business of the firm, but it may still be 
 proved to be so. In a partnership where no capital is required, it is clear that one 
 partner cannot bind the others in negotiable instruments. 
 
 A partner being in the eye of the law the agent of the company, many analogies 
 may be drawn to illustrate his powers, from the authority of agents to bind their 
 principals in the course of ordinary transactions ; and it may be inferred, that 
 where the partner exceeds his proper power, the firm, or another partner, as the 
 case may be, may adopt the act as a principal does that of his agent. [Principal 
 and Agent.] The obligation having been incurred by the partner in the name of 
 the firm, and being within his express or implied authority, his subsequent frau- 
 dulent application of the consideration to his own use will not affect the responsi- 
 bility. Thus, where a partner bought for the company, who were harness-makers, 
 a number of bits for bridles, and immediately pawned them for his own use, the 
 
 other partners in vain endeavoured to defend themselves on the plea that the 
 articles had never gone into the company's stock, and that the transaction was a 
 simple fraud by one of the partners Bond v. Gibson and Jephson, 1 Camp. 185). 
 If the person dealing with the partner, however, be accessory to the fraud, or if he 
 know or suspect that a fraud is to be committed, or if he be placed in a situation 
 in which a man of ordinary discernment ought to know or suspect that the partner 
 is exceeding the limits of his authority, the other partners will not be liable. Where 
 an individual takes from a partner a security in name of the firm, for a debt due 
 by the individual partner, fraud or such negligence as will free the other partners 
 is always presumed, subject of course to proof on the part of the creditor that he 
 had every reason to believe that the partner acted within his authority. Where a 
 debt incurred for the partner himself, but in the name of the firm, is liquidated by 
 such a security, the presumption is against the other partners. Negotiable instru- 
 ments bearing the partnership name, though obtained by collusion with an indivi- 
 dual partner, are good against the others in the hands of onerous and bona fide 
 holders. [Bill of Exchange.] 
 
 As a counterpart to the power of the individual members to bind the company, 
 those who contract with such individuals will in similar circumstances be bound to 
 the company. Thus, where a member sells partnership goods, though in his own 
 name, the company may sue for the price. They cannot, however, make the third 
 party suffer for the fraud of the partner; and so, if the purchaser was creditor of the 
 partner at the time of the purchase, he is allowed to set off the two sums against 
 each other ; for the chance of set-off may have been the inducement to the bargain. 
 It is a general doctrine that the rights of the firm against third parties may be 
 released by any one of its members, and payment to one is in all cases payment to 
 the whole, unless there be fraud committed and connived at by the payer. 
 
 Dissolution. — A limit to the partnership may be fixed in the articles, and if not 
 definitively fixed, may be deduced from circumstances. A partnership is not,however, 
 dissolved by the mere expiry of its period of continuance, it is merely then terminable ; 
 and if the parties continue to transact business as usual, an indefinite partnership 
 is entered on. A partnership may be dissolved before the arrival of the period to 
 which its duration is fixed, on just cause, such as, that the object of the association 
 is impracticable, or that the farther pursuit of it would be attended with inevitable 
 loss, or that one of the partners has become insane. Such remedy will be given on 
 the application of a portion of the partners, by the courts of equity in England 
 or the Court of Session in Scotland. When all the partners agree, the company 
 may of course be at any time dissolved, notwithstanding any previous stipulation 
 to the cuntrary. A partnership at will, or without any specified limit, may be 
 dis.sulved at tlie pleasure of any one partner. But a partner is not entitled suddenly 
 to dissolve the connexion for the purpose of taking his colleagues by surprise, and 
 immediately pursuing the partnership business for his own advantage. Where a 
 
PAR 520 PAT 
 
 partner attempts such a project, he will have to communicate the advantage to his 
 colleagues, as where one partner obtained a renewal of the lease of the company's 
 premises, without warning the others of his intention to apply for it (Featherston- 
 haugh v. Fcuwick, 17 Vesey, 298). The death of a partner operates as a dissolu- 
 tion, unless it be stipulated that his representatives are to succeed to him, in which 
 case the obligation is a right in which they represent their predecessor. In Eng- 
 land, an adjudication in bankruptcy against a partner, and the marriage of a female 
 partner, dissolve partnership. In Scotland, it is held that, " 1st, The marriage of a 
 female partner of a company seems a change so important that it should form a 
 
 t round for dissolving the partnership. 2d, Incapacity may be by bankruptcy or 
 isease. Insolvency of a partner does not alone dissolve a partnership. It does 
 not operate as a transfer, nor tie up the hands of the partner. Neither has bank- 
 ruptcy under the Act 1696, c. 5, any effect of this sort ; and it may be doubted 
 whether it would dissolve a partnership. But bankruptcy by sequestration, which 
 transfers to the creditors all the partners' rights, will unquestionably have this effect. 
 So it would appear would a trust-deed for the benefit of creditors." (Bell's Com. 
 ii. 634.) 
 
 Bankruptcy. — There is a considerable difference between the practice of those 
 parts of the empire which follow the law of England, and the practice in Scotland, 
 as to the distribution of the estate, where both the firm and individual partners 
 become bankrupt. According to the former, the partnership estate and the indi- 
 vidual estates are separated from each other, each becoming liable for its own 
 debts in the first place. The joint estate is first applied to the payment of the 
 partnership creditors, the surplus only going to the creditors of the separate estates ; 
 and the separate estates are first applied to the respective separate debts, the sur- 
 plus only going to the creditors of the joint estate. " In Scotland, the creditors of 
 a company have set apart, as held in trust exclusively for them, the partnership 
 estate, for payment of their debts against the company ; and they have a right to 
 be ranked as creditors, for the balance unpaid, on the private estate of the partners " 
 (Bell's Com. ii. 660). To the English rule there are exceptions. A joint creditor, 
 who is the petitioning creditor in a separate fiat, may prove against the separate 
 estate, and so may a joint creditor, where there is no joint estate whatever, and no 
 solvent partner to meet the responsibilities of the company. Where a partner be- 
 comes bankrupt, the assignee (in Scotland the trustee) takes his place as a member 
 of the partnership, for the purpose of winding up its affairs. The creditors are en- 
 titled to the bankrupt's individual share of the property in common, subject to the 
 state of the partnership accounts. No member of the company has any claim on its 
 bankrupt estate until the claims of the joint creditors are satisfied. 
 
 After an act of dissolution, a partnership exists only for the purpose of winding 
 up its affairs, by converting the estate with all expedition into money, and dividing 
 the proceeds among the partners. It is often agreed that the business of winding- 
 up is to be transacted by one member of the company, but the partners still con- 
 tinue liable for his transactions with third parties, so far as consistent with the 
 powers which the public may have reason to suppose that he has been intrusted 
 with. Where it is known that the partnership is dissolved, such a person will not 
 be entitled to pledge the credit of his copartners to a negotiable instrument. It is 
 one of the privileges of a partner to insist, on occasion of a dissolution, that all the 
 partnership property be brought to public sale. {Montague on Partnership. Cary 
 on Partnership. Colly er on Partnership. Smith's Mercantile L., 18-56. Bell's 
 Com. ii. 612-669.) [Company. Corporation. Joint-Stock.] 
 
 PASSENGER. [Customs. Emigration. Smuggling.] S 
 
 PATENT-LETTERS are those public acts of the crown, which, being patent or 
 open to the public at large, have the great seal appended to them. Corporations 
 are thus constituted, and peerages may be thus conferred. The most important 
 description of letters-patent, however, are those commonly known by the name of 
 patents, in which the crown confers a monopoly in some new invention of a useful 
 manufacture or commodity, on the inventor or those authorized by him. In Eng- 
 land, by 21 Jas. I. c. 3, this authority was retained when the power of the crown 
 to grant monopolies in other cases was abolished by act of Parliament, and the 
 practice seems to have been tacitly adopted in Scotland. By that act, the period 
 beyond which the crown cannot grant the privilege is fourteen years ; but by a 
 late act a patent may be renewed for seven years. 
 
 The procedure commences with a petition, narrating the utility of the invention, 
 and praying for the usual privilege of " the sole working, constructing, making, 
 selling, using, and exercising of the said invention." The parts of the kingdom for 
 
TAT 
 
 521 
 
 PAT 
 
 which the patent is prayed must be mentioned. One patent will serve (if specially 
 desired) for England and the colonies. The patent states a time within which the 
 " specification," as described below, must be lodged. In practice, two months is 
 the period when the patent is for England only, four months when it is for England 
 inland, and six months when it is for the United Kingdom (Carpmael on 
 Patents, 62). The expense of obtaining a patent for England is estimated at 
 £120, for Scotland at £100, and for Ireland at £125, or upwards {Report of Select 
 Committee on Patents, 12th June 1829, p. 17). 
 
 In England, the petition is accompanied by a declaration before a Master in 
 Chancery, that the petitioner has invented or imported the article. The petition 
 and declaration are lodged at the Home Office ; and in a few days the former is 
 returned, with a reference to the Attorney or Solicitor General. It is in the option 
 of the applicant to lay it before either of these officers. The clerk of the law-officer 
 searches his books for a caveat that may affect the petition, and if he find one, gives 
 notice to the party who entered it, who has a week to give notice of opposition. 
 The law-officer hears parties and reports. This report receives the royal warrant 
 at the Home Office, directing a bill to be prepared for the royal signature. The 
 warrant is then taken to the Patent Office, where again it may be opposed on a 
 caveat. If the law-officer decide in favour of the applicant, he signs the bill, which 
 then goes to the Signet Office, where it receives a warrant called a signet bill, and 
 passes to the Privy Seal. A Privy Seal warrant, or Privy Seal bill, authorizing 
 the appending of the Great Seal, is granted, and coming then before the Lord 
 Chancellor, it may be opposed for the last time. Here the letters-patent are made 
 out and sealed with the Great Seal. S 
 
 In Scotland, the declaration is made before a Justice of the Peace, the petition 
 and declaration are referred to the Lord Advocate, a Queen's warrant is granted, 
 and the seal appointed by the Treaty of Union as a substitute for the Great Seal is 
 appended. 
 
 In Ireland, the petition and declaration are referred to the Lord-Lieutenant, a 
 Queen's letter is granted on his report, and the Great Seal of Ireland is appended. 
 (Commentary on the Law of Patents.) 
 
 Caveat.— Any one fearing that his invention 
 may be anticipated before he is ready to apply 
 for a patent, may lodge a " caveat" with the 
 law-officers of the crown. This is a request that 
 notice may be given to the person who enters it, 
 if application be made for a patent on the sub- 
 ject of an invention which he describes in general 
 terms. The caveat secures no monopoly or ex- 
 clusive right against the public ,• its soleeffect is 
 against any other person's right to obtain a 
 patent for the invention. If any person, there- 
 fore, makes and vends the commodity in the 
 mean time, the caveat becomes useless, for 
 neither the inventor nor any other person can 
 obtain a patent. 
 
 When a caveat is lodged, if any person applies 
 for a patent relating to the same subject, the 
 lodger receives notice, and has seven days for 
 deciding whether he shall oppose the application. 
 If he oppose, both parties are heard by the law- 
 officer of the crown. If the inventions are dif- 
 ferent, each may obtain a patent. If both have 
 made the same" invention, neither can obtain 
 one. If the one has borrowed from the other, 
 however, the original inventor will undoubtedly 
 be entitled to the patent. A caveat expires in 
 a year, but may be renewed. 
 
 Prolongation of a patent for seven years, after 
 the expiry of the original fourteen, mav be 
 granted in terms of the act 5 & 6 Wm. IV. c. 83. 
 The applicant publishes his intention to apply 
 for the prolongation to her majesty in council, 
 by advertisement thrice in the London Gazette, 
 in three London papers, and thrice in a local 
 paper — where his manufacture is carried on, or 
 (if he carry on none) where he resides. He then 
 petitions the council. A caveat may be lodged 
 against the prolongation. The judicial commit- 
 tee, hearing parties, and examining witnesses, 
 report whether the prolongation should be grant- 
 ed or not. These proceedings must all be fol- 
 
 lowed out before the original period of fourteen 
 years expires. 
 
 7 he Invention. — It is a requisite that the in- 
 vention be complete of its kind, constituting 
 when embodied a vendible article. The discovery 
 j of a mere principle cannot be protected, — a 
 I practical result in the form of an article of com- 
 j merce must be shown. The invention must have 
 been made by the claimant of the patent, or 
 : must have been introduced by him from a foreign 
 ! country. It must not have been used before, 
 or employed as an article of trade or manufac- 
 ture, either by the petitioner or any other per- 
 son. Use in one of the divisions of the United 
 Kingdom will not invalidate a patent for any 
 other part, if obtained by the original inventor 
 , or importer from abroad. By 5 & 6 We IV. 
 ! c. 83, provision is made for protecting parties 
 ; from the consequences of immaterial and nomi- 
 nal adoptions of previous inventions. 
 
 The Title under which the patent is petitioned 
 for is an object of importance, as it is by its ap- 
 plicability to the invention that the lodger of a 
 caveat knows whether the application will inter- 
 fere with himself or not. It must convey an idea 
 ' of what has been invented, but of nothing more. 
 ! Thus, Lord Cochrane's patent for naphtha-lamps 
 \ was found void, because it was called " a method 
 or methods of more completely lighting cities, 
 towns, and villages ;" whereas, though it was 
 only for such a purpose that his invention could 
 apparently be used, from the noxious nature of 
 the materials, the invention was after all but a 
 lamp suitable for the purpose of burning naphtha, 
 and should, it was said, be called so (Cochrane 
 v. Smethurst, 1 Stark. 205). The title must not 
 contain more uses for the commodity than those 
 which it is adapted to ; so Felton's patent in 
 1827, for "a machine for an expeditious and 
 correct mode of giving a fine edge to knives, 
 razors, scissors, and other cutting instruments," 
 
PAW 
 
 522 
 
 TAW 
 
 washeld bad,because the machine described would 
 not sharpen scissors. (Holroyd on Patents, 94.) 
 
 The Specification or description of the inven- 
 tion enrolled by the patentee requires peculiar 
 attention. " The invention must be accurately 
 ascertained and particularly described : it must 
 be set forth in the most minute detail. The dis- 
 closure of the secret is considered as the price 
 which the patentee pays for this limited mono- 
 poly, and therefore it ought to be full and cor- 
 rect, in order that the subject of his patent may 
 at its expiration be well known, and that the 
 public may reap from it the same advantages as 
 have accrued to him (Godson on Patents, 106-7). 
 On the proper characteristics of the specification, 
 Mr Godson farther says, (p. 118), " It is & fun- 
 damental rule, on which all others for making 
 and judging of a specification depend, that the 
 secret must be disclosed and the invention de- 
 scribed in such a manner that men of common 
 understanding, with a moderate knoviledye of 
 the art, may be enabled to make the subject of 
 the patent. 
 
 " The description must be confined to the 
 manufacture, that the novelty m:iy be known. 
 Extraneous matter, however learned , must not 
 be introduced to darken it. Though it is ad- 
 dressed to the public in general, it need not be 
 so circumstantial, or so explanatory, that per- 
 sons entirely ignorant of the science' from which 
 the subject is taken may thereby alone be able 
 to learn and use the invention. Nor. on the 
 other hand, should the description be sc concise 
 as to become obscure." 
 
 If things are described as being used to produce 
 the effect, which really have not been used, they 
 are presumed to be stated for the purpose of 
 misleading, and will have the effect of destroy- 
 ing the patent. Such also is the effect of any 
 attempt to conceal the use of known materials 
 by an obscure method of describing them, or by 
 a technical description of the method in which 
 they are formed, such as to make that appear 
 part of the invention. (Savory v. Price, 1 R. Sf 
 M. 1.) 
 
 Improvements. — Where an improvement mere- 
 ly has been invented, care must be taken not to 
 make the terms of the specification such that a 
 reader may be led to infer that a part of the 
 commodity, well known before, has been inven- 
 ted by the patentee. Mr Godson lays down these 
 modes of specification as the best adapted : — 
 
 " First, By describing the whole manufacture, 
 and then particularizing, with great exactness, 
 the addition of the inventor. 
 
 " Secondly, By a description of the whole 
 manufacture, pointing out the parts that either 
 are old or not material to the invention. 
 
 " Thirdly, By giving an accurate and intelli- 
 gent description of the improvement, and the 
 manner in which it is applied to the subject, or 
 parts that are old. 
 
 " Fourthly, By describing the whole manu- 
 facture, if it be an improvement of another for 
 which a patent has been obtained, taking care 
 to refer in the new specification to that of the 
 former patent."" 
 
 Amendment— By 5 & 6 Wm. IV.c. 83, a person 
 who holds a patent may enter an amendment 
 with the clerk of the patents of England, Scot- 
 land, or Ireland, with consent of one of the law- 
 officers of the crown. The amendment may 
 extend to " a disclaimer of any part of either 
 the title of the invention or the specification, 
 stating the reason for such disclaimer ;" or "a 
 memorandum of any alteration in the said title 
 or specification, not being such disclaimer or 
 such alteration as shall extend the exclusive 
 right granted by the said letters-patent." Such 
 amendment is considered a part of the specifica- 
 tion. A caveat may be lodged, giving the party 
 a right to be heard against the amendment be- 
 fore the law-officers. The law-officer may re- 
 quire an advertisement to be made before he 
 grants his consent to the amendment. No 
 amendment can be pleaded in any action pend- 
 ing at the time when it is enrolled. 
 
 Extent of the Privilege. — It is a condition in 
 every patent, that the patentee shall not, by 
 assignment or otherwise, extend the privilege to 
 any number of persons exceeding five, or open 
 any books for public subscriptions to raise money 
 for carrying on the operation from persons ex- 
 ceeding that number, and that he shall not pre- 
 sume to act as a corporate body. This does not 
 prevent the patentee from granting licenses to 
 any number of persons to use his patent, pro- 
 vided the consideration they pay be a sum cer- 
 tain, either received in full at the time of grant- 
 ing, or paid periodically. It is when the con- 
 sideration for the communication of the privilege 
 is connected with the profits, and constitutes a 
 partnership between the patentee and the privi- 
 leged person, that the above restriction comes 
 into operation. 
 
 Except in so far as thus limited, the patentee 
 has full command over his privilege. Whenever 
 it is infringed he can obtain damages. Whether 
 the patent infringed be a valid one will depend 
 on the matters already discussed. 
 
 By 5 & 6 Wm. IV. c. 83, when a person is 
 pursued for infringement of patent, if he intend 
 to object to the validity of the patent, he must 
 give notice of his objections ; and he can prove 
 no other objections but such as he gives notice 
 of, unless with the discretionary permission of 
 the judge on special cause shown. 
 
 The patentee can convey his privilege in full, 
 with his right of action, or he may communicate 
 it by license, or convey a share in it, subject to 
 the limitations noticed above. It is available to 
 creditors on bankruptcy. 
 
 By the act of 5 & 6 Wm. IV., whoever, with- 
 out license of a patentee, imitates his mark or 
 stamp, or by the use of the word " patent," or 
 otherwise, endeavours to make articles pass off 
 as those of the patentee, is liable to forfeit £50 
 for each offence. The act permits an article, 
 for the making of which a patent has expired, 
 to be marked as " patent." 
 
 (Godson on Patents. Holroyd on Patents. 
 Carpmael on Patents. Webster on Patents. Bur- 
 ton's Manual of the Law of Scotland, 520-540.) 
 (156-7.) 
 
 PAWN, or PLEDGE, is a contract by which a lender, or other creditor, is put 
 in possession of some article of moveable property, which he retains as a security 
 for the payment of a debt. There are several transactions of this class which can 
 only be legally undertaken with a licensed pawnbroker, and to these cases the 
 statutory regulations abridged below strictly apply. There are certain principles 
 of mercantile law which, however, apply to cases not coming within these regula- 
 tions. 
 
 The person who gives the pledge is called the pawner, and the person who 
 receives it the pawnee. The contract is one of those bailments to which the rules 
 of careful custody apply, and the pawnee is held responsible for ordinary care of 
 the pledge deposited with him. [Bailment.] If, being of a perishable character, 
 
PEA 
 
 523 
 
 PEA 
 
 it perish in the course of nature, he is not responsible, and may recover his money. 
 If it is of a nature to be deteriorated by use, as wearing apparel, he is not entitled 
 to the use of it. In the case of an animal which is not deteriorated by use, and 
 the cessation to employ which is a loss of valuable services, — as in the case of a 
 horse or a dog,— it is an understood part of the contract that the pawnee has the 
 use of the pledge. Where there is neither advantage nor disadvantage to the 
 article in using it,— as in the case of jewellery, — it would appear that the pawnee 
 may use the pledge, but that he is absolutely responsible for all damage or loss 
 that may arise from the use. He must give up the pledge on a tender of the debt, 
 and, unless by special contract, there is no time when the pledger cannot redeem. 
 (Sir E. Tomlins, voce Pawn. Jones on Bailments, 75-85.) 
 
 Principal Statutory Regulations as to Pawnbrokers. 
 
 By 25 Geo. III. c. 48, and 39 & 40 Geo. 
 III. c. 99, every pawnbroker must take out a 
 stamp-license. "Persons who take no higher 
 than 5 per cent, per annum for money lent on 
 pledge, are not to be deemed pawnbroker*. 
 Pawnbrokers must, under a penalty, enter every 
 advance (if exceeding 5s.), with a description of 
 the pledge, the date, and the name and address 
 of the person pawning the goods, and of the 
 owner, in a book, and must copy the entry on 
 the ticket ; all advances above 10s. must be en- 
 tered in aseparate bookand numbered, the num- 
 ber being marked on the ticket. 
 
 The pawnbroker must file a duplicate on a 
 pledge being redeemed, stating his profit. Pawn- 
 brokers receiving in pledge unfinished manufac- 
 tures or apparel, from the persons to whom they 
 are committed to be finished, forfeit double the 
 sum lent, and must restore the goods. On the 
 declaration of the proprietor of any goods,showing 
 just cause to presume them unlawfully pawned, 
 warrant may be granted by a justice'to search 
 for them, by breaking open doors, &c, and to 
 restore them to the owner. 
 
 There are provisions authorizing justices to 
 enforce restitution of pledges for loans under 
 £10, on tender of the sum and profits. Where 
 a ticket is destroyed or mislaid, the pawnbroker 
 may be compelled to give the owner a copy of 
 it, with a blank affidavit, which being filled up 
 by a justice, on evidence of ownership and the 
 party's solemn declaration, restores to him the 
 right to redeem the goods. 
 
 ■Whore it is proved to a justice that a pawn- 
 broker has embezzled or injured a pledge, or 
 sold it before the proper time, he may award 
 damages. 
 
 A pawnbroker not producing his books and 
 papers unmutilated when required by a magis- 
 trate, in consequence of any criminal or other 
 question, is liable to a penalty. Pawnbrokers 
 must not take pledges from persons intoxicated, 
 or from children under 12 years of age. There 
 Me also other provisions for the prevention of 
 fraudulent pledgings and other offences incident 
 to the nature of the transaction. 
 
 Information against pawnbrokers for offences 
 mu«t be given within twelve calendar months. 
 
 The following is the rate of profit or interest 
 which pawnbrokers are entitled to charge per 
 
 calendar month (a charge for one month being 
 due at any time before its expiry, but charges 
 for additional months not commencing until after 
 the expiry of seven days, and being to the ex- 
 tent of only one-half the profit, until after the 
 expiry of the first fourteen days). For 2s. 6d., 
 one halfpenny. For 5s., one penny. For Js. 6d., 
 three halfpence. For 10s., twopence. For 12s. 6d., 
 twopence halfpenny. For 15s., threepence. For 
 17s. 6d., threepence halfpenny. For a sum of 
 £1, fourpence ; and so on progressively and in 
 proportion for any sum not exceeding 40s. For 
 every sum exceeding 40s. and not exceeding 42s., 
 eightpence; and for every sum exceeding 42s. 
 and not exceeding £10, threepence to every 
 £1, and so on in proportion for any fractional 
 sum. Where any intermediate sum lent on a 
 pledge exceeds 2s. 6d. and does not exceed 40s., 
 a sum of fourpence may be charged in proportion 
 to each ,£1. Pawnbrokers must expose to sight 
 in their offices tables of these rates, and of the 
 rates charged for tickets as above. 
 
 Goods pawned are forfeited on the expiry of a 
 year, exclusive of the day of pawning. But it 
 has been held that the property is not transfer- 
 red, but that the pawnbroker merely has a right 
 to sell the article ; and consequently that, on a 
 claim after this period, with tender of principal 
 and interest, the property must be restored if 
 unsold. (Walter v. Smith , 5 Barn. Sf Aid. 439. ) 
 
 All pledges for sums above les. and not more 
 than £10, must be sold by auction, preparatory 
 to which they must be ex'posed to public view, 
 and advertised according to fixed regulations. 
 Pictures, prints, books, bronzes, statues, busts, 
 carvings in ivory and marble, cameos, intaglios, 
 musical, mathematical, and philosophical in- 
 struments, and china, must be sold in sales by 
 themselves, at some one of four periods in the 
 year, viz. on the first Mondays of January, 
 April, July, and October, and following days, 
 with the usual preliminaries, under penalty. If 
 the owner give notice before one witness to a 
 pawnbroker not to sell a pledge at the expiry of 
 a year, it must be kept, liable to the redemption 
 of the owner, for three months additional. Pawn- 
 brokers must keep accounts of such sales in a 
 specified shape, open to any person interested, 
 on payment of a penny. Pawnbrokers must not 
 purchase pledges except at the auctions. 
 
 PEAR, the well-known fruit of the Pyrus communis, is extensively cultivated in 
 this country, more particularly in Worcestershire, where it is made into perry. 
 " The fruit catalogue of the Horticultural Society contains above 600 varieties of 
 the pear ; and it is there observed, that the newly introduced Flemish kinds are of 
 much more importance than the greater part of the sorts which have been hitherto 
 cultivated in Great Britain, and when brought into use, will give quite a new fea- 
 ture to the dessert." ( Veg. Substances, vol. i. p. 234.) The quantity imported is 
 small. The timber of the pear-tree is light, smooth, and compact, and adapted for 
 carving, for picture-frames, and tool-handles. 
 
 PEARL (Fr. & Ger. Perle. Arab. Looloo. Pers. Mirwareed. Cyng. 
 Moottoo), a spherical concretion found inside of the shell of the Concha Margariti- 
 fera, a testaceous fish of the oyster kind. It consists of alternate concentric layers 
 
PEA 524 PEN 
 
 of membrane and carbonate of lime. The best are of a clear bright whiteness, free 
 from spot or stain, with the surface naturally smooth and glossy. The largest are 
 the most valuable. Those of a round form are preferred, but the larger pear-shaped 
 ones are esteemed for ear-rings. Seed-pearls are those of the smallest size. The 
 most extensive pearl-fisheries at present are those in the Gulf of Manaar in Ceylon, 
 where the finest are procured, and near Bahrein Island, in the Gulf of Persia. The 
 net revenue derived from the Ceylon fishery for the 9 years prior to 1 834, was £ 1 45,000 ; 
 in 1835 it produced £38,000. At Bahrein, the fishery, according to Lieutenant 
 Wellsted, employs in the season about 4300 boats. Pearls are also obtained at the 
 S. extremity of the Indian peninsula, in the Saluk islands, and in other parts of 
 the east. They were also formerly procured in various parts of the New World, 
 but the American fisheries are now of little importance. Pearls are likewise 
 found on the Algerine coast, and in some parts of Europe. In Britain, a coarse 
 kind may be got in some rivers, particularly the Tay, from a large sized muscle 
 ( Unio Margaritifera). The best pearl-oysters are generally found in water about 
 7 fathoms deep, and are procured by divers who remain under water scraping them 
 off rocks for 50 or 55 seconds at a time. A diver often brings up in his basket 150 
 oysters at a dip, but at other times not more than 5. The most valuable on record 
 are, one purchased by Tavernier at Catifa, in Arabia, the diameter of which was 
 rather more than half an inch, the length upwards of two inches, and the price 
 £110,000; and one obtained by Philip II. in 1587, from the island of Margarita, 
 off the Colombian coast, which weighed 250 carats, and was estimated at 150,000 
 dollars. The value of pearls, however, has now fallen, chiefly owing to the great 
 improvement which has taken place in preparing them artificially. The best imi- 
 tation ones are perhaps those made by a Frenchman named Jaquin, by covering 
 the inside of hollow glass beads with essence d'orient. Roman pearls are prepared 
 with the purest and finest alabaster. S 
 
 PEASE (Da. Mrter. Du. Erwten. Fr. Pois. Ger. Erbsen. It. Piselli. Por. 
 Ervilhas. Sp. Guisantes), the product of a well-known leguminous plant, of which 
 two species are commonly distinguished in this country, — the gray field pea (Pi- 
 sum arvense), grown extensively in some parts of England, and the only kind raised 
 in fields in Scotland ; and the white or yellow pea (P. Sativum), the species culti- 
 vated in gardens, but which is likewise extensively reared in fields in Middlesex, 
 Kent, and other English counties. Of these two species there are many varieties. 
 The soil best adapted for pease is a light or sandy loam of some depth, and in good 
 heart ; but they should not be repeated on the same ground in less than 10 or 12 
 years. Their produce is very uncertain ; none of our cultivated crops presents 
 such frequent failures. According to Professor Low, " 30 bushels an acre are held 
 to be a good crop in most districts of this country. Perhaps the average of the 
 kingdom does not exceed 20 bushels an acre." Pease are highly nutritious, and, 
 boiled with some animal fat, make an excellent food for hard-working men. The 
 garden varieties are esteemed as culinary vegetables in their season ; the others are 
 extensively used in feeding stock. [Corn.] S 
 
 PEAT, a kind of fuel, composed chiefly of the decayed fibres of mosses. 
 
 PECK, a British corn-measure, containing 2 Imp. gallons, or 9*08 Fr. litres. 
 
 PECUL, a Chinese weight equal 133g lbs., but in Java reckoned 136 lbs. 
 
 PEDLAR, or HAWKER, an itinerant dealer in small-wares. In England, 
 a pedlar is required (under a penalty of £50), to take out an annual license from 
 the stamp-office, costing £4 if he travel on foot or with horses alone, and £8 if he 
 travels with a horse or other beast bearing or drawing burden. Before receiving 
 a license, the applicant must produce a certificate of character from the parish 
 clergyman and two householders. The words " Licensed Hawker " must be placed 
 conspicuously on his pack, cart, and handbills (50 Geo. III. c. 41, and 1 & 2 Wm. 
 IV. c. 22, § 75). In Scotland, the regulating act is 55 Geo. III. c. 71. A hawker 
 is prohibited, by 48 Geo. III. c. 84, § 7, from selling tea, foreign spirits, tobacco, 
 or snuff. 
 
 PELLITORY (Anthemis Pyrethrum), a plant cultivated in Germany in Thu- 
 ringia, and near Magdeburg, for its root, which is used in medicine as a masticatory 
 and stimulant. The root is without smell, and when dry it is some inches long, 
 tough, fibrous, of the thickness of a quill, externally gray, internally white. 
 
 PEN ANG, PULO-PEN ANG, or PRINCE OF WALES ISLAND, a settlement 
 of the East India Company, on the W. coast of the Malayan Peninsula. Area, 130 
 sq. miles. Population, 40,000, chiefly Malays and Chinese. Georgetown, the port, 
 pop. 20,000, is situate in lat. 5° 25' N. and long. 100° 23' E. A resident is stationed 
 here, subordinate to the one at Singapore. S 
 
PEN 525 PEP 
 
 The greater part of the island is mountainous and steril, or covered with forests. A portion of 
 the south and of the eastern parts is level and cultivated. The seasons are irregular. The wet sea- 
 Fon is generallv from September to November ; coldest months, December and January ; 1 
 June and July. Fahrenheit ranges in Georgetown from 70J to 90, but considerably lower on the 
 hills. The chief productions are spices, especially pepper and fruits ; and the fisheries are exten- 
 sive. This settlement was formed in 1786 ; and from its position, salubrity, and the abundance 
 of provisions, was found useful during the war as a place of resort for our shipping : it is at present 
 visited bv vessels proceeding from India and Arabia to China. It was formerly an important 
 emporium for the trade with the numerous petty and semi-barbarous states in the Eastern Seas ; 
 but of late it has been supplanted by Singapore. It is now chiefly used as an entrepot for the 
 produce of the countries in its own neighbourhood, in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, — the 
 native merchants receiving in exchange British and Indian goods. It is supplied with rice from 
 Bengal, Acheen, and the Queda territory. In the year 1835-36 the imports were valued at 
 £411,709, and the exports at £420,675. For measures, weights, and money, see Malacca. 
 
 Opposite to Penang, on the Malay Peninsula, is the British province of Wellesley, extending 
 about 30 miles along the coast, and from 6 to 10 miles inland. Pop. in 1836, 47,555. The sugar- 
 cane is here extensively cultivated by Chinese settlers. 
 
 PENCIL MANUFACTURE. The pencils of the finest quality are made from 
 plumbago or black-lead, procured in Borrowdale mine, about nine miles from Kes- 
 wick, in Cumberland. The produce of this mine, which belongs to a company, is 
 periodically despatched to their warehouse in Essex Street, Strand, London, con- 
 tiguous to which their " lead sales " are held on the first Monday of every month. 
 The best pencils are cut out by a saw from sound pieces of plumbago, previously 
 calcined in close vessels at a bright red heat. No other lead is considered equal to 
 that of Borrowdale, though its quality is not uniform, but an inferior sort, imported 
 from Mexico and Ceylon, is used for secondary pencils ; and more common ones 
 are now largely made from a composition of plumbago powder, lamp-black, and 
 clay. The manufacturers who enjoy the highest reputation are, Banks, Forster, 
 & Co., and Airey, of Keswick ; and Mordan & Co., and Brookman & Langdon, of 
 London. 
 
 PENNY, the most ancient British coin, was at first composed of silver, and 
 minted with a deep cross. When broken into two parts, each was called a half- 
 penny, and when into four, each was called a fourth-thing, or farthing. Pennies 
 are still minted in silver, but those in general circulation have been for a long time 
 made of copper. [Coin.] 
 
 PENS are either derived from the quills of fowls, or fabricated from steel. Quills 
 fitted for writing may be obtained from many birds, but the best are those of the 
 goose, the only kind used in large quantities. Of these, 5 are obtained from each 
 wing, and 20 may be procured from each bird during the year. They are arranged 
 by the quill-dresser into " Firsts " called Pinions, " Seconds," " Thirds" (the largest 
 and most valuable) ; and the fourth and fifth quills are both known by the name of 
 " Fourths " or " Flags." To remove their membranous skin and natural softness 
 and toughness, so as to fit them for writing, different means are followed in different 
 countries. In Britain they are now generally " dressed " by the process of duching, 
 which is performed by introducing the quill for a moment into a redhot earthen- 
 ware retort, and then passing it quickly between a blunt knife and heated plate, 
 thus hardening it and freeing it from skin. They are then tied up in bundles of 25 
 each for market. The British and Irish are inferior to those brought from the 
 Continent, especially from Riga and Hamburg. In 1841, the number of foreign 
 quills entered for consumption was, 18,000,000. 
 
 Steel-pens were little used until 1830, when their rigidity was modified by Mr 
 Perry, by introducing apertures between the shoulder and the point ; other improve- 
 ments have been since made by him, and by Messrs Mordan, Gillott, and others ; 
 and the quantity used in this country is now very considerable, besides which, great 
 numbers are exported. The total quantity of steel employed in this manufacture 
 has been estimated at 120 tons, from which upwards of 200,000,000 pens are pro- 
 duced. One Birmingham manufacturer employed in 1838 no fewer than 300 per- 
 sons in making steel-pens. They are besides extensively manufactured in London 
 and Sheffield. There are many kinds, but the common " three-slit pen " has long 
 been and still is a favourite. When first introduced, steel-pens were as high as 
 88. a-gross ; they afterwards fell to 4s., and now they are produced at Birmingham 
 at fourpence a-gross ! 
 
 PEPPER, a name given to several aromatic berries or fruits extensively used 
 as condiments. Four different kinds are distinguished in commerce : black pepper, 
 long pepper, Cayenne pepper, and Guinea pepper. 
 
 Br.ACK Pepper ( Du. Peper. Fr. Poivre. Ger. Sehwartze P/effer. It. Pepe nero. Por. Pimentn. 
 Pp. Pimienta. Hind. Gol-mirch. Pers. Tilfil seeah), the most important of all spices, is the pro- 
 duct of a slender climbing-plant or vine (Piper nf//rum\ extensively cultivated in Malabar, in 
 India ; Sumatra, particularly the W. coast, and otlier islands in thelndian Archipelago ; Siain, 
 
PER 520 PER 
 
 and Malacca. The best is that of Malabar. The plants begin to bear in their fourth year, arc 
 prime in their seventh, and gradually decline about their tenth year. Generally, the culture is not 
 difficult, and two crops are yielded annually ; but the produce is subject to great fluctuations. The 
 berries are produced in clusters, and are gathered before ripening. They are at first of a bright 
 red colour, but, by drying in the sun, become black and corrugated on the surface : taste, hot and 
 fiery ; odour, slightly aromatic. The largest, heaviest, and least shrivelled are the best. Pepper 
 sold ground is sometimes adulterated with the powder of the husks of mustard-seeds, or burnt 
 crusts ; and Dr Paris states, that there are artificial berries, which may be detected by their 
 crumbling when immersed in water. " White pepper," the fruit of the same plant, gathered after 
 it is fully ripe, and freed of its dark coat by maceration in water, is smooth on the surface, and 
 milder than black pepper. It is little used. 
 
 Lovo Pepper (Fr. Poivre long. Ger. Lange Pfeffer. It. Pepe lungo), is also the product of a 
 climbing-plant (P. longum), abundant in the E. Indies. The berries are small, and disposed in 
 short, dense, terminal' spikes. They are gathered unripe and dried, when they become of a dark- 
 gray colour. Their odour is faintly aromatic ; but in taste they are exceeding hot. 
 
 Cayenne Pepper (Fr. Poivre d' Espagne. Ger. Spanischer Pfeffer. It. Pepervne commune), 
 is a mixture of the powder of the dried pods of different species of Capsicum, more especially of the 
 C.fruttscens [Chillies], the C. annuum, or Spanish pepper, and the ft baccatum, or bird pepper, 
 natives of the East and West Indies and South America. It is brought to England in the state of 
 powder from the West Indies. In taste it is very fiery and acrimonious ; its colour is reddish. It 
 is employed in medicine, but is chiefly used as a stimulating condiment, being an essential ingre- 
 dient in curry-powder. 
 
 Guinea Pepper consists of the aromatic seeds of two species of Amomum (A. grana Paradisi, 
 and A. grandiflorum) , found on the W. coast of Africa, and imported into Britain from Sierra 
 Leone and other places. They are powerfully stimulant and cordial, and are used for the same 
 purposes as cardamoms. 
 
 The trade in the three last is of little importance compared with that in black 
 pepper, which has formed one of the staples of East India commerce from a remote 
 period. This trade has greatly benefited by the opening up of the Company's 
 monopoly ; the price in London (in bond) having been reduced from upwards of Is. 
 per lb. to about 4d. The consumption has also been increased considerably in 
 this country by a reduction of the extravagant duties with which the commodity 
 was burdened during the late war. In 1826, the duty per lb. was lowered from 
 2s. 6d. to Is. ; and the consumption, which had previously been only about 1,300,000 
 lbs. a-year, was advanced, in 1834, to 2,457,020 lbs. A further reduction of duty 
 to 6d. per lb. was made in 1837; but this has not been followed by the increase an- 
 ticipated, the consumption in 1841 not having exceeded 2,750,798 lbs. The imports 
 vary greatly; the amounts in 1838, 1839, 1840, and 1841, having been respectively 
 3,682,342 lbs., 9,798,059 lbs., 5,927,959 lbs., and 12,928,758 lbs. Excepting small 
 quantities brought direct from Sumatra and other Indian islands, and Western 
 Africa, almost the whole is imported from the territories of the East India Com- 
 pany. The surplus over our own consumption is re-exported to all parts of Europe, 
 the north of Africa, America, and Australia. 
 
 Different estimates have been formed as to the extent in which pepper is produced. 
 The latest is probably that furnished, in 1840, by Mr De H. Larpent^ chairman of the 
 East India Association, to the Lords' Committee, on the petition of the East India 
 Company. According to that gentleman, " pepper is produced in Sumatra and the 
 Archipelago to the extent of 35,000,000 lbs. ; and Malabar, which is our own (sup- 
 posing India to be all one country), produces from 15,000,000 lbs. to 20,000,000 lbs." 
 {Par. Paper, 1840, No. 353, Q. 403.) [Pimento.] S 
 
 PERMIT — Excise. Each statute imposing an excise duty generally specifies 
 a certain limit as to quantity, beyond which the commodity in question cannot be 
 conveyed from place to place without a permit from an officer of excise. The gen- 
 eral system of granting permits is regulated by 2 Wm. IV. c. ]6. No officer can 
 grant one until a request note be presented to him. The note must be signed 
 by the person desiring the permit, or by his clerk or servant, and must contain the 
 date of requesting, the places from and to which the commodity is to be removed, 
 and the names and designations of the sender and receiver. When the party de- 
 siring the permit is not licensed to deal in the commodity, he must satisfy the 
 commissioners of excise, or the collector or supervisor of the district, that all duties 
 have been paid ; and, where the goods are not merely transferred to other premises 
 of his own, but are conveyed to another person, he must make a declaration that 
 they have not been sold. Exciseable commodities removed without permit are 
 forfeited, and every person concerned in the removal is liable to a penalty of £200. 
 The permit specifies a time within which it is available, and if not used within 
 that time, it does not protect the goods from seizure on their removal. It is open, 
 however, to prove to the court that the delay was occasioned purely by accident. 
 A permit not used must be returned ; and when there is no return, if the officer, 
 on taking an account, find no decrease of stock corresponding to the permit, the 
 
PER "07 PER 
 
 difference is forfeited. There can be no action for tne price of exciseable commo- 
 dities delivered without a permit. 
 
 PERRY, the fermented juice or wine of the pear. In this country, it is chiefly 
 made in Worcestershire. 
 
 PERSIA (Pers. Iran), a kingdom in Asia, extending from 26° to 39° N. lat., 
 and from 44° to 62° E. long., and bounded N. by the Russian Empire, Caspian Sea, 
 and Tartary ; E. by Afghanistan and Beloochistan ; S. by the Persian Gulf ; and W. 
 by the Turkish Empire. Area, 450,000 sq. miles. Population vaguely estimated at 
 9,000,000, composed chiefly of Mohammedans of the Shiite sect. The kingdom is 
 divided into 13 provinces, which are subdivided into districts. Capital, Teheran ; pop. 
 70,000. The government is a military despotism, vested in a sovereign under the 
 title of shah. 
 
 The country exhibits sreat diversities of surface, climate, and productions. Its most remarkable 
 features are its chains of rocky mountains, — its long, arid, riverless valleys, — and still more ex- 
 tensive salt or sandy deserts. In the N. and E. parts it is cold, mountainous, and barren ; in the 
 middle parts, sandy and desert; in the W. and S. it is warm and fertile ; and " dreariness, soli- 
 tude, and heat " are, according to Morier, the chief characteristics of the shores of the Persian 
 Gulf. The greater portion is devoted to pasturage, on which are reared horses, sheep, and goats. 
 The horses, stronger and more serviceable than the Arabian, are highly esteemed. The sheep are 
 of the long-tailed species, producing however very fine wool ; while that of the goats of Kerman 
 I many of the qualities so much esteemed in the Cashmere variety. The fruits are of 
 peculiar excellence ; and the wine of Shiraz is celebrated throughout the east. The mulberry also 
 grows in such abundance, especially in the north, as to render silk the great staple of the king- 
 dom. The grains cultivated are chiefly those of Europe. The other vegetable productions are 
 cotton, tobacco, sugar, drugs, and dye-stuffs. The chief mineral products are copper, iron, salt, 
 bitumen, and naphtha. 
 
 In former times Persia was distinguished for the manufacture of all the fabrics suited to the 
 ostentatious taste of oriental countries ; and these manufactures are, though to a limited extent, 
 still in existence. The other articles made consist chiefly of arms, earthenware, leather, paper, 
 and jewellery. 
 
 The commerce of Persia has at no time been considerable. Besides insecurity of property, it 
 has to contend with various natural obstacles,— roads have scarcely ever existed, navigable rivers 
 are unknown, and the seaports are few and unimportant. The only means of transport is on the 
 hacks of camels, mules, or small horses ; hence the price of all commodities becomes greatly en- 
 hanced by the expense of carriage. The principal raw exports are silk, cotton, tobacco, rice and 
 grain, dried fruits, sulphur, horses, wax, and gall-nuts; and the amount of the three first might 
 be greatly extended. Of manufactured goods Persia sends out only a few, — almost entirely to 
 Russia, — consisting of a considerable quantity of silk and cotton stuffs, with some gold and silver 
 brocade. Besides Russia, the principal intercourse is with Turkey, Bagdad, Arabia, the Usbecks 
 and Turkomans on their northern frontier, and India. In dealing with all these countries except 
 the last, the balance of trade is in favour of Persia, and the excess of her exports is returned in 
 bullion (composed of ducats, dollars, German crowns, and silver rubles), which is chiefly trans- 
 ported to India in return for the large surplus produce brought thence annually either by way of 
 Bushire or of Cabul to Herat and Yezd, and destined to supply the countries towards the west. 
 The total imports are said to exceed in value £3,000,000. 
 
 British manufactures are sought after to an extent only limited by the means of the purchasers. 
 Regarding English cloth — a leading import — Lieutenant Burnes states : — " When I was in Persia 
 in the end of 1832, the colours most in request were Oxford blue, blue, and brown ; next year they 
 may change to red and gray ; but it may be remarked that if dark coloured they generally sell 
 best. The outer garment of most respectable persons is made of broadcloth; and a cheap kind 
 that will keep its colour is the best for export. No high-priced goods of any description should 
 ever be sent into these countries." The British trade by way of the Black Sea and the Port of Tre- 
 bizond, and thence overland by Ba'i'bout, Erzeroum and Tabriz, is somewhat on the increase ; 
 though cramped by the impoverished state of the people, and by the large increase of the exports 
 of Turkish raw silk from Brusa to England, which checks the trade in Persian silk. The most 
 important part is, however, conducted at Bushire, which, since the decline of Gombroon, has 
 become the chief emporium for the maritime commerce of Persia. 
 
 Bushire is situate on the Persian Gulf, in lat. 29° C N., long. 50° 52' E. ; pop. 15,000. It is a 
 mean and dirty town, built on the northern extremity of a sandy peninsula. The anchorage con- 
 sists of an outer and inner road ; the former is not very safe, but the latter, distant about 2J mile3 
 from the town, in 4J fathoms mud, is free from danger. Bushire is frequented by ships from all 
 parts of India ; and her merchants supply the greater part of Persia with Indian and European 
 commodities. From Bombay, Bengal, Muscat, and other places, are imported cotton, woollen, 
 and silk goods, shawls, hardware, watches, and jewellery, indigo, steel, lead, iron, red lead, zinc, 
 tin, bamboos, cardamoms, cloves, cinnamon, china ware, cassia buds, coffee, camphor, ginger, 
 musk, nutmegs, pepper, sugar, sugar-candy, turmeric, and tobacco. The principal returns are 
 bullion and silk, besides which there are exported drugs of various kinds, sheep's and goat's wool, 
 Cashmere shawls, carpets, rose water, ottar of roses, Shiraz wine, &c. 
 
 MEASURES, WEIGHTS, MON'EY, REVENUE, &C. 
 
 The Measures and Weights vary not only in jgage or fursoch, the space walked over by ahorse 
 different places, but also according to the pur- in an hour, estimated by travellers at *4J Imp. 
 poses for which they are employed. The com- 1 miles ; great distances are reckoned by the day's 
 mon cubit or gtiz = 25 Imp. inches; the royal journey of a caravan, about 30 miles, 
 guz = 374 Imp. inches; the Tabriz archin =*44 j The artaba corn measure, of 25 capichas, 50 
 Imp. inches. The league or parasang = , x n th of chenicas, or 200 sextarios, = 2 Winchester, or 
 a degree of the equator, or 3J Imp. miles nearly ; ' 1-039 Imp. bushel nearly, 
 but distances are commonly measured by the au- ' The principal commercial weight is the bat- 
 
PER 528 PER 
 
 man, of which there are innumerable varieties : 
 the batman of Tabriz of 6 rattels, 300 derhams, 
 or o'OO miscals = 6*34 lbs. avoird. ; 2 batmans of 
 Tabriz = 1 batman of Shiraz. Gold and silver 
 are weighed by the derham =150 troy grains 
 nearly ; but the miscal or J derham of Bushire is 
 only 714 troy grains, or about 3 dwts. The abas, 
 pearl weight, = 2£ troy grains. 
 
 Money. — The common integer of account is the 
 toman, an imaginary money, divided into 8 reals, 
 10 sahib-karauns, 20 panabats, 50 abassis, 100 
 mamoodis, 200 shahies, or 10,000 altens : in some 
 places accounts are kept in piastres of 4 shahies 
 or 40 paras. 50 piastres = 1 toman of account = 
 10s. sterling. The purse is 50 tomans, about 
 £25. 
 
 The coins are too variable to admit of being 
 
 coins are, besides, in circulation, chiefly ducats, 
 Spanish and German dollars, and Russian rubles, 
 or manets ; the latter current only in the districts 
 bordering on Turkey and Russia. Large pay- 
 ments are generally made by weight. 
 
 The Public Revenue is estimated by Mr Fraser 
 at £1,500,000, derived from regular and irregular 
 taxes, annual presents, fines, confiscations, and 
 rent of crown lands and buildings. 
 
 A Treaty of Commerce with Britain was con- 
 cluded October 28, 1841. 
 
 Art. 1. " The merchants of the two mighty 
 states " are reciprocally allowed to buy and sell 
 in any part ; and on the goods which they im- 
 port, customs duties shall be levied once for all 
 on entering, and on exports at the time of going 
 out; the amount of each being that levied on 
 
 reduced to any certain or uniform standards ; the i merchandise of the most favoured European na- 
 principal are, — in gold, the mahomet-shahie, j tions. 
 
 worth about 10s. 6d., and the bijaclie, 9s.; in Art. 2. Britain, besides the East India Co.'s 
 silver, the sahib-karaun, and the panabat ; gold i resident at Bushire, is allowed to have consuls 
 tomans and silver rupees of different values also | only at Teheran and Tabriz. Persia is to have 
 circulate near the seacoast. A variety of foreign 1 consuls at Bombay and London. 
 
 PERSIAN, a plain silken fabric, exceedingly flimsy in texture. 
 
 PERSONAL PROTECTION, in the Bankrupt Law of Scotland, is a judicial 
 act, having the effect of shielding a debtor from arrest for civil debt. It is a prero- 
 gative of the Court of Session, and was formerly an act of judicial discretion. Al- 
 though now granted as a matter of routine, in virtue of statutory regulations, it is 
 still in the power of the court to withhold it on cause shown. By the Sequestra- 
 tion Act (2 & 3 Vict. c. 41), the Lord Ordinary, who awards sequestration, grants 
 a warrant of protection, to endure till the meeting for electing the trustee (§ 13). 
 At that meeting, or the meeting after the bankrupt's examination, or at any special 
 meeting for the purpose, a majority in number and value of the creditors present 
 may resolve to authorize the trustee to apply for a renewal of the protection (§ 58). 
 [Sequestration.] By the Cessio Bonorum Act (6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 56, § 15), the 
 Court of Session and the Sheriff are respectively empowered, in cases before them, 
 on proof of the statutory notices to the creditors, to grant warrant to liberate the 
 debtor if he is in prison, and if he is at large to grant him personal protection, on 
 his lodging with the clerk of court " a bond, with a sufficient cautioner, binding 
 themselves that he shall attend all diets of court whenever required, under such 
 penalty as may be reasonable, and which, if forfeited, shall be divided among the 
 creditors." [Cessio Bonorum.] 
 
 PERU extends 1680 miles along the W. coast of S. America, from lat. 21° 28' S. 
 to lat. 3° 30' N. Boundaries, N. Ecuador ; E. Brazil and Bolivia ; S. Bolivia ; 
 W. Pacific Ocean. Area, 485,000 sq. miles. Population, 1,800,000, of which 240,820 
 are Spanish Creoles, the rest Mestizoes and Indians. Capital, Lima ; pop. 70,000. 
 Government, republican ; the legislative body consists of a senate and house of 
 representatives ; the executive is vested in a president, assisted by a ministry and 
 a council of state. S 
 
 Peru is naturally divided into three regions, which differ greatly in climate and productions. 
 1. The " Valles," or coast region, covering 92,600 sq. miles, the greater part sandy or stony 
 wastes, but having the valleys with which it is furrowed rich and well cultivated. The climate 
 is dry, moderately warm, and very healthy; and the European cerealia, maize, rice, and the 
 sugar-cane, are cultivated ; also the fruits of S. Europe, including the vine, from the produce of 
 which both wine and brandy are manufactured. Nitrate of soda abounds in the southern districts, 
 and salt is procured on the shore. 
 
 2. The " Montana," or region of the Andes, extends about 205,000 sq. miles; its eastern half 
 is covered with forests, but the western mountains are nearly bare. Several of the valleys, par- 
 ticularly that of the Rio Jauja, are fertile and moderately well cultivated. The cerealia and fruits of 
 Europe are grown in the higher districts, and tropical products, including coca, in the valleys ; while 
 in the eastern forests, cinchona bark, copaiba, copal, and other drugs are procured. On the pastures of 
 the table lands, many cattle, horses, and mules are reared ; also llamas, used as beasts of burden on 
 the high ridges. This region abounds in minerals, particularly silver, the mines of which, at Pasco 
 and Gualgayoc, are the richest in S. America. [Bullion.] Quicksilver is obtained at Huan- 
 cavelica, and gold occurs in several streams ; iron, lead, copper, and brimstone are also found. 
 
 3. The " Eastern Plains," extending 187,<WO sq. miles, consist of forests alternating in some 
 places with savannas; the whole uncultivated ; though, as far as known, this is the most fertile 
 region of Peru. In the forests the Indians procure vanilla, sarsaparilla, copaiba, copal, caoutchouc, 
 and other gums and resins, which are sent to the Brazilian settlements on the Amazon. 
 
 Manufactures can scarcely be said to exist ; and inland trade is impeded by the mountainous 
 nature of the country, and the want of carriage roads, a defect not supplied by navigable rivers. 
 But the maritime commerce is considerable, embracing, besides that proper to the country, the 
 greater part of that of Bolivia, of which Arica and the other southern ports of Peru are the 
 natural outlets. An active intercourse is maintained with the adjoining maritime states, to which 
 
TER 5J0 PER 
 
 sugar, wine, brandy, ntt, and other commodities are sent ; but the most important is that with 
 Europe and the United States, to which Peruvian and Bolivian produce were exported in 1838 to 
 the amount (exclusive of $259,823 of Colombian and Central American produce), of $8, 1 '61, 593, or 
 £1,612,318. Of this, $6,542,062, or £1,308,412, consisted of bullion; whereof, $1,718,206 were 
 shipped from Bolivia, and $4,823,856 from Peru: the remainder was made up of 31,008 
 quintals wool, in value £93,485; 30,412 quintals cotton, £72,043; 129,610 quintals nitrate 
 of soda, shipped wholly from Iquique, £51 ,844 ; besides 5479 quintals bark ; 2742 dozen chinchilla 
 skins ; 12,073 quintals copper ore, or barillas ; 8155 hides ; 14,900 quintals sugar ; and 6256 quin- 
 tals tin. The exports also embraced cinchona, sarsaparilla, and other drugs. About two-thirds 
 of the bullion, and the great bulk of the other articles, were sent to Britain ; the remainder mostly 
 to the United States and France. 
 
 The imports consist chiefly of British manufactures, mostly cottons, but embracing likewise 
 considerable quantities of woollens, linens, silks, and hardware ; the whole (as valued in Britain), 
 amounting, 1838, 1839, and 1840, respectively, to £412,195, £635,058, and £799,991 ; whkh was 
 exclusive of quicksilv er and other foreign goods reshipped from Britain. A variety of manufactured 
 articles are likewise brought from the United States and France. 
 
 Ports.— CaUao, distant 6 miles from Lima, of which it is the port, lies on the N. side of a tongue 
 of land, in lat. 12° 4' S., long. 77° 14' W. It is well fortified; but the houses are mean-looking. 
 The roadstead is the best on the Peruvian coast ; and there is a rude pier accessible to large vessels. 
 In 1839, 60,749 tons of shipping entered, including 11,364 tons British. 
 
 Arica, farther S., in lat. 13° 28' S., long. 70° 24' W., is,- owing to a heavy surf, of difficult and 
 sometimes impracticable access, except on the inflated seal-skin floats or balsas of the natives. It 
 is, notwithstanding, a rising port, being the outlet of a rich mineral district, as well as the place 
 whence the Bolivians receive European manufactures. About 25,000 tons of shipping enter an- 
 nually, nearly one-half British. 
 
 Payta, Lambayeque, Pisco, Yslay, and Iquique, are the chief other ports. 
 Measures, Weights, Money, Finances, &c 
 
 Measures and Weights, same as Spain. 1 78 per cent. The interest, 6 per cent, per an- 
 
 Money. — The integer of account is the dollar ! num, rests unpaid from October 1 , 1K25. 
 of 8 reals, usually estimated in Peru, in conver-| A Treaty with Britain, June 5, 1837, provides 
 sions into sterling, at 4s. The Peruvian dollar is for reciprocal protection to trade ; places the two 
 coined at the rate of 8i to the marc of silver, of states mutually on the footing of the most favour- 
 
 the standard of H> dwts. 20 grains. 
 
 Finances. — The revenue is commonlv stated at 
 $5,000,000, or £1,000,000, but we have no recent 
 account of it, or of the domestic debt. The foreign 
 
 ed nations ; exempts the subjects of the one coun- 
 try residing in the otheT from all compulsory 
 military service, and in the event of war, is to 
 allow them 6 months to wind up accounts ; and 
 
 debt consists of three British loans, — £450,000, contains a great variety of other regulations, for 
 contracted in 1822, at 88 per cent. ; £750,000 in ! which see HertsleVs Treaties, vol. v. p. 383. 
 1824, at 82 per cent ; and £616,000 in 1825, at| 
 
 PERUVIAN or CINCHONA BARK, a celebrated medicine obtained from 
 a genus of trees (Cinchona) confined to the lofty Cordilleras of the Andes in 
 S. America, between La Paz, in about 22° S. lat. and Santa Martha, near 10° N. 
 lat. Its febrifuge powers are said to have been made known in Europe in 1640, by 
 a Countess Cinchona, wife of the viceroy in Lima, who had been cured by it. The 
 bark i3 collected in the forests in the dry season, between September and Novem- 
 ber, and sent in bundles in the green state to the nearest inhabited place, where it 
 is dried in the sun, the utmost care being requisite to protect it from wet, as even 
 a few hours' dew falling on the half-dried bark will give to the interior a blackish 
 appearance, and greatly lessen its value. The finest is said to come from single 
 trees growing in the coldest and most elevated spots, but there are many varieties; 
 and as mixtures and adulterations are also common, great experience is necessary 
 to select the finer kinds. Of these, the four following are distinguished by British 
 druggists. 
 
 1. Crown Bark (Sp. Cascarilla fina de Uritusinga), the produce of the C. Condaminea of 
 Humboldt, found near Loxa, is quilled, straight, 6 to 15 inches long, from the size of a crow-quill 
 to that of the thumb in diameter, and in thickness from l-30th to l-6th of an inch. Epidermis 
 entire, with external surface longitudinally furrowed, and crossed with fissures ; it presents vari- 
 ous tints of gray, irregularly covered with minute white lichens. Inner surface and powder of a 
 cinnamon brown colour. Taste, bitter, somewhat acid, aromatic, and astringent; odour, faint, 
 peculiar, and aromatic. The quills of middle size are preferred. 
 
 2. Gray Bark (Sp. Cascarilla provinziana), also called silver bark, and Huanaco bark, 
 procured from the C. Scrobiculata of Humboldt, is exported from Lima. It occurs in quills larger 
 than the preceding, less furrowed, more uniformly grayish-white, inside redder, fracture closer 
 and more resinous ; epidermis entire. Taste and odour nearly identical with crown bark. It is a 
 superior kind, but it comes mixed with ash-bark and rusty bark. 
 
 3. Yellow Bark (Sp. Cascarilla Calisaya), the source of Qutnine, is shipped at Arica, 
 but its origin is doubtful. It occurs partly quilled and partly flat. The quills, larger than the 
 crown and gray, are 9 to 15 inches long, 1 to 2 inches in diameter, and l-8th to l-3d inch thick ; 
 generally single, with the epidermis wrinkled longitudinally, and with transverse fissures ; rough; 
 >rrayish-brown, mottled with lichens. Inner surface smooth, and yellower than the preceding 
 kinds. Transverse fracture close but splintery. Taste and odour stronger than crown. The flat 
 pieces, often stripped of their epidermis, are 8 to 18 inches long, and 1 to 4 inches broad. Good flat 
 bark is preferred to the quilled ; and the finest are the middle-sized pieces, dense and close in 
 texture. Cuzco bark and Orange bark are sometimes substituted for this kind. 
 
 4. Red Bark (Sp. Cascarilla Colorado), also of unknown origin, consists sometimes of quilled, 
 but more commonly of flattish pieces, from 2 inches to 2 feet long, 1 to 5 inches broad, and i to J 
 
 2L 
 
PET 530 PHI 
 
 inch thick ; generally covered with the epidermis, which is rough, wrinkled, little fissured, reddish- 
 brown, with grayish" efflorescence in the hollows, from lichens. Taste very bitter and astringent. 
 The quills, similar in size to those of yellow bark, are paler than the flat pieces. Red bark is 
 scarce, dear, and rarely seen genuine. 
 
 The inferior, yet still genuine kinds, are chiefly, — Ash-bark, of unknown origin, mostly used 
 for adulterating crown : Rusty bark, imported from Lima, little esteemed, and in Britain pur- 
 chased only for the German market : White Loxa bark differs little from Rusty : Hard Cartha- 
 gena bark, and Woody Carthagena bark, both quilled and flat, are little valued : Cuzco bark, a 
 good species, very bitter, is rare in the English trade : and Orange bark of Bogota, which re- 
 sembles yellow bark, but is spongy, and feebly bitter ; it is rare in Europe. Pale bark is an old 
 vague commercial term applied to inferior barks. The spurious barks used in adulterations 
 are chiefly species of Exostemma, Buena, and Strychnos. For farther details, we refer to Dr 
 Christison's Dispensatory, the work chiefly used in compiling this article. 
 
 Cinchona bark is brought to the United Kingdom in chests or serons, from Chili and Peru. The 
 quantity imported varies greatly from one year to another ; but on an average of the five years to 
 1840, it amounted to nearly 280,000 lbs., of which about 90,000 lbn. were entered for home con- 
 sumption, and the rest re-exported to the Continent. 
 
 PETROLEUM, a bituminous kind of mineral oil : at the usual temperature it 
 is rather thicker than common tar, and has a strong disagreeable odour. When 
 exposed to the air it thickens, and passes into a species of bitumen. An oil similar 
 to naphtha is obtained from it by distillation. It is principally found in coal dis- 
 tricts. Its chief localities in this country are, Ormskirk in Lancashire, Coal Port 
 near Colebrookdale, and Pomona, one of the Orkney Isles. In Asia it is found 
 plentifully, and its uses to the inhabitants are important : from Mosul to Bagdad 
 it is used instead of oil for lamps ; when mixed with earth or ashes it serves for fuel. 
 
 PEWTER is commonly made of 4 parts of tin and 1 of lead ; but a fine kind 
 is said to consist of tin mixed only with a little antimony and copper. It is 
 used in the manufacture of drinking-vessels ; formerly plates and dishes were also 
 made of this alloy. 
 
 PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, an extensive group in the N. E. extremity of the 
 Indian Archipelago, betwixt lat. 5° and 20° N., and long. 120° and 126° E. The 
 chief islands are Luzon or Luconia, Mindoro, Panay, Negros, Masbate, Zebu, Bohol, 
 Leyte, Samar, and Mindanao. The whole are claimed by Spain; but several of them 
 are independent.. Population subject to that kingdom, in 1837, .3,202,760, of which 
 2,264,807 were in Luzon ; chiefly Papua negroes, Malays, and other Eastern tribes, 
 with about 3000 Europeans. The government is vested in a captain-general, who 
 has extensive powers. These islands have been possessed by Spain since 1564. 
 They were taken by the British in 1762, but restored in 1764. S 
 
 Few countries are more favoured as to soil and climate than the Philippines. The only disad- 
 vantages under which they labour are a very frequent exposure to tornadoes and typhoons, and a 
 somewhat excessive moisture. The rainy and windy season generally lasts from May until Sep- 
 tember, sometimes so late as the beginning of December : in June and July, the winds sometimes 
 blow with incredible fury in the N. part of Luzon. Notwithstanding their tropical latitude, the 
 height of their mountains and sea-breezes prevent the heat from being oppressively severe ; and 
 as a general spring continues a large proportion of the year, if the atmosphere were less moist, 
 the climate would be unobjectionable. To this redundant moisture, however, must be attributed 
 the great luxuriance of the country,— the trees being always covered with leaves and the, soil with 
 vegetation. The islands are capable of producing all colonial commodities. In several places 
 there are mines of gold and iron, but they are not worked. The chief object of cultivation is rice, 
 which, with fish, forms the ordinary food of the natives. The other products resemble those of 
 tropical countries in general, — including sugar, chiefly cultivated in the plain of Pampanga in 
 Luzon, coffee, and tobacco of superior quality, indigo, and a variety of commodities peculiar to 
 the Eastern Islands ; timber, well adapted for shipbuilding, is found in Luzon, also damar 
 and a species of native hemp. Of late years the demand for opium in China has led to the intro- 
 duction and cultivation of the poppy, for which the soil is well adapted. The cattle and horses 
 introduced by the Spaniards have multiplied so much that thev run wild among the mountains, 
 and are destroyed in large numbers for the hides. Fish abound'in the bays and creeks. 
 
 The geographical position of the Philippines is most favourable for commercial intercourse with 
 India, America, Australia, and China. Their vicinity to China is indeed their most distinctive 
 peculiarity, the E. end of Luzon being little more than 400 miles distant from the provinces of 
 Fokien and Canton. This proximity has at different times excited the jealousy of the Chinese, and 
 would alarm them still more if the Spaniards displayed energy and activity. 
 
 Manilla, the capital, and commercial emporium of the Philippines, lies in lat. 14° 35' N., long. 
 121° 2' E., in the E. corner of an extensive bay, on the S. W. coast of Luzon. It stands on the banks 
 of the river Pasig, which is here about as broad as the Thames at Vauxhall. There is a bar at 
 the entrance, over which there are only 12 feet of water at spring-tides, and ships anchorin roads 
 about 1J mile from the shore, except duiing the S. W. monsoon, from April to November, when 
 they take shelter in Carite, a small port 3 leagues S. of Manilla. Population, including the native 
 suburbs, 120,000. The foreign trade, before the revolution in Spanish America, was restricted to 
 one galleon annually to Acapufco, but since that event it has been thrown open to other nations, 
 and materially increased by intercourse with the British and Americans. The staple exports to 
 the European market are sugar, indigo, rum, cigars, hemp, hides, cotton-wool, and cassia ; and to 
 China, rice, sapan-wood, edible birds' nests, and tripang. Small parcels of coffee, ebony, sulphur, 
 pearls, mother-of-pearl, tortoise-shell, and cordage are also exported. European manufactures, 
 
PRO 531 PIL 
 
 including considerable quantities of British cottons and woollens, are imported through various 
 channels. 
 Accounts are kept in dollars ; and the measures and weights are partly Spanish and partly Chinese. 
 
 PHOSPHORUS is usually obtained by acting upon powdered bone-earth with 
 sulphuric acid. When pure, "it is tasteless, colourless, or of a pale buff hue, semi- 
 transparent, and flexible. Sp. gr. 1770. When exposed to the air it undergoes a 
 slow combustion, exhaling luminous fumes of a peculiar odour, and hence the ne- 
 cessity of preserving it in water. Phosphorus and some of its combinations are 
 used in medicine, and for certain purposes in the arts. 
 
 PIANO FORTE. [Musical Instruments.] 
 
 PIASTRE, the dollar of exchange in Spain, where it is also called the Peso de 
 Plata, is an imaginary money estimated at 8 reals old plate, or 15 reals 2 maravedis 
 vellon ; and as the hard dollar [Dollar] is worth 20 reals vellon, the piastre is 
 equivalent at par to 3s. l|d. sterling. The piastre or piece of eight was formerly 
 a silver coin worth about 4s. 6d., being in fact the old dollar. The piastre is also 
 a coin and money of account in Turkey, where, however, it is now so much de- 
 preciated as to be worth only from 2d. to 2gd. sterling. 
 
 PIC, or PIKE, a Turkish cloth measure, equal % Imp. yard. 
 
 PILCHARD (Fr. Sardine, Pelamide. Ger. Sardelle. It. Sardine. Sp. Sor- 
 dino arenque), a species of herring (Chipea pilchardus), about the same length 
 as that fish, but having its body thicker and rounder, and its scales larger. It 
 frequents the British seas, but is only found in great numbers on the shores of 
 Devon and Cornwall, chiefly from Dartmouth to Padstow, round the Land's End ; 
 the principal fishing stations are, St Ives, Mountsbay, St Mawes, and Mevagissey, 
 where they arrive in shoals in August and September, and again in Novem- 
 ber or December ; and are caught both by seans and by drift-nets. They are 
 sold on the beach at about Is. per 100. Those intended for curing are first salted in 
 heaps, and then packed into hogsheads, each containing about 2500 fish. The oil with 
 which the fish abounds is afterwards extracted by pressure, 48 hhds. yielding about 
 1 tun of oil. The pilchard fishery is perhaps of less comparative importance at 
 present than it was 70 years ago. An opinion prevails that it has been injured by 
 the withdrawal, in 1827, of the bounty of 8s. 6d. upon each hhd. exported ; but 
 though the temporary effect may have been severe, the permanent interests of the 
 fishery will no doubt be benefited by the return to a more healthy system. At 
 present about 3500 men are employed at sea, and 5000 men and women on shore. 
 The capital directly invested in the fishery, in 1827, was stated by Mr Couch to 
 Mr Yarrel to be £441,215 : it is now probably much less. The home market is 
 almost entirely confined to Devon and Cornwall ; scarcely any reach London ; and 
 it is stated as a reason for this, that they are not agreeable to the public taste. 
 About 30,000 hhds. are annually exported, chiefly to Naples, Venice, Leghorn, An- 
 cona, Genoa, and Trieste. The consumption at most of these places might, how- 
 ever, be greatly increased by a reduction of the present heavy duties. S 
 
 PILOT, a person taken on board a ship at a particular place, for the purpose 
 of steering it through a river, road, or channel, or from or into a port. Pilotage 
 up and down the rivers Thames and Medway, and along the whole of the coast 
 from Orfordness to the Isle of Wight, is regulated by the statute 6 Geo. IV. c. 125, 
 which gives the appointment and general superintendence of pilots to the corpo- 
 ration of the Trinity House of Deptford Stroud, excepting those under the Lord 
 Warden of the Cinque Ports, who, however, act under similar regulations. The 
 statute directs that no person shall, under the risk of incurring severe penalties, 
 take charge of a vessel as pilot without a license from the Trinity House or Lord 
 Warden; and such license, which is only to be granted after an examination of 
 the qualifications of the person seeking to obtain it, may be suspended in cases 
 of negligence or misconduct. In other parts of the United Kingdom, pilots are 
 appointed and regulated, either by local acts of Parliament, or by ancient char- 
 ters of incorporation ; but several provisions in 6 Geo. IV. c. 125, are applicable 
 to all parts of England. 
 
 In all those parts of a voyage where a pilot is employed by regulation or usage, 
 termed " a pilot's fairway," one must be obtained (Vide Abbot on Shipping). 
 The owner or master of a vessel having a pilot on board, licensed by the ordi- 
 nary custom of the place, is not responsible for any damage which arises from 
 neglect or want of skill on the part of the individual appointed. But his proceed- 
 ings must not be controlled by the master. On the other hand, the presence of a 
 pilot does not absolve the master from the consequences of injury caused by his 
 own carelessness or want of skill. 
 
PIM 532 PIN 
 
 In some foreign countries the term pilot is further applied to an officer whose 
 special duty it is to steer the vessel during the general course of the voyage. No 
 such officer, however, is known either in the British merchant- service or ships of 
 war. In the latter, the charge of the helm is one of the many duties of the mas- 
 ter and his mates. 
 
 PIMENTO (Fr. & Ger. Piment. It. Pepe garofanato), a small, dry, reddish- 
 brown berry, the fruit of a tree (Myrtus Pimento) common on the N. side of 
 Jamaica, whence it is called Jamaica pepper. It is also named Allspice, from 
 its taste and flavour (qualities which reside chiefly in the cortical part of the berry) 
 being supposed to resemble that of a mixture of cloves, cinnamon, and nutmegs. 
 The berries are gathered before they are ripe, and dried in the sun ; the smallest 
 and most fragrant being preferred. The produce of the pimento crop, though some- 
 times very abundant, is variable ; and there is seldom a plenteous harvest above 
 once in five years. A corresponding fluctuation occurs in the annual importations 
 into Britain, which vary from about 1 ,000,000 lbs. to upwards of 3,000,000 lbs. With 
 the exception of a small quantity from the United States and other places, pimento 
 is imported wholly from Jamaica, the produce of which has declined consider- 
 ably of late years. It is packed either m bags or hogsheads. On an average of 
 the five years to January 1842, the quantity imported was 1,181,435 lbs.; entered 
 for home consumption, 304,164 lbs. The excess of the former above the latter 
 was re-exported to the Continent, and to British America and Australia. S 
 
 PINCHBECK, a factitious metal resembling brass, but containing more copper. 
 
 PINE, a family of trees (Pinus) mostly inhabiting the northern parts of Europe 
 and America. They almost all affect siliceous sandy soils, but many will flourish 
 in rocky and comparatively barren lands. The trees are various in size. Their 
 chief use is in domestic architecture ; whence the pine has been called " the build- 
 er's tree." Having usually, however, a long, straight, conical, undivided trunk, 
 several kinds are prized for ship-masts. They all yield resinous matter. The 
 chief species are the following : — 
 
 The Common Pine or Scotch Fir (P. Sylvestrit). — This species, of which there are many va- 
 rieties, stands in the first rank of forest trees, whether as regards its hardy habits, its rapid growth, 
 or its value in the production of useful timber, the " red deal " of the carpenter. The best is that 
 nearest the root. In Scotland, the fir often acquires a great size, the climate being well suited to 
 it. In England, it is chiefly valued as a screen or nurse to other trees. Dense forests of it cover 
 the mountainous tracts of Northern Europe, the timber of which, with its resinous products, tar, 
 pitch, and turpentine, forms the great staple of many of the Baltic states. The finest is the 
 Norwegian : that shipped from Memel, Riga, and Dantzic is inferior to it, though still good. 
 
 The Common or White Larch (P. Lariv), a native of Switzerland, Russia, and Siberia, grows 
 very erect, with drooping branches, gradually diminishing from the base, and giving it a pyramidal 
 form. No tree has received greater attention in modern times from the British planter. It was 
 introduced into Scotland by Lord Karnes in 1734 ; many millions were afterwards planted on the 
 Atholl estates ; and it is now extensively cultivated upon barren exposed land throughout Bri- 
 tain. It grows rapidly, and produces timber of great excellence, both for domestic purposes and 
 shipbuilding: it is equally good throughout its thickness, possessing no sap-wood. The larch 
 also yields " Venice turpentine," and its bark is nearly as valuable as that of the oak. 
 
 The Norway Spruce Fir (P. Abies), which attains a height of 150 feet, constitutes, with larch, 
 the greatest proportion of the vast woods of Norway and Sweden. It is inferior to larch, though 
 durable and of a fine even grain. In the market it is called white or Christiania deal. The tree 
 attains a large size on cold damp clays, situated on declivities. 
 
 The Black or Red Spruce Fir (P. Nigra or Rubra) grows in the most inclement regions of 
 N. America, especially in swampy valleys having a deep black soil. Its timber — strong, light, 
 and elastic — is of great value. It is employed for the yards of ships, and, in districts where oak is 
 scarce, also for their knees ; though apt to split, floors are also occasionally laid v. ith it. The 
 White Spruce (P. Alba), often found along with it in America, is smaller, and yields inferior 
 timber. 
 
 The Weymouth or American White Pine (P. Strobus), with an erect and lofty trunk, is a 
 native of Canada and of the more northern districts of America. It grows very fast in sheltered 
 situations and moderately moist sandy soils ; and produces the clean, white, soft, but perishable 
 timber, called in America " Pine," largely exported in the form of deals both to Europe and the 
 West Indies. It is also much used in shipbuilding. 
 
 The Yellow Pine (P. Mitis) is a fine tree, inhabiting the pine forests of North America, 
 yielding timber of great value both for domestic and naval architecture, provided the sap-wood is 
 removed. In Britain it is regarded as very durable, and in America it ranks next to 
 
 The Southern Pine (P. Australis or palustris), the best species in the New World. This 
 tree is a native of Virginia and Carolina, where it grows from 60 to 70 feet in height, with a 
 trunk from 15 to 18 inches in diameter for 2-3ds of its length. It produces light, clear, and dura- 
 ble timber, which is extensively used in shipbuilding, especially for masts ; also abundance of tar. 
 
 The chief other species are the Cedar [Cedar] : the Red Pine (P. Resinosa) of Canada, yielding 
 a fine-grained strong durable wood of a close texture: the Corsican Pine (P. Laricio), a noble tree 
 of S. Europe, extensively used by the French in shipbuilding: and the Silver Fir (P. Picea), 
 largely grown in the kingdom of Naples. The Hemlock Spruce Fir of N. America yields wood of 
 little value ; but a great deal of the essence of spruce is obtained from its shoots, and its bark is 
 exceedingly valuable. [Timber.] 
 
PIN 533 PLA 
 
 PINE-APPLE, the well-known succulent fruit of a tropical plant (Ananassa 
 sativa), indigenous to America and the W. Indies, but commonly reared in hot- 
 houses and pots in Britain. It is the most luscious fruit produced in this kingdom, 
 where its noble appearance has always rendered it a special object of horticultural 
 enterprise. In England it has been obtained of a size weighing 14 lbs. In its 
 aboriginal state it is inferior ; and except perhaps the Burmese pines, the most 
 delicious specimens are the produce of this country. S 
 
 PINK ROOT. [Spigelia]. 
 
 PINS (Fr. Epingles. Ger. Stecknadelri) are made on a great scale at Birming- 
 ham, where some manufacturers employ several hundred persons in the fabrication 
 of these little instruments ; they are also largely produced at Warrington, Sheffield, 
 Gloucester, and London. Of late several beautiful inventions have been success- 
 fully employed to make pins almost entirely by machinery. The number daily 
 made in this country for home use and exportation is estimated by Dr Ure at fifteen 
 millions. 
 
 PINT, a British measure equal £th part of a gallon. [Measures.] 
 
 PIPE, a wine measure varying in different places. [Measures. Wine.] 
 
 PIPE-CLAY, a very plastic and tenacious kind of clay, of a grayish or yellow- 
 ish-white colour, found near Poole in Dorsetshire, in the Isle of Purbeck, and other 
 places. It is manufactured into tobacco-pipes ; and is besides used as the basis of 
 the queensware pottery, as well as a detergent by scourers of cloth. 
 
 PISTACHIO NUTS (Fr. Pistaches. Ger. Pistachen. It. Pistacchi, Fastucchi), 
 used at the dessert and for confections, are the fruit of a small tree (Pistacia vera) 
 indigenous to Syria and Persia, but now naturalized in the S. of Europe. They 
 are moderately large, of a red or pink colour, and contain a greenish kernel, having 
 a pleasant, sweet, unctuous taste, resembling that of almonds. They are imported 
 into Britain from Turkey, France, Sicily, and other places. 
 
 PISTOLE, a Spanish gold coin, equal |th of the Doubloon. 
 
 PITCH, a substance made by melting coarse hard resin with a portion of tar, 
 generally one-half ; but the quantity is increased or lessened according to the con- 
 sistency of the latter. 
 
 PITCH BLENDE, a ponderous metalliferous ore, of a blackish colour, much va- 
 lued by porcelain painters. Localities — Saxony, Bohemia, Hungary, and CornwaD. 
 
 PIX, the name given to a box kept at the British mint, in which" a small sample 
 of the coins struck are deposited, in order to be assayed and compared with a 
 standard preserved in the Exchequer. This operation, called the " Trial of the 
 Pix," is performed in presence of certain members of the Privy Council, the officers 
 of the mint, and a jury of the Goldsmiths' Company. An account of this ancient 
 ceremony will be found in Ruding's " Annals of the Coinage." It now usually 
 takes place on the appointment of a new master of the mint before his predecessor 
 receives a discharge. 
 
 PLAICE, a species of flounder (Platessa vulgaris) taken in abundance on the 
 coasts of Britain and Ireland. It spawns in February or March ; and is in the 
 best condition for the table at the end of May. 
 
 PLANE, a British forest tree (Platinus), admired for its beauty ; but of little 
 value except for fuel. 
 
 PLANTAIN, a delicious fruit, yielded by the Musa sapientum, a plant about 
 15 or 20 feet in height, found in most tropical countries. It closely resembles 
 the banana ; is at first green, but when ripe of a pale yellow colour, about a foot 
 long, and nearly two inches in diameter. In favourable situations, however, 
 it is to be found of nearly a foot in circumference, with a length of seven or eight ; 
 and a bunch sometimes contains from 160 to 180, and weighs from 66 to 88 lbs. 
 It is generally cut when unripe ; and after being skinned is roasted and served up 
 as bread. It is also used for fattening domestic animals. [Banana]. 
 
 PLASMA, a green, semi-transparent calcedony, having a dark tint, which is 
 said to be coloured by chlorite. It is found chieny in India, and is brought to 
 this country in the shape of beads and other ornaments ; occasionally specimens 
 are found among the ruins of Rome. 
 
 PLATA, LA, REPUBLIC. [Buenos Ayres.] 
 
 PLATE and PLATED WARES. Plate is a term applied to gold and silver 
 wrought into furniture or ornaments. Plated wares are articles made, in imita- 
 tion of the preceding, of base metal, coated over with gold or silver. The gold- 
 beaters' trade is carried on in London, and, though to an inferior extent, in Bir- 
 mingham, Dublin, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Liverpool. Silver and silver-plated 
 
PLA 
 
 534 
 
 PLA 
 
 goods are made chiefly in London, Birmingham, and Sheffield. The quantity cf 
 gold and silver articles manufactured in the United Kingdom is considerable ; but 
 beyond the produce of the duties, mentioned below, we possess no data for com- 
 puting its amount. The value of plated wares annually consumed has been esti- 
 mated so high as £1,200,000, — this department having derived great advantage 
 from the perfection of the machinery now used in this country for rolling metals ; 
 while it has no doubt likewise received encouragement from the heavy duties im- 
 posed on gold and silver articles. The declared value of the plate, plated ware, 
 jewellery, and watches, exported from the United Kingdom, in the years 1838, 
 1839, and 1840, amounted respectively to £240,584, £274,305, and £204,427; sent 
 chiefly to India, the colonies, and the United States. S 
 
 Assay Regulations, Licenses, Duties, and Drawbacks. 
 
 Assay Regulations and Marks. — Articles of 
 gold must be of the fineness of 22 carats, or f fths, 
 the money standard, or of 18 carats: the latter 
 is employed chiefly for watches and rings. Silver 
 must be of the fineness of 11 oz. 2 dwts., orfjths, 
 the money standard, or of 11 oz. 10 dwts. ; but 
 the latter, called " new sterling," is seldom used. 
 [Carat. Coin.] 
 
 All gold and silver articles of the money stand- 
 ard are marked with the following devices : in 
 England a lion, in Scotland a thistle, and in 
 Ireland a figure of Hibernia. The gold standard 
 of 18 carats is in addition marked with the num- 
 ber 18, and the new sterling with the figure of 
 Britannia. 
 
 Articles of all standards capable of bearing a 
 stamp are also marked with the maker's initials, 
 the arms or device of the assay office, and a let- 
 ter indicating the year. The device of the Gold- 
 smiths' Office, London, is a leopard's head ; of the 
 Assay Office, Birmingham, an anchor; of Shef- 
 field, a crown; of Newcastle, three castles; of 
 Dublin, a harp and crown; of Edinburgh, a 
 castle ; and of Glasgow, a tree with a bell and fish. 
 The letter used by the Goldsmiths' Company in- 
 dicates the year by beginning the alphabet in 'May 
 1796, and reckoning on to 2(» letters progressively, 
 omitting J and ending with U. The first 20 years 
 is represented by a Roman capital ; the second, 
 commencing May 1816, by small Roman charac- 
 ters ; the third, commencing May 1836, by old 
 English capitals. 
 
 _ On articles for which a duty is paid, an impres- 
 sion of the queen's head is likewise stamped. 
 
 The cuttings of the articles assayed are kept in 
 each office in the Pix [Pix] or " Diet Box," 
 in order to be proved before the proper officers. 
 
 Annual Licenses, payable in Britain by dealers 
 
 chains, necklaces, beads, lockets, filigree work, 
 shirt buckles or brooches, stamped medals, and 
 spouts to china, stone, or earthenware teapots, 
 of any weight whatever ; tippings, swages, or 
 mounts, not weighing 10 dwts. of silver each, 
 and .not being necks or collars for castors, 
 cruets, or glasses appertaining to any sort of 
 stands or frames ; wares of silver, not "weighing 
 
 5 dwts. each : this exemption is not to include 
 necks, collars, and tops of castors, cruets, or 
 glasses appertaining to any sort of stands or 
 frames, buttons to be affixed to or set on any 
 wearing apparel, solid silver buttons and solid 
 studs, not having a bizelled edge soldered on, 
 wrought seals, blank seals, and bottle tickets, 
 shoe clasps, patch boxes, salt spoons, salt ladles, 
 tea spoons, tea strainers, caddy ladles, buckles, 
 and pieces of garnish, cabinets, knife cases, tea 
 chests, bridle stands or frames. (52 Geo. III. c. 
 59 ; 55 Geo. III. c. 185 ; 1 Geo. IV. c. 14 ; 
 
 6 &7 Wm. IV. c. 69.) 
 
 In Ireland the duty, formerly Is. per oz. on both 
 gold and silver plate, was raised in 1842 (Oct. 10) 
 to the same rates as in Britain. 
 
 On the exportation of Irish plate to Britain a 
 countervailing duty of 16s. per oz. was formerly 
 payable on gold, and 6d. per oz. on silver ; equi- 
 valent drawbacks being allowed on the exporta- 
 tion of British plate to Ireland ; but these are 
 now abolished. 
 
 The net produce of the stamp-duties on plate 
 was in 1820, £86,750; 1830. £81,646; and in 
 1840, £82,968; about l-18th being from gold. 
 
 On exportation to other countries the whole 
 duties are drawn back, debentures for which are 
 issued at the custom-house ; though, in London, 
 the drawback is payable at Goldsmiths' Hall. 
 
 Previous to entry for drawback, bond to be 
 
 in gold and silver plate, in which gold exceeding 2 given that the plate shall not be re-landed, 
 dwts.andunder2oz.,orofsilverexceeding5dwts. | and declaration made as to the stamping and 
 and under 30 oz., is contained in one piece, £2, 6s. time of manufacture ; which bond remains in 
 When of greater weight, the cost of the license I force until the exporter produce to the collector 
 
 is ,£5, 15s. ; and every pawnbroker and refiner of 
 gold or silver plate must take out this license. 
 
 Gold or silver lace is not deemed plate. 
 
 Stamp Duties in Britain on plate made since 
 August 31, 1815; namely, gold, 17s. per oz. ; 
 and silver, Is. 6d. per oz. Exemptions, gold 
 watch-cases, rings, and any articles of gold not 
 exceeding 2 oz. in weight ; silver watch-cases, 
 
 the bills of lading, having at the foot the receipt 
 of the master of the vessel, and on the back that 
 of the consignee ; describing the kinds and quan- 
 tities of plate so shipped, together with the name 
 of the consigner. If the ship be lost, or return 
 not within three years, the bond, on proof there- 
 of made to the collector, shall be cancelled. (25 
 Geo. III. c. 64.) 
 
 PLATINUM, a metal of a colour between steel-gray and silver-white. Sp. gr. 
 21*5. It is very hard, and possesses great malleability and ductility. It may be 
 beaten into fine leaves, and drawn into wire not exceeding l-2000ths of an inch in 
 diameter. When about 1 -13th of an inch thick it sustains a weight of 270 lbs. This 
 metal is extremely difficult of fusion ; but it has the property of being united by 
 welding either one piece to another, or with iron and steel. This property admits 
 of useful applications in the arts ; wires may be joined so as to form rings and 
 chains ; and, with a view to economy, platinum may be attached to iron or steel for 
 many scientific purposes. The perfection with which vessels of platinum resist 
 the action of heat and air, of most of the acids, and of sulphur and mercury, renders 
 them peculiarly valuable in many chemical applications ; and, notwithstanding the 
 
PLE 535 POL 
 
 high value of the metal, which is worth between four and five times its weight of 
 silver, it is now much employed for crucibles, retorts for the distillation of sul- 
 phuric acid, mirrors for reflecting telescopes, and also by gunsmiths. In Russia 
 it is made into coins. 
 
 Platinum was discovered about 1741 ; but it attracted little notice until the mode 
 of purifying it and rendering it malleable was discovered by Dr Wollaston. It is 
 found in the metallic state in Brazil and Peru ; in Antioquia in South America ; 
 in Estremadura in Spain ; and lately in considerable quantities in the Uralian 
 Mountains. The general appearance of it in the rough state in which it is imported 
 is that of small grains or scales, darker than silver, and extremely heavy. 
 
 PLEDGE. [Pawn.] 
 
 PLUM, the well-known fruit of a tree (Prunus domestica), indigenous to the 
 greater part of the northern hemisphere. Of this fruit no fewer than 274 varieties 
 are enumerated in the Catalogue of the Horticultural Society. Dried plums form 
 an article of commerce under the name of prunes and prunelloes. They are largely 
 imported into this country, especially from France. The timber of the plum-tree 
 is close and strong ; and the bark may be used in dyeing yellow. 
 
 PLUMBAGO, or BLACK LEAD, is the well-known opaque blackish-gray 
 glistening substance used in the manufacture of pencils, for which purpose the best 
 is that procured near Borrowdale in Cumberland. [Pencil Manufacture.] An 
 inferior soft kind is imported from the East Indies. Plumbago is also employed 
 for making crucibles, in compositions for protecting iron from rusting, and for 
 diminishing friction in machinery. S 
 
 POLACCA, a vessel with three poles or masts, each of one piece, so that the 
 topsails, on being lowered, can slide down without interruption. This form of rig 
 originated in the suddenness and frequency of squalls in the Mediterranean, where 
 alone vessels of this kind are used. 
 
 POLICY OF INSURANCE is the written instrument under which the con- 
 tract of insurance is effected. S 
 
 In Marine Insurance, there are two descriptions of policy— open, and valued. 
 In the former, the pecuniary amount of the interest insured is not stated, but re- 
 mains to be afterwards adjusted. In the latter, a value is set on the interest in- 
 sured, and being assented to by the underwriter, it is presumed to be the real value, 
 and to be the sum payable in case of loss. A nominal valuation, however, will not 
 be sanctioned as a cover to a wager or a fraudulent transaction ; and if the insured 
 be found to have designedly over-valued his interest, he will not recover even for 
 the loss actually sustained. The amount which should be covered by a valued 
 policy, is the real value of the ship, or the prime-cost of the goods, as the case may 
 be, at the time of effecting the policy, together with the amount of the premiums 
 and other expenses of insurance. The provisions of the 19th Geo. II. c. 37, which 
 prohibit wager-policies, are satisfied if there be an interest, however inadequate to 
 the value put upon it ; and it appears to be the general principle that, except where 
 there is fraud, such value is the final adjustment between the parties in the case of 
 total loss. In the case of partial loss, there is no difference between a valued and 
 an open policy. Before a policy is effected, the terms on which the underwriters 
 will subscribe it are, at Lloyd's, generally noted on a " slip," which is signed by 
 their initials. It has been decided that, unless it be stamped, this document can- 
 not be received in evidence to contradict the policy, and it does not appear what 
 stamp would be applicable. {Park, 347.) By statute, 11 Geo. I. c. 30, § 44, when an 
 insurance is effected, a policy must be made out within three days, under penalty 
 of £100. The usual form of the policy, as kept up by the old exclusive companies, 
 is antiquated and cumbersome ; but, with these disadvantages, it is supposed to 
 have in its favour the conventional meaning which usage and a course of decisions 
 have given to its terms. The following is the form :— 
 " In the Name of God. Amen. 
 
 " A B, as well in bis own name, as for and in the name and nnraes of all and every other per- 
 son or persons to whom the same doth, may, or shall appertain, in part or in all, doth make 
 assurance, and cause himself, and them, and every of them, to be insured, lost or not lost, as 
 and from Upon any kind of goods and merchandises, and also upon the body, 
 
 tackle, apparel, ordnance, munition, artillery, boat, and other furniture of and in the good ship 
 or vessel, called the whereof is master, under God, for this present voyage, E T, 
 
 or whosoever else shall go for master in the same ship, or by whatsoever other name or names 
 the same ship, or the master thereof, is or shall be named or called ; beginning the adventure 
 upon the said goods and merchandises from the loading thereof aboard the said ship, 
 
 upon the said ship, &c. and so shall continue and endure during 
 
 her abode there, upon the said ship, &c. And further, until the said ship, with all her ordnance, 
 
POL 536 POL 
 
 tackle, apparel, &c, and goods and merchandises whatsoever, shall be arrived at 
 
 upon the said ship, &c, until she hath moored at anchor twenty-four 
 hours in good safety ; and upon the goods and merchandises until the same be there dis- 
 charged and safely landed. And it shall be lawful for the said ship, &c., in this voyage, to pro- 
 ceed and sail to, and touch and stay at, any ports or places whatsoever, 
 
 without prejudice to this insurance. The said ship, and goods and merchandises, &c, for 
 so much as concerns the assureds, by agreement between the assureds and assurers in this policy, 
 are and shall be valued at . Touching the adventures and perils which we the 
 
 assurers are contented to bear, and do take upon us in this voyage : they are of the seas, men of 
 war, fire, enemies, pirates, rovers, thieves, jettisons, letters of mart and counter mart, surprisals, 
 takings at sea, arrests, restraints, and detainments of all kings, princes, and people, of what na- 
 tion, condition, or quality soever, barratry of the master and mariners, and of all other perils, 
 losses, and misfortunes that have or shall come to the hurt, detriment, or damage, of the said 
 goods and merchandises, and ship, &c, or any part thereof. And in case of any loss or misfor- 
 tune, it shall be lawful to the assureds, their factors, servants, and assigns, to sue, labour, and 
 travel for, in and about the defence, safeguard, and recovery of the said goods, and merchandises, 
 and ship, &c, or any part thereof, without prejudice to this insurance ; to the charges whereof, 
 we the assurers will contribute each one according to the rate and quantity of his sum herein as- 
 sured. And it is agreed by us the insurers, that this writing or policy of assurance shall be of as 
 much force and effect ns the surest writing or policy of assurance heretofore made in Lombard 
 Street, or in the Royal Exchange, or elsewhere in London. And so we the assurers are contented, 
 and do hereby promise and bind ourselves, each one for his own part, our heirs, executors, and 
 goods, to the assureds, their executors, administrators, and assigns, for the true performance of 
 the premises, confessing ourselves paid the consideration due unto us for this assurance by the 
 assured at and after the rate of 
 
 " In Witness whereof, we the assurers have subscribed our names and sums assured in ." 
 
 It is usual to add the following provision as to liability for average losses in the 
 case of certain destructible commodities : — 
 
 " N.B. — Corn, fish, salt, fruit, flour, and seed, are warranted free from average, unless general, 
 or the ship be stranded. — Sugar, tobacco, hemp, flax, hides, and skins, are warranted free from 
 average, under £5 per cent. — And all other goods, also the ship and freight, are warranted free 
 from average, under £3 per cent, unless general, or the ship be stranded." 
 
 The requisites of a policy are generally divided into nine, which are, — 
 
 1st, The Name of the Insured. — By 28 Geo. III. c. 56, policies without the name 
 or firm of the parties interested, or of the consigner or consignee, or of the person 
 residing in Great Britain receiving the order for or effecting the policy, or of the 
 person giving directions to effect the same, are null. Where the persons interested 
 were designed " The Trustees of Messrs Keighley, Ferguson, and Co.," the re- 
 quisites were considered as complied with (1 Camp. 538). 
 
 2d, The Name of the Ship and of the Master. — A material misunderstanding in 
 this respect will vitiate the contract ; but to meet the effect of a mere mistake, it 
 is usual to say, " or by whatsoever other name or names the same ship or the mas- 
 ter thereof is or shall be named or called ;" and where there is no mistake as to 
 identity, these expressions will protect the policy. If a merchant cause three 
 several parcels of goods to be insured for three different ships, and find it conven- 
 ient to load the whole in one, it is held that he can only recover in the event of a 
 loss for the amount nominally insured on board that vessel. It is a long-established 
 practice to insure upon goods " on board any ship or ships," from a particular 
 port ; but it is said that this vague definition ought not to be adopted where the 
 ship is known, as it " seems to amount to a representation, that the party effecting 
 the insurance does not know in what ship the goods are to be brought." (Mar- 
 shall, 321, 322.) 
 
 3d, The Subject-matter insured. — It is not necessary minutely to describe the 
 property, farther than to the effect of exactly identifying it, and letting the under- 
 writer know his risk. The usage of trade is consulted as a clue to the import of 
 expressions which may not have a distinct meaning of their own, but will not be 
 allowed to contradict what is clearly expressed. The word " goods " will be held 
 to include an ordinary cargo, stowed away in the proper manner, but not goods 
 lashed on deck (unless they be such as it is proper and usual so to bestow, as vitriol), 
 nor the captain's clothes and the ship's provisions. Where the interest is of the 
 nature of a factor's lien, or of that description, it will be covered by a policy on 
 " goods ;" but freight must be specially insured by name. Money, jewels, and 
 bullion may be insured as goods, if they are part of the cargo, and not on the per- 
 sons of passengers. 
 
 4th, The Commencement and Termination of the Voyage, and the consequent 
 Duration of the Risk. — If a blank be left for the port of departure, or for that of 
 destination, the policy will be void from uncertainty. It is said, however, that an 
 omission as to time, when the risk is measured by the time, will merely have the 
 effect of making it commence with the execution of the policy. The expression 
 M at and from the ship's loading port," covers loss sustained before departure, un- 
 
POL 537 POL 
 
 less there be undue delay ; to cover which the expression " in port" is considered 
 necessary. Though the commencement and termination of the risk he distinctly 
 expressed, if there is any thing in the terms calculated to deceive the underwriter 
 m to those of the voyage, the insured will not recover ; as, where a ship and goods 
 were insured " at and from the coast of Brazil to the Cape of Good Hope, begin- 
 ning the adventure on the goods, from the loading thereof on the coast of Brazil, 
 and upon the ship in the same manner," and the goods were taken on board at the 
 Cape, and carried to the coast of Brazil, where they were not unloaded, the risk 
 was found not to have attached. (Robertson v. French, 4 East. 130.) The risk 
 was in fact here described as commencing with the voyage, whereas it commenced 
 during the voyage. Insurance from several ports of departure does not ?over a 
 voyage from one to another. The insurance on goods is generally limited till the 
 time when they are " discharged and safely landed ;" and these operations must 
 be conducted without undue delay. The underwriter is liable if the loss happen 
 after transshipment into shallops, lighters, droghers, or launches, unless they be 
 those of the insured. 
 
 5th, The Perils insured against. — These must be distinctly enumerated; and 
 they are described in general expressions, well understood in practice, from their 
 long and unvarying application. It is usual to insert the words, "lost or not 
 lost," by which "the insurer takes upon himself the loss which may have already 
 happened, — a term said to be peculiar to English insurances. 
 
 6th, The Premium or Consideration.— This is always expressed as received, and 
 so the engagements are entirely on one side, namely, that of the underwriter. In 
 
 Eractice, however, the premium is not paid to the underwriter, but stands in account 
 etween him and the broker. [Broker.] 
 
 7th, The common Memorandum, as given above, inserted to protect the under- 
 writer from small losses on perishable commodities. In that form, an exception 
 may be observed, of the ship being " stranded." This has been found to be " a 
 condition ;" so that if stranding take place, the insured is admitted to prove all 
 his partial loss, whether directly occasioned by the stranding or not. On this being 
 decided, in 1754 (Contillon v. London A. C, Marshall, 216-225), the London and 
 Royal Exchange Companies left the alternative of " stranded" out of their policies. 
 Where there is no stranding, there is no recovery for the articles enumerated in 
 the memorandum, unless the loss be total ; and so it was found where a cargo of 
 fruit, having been captured and recaptured, was brought to the port of destination 
 damaged 80 per cent, by the delay. {Park, 185.) 
 
 8th, The Date and Subscription. — It is the practice at Lloyd's not to insert the 
 date in the body of the deed, but for each underwriter to attach it to his sub- 
 scription. 
 
 9th, The Stamp.— This is regulated by 55 Geo. III. c. 184, amended by 3 & 4 Wm. 
 IV. c. 23. A policy cannot legally be stamped after it is executed ; but, by 9 Geo. IV. 
 c. 49, policies of mutual insurance, by which persons undertake to insure one another, 
 may be fortified with additional stamps, if not underwritten to an amount exceed- 
 ing that covered by the former ones. By 35 Geo. III. c. 63, § 13, the stamp laws 
 do not extend " to prohibit the making of any alteration which may lawfully be 
 made in the terms and conditions of any policy of insurance duly stamped, after 
 the same shall have been underwritten, or to require any additional stamp-duty by 
 reason of such alteration, so that such alteration be made before notice of the de- 
 termination of the risk originally insured, and so that the thing insured shall remain 
 the property of the same persons, and so that such alteration shall not prolong the 
 term insured beyond the period allowed by this act, and so that no additional or 
 further sum shall be insured by means of such alteration." This clause is liberally 
 interpreted in the case of correction of mistakes, or improvement of definitions, pro- 
 vided the thing originally intended to be insured be not altered. An extension of 
 the time of sailing, and a waiver of the warranty of sea-worthiness, do not require 
 a new stamp, nor does the alteration of a voyage " from Stockholm to Swine- 
 munde," to one from Stockholm " to Swinemunde, Konigsberg, or Memel ;" nor 
 of a risk " at and from Liverpool to Quebec," to one " from Liverpool to St John's, 
 New Brunswick." But the terms of the original policy cannot be so altered by 
 any memorandum as to bring it into a class requiring a higher duty, without affix- 
 ing the stamp thereby required (Smith's Mercantile L., 302). The regulations for 
 returning spoiled stamps will be found in 54 Geo. III. c. 133. 
 
 (Park on Insurance. Marshall on Insurance. Smith's Mercantile L., 268-334.) 
 
 For Insurance against Fire, the policy, after reciting the receipt of the pre- 
 mium, generally bears that the insurers " covenant and agree, from a day named, 
 
POM 538 POR 
 
 and unto and inclusive of another day named, and so long as the insured continues 
 to pay the premium, that the funds of the company shall he liable to make good 
 any such loss as may happen by fire (except it be occasioned by any invasion, 
 foreign enemy, civil commotion, or any military or usurped power)," to the property 
 specified. The terms should express a covenant or agreement, such as may found 
 a clear right of action against the parties, or those they represent, for an order or 
 direction to pay merely founds an equitable claim. It is usual to introduce the 
 scale of premiums applicable to the different risks by indorsement on the policy, 
 referring to them so as to make them part of the contract. The policy must accu- 
 rately describe the premises, and give the name of the insured. There is no such 
 distinction as that of valued and open policies, the loss being in the usual case re- 
 stricted, but not measured. An Average clause, however, is now not of uncommon 
 occurrence., by which, when the property is of greater value than the amount in- 
 sured, the insured recovers, in the case of a partial loss, a sum bearing that propor- 
 tion to the loss, which the sum covered by the insurance bears to the value of the 
 property. Thus, if the property be worth £1000, and the amount insured be £100, 
 if a loss be caused to the extent of the £100, £10 only is recovered. By 9 Geo. 
 IV. c. 13, § 1, where the insurance covers two detached buildings, or goods contained 
 in detached buildings, so separated as to create a plurality of risks, a distinct sum 
 must be insured upon each, with an exception in favour of implements and stock 
 upon one farm. A policy of insurance is assignable at any time before a loss, to 
 any one to whom the interest insured may have passed. The offices generally give 
 notice upon the policy that " it shall be of no force if assigned, unless such assign- 
 ment be allowed by an entry in the books of the office, or indorsed on the policy ;'' 
 and " even without this provision, upon the general principles of law, it is very 
 questionable whether the holder could have any legal demand against the insurers 
 without notice to them " {Ellis, 70). By 55 Geo. III. c. 184, the stamp-duty is Is. 
 for each policy, and 3s. a-year for every £100. Public hospitals, and (by 3 & 4 
 Wm. IV. c. 23, § 5) agricultural produce, farm-stocking, and implements of hus- 
 bandry, are exempt. (Ellis on Fire and Life Insurance.) [Insurance, Fire.] 
 
 In Life Insurance, the policy generally bears that a certain sum is payable at 
 a certain time after the death of the person insured, should he die within the year, or 
 within any succeeding year in which he has duly paid the premium ; on the precedent 
 condition that he is at the time of the contract of a certain specified age and habit 
 of body, as contained in a separate declaration by the insured. There are gene- 
 rally certain restrictions on the conduct of the insured. A policy of insurance is 
 assignable ; but in terms of the act 14 Geo. III. c. 48, prohibiting wager insurances, 
 the assignee must have an interest [but see Insurance on Lives]. A policy by a 
 creditor falls if the debt be in any manner paid. An assignment of a policy by the 
 debtor on his own life is a preferable security. " It may be considered as the law," 
 says Mr Ellis, (p. 144), " that the assignment of a policy of insurance upon a life will 
 not take it out of the order and disposition of the assignor, within the meaning of 
 the bankrupt laws (and probably also of an insolvent under the insolvent act), 
 unless notice of the assignment be given to the insurers before the bankruptcy, and 
 that the policy, in defect of notice, will vest in the assignees, notwithstanding the 
 assignment." (Ellis on Fire and Life Insurance. Blayney on Life Assurance.) 
 
 POMEGRANATES (Fr. Grenades. It. Granati. Por. Romaas. Sp.Granadas) 
 are the produce of a low tree, the Punica granatum, common in the warmer parts 
 of the temperate zone. This fruit when ripe is about the size of an orange, is 
 covered with a hard light brown rind, and contains a reddish, seedy, refreshing pulp. 
 Promegranates are imported into Britain from the W. Indies and S. of Europe. 
 
 POOD, a Russian weight equal 16^ kilogrammes, or 36 lbs. avoird. nearly. 
 
 POPLAR, a fast-growing tree (Populus) common in the northern hemisphere, 
 of which there are about 15 species, all delighting in moist situations. The wood 
 of the forest species, chiefly the common gray, abele or white, black, Lombardy, 
 aspen, and Canadian, are used in the manufacture of domestic utensils ; that of 
 the abele, largely cultivated by the Dutch, is also useful for water- works, laths, and 
 packing-cases ; but upon the whole the timber is of little value. 
 
 PORTS. [United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.] 
 
 PORTUGAL lies between lat. 37° and 42° N., and long. 6° and 10° W. ; and is 
 bounded N. and E. by Spain, and S. and W. by the Atlantic. Divisions, — Tras- 
 os-Montes, Entre Douro e Minho, Beira, Alentejo, Estremadura, and Algarve. 
 Area, 36,500 so. miles. Population in 1838, 3,550,000. Government, a hereditary 
 monarchy, with two chambers, both elected by the people, s 
 
 Portugal is not separated by any natural boundaries from Spain, which in general aspect it 
 
POR 539 POR 
 
 resembles: the mountains are chiefly prolongations of the Astorga, Castilian, and Toledo chains, 
 the whole running from N. E. to S. W., but throwing off numerous branches; while again, the 
 principal rivers, — as the Douro and the Tagus, flowing E., and the Guadiana S., — are merely the 
 terminations of Spanish streams- There are only two extensive plains ; one, the plain of Alentejo, 
 S. of the Tagus, the other S. of the Douro ; but there are numerous fertile valleys between the 
 mountains. The climate varies much in different places: on the coast it is very warm, especially 
 3. of Cape Roca ; and some parts of Alentejo are so arid as to be uninhabitable, from the 
 scarcity and badness of the water ; yet there are abundance of rich tracts in other districts, to the 
 productions of which considerable variety is given by the difference of elevation and of latitude. 
 
 But the long-continued imbecility of the government, joined to the power as well as profligacy of 
 the nobles and clergy, and the indolence of the people, have sunk the industrial arts in Portugal 
 lower than in almost any other European state. Tne events connected with the late war laid the 
 foundation of a new order of things ; and a constitutional government has been established, by 
 which feudal rights and monastic institutions have been abolished, an equal system of taxation 
 introduced, and the country placed on the road to improvement. Still, this is of too recent accom- 
 plishment to have produced much effect on the wealth and habits of the people; want of capital, 
 sloth, and crime, are yet conspicuous, especially in the central and southern provinces ; and in most 
 departments of industry and knowledge, this kingdom, to use the words of a recent traveller, forms 
 " a tart of disgraceful wonder in the midst of the 19th century." 
 
 The chief rural productions are — on the high grounds, wheat, oats, barley, flax, and hemp ; in 
 the warmer district-, vines and maize ; and on the low grounds, rice ; while in the sheltered valleys 
 of the S. and central parts, oranges and lemons are produced, and the olive and other fruits are 
 grown in various places. The live-stock are principally goats, hogs, and sheep ; the last mostly 
 in Btira. The chief woods are, in the N. oak, in the central provinces chesnut, and in the & 
 provinces kermes, cork, and pine. Minerals are abundant, but scarcely any mines except those of 
 iron are worked. Salt is largely produced in the bays, especially in the lagoon of St TJbes or Se- 
 tubnl. Manufactures, except perhaps the plate and jewellery of Lisbon, are inconsiderable : coarse 
 woollens and linens are made in various provinces ; silks near Lisbon ; glass at Marinha Grande ; 
 at Alcobacaand Thomar; and paper, earthenware, and other articles, in various places. 
 There is little internal trade, owing to the limited number of carriage-roads, while the rivers are 
 but imperfectly navigable : mules form the chief means of conveyance. 
 
 Ti.e great staple of the country is wine, particularly the red variety called port, from Oporto, the 
 
 Elace of -hipment. This wine, produced about 50 miles above that town, on a succession of low 
 .lis uti l>ot(i sides of the Douro, is generally divided into two sorts ; the vinho do rama, an inferior 
 kind for home consumption and distillation into brandy, and the vinho do feitoria, or factory 
 wine, for exportation. In 1756, the government, ostensibly to prevent adulteration, made over 
 this district to the " Oporto Wine Company," who were authorized to class the wines, and fix 
 their maximum price. This company was suppressed as a nuisance by Don Pedro, in 1834, but 
 it was again re-established in 1838, though with less oppressive privileges than at first, for a pe- 
 riod of 20y.ars. The annual average quantity exported in the 3 years ending 1840, was 34,790 
 pipes : of which, 25,905 were shipped to Britain (equivalent in value to about £800,000), 3962 to 
 Brazil, 25ito to United States, and 2363 to the N. of Europe and the Portuguese colonies. Con- 
 siderable quantities of white wine are besides sent from Portugal, chiefly Lisbon, Bucellas, and 
 Calcavella ; also, though in small quantity, a strong but inferior red wine, from Figueira. [Wine.] 
 
 The principal commercial relations are with the United Kingdom, with which an intimate con- 
 nexion has been maintained since the beginning of last century. This originated on the side of 
 Britain, partly from jealousy of the pretensions of Louis XIV. to the crown of Spain, and partly 
 from an attachment to Portugal, from her not being a manufacturing country, and likely in the 
 opinion of the calculators of the day to be so much the more advantageous as a customer ; reasons 
 which jointly led, in 17<*3, to the celebrated Methuen treaty, the object of which was to favour 
 the consumption of Portuguese wines in return for a similar preference to our manufactures. The 
 relations then established have undergone several changes ; but the deep-rooted taste for port in 
 Britain has preserved the trade as great as ever. 
 
 The exports to the United Kingdom, besides wine, annually embrace about 100,000 packages of 
 oranges and lemons, from 50, (KM) to 60,000 cwts. cork-bark ; also olive-oil, sheep's wool, sumach, 
 goat -skins, figs and other fruits, and small quantities of tallow, brandy, and other articles. The 
 declared value of British produce and manufactures annuallv sent to Portugal averaged in the five 
 years ending 1835, £1,127,664, and in the five years ending 1840 £1,115,463, being thus nearly 
 stationary ; about two-thirds consist of cotton goods ; the rest chiefly of woollens, linens, iron and 
 hardware, Irish butter, cheese, coals, machinery, and paints : a considerable portion of the Bri- 
 ti.-h manufactures are afterwards smuggled into Spain. The imports from the United Kingdom 
 likewise include a considerable quantity of tobacco, shellac, indigo, quicksilver, and other foreign 
 articles. From the British N. American colonies, nearly 300,000 quintals of dried cod are an- 
 nually imported, the returns for which are partly made in salt from St Ubes. 
 
 The other countries with which Portugal chiefly trades are, Brazil, from whence tropical produce 
 is received in exchange for wine, brandy, and other articles ; the several nations in the N. of Europe ; 
 the Portuguese colonies of the Madeiras, Cape de Verde Islands, Angola, and Mozambique in 
 Africa, Goa, and Macao, which, however, are almost all declining places ; and the United States. 
 From the last-mentioned corn used to be regularly imported, but sufficient is now grown for the 
 consumption ; recentlv, indeed, a little has been exported. The total exports from Portugal may 
 be estimated at about £2,000,000 ; and the imports at nearly the same. The foreign trade is 
 mostly in the hands of foreigners, chiefly English, resident in Lisbon and Oporto. 
 
 Ports. — Lisbon, the capital, lies on the right bank of the Tagus, 10 miles from its mouth, in lat. 
 V, long. 9° 8' W. ; where the river extends into a bay five miles wide, forming one of the 
 finest harbours or roads in the world. The town is, however, known to be the filthiest in Europe, 
 especially the E. quarter. Pop. 260,000. Its trade has greatly diminished since the separation from 
 Brazil ; though it is still the emporium of the S. part of the kingdom. Upwards of 1000 vessels 
 enter annually, of which about one-third are British. 
 
 Oporto or Porto, the outlet of the N. and most industrious provinces, lies on the declivity of a 
 hill on the N. side of the Douro, 2 miles from its mouth, in lat. 41° 8' N., long. 8° 37' W., 170 miles 
 W. of Lisbon. The river, though difficult of entrance, owing to rocks and quicksands, and rarely 
 
POS 
 
 540 
 
 POS 
 
 practicable for vessels drawing more than 16 feet, is still well adapted for trade ; in front of the 
 town it is sufficiently deep for pretty large vessels, while brigs and smaller craft can lie close to the 
 quay ; and it is navigable by barges or boats for about 100 miles. Pop. 70,000. On the opposite side 
 of the river, between the suburbs of Villa-nova and Gaya, there are immense vaults or " lodges," 
 where the wine is kept. Port-wine is here the great staple, but the exports of fruit are also 
 considerable. From 80,000 to 90,000 tons of shipping enter annually, of which fully one-fourth are 
 British. Both Lisbon and Oporto have a regular steam communication with England. 
 
 The other ports are Caminha, Viano, Villa do Conde, Aveira, Figueira, Setubal or St Ubes, on 
 the W. coast, and Faro and Villa Nova de Portimao in Algarve. 
 
 Measures, Monby, Finances, &c. 
 
 Measures and Weights. — Thepalmo (craveiro) 
 of 8 inches = 8*62 Imp. inches ; the pe or foot 
 = 1J palmo ; the vara = 5 palmos = 43*11 
 Imp. inches ; the covado, nominally equal 3 
 palmos, is commonly 243 Portuguese inches, or 
 26*67 Imp. inches ; the braca is 10 palmos. The 
 Portuguese league (18 to the degree) of 3 miles 
 b= 6759 Imp. yards, or 3 Imp. miles 63 furlongs. 
 
 The geira, land measure, = 4840 square varas ; 
 7 geiras = 10 Imp. acres nearly. 
 
 The Lisbon almude, liquid measure, of 2 pots, 
 12 canadas, or 48 quartilhos, = 3*64 Imp. galls. ; 
 the baril is 18, the pipe 26, and the tonelada 52 
 almudes. The Oporto almude = 5*61 Imp. gall 
 
 The moyo, dry measure, of 15 fanegas, 60 
 Lisbon alquieres, or 240 quartos = 22*39 Imp. 
 bushels ; and 100 Lisbon alquieres = 37*32 Imp. 
 bushels. At Oporto, however, the alquiere = 
 0*465 Imp. bushel, or 100 Oporto alquieres = 
 46*50 Imp. bushels. 
 
 The arroba of 32 arratels or pounds (each of 
 2 marks, or 16 ounces) = 32*38 lbs. avoirdupois ; 
 and 100 Portuguese lbs. = 101*18 lbs. avoirdu- 
 pois ; the quintal is 4 arrobas ; the tonelada 54 
 arrobas. The apothecaries' pound is 1 1 mark. 
 
 Gold and silver are weighed by the mark of 8 
 ounces or 4608 grains = 3541J troy grains. The 
 fineness of gold is expressed by dividing the mark 
 fine or other weight into 24 quilates or carats, 
 each of 4 grains ; and the fineness of silver, by 
 dividing the mark fine into 12 dinheiros, each of 
 24 grains. Gold, 22 carats fine, is sold at the 
 fixed rate of 96 milreas per mark ; and silver, 11 
 dinheiros fine, at the fixed rate of 6 milreas per 
 mark ; the variations of price upon each being 
 made by a premium per cent. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are stated in reis or reas ; 
 and 1000 reas are termed a milrea, which in ac- 
 counts is denoted thus, 1$000. The milrea, 
 valued in silver from the crusado novo, is worth 
 56d. sterling. 400 reas = 1 crusado of exchange ; 
 a million of reas (1000$000), are termed a conto. 
 
 The modern coins are : — In gold, the dobraon 
 or ounce of 12800 reas; the half-dobraon, or 
 johanese of 6400 reas ; the half-johanese of 3200 
 reas ; the escudo of 1600 reas ; the half-escudo 
 of 800 reas ; and the crusado velho of 400 reas ; 
 which are all minted at the rate of 8 dobraons 
 to the Portuguese mark, nominally 22 carats 
 fine, but seldom above 21J carats: — In silver, 
 the crusado novo of 480 reas, and J, J, and j 
 crusadoes ; the piece of 6 vintems, or 120 reas ; 
 the testoon of 5 vintems, or 100 reas ; and pieces 
 of 3 and 21 vintems : — In copper, pieces of 40, 
 10, 5, 3, and 1J reas. 
 
 In 1835, a new coinage was ordered, making a 
 gold crown of 5000 reas worth £1, 3s. Hid. ster- 
 ling, and a silver crown or milrea, 56gd. sterling. 
 
 Usance of bills, from London, 30 days' sight ; 
 from Spain , 15 days' sight ; from France, 60 days' 
 date ; and from Italy, 3 months' date. Days of 
 grace, on inland bills, 15 ; on foreign bills, | 
 
 POSTING, or travelling by means of hired horses, is a government monopoly in 
 almost all European countries, except Britain, where it is conducted in a much 
 superior manner, through the competition of private parties ; though, owing to 
 taxation, at greater expense. Posting is now, however, less common in this coun- 
 try than formerly, owing to the extension of other means of travelling. S 
 
 when accepted, 6, but when not accepted, they 
 must be either paid or protested when due. 
 
 A National Bank, established 1822, with a ca- 
 pital of £700,000, issues notes, payable in specie. 
 
 The Finances are in great disorder. In 1838, 
 the revenue amounted to £2,091,000, and the 
 expenditure to £2,524,000; leaving a deficit of 
 £433,000. The foreign debt in the same year 
 amounted to £11,375,300 ; and the internal debt 
 to £4,087,039; total, £15,462,339 ; the interest 
 on which amounted to £621 ,44a 
 
 The foreign debt consists of various loans 
 raised in England between 1831 and 1837, the 
 dividends on which have been rarely paid. The 
 " old Portuguese 5 per cents of' 1823" (not 
 included in those above mentioned) were assigned 
 in 1825 to Brazil, by whom the interest and sink- 
 ing-fund has been since regularly provided. 
 
 A Treaty with Britain, July 3, 1842, provides 
 that the subjects of each of the two powers shall, 
 in the dominions of the other, enjoy the privi- 
 leges of "'subjects of the most favoured nation ;" 
 and that there shall be reciprocal liberty of com- 
 merce and navigation ; but without prejudice to 
 the existing regulations respecting the Douro 
 wine-trade, the exportation of salt from St Ubes, 
 and the exclusive right of the crown of Portugal 
 to farm the sale of ivory, orchil, gold dust, soap, 
 gunpowder, and tobacco, for consumption in 
 that kingdom. 
 
 All merchandise, which can be legally imported 
 into either country from the other, in ships of 
 that other country, shall pay no higher dues than 
 if the shipments were effected in national vessels ; 
 and exports shall be regulated on the same prin- 
 ciple. Farther, British ships are allowed to 
 proceed direct from any port in the British dom- 
 inions to any Portuguese colony, with the pro- 
 duce or manufactures of the United Kingdom or 
 its colonies, except such goods as are prohibited 
 or admitted only from Portuguese possessions ; 
 and such British ships and goods shall pay no 
 higher dues than are exigible on such goods 
 brought in Portuguese ships, or on the like goods 
 brought from other countries in Portuguese ships. 
 The same rights are conceded by Britain to Por- 
 tugal ; and similar privileges are also mutually 
 granted by the two powers to each other in re- 
 gard to exports from their colonies. The vessels 
 of the two countries respectively shall also be per- 
 mitted to discharge and lade at different ports in 
 the other, in the same voyage inwards or out- 
 wards, as national vessels. 
 
 The treaty comprehends various other stipu- 
 lations, including an agreement to take into 
 consideration the duties now levied upon the 
 productions of either country, with a view to 
 their reduction; which "matter shall without 
 delay be made the subject of a special negotia- 
 tion between the two governments." It is to 
 endure for 10 years, and further, until the end of 
 12 months after notice. 
 
ros S4\ pos 
 
 DuI'h's in BriUiin. — Besides the carriage duty [Coach], even.' postmaster is required, by the net 
 2 Ac 3 Wm. IV. c. 120, to take out yearly a license costing 7s. 6d., and which expires 31st January. 
 He must also pay ljd. per mile for each horse let for hire ; but where the distance is not greater 
 than 8 miles, then l-5th of the charge for hire, or ls-9d.. at his option ; and in the case of the horse 
 not bringing back any person, and not deviating from the usual road, Is. In respect of every horse 
 let or used for any time less than 28 days, l-5th of the charge for hire ; or in lieu thereof, for every 
 day not exceeding 3 days, 2s. 6d. ; from 3 to 13 days, Is. 9d. ; above 13 and less than 28 days, Is. 3d. 
 Posting carriages mustbe numbered, and bear the owner's name and residence. The d'uties are 
 checked by means of tickets left by the hirer or postilion with the turnpike keepers, — an account 
 of which is taken periodically by the excise. The regulations are enforced under penalties. 
 
 In 1841, the produce of the post horse duties was £196,134, and of the licenses, £3729. 
 
 POST-OFFICE. The origin of this institution may be traced to the special 
 messengers or " nuneii," who, in ancient times and in the middle ages, were em- 
 ployed to convey the public despatches and edicts. At a later period regular cou- 
 riers were employed, and stations or posts assigned, between which each should 
 pass, handing the papers from the one to the other. In the fifteenth century, re- 
 gular posts were established in different parts of Europe, the benefit of which was 
 gradually extended to private parties ; and public letter offices were opened in 
 France in 1619, and in Britain in 1635. The latter, called a " merchant post," did 
 not prosper ; but, in 1649, it was placed on a better footing by the Commonwealth ; 
 and, in 1656, further improved by Cromwell. In 1710, a general post-office was 
 established by the act 9 Anne, c. 11, for the United Kingdom and the colonies. 
 
 The post-office, however, continued long afterwards a very imperfect institution ; 
 the mails were sent by boys on horseback, — a mode attended with delay, danger, 
 and uncertainty; and local and cross-road posts were either still more defective, 
 or altogether wanting. At length, the post having been outstripped, in point of 
 despatch and safety, by the ordinary stage-coaches, it occurred to John Palmer, 
 manager of the Bath theatre, that a great improvement might be made by con- 
 tracting with the proprietors of coaches for the carriage of the mail, and binding 
 them to perform the journey in a specified time, and take a guard for protec- 
 tion. His mail-coach plan was submitted, in 1782, to Mr Pitt, by whom it was 
 zealously supported. In 1784, notwithstanding much opposition, it was carried 
 into operation on the principal roads, Mr Palmer being, at same time, appointed 
 comptroller-general of the post-office ; and the system was thereafter gradually 
 extended, with other improvements in regard to frequent transmission, punctuality, 
 and speed, to almost all parts of the kingdom. 
 
 The safe and speedy conveyance of letters for the benefit of trade, was the pri- 
 mary consideration with the British government on the first establishment of a post- 
 office ; the revenue was held to be of minor importance : this principle is recog- 
 nised in the preamble of the different postage acts which were passed from the 
 time of the Commonwealth down to the 9th of Queen Anne. In 1710, when Id. 
 was added to several of the previous rates, only 4d. was charged in Britain for 
 distances above 80 miles, and 3d. for shorter distances ; and, in 1765, the rates for 
 distances not exceeding 30 miles, were reduced to Id. and 2d. But, in 1784, on 
 the introduction of Mr Palmer's plan, one object of which was an augmentation of 
 revenue, the whole were graduated between 2d. and 6d., — rates which, owing to 
 the exigencies of the war, were successively increased in 1797, 1801, 1805, and 1812. 
 I n the year last mentioned, the charges ongeneral post letters in Britain were, — for 
 distances not above 15 miles, 4d.; from 15 to 20 miles, 5d.; from 20 to 30, 6d.; 30 
 to 50, 7d. ; 50 to 80, 8d. ; 80 to 120, 9d.; 120 to 170, 10d.; 170 to 230, lid. ; 230 to 
 300, 12d. ; and an additional Id. for each additional 100 miles. These rates were 
 continued until 1839. A single letter was understood to contain a single piece of 
 paper, not exceeding 1 oz. in weight ; a second piece, or enclosure, constituted a 
 double letter ; beyond, fourfold, — the postages advanced by weight. In Scotland, 
 an additional §d. was charged for tolls. In Ireland, the rates were mostly lower. 
 Between Britain and Ireland, packet rates were charged in addition to their re- 
 spective inland rates. The post rate in towns was Id., except in the London district, 
 where it was 2d. and 3d., according to distance. The exemptions from postage 
 were, letters " franked" by members of parliament and certain official persons, a 
 privilege coeval with the institution of the post-office ; parliamentary papers ; and 
 stamped newspapers : the letters of soldiers and sailors, countersigned by their 
 officer, were charged, after 1795, at a uniform rate of Id. 
 
 In 1709, the gross receipt of the post-office was £111,461, and the net revenue, 
 £56,664. In 1779, the net revenue was only about £140,000. But after 1784, Mr 
 Palmer's improvements, and the advance of the countrv, led to a rapid increase ; 
 and, in 1803, the gross receipt was £1,372,979, and net revenue, £956,212. In 1815, 
 the gross receipt was £2,323,835 ; the charges, £704,639, or about 29 per cent, on 
 
POS 
 
 542 
 
 POS 
 
 £l,fil9,196, the net revenue. After 1815, the excessive rates of postage, combined 
 with the greater facilities for evading them afforded through improved means of 
 communication, prevented any further augmentation of the revenue, notwithstand- 
 ing the subsequent increase of the country in wealth and population. 
 
 The following tables, abridged from the Parliamentary Report on Post-office 
 Reform, exhibit an estimate of the documents which passed through the office in 
 1837, the average postage thereon, and the revenue : also an analysis of the cost of 
 management, as prepared for the said Report in 1838 : — 
 
 Description of Letters. 
 
 Generalpost,inland, 
 
 above 4d 
 
 Do. not above 4d. . . 
 London local post . . 
 Provincial do 
 
 Packet and ship... . 
 Parliamenty. franks 
 
 Official franks 
 
 Statutes 
 
 Newspapers 
 
 Unappropriated... . 
 
 No. of 
 Letters. 
 
 46,378,800 
 
 5,153,200 
 11,837,852 
 
 8,030,412 
 71,400,264 
 
 3,523,572 23| 
 
 4,813,448 
 
 2,109,010 
 
 77,542 
 
 44,500,000 
 
 126,423,836 
 
 Gross 
 Revenue. 
 
 £ 
 ,782,191 
 
 75,151 
 114,7*3 
 
 33,483 
 
 ,005,578 
 369,340 
 
 4,641 
 
 2,379,559 
 
 1. Cost of transit in U. Kingdom : — 
 
 Mail-coach expenses 
 
 Riding work, &c. 
 
 Packet service 
 
 Other payments 
 
 2. Cost of P. O. establishments in U. K. 
 
 3. Foreign and colonial packets, 
 £'31,509; other foreign and colo- 
 nial charges, superannuation al- 
 lowances, &c. £91,738 
 
 Total charges. 
 Net revenue , 
 
 140,985 
 107,818 
 30,998 
 7,506 
 287,307 
 288,078 
 
 123,247 
 
 In computing the average rates of postage now stated, multiple letters are included 
 and counted as single ; excluding multiple letters, the average postage of inland 
 letters, instead of 6fd. was 6£d. 
 
 We have furnished these details from their bearing upon the plan of post-office 
 reform brought forward in 1837 by Rowland Hill, a gentleman unconnected with 
 the department. He proposed, 1st, a low and uniform rate, instead of the then 
 existing high and variable rates ; 2d, increased speed in delivery ; and, 3d, more 
 frequent despatch. He also recommended that the postage should be charged by 
 weight, and prepaid, at the rate of Id. for each letter not above § oz.; and he after- 
 wards proposed that the prepayment should be by means of stamps, an expedient 
 which he says was suggested to him by Mr Charles Knight. Mr Hill's plan em- 
 braced all inland letters, to the exclusion even of parliamentary and official franks, 
 but it did not include foreign and colonial letters. 
 
 The principle of a uniform postage is founded on the facts that the cost of dis- 
 tributing letters in the United Kingdom consists chiefly in the expenses incurred 
 with reference to their receipt at and delivery from the office ; and that the cost of 
 transit along the mail roads is comparatively unimportant, and determined rather 
 by the number of letters carried than the distance. " It is not matter of inference," 
 says Mr Hill, "but matter of fact, that the expense of the post-office is practically 
 the same, whether a letter is going from London to Barnet (11 miles), or from 
 London to Edinburgh (397 miles) ; the difference is not expressible in the smallest 
 coin we have." The cost of transit from London to Edinburgh, he explained to be 
 only l-36th of a penny. The fixing of a low rate flowed almost necessarily from 
 the adoption of a uniform rate ; it was besides essential to a stoppage of the private 
 conveyance of letters. The post-office was thus to be restored to its ancient footing 
 of an institution whose primary object was public accommodation, not revenue ; 
 though the loss of income from the change would, it was thought, be gradually 
 diminished, and perhaps made up, by the increase of correspondence, commercial, 
 literary, and domestic, arising from the reduced postage. 
 
 A general feeling having been aroused in favour of Mr Hill's plan, it was remit- 
 ted by the House of Commons to a committee for investigation, in December 1837. 
 And in 1838, the committee reported, " that the evidence taken before them abun- 
 dantly proves the present high rates of postage are extremely injurious to all 
 classes ; restricting commerce, art, and science, and the progress of education ; 
 circumscribing the operations of institutions for the promotion of religion, morality, 
 and charity; interfering with domestic comfort ; suppressing almost entirely the 
 correspondence of the poor ; and impairing habitual respect to the law by en- 
 couraging evasions of the post-office statutes. The committee, therefore, recom- 
 mended increased facilities for correspondence. " Upon the important novelty of 
 
POS 
 
 543 
 
 POS 
 
 a uniform rale, the committee are of opinion, that that part of the inland postage 
 on letters which consists of tax ought to be the same on all : that as the cost of 
 conveyance per letter depends more on the number of letters carried than on 
 the distance which they are conveyed, the cost being frequently greater for dis- 
 tances of a few miles than for distances of hundreds of miles, the charge, if varied 
 in proportion to the cost, ought to increase in the inverse ratio of the number of 
 letters conveyed ; but as it would be difficult, if not impossible, to carry such a 
 regulation into practice, and as the actual cost of conveyance (assuming the charged 
 letters to bear the whole expense of the franked letters and of the newspapers) 
 forms less than the half of the whole charge, exclusive of tax, the remaining portion 
 consisting chiefly in the charges attendant on their receipt at, and delivery from 
 the post-office, the committee are of opinion that the nearest practicable approach 
 to a fair system would be to charge a uniform rate of postage between one post- 
 town and "another, whatever may be their distance ; and the committee are further 
 of opinion, that such an arrangement is highly desirable, not only on account of its 
 abstract fairness, but because it would tend in a great degree to simplify and 
 economize the business of the post-office." Lastly, the committee reported in favour 
 of the other parts of Mr Hill's plan, confirming by official data the whole of his 
 conclusions. 
 
 In 1839, the uniform penny -post age was adopted by parliament. A preparatory 
 fourpenny rate for general post letters was introduced, December 5, 1839, and at 
 same time the London district rates were reduced to Id.; the uniform penny rate 
 came into operation on 10th January, and stamps on the 6th May 1840. 
 
 Besides these changes, considerable improvements have of late been effected in the 
 frequency, despatch, and speed of the mails, — the last being chiefly accomplished 
 by the transmission of letters in all the chief routes in Britain by means of railways. 
 The principal inland mails are sent from London (except on Sunday) twice a-day, 
 morning and evening, instead of only once, in the evening, as formerly; and Edin- 
 burgh and Glasgow are reached in 29 hours. A considerable addition has also 
 been made to the number of post-offices in the United Kingdom, which at present 
 exceed 3000. So that letters are now carried, at an expense convenient to the 
 poorest, quickly and punctually into every part of the British islands. 
 
 The following table shows the financial movement of the post-office in the four 
 years ended January 5, 1842 : — 
 
 Year to 
 Jan. 5. 
 
 Gross Revenue. 
 
 Cost of Manage- 
 ment. 
 
 Net Revenue. 
 
 Postage charged 
 
 ontheGovernment 
 
 Departments. 
 
 Net Pioduce, ex- 
 clusive of Charges 
 ontheGovernment 
 Departments. 
 
 1839 
 1840 
 1841 
 1842 
 
 £ s. d. 
 2,346,278 9J 
 2,390,763 10 li 
 1,342,6(14 5 2 
 1,495,540 9 03 
 
 £ s. d. 
 686,768 3 63 
 756,999 7 4 
 85»,677 5i 
 938,168 19 7i 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1,659,509 17 23 
 
 l,6a3,764 2 9i 
 
 483,927 4 83 
 
 557.371 9 5k 
 
 £ s. d. 
 45,156 11 
 44,277 13 4 
 90,761 3 2 
 113,255 15 10 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1,614,353 16 33 
 
 1,589,486 9 5J 
 
 393,166 1 63 
 
 444,115 13 7i 
 
 The net revenue is less than was anticipated by many, chiefly from the increase 
 in the charges of management, a rise partly due to the additional expenses attendant 
 on the conveyance of the mails since the extension of the railway system. Still, 
 the results of the last year show the rate of the letter tax to be 59h per cent, (the 
 ratio of £557,371, the net revenue, to £938,168,* the cost of management), or 47 £ 
 per cent., if estimated by the net produce, exclusive of postage paid Dy government ; 
 and these rates are yearly increasing. The utility of the post-oflice, however, even 
 as a source of revenue, is not to be appreciated solely by the amount which it yields 
 directly to the state ; it must also be viewed as auxiliary to other branches of 
 the public income ; and few can doubt the beneficial influence of Mr Hill's system 
 upon all departments of industry, and almost every object of national policy. 
 
 The number of letters posted in the first four months of 1842 averaged about 
 3,130,000 a-week in England, 440,000 in Scotland, and 430,000 in Ireland ; total, 
 4,000,000 weekly, or about 208,000,000 a-year ; being 2| fold or 160 per cent, more 
 than the number in 1838 (taken at 80,000,000), notwithstanding the great depression 
 of trade in the interval. Mr Hill estimated the probable augmentation at 5^ fold, 
 
 * This does not include the charges of certain packets controlled by the Admiralty, to whose 
 superintendence they were removed in 1837, and the expense of which is included in the Navy 
 estimates, where they are not distinguished. On the other hand, were a strict accounting to be 
 gone into, the post-office would fall to receive credit for the value of the stamps of newspapers dis- 
 tributed by it, which, taking their number at 44,500,000, as in 1837, would amount to £185,416. 
 
POT 
 
 544 
 
 POT 
 
 or 420,000,000 letters a-year, but he did not specify the time ; and some of the 
 facilities recommended by him have not yet been carried into operation. A striking 
 circumstance, illustrative of the nature and progress of the measure, noticed in a 
 parliamentary return, is, that the gross revenue in England under the penny rate, 
 in the month ending January 5, 1842, was £100,383 ; and in the same month in 
 1840, under the fourpenny rate, not more than £103,623,— an excess of only 3£ per 
 cent., notwithstanding the great difference in the rates. 
 
 In many foreign countries the postage is fixed rather with a view to public ac- 
 commodation than revenue. This is the case in France, where the charge is by 
 weight ; a quarter of an ounce, however, being only allowed for each single rate. 
 In the United States, the post-office income was not until lately equal to the ex- 
 penses. But the principle of a uniform rate can be applied with success only in a 
 country such as Britain, where, besides high civilisation, there is great density of 
 population, extraordinary facilities for internal communication, and immense as 
 well as widely diffused commerce. 
 
 The communication with countries beyond sea has been greatly altered of late 
 years by the general employment of steam mail-packets with all but very distant 
 places. There is daily intercourse with France, and at frequent intervals with 
 other parts of the Continent. In 1837, steamers were established between Bom- 
 bay and Suez, and letters now reach London from India, by way of Egypt, in 35 
 days, and sometimes sooner. In 1839, mail steamers were also established be- 
 tween Liverpool and N. America, which accomplish the voyage to Halifax in 10 
 days, and Boston in 12 days ; and in 1842 another line of steam-packets opened a 
 more rapid communication between England and the W. Indies and S. America. 
 Statutes and Regulations. 
 
 conveyed by private ships to parts beyond sea, 
 uniformly pay 8d. These rates apply in what- 
 ever part of the kingdom the letters are posted. 
 Newspapers, published in the United King- 
 dom, pass free from one post-town to another. 
 British and colonial newspapers also pass free 
 to and from the colonies in the post-office packets. 
 Foreign newspapers received in Britain, and 
 British newspapers sent to foreign countries, are 
 charged 2d., unless there be a convention with 
 the foreign post-office. All newspapers must be 
 without covers, or in covers open at the sides, 
 and must have no other writing or mark but the 
 address, and no enclosure. Those sent out of 
 the kingdom must be posted within 7 days after 
 publication. 
 
 Money Orders, for sums not exceeding £5, 
 are granted by every post-town upon every other 
 post-town in the United Kingdom, on applica- 
 tion. For any sum, not exceeding £2, a com- 
 mission of 3d. is charged ; and those from £2 
 to £5 the charge is 6d. 
 
 Prior to November 20, 1840, when these com- 
 missions were fixed, the charges were much 
 higher. This reduction, joined to the facilities 
 of the penny-postage system, has led to a great 
 increase in the money-order department. In 
 England, in the quarter ended January 5, 1840, 
 the amount issued was only £67,411 ; whereas, 
 in the quarter ended January 5, 1842, it was 
 £820,576 : the number of orders issued in the 
 latter period was 390,290 ; showing the average 
 amount of each to have been £2, 2s. OJd. S 
 
 The Post-office Acts, passed between 1710 and 
 . 837, were about 1 50 in number ; but the greater 
 part were repealed in the latter year, when the 
 following statutes were passed for regulating the 
 whole department, namely, the 1 Vict. c. 33, for 
 the management of the post-office ; c. 34, for 
 the regulation of the duties ; c 35, as to frank- 
 ing ; and c. 36, consolidating the laws relative 
 to offences. These, again, have been to a great 
 extent abrogated by the acts 2 & 3 Vict. c. 52, 
 and 3 & 4 Vict. c. 96, relating to the uniform 
 penny postage. 
 
 The Charge for inland letters, not exceeding J 
 oz. in weight, is 1 postage ; from J oz. to 1 oz. 
 2 postages ; from 1 oz. to 2 oz. 4 postages ; and 
 so on, adding 2 postages for every oz. up to 16 
 oz., beyond which no packet subject to postage 
 is received ; parliamentary papers and petitions 
 are an exception. The price of a postage is Id. 
 which must be prepaid either by money or the 
 use of a stamp, or it will be charged double j 
 and if the weight of the letter should exceed the 
 value of the stamps attached, the excess will be 
 charged double. Stamped envelopes are sold 
 at the rate of Is. ljd. per dozen of penny, and 
 2s. 2d. per dozen of twopenny kinds. Letters 
 can be registered on payment of a fee of Is. 
 
 Colonial, India, and United States letters, 
 when not exceeding J oz., are charged Is. when 
 sent by packet, an intercolonial rate of 2d. being 
 besides charged on those for British N. America. 
 Various rates are charged for other foreign letters 
 according to the route and distance. Letters 
 
 POTASH (Fr. Potasse. Ger. Pottasche), a term commonly applied to an im- 
 pure carbonate of potash, obtained by the incineration of wood, lixiviating the 
 ashes in barrels, first with cold and then with hot water, filtering the ley, and 
 evaporating it to dryness in an iron pot. In this state, which is that of the potash 
 of commerce, it still contains some vegetable matter not perfectly incinerated, to 
 destroy which it is put into a crucible, and liquefied to an intense heat. The melted 
 matter is then poured out on iron plates, where it hardens, and in this purer state 
 it is called pearl ash. 
 
 Potashes occur in hard irregular masses or fragments, of a light blueish gray 
 colour, somewhat caustic alkaline taste, inodorous, and very deliquescent. Pearl 
 ashes are of a whitish colour and pearly lustre, and of considerably purer and finer 
 texture and appearance than the other. These commodities are valued according to 
 their purity, estimated generally by their easy solubility in water, two parts of 
 
POT 545 POU 
 
 which, according to Mr Brande, should entirely and easily dissolve one part of 
 pearl-ash without the aid of heat : the residue, if any, consists of impurities. 
 
 Ashes are used in the soap and glass manufactures, bleaching and scouring of 
 linens and woollen cloths, and dyeing ; also, when refined, in medicine, surgery, 
 and other arts. But of late years their consumption has been checked by the 
 substitution of soda and the chlorides of lime and soda for many purposes ; and 
 the importations into Britain, formerly upwards of 200,000 cwts., do not now ex- 
 ceed 120,000 cwts., which, excepting a small quantity from Russia, are wholly 
 brought from N. America, chiefly Montreal. [Canada.] 
 
 POTATO (Fr. Patate. Ger. Kartoffel. Por. Batata. Sp. Patata), " the most pre- 
 cious gift of the New World to the Old," appears to have reached the Continent from 
 Spanish America ; though it is said to have been first brought to Britain from Vir- 
 ginia by Raleigh in 1586. It is, however, only within the last 100 years that its 
 cultivation has become general. The plant (Solanum tuberosum), valued solely for 
 its esculent tuberose roots, has a very wide range of soils and temperature ; but 
 dry, light ground is that best adapted for it. The varieties are usually distinguished 
 into the early and the late ; the former, except in the vicinity of large towns, raised 
 chiefly in the garden, the latter in the fields : there are, however, intermediate 
 kinds. All are commonly propagated from the tubers ; those reared from seed 
 taking several years before their roots obtain the full size. The sets are usually 
 planted in spring ; from 8 to 10 cwts. are required to the acre ; and the crop varies 
 from about 5 to 10 tons, according to soil and culture. The roots are taken up in 
 dry weather, when they are either stored or preserved in heaps or pits covered 
 with earth, as a defence against frost, and to prevent putrefaction. Besides its 
 ordinary use as human food, the potato is employed in rearing live-stock, and in dis- 
 tillation. Its fecula, wanting gluten, does not undergo the panary fermentation, 
 but it maybe so mixed with wheat-flour as to produce good bread, and it is appli- 
 cable to other purposes of domestic economy, while the use of its starch is extend- 
 ing in various forms. It grows exempt from most of the hazards as to weather to 
 which other crops are subject ; and it is liable to few diseases : the most dreaded are 
 the curl, an imperfect formation of the tubers, indicated by the curling of the leaf; 
 and the dry-rot, or decay of the set ; both unexplained. It can be cultivated on a 
 small as well as a large scale ; is under every system of agriculture a beneficial 
 object ; and produces more nutriment upon the same extent of ground than any 
 other plant cultivated in the temperate regions. It may thus be regarded as the 
 banana of the temperate zone. It now forms a great part of the food of the inhab- 
 itants of Europe ; and its introduction as a supplementary crop has greatly lessened 
 the hazards of famine. Mr Cobbett and others have asserted that its use in Ire- 
 land, where it forms the principal article of food, has been attended with pauper- 
 izing effects ; but the same remark may be made upon the dependence of the Hin- 
 doos upon rice. The entire reliance of the peasantry of Ireland and India upon 
 the cheapest species of food is merely one of many indications that these fertile 
 countries are in an unhealthy state of indigence. S 
 
 The import duty on potatoes, formerly 2s. per cwt., has been reduced (1842) to 
 the nominal rates of 2d. per cwt. from foreign countries, and Id. from the colonies. 
 This change may perhaps lead to shipments to London from the adjoining parts of the 
 Continent ; but it is impossible that a cheap bulky article, raised every where with fa- 
 cility from the poorest soils, can become an important object of external commerce. 
 
 POULTRY. The rearing of domestic fowls forms an important branch of rural 
 economy among small farmers and cottagers, especially in the vicinity of large towns. 
 In Surrey, Sussex, Essex, Cambridge, Norfolk, Suffolk, and Berkshire, however, 
 the rearing and fattening of poultry for the London market is thought worthy of 
 attention by considerable farmers. At Wokingham, in Berkshire, the metro- 
 politan dealers sometimes pay £150 to the feeders in that neighbourhood in a single 
 market-day. Reigate and Dorking are also large poultry markets. The present 
 Earl Spencer, some years ago, instituted a poultry show at Chapel Brampton, in 
 Northamptonshire. As it is always desirable to have a standard in view, raised 
 as high as the most approved system will carry it, we give the weight of the fowls 
 which gained the prizes awarded in 1829 : — The best turkey weighed 20 lbs. 4 
 oz. ; capon, 7 lbs. Uh oz. ; pullet, 6 lbs. 3h oz. ; goose, 18 lbs. 2h oz. ; couple of 
 ducks, 15 lbs. 10 oz. The production of animal food by domestic fowls is much 
 greater than is commonly imagined. Mr Lawrence, in his treatise on poultry, 
 states, that from five Poland hens he obtained, in 11 months, 503 eggs, weigh- 
 ing, at the average of 1 oz. 5 drams each, 50£ lbs. The feathers of domestic fowls 
 form an object of considerable trade, especially between Ireland and England. S 
 
POU 546 PRE 
 
 POUNCE. [Cuttle-Fish. Sandarach.] 
 
 POUND, the integer of weight in most European countries, seems originally to 
 have been derived from the Roman pondus, or libra of 12 uncise, though the latter 
 was less than most of the pounds now in use, being, according to Paucton, only 
 5174 troy grains. In the middle ages, the weights were rude and variable. It 
 was one of the concessions by King John in the Magna Charta, that there should 
 be uniformity in this respect ; and not long afterwards a statute, 51 Henry III., 
 ordained that an English penny, called the sterling, should weigh 32 dry wheat 
 grains, that 20 pence should make an ounce, and 12 ounces a pound. At a later 
 period, the number of grains in the penny was reduced to 24, making 5760 grains 
 in the standard pound ; which, under the name of Troy weight, was first used 
 at the Mint in 1526, instead of the ancient Moneyer's or Tower pound of 5400 
 grains. The Troy pound has ever since been the English standard, though its 
 use has been confined to the precious metals ; the avoirdupois pound of 7000 troy 
 grains having been for several centuries that generally used in commerce. [Coin. 
 Measures.] 
 
 POUND (Lat. & Sp. Libra. It. Lira. Fr. Livre), the ancient money integer in 
 most parts of Europe, was at first a pound weight of silver, from which 20 shillings 
 were coined, or 240 pence. This mode of reckoning, supposed to be of Roman 
 origin, was introduced into modern Europe by Charlemagne, who divided the 
 livre into 20 sous, and each sou into 12 deniers. It was established by William 
 the Conqueror in England, where it has been continued down to the present time, 
 though in almost every other part of Europe it is now superseded by the decimal 
 system. [Coin. Money.] 
 
 PREMIUM (Lat. Prcemium, reward), is justly defined by Dr Johnson to be 
 f something given to invite a loan or a bargain." In commerce, however, the term 
 is not used very consistently. Thus, while the premium on the share of a joint- 
 stock company is understood to be the sum given for it above its original value or 
 par, the premium of an insurance is the whole consideration granted by the party 
 protected under the contract. 
 
 PRESCRIPTION, in Scotland, is employed in the sense in which limitation is 
 used in England, viz. to express that operation of the lapse of time by which 
 obligations are extinguished or titles protected. There are various kinds of pre- 
 scription. 
 
 The long prescription, as it is termed, viz. the lapse of 40 years, sweeps away all 
 unimplemented obligations. (Act 1617, c. 12.) 
 
 The vicennial or twenty years' prescription protects parties from action on 
 obligations holograph, or in the handwriting of the granter, unattested, and on 
 books of accounts. But the verity of the document may be referred to the writer's 
 oath. (Act 1669, c. 9.) 
 
 The septennial prescription, relieves cautioners after the lapse of seven years 
 from the date of their undertaking. If the cautioner appear on the bond as a 
 principal, he has the benefit of the act only if there be a clause of relief in the 
 bond, or a bond of relief intimated to the creditor. (Act 1695, c. 5.) 
 
 The sexennial prescription protects parties from action on bills of exchange and 
 promissory notes, after the lapse of six years from the day of payment. Bank- 
 notes and post-bills are excepted. Though the document is thus rendered unavailing, 
 the original debt may still be proved by the writ or oath of the debtor. (12 Geo. 
 III. c. 72, § 38-41; 23 Geo. III. c. 18, § 55.) 
 
 The quinquennial or Jive years' prescription precludes action on bargains as to 
 sale, letting, and hiring, and such like contracts as to moveables not constituted by 
 writing. (Act 1669, c. 9.) 
 
 The triennial or three years' prescription applies to tradesmen's accounts and 
 servants' and artificers' wages, and has been stretched to include professional 
 remuneration and the salaries of persons acting as mandatories or agents. In 
 the case of salary or wages the amount due at each term runs a separate prescrip- 
 tion. In the case of accounts, the prescription runs from the last article of the 
 account. The presumption on which it proceeds is, that the debt has been paid 
 within the three years ; but the creditor retains his right, if he prove by the oath 
 of the debtor, or by a document under his hand, that the debt is unpaid. (Act 
 1579, c. 83.) 
 
 PRESENTMENT, in the Law of Bills of Exchange. It is incumbent on the 
 holder of a bill to present it in certain cases for acceptance alone, and in all cases 
 for payment, or for acceptance and payment together. It is necessary that bills pay- 
 able a certain periodafter sight be presented for acceptance, that the point from which 
 
TRI 547 PRI 
 
 the time runs may be fixed. In other cases it is not necessary to present for ac- 
 ceptance until the final presentment for payment ; but it is in all cases prudent, as, 
 on acceptance, the paper acquires superior negotiability, and, on dishonour, the 
 drawer and indorser become immediately liable. The only rule as to the time of 
 presenting bills, payable at a certain time after sight, is, that it must be " within 
 a reasonable time." Of this " reasonable time " no better account can be given 
 than that the law sanctions what is established by the usage of trade in each class 
 of cases. Presentment for acceptance should be made at the place of abode of the 
 drawee, or, if he be a man of business, at his place of business. It is the duty of 
 the holder to use every reasonable means to discover the drawee, if he has left his 
 prior residence or is otherwise difficult of access. The bankruptcy of the drawee 
 is not notice of dishonour, and cannot excuse want of presentment. If a bill haa 
 been presented for acceptance, and dishonoured, and the dishonour notified, the 
 holder is not required to present again for payment to preserve his recourse. 
 If an acceptance is qualified, as by naming a place of payment, the qualification 
 must be attended to in the presentment for payment. By 1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 78, if 
 we accept a bill " payable at the house of a Danker or other place, without further 
 expression in his acceptance, such acceptance shall be deemed and taken to be, 
 to all intents and purposes, a general acceptance of such bill ; but if the acceptor 
 shall, in his acceptance, express that he accepts the bill, payable at a banker's 
 house or other place only, and not otherwise or elsewhere, such acceptance shall 
 be deemed and taken to be, to all intents and purposes, a qualified acceptance 
 of such bill, and the acceptor shall not be liable to pay the said bill, except in 
 default of payment, when such payment shall have been first duly demanded at such 
 banker's house or other place." It is to be observed that this statute refers merely 
 to the responsibility of the acceptor; with regard to that of the drawer and indorser, 
 it has been decided, after much discussion, that a bill must be presented wherever 
 it is accepted payable, to secure recourse (Gibb v. Mather, 1832 ; 2 Crom. & Jerv. 
 2.54). Where a place of payment is inserted in the body of the bill, it must be 
 there presented, to preserve recourse. The bill must be presented at proper busi- 
 ness hours, and on this point the usage of the place and profession must be kept 
 in view ; but it will effectually meet any objection on the ground of untimely 
 hours, to show that there was an authorized person on the spot, who, when the 
 bill was presented, refused to honour it. Drawers and indorsers are discharged 
 from liability, unless a bill be presented for payment on the proper day. (Bayley 
 on Bills, 216-252. Chitty on Bills, 272-280, 353-391.) 
 
 PRICE, the exchangeable value of any article estimated in money. The price 
 of any commodity is, in the general case, permanently regulated by the quantity 
 of labour and capital expended in obtaining it at the original storehouse of nature ; 
 in other words, by the cost of production, including, of course, the ordinary or 
 average rate of profit. This is called by Adam Smith the natural price of a com- 
 modity. The actual or market price, at any particular time, is influenced by the 
 existing proportion between supply and demand ; and is subject, as this proportion 
 varies, to perpetual fluctuations ; but the cost of production constitutes, as it were, 
 a centre, to which it has a constant tendency to approach. Whenever it sinks 
 below this point, production, having its expenses no longer repaid, is discontinued, 
 and the supply of commodities diminished, until their value become again sufficient 
 to pay the labour and capital necessary to bring them to market. On the other 
 hand, if the market price should at any time be elevated above the cost of produc- 
 tion, labour and capital will, according to the invariable laws of competition, be 
 drawn to the production of the articles which had acquired this extraordinary 
 value, and the supply will be increased until their market price fall back to its 
 natural level. 
 
 The cost of production, however, though in ordinary circumstances, and for any 
 moderate period, nearly stationary, is yet by no means fixed. The invention of 
 new processes, improvements in skill and machinery, discovery of readier sources 
 of supply, and diminution of expense of transportation, all operate by insensible 
 degrees in lowering the cost of many articles ; while an opposite effect will be pro- 
 duced by all those circumstances which cause an increase in the labour of procuring 
 them. In general, it has been observed that there is a natural tendency in objects 
 of manufacture to diminution of cost : the rudest machinery is of course first 
 employed ; by progressive improvements, to which no limit can be assigned, it 
 is rendered more and more capable of yielding a greater quantity with the same 
 expense ; and the competition of capitalists invariably reduces the price of every 
 commodity to the sum which the least expensive method necessarily requires for 
 
PRI 54fl PRI 
 
 its production. But in agriculture, on the contrary, the natural tendency is to 
 increased cost ; there the finest machinery, that is the best soils, are first used ; 
 and recourse is afterwards had to inferior soils, requiring greater labour to produce 
 the same supplies. Improvements in cultivation are only a temporary cneck to 
 this progression ; for the stimulus which they at the same time communicate to 
 population, and the natural tendency of mankind to increase beyond the means of 
 subsistence, is ultimately certain, by forcing recourse to poorer lands, to raise prices. 
 
 These principles are generally applicable to all commodities which can be ob- 
 tained in indefinite quantities ; a class forming the great bulk of those which are 
 objects of commerce. But sometimes particular accidents, sometimes natural 
 causes, and sometimes legislative regulations, keep the market price of many com- 
 modities a good deal above the real cost. Thus, choice wines produced only in 
 limited quantities by certain vineyards, curiosities, antiques, and some minerals, 
 possess from their rarity a value altogether independent of the cost of production. 
 Again, the possessors of " secrets in manufactures," of patents for inventions, or 
 of trading monopolies, may, by keeping the market constantly understocked, by 
 never fully supplying the effectual demand, sell their respective commodities much 
 above the natural price, and raise their emoluments, whether they consist of wages 
 or profit, greatly beyond the natural rate. And the exclusive privileges of cor- 
 porations, statutes of apprenticeship, and all those laws which restrain in particular 
 employments the competition to a smaller number than might otherwise go into 
 them, have the same tendency, though in a less degree. 
 
 " The price of monopoly," Adam Smith remarks, " is upon every occasion the 
 highest that can be got. The natural price, or the price of free competition, on 
 the contrary, is the lowest which can he taken, not upon every occasion indeed, 
 but for any considerable time together " ( Wealth of Nations, b. i. c. 7). But neither 
 the difference between the two, nor the fluctuations in price of freely produced 
 articles, occasioned by derangements in the balance of supply and demand, are 
 uniform in degree with the quantities brought to or withheld from market. Thus, 
 if double the usual quantity of goods is brought to market, it does not necessarily 
 follow that the price will fall one-half, or that if only one-half the usual quantity 
 is supplied, the price will be raised twofold. The proportional differences of 
 price will in some commodities be less, in others greater ; depending chiefly upon 
 whether the article is a luxury or a necessary, of a durable or perishable nature, 
 portable or bulky, of partial or general use, readily or not readily supplied by 
 others ; and according to the degree in which these and other qualities are com- 
 bined. An excess in the importation of ripe oranges, for example, will occasion a 
 much greater competition among sellers, and consequently a greater fall of price, 
 than the same excess in the importation of timber ; while, again, the fall of price 
 on the latter will be greater than in the case of an equal excess in the supply of 
 cochineal, silver, gold, or any other portable commodity in universal demand, which 
 can be easily re-exported. 
 
 But there is no commodity upon which the effect of quantity on price is so con- 
 siderable as corn. In the case of a deficient crop, the struggle of every one to get 
 his accustomed share of that which is necessary for his subsistence, and of which 
 there is not enough, or so much as usual, for all, produces an advance in price very 
 much beyond the degree of the deficiency. Gregory King estimated that a defect 
 of one-tenth in the harvest raised the price three-tenths above the common rate, 
 that a defect of two-tenths produced a rise of eight-tenths, and so on. But though 
 no such strict rule can be deduced, Mr Tooke thinks " there is some ground for 
 supposing that the estimate is not very wide of the truth, from observation of the 
 repeated occurrence of the fact, that the price of corn in this country has risen from 
 100 to 200 per cent, and upwards, when the utmost computed deficiency of the crops 
 has not been more than between one-sixth and one-third below an average, and 
 when that deficiency has been relieved by foreign supplies." The effect of abund- 
 ance in depressing the price is not calculated to be in the same ratio as that of de- 
 ficiency, as a portion of the excess may be held over. Still, " as a general position," 
 says Mr Tooke, " it may be safely laid down that an excess of the supply of corn 
 is attended with a fall of price much beyond the ratio of excess ; and that the larger 
 quantity consequently will yield a less sum of money than the smaller quantity." 
 (History of Prices, vol. i. p. 11-20.) 
 
 Yet the general tendency of the mutual competition of buyers and sellers in all 
 mercantile communities is to preserve both price and quantity from great and 
 sudden fluctuations. Thus, when supply exceeds demand, and the price of a com- 
 modity is lowered, individuals are always to be found ready to employ their funds 
 
PRI 549 PRI 
 
 and credit in purchasing a portion of the surplus, with the view of retaining it and 
 realizing a profit when the altered relation 01 supply to demand shall have led to 
 an enhancement of price ; which, again, is through this operation rendered less 
 excessive than it would otherwise become. The regularity and utility of thi3 
 equalizing process in the corn-trade has been already noticed^ [Corn.] It 
 sometimes happens, however, that speculations, instead of limiting the vibrations 
 of price, render them more irregular, and force them to wider extremes. This is 
 generally produced through miscalculation, acted upon by a loose and expansive 
 system of credit, under the influence of which many are encouraged to leave their 
 own track and compete with the proper dealers in a commodity as speculative 
 
 Surchasers of it. The excitement then produced too often changes the sober in- 
 ustry of the merchant into the feverish ardour of the gambler ; means are strained 
 and responsibilities stretched in effecting purchases, until prices having reached 
 an extravagant height, a general attempt is made to realize the golden dream by 
 selling. A recoil then takes place, the whole illusion is dissipated, and, in a 
 market glutted with the stocks of the needy or ruined speculators, the fall of price 
 becomes as excessive as its previous elevation. Occasional over-speculation, and 
 indeed overtrading of every kind, are inseparable from the existence of credit ; but 
 their frequency and extent will, doubtless, be lessened by the advancement and 
 diffusion of commercial knowledge ; even now, their effects would be greatly modi- 
 fied were it more generally kept in view that almost every kind of business is in 
 the hands of established traders, too vigilant to overlook any opportunity of 
 emolument, and who have much better means of information than temporary in- 
 terlopers. 
 
 Alterations in the Value of the Currency have only a nominal influence on prices. 
 If by the paring or abrasion of the coin, or an excessive issue of paper, the value of 
 money is depreciated to the extent of one-half, two pounds, two dollars, or what- 
 ever may be the integer of account, will be required to be given where one was 
 before sufficient ; but this will not change the relative value of one commodity to 
 another, as all will be affected by the depreciation in the like degree ; and a bale 
 of cotton, hogshead of sugar, and bushel of corn, will continue to preserve the same 
 exchangeable ratio to each other. The alteration takes longer to reach some com- 
 modities than others, so as to occasion a rise in their price. But in the general 
 case, a depreciation of the currency, in reference to particular things only, cannot 
 be supposed, any more than a rise of the tide in reference to particular objects on 
 the shore, and not to all. Similar observations are applicable to the fall of prices 
 consequent on raising the metallic standard, or contracting the paper issues. It is 
 obvious, however, that though alterations in the currency do not affect the propor- 
 tional value of one commodity towards another, they must produce injustice in 
 reference to all existing contracts ; defrauding the creditor in the case of a depre- 
 ciation, and the debtor in the case of an enhancement of its value. [Assignats. 
 Money.] 
 
 A sudden increase of bank accommodation, it may be observed, tends to raise 
 prices by augmenting the number and power of purchasers, and thus stimulating 
 their competition ; while an opposite effect will be produced by the contraction of 
 such accommodation. But disturbing influences of this kind, though often con- 
 founded with expansions and contractions of the currency, are in truth rather the 
 action of capital ; and their effects upon prices are principally confined to particular 
 localities or branches of business. So long as paper-money can be converted into 
 specie of the mintage standard on demand, any expansion or contraction which 
 would reduce or enhance the value of our currency, compared with that of other 
 countries, would be speedily corrected by the operation of the foreign exchange. 
 Some alteration would of course be produced before the remedial process could be 
 accomplished, but its effect upon prices in general would be scarcely appreciable. 
 
 PRICE-CURRENT, a list showing the market prices of commodities. 
 
 PRIMAGE, a petty allowance on the freight or cargo of a ship, forming a 
 perquisite of the master. 
 
 PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, a province of British America, is situated in 
 the S. of the Gulf of St Lawrence. Area, 2157 square miles. Population 40,000, 
 chiefly of Scotch origin. The constitution, like that of the adjoining colonies, com- 
 prehends a lieutenant-governor, council of nine members, and house of assembly 
 of eighteen. S 
 
 The island, crescent-shaped, deeply indented by bays and inlets, and having an undulating sur- 
 face, is rather fertile, with a climate resembling, but superior to, that of Lower Canada and Nova 
 Scotia. The chief object of industry is agriculture , on which of late years considerable improvements 
 have been effected ; and a surplus of corn, potatoes", and cattle, are notsr reared for the supply of 
 
PRI 550 PRI 
 
 Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick ; from whence British and foreign manufac- 
 tures, spirits, tea, sugar, and other articles, are imported in exchange. The exports to Britain 
 are confined to a small quantity of timber. Shipbuilding is pursued to some extent ; but fishing 
 has never risen into importance. In 1835, the total imports amounted to £61,155; whereof N. Ame- 
 rican colonies, £50,290; Britain, £10,1.91; Br. W. Indies, £621; foreign countries, £52: And 
 the exports to £47,216 ; of which, N. American colonies, £38,223 ; Britain, £8331 ; foreign coun- 
 tries, £603 ; Br. W. Indies, £58. In 1837, the shipping inwards amounted to 381 vessels, 23,578 
 tons ; outwards, 426 vessels, 29,615 tons. The difference between these numbers is occasioned by 
 the departure of new vessels, and the return of others in ballast, of which no account is taken. 
 Charlottetown, the seat of government and chief port, is situated in Hillsborough Bay ; it possesses 
 a good harbour. 
 
 The colonial currency is nominally what is called Halifax currency [Canada] ; but the exchange 
 on London is commonly about 30 per cent. The revenue in 1836 amounted to £ 11 ,513 ; and the ex- 
 penditure to £8010. 
 
 PRINCIPAL AND AGENT. — An agent, in the widest acceptation, means a person 
 employed to transact any description ofbusiness for another, the person so employing 
 him being termed the '* Principal." An attorney employed to transact law-busi- 
 ness, is called his employer's agent. There are several commercial persons, whose 
 duties and rights are in most instances explained under separate heads, who 
 possess more or less of the character of agency, such as factors, brokers, superin- 
 tendents of works, confidential clerks or managers, shipmasters, bank-officers, 
 holders of del credere commissions, and commercial agents. 
 
 Constitution of the Contract. — An agent may be constituted by direct writing, or 
 his authority may be implied from his situation. In some cases the former de- 
 scription of appointment is necessary. In England, a corporation cannot appoint 
 an agent otherwise than by its common seal, except for inferior duties, or to do 
 acts in the ordinary routine of the business of the corporation. To enable an agent 
 to bind his principal by a deed under seal, he must be appointed by a similar deed. 
 There are certain transactions as to real property, as enumerated in the Statute of 
 Frauds (Ch.II.c. 3, §§l,2,3),which by that act cannot be performed by an agent unless 
 he hold authority in writing. There are other contracts for which the Statute of 
 Frauds enforces writing by the party or his agent, but for which the authority of 
 the agent does not require to be in writing. Authority to accept, draw, and indorse 
 bills per procuration, may be given verbally. [Bill of Exchange.] Commercial 
 agents receive the most ample and important powers by simple letter, which may 
 either be general, authorizing them to conduct a particular line of business, and to 
 perform the train of transactions connected with it ; or specific, and applicable only 
 to some named transaction ; as, where a merchant employs a commission- agent to 
 sell or purchase a particular lot of goods. Implied agency arises from the posi- 
 tion of the parties ; a slight circumstance will resolve the contract of master and 
 servant into that of principal and agent, in as far as respects third parties. If the 
 master have allowed his servant to buy for him on credit, he is answerable for what 
 the servant may buy, though without his authority, if it be in the line of transac- 
 tions which the servant was permitted to enter on, and if the dealer was not warned 
 of the want of authority in the particular case. Other limited authorities may 
 likewise be extended by implication. " Thus, a broker employed to purchase, has 
 no authority, as broker merely, to sell for his principal. But if the principal has al- 
 lowed him to clothe himself with the apparent ownership, or has given him the power 
 of disposition, he cannot afterwards reclaim the goods from a third person, to whom 
 the broker has made an unauthorized sale of them " (Paley, 167). The authority 
 to draw, accept, and indorse bills, and even to grant guaranties (though this is an 
 extreme case), may be presumed from circumstances implying the principal's re- 
 cognition of such a course. In all cases, the extent of the sanction will be for the 
 consideration of a jury. The implied agency may continue after the parties have 
 ceased to have conn. xion with each other, unless there is notice of the change, or 
 from the time which has intervened since previous transactions. Strangers are 
 not entitled to infer without inquiry that the connexion continues. Where a per- 
 son authorized to draw bills was dismissed, it was ruled " that if he draw a bill 
 in so little a time that the world cannot take notice of his being out of service ; or 
 if he were a long time out of service, but that kept so secret that the world cannot 
 take notice of it ; the bill in those cases shall bind the master" {Harrison, 12 Mod. 
 346). An act done in the way of agency by one not duly authorized, will be con- 
 firmed by any act of assent on the part of him for whom he acts. 
 
 Authority of Agent.— Where the authority of the agent is limited, he cannot bind 
 his principal beyond it ; but authority may be enlarged as well as created by im- 
 plication, as above. Authority to do particular acts is held to include the power 
 of using the necessary means of accomplishing them. Thus, an authority to sue 
 
PRI 551 PRI 
 
 for, receive, and recover a debt, includes an authority to arrest the debtor ; and a 
 broker employed to effect a policy may adjust the loss, and refer it to arbitration ; 
 but authority to collect, discharge, and compound debts, does not authorize the 
 agent to negotiate bills received in payment. In pursuance of an old doctrine of 
 the civilians, that a delegate cannot delegate his authority, an agent cannot depute 
 his duty to another, unless specially empowered to do so. Written instructions 
 receive a strict interpretation, but they are viewed through the medium of the 
 usages of trade and the necessity of the case. Thus, where one left in Britain a 
 letter of attorney, containing extensive powers to buy and sell, and do " all and 
 singular such further and other acts, deeds, matters, and things, as should be re- 
 quisite, expedient, and advisable to be done," with special power to " indorse, 
 negotiate, and discount, or acquit and discharge the bills of exchange, promissory 
 notes, or other negotiable securities, which were or should be payable to him, and 
 should need and require his indorsement," it was held not sufficient to authorize 
 the raising of money by acceptances ; nor in the same case was another power by 
 which the granter authorized his agent, " for him and on his behalf, to pay and 
 accept such bills of exchange as should be drawn or charged on him by his agents 
 or correspondents as occasion should require," of avail as to the acceptance of a bill 
 which had not been drawn by one who was his agent to that effect ( Attwood v. Man- 
 nings, 7 B. & C. 278). But on the other hand, where an agent was employed to proceed 
 with and complete extensive mining operations abroad, implying a large and not 
 easily pre-defined outlay of capital, he was found entitled to raise money by drafts 
 after having exhausted a letter of credit I Duncarry v. Gill, 1 M. & M. 450). The 
 agent's authority as respects third parties is measured by the duties he has to per- 
 form, as interpreted by the usages of trade. For example, he may be appointed 
 to transact a certain description of business, and be particularly instructed not 
 to perform certain acts which are understood in ordinary practice to accompany 
 his duties. In such a case, when he accounts with his principal he is responsible 
 for strict adherence to his instructions ; but the public are entitled to rely on his 
 holding the authority generally accompanying his situation ; and those who are 
 not specially aware of the contrary, wul be safe in so dealing with him. Such is 
 the case where the appointment is of a general nature, as that of a broker, a factor, 
 an attorney. Persons receiving these designations are entitled to do all things con- 
 sistent with the duties of their offices, unless they are restricted ; and the public are 
 entitled to view them as unrestricted, unless the contrary be known. The duty of 
 a factor being to sell, it has been held that he can sell on credit in those trades 
 where such is the usual course of dealing ; but it was found that he could not 
 pledge ; and a special act (6 Geo. IV. c. 94) was required to enable such a person 
 to do so. [Factor.] But when the authority is special to do a particular act, or 
 where the agent is doing that which is not a part of the duties of his situation in a 
 commercial sense, those who deal with him must examine his powers, and the 
 principal is not answerable if he exceed them. The distinction has been thus stated 
 in regard to the sale of a horse : — " If a person keeping livery stables, intrust his 
 servant with a horse to sell, and direct him not to warrant, and the servant did 
 nevertheless warrant him, still the master will be liable on the warranty, because 
 the servant was acting within the general scope of his authority, and the public 
 cannot be supposed cognizant of any private conversation between the master and 
 the servant : but if the owner of a horse send a stranger to a fair with express direc- 
 tions not to warrant the horse, and the latter act contrary to the orders, the pur- 
 chaser can only have recourse to the person who actually sold the horse, and the 
 owner is not liable on the warrantv." (Opinion in Venn v. Harrison. Paley^ 203.) 
 Agent's Obligations. — The first duty of an agent is to follow his instructions, and 
 where he has received none, this duty resolves itself into an adherence to the proper 
 practices of trade in the capacity in which he is employed. Every breach of nis 
 authority is at the agent's own peril, though done with the intention of benefiting 
 his principal. If it be unsuccessful, he is responsible ; if it be successful, the advan- 
 tage is reaped by his employer. But if the principal take the benefit of an act 
 transgressing his instructions, he adopts it, and exonerates the agent. The latter 
 is bound to exert all care and diligence in the execution of his trust, and to use all 
 means consistent with honesty for benefiting his employer. He is not, however, 
 bound to sacrifice his own interest in paying that minute attention to the affairs 
 of his employer which may gain for him petty advantages at larger sacrifices of 
 his own. The usual definition of what is expected of him is, that he shall treat his 
 employer's affairs as if they were his own, and do corresponding justice to them 
 according to their importance. It would not, however, relieve an agent from the 
 
FRI 552 PRI 
 
 consequences of neglecting the affairs of his principal, to prove that he had been 
 equally careless of his own ; the diligence required of him is that which a prudent 
 man takes in his own affairs. [Bailment.] If an agent undertakes a task requir- 
 ing skill and experience, he is responsible for possessing the requisite amount of 
 these qualities. An agent cannot be bound to perpetrate a fraud for his employer, 
 — thus, where an agent employed to sell by auction, was privately instructed 
 not to sell under a certain sum, and in breach of the instruction, but in obedience 
 to law, sold to the highest bidder, he was found not responsible (Bexwell v. 
 Christie. Cowp. 395). It would have been otherwise had the instruction been to 
 set up at a certain price. In selling, an agent should, if not instructed, obtain the 
 best price which can be got. Unless he hold a del credere commission (which see), 
 he is not responsible for the credit of the purchaser. If he knows of the insolvency 
 of the purchaser, he becomes liable if he nevertheless give credit ; and if an agent, 
 selling to a person notoriously in discredit, gives credit on the part of his principal, 
 but takes ready money in his own personal dealings, the presumption against him 
 will be very strong. In purchasing, if the agent deviate in price, quality, or kind, 
 from his instructions, the purchase must go to his own account, unless his employer 
 adopt it ; and it is said that if the principal has advanced money on the goods, 
 he may dispose of them as if he were agent for the agent, if he be at such a distance 
 that they cannot easily and safely be restored. But the principal must make his 
 election speedily, for he will not be entitled after delay to return the goods upon 
 the agent s hands. An agent ought not to place himself in a situation where he 
 has an interest adverse to that of his principal ; and there are many circumstances 
 under which, if he do so, he will be liable to make good the real or presumed injury 
 occasioned. An agent employed to sell cannot be himself the purchaser, nor can 
 one employed to purchase be the seller. An agent employed to purchase cannot 
 buy goods at wholesale, and take the retail profits, though he show that his em- 
 ployer pays no more than he would have done had he employed another person. 
 " If, being a factor, he buy up goods which he ought to furnish as factor, and in- 
 stead of charging factorage-duty, or accepting a stipulated salary, he take the pro- 
 fits, and deal with his constituent as a merchant, this is a fraud for which an ac- 
 count is due " (Opinion of Lord Thurlow in East India Company v. Henchman. 
 1 Ves. jun. 289). An agent ought to give early notice of his transactions, accord- 
 ing to their nature and importance ; what is a due fulfilment of this duty will gen- 
 erally depend on the circumstances of the particular case, and the custom of mer- 
 chants. The agent must pay over monies received to his principal without undue 
 delay. It is said that if an agent has received only part of the price, he cannot be 
 pursued for the money until the transaction is closed, unless the defalcation bo 
 owing to his own fault, as he cannot have recourse to several actions where there 
 is but one cause of action (Varden v. Parker, § 3. Espinasse, 710) ; but the doctrine 
 must be modified by circumstances connected with the probability of the purchaser 
 making farther payments. If the agent take credit for the price in account with 
 the purchaser, he is precluded from pleading that he has not received it. The agent 
 is responsible for the money which he receives, but he is not so for its being ab- 
 solutely realized to his constituent, if he have taken the proper and customary 
 method of making it over to him. If it is customary in the profession to purchase 
 the bills of persons apparently in good credit, or to lodge the money in a bank, 
 and if, on either of these plans being adopted, the maker of the bill or the banker 
 fail, the agent will not have to make good the loss. If an agent, however, place the 
 money so paid him in a bank, without any mark to show that it is his constituent's 
 and not his own, and the bank fail, he will be responsible, because he cannot be 
 permitted to pitch upon any sum of money lodged in his own name, as the money 
 of his constituent, when the person responsible for it has failed. It is an agent's duty 
 to keep clear accounts of his transactions for his employers, making them carefully 
 distinct from his own. " Where an agent had for many years neglected to keep 
 accounts, and had withheld part of his principal's money, an injunction was granted 
 to restrain the transfer of the whole of certain stock discovered to have been in- 
 vested in his own name, till he should distinguish on oath how much of it was bought 
 with the money of his principal " (Paley, 48). But where a considerable time has 
 elapsed, the natural presumption (if there be nothing to contradict it) will be, that 
 an account has been demanded and rendered. Agents must hold any interest 
 they receive on the money of their principal for his behoof, unless where it is the 
 practice for such interest to form part of the agent's remuneration. Agents are 
 not in general liable for interest of money lying dead in their hands ; but some 
 classes of agents are bound to invest the monies paid to them. 
 
PRI 553 PRI 
 
 The Agent's Rights.— The agent is in the general case entitled to commission or 
 remuneration for his exertions. This is either ordinary or del credere; and where 
 none is stipulated, the usage of trade will fix the amount. It is said that " if 
 there be no contract, express or implied, and no usage, of course no commission 
 can be received" (Lloyds Paley, 101). Where a person performed services for a 
 committee, under a resolution entered into by them, *' that any service to be ren- 
 dered by him should be taken into consideration, and such remuneration be made 
 as should be deemed right," no action lay, as the resolution was held to import 
 that the committee were arbiters in the matter. By 12 Anne, st. 2, c. 16, § 2, the 
 rate of commission for any broker or solicitor procuring a loan is limited to 
 5s. per £100 ; and by 17 Geo. III. c. 26, the commission for procuring a loan 
 upon annuity is restricted to 10s. per £100. Where a solicitor lends his own money, 
 he is held not entitled to commission ; nor has an agent any claim for commission 
 on an illegal consideration. In other words, if, in stating the services for which 
 he demands remuneration, he has to state the performance of an illegal act, he 
 will not be remunerated, though his principal may have got the benefit of it. 
 Thus, where a person holding an oflice in the customs, employed another to 
 sell the office, promising him a per centage, the person so employed was not allowed 
 to recover the reward (Stackpole v. Earl, 2 Wils. 133). But unless the illegality 
 be clear on the face of the transaction, the employer will not relieve himself by 
 proving that illegal acts were covenanted to be performed in connexion with it. 
 Commission may be forfeited as damages for mismanagement. Besides their com- 
 mission, agents are entitled to be repaid the disbursements proper to the perform- 
 ance of the duties confided to them, and especially those necessary for the preser- 
 vation of the property in their hands. Agents are not in the general case entitled to 
 insure, unless justified by usage or special direction ; but it is said, on the authority 
 of Mr Justice Buller, that " if an agent, acting for the best, but without orders, insure 
 a cargo on account of the lateness of the season, or other good cause, he is entitled 
 to charge the principal with the premium" (Paley, 108). What payments of 
 agents are to be reimbursed becomes often a question of great nicety. Where the 
 authority is doubtful, the advantage to the principal must be clear ; and an agent, 
 however good his intentions, will not be reimbursed for payments to which, in 
 mistake, he believes his employer to be liable. An agent is not entitled to take 
 upon himself the payment of the debt of his principal, for the sake of his own credit, 
 unless he have guaranteed it. Nor is he entitled to recover the expense occa- 
 sioned by his own blunder ; and action is decided on for the expense attending 
 an illegal transaction, on the principle which regulates commission in a similar 
 case. To enable them to make good their demands, factors and other agents hav- 
 ing property in their hands, have a lien thereon for their commission and costs. 
 [Lien.] 
 
 PrincipaPs Responsibility to Third Parties. — In enforcing any contract entered 
 into by his agent, the principal is subject to any objections arising from the con- 
 duct of the agent, in the same manner as if he had acted similarly for himself. 
 When an agent deals as if he were a principal, a purchaser is entitled to set off 
 the price of a purchase against a debt due to himself by the agent. Where a pur- 
 chaser is not aware of the merely representative character of the agent, he is safe 
 in paying to him as a principal. Where the agent holds a del credere commission, 
 the purchaser may pay him, though he have received notice to the contrary from 
 the employer ; and where the agent has a lien on a balance, the price amounting 
 to such balance may be paid him. The claims of the principal against third par- 
 ties in such cases will depend upon the nature of the agency, and on how much 
 room there may be for the presumption that the agent is acting for himself. In 
 this respect a factor, who has goods in his possession, and may appear to be the 
 absolute owner, is in a different situation from a broker who is not intrusted with 
 possession. The principal has action against third parties who have wrongfully 
 come into possession of his property through the agent's fraud or mistake ; it would 
 appear that in the former case he is entitled to recover when the circumstances are 
 such that, if the mistake had been committed by himself, he would recover, and 
 in the latter only against a participator in the fraud. The properly authorized acts 
 of the agent, between the principal and third parties, are in the eye of the law the 
 acts of the former. Delivery to the agent is delivery to the principal, and bars 
 stoppage in transitu (which see) ; but a person who has charge of the goods for 
 the mere purpose of facilitating their conveyance from place to place, is not an 
 agent to this effect (See Paley on Principal and Agent, from which this article is 
 in great measure abridged). ' [Broker. Del Credere. Factor.] 
 
PRI 554 PRO 
 
 PRIVATEER. [Letter of Marque.] 
 
 PROMISSORY NOTE, is a written engagement by one party to pay money 
 to another at some certain time, fixed or ascertainable. Promissory notes bear so 
 close an analogy to bills, both in the nature of the document and its privileges and 
 requisites, that the law regarding both is generally treated under one head. In 
 referring for information to the article Bill of Exchange, it will be necessary to 
 recollect these distinctions, — that in the case of a note there is no party subsidiarily 
 liable as drawer ; that the document is a simple obligation between two parties, the 
 one engaging to pay the other ; that there is no room for the preliminary obligations 
 of presentment for acceptance, or notice of non-acceptance ; and that there is no dis- 
 countable document created upon the credit of the payee, previously to the obliga- 
 tion of the payer, who, in a promissory note, is generally denominated the maker. 
 The document does not admit of the same breadth of application, nor consequently 
 require so extensive a legal machinery for giving it efficacy. There is no room 
 for the distinction between foreign and inland with regard to promissory notes ; 
 but the payee in a promissory note may put himself in the position of a drawer 
 by indorsement, and then the document becomes, like a bill, an instrument which 
 has value on the credit of some party besides the original debtor. The privileges 
 of bills were conferred on promissory notes by statute ; — in England, by 3 & 4 Anne, 
 c. 9, § 1 ; in Scotland, by 12 Geo. III. c. 72, § 36 ; and in Ireland, by the Irish 
 statute, 8 Anne, c. 11, § 8. Promissory notes made abroad may be negotiated in 
 Great Britain if duly stamped (48 Geo. III. c. 149, § 21). [Bill of Exchange. 
 Indorsement. Protest, &c] 
 
 PROOF IN BANKRUPTCY is the technical expression applied in England 
 to the sanction of a claimed dividend. Creditors may prove tneir debts at the 
 meetings appointed by the commissioners after adjudication, and at other meetings 
 appointed for the purpose. Creditors may make affidavit on their own oath, and 
 corporations on that of their agents. By the late act (5 & 6 Vict. c. 122), affidavits 
 are to be made in England before the Court of Review, or either Subdivision Court, 
 or a Commissioner, or the Master or a Registrar or Deputy Registrar of the 
 Bankruptcy Court, or a Master in Chancery ; in Scotland or Ireland, before a 
 magistrate ; and abroad, before a magistrate (a notary attesting) or before a 
 British minister or consul (§ 67). Besides the affidavit, the commissioners are 
 empowered " to require such further proof, and to examine such other persons 
 in relation thereto, as they shall think fit " (6 Geo. IV. § 46). There are minute 
 provisions in the 1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 30, for the judicial settlement of disputed 
 claims. 
 
 The petitioning creditor must prove like the entitled to prove and draw the full amount if 
 others; his deposition at the opening not entit- , there be sufficient funds. These are, the wages 
 
 of servants and clerks, for the period of six 
 months (§48), compensation to apprentices for 
 apprentice fees, their apprenticeship being dis- 
 charged by the bankruptcy (§ 49). By 4 & 5 
 Wm. IV. c. 40, § 12, where an office-bearer 
 having property of a friendly society in his pos- 
 session becomes bankrupt, the assignees are 
 
 ling him either to vote or draw a dividend. 
 Where the assignees, or two or more creditors 
 who have proved to the extent of £20, conceive 
 a debt improperly proved, they may make re- 
 presentation to the commissioners, who, on ex- 
 amination of the creditor and witnesses, — or of 
 witnesses alone, if the creditor, when duly sum- 
 moned, do not appear, — may expunge the proof I bound to deliver over such property within forty 
 
 (6 Geo. IV. § 60). The jurisdiction of the com 
 missionersisboth legal and equitable, and ' ■ they 
 may inquire into the consideration of a debt 
 notwithstanding a verdict, and if there are 
 equitable grounds on which the verdict is im- 
 peachable, they may reject the proof. It may 
 also be inferred, from an observation of Lord 
 Eldon, that the commissioners may inquire into 
 the consideration even though there be a judg- 
 ment. So it has been determined that the com- 
 missioners may inquire into the consideration 
 of a debt notwithstanding an award." — (Henley, 
 
 days after an authorized demand. 
 
 Among the ordinary debts which may be 
 proved, there are to be specially noticed : — 
 
 1st, Creditors for future debts, " whether upon 
 any bill, bond, note, or other negotiable security 
 or not," who must deduct interest at 5 per cent, 
 from the declaration of a dividend to the as- 
 signed period of payment (6 Geo. IV. § 51). 
 
 2d, Sureties. A surety who has paid is en- 
 titled to be put in the place of the original debtor, 
 even though he incurred the security after an 
 act of bankruptcy was committed, if he was not 
 
 101). I aware of the act (§ 52). 
 
 No debt can be proved which rests on an ille- i 3d, An annuity creditor is entitled to prove 
 gal consideration ; and a claim cut oft by limita- I to the value of the annuity, " regard being 
 tion before the fiat is of course incapable'of being | had to the original price given for the said an- 
 proved. An unliquid debt cannot be proved ; | nuity, deducting therefrom such diminution in 
 as, for instance, a claim of damage not judi- j the value thereof as shall have been caused by the 
 cially sanctioned. A debt contracted after the | lapse of time since the grant thereof to the date 
 fiat cannot be proved ; and a special clause was , of the commission" or fiat (§54). An annuitant 
 requisite to make debts contracted bona fide is not entitled to procure a collateral surety for 
 after the Act of Bankruptcy, and in ignorance the payment till he have proved. If the surety 
 of the circumstances, proVeable (6Geo.IV. §47). pay the amount proved, he is discharged of 
 Some debts are privileged, and the creditor is further liability ; and if he do not pay it before 
 
PRO 
 
 555 
 
 PRO 
 
 anv periodical payment of the annuity become 
 due, subsequent to the bankruptcy, lie may be 
 sued for arrears, until he have paid the amount 
 proved, with interest at 4 per cent, from the 
 time of notice of proof. On having made pay- 
 ment, the surety comes in the annuitant's place, 
 as a claimant on the estate ; and if the annui- 
 tant receive any dividends, he must credit them 
 to the suretv ( § 55) 
 
 not proveable under the commission. 2. That 
 in tort there is no debt whatever with which the 
 costs can be incorporated until the judgment ; 
 and that therefore, if the bankruptcy occurafter 
 verdict and before judgment, proof cannot be 
 made for the costs " (p. 136). 
 
 A creditor holding a security over the bank- 
 rupt's estate, must deduct its value from his 
 debt before he can prove. An execution served 
 
 4th , Contingent creditors may have their debts and levied by seizure of the bankrupt's property 
 
 valued by the commissioners ; and if the con- 
 tingent event do not intervene so as to enable 
 them to prove for the full amount, they may 
 prove for such value (§ 56). 
 
 5th, The obligee in any bottomry or respon- 
 dentia bond, is admitted to claim, and after 
 loss or contingency to draw a dividend, as if the 
 loss or contingency had happened before the 
 fiat; and " the person effecting a policy may 
 prove on the underwriters' estate, though not 
 interested in the policy, if the person really in- 
 terested be abroad ( § 53). 
 
 6th, The holder of a promissory note on which 
 interest is not reserved, over-due at the date of 
 the fiat, is entitled to prove for interest to the 
 date of the fiat, at the rate allowed by the 
 Queen's Bench in actions on such bills ( § 57). 
 In other cases, interest is not allowed unless it 
 arise out of the custom of trade, and be thus a 
 matter of presumed contract between the parties. 
 
 7th, Costs of litigations ; as to which Lord 
 
 is of this description. A person who has a real 
 security over property by mortgage, pledge, or 
 lien, cannot be compelled to part with it till his 
 debt (with contingent claims of interest, &c) is 
 paid. 
 
 In 5 50 of the 6 Geo. IV. there are provisions 
 for adjustment in cases of set-off, or compensa- 
 tion of debts and credits between the bankrupt 
 and his creditors. 
 
 (Statutes as quoted. Henley's Bankrupt Law, 
 100-117. Smith's Mercantile L. 516-547.) L^ank- 
 ruptcy.] 
 
 In Ireland, the law as to the proof of debts 
 is contained in the act 6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 14, § 
 56 to 71 , and corresponds with the practice in 
 England, except that, by § 57, the Lord Chan- 
 cellor may issue an extraordinary commission for 
 proof of debts, with the same powers as the Com- 
 missioner of Bankruptcy for Ireland, before 
 whom proofs in Ireland proceed. The method 
 of litigating proofs differs with the different con- 
 
 Henley observes, — " 1. That in any action, structionofthecourt.[BAKKRUPTCY,CouRTOF.] 
 
 whether upon contract or in tort, if a verdict be In Scotland, the proof of debts in bankruptcy 
 
 not obtained till after bankruptcy, the costs is chiefly regulated by the act 2 & 3 Vict. c. 41. 
 
 which result from the verdict and judgment are [Sequestration .] 
 
 PROPERTY AND INCOME TAX. The first income tax in Britain was 
 imposed in 1798, in order to furnish means for prosecuting the war begun in 1793. 
 It exempted incomes less than £60 a-year ; those from £60 to £65 were assessed 
 at the T i r th part; those from 65 to 70 at g'-th; and the rate progressively increased 
 until the income reached £200 or upwards, when it was taxed at T 'oth, or 10 per 
 cent., the maximum ; a variety of abatements being at same time granted on ac- 
 count of children and other burdens. The commissioners of management, chosen 
 by the parliamentary electors, were assisted, or rather overlooked, by government 
 surveyors. But the regulations, though apparently complex, worked well ; and 
 notwithstanding that much evasion was practised, the tax, on the whole, was col- 
 lected with less difficulty and greater fairness than could have been anticipated. 
 It began April 5, 1798, and ended April 5, 1802, after the peace of Amiens ; having 
 produced on an average about £5,500,000 annually. 
 
 In 1803, the income tax was revived under the name of property tax. As before, 
 it began on incomes of £60 ; and gradually increased until the income reached 
 £150, when it was taxed at 5 per cent., the maximum. This rate continued from 
 April 5, 1803, to April 5, 1805, when it was raised to 6£ per cent. On April 5, 
 1806, it was increased to 10 per cent, on all incomes, however small, arising from 
 land or capital ; professional incomes under £50 were exempted ; and incomes of 
 that description exceeding £50 and under £150, when they became subject to the 
 full assessment of 10 per cent., were allowed abatements ranging inversely as their 
 magnitude. This tax ceased April 5, 1816. The following is the return of the 
 value of the several species of property on which the assessment was made, and the 
 gross and net amount of the tax, for the year ended April 5, 1815 : — 
 
 Schedules 
 A Lands, tenements, hereditaments, or heritages.. 
 
 B Houses, lands, and tenements 
 
 C Funded and stock properties (value estimated) .. 
 
 D Profits and gains of trade 
 
 E Salaries, pensions, <kc 
 
 Totals 
 
 Annual Value Gross Assess- Net Assess- 
 of Property. | ment. menu 
 
 £60,138,330 £5,923,4861 £5,923 
 
 38,396,144 2,734,451 2.17G.228 
 
 30,000,000 2,885,505 2,885,505 
 
 38,310,935 3,831,088 3,146 
 
 11,744,557 1,174,456^ 1,167,678, 
 
 £178,589,966 £16,548,986, £15,298,932 
 
 In 1842, a combination of circumstances, of too recent occurrence to require 
 explanation, led to the proposal of an income tax by Sir Robert Peel, and its im- 
 position at the rate of 7d\ per £1, or £2, 18s. 4d. per cent., on all incomes in Britain 
 
PRO 
 
 556 
 
 PRO 
 
 amounting to £150 or upwards ; an assessment which Sir Robert estimates will 
 
 Produce £3,700,000. The tax, according to the act, is to extend from April 5, 
 842, to April 6, 1845 ; and the following is a summary of its principal pro- 
 visions :— 
 
 Abstract of Principal Provisions of the Income Tax Act, 5 & 6 Vict. c. 35. 
 The Tax is to be levied under five schedules, assessed as profits of an uncertain value under 
 Schedule A imposes7d. per £1 on the annual schedule D ( § 95). 
 income or profits from lands, tenements, and Exemptions. — Stock belonging to friendly so- 
 
 hereditaments, " in respect of the property 
 thereof," including mines, iron, gas, and water 
 works, canals, railways, docks, tolls, &c. (§ 1.) 
 
 Rules for Assessing. — Lands, tenements, and 
 hereditaments to be charged where situate, at 
 the full annual value or rackrent, if let at rack- 
 rent within 7 years, or else at the rackrent at 
 which they are worth, unless such rent is not the 
 full consideration. Tithes, teinds, manors, royal- 
 ties, casual profits, and fines, are subject to 
 special rules (§§60,66). 
 
 Mines to be charged on an average of the 5 
 preceding years ; but when decreasing in value, 
 on the profits of the preceding year. The assess- 
 ment on a company holding them to be made 
 prior to distribution; any member, however, 
 may claim to be charged separately, In order to 
 set off the loss on one concern against the profits 
 of another (§60). 
 
 Iron, gas, salt, alum, and water works, quar- 
 ries, canals, railways, and like concerns, to be 
 assessed on profits of preceding year, and to be 
 charged upon the treasurer or manager in one 
 sum. And the proprietors or trustees may either 
 deduct the duty from the interest payable to 
 creditors on such properties, or may pay them in 
 full (§60). 
 
 Houses under £10 per annum, and all lands 
 and tenements let for less than a year, to be 
 charged upon the owner (§ 60) ; all other lands 
 and tenements will be charged upon the occu- 
 pier, who, if a tenant, will deduct the duty from 
 the rent. 
 
 Where lands, &c. are subject to any rent- 
 charge, annuity, or other annual payment, the 
 landlord or owner may deduct the duty out of 
 such payment. 
 
 Exemptions.— Buildings of university colleges 
 (not occupied by members), hospitals, public 
 schools, alms-houses, literary or scientific insti- 
 tutions ; also rents belonging to hospitals, pub- 
 lic schools, and alms-houses (§§ 61, 62). 
 
 Schedule B imposes 3£d. per £1 in England, 
 and 2Jd. per £1 in Scotland, upon the occupiers 
 of real property (§1). 
 
 Rules for Assessing.— Houses used for trade, 
 and those not used as farm-houses ; also manors, 
 royalties, mines, quarries, iron and gas works, 
 canals, fishings, tolls, railways, and similar con- 
 cerns, are exempt from this schedule (§ 63). 
 
 Profits from nurseries or produce-gardens and ; 
 hop-grounds, if not exceeding l-10th of a single! 
 farm, to be estimated, as under schedule D, at ' 
 7d. per £1 (§ 63). 
 
 cieties established under any act, savings banks, 
 charitable institutions, or fund applicable to 
 charitable purposes only, or to the repair of 
 places of worship and colleges (§§88, 149). 
 
 Schedule D imposes 7d. per £1 upon the an- 
 nual profits arising from any kind of property, 
 business, or employment, situated or exercised 
 in Britain, and not included in the other sche- 
 dules ; and also upon persons resident there, de- 
 riving incomes from other places (§§1, 100). 
 
 Rules for Assessing.— Trading and manufac- 
 turing profits to be computed on an average of 
 the three years preceding, or such shorter period 
 as it has been carried on ; and no deductions al- 
 lowed for improvements or repairs of premises, 
 utensils, or machinery, beyond the average ex- 
 penditure thereon in the three years preceding, 
 nor for any loss not connected with such trade, 
 nor for capital withdrawn, nor on account of 
 interest which might have been made, nor for 
 any debts, except debts proved to be bad before 
 the commissioners, nor for any sum recoverable 
 under an insurance (§ 100). 
 
 No deduction allowed for any annual interest, 
 annuity, or other annual payment out of profits 
 or gains ; but the duty corresponding thereto is 
 to be allowed by the person to whom the interest 
 or annuity is payable, on a certificate granted by 
 the commissioners (§§ 100, 102, 104). 
 
 No deductions allowed for any disbursements 
 or expenses of maintenance of the parties ; nor 
 for rent of dwelling-houses or domestic offices, 
 except such parts as are used for the purpose of 
 business, not exceeding 2-3ds of the rent (§ 100). 
 
 Where a business is carried on by a company, 
 the duty is to be assessed upon the tirm in one 
 sum; and unless any partner requires to be as- 
 sessed separately, for the purpose of claiming 
 some exemption, the return is to be made by 
 the precedent acting partner ; but if no partner 
 reside in Britain, then by his or their agent: 
 any partner in a concern which has been already 
 so returned, may return his own name and resi- 
 dence, and that he is such a partner, without 
 stating his proportion of the profits, unless the 
 commissioners require it (§ 100). 
 
 The profits of trade are to be computed exclu- 
 sive of those arising from lands and tenements ; 
 therefore the annual value of any premises used 
 for the purpose of trade ought to be deducted, 
 although such premises may be the property of 
 the occupier, as he will be assessed for such pre- 
 mises under schedule A (§ 100). 
 
 The tax on professions or employments to be 
 
 Where exemption is claimed owing to income j computed on the profits of the preceding year 
 the profits arising from only (§ 100). And the above rules as to dcilue- 
 
 bcing less than £150 ; 
 
 land to be reckoned at half the Tent or annual 
 value in England, and five-fourteenths in Scot- 
 land (§ 167) ; whence tenants' in England paying 
 rent under £300, and in Scotland under £42o, 
 will be exempt, unless liable otherwise. 
 
 Schedule C imposes 7d. per £1 upon all pro- 
 perty arising out of any public revenue, without 
 deduction (§1). 
 
 Rules for Assessing.— The tax to be levied 
 upon all government annuities or dividends 
 payable in Britain ; or in Ireland, if for the 
 benefit of any person not resident there (§ 88) ; 
 and to be paid by the persons and corporations 
 intrusted therewith, except where the half-yearly 
 dividends are under 60s. ; these last are to be 
 
 tions, &c. extend to them so far as applicable. 
 
 Under the head of " profits of an uncertain 
 aunual value "are charged the profits on small 
 government dividends (see above, sch. C), and 
 on all discounts and interest, not being annual 
 interest; the duty to be computed on the full 
 amount within the preceding year (§ loO). 
 
 This schedule also includes income arising from 
 Irish, colonial, and foreign securities or posses- 
 sions; the duty to be charged on the former on the 
 full amount which has or will be received in Bri- 
 tain in the current year ; on the latter on the ave- 
 rage receipts of the three preceding years ( § 100). 
 
 All yearly interest, whether personal or charged 
 upon property, is liable under this schedule; 
 
PRO 
 
 r>:>7 
 
 PRO 
 
 but no assessment shall be made when such in- 
 terest is payable out of income already brought 
 into charge; the party assessed on such income 
 deducting in tbis case the duty from the interest 
 •when he pays it to the creditor, and who is 
 bound to allow such deduction (§ 102). 
 
 The profits of British trades, &c. are to be 
 assessed where they are situate ( § 106); but profits 
 arising in foreign countries or the colonies are to 
 be assessed by the commissioner for London, 
 Bristol, Liverpool, or Glasgow, at or nearest to 
 where the property or remittances have been 
 sent (§108). 
 
 Statements and returns may be delivered, 
 sealed up, if superscribed with the name and 
 residence of the party, to the assessor of the pa- 
 rish, or at the commissioners' offices, where they 
 shall have given notice that such office is open 
 for the same (§§ 49, 110). 
 
 Persons may compound for the duty payable 
 under this schedule for 3 years at an increase of 
 5 per cent, on the first assessment (§§ 143, 145). 
 
 Merchants, though not allowed to deduct loss 
 unconnected with trade, may yet set off the 
 loss in one business against the profits of another 
 (§ 101) ; hence, if a person is a partner in two 
 firms, one profitable the other not, he should 
 claim to be assessed separately from the other 
 partners (§ 100). 
 
 Ft, B. — Such set-offs are confined to occupa- 
 tions falling under the same schedule. 
 
 The tax will be levied by the collector in the 
 ordinary way, unless parties desire to pay it an- 
 onymously, before the usual period ; in which 
 case a certificate of the assessment, marked with 
 a number or letter, will be given to the party, 
 and a counterpart, without his name, sent to 
 the receiver. 
 
 General Purposes ; or they may have the matter 
 of their assessment altogether taken before the 
 Special Commissioners, making such request to 
 the parish assessor : this, however, is incompe- 
 tent on the claim of exemption founded on not 
 having £150 a-year {$§ 130, 131 ). 
 
 Schedule E imposes 7d. per £1 upon all 
 salaries, pensions, fees, &c. derived from every 
 public office or employment (§§1, 146). 
 
 Rules for Assessment. — Perquisites and fees 
 to be taken on the average of three years, or on 
 the preceding year only (§ 146). 
 
 Exemptions allowed as in preceding schedules ; 
 but no abatement allowed for loss in any busi- 
 ness in which the official person may be engaged. 
 Incomes under £150. 
 
 Although the intent of the act is not to charge 
 the duty on such incomes, yet it imposes the 
 duty in the first instance on all derived from 
 rents or land, or from annuities and interest (ex- 
 cept government half-yearly dividends under 
 50s.), payable through other parties; but any 
 person, on proving to the Commissioners for 
 General Purposes that his aggregate income is 
 under £150, will be exempted from the duties, 
 and be repaid the amount of all deductions or 
 payments made on account thereof. 
 Management. 
 
 " Commissioners for General Purposes, " 
 elected commonly by the Land-tax Commission- 
 ers from their own number, are to execute all 
 matters with respect to all the schedules, except 
 those which are to be performed by " Addi- 
 tional Commissioners * (chosen by lot from them- 
 selves), who are to consider the statements of 
 gains and profits; and by " Special Commis- 
 sioners " appointed by the Treasury for acting 
 in certain cases under schedule D, and in other 
 matters. The duties are to be raised under the 
 Commissioners of Stamps and Taxes, under the 
 regulations of the acts relating to the assessed 
 
 If paid in advance. 4 per cent, per annum of 
 discount allowed (§§ 137, 140). 
 
 Persons objecting may appeal to the Special 
 Commissioners instead of the Commissioners for taxes. See Income Tax, Supplement. 
 
 PROTECTION, PERSONAL. [Personal Protection.] 
 
 PROTEST, in the law of bills of exchange and promissory notes, is a notarial 
 instrument, hearing that a bill or note, having been formally presented to the drawee 
 or maker by a notary-public, was dishonoured (by non-payment or non-acceptance, 
 as the case may be), and that the holder protests for recourse (including exchange 
 and re-exchange in foreign bills) against the drawers and indorsers. The laws of 
 the three kingdoms differ so considerably on this subject, that it may be conve- 
 nient to view them separately. 
 
 In England, contrary to the usual practice of the rest of Europe, a protest is 
 not necessary for enforcing recourse on a bill at common law. To enforce pay- 
 ment of foreign bills, however, it became necessary to conform with the rules of 
 the countries where they were drawn, and the necessity of protesting all foreign 
 bills, both for non-acceptance and non-payment, came into observance. 
 
 1st, Foreign Bills. — According to established practice, the protest should be made 
 by a notary -public ; but if none can be procured, it is said that the protest may 
 be made by an inhabitant, in presence of two witnesses (Bayley, 259). If the 
 person who has drawn the bill abroad come to England, it is not necessary to 
 exhibit a protest to him unless he apply for it. The rules regulating the 
 necessity of protest are the same as those which apply to notice [Notice]; and 
 so it is not strictly necessary (though it will seldom fail to be prudent) where 
 there are no effects. When acceptance is refused to a bill coming within the defi- 
 nition of those for which a protest is necessary, it should be put into the hands of 
 a notary, who should again present it, and, on a second refusal, he may note the 
 bill, or mark on it his initials, the year and day of the month, and any reason 
 which may be assigned for non-acceptance, together with his charge. The noting 
 has in itself no effect, except as the first step in the protest, which, as an instru- 
 ment, the notary need not draw out on the spot, but may prepare at his leisure. 
 A similar practice is adopted on refusal to pay. The notary's presentment will be 
 at the place where the bill is drawn or accepted payable, and if at a banker's, 
 during the usual hours of business. By 2 & 3 Wm. IV. c. 98, when the bill 
 is drawn payable at any place other than what it mentions as the residence 
 
PRO 558 PRO 
 
 of the drawee, and is unaccepted, it may be protested for non-payment at the 
 place where it was drawn payable, without requiring to be a second time presented 
 to the drawee. " In practice in this country," says Mr Chitty, " the holder of 
 bills or notes, whether foreign or inland, himself or by his agent, presents the same 
 for payment on the day they fall due, between nine in the morning and five in the 
 evening, and if not paid, he then sends all his foreign bills to a regular notary- 
 public, who sends one or more of his clerks round with such bills in the evening 
 to the respective drawees' residences, and then produces the bills, and again requires 
 payment, and of the charges for noting ; and if not paid, he reports to his princi- 
 pal the terms of refusal ; and the principal notary afterwards, at his leisure, or 
 as soon as required, draws up his formal protest " {Chit, on Bills, 9th Ed. p. 458). 
 In a former edition, Mr Chitty had laid it down as the doctrine of lawyers, that 
 the demand should be made by the notary-public in person. In reference to this 
 opinion, a correspondence ensued between him and the secretaries of the 
 Society of London Notaries and the Association of Liverpool Notaries, in which 
 it was urged by these bodies that the system as above stated was fixed by a long 
 course of practice. The question has not been the subject of judicial decision, and 
 it may be observed that the practice is in opposition to that of other countries 
 (Traites de Pothier, II. 149). A protest must bear date on the day of payment. 
 
 2d, Inland Bills. — In these, protest is solely the creature of statute. By 9 & 10 Wm. 
 III. c. 17, and 3 & 4 Anne, c. 9, § 4, inland bills in England for £5 and upwards, 
 expressing themselves to be " for value received," and drawn payable a certain num- 
 ber of days, weeks, or months after date, may be protested for non-acceptance ; and 
 if accepted in writing, may be protested for non-payment on the day after the last day 
 of grace. The protest, it is enacted, must be sent, or notice given of it, to the party 
 from whom the bill is received, " who is, upon producing such protest, to repay the 
 said bill or bills, together with all interest and charges, from the day such bill or 
 bills were protested" (9 & 10 Wm. III. c. 17, § 2). The object of these enact- 
 ments was to give prompt recourse for interest and charges. But " the act only 
 gives an additional remedy, and does not take away the common-law one, and 
 therefore it is not necessary to protest, — it being, in all cases of inland bills, suf- 
 ficient to give notice of non-payment, and the holder is entitled to claim interest 
 from the drawer, although there is no protest. In practice, a protest of an inland 
 bill is seldom made, but it is only noted for non-payment, and which noting is of 
 no utility. . . And a protest made in this country cannot be proven by the 
 mere production of it, as when made and used abroad ; but the notary himself 
 must be called to prove the making it " {Chitty, 465-466). It is held in interpre- 
 tation of § 6 of 3 & 4 Anne, c. 10, that protest is not required in bills under £20, 
 to secure the remedy of the statute. 
 
 Bayley, 258-267. Chitty, 332-343, 445-446. 
 
 In Ireland, by the statute consolidating the law on bills of exchange (9 Geo. IV. 
 c. 24), it is lawful for the holder of a bill or note for £5 or upwards, to protest it 
 in the usual manner for non-acceptance or non-payment ; " which protest, so 
 made as aforesaid, shall be sent, or otherwise due notice of such dishonour shall be 
 given, by or on behalf of the party holding or protesting such bill or note, to the 
 party from whom such bill or note was received, and whom it is sought to make 
 chargeable therewith, and such party shall thereupon pay the said bill or note, 
 together with all interest and charges from the day when such bill or note was 
 protested . . . ; and in case such protest shall be made and sent, or such due 
 notice of the dishonour of such bin or note shall be given as aforesaid, to any 
 person liable to the payment thereof by reason of such dishonour, the person so 
 receiving such protest or notice, and failing or neglecting to pay the amount of 
 such bill or note so protested or dishonoured, together with the costs of such pro- 
 test, shall be liable to all costs, damages, and interest, which may and shall accrue 
 thereby " (§ 4). The application of this statute, it will be observed, is not limited 
 to bills for value, or payable within a fixed period after date ; and the period of 
 seno*ing the protest is not fixed to within fourteen days. On the narrative that it 
 is the practice for bankers and others to attend till the hour of six in the after- 
 noon, for the purpose of receiving payment of bills presented at an earlier hour, 
 and which have not been paid, after which hour they have been sent to a notary- 
 public to be again presented and protested if not paid ; " and whereas doubts 
 nave existed, whether the acceptors of bills of exchange, &c. have not, by law, till 
 the last instant of the day on which the same respectively may become due to pay 
 the same ; and by reason of such doubts, notaries-publie in Ireland have been 
 required, at late and unseasonable hours of the night, to receive payment, &c.;" it 
 
PRU 559 PRU 
 
 is enacted, — that when a notary presents a bill, and it is not paid by 9 o'clock p.m., 
 it shall be dishonoured, and may be protested (§ 12). Notaries are to register 
 bills delivered to them for presentment. All notarial charges (which are fixed 
 by the act) fall on the party liable to pay the bill ; and he is liable for the ex- 
 pense of notarial presentment, though the bill be honoured on such presentment, 
 if it have not been so on the presentment of the party. The notary may demand 
 the charges from the person liable, and, in case of refusal, may refuse to receive 
 acceptance, or pavment of the principal sum, as the case may be, and hold the 
 bill dishonoured (§ 13). 
 
 In Scotland, protest for non-acceptance and non-payment is, both in the case of 
 inland and foreign bills, an essential part of due negotiation, and necessary to 
 found recourse against drawers and indorsers. Besides being essential to a claim 
 of recourse, it is necessary for recovery even against the original party bound 
 as maker or acceptor, where recourse is sought through the peculiar facilities for 
 enforcing payment of bills of exchange in Scotland, by summary diligence. [Dili- 
 gence.] The protest is taken by a notary -public, in presence of two witnesses. It 
 cannot be supplied by any description of evidence as to the knowledge of the party 
 that recourse was to be claimed against him, or even by a reference to his own oath 
 to that effect. It appears to be held as law in Scotland, that the presentment for 
 protest must be by the notary himself, and not by his clerk. In practice, the bill 
 is noted on the day of presentment for acceptance, or the day of payment (being 
 the last day of grace, where days of grace are allowed), and the instrument of 
 protest is drawn up afterwards. To render summary diligence competent, the 
 protest must be recorded within six months— if for non-acceptance, from the date 
 of the bill — if for non-payment, from the time for payment. ( Thomson on Bills. 
 442-456.) 
 
 PRUNES, or Dried Plois, are brought from the south of France, particularly 
 Tours ; they are oblong and rather sweet. The best are the Pruneaiuv de 
 St Julien. Prunelloes, a kind of a reddish-yellow colour, brought from Provence, 
 have a sweet, grateful taste, with a slight and pleasant acidity. The importations 
 are subject to considerable fluctuations. 
 
 PRUSSIA, a powerful European kingdom, occupying a great part of the N. of 
 Germany and the N. portion of what was formerly Poland, extends from 49° 8' 
 to 55' 50' N. lat., and from 6° to 22° 50' E. long. Provinces — 1. Prussia Proper ; 
 2. Pomerania ; 3. Posen ; 4. Silesia ; 5. Brandenburg ; 6. Prussian Saxony ; 7. 
 Westphalia ; and 8. Rhine. Area, 106,500 sq. miles. Population in 1840, 14,907,091. 
 Capital, Berlin, an inland city ; pop. 265,394. Government, an hereditary mon- 
 archy, with a council of state, and, since 1823, provincial assemblies, to whom laws 
 are submitted for deliberation ; but the royal prerogative is more substantially 
 modified by the power resulting from the intelligence and military organization of 
 the people. S 
 
 The six provinces first mentioned, bounded N. E. and S. by Mecklenburg, the Baltic, Russia, 
 Poland, Austria, and Saxony, are separated on the W. by Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, and other 
 small German states, from the provinces of Westphalia and* Rhine, which again are bounded on 
 the W. and S. by the Netherlands, Belgium and France, and Bavaria. To these provinces, spread 
 over so wide a surface, no general description will apply ; but they mostly present a level aspect, — 
 so much so, that many marshes and lakes have been formed by the inundations of the rivers. The 
 mountain-tracts of the Hartz in Saxony, and the Riesengeberge in Silesia, are chiefly on the 
 frontier. The rivers traversing the country, as the Rhine, Weser, Elbe, Oder, and Vistula, flow 
 generally, with a slow current, from south to north. In the western provinces the climate is warmer 
 than that of England ; in the eastern it is cold, and also very moist along the shores of the Baltic. 
 On the whole, the soil is sandy and poor. The most fertile and populous districts are Silesia, 
 Rhenish Prussia, and Saxony, particularly the plain of Magdeburg. 
 
 Agriculture, though in a backward state, is improving. The rural products resemble those of 
 Britain ; differing chiefly in the more extensive cultivation of rye, which, with potatoes, forms the 
 principal food of the lower classes. Flax and hemp are largely raised ; also chicory and beet, 
 which last yields about a fourth part of the sugar consumed. Tobacco, hops, and madder, are 
 likewise cultivated ; and in the Rhenish districts wine is made. In 1837, the number of horses in 
 the kingdom was 1,472,901; cattle, 4,838,622; sheep, 15,011,452; goats, 327,525; and hogs, 
 1,936,304. Of the sheep, 3,617,469 were pure merinos, and 7,165,088 half-bred : these fine kinds 
 are principally in Saxony, Silesia, and Brandenburg, and their wool forms the great staple 
 of the kingdom. The small occupiers of land are usually proprietors ; the larger owners generally 
 cultivate their estates through stewards,— there being few farms except on the crown domains. 
 
 The kingdom, being generally level, is not rich in minerals; but in the Hartz, Riesengebirge, 
 and other districts, iron, copper, zinc, lead, and coal, are plentiful ; and amber is found on the 
 coast. 
 
 Prussia is mainly an agricultural country, though the Rhine, Saxonv, Silesia, and some other parts, 
 are now distinguished for several branches of manufactures. The latter are chiefly in the Rhine 
 province, on the Wupper, in and around Elberfield and Solingen, which abounds in coal and water- 
 power, and where cottons, silks, and linens are largely produced. Linens are also made for ex- 
 
PRU 560 PRU 
 
 portation in and around Hirchbcrg in Silesia, in Westphalia, and in Emeland in Ducal Prussia 
 Superior broadcloth is made at Upen, Malmedy, Berlin, and Aix-la-Chapelle; and both linens 
 and woollens for domestic use are woven in almost every cottage. Hardware and cutlery are 
 largely made at Hagen, Iserlohn, Solingen, Olpe, and Essen ; and Berlin is celebrated for its cast- 
 iron articles. Beer is extensively brewed in all parts ; and the consumption of spirits is estimated 
 at nearly 45,000,000 Imp. gallons a-year ! Berlin and Halle are the chief seats of the book-trade. 
 
 The internal trade of Prussia is facilitated by numerous rivers, almost every where navigable, 
 and so connected by canals, that goods may be transmitted even between Hamburg and Dantzic. 
 Excellent carriage-roads also abound, with mail-coaches on the principal lines ; and railways have 
 been formed from Berlin to Potsdam and to Stettin, between Cologne and Aix-la-Chapelle, and 
 in other places. 
 
 The external commerce of the kingdom is likewise considerable, and rapidly increasing ; though, 
 since the establishment of the Customs Union, its amount cannot be ascertained. It extends to 
 almost all parts of Europe, and to America ; but the chief intercourse is with the other German 
 states, Britain, Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and the Netherlands. The British trade (except the 
 shipment of grain and timber from the Baltic ports) is mostly carried on at second hand through 
 Hamburg, Bremen, and the Netherlands ports, especially Rotterdam. The imports embrace 
 sugar, coffee, cotton wool, twist and stuffs, and English manufactures of various kinds ; dyeing 
 substances, spices, wines, salt (a government monopoly), and coals. The exports consist princi- 
 pally of raw produce, mostly corn, wool, timber, zinc, flax, hams and salted provisions, and bris- 
 tles ; the manufactured exports are chiefly linens, woollens, hardware, jewellery, watches, wooden 
 clocks, Prussian blue, spirits, and beer. [Prusso-German Customs Union.] 
 
 Timber is now becoming scarce in Prussia ; and that shipped is mostly brought to Dantzic and 
 Memel from Russian Poland ; from whence likewise the corn exported is principally derived. 
 The shipments of corn are very considerable, especially to Britain, Holland, and Norway, in years 
 of scarcity. In 1838, 1839, and 1840, when the crops were deficient in England, the total ship- 
 ments of grain from Prussia amounted to 25,103,758 scheffels, or about 4,744,610 Imp. quarters, 
 principally wheat, but including considerable quantities of rye, barley, oats, beans and pease ; 
 of which 3,149,551 quarters were sent to Britain {Par. Paper, 1842, No. 7, p- 61). The chief 
 corn ports are Dantzic, Stettin, and Konigsberg, especially the first ; the exports from Stettin 
 are chiefly the growth of Silesia and the Mark. 
 
 The shipping of Prussia is rather small, considering its extent of coast ; amounting in 1841 only 
 to 738 vessels, 147,450 tons. 
 
 Ports. — Dantzic or Gdansk, the principal, a strongly fortified and flourishing city, lies on the 
 left bank of the chief arm of the Vistula, about 3J miles from the Baltic, in lat. 54° 21" N., long. 
 18° 39' E. Pop. 6 / ( 00. The harbour scarcely admits vessels drawing more than 12 feet, but 
 there is good anchorage in the roads for those of any burden. It possesses numerous commercial 
 institutions, shipbuilding yards, and manufactories ; but its importance is mainly derived from its 
 being the outlet of the immense territories watered by the Vistula and its tributaries. It is the 
 greatest corn entrepot of the world ; and its exports besides embrace pine battens, deals and beams, 
 oak staves, ashes, bones, wool, zinc, spruce beer, and feathers ; most of which articles are, as is 
 usual in the Baltic ports, arranged into three qualities by the braack, a body of government in- 
 spectors. In 1840, the exports amounted to £1,798,722, and the imports to £380,280. About 
 210,000 tons of shipping entered in 1840. 
 
 Stettin, a fortified seaport town of Pomerania, situated on the Oder, 36 miles from its mouth, 
 in lat. 53° 24' N., long. 14° 33' E. Pop. 32,000. Vessels drawing more than 7 or 8 feet load and 
 unload by means of lighters at Swinemunde, the out-port, where there is from 19 to 21 feet. It is 
 the chief seat of the Prussian import -trade ; and, being the emporium of the countries watered 
 by the Oder and its tributaries, is the port of Berlin, Breslaw, and Frankfort. Exports ; linens, 
 corn, wool, timber, zinc, manganese, bones, oil-cake, &c. ; the whole amounting in 1840 to 
 £1,105,505; the imports in the same year were valued at £1,328,900. About 170,000 tons of 
 shipping enter annually. 
 
 Memel, the most northerly port, lies in lat. 55° 42' N., long. 21° 8' E., on the N. E. side of the Ku- 
 rische-haff, a great salt lagoon. Pop. 9034. The harbour is deep and commodious ; but, owing 
 to a bar, vessels are frequently obliged to load and unload in the roads, where the anchorage is not 
 good. Shipbuilding is prosecuted extensively; and the staple export is timber, chiefly fir; the 
 annual average amount being about 80,000 loads, besides nearly 600,000 planks. Other exports, 
 corn, flax, hemp, wool, linseed, hides, bones, and bristles. About 100,000 lasts of shipping enter 
 annually. 
 
 Konigsberg, the capital of East Prussia, lies partly on an island, but chiefly on the N. bank of 
 the Pregel, near its junction with the Frische-haff, in lat. 54° 42' N., long. 20° 30 7 E. Pop. 68,<K»0. 
 In 1839, the value of the exports, chiefly corn, linseed, rapeseed, bristles, flax, and hemp, amounted 
 to £808,897 ; and the imports to £486,170. About 70,000 tons of shipping enter annually. 
 
 Pillau, Elbing, Koslin, Stralsund, Griefswald, Wolgast, and Barth, are the only others worthy 
 of notice. The water at these ports is shallow, seldom exceeding 10 or 12 feet. 
 
 Measures, Money, Finances, <fec. 
 
 Measures and Weights. — The Prussian or 
 Rhineland foot of 12 inches = 12356 Imp. inches ; 
 the ell of 25 J Prussian inches = 26*26 Imp. inches, 
 and 100 ells = 72*94 Imp. yards ; the fathom is 
 6, and the ruthe or perch 12 feet. The mile of 
 2000 perches = 8237 Imp. yards. 
 
 The morgen or acre of 180 sq. perches = 3054 
 
 The scheffel, corn measure, of 16 metzen, or 
 48 quarts, = 1*512 Imp. bushel, or 5£ scheffels 
 = 1 Imp. quarter nearly; and 100 scheffels = 
 18-89 Imp. quarters ; 60 scheffels = 1 last. 
 
 The pound of (2 Cologne marks) 32 loths, or 
 128 quintins, = 7217J troy grains ; and 100 Prus- 
 sian lbs. = 103*11 lbs. avoirdupois : the centner 
 
 Imp. sq. yards, or 2 Imp. roods 21 poles nearly ; i or quintal is 1 10 Prussian lbs. = 1 1 342, or about 
 
 and the hufe is 30 morgen, 
 
 The ohm, liquid measure, of 2 eimers, 4 an- 
 kers, or 120 quarts = 30*23 Imp. gallons; the 
 oxhoft is 3 eimers ; and the tun, beer measure, 
 it 100 quarts, or 25*19 Imp. gallons. 
 
 113J lbs. avoirdupois : and the ship-last = 4000 
 Prussian lbs. The apothecaries' pound is |ds of 
 the commercial pound. 
 
 Gold and silver are weighed by the Cologne 
 mark, reckoned equal 3608| troy grains ; and 
 
PRU 
 
 5G\ 
 
 PRU 
 
 their fineness is expressed in the manner explain- 
 ed under the head Germany. The prices of 
 both metals are usually stated in Prussian dol- 
 lars per mark fine. 
 
 The following old measures are still partially 
 in use: — 
 
 Berlin.— The ell = 26*25 Imp. inches ; the ohm 
 of 2 eimers, 4 ankers, or 128 quarts, = 32-97 
 Imp. gallons ; the last of wheat of 3 wispels, or 
 72 scheffels, = 103-54 Imp. bushels ; and the last 
 of oats of 2 wispels = 6902 Imp. bushels ; the 
 centner of 110 lbs. = 113-63 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 Dantzic. — The ell of 2 feet = 22-6 Imp. inches ; 
 the ohm of 2 eimers, or 128 quarts, = 32-97 Imp. 
 gallons ; the last of 3| malters, 60 scheffels, or 
 WOviertels, = 90-24 Imp. bushels. A last of 
 timber is 80 cubic feet ; and a last of pipe staves 
 is 4 schocks or 240. 
 
 Konigsberg. — 100 old Prussian ells = 63 Imp. 
 yards nearly. The stof = 0-315 Imp. gallon. 
 The last of 60 old or 56i new Prussian scheffels 
 = 85-43 Imp. bushels. 
 
 Monet/. — Accounts are now stated in thalers or 
 dollars of 30 silver groschen, each of 12 pfennings, 
 Prussian currency. The Prussian dollar, being 
 estimated at the rate of 14 to the Cologne mark 
 of fine silver, is equal 2s. 10|d. sterling; and 6 
 dollars. 27 silver groschen, equal £1. 
 
 The Prussian dollar was formerly divided into 
 24 good groschen. The Dantzic florin of 30 
 groschen = 9d. sterling : and the florin in Prus- 
 sian currency = Is. sterling. 
 
 The coins are,— In gold ; double, single, and 
 half Fredericks, of the nominal value of 10, 5, 
 and 2J dollars, but bearing generally an agio of 
 15 per cent, above currency; these are minted 
 at the rate of 35 to the Cologne mark 65-72ds 
 fine : In silver ; dollars minted at the rate of 
 10J to the Cologne mark, Jths fine ; also \, \, 
 and j 1 , dollars, and base pieces for 1 and for j 
 
 groschen : In copper ; 4, 3, 2, and 1 pfenning 
 pieces. 
 
 The usance of bills on Berlin, Dantzic, &c, is 
 14 days' sight ; days of grace 3. 
 
 The Prussian state bank issues paper money, 
 which circulates on a par with silver : it has of- 
 fices at Berlin, Konigsberg, Elbing, Dantzic, 
 Stettin, Frankfort-on-the-Oder, Breslaw, Mag- 
 deburg, Munster, and Cologne. 
 ! Finances.— Net revenue in 1841, 55,867,000 
 i thalers, of which th. 47,280,000 from imposts, 
 including bridge, road, and canal dues, &c, and 
 I th. 4,020,000 from domains and forests. The 
 I expenditure was about the same, including 
 I th. 23,721,000 for the army, and th. 8,574,000 
 for annual charge on the public debt ; the net 
 I amount of which, after deducting the sinking 
 ! fund, was estimated, in 1841, at th. 130,000,000, 
 or about £19,000,000. 
 Prussia contracted loans in England in 1818, 
 ! 1822, and 1830 ; the last being the only one still 
 1 unpaid. It was to the amount of £3,800,400, 
 I in bonds for £100 each, bearing 4 per cent, in- 
 i terest, and payable in London. They are fur- 
 ! nished with coupons, and are transferable with- 
 ! out registration. A portion is cancelled by the 
 , sinking fund. 
 
 The remainder of the debt is held by persons 
 on the Continent, where the credit of the Prus- 
 sian government stands very high. 
 
 A Convention with Great Britain, April 2, 
 
 1824, provides for the reciprocal abrogation of 
 
 all discriminating and countervailing duties, 
 
 levied upon the ships or productions of either 
 
 ' nation in theports of the other. It is to endure for 
 
 ! 10 years, and further until the end of 12 months 
 
 after notice. And by a Royal Ordinance, May 
 
 ! 20, 1826, the commerce and" navigation of Great 
 
 1 Britain is placed in Prussian ports upon the 
 
 footing of " the most favoured nations," 
 
 PRUSSIAN BLUE, the ferrosesquicyanuret of iron of chemists, a pigment or 
 dye, composed of cyanogen and iron, and procured by a chemical process from car- 
 bonate of potassa, bullock's blood, green vitriol, and alum. It is prepared of dif- 
 ferent degrees of purity, and additions are made to it according to the purposes 
 for which it is required. When pure, it is of a rich and intense blue, with a cop- 
 per tint upon its surface ; inodorous, tasteless ; insoluble in water, in alcohol, and 
 in dilute acids ; but is acted upon and dissolved by strong acids. It is extremely 
 hygrometric, for, after having been well dried, it speedily attracts moisture. 
 
 PRUSSIC ACID, or hydrocyanic acid, is obtained by the action of muriatic 
 acid on bicyanuret of mercury. It is limpid, very volatile, and of a strong 
 pungent odour, resembling that of bitter almonds. Its taste is acrid, and it is 
 virulently poisonous. Sp. gr. 70<>. In medicine it is used as a sedative. 
 
 PRUSS0-GERMAN CUSTOMS UNION or ZOLLVEREIN. This asso- 
 ciation for assimilating, uniting, and simplifying the fiscal arrangements of tbe 
 numerous states of Germany, though it naturally arose out of the advancing civi- 
 lisation of that country, derived its immediate origin partly from the circum- 
 stances resulting from the last European war. For a series of years prior to 
 1814, the " Continental System" of Napoleon, and other hostile obstructions, by 
 nearly excluding British merchandise, had the effect of creating and extending 
 manufactures in various parts of Germany. None of the tariffs of the different 
 being then prohibitory, except that of Austria, the young manufactures be- 
 came exposed on the return of peace to the crushing competition of England, and 
 great distress was produced, particularly in the Rhenish provinces, which had at the 
 same time the vast markets of France withdrawn from them by their transfer from 
 that power to Prussia. Influenced partly by the discontent of these provinces, 
 and partly by the exclusion of all her leading staples, except wool, from the mar- 
 kets of Great Britain, Prussia, in 1818, issued a new tariff, which raised the duties 
 on the imports into her dominions. This new tariff, however, though amply pro- 
 tective to her own subjects, aggravated the difficulties of the manufacturers 
 of the smaller German states, whose products it excluded, and who also, shut out 
 from France and Austria, and having their internal trade impeded by numerous 
 a:.d conflicting customs and transit regulations, were now each nearly confined to 
 
 •2N 
 
PRU 
 
 562 
 
 PRU 
 
 the narrow limits of their respective domestic markets. The distressed manufac- 
 turers naturally sought a remedy for these evils ; and in 1819 an association was 
 formed at Nuremberg, which, gradually numbering 6000 members, ultimately 
 forced the subject upon the attention of the German governments. Many negotia- 
 tions took place ; at length, in 1827, a Customs Union was formed between Wur- 
 temberg and Bavaria ; next followed the treaty between Prussia and Hesse in 
 1828 ; and about the same time a third union, the Mittel Verein, took place between 
 Saxony, Hanover, and some minor states. The former two were soon united by the 
 exertions of Prussia ; through whose influence likewise several states were detached 
 from the Mittel Verein, which was afterwards dissolved. And in 1833, nearly the 
 whole of the members of these unions were associated into one great league, the 
 Zollverein, which came into operation January 1, 1834 ; and being afterwards 
 
 joined— in 1835 by Nassau and Baden ; in 1836, by Frankfort ; in 1841, by Bruns- 
 wick and Lippe-Schaumberg ; and in 1842, by Luxemburg, — now comprises al- 
 most the whole of Germany, except the parts subject to Austria, Hanover, Olden- 
 
 burg, Mecklenburg, Holstein, and the Hanse Towns. 
 
 By the convention of the Zollverein all restrictions to communication and transit 
 are removed, internal custom-houses abolished, and a common system and collection 
 of export, import, and transit duties established, to be levied at the exterior 
 boundaries of the frontier states, and divided among the members of the league 
 according to their population : a common system of monies and weights was also 
 provided for ; and it was agreed that there shall be a meeting of plenipotentiaries 
 of the associated governments, in June annually, at which the affairs of the league 
 shall be discussed. The duration of the convention was provisionally fixed for 
 January 1, 1842 ; but if not then terminated (by two years' previous notice), it 
 shall be considered as prolonged for 12 years, and so on from time to time for a 
 further period of 12 years. 
 Statement of the Total Population of the Zollverein, and of the Amount of 
 
 Customs Duties received, with the Average Amount per Individual in Silver 
 
 Groschen and Pfennings, and the per Centage Cost of Collection, in each Year 
 
 from 1834 to 1838. 
 
 
 Gross Receipts. 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Population. 
 
 
 Average 
 per Indivi- 
 
 Cost of Col- 
 
 f 1 
 
 
 
 
 On Imports. 
 
 OnExports. OnTransit. 
 
 Total. 
 
 dual. 
 
 
 
 
 Prus. Doll. 
 
 Fru>. DoIL 
 
 Pruj. Doll. 
 
 Prus. Doll. 
 
 Gr. Pf. 
 
 
 1834 
 
 23,478,120 
 
 13,763,458 
 
 422,450 
 
 529,534 
 
 14,715,442 
 
 18 8 
 
 16 per Cent 
 
 1835 
 
 23,752,354 
 
 15,731,182 
 
 502,494 
 
 526,158 
 
 16,759,834 
 
 21 2 
 
 14 ,, 
 
 1836 
 
 25,719,582 
 
 17,332,770 
 
 521,375 
 
 487,321 
 
 18,341,466 
 
 21 4 
 
 m „ 
 
 1837 
 
 26,013,717 
 
 16,866,187 
 
 408,549 592,310 
 
 17,867,046 
 
 20 6 
 
 ,, 
 
 1838 
 
 26,048,970 
 
 19,235,823 
 
 551,537 534,987 20,322,347 
 
 23 4 '.. 
 
 In the year 1839, the total gross receipts amounted to 20,569,486 Prussian dollars ; in 1840, to 
 21,293,232 ; and in 1841 (as shown below), to 21,915,944 dollars. 
 
 The following Table shows the Area and Population of the several Members of 
 the Zollverein, the Amount of Duty raised, and the Shares of the Net Receipts 
 in the Year 1841. 
 
 Sq. miles. 
 
 1. Prussia, and the states which have come to an 
 
 agreement with her 
 
 2. Bavaria 
 
 3. Saxony 
 
 4. Wurtemberg 
 
 5. Grand Duchy of Baden 
 
 6. Electorate of Hesse 
 
 7. Grand Duchy of Hesse 
 
 8. Thuringian Association 
 
 9. Duchy of Nassau 
 
 10. Frankfort-on -the- Maine 
 
 109,1 
 
 31,259 
 5,749 
 8,150 
 5,915 
 3,853 
 3,793 
 4,940 
 1,750 
 
 174,535 
 92 
 
 Population.! Duty 
 
 I Raised. 
 
 i PM* Doll. 
 
 15,159,031 14,701,855 
 4,375,586 1,681,171 
 
 1,706,276 
 1,703,258 
 1,294,131 
 666,280 
 820,907 
 952,421 
 398,095 
 
 27,075,985 
 66,338 
 
 I 174,627 27,142,323 
 
 1,878,176 
 474,448 
 846,364 
 408,673 
 515,444 
 348,212 
 35,141 
 
 20.889,484 
 1,026,460 
 
 21.915,944 
 
 Share of 
 
 Net 
 Receipts. 
 
 Pmi. Doll. 
 
 10,925,229 
 
 3,158,621 
 
 1 ,229,727 
 
 1,291,234 
 
 936,847 
 
 480,193 
 
 637,415 
 
 686,418 
 
 288,682 
 
 19,634,366 
 1,026,498 
 
 20,660,864 
 
 The progress of the Zollverein was jealously watched in this country, as the 
 tariff adopted by it was more unfavourable to the admission of British goods than 
 
PRU 
 
 563 
 
 PRU 
 
 the tariffs previously existing in the other states ; and our manufacturers feared, 
 with apparent reason, that their trade would suffer in every case where additional 
 duties were imposed. It is impossible to investigate this question minutely, as the 
 trade between Britain and the states of the League passes not only through. 
 German ports, but also through Holland and Belgium, — the principal channels 
 being Hamburg and the Elbe, Rotterdam and the Rhine, and Bremen and the 
 Weser. But a general estimate will be obtained by a comparison of our trade with 
 all these places. 
 
 Declared Value of British and Irish Produce and Manufactures exported to 
 Germany, Holland, and Belgium, in the following Years. 
 
 Hanse Towns 
 
 Mecklenburg, Hanover, and Oldenburg. 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Holland ' 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Whereof- 
 
 Total 
 
 Cotton 
 Linen 
 
 Woollen 
 
 / Manufactures* 
 
 (Twist and yarn 
 
 f Manufactures 
 
 \Yarn 
 
 Manufactures 
 
 Yarn 
 
 Machinery and mill-work 
 
 Hardware and cutlery 
 
 Brass and copper manufactures. 
 
 Iron and steel 
 
 Coals 
 
 Refined sugar 
 
 All other articles 
 
 Average of Five Years. 
 
 1829-33. 
 
 £ 
 
 4,358,650 
 
 42,364 
 
 192,497 
 
 2,402,546 
 
 6,996,057 
 
 2,130,161 
 
 2,318,846 
 
 13,942 
 
 480 
 
 897,972 
 
 157,484 
 
 13,984 
 
 112,065 
 
 58,286 
 
 142,316 
 
 45,105 
 
 482,983 
 
 622,433 
 
 1834-38. 
 
 1840. 
 
 £ £ 
 
 4,665,767 >5 215 155 
 32,845 l 5 ^ 15 ' 105 
 
 152,035 j 206,866 
 2,843,550 3,563,792 
 
 856,150 881,831 
 
 8,550,347 9,867,644 
 
 2,152,206 
 
 3,349,856 
 
 39,397 
 
 51,970 
 
 1,055,291 
 
 255.5H) 
 
 90,365 
 
 137.790 
 
 130,355 
 
 287,360 
 
 67,190 
 
 92,303 
 
 840,764 
 
 1,901,308 
 
 4,098,977 
 
 58,984 
 
 152,677 
 
 1,267,489 
 
 322,886 
 
 17",361 
 
 153,195 
 
 200,709 
 
 411,247 
 
 123,101 
 
 8,399 
 
 998.311 
 
 £ 
 
 5,408,499 
 
 219,345 
 3,416,190 
 
 9,924,320 
 
 1,905,128 
 
 4,099,175 
 73,308 
 168,410 
 
 1,139,631 
 357,999 
 173,013 
 157,269 
 209,515 
 440,070 
 120.679 
 5.083 
 
 1,075,040 
 
 The above, while it exhibits a highly satisfactory increase in the amount of our 
 exports, shows also, as already noticed [Commerce], that that increase mainly 
 consists of raw products and half-manufactured articles, as coal, iron, steel, twist, 
 and yarn. This is quite in harmony with the tariff of the Zollverein, which admits 
 raw materials, and materials serving the ends of agriculture and manufactures, 
 either without any, or on very low duties. Thus, raw cotton, wool, coal, pig-iron, 
 ores, raw hides and skins, potashes, turpentine, chalk, rags, manure, earths, Mack- 
 lead, wood, seed, and such like, are exempt from duty ; and low rates are imposed 
 on twist and yarn, the produce of our superior machinery ; metals in the earlier pro- 
 gress of manipulation ; and all articles to which more labour is to be applied. But 
 the duties press heavily, or rather prohibitorily, on articles entering into competi- 
 tion with the manufactures of Germany, which are generally of a coarse heavy 
 kind : this is effected by the imposition of a fixed rate on the weight of the goods im- 
 ported, without any reference to quality or fluctuation of prices ; so that it falls lightest 
 on fine goods and Iieaviest on the common kinds. They are on cotton manufactures, 
 £7, 10s. per cwt. ; on woollens, £4, 10s. ; on hardwares, £8, 5s. ; on common linens, 
 33s. ; on fine linens, £3, 6s. ; and on silks, £16, 10s. per cwt. Estimated ad valorem, 
 the duty on cottons varies in this way from 3£ to 120 per cent., and on woollens 
 from 20 to 50 per cent. ; and these per centages will of course increase according 
 as the articles fall in price. The necessary operation of this system is the exclu- 
 sion from the markets of almost all the commoner articles of foreign manufacture ; 
 in short, all those largely consumed in Germany, for which a complete monopoly 
 has been created in favour of the home producer. 
 
 The manufactures of Germany, however, are not to be considered as deriving 
 their existence solely from tariff protection. Many kinds, — as those of linens and 
 woollens,— have been long established ; and their cotton manufacture, though of 
 tomparatively recent introduction, has in some departments, particularly hosiery 
 [Hosiery], even outstripped that of Britain. In truth, much of the progress of 
 manufactures in Germany is the n atural result of her return to the arts of peace. 
 
 * " The decrease in cotton goods has been chiefly in printed cottons; especially in red printed 
 cotton, or Turkey reds, in which the dyers and printers of Germany and Switzerland excel those 
 of all other countries. It is indeed probable that British printed cottons will very shortly cease 
 to be used in any of the Zollverein states."— (Macgregor't Commercial Tariffs, &c, part v. p. 69.) 
 
PRU 564 PRU 
 
 A monopoly of cheap production, and the exclusive possession of advantages for 
 which civilized man is every where struggling, cannot be always retained by Eng- 
 land. Without possessing perhaps the enterprise of the British and Americans, 
 the Germans excel in judgment, calculation, and perseverance ; and they have 
 aptitudes and facilities of their own, which greatly aid the development of their 
 industry. Their habits are eminently frugal ; and wages are very low, especially 
 in Saxony, where potato cultivation and the cotton manufacture appear to have 
 advanced simultaneously. Elementary instruction is provided for all, and special 
 instruction for those who exhibit any particular genius ; and the arts of design, 
 metallurgy, and chemistry, are better understood than with us ; while even in 
 those branches in which our superiority is the most marked, such as machine- 
 making, competition is rapidly marching after us. To these influences has now to 
 be added that of the Zollverein, which, by rendering its numerous states commer- 
 cially one country, with one frontier, establishing in fact perfect free trade among 
 27,000,000 of people, and leading in every direction to extensions of the means of 
 internal communication, has given a prodigious impulse to every department of 
 industry. 
 
 Yet, after allowing for all these circumstances, the immense capital, and other 
 advantages which still render Britain superior to the rest of the world in manufac- 
 turing power, would, there can be no doubt, enable it to export much more largely 
 to the states of the Zollverein were their tariff more liberal. Instead of any modi- 
 fication, however, it is feared by many that the protecting system will be extended, 
 so as to exclude the yarns and other half-manufactured articles of which our ex- 
 
 {>orts now mainly consist ; and it is certain that the tendency of the predominant 
 egislation of Germany is to secure more and more of the home market in every 
 stage of the process of manufacture. But this predominancy, we may remark, is 
 rather owing to the youthful vigour, activity, and concentration of the manufac- 
 turing interests than to their importance compared with those of agriculture. The 
 latter, which are much more diffused,more productive, and represent a vastly greater 
 amount of capital andlabour than the former, are,and must long continue,intimately 
 connected with the foreign trade of Germany ; for it is to distant markets alone 
 they can look for the sale of that surplus produce which home demand does not 
 consume ; and their just influence will doubtless be restored when the Zollverein 
 shall, by its consolidation, have become sufficiently powerful to repress the local 
 and partial influences of its various elements, and blend them into the paramount 
 interests of the whole. To this restoration the progress of commercial legislation 
 in this country, as indicated by the late modification of our tariff, will contribute, 
 as well by checking the flow of capital from rural to manufacturing pursuits in the 
 states of the Zollverein, as by inciting the agricultural interests in those states to con- 
 trol any farther extension of the restrictive policy. It is besides only upon a mo- 
 derate system of duties that contraband trade can be prevented, and a healthy action 
 permanently communicated to the manufacturing interests themselves. We have, 
 therefore, just grounds to believe that the restrictive tendency of the Zollverein will 
 be checked, or at least not suffered materially to increase ; and that, while the ad- 
 vancing wealth of Germany will naturally lead to an enlargement of its foreign 
 commerce, an important share of this commerce must continue to be held by Bri- 
 tain, from the great amount, variety, and cheapness of her merchandise. 
 
 The members of the Zollverein desire its extension ; but, by its fundamental or- 
 ganization, no states can be admitted but those of Germany, — the league being 
 indeed partly the result of a popular feeling among those states for unity and 
 nationalization. Of the different members, Saxony is that which on the whole has 
 profited most by the League, for in that country manufacturing industry being 
 most developed, it had the vantage ground in competing with the others ; and new 
 and extensive markets were opened to her, and at the same time closed to a great 
 extent against foreign rivals. Frankfort-on-the-Maine, again, is that which has 
 experienced least benefit from the League. [Frankfort.] Prussia, though the 
 leading and most zealous member, is, in a financial point of view, situated less ad- 
 vantageously than she would have been had her independent tariff been continued : 
 many of her protected classes have likewise suffered from the competition of Saxony. 
 This has led to the general belief that the ostensible object of the Zollverein is 
 neither the only nor the chief motive which has influenced that power, but rather 
 political views, extending beyond the interests of the present day, and tending to 
 its own aggrandisement. The origin of the union, however, was, as we have al- 
 ready explained, commercial ; and this circumstance strengthens the probability 
 of its duration ; but political consequences of the greatest importance cannot fail 
 
PUL 
 
 
 PYR 
 
 to arise from the external relations of the Zollverein. Indeed, the distinction be- 
 tween a commercial union and a political alliance is an imaginary one ; since, what- 
 ever so completely unites the interests of different bodies of people, must combine 
 their policy, their diplomacy, and, in the event of danger, their strength. 
 "Weights, Monies, Conventions, &c. 
 Weights.— The weightadopted by the League sterling. It bears the effigy of the King of 
 
 Prussia, and has on the reverse the inscription 
 of Vereins Miinze, or " Union's Money." 
 
 Treaties of Commerce have been effected with 
 Holland, the Hanse Towns, and Great Britain. 
 The last mentioned, negotiated with Prussia, 
 March 2, 1841, provides that the vessels of the 
 states of the Zollverein, with their cargoes, con- 
 sisting of goods legally importable into the United 
 Kingdom and colonies, by the said vessels, from 
 the ports of the countries to which they respec- 
 tively belong, shall, when coming from the 
 mouths of the Meuse or Elbe, or any navigable 
 river lying between these streams, and commu- 
 nicating with any of the said states, be admitted 
 into the ports of the United Kingdom and colo- 
 nies, in as ample a manner as if the ports from 
 which such vessels may have come were within 
 the dominions of any of the said states ; and such 
 vessels shall be permitted to import the said 
 goods upon the same terms on which they might 
 be imported if coining from the national ports 
 of such vessels. 
 
 In like manner, such vessels proceeding from 
 the United Kingdom and colonies to the ports 
 and places thus referred to, shall be treated as 
 if returning to a Prussian Baltic port, — it being 
 understood that these privileges are to extend to 
 the vessels of the states aforesaid and their car- 
 goes, only in respect to each of the said ports in 
 which British vessels and their cargoes shall, 
 upon their arrival and departure, continue to 
 be placed upon the same footing as the vessels of 
 the states of the Zollverein. 
 
 This treaty, unless terminated Januaryl,1848, 
 by 6 months' previous notice, was to remain in 
 force until January 1, 1 8-34, and further until the 
 end of 12 months after notice by either party. 
 
 Further information will be found in Dr. Bow- 
 ring's "Report on the Prussian Commercial 
 Union," 1840, and in Mr. Macgregor's " Com- 
 mercial Tariffs and Regulations of the several 
 States of Europe," &c. part v. July 1842. See 
 Article in Supplement.* 
 
 as the basis of their tariff, is the centner or hun- 
 dredweight of the duchy of Baden, which is 
 divided into 100 pounds, each equal to the livre 
 usuelle, or J kilogramme of France. TheZoll- 
 centner of 100 lbs. is therefore equal to 110-243, or 
 very nearly 110i avoird. lbs. ; and 100 avoird. 
 lbs." = 90*708, or nearly 90 j Zoll-pounds. Also, 
 65 Zoll-centners = 64* avoird. hundredweights 
 nearly. The Zoll pound is divided into 30 loths. 
 The following equations are given in the ta- 
 riff:— 
 
 Zoll-ponnda. 
 
 935-422 = 1000 Prussian lbs. 
 1 1 20 = 1000 Bavarian lbs. 
 2ooo = 1000 Kilogrammes. 
 935-456 = 1000 Wurtemberg lbs. 
 933 673 = 1000 Saxon (Dresden) lbs. 
 Or, approximately, 
 14 = 15 Prussian lbs. 
 £3 = 25 Bavarian lbs. 
 2 = 1 Kilogramme. 
 
 14 = 15 Wurtemberg lbs. 
 
 15 = 15 Saxon (Dresden) lbs. 
 
 Also, 
 
 Z.'l. centners. 
 
 36 = 35 Prussian centners of 110 lbs. 
 28 = 25 Bavarian centners of 100 lbs. 
 
 2 = 1 quintal of 100 kilogrammes. 
 36 = 37 Wurtemberg centners of 104 lbs. 
 36 = 35 Saxon (Dresden) centners of 110 lbs. 
 
 Money. — The integer of account in the north- 
 ern states is the Prussian dollar (thaler) or 
 crown of 30 silver groschen; in the southern, 
 the Bavarian guilder or florin of 60 kreutzers. 
 The former is equivalent to 2s. 10td., the latter 
 to Is. 8d. sterling; the Cologne mark of pure 
 silver, of 233*855 grammes, being represented by 
 14 dollars or 24J florins. Hence 1 dollar = 1| 
 florin ; 1 florin = i dollar ; and 15 silver gros- 
 chen = 52J kreutzers. 
 
 A new coin has been struck, common to all 
 the states, of the value of $th of the mark of 
 pure silver, and equivalent consequently to 2 
 Prussian dollars, 3J Bavarian florins, or 5s. 9i<L 
 
 PULLICATES, cotton handkerchiefs, checked, of various colours. 
 PULQUE, a spirituous liquor made in Mexico, from the maguey or agave. 
 PUMICE STONE (It. Pietra pomice) is generally assumed to be a lava or 
 volcanic glass, though it does not occur in all volcanic countries. It is extremely 
 
 Eorous, of a fibrous texture, and is harsh to the touch ; colour gray, tinged with 
 rown or yellow ; it has a shining, pearly lustre, and is very light. Pumice i3 
 quarried and exported in large quantities from Lipari and the isles of Ponza. It 
 is used for polishing metals and other purposes in the arts. 
 
 PUNCHEON, a measure of capacity for liquids. [Measure, Wine.] 
 
 PURPLE WOOD, a tropical cabinet-wood, lately introduced, said to be the 
 produce of a kind of thorn. It is a narrow wood, being only about four inches 
 wide, of a purple colour, and without veins. 
 
 PUTCHUCK, the fleshy root of a plant growing in Gujerat. It is largely ex- 
 ported from Bombay and other ports of the N.W. of India to China, where it is 
 used as incense. In its commercial state it is generally mixed with impurities. 
 
 PUTTY, a vnlgar name for the peroxide of tin, generally used for polishing 
 mirrors and lenses, and for rendering glass white and opaque, converting it into 
 enamel ; and for other purposes in the arts. This must not be confounded with 
 the putty of glaziers, which is prepared by kneading chalk with linseed oil. 
 
 PYROUGNEOUS ACID. [Acetic Acid. Vi>-egab.] 
 
UUA 5(56 QUA 
 
 Q. 
 
 QUARANTINE Laws, regulating the intercourse with countries subject to pes- 
 tilence, originated in the 15th century in Venice ; and, though also applied to cases 
 of cholera and yellow fever, owe their introduction, as well as their continuance, 
 to dread of the plague of the Levant. They consist of regulations interrupting the 
 intercourse, and subjecting men and animals communicating with the country 
 affected by or suspected of contagion, to a probationary confinement, and goods 
 and letters brought from it (and hence assumed to contain contagious poison) to a 
 process of depuration. The confinement and depuration take place on shipboard, 
 or, as in Malta, Marseilles, and other Mediterranean ports, in isolated establish- 
 ments called lazarettoes. Goods are subjected to quarantine according as they are 
 non-susceptible, a class embracing wood, metals, and fruits ; or susceptible, includ- 
 "ug all animal substances, such as wool, silk, and leather, and many vegetable 
 natters, such as cotton, linen, and paper, — the whole of which are opened up, 
 ventilated, and sometimes fumigated. Every ship is furnished by the sanatory au- 
 thority, at the last port where it touched, with a bill of health, which when clean 
 generally exempts the passengers and goods from quarantine ; but if suspected or 
 foul, subjects them to it for periods, differing according to circumstances, from about 
 5 to 40 days ; from which last period the term quarantine is derived. The countries 
 upon the Levant are considered as permanently in a state of suspicion ; and no 
 ship sailing from any of them is considered to bring a clean bill. 
 
 These laws are of little importance, except with reference to the Mediterranean 
 trade. British vessels clearing out from the United Kingdom for any place in the 
 Mediterranean or West Barbary, or any other port subjected to quarantine regu- 
 lations by Orders in Council, are to receive from the Customs Office a printed ab- 
 stract of the existing regulations (6 Geo. IV. c. 78) for their guidance. Vessels 
 from the Mediterranean and West Barbary, with clean bills, are to perform 15 
 days' quarantine, to which likewise are subjected ships communicating with such 
 vessels, as also those which, though arriving from other ports of Europe or of 
 America (without quarantine establishments), have on board susceptible articles, 
 the produce of Turkey, Egypt, or Barbary. Vessels with foul or suspected bills 
 are to perform 30 days' quarantine ; and if pestilential disease shall appear during 
 that time, the quarantine must commence anew. Ships from the Mediterranean 
 and West Barbary, not having any infectious disorder on board, but without clean 
 bills of health, are to repair to Standgate Creek or Milford Haven. But vessels 
 bound to any port in the United Kingdom, on board of which the plague shall ap- 
 
 {>ear, are required immediately, if to the S. of Cape St Vincent, to repair to some 
 azaretto of the Mediterranean, and if to the N. of that cape, to Milford Haven. 
 For other vessels liable to quarantine there are various stations throughout the 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 These regulations form a serious and in most respects an unnecessary burden 
 upon commerce. Plague is now said by many to be an epidemic merely ; and, 
 though the weight of authority is still in favour of its being also contagious, it is 
 established to be so in a mode and degree much less than was formerly supposed. 
 There is no distinct evidence of merchandise having ever acted as a conductor of 
 plague ; and the received distinction between susceptible and non- susceptible com- 
 modities is now held to be fanciful. Great doubts are also entertained as to the 
 capability of the lower animals to communicate the disease. But, provided cir- 
 cumstances be favourable to the transmission of plague, it is still believed that it 
 can be communicated by one person to another, as well as through the medium of 
 the clothes and bedding of patients. The duration of quarantine is besides the 
 subject of deep complaint : the virulence of plague, it is now admitted, must pre- 
 vent its poison from remaining long latent in the human body ; and, according to 
 the most skilful observers at Malta and elsewhere, the disease usually appears 
 from the third to the sixth day after communication ; never after the fifteenth. 
 
 But popular jealousy, as well as the impracticability of effecting a beneficial 
 change without the consent of all neighbouring countries, are obstacles to any 
 alteration of the existing system. Thus, if without such a general agreement, the 
 British government were to change the regulations at Malta, the pratique granted 
 there would not be received elsewhere, — a circumstance which would be fatal to 
 its transit trade, and also to its importance as a quarantine station, now daily in- 
 creasing from the use of the overland journey to India via Egypt. It is probable, 
 
QUA 567 RAI 
 
 therefore, that no great alteration will ever be effected, except through medical com- 
 missioners, acting under the directions of the chief powers of Europe. 
 
 QUARTER, a measure of capacity for corn. [Measures.] 
 
 QUASSIA, an intensely bitter wood, obtained from two trees, the ^. amara of 
 Guiana, and the Q. exce/sa of Jamaica ; though the produce of the former is now rare. 
 It is imported in billets ; but before being used is cut into chips, which are scent- 
 less, ana of a light gray colour, — becoming yellow or brownish, however, by long ex- 
 posure. It is used medicinally as a tonic, and, though forbidden by statute, by 
 some brewers as a substitute for hops. Another variety, the Q. simaruba, yields 
 the tonic bark called simarouba, imported in bales from the West Indies. 
 
 QUERCITRON BARK, an important yellow dye, the produce of a species of 
 oak (Quercus tinctoria or nigra) indigenous to N. America. 
 
 QUICKSILVER. [Mercury.] S 
 
 QUILLS. [Pens.] 
 
 QUINCE, a yellow-coloured fruit, of an austere acid taste, the produce of a 
 species of pear-tree (Cydonia vulgaris) indigenous to Crete, but common in France, 
 particularly on the Garonne, and also in the S. of England. It is said to be the 
 same with the celebrated apples of the Hesperides. Quince seeds abound in mucilage, 
 and are an article of the materia medica. 
 
 QUININE, a white powdery vegetable alkaloid, extracted from the yellow 
 Peruvian bark, and for which it is now advantageously substituted as a medicine. 
 
 QUINTAL, generally signifies the weight of a hundred pounds. 
 
 R. 
 
 RABBIT. [Furs.1 
 
 RACOON, a small species of bear (Ursus lotor), valued for its fur, which is used 
 in hatmaking. Its hair is gray, soft, long, and thick, white in the middle, and 
 black at the ends ; eyes surrounded with black patches ; tail annulated. It in- 
 habits Jamaica and N. America, especially Kentucky. 
 
 RAGS (Du. Lompen. Yr.Chiffes,Drapeaux,DriUes. Ger. Lumpen. It. Slracci, 
 Strazze. Por. Farrapos, Trapos. Rus. Trepje. Sp. Trapos, Andrajos), or tat- 
 tered fragments of cloth, are of importance in the arts, more especially when of 
 linen or cotton, for their use in papermaking. The rags of which British paper 
 is made are mostly imported, chiefly from Hamburg, Bremen, Rostock, Ancona, 
 Leghorn, Messina, Palermo, and Trieste. They arrive in our ports in closely packed 
 bags, containing each about 4 cwts. ; which, according to the respective qualities 
 of the rag, are marked S. P. F. F., S. P. F., F. F., F. X., and F. B. There are, however, 
 many varieties even in these divisions. About 10,000 tons are annually entered for 
 home consumption. They are generally darker, dirtier, and coarser than the Eng- 
 lish, but on the other hand are valued from being chiefly linen, while those collected 
 at home are mostly cotton. France, Holland, and Belgium prohibit the exporta- 
 tion of rags, in order to encourage their own long- established paper manufactories : 
 Spain and Portugal likewise enforce a similar prohibition. Of late years, also, the 
 shipments from Sicily have been checked by the imposition of an export duty of 2s. 
 per cwt. ; while those from Leghorn to this country have greatly declined, owing 
 to the competing demand of the Americans. [Paper.] S 
 
 Woollen rags are commonly used as manure ; but some kinds are unravelled, 
 and, after being mixed up with fresh wool, manufactured again into coarse cloth. 
 
 RAILWAYS (Fr. Chemins defer), made rudely of pieces of wood imbedded in 
 the ordinary roads, so as to form wheel-tracks for facilitating the motion of carts 
 and wagons, were introduced into the English mining districts in the 17th cen- 
 tury ; in the succeeding century these were gradually superseded by the plate- 
 railway or tram-road ; and edge-rails were introduced in 1801. Shortly after- 
 wards the moveable steam-engine began to be employed instead of animal 
 power for locomotion ; but its powers were long very imperfectly developed ; and 
 railways continued in little use except for the conveyance of mineral produce to 
 the place of shipment. 
 
 The epoch of the modern railway system is fixed at 1814, when George Stephen- 
 son invented the steam blast, the life-blood of the locomotive engine, and which in- 
 creased its speed from 3 to 6 miles per hour. But the capabilities of a railway for 
 the conveyance of passengers as well as merchandise, though indicated by the 
 Stockton and Darlington Railway, 1825, were not fully established until 1829, 
 shortly before the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester line, when a premium 
 
RAI 568 RAI 
 
 of £500, offered by the directors of this railway for the best steam-locomotive, was, 
 after a keen competition among the most distinguished engineers, awarded to 
 Robert Stephenson, the proprietor of the " Rocket, which, though weighing with 
 tender only 7| tons, drew 44 tons gross at 14 miles per hour. This was mainly 
 effected by tubing the boiler, — an improvement which increased the evaporating 
 power to three times that of the older engines, with 40 per cent, less consumption 
 of fuel. The result was, that, though the principal inducement to establish the 
 railway had been the traffic in goods, this was so far exceeded by the profit from 
 passengers, that the company were enabled to meet great extra charges, and to 
 divide regularly 10 per cent, annually upon their capital, although the outlay on 
 the work was more than double the original estimate. 
 
 The signal success of this undertaking communicated a prodigious impulse to 
 the railway system, not only in the United Kingdom but on the Continent and in 
 America. In England, the leader in this " iron revolution," lines were speedily 
 projected between all the great towns ; improvements were made in the modes of 
 constructing the road and laying down the rails ; and the evaporating power of 
 the engine was increased by enlarging the boiler and adding to the number of 
 tubes, which, instead of "24 as at first, are now from 90 to 150 and upwards, expos- 
 ing from 400 to 600 square feet of heated metal to the water, in addition to the 
 area of the fire-box. The average speed of the passenger trains is about 30 miles 
 an hour ; but Marshal Soult, when in England, was carried at the rate of 60 miles : 
 and the progress of improvement is such, that no limit can be placed to the rapidity, 
 ease, and cheapness of conveyance by these splendid creations. 
 
 Formation of Brittsh Railways, Statistics, &c. 
 
 The British railways for general traffic have been all formed by joint-stock com- 
 panies, acting under the sanction of parliament. Respectable projects commonly 
 emanate from a few individuals interested in the line proposed ; though the mass of 
 original proprietors are almost always speculative adventurers. In carrying out the 
 measure, directors of business-like habits and local influence are appointed, who allot 
 themselves into sub-committees to look after the traffic, the surveying, the share-list, 
 and the canvassing along the line, according to their qualifications. Having ascer- 
 tained that there are no engineering difficulties of a marked character between the 
 two termini, the next stage, if the share-list be found to fill, is to estimate the pro- 
 bable income. This is done by computing the amount of passengers, carriages, and 
 goods passing at particular places on the fine, and calculating the probable increase 
 of this " direct traffic " from the cheapness and quickness of the railway, as well 
 as the " contingent traffic " from other places, whence travellers and goods can 
 be carried more advantageously by the proposed railway than wholly by a direct 
 conveyance. In such computations some assistance may be derived from the pro- 
 gress of other undertakings ; still, great discrimination will be necessary, as tho 
 increase of passengers — the main contributors to a railway — has, according to Mr 
 Lecount, been in all proportions up to 80 to 1. 
 
 Meanwhile, the engineer will be engaged in the surveying and levelling. And in 
 most cases a practised man will be able at once to decide upon the principal points 
 of the course, as well with reference to the maximum of traffic, as the avoiding 
 of curves, costly purchases, and expensive operations. As a general rule, a per- 
 fectly straight and level line is to be preferred when the termini are of equal eleva- 
 tion, or a uniform slope when one is higher than the other. But as it rarely happens 
 that either of these can be obtained for any great distance without inconvenient and 
 expensive deviations, the engineer so adjusts his inclinations, or gradients, as to 
 make the nearest practicable approach to a level; avoiding loss of engine power from 
 undulations, by making all the inclinations on one side of the summit point rise 
 towards it, and all on the opposite side descend from it. The retarding effect of ele- 
 vations is variously estimated ; but it is a common theory that an elevation of 20 
 feet requires an exertion of power equal to that on a mile of level railway ; so that 
 the same power which would move a given load over one mile of railway rising 20 
 feet, or 1 in 264 — the characteristic or ordinary gradient on the South Western, 
 Brighton, South Eastern, and many other lines— would move the same load over 
 two miles of level road ; hence making the " equivalent distance " double the 
 " actual distance." In conducting a railway over a considerable elevation, some 
 engineers distribute the rise and fall as equally as possible throughout the whole 
 line ; others concentrate them in a few steep planes, where additional engines are 
 used, and make the remainder comparatively level. Thus, in the London and Bir- 
 mingham Railway, the ordinary gradient is 1 in 330, or 16 feet per mile, which is 
 
RAI 509 RAI 
 
 nowhere exceeded except in tho extension from Camden Town to Euston Square. 
 But the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, on the main line, has no gradient ex- 
 ceeding 1 in 849, except in two planes of about 1^ mile each, inclining 1 in 89 
 aud 1 in 9(», near Rainhill ; nor has the Great Western, in a length of 117^ miles, 
 a steeper gradient than 6^ feet per mile, or 1 in 812, except two inclined planes of 
 1 in 100 ; and on the Edinburgh and Glasgow line, the steepest is 1 in 880, with 
 the exception of the inclined plane on approaching the latter city. Similarity in the 
 gradients is essential to the economical working of a railway by inanimate power. 
 If any inclination occur so steep that the ordinary power cannot ascend it by a 
 reduction of speed, it must either be surmounted by the aid of auxiliary power, or 
 the engine must run over other parts of the road with less than a maximum load, 
 and consequently at an unnecessary expense. 
 
 While the engineer is engaged, the solicitor will have been feeling his way amongst 
 the landholders and occupiers, so that refractory proprietors may if possible be 
 avoided ; and after a time he, the engineer, secretary, and directors, will throw all 
 their information into one stock, and select that line which on the whole appears 
 to be the best with reference to its gradients, geology, commercial importance, and 
 the facilities it affords for constructing the works. These and all other preliminary 
 matters require the greatest consideration, from the difficulty, delay, and expense 
 of obtaining acts of parliament for railways, more especially und'er the present 
 standing orders, which require the plans to be deposited with the Clerks of the 
 Peace by March 1, and in the Private Bill-Office by April 1, in the year preceding 
 that in which the application to parliament is made,— thus allowing a whole year 
 (instead of 6 months as before 1837) for interested parties to consider the scheme, 
 and prepare for opposing or advocating it. A general account of the existing regu- 
 lations will be found under Company. Besides other powers, the Railway Act 
 usually grants authority to borrow an additional sum, equal to one-third of the 
 share-capital, if necessary. 
 
 The act being obtained, the land required is set out and purchased. Where ex- 
 orbitant compensation is required, recourse is had to a jury, who commonly award 
 a sum much less than that claimed. The excavations, embankments, tunnelling, and 
 masonry for bridges, viaducts, and other erections, are then let to contractors ; 
 arranging if possible so that each will be enabled to use all his excavations in his 
 embankments. The " formation level " being thus completed, is spread over with 
 a stratum of broken stone or " ballast," on which firm dry foundation are placed 
 the blocks or sleepers to which the rails are fastened ; and the intervening spaces 
 are afterwards filled up with the same material. The ordinary standard width of 
 the rail-tracks, both in Britain and the United States, is 4 feet 8^ inches ; but a 
 few in this country are nearly 6 feet ; and the gauge of the Great Western was fixed 
 by Mr Brunei at 7 feet, in order to allow scope for improvements in power, speed, 
 stability, and convenience ; but this is generally considered to be beyond the most 
 advantageous width. The distance between the tracks is of inferior consequence. 
 
 The expense of constructing English railways, all with double tracks, has varied 
 under different circumstances from £10,000 to £50,000 per mile. The annual 
 charges are also extremely variable, — railway expenses being indeed as yet but 
 imperfectly understood. But the experience of several undertakings in this country 
 and in Belgium coincide pretty closely in showing the average proportion of the 
 annual receipts to the annual expenditure to be nearly as 2 to 1. It will be seen 
 from the subjoined table, that in general long lines have been the most profitable. 
 
 In the United Kingdom about 3000 miles of railway have been sanctioned by 
 acts of parliament ; upwards of two-thirds of which are intended for the convey- 
 ance of passengers and goods by steam-power ; and of these last nearly 1300 miles 
 are in operation. The amount of capital invested in these undertakings may be 
 stated at from £60,000,000 to £70,000,000. 
 
 In the United States about 3500 miles were in operation in 1840; and the ave- 
 rage expense of their formation was only about £5000 per mile, arising partly from 
 the cheapness of land aud timber, and partly from their being in great part only 
 single tracks, and in other respects of inferior construction. Comprehensive rail- 
 way systems have been formed by the governments of Belgium and France. Im- 
 portant lines are also in progress in Germany, Austria, and Italy. And they have 
 been introduced into Russia, Canada, Cuba, Egypt, and other parts, — the engineers 
 being frequently, and the rails and locomotives generally, from England. 
 
RAI 
 
 570 
 
 RAP 
 
 The following table shows the amount expended on the principal Railways in the 
 United Kingdom, their weekly receipts, and other particulars, as in Sept. 1842 :— 
 
 
 Year 
 Opened, 
 
 Length 
 
 Amount 
 Expended. 
 
 Paid per 
 
 Share. 
 
 Price of 
 Share. 
 
 Divi- 
 dend per 
 Cent. 
 
 Weekly 
 Receipts. 
 
 1839 
 1839 
 1840 
 1839 
 1840 
 1834 
 1840 
 1840 
 1842 
 1840 
 1841 
 1837 
 1841 
 1840 
 
 1840 
 1840 
 1830 
 1838 
 1840 
 1840 
 1839 
 1838 
 1840 
 1840 
 1838 
 1841 
 1840 
 1839 
 1839 
 1840 
 1838 
 1840 
 1840 
 
 1841 
 1839 
 
 1840 
 
 15 
 48J 
 55 
 25 
 144 
 
 6 
 
 168 
 174 
 46 
 4'i 
 221 
 83J 
 45 
 181* 
 18 
 31 
 201 
 31 
 112J 
 
 33 
 56 
 104 
 
 38 
 928 
 31 
 10 
 50 
 57 
 61 
 
 7 
 
 728 
 22 
 324 
 19 
 
 7 
 47 
 30 
 24 
 27 
 
 £ 
 
 136,705 
 
 1,113,481 
 
 1,438,370 
 
 434,824 
 
 456,663 
 
 340,262 
 
 143,552 
 
 2,104,054 
 
 1,383,077 
 
 930,435 
 
 709,116 
 
 2,280,590 
 
 1,201,670 
 
 6,435,671 
 
 125,000 
 
 634,994 
 
 435,399 
 
 1,515,255 
 
 5,867,504 
 
 1,141,538 
 
 2,473,379 
 
 618,748 
 
 966,239 
 
 2,565,531 
 
 1,762,931 
 
 777,956 
 
 2,913,110 
 
 1,679,959 
 
 232,077 
 3,297,704 
 612,829 
 758,653 
 317,695 
 404,656 
 1,075,468 
 539,723 
 314,302 
 631,941 
 
 £ 
 
 25 
 100 
 100 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 100 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 100 
 100 
 
 65 
 100 
 
 50 
 
 47 
 100 
 
 90 
 
 16§ 
 
 50 
 
 138 
 
 128 
 
 m 
 
 40 
 93 
 70 
 100 
 100 
 45 
 100 
 
 75 
 
 45 
 50 
 82J 
 50 
 100 
 25 
 50 
 
 £ 
 
 22 
 
 40 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 81 
 48 
 34 
 18 
 
 55 
 82* 
 
 182 
 
 183 
 
 7 
 
 34 
 
 m 
 
 48 
 58 
 204 
 
 61 
 
 57 
 
 21| 
 
 90 
 
 £ 
 Si 
 
 H 
 
 41 
 2 
 5 
 5 
 2 
 5 
 31 
 1 
 10 
 24 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 10 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 # 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 2 
 6§ 
 44 
 4 
 
 P 
 
 10 
 
 £ 
 
 194 
 1,570 
 2,121 
 
 812 
 
 626 
 1,034 
 
 274 
 1,170 
 1,998 
 1,134 
 
 922 
 7,887 
 
 1,433 
 
 14,661 
 
 175 
 
 1,100 
 
 4,582 
 
 18,062 
 
 927 
 
 4,499 
 
 343 
 
 739 
 
 7,133 
 
 2,647 
 
 561 
 
 5,121 
 
 3,206 
 
 1,695 
 
 376 
 
 5,705 
 
 1,346 
 
 1,300 
 
 331 
 
 302 
 
 1,518 
 
 554 
 
 386 
 
 1,845 
 
 2 Birmingham and Derby Junction.. . . 
 
 3 Birmingham and Gloucester 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 Glasgow, Paisley, and Greenock 
 
 13 Great North of England 
 
 15 Hayle 
 
 16 Hull and Selby 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 London and South-Western 
 
 25 Manchester and Birmingham 
 
 26 Manchester and Bolton. 
 
 
 29 Newcastle and Carlisle 
 
 30 Newcastle and North Shields 
 
 31 North Midland 
 
 32 North Union 
 
 
 
 35 Sheffield and Manchester 
 
 
 37 Taff Vale 
 
 38 Ulster 
 
 39 York and North Midland 
 
 A duty of £d. per mile per passenger was formerly exacted on British railways ; 
 but, since August 1842, it has been levied at the rate of 5 per cent, on the gross 
 receipts from this source (5 & 6 Vict. c. 79). The Board of Trade is vested with 
 a controlling power over these works by the acts 3 & 4 Vict. c. 97, and 5 & G Vict. 
 c. 55, which likewise contain numerous regulations for their management. 
 
 Further information on the subject of this article will be found in the " Practical 
 Treatises " of Mr Wood and Lieutenant Lecount. S 
 
 RAISINS (Fr. Raisins sees ou passes. Ger. Rosinen. It. Uve passe. Por. 
 Passas. Rus. Issum. Sp. Pasas\ dried grapes. They are distinguished by the 
 places where produced or exported, — as Malaga, Valencia, and Smyrna ; or from 
 the variety of grape or mode of preparation, — as muscatels, blooms, sultanas, lexias, 
 and raisins of the sun. The latter are dried by solar heat alone ; inferior kinds are 
 dried in ovens ; but the most common way is to dip the grapes in a hot lixivium of 
 water and wood ashes (those of the vine branches or tendrils being preferred) and a 
 little olive-oil ? and afterwards expose them to the sun. In the ley used for the Valen- 
 cia lexias, a little slacked lime is also used. The finest in quality are the Malaga 
 muscatels ; the lowest the black Smyrna raisins. About 200,000 cwts. are an- 
 nually entered for home consumption in the United Kingdom ; of which about fths 
 are imported from Spain, and |th from Turkey,— the latter being shipped entirely 
 at Chesme" and Vourla, near Smyrna, except the sultanas, a small fine species ex- 
 ported from Smyrna itself. S 
 
 The drum of raisins is about 24 lbs. The cask of Malaga, 1 cwt. ; of Turkey, 24 cwts. The box 
 of Malaga, 22 lbs. ; of Valencia, 56 lbs. 
 
 RAPESEED (Dan. Roefr'6. Fr. Graine denavette. Ger. Rapsaat) is the pro- 
 duce of a hardy biennial plant of the cabbage tribe (Brassica napus), extensively 
 
RAS 571 REC 
 
 cultivated on the Continent. It is chiefly valued for the oil which is extracted from 
 it by grinding and pressure ; and from 600,000 to 1,000,000 bushels are annually im- 
 ported for consumption in the United Kingdom — principally from Denmark, though 
 to some extent also from Germany and Russia. [Oil.] In Essex, Lincoln, and 
 Cambridge, rape is reared for its stems and leaves, which are used in feeding sheep. 
 
 Rapeseed Cake is employed, like linseed cake, on the Continent to feed cattle 
 and pigs ; considerable quantities of it are likewise brought to this country to be 
 used as manure. S 
 
 RASPBERRY, the fruit of the Rubus Id&us, a native of Britain and other 
 parts of Europe, extensively used by the cook and the confectioner, also in the 
 preparation of cordial spiritous liquors. 
 
 RATAFIA, a spiritous compound of fruit kernels, spices, and brandy. 
 
 RATTANS, or CANES, are gigantic reeds, the produce of different species of 
 palms (Calamus ratang, &c), principally found on the Malay peninsula and archi- 
 pelago, where they grow in the forests, climbing over trees to a greater extent than 
 any other known plants. They are to be chosen long, well glazed, of a bright 
 yellow colour, of a small size, and not brittle. They are generally sold in bundles, 
 each containing 100. About 10,000.000 rattans aro annually imported Lito this 
 country, where they are chiefly valued for the hard coating of their stems, which 
 are split into strips, and manufactured into chair-bottoms and similar articles. 
 
 REAL, a Spanish coin in vellon = 2£d. ; also a money of account = 4|d. 
 
 REALGAR, a red sulphuret of arsenic ; brittle, inodorous, tasteless, and insol- 
 uble in water. Sp. gr. 3"34. It is found in Bohemia and Saxony, and is used as 
 a colouring substance, as well as in pyrotechnical compounds. 
 
 RE- ASSURANCE, a contract by which an insurer is protected by other under- 
 writers against the risks he has undertaken. 
 
 REBATE or RABAT, a per centage deduction from a stipulated price. 
 
 RECEIPT or ACQUITTANCE, a document acknowledging that he who signs it 
 has received a sum of money or any other subject of claim, and releasing the party 
 to whom the acquittance is granted. A receipt for money is strong evidence of its 
 having been paid, but is not incontrovertibly conclusive ; leaving it open to proof 
 by the granter that the money has not been received, or that he granted the re- 
 ceipt under misrepresentation. In England, an indorsement on a deed, of a re- 
 ceipt of a sum of money, is not conclusive, the deed itself in its contents not stating 
 such receipt : and it may be shown that in fact the money was not paid. The in- 
 dorsement, not being under seal, cannot amount to an estoppel, but can only be 
 evidence for the jury, capable of being rebutted by other circumstances in the case 
 (Philips on Evidence, 388-9). A general receipt or acquittance, " in full of all 
 demands," is held in England to discharge all debts, except such as are on specialty, 
 as bonds, bills, &c, which can only be met by some specialty of equal force, such as 
 a general release. Receipts must be duly stamped, otherwise, by 23 Geo. III. c. 
 49, § 14, they cannot be received in evidence ; and by 35 Geo. III. c. 55, § 8, all 
 and every person or persons who shall write or sign, or cause to be written or 
 signed, any receipt, &c, not duly stamped, forfeits £10, in case the sum discharged 
 does not amount to £100 ; and £20, in case it amount to £100 and upwards. By 
 § 9, any person stating a false sum in the receipt, dividing the sum into small por- 
 tions, or otherwise attempting evasion, is liable in a penalty of £50. By § 11, if a 
 receipt is brought to the Commissioners of Stamps, within fourteen days after its 
 date or issue, it may be stamped on payment of £5 over and above the duty ; if 
 beyond fourteen days, and within one calendar month, on payment of £10 over 
 and above the duty. By § 10, the commissioners are prohibited from stamping 
 receipts otherwise than on these terms. By 43 Geo. III. c. 126, § 5, any person 
 who has paid a sum of money which requires a receipt-stamp, may produce the 
 proper stamped paper, and may require the receiver to grant a receipt on it, and 
 pay the stamp-duty, which, if he refuse, he renders himself liable in a penalty of 
 £10. By 55 Geo. III. c. 184 (schedule), a receipt, which bears to be " in full of 
 all demands," is liable, whatever be the amount of the transactions settled, to a duty 
 of 10s. A receipt is available, if stamped with a higher rate of duty than that 
 assigned to it (43 Geo. III. c. 126, § 6). By 35 Geo. III. c. 55, § 7, " every memo- 
 randum or writing whatever, given to any person or persons for or upon the pay- 
 ment of money, which shall contain or express, or in any manner signify or denote 
 any acknowledgment of any part of any debt, claim, account, or demand being paid, 
 settled, received, accounted for, balanced, discharged, released, or satisfied, whether 
 the same shall or shall not be satisfied by or with the name or names of the person 
 or persons by or on whose behalf the same shall be given, is liable to stamp. ' An 
 
REE 
 
 572 
 
 REG 
 
 acknowledgment of having received the acceptance of a bill of exchange in payment 
 requires a receipt-stamp. But the expressions " Mr T. has left in my hands," and 
 " I have received a bill, &c, to recover," &c, not being given for or upon the pay- 
 ment of money, are held not to require stamps (Langdon v. Wilson, 2 Man. % B., 
 10). A receipt for a given sum requires only a stamp to meet that amount, though 
 it make mention of other sums. A written acknowledgment at the foot of an ac- 
 count, that such account " is correct," may be given in evidence without being 
 stamped. In 1853, by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 59, a uniform duty of Id. was imposed 
 on all receipts, and a like duty on drafts or orders payable to bearer on demand. 
 RE-EXCHANGE, the price of a new exchange due on a protested bill. 
 REGISTRATION— CLAUSE OF, in the law of Scotland, is a form of clause 
 applicable to obligatory deeds, authorizing them to be recorded in the books of a 
 court having jurisdiction to put the deed in force. When the deed is so registered 
 in terms of the clause, it may be enforced as if it were a decree of the court. 
 
 REGISTRY OF SHIPS. Before a ship is ready for sea, the property of it is 
 in the same situation as that of any other moveable ; but whenever it becomes 
 fitted for its proper purpose, all rights connected with it are, by a law extending over 
 the whole of the British dominions, held under a system of custom-house regis- 
 tration ; a compliance with the provisions of which is besides necessary to entitle 
 a vessel to the privileges of a British ship under the navigation laws. The registry 
 of ships was introduced into this country by the Navigation Act of 1660. [Navi- 
 gation Laws.] It was afterwards the subject of various acts ; and at length the 
 whole were consolidated and reduced to a system. The existing regulations are 
 embodied in a statute passed in 1833, of which the following is a very full abstract : — 
 Abridgment of an Act for the Registering of British Vessels, viz. 3 & 4 Wm. IV. 
 c. 55, with the Alterations of the Act 1 & 2 Vict. c. 113. 
 
 governor, or commander-in-chief of any place 
 abroad where vessels may be registered. 
 
 § 4. Vessels not duly registered, and not hav- 
 ing obtained certificate, exercising any of the 
 privileges of a British ship, are liable to for- 
 feiture. 
 
 § 5. No ship can be duly registered by virtue 
 of this act, except such as are wholly of the build 
 of the United Kingdom, or of the Isle of Man, 
 or of Guernsey or Jersey, or of some of the colo- 
 nies, plantations, or territories in Asia, Africa, 
 or America, or of Malta, Gibraltar, or Heligo- 
 land, or such as may have been condemned as 
 prizes, or for breach of the laws for theprevention 
 of the slave-trade, and which wholly belong to 
 British subjects. 
 
 § 6. Mediterranean Pass (now in disuse) may be 
 issued at Gibraltar and Malta for certain ships 
 belonging to these places. 
 
 § 7. No vessel can retain the privileges of a 
 British ship after having been repaired in a 
 foreign country, if the repairs exceed the sum 
 of 20s. for every ton of the burden, unless 
 they have been necessary by reason of extraordi- 
 nary damage sustained during absence from the 
 British dominions, to enable her to perform 
 her voyage, and to return to some place in the 
 said dominions ; and whenever any vessel so re- 
 paired in a foreign country arrives at any port in 
 the British dominions as a British-registered 
 ship or vessel, the master or other person having 
 the charge must, upon the first entry, report to 
 the collector and comptroller that the vessel has 
 been so repaired, under penalty of 20s. per ton ; 
 and if it be proved to the satisfaction of the Com- 
 missioners of the Customs that such vessel was 
 seaworthy at the time when she last departed 
 from any place in the British dominions, and 
 that no greater repairs have been done than were 
 necessary, they may, upon full consideration of cir- 
 cumstances, direct the collector and comptroller 
 to certify on the certificate that it has been proved 
 to the satisfaction of the commissioners that the 
 privileges have not been forfeited, notwithstand- 
 ing the repairs. 
 
 § 8. Any registered vessel, declared to be 
 stranded or unsea worthy, and incapable of being 
 recovered or repaired to the advantage of the 
 
 § 1. Act 6 Geo. IV. c. 110, and succeeding acts 
 consolidated. 
 
 Certificate and General Repulatioyis, § 2. No 
 vessel is entitled to any of the privileges of a 
 British-registered ship, unless it have been 
 registered in virtue of the act 4 Geo. IV. c. 
 41, or the act 6 Geo. IV. c. 110, or be regis- 
 tered in terms of this act, and a certificate of 
 registry be obtained in the statutory form. 
 
 § 3. The following are the persons authorized to 
 make registry and grant certificates for vessels in 
 their respective places : — The collector and comp- 
 troller of the customs in any port in the United 
 Kingdom, and in the Isle of Man, respectively : 
 The principal officers of the customs in Guern- 
 sey or Jersey, together with the governor, lieu- 
 tenant-governor, or commander-in-chief of those 
 islands, respectively : The collector and comptrol- 
 ler of any port in the British possessions in Asia, 
 Africa, and America, or the collector where there 
 is no comptroller : The collector of duties at any 
 port in the territories under the government of 
 the East India Company, within the limits of 
 their charter, or any other person of the rank in 
 their service of senior merchant, or of six years' 
 standing in their service, appointed to act in 
 execution of the act : The collector at any Bri- 
 tish possession within the said limits, together 
 with the governor, lieutenant-governor, or com- 
 mander-in-chief: The governor, lieutenant- 
 governor, or commander-in-chief of Malta, Gib- 
 raltar, Heligoland, and Cape of Good Hope, re- 
 spectively [repealed as to Cape of Good Hope, 
 a collector having been appointed, 1 & 2 Vict. c. 
 113, § 15]. No vessel can be registered at Heli- 
 goland, except it be wholly of the build of that 
 place ; and vessels, after having been registered 
 at Malta, Gibraltar, or Heligoland, cannot 
 be registered elsewhere. Vessels registered at 
 Malta, Gibraltar, or Heligoland, are not entitled 
 to the privileges of British ships in any trade 
 between the United Kingdom and any of the 
 British possessions in America. Wherever the act 
 makes provision as to collectors and comptrollers 
 of the customs, the provisions extend to all the 
 above-named officials in their respective circum- 
 ttyiom ; and all provisions as to commissioners 
 of the customs apply to the governor, lieutenant- 
 
REG 
 
 573 
 
 REG 
 
 owners, and for such reasons sold by order of 
 a court for the benefit of the owners or others, 
 is deemed a vessel lost or broken up within the 
 meaning of the act, and can never again be en- 
 titled to the privileges of a British-built ship. 
 
 § 9. No British ship becoming prize to an 
 enemy or sold to foreigners can again be entitled 
 to the privileges. 
 
 § 10. No registry can be made in any other 
 port or place than "that to which such vessel be- 
 longs (except of vessels condemned as prizes in 
 Guernsey, Jersey, or Man, which must be re- 
 gistered as pointed out below) ; and any registry 
 made contrary to these provisions is null, unless 
 the proper officers be specially authorized to 
 make such registry in any other port by order of 
 the commissioners. At every port of registry a 
 book must be kept by the collector and comptrol- 
 ler, in which all the* particulars contained in the 
 form of the certificate must be entered ; and 
 every registry must be numbered in progression, 
 beginning at the commencement of each year ; 
 and the collector and comptroller must, within one 
 month, transmit to the commissioners a true 
 copy, with the number of certificates granted. 
 
 I 11. Every vessel is deemed to belong to some 
 port at or near which some, or one, of the owners, 
 who make and subscribe the declaration required 
 before registry, resides, and when such owner 
 or owners transfer all his or their shares, the ves- 
 sel must be registered de novo before sailing from 
 the port to which she then belongs, or from any 
 other port in the same part of the United King- 
 dom, or the same colony, plantation, island, or 
 territory ; but if the owner or owners cannot in 
 sufficient time comply with these requisites, so 
 that registry may be made before it be necessary 
 to sail, the collector and comptroller of the port 
 where the vessel may then be, may certify upon 
 the back of the existing certificate, that the same 
 is to remain in force for the voyage. In the case 
 of a vessel built in any of the foreign possessions 
 of the crown for owners residing in the United 
 Kingdom, if the master or the agent for the 
 owners produce to the collector and comptroller of 
 the port at or near to which the vessel was built, 
 the certificate of the builder required by the act, 
 and subscribe a declaration of the names and 
 descriptions of the principal owners, bearing that 
 she is the identical vessel mentioned in such cer- 
 tificate, and that no foreigner, to the best of his 
 knowledge and belief, his auy interest therein, 
 the collector and comptroller shall cause the ves- 
 sel to be surveyed and measured, and give the 
 master a certificate under their hands and seals, 
 stating when, where, and by whom the vessel 
 v.us built, the description, tonnage, &c, which 
 ate has the force of a certificate of registry 
 for two years, unless the ship sooner arrive in 
 the United Kingdom. 
 
 $ 12. No person who has taken the oath of al- 
 e to a foreign state, except under the terms 
 of some capitulation, unless he afterwards become 
 a denizen or naturalized subject of the United 
 Kingdom, nor any person usually residing in any 
 country not under the dominion of the British 
 crown, unless he be a member of some British 
 factory, or agent for or partner in any house or 
 copartnership actually carrying on trade in Great 
 Britain or Ireland, is entitled to be the owner, in 
 whole or in part, directly or indirectly, of any 
 vessel registered by virtue of this act. 
 
 On-ner'g Declaration, § 1& Before registry and 
 certificate, a declaration, describing the ship, 
 owners, and master, and that no part of the ves- 
 sel belongs to foreigners, must be made and 
 subscribed (according to a form given in the 
 act) before the proper officer— by the owner, if 
 sel is owned by one person; or in case there 
 be two joint-owners, by both, if both be resident 
 within twenty miles of the placewhere the registry 
 
 is required, or by one if one or both be resident at 
 a greater distance ; or if the number exceed two, 
 then bythe greater part of the number if the greater 
 number reside within twenty miles ; but the num- 
 ber is not in any case to exceed three, unless a 
 greater numberbe desirous to join in subscribing 
 the declaration, and one is sufficient if all, or all 
 except one, be resident at a greater distance 
 than twenty miles. 
 
 § 1 4. In case the required number of owners do 
 not personally attend to subscribe the declaration, 
 such as personally attend must further declare 
 that the part-owners then absent are not resident 
 within twenty miles of the place, and have not, 
 to the best of their knowledge or belief, wilfully 
 absented themselves to avoid making the declara- 
 tion, or are prevented by illness from attending. 
 
 Survey and Measurement, § 15. To enable a 
 proper certificate to be granted, it is provided 
 that, previous to the registering, some one or 
 more persons appointed bythe commissioners are 
 to go on board , and strictly and accuratelyexamine 
 and admeasure the vessel as to every particular 
 contained in the form of the certificate, in the 
 presence of the master, or any other person ap- 
 pointed on the part of the owners, or in their 
 absence by the master ; and they must deliver a 
 true account in writing of all such particulars of 
 the build, description, and admeasurement, as 
 are specified in the form of the certificate, to the 
 collector and comptroller ; and the person attend- 
 ing on the part of the owners is required to sign 
 his name to the certificate, in testimony of its 
 truth, if he agree with the particulars thereof. 
 
 §§ 16, 17, and 18, containing provisions for 
 measurement, are repealed by 5 <& 6 Wm. IV. 
 c 56 ; for which see Tonnage. 
 
 § 19. Whenever the tonnage is ascertained ac- 
 cording to the prescribed rules (except in the 
 case of vessels admeasured afloat), the same is 
 ever after deemed the tonnage, and must be re- 
 peated in every registry, unless any alteration be 
 made in the form and burden, or it be discovered 
 that the tonnage had been erroneously taken. 
 
 Bond, § 20. At the obtaining of the certificate, 
 security by bond must be given ( by the master and 
 such of the owners as personally attend, as above) 
 to the satisfaction of the registering officers, in the 
 penalties following, viz. If the vessel be decked 
 or be above the burden of 15 and not exceeding 50 
 tons, in £100 ; if exceeding 50 and not exceeding 
 100 tons, in £300 ; if exceeding 100 and not ex- 
 ceeding 200 tons, in £500 ; if exceeding 200 and 
 not exceeding 300 tons, in £800 ; and if exceeding 
 300 tons, then in the penalty of £1000. The 
 conditions of every such bond are as follows : — 
 that the certificate shall not be sold, lent, or 
 otherwise disposed of to any person, but shall 
 be solely made use of for the service of the ves- 
 sel for which it is granted ; and that in case she 
 be lost, taken, burnt, or broken up, or other- 
 wise prevented from returning to the port to 
 which she belongs, or shall on any account have 
 lost her privileges, or shall have been seized and 
 condemned for illicit trading, or shall have been 
 taken in execution for debt and sold by process 
 of law, or shall have been sold to the crown, or 
 shall under any circumstances have been regis- 
 tered de novo, the certificate, if preserved, shall 
 be delivered up, within one month after the ar- 
 rival of the master in any place in the British do- 
 minions, to the collector and comptroller of some 
 port in Great Britain, or of the Isle of Man, or 
 of the British plantations, or to the governor, 
 lieutenant-governor, or commander-in-chief for 
 the time being of Guernsey or Jersey ; and that 
 if any foreigner, orany personfor the use and bene- 
 fit of a foreigner, purchase or otherwise become 
 entitled to any interest in the vessel, and the same 
 shall be within the limits of any port of the 
 British dominions, as above, the certificate shall, 
 
REG 
 
 r>74 
 
 REG 
 
 within seven days after the transfer, be delivered 
 up to the persons authorized to make registry and 
 grant certificate of registry at the place ; and 
 that if the vessel be in any foreign port when 
 such transfer takes place, the certificate shall be 
 delivered to the nearest British consul or other 
 chief British officer, or that if the vessel be at 
 sea when such transfer takes place, the certificate 
 shall be delivered to the nearest British consul 
 or other chief British officer at the first foreign 
 port at which he arrives, immediately on arrival, 
 or, if he arrive at any port of the British domin- 
 ions, to the proper officer, within fourteen days 
 after arrival. If it happen that at the time of 
 registry the vessel be at any other port than that 
 to which she belongs, so that the master cannot 
 attend to join with the owners in the bond, he 
 may give a separate bond at the port where the 
 vessel may then be, to be transmitted to the port 
 of registration. 
 
 § 21. When the master is changed, the master 
 or owner must deliver the certificate to the 
 proper officers, at the port where the change 
 takes place, who indorse a memorandum of the 
 change, and give notice to the proper officer of 
 the place of registration, who makes a memor- 
 andum in the book of registers, and gives notice 
 thereof to the commissioners. The new master 
 must give bond as above, before his name is in- 
 dorsed. 
 
 § 22. The bonds are liable to the same stamp 
 as bonds given for the duties of customs. 
 
 § 23. Any person detaining the certificate con- 
 trary to the conditions of the bond, is liable to 
 the penalties in the bond. 
 
 Name of Vessel, § 24. No name can be given 
 to a vessel other than that by which she was first 
 registered ; and before a vessel, after registry, be- 
 gins to take in any cargo, the name, as registered, 
 and her port, must be painted, in white or yellow 
 letters, of a length of not less than four inches, 
 upon a black ground, on some conspicuous part 
 of the stern, in a distinct and legible manner, 
 and must be so kept and preserved ; and if the 
 owner or master, or other person in charge, 
 permit the vessel to begin to take in any cargo 
 before the name has been so painted, or wilfully 
 alter, erase, obliterate, or conceal, or permit the 
 same to be done (unless in the case of square- 
 rigged vessels in time of war), or in any docu- 
 ment describe such vessel by any other than the 
 registered name, or describe, or permit the vessel 
 to be described, by any other name to any re- 
 venue officer, he forfeits £100. 
 
 Builder's Certificate, § 25. Every person ap- 
 plying for a certificate is required to produce a 
 full account, under the baud of the builder, of 
 the proper denomination, and of the time when 
 and the place where the vessel was built, and an 
 exact account of the tonnage, together with the 
 name of the first purchaser (which account the 
 builder is required to give under his hand on 
 demand), and to subscribe a declaration that 
 the vessel for which the certificate is required is 
 the same with that described by the builder. 
 [By l & 2 Vict. c. 113, § 11, where the builder 
 cannot be found, the commissioners may take 
 any other satisfactory evidence.] 
 
 Lost Certificate, § 26. If the certificate be lost 
 or mislaid, and proof thereof be made to the 
 satisfaction of the commissioners, they may per- 
 mit the vessel to be registered de novo, and a 
 certificate to be granted ; provided that, if the 
 vessel be far distant from the port to which she 
 belongs, or from the absence of the owners, or 
 any other impediment, registry cannot be made 
 in sufficient time, the commissioners may grant 
 a license for present use, which, for the time and 
 to the extent specified, will be of the same force 
 as a certificate. Before registry de novo is made, 
 the owners and master must give bond to the 
 
 commissioners in such sum as they may require, 
 that if the certificate be afterwards found, it 
 shall be delivered to the proper officers, and that 
 no illegal use has been or shall be made thereof 
 with his or their privity. Before such license is 
 granted, the master must subscribe a declaration 
 that the vessel has been registered, naming the 
 port and the time, and all the particulars in the 
 certificate, to the best of his knowledge and be- 
 lief, and must give such bond and with the same 
 condition as is before mentioned. Before a li- 
 cense is granted, the vessel must be surveyed ; 
 and the certificate of survey must be preserved by 
 the collector and comptroller of the port to which 
 she belongs ; and in virtue of it the commission- 
 ers may permit the vessel to be registered after 
 her departure, whenever the owners personally 
 attend to subscribe the declaration, and comply 
 with the other requisites of the act, except so 
 far as relates to the bond by the master. The 
 certificate of registry may then be transmitted to 
 the collector and comptroller of any other port, 
 to be given to the master on his giving bond and 
 delivering up the license. 
 
 Detaining Certificate, § 27. When a person 
 keeps a ship's certificate in his possession con- 
 trary to this act, and refuses to deliver it up to 
 the proper officers of the customs, or the master 
 or owners, complaint may be made on oath to 
 any justice residing near the place in Great 
 Britain or Ireland, or to any member of the 
 supreme court of justice or any justice of 
 the peace in any of the possessions abroad, 
 who must grant warrant to cause the person 
 complained against to be brought before him ; 
 and if it appear, on examination or otherwise, 
 that the certificate is not lost or mislaid, but is 
 wilfully detained, such person shall forfeit £100, 
 and on failure of payment must be committed 
 for not less than three nor more than twelve 
 months. On the magistrate certifying the con- 
 viction, registry and certificate may be granted 
 of new, there being indorsed on the latter the 
 ground upon which the ship or vessel was so re- 
 gistered de novo. If the person detaining the 
 certificate have absconded, and proof thereof be 
 made to the satisfaction of the commissioners, 
 they may permit the vessel to be registered de 
 novo, or in their discretion to grant a license as 
 above. 
 
 Alteration on Ship, § 28. If any ship, regis- 
 tered pursuant to the act, be altered so as not to 
 correspond with all the particulars in the certi- 
 ficate, she must be registered de novo, as soon 
 as she returns to the port to which she belongs, 
 or to any other port in the same part of the 
 United Kingdom, or in the same colony, planta- 
 tion, island, or territory ; on failure, the vessel 
 to be, to all intents and purposes, considered as 
 not duly registered. 
 
 Condemned Vessels, § 29. The owners of ves- 
 sels condemned as lawful prize in any court of 
 admiralty, or condemned for breach of the laws 
 for the prevention of the slave-trade, must, for 
 the purpose of registering, produce to the collec- 
 tor and comptroller a certificate of condemnation , 
 and a true account in writing of all the particu- 
 lars contained in the certificate, as above set 
 forth, to be made and subscribed by skilful per- 
 sons appointed by the court to survey the vessel, 
 and must subscribe a declaration before the col- 
 lector and comptroller, that the vessel is the same 
 which is mentioned in the certificate of the judge. 
 
 § 30. Condemned vessels cannot be registered 
 in Guernsey, Jersey, or Man, and must be regis- 
 tered at Southampton, Weymouth, Exeter, Ply- 
 mouth, Falmouth, Liverpool, or Whitehaven. 
 
 Transfers and Shares, § 31. As between Bri- 
 tish subjects, property in registered ships can 
 only be transferred by bill of sale or other instru- 
 ment in writing, containing a recital of the cer- 
 
REG 
 
 o/o 
 
 REG 
 
 tificate, or the principal contents thereof, and a 
 transfer of any other kind is not valid or effec- 
 tual for any purpose whatever ; but no bill of 
 sale is deemed void by reason of any error in the 
 recital, or by the recital of any former certificate 
 instead of the existingone, provided the identity 
 of the vessel be effectually proved thereby. 
 
 § 32. The property in every vessel, of which 
 there are more owners than one, is considered as 
 divided into 64 shares, and the proportion held 
 by each must be described as being a certain 
 number of 64th parts or shares ; and no person is 
 entitled to be registered as an owner in respect of 
 any proportion which is not a 64th part or share ; 
 and, upon the first registry of any vessel, the 
 owners subscribing the declaration before regis- 
 try must declare the number of shares held by 
 each, and the same shall be so registered accord- 
 ingly. If it at any time happen that the property 
 of any owner cannot be reduced into any number 
 of 64th shares, the owners of fractional parts may 
 transfer them one to another, or jointly to any 
 new owner, by memorandum upon their respec- 
 tive bills of sale, or by fresh bill of sale, without 
 such transfer being liable to stamp-duty. The 
 right of any owner to any fractional part is not 
 to be affected by reason of it not having been 
 registered. Any number of owners, named and 
 described in the registry, being partners in any 
 trading-house, may hold any vessel, or any share 
 or shares of any vessel, in the name of the co- 
 partnership,asjoint-owners,without distinguish- 
 ing the proportionate interest of each ; and the 
 property so held is in every respect partnership 
 property. 
 
 § 33. No more than thirty-two persons are en- 
 titled to be owners at the same time of any ves- 
 sel, as tenants in common, or to be registered 
 as such ; but this does not affect the equitable 
 title of minors, heirs, legatees, creditors, or 
 others, exceeding that number, duly represented 
 by or holding from any of the persons within the 
 said number, registered as legal owners ; and if 
 it be proved to the satisfaction of the commis- 
 sioners that any number of persons have asso- 
 ciated themselves as a joint-stock company, for 
 the purpose of owning as joint-property, and 
 that they have appointed any number, not less 
 than three, of their members to be trustees of 
 such property, the trustees, or any three of 
 them, with permission of the commissioners, 
 may subscribe the declaration before registry, 
 instead of the names and descriptions of the other 
 owners, stating those of the company. 
 
 § 34. No bill of sale or other instrument is 
 effectual to affect any vessel, until produced to 
 the collector and comptroller of the port of regis- 
 try, or of any other port at which she is about 
 to be registered de novo, nor until they have en- 
 tered in the book of the last registry, in the one 
 case, or in the book of registry de novo, after all 
 the requisites for such registry de novo shall have 
 been duly complied with, in the other case, the 
 name, residence, and description of the vender or 
 mortgager, the number of shares transferred, the 
 name, residence, and description of the purchaser 
 or mortgagee, and the date of the document, and 
 of the production of it ; and further, if the vessel 
 is not about to be registered de novo, the collec- 
 tor and comptroller of the port of registry must 
 indorse the particulars on the certificate when 
 produced to them in the following form, viz. : — 
 " Custom-house [port and date; name, resi- 
 dence, and description of vender or mortgager] 
 has transferred by [bill of sale or other instru- 
 ment] dated [date, number of shares] to [name, 
 residence, and description of purchaser or mort- 
 gagee.] 
 
 A B, Collector. 
 CD, Comptroller." 
 If desired so to do, and if the instrument be pro- 
 
 duced for that purpose, the collector and comp- 
 tr oiler must certify, by indorsement thereon, 
 that the particulars have been entered and in- 
 dorsed as above. 
 
 § 35. So soon as the particulars are entered in 
 the registry, the property is transferred as against 
 all persons, and to all intents and purposes, ex- 
 cept such subsequent purchasers and mortgagees 
 as first procure the indorsement to be made upon 
 the certificate in manner after mentioned. 
 
 § 36. After the particulars have been so en- 
 tered , t h e collector and comptroller shall not enter 
 the particulars of any other transfer by the same 
 vender or mortgager of the same vessel or share, 
 to any other person, unless thirty days elapse 
 from the former entry ; or in case the vessel was 
 absent from her port at the time of the former en- 
 try, unless thirty days have elapsed from the day 
 of her arrival at her port. In case the particulars 
 of two or more bills of sale, &c, have been en- 
 tered, a similar period must follow the last entry, 
 or the arrival, before another entry; and in every 
 case where there at any time happen to be two 
 or more transfers by the same owner of the same 
 property in any vessel entered, the collector and 
 comptroller must indorse upon the certificate the 
 particulars of that bill of sale, &c, under which 
 the person claims who shall produce the certi- 
 ficate for that purpose within thirty days after 
 the entry of his bill of sale, or within thirty days 
 after the return of the vessel to her port, in case of 
 her absence ; and in case no person produces the 
 certificate within the period, the collector and 
 comptroller must indorse to such person as may 
 first produce the certificate for that purpose, it 
 being the intent of the act that the several pur- 
 chasers and mortgagees have priority, not ac- 
 cording to the entries of the bills of sale, &c, 
 but according to the time of the indorsement on 
 the certificate. Provided that, if the certificate 
 be lost, mislaid, or detained, so that the indorse- 
 ment cannot in due time be made, and proof 
 thereof be made by the purchaser or mortgagee, 
 or his known agent, to the satisfaction of the 
 commissioners, they may grant such further time 
 as may appear necessary for its recovery, or for 
 registry de novo, and thereupon make a memo- 
 randum in the book of registers of the further 
 time so granted, and during such time no other 
 bill of sale shall be entered for the transfer of the 
 same vessel, or the same share, or for giving the 
 same security. 
 
 § 37. If the certificate of registry be produced 
 to the collector and comptroller of any port where 
 the vessel may be, together with a bill of sale, 
 containing a notification of record, by the col- 
 lector and comptroller of the port to which the 
 vessel belongs, they may indorse on it the trans- 
 fer in the bill, and the collector and comptroller 
 of the port to which the vessel belongs, receiving 
 notice, shall record the same, inserting the name 
 of the port at which the indorsement was made. 
 But the collector and comptroller so applied to 
 must first give notice to those of the port to 
 which the vessel belongs, who must give them in- 
 formation, whether any and what other bills of 
 sale have been recorded ; and the collector and 
 comptroller, on receiving such information, pro- 
 ceed as they would do if the port were that to 
 which the vessel belongs. 
 
 § 38. If it become necessary to register any 
 vessel de novo, and any share have been sold 
 since she was last registered, without the transfer 
 being recorded and indorsed, the bill of sale must 
 be produced to the collector and comptroller, 
 who are to make registry, otherwise the sale can- 
 not be noticed in such registry de novo; but, 
 upon the future production of the bill of sale, 
 and the existing certificate, the transfer may be 
 recorded and indorsed as well after registry de 
 novo as before. 
 
REG 
 
 576 
 
 REV 
 
 § 39. If upon any change of property in a vessel 
 tlie owners desire to have her registered de novo, 
 although not required by the act, and the proper 
 number attend at the custom-house at the port 
 to which she belongs, the collector and comptrol- 
 ler may make such registry, and grant certificate 
 under the above regulations. 
 
 § 40. Every collector and comptroller is bound, 
 upon reasonable request byanyperson or persons, 
 to produce for inspection any oath, the declara- 
 tion, or register, required by the act relative to 
 anyvessel, and permit extracts to be taken, which, 
 on being verified, are evidence in courts of justice, 
 without requiring production of the originals or 
 the attendance of officials. 
 
 § 41. If the property in a vessel, belonging to 
 any person out of the kingdom, be sold in his 
 absence by his known agent or correspondent, 
 under his directions expressed or implied, and 
 acting for his interest, the agent executing a 
 bill of sale, without having received a legal 
 power to do so, the commissioners, upon ap- 
 plication made to them r and proof of the 
 fair dealings of the parties, may permit the 
 transfer to be registered, or to be recorded and 
 indorsed, as the case may be, as if legal power 
 had been produced ; and if it happen that a bill 
 of sale cannot be produced, or, by reason of 
 distance of time, or the absence or death of par- 
 ties, it cannot be proved that a bill of sale had 
 been executed, and registry de novo shall have 
 become necessary, the commissioners, upon proof 
 of the fair dealings of the parties, may permit 
 the vessel to be registered de novo, as if a bill of 
 sale had been produced. In any of these cases, 
 however, sufficient security must be given to 
 produce a legal power or bill of sale within a 
 reasonable time, or to abide the future claims of 
 the absent owner and his representatives, and at 
 the future request of the party whose property 
 has been so transferred, the bond must be avail- 
 able for the protection of his interest, in ad- 
 dition to any right which he may have against 
 the vessel or the parties. 
 
 § 42. When any transfer is made only as a se- 
 curity, either by way of mortgage or of assign- 
 ment to trustees for the purpose of sale for pay- 
 ment of a debt, the collector and comptroller bf 
 the port of registry must, in the entry, and in 
 the indorsement on the certificate, express that 
 
 mortgage, and the holders are not to be deemed 
 to be the owners, nor the persons making the 
 transfer to be deemed to ha ve ceased to be owners, 
 any more than if no such transfer had been made, 
 except so far as may be necessary for the purpose 
 of rendering the property available by sale or 
 otherwise for the payment of the debt. 
 
 § 43. When any transfer in security has been 
 duly registered according to the provisions of the 
 act, the interest of the mortgagee or other as- 
 signee cannot be affected by any act of bank- 
 ruptcy committed by the mortgager or assigner, 
 after the time of registration, notwithstanding 
 such mortgager or assigner, at the time of be- 
 coming bankrupt, has the vessel or share in his 
 possession, and is reputed owner. 
 
 §44. Every governor, lieutenant-governor, or 
 commander-in-chief of any of the British posses- 
 sions abroad, is required, if a suit be com- 
 menced in any court where he governs, touching 
 the force and effect of any register, upon repre- 
 sentation, to cause all proceedings to be stayed, 
 if ho shall see just cause so to do, until the de- 
 cision of the king in council be known and certi- 
 fied to him ; and such governor is required to 
 transmit to one of the secretaries of state an 
 authenticated copy of the proceedings, with his 
 reasons for causing them to be stayed, and such 
 documents (properiy verified) as he may judge 
 necessary for the information of his majesty. 
 
 § 45. Persons making declarations, or coun- 
 terfeiting, erasing, altering, or falsifying any 
 writings required by the act, or wilfully using 
 falsified documents, or wilfully granting any cer- 
 tificate or other instrument, knowing it to be 
 false, forfeit £100. 
 
 § 4G. Penalties and Forfeitures are recovered 
 and disposed of in the same manner as those in- 
 curred by the Custom-House Regulations. 
 
 [By 1 & 2 Vict. c. 113, § 12-14, if a British 
 vessel be lost, or by change of property, &c, 
 ceases to be a British vessel, the owners must im- 
 mediately, on their becoming acquainted there- 
 with, give notice to the collector and comptroller 
 at the port of registry. Where a British vessel has 
 been absent from her port for three years, they 
 must give notice stating the cause bf absence, 
 and that she has not forfeited her privileges. 
 Failure to comply, or falsehood, renders the 
 party liable to a penalty of £5.] 
 
 the transfer was made only in security by way of 
 
 REGRATING, buying and selling again commodities in the same market. 
 
 RENTE, in the French funds, is a term synonymous with annuity. 
 
 RESERVE, in Banking, the portion of capital kept to meet current demands. 
 
 RESINS, a class of inflammable substances, of vegetable origin, of which common 
 rosin furnishes an example. They are solid, brittle, of a certain degree of trans- 
 parency, and a colour commonly inclining to yellow. When pure, they are soluble 
 in alcohol and in oils, but not in water, in which respect they differ from gums. 
 They are more or less acted upon by the alkalies. The most important are Rosin, 
 Mastich, Sandarach, Elemi, Tacamahac, Animi, Labdanum, Copal, and Lac, which 
 are described under their respective heads. [Gums.] 
 
 RESPONDENTIA is a contract by which money is raised on the chance of the 
 safe arrival of a ship's cargo, in the same manner as on the safe arrival of the 
 vessel, in Bottomry. It is to be used in the same emergencies, and gives the credi- 
 tor the same recourse against the borrower. There is no hypothec over the cargo, 
 as there is over the vessel in the case of Bottomry, and hence the security is 
 merely personal. [Bottomry.] 
 
 REST, a term sometimes used in Banking to denote the undivided profits remain- 
 ing at the period of balancing. It also expresses the period of balancing. 
 
 REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE, PUBLIC. The public revenue in this 
 country, as in most other parts of Europe, originally consisted of the rents of crown 
 lands, and of sums levied from the subject simply by the exercise of the royal 
 prerogative. After the Conquest, the practice was introduced of the barons and 
 military tenants of the crown, assembled in " Great Council," making grants in 
 pressing emergencies, which were raised by taxes ; and this practice was extended 
 
REV 577 REV 
 
 when representatives of the commons were admitted to parliament in the 13th 
 century ; more especially after the crown estates became reduced bv alienations. 
 But still, down to the end of the reign of Elizabeth, by far the larger portion of the 
 revenues was derived from sources over which parliament retained no control. Thus, 
 the duties of tonnage and poundage [Customs] were usually conferred upon each 
 sovereign at his accession for life. And, from these and other sources equally per- 
 manent and independent, Elizabeth, although the grants to her averaged not more 
 than £70,000 a-year, enjoyed a revenue of about £500,000 ; which was also expended 
 without any check from either house. 
 
 Nearly the same system was continued under James I. But a change took place 
 in the reign of Charles I., whose lofty opinion of the prerogative led him, though 
 refused the duties of tonnage and poundage at his accession, to levy these, a new 
 tax called ship-money, and other exactions, without the sanction of the legislature. 
 The differences between the king and parliament ended in a rupture in 1641, before 
 which the public revenue amounted to nearly £900,000. A period of transition 
 then occurred from the ancient to the modern system. During the Commonwealth, 
 the excise and post-office were established, and other financial innovations intro- 
 duced ; most of which were continued after the restoration of Charles II., in whose 
 reign stamp-duties were first levied. A return was made to absolute principles 
 during the last years of Charles ; and still more after the accession of James II. 
 But an entire revolution took place on the abdication of the latter, and the succession 
 of William and Mary in 1688, when the exaction of money from the subject by the 
 exercise of the prerogative ceased ; aud all taxes were afterwards imposed by the 
 authority of parliament. The customs, or the duties upon exports and imports, 
 and the excise-duties— those upon the manufacture or consumption of commodities 
 — now became the great sources of the public revenue. Considerable additions 
 to these branches were made during King William's reign ; and the system of 
 borrowing and funding money was introduced. In 1701, the year preceding his 
 death, the revenue amounted to £3,895,205 ; of which the customs produced 
 £1,539,100 ; the excise, £986,004 ; and the land-tax, of 2s. per pound, £989,965. 
 The total amount raised by taxes and loans during his reign (1689-1702), of which 
 9 were years of war, was about £72,000,000. 
 
 In the l'2h years of Anne (1702-1714), of which 11 were years of war, the total 
 revenue raised by taxation was about £62,000,000, and by loans nearly £60,000,000. 
 In the 13 vears' reign of George I. (1714-1727), the amount raised by taxes was 
 £77,000,000, and by loans nearly £3,000,000 ; but again £5,000,000 of debt were 
 paid off. In 1727, when this king died, the produce of the taxes was £6,762,643 ; 
 of which the customs yielded £1,530,361; the excise, £1,927,354; and the land-tax, 
 at 4s. a-pound, £2,000,000. In the 33 years' reign of George II. (1727-17(0), of 
 which 15 were years of war, the amount raised by taxes was £217,000,000, and by 
 loans about £60,000,000. In the latter part of this reign the revenue increased 
 considerably, principally through the extension of the excise system ; and in 1759 
 it amounted to £8,523,540 ; of which £1,985,376 were derived from customs, and 
 £3,887,349 from the excise. 
 
 The 59 years' reign of George III. (1760-1820), which witnessed so wonderful 
 an augmentation both of the general wealth and of the government expenditure, 
 commenced with a revenue from taxation of only £8,800,000. Nor, at the com- 
 mencement of the American war, 1779, was it much beyond £10,000,000. At the 
 peace of Versailles, 1783, it was nearly £12,000,000. In the 10 years of peace that 
 followed, it made a very considerable advance, having, in 1793, when the war with 
 France broke out, risen to nearly £20,000,000. But the extraordinary increase 
 began from 1797, the year of the suspension of cash pavments by the bank, when 
 the produce was about £23,000,000. Inl798, the year following, it rose to£31,000,000 ; 
 and it went on regularly advancing till 1815, the la?t year of the war, when the 
 amount of revenue, the produce of taxation, paid into the Exchequer, reached, 
 after paying the expenses of collection, the enormous sum of £72,210,512. The 
 loans raised in this eventful period were also on a gigantic scale : the amount 
 derived from this source, including Exchequer bills, beyond the amount redeemed, 
 in the 23 years from 1793 to 1815 inclusive, having been £432,707,263; and the 
 aggregate amount of revenue and loans, raised for public uses in the same period, 
 £1,498,461,819. The expenditure, including interest upon the debt, during the 10 
 years from 1806 to 1815 inclusive, averaged £84,067,761 per annum. In 1814, the 
 current expenditure amounted to £76,780,895 ; and the interest upon the debt to 
 £30,051,365, making together, £106,832,260, the largest annnal outlay ever made ; 
 though that of the previous year, 1813, was £105,943,727, a:.d of the year subse- 
 
 2o 
 
REV 
 
 578 
 
 REV 
 
 quent, 1815, £92,280,180. Nothing at all approaching to these financial operations 
 occurs in the history of the world. (Porter's Progress of the Nation, § 4, c. 2). 
 
 A considerable reduction of taxation took place after the return of peace. In 
 1816, the reductions amounted to £17,547,365 ; mainly consisting of the property- 
 tax, £14,318,573, and the war malt-duty, £2,792,000. Some addition was made 
 to the taxes in 1819. But important abatements were again made in 1822, and 
 still more in 1823, when the salt-duty and assessed taxes were reduced to the extent 
 of £4,185,735. In 1824 and 1825, the customs on coals, silk, wine, tobacco, cofft-e, 
 and a variety of other articles, were abated, and the remainder of the excise on salt ; 
 the whole amounting to £5,500,000. In 1826, the duties on British spirits and 
 other articles were reduced not less than £1,967,215. In 1830, the beer-duty was 
 repealed, £3,055,000 ; also duties on sugar, hides, and skins. In 1831, the customs 
 on sea-borne coals, printed cottons, and other articles, £1,588,052. In 1832, the excise 
 on candles, £476,500 ; in 1833, the soap-duty and various assessed taxes, £ 1 ,500,000 ; 
 in 1834, the duties on windows, Irish spirits, &c, £2,064,516 ; and in 1836, duties 
 on paper, spirit licenses, &c, amounting to £1,021,786. No other important abate- 
 ment took place until the introduction of the uniform penny postage in 1840 ; in 
 which year, however, the loss of income from this source, and the increased expendi- 
 ture consequent on the military operations in Canada, China, and elsewhere, led to the 
 addition (with certain exceptions) of 5 per cent, to the customs and excise duties, 
 and of 10 per cent, on the assessed taxes. The total amount of taxes repealed, ex- 
 pired, or reduced, in the 27 years from 1815 to 1841 inclusive, was about £45,000,000; 
 and of taxes imposed, £8,000,000 : the excess of the former above the latter being 
 thus £37,000,000. 
 
 The following table shows the revenue and expenditure (including charges of 
 collection), the difference between them, and the taxes imposed and reduced in each 
 of the 20 years to 1841 ; to which is added, for comparison, the average price of 
 wheat according to the London Gazette, and the declared value of the exports of the 
 produce and manufactures of the United Kingdom. 
 
 
 
 
 Excess of 
 
 Tax 
 
 es 
 
 , 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 Imposed. 
 
 Repealed. 
 
 per Qt. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 1 
 
 £ 
 
 8. d. 
 
 £ 
 
 1822 
 
 59,823,724 
 
 55,079,316 
 
 4,744,408 
 
 
 
 
 2,139,101 
 
 43 3 
 
 36,968,964 
 
 1823 
 
 58,498, 15754,197,411 
 
 4,300,746 
 
 
 18,596 
 
 4,185,735 
 
 51 9 
 
 35,458,048 
 
 1824 
 
 59,829,691 J55,941, 519 
 
 3,888,172 
 
 
 49,605 
 
 1,801,333 
 
 62 
 
 40,396,30<; 
 
 1825 
 
 57,945,105 54,895,949 
 
 3,049,156 
 
 
 48,100 
 
 3,676,239 
 
 66 6 
 
 38,877,388 
 
 1826 
 
 55,628,793 56,274,712 
 
 
 645,919 
 
 188,725 
 
 1,967,215 
 
 56 11 
 
 31,536,723 
 
 1827 
 
 55,510,145 56,336,819 
 
 
 826,674 
 
 21 ,402 
 
 84,038 
 
 56 9 
 
 37,181,335 
 
 1828 
 
 57,391. 235|54,144,241 
 
 3,246*,994 
 
 
 1,966 
 
 51,998 
 
 60 5 
 
 36,812,756 
 
 1829 
 
 55,934,963 54,223,412 
 
 1,711,551 
 
 
 .... 
 
 126,406 
 
 66 3 
 
 35,842,623 
 
 1830 
 
 54,932,290 
 
 52,018,617 
 
 2,913,673 
 
 
 696,004 
 
 4,093.955 
 
 64 3 
 
 38,271,597 
 
 1831 
 
 51,012,608 
 
 51,711,465 
 
 
 698J857 
 
 627,586 
 
 1,623,536 
 
 66 4 
 
 37,164,372 
 
 1832 
 
 51,523,087 
 
 50,908,328 
 
 614^759 
 
 
 44,526 ( 
 
 747,264 
 
 58 8 
 
 36,450.594 
 
 1833 
 
 50,679,397 
 
 49,166,314 
 
 1,513,083 
 
 
 .... 
 
 1,526,914 
 
 52 11 
 
 39,667,347 
 
 1834 
 
 50,831,271 
 
 49,223,116 
 
 1,608,155 
 
 
 198,394 
 
 2,064,516 
 
 46 2 
 
 41,649,191 
 
 1835 
 
 50,408,579 
 
 48,787,638 
 
 1,620,941 
 
 .... 
 
 5,575 
 
 165,877 
 
 39 4 
 
 47,372,2?) 
 
 1836 
 
 52,949,397 
 
 50,819,305 
 
 2,130,092 
 
 
 4,521 
 
 1,021,786 
 
 48 6 
 
 53,368,571 
 
 1837 
 
 50,663,353 
 
 51,319,113 
 
 
 655J760 
 
 100! 
 
 234 
 
 55 10 
 
 42,070,744 
 
 1838 
 
 51,375,520 
 
 51,720,748 
 
 
 345,228 
 
 1,733 
 
 289 
 
 64 7 
 
 50,060,970 
 
 1839 
 
 51,927,495 
 
 53,440,287 
 
 
 1,512,792 
 
 .... | 
 
 63,258 
 
 70 9 
 
 53,233,580 
 
 1840 
 
 51,850,083 
 
 53,444,053 .... 
 
 1,593,970 
 
 2,155,673 
 
 1,218,959 
 
 66 4 
 
 51,406,430 
 
 1841 
 
 52,3(33,949 
 
 .54,465,318! .... 
 
 2,101,369 
 
 .... 1 
 
 27,170 
 
 64 3 
 
 51,634,623 
 
 The deficiency for 1842 was computed by Sir Robert Peel, in March of that year, 
 at £2,570,000 ; to meet which he proposed a tax of 7d. per £1 on all incomes in 
 Britain exceeding £150, estimated to produce £3,700,000 ; the raising of the Irish 
 stamp and spirit duties to the same rates as those of Britain, reckoned to bring 
 £410,000 ; and an export duty on coals £200,000 ; total, £4,310,000 ; affording a sur- 
 plus of £1,740,000, to be applied to a reduction of the timber duties and others, and 
 to meet the expense of military operations in China and elsewhere. This plan, after 
 a modification of the proposed duty on coals, was sanctioned by parliament. S 
 
 The Budget, or annual exposition of the finances submitted to the House of 
 Commons by the Chancellor of Exchequer, does not exhibit an articulate account 
 of the revenue and expenditure, but merely a statement of the sums required to be 
 voted for the public service, under the different heads of Navy, Army, Ordnance, 
 and Miscellaneous Articles, together with any incidental charges which may apply 
 to the year, with the ways and means for meeting the same,— comprehending the 
 
REV 579 RIB 
 
 surplus of the Consolidated Fund, after defraying the charges upon it, the annual 
 duties, and such incidental receipts as come in aid of the national resources. 
 
 The Consolidated Fund* formed by Mr Pitt in 1786, at present embraces all the 
 branches of the revenue except the annual sugar-duty. It is specially burdened 
 with the interest and other payments on account of the national debt, the civil list, 
 pensions, and other permanent grants by parliament. The surplus is always con- 
 siderable ; of late years about £14,000,000. 
 
 The Annual Duties comprehended formerly the malt and land tax, which, oa 
 constitutional principles, were reserved for special annual grants, as a restraint on 
 the power of the crown. On the land-tax being rendered perpetual in 1798 [Land- 
 Tax], certain duties on sugar and tobacco, and on offices, pensions, and salaries, 
 were substituted in its place. Of late years, however, the only tax reserved for 
 an annual grant is the sugar-duty, estimated usually at £3,000,000. 
 
 The application of the supplies of each session is regulated by the Appropriation 
 Act (introduced as a restraint on the improvidence of Charles II.), which is passed 
 after all the grants have been made, and usually indeed contains, along with the 
 appropriation clauses, the authority for making the last payments out of the Ex- 
 chequer. 
 
 In the event of the revenue proving insufficient for the expenditure, the deficiency 
 is temporarily supplied by means of exchequer bills ; which are also issued in 
 anticipation of the growing duties. [Funds. United Kingdom.] 
 
 REVERSIONS. [Annuity. Insurance on Lives. Interest, Compound.] 
 
 RHATANY ROOT, derived from the Krameria triandra, consists of cylindrical 
 ramifications, varying in size from that of a quill to a finger. It is imported from 
 Peru, and is used as an astringent medicine. 
 
 RHODIUM, a rare and extremely hard and durable metal, obtained by Dr Wol- 
 laston from platinum ore. Sp. gr. 11. Its scarcity is said to be the only bar to its 
 extensive employment in the arts, as it forms valuable alloys with other metals, 
 particularly steel. 
 
 RHUBARB (Fr. Rhubarbe. Ger. Rhabarber. It. Reobarbaro. Por. Ruibarbo. 
 Rus. Rewen. Chin. Ta-hwang), a medicinal root obtained from a plant {Rheum pal- 
 malum?) which inhabits the lofty mountains of Central Asia. Three kinds of it 
 are distinguished— namely, Russian, Turkey, and Chinese or East Indian. _ The 
 Russian rhubarb is the best, as very great attention, both in purchasing it at 
 Kiachta from the Bucharians, and in transporting it from thence to Moscow and 
 Petersburg, is paid by order of government, and the bad pieces are burned by an 
 inspecting apothecary. It possesses a fine bright reddish or whitish yellow colour, 
 and a strong fragrant smell ; and is commonly in round pieces, often perforated with 
 so large a hole that many have the appearance of a mere rind. Turkey rhubarb 
 is derived from the same source as the Russian, but is generally darker and coarser, 
 from less attention being paid to the trade. The Chinese or East Indian is heavier, 
 harder, and more compact than the others ; seldom perforated with holes, and is 
 either in long pieces or with two flat sides, as if they had been compressed. The 
 rhubarb imported into this country, with the exception of a small quantity 
 from Russia, is derived almost exclusively from China. Nearly 50,000 lbs. are an- 
 nually entered for home consumption. S 
 
 Hybrid Rhubarb (Rheum hybridum) is a well-known plant, extensively culti- 
 vated in this country for its large succulent stalks, used in confectionary. 
 
 RIBAND (Fr. Ruben de Soie. Ger. Band. It. Nastro di Seta. Sp. Cinta de Seda), a 
 name given to silken bands of various widths and colours, much used by females 
 for headdresses and other purposes. They are both plain and figured, and are 
 sometimes distinguished into sarcenet, satin, &c, according to the manner in which 
 they are made. They are also frequently ornamented by having what is called a pearl 
 edge given to them.* Ribands are woven in pieces, each 36 yards in length. The 
 finest are made entirely of Italian silk ; the next in quality of a mixture of Italian 
 and Bengal silk ; and the commoner sorts altogether of Bengal silk. The great seat 
 of the manufacture of ribands is Coventry, where they are now made of quality 
 equal to the finest of the productions of the Lyonese weavers : they are also made 
 at Congleton, Derby, Macclesfield, Leek, and other places. S [Silk Manufacture.] 
 
 * In the early part of the funding system a separate account was kept of each loan, and of the 
 tax imposed for payment of the interest. The inconvenience and confusion of this method led to 
 the appropriation of the various branches of revenue into three funds ; — the Aggregate Fund, 
 1715 ; and the South Sea and General Fundi, 1716, — each chargeable with the payment of certain 
 annuities then due by the public. And in 1786 these were formed into one fund, thence termed 
 the Consolidated Fund. 
 
RIC 580 ROA 
 
 RICE (Du. Ryst. Fr. Riz. Ger. Reiss. It. Miso. For. & Sp. Arroz), an es- 
 culent grain, the produce of a panicled grass {Oryza sativa), which resembles 
 common barley. Although less nutritious than any of the cerealia, it forms the 
 chief object of culture in China and the East Indies. And it has been introduced into 
 Carolina, Georgia, the West Indies, and several parts of Central and South Ame- 
 rica. In Europe its cultivation is confined chiefly to Lombardy, Valencia, and 
 some other districts adjoining the Mediterranean. 
 
 Rice requires not only an intense heat, but also moisture so abundant, that the 
 field on which it grows must be repeatedly laid under water. Indeed, without its 
 due degree of moisture, rice proves almost wholly unproductive ; and hence the 
 dreadful famines which sometimes occur in different parts of India, where it forms 
 the sole dependence of the population. Rice is of course an article of extensive 
 commerce in India and China ; and since the reduction of duty in 1828, a consid- 
 erable increase has taken place in its consumption in this country, more particu- 
 larly at times when corn is dear. It is imported in two states,— cleaned of the 
 husk, and in the rough state called paddee ; the former is brought from India and 
 Java, the latter from the United States. Of late years an increased quantity of 
 paddee has been imported in comparison with cleaned rice ; there being less waste 
 in the transport of the former, and its cost less ; while, by the superior machinery 
 employed in Britain, the husk is removed with less injury to the grain than in the 
 country of production. The import of paddee from America has been further en- 
 couraged by the discriminating duty charged on foreign cleaned rice. S 
 
 The following extract from the London Price Current of October 1842, affords a comparative view 
 of the estimation in which the different kinds introduced into the British market are held : — 
 
 Rice in bond, — Carolina, per cwt., 21s. to 25s. : East India, fine Patna, Os. to Os : Bengal white, 
 lis. to- 12s. 6d. : Cargo, 8s. Gd. to 10s. : Java, 7s. 6d. to lis. 9d. : Madras, 8s. to 10s. 
 
 The bag of East India rice contains about 1 [ cwt. ; the American cask, 6 ewts. 
 
 On the exportation of foreign rice that has been cleaned in this country, a drawback per cwt. is 
 allowed, equivalent to the duty paid on 4 bushels of paddee. 
 
 RICE PAPER is said to be a membrane of the Artocarpus incisa, or bread- 
 fruit tree. It is brought from China in small dyed pieces, and is used in the 
 manufacture of several fancy and ornamental articles. S 
 
 RIXDOLLAR. [Germany.] 
 
 ROAD, an artificial line of communication between two places, made by levelling 
 and hardening the surface of the ground, to facilitate transit thereon. The extent 
 and quality of the roads in a country may be safely held to mark the degree of its 
 wealth and civilisation, and generally are to be regarded as a prominent feature 
 of national economy. Such were the Roman roads which connected the most dis- 
 to.nt parts of the empire with the capital, and of which many traces still remain in 
 this country as well as on the Continent. The modern roads, previous to the be- 
 ginning of last century, were little adapted for ordinary use by wheel-car- 
 riages. Throughout the United Kingdom, generally, commodities were transported 
 upon pack-horses, which, like the mules in Spain, were trained to follow each other 
 in long succession on the rough, narrow, and often scarcely passable causeways or 
 tracks ; and the common mode of travelling for passengers was in like manner on 
 horseback. In the beginning of the 18th century, road-making became a subject 
 of greater attention. And, after 1760, the general spirit of improvement which 
 characterized that period led to the formation of carriage-roads in all the great 
 thoroughfares ; no fewer than 452 turnpike acts having been passed in the course 
 of fourteen years. Since then the same system has been progressively ex- 
 tended ; and carriage -roads are now established through every parish of the king- 
 dom. Many of these must be pronounced highly defective in construction when 
 compared with the modern formations of Macadam and Telford ; but, taken as a 
 whole, they are unequalled in any other country ; and, in connexion with our canals 
 and railways, constitute that wonderful system of internal communication,— that 
 viabilite immense, as designated by the French, -for which Great Britain is the 
 admiration of the world. 
 
 In the laying down of roads no acclivity should, according to Mr Telford, if 
 practicable, exceed 1 foot in 35, so that no difficulty may be presented to fast 
 driving either in ascending or descending ; and modern engineers consider it un- 
 advisable in any case to exceed 1 in 24 ; though there are acclivities twice as steep 
 in some turnpike roads. A road should also be of a regular uniform width, and 
 be properly fenced. When likely to be much used by heavy carriages, it should 
 have a regular foundation of large stones ; over which a coating, about 6 inches 
 deep, of small broken stones, should be laid, so as to present a surface, uniform, 
 smooth, and convex. It is also of importance that a road should be raised above 
 
ROA 681 ROA 
 
 the level of the surrounding ground, have proper drain*, and an exposure to sun 
 and wind, so as to produce rapid evaporation of moisture. 
 
 I.\ England, according to Blackstone, every parish is bound at common law to keep the roads 
 that intersect it in good condition ; and by the 2i3 Philip and Mary, e . !J, the parishioners were 
 obliged, according to their ability, to provide labour and implements for four days' work upon the 
 roads annually. This rude plan of forced or ttatute labour (then common in Europe) was improved 
 by other acts ; but in course of time it was gradually superseded on all the great thoroughfares by 
 the turnpike svstem ; and it was also abandoned for other highways in 1835, when the laws relating 
 to cross or parish roads were consolidated by the act 5 & 6 We IV. c. 50. This act authorizes a 
 survevor, elected annually by the vestry, to levy a rate on the parish, on the basis of the poor 
 assessment ; the rate-payers" however, being empowered, if a majority see fit, to divide among 
 themselves the carriage of the materials required for the roads. A number of parishes may unite 
 and appoint a surveyor ; and in parishes having more than 5000 inhabitants, a highway board may 
 be established. 
 
 The Endish turnpike system, or plan of raising a revenue for the construction and repair of 
 roads bv imposing tolls at cues or turnpikes, though introduced by the 26 Ch. II. c. 1, was not 
 establish d to any extent until after 1763. Under this system, the road is placed, according to its 
 length, under the management of one or more sets of trustees, who are appointed by statute, and 
 generally consist of the landed proprietors and principal fanners and tradesmen in the vicinity. 
 All details are committed to surveyors appointed by them ; and the trustees, being empowered 
 to contract loans on the security of "their revenues, are enabled very speedily to complete any un- 
 dertaking. In 1839, the number" of turnpike trusts in England and Wales (including consolidations) 
 was 1116; their revenue, £ 1 . 532,956 ; and the amount of loans for which the tolls were mortgaged, 
 £7.238.935, which was exclusive of £1,194,699 of arrears of interest, and the amount of the float- 
 ing debts. 
 
 From a summary in 1841 by Mr Tidd Pratt, of 16,965 returns, made pursuant to the act 2 & 3 
 Vict. c. 4<i, bv surveyors of parishes, townships, or places which repair their own highways (168 
 returns, however, being deficient for En .land and 125 for Wales), it appears that in 1839 the 
 length of turnpikes was 19,666 miles ; of streets or roads repaired under local acts, 2869 miles ; and 
 of all other highways, 96,992 miles ; making of highways for wheeled carriages in England and 
 Wales, 119,527 miles. The amount of rates levied in 1839 (exclusive of turnpike dues), was 
 £1,312,012 ; and the average expenditure in the repair of the highways (exclusive of turnpikes 
 and roads and streets under local acts), was £12, 18s. 5d. per mile, and in law and other expenses 
 3s. per mile. According to other returns, the average annual exp nditure in the 5 years ended 
 1839, on 22,<>00 miles of turnpikes and roads under local acts, was nearly £51 per mile ; whereof— 
 £36 on mere repairs ; £9 on improvements ; and £6 on management. 
 
 I.v Scotland, the ancient system was that of the statute or compulsory labour of the inhabitants 
 for 3 days before and 3 days after harvest ; and the act 5 Geo. I. c. 3<>, provided that, in the event 
 of this proving insufficient, an assessment, not exceeding I per cent, on the valued rent, might be 
 imposed on landed property. After 1750, this plan was superseded as to the great thoroughfares by 
 the turnpike system, as in England. It has also been greatly modified in other respects ; most of 
 the counties having obtained local acts commuting the statute labour for a fixed money payment, 
 and authorizing as-essments on landed property, varying in each county according to circum- 
 stances. By these acts the road-administration is vested in trustees, embracing the sheriffs depute 
 and substitute, the provost and two eldest bailies of each royal burgh in the county, all justices 
 of peace, owners of estates worth £li>0 Scots a-year and upwards of valued rent, and their eldest 
 sons, and one guardian or trustee of all minors possessing such amount of property. The county 
 is diviied into districts, each placed under the resident trustees and surveyors appointed by them ; 
 and the district meeting prepares annually a state and estimate for the general meeting, which has 
 power to order an assessment on the occupiers of land, and which in other respects directs and 
 controls the district meetings. Sufficient powers are given to the trustees for obtaining land and 
 materials for the roads and bridges. 
 
 But in the northern counties a different system of supervision prevails under the " Commission- 
 ers of Highland Roads and Bridges," appointed by government in 1803 with the view of stimulat- 
 ing improvement in these districts. They are authorized to decide upon the roads proper to be 
 constructed, and to superintend their execution ; the expense being defrayed by government and 
 the proprietors jointly, each one-half. This measure has been highly successful ; and about 900 
 miles of excellent roads, and upwards of 1 li'O bridges, have been constructed in this way. The old 
 military roads formed by General Wade (1720-1730) were placed under the management of the 
 commissioners in 1814 ; and about #M» miles of them are still kept up. 
 
 We possess no statistics of the ordinary county roads of Scotland ; nor of the turnpikes later 
 than 1829, when their length was 3666 miles; the number of trusts, 190; the amount of their debts, 
 £1.495,1182: and income, £187,584. 
 
 In Ireland, the statute labour system was abolished in 1763, when the road administration was 
 vested in the grand juries. Mail-coach roads are determined upon by the postmaster-general, and 
 their expense defrayed by a tax on the county. The supplies for other roads are raised by a tax 
 on each barony tor the portion within its boundaries. S.nce 1831, also, a considerable extent of 
 road has been "constructed at the public expense, under the board of public works, constituted by 
 the act 1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 33. 
 
 Of the roads in the United Kingdom, the best is usually stated to be that between 
 London and Holyhead, constructed, under the superintendence of parliamentary 
 commissioners, by Mr Telford ; but, in general, the English roads are greatly inferior 
 to those of Scotland, more especially the turnpikes and those formed by the Highland 
 Commissioners, which, notwithstanding the rugged nature of the country, have 
 mostly moderate acclivities, and are indeed in every respect models of the manner 
 in which the difficulties presented by a mountainous country may be successfully 
 overcome. This superiority in the northern roads is stated by Sir Henry Parnell 
 to arise " in consequence of the excellent materials which abound in all Darts of 
 
ROM 582 ROO 
 
 Scotland, and of the greater skill and science of Scotch trustees and surveyors " 
 {Treatise on Roads, p. 313). Much is also due to the superiority of the Scottish 
 county management over the English parish system. The Irish roads are likewise, 
 generally speaking, well laid out and in good repair. Indeed, both Ireland and 
 Scotland possess natural advantages as to material for road-making to which 
 England cannot lay claim, more especially the district between the Tees and the 
 Trent, where the formation is chiefly coal, sandstone, and soft limestone. 
 
 ROMAN or PAPAL STATES, stretch across the central part of the Italian 
 peninsula in an oblique direction, from the Adriatic to the Mediterranean, and be- 
 tween Tuscany, Modena, and Lombardy, on the N. W., and Naples on the S. E. 
 Area, 17,822 sq. miles. Population in 1833, 2,742,000. Capital, Rome ; pop. 
 153,000. Government, an elective monarchy, the pope for the time being the ab- 
 solute sovereign, with a consulting assembly of cardinals. S 
 
 The papal territory is divided into two unequal portions, mostly level, by the Apennines, which 
 traverse the country from N. W. to S. E. The most extensive is the western portion, which con- 
 tains the city of Rome and the Tiber ; but a great part of it is waste and pestilential, particularly 
 the Campagna di Roma and the Pontine Marshes. The eastern portion, especially Bologna and 
 the March of Ancona, is more fertile and better cultivated ; producing wheat, maize, rice, hemp, 
 and tobacco. The elevated districts supply timber, fruits, and even silk, wine, and oil, but of 
 a quality inferior to those of the Tuscan and Neapolitan territories. The manufacturing industry 
 is mostly confined to coarse woollen cloths, for the internal consumption. There are, however, 
 silk establishments at Rome and Bologna ; iron-works at Bracciano, Canino, Conca, and other 
 places, for which iron-ore is brought from Elba; and glass-works, and manufactories of paper, 
 soap, hats, liquorice, wax-candles, and catgut in several towns. But all the productive industry 
 of the country, and especially agriculture, is in a state of backwardness, from the poverty and 
 ignorance of the people, the perpetual intervention of the ecclesiastical authority, as well as heavy 
 taxes and il! directed legislation. 
 
 The provinces on each side of the Apennines having little communication with each other, some 
 are exporting while others are importing the same kinds of produce. A surplus of corn generally 
 exists in the N. provinces, while in the S. there is a deficiency. Again, olive-oil is exported from 
 the S., while in the N. about 3,000,0(10 lbs. are annually brought from S. Italy and Tuscany. The 
 chief commercial relations are with Naples, Tuscany, Lombardy, and Great Britain. The exports 
 lo England, according to Dr Bowring (Report, p. 81), consist mainly of grain, hemp, rags, sul- 
 phur, silk, tartar, wool, lamb and kid skins, and cork ; and the imports from it of colonial pro- 
 duce and spices, cod, pilchards and herrings (largely consumed in Lent and other fasts), drugs and 
 dye-stuffs, lead, copper, steel, tin-plates, cotton twist, piece goods of all sorts, hardware, and iron 
 and steel goods, jewellery, earthenware, porcelain, isinglass, coal, whale-oil, and ivory. British 
 vessels load at Civita Vecchia ; but the above-mentioned articles are chiefly shipped to England 
 from Leghorn, Genoa, and Marseilles. The vessels which land their cargoes of salt-fish, sugar, 
 and coal, at Ancona, generally proceed to Messina or other ports for return cargoes. The total 
 imports from all countries are estimated at £1 ,458,000, and the exports at £'1,042,000. 
 
 Ports.— A ncona, on the Adriatic, lat. 43° 38' N., long. 13° 35' E. ; pop. 30,000. It is a free 
 port, and the harbour is good, — indeed the best on the coast from Venice to Manfredonia. Ex- 
 ports, corn, silk, wool, wax, hemp, rags, &c. In 1838, 1292 vessels, burden G6,828 tons, cleared 
 with cargoes valued at 1,109,300 scudi. 
 
 Civita Vecchia, the only good port on the W. coast, lies in lat. 42° 5' N., long. 11° 44' E., 36 
 miles N. W. of Rome. Pop. 8000. The harbour is from 14 to 18 feet deep ; and there are docks 
 and a lazaretto : 1520 vessels, burden 133,402 tons, cleared in 1837. 
 
 Measures and Weights, Money, Finances, &c. 
 
 Measures and Weuihts. — The foot = 11-72 
 Imp. inches ; the mercantile canna of 8 palmi = 
 78 - 35 Imp. inches ; the builders' canna of 10 
 palmi = 87-96 Imp. inches. The mile = 1628 
 Imp. yards, or 7f furlongs. 
 
 The tavola censuale = 1000 sq. metres = 1196 
 sq. yards : the rubbio = 18-484 tavole. 
 
 The wine barile of 32 boccali or 128 fogliette 
 = 12-84 Imp. gallons ; and 16 barili = 1 botte : 
 the soma of oil of 80 boccali = 3G-1 4 Imp. gallons ; 
 and the oil barile is 28 boccali, or 12-65 Imp. 
 gallons. 
 
 The rubbio of corn of 4 quarte, 22 scorzi, or 
 88 quartucci, s 810 Imp. bushels. 
 
 The pound of 12 once, 288 denari, or 6912 
 grani, = 5234 troy grains ; and the quintal of 10 
 decine, or 100 lbs., = 74*77 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 The apothecaries' pound, and that used for gold 
 and silver, are of the same weight as the com- 
 mercial pound. 
 
 In Ancona the braccio = 25*33 Imp. inches ; 
 the wine soma of 2 barili or 24 boccali = 18*90 
 Imp. gallons ; the rubbio of com of 8 coppe = 
 7*87 Imp. bushels ; and 100 Ancona lbs. = 73*75 
 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are stated in scudi (crowns 
 
 ordollars), divided into 10 paoli, or 100 bajocchi. 
 The value of the scudo is 4s. 2d. sterling, — the 
 par of exchange with London being estimated at 
 48 paoli or pauls per £1. The paolo is thus worth 
 5d., and the bajoccho id. sterling. 
 
 Bankers' accounts are kept in pauls. 
 
 The principal coins are the gold doppia or pis- 
 tole, worth about 32 pauls ; the silver scudo, half- 
 scudo, and pieces for J, 1, 2, and 3 pauls ; also 
 in base silver, pieces for 2, 4, 74, and 15 bajoc- 
 chi , — the two last being termed single and double 
 carlini ; and in copper, bajocchi, halves, and 
 quarters. The old louis-d'or is current at Rome 
 for 44 pauls, the napoleon for 37 pauls, and the 
 Spanish dollar for 10 pauls. 
 
 The notes or cedole for 5, 10, 20, 25, and 100 
 scudi, issued by the Banco dello Spirito Santo, 
 and Monte di Pieta, are employed in the payment 
 of sums exceeding 5 scudi. 
 
 Bills on London are commonly drawn at 90 
 days' date. No days of grace. 
 
 Revenue in 1835, 8,812,961 scudi, chiefly from 
 land-taxes, customs, lotteries, and government 
 monopolies of salt, tobacco, alum, vitriol, &c. : 
 Expenditure.9,429,799 scudi, including 2,547,555 
 on account of the national debt. 
 ROOD, the one-fourth of an acre ; also a term applied by artificers to 36 square 
 yards of stone, brick, or slate work. 
 
ROP 583 RUM 
 
 ROPE, a larger kind of cordage, generally formed by a combination of vegetable 
 fibres. Except for ship-cables, tor which iron-chain is now much used, hemp is 
 the substance principally employed in this country in the manufacture of rope, 
 though it is occasionally made of Indian jute and coir. Of late years, hemp mixed 
 with caoutchouc has attracted some attention ; likewise cordage made of wire. 
 
 A hempen cable of 12 inches girth, and length 120 fathoms, weighs 3075 lbs. And as the weights 
 of two cables of equal lengths will be as their sections, or squares of the girths, we have the 
 following rule for the weight : — Multiply the square of the girth in inches by 21 (more accurately 
 21-3), the product is the weight in lbs. Also, as the breaking strain will be as the section, it will 
 be as the weight, and will be found nearly by dividing the weight in lbs. by 100 ; the quotient is, 
 the breaking strain in tons. This rule is of course liable to uncertainty from the quality of the 
 cable. 
 
 ROSE, a well-known flower (Rosa), from the petals of which rose-water is dis- 
 tilled, and a butyraceous oil or perfume called Attar or Otto of Roses, largely 
 manufactured in India, Persia, and Turkey. The latter is a very costly article ; 
 20,000 lbs. of rose leaves being required, according to Bishop Heber, to yield attar 
 equal in weight to a rupee ; and it is often adulterated with oil of sandal-wood, 
 and the crystalline appearance of the genuine article imitated by the addition of 
 spermaceti. The real attar congeals with a slight cold, floats in water, and 
 dissolves in highly rectified spirits of wine. It is seldom imported from India for 
 sale ; but considerable quantities are brought from Turkey. The English oil is of 
 a very inferior odour, and apt to become rancid. 
 
 ROSEWOOD (Por. Pao de rosado. Sp. Leno de rosa), a beautiful fancy-wood 
 produced by a large tree found in Brazil, India, and the Canaries. It should be 
 chosen in large pieces, of irregular knotty grain, well filled with resinous fibres, 
 sound, and heavy. It is of a reddish colour; has an agreeable odour; and is esteemed 
 according to the degree in which the darker parts are distinct from the purple red, 
 which forms the ground. Rosewood is used for cabinet-work, either solid or cut into 
 veneers, nine to an inch ; and, next to mahogany, is now the wood most in use for 
 such work. About 1600 tons are annually imported, chiefly from Brazil. 
 
 ROSIN, a commercial name for the residuum of the distillation of turpentine : 
 it is a light, hard, brittle, inflammable substance, transparent, and of a dark 
 colour. There are several kinds, — as black or common, and amber rosin. It 
 is made at Hull, London, and other ports communicating with the Baltic states ; 
 and is used in the manufacture of soap, varnishes, and other articles. S 
 
 ROTTENSTONE, a kind of clay of a dirty gray or reddish-brown colour, pass- 
 ing into black : it is dull, earthy, soft, meagre to the touch, and emits an unpleasant 
 odour when rubbed. Localities^ — Bakewell in Derbyshire, Wales, and Albany near 
 New York. It is used in polishing metals. 
 RUBLE. [Russia.] 
 
 RUBY, a name applied by lapidaries to two kinds of precious stones essentially 
 different. The Oriental ruby, next to the diamond the most valuable of gems, is 
 properly a red sapphire. The other rubies are different varieties of spinel. 
 
 RUM is a spirit procured by distilling a fermented fluid prepared from the 
 refuse in the operation for making sugar ; the peculiar flavour being derived from 
 an essential oil existing in the juice of the cane, which is brought off by the spirit. 
 The product of the distillation is colourless ; but is afterwards coloured by the 
 addition of a little burned sugar. The best is made from molasses [Sugar] ; and 
 it is preferred when well kept and of good age, considerable body, smooth oily 
 taste, and of a brownish transparent colour. When of a fiery taste and limpid 
 colour it is either too new or adulterated, as it often is, especially by retail dealers, 
 either with corn spirit or home-made molasses spirit ; which last, from similarity of 
 taste, is not readily known from the genuine liquor. 
 
 The West India Islands and Guiana are the countries chiefly distinguished for the 
 produce of rum, more especially the British possessions. The best is that of Jamaica, 
 the produce of which is likewise highest in quality ; what in trade is called " Leeward 
 Island rum " is inferior to it, though still good. The quantity annually produced 
 depends generally upon the nature of the season ; but the change occasioned by the 
 abolition of negro slavery has of late years led to a gradual decline in the shipment 
 of rum, as well as of the other West India staples. In the three years ending 
 1831, the average importation into the United Kingdom from the West Indies (in- 
 cluding Guiana) was 7,180,000 gallons ; but in the three years ending 1841, the 
 average was reduced to 3,524,320 gallons,— the importation in 1841 being indeed 
 only '2,770,161 gallons. [West Indies.] 
 The imports from the West Indies, after supplying the United Kingdom, have 
 
RUP 584 RUS 
 
 generally left a considerable surplus, especially of the inferior kinds, usually sent 
 to the other colonies, Germany, and elsewhere ; and there is still a re-export- 
 ation, notwithstanding the diminished production of the West Indies : the con- 
 sumption of this country having also declined, until in 1341 the quantity (exclusive 
 of that used for marine stores) was only 2,300,000 gallons ; being below'the amount 
 at the beginning of the century, which was upwards of 3,000,000 gallons. This 
 decline has been comparatively greatest in Ireland and Scotland, especially the 
 former, where the consumption, though 860,000 gallons in 1800, has fallen to about 
 20,000, owing to the great rise of duty during the war, and the substitution of 
 home-made spirits. 
 
 The importations of rum from other countries have until lately been nearly con- 
 fined to small occasional parcels from the foreign West Indies and Brazil, none 
 of which, owing to the discriminating duty in favour of our colonial produce, was 
 entered for home consumption. In 1836, however, the duties on East and West 
 India sugar were equalized, and the rule which confined the navy contracts to 
 West India rum abolished. These measures were followed by importations of 
 East India rum— in 1840 to the extent of 312,000 gallons. And this trade has been 
 further stimulated by the equalization, in 1842, of the duties on East India and 
 West India rum, by "the reduction of the former to the colonial rate of 9s. 4d. per 
 gallon. The admission of East India rum to the British market will probably 
 lead to improvements in its quality, which at present is very low. 
 
 The rum supplied to the navy is furnished duty free, as also that required for 
 stores by merchant ships. The annual amount thus delivered in the United King- 
 dom, on an average of the 14 years ending 1839, was — for the navy, 372,000 gallons ; 
 for ship stores, 315,000 gallons. S 
 
 RUPEE. [India.] 
 
 RUSSIA, an empire comprising the whole northern portion of the eastern hemi- 
 sphere, from the frontiers of Prussia and the Gulf of Bothnia on the W. to the 
 Pacific on the E. ; also a large tract on the N. W. part of America ; with nume- 
 rous islands contiguous to these countries. The whole, exclusive of certain terri- 
 tories called oblasts, is divided into about 75 governments or viceroyalties. Area 
 estimated at 7,700,000 sq. miles ; and population at 66,000,000, of whom about 
 47,000,000 are contained in European Russia. Capital, St Petersburg. Govern- 
 ment, an absolute monarchy. S 
 
 This empire is divided into two great parts by the Ural Mountains, which on the N. separate 
 Asiatic from European Russia. The former is generally a vast level region, declining impercep- 
 tibly towards the Arctic Ocean, and rising gently towards its southern border, where it is lost in the 
 immense mountain-ranges which separate it from the Chinese empire and Tartary. The northern 
 portion of this tract is mostly a frozen desert, but the southern is generally fertile. The whole of 
 this region, however, as well as the American territory, being but thinly inhabited by barbarous 
 tribes, possesses as yet little or no commercial interest ; and we shall therefore principally confine 
 our attention in the present article to the tract which lies to the W. of the Urals, embracing Euro- 
 pean Russia and the country between the Black Sea and the Caspian — the main body and seat of 
 the wealth and power of the empire. 
 
 European Russia may also be considered as one vast plain. If the Ural Mountains on its eastern 
 border, and a mountain-tract in the Crimea be excepted, there is in this immense region no part 
 elevated more than 5(0 feet above its base, or 110O feet above the sea-level. That great tract 
 of low land which begins in Northern Germany, expands in Russia to its greatest breadth, exceed- 
 ing 120() miles ; and the water-shed which divides the rivers that flow to the Baltic, Arctic Ocean, 
 Black Sea, and Caspian, consists merely of a table- land, in the N. E. parts called the Uwalli and 
 Valdai Hills, whose declivities form long and generally imperceptible slopes. The most fertile 
 region traverses the central part north-eastward, from between 48° and 52° on the W. to between 
 53° and 56° N. lat. on the E. ; and lies between 25° and 50° E. long. Farther north, the country 
 is for the greater part covered with forests or bogs, until we arrive at the shores of the White 
 Sea or Arctic Ocean, where it is mostly a swampy desert, particularly towards the N. E., be- 
 tween the Urals and the river Mezen, the region of the tundras. The fertility also decreases to 
 the S. of the central region, especially where it lies contiguous to the steppes of Southern Russia 
 and of the river Volga, which are vast plains, formed chiefly of sand, and destitute of wood, ex- 
 cept here and there a stunted birch. 
 
 The Climate of Russia is much colder than that of other European countries in the same latitude ; 
 and the farther we proceed eastward the temperature becomes still lower, arising from the dreary 
 uncultivated surface of the land, its distance from the ocean, and the vast regions traversed by the 
 north and east winds. The summer heat of Russia, however, is in general greater than in other 
 countries under the same parallels. The provinces which border on the Baltic and on the White 
 Sea have a wet climate ; and this feature extends to the elevated tract which borders the basin 
 of the Volga, on the N. and W. Farther east the rain decreases in quantity ; and the southern dis- 
 tricts have a dry climate. 
 
 The vast Forests of Russia constitute one of its most remarkable features, and a principal source 
 of wealth ; the timber, tar, pitch, and ashes derived from them forming staple exports. They 
 abound chiefly in the north, covering about three-fourths of its extent between 65° N. lat. and 
 the Volga ; the trees being pine, fir, larch, alder, and birch, with a few limes. The central pro- 
 vinces, between the middle course of the Volga and the Dnieper, have scarcely sufficient wood for 
 
585 RUS 
 
 their own consumption ; but extensive fotvsis, chiefly pine and fir, occur on the W. of this tract, 
 especially on the swamps of Pinsk aud ltatnor, and on the banks of the Niemen, whence, and by 
 -tula, much of the produce of the district is conveyed to the Prussian ports of Memel 
 and Dantzic, and in part by the Duna to Riga. To the east, also, of the central district there are 
 extensive pine and fir forests in the governments of Perm and Viatka ; and of oaks, limes, elms, 
 and ash, in those of Kazan, Niznei-Novgorod, Pensa, and Saratov. The oak forests are chiefly 
 on the Volara "ear Tcheborsar. The southern provinces are almost entirely without trees. 
 
 In Minerals Russia is rich. The chief mines are situated in the Ural and Altai Mountains, and 
 those which occupy the vicinity of Nertschinsk in Siberia. In 1837, the produce of gold from the 
 Ural and Siberian mines was about 470 poods, equal in value to nearly £1 ,000,000 ; that of silver, 
 from the Altai and Siberian mountains, 3000 poods, £330,000 ; and the annual produce of platina, 
 chiefly in the Urals, is about 140 poods. Copper is produced to the extent of 210,000 poods a-year, 
 chietiy in Olonetz and the Ural and Altai ranges ; lead, 40,000 poods ; and iron, about 170,000 
 tons, chiefly in the Urals ; also in the Altai, Caucasus, Valdai Hills, &c. Other metals and coal 
 exist, but they are not worked. Salt is procured in the Urals, the Crimea, and other places, chiefly 
 in the E. and S. provinces ; but it is deficient in the Baltic provinces, where it is imported from 
 England and Austria. 
 
 AgricuUart is but in its first stage ; yet the grain produced is much more than is required for 
 the consumption. The S. Baltic countries, Poland, and the governments nearest to Moscow, have 
 the greatest proportion of cultivated land. Bye, the most common grain, may be grown in all 
 parts except the Arctic region and the steppes ; it is produced in greatest quantity in the district 
 between the cataracts of the Dnieper, in 43 d N. lat. on the S. and the Volga on the N. The 
 cultivation of barley extends to 67° N. lat. Oa's are extensively cultivated in the districts through 
 which the Lreat roads and water-courses run ; but they do not succeed N. of 62° N. lat. Wheat 
 fa a principal object of culture in the fertile tracts along the southern rivers, especially in the 
 Ukraine (a country comprising Volhynia, Podolia, Kiev, and Poltava), and in Voronetz, Tambov, 
 Pensa. and Simbirsk ; the produce of which districts is largely conveyed to Odessa and Taganrog 
 nation. Farther north wheat is less grown, though in some favoured spots it succeeds 
 to 58" and even 59 s N. lat. Millet is grown in the upper regions of the Don, Oka, and Diesna ; and 
 maize at the S. extremity of the empire. 
 
 pand flax are produced more extensively in Russia than in any other country ; both succeed 
 up to 65° N. lat. ; but the chief localities are those adjoining the upper course of the Volga, in the 
 governments of Tver, Jaroslav, and Kostroma: they form, with linseed and hempseed, staple 
 exports from the Baltic ports and Archangel. Tobacco is much cultivated in the Ukraine. 
 
 Of other rural products, the most important are black cattle (also principally in the Ukraine), the 
 tallow and hides of which are extensively exported ; and sheep, which are still more numerous, though 
 the wool is in general of inferior quality. Horses and goats also abound ; likewise hogs, the 
 bristles of which are largely shipped from the northern ports ; and in the regions adjoining the 
 Arctic Ocean numerous wild animals are killed for their skins and fur. The rearing of bees is a 
 principal occupation of some tribes, especially in Kazan and Oufa, and the wax produced is very 
 considerable. 
 
 The Fisheries of most value are those of the rivers Volga and Ural, and of the Sea of Azof; 
 but except some caviar and isinglass from the S. ports, scarcely any of their produce is sent to 
 other countries. 
 
 Manufactures were called into premature existence by Peter the Great, and, under the influence 
 of the protective system, they have risen to some consideration, especially of late years. The 
 establishments in 1839, exclusive of mines, furaaces, and smelting-houses, were 6H55 in number, 
 employing 412,931 work-people ; which, according to the official report, was an increase in three 
 years of 840 manufactories, and of 50 per cent, on the workmen. Of these manufactories, 616 were 
 for woollen goods; 227 silk; 467 cotton; 267 linen; and 4H6 metal wares: the rest consisted 
 chiefly of tanneries, tallow melting-houses, candle and soap works. The chief seat of manufac- 
 tures is Moscow and its government ; and next, the governments of Vladimir, Niznei-Novgorod, 
 Saratov, Peter burg, and Tula. The Russians excel in the manufacture of leather ; and from 
 their advantages in respect to raw material, their canvass, strong linens, cordage, felt, mats, 
 potashes, soap, candles, caviar, and isinglass, are quite as good as those made elsewhere ; but in al- 
 most all other branches their products cannot compete with those of Western Europe, more espe- 
 cially Britain, as to finish, durability, and cheapness; and their existence is therefore dependent 
 upon the continuance of a restrictive or rather prohibitory system of import duties. The annual 
 va 1 ue of the B iissian manufactures was estimated in 1837 at £23,000,000 ; and in 1841 , at£30,000,000. 
 The Tnhmd Trade is very extensive ; and it is facilitated by the vast means of internal communi- 
 cation afforded by the Volga, Dwina, Niemen, Duna, Don, Neva, and their tributaries, which, 
 from the level nature of the country, are nearly all navigable, especially those which rise north- 
 ward of 55° N. lat. And this navigation has been improved by canals", by means of which the 
 Volga is connected with the Neva and the Dwina, so that goods may be sent by water from St 
 Petersburg or Archangel to Astracan and the Caspian. The Volga has also been united with the 
 Don, which falls into the Sea of Azof; and the Pripet, a branch of the Dnieper, is joined to the 
 Bug, an affluent of the Vistula, thus connecting the Black Sea and the Baltic The frost inter- 
 rupts this navigation during a considerable portion of the year ; but again, it affords great facili- 
 ties to land-carriage and travelling by means of sledges. There are few good roads, with the ex- 
 ception of that between Petersburg and Moscow, and some other principal lines. Moscow is the 
 principal entrepot of the inland trade. But a great portion of it is carried on by means of annual 
 fairs, — the most remaikable of which is that of Niznei-Novgorod, the centre of the immense sys- 
 tem of inland navigation we have just noticed, situated at the confluence of the Oka with the 
 Volga. This fair, which begins June 29, is frequented by about 300,000 strangers, including many 
 from Western Europe and even the frontiers of China ; and in 1 839, the value of the goods ex- 
 posed was £7,250,000 ; while at twenty-one other principal fairs, the chief of which were those 
 of Irbit, Rouina, Charkov, Kursk, and Rostov, the amount exposed was £8,700,000. 
 
 The External Commerceof Russia is cramped by the prohibitory system of import-duties im- 
 posed tor the protection of her home manufactures ; it is further impeded by the small extent 
 of her available seacoast, and by the obstructions to its navigation for a considerable period of 
 the year by ice. Still, the wants of so vast a population render its amount in the aggregate very 
 
RUS 586 RUS 
 
 Considerable. The principal branch of trade is that with Great Britain, chiefly through the north- 
 ern ports ; that with Italy and Turkey, through the southern ports, ranks next in importance ; and 
 there is also an active intercourse with the neighbouring Baltic states, the Netherlands, France, 
 and the Hanse Towns ; but (except with the United States and Cuba) there is little intercourse 
 with more remote places. Besides her maritime commerce, however, Russia carries on a consid- 
 erable trade by land across her European and Asiatic frontiers. In this way tea and other articles 
 are procured from the Chinese, with whom an exchange of commodities takes place at Kiachta. 
 In 1839, the total value of the exports from Russia was 330,000,000 rubles, or £ 14,780,000 ; and the 
 shipping despatched (exclusive of coasters) amounted to 6582 vessels, 1,184,636 tons; of which 
 only 1051 vessels, 165,920 tons, were Russian. Of the shipping entered, nearly two-thirds were 
 in ballast, arising from the coarse and bulky nature of the exports compared with the imports. 
 
 The British trade took its rise in the reign of Elizabeth, shortly after the discovery (1554), by 
 Richard Chancellor, of Archangel, the port to which it was long confined. Notwithstanding the 
 existing restrictions, it is very extensive, though inconsiderable to what it might become under a 
 system of free trade ; no other countries in the globe being, naturally, better fitted to supply each 
 other's wants. The annual amount of British produce and manufactures (according to the declared 
 value in England) imported into Russia, on an average of the five years ending 1835, was 
 £1,488,980 ; and on an average of the five years ending 1840, £1,765,900. About two-thirds of 
 the whole consist of cotton-twist and yarn : the only other article of any consequence is woollen 
 cloth (nearly £120,000); the remainder is chiefly made up of cottons, machinery, coals, hardware, 
 iron and steel, salt, refined sugar, tin, woollen yarn, ale, and beer. Considerable quantities of indigo 
 (about 1,000,000 lbs.), coffee, cochineal, shellac, logwood, pepper, pimento, raw cotton, quick- 
 silver, rum, tea, wine, and other foreign and colonial products, are likewise supplied by Britain. 
 The returns from Russia embrace all her staple products already described. In 1840, the principal 
 quantities were — 8/0,400 cwts. flax, tow, and codilla ; 598,840 cwts. hemp ; 1 ,115,041 cwts. tallow ; 
 4,517,998 lbs. sheeps' wool ; 1,476,761 lbs. bristles ; 435,511 quarters wheat and oats; 14,441 cwts. 
 hides; 32,288 cwts. skins; 284,160 ells and 3000 pieces linens; 2,567,316 bushels linseed; 12,233 
 lasts tar; besides timber, ashes, rhubarb, rapeseed, and other articles. 
 
 The Russian merchants are divided into three guilds or classes of different degree, to one of 
 which every merchant must belong, according to the nature and extent of his trade, by holding an 
 adequate annual license. And the privilege of trading is granted to foreigners not owing allegiance 
 — 1st, as settled merchants, styled foreign guests ; and, 2d, as travelling merchants, making short 
 residence. There is, besides, the body of petty dealers or trading peasants, divided into four 
 classes of different degree, which are also regulated by annual licenses. The chief other classes are 
 the boors, a kind of slave peasantry, who compose the bulk of the population ; and the nobles. 
 Of the latter, many are extensively engaged in manufactures, in which they employ their boors 
 as workmen. 
 
 The produce in different parts of the country is bought up by travelling dealers, who prepare 
 and transport it for sale to the seaports, frontier towns, and fairs ; where in return they purchase 
 supplies of foreign goods. In the trade with the Baltic ports these dealers lay in their stocks in the 
 interior between October and March, and transport them to the ports during the spring and summer 
 months for delivery, if previously contracted for, to the purchasers, or for chance sale for exporta- 
 tion. The foreign trade is chiefly carried on by wealthy merchants of foreign extraction, partly 
 foreign subjects, including many Germans and British, settled at the seaport and frontier towns, 
 and also at Moscow, whose connexions abroad enable them not only to pay ready money to the inland 
 dealer for the produce they buy of him, but also to make advances thereon without interest at fixed 
 contract prices, 6 or 8 months before delivery, besides granting long credits to the same parties, 
 and other inland buyers in selling to them goods imported or received on consignment. (Clark's 
 Russia Trader's Assistant.) 
 
 Baltic Ports. 
 
 St Petersburg, the magnificent capital of the empire, founded by Peter the Great in 1703, is 
 situated in hit. 59° 56' N., long. 30° 19' E., on the banks and islands of the Neva, near its mouth, 
 at the E. extremity of the Gulf of Finland. Pop. in 1839, 476,000. It excels all the other cities 
 in manufactures and commerce, though its navigation is closed by frost generally from November 
 until May. Above 12,000 barks annually arrive from the interior with articles for consumption and 
 shipment. In 1839, the principal exports were — 239,<I00 poods flax (not half the usual quantity, it 
 may be remarked) ; 2,256,000 poods hemp ; 3,700,000 poods tallow ; 108,000 poods hides ; 824,000 
 poods iron, mostly in bars ; 184,000 pieces sailcloth, ravenducks, and flem ; 5,000,000 archines 
 diaper, drillings, and crash ; 170,000 chetwerts wheat, rve, and oats ; 75,000 poods bristles ; 
 883,000 pieces lath-wood and battens ; 89,000 poods sheeps' wool ; 318,000 poods hempseed oil ; 
 90,000 poods copper ; 195,000 poods cordage ; and 448,000 poods potash : the chief other articles 
 were feathers, hair, isinglass, quills, rhubarb, calf-skins, furs, soap, and candles. In the same year 
 the principal imports were — 280,000 poods cotton wool ; 500,000 poods cotton yarn ; 1 ,260,000 poods 
 sugar, almost all Havannah ; 700,000 poods salt ; madder, indigo, brimstone, alum, gum, man- 
 ganese, ochre, quercitron, dye-woods, and other drugs and drysalteries ; fruit, herrings, lead 
 (300,000 poods), tin, zinc, olive-oil (170,000 poods); silk ribands and handkerchiefs, cambrics, 
 muslins, and tulle ; pepper, rum, tobacco (50,000 poods) ; champagne and other wines ; woollen 
 goods and camlets. And the total value of the exports was £6,050,000, and of the imports, 
 £9.075,000 ; embracing together about two-thirds of the external commerce of the empire. 
 
 Cronstadt, the port of St Petersburg, likewise the principal station of the Russian navv, is situated 
 in an island 22 miles distant, in lat. 59° 59' N., long. 29° 46' E. The mercantile port is safe, 
 deep, and commodious. The channel, higher up, is available only for craft not drawing more than 
 8 or 9 feet. In 1838, the amount of shipping despatched from Cronstadt was 1314 vessels, 261 ,582 
 tons; of which 765 vessels, 173,292 tons, were to Britain; the rest chiefly to the Hanse Towns, 
 Netherlands, Sweden, and Prussia. 
 
 Riga lies in lat. 56° 57' N., long. 24° 6' E., on the Duna, about 7 miles from its embouchure. 
 The port is spacious; the river is also wide; but, having a bar, vessels drawing more than 12 
 or 13 feet have to load and unload the whole or a part of their cargoes at Bolderaa, on its out- 
 side. Pop. 60,000. The navigation is generally closed from December to May. In 1838, the value 
 of the exports was £2,078,000 ; the chief articles being flax, 29,550 tons, £832,900; hemp, 14,000 
 
RUS 587 RUS 
 
 tons, £354,000; linseed, 202,650 quarters, £342,000; grain, chiefly rye, 245,000 quarters, £235,000 
 timber and deals, £152,500. The imports, consisting principally of tropical produce, manufac- 
 tures, and wine, are in value only about one-third that of the exports. In 1838, the amount 
 of shipping despatched was 1348 vessels, 180,968 tons ; of which 468 vessels, 77,220 tons, went to 
 Britain ; the rest principally to Denmark, Netherlands, and Sweden. 
 The chief other Baltic ports are Narva, Revel, Pernau, Libau, and Windau. 
 
 Ports of thjb "White Ska. 
 
 Archangel lies on the Dwina, 30 miles from its mouth, in lat. 64° 32' N., long. 40 s 44' E. Pop. 
 25,000. It was the only Russian port accessible to foreigners down to the foundation of Peters- 
 burg ; after which it lost much of its importance, though it is still a place of considerable trade, 
 from its position on the Dwina, a river which, besides its own lengthened course, is connected by 
 canals both with the Volga and the Neva. Its navigation is generally open from the latter part of 
 May to the middle of October. Exports, chiefly rye, oats, timber, flax, hemp, iron, mats, Unseed, 
 potash, tallow, tar, pitch, train-oil, furs, canvass, coarse linen, cordage, and hair. Imports, 
 tropical produce, salt, woollens, cottons, hardware, and herrings. The exports vary considerably 
 in amount according to the demand for corn. In J 838, the shipping despatched amounted to 
 73-7" <j tons, including 55,260 tons to Britain ; the rest chiefly to the Netherlands and Sweden. 
 
 Onega, at the mouth of the river of that name, carries on a similar trade. 
 Ports on the Caspiajt. 
 
 Attracan lies on a small island in the Volga, 30 miles from its embouchure, in lat 46° 21' N., 
 long. 48° 5' E. Pop. 30,000. It is the centre of the extensive fisheries carried on in the Volga 
 and Caspian. The fi=h taken are chiefly sturgeon, carp, and seal, particularly the first ; and above 
 30,000 barrels of caviar, prepared from" sturgeon roes, have been exported in a single year. Astra- 
 can is also the great entrepot of the trade with Persia and the countries east of the Caspian, — 
 transmitting (chiefly through Armenian merchants) leather, furs, iron, copper, and tallow, in 
 exchange for silks, cottons, raw silk, drugs, and carpets. 
 
 Baku, farther S., is the only other Caspian port deserving of notice. 
 Ports of the Black Sea and Sea of Azof. 
 
 Odessa lies in Cherson, on the N. coast of the Black Sea, lat. 46° 28 / N., long. 30° 43' E., in a 
 fine bay, with sufficient depth almost to the shore for the largest vessels ; it besides possesses a 
 harbour, with accommodation for 200 ships. Pop. 63,000. Although now ranking next to Petersburg 
 in importance, it has grown up almost wholly since 1794. From the year 1817 it has been a free port, 
 receiving its imports, which consist chiefly of tropical produce, oil, wine, spirits, timber, cotton- 
 twist and raw cotton, silks, woollens, and other manufactured goods, within a certain enclosed 
 space, exempt from duty. Odessa, from its advantageous situation and privileges, is the great 
 emporium of the produce of S. Russia destined for exportation. Its principal staple is wheat, of 
 which about 1,000,000 chetwerts arrived on an average of the three years ending 1840; and the 
 average prices of the best, free on board, in the same period, was 34s. 6<L per quarter ; and it is 
 rarely under 25s. or 28s. It is mostly brought from the Ukraine in carts, owing to the difficult 
 navigation of the Dnieper and Dniester. In 1839, the exports consisted of— 1 ,210,232 chetwerts 
 of wheat ; about 200,000 chetwerts rye, oats, &c ; 155,000 chetwerts linseed ; 118,000 poods wool ; 
 and 223 192 poods tallow; the whole, with hides, iron, copper, wax, caviar, potash, beef, furs, 
 cordage, sailcloth, butter, isinglass, and other articles, amounting in value to 48,636,350 paper 
 rubles, or £2,180,000. The chief intercourse is with Leghorn, Genoa, Malta, Constantinople, 
 Marseilles, and Britain. Its navigation is much less interrupted by ice than Taganrog. In 1838, 
 the amount of shipping despatched (exclusive of about 660 coasters) was 781 vessels, 206,588 tons ; 
 and the amounts since have been still more considerable, 
 
 Taganrog lies in the If. E. part of the Sea of Azof, in lat 47° 12 7 N., long. 38° 56' E. Pop. 
 17,0ii0. Its roadstead is so shallow that even ships of moderate burden require to be lightened at 
 Kertsch or Feodosia ; and its navigation is generally stopped by ice from November to March. 
 Mill, its advantageous situation for intercourse between the provinces on the Den and the Donetz 
 and foreign countries, and its vicinity to the Volga and the Caspian, render its trade very consid- 
 erable. Exports, corn, principally wheat ; with tallow, hides, cordage, linens, iron, and hardware 
 from Tula, copper, wax, and caviar. The imports are trifling. The chief intercourse is with Turkey 
 and Italy. Ships liable to quarantine being prohibited from entering the Sea of Azof, much of 
 the foreign trade is conducted through the medium of coasting vessels. About 60,000 tons of 
 shippingare despatched annually. 
 
 The other ports of 8. Russia are Kertsch, Feodosia, and Eupatoria in the Crimea ; Marioupol 
 on the Sea of Azof ; Ismail and Reni on the Danube ; and Redut-Kale on the coast of Circassia. 
 
 Measures, Money, Banks, Finances, &c. 
 
 The tchetvert or chetwert, com measure, of 
 2 osmines, 4 payaks, 8 tchetveriks, 32tchetvert- 
 kas, or 64 garnfetz, = 5-77 Imp. bushels ; and 
 100 chetwerts = 72-13 Imp. quarters, though at 
 St Petersburg sometimes reckoned at 70i : the 
 last is 16 chetwerts. 
 
 The pound of 32 loths, 96 zolotniks, or 6528 
 
 Measures and Weights. 
 
 The British or Imperial foot and inch are in 
 u;e ; also the Dutch or Rhineland foot, inch, 
 and palm ; the Russian foot = 1375 Imp. inches; 
 the Moscow foot = 1317 Imp. inches ; the ar- 
 chine, cloth measure, of 16 verchoks, = 28 Imp. 
 inches, and 100 archines = 77'77 Imp. yards ; 
 
 the sagene or fathom is 3 archines, or 7 Imp. I grains, = 6318J troy grains, and 100 Ri 
 feet. The verste or mile of 500 sagenes, or 1500 ' lbs. = 90-26 lbs. avoirdupois ; the pood of 40 
 vcbines, = 3500 Imp. feet, = 5 Imp. furlong3, j Russian lbs. = 36 lbs., 1 oz., 11 drams avoirdu- 
 *2 poles, and 2 feet ; and 104 verstes = 1 degree pois, but commonly estimated at 36 lbs. only ; 
 of the meridian nearly. and 10 poods = 1 berkovetz : the Nuremberg 
 
 The deciatine, land measure, of 2400 square i pound, used by apothecaries, =5527 troy grains: 
 •agenes = 2 Imp. acres, 2 roods, 32 perches. the Dutch carat, used in weighing precious 
 
 The vedro, liquid measure, of 100 tcharkeys, ! stones, = 3J troy grains nearly. 
 = 270 Imp. ga'lons, and 1<0 vedros = 270*45 j Gold and silver are weighed with the Russian 
 Imp. gallons ; the anker contains 2 stekars or 3 pound, as above ; and their fineness is expressed 
 vedros, and the oxhoft contains 6 ankers. in zolotniks anddolis ; the pound or other weight 
 
KUS 
 
 58tt 
 
 uvs 
 
 being divided into 96 zolotniks, and the zolotnik 
 into 96 dolis. i 
 
 Tlie preceding are the official measures and 
 weights of Russia, and they are in general use 
 throughout the empire, except in the recently 
 acquired possessions, and in a few places where 
 old systems continue to be partially employed : 
 Of the latter the chief are the following : — 
 
 Riga.— 100 ells, each of 2 feet, = 59*95 Imp. 
 Yards ; and 13 ells = 10 Russian archines nearly. 
 The hogshead is 6 ankers, 30 viertels, or 180 
 stoofsj and 100 stoofs ■= 2868 Imp. gallons. 
 The last of oats is 60 loofs ; the last of wheat, 
 b --rlev, and linseed is 48 loofs ; the last of rye is 
 45 loofs ; and 100 loofs = 23*45 Imp. quarters, 
 or 33i chetwerts nearly. The shippond is«20 
 lispohds,or400lbs. ; and 100 lbs. of Riga = 92-16 
 lb* avoirdupois; or 39 Riga lbs. = 1 Russian 
 p >od nearlv. The mark - 3226 troy grains. 
 
 Poland.— The ell or lokciof 2 feet or 24 inches 
 a 2268 Imp. inches ; and 100 ells = 63 Imp. 
 yards. The mile, 20 to the degree, = 6076 Imp. 
 yards. The morgen, or acre of 300 perches, = 
 1.384 Imp. acre ; and 30 morgens = 1 wloka. 
 The garniec, liquid measure, of 4 kwartas, or 16 
 kwaterkas, = 4 French litres, or 3h Imp. quarts 
 nearly; and 100 garniecs = 88 Imp. gallons: 
 the becsksa is 25 garniecs. The Warsaw korsec, 
 corn measure, of4cwiercs, 32 garniecs, or 128 
 kwartas, = 3*52 Imp. bushels ; and 100 korsecs 
 = 44*02 Imp. quarters. The pound of 16 ounces, 
 32 loths, or 128 drachms, = 6259 troy grains ; 
 and 100 Polish lbs. = 89*41 lbs. avoirdupois ; the 
 stone is 32, and the centner 160 Polish lbs. Bul- 
 lion is weighed by the Warsaw mark, = 3113 
 troy grains ; but coins by the Cologne mark. 
 
 Monby. 
 
 The integer of account is the silver ruble, 
 which is divided into 100 copecs, and equal in 
 value to 3s. 1 Jd. sterling ; or Ru. 6, cop. 40, = 
 £1. Formerly accounts were kept in paper or 
 bank rubles similarly divided ; but this practice 
 was abolished by an Imperial ukase in 1839, 
 which established the silver ruble as the only 
 legal measure of value throughout the empire. 
 This ukase fixed the exchange of paper into 
 specie at the rate of 350 copecs in paper for 100 
 copecs in silver ; making the paper ruble worth 
 103d. sterling nearly. 
 
 The coins are,— In gold ; imperials of 10 rubles, 
 half-imperials of 5 rubles, double ducats, and 
 ducats ; the only gold coin minted at present 
 is the half-imperial, weight 97$ troy grains, 
 fineness 88 zolotniks, or J.Uhs, and value 16s. 13d. 
 sterling : In platina , pieces of 12, 6, and 3 rubles: 
 In silver ; rubles, poltins or J rubles, polpoltins 
 or i rubles, double grive of 20 copecs, single- 
 grive of 10 copecs, and pieces of 15 and 5 copecs ; 
 these are minted at the rate of 223 rubles of the 
 fineness of 83^ zolotniks, from the Russian pound 
 of fine silver : In copper ; pieces of 2, 1, and \ 
 copecs. 
 
 The gold coins are directed, by the ukase of 
 1839, to be received and paid in all government- 
 offices, with an agio of 3 per cent. Thus, the 
 half-imperial of 5 rubles is reckoned at 5 rubles 
 15 copecs in silver. 
 
 Days of grace, 10 for bills after date, and 3 for 
 bills after sight. The Julian Kalondar, or Old 
 Style, is still used throughout the empire. 
 
 Poland. — Accounts are stated in florins (zlots) 
 of 30 gros, each of 10 fen. The polish florin, 
 being valued at the rate of 84 to the Cologne 
 
 mark of fine silver, is equal 5|d., but is common- 
 ly estimated at 6d. sterling. 
 Banks. 
 
 Hie Imperial Assignation Bank, opened in St 
 Petersburg and Moscow, 1770, and converted 
 into a government establishment, 1786, has 
 branches in all the principal towns, and circulates 
 the national paper-money, sometimes called 
 bank assignats, the amount of which outstand- 
 ing, January 1, 1839, was 595,776,310 rubles = 
 £28,370,300. The. notes for 100, 50, and 25 
 rubles are on white paper ; those for 10 rubles 
 on pink paper ; and those for 5 rubles on blue 
 paper. The proportional value of this paper 
 money to silver is fixed at 3 J to 1, as already 
 noticed. 
 
 According to official accounts, the capital of 
 this bank, January 1, 1839, was £1,386,465; 
 the amount of their deposits, belonging to- pri- 
 vate parties, £6,488,938, and to government 
 offices, £15,777,421, including £10,350,630 to 
 the Commercial Bank; and the amount of loans, 
 £23,272,828, due partly to private parties, but 
 chiefly to government offices. 
 
 The Imperial Commercial Bank, founded at 
 St Petersburg in 1818, partly under mercantile 
 direction, has a capital of 30,000,000 paper rubles 
 = £1,428,571. It receives deposits of coin and 
 bullion, and has a department for transferring 
 credits on the principle of the Bank of Hamburg. 
 It is also a bank of discount, and makes advances 
 upon merchandise of home production. Its pro- 
 perty is protected against taxation, sequestra- 
 tion, or attachment ; and subjects of countries 
 with which Russia may be at war are entitled at 
 all times to receive back their deposits. The 
 bank has branches in all the principal commer- 
 cial towns ; and in 1838, the gross amount of its 
 operations was £60,240,917- 
 
 There are likewise two Loan Banks ; — one 
 established for the nobility, and another, a 
 Lombard, for advancing money on pawn and 
 otherwise, — the profits of which belong to the 
 Foundling Hospital of St Petersburg. 
 Finances. 
 
 The Revenue accounts are not published, 
 but its annual amount is estimated at about 
 380,000,000 paper rubles,or£ 17,000,000; of which 
 40,000,000 rubles are derived from a capitation 
 tax of 4 rubles a-head on all male boors belonging 
 to individuals, and on some descriptions of free- 
 men ; 90,000,000 from the obrok or rent, paid I y 
 all male boors on the crown estates ; 92,000,000 
 from customs duties ; 100,000,000 from spirit 
 duties ; salt monopoly, 10,000,000 ; crown mines, 
 16,000,000; tax of 1| per cent, on the declared 
 capital of merchants, 8,000,000 ; seignora.tre on 
 coin, 8,000,000; stamps, licenses, and similar 
 imposts, 7,000,000 ; and miscellaneous items, 
 9, (iio, 000 rubles. The taxes are partly farmed. 
 Of the expenditure very little is known. 
 
 The Rational Debt amounted, January 1, 1839, 
 exclusive of the bank assignats in circulation, 
 to 935,146,592 rubles = £44,530,790 ; consisting 
 partly of terminable, and partly of interminable 
 debts, at 5 and 6 per cent. Of the latter, there 
 were redeemed, up to 1839, by the Commission- 
 ers for the Discharge of Debts, £6,442,964. A 
 considerable portion of the debt was contracted 
 in Amsterdam and London ; the agents in the 
 former place being Hope and Company, and 
 in the latter, Messrs Rothschild and Baring 
 Brothers. Transactions in the foreign debt are 
 generally effected at the fixed exchange of 3s. Id. 
 per silver ruble. 
 
 RUSSIA LEATHER (Ger. Juften. Rus. Juft, Youft), the tanned hides of oxen, 
 manufactured in a manner peculiar to that country. It is soft, has a prominent 
 
 frain, considerable lustre, and peculiar odour. In colour it is generally red or 
 lack ; the former is much esteemed for binding books, and making articles where 
 
RYE :',89 SAG 
 
 a fine durable leather is required ; the latter is chiefly in demand in Russia for shoe 
 and boot making. Both kind-:, when genuine, throw out a peculiar odour, occa- 
 sioned it is said by their being tanned with larch bark, mixed with spirits of tar. 
 
 RYE (Dan. Rug. Do. Rog. Fr. Seigle. Ger. Roa;:cn. Rus. Rosch, Sel, Jar), 
 a species of grain (Seca/e cereale) resembling wheat. It is the bread-corn of Ger- 
 many and Russia ; but in this country it is comparatively little cultivated, though 
 in 17(55 it is supposed to have been consumed in England by about one-seventh part 
 of the population. It is now raised chiefly in Northumberland and Durham ; 
 though in the latter it is rarely grown alone, but mixed with wheat, in which form 
 it is called mas/in. In Scotland it is sown in various places, particularly on poor 
 moorish soils in elevated districts, for which it is well adapted. In Orkney and 
 Argyllshire it is used exclusively for the manufacture of straw plait. 
 
 s. 
 
 SABLE (Fr. Zibeline. Ger. Zobel. Rus. Sobal), a species of weasel (Mustela 
 zihellina), celebrated for the fine quality and rich colour of its fur, the hairs of 
 which turn with equal ease in every direction. This animal is a native of North- 
 ern Europe and Siberia. In Samoieda, Yakutsk, Kamtschatka, and Russian 
 Lapland, it is found of the richest quality and darkest colour. [Furs.] 
 
 SADDLES and Harness are made in "all the towns of the United Kingdom, but 
 the chief seat of the manufacture is London. A progressive increase has of late 
 years taken place in the foreign demand for these articles ; and the declared value 
 of the annual exports is now nearly £100,000. They are sent chiefly to the West 
 aud East Indies, and in smaller parcels to Australia", Cape of Good Hope, Spain, 
 Brazil, and other countries. S 
 
 SAFFLOWER (Fr. Cartame. Ger. Safflor. It. Zaffrone), the flowers of an 
 annual plant (Carthumus tinctorius) growing in Egypt and the warmer parts of 
 Asia, Europe, and America. They are of an orange-red colour, and are brought to 
 this country in a dried state, for the sake of a dye which is extracted from them. About 
 5000 cwts. are annually imported, which, with the exception of from 300 to 500 cwts. 
 from the United State's, are brought almost wholly from the East Indies. About 
 half this quantity is entered for home consumption. Safflower is chiefly used for 
 dyeing silk ; producing different tints of red and orange according to the altera- 
 tives employed in combination. It also forms the basis of rouge. The dye is 
 sometimes made into cakes, termed stripped safflotcer. S 
 
 SAFFRON (Fr. Safran. Ger. Saffran. It, Zafferano. Sp. A zaj ran) consists of 
 the summits of the pistils of the Crocus sativus, a bulbous plant, found in various 
 parts of the S. of Europe and Asia, and cultivated near Saffron Walden in Essex. 
 The pistils are generally dried and compressed into firm cakes, but the finest, called 
 hag saffron, consists of the pistils merely dried. Cake saffron should be chosen fresh, 
 neither dry nor very moist, close, of a fiery orange red colour, and an acrid diffusive 
 odour. It should be preserved in a bladder within a tin box. The English saffron is 
 superior to any that is imported. It is used as a colouring substance, and to a small 
 extent in medicine. Meadow saffron is a bulbous plant (Colchicum autumnale) of 
 a different kind, the roots and seeds of which are also employed medicinally. S 
 
 SAGAPENUM, a gum resin, supposed to be a kind of assafoetida (Ferula 
 Persica). It is sometimes agglutinated in masses of various sizes, but ought to 
 consist chiefly of whitish shining grains, tenacious, and, when softened by heat, 
 very viscid, having a smell resembling gum ammoniac, and a taste like assafoetida. 
 It is inflammable, but less soluble in alcohol than in water. Sagapenum is used 
 in medicine, holding a kind of middle place between assafoetida and galbanum. It 
 is imported from Alexandria. 
 
 SAGO, a farinaceous alimentary substance, obtained from the pith of several 
 species of palm, found in the Eastern Islands and S. E. of Asia, The quantity 
 yielded by one tree is very considerable, sometimes 500 or 600 lbs. The pith is 
 excavated, separated from the filaments in water, and reduced to a pulp, which is 
 baked into cakes, and in this state forms a principal article of food in the Eastern 
 Islands. That which is imported, however, occurs in the form of grains, from 
 having been passed through a coarse si ve, when half dry, upon hot plates of iron. 
 Of this granulated kind there are two varieties — pearl sago, in small, hard, semi- 
 transparent grains, about the size of a pin's head ; and the common or brown sago, 
 in larger grains, about the size of pot barley. Both are inodorous, with an in- 
 sipid taste. In many of its properties ssgo resembles starch. It is chiefly used 
 as a light nutritive diet for children and invalids. 
 
SAI 590 SAL 
 
 The best sago is the produce of Siak in Sumatra ; that of Borneo is next ; and 
 the produce of the Moluccas, though greatest in quantity, is lowest in estimation. 
 The great emporium of the trade is Singapore. The annual consumption of this 
 country— in 1820 only 1400 cwts.— is now upwards of 55,000 cwts., arising mainly 
 from the reduction of the duty from 74s. 8d. to Is. per cwt. S 
 
 SAILCLOTH or CANVASS (Du. Zeildoek. Fr. Toile a voile. Ger. Segeltuch. 
 Tt. Canevazza, Lona. Rus. Parussina. Por. & Sp. Loua), a coarse strong fabric, 
 woven of hemp or flax. It is made in bolts, each of 28 ells or 35 yards ; and the 
 qualities are numbered from No. 1, the strongest, used for storm sails, to No. 8, 
 employed for the smallest ones, such as small studding sails, &c. Dundee is the 
 chief seat of this manufacture in Britain. S 
 
 ST HELENA, a small island of the S. Atlantic Ocean, subject to Britain. 
 
 This unimportant island, which is only about 10J miles in length by 6i in breadth, derives its 
 interest solely from having been the scene of Napoleon's imprisonment and death (1815-1821 ). The 
 shores are rocky, and the interior is a lofty plateau, with a climate mild but unhealthy. At 
 present it is chiefly used as a place of refreshment for ships proceeding northward ; and its commerce 
 consists in the importation of ship-stores, not exceeding £50,000 a-year. The only town and port 
 is Jamestown, in hit. 15° 15' S., long. 5° 46' W. , about 570 leagues N.W. from the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 SAL AMMONIAC. [Ammonta.] 
 
 SALE is a contract by which the proprietor of some valuable commodity en- 
 gages to transfer his property therein to another person, in consideration of a sum 
 of money, called the price. The person who sells is called the vendor or seller, he 
 who buys the vendee or purchaser. The essentials of the contract are — that there 
 be a subject, that there be a price ascertained or ascertainable through some means 
 agreed on, and that the parties be capable of contracting. The parties must be at 
 one as to the subject ; for where A intends to sell malt, and B thinks he is pur- 
 chasing corn, whatever claims may lie between the parties, there is no sale. If 
 the agreement be founded on a fraud, it is void. The most ordinary description of 
 fraud is deception or misrepresentation as to the state of the property. If the pur- 
 chaser is aware, however, that a statement is a misrepresentation, it would appear 
 that he is bound to the bargain ; for the fraud, though intended, has not been his 
 inducement to purchase. Stipulations that sales shall not be void through mis- 
 statements, and that the property must be taken with all faults, seem only to 
 cover ordinary defects, but not to protect the purchase in the case of deliberate 
 fraud. Where goods are sold by sample, they must correspond in quality. Con- 
 cealment may be a fraud, as well as misstatement ; as, where a picture is sold 
 among others which have belonged to an eminent connoisseur, the purchaser being 
 led into the mistake that it belonged to his collection. It is a fraud to take advantage 
 of imbecility or inebriety. " It seems to have been formerly held, even in equity, that 
 a party entering into a contract when in a state of intoxication, was not entitled 
 to relief, unless some fraud or contrivance had been practised by the other party ; 
 but probably the contract would now be held void if the defendant could show 
 that he was so drunk at the time that he did not know what he was doing, although 
 the drunkenness was entirely his own act " (Morton, 135). There may be fraud 
 on the side of the purchaser, which will vitiate the sale ; but his side of the contract 
 does not admit of so many varieties of deception ; and it is very seldom that his 
 act can be shown to have affected the foundation of the contract. If a man pur- 
 chase goods, and, having money sufficient to pay for them, spends the money 
 otherwise, in the full knowledge that he has no other resource from which they 
 can be paid, it is undoubtedly a fraud ; but the contract is completed before it is 
 done. There may, however, be circumstances showing a direct fraudulent design 
 at the time of the purchase ; as, where payment is given in a fictitious bill or in 
 a draft on a banker with whom the purchaser has no funds. In such a case, 
 money or its equivalent being the consideration on which the vendor agrees to sell, 
 and worthless paper being substituted, the contract is void ; and if the goods have 
 changed owners, they may be reclaimed. When a fraud is discovered, if the party 
 wishes to be rid of the bargain, he ought to take immediate steps for recovering 
 what he has parted with ; if he endeavour in the mean time to get the bargain 
 otherwise performed, he will probably involve himself in a new contract. Thus, 
 in the case of a fictitious draft, if the seller, instead of re-demanding the goods, 
 were to endeavour to get payment for them, he would be held merely as placing 
 the contract on a different footing. A sale procured by force is vitiated. Sales 
 involving a fraud against third parties, for immoral purposes, and contrary to 
 public policy, are void. [Contract.] 
 
 There are certain requisites of the article sold, generally termed Implied 
 warranties, in opposition to Express warranties, which are explained below. There 
 
SAL 591 SAL 
 
 can be no implied warranty, however, as to the general qualities of the article. 
 Of these it is the purchaser's duty to satisfy himself. In ordinary language, 
 " his eye is his merchant ;" and implied warranties resolve themselves into 
 two conditions,— 1st, That the subject is the vendor's own and at his free dis- 
 posal ; and, 2d, That it is what he sells it for. A thing stolen or found is not 
 at the lawful disposal of the thief or finder, or of any person deriving right 
 through them ; but in England there is an exception in favour of a fair purchase* 
 in market ocert or in open market. In the city of London, every day except 
 Sunday is a market day ; and every shop or place in which goods are exposed for 
 sale isthe market, in as far as respects the kind of goods there sold. A wharf 
 in London is not a market overt. In Bristol, and wherever a special custom to 
 that effect is established, shops are market overt for their particular commodities ; 
 but in the country, generally, market overt is only held on particular days, and in 
 a particular spot." A sale in a backroom or warehouse, or in a room shuttered up, 
 or during the night-time, will not give the protection of market overt ; and if the 
 purchaser is aware of the bad title, the sale is vitiated, wherever it takes place. 
 The doctrine of market overt does not extend to Scotland. There " the possessor of 
 goods which have been stolen by him, could not make a valid sale of them in any 
 circumstances, because by our law no such privilege is attached to sales in open 
 market as in England ; and the seller never having had a title to the property of the 
 goods sold in himself, could not give such a title to a purchaser " (Brown on Sale, 
 29). As to the other implied warranty, that the subject is what it is sold for, it is 
 now no longer law that the amount of the price infers a warranty that the goods 
 shall be of a certain quality. Where it is consistent with commercial practice to 
 specify any particular kind of defect, omission to state it is held a warranty of 
 soundness. Where the article is supplied for a particular purpose, there is an im- 
 plied warranty that it is of the kind applicable to that purpose ; so, when ale is 
 purchased for the West India market, it must be suited to stand the climate ; and 
 if a horse is purchased for riding, a draught horse, however valuable, will not be 
 a fitting substitute. Where a bargain is annulled on such a ground, however, it 
 must be distinctly known that the special purpose was understood between the 
 parties, and that the buyer was ignorant that what he has purchased is unsuitable. 
 Where a warranty is express, the sale is vitiated if it prove false, whether the pur- 
 chaser is aware of its falsehood or not. 
 
 Form. — The essentials of sale are— that the parties consent to the bargain ; and, 
 in the general case, evidence of that consent completes the transaction. In some 
 cases, however, the law has required certain formalities, without which no sale 
 takes place. Real property cannot be sold in any part of the kingdom without the 
 intervention of writing. The Registration Act provides specifically a form, which can- 
 not be departed from, in the vendition of ships, which will be found fully set forth 
 in the abridgment of that act. In other respects, the contract of sale is in Scotland 
 open to verbal evidence of consent : in England, however, it is regulated by the 
 Statute of Frauds, 29 Ch. II. c. 3, as follows :— By § 17, " no contract for the 
 sale of any goods, wares, and merchandises, for the price of £10 or upwards, shall 
 be good, except the buyer shall accept part of the goods so sold, and actually receive 
 the same, or give something in earnest to bind the bargain, or in part of payment ; or 
 that some note or memorandum in writing of the said bargain be made and signed by 
 the parties to be charged by such contract, or their agents, thereunto lawfully author- 
 ized." By 9 Geo. IV. c. 14, § 7, this section is extended to sales, " notwithstanding 
 the goods may be intended to be delivered at some future time, or may not, at the 
 time of such contract, be actually made, procured, or provided, or fit or ready for 
 delivery, or some act may be requisite for the making or completing thereof, or 
 rendering the same fit for delivery." Sales by auction are ruled by the statute. 
 [Auction.] " It is said that a sale of stock is within the statute, though this has 
 been doubted, because there can be no actual delivery " (Morton, 53). It would 
 appear that sales of shares in public companies are not within the statute. The 
 delivery must be accompanied by acceptance on the part of the purchaser ; so, where 
 one ordered several articles in a shop, some of which he marktd with a pencil, 
 while others were measured in his presence, and in pursuance of his directions 
 the whole were sent to his house, but he refused to receive them, it was no sale 
 (Astey c. Emery, 4 M. § S., 262). Where two distinct kinds of goods are purchased, 
 delivery and acceptance of part of one kind will not affect the whole. Constructive 
 delivery may take place as to bulky articles, e. g. by delivery of the key of the ware- 
 house, or by marking the purchaser's name on the goods. It is not sufficient de- 
 livery, however, that goods are measured or even set apart. Delivery to an agent of 
 
SAL 592 SAL 
 
 the purchaser, such as a carrier, if with the purchaser's knowledge and assent, ia 
 sufficient. Earnest is another alternative. It must consist of the giving away of 
 something valuable, and not of a mere sign or ceremony, such as crossing the hand 
 with a shilling. Another criterion by the act, is a written note or memorandum of the 
 bargain, signed by the parties or their agents. Much latitude is allowed in inter- 
 preting this provision. The meaning of a variety of documents may be taken con- 
 jointly to prove a sale ; but parole evidence will not be admitted to control such 
 meaning, though it may be employed to identify the handwriting. The price ought 
 to appear in the writing, if it has been in the view of the parties. It is not neces- 
 sary that the signatures should be the formal autographs at the end of the docu- 
 ment which generally receive that designation. " I, A B, agree to sell," or " Mr 
 A B has agreed," &c, is a sufficient signature by A B. The names of both parties 
 must appear on the writing ; but the signature requires to be only by the party 
 charged. An agent signing need not be authorized in writing. [Principal and 
 Agent.] An auctioneer is an agent in the meaning of 'the statute. [Auction.] 
 
 Delivery. — According to Blackstone, " as soon as the bargain is struck, the pro- 
 perty of the goods is transferred to the vendee " (ii. 448). The seller is after that 
 their mere custodier ; and if they perish their loss falls on their new proprietor, 
 viz. the purchaser. In Scotland a different doctrine is followed, in pursuance of 
 the civil law. There " the property of the thing sold is not transferred from the 
 vendor to the vendee by the mere operation of the contract. . . . Delivery is 
 necessary to change the property " (Brown, 3). The distinction, however, is little 
 more than nominal. In England, the seller retains a lien on the thing sold for 
 the price, and thus obtains the remedy which he has in Scotland by continuing 
 to be the proprietor ; and in both countries, goods continuing in possession of the 
 vendor after he becomes bankrupt, accrue to the benefit of his creditors. The 
 removal of the goods, at however short a period before bankruptcy, will be suffi- 
 cient to take them out of the bankrupt estate. Symbolical delivery will be sufficient 
 in the case of bulky articles, but it must be of a more distinct nature than the 
 sort of delivery required by the Statute of Frauds to complete the contract. Trans- 
 fer of the name in the books of a wharfinger, the assignment of a bill of lading, or 
 of any sort of transfer-ticket, is delivery. It would appear that a marking of the 
 purchaser's initials will not transfer the goods in the seller's warehouse ; but that 
 such an act of appropriation as bottling wine in the premises of the seller, and 
 sealing the bottles with his (the buyer's) seal, will be sufficient. Possession by an 
 agent is possession by his principal. The seller may specifically appropriate the 
 goods to the purchaser, by giving directions to transmit them, and may thus take 
 them out of his bankrupt estate. When the goods are in the hands of the purchaser 
 or his agent, they become part of his estate, and go to the creditors on his bank- 
 ruptcy. Goods sent on sale and return are part of the estate of the bankrupt 
 consignee, unless they have been left unpacked, and without any right of owner- 
 ship being exercised over them. 
 
 Price, &c— It is the duty of the seller to perform his share of the contract, by 
 delivering the property, or giving the purchaser all facility in taking possession ; 
 and if he refuse, the purchaser may in England bring assumpsit for non-delivery. 
 In doing so he must prove that he has performed all the conditions incumbent on 
 him ; and especially that he has paid, or tendered payment of the price, unless the 
 sale be on credit. In this latter case the vendor has no lien, and cannot refuse 
 delivery, except in the circumstance of the goods being left in his possession until 
 the period of credit expires. It is the duty of the purchaser first to take delivery 
 of the goods, and then to pay for them. The vendor, if he have performed his own 
 share in the contract, may sue him, fos goods bargained and sold, if the property be 
 delivered, in which form he will recover his entire price, or specially upon the 
 contract, in which case ho will recover the amount of damages which he has actually 
 sustained. In Scotland, there is no such distinction in the form and effects of the 
 action, which is, in all cases, an ordinary suit for performance of the contract, or 
 for damages, the result being moulded to the circumstances. If credit is stipulated 
 for, an action for goods sold cannot be brought until the period of it has expired, 
 even though the vendee should have left unperformed some special condition stipu- 
 lated for in the mean time (as, that he shall give a particular bill) or though he have 
 given unequivocal tokens of a fraudulent intention not to pay ; the remedy in such 
 case is an action of trover for recovery of the goods, on the nullity of the contract, 
 as above. If the purchaser show that he has taken the proper means to effect 
 payment, it will lie on the vendor to show that he has not been paid, by proving 
 that the money intrusted to a carrier did not come to hand, or that a bill sent in 
 
SAL 593 SAL 
 
 payment was dishonoured. If the vendor have taken a bill, he gives credit, and 
 cannot recover on the original transaction, until the bill is dishonoured, unless 
 it be fictitious, or be otherwise unavailable, as, for want of a stamp. If the bill 
 be lost, the seller can sue on the original contract, securing the vendee against 
 having to pay the amount to a third party. If the seller have given directions for 
 transmitting the money in a particular manner, the buyer, by complying with the 
 directions, and using all due caution, relieves himself of responsibility, — any loss 
 which may occur falling on the seller ; as, where it was agreed that the purchase- 
 money should be transferred in the books of the mutual banker of the parties, who 
 thereafter failed (Eyles v. Ellis, 4 Bingh. 112). Payment to the proper agent of 
 the seller will release the buyer. When no price is named, the market price, or, 
 as it would seem, the lowest price at which such goods are sold, will be the cri- 
 terion : if the vendee take means to suppress information on this point, the pre- 
 sumption will be in favour of a high price. [Factor. Principal and Agent.] 
 
 {Morton on Vendors and Purchasers. Smith's Mercantile L., 393-431. Brown 
 on Sale.) 
 
 SALEP, an alimentary powder obtained from the dried roots of the Orchis plant 
 {Orchis mascula). It is a common article of diet in Turkey and Persia. 
 
 SALM A, a measure of capacity in Malta, Naples, and Sicily. 
 
 SALMON, a fish (Salmo salar) common in the rivers of Britain, Ireland, and 
 other northern countries. When young it is called " smolt ; " " salmon peal" when 
 a little older but under 2 lbs. weight ; and " grilse" when still larger. When 
 full grown it weighs generally from 6 to 12 lbs. ; but it has been caught so large as 
 83 lbs. Salmon pass the summer in the sea, or near the mouths of the estuaries ; 
 in autumn they instinctively ascend the rivers, and deposit their spawn in the upper 
 and shallow pools about the end of the season. After spawning they are unfit for 
 food. They descend the rivers with the floods at the end of winter or beginning 
 of spring, and ultimately gain the sea, where they quickly recover their con- 
 dition. The first attack made upon them is in the summer months, when they 
 rove close along the coast in quest of the rivers in which they annually cast their 
 spawn. They are then, as well as in the estuaries, caught chiefly by stake- 
 nets ; whereas in the rivers they are taken by coble-nets and other devices. The 
 season of the migration of the salmon varies, depending, as some allege, on the 
 warmth of the waters. The northern rivers are, with little exception, the earliest ; 
 the number caught in the spring is small compared with that taken as the summer 
 advances. 
 
 The progress of population and manufactures has rendered the salmon scarce 
 in England ; but the fisheries in the Tay, Tweed, Don, Dee, and other rivers in 
 Scotland, though less extensive than formerly, still send an annual supply of be- 
 tween 2,000,000 and 3,000,000 lbs. to London ; and they continue plentiful in the 
 Erne, Moy, Bann, Blackwater, Shannon, and nearly all the principal streams along 
 the N. ana W. coasts of Ireland. The fish are carried to town in a fresh state, 
 packed in ice, from Scotland and Ireland ; and the quantity pickled at the fishing 
 stations is now exceedingly small. They are consigned to commission agents, who 
 charge five per cent., and run the risk of all bad debts. The average wholesale 
 price for the season in the metropolis is about lOd. per lb. 
 
 The salmon fishings are private property, and many of them are of great value. 
 Much discussion has frequently arisen regarding the duration of the close time and 
 the modes of fishing in different parts of the rivers. In Scotland the prohibited 
 period extends on the Tweed from October 15 to February 15 ; and north of the 
 Tweed, from September 14 to February 1. Heavy penalties are imposed on the 
 taking of spawn, fry, or unclean fish (24 Geo. II. c. 23 ; 9 Geo. IV. c. 39). S 
 
 SAL PRUNELLA. [Nitrate of Potash.] 
 
 SALT (Du. Zout. Fr. Sel. Ger. Salz. It. Sale. Por. & Sp. Sal. Rus. Sol), 
 the muriate of soda or chloride of sodium of chemists, is a well-known substance, 
 of the highest utility. It crystallizes in cubes. When pure it is not deliquescent. 
 One part is soluble in 2|ths of cold water, and in little less of hot, so that it cannot 
 be crystallized but by evaporation. Specific gravity, 2'125. Salt abounds in various 
 parts of the globe. The waters of the ocean every where contain it, though in 
 different proportions. In England and elsewhere it is found in large masses, or in 
 rocks under the earth. In other instances brine springs afford the means of a 
 ready supply ; and throughout a considerable part of the sandy districts of Africa 
 and Asia, the soil itself abounds with it. Sea-salt is obtained in three ways ; ]st, 
 In countries having a long and hot summer, and a soil neither muddy nor porous, 
 it is formed by solar evaporation from sea-water collected into pools. In this 
 
 2 P 
 
SAL 594 SAL 
 
 manner it is prepared in Spain, Portugal (particularly at St Ubes), France, and 
 various places on the Mediterranean ; in India, Ceylon, Siam,Tonqu in, and China ; 
 and from all these parts, except the last, large quantities are exported. 2d, In 
 some countries, having a similar climate and soil, it is formed by solar evaporation 
 in natural pools which spring-tides have previously filled with sea-water. This 
 kind, chemically purer than that first described, is produced and exported in 
 
 freat quantities from the Cape de Verde Islands ; from Turk's Island, and St 
 lartin's in the West Indies ; and from Kangaroo Island on the S. coast of 
 Australia. In these places it is raked or scraped into a heap, and is at once fit 
 for exportation. These two kinds of salt are known under the name of bay-salt. 
 3rf, Salt is manufactured by artificial heat from sea-water ; but the process is ex- 
 pensive, and the result chemically impure. In this manner considerable quantities 
 were formerly manufactured at Lymington in Hampshire, and various other places 
 in this country ; but, since the abolition of the duties, these works have been either 
 abandoned or greatly reduced. 
 
 In a commercial point of view, perhaps the most important source of supply 
 consists of rock-salt and brine-springs. In England, the brine-springs and beds 
 of rock-salt are of such extent as to be alone sufficient to supply the whole world 
 for an indefinite period. They are situated chiefly at Northwich and other places 
 contiguous to the river Weaver in Cheshire, and at Droitwich in Worcestershire. 
 In these places the brine-springs, from which by far the largest supply of salt is 
 obtained,have been worked from a very remote era ; but the discovery and working of 
 the fossil salt are comparatively of modern date. The produce of both kinds, however, 
 has been of late years much increased ; and the English salt-trade is now an ob- 
 ject of great national importance. Besides the immense home consumption, upwards 
 of 12,000,000 bushels, exceeding in value £200,000, are annually exported, chiefly 
 to the United States, Canada, Russia, Prussia, Germany, Holland, Denmark, Bel- 
 gium, and the western coast of Africa. Salt is of most extensive use as a preservative 
 of food and as a condiment ; as a source of soda, muriatic acid, and chlorine ; and 
 for various agricultural and horticultural purposes. Its comparative value is de- 
 termined by its purity and its fitness for use. That kind which possesses most 
 eminently the combined properties of hardness, compactness, ana perfection of 
 crystals, will be best adapted to the purpose of preserving provisions, because it will 
 remain permanently between the different layers, or will be very gradually dissolved 
 by the fluids that exude from the several substances ; thus furnishing a slow but con- 
 stant supply of saturated brine. On the other hand, for the purpose of preparing the 
 pickle or of striking the meat, the smaller-grained varieties answer equally well, 
 or, on account of their greater solubility, even better, provided they be equally pure. 
 The tax on salt in Britain was formerly so high as 15s. per bushel ; but in 1823 it 
 was reduced from that rate to 2s. ; and in 1825 it was wholly repealed. The retail 
 price of the mineral has in consequence been reduced from 4^d. to jd. per lb. S 
 
 SALTPETRE. [Nitrate of Potash.] 
 
 SALVAGE, in the law of shipping, is a remuneration to those who, by gratui- 
 tous exertion or risk, save a ship or cargo, or any portion of them, from destruction 
 by the elements, or from loss by capture. It is not due to those who are bound by 
 law and contract to exert themselves on the occasion ; and thus the master and 
 crew can have no salvage for services in protecting their own vessel. When a 
 vessel is captured, salvage is due on her recapture. Salvage is due, moreover, in 
 cases where accident rather than exertion or risk has enabled the party to preserve 
 the property ; as, where portions of ship's apparel, anchors, or merchandise, are 
 picked up at sea. Passengers are not in the general case entitled to any reward 
 for assistance in saving the vessel, in the safety of which their own lives, or at 
 least their comfort and convenience, are embarked ; but the passenger is not bound 
 like the mariner to stick to the vessel ; and if he remain when he could depart, 
 and perform gratuitous and perilous services, he is entitled to a consideration. 
 " If the preservation of life can be connected with the preservation of property, 
 whether Dy accident or not, the Court of Admiralty can take notice of it, but has 
 no power of remunerating the mere preservation of life, which must be left to 
 private bounty " {Abbot, 508). There is no rule for estimating the amount of sal- 
 vage in all cases ; nor, from the nature of the claim, does any fixed rule seem 
 capable of being applied. Where the amount is disputed, the jury, or (as in the 
 cases mentioned below) the justices, must consider the whole circumstances, and 
 award accordingly. The master and crew of the vessel — the individuals, in short, 
 who have exerted themselves or incurred personal risk — are those who are primarily 
 entitled to the salvage allowance ; but where their ship has been put in peril, or 
 
SAM 50o SAN 
 
 has suffered from wear and tear, the owners are entitled to a proportional com- 
 pensation. Where third parties interfere to assist in a salvage, there must be a 
 clear case of necessity for their aid, to justify their claim for a share of the salvage- 
 money : but it is a rule that, in case of preservation from an enemy, a vessel of war, 
 if in sight, shares in the salvage. The property actually benefited is charged with 
 the expense ; and so freight is chargeable, if it was earned, and has been preserved 
 by the act of the salvors. 
 
 When property wrecked or abandoned at sea is found and taken possession of, 
 the finder has a lien on it till a reasonable salvage be tendered to him. Where, how- 
 ever, the parties whose right and duty it is to protect the property are present, 
 other parties are not entitled to take possession of it, or to interfere, except as 
 assistants. By an old statute (12 Anne, stat. 2, c. 18), sheriffs, justices, mayors, 
 bailiffs, heads of corporations, constables, head-boroughs, and tithing-men, are 
 bound to give assistance at the call of the commander of a ship in distress on the 
 coast, and to demand assistance from the people in the neighbourhood or from 
 vessels at anchor. By the same act, the salvors in such a case must be paid a 
 reasonable reward within 30 days, — the property saved remaining for security in the 
 custody of the custom-house officers. If the parties disagree, they may name 
 three justices as arbiters. By 26 Geo. II. c. 19, § 5, a similar remedy was given 
 to parties voluntarily giving their services without being commanded by official 
 persons.* In England, the jurisdiction in salvage cases, other than as above, is in 
 the Court of Admiralty, where the service is performed at sea or between high and 
 low water mark (1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 75, § 31). In Scotland, it is in the Court of 
 Session. An act applying solely to England (1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 75) regulates the 
 disposal of wrecked or abandoned property found at sea by pilots and others ; and 
 applies the arrangement stated above of the arbitration or three justices to ques- 
 tions of salvage in such case, and to all disputes respecting remuneration for service 
 done in the preservation of property or life on the coast. There is an appeal to the 
 Court of Admiralty. There is a special statute, making similar provisions for the 
 Cinque Ports (1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 76). There are directions for the sale of goods to 
 meet claims of salvage in the Customs Regulations Act. [Customs, §49.] {Abbot 
 on Shipping, 493-530 ; Statutes quoted.) 
 
 SAMPLE, a small specimen of any kind of merchandise. 
 
 SAN DAL- WOOD, an aromatic wood, much used in India and China for 
 cabinet-work, toys, and perfumes, also in medicine. It is obtained from a small 
 tree (Santalum album), resembling the myrtle, found in Malabar, in Timor, and in 
 the Sandwich and Fijee Islands ; the produce of the first is that in most esteem. 
 White sandal is the exterior part of the tree ; and yellow sandal the interior. The 
 last, which has most hardness and fragrance, should be selected in large pieces : 
 the billet nearest the root, called root sandal, is of superior quality. This commo- 
 dity improves by keeping. 
 
 SANDARAC, a resinous substance procured from a large tree (Callitris quad- 
 rivalvis) found in Temme in Morocco, where it is called arar. It occurs in yel- 
 lowish-white tears, or in small masses ; and is used as an ingredient in varnishes 
 and incense, and, when reduced to a powder, forms the article called pounce. 
 
 SANDWICH or HAWAII ISLANDS, a group situate in the Pacific, betwixt 
 lat. 18° 54' and 22° 15' N., and long. 199° 36' and 205° 6' E. They were discovered 
 by Cook in 1778 ; and consist of 11 islands, of which 7 are inhabited. Population 
 in 1836, 108,000. Government, an hereditary despotism. S 
 
 These islands are of volcanic origin, and in respect of climate differ little from the W. Indies, 
 though they are more temperate. The soil is generally fertile; and the natives mild, honest, 
 docile, and enterprising, having been reclaimed from the barbarous habits which formerly pre- 
 vailed. The islands are favourably situated for trade, being in the route between America and 
 China ; and they have of late become an entrepot for the commerce of the N. W. coast of Ame- 
 rica, as well as a place of refreshment for the whalers in the Pacific. The chief pert is Honoruru, 
 situate in Oahu, where consuls from Britain and the United States reside. It affords facilities 
 for the repairing of ships. Imports — manufactured goods, sheathing copper, ship-stores and 
 provisions, tea, sugar, skins, hides, lumber, furs, pearl-shell, turtle-shell, arrow-root, and cocoa- 
 
 nut oil. Exports — salt and sandal- wood, besides provisions and other supplies to whale-ships, and 
 foreign merchandise re-shipped to California, the Russian settlements, Mexico, the South Sea 
 Islands, Europe, and the United States. In 1835, the value of imports was £95,250; of exports, 
 
 £<)2, (175. The goods imported were brought by 34 vessels, the tonnage being 5623 ; besides which, 
 7" whale-vessels visited the port. A commercial treaty was concluded between Lord E. Russell, 
 captain of the Actaeon,and King Tamehameha III. 
 
 * There is a question whether this is repealed by 6 Geo. IV. c. 105, § 100. There is a like 
 provision in the 37th sect, of the 1 & 2 Geo. IV. c. 75, applicable only to England. 
 
SAP 5C6 SAR 
 
 SAPAN-WOOD, a dye-wood similar to Brazil-wood, but containing much less 
 colouring matter. It is the product of a thorny tree (Ccesalpinia sapan), indigenous 
 to S. India, Siam, Pegu, and the Eastern Islands ; from whence about 16,000 
 bazar maunds were in the year 1838 imported into Calcutta, about one-fourth of 
 which was re-exported to England. 
 
 SAPPHIRE, a beautiful precious stone, and, after the diamond, the most 
 valuable of gems. It occurs crystallized in six-sided prisms, variously terminated, 
 and in rolled masses, which are colourless, or of a blue-yellow or yellowish-green 
 tinge, and transparent or translucent. The most highly prized varieties are the 
 crimson and carmine-red. The stones called oriental ruby, oriental topaz, oriental 
 amethyst, and oriental emerald, are red, yellow, violet, and green sapphires, distin- 
 guishable from the other gems of the same name, without the prefix oriental, by their 
 superior hardness and greater specific gravity. It is found in Pegu, France, and 
 Germany ; but the finest are brought from Ceylon. The sapphire oVeau of jewellers 
 is a transparent iolite from Ceylon. 
 
 SARCOCOLLA, a gum resin produced in N. Africa, Persia, and Arabia, by a 
 shrub, the Pencea sarcocolla. It occurs in small whitish- yellow grains, of a bitter 
 taste, and is celebrated for conglutinating wounds. 
 
 SARDINES, a species of anchovy (Engraulus meletta, Cuv.) common in the 
 Mediterranean. It tapers very much towards the tail, and is of a dark brown 
 colour. Sardines are frequently mixed with anchovies, but they are much inferior. 
 
 SARDINIA, KINGDOM OF, comprises the N. W. part of Italy, bounded N. 
 by Switzerland, E. by Lombardy and Parma, S. by Gulf of Genoa, and W. by 
 France ; also the island of Sardinia in the Mediterranean. Area, 29,102 sq. miles. 
 Population in 1838, 4,650,368. Capital, Turin, an inland city; pop. 114,000. 
 Government, an hereditary monarchy, nearly absolute. S 
 
 Of the continental part, the most extensive and fertile is Piedmont, consisting of the upper basin 
 of the Po, from which, and its affluents, the country, though naturally parched by heat, is so ex- 
 tensively and skilfully irrigated, that it yields a surplus of corn, cattle, French beans, and hemp : 
 its chief other products are wine, fruit, and, above all, silk of the finest quality. Savoy, separated 
 from the preceding by the Alps, is a poor hilly country. And the narrow maritime districts of 
 Genoa and Nice, divided from Piedmont by the Apennines, are also hilly and rocky ; but have 
 a south aspect highly favourablefor the olive. The mineral wealth of these territories has been little 
 explored. Iron, lead, copper, and other metals are said to abound; and marble and alabaster 
 are both plentiful and largely exported. There are some iron-works ; but the principal manufac- 
 tures are those of silk, velvets, and hosiery, mostly consumed in Italy, coarse woollens and linens, 
 canvass, cables, paper, glass, and works of art. 
 
 The island of Sardinia, though exceeded by few regions in natural fertility, is at present the 
 least valuable portion of the kingdom ; both the country and the population being, from a variety 
 of causes, still in a semi-barbarous state. There is, however, a surplus of corn for exportation ; 
 in good years, according to Mr Macgregor's Report on Sicily (p. 71 )> to the amount of 500,000 
 bushels wheat ; 250,000 of barley ; and 370,000 of pease and beans. The chief other products are 
 wine, skins, linseed, flax, olive-oil, wool, and barilla. The fisheries on the coast are of some im- 
 portance, particularly those of coral and tunnies. 
 
 We possess no very recent or authentic account of the maritime commerce of the Sardinian 
 states. It centres in Genoa, which, besides being the great seat of their export and import trade, 
 is the channel through which much of the foreign trade of Switzerland and other neighbouring 
 countries passes, and is, next to Leghorn, the chief entrepot for Mediterranean commerce gene- 
 rally ; to all which facilities are afforded by the abolition of transit-dues on goods passing through 
 the states, low duties on consumption, and the establishment at Genoa of porto- franco, or bonded 
 warehouses. In this way, olive-oil, wheat, sugar, coffee, cottons, woollens, linens, cotton wool and 
 yarn, silks, indigo, salt-fish, drugs, hides, tobacco, wine, cheese, and other principal articles of trade, 
 appear on the public accounts both as imports and exports. In 1835, the maritime imports 
 amounted to £4,800,000 ; the exports to £3,440,000; and the aggregate amount of shipping en- 
 tered was 2927 vessels, 268,109 tons. Of the shipping, 87 vessels, 15,068 tons, were from the United 
 Kingdom, with which a treaty was concluded September 6, 1841, placing the ships of the two 
 states on a footing of reciprocity as to privileges. 
 
 Ports. — Genoa, styled from its magnificent appearance la superba, is advantageously situated in 
 the bay of the same name, lat. 44° 24' N., long. 8° 54' E. Pop. 97,000. The harbour, formed by two 
 moles, is accessible to large vessels. It was in the middle ages the rival of Venice; and its trade 
 is, from the circumstances already noticed, still very considerable. Its chief commercial relations 
 are with Britain, France, the Austrian and Neapolitan states, and Sicily; but it has also an 
 active intercourse with the Russian ports of the Black Sea, from whence wheat, wool, and other 
 articles are imported ; the Levant ; and Brazil, from which sugar, coffee, and other tropical pro- 
 ductions are brought. Its trade is mostly carried on under the national flag, — the Genoese being 
 distinguished for maritime enterprise. In 1835, the value of the imports into the arrondissement 
 of Genoa was £3,840,<>00 ; and of the exports £2,520,000. 
 
 Nice lies about 90 miles S. \V. of Genoa, mar the borders of France, lat. 43° 41' N., long. 7° 17' 
 E. Pop. 34,000. The port, accessible for vessels of 300 tons, is spacious and secure. Imports, 
 com, wine, manufactured goods, salt-fish, and colonials. Exports, olive-oil, fruit, &c. From 
 80,000 to 100,000 tons of shipping enter annually, chiefly national and French. 
 
 Cagliari, in the island of Sardinia, lies in a gulf on its S. side, in lat. 39° 12' N., long. 9° 7' E. 
 Pop. 26,000. There is excellent anchorage, and a pier harbour. Exports, the produce of the 
 island already described ; imports, chiefly manufactured goods and tropical produce. 
 
SAR 597 SAX 
 
 Measures, Money, Finances, && 
 
 Measures and Weights. — In Genoa, the 
 braccio of 2£ palmi = 22-69 Imp. inches ; the 
 canna piccola used by tradesmen = 9 palmi, 
 the canna grossa used by merchants = 12 palmi, 
 and the custom-house canna = 10 palmi. The 
 mezzarola wine measure of 2 barili or 100 pints 
 = 32-67 Imp. gallons ; the oil barile of 4 quarti 
 or 64 quarteroni = 14-23 Imp. gallons. The corn 
 mina of 2 quarti or 96 gombette = 3*31 Imp. 
 bushels. 100 lbs. peso sottile (used for commo- 
 dities of small bulk) = 69-85 lbs. avoird. ; 100 
 lbs. peso grosso = 76*88 lbs. avoird. ; the rottolo 
 = 1 J lb. peso grosso. 
 
 In Turin, the raso or ell ■*= 23-60 Imp. inches. 
 The mile of 800 trabucchi = 2697 Imp. yards ; 
 and the Piedmontese mile = 2/71 Imp. yards. 
 
 In Cagliari, the raso or ell = 21-63 Imp. 
 inches. The restiere, corn measure, of 3 starelli, 
 = 4-04 Imp. bushels. The cantaro of 4 rubbi, 
 or 104 lbs., -= 91 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are now generally stated 
 in Italian livres (or lire nuove) , of 100 centesimi. 
 The lira nuova is a silver coin, equal in value to 
 the French franc, or Sid. sterling. The other 
 coins, since 1827, have also been similar to those 
 of France. 
 
 Prior to 1827, accounts were stated in Genoa 
 in tirefuori banco of 20 soldi or 240 denari ; and 
 5f fuori banco were reckoned equal to 1 pezza 
 of exchange. 5 lire nuove = 6 lire fuori banco. 
 
 The usance of bills from London is 3 months' 
 date. There are no days of grace ; but 30 days 
 
 The giornate of 100 tavole = 33 Imp. roods | are allowed to the holder of a bill to demand 
 nearlv. The brenta of 6 rubbi = 12*41 Imp. payment. 
 
 gallons; the carro of oil is 10 brente. The corn | In Cagliari, accounts are stated in lire of 4 
 sacco of 3 staje = 3*17 Imp. bushels. The pound j reali, or 20 soldi ; and 10 reali, or 2| lire, = 1 
 of U mark = 5693 troy grains ; and 4 rubbi, or scudo, worth about 3s. 7 Id. sterling. 
 100 lbs. = 81*33 lbs. avoirdupois. Finances — The Revenue in 1839 was about 
 
 In Nice, the ell = 46*77 Imp- inches ; the \ £2,960,000 ; and the expenditure nearly the 
 charge, liquid measure, of 12 rubbi, = 20*75 ! same. Debt, £'5,800,000 ; bearing interest at 4 
 Imp. gallons ; the charge, corn measure, of 4 ! and 5 per cent. The credit of this state is high, 
 setiers, = 4-40 Imp. bushels; the quintal of 6 owing to the progressive liquidation of the debt, 
 rubbi or 150 lbs. = 103*14 lbs. avoirdupois. ' and the punctual payment of the interest. 
 
 SARDONYX, a species of agate ; being a variety of onyx, in which the opaque 
 white alternates with a rich deep orange brown, of considerable translucency ; 
 and as this is of rare occurrence, the sardonyx is of greater value. The finest are 
 brought from the East. 
 
 SARSAPARILLA, the root of different species of Smilcuc, an evergreen climbing 
 shrub, growing in the tropical parts of America. It is several feet in length ; about 
 the thickness of a quill, with joints at short distances. The cuticle is brown ; the 
 cortical part or bark, in which the virtues solely reside, is white, gray, or reddish, and 
 of considerable thickness ; the wood and pith are white. It has a glutinous bitterish 
 taste, and no smell. The commercial varieties are — 1st, Honduras, composed of very 
 long roots, often doubled in the bundles ; 2d, Jamaica, distinguished by its red colour, 
 and the presence of its radicles ; M, Brazilian or Lisbon, without radicles, in bundles, 
 and more dressed than the others ; 1th, Caraccas, also much dressed. Sarsaparilla 
 is celebrated for its use in chronic syphilitic, rheumatic, gouty, and cutaneous 
 diseases ; and about 140,000 lbs. are annually entered for home consumption. 
 
 SARSNET, a plain silken fabric, now chiefly employed for linings. 
 
 SASSAFRAS, a tree (Lauras sassafras) found in N. America, Jamaica, and 
 Cochin-China, the root of which is imported for its use in medicine. It occurs in 
 long branched pieces, spongy, of a rusty white colour, a smell resembling fennel, 
 and a sweetish, aromatic, subacrid taste. It yields in distillation a fragrant essential 
 oil, of a whitish-yellow colour, and so ponderous as to sink in water. 
 
 SATIN ( Fr. Satin. Ger. Atlass. It. Raso. Por. Setim\& soft, closely woven, 
 twilled, silken fabric, with a glossy surface. Figured satins are manufactured by 
 means of the Jacquard machine, of the most beautiful textures and patterns. After 
 being taken out of the loom they are dressed by being rolled on heated cylinders, 
 which imparts to them the beautiful lustre for which they are distinguished. 
 Chinese satins are esteemed for the quality they possess of being easily cleaned and 
 bleached ; but in other respects they are inferior to those manufactured in Europe. 
 The finest satins have long been made in Spitalfields. [Silk Manufacture.] 
 
 SATIN-WOOD, a cabinet-wood, well known for its glossy yellow shades. It 
 occurs in logs of 2 feet wide, and 7 or 8 feet long ; but is now little used. 
 
 SAUNDERS-RED, a heavy insipid dye-wood, the product of a useful timber tree 
 (Pterocarpus santalinus), found in Malabar, Mysore, Timor, and Ceylon. It is im- 
 ported occasionally in large billets, of a reddish colour. It communicates a deep 
 red to alcohol, but gives no tinge to water. 
 
 SAWS (Fr. Scies. Ger. S'dgen. It. Seghe. Vor.Serras. Rus.Pi/t. Sp. Sierras), 
 well-known instruments manufactured on a great scale at Sheffield, from whence 
 they are sent to all parts of the world. [Iron Manufactures.] 
 
 SAXONY, an inland German kingdom, lying between the Prussian and Aus- 
 trian states. Area, 5759 sq. miles. Population in 1840, 1,706,276. Capital, 
 Dresden ; pop. 70,000. Government, a constitutional monarchy, with a senate 
 and house of representatives. S 
 
SCA 598 SEA 
 
 The country is traversed by the Elbe, navigable throughout for barges. The S. frontier is mostly 
 formed by the Erzgebirge or Ore Mountains, the undulations and ramifications of which extend 
 over the greater part of the country ; though leaving a level tract along the N. part of the king- 
 dom. Every spot capable of yielding a return is cultivated ; but, except her celebrated wool, no 
 agricultural produce is exported, owing to the great density of the population, which is chiefly 
 engaged in mining, manufactures, and commerce. The principal metals are silver and iron ; with 
 lead, bismuth, arsenic, antimony, cobalt, and manganese : coal also is worked near Dresden. Of 
 manufacturing industry the most important branch is that of cotton, which, as well as the others, 
 has greatly expanded of late years, owing partly to the extraordinary cheapness of labour which 
 has attended the extension of potato cultivation, and partly to the markets of Prussia and other 
 parts of Germany having been opened up to the manufacturers by the Zollverein, which has benefited 
 Saxony beyond any other of its members. [Prusso-German Customs Union.] Most kinds 
 of cotton fabrics are now produced ; printing works are on the increase ; and the rotton hosiery 
 now competes with that of England in the American markets. The chief other manufactures are 
 those of linens and woollens ; but almost every article of luxury or use is made in Saxony, which, 
 in respect of industry and civilisation, is the most advanced of the German states. 
 
 Saxony being now, commercially, united to other states by the Zollverein, we can give few 
 details regarding its individual trade. It consists mainly in exchanging its manufactures, mineral 
 products, and wool, for corn, salt, raw cotton, yarn, silk, flax, hemp, paper, fish, tropical pro- 
 duce, and fancy goods. It centres chiefly in Leipzic, to the fairs of which immense quantities of 
 foreign commodities are likewise brought for the supply of other parts of the Continent. Of these 
 fairs there are three ; — New Year's Fair, which begins January 1 ; Easter or Jubilate Fair, on the 
 third Sunday after Easter ; and Michaelmas Fair, on the Sunday after Michaelmas : the last two 
 are the greatest. Besides merchants from all parts of Europe, these fairs are frequented by all the 
 German booksellers, — Leipzic, after London and Paris, being the chief literary mart of the world. 
 
 lbs. = 113-23 lbs. avoirdupois. The mark = 
 3602 1 troy grains. 
 
 The preceding are the Dresden standards, 
 which are now general throughout the kingdom. 
 
 Money. — The integer of account since January 
 1, 1841, has been the Prussian thaler or dollar 
 of 30 new groschen = 2s. 10|d. 
 
 Finances.— The budget (1840-1842) gave the 
 receipts at 5,500,297 dollars; and the expenses 
 at 5,424,755 dollars. The debt in 1839 was 
 11,250,000 dollars. [Germany.] 
 
 Measures and Weights. — The ell = 22*30 Imp. 
 inches, and 100 ells = 61*96 Imp. yards. The 
 Saxon or police mile of 2000 ruthes = 9914 
 Imp. yards. The morgen or acre of 300 square 
 perches = 1 Imp. acre, 1 rood, 18 poles. The 
 eimer, liquid measure, of 72 kannes, = 14*84 
 Imp. gallons ; the ahm is 2, the oxhoft 3, the 
 fass 5, and the fuder 12 eimers. The corn scheffel 
 = 2*859 Imp. bushels ; and the wispel of 2 mat- 
 ters, or 24 scheffels, = 8*58 Imp. quarters.; the 
 last of wheat or rye contains 6 wispels ; the last 
 of barley or oats, 2 wispels. The centner of 110 
 
 SCAMMON Y (Arab. Sukmoonia. Fr. Scammonee. It. Scammonea), a medici- 
 nal resin, resembling jalap, is the inspissated juice of the root of a plant (Convol- 
 vulus scammonia) indigenous to Syria. Three kinds occur, — Aleppo, the best, in 
 spongy masses, of a glossy dark ash colour, peculiar heavy odour, bitter acrid taste, 
 friable, and readily converted into a light gray powder ; Smyrna, secondary ; and 
 Antioch, of very low quality. Nearly 7000 lbs. are annually consumed in the U. K. 
 
 SCANTLING, a general name for small timbers, such as the quartering for a 
 partition, rafters, purlins, or pole-plates in a roof. All quartering or squared 
 timber under five inches square is called scantling. The same term is used in 
 carpentry, to express the transverse dimensions of a piece of timber ; and in mason- 
 ry, to designate the size of stones, in length, breadth, and thickness. 
 
 SCHEFFEL, a German corn-measure, varying greatly in different places. 
 
 SCHOONER, a vessel generally with two masts, and having all her lower sails 
 fore and aft ones, i. e. in their usual position, in vertical planes passing through 
 the keel : it has small or no topsails. 
 
 SCRIP. [Funds.] 
 
 SCUDO, a coin and money of account in Rome, Sicily, and Malta. 
 
 SCULPTURES. By the act 54 Geo. III. c. 56, copyright is constituted in 
 sculpture, in so far as respects publication by casts. It exists during fourteen years 
 from the first publication ; and, at the end of that time, for another similar period 
 if the artist be alive and have not disposed of his right. The name of the pro- 
 prietor and the date must be marked on each cast or copy before publication. The 
 act 6 Geo. IV. c. 107, prohibits the importation of any sculptures first made in the 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 SEAL, the name of a family of amphibious animals, one species of which, the 
 common seal (Phoca vitulind), frequents the British shores, particularly the north- 
 west of Scotland ; though it is in the Arctic regions that they chiefly abound. The 
 seal is gregarious, and is fond of reposing on ice-fields, — situations where the 
 greatest numbers are killed, chiefly for the oil obtained from their fat or blubber, 
 which is preferred to that of the whale ; though the animal is also valued for its 
 skin, which is used, both with the hair on and when tanned into leather, for a 
 variety of purposes. The seal-fishing is chiefly prosecuted from Newfoundland, 
 Nova Scotia, and the United States ; but whalers always take out seal-clubs as 
 part of their equipment, the animal being most readily despatched by a blow on 
 the nose ; and one ship has been known to obtain a cargo of from 4000 to 5000, 
 
SKA 
 
 5!>9 
 
 SEA 
 
 yielding nearly 100 tuns oil. The gigantic walrus, belonging to the same class, is 
 killed for its ivory tusks, as its carcass yields but a small proportion of oil ; the 
 chase of them, therefore, only constitutes a third-rate object in whaling voyages. 
 
 SEALING-WAX (Fr. Cire a cacheter. Ger. Siegellack) was anciently 
 formed in England of bees-wax and resin ; but since the introduction into 
 European trade of shellac [Lac], the most adhesive of the gum-resins, the finer 
 kinds have been principally composed of that material ; adding camphor to make 
 it ignite freely, and vermilion, lampblack, or some other colouring matter. Coarse 
 wax consists chiefly of common rosin. And there are a variety of intermediate 
 sorts, in which shellac and rosin are blended with colouring and other substances, 
 according to the purposes intended. Spain and Holland were formerly distinguished 
 for their sealing-wax ; but it has long been manufactured in this country, princi- 
 pally in London and Edinburgh. 
 
 SEALS (Fr. Cachets. Ger. Petschafte. It. Sigilli. Por. & Sp. Sellos),for impressing 
 letter-wax, and other soft substances, are usually formed of stone or metal, on 
 which some device is engraved. The finest, composed of precious stones set in gold, 
 are made in London and other towns. But immense quantities formed of stained 
 glass, fixed in gilt copper, are manufactured, both for home consumption and ex- 
 portation, at Birmingham, — the great seat of this kind of bijouterie. 
 
 SEAMEN, persons employed in navigating sea-going vessels. The laws for the 
 regulation of those engaged in the British merchant-service were formerly the sub- 
 ject of numerous statutes, but in 1835 these were consolidated by 5 & 6 Wm. IV. 
 c. 19, which also provided for forming and maintaining a Register of Sea- 
 men. An abstract of that act is given Delow. It includes regulations for the 
 payment of their wages ; but these do not deprive them of their lien on the ship, and 
 other ordinary legal remedies. Their right to receive wages, however, depends, 
 to a certain extent, on the successful termination of the voyage. It is said to be a 
 general rule, that no wages are due where no freight is earned by the vessel, or 
 that " freight is the mother of wages ;" but the conclusion depends on the cir- 
 cumstances which have prevented freight from being earned. Where these have 
 arisen from the acts or negligence of the owners or master, or of the persons with 
 whom they have contracted for a cargo, the wages are not lost. Capture defeats 
 the right of the seamen, which revives on recapture. Entire loss by shipwreck 
 defeats the claim ; but if any part of the cargo is saved, and freight earned by it, 
 the seaman will have a claim for a proportional part of his wages ; and it has been 
 held in England, that mariners are entitled to wages from the proceeds of any parts 
 of the vessel which their exertions are the means of preserving. (Holt's Shipping 
 and Navigation Laws, 18*26, p. 266-294. Abbot on Merchant Ships and Seamen, 
 (6th Edition,) 540-598. Bell's Commentaries, vol. i. p. 509-519.) 
 
 Abstract of the Merchant Seamen's Act, 5 &. 6 Wm. IV. c. 19 (July 30, 1835). 
 
 § 1. After 31st Julv 1835, thefollowing acts, 2&3 
 Anne, c. 6, 2 Geo. II. c. 36, 2 Geo. III. c 31, 
 31 Geo. III. c. 39, 45 Geo. III. c. 81, 37 Geo. III. 
 c. 73, 58 Geo. III. c. 38, 4 Geo. IV. c. 25, 3 & 4 
 Wm. IV. c. 88, and 59 Geo. III. c. 58, repealed. 
 
 § 2. It is not lawful for any master of a vessel 
 trading to parts beyond the seas, or of any Bri- 
 tish registered ship of the burden of 80 tons, to 
 carry to sea any one of his crew (apprentices ex- 
 cepted), without an agreement in writing speci- 
 fying his wages, his capacity, and the nature of the 
 voyage, signed by the master and seaman at the 
 place of shipment. The agreement must be dis- 
 tinctly read over to each seaman before he signs, 
 by or in the presence of the person who attests 
 his subscription. 
 
 § 3. Except as-after provided, every agreement 
 must be in the form of schedule A of the act ; 
 and the owners and the master, or one of them, 
 on reporting his ship's arrival, must deposit with 
 the collector or comptroller of customs a copy 
 of the agreement, attested by the master. In 
 the cases of ships employed in fishing on the 
 coasts, or regularly trading coastwise, and of 
 ships making regular voyages to Jersey, Guern- 
 sey, Alderney, Sark, or Man, or to any port on 
 the continent between the Elbe and Brest, the 
 agreement must be in the form of schedule B ; 
 and an owner must, within 10 days after the ex- 
 piration of every 6 months ending on the 30th 
 
 June and the 31st December in each year, de- 
 posit with the collector or comptroller of the 
 port to which the ship belongs a true copy of 
 every agreement entered into with any part of 
 the crew within the preceding 6 months, attested 
 by his signature. All such copies are legal 
 proof of the contents of the agreement, when 
 produced in evidence on the part of any seaman. 
 
 § 4. The penalty for not entering on the agree- 
 ment is £ 10 for each mariner taken on board ; 
 that for not causing it to be read over, £5 for 
 each ; and that for not depositing a true copy 
 with the collector or comptroller, £50. 
 
 § 5. The agreement not to deprive seamen of 
 their hen upon the ship, or other remedies they 
 are now entitled to ; nor is any covenant con- 
 trary to or inconsistent with this act, or any 
 clause whereby a seaman shall consent to forego 
 the right which the maritime law gives him to 
 wages in the case of freight earned by ships sub- 
 sequently lost, or containing any words to that 
 effect, valid. Seamen are not bound to produce 
 the agreement to sustain their claim. 
 
 § 6. If a seaman who has signed an agreement 
 fail to join, or refuse to proceed in the ship, or 
 absent himself without leave, any justice near 
 the place may, upon complaint, cause such sea- 
 man to be apprehended, and upon due proof, 
 committed to gaol for a period not exceeding 30 
 days. But if the seaman, on being brought be- 
 
SEA 
 
 600 
 
 SEA 
 
 fore the justice, consent to join the ship, the 
 justice, at the request of the master, instead 
 of committing him, may cause him to be con- 
 veyed on board, or to be delivered to the master, 
 and also to award to the latter reasonable costs, 
 not exceeding 40s., which may be deducted 
 from the seaman's wages. 
 
 § 7 Enacts a forfeiture for temporary absence 
 from duty of 2 days' pay for every 24 hours of ab- 
 sence, and in a like proportion for any less period, 
 or, at the option of the master, the expenses neces- 
 sarily incurred in hiring a substitute. There is a 
 like forfeiture if the seaman, ' ' without sufficient 
 cause, neglect to perform such his duty as is rea- 
 sonably required of him by the master ;" and if, 
 after the ship's arrival at her port of delivery, and 
 before her discharge, he quit the ship without a 
 discharge or leave from the master, he forfeits 1 
 month's pay. But no such forfeitures are incurred 
 unless the fact of the temporary absence, neglect 
 of duty, or quitting the ship, be recorded in the 
 log-book, with specification of the hour of the 
 day, and the period of absence or neglect, the 
 truth of which entry it is incumbent on the 
 owner or master to substantiate by evidence. 
 
 § 8 Describes the mode in which the forfeiture 
 is to be ascertained when seamen contract by the 
 voyage and not by the month. 
 
 § 9. Every deserter forfeits all his clothes ani 
 effects on board, and all emoluments, provided 
 the circumstances be entered in the log-book at 
 the time, and certified by the signature of the 
 master and mate, or other credible witness. 
 Absence for any time within 24 hours of sailing, 
 without permission, or for any period, however 
 short, under circumstances plainly showing his- 
 intention not to return, is deemed desertion. If 
 such desertion take place beyond seas, and the 
 master be under the necessity of engaging'a sub- 
 stitute at higher wages, the owner or master is 
 entitled summarily to recover the increased 
 amount from the deserter. 
 
 § 10. Penalty for harbouring deserters, £10 : 
 and no debt (incurred after agreement) exceed- 
 ing 5s. recoverable from a seaman till the voyage is 
 completed ; nor can seamen's effects be detained 
 by lodging-house keepers under pretence of debt. 
 
 § 11. Masters and owners must pay wages 
 when demanded, as follows, viz. if the ship be 
 employed coastwise, within 2 days after the ter- 
 minatiork.of the agreement, or at the time of dis- 
 charge, whichever first happen ; and if the ship 
 be employed in trading otherwise, at the latest 
 within 3 days after cargo- is delivered, or within 
 10 days after the discharge, whichever first ; in 
 either of which last-mentioned cases of payment 
 being delayed, the seaman is at the time of dis- 
 charge entitled to be paid on account one-fourth 
 part of the balance due to him. Masters and 
 owners, for neglect or refusal, forfeit to the sea- 
 man 2 days' payfor each day not exceeding 10 
 days of delay; for the recovery of which, the 
 seaman has the same remedies as for the recovery 
 of his wages. The clause does not extend to 
 ships in. the- southern whale-fishery, or on voy- 
 ages for which seamen are compensated by shares 
 in the profits. 
 
 § 12. Every payment of wages is valid not- 
 withstanding any bill of sale or assignment by 
 the seaman of such wages, or any attachment or 
 incumbrance thereon ; and no assignment or 
 sale of wages made prior to the earning, and no 
 power of attorney expressed to be irrevocable 
 for the receipt of wages, is binding. 
 
 § 13. Masters to give seamen certificates on 
 their discharge, specifying the period of service 
 and the time and place of discharge, under a 
 penalty of £5. 
 
 § 14. If after a seaman has been discharged 
 3 (lays, he be desirous of proceeding on another 
 voyage, and so require immediate payment of 
 
 | his wages, any justice, on satisfactory proof that 
 
 j he would be prevented from employment by 
 
 I delay, may summon the master or owner, and 
 
 order payment forthwith; penalty for default, £5. 
 
 § 15. As to recovery of wages, in all cases not 
 ' exceeding £20, a justice, upon complaint on 
 j oath, may summon the master or owner, and 
 make such order for payment as shall appear 
 ! just, and levy the amount by distress and sale 
 of the goods and chattels of the party ; and in 
 case sufficient distress cannot be found, the jus- 
 tice may cause the amount to be levied on the 
 ship, or the tackle and apparel thereof. If the 
 ship be not within the jurisdiction of the justice, 
 he may cause the party to be imprisoned till pay- 
 ment. The justice's decision is final. 
 
 § 16. Costs of suit for recovery of wages not 
 to be allowed, if sued for in the superior courts, 
 when they might have been recovered before a 
 justice. 
 
 § 17- When the ship is sold at a foreign port, the 
 crew (unless consenting to be there discharged) 
 are to be sent home at the expense of the master 
 or owners. 
 
 § 18. Medicines to be kept on board, and sea- 
 men hurt in the service of the ship to be provided 
 with surgical advice gratis. 
 
 §§ 19 & 20 Provide for the establishment of a 
 General Register of merchant seamen, at the 
 Custom-house, London. 
 
 § 21. The master of every British ship trading 
 abroad (except as mentioned below), besides 
 keeping the book required by 4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 
 52 (which provides for the support of sick and 
 disabled seamen), must, on reporting his ship 
 on her arrival, deliver to the collector or comp- 
 troller at the port, an account of all the crew 
 who have belonged to the ship at any time dur- 
 ing her absence. 
 
 § 22. Within 21 days after the 30th June and 
 the 31st December in each year, the owner of 
 every ship employed in fishing or trading on the 
 coasts, or making regular voyages to any port 
 of Europe between the Elbe and Brest, must 
 deposit with the collector or comptroller of the 
 port to which the ship belongs, or with the regis- 
 trar in London, an account of the voyages in 
 which the ship has been engaged during-the pre- 
 ceding half-year, setting forth the names of the 
 several persons who have belonged to the ship. 
 
 § 23. If a ship be lost or sold while absent from 
 the United Kingdom, the account must be made 
 out up to the period of loss or sale, and trans- 
 mitted by an owner or the master to the registrar 
 in London, so soon as possible after a loss, and 
 within 12 calendar months after a sale. 
 
 § 24. The accounts and returns are to be trans- 
 mitted by the collectors and comptrollers from 
 time to time to the registrar. Every owner or 
 master refusing or neglecting to deliver a list or 
 account, forfeits £25. 
 
 § 25. Whenever a seaman, being abroad, dies 
 elsewhere than' on board ship, leaving effects, 
 the British consul is required to take charge 
 thereof, and dispose of them for the benefit of 
 the next of kin ; and in case no claim be made 
 within 3 calendar months after the death, the 
 consul, after abating expenses, is to remit the 
 balance to the president and governors of the 
 corporation "For the relief of disabled seamen, 
 &c, in the merchant service," for the pur- 
 poses provided by the 4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 52. In 
 case any seaman so dying leave on board any 
 effects, which are not claimed within 1 month 
 after the ship's return by the executor or admin- 
 istrator, the master is required to deposit the 
 same or the proceeds in the same manner. 
 
 §§ 26 to 30 Regulate the sending to sea of 
 parish boys and parish apprentices. 
 
 § 31. The master of every ship of the burden 
 of 80 tons and upwards, must liave on board, at 
 
SEA 
 
 601 
 
 SEA 
 
 clearing out.oneapprentieeomore, in the follow- 
 iiijrproportions to the tonnage, viz. :— Every ship 
 of 80 tons and under 200, one apprentice at the 
 least : everv ship of 200 and under 400, two ; every 
 ship of 400 and under 500, three ; every ship of 
 500 and under 7"<), four ; and every ship of 700 
 and upwards, five at the least ; all of whom, at 
 the period of their being bound, shall have 
 been under 17 years of age, and shall have been 
 bound for 4 vears at the least. If a master ne- 
 glect to have on board the proper number, he 
 forfeits £10 for each apprentice deficient. 
 
 § 32. Apprentices exempt from contributions 
 for hospitals. 
 
 §§33 and 34. Indentures and assignments of 
 parish and other apprentices to be registered as 
 therein mentioned. Apprentices may be em- 
 ployed in any ship of which their master is master 
 or owner. 
 
 § 35. Agreements, indentures, assignments, 
 &c, under the act, are free of stamp-duty. 
 
 § 36. Penalty on masters neglecting to register 
 indentures, and for suffering apprentices to quit 
 their service, £10. 
 
 § 37. Any two or more justices, at or near the 
 port of arrival, have authority to determine com- 
 plaints between masters and apprentices. 
 
 § 38. Common assaults on board merchant- 
 ships may be summarily punished by two justices; 
 and the fine shall be payable to the merchant- 
 seamen's hospital or institution nearest to the 
 
 together with proof of payment by the navy de- 
 partment of the charges incurred, is sufficient 
 evidence that such person was relieved and con- 
 veyed home at his majesty's expense. The court 
 in which such proceeding is instituted is autho- 
 rized to issue commissions for the examination 
 of witnesses abroad. 
 
 § 48. Every master, on his arrival at any 
 foreign port where there is a British consul or 
 vice-consul, must deliver to him the agreement 
 with his crew, to be preserved during the ship's 
 stay there, and to be returned to the master be- 
 fore his leaving the port, without any fee or 
 charge ; and every master, for refusal or neglect 
 to deliver, forfeits £25. 
 
 § 49. During the ship's stay at any foreign 
 port, no seaman can be shipped except with the 
 privity of the consul or vice-consul, indorsed or 
 certified on the agreement, under a penalty of 
 £25 for every seaman otherwise shipped. 
 
 §§50 and 51. Masters, when required, must 
 produce agreements to officers of king's ships. 
 Such officers may muster the crew ; penalty on 
 master for refusal, £25. Registrar and officers 
 of customs may require production of the agree- 
 ment and muster-roll, and muster the crew, 
 under a penalty for refusal of £50. 
 
 § 52. For the purposes of the act, every person 
 ♦laving the charge or command of a sh ip is deem ed 
 the master, and every person (apprentices ex- 
 cepted) employed to serve in any capacity on 
 port of abjudication. ! board is deemed a seaman; and " ship," compre- 
 
 § 39. Masters entitled to receive the wages of hends every vessel navigating on the sea, and the 
 apprentices entering into the navy ; which they 4i owner," all to whom the ship belongs, and all 
 cannot do except with their master's consent. i steam and other vessels employed in carrying 
 
 j 40. As mischief has arisen from seamen being 
 left in foreign parts, masters forcing on shore or 
 leaving behind any of the crew are subject to fine 
 and imprisonment. 
 
 §§ 41 and 42. Seamen not to be discharged, nor 
 left on the plea of desertion, at any colony, with- 
 out the written sanction of a government-officer ; 
 nor at any other place abroad, without the sanc- 
 tion of the British consul or two respectable 
 merchants. 
 
 § 43. If any of the crew are left behind, the 
 proof of sanction or authority, as above, is to 
 be upon the master in the case of dispute. 
 
 § 44. Seamen when allowed to be left behind, 
 are to be paid their wages, atrue account of which 
 shall be delivered by the master to the function- 
 ary or merchants, as aforesaid, under a penalty 
 of £25. If wages be paid by a draft on the owners, 
 the functionary or merchants must testify, by 
 
 certificate indorsed on the bill, that it is drawn ! ship may belong ; and if there be none such, the 
 according to this act for money due on account whole to Greenwich Hospital. The court may 
 of wages of a seaman. | mitigate any penalty, but not below one-half. 
 
 § 45. Act not to prevent seamen from entering . All proceedings must be commenced within two 
 the navy ; and no penalty can follow such entry, years next after the commission of the offence, 
 Agreements to the contrary void. if the same shall have been committed at or be- 
 
 9 46. Upon entry of seamen into the navy from yond the Cape of Good Hope or Cape Horn, or 
 merchant-ships, they shall be entitled to the im- 1 within one year if committed on the European 
 mediate delivery up of their clothes, and pay- 1 side of those limits, or within six calendar months 
 ment of any wages that may be due, according ] after the return of the offender or the complain- 
 to the regulations prescribed. 
 
 § 47. The crown empowered to sue for the 
 amount advanced for the relief of seamen left 
 abroad. In any proceeding for that purpose, 
 proof of the account furnishedto the commission- 
 ers by any functionary or merchants as above, 
 
 passengers or goods, are deemed trading-ships. 
 
 § 53. Penalties and forfeitures, for the recovery 
 whereof no specific mode is provided, may be 
 recovered, with costs, as follows, viz. :— All 
 penalties not exceeding £20, by information and 
 summary proceeding before any one or more 
 justices, residing near the place where the offence 
 is committed or where the offender may be, who 
 may levy the amount by distress and sale, or 
 commitment for non-payment. All penalties 
 exceeding £20 may be recovered, with costs, in 
 any court of record at Westminster, Edinburgh, 
 or Dublin, or in the colonies, at the suit of the 
 chief law-officer of the crown. All penalties, for 
 which no specific application is provided, are to 
 be applied as follows, viz. : — One moiety to the 
 informer, and the residue to be divided between 
 Greenwich Hospital and the Merchant Seamen's 
 Hospital or Institution at the port to which the 
 
 party to the United Kingdom. 
 
 ing part 
 
 § 54. The act does not extend to any ship re- 
 gistered in or belonging to any British colony 
 having a legislative assembly, or to the crew of 
 such ship, while she is within the precincts of the 
 colony. See Meechant's Shippihq Act. S 
 
 SEAWORTHINESS of a vessel, in the law of marine insurance, is an implied 
 warranty on the part of the insured, or one of those conditions of the contract, the 
 want of compliance with which renders it null. It is generally provided in the 
 policy that the vessel shall be " tight, staunch, and strong, properly manned, pro- 
 vided with all necessary stores, and in all respects fit for the intended voyage." 
 The seaworthiness must be adapted to the nature of the service, for what will suit a 
 coasting voyage will not enable a vessel to proceed to India. Seaworthiness in- 
 cludes the having a competent master and a sufficient crew, with a proper equip- 
 
SEE 
 
 602 
 
 SEQ 
 
 ment of masts, sails, and anchors. If the vessel sail to a port where a pilot is 
 necessary, the master must obtain one, or use every effort to do so ; and having 
 employed one, must not dismiss him within the fair way. It is a general rule, 
 that it is of no consequence whether the owners or the master know of defects 
 affecting seaworthiness or not. In one case, of which no very distinct report has 
 been preserved (Mills v. Roebuck in Exch., see Park, 460 ; Marshall, 154), there 
 was an apparent divergence from these rules ; and so far as can be collected, the 
 grounds appear to have been, that from the place of her build the underwriters 
 had to expect inherent defects in the vessel's construction ; and that they had 
 reason to know the progress of these defects from the representations made when 
 the slip was signed. (Park on Insurance, 8th edit., 458-496. Marshall on In- 
 surance, 146-161.) [Insurance.] 
 
 SEER, an Indian weight. The E. I. C.'s new seer of 80 tolas = 2*057 lbs. avoird. 
 
 SEIGNORAGE, the profit derived from issuing coins at a rate above their in- 
 trinsic value. 
 
 SENNA (Fr. Sent. Ger. Sennablater. It. Senna), a well-known medicine- 
 composed of the leaflets and occasionally of the leaf-stalks and pods of several 
 species of Cassia, cultivated in Arabia, Syria, and Egypt. About four-fifths of that 
 brought to the English market is Arabian or Mecca senna, commonly called East 
 India senna, from being shipped from Indian ports. It is the product of C. lan- 
 ceolata ; leaflets very narrow and acute. Other kinds are imported from the 
 Levant ; and at second-hand from Italy, under the designations of Alexandrian, 
 Tinnivelly, Aleppo, and Tripoli senna. The Alexandrian (C. acutifolia) is the 
 most valuable ; but it is often adulterated. About 200,000 lbs. are annually en- 
 tered for consumption in the United Kingdom. 
 
 SEQUESTRATION — Mercantile, in the law of Scotland, is the process by 
 which the effects of a bankrupt trader are realized and divided among his credi- 
 tors, as by the process of bankruptcy in England. 
 
 The law on the subject is contained in the Statute 2 & 3 Vict. c. 41, of which 
 what follows is an abridgment :— 
 
 Persons who may be sequestrated. — Any 
 debtor 4 ' who is, or has been , a merchant , trader, 
 manufacturer, banker, broker, warehouseman, 
 wharfinger, underwriter, artificer, packer, 
 builder, carpenter, shipwright, innkeeper, hotel- 
 keeper, stable-keeper, coach-contractor, cattle- 
 dealer, grain-dealer, coal-dealer, fish-dealer, 
 lime-burner, dyer, printer, bleacher, fuller, 
 calenderer, and generally any debtor who seeks, 
 or has sought his living, or a material part 
 thereof, for himself, or in partnership with an- 
 other, or as agent or factor for others, by using 
 the trade of merchandise, by way of bargain, ex- 
 change, barter, commission or consignment, or 
 by buying and selling, or by buying and letting 
 for hire, or by the workmanship or manufacture 
 of goods or commodities." No one can be se- 
 questrated as " a holder of stock in any of the 
 public or national funds, or of India stock, or as 
 a partner in any company incorporated or estab- 
 lished by act of parliament, or by charter, or as 
 a landholder or farmer, unless such landholder 
 or farmer be bona fide a dealer in cattle not the 
 produce of, nor grazed, nor worked on his farm, 
 or unless he be a dealer in grain not the produce 
 thereof" (§5). The debtor (unless he consent) 
 must be bankrupt, must have carried on busi- 
 ness within Scotland, and must have also within 
 a year before the date of presenting the petition 
 resided, or had a dwelling-house, or place of 
 business in Scotland. Bankruptcy is not.neces- 
 sary where the debtor has been in the sanctuary 
 for 60 days, either continuously or not, within 
 the space of 12 months. A company may be se- 
 questrated, provided (unless the company con- 
 sent) one of the partners .has been made bank- 
 rupt for a company debt, and the company have 
 carried on business in Scotland, and a partner 
 have had a dwelling-house or the company a 
 place of business there within a year and day 
 before the presentation of the petition. Se- 
 questration may be awarded of the property of 
 " any deceased debtor who at the time of his 
 
 death resided, or had a dwelling-house, or carried 
 on business in Scotland, and was at that time 
 owner of heritable or moveable estates in Scot- 
 land ;" but not until the expiry of six months after 
 his death, unless he had granted a mandate to 
 apply for sequestration, or was bankrupt when 
 he died, or had remained in sanctuary for 60 
 days, at some time or other within the 12 months 
 preceding his death, or unless his successor 
 shall concur in the petition or renounce the suc- 
 cession (§ 4). 
 
 Application, Awarding, and Recall. — Seques- 
 tration may be awarded on the application 
 of the debtor, with concurrence of creditors, 
 or at the instance of creditors alone. Tho e 
 creditors entitled to petition, or to concur, are — 
 any one creditor whose debt amounts to £ 50, 
 any two whose debts together amount to £7", 
 or any three or more whose debts together amount 
 to f 100. The debts need not be liquid, but they 
 must not be contingent. Application is made 
 by petition to the lord ordinary, signed by the 
 petitioner or his counsel. In the case of a petition 
 without consent, it must be presented within four 
 months after the bankruptcy, or, in case of re- 
 tiring to the sanctuary, within four months after 
 expiration of the 60 days. The petitioning or con- 
 curring creditor produces with it his oath, ac- 
 counts, and vouchers. There are provisions for 
 the petitioning creditor (in the case either of the 
 debtor's decease or of his not concurring) , spe- 
 cifying the circumstances which bring him within 
 the range of the act (§ 12). Where the applica- 
 tion is with consent of the debtor, the lord or- 
 dinary awards sequestration, and appoints a 
 meeting to be held, not earlier than eight or later 
 than 14 days from the deliverance, to elect an 
 interim-factor; and another meeting not less 
 than four weeks and not more than six weeks 
 from the date of the deliverance, at the same 
 place, to elect a trustee or trustees in succession, 
 and commissioners. A remit is made to the 
 sheriff, and protection is granted to the debtor 
 
SEQ 
 
 603 
 
 SEQ 
 
 against arrest or imprisonment for civil debt 
 until the meeting for election of trustee. There 
 are special provisions for giving notice to suc- 
 cessors, in the case of a debtor deceased. Where 
 the petition is without the debtor's consent, 
 there are provisions for his being cited for his in- 
 terest, and for the recovery of evidence as to the 
 bankruptcy, &c. If he do not appear, or do 
 not instantly pay the debt, or produce evidence 
 of payment," to the creditors appearing against 
 him," sequestration is awarded, meetings are 
 appointed, and protection is granted as above. 
 The party applying for sequestration, before ex- 
 piry of the second lawful day after the first de- 
 liverance, must present an abbreviate, to be 
 recorded in the register of inhibitions- The re- 
 cord has the effect of an inhibition, and of a 
 citation in an adjudication, and so of tying up 
 the bankrupt's property, till it is disposed of in 
 course of law. The party must also insert a 
 notice, within four days from the date of the de- 
 liverance, in the Edinburgh, and within eight days 
 In the London Gazette. The awarding of seques- 
 tration has the effect of bankruptcy from the date 
 of the first deliverance, without prejudice to any 
 previous bankruptcy. The sequestration is not 
 liable to review, but it may be recalled, on a 
 petition to the lord ordinary, within 40 days. 
 There is a greater latitude in the case of the suc- 
 cessor of a deceased debtor edictally cited. Nine- 
 tenths of the creditors in number and value may 
 at any time apply for recall, notice being given, 
 in terms of the act, to all concerned. 
 
 The Creditors as a Body. — To entitle a 
 creditor to petition, concur, vote, or draw a 
 dividend, he must produce an oath before a 
 sheriff, magistrate, or justice, to the verity of 
 his debt, stating in his oath what other persons 
 (if any) are, besides the bankrupt, liable for any 
 part of the debt, and any security he may hold 
 over the estate of the bankrupt or of other ob- 
 ligants. and stating that he has no other obli- 
 gants or securities besides those specified. Where 
 he holds no other person besides the bankrupt so 
 bound, and no security, he must depone tu that 
 effect. A corporation may make affidavit by its 
 acting officer. A creditor abroad may make 
 affidavit, subject to certain regulations, in the 
 country where he resides, or his agent may 
 make an oath of credulity. The agent for a 
 creditor under age may make such oath of cre- 
 dulity. A creditor having once qualified is en- 
 titled" to vote, however unsound his claim may 
 be. The creditor must produce, with his oath, 
 such accounts and vouchers as may be necessary 
 to prove his debt. If he have not the vouchers, on 
 stating on his oath the reasons why he is not 
 possessed of them, and whose hands he believes 
 them to be in, a dividend will be set apart till he 
 establish his claim. If a creditor, who has peti- 
 tioned, concurred, or opposed, withdraw, or be- 
 come bankrupt, or die, another may be sisted 
 in his place, and may follow out proceedings. 
 A mandatory of a creditor, exhibiting a written 
 mandate, may vote in his stead. Interest, up to 
 the date of the sequestration, may be accumu- 
 lated on claims, but not farther interest. If there 
 is a discount by the usage of trade, or if the term 
 of payment be not arrived, a corresponding de- 
 duction must be made of discount or interest. If 
 a creditor hold a security, he must deduct it from 
 his valuation ; he can vote only on the balance, 
 except in questions as to the disposal or man- 
 agement of the estate subject to the security, 
 on which he can vote to the whole amount. 
 Where a creditor has an obligant bound with, 
 but liable in relief to the bankrupt, or holds any 
 security from an obligant liable in relief to the 
 bankrupt, or any security from which the 
 bankrupt has a right of relief, he must put a 
 specified value on the obligation, in his oath, and 
 
 is entitled to vote only on the balance. A credi- 
 tor of a company is not bound to deduct the divi- 
 dend he may be entitled to from the estate of the 
 partners. Before voting on a partner's estate, 
 however, he must put a value on his claim 
 against the company, and on his claim against the 
 other partners. While a debt is contingent, the 
 creditor cannot vote except to the extent of the 
 value that may be put on it by the trustee or 
 the sheriff. 
 
 Meetings,Election of Trustee, Factor, and Com- 
 missioners. — The trustee or any commissioner 
 may at any time call a meeting, and the trustee 
 is bound to call a meeting whenever he is required 
 by one-fourth in value of the creditors ranked. 
 Meetings appointed by the act are held on notice 
 of the day, hour, place, and purpose, advertised 
 14 days before in the Edinburgh Gazette (except in 
 case of the meetingforelectingan interim-factor ) , 
 and any meeting may be adjourned to the fol- 
 lowing day. No notification is to be sent to 
 creditors who direct none to be sent, or to credi- 
 tors for less than £20, unless they give directions 
 in writing to send them notice. Unless where 
 there is an express provision otherwise, questions 
 at meetings of creditors are settled by the majority 
 in value of those present ; " and where, for the 
 purpose of voting, the creditors are required to 
 be counted in number, no creditor whose debt 
 is under £20 shall be reckoned in number, but 
 his debt shall be computed in value" (§ 44). 
 Meetings may be adjourned, if not carried beyond 
 the times fixed by the act. 
 
 At the meeting for the election of interim- 
 factor, if two or more creditors give notice, the 
 sheriff or sheriff-substitute must attend the meet- 
 ing, and adjourned meetings, and preside. The 
 sheriff-clerk must attend, to mark the oaths and 
 productions with his initials, and write the min- 
 utes. If no sheriff is present, the creditors elect 
 a preses, and if no sheriff-clerk be present, a 
 clerk, both proceeding as above. In either case, 
 those who have been entered in the minutes as 
 qualified, proceed to elect an interim-factor or 
 trustee, as the case may be. No person re- 
 lated to, or in business with the bankrupt, or 
 holding an interest adverse to that of the 
 creditors, is eligible as trustee. If the sheriff 
 be present, and there be no competition, and 
 no objections stated, he declares the person 
 chosen to be interim-factor or trustee as the case 
 may be. If there be objections to votes or can- 
 didates, they must be stated at the meeting, 
 when the sheriff may either forthwith decide on 
 them, or reserve them for consideration. If ne- 
 cessary, he may take note of objections and an- 
 swers, and within four days after the meeting, 
 decide on hearing parties viva voce, stating the 
 grounds of his decision in a note. An ordinary 
 preses, however, must report whether there is 
 opposition or not, the sheriff declaring the re- 
 sult, or deciding on objections. The creditors at 
 these meetings fix a sum for which the interim- 
 factor or trustee is to find security, and decide 
 on the sufficiency of the caution offered. Against 
 the sheriff's declaration of the election of a trus- 
 tee an appeal may be taken during session to the 
 Inner-house of the Court of Session, or during 
 vacation to the lord ordinary, on notice in writ- 
 ing being lodged with the sheriff- clerk within two 
 days after the decision. The costs must be paid 
 by the unsuccessful party. An appeal does not 
 stop proceedings in the sequestration. At the 
 meeting for electing a trustee, commissioners are 
 elected, and the interim-factor's remuneration 
 may be fixed in the same manner. The commis- 
 sioners must be creditors or mandatories. They 
 are not bound to find security. The sheriff de- 
 cides who are dulv elected. 
 
 Interim- Factor or Sheri (f- Clerk. — If the 
 creditors fail to elect an interim-factor, or the 
 
SEQ 
 
 604 
 
 SEQ, 
 
 nomination otlierwise fail, his duties devolve on 
 the sheriff-clerk. They are as follows : He must 
 immediately take the steps necessary for the 
 preservation of the estate until the meeting for 
 election of trustee. He must ** take possession 
 of and recover the bankrupt's estate, and his 
 title-deeds, books, bills, vouchers, and all other 
 documents whatsoever, so far as then known, 
 and make an inventory thereof" (§51), a copy 
 of which he must transmit to the bill-chamber. 
 He must lodge all monies in bank in the same 
 manner as the trustee, and pay the expenses of 
 the petitioning or concurring creditor out of the 
 first funds realized. He must keep a sederunt- 
 book. At the meeting to elect a trustee he must 
 exhibit the sederunt-book, " and also an account 
 of his intromissions and disbursements, and if 
 required by any creditor, the books of the bank- 
 rupt, with the title-deeds, bills, vouchers, and 
 other documents, conform to inventory ;" and 
 if the meeting be satisfied, they are to fix his re- 
 muneration, to be paid with his advances out of 
 the funds in his hands. If he be dissatisfied with 
 the sums allowed, the amount is to be determined 
 by the sheriff. 
 
 Commissioners. — A majority form a quorum. 
 «' The commissioners shall superintend the pro- 
 ceedings of the trustee, concur with him in sub- 
 missions and transactions, give their advice and 
 assistance relative to the management of the 
 estate, examine the acts and intromissions of the 
 trustee, audit his accounts, decide as to paying 
 or postponing payment of a dividend, fix his re- 
 numeration, and may assemble at any time to 
 ascertain the situation of the bankrupt estate ; 
 and any one of them may make such report as 
 he may think proper to a general meeting of the 
 creditors " (§ 57). 
 
 Trustee. — " The trustee shall manage, re- 
 alize, and recover the estate belonging to the 
 bankrupt, wherever situated, and convert the 
 same into money, according to the directions 
 given by the creditors at any meeting, and if no 
 such directions are given, he shall do so with 
 the advice of the commissioners ; and he, as well 
 as the interim-factor or sheriff-clerk acting as 
 factor, shall lodge all money which he may re- 
 ceive in such bank as four-fifths of the creditors 
 in number and value at any general meeting shall 
 appoint" (§61) ; and failing such appointment, 
 in one of the chartered banks. The bank must 
 annually balance the account, and accumulate 
 the interest with the principal sum, being liable 
 to account as if the money had been so accumu- 
 lated. If the interim-factor, or trustee, keep in 
 his hands more than £50 for more than 10 days, 
 he must pay at the rate of 20 per cent, per annum 
 on the excess, for such time as it may be in his 
 hands beyond the 10 days ; and unless the money 
 has been kept from innocent causes, he will be 
 dismissed, on petition to the lord ordinary. The 
 trustee must keep a sederunt-book, entering 
 minutes of creditors and of the commissioners, 
 states of accounts, reports, and other proceed- 
 ings. He must send an account to the bill- 
 chamber before each dividend. Where a docu- 
 ment is confidential, the trustee is not bound to 
 insert it in the sederunt-book, or exhibit it to 
 any one except the commissioners. Within 8 
 days after confirmation, the trustee applies to 
 the sheriff to name a day for the bankrupt's 
 public examination. On the warrant being 
 granted, the trustee intimates in the Edinburgh 
 Gazette his own election, and the time and 
 place of the examination. He must intimate a 
 day and hour for a meeting of the creditors, 
 which must be not less than 14, nor more than 21 
 days after the day of examination, or (in the case 
 of a deceased debtor) after the trustee's confir- 
 mation. Within 14 days after the examination 
 the trustee must prepare a report as to the posi- 
 
 tion of the estate, and an estimate of what it 
 may produce, to be presented to the meeting, 
 where he must be prepared to give all explana- 
 tions. A majority in number and value at any 
 meeting called through the Edinburgh Gazette, 
 at least 14 days previously, by advertisement, 
 specifying the purpose of the meeting, may re- 
 move the trustee or accept of his resignation. 
 One-fourth of the creditors in value may apply 
 to the lord ordinary for removal, showing cause. 
 There are provisions to meet the resignation, 
 death, or absence of the trustee. On the expira- 
 ation of six months from the date of the seques- 
 tration, the trustee must make up a state of the 
 whole estate, of the funds recovered, and of tiie 
 funds outstanding (stating why they have not 
 been recovered), " and of his intromissions, and 
 generally of his management." The commission- 
 ers, at their meeting within 14 days after the ex- 
 piration of the six months, examine the state, 
 and audit the trustee's accounts, and declare 
 whether any and what dividend is to be made. 
 Before a composition is approved of, the trustee's 
 accounts must be audited by the commissioners, 
 and the balance due to him fixed, and paid or 
 provided for. There are provisions for the re- 
 gistration of sequestrations ; and to these the 
 trustee must attend. After a final division, the 
 trustee calls a meeting on 21 days' notice, by ad- 
 vertisement and letters, to consider his applica- 
 tion for discharge. On his producing his vouchers, 
 the creditors may declare their opinion of his 
 conduct, and he may apply to the lord ordinary 
 or the sheriff for exoneration and discharge. 
 Before his discharge he must transmit the sede- 
 runt-book to the bill-chamber clerks, who will 
 intimate to him the bank in which unclaimed 
 dividends are to be lodged. 
 
 The Bankrupt's Liberation, Protection, and 
 Discharge. — The lord ordinary may, on the 
 bankrupt's application, grant warrant of libera- 
 tion, after hearing objections. If the applica- 
 tion be refused, the bankrupt may petition a 
 second time with consent of the trustee and com- 
 missioners. At the meeting for election of the 
 trustee, and at the meeting after the examina- 
 tion, or at any meeting called for the purpose, 
 a majority in number and value may authorize 
 the trustee to apply to the sheriff for a renewal 
 of the personal protection. 
 
 Allowance. — Four-fifths in value of the credi- 
 tors at such a meeting, may vote an allowance 
 to the bankrupt, until the payment of the second 
 dividend. It is not to exceed £3, 3s. per week. 
 
 State of Affairs. — The bankrupt must, before 
 the time for the election of trustee, make up, 
 subscribe, and deliver to the interim-factor, a 
 state of his affairs, '* specifying his whole estate, 
 wherever situated, the estates in expectancy, or 
 to which he may have an eventual right, the 
 names and designations of his creditors and 
 debtors, and the debts due by and to him, and 
 a rental of his heritable subjects" (§ 52). He 
 must give every information and assistance ne- 
 cessary to enable the factor or trustee to execute 
 his duty ; and if he fail to do so, or to grant any 
 requisite deed, application may be made to the 
 sheriff to compel him. There are provisions for 
 bringing the bankrupt up for examination, or 
 where necessary for taking the examination by 
 commission ; and likewise for enabling the trus- 
 tee, where he finds it necessary, to procure the 
 judicial examination of the bankrupt's wife and 
 family, clerks, servants, and law-agent. They 
 must answer all lawful questions relating to the 
 affairs of the bankrupt ; and there are provisions 
 for compelling them to answer, and for en- 
 forcing production of books and vouchers. A 
 latent partner, who does not reveal himself by 
 the time of the examination, forfeits the privi- 
 leges of the act, unless he prove that the conceal- 
 

 
 SEQ, 
 
 ment was occasioned by innocent mistake. There j 
 is an oath (or affirmation, as the ease may be) 
 which the bankrupt must take and subscribe in 
 reference to the state of his affairs. In case of | 
 fraud, the trustee may be authorized to prose- , 
 cute the bankrupt. 
 
 Composition by Bankrupt.— See Composition 
 Contract. 
 
 Discharge. — If every qualified creditor concur, 
 the bankrupt may petition the lord ordinary or 
 sheriff for a discharge at any time after the meet- 
 ing following his examination. He may petition 
 eight months after the date of the sequestration, if 
 a majority in number and four-tifthsin value con- 
 cur. Twenty -one days are allowed for opponents 
 to appear. When found entitled to his discharge, 
 the bankrupt must make a declaration, or if 
 required an oath, that he has made a full and 
 fair surrender, and has not granted or promised 
 any preference or security, or made or promised 
 any payment, or entered into any secret or col- 
 lusive agreement or transaction, to obtain the 
 concurrence of any creditor to his discharge. The 
 discharge, when granted, operates in any part of 
 the British dominions as an acquittance to the 
 bankrupt. An entry of it is made in the register 
 of sequestrations. If the bankrupt be concerned 
 in, or cognizant of any collusive preference to a 
 creditor, he forfeits his title to a discharge ; and 
 the discharge, if it have been granted either on 
 or without an offer of composition, may be an- 
 nulled on a petition by the trustee, or any credi- 
 tor, to the lord ordinary. If the bankrupt do 
 not notify to the trustee any property that may 
 fall to him before his discharge, he forfeits all 
 the benefits of the act. Any surplus after pay- 
 ment of the debts, interest, and expenses of pro- 
 cedure, is payable to the bankrupt or his repre- 
 sentatives. 
 
 The Estate.— By the confirmation the move- 
 able and real property is held to vest in the 
 trustee from the date of the first deliverance, 
 subject to preferable securities. Where by the 
 law of the place a conveyance requires registra- 
 tion, the confirmation must be registered. No 
 tse of such property out of Scotland for a 
 valuable consideration, prior to the registration, 
 and in the purchaser's ignorance of the seques- 
 tration, is invalidated. Property falling to the 
 bankrupt before his discharge, vests as at the 
 date of its acquisition. All preferences and deeds 
 granted by the bankrupt during the sequestra- 
 tion, without consent of the interim-factor or 
 trustee, are void. Bona fide purchasers, how- 
 ever, are secured, and so are debtors paying 
 their debts to the bankrupt in ignorance of the 
 sequestration. Heritable rights on which infeft- 
 ment may followare, in questions under the act, to 
 be held of the date of the registration of the sasine ; 
 and sales, assignations, and other conveyances 
 which do not require infeftment, but require de- 
 livery or intimation to complete them, are held to 
 be of the date of the act so required to complete 
 them. A person claiming any right or subject im- \ 
 properly included in the sequestration, may re- 
 cover it on petition to the lord ordinary. There are 
 provisions for making the sequestration equiva- : 
 lent to the usual diligences for attaching property, I 
 and for equalizing preferences, in the case of a 
 deceased Gebtor, when they have not been com- 
 pleted <jo days before his death. The bankrupt, if 
 required, must grant any deed necessary for re- 
 covering his estate, and feudally vesting it in the 
 trustee. Atrusteemaycompletefeu 'al titles in his , 
 own person, and superiors must enter him. The J 
 trustee may validly grant conveyances. There j 
 are provisions for compelling a transference to 
 the trustee, where an heir has served to the de- 
 ceased bankrupt's property. The trustee and 
 commissioners, within two months after a creditor 
 ha> voted on an oath, in which he has deducted 
 
 a security, as also the majority of the creditors 
 (the creditor with the security not being counted) 
 at the meeting where such creditor has voted, 
 may require him to assign his security to the 
 trustee, on payment of the value he has set on 
 it, with 20 per cent, additional. The creditor 
 may correct his value at any time before he is 
 called on so to assign. 
 
 Disposal of the Property, and Questions teith 
 Creditors having a Right to Sell.— At the meet- 
 ing after the examination, or at a meeting 
 called for the purpose, the creditors may give 
 directions for the recovery, management, and 
 disposal of the estate. Where there is heritable 
 property, they may determine whether it is to 
 be disposed of by voluntary public sale, or to be 
 brought to judicial sale. If the creditors have 
 resolved on the manner in which such property 
 is to be disposed of, before a creditor having a 
 power to sell has commenced proceedings, or 
 while he is unduly delaying a sale of heritable 
 property, the trustee grants a title, subject to 
 real securities. No expenses connected with the 
 sequestration or sale are payable out of such part 
 of the price as may be necessary to discharge the 
 preferable securities ; and no preferable heritable 
 creditor is liable for any such expense unless he 
 have consented to the sale, in which case he is 
 liable for the expense of the sale. A creditor may 
 purchase any estate sold under the act, but the 
 interim-factor, trustee, and commissioners, may 
 not purchase. 
 
 Declaration of Dividend and Banking. — 
 The commissioners at their meeting within 14 
 days after expiry of six months from the date of 
 the sequestration, declare what amount may be 
 distributed in dividends ; and within the same 
 14 days, if a dividend is to be made, the trustee 
 must examine the oaths and grounds of debt, 
 and in writing reject or admit them, or require 
 farther evidence, stating the reasons where be 
 rejects. He then makes up two lists ; one, of 
 the creditors he ranks as entitled to draw divi- 
 dends, specifying their debts, with interest to the 
 date of the sequestration, and distinguishing the 
 ordinary from the preferable creditors. The 
 other list is of the creditors whose claims he has 
 partially or wholly rejected. Notice is sent to 
 rejected creditors, who may appeal to the lord 
 ordinary or sheriff. A creditor who holds a se- 
 curity.before being ranked, must put a value upon 
 it, deduct it, and specify the balance, on which 
 alone he can rank. The trustee is entitled either 
 to demand an assignation to the security on pay- 
 ing the value put upon it, or to let the creditor 
 take the benefit of it. In the case of the claim on 
 a partner for a company debt, the dividend from 
 the company must be deducted. An annuity credi- 
 tor ranks for the value put on his annuity, and 
 if there be a cautioner For the annuity he is dis- 
 charged, on payment of the estimated value and 
 arrears. Co-obligants with the bankrupt are 
 not discharged by the creditor consenting to the 
 steps of the sequestration ; but if the co-obligant 
 pay the debt, the creditor must assign it to him, 
 and he may rank for it. 
 
 Payment of Dividends. — Where there are 
 sufficient funds realized, the dividends are re- 
 spectively payable on the first lawful day after 
 the expiration of the following periods, viz. the 
 first, of 8 months from the date of the sequestra- 
 tion ; the second, of 12 months from the same 
 date ; and future dividends after the expiration 
 of 4 months from the date of the payment of the 
 immediately preceding dividend, until the whole 
 funds be distributed. To entitle a creditor to 
 payment of the first, or of the second, or of any 
 other dividend, he must produce his oath, <kc, at 
 least 2 months before the time of payment. A 
 creditor who has not been in time for the first 
 dividend is entitled to a preference on the subse- 
 
SF.Q 606 SUA 
 
 outstanding claims, a day may be fixed for a 
 meeting for the purpose, to be called by adver- 
 tisement and special notice. On three- fourths 
 in value of the creditors assembled consenting, 
 the sale may take place by auction. Unclaimed 
 dividends being deposited in bank at the direc- 
 tion of the clerks of the bills, a register is kept 
 of them. The parties entitled, on applying to 
 the lord ordinary, obtain payment of such un- 
 claimed dividends, but without interest, which 
 is accumulated in a separate fund, at the dis- 
 posal of parliament. There are provisions for 
 punishing all frauds and collusive preferences, 
 and for nullifying the advantage sought to be 
 obtained by them. The resolutions of meetings, 
 and proceedings of the trustee, may be appealed 
 against to the lord ordinary or the sheriff, — the 
 former within 14, the latter within 30 days. 
 Persons, by merely claiming and voting, are not 
 liable to the agent's expenses. He has his re- 
 course merely against the estate, or the interim- 
 factor or trustee who may have employed him. 
 [Affidavit. Bankruptcy. Composition 
 Contract.] 
 
 quent dividends. After the expiry of the 14 days, 
 within which (on the expiry of the six months 
 from the date of the sequestration) the trustee 
 has to makeup his state and rank the creditors, 
 he must advertise in the Edinburgh Gazette 
 the time and place for payment ; and on or before 
 the first lawful day after the 14 days, he must 
 notify the same to each creditor by post, with 
 the amount of the claim and dividend. Before 
 theexpiration of eightmonths from the sequestra- 
 tion, the trustee has to make up a scheme of 
 division among those creditors whose claims have 
 been sustained, or who have appealed. The 
 scheme must be patent to all concerned. The 
 like proceedings take place at intervals of four 
 months till the trust is wound up. Dividends 
 reserved on account of an unaccomplished con- 
 tingency, or appeal, are to be lodged in bank. 
 The commissioners may postpone a dividend till 
 the period for making the next one, directing 
 the trustee to give notice in the Edinburgh 
 Gazette. 
 
 Winding up and Miscellaneous. — After 12 
 months from the commencement, if it seem 
 expedient to sell the remaining property, and 
 
 SEQUIN, an Italian gold coin = 9s. 5d. ; also a Turkish money. 
 
 SERGE, a quilted woollen cloth, made in Devonshire and other parts of England. 
 
 SERPENTINE, a mineral, one species of which, called noble serpentine, green 
 and translucent, is valued as an ornamental stone. 
 
 SERON, a kind of package, formed of pieces of wood fastened with hides. 
 
 SHAD (Alosa finta, Cuv.), a fish allied to the herring, found in the Severn and in 
 the Thames, where it is in season in July ; its flesh is unpalatably dry. 
 
 SHADDOCKS, a large species of Citrus (C. decumana), commonly cultivated in 
 both the East and West Indies for the sake of the delicate subacid juicy pulp in 
 which they abound. When at their greatest size they are called Pompoleons ; 
 the smallest form the Forbidden Fruit of the English markets. 
 
 SHAGREEN (Fr. Chagrin. Ger. Schagrin. Rus. Schagrirri), a sort of hard 
 grained leather, prepared in a peculiar manner from the skin of horses and other 
 animals ; the part preferred being the piece above the tail. It is made in Poland ; 
 Russia, especially at Astracan ; and in various parts of the Levant. The best is 
 said to be imported from Constantinople. It is employed in the manufacture of 
 small cases and boxes. 
 
 SHALLOONS, loosely made woollen stuffs, commonly used for lining coats. 
 
 SHAMMY or CHAMOIS LEATHER, is properly the dressed skin of the 
 chamois goat ; but common goat, kid, or sheep skin is generally substituted for it. 
 
 SHARKS' FINS are exported in large quantities from India to China, where 
 they are esteemed a very strengthening food. They are chiefly collected in the 
 Arabian and Persian Gulfs ; but they are likewise prepared on the coasts of India, 
 They should be chosen large and properly cured. Those under nine inches long 
 reckon only as one-half the value of the others. 
 
 SHAWLS (Fr. Chals, Chales. Ger. Schalen. It. Shavali. Por. Chales. Sp. 
 Schavalos), well-known articles of dress, made of silk, wool, or more commonly of 
 silk and wool mixed. The chief seats of the shawl manufacture in this country 
 are Paisley and Norwich. The competition of the French, after the opening of 
 the silk-trade in 1826, produced improvements in style and pattern, which led to a 
 signal extension of the British manufacture. And though our native patterns 
 are scarcely yet equal to the French as respects the contrast of colours, they are 
 yearly improving, owing to the increased attention now bestowed on the arts of 
 design. But both British and French shawls are inferior to those made in the 
 Valley of Cashmere, from the wool of a species of goat found on the cold mountains 
 of Thibet ; the exquisite fabric of which cannot be successfully imitated by foreigners. 
 The European manufacturer may impart much of the beauty and copy with success 
 the pattern ; but his web possesses none of the delicacy, softness, and warmth of 
 the original. Nor are the weavers of the adjoining countries more successful ; the 
 shawls of Lahore and Delhi, though woven by natives of the valley, and with the 
 same materials, are wanting in the fineness of those prepared in Cashmere. If 
 implicit reliance is to be placed in the people, the shawl derives much of its beauty 
 from the water in which the wool is dyed, and which is peculiar to their country. 
 Notwithstanding the reputation of these shawls, however, the number of looms 
 employed in their manufacture has greatly fallen off in modern times. According 
 
SHE 607 SHE 
 
 to a statement copied by Mr Martin, in his work on the British Colonies, from the 
 Delhi Gazette, the number at present is estimated at 6000, and the average value 
 of shawls annually exported from Cashmere about £180,000. The Cashmere 
 shawls are generally sold in pairs : they usually consist of three sizes, two of which, 
 the long and the small square, are those commonly brought to this country ; the 
 other, long, very narrow, and chiefly of a black colour, is worn by many Asiatics 
 as a girdle. The shawls for the British market are mostly selected with coloured 
 grounds, aud handsome rich borders and flowers. They are imported chiefly from 
 Bombay and Surat. 
 
 At present, owing to the caprice of fashion, shawls are much less worn in this 
 country than formerly ; and great distress has in consequence been produced in 
 Paisley and other places dependent on their manufacture ; but this depression is 
 we hope but temporary. 
 
 SHEEP (Fr. Brebis, Mouton. Ger. Schafe), a ruminating animal, chiefly dis- 
 tinguished for its fur or hair, which is of two kinds,— one hard and close, and the 
 other woolly ; the latter preponderating in proportion as the animal is domesticated. 
 In Europe and other parts of the world the sheep is carefully tended for its wool, 
 which is the chief material of the clothing of all northern nations. But every part 
 is fitted for use. The flesh, heart, liver, kidneys, and spleen, as food ; the intestines 
 are made into strings for musical instruments ; the skin into leather and parch- 
 ment ; the bones into handles, spoons, and toys ; the internal and loose fat makes 
 tallow ; their milk may be made into cheese ; and their dung is a rich manure. 
 The sheep, besides, can be reared in situations unfitted for any other quadruped. 
 
 The sheep belongs, according to Cuvier, to the tribe Capridce, and genus Ovis. 
 After 5 months gestation the lamb is dropped, usually in this country in March or 
 April ; and May and June are the sheep-shearing months, as the animal sheds the 
 superfluous wool on the approach of warm weather. It lives naturally for about 
 15 years ; but from 1| to 2 years is the common period at which it is fattened for 
 food ; and even breeding stock are not usually kept beyond five or six years. Age is 
 reckoned not from birth but from the first shearing. The male is called a ram or 
 tup : after weaning he is said to be a hog or hogget, a lamb-hog, or tup-hog ; and 
 if castrated, a v;ether-hog. After shearing, when fully one year old, he is a shear- 
 hog or shearling, a dinmont, a tup, or shearing-wether; and after the second 
 shearing a two shear ram or tup. The female is a ewe or gimmer lamb until 
 weaned ; then a gimmer or ewe hog ; after being shorn a shearing ewe or gimmer ; 
 after that a two-shear ewe ; and so on. 
 
 England has from a remote period been celebrated for her sheep, — on the nume- 
 rous breeds of which many improvements have of late been effected, chiefly with 
 the view of increasing the profitable return from the carcass ; as the wool has 
 become generally longer, heavier, and coarser than formerly. Their numbers have 
 likewise been increased by means of the artificial or turnip husbandry. British 
 sheep are usually classed into short-woolled and long-woolled ; the leading and most 
 improved breed of the former being the South-Down, chiefly occupying the hills 
 of Sussex ; and of the latter, the new Leicester. The South-Down is well adapted 
 for the chalky hills of the south, where this breed is chiefly diffused. Its fleece, 
 short and fine, weighs from 3 to 4 lbs. ; and its mutton, fine in flavour and grain, 
 weighs, in two-year old wethers, about 18 lbs. a-quarter. The Leicester is not adapted 
 for poor soils, nor for travelling to seek its food : its fleece averages from 6 to 7 lbs. ; 
 and its mutton, fat, fine in grain, and of superior flavour, weighs, in two-year old 
 wethers, from 20 to 30 lbs. the quarter : on fair keep the Leicester will yield a 
 greater quantity of meat for the same food than any other breed. Of other breeds, 
 the chief short-wools are the black-faced Scots, the Cheviots (now generally reared 
 instead of the former in Scotland), the Dorset, the Hereford, the Wiltshire ; and 
 the chief long -wools, the Teeswater, the Lincoln, and the Romney-Marsh. But it 
 would be difficult to select any district into which the South-Downs and Leicesters 
 have not penetrated and materially improved the native breeds. 
 
 In many foreign countries the carcass of the sheep is disliked, or at least rarely 
 eaten ; and the animal is tended almost solely for its fleece. In Spain, except by 
 the poorest, mutton is considered unfit for food ; the wool, however, is of superior 
 qualitv, particularly that of the Merino breed, which of late years has been suc- 
 cessfully introduced into Germany, Australia, and elsewhere. 
 
 The commerce of sheep in Britain chiefly consists in fattening them up in the 
 pastoral districts, and afterwards removing them to the towns for food. Immense 
 quantities are carried from Ireland to Liverpool, and from the Midland Counties, 
 Wales, Scotland, and other places to the metropolis. The number of sheep and 
 
SHE 608 SHI 
 
 lambs sold annually at Smithfield is about 1,400,000, which is exclusive of large 
 quantities of carcasses brought to London by steamers, railways, and otherwise. The 
 fleeces are mostly purchased from the farmers by staplers or dealers at annual wool 
 fairs. The number of sheep in this country is variously reckoned. Mr Luccock esti- 
 mated the number in England and Wales in 1800 at 19,007,607, of which the greater 
 part (14,854,299) were short-wooled ; and, according to Mr Hubbard, the number of 
 sheep had increased one-fifth between 1800 and 1828. The number at present, 
 therefore, may be safely taken at 25,500,000, now chiefly long-wooled ; to which 
 adding one-third for Scotland and Ireland, makes the total of the United Kingdom, 
 34,000,000. Mr M'Queen, however, in his " Statistics of the British Empire " 
 (p. 20), estimates the number of permanent stock at 48,000,000 ; their value at 
 £60,000,000 ; and the quantity of wool annually produced at 246,700,000 lbs. ! S 
 
 SHEKEL, an ancient Jewfsh weight and coin, estimated, the former at g oz. 
 avoirdupois, the latter at 2s. 7d. There were, however, several standards of the 
 shekel, and various opinions are entertained respecting their values. 
 
 SHELLAC. [Lac] 
 
 SHERBET, a favourite beverage in the East, made of water, lemon-juice, and 
 sugar, with the addition of rose-water, or some other fragrant ingredient. 
 
 SHINGLES, a term applied in the lumber-trade of N. America and the W. 
 Indies to thin boards, which are used in these countries for the same purpose as 
 slates and tiles in Britain. They are from 18 to 30 inches long, 4 to 6 inches broad, 
 and at one end fths of an inch thick, while at the other they are reduced to less 
 than |th of an inch. The roofs of buildings are shingled much in the same form 
 as roofs are slated in Britain, and, when painted to correspond in colour, have very 
 much the same appearance. 
 
 SHIP, a term applied generally to all decked vessels used in navigation ; but 
 by seamen only to those which have a fore, a main, and a mizzen-mast, with a top- 
 mast and top-gallant mast to each, and in which the yards, in sailing before the 
 wind, are braced square, the mizzen sail alone being usually in a fore and aft posi- 
 tion. A barque has masts and sails like those of a ship, except that the mizzen- 
 mast carries no top-sail or top-gallant sail. Each has a bowsprit, which carries 
 a fore-stay-sail and a jib-sail. To other kinds different designations are given 
 according to the number of their masts, the disposition of their sails, or their 
 moving power,— as brig, snow, schooner, galliot, sloop, steamer, smack, and cutter, 
 as explained under these heads. Ships are generally built of wood, but they are 
 now sometimes made of iron. In the construction of a vessel the most essential 
 conditions are — that it be capable of carrying its lading ; that it be moved with 
 great velocity, and readily obey the rudder ; that it have the necessary stability, 
 so as not to be overturned ; and that its rolling or pitching be attended with as 
 little strain as possible on the timbers. But the degree of attainment for each of 
 these qualities — which in some respects are contrary to each other — will depend 
 on the purpose, whether of war or commerce, for which the ship is built. In 
 merchant-ships capacity is frequently of more importance than velocity ; and in 
 this case the relations between the length, breadth, and depth depend less upon 
 hydrodynamical principles than in men-of-war. Upon these and other points relat- 
 ing to naval architecture, however, we must refer to the works cited below. 
 Glossary of Nauttcal Terms. 
 
 Aback, the position of the sails when blown 
 
 fiat against the mast. 
 Abaft or Aft, towards the hinder part. 
 A-beam, perpendicular to the ship's length. 
 Aboard, within the ship ; also said of one when 
 
 foul of another. 
 Adrift, not fastened. 
 Amain, to yield, or to let go. 
 Amidships, the middle of the ship. 
 Athwart or Thwart, across. 
 Back-Staps, ropes from the top-mast heads to 
 
 the ship-sides in aid of the shrouds. 
 Beams, the timber supports stretching across 
 
 the ship ; whence beam expresses the width of 
 
 a vessel ; and a ship lying on her side is said 
 
 to be on her beam-ends. 
 Bends or Wales, the ship's side planks, from the 
 
 water upwards. 
 Bight, part of a rope between the ends; also a 
 
 shallow hollow in a lino of coast. 
 Bi'ge, the flat part of a ship's bottom. 
 BUged, having the bottom stove in. 
 
 Bilge-water, that collected by leakage, &c. 
 Binnacle, the case of the steering compass. 
 Block, the case of the sheave of a pulley ; two 
 
 or more constitute a tackle. 
 Bobslays, strong ropes sustaining the bowsprit. 
 Boom, a pole stretching out the bottoms of par- 
 ticular -ails. 
 Bow,)- anchors, those at the bows. 
 Bows, the two fore extremities of a ship. 
 Bowsprit, a sloping mast at the bows. 
 Box hauling, bringing a ship when close-hauled 
 
 round upon the other tack when she cannot 
 
 tack or wear. 
 Boxing off, backing the head-sails to force the 
 
 ship's head rapidly off the wind. 
 Boxing the compass, repeating the points in 
 
 order. 
 Brace, a rope at the extremity of the yard to 
 
 traverse the sails when necessary. 
 Breaming, cleaning the ship's bottom by fire. 
 Bulkhead, any partition in a ship. 
 Bumboat, the" boat of a provision dealer, &c. 
 
SHI 
 
 6(10 
 
 SHI 
 
 of a ship. 
 . the rope or chain holding the anchor. 
 Cant, to turn over ; also the support of a bulk- 
 head. 
 Capstan, a cylinder on which a rope is coiled 
 
 by means o"f lever bar.-. 
 
 ring, turning a ship to repair her bottom. 
 Cat-head, the bow timLer to which the bower 
 
 anchor is fastened. 
 Caulk, to stuff the ship's seams with oakum. 
 Channels, outside platforms extending the 
 
 shrouds 
 Close-luiuled, tacks close down, sheets aft, yards 
 
 braced sharp up, and bowlines hauled ; the 
 
 ship progressing as near the direction of the 
 
 wind as possible. 
 Companion, the covering over a ship's staircase. 
 Courses, the lower square-sails. 
 Crank, when by ill construction, ballasting, or 
 
 loading, a ship cannot carry sail without 
 
 danger of oversetting. 
 Cringles, loops. 
 
 Davit, a spar used in managing the anchor. 
 Bead eyes, a -kind of blocks fastening the shrouds 
 
 to the chains. 
 Bead-lights, the cabin window-shutters. 
 Dead-water, that which closes behind the stern. 
 Derrick, a tackle used at the outer quarters of 
 
 a niizzen yard, &c. 
 Braught, the water depth of the ship. 
 Drift, the angle of a ship's motion with the 
 
 meridian when driven by wind and waves, 
 
 and not governed by the helm. 
 Dunnage, loose material used in stowage. 
 Easy, sailing without jerking or straining. 
 Fend off, pushing off to avoid contact. 
 Fluke, the part of the anchor which holds. 
 Fore and Aft, in the direction of the ship. 
 Forecastle, the upper deck near the head. 
 Forefoot, the fore extremity of the keel. 
 Forepeak, the place allotted to the crew in mer- 
 chant ships. 
 Fother a sail, passing it under a leak. 
 Foul, a contrary wind ; also uneven ground. 
 Furl, rolling up a sail to the yard. 
 Futtocks, the timbers between thote of the floor 
 
 and the top. 
 Gaff, the upper yard of fore and aft sails. 
 Calif y, the kitchen of a ship. 
 Qampteap a narrow passage. 
 Gasket, the cord by which furled sails arc bound. 
 Grapnel, a small anchor for a boat. 
 Gripe, the fore part of a ship. 
 Gunwale, the upper part of the ship's side below 
 
 the bulwark. 
 Halliards, ropes for hoisting yards, sails. &c. 
 Handspike, the lever of the capstan or windlass. 
 Hanks, rings upon which sails traverse, &c. 
 Hatch, the covering of a hatchway. 
 Hatchway, the opening of the ship's hold. 
 Haul, pulling upon a rope directly. 
 Haul the wind, bringing the ship to sail close 
 
 by the wind. 
 Hawse, the part of the bows close to the cable. 
 Hawser, a large rope, or small cable. 
 lit ad, the fore extremity of a ship. 
 Heave, to employ force to move weights, &c. 
 Heel, the after extremity of the keel. 
 
 the mechanism of the steerage. Helm 
 
 a-starboard, is to move the tiller to the right ; 
 
 a-port, to the left ; up, to the weather side ; 
 
 down , to the lee side. 
 Hold, the inside of the ship's bottom. 
 Home, a thing when close in its place. 
 
 a foot-rope to support the seamen while 
 
 leaning over a yard. 
 Hulk, an old ship untit for service. 
 Hull, the main body of the ship. 
 Jink, a flag used in making signals. 
 /and), to squeeze tight ; the opposite is to 
 
 -trong tackle for raising, or stvaying up, 
 the lower yards. 
 
 Jib, the sail between the fore-top-mast and 
 bowsprit end. 
 
 Keel, the timber first laid in shipbuilding ; the 
 false keel is that added for defence, and mak- 
 ing the ship hold better. 
 
 Kelson, a timber laid withinside across all the 
 timbers over the keel, and forming its interior 
 counterpart. 
 
 Knee, a bent timber for receiving another. 
 
 Land-locked, water apparently surrounded by 
 land. 
 
 Lanyard, certain fixed or temporary lashings. 
 
 larboard, the left side looking forward. 
 
 Lateen sail, a triangular sail, with a long inclined 
 yard. 
 
 Launch, the largest boat of a man-of-war. 
 
 Lee, Leeward, the side not directly exposed to 
 the wind. 
 
 Leeches, the sides of the sails ; but the weather 
 or side edge of any but a square sail ia called 
 the luff, and the other edge the after leech. 
 
 Lee-way, the deviation of the actual course from 
 that steered. 
 
 Life line, a safety rope bung out. 
 
 Lifts, the ropes supporting yard-ends. 
 
 Lug-sail, a four-sided sail bent to a yard slung 
 about one-fourth from the lower end. 
 
 Lying to, the state of a ship when the sails are 
 so disposed as to counteract each other. 
 
 Marlincspike, a spike for opening strands of 
 rope. 
 
 Martingale, the rope leading down from the 
 jib-boom end. 
 
 Mast, the upright series of timbers supporting 
 the sail-yards ; of which in large ships there 
 are three — the main-mast, fore-mast, and 
 mizzen-mast, each consisting of lower, top, and 
 top-gallant masts, and sometimes a royal. 
 
 Messenger, the hawser wound round the capstan. 
 
 Midships, the ship's middle as to length or 
 breadth. 
 
 Nippers, ropes attaching the messenger to the 
 cable. 
 
 Northing, the difference of latitude made in 
 sailing northwards. 
 
 Offing, a deep part of the sea at a distance from 
 the shore. 
 
 Orlop-deck, in a man of war, is the lowest, on 
 which cables, &c, are stowed ; the fore and 
 after parts are called cockpits. 
 
 Painter, the rope fastening a boat, &c. 
 
 Poop, a high partial deck close aft. 
 
 Port, the opening for a gun. 
 
 Quarter, the after part of a ship's side. 
 
 Quarterdeck, the portion of the uppermost 
 deck between the main and mizzen masts. 
 
 Rake to, is to incline. To rake a ship, is to fire 
 into her in the direction of her length. 
 
 Reef, to lessen the sails ; also a chain of rocks 
 near the surface of the sea. 
 
 Reeve, putting a rope through a hole. 
 
 Rig, the peculiar manner of rigging. 
 
 Rolling, the lateral oscillation of a vessel. 
 
 Royal, the sail above the top-gallant-sail. 
 
 Rudder, the flat piece of wood hung on the stern- 
 post for the purpose of steering. 
 
 Sagging to leeward, making considerable lee- 
 way. 
 
 Sails, the sheets by the action of the wind on 
 which the vessel is moved They are vari- 
 ously designated, but generally from the mast, 
 yard, or stay upon which they are stretched. 
 The upper two corners are earings, the lower 
 clues. 
 
 Scupper, a hole in the deck or side to carry off 
 water. 
 
 Scuttle, an opening in the ship's side or deck. 
 
 Sea, a single wave ; also general agitation. 
 
 Searns, the spaces between the edges of plank*. 
 2Q 
 
SHI 
 
 610 
 
 SHI 
 
 Sheer, the curve of the line of the deck. 
 
 Sheer hulk, a hulk fitted with sheers for mast- 
 ing ships, &c. 
 
 Sheers, two spars raised vertically for masting. 
 
 Sheets, ropes for extending sails to the wind. 
 
 Sheet anchor, the third of the four ship's 
 anchors. 
 
 Shrouds, the ropes supporting a mast laterally. 
 
 Sky-sail, a small sail set above the royal. 
 
 Slops, clothes and bedding supplied to the sea- 
 men at their expense. 
 
 Spanker, the gaff sail on the mizzen-mast. 
 
 Sprit-sail, a four-cornered fore-and-aft sail. 
 
 Starboard, the right side looking forward. 
 
 Stay, a rope leading forward in support of the 
 mast. In stays, the act of tacking. To miss 
 stays, to fail in attempting to tack. 
 
 Studding-sails, narrow sails set at the outer 
 edge of the square sails. 
 
 Swab, a bundle of old yarns swung to dry the 
 decks. 
 
 Tack, the weather clue of a course, &c. The 
 starboard lack is when a ship, close hauled, 
 has the wind on the starboard side ; the lar- 
 board tack is when the wind is on the larboard 
 side. To tack is to change from one to the 
 other by turning the ship with her head to the 
 wind. 
 
 Tackle, a pulley composed of several blocks. 
 
 Taffrail, the uppermost rail of the stern. 
 
 Tank, a square water-cistern of sheet iron. 
 
 Tarpauling, a tarred or painted canvass cover. 
 
 Tiller, the turning bar of the rudder. 
 
 Timbers, the upright pieces of a ship's frame. 
 
 Top, a platform near the lower mast head. 
 
 Topping lift, a rope for raising a yard end. 
 
 Traveller, a ring which slides along a rope. 
 
 Treenails, wooden bolts securing the ship's 
 planks. 
 
 Truss, a rope confining a lower yard. 
 
 Trysail, a small gaff sail of storm canvass. 
 
 Veer, to give the ship more scope of cable. 
 
 Waist, in a man of war, the part of the gun- 
 deck between the fore and main masts. 
 
 Wake, the track which a ship leaves in the water. 
 
 Warp, a rope laid out for the purpose of mov- 
 ing a ship. 
 
 Watch, the portion of the crew on duty. 
 
 Water-logged, loss of buoyancy by leakage, &c. 
 
 Way, progress. 
 
 Wear, placing a vessel on the other tack by 
 turning her round, with her stern to the wind. 
 
 Weather, the side on which the wind blows. To 
 weather, to pass to windward. 
 
 Weather gage, is said of a ship to windward of 
 another. 
 
 Wheel, that by which the tiller is moved. 
 
 Whip, a rope passed through a single block. 
 
 Windward, the side directly exposed to the wind. 
 
 Wings, passages between the fore and after 
 cockpit. 
 
 Yard, the beam on which a sail is extended. 
 
 Yard-arm, the extremity of the yard. 
 
 Yaw, temporary deviation from a direct course. 
 
 Windlass, a horizontal modification of the 
 wheel and axle, used in small ships instead of 
 a capstan. 
 
 [Further information will be found in Char- 
 nock's Marine Architecture, Darcy Lever's 
 
 Seamanship, Falconer's Nautical Dictionary, 
 
 Encyclopcedia Britannica, and the Penny Cy- 
 clopaedia i also Brande's Dictionary of Science.'] 
 
 SHIPPING. The most important branches of the Law of Shipping will be 
 found discussed under various sub-heads as follows : — 
 
 The arrangements it is necessary to adopt and adhere to, in terms of the Naviga- 
 tion Laws, for securing the privileges of a British vessel— under the head Naviga- 
 tion. 
 
 The registering of vessels, and the collateral operations in regard to the property 
 and transfer of shares, dictated by the Registry Act— under the head Registry. 
 
 The regulations for the enforcement of the Revenue Laws — under the heads 
 Customs and Smuggling. 
 
 The arrangements appointed by statute for adjusting the mutual rights of the 
 mariners and their employers— under the head Seamen. 
 
 The rights and obligations of the shipmaster — under the heads Master and 
 Barratry. 
 
 The Law of Insurance— under the head Insurance, Marine. 
 
 The law regarding contracts connected with the employment of vessels — under 
 the heads Bill of Lading, Charter-Party, Demurrage, and Freight. 
 
 The law regarding securities over the ship or cargo — under the heads Bottomry 
 and Respondentia. 
 
 Almost the only subject that remains for special consideration is the responsi- 
 bility of shipowners for goods committed to their charge, independently of special 
 contract. It is the duty of the owners to have their vessel, both in hull and rigging, 
 suited for the voyage, and for the safe keeping of the species of cargo contracted for 
 or received on board. There must be a competent master and a sufficient crew of 
 able seamen. The ship must have on board whatever papers are necessary for 
 her protection and that of her cargo, whether required by the laws of the country 
 she belongs to, or by those of the port of destination, or dictated by international 
 law. There must be no false or fraudulent papers, which may subject the ship to 
 capture or detention. The mercantile customs of the port must be adhered to in 
 regard to the employment of wharfingers, lightermen, &c. in lading. The owners 
 are responsible for theft or robbery committed before breaking ground. The 
 master previous to sailing must make the necessary clearances at the Customhouse, 
 and pay all the usual charges. When the preliminaries are completed, the 
 master must sail without delay when the weather is favourable, but not till then. 
 Where sailing with convoy is stipulated for or required by law, the sanction must 
 be obeyed in terms of the law on that subject. [Convoy.] A pilot must be em- 
 ployed in those roads, rivers, and narrow seas where such a precaution is enjoined, 
 
SHI 611 SHI 
 
 either by special law or usage. But there is by statute no responsibility for the 
 absence of a pilot, unless it be proved that it arose " from any refusal to take such 
 pilot on board, or from the wilful neglect of the master in not heaving to and using 
 all practicable means consistent with her safety, for the purpose of taking on board 
 any pilot, who shall be ready and offer to take charge of the ship " (6 Geo. IV. c. 
 125, § 53). "-The master must proceed to the place of destination without delay, 
 and without stopping at any intermediate port, or deviating from the straight and 
 shortest course, unless such stopping or deviation be necessary to repair the ship 
 from the effects of accident or tempest, or to avoid enemies or pirates, by whom he 
 has good reason to suspect that he shall be attacked, if he proceeds in the ordinary 
 track, and whom he has good reason to hope that he may escape by delay or de- 
 viation, or unless the ship sail to the places resorted to in long voyages for a supply 
 of water and provisions, by common and established usage " (Abbott, 317). If the 
 ship be captured or lost in consequence of deviation, the freighter may recover the 
 prime cost of his goods and the shipping-charges. In cases of difficulty and of 
 danger, the master has to keep in view that it is his primary duty to convey the 
 cargo to its place of destination, and that it is only in an extreme case, and when 
 there is scarcely a possibility of accomplishing this object, that he is entitled to act 
 as agent for the freighter, and adopt the course that seems to involve the least 
 sacrifice to his property. On arrival at the port of destination, the ship must be 
 securely moored or anchored, and all papers delivered, and other requisites per- 
 formed, in terms of the customs regulations and the laws of the place. 
 
 The pleas which, in the absence of special stipulation, will excuse the master and 
 owners in the case of injury or loss, are in general briefly described as, " The acts 
 of God," or, " of the queen's enemies," and " perils of the sea." The first expression 
 applies to all sudden calamities - as lightning or a hurricane. The damage must 
 be from the direct agency of the calamity : thus, where part of a bank had been 
 swept away by a flood, and a vessel, striking against it, would have remained safe 
 had the bank been in its old condition, but sunk stern forwards, and damaged the 
 
 foods by reason of the change, there was no exemption from liability (Smith v. 
 hepherd, Abbott, 338, 339). Fire produced internally does not come within the 
 exemptions by common law ; but by statute (26 Geo. III. c. 86), the owners are 
 exempted from responsibility for such loss. The " acts of the queen's enemies" apply 
 to capture or injury by hostile powers. The perils of the sea embrace all those 
 usual calamities incident to navigation, which cannot be obviated by the usual care 
 and foresight. It will very often be a nice question whether a calamity is or is 
 not such as could have been so obviated ; and this is particularly the case in damage 
 by Collision (which see). There are statutory limitations on the responsibility of 
 owners. By 26 Geo. III. c. 86, § 3, they are not liable for loss or damage to " any 
 gold, silver, diamonds, watches, jewels, or precious stones, . . . by reason or means 
 of any robbery, embezzlement, making away with, or secreting thereof," unless 
 their nature, quality, and value have been inserted in the bill of lading, or other- 
 wise declared in writing to the master or owners. By 55 Geo. III. c. 159, the re- 
 sponsibility of owners for damage arising from any act or neglect not occasioned 
 by the fault or privity of the owners, is limited to the value of the ship, and the 
 freight on the voyage. (Abbott on Shipping, by Shee, 295-358.) 
 
 There are certain statutes, independently of those already mentioned, containing 
 regulations with which it will be generally necessary for those in charge of vessels 
 to be acquainted. 
 
 Pilotage is regulated by 6 Geo. IV. c. 125. Amended under the 12 & 13 Vict. 
 c. 88, the authorities on Pilotage are empowered to qualify masters or mates, who 
 have obtained certificates to conduct their own vessels. 
 
 Ships conveying Passengers to ports out of Europe and not in the Mediterranean 
 Sea, are under the regulations of 5 & 6 Vict. c. 107, which repeals the previous act 
 of 5 & 6 Win. IV. c. 53. It makes special regulations for the provisioning of 
 emigrant ships, for their tonnage according to the distance of their destination and 
 the number of passengers, and similar matters. 
 
 The conveyance of passengers betiveen Great Britain and Ireland is regulated by 
 4 Geo. IV. c. 88. 
 
 The Quarantine Regulations are embodied in 6 Geo. IV. c. 78. 
 SHIPPING. Under Commerce, Colony, and East India Company, we have 
 given a summary of the early progress of maritime enterprise among the states of 
 Europe. Of the British commercial navy there is no authentic account prior to 
 last century. It is known, however, to have become considerable, compared with 
 the shipping of other countries, during the reign of Elizabeth, and to have gradu- 
 
SHI 612 SHI 
 
 ally increased under her successors, particularly Charles II. and James II.,— the 
 shipping cleared outwards under the national nag having, it is supposed, doubled 
 in amount between the Restoration, 1660, and the Revolution, 1688. 
 
 In 1701, according to Customs Returns (Macpherson's Annals of Commerce, 
 vol. ii. p. 719J, there belonged to English ports (chiefly London, Bristol, and Yar- 
 mouth) 3281 vessels, estimated to measure 261,222 tons, and carrying 27,196 men. 
 The shipping is supposed to have been doubled between 1701 and 1760; after which 
 its increase became quite extraordinary. In 1800 (lb. vol. iv. p. 535), it amounted 
 in England to 1,466,632 tons ; Scotland, 161,511 ; Ireland, 54,262 ; Channel Isles, 
 16,110 ; and Colonies, 157,364 tons : total, 1,855,879 tons, employing 138,721 men- 
 
 The importance of the commercial marine as a nursery for seamen to man the 
 national fleet was early seen and acknowledged. And by the famous Navigation Act, 
 1651, a complete monopoly of the carrying trade of Britain was secured to her mer- 
 chantmen. Under Navigation Laws, an account is given of the history and present 
 state of that monopoly, which was rigorously maintained upwards of 150 years 
 —down indeed to our own time— when the retaliatory policy of the United States 
 and Prussia led to several important relaxations ; the principal being the Reci- 
 procity System of Mr Huskisson, which was introduced in the year 1823. 
 
 The introduction of the reciprocity system having been followed by a deprecia- 
 tion in the value of shipping property, violent attacks were made upon Mr Hus- 
 kisson's policy by the shipowners,— a numerous, wealthy, and influential body,— 
 who, acting in concert, have always been able to command a speedy attention to 
 their representations. It is now, however, very generally admitted that the de- 
 pression which then took place is fairly attributable to other causes. Ships became 
 cheaper because they could be built cheaper, arising from a great fall in the price 
 of their materials, — wood, iron, copper, and hemp, — while improvements took place, 
 which enabled the old work to be done with fewer hands than before. These cir- 
 cumstances, with perhaps some overtrading in 1824 and 1825, are now held sufli- 
 ciently to account for all the real depression of the shipping interest which occurred. 
 But the most triumphant vindication of Mr Huskisson's policy is to be found in 
 the facts, that the number and tonnage of vessels built since the change have been 
 greater than at any preceding period ; the registered shipping having increased 
 from 2,519,044 tons in 1822 to 3,512,480 tons in 1842, or about 40 per cent. ; and 
 the amount of British shipping cleared outwards for foreign countries and colo- 
 nies, from 1,539,260 tons in 1822, to 3,429,279 tons in 1841— an augmentation of 122 
 per cent. The increase of foreign shipping cleared outwards in the same 20 years 
 was from 457,542 to 1,336,892 tons. 
 
 Nor is the constant progress of British shipping less conspicuous when viewed in 
 comparison with that of other countries. For example, in the trade with the 
 United States — our chief maritime rival — a continually increasing proportion of 
 our tonnage has of late years been employed. Between 1821 and 1836, the British 
 shipping which entered the ports of the republic increased from 55,188 tons to 
 529,922 tons, or 860 per cent. ; while the increase in the American shipping, em- 
 ployed in the foreign trade of the States, was, in the same period, not more than 
 from 765,098 tons to 1,352,653 tons, or 77 per cent. And as regards Prussia, to 
 which our shipowners looked with the greatest apprehension, her mercantile navy 
 has been most strikingly diminished in amount since the commencement of our reci- 
 procity agreement with her. It likewise appears (Porter's Progress of the Nation, 
 § 3, ch. 10), that the proportion of foreign to national shipping, employed in the 
 import and export trade of the United Kingdom, is smaller than in any other 
 state of the least importance, — the proportion in 1835, 10 years after the reciprocity 
 system came into operation, being only 28 per cent. ; while in the United States 
 it was 32 per cent. ; in France, 60 per cent. ; in Russia, 78 per cent. ; at Dantzic, 
 35 per cent. ; and in Sweden (in 1834), 53 per cent. 
 
 Shipbuilding in the United Kingdom is prosecuted chiefly in London, Newcastle, 
 Sunderland, Hull, Liverpool, and the ports on the Clyde ; which last are especially 
 celebrated for their steam-vessels. It is also carried on extensively in New 
 Brunswick and other parts of British America. The cost of now ships, including 
 outfit, averages from about £10 to £12 per ton ; though the slop-built ships of 
 New Brunswick cost little more than £6 per ton. And it appears from a table 
 compiled by Captain Parry, from the estimates of 30 different authorities, and in- 
 troduced by him in his Report on the Caledonian Canal (Par. Paper, 1842, No. 74, 
 p. 81), that the average cost of one day's wages, victuals, and wear and tear for 
 vessels of various sizes, from 60 to 400 tons, is nearly as follows : — 
 
 CO tons. 100 tons. 150 tons. 200 tons. 250 tons. 300 tons. 3oO tons. 400 tons. 
 £1:1:8 £1:11:4* £2:2:5 £2:14:3? £3:5:2 £3: 18: 11* £4: 10: 5$ £5:4: 4J 
 
SHI 
 
 613 
 
 SHI 
 
 Registered Shipping of the British Empire, as on 31st December 1840 and 1841 
 and Ships Built in the Years ended 5th January 1841 and 184*2, respectively. 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 
 '•Ian, &c. 
 Colonies 
 
 Totals. 
 
 Ships Registered. 
 
 1840. 
 
 16,538 
 3,471 
 
 1,969 
 671 
 
 Ton*. i Men. 
 
 2,111,049120,154 
 429,204 28,428 
 183,854 11,927 
 44,155 5,018 
 543,2/6 35,813 
 
 1841. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 17,060 
 
 3,642 
 
 2,016 
 
 714 
 
 6,5yl 
 
 Ttas. I Man. 
 2,223,940' 124, 48551065 
 468,879 30,257 
 193,807 12,343 
 48,773 5,224 
 577,081 37,857 
 
 28.902 3,311.538 201,340 30,052 3.512,480 210,198 2219 36-3,352 1741 282.814 
 
 Ships Built. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1841. 
 
 Stupe.) Tons. Shios. Ton*. 
 
 165,852 8i5111,830 
 263| 42,322 245 43,318 
 42j 3,115 51 4,430 
 78 8.775 81 8,731 
 771 143.288 *549 114,505 
 
 Account of the Tonnage of Shipping Registered at each of the principal Ports of 
 the United Kingdom, including the Chanuel Islands, on December 31, 1841. 
 
 England. 
 
 Sailing Vessels. 
 
 Steam 
 Vessels. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Saiiiug Vessels. 
 
 Steam 
 Vessels. 
 
 Under 50 
 Tons. 
 
 Ab-Tre 50 
 
 Under 50 
 Tons. 
 
 Above 50 
 Too*. 
 
 19,165 
 9,540 
 2,940 
 4,574 
 1,637 
 6,244 
 7,855 
 5,261 
 1,622 
 4,154 
 358 
 3,235 
 7,859 
 1,188 
 3,512 
 7,504 
 1,289 
 736 
 1,527 
 1,207 
 1,576 
 
 10,042 
 
 563,295 
 17,306 
 37,557 
 24,171 
 15,637 
 5,732 
 14,521 
 65,172 
 12,116 
 
 302,730 
 17,156 
 
 259,184 
 21,009 
 12,155 
 9,425 
 6,919 
 31,010 
 53,353 
 
 176.252 
 47,837 
 68,990 
 34,320 
 
 37,257 
 
 44 
 
 2,788 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 ' 135 
 
 2,758 
 
 266 
 
 5,563 
 
 2J560 
 288 
 
 "io7 
 99 
 
 "427 
 433 
 67 
 337 
 451 
 
 1,963 
 
 965 
 
 4,642 
 
 2,399 
 
 1,994 
 
 5,007 
 
 3,125 
 
 811 
 
 3,019 
 
 3,113 
 
 1,362 
 
 526 
 
 910 
 
 4,120 
 3,631 
 7,153 
 1,285 
 4,715 
 1,250 
 2,596 
 641 
 
 49,332 
 17,382 
 
 6,502 
 48,267 
 81,999 
 83,138 
 
 5,285 
 14,053 
 
 8,727 
 21,468 
 22,854 
 
 9,507 
 12,095 
 
 44,236 
 29,595 
 12,337 
 12,515 
 5,837 
 18,310 
 23,155 
 14.755 
 
 3,162 
 
 450 
 
 306 
 
 1,816 
 
 10,298 
 
 186 
 
 18 
 
 56 
 
 207 
 
 1,568 
 
 101 
 
 19 
 
 347 
 
 1,222 
 
 217 
 
 10,815 
 
 ' 203 
 999 
 117 
 
 Beaumaris 
 
 Alloa 
 
 Bristol 
 
 
 Dartmouth 
 
 Exeter 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hull 
 
 
 
 Kirkaldv. . . 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 Leith..." 
 
 Lvnn 
 
 
 
 Perth .. . 
 
 Plymouth 
 
 Port-Glasgow 
 
 Ireland. 
 Belfast 
 
 Poole 
 
 Portsmouth 
 
 Rochester 
 
 Cork 
 
 Scarborough 
 
 Stockton 
 
 Dublin 
 
 
 Sunderland 
 
 Whitby 
 
 
 
 Whitehaven 
 
 Yarmouth 
 
 
 Guernsey 
 
 Account of the Tonnage of Shipping entering Inwards and Outwards at the prin- 
 cipal Ports of the United Kingdom in the Year 1841. 
 
 London 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 Bristol 
 
 Newcastle 
 
 Hull 
 
 Goole 
 
 Stockton 
 
 Sunderland.... 
 Whitehaven.. 
 
 Newport 
 
 Plymouth.... 
 
 Swansea 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 Greenock 
 
 Port-Glasgow 
 
 Leith 
 
 Dundee 
 
 Aberdeen ... 
 
 Dublin 
 
 Cork 
 
 Belfast.... 
 
 Sailing Vessels. 
 
 Inwaids, OuUfht's. 
 
 Steam Vessels- 
 
 Inward*. Outweri 
 
 ,726,030 
 
 456,544 
 
 169,813 
 
 239,435 1 
 
 72,101. 
 
 171,066 
 
 61,545 1 
 
 67,665! 
 
 39,844 
 
 76,952, 
 
 131,2171 
 
 213,243 
 
 172,760 
 
 78.254 
 
 8,146 
 
 149,799! 
 
 133,541 
 
 136,874 
 
 355,343 
 
 183,816 
 
 196,871 
 
 777,930 304, 
 385./09 565 
 117,711 141. 
 ,950,614 33. 
 
 176,285 9, 
 ,014,918 5. 
 659,820 4, 
 348.520 28, 
 471.313 
 67,774 115, 
 
 195,343 223, 
 25.360 62. 
 4,: 392 1, 
 
 112,992 131, 
 59,769 33, 
 85.296 49. 
 
 126,209 184. 
 
 108,840 65, 
 59,682 140, 
 
 ,600*74, 
 
 ,317 37" 
 
 812 
 
 saO 
 
 M 
 612 
 673 
 
 111 
 
 MM 
 
 ' ai 
 
 169 
 
 ;,:< 
 392 
 607 
 521 
 
 15.7: 
 
 422,809 524.*?: 
 
 Iff, 
 
 72 
 
 35, 
 
 4. 
 
 2>, 
 24. 
 
 5. 
 27, 
 
 6, 
 47. 
 70, 
 
 24. 
 14, 
 6.153 
 15; 
 
 18, 
 21. 
 18. 
 
 Foreign Trade- 
 
 Inwards- 
 
 British. Foreign. 
 
 104 285 
 
 047 20 
 
 942 160 
 
 134J177 
 
 2 
 
 35 
 137 
 
 317, 
 779 337, 
 
 British. Foreign. 
 
 ,.3296 
 ,564 16 
 ,366 346 
 ,099 125 
 
 843 5 
 ,554 75 
 ,440 216 
 
 268; 3 
 ,430 22 
 ,155 6 
 ,914 33 
 .974 33 
 .035 16 
 
 441 1 
 ,822 15 
 ,516 35 
 
 .-70 12 
 
 ,839 3 
 ,338 3 
 ,856 19 
 
 291,892 
 
 350,764 
 
 8,619 
 
 175,043 
 
 95,040 
 
 3,452 
 
 44.814 
 
 63,003 
 
 67 
 
 20,507 
 
 11,820 
 
 8,217 
 
 9,432 
 
 2,169 
 
 441 
 
 17,955 
 
 8,231 
 
 4,623 
 
 8.291 
 
 1,248 
 
 4JHJJ 
 
 * This return was incomplete at the date when the account was closed. 
 
SHI 
 
 614 
 
 SHO 
 
 totals in 1841. 
 
 (Inwards. 
 
 Coastwise. 
 
 (Sailing v c „™ 
 
 l«-»'— {S3S&:::: 
 
 Colonial. 
 
 f Inwards. , 
 \ Outwards . 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 (q«-» {IS:::::: 
 
 .England. 
 
 7,305,874 
 8,265,941 
 1,687,013 
 1,539,311 
 1,202,004 
 1,180,434 
 1,654,810 
 1,150,655 
 1,703,071 
 1,215,870 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 1,211,942 
 
 1,119,564 
 
 1,157,610 
 
 637,801 
 
 645,707 
 
 571,064 
 
 552,907 
 
 655,928 
 
 181,011 
 
 138,471 
 
 214,673 
 
 114,582 
 
 146,409 
 
 38,506 
 
 110,732 
 
 26,441 
 
 182,354 
 
 34,165 
 
 93,484 
 
 20,953 
 
 Total. 
 
 637,380 
 ,061,352 
 ,903,784 
 ,748,146 
 ,521,486 
 ,5(19,68.9 
 ,839,725 
 ,287,828 
 ,919,590 
 ,330,3(17 
 
 Tonnage of Vessels employed in the Foreign and Colonial Trade of the United 
 Kingdom (including their repeated Voyages), separating British from Foreign 
 Vessels, and distinguishing the Trade with each Country, in 1840 and 1841. 
 
 Russia . . . 
 Sweden. .. 
 Norway . . 
 Denmark , 
 
 Germany 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 France 
 
 Portugal, Azores.&c. 
 Spain, Canaries, &c- 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Italy & It al. Islands 
 Malta & Ionian Isles 
 Turkey & Greece 
 Africa and African 
 
 Islands 
 
 India, Ceylon 
 
 Singapore... . 
 
 China 
 
 Other parts of Asia 
 
 Australasia 
 
 British America... 
 
 W. Indies 
 
 Foreign W. Indies 
 United States. .... 
 Mexico and South 
 
 America 
 
 Whale Fisheries.. 
 Jersey, Man, &c, 
 
 1840. 
 
 340,567 
 
 11,933 
 
 3,166 
 
 6,327 
 
 112,709 
 
 165,839 
 
 212,503 
 
 57,274 
 
 323,393 
 
 61,195 
 
 50,649 
 
 23,099 
 
 85,576 
 
 10,962 
 
 28,005 
 
 137,883 
 20,056 
 12,316 
 25,905 
 
 808,522 
 
 181,731 
 41,174 
 
 138,201 
 
 78,533 
 14,296 
 163,459 
 
 Foreign 
 
 79,152 
 
 53,337 
 
 114,241 
 
 103,067 
 
 237,984 
 
 88,556 
 
 69,770 
 
 48,996 
 
 181,497 
 
 9,767 
 
 5,892 
 
 2*1,095 
 
 "1,005 
 
 6,881 
 426,867 
 
 8,010 
 8,188 
 
 Total.. 3,197,501 1,460,294 
 
 itii.h. Foreign. 
 
 225,581 
 
 11,760 
 
 1,732 
 
 92,631 
 
 73,943 
 
 173,110 
 
 217,665 
 49,457 
 
 365,842 
 68,238 
 48,321 
 44,395 
 63,821 
 42,288 
 39,530 
 
 102,306 
 
 178,834 
 2,942 
 
 11,716 
 115,119 
 694,094 
 222,620 
 
 3fi,460 
 180,041 
 
 90,984 
 
 15,276 
 
 124,278 
 
 58,861 
 
 39,999 
 
 114,662 
 
 207,113 
 
 177,449 
 
 82,271 
 
 65,542 
 
 46,541 
 
 179,882 
 
 30,969 
 
 14,270 
 
 1,055 
 
 14,043 
 
 1,035 
 
 2,623 
 
 4,172 
 
 370 
 
 1,082 
 
 1,762 
 
 218 
 
 2,213 
 
 197 
 
 19,646 
 
 409,900 
 
 12,989 
 
 1841. 
 
 British. 
 
 294,227 
 13,170 
 
 977 
 
 3,368 
 
 88,198 
 
 188,272 
 
 212,782 
 
 69,835 
 
 387,934 
 
 61,161 
 
 45,508 
 
 23,314 
 
 68,342 
 
 16,315 
 
 27,483 
 
 111,143 
 
 207,075 
 23,344 
 14,910 
 29,868 
 
 841,348 
 
 174,975 
 42,059 
 
 121,777 
 
 119,827 
 13,098 
 
 160,901 
 
 Foreign 
 
 British. 
 
 75,616 
 46,795 
 
 113,025 1 
 83,009 I 
 
 210,254 
 
 110,348 I 
 67,946 i 
 54,241 j 
 
 194,236 ; 
 9,565 
 5,560 
 
 12,335 
 
 "1*87 
 
 912 
 
 2,889 
 294,170 
 
 5,885 
 3,337 
 
 195,604 
 17,643 
 2,642 
 82,090 
 72,497 
 
 191,704 
 
 207,667 
 63,935 
 
 434,936 
 61,182 
 58,457 
 46,663 
 77,595 
 54,886 
 55,535 
 
 129,816 
 
 215,421 
 
 13,738 
 
 13,227 
 
 125,609 
 
 652,725 
 
 211,536 
 
 52,462 
 
 159,597 
 
 88,714 
 
 10,578 
 
 132,820 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 59,145 
 
 35,674 
 
 101,321 
 
 193,833 
 
 165,783 
 
 91,745 
 
 61,758 
 
 40,606 
 
 184,069 
 
 23,501 
 
 10,319 
 
 344 
 
 10,789 
 
 5,431 
 
 5,015 
 
 6,320 
 
 1,381 
 
 2,886 
 
 13,393 
 313,390 
 
 9,785 
 
 3,292,984 1,488,888 
 
 3,361,2111,291,165 3,429.2791,336,892 
 
 Further information respecting British shipping will be found under Lloyd's, Steam Navi- 
 gation, Tonnage, and in the articles referred to on page 610; and respecting the shipping of 
 foreign countries under their respective heads. S 
 
 SHIPSHUSBAND, the agent or commissioner for the owners. He may be a 
 part-owner or a stranger. His powers are by mandate, commission, or verbal 
 appointment ; the latter chiefly where he is also part-owner. His duties are to 
 arrange every thing for the outfit and good order of the ship — stores, repairs, fur- 
 nishings ; to enter into contracts of affreightment ; and to superintend her papers. 
 His powers do not extend to the borrowing of money ; but he may grant bills for 
 furnishings, stores, repairs, and the necessary engagements binding on owners, 
 although ne may have received money wherewith to pay them. He may draw 
 the freight ; but is not entitled to take bills instead of it, giving up the lien by 
 which it is secured. He cannot delegate his authority. 
 
 SHOE-TRADE. This trade, in which we include the manufacture of boots, is 
 generally followed in all parts of the kingdom ; but, though employing a greater 
 number of persons than any of the other common handicrafts, it scarcely rises any 
 where into importance except in London, Northampton, and Stafford, where the 
 public contracts are chiefly executed, and supplies furnished for exportation. In 
 these places a considerable division of labour nas been introduced into the trade, 
 
SHO 615 SIA 
 
 no fewer than twent., distinct branches being distinguished. This is particularly 
 the case in what is called the men's line. 
 
 Shoes and boots, as articles of export, occur principally in the colonial trade ; 
 but being included in the customs accounts under the general head of " leather 
 wrought and unwrought," the amount shipped cannot be stated. They also occur 
 as imports in our trade with France, especially light shoes for females, and men's 
 boots ; the latter are of neat workmanship, and are said to be in other respects of 
 good quality. This trade will probably increase ; as, in the new tariff (1842), the 
 import duties on boots and shoes, formerly about 30 per cent., have been reduced 
 fully one-half. Before this reduction, the imports from France amounted to about 
 50,0*00 pairs per annum. 
 
 We possess few data for determining the value of the boot and shoe trade in the 
 United Kingdom ; but the annual consumption, estimating the average expenditure 
 of each individual of our population of 27,000,000, at the moderate rate of 10s., will 
 amount to £13,500,000. 
 
 SHOP (Fr. Boutique. It. Loja), a place for the sale of commodities by retail. 
 Shops are now, generally speaking, arranged indiscriminately ; but the old 
 custom, and one probably coeval with the existence of cities, was to appropriate 
 particular streets to particular trades ; and some relics of this usage still remain 
 in London. Paternoster Row continues to be much occupied by booksellers ; Lom- 
 bard Street, by bankers ; Long Acre, by coachmakers ; and Cranbourne Alley, by 
 straw-hat-makers ; while Holywell and Monmouth Streets still uphold their an- 
 cient reputation for old clothes, and Broker's Alley is crowded by dealers in 
 second-hand furniture. In London, the number of shops is estimated at about 
 40,000. Many of these, as well as in the provincial cities, attract attention by a 
 gorgeous display of wares in plate-glass windows, comprising almost their entire 
 front, while their interior is frequently lined with mirrors. Every sort of device, 
 in short, is used to attract notice and custom. In 1785, a tax was imposed on 
 shops in Britain, but it was abolished in 1789. 
 
 In America, instead of shops, unostentatious warehouses, called stores, are com- 
 monly used by retailers ; and in the East, this class, as well as the common handi- 
 crafts, are generally arranged, in each city, in a place exclusively appropriated to 
 them, called a Bazaar. 
 
 SHRIMP (Crangon vulgaris), & crustaceous fish, common on the shores of Eng- 
 land, and brought in large quantities to Billingsgate, chiefly from Gravesend, 
 Lynn, Boston, Leigh, and Isle of Wight. Shrimps are boiled before being carried 
 to* market ; they are in season during the whole year, though the chief demand is 
 in spring. Those of Pegwell Bay are preferred ; and the preparers of potted 
 shrimps profess to make use of them only. 
 
 SHROFF, SHROFFAGE. Shroff, in Indian commerce, means a banker or 
 money-changer. Shroffage is the examination of coins, and separation of the good 
 from the debased. [India.] 
 
 SHRUB, a compound liquor, made of spirit, acid fruit, and sugar. 
 
 SIAM, a state iu the peninsula of India, bounded N. by China ; E. by Annam ; 
 S. by Gulf of Siam ; and W. by Birmah. Area, 190,000 sq. miles. Population, 
 3,000,000. It comprises Siam Proper, part of Laos and Cambodia, and certain 
 tributary Malay states. Capital. Bankok, a flourishing port on the Menam, in 
 lat. 13° 58' N., and long. 100° 34' E., about 20 miles from the sea ; pop. 90,000 ; 
 about 4-5ths are Chinese. Government, a despotic monarchy : the king is nomi- 
 nally a vassal of China. S 
 
 The kingdom is generally mountainous. The fertile part is composed chiefly of the valley of 
 the Menam, a large river which descends from the heart of Thibet, and at certain seasons over- 
 flows and inundates a considerable portion of the country. Of the climate little is known beyond 
 Bankok, which is represented by Mr Crawfurd as being far from unhealthy. Mines exist in 
 different places, but they are yet almost unexplored. Tin, copper, lead, zinc, antimony, with small 
 quantities of gold, are found ; but the metal which occurs in greatest relative abundance is iron, 
 particularly on the Menam. The vegetable productions differ in no essential respect from those 
 of other Indian countries. The district within the tract of ii undation is admirably suited for 
 rice ; and, excepting Bengal, the quantity exported is greater than from any country in Asia. 
 
 The inland and coasting trades are considerable. The former is principally conducted on the 
 Menam and its branches in flat boats and bamboo rafts : but a large portion is" likewise carried on 
 by means of elephants, which are generally used for land carriage. The latter embraces a consider- 
 able traffic with the countries on the shores of the Straits of Malacca and Bay of Bengal, by which 
 channels are imported opium, cotton goods, and other commodities. The maritime commerce with 
 foreign countries is almost wholly concentrated at Bankok, which, after Canton, is the greatest 
 shipping port in Asia not settled by Europeans. The most important branch is that with China ; the 
 staple exports consisting of black pepper, sugar, stick lac, sapan wood, cardamoms, cotton-wool, 
 eagle-wood, rice, hides, gamboge, and wood for furniture ; and the imports, of coarse china-ware, 
 teas, and raw and wrought silks, with a quantity of Chinese silver in ingots ; in this trade are 
 
SIC 616 SIC 
 
 employed about 35,000 tons of junks, which arrive in January and February, and leave in June 
 and July. Considerable intercourse exists also with the ports of Cambodia and Cochin China ; but 
 the most extensive branch, after that with China, is conducted with Singapore, Malacca, Penang, 
 Batavia, and other places in the Malayan Archipelago. In this trade the staple exports of Siam 
 are sugar, salt, oil, and rice ; to which may be added the minor articles of .stick lac, iron pans, 
 coarse earthenware, and lard. The returns are British and Indian piece-goods, opium, with a 
 little glass-ware, and some British woollens from the European settlements, with commodities 
 suited for the Chinese markets, such as pepper, tin, dragon's blood, rattans, beches-de-mer, 
 swallows' nests, and Malayau camphor from the native ports. This trade is carried on almost 
 entirely by means of junks, and has greatly increased of late years. 
 
 Almost every kind of merchandise, except sugar and pepper, is the subject of royal monopoly ; 
 and the Chinese are the only foreigners whose trade is upon a liberal footing. In 1822, Mr Craw- 
 furd, as representing our Indian government, effected a commercial treaty with the King of Siam ; 
 after which, several British merchants attempted to settle in Bankok, but without success. The 
 Americans also obtained a treaty in 1836. 
 
 Money.— The circulating medium is stated by 
 Mr Crawfurd ( Embassy to Siam, #c), to consist 
 only of silver and cowrie shells. The general coin 
 is the bat or tical of 4 sailings, 8 fuangs, 16 song- 
 p'hais, 32 p'hai-nungs, or 6400 cowries. The 
 tical weighs 236 troy grains, and is commonly 
 valued at 2s. 6d. sterling ; but its standard is 
 uncertain. The catty of 80 ticals, and the 
 pecul of 100 catties, are used only to denote 
 large sums. 
 
 Measures and Weights.— The fathom of 4 
 cubits, or 8 spans, = 6i feet; 20 fathoms = 
 1 sen ; and 100 sen = 1 yuta. The sen is also 
 a square measure of 20 fathoms to the side. 
 The ordinary measure is the catty = 2jf lbs. 
 avoirdupois, being double the Chinese catty. 
 The pecul contains 50 catties, and is thus equal 
 to the Chinese. In weighing rice and salt a large 
 measure is used, consisting of 22 peculs to the 
 former and 25 to the latter : rice is also measured 
 by the basket, 100 of which are equivalent to the 
 large measure above mentioned. 
 
 SICCA, a weight for gold and silver in India = 179§ troy grains. 
 
 This was the weight of the ancient standard rupee of Hindostan, while the Mogul emperor was 
 the sole sovereign, and which was thence denominated the sicca rupee. In course of time this 
 standard, though professed to be followed, was gradually altered by the powers established in dif- 
 ferent parts of India ; some being lighter, and others, as the Calcutta sicca rupee (weighing 191-916 
 grains, of which 175 - 921 pure), heavier than the Mogul money. To remedy the confusion thence 
 arising, an ideal standard, called the current rupee, was introduced, to which all others were to 
 be compared before they were entered into accounts. 116 current rupees = 100 Calcutta sicca 
 rupees. The East India Company's rupee, now the general standard, weighs 180 troy grains, or 
 1 tola, which is also the basis of the new system of weights. [India.] 
 
 SICILY, the largest and most fertile island of the Mediterranean, forms, with 
 the Neapolitan territory, from the south extremity of which it is separated by the 
 Strait of Messina, the United Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Area, 10,508 sq. miles. 
 Population in 1842, about 2,100,000. The head of the political administration is 
 a lieutenant-general, representing the king ; but all important matters are referred 
 to the Sicilian section of the council of state at Naples. S 
 
 The island, triangular in form, is traversed along its N. side by a chain of mountains, which 
 gives off several branches to the S. ; besides which, there are several detached groups, including 
 the celebrated Etna, in height 10,872 feet, near the E. coast. There are some extensive plains ; 
 but, generally speaking, the island consists of hill and valley, — the whole watered by numerous 
 small rivers. The climate is salubrious and delightful, except during the sirocco, and in some 
 low and marshy tracts. 
 
 The difference of elevation in Sicily, and its fertility and climate, naturally give great variety 
 and excellence to its productions. Anciently it was styled the granary of Rome ; but in modem 
 times, sloth, ignorance, political dependence, and misgovernment, have brought its prosperity to 
 a comparatively low ebb. Of late, however, some beneficial changes have taken place; in 1812 
 and 1838 laws were passed for the abolition of the feudal system, and the emancipation of the 
 peasantry ; restrictions which existed to the exportation of corn have been removed ; and, more 
 recently, funds have been raised for the formation of good roads. 
 
 The arable lands comprise 3,700,000 acres ; vineyards, chiefly around Marsala, 115,000 do. ; 
 gardens, 260,000 do. ; woods and olive groves, the latter principally on the N. coast, 1 ,125,000 acres ; 
 the remainder of the island is mostly waste. Agriculture is in an exceedingly rude state ; but 
 the crops raised, principally wheat, barley, and potatoes, with hemp, flax, and cotton, are not- 
 withstanding abundant, though affording at present little surplus for export. The rearing of 
 live-stock occupies even less attention than tillage. The vintage, except in some English establish- 
 ments at Marsala is an object of little care ; and the olive-oil is also of low quality from the same 
 cause. The culture of sumach, however, is more attended to ; and the fruits, especially oranges 
 and lemons, grow luxuriantly. The chief other vegetable products are detailed in the list of ex- 
 ports. The only mineral product of importance is sulphur, which is abundant in the central and 
 south districts. Manufactures are confined to a few establishments in the principal cities. 
 
 The exports mainly consist of raw produce. In 1839, the quantities and values of the prin- 
 cipal articles were as follow :— Sumach , 238,082 cwts., £263,567; fruits, dry and preserved, 
 102,108 cwt., £163,175; oranges and lemons, 5&9,036 boxes, £119,737; wines and spirits, 
 4,421,537 gallons, £156,315 ; sulphur (greatly below the average, which is 700,000 cantisrs, owing 
 to the existence of the French monopoly, since abolished), 542,384 cwts., £116,142; olive-oil, 
 692,579 gallons, £96,569; with considerable quantities of manna, linseed, silk, liquorice paste, 
 rags, salt, barilla, argol, and other articles; the whole amounting to, £1,350,493; of which Britain 
 took £379,879 (below the usual amount, owing to the sulphur monopoly) ; United States, 
 £393,723 ; and France, £198,168. The imports consist ch-'efiy of sugar, coffee, and other colo- 
 nials ; cottons, yarn, and wool ; woollens, silks, and linens ; hides, hardware, earthenware, cod- 
 fish, &c, which are mostly brought from America, England, France, and Genoa. In 1839, the im- 
 
SIE 617 SIL 
 
 ports were valued officially at £568,998, but they may be more correctly estimated at £1,000,000 ; 
 many commodities, especially sugar and other tropical products, being smuggled in consequence 
 of the high customs and tonnage duties. The shipping amounted in 1838 to 2250 vessels, 43,000 
 tons ; employing nearly 25,000 men. [Sulphur.] 
 
 Ports.— Palermo, the capital, is situated in a bay on the N. coast, in lat. 38° 8' N., long. 13° 
 22' E., in a fertile plain between two mountain ridges and the sea. Pop. 140,000. The harbour, 
 which is at some distance, is formed by an artificial mole, which, however, does not protect it 
 effectually. In 1838, according to Mr Macgregor's Report on Sicily, the imports amounted to 
 £284,009 ; and the exports to £346,310. 
 
 na, the chief trading port, lies on the N. E. coast, opposite Calabria, in lat. 38° 11' N., 
 long. 15° 34' E. Pop. 85,000. The town rises in the form of a crescent on the W, side of the 
 harbour, which is one of the best in the Mediterranean. In 1838, the imports amounted to 
 £294,811 ; and the exports to £368.492. 
 
 Alicata, Catania, Cefalu, Girgenti, Marsala, Mazara, Sciacca, Syracuse, Trapani, Terra Nova, 
 and Termini, are the chief other ports. 
 
 Measures, Money, Revenue, &c. 
 
 = 2-58 Imp. gallons, and reckoned by weight 
 at 12J rottoli grossi, or about 24 lbs. avoirdu- 
 pois ; in Palermo it is sold by the cantaro grosso. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are stated in oncie of 30 
 tari or 600 grani; also in ducats of 100 grani, 
 each of 10 piccioli or cavalli, as in .Naples. 
 Theoncia = 3 Neapolitan ducats (valued in 
 gold), = 10s. 3Jd. sterling; and 58 tari 6 grani 
 = £1. 
 
 The Sicilian dollar or scudo of 2 fiorini, 12 
 tari, 24 carlini, 180 ponti, or 240 grani, is worth 
 3s. lljd. sterling. The Sicilian tari and carlini 
 are thus of only one-half the value of the same 
 denominations in Naples. 
 
 Since 1818 the coinage of Sicily has been the 
 same as that of Naples. 
 
 Bills on London are commonly drawn at 3 
 months' date. No days of grace are allowed. 
 
 The Revenue, derived principally from a land- 
 tax of 12J per cent., a tax of 13 taris 12 grains 
 per salma on the grinding of corn, and customs 
 and navigation dues, amounts annually to about 
 £1,000,000, gross. [Naples.] 
 
 Measures and Weights.— The canna of 8 palmi 
 or 96 inches = 81-35 Imp. inches ; and 3 palmi 
 = 1 braccio. 
 
 The salm of land = 5\ Imp. acres. 
 
 The tonna, wine measure, of 4 barili, 8 quar- 
 tare, or 160 quartucci, = 31-24 Imp. gallons: 
 the pipe is 12 barrels, = 9372 Imp. gallons. 
 
 The salma generale, corn measure, of 4 bis- 
 aecie, 16 tomoli, or 64 mondelli, = Hi staja 
 Leghorn measure, = 7*61 Lmp. bushels; the 
 salma grossa, similarly divided, = 14 staja, 
 Leghorn measure, = 9*47 Imp. bushels. 
 
 The cantaro grosso of 100 rottoli grossi, each 
 of 33 ounces, = 192*53 lbs. avoirdupois: the 
 common cantar, or cantaro sottile, of 100 rottoli 
 sottili, each of 30 ounces, = 175'03 lbs. avoirdu- 
 pois ; the pound of 12 ounces = 4901 troy grains ; 
 and 100 Sicilian lbs. of 12 ounces = 70-01 lbs. 
 avoirdupois. The weight and fineness of the 
 precious metals are expressed as in Naples. 
 
 The Sicilian ship ton = 5 Sicilian salmes = 
 94 cubic French feet (pieds de Roi). 
 
 N. B. — In Messina, oil is sold bv the caffiso, 
 
 S7ERRA LEONE. [Nigritia.] 
 
 JP.LK (Du. Zyde. Fr. Soie. Ger. Seide. It. Seta. Por. & Sp. Seda. Rus. 
 *Jchelk), a soft shining filament, the product of several species of caterpillar, par- 
 ticularly the Bombyx mori or silkworm. This worm is about six or eight weeks 
 in arriving at maturity, during which period it changes its skin four or five times ; 
 and ceases to feed for a short time previous to each change. When full grown it 
 eats no more ; but, choosing a convenient place, begins to discharge viscid pulpy 
 twin filaments from the double orifice of its nose, with which it instinctively envelops 
 itself as a defence against living enemies and a change of temperature ; and it 
 continues this operation till it has spun an oval case or ball, in which it remains 
 as a chrysalis for about fifteen days, at the close of which it perforates the end 
 of the silken ball, and comes out a winged moth, to deposit its eggs for a fresh 
 generation, and very soon after to die. Those who cultivate the worm for silk do 
 not suffer it to reach this last stage, because the silken fibre would be cut into small 
 pieces, by the opening at which the moth escapes. When the whole quantity of 
 silk is formed, they destroy the chrysalis by means of heat. 
 
 Silk occurs in various forms. Cocoons, Knubs, or Husks, are the balls as formed 
 by the worm, about the size of a pigeon's egg, and of a golden-yellow colour. Raw 
 silk,the state when simply wound off the cocoons into skeins or hanks, is in threads 
 composed of several fibres, united by their natural gum. Waste silk is that part 
 which is first wound off the cocoons in the operation of reeling ; and such cocoons 
 as being eaten through by the worm cannot be wound off by the reel, but are after- 
 wards carded and spun ; also of short ends arising from winding. 
 
 Raw silk, before it can bo used in weaving, is made to take one of three forms : 
 1st, Singles, the most simple process, consists in merely twisting the double 
 thread projected from the twin orifice in the nose of the insect, in order to give 
 more firmness to its texture : 2d, Tram, formed by twisting together, not very 
 closely, two or more threads of raw silk ; and this description most commonly 
 forms- the weft or shoot of manufactured goods : 3d, Organzine, principally used 
 in the warp, that is, to form the length of the web, is composed of two or more 
 threads twisted separately, and afterwards combined together, the twist being 
 then given in contrary directions. When thus prepared it is termed thrown silk. 
 
 The worms are fed with the leaves of the mulberry-tree ; and they are reared 
 
SIL 618 SIL 
 
 in a kind of nursery, called by the French a magnaniere. Silk husbandry is ex- 
 tensively prosecuted in the south of Europe — in Italy, where the annual produc- 
 tion is about 12,000,000 lbs., chiefly in the northern states, and in France ; also in 
 China, India, and Persia. It is likewise pursued on a smaller scale in many other 
 countries possessing a soil and climate favourable to the growth of the mulberry. 
 The Indian silk, produced from a worm and leaf peculiar to Bengal, is inferior 
 to that of France, Italy, and China, all produced from the Bombyx mori, reared 
 on the white mulberry. 
 
 About 5,000,000 lbs. raw, waste, and thrown silk are annually consumed in this 
 country. It is imported chiefly from Bengal, and from Italy, either direct or 
 through France ; it is also brought in considerable quantities from China (where, 
 next to tea, it is the great staple) and Turkey ; and in smaller quantities from 
 Holland, the United States, and other places. [Silk Manufacture.] S 
 
 SILK GUT, a hard, white, transparent thread, about a foot in length, made in 
 China and Italy from the intestines of the silk worm, and used for angling. 
 
 SILK MANUFACTURE. This manufacture originated in China, from whence, 
 according to the best credited accounts, it was carried to Constantinople by Persian 
 missionaries in the reign of Justinian, a. d. 550. Its progress was at first slow, 
 and for 600 years was confined to the Greek empire. In the 12th century, how- 
 ever, it was extended to Palermo in Sicily, and from thence by degrees into Italy, 
 Spain, and eventually to France, in which it had effectually taken root prior to 
 the reign of Francis I. Its early history in England is involved in obscurity ; but 
 the reign of Edward III. is commonly assigned as the period of its introduction 
 into this country. It attained a certain extent in the 16th century, particularly in 
 the days of Elizabeth, when a number of Flemish workmen settled in her dominions 
 in consequence of the persecutions of the Duke of Alva ; and a further stimulus 
 was given to it in 1685, by the repeal of the Edict of Nantes, and the removal in 
 consequence of a number of French Protestant weavers to England. Numerous 
 laws were passed for the protection and encouragement of the manufacturers ; and 
 in 1765, the importation of foreign silks was strictly prohibited. This law gave 
 to the English manufacturers a monopoly of the home market, from which, in the 
 then imperfect condition of the trade, they would have been driven by foreign 
 competition ; but it did not secure to them prosperity. By withdrawing a power- 
 ful incentive to economize the processes, silks continued a high-priced luxury, 
 accessible only to the wealthier classes, and of course liable to all the caprices of 
 fashion ; while the imposition of heavy taxes on the raw material, and the com- 
 petition of the smuggler, tended farther to increase the evil. Under the combined 
 influence of these causes the trade increased slowly ; those who embarked in it were 
 exposed to continued alternations of prosperity and distress ; and down to 1824, the 
 silk manufacture, notwithstanding all the protection it had received, could not be 
 said to be firmly established. In that year, however, influenced by the suggestions 
 of Mr Huskisson, a bold and enlightened policy was adopted by our government. 
 The high duties of 4s. per lb. imposed upon raw silk, and of 14s. 8d. per lb. upon 
 undyed thrown silk, were reduced ; the former to 3d., and the latter to 7s. 6d. per 
 lb. ; and in 1829, to the rates of Id. and 3s. 6d. respectively. The prohibitory act 
 of 1765 was also repealed, and a scale of duties adopted (equivalent to 30 per cent. 
 dd valorem), under which foreign manufactured silk goods might be imported after 
 July 5, 1826. In the tariff of 1842, the duty on undyed thrown silk was farther 
 reduced to Is. the lb. ; but no alteration was made on the rates on manufactures. 
 
 The consequence of Mr Huskisson's reductions was a great and sudden increase 
 of the silk-trade. The manufacturers at first suffered severely from foreign com- 
 petition ; but this evil was partial and temporary. Stimulated by that rivalry, 
 such improvements were effected in the quality of our fabrics as rendered them 
 equal, and in some cases superior, to the most beautiful productions of other coun- 
 tries. At the same time, by the reduction of the cost of the raw material, and 
 by conducting the several processes upon a scale, and according to principles, 
 admitting of great economy, British silks have not only been placed within the 
 reach of the humbler classes, but in other markets have been brought into success- 
 ful competition with those of foreign production. 
 
 As this country is entirely dependent upon foreign states for the supply of the 
 raw material, the quantity of goods made must be proportional to the unmanufac- 
 tured silk imported. In the 10 years preceding 1824, the quantity of raw and 
 thrown silk used amounted to 19,409,020 lbs., being an average of 1,940,902 lbs. 
 per annum ; and in the 12 years following the change of system, the quantity used 
 was 49,973,331 lbs., or 4,164,444 lbs. per annum, being an increase over the average 
 
SIL 
 
 619 
 
 SIL 
 
 of the former period of 114 per cent. (Porter's Progress of the Xation, § 2, ch. ii. 
 . ) It is further remarkable that, notwithstanding this increase, the impor- 
 tation of thrown silk has of late sensibly diminished. The spur of competition 
 has led to the introduction of improved machinery into our throwing mUls, the 
 effect of which has been to lessen Dy more than one-half the cost of the process. 
 Both branches of the manufacture have been thus prodigiously expanded ; so 
 that in every article of plain manufacture, and of what are called heavy goods, 
 we have now little to apprehend from the free competition of our neighbours ; 
 while in regard to mixed goods, composed partly of worsted or cotton and 
 silk, we stand without a rival. It is chiefly in light and fancy articles, the 
 work on which is proportionally greater with reference to their value than where 
 a larger quantity of material is used, that the competition of foreigners, owing to 
 their cheaper rate of labour, is successful. The Lyonese manufacturer is, besides, 
 entitled to a preference for his fancy goods, as a reward for the superior taste 
 and ingenuity displayed by him in the invention of patterns and the combination of 
 colours. This superiority is owing chiefly to the gratuitous instruction which is 
 afforded to the work-people in drawing and designing in a great school of arts at 
 that city ; but the increasing attention now paid to these subjects in this country, 
 affords reason for hoping that, even in the fancy department, the British manufac- 
 turer will not be long behind his foreign competitors. 
 
 The numerous fabrics woven from silk may in general be classed under the head of Broad Silks, 
 comprehending velvets, damasks, satins, levantines, ducapes, gros-de-naples, sarcenets, persians, 
 gauze, &c. ; Crapes ,- Handkerchiefs, embracing bandanas, barcelonas, and similar textures; 
 Ribands ; Hose and gloves ; Mixed goods, comprehending bombazines, poplins, lustres, shawls, 
 and all the fabrics in which silk forms a component part. [Bee these different heads.] Silk is, 
 besides, used in the manufacture of a number of small articles. 
 
 A variety of processes are followed. In weaving plain goods, a simple loom is employed, 
 which in construction does not materially differ from that used for other fabrics ; but figure- 
 weaving, or the art of producing various patterns in the cloth, is generally performed by a loom 
 invented by M. Jacquard, an ingenious but unfortunate weaver of Lyons. The Jacquard loom 
 was introduced into this country ; and as by its means the most beautiful products can be accom- 
 plished by men of ordinary skill, and with little more labour than that required for the plainest 
 goods, it has entirely taken the place of every other method of figured silk wearing. Power- 
 weaving is employed for the production of both broad silks and ribands ; but owing to the delicacy 
 of the texture of silk, it is not considered susceptible of much extension in any save common ar- 
 ticles. It is prosecuted chiefly in factories in Cheshire, Lancashire, and Norfolk. 
 
 The principal seats of the manufacture in this country are, — for broad silks, Spitalfields, Man- 
 chester, Macclesfield, Glasgow, Paisley, and Dublin ; for crapes, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Mid- 
 dlesex, and Somerset; for handkerchiefs, Manchester, Macclesfield, Paisley, and Glasgow; for 
 ribands, Coventry ; for hosiery, Derby ; and for mixed goods, Norwich, Manchester, Paisley, and 
 Dublin. The annual value of the manufacture is estimated at nearly £10,000,000 ; more than 
 9-K'ths of which are for home consumption. 
 
 The foreign states in which the manufacture chiefly exists are China, India, France, Italy, and 
 Switzerland. The importations into this country are almost wholly from France and India ; 
 the former consisting chiefly of plain and figured silks, ribands and gauzes, millinery and made-up 
 goods, with a small quantity of crape and velvet ; the latter chiefly of bandanas and other hand- 
 kerchiefs. Only about l-5th of the importations from India is entered for home consumption, the re- 
 mainder being re-exported to France, Germany, Spain, and America. 
 
 Progress of the Silk Trade of the United Kingdom from 1827 to 1840. 
 
 1827. 
 
 French or European silks (exclusive of 
 lace and millinery) entered for home 
 
 consumption Ibs.l 
 
 India silks: Bandanas, romals, &c, do., | 
 pieces, 
 
 Crape, shawls, scarfs, gown! 
 
 pieces, &c, do No. 
 
 Taffeties, &c, do .pieces, 
 
 115,278 
 
 55,183 
 
 24,200 
 18,150 
 
 Raw and waste silk, do lbs. I 3,759,138 
 
 Thrown silk, do lbs.\ 454,015 
 
 British silk manufactures exported: de-| 
 clared value £ 236,344 
 
 1830. 
 
 126 ; 
 
 77: 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 4,256 
 
 436: 
 
 578 
 
 ,370 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 m 
 
 982 
 ,535 
 
 ,048 
 
 1835. 
 
 2,740 
 1,813 
 
 ,406,846 
 251,370 
 
 973,786 
 
 243,246 
 
 100,838 
 
 463 
 
 1,290 
 
 4,531,115 
 
 288,147 
 
 792,648 
 
 The exports of British silks are chiefly to the United States and the Colonies ; they are also 
 shipped to S. America, Germany, Belgium, and even India and France ; to which last, goods to 
 the amount of about ,£50,000 are now sent annually. 
 
 In 1851, the declared value of silk manufactures exported was £1,134,931 ; of thrown silk, 
 twist or yarn, £198,638 : total, £1,331,359. But see Supplement. 
 
 Por further information, we must refer to the volume M Silk Manufacture" of Dr. Lardner's 
 Cabinet Cyclopaedia, and to Dr. Ure's Philosophy of Manufactures, &c 
 
 SILVER (Fr. Argent. Thi. Zih-er. Ger. Sitter. It. Argento. Por. Prata. 
 Bus. Serebro. Sp. Plata. Per. Nokra), a metal of a beautiful white colour and 
 
SIM 620 SIZ 
 
 great lustre. Sp. gr. 10'5. In malleability and ductility it exceeds all metals 
 except gold. It may be extended into leaves not exceeding 1-1 0,000th of an inch 
 in thickness, and drawn into wire finer than a human hair. Fusing point, 1873° 
 Fahrenheit. Silver is one of the metals which have been longest known ; and its 
 uses are numerous and important. Alloyed with copper, it is employed throughout 
 the world for coins, and in the manufacture of a variety of articles of household 
 furniture and ornament, for which purpose it is well adapted by its great un- 
 alterability. In the arts it is extensively used, particularly for silvering or plating 
 other metals. The oxide of silver is used for colouring porcelain. The nitrate of 
 silver is the strongest and most manageable caustic known in surgery. 
 
 Silver occurs in the metallic or native state in fine filaments, disseminated through 
 rocks, but chiefly in veins in primitive and secondary mountains. It also occurs 
 in combination with other metals, and with sulphur. The great source of supply 
 is Mexico ; but considerable quantities are also obtained in Peru, and other parts 
 of South America, Russia, Austria, and Norway. In England it is found in small 
 quantities in the lead mines. [Bullion. Cotn. Plate.] 
 
 SIMARUBA, the tough, fibrous, bitter bark of the Quassia Simarnba. It is 
 imported in bales from the W. Indies ; and its infusion is used as a tonic. 
 
 SINGAPORE, a small island at the eastern extremity of the Strait of Malacca, 
 the site of a flourishing British settlement. Length, 25 miles ; breadth, 15 ; area, 270 
 sq. miles. The town is situate in lat. 1° 17' N., and long. 103° 51' E. Population, 
 60,000, mostly Chinese and Malays. The island belongs to the East India Company. 
 
 This settlement was projected by Sir Stamford Raffles in 1818 as an emporium for the commerce 
 of the Eastern Islands,— the British intercourse with which had materially suffered by the restora- 
 tion of Java to the Dutch at the close of the war. The island was purchased from the Princes of 
 Jehore in 1819, and its sovereignty confirmed to Great Britain in 1825, by a convention with 
 these princes and the King of Holland. Its climate is highly salubrious, being freshened with sea 
 breezes. The rainy months are the coldest, namely, December' and January ; and the driest 
 months, April and May, the hottest. Being, however, not above 80 miles from the equator, there 
 is little variety in the seasons, and Fahrenheit ranges only from about 70° to 90°. Fruits, catechu or 
 gambier, and a few spices, are the only vegetable productions of the island deserving of notice ; 
 and the preparation of pearl sago and iron implements by the Chinese are almost the sole manufac- 
 tures. Singapore derives its importance solely from being an entrepot for the commerce between 
 Eastern and Western Asia, and also between the latter and Europe. For this it is admirably 
 suited by its geographical position, being in the direct track of vessels going betwixt the Indian and 
 Chinese seas, and in the immediate vicinity of the Malay peninsula and the richest of the Indian 
 islands. When founded in 1819 it was inhabited by only a few hundred Malay fishermen ; but 
 in a very few years it became, next to Batavia, the greatest port in the Eastern Archipelago. 
 
 The town is situate on a salt creek near the W. part of a bay on the S. coast. Ships lie in the 
 roads at the distance of from one to two miles according to their draught ; but cargoes are discharged 
 or taken in with safety by means of lighters. All provisions, except fish, are dear. Singapore is 
 in every respect a free port, there being neither import or export duties, nor harbour or shipping 
 dues. The mode of transacting business is described by Mr Crawfurd as simple and efficient. The 
 European merchants, or rather factors, most of them acting on commission, do not trust their 
 affairs to native agents, but transact them in person, with the occasional assistance of a Chinese 
 Creole as an interpreter and broker. 
 
 There is scarcely a port whose trade is so diversified as that of Singapore. The chief Asia- 
 tic productions to be found in its market are gold dust, pepper, Banca tin, edible birds' nests, 
 coffee, raw silk, sugar, tortoise-shell, beches-de-mer, cassia, sago, ebony, catechu, rattans, and a 
 multitude of other articles, the produce of the countries described under the heads Eastern 
 Islands, Siam, Annam, and Philippines, which are re-exported, principally to England, China, 
 and India, in exchange for British cottons, woollens, iron, hardware, firearms, Chinese articles 
 and Indian piece goods, opium, &c. Of late years the aggregate amount of imports and exports 
 has been about §15,000,000, or nearly £3,200,000. 
 
 The intercourse with China, the Eastern Peninsula, and islands in the Archipelago, is conducted 
 by natives in junks, proas, and craft of the most varied description, — every year showing an addi- 
 tion to their number and to the places in which they have been equipped. If to these be added 
 the European, Indian, and American vessels, the whole amount of shipping annually entering 
 Singapore is considerably upwards of 200,000 tons. S 
 
 Measures, Money, &c. 
 
 Measures and Weights. — The covid, cloth the corge or score. The gold and silver weight 
 
 measure, = 18 Imp. inches. The gantang of 2 is the buncal, which weighs 2 dollars, or 832 troy 
 
 bamboos, by which liquids, grain, and fruit, are grains. British measures and weights are gene- 
 
 sometimes sold, = l} English gallon, or 1*04 rally employed in the sale of European commu- 
 
 Imp. gallon. The common weight is the Chinese dities. 
 
 pecul of 100 catties, or 1600 taels, = 133J lbs. Money.— Accounts are stated in Spanish dol- 
 
 avoirdupois. Salt, rice (from Siam and the lars divided into 100 cents; also in rupees, an- 
 
 Malayan archipelago), and sago, are sold by the nas, and pice, as in India. Bills are commonly 
 
 koyan of 40 peculs. Bengal rice and corn are drawn on London at 6 months' sight ; and on 
 sold by the bag containing 2 Bengal maunds, or Calcutta, Bombay, ftf 
 164iV lbs - avoirdupois. Piece goods are sold by ton, at 30 days' sight. 
 
 SINKING FUND. [Interest (Compound) and Annuities.] 
 
 SIZE, a gelatinous substance, obtained from parchment shavings, fish skin, and 
 
SKA m\ SLA 
 
 several animal membranes. It is less adhesive than glue ; and is used by book- 
 binders, paper-hangers, and painters. Sometimes it is mixed with flour and gum. 
 
 SKATE or RAY, a flat fish {Rata), of a rhomboidal form, with a long narrow 
 tail. Eight or nine distinct species frequent the British coasts. 
 
 As food, the skate is held in very different degrees of estimation in different places. In London, 
 particularly, large quantities are consumed, and the flesh is considered delicate and well flavoured ; 
 but in some parts of the coast it is seldom devoted to any purpose beyond that of baiting pots for 
 catching crabs and lobsters. Skate are in the best condition for the table during autumn and 
 winter. In spring, and in the early part of summer, they are usually maturing eggs or young ; 
 and their flesh is then soft and woolly. The French are great consumers of skate. 
 
 SKINS (Fr. Peaux. Ger. Felle. It. Pelli. Por. Pelles. Sp. Pieles), as dis- 
 tinguished in commerce from Hides, are those — such as calf, goat, kid, and lamb 
 skins— which, when prepared, are used in bookbinding, glove-making, and other 
 lighter descriptions or leather-work. Calf and kip skins are largely imported from 
 Russia and Germany. Kip is a term used in trade to distinguish heifer-skins, or 
 such as are between the ox and cow hide and the calf-skin. Goat-skins are brought 
 chiefly from Morocco and other parts of Barbary, Cape of Good Hope, India, France, 
 and Germany. Kid-skins are extensively imported for the glove-manufacture, both 
 in a dressed and undressed state ; the former solely from France, the latter mostly 
 from Italy and India. Lamb-skins are brought in considerable numbers — from 
 1,500,000 to 2,000,000 annually— from Italy and the adjoining islands. The chief 
 other kinds which enter into our import-trade are deer-skins from the United 
 States, and seal-skins from British America. [Fur Trade.] 
 
 SLATE (Fr. Ardoise. Ger. Schiefer), a laminated stony substance, of which 
 there are many kinds ; though the only one of commercial importance is clay-slate, 
 employed for roofing. It is also used in large slabs to form cisterns, for shelves in 
 dairies, for paving the floors of cellars and warehouses, and for other purposes 
 for which its strength, durability, coolness, and the ease with which it can be 
 cleaned, owing to its non-absorbing property, adapt it : some fine varieties, rubbed 
 smooth with sand, are likewise employed as a writing material, forming the well- 
 known school-slate. The principal slate-quarries in Britain are in Wales, Cum- 
 berland, and Scotland ; the most extensive being in Carmarthen, near Bangor, and 
 at Easdale and Ballachulish in Argyllshire. 
 
 The chief other kinds are, Polishing-slate, a light brittle substance of a cream- 
 yellow colour, found at Zwickau in Saxony, Bilin in Bohemia, and Auvergne; and 
 Drawing-slate, of a grayish-black colour, used for crayons, the best kinds of which 
 are found in Spain, Italy, and France. 
 
 SLAVE-TRADE. " The principle of co-operation," according to Mr Wakefield, 
 " explains the origin of slavery, the abolition of slavery in some countries, and the 
 steady progress which slavery is making in others." " All nations, or nearly all, 
 have undergone the state of slavery, sometimes making slaves of the people of the 
 country, sometimes obtaining slaves by means either of purchase from other na- 
 tions, or of war ; and it is equally remarkable, that wherever population has in- 
 creased so as to render land scarce, so as to provide for the combination of free 
 labour, slavery has either assumed a very mild form, or has been wholly abolished. 
 It is also remarkable, that slavery was revived in America by nations which had 
 lately abolished it in Europe. Bodies of emigrants from Spain, England, and 
 other European countries, settled in America, and took possession in every case 
 of such a quantity of land, that there was enough, and more than enough, for all 
 the settlers. With such abundance of land that every one could readily obtain a 
 piece for himself, there would have been little combination of labour amongst 
 these people, if they had not obtained slaves who might be compelled to help each 
 other. All of these bodies of settlers did obtain slaves of one sort or other ; either 
 red men, the natives of the country, or black men purchased in Africa, or crimi- 
 nals transported from Europe, or Europeans, not criminals, who were kidnapped 
 and sold like the black natives of Africa." {Edition of the Wealth of Nations by 
 the Author of England and America, vol. i. p. 45-47.) 
 
 The practice of purchasing African negroes for the purpose of employing them in 
 the mines and plantations of America, was begun by the Portuguese in 1503, and 
 it gradually increased with the extension of European settlements in the New 
 World. In course of time, the atrocities with which it was attended attracted 
 the notice of philanthropists ; and in 1788 they were brought before the House of 
 Commons by Mr Wilberforce ; through whose exertions, aided as they were by 
 several of the most eminent statesmen of the day, and supported throughout the 
 kingdom by the powerful agitation of Thomas Clarkson, Zachary Macaulay, and 
 others, chiefly members of the Society of Friends, an act was passed, March 25, 
 
SLA 
 
 622 
 
 SLA 
 
 1807, prohibiting slave-trading in the British colonies from and after January 1, 
 
 1808. This statute, however, merely subjected offenders to pecuniary penalties ; 
 and it is only since 1811, when, by Mr Brougham's exertions, slave-trading was 
 enacted to be felony, that it has entirely ceased in our colonies. 
 
 At the close of the war (1814-15), the British government endeavoured to obtain 
 the concurrence of foreign powers in the abolition ; and eventually the whole of 
 them passed laws prohibiting the traffic. They all likewise agreed to a mutual 
 right of search, except the United States'; though this power was the first to pro- 
 hibit the importation of negroes. 
 
 The exertions of the abolitionists in Britain were then directed with augmented 
 energy against the existence of slavery itself ; which at length was abolished 
 throughout the colonies by the statute 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 73, which enacted, that 
 on August 1, 1834, the slaves then existing were to become apprenticed labourers ; 
 the term of their apprenticeship being fixed to expire partly on August 1, 1838, 
 and partly on August 1, 1840, when they were to become altogether free. To 
 attain this mighty object, there was voted to the planters, as compensation, the 
 sum of £20,000,000 ; which was distributed as follow. 
 
 Bermuda 
 
 Bahamas. 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 Honduras , 
 
 Virgin Islands , 
 
 Antigua 
 
 Montserrat 
 
 Nevis. , 
 
 St Christophers 
 
 Dominica 
 
 Barbadoes 
 
 Grenada 
 
 St Vincents 
 
 Tobago 
 
 St Lucia 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 Cape of Good Hope. 
 Mauritius 
 
 27 
 29 
 44 
 120 
 31 
 32 
 
 4 11| 
 18 9| 
 
 15 24 
 4 74 
 
 16 13 
 12 10| 
 
 17 103 
 
 3 111 
 6 104 
 
 8 7i 
 1 3J 
 6 
 6 8 
 
 12 01 
 
 18 7 
 
 4 54 
 11 5* 
 
 9 11 
 14 3 
 
 4,203 
 9,705 
 311,692 
 1,920 
 5,192 
 29,537 
 6,355 
 8,722 
 20,660 
 14,384 
 82,807 
 23,536 
 22,997 
 11,621 
 13,348 
 22,359 
 84,915 
 38,427 
 68,613 
 
 780,993 
 
 114,527 
 
 290,573 
 
 13,951,139 
 
 230,844 
 
 165,143 
 
 964,198 
 
 234,466 
 
 341,893 
 
 750,840 
 
 624,715 
 
 3,897,276 
 
 1,395,684 
 
 1,341,491 
 
 529,941 
 
 759,890 
 
 2,352,655 
 
 9,729.047 
 
 2,824,224 
 
 4,783,183 
 
 7 5i 
 
 15 3| 
 2 3 
 
 9 2 
 
 8 10i 
 8 04 
 
 6 31 
 
 7 1 
 2 
 
 19 01 
 
 16 
 13 4 
 16 21 
 10 4 
 18 03 
 13 54 
 
 Share of the '..20,000,000 
 to each Colony. 
 
 50,584 7 
 
 128,340 7 
 
 6,161,927 5 
 
 101,958 19 
 
 72,940 8 
 
 425,866 7 
 
 103,558 18 
 
 151,007 2 
 
 331,630 10 
 
 275,9i3 12 
 
 1,721,345 19 
 
 616,444 17 
 
 592,508 18 
 
 234,064 4 
 
 335,627 15 
 
 1,039,119 1 
 
 4,297,117 10 
 
 1,247,401 
 
 2,112,632 10 
 
 Deficient frac! 
 
 0141 
 53-47 
 
 l(i3-5.'l 
 74*92 
 54 76 
 04-13 
 5 -38 
 
 113-35 
 
 74-82 
 
 81 -3( 
 7 -871 
 7 -<>3 
 
 04-93 
 113-55 
 113-19 
 
 31-11 
 
 61-30 
 737(i 
 11306 
 
 ions M'8 
 
 45,281,738 15 104 20,000,000 
 
 Besides Great Britain, the northern states of the N. American Union, and the 
 Spanish American republics, have emancipated their negroes ; but slavery still 
 exists in most other parts of the western hemisphere. According to the latest 
 accounts, the number of slaves in the southern states of the N. American Union 
 is 2,500,000 ; in Brazil, 3,000,000 ; and in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and other places, 
 520,000 ; in all which there is of course still an extensive traffic. 
 
 In addition to this internal trade, however, negroes are extensively imported 
 into Brazil, Cuba, and other places, notwithstanding the treaties to the contrary, 
 and the maintenance by Britain of cruisers for the purpose of securing their ful- 
 filment. This illicit trade is chiefly followed on the African coast, between the 
 Niger and Angola ; and its extent shows that it must be connived at by the local 
 authorities of those states, or that they are unable to prevent it. It is further 
 to be regretted, that, since the slave-trade has been declared illegal, the suffer- 
 ings of the negroes have been greatly increased, owing to its being necessary to 
 coop them up in small compass in their passage across the Atlantic, the better to 
 avoid the British cruisers, while a pursuit by the latter often leads to their being 
 thrown overboard. The loss of life in the middle passage is supposed to average 
 one-fourth of the cargo ; which is exclusive of that produced by the wars among 
 the African tribes, in order to procure captives for the slavers, and by the " sea- 
 soning" of the negroes after their reaching the American main or the West Indies. 
 The commodities given in exchange for the slaves in Africa consist chiefly of coarse 
 arms and gunpowder, imported into Brazil and other places expressly for this in- 
 famous traffic from England and Belgium, the common cotton fabrics well known 
 in the British manufacturing districts under the name of " coast goods," and the 
 other articles peculiar to the African trade detailed under the head Nigrjtia. 
 
SLI 623 SMU 
 
 Tho shipping craft employed is chiefly of the build of the United States. The 
 negroes seized on board slave-vessels by the English cruisers are, we may add, 
 generally carried to the British settlement of Sierra Leone. 
 
 In addition to the trade in slaves on the western coast of Africa, there is a pe- 
 riodical exportation of them by caravans from Soudan to the Barbary States and 
 to Egypt. Many of these, according to Dr Bowring {Report on Egypt, p. 87), 
 are boys who have been cruelly mutilated at Kordofan for employment in the 
 harems. There is also a considerable slave-trade carried on by the subjects of the 
 Sultan of Muscat from Zanzibar, as well as by the Portuguese from Mozambique, 
 for the supply of various parts of the East. 
 
 For further information respecting the slave-trade, we must refer to the works 
 of T. Clarkson, Mr Stephen, Sir T. Fowell Buxton, and others exclusively devoted 
 to the subject. The numerous conventions on the subject between Great Britain 
 and other powers will be found in Mr Hertslet's Collection of Treaties. S 
 
 SLIP, a term applied to a place with a gradual slope on the banks of a water, 
 suited for shipbuilding ; also to an ingenious apparatus, invented and patented by 
 the late Mr Thomas Morton of Leith, for hauling vessels up to be repaired. 
 
 Morton's Patent Slip is a cheap substitute for dry docks, where it has not been deemed expe- 
 dient or practicable to construct them. A vessel, on being placed in it, is in a similar situation to 
 one upon a building slip ; and a ship may be hauled up, have her bottom inspected, and even get 
 a trilling repair, and be launched, in the same tide. A vessel is hauled up at the rate of 2£ to 5 
 feet per minute, by 6 men to every 100 tons. The whole cost of a slip, with an iron capstan-wheel 
 purchase, &c, capable of containing at least two vessels (but exclusive of expense of laying down), 
 is, for those of KMJ tons, laying-ways 250 feet long, £400; for those of 200 tons, ways 280 feet, , 
 £350 ; and so on according to dimension. The apparatus is portable, and possesses other advan- 
 tages, as explained in the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, article Slip, and Rickman's Life of Telford, 
 pp. 134, 336. Morton slips are now in operation in almost all our principal ports, as well as at 
 Calcutta, Quebec, Marseilles, Odessa, Philadelphia, and other places abroad. 
 
 SLOOP, a vessel with one mast, like a cutter, but having a jib-stay. 
 
 SMALT (Ger. Schmalz), called also azure or powder blue, is a vitreous sub- 
 stance, procured by roasting zaffre and potashes, or by fusing cobalt ore, flints, 
 and potashes. In either way a blue glass is formed, which is afterwards pulver- 
 ized. Smalt is employed for relieving the yellow tint of writing-paper and linen, 
 staining glass, porcelain, and earthenware, and for giving a blueish colour to starch. 
 It is manufactured in Norway and Germany ; from whence about 120,000 lbs. are 
 annuallv imported into the United Kingdom. 
 
 SMELT or SPIRLING, a small fish (Osmerus eperlanus, Cuv.) of the salmon 
 kind, plentiful on the E. and W. coasts of Britain ; length about seven inches. It 
 ascends the rivers in August, and, after spawning in March or April, returns to 
 the sea. The Medway smelts have a high reputation. The smelt is commonly in 
 great request from its delicacy and flavour : the peculiar cucumber-like smell of 
 this fish is well known. 
 
 SMUGGLING, contraband trading, or importing goods without paying duty. 
 This is a practice which can only be stopped by a moderate tariff. When duties are 
 excessive, experience has shown that an illegal traffic will be created, which no 
 power or ingenuity can put down. At present, owing to injudicious fiscal regula- 
 tions, smuggling is carried on to a greater or less extent in almost all countries. 
 In our own it prevails chiefly in reference to the trade with France, owing to its 
 proximity, and the high duties exacted on many of its productions ; and it ap- 
 pears, from the Report of the Import Duties Committee, 1840, that it has been so 
 completely reduced to a system, as to be the subject of regular charges. These, 
 according to Mr Macgregor's evidence, are 9 per cent, upon certain qualities of silk 
 and fine goods ; while for 10 and 12 per cent, all but the heavy goods can be in- 
 sured into this country (p. 13). This report likewise explains that the high pro- 
 tective duty on French goods, while it promotes and encourages smuggling, and 
 consequently interferes with the revenue, does not at all secure employment to the 
 protected manufacturers in this country ; for, adds Mr Macgregor, " it is a truism 
 which experience has proved in every country in Europe, that the moment the duty 
 is higher than the premium for smuggling, it ceases to be protective." (Ibid.) 
 The weight of these reasons was felt in framing the tariff of 1842, in which many 
 of the former duties were lowered ; and a reduction of the excessive rates still 
 maintained on brandy and some other articles only awaits, we believe, the conclu- 
 sion of a commercial treaty with France. 
 
 But the abolition of smuggling by wise and moderate legislation is desirable on 
 higher grounds. The moral influence of the law is impaired when it first tempts 
 to its own violation, and then punishes ; for a sympathy is thereby created in 
 favour of the breakers of it. In Spain, into which, from oppressive duties, immense 
 
SNO 
 
 SOA 
 
 quantities of merchandise are smuggled by way of Gibraltar and Portugal, no one 
 is more popular or more interesting than the bold contrabandista. Multiplied evils 
 beside now from the bribery and corruption generated by extravagant duties. On 
 these grounds, there are probably few reforms to which the friends of order in all 
 countries could be more usefully directed than in establishing such fiscal regulations 
 as should preserve illicit trade at a minimum. 
 
 In the United Kingdom, the direct cost of protecting the customs revenue, by 
 means of a preventive guard and cruisers, is about £500,000, which is exclusive of 
 the charges for custom-house officials. A few cruisers are also maintained on 
 account of the excise revenue, besides an expensive revenue police in Ireland. The 
 chief existing act for the suppression of smuggling is 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 53. 
 
 Vessels and boats belonging in the whole or in 
 part to British subjects, having false bulkheads, 
 false bows, double sides or bottoms, or any secret 
 place adapted for concealing goods, or having 
 any hole, pipe, or other device, adapted for run- 
 ning goods, are forfeited, with all guns, furni- 
 ture, ammunition, tackle, and apparel; and 
 all foreign vessels or boats, not square-rigged, 
 coming to or arriving at any port of the United 
 Kingdom, having on board goods liable to the 
 payment of duties or prohibited, concealed in 
 false bulkheads, bows, double. sides or bottoms, 
 or any secret place, are forfeited, 3 & 4 Win. IV. 
 c. 53, § 14. 
 
 If goods subject to any duty or restriction, 
 or prohibited, be concealed in any manner on 
 board any vessel, all such goods, and all other 
 goods packed with them, are forfeited (§ 15). 
 
 Vessels^of British ownership, not square-rigged 
 or propelled by steam, and all such vessels, 
 whether propelled by steam or otherwise, of less 
 burden than 200 tons, of which the length is to 
 the breadth in a greater proportion than 3 feet 
 6 inches to 1 foot, and all such last-mentioned 
 vessels carrying arms, and all vessels of more 
 than 200 tons burden, armed with more than 
 2 carriage guns of a calibre exceeding 4 lbs., and 
 with more than 2 muskets for every 10 men, 
 and all boats of such ownership, found within 
 100 leagues of the coast, are forfeited, unless the 
 owners have obtained a license from the Com- 
 missioners of Customs (§ 16). [But by 5 &6 Vict, 
 c 47, §§32 and 33, the provision as to vessels 
 under 200 tons is, where the measurement is 
 made by 6 & 6 Wm. IV. c. 56, to apply to 
 vessels under 170 tons.] 
 
 Every vessel of such ownership, or whereof 
 one-half of the crew are British subjects, is 
 restricted in its men (officers and boys included) 
 to the following proportions: viz., if of 30 tons or 
 under, and above 5 tons, 4 men ; if of 60 tons or 
 under, and above 30, 5 men ; if of 80 tons or 
 under, and above 60, 6 men ; if of 100 tons or 
 under, and above 80, 7 men ; and above that 
 tonnage, 1 man for every 15 tons additional. In 
 a lugger, the following are the proportions : if of 
 30 tons or under, 8 men ; if of 50 tons or under, 
 and above 30, 9 men ; if of 60 tons or under, 
 and above 50, 10 men; if of 80 tons or under, 
 and above 60, 11 men ; if of 100 tons or under, 
 and above 80, 12 men ; and if above 100 tons, 1 
 man for every 10 tons additional. A vessel in 
 which these restrictions are exceeded, found 
 within 100 leagues of the coast, is forfeited, 
 unless especially licensed by the commissioners 
 (3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 53, § 17). 
 
 Boats solely employed in the fisheries, and 
 boats belongingto square-rigged merchant vessels, 
 and life-boats or tow-boats belonging to licensed 
 pilots, and boats used solely in rivers or inland 
 
 navigation, and in fishing on the coasts of the 
 North and West Highlands of Scotland, and of 
 Ireland, are not included in the above provisions 
 (§ 23). [By 6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 60, § 8, licenses 
 are. not required for vessels solely engaged in 
 fishing on the coasts of Scotland.] 
 
 If goods liable to the payment of duties be un- 
 shipped from any vessel or boat (the duties not 
 being first paid or secured), or if any prohibited 
 goods be imported, or if any goods, "warehoused 
 in the United Kingdom, for home consumption 
 or exportation, be clandestinely removed, all 
 such goods are forfeited, together with all cattle, 
 carriages, and other things, used in the removal 
 (3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 53, § 28). Persons making 
 collusive seizures, or making arrangements to 
 restore goods seized, or taking bribes, forfeit 
 £500 for each offence, and are rendered in- 
 capable of serving in any government-office, civil 
 or military ; and any person attempting to seduce 
 them to any such dereliction of duty, forfeits 
 £200 (§33). 
 
 Every person concerned in the unshipping of 
 prohibited or uncustomed goods, or knowingly 
 harbouring, or suffering to be harboured, such 
 goods or goods illegally removed from the ware- 
 house ; and every person to whose hands any 
 such uncustomed or prohibited goods may know- 
 ingly come, or who may be in anywise concerned 
 in their illegal removal from the warehouse, for- 
 feits either treble value thereof, or £100, at the 
 election of the commissioners (§44). 
 
 Every person who insures or undertakes to 
 deliver uncustomed or prohibited goods, or who 
 in pursuance of such insurance or otherwise, de- 
 livers such goods, and every aider or abettor, 
 for every such offence forfeits £500, over and 
 above any other penalty to which by law he may 
 be liable ; and every person agreeing to pay for 
 such insurance or conveyance, or receiving or 
 taking such goods into his custody, or suffering 
 them to be so received.suffersa like penalty ( §46). 
 If any person offer for sale goods under pretence 
 that they are prohibited, or have been unshipped 
 and run on shore without payment of duties, 
 such goods (although neither liable to duties nor 
 prohibited) are forfeited, and the person forfeits 
 the treble value, or £100, at the election of the 
 commissioners (§ 47). 
 
 When goods are seized, and any dispute arises 
 whether the duties have been paid, or they have 
 been lawfully imported, or concerning tiie place 
 whence they are brought, the proof lies on t lie 
 owner, and not on the officer seizing (§ 114). 
 
 Prosecutions before the superior courts must 
 be brought within 3 years after the cause of 
 action, and those bcforejustices within 6months 
 (§ 120). But where a person has escaped from 
 custody, information may be laid before justices 
 after the 6 months (§ 121). 
 
 SNOW, a vessel rigged in the same manner as a brig, except that the mainsail 
 is attached to a small mast abaft and very near the mainmast. 
 SNUFF (Fr. Tubac en poudre. Ger. Schnupftaback). [Tobacco.] 
 SOAP (Du. Zeep. Fr. Savon. Ger. Seife. It. Sapone. Por. Sabao. Pus. 
 Mulo. Sp. Jabcn), a detergent compound, made by uniting a fatty or oily body 
 
SOD 625 SOL 
 
 with the alkalies soda or potash ; the union of soda forming hard, and of potash 
 soft soap. Of the former, the principal qualities manufactured in Britain are, — 
 n-hite soap, composed chiefly of tallow and soda, but, for some purposes, of olive- 
 oil and soda ; yellow soap, made of tallow, rosin, and soda, adding occasionally a 
 little palm-oil ; mottled soap, formed of tallow, kitchen stuflf, and soda, — its pecu- 
 liar appearance being communicated by dispersing the lees through it towards the 
 end ot the operation ; brown soap, made from palm-oil, rosin, and soda. Soft soap 
 consists usually of potash and oil ; the latter being generally fish oil, but occa- 
 sionally linseed oil and cocoa-nut oil. Besides the above, there are a variety of toilet 
 soaps, hard as well as soft, in the preparation of which perfumes and other ingre- 
 dients are employed. 
 
 In Britain, where the soap manufacture is of great importance, the hard kind is made chiefly at 
 Liverpool and London, but in considerable quantities also at Runcorn, Bristol, Brentford, Hull, 
 Bromsgrove, Plymouth, and Smethwick, and at Glasgow and Leith in Scotland; the soft kind is 
 made principally at Liverpool, Glasgow, and Bradford ; and a kind called silicated soap is like- 
 wise extensively manufactured at Liverpool. From the excise returns, it appears that there were 
 made, in 1841, in England, 140,712,533 lbs. hard, 9,788,851 lbs. soft, and 3,921,862 lbs. silicated; 
 in Scotland, 10,708,464 lbs. hard, and 4,535,030 lbs. soft ; making in all 169,666,742 lbs. ; which is 
 an increase of about 30 per cent, since 1832. An allowance or drawback of duty is made on the soap 
 used in the woollen, silk, flax, and cotton manufactures, which, in 1841, was granted on 10,190,160 
 lbs. hard, and 9,090,184 lbs. soft ; the allowances amounting to £78,112. In the same year, the 
 net amount yielded by the soap-duty to the public revenue was £815,864. 
 
 In Ireland, where soap is not subject to excise-duty, the manufacture is carried on chiefly at 
 Belfast, Londonderry, Limerick, and Cork ; but the quantity made is insufficient for the consump- 
 tion ; and, in 1841, 9,818,769 lbs. hard, and 224,728 lbs. soft, were imported from Britain, the duty 
 on which was drawn back on shipment. The exemption of Ireland from duty leads to fraudulent 
 practices both there and in Britain, into which Irish soap is said to be largely smuggled. 
 
 The excise duty on soap was first imposed in Britain in 1711, when it was fixed at Id. per lb. 
 It was raised in 1713 to lid. per lb. ; and again, in 1782, when hard and soft soap were first dis- 
 tinguished, the former being rated at 2id., and the latter at 1 Jd. per lb. In 1816, that on hard 
 soap was increased to 3d. per lb. But since May 31, 1833, the duty has been lid. per lb. on hard 
 soap, and Id. per lb. on soft. In 1839, the number of soap manufacturers in England was 177 ; 
 in Scotland, 19 ; and in Ireland, 183. Each requires an annual license, costing £4. 
 
 The soap-maker was formerly subjected to an arbitrary and vexatious interference from the ex- 
 cise ; but of late years the regulations have been greatly improved, and there is now no superin- 
 tendence of the process of manufacture, which may be conducted in any way or of any material. 
 The existing act is the 3 <fe 4 Vict. c. 49, which consolidated and amended the laws for collecting 
 the duties, repealing at same time no fewer than 17 previous acts regulating the trade. 
 
 The exports, chiefly from Liverpool, amounted, on an average of the three years to 1841, to 
 about 20,000,000 lbs., consisting almost wholly of hard soap. The improvements consequent on a 
 relaxation of the excise interference have, of late years, exercised a favourable influence on this 
 as on every other department of the trade. The imports of foreign soap amounted, in 1841, only 
 to 384 cwts. hard, and 41 cwts. soft ; but great reductions of the customs duties were made in 1842, 
 and the importation in future will probably be more considerable. S 
 
 SODA (Fr. Hydrate de soude. Ger. Aetznatron), an alkaline substance, the prot- 
 oxide of sodium of chemists, is found native in mineral seams or crusts in Egypt, 
 in which it is called natron ; but in this country it is commonly obtained pure by 
 boiling a solution of the carbonate with half its weight of quick-lime. In its ori- 
 ginal state it is of a gray colour, fracture vitreous ; but by the addition of water 
 it becomes white, crystalline, and volatile, and is then the substance commonly 
 called pure or caustic soda, but more properly the hydrate. Soda is very seldom 
 used in a separate state. In commerce it generally occurs as a carbonate, either 
 pure, or in the impure forms of Barilla and Kelp. 
 
 Soda, Carbonate of (Ger. Kohlensanres natron), commonly called soda, is found native near 
 Tripoli, from whence it is exported under the name of trona ; also in soda lakes in Hungary and 
 Venezuela. But the British market is wholly supplied with carbonate, either in the impure 
 forms of barilla and kelp, as just noticed, or, as has been chiefly the case since the reduction of 
 the salt-duty, by that prepared from the sulphate of soda. The latter is now largely manufac- 
 tured at a very cheap rate, and of extreme purity ; and Mr Brande states, that in many of the 
 arts it has been substituted for potash. Carbonate of soda is strongly alkaline in taste, and it 
 changes vegetable blues to green. It is soluble in less than its weight of boiling water, and twice 
 its weight of cold. When exposed to the air it effloresces. 
 
 Soda, Sulphate of, called also Glauber's salt, is abundantly produced in the manufacture of 
 muriatic acid, and of chlorine by the action of sulphuric acid upon common salt. Large supplies 
 are furnished by the manufacturers of bleaching-powder. It is also a natural product, and occurs 
 in many mineral waters. Sulphate of soda crystallizes from its aqueous solution in large prisms, 
 transparent, and efflorescent when exposed to air ; its taste is saline and somewhat bitter ; and it 
 is soluble in rather less than three times its weight of cold water. It is often made expressly for the 
 production of soda and the carbonate. 
 
 The carbonate of soda is an article of the greatest importance in the soap, glass, and other ma- 
 nufactures, l'oth it and the sulphate are likewise employed in medicine. They are extensively 
 manufactured in the United Kingdom ; and besides the demand for home consumption, consider- 
 able quantities are sent to the United States and other places. S 
 
 SOLE, a species of flounder (Solea vulgaris), common on the British coasts : 
 those of the S. and W. are much larger, and considered otherwise superior to those 
 
 2 it 
 
SOU 626 SOU 
 
 of the N. and E. The principal fishing ground is along the S. coast from Sussex 
 to Devonshire, particularly at Brixham and Torbay. Soles are in season from 
 May till November. 
 
 SOUND, a strait between Sweden and the Danish island of Zealand, which 
 forms the principal channel of communication betwixt the North Sea and the Bal- 
 tic. A toll or tribute, called the " Sound dues," is levied by the King of Denmark on 
 all merchant-vessels passing this strait, or the two Belts, at the town of Elsineur, 
 situated on the W. side of the narrowest part of the Sound, about 20 miles N. from 
 Copenhagen, and at which they are required to anchor while effecting a clearance. 
 
 The dues are levied on both foreign and Danish vessels, according to a fixed tariff. It is ad- 
 justed chiefly according to the quantities of the goods ; and amounted formerly to from 3-4ths to 
 1 and l-4th per cent, on their value ; but by a treaty between Great Britain and Denmark, con- 
 cluded in 1841, a new tariff has been agreed to, in which there are several important modifica- 
 tions, and the dues on the cargoes of British vessels (even when shipped at ports not British) may 
 be now reckoned at about 1 per cent, ad valorem, which indeed is the rate fixed for cotton manu- 
 factures, spices, and non-enumerated articles. Besides the Sound toll, there are levied light 
 dues, at the rate of 4J specie dollars per vessel (above 40 tons) when laden, and 2£ specie dollars 
 when in ballast, each time they are passing the Sound or Belts ; also a variety of small fees. 
 
 The duties, light-money, and other exactions, are levied in specie rixdollars of 48 stivers ; reck- 
 oning the specie rixdollar at the rate of 9$ to the Cologne mark weight of fine silver, which makes 
 its value about 4s. 5d. sterling. It is, however, understood that the notes issued by the Danish 
 National Bank are to be received in payment at the current exchange. 
 
 The revenue derived by Denmark from the Sound toll amounts to nearly £200,000 per annum. 
 The dues, though levied for the ostensible purpose of maintaining lighthouses on the coast, ap- 
 pear to have originated in an ancient claim by the Danes to the exclusive privilege of navigating 
 the Baltic, as the Genoese did the Black Sea. They have been the origin of many quarrels, and 
 cost more money than, if sunk at a very low interest, would have produced a much higher revenue. 
 Betwixt 1348 and 1659, they caused continual disturbance, leading, on two occasions, to the 
 burning of Copenhagen, and to the repeated destruction of the Danish fleet. In 1659, the Danes 
 were obliged by the English, Dutch, and French, to fix the duties according to a moderate tariff. 
 Yet even in last century they were the subject of altercation with both Sweden and Holland. 
 Considerable surprise has often been expressed at the tacit submission of the naval powers of 
 Europe to the payment of the Sound dues ; but they seem to consider, either that the length of 
 time during which they have been submitted to has settled the question of right, or that the 
 amount of impost and its annoyances to trade are compensated by the advantages to navigation. 
 
 The number of ships which passed the Sound, and cleared at Elsineur, in 1837, was 13,102, in 
 burden 2,033,706 tons ; including 3417 British vessels, in burden 655,447 tons. 
 
 The only other water communications betwixt the North Sea and the Baltic are, the strait call- 
 ed the Great Belt, betwixt the islands of Zealand and Funen ; the Little Belt, betwixt Funen and 
 the continent; the Sleswick Holstein, or Eyder Canal, opened in 1784; the Steckinitz Canal, 
 betwixt the Elbe and the Trave ; and the Gotha Canal, in Sweden. The navigation of the Great 
 Belt, being circuitous and difficult, on account of sand-banks and rocks, is frequented almost solely 
 by Danes ; of 2107 vessels which passed this strait in 1836, only 4 were British. The Little Belt, 
 in some parts only about 4000 feet wide, is extremely hazardous, and seldom used. S 
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA, a British colony extending from 132° to 141° E. long., 
 and from the S. coast, including the adjacent islands, northwards to the Tropic of 
 Capricorn. Area, 300,000 sq. miles. Public affairs are administered by a governor 
 appointed by the crown, but a local constitution may be framed when the popula- 
 tion shall amount to 50,000. S 
 
 The coast of this part of Australia, discovered by Flinders in 1802, was first regularly settled in 
 1836, when the capital, Adelaide, was founded in lat. 34° 57' S., long. 138° 43' E. to the E. of Gulf 
 St Vincent, and distant 6 miles from a creek affording good accommodation for shipping. Little 
 is known regarding the interior, which, however, appears generally to resemble New South 
 Walks, in being adapted rather for pasture than for cultivation. By the act of constitution, it is 
 to be governed only by laws expressly enacted for it ; is in no case to be employed as a convict 
 settlement ; and no public lands to become private property, except by purchase at a fixed mini- 
 mum price, or as much above it as may be determined by auction. • ' The whole of the purchase- 
 money of waste or public land to be employed in conveying labourers, natives of the British isles, 
 to the colony." And the disposal of public lands and management of the emigration fund, was 
 vested in crown commissioners. An extensive joint-stock concern, called " The South Australian 
 Company," was afterwards formed, having for its objects the purchase of land and the promotion 
 of emigration ; and who grant leases to experienced farmers. 
 
 The usual course of trade is similar to that at the Port Phillip settlement. In the five years 
 1836-1840, 137 vessels, having an aggregate burden of 52,481 tons, and carrying 12,370 emigrants, 
 were despatched from the United Kingdom to this colony. 
 
 SOUTH SEA COMPANY, an association formed in London in 1711, avowedly 
 to trade in the South Seas, but chiefly in reality to afford financial aid to the go- 
 vernment, whose obligations they received as capital stock. The amount thus 
 created was £9,471,325, increased in 1715 to £10,000,000, on which the company 
 received 6 per cent, interest, besides £8000 a-year for management. In 1720 was 
 passed the celebrated South Sea Act, authorizing the company to take in by pur- 
 chase or subscription both the redeemable and unredeemable public debts, with 
 the view of reducing them all under one head of account at a uniform interest. A 
 full account of the South Sea Bubble, and of the numerous projects generated by 
 the speculative phrensy which prevailed in England in 1720, will be found in 
 
SOV 627 SPA 
 
 M'Phei •.-on's Annals of Commerce, vol. iii. p. 90. It may be sufficient to notice 
 here, that the stock of the company, after many changes before 1733, was then ad- 
 justed, and has since remained, at £3,662,784, 8s. 6^d. [Funds.] S 
 
 SOVEREIGN, an English gold coin first minted by Henry VII., 1485. Its 
 value varied at different times ; and in 1666 it was superseded by the guinea. The 
 sovereign was again struck in 1816, since which it has been the principal gold 
 piece of the United Kingdom. It is minted 22 carats fine, and at the rate of 
 £3, 17s. lOhd. per troy ounce ; hence its full weight is 5 dwts. 3"274 grains ; but 
 the sovereign of 5 dwts. 2£ grains, and the half-sovereign of 2 dwts. 13| grains, are 
 allowed currency by royal proclamation, June 7, 1842. [Coin.] 
 
 SOY, a peculiar savoury sauce made from the bean of the Soja, a species of 
 Dolichos growing in the eastern parts of Asia. Genuine soy is well flavoured, 
 thick, brown, and clear ; and when shaken in a glass, it should leave a coat on the 
 surface of a bright yellowish brown colour. It is imported from Canton, but the 
 best is brought from Japan by way of Batavia. 
 
 SPAIN, a European kingdom lying between lat. 36° and 43° 46' N., and long. 
 3° 20' E. and 9° 10' W.; bounded N. by Bay of Biscay and France ; W. by Portugal 
 and the Atlantic ; and S. and E. by the Straits of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean. 
 Area, 183,000 sq. miles. Population, 12,500,000. Capital, Madrid, an inland city, 
 pop. 183,000. Government, a constitutional monarchy : the legislative power is 
 vested in the king (or queen) and the cortes composed of two co-legislative bodies,— a 
 senate nominated by the sovereign from a triple list proposed by the provincial 
 electors, and a congress of deputies chosen by the provinces at the rate of 1 for 
 each 50,000 of the population. The elections are triennial ; one-third only of the 
 senators, however, going out at each period. S 
 
 Spain, next to Switzerland, is the most mountainous country in Europe. The lofty Pyrenees 
 forming its N.E. barrier, are continued through the N., where they receive the name of the Can- 
 tabrian chain, running parallel to the Bay of Biscay, and terminating in Cape Finisterre. The 
 remainder of the country may be considered generally as a series of mountain-terraces, which pro- 
 jecting successively their rugged edges towards the S. present a flight of gigantic steps from the 
 Pvrenean range to the Mediterranean. But the central portion, comprising the greater part of 
 the provinces of Old Castile, New Castile, Leon, and Estremadura, is an elevated table-land, 
 averaging from 2000 to 3000 feet above the level of the sea. The singular configuration of Spain 
 renders its climate various. In the low grounds, the heat during summer is excessive ; in the 
 elevated regions the temperature is cooler ; and the interior is subject to piercing winds, which 
 prevent the production of many fruits that thrive in the more northern latitudes of Italy. 
 
 The chief rivers of Spain are'the Ebro, Douro, Tagus, Guadalquivir, and Guadiana, some of 
 which run several hundred mile.*, but owing to the aridity of the table-land, and the adjoining 
 tracts, in which they almost all rise, they contain little water ; they are besides impeded by rocks, 
 shallows, and cataracts ; and only a very few are navigable for small boats, and that commonly 
 near their mouths. But though nearly useless for the purpose of inland communication, they ai e 
 of importance for the irrigation of the ground, — a practice nearly general in the countries bordering 
 the Mediterranean, and in the basin of the Guadalquivir. In the table-lands, irrigation cannot 
 be introduced, owing to the depth of the river courses ; and in the N. and N.W. maritime pro- 
 vinces it is unnecessary, from the abundance of the rains. 
 
 The soil is in general fertile, especially where irrigation has been employed ; and the vales on 
 the E. coast are remarkable for their perpetual succession of crops. But agriculture, except in 
 Biscay, Navarre, and Arragon, and in the huertas, or irrigated lands of Granada, Murcia, and 
 Valencia, is in the most backward state imaginable. The most common kinds of grain are wheat, 
 maize, barley, and rice; the wheat is raised chiefly in Catalonia, Old Castile, and Leon ; and the 
 rice in the N.E. provinces. Hemp and flax are cultivated principally in the basin of the Ebro ; 
 madder and saffron on the table-land of Cuenca ; and the sugar-cane and cotton in the S. districts. 
 The usual products of southern latitudes, namely olives, figs, vines, oranges, and lemons, also 
 abound. And to these have to be added barilla, silk, honey, liquorice juice, cork, and esparto 
 or sedge. The Pyrenees, Asturian Mountains, and the Sierra Morena, possess luxuriant forests ; 
 but on the whole, Spain has less timber than any other extensive country of Europe. 
 
 Of domestic animals, the most important are sheep, especially the merinoes or fine-woolled 
 breeds, which pass the winter in the plains of Andalusia, Castile, Leon, and Estremadura, and 
 remove in summer to the nearest mountains, chiefly the Sierrasi de Guadarama, Avila, and Gata. 
 This migrating system, which originates in the physical state of the country, is an important part 
 of the rural economy of Spain, and is governed by peculiar and in many respects oppressive cus- 
 toms and laws. The number of sheep is estimated at nearly 14,000,000. Goats also are numerous ; 
 and the asses and mules are distinguished for their size and beauty. Spain was formerly celebrated 
 for her horses, especially those of Andalusia ; but few of the finer breeds now remain. 
 
 Minerals abound, but the only mines extensively worked are those of quicksilver at Almaden ; 
 of lead in Granada ; and of iron in the Sierra de Aralar. Salt is procured at Cardona, in Cata- 
 lonia, from the Albufera de Valencia, and from the sea water on the coast of Seville. 
 
 Alan u fact tires were carried on to some extent in Spain in the 14th and loth centuries, but they 
 never flourished; and for a long series of years they have been in a very low condition, owing, 
 besides the general causes which depress the country, to oppressive taxes, corporation privileges, 
 government monopolies, the languishing emulation produced by the prohibition of foreign goods, 
 and the indolence of the people, produced partly by the enervating influence of the climate. The 
 chief manufacturing seats are Barcelona and other towns in Catalonia, and Alcoy and Valencia, 
 in the adjoining province of that name ; where silks, cottons, and woollens are made, but, except 
 
SPA €28 SPA 
 
 the first, all of inferior quality. Biscay is celebrated for its iron-works ; and the N. provinces 
 generally for their tanneries. The only other manufactures of any consequence are those of soap, 
 paper, hats, linen, and pottery. Saltpetre, gunpowder, brass-cannon, tobacco, porcelain, tapestry, 
 and mirrors, are made exclusively by government. 
 
 Wine, the great staple of Spain, is produced chiefly in the S. provinces, especially Andalusia, 
 the principal seat of the trade ; but vineyards are seen every where, except in the most elevated 
 regions. The chief kinds are Xeres (Sherry), Malaga, Alicant, Malvasia, Tento, and Val de 
 Penas. [Wine.] 
 
 The internal trade of Spain is inconsiderable, being impeded by the want of sufficient means of 
 communication, to which great obstacles are presented by the unfavourable structure of the coun- 
 try. The want of navigable rivers, the distance of the central provinces from the coast, the diffi- 
 culty of cutting roads and canals through high ridges of mountains and extensive plains, are indeed 
 impediments which would require all the activity of a rich and well-governed nation to surmount. 
 The roads are generally unfit for wheel-carriages, and merchandise is conveyed by arrieros or 
 muleteers, who traverse the country in all directions, along beaten tracks, many of which are acces- 
 sible only to them. About three-fourths of the inland traffic in corn is carried on in this manner ; 
 though recently wagons have begun to be introduced where practicable. 
 
 The narrow, shortsighted, anti-commercial policy of Spain, even from the first foundation of 
 her American colonies, fettered and restricted her maritime trade, which, after a period of gradual 
 decay, has been entirely annihilated by her loss of these colonies since the beginning of the present 
 century. This restrictive system, though now tottering, is still maintained. And at present, in 
 order to prop up the trifling manufactures of the country, most of the products of foreign industry 
 are loaded with prohibitory duties, and the greater part of the external trade is conducted in a 
 contraband manner through Portugal and Gibraltar, and on the coast of the Mediterranean, much 
 to the demoralization of the people, and greatly to the detriment of the public revenue. Exports, 
 chiefly wine, quicksilver, lead, wool, and raisins, with lemons and oranges, figs, olive-oil, and 
 barilla, and occasionally some wheat. Imports, mostly sugar, coffee, tobacco, and other colonial 
 productions from Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines ; cotton manufactures and cotton wool ; 
 linens, and hemp and flax ; woollens ; salt fish, hardware, glass, and earthenware ; timber, rice, 
 hides, butter, and cheese. The exports and imports are each estimated at from £4,000,000 to 
 £4,500,000 a-year ; but this is to be considered as only a rude approximation, there being no 
 statistics of this miserable country on which we can repose confidence. 
 
 Between Spain and the United Kingdom there is a considerable intercourse. In 1840 the exports 
 embraced 3,945,161 gallons wine; 223,268 gallons brandy; 2,157,823 lbs. quicksilver; 1,266,905 
 lbs. sheeps' wool ; 166,505 cwts. raisins; 30,171 packages lemons and oranges; 1,305,384 gallons 
 olive-oil ; 36,585 cwts. barilla ; 46,939 qrs. wheat ; 1028 tons pig lead ; besides small quantities of 
 figs, liquorice juice, madder, sumach, raw silk, and kid and lamb skins. The regular imports 
 of British produce and manufactures are, from the circumstances just alluded to, comparatively 
 inconsiderable, amounting in 1840 only to £404,252, and in 1841 to £413,849, chiefly linen and 
 woollen manufactures ; but the contraband imports of cottons through Gibraltar and Portugal are 
 considerable. Britain, besides, re-ships tobacco, spices, and other foreign merchandise, to Spain. 
 
 Ports. — Cadiz, the principal commercial city and port of Spain, is situated in Andalusia, on 
 the Atlantic, 60 miles N.W. from Gibraltar, in lat. 36 D 32' N., long. 6° 18' W. Pop. 60,000. The city 
 occupies the extremity of a ton cue of land projecting from the Isle of Leon, making with the 
 mainland a commodious bay. The port, formed by a projecting mole, is accessible only to small 
 vessels ; those of large burden anchoring 3-4ths of a mile from the shore. It is strongly fortified. 
 Imports, linen, woollen, silk, and cotton fabrics; timber, tobacco, hides, salted fish ; and sugar, 
 cocoa, coffee, and other tropical produce ; this city possessing the largest share of the colonial 
 trade. Exports, principally wine, of which about 30,000 butts a-year, value near £1,000,000, are 
 shipped chiefly to England, from Cadiz and the other ports around the bay ; the other exports are 
 quicksilver, provisions, brandv, salt, wool, and oil. 
 
 Barcelona lies in Catalonia, "on the Mediterranean, in lat. 41° 22' N., long. 2° 10' E. Pop. 120,000. 
 The town is the seat of manufactures of silk, leather, lace, wool, and other materials, all mostly 
 in a declining state. The harbour is formed by a mole, but large vessels are obliged to anchor in 
 an exposed situation outside. Imports, cotton, sugar, coffee, fish, hides, cocoa, spices, dye-woods, 
 indigo, staves, cheese, bees-wax, horns, and specie. Exports, silks, ribands, laces, paper, hats, 
 soap, firearms, and steel. 
 
 Alicant lies in Valencia, on the Mediterranean, in lat. 38° 91' N., long. 0° 27' W. Pop. 1! B0a 
 Its pier is accessible only for small craft ; large vessels anchor outside. Exports, wine, brandy, 
 almonds, barilla, olives and olive-oil, figs and other fruit, salt, wool, esparto-rush, silk, &c. Im- 
 ports, colonial produce, timber, salted fish, linens, cottons, &c. 
 
 Malaga is situated in Granada, on the Mediterranean, 6i) miles N.E. of Gibraltar, in lat. 36° 43' 
 N., and long. 4° 25' W. Pop. 52,000. It possesses an excellent harbour. Exports, chiefly wines, 
 raisins, almonds, grapes, figs, and lemons ; with lead, olive-oil, brandy, anchovies, barilla, soap, 
 &c. Imports, iron, salt -fish, butter and cheese, woollens, colonial produce, &c. 
 
 Bilbao, the ancient capital of Biscay, and chief port in the N. of Spain, lies in lat. 43° 12' N., 
 long. 2° 56' W., on the Nervion, about 10 miles above its confluence with the sea at Portugalete, 
 where, or at Olaviaga, 6 miles above, large vessels usually stop. Exports, principally iron and 
 steel, wool, fruits, corn, and fish. Imports, chiefly colonial produce, cottons and woollens. 
 
 Palma, the capital and commercial emporium of the island of Majorca, lies in a bay on its S. 
 side, in lat. 39° 34' N., long. 2° 38' E. It trades chiefly with Spain, France, and England. Ex- 
 ports, olive-oil, wine, brandy, oranges, and other fruits, capers, saffron, and mules. Imports, 
 wheat, iron, hardware, provisions, and manufactured goods. 
 
 Measures, Weights, Money, Finances, &c. 
 
 Measures and Weights. 
 The (Burgos) foot of 12 pulgados or 16 dedos, 
 = 1 1*128 Imp. inches ; the vara, or Castile ell. 
 of 3 feet, or 4 palmos, = 33'38 Imp. inches ; and 
 100 varas = 9273 Imp. yards; the codo, for 
 measuring timber and masts, is I ds of the vara, 
 
 and consists of 8 palmos de Ribeira ; the estada, 
 or fathom, is 6 feet ; the cuerda is 33 palmos de 
 vara ; the estadale is 12 feet. The Castilian or 
 juridical league of 5000 varas = 4637 Imp. yards ; 
 the Spanish league of 8000 varas = 7418 Imp. 
 yards ; the marine league is ^tyh of a degree. 
 
SPA 
 
 629 
 
 SPA 
 
 The arancada of vineyard land = 53771 square 
 VMM = 3 Imp. roods, 33 poles nearly; the 
 fanegada of corn land is in general about 6000 
 square varas, or 1 Imp. acre, 104 poles nearly ; 
 the yugada is 50 fanegadas ; and the cahizada is 
 a vague measure of land, on which a cahiz of 
 corn may be sown. 
 
 Thecantara, or greater arroba, wine measure, 
 of 8 azurabres, or 32 quartillos, = 3'54 Imp. 
 gallons ; and lb' wine arrobas = 1 moyo = 56-64 
 Imp. gallons. The lesser arroba, oil measure, 
 of 4 quartillos, or 100 quarterones, = 2*77 Imp. 
 gallons. The botta = 30 wine arrobas = 38| oil 
 arrobas ; the pipe = 27 wine arrobas = 34* oil 
 ■nrobaa = 95i Imp. gallons. 
 
 The fanega, corn measure, of 12 celemines, or 
 48 quartillos, = 1*55 Imp. bushel ; and 100 fane- 
 gas = 19| Imp. quarters ; the cahiz of 12fanegas 
 
 - 18? Imp. bushels. 
 
 The pound of 2 Castilian marks, 16 ounces, 
 128 drachms, or 9216 grains, = 7101 troy grains ; 
 the arroba of 25 lbs. = 25*36 lbs. avoirdupois ; 
 and the quintal of 4 arrobas, or 100 lbs., = 101-44 
 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 The apothecaries' weight is the same as the 
 above ; their ounce, however, is divided into 8 
 drachms, 24 scruples, 48 obolos, 144 caracteres, 
 or 576 grains. 
 
 The gold and silver weight is the Castilian 
 mark = 3550J troy grains ; in weighing gold it 
 is divided into 50 castellanos, 400 tomines, or 
 4800 grains ; and in weighing silver into 8 ounces, 
 64 ochavos, 128 adarmes, 384 tomines, or 4608 
 grains. The fineness of gold is expressed by di- 
 viding the mark or other unit of reference into 
 24 carats, each of 4 grains ; the fineness of silver, 
 by dividing it into 12 dineros, each of 24 grains. 
 
 The diamond ounce of 140 carats, or 560 Cas- 
 tilian grains, = 431i troy grains nearly. 
 
 The preceding are the Castilian standards, 
 which are the general or official standards of 
 Spain. But the local variations are numerous ; 
 the chief are the following : — 
 
 AlicanL— 100 varas - 83-22 Imp. yards. The 
 tonelada, of 2 pipes, 80 arrobas, or 100 cantaros, 
 
 — 254Jj Imp. gallons. The caffise, = 6i Imp. 
 bushels. The arroba of 24 great pounds, or 36 
 small pounds, = 27*39 lbs. avoirdupois; the 
 quintal consists of 4, and the carga of 10 arrobas. 
 
 Barcelona. — The cana of 2 varas = 62-25 Imp. 
 inches. The carga, of 16 cortanes, or 12 arro- 
 bas, = 27i Imp. gallons ; and 4 cargas = 1 pipe : 
 the oil carga is divided into 11 arrobas. The 
 sahua, of 4 quarterns, = 7'53 Imp. bushels : the 
 carga of corn is 2i quarteras. The arroba of 26 
 pounds, each of 12 ounces, = 21-37 lbs. avoir- 
 dupois ; 4 arrobas = 1 quintal. 
 
 Bilbao. — The fanega, corn measure, = 1*65 
 Imp. bushel. The quintal of 100 lbs. = 108 lbs. 
 avoirdupois ; but the quintal macho, used in 
 weighing iron, consists of 146 lbs., equal 157f 
 lbs. avoird. In other respects same as Castile. 
 
 Malaga. — The cantara or arroba, of 8 azum- 
 bres, = 3*49 Imp. gallons ; the pipe of wine con- 
 tains 35 cantaras, but is reckoned at only 34, or 
 118 J Imp. gallons. The bota of oil contains 43 
 Castilian arrobas. The carga of raisins weighs 
 7 arrobas, or 1774 lbs. avoirdupois ; a basket is 
 half a carga. In other respects, same as Castile. 
 
 Valencia. — The vara = 36-16 Imp. inches ; and 
 12 Valencia varas = 13 Castilian varas. The ar- 
 roba, liquid measure, = 2-59 Imp. gallons ; the 
 carga of wine = 15 arrobas; the carga of oil = 
 12 arrobas. The cahiz, = 5 - 65 Imp. bushels. 
 The arroba, weight, = 28i lbs. avoirdupois ; 4 
 arrobas = 1 quintal, and 3 quintals = 1 carga. 
 Money. 
 
 Accounts are generally stated in reals of 34 
 maravedis vellon (billon), or, as by bankers, in 
 reals of 16 quartos or 34 maravedis plate (silver). 
 
 The real of vellon, the most common coin it 
 Spain, consists of a base mixture of silver and 
 copper, and is worth 2Jd. sterling. The real of 
 plate, or more properly of old plate (plata anti- 
 gita), a nominal standard used only in accounts 
 and exchanges, is estimated according to an old 
 silver coinage, and is worth 4Jd. sterling. There 
 are a variety of other reals, but when the term 
 real is used alone, the real of vellon is always to 
 be understood ; and the simple term plate' is to 
 be understood as always denoting old plate. 
 
 In Alicant and all Valencia, accounts are kept 
 in dollars of plate, or libras, divided into 20 suel- 
 dos, each of 12 dineros. In Barcelona and all 
 Catalonia, the libra of account Ls similarly divid- 
 ed ; but 5 dollars of plate are reckoned equal to 
 7 Catalonian libras. 
 
 The accounts of the public finances are stated 
 in escudos vellon, each of 10 reals vellon. The 
 escudo vellon = 2s. Id. sterling. 
 
 Coins : In gold ; the quadruple pistole, or 
 doubloon of 8 escudos d'oro, = 320 reals vellon, 
 or 16 hard dollars; the doubloon of 4 escudos 
 = 160 reals vellon ; the common doubloon or 
 pistole = 80 reals vellon ; the escudo d'oro -a 
 40 reals vellon ; the coronilla or gold dollar = 
 
 20 reals vellon :— In silver ; the hard dollar = 20 
 reals vellon ; the half-dollar or escudo vellon = 
 10 reals vellon ; also the £ dollar, or Mexican pe- 
 seta ; the $ dollar, or Provincial peseta ; the J 
 dollar, or real of Mexican plate ; the 1 1 dollar, 
 or real of Provincial plate ; the A dollar, or half 
 real of Mexican plate ; and the 5 \ dollar, or real 
 vellon : — In copper ; double quartos of 8 mara- 
 vedis vellon ; quartos ; ochavos, or new mara- 
 vedis of plate ; maravedis of vellon. 
 
 Since 1786, the Castilian mark weight of gold, 
 
 21 carats fine, has been coined into 8i doubloons 
 of 8 escudos, 17 doubloons of 4 escudos, 34 com- 
 mon doubloons, or 68 escudos. The same weight 
 of silver, since 1772, has been coined into 8J hard 
 dollars, 17 half-dollars, 34 pesetas, or 68 reals of 
 Mexican plate, — the fineness or standard of the 
 dollars and half-dollars being 103 dineros, and of 
 the pesetas and reals of Mexican plate, 9t dine- 
 ros : the real vellon, and the Provincial peseta 
 and real, are composed of base silver or billon. 
 The remedy of the mint for the gold coins, is 24 
 grains per mark in the weight, and ^th of a ca- 
 rat in the fineness ; for the silver dollar and half- 
 dollar, 24 grains per mark in the weight, and ,-jth 
 of a dinero in the fineness. 
 
 Hence the weight of the doubloon of 8 escudos, 
 or quadruple pistole, is 41770 troy grains ; its 
 contents in pure gold, 365-49 troy grains ; and its 
 value, when of full weight, £3, 4s. 8|d. : the 
 weight of the hard dollar, 41770 troy grains ; its 
 contents in pure silver, 374*19 troy grains ; and 
 its full value, 4s. 2id. But the more general va- 
 lues of these coins, as deduced from assays, are 
 £3, 4s. Id., and 4s. 2d. respectively. 
 
 The ducat, pistole, and dollar of plate (i. e. old 
 plate), are monies of exchange merely, not coins. 
 The ducat of plate = 11 reals, 1 maravedi plate, 
 or 375 maravedis plate : the pistole of plate = 4 
 dollars of plate : the dollar of plate, or piastre, 
 = 8 reals plate = 15 reals, 2 maravedis vellon, 
 or 512 maravedis vellon. The peso duro or hard 
 dollar = 20 reals vellon = lOf reals plate : hence 
 32 reals vellon = 17 reals plate : 64 hard dollars 
 = 85 dollars of plate ; and 4 maravedis vellon = 
 1 quarto of plate. 
 
 I7ie Exchange with London is, throughout 
 Spain, effected in piastres or dollars of plate, the 
 par being 371 pence per dollar. Bills from Lon- 
 don upon Madrid, Cadiz, Bilbao, Barcelona, or 
 Seville, are generally drawn at 3 months' date. 
 The custom as to days of grace varies in different 
 places : in Madrid none are allowed. 
 
 Banking, as understood in Britain, is unknown 
 in Spain, and in ordinary transactions there are 
 
SPE 630 SPI 
 
 committee of the English creditors, was as fol- 
 lows : — Active foreign debt, £51,081,958 ; active 
 internal debt, £6,502,865; together, £57,584,82.'$, 
 
 Equal in reals vellon to r. 5,528, 143,008 
 
 Internal debt, not bearing interest 9,995,489,321 
 Foreign debt, do. 2,434,344,000 
 
 Total, .r. 17,957,976,329 
 or £187,062,253. The foreign debt was contracted 
 in Britain, France, and Holland. 
 Treaties. 
 Numerous conventions exist between the Unit- 
 ed Kingdom and Spain, for the particulars of 
 which our limits will allow us only to refer to Mr 
 Hertslet's Collection of Treaties. 
 
 no substitutes for cash. There is, however, an 
 extensive circulation of inland bills of exchange, 
 through the medium of the higher class of mer- 
 chants, who all call themselves bankers, and who 
 have agents and connexions in the different towns 
 to facilitate their operations. 
 Finances. 
 The finances of Spain are in such confusion 
 that we are unable to furnish any precise ac- 
 count of their present condition. In the bud- 
 get for 1839, the revenue was stated at reals 
 715,096,838 = £7,448,925 ; but it may be doubt- 
 ed if this sum was realized ; and, at all events, it 
 was greatly exceeded by the expenditure. 
 The debt in 1840, according to the report of a 
 SPECIE, metallic currency. 
 SPECULATION is, according to political economists, every transaction in which 
 an individual buys in order to sell again ; but among commercial men, the term is 
 more loosely applied to incurring extensive hazards in the hope of corresponding 
 emolument ; in short, to whatever is foreign to the proper business of the individual, 
 or beyond the control of common rules. [Price.] 
 SPELTER, a common name for Zinc. 
 
 SPERMACETI (Fr. Blanc de baleine. Ger. Wallrath. It. Bianco di balena'), 
 the product of the Physeter macrocephalus, a species of whale found chiefly in the 
 South Seas. This whale is characterized by an enormous head, great part of which 
 is occupied by a triangular cavity filled with a white fluid oily substance, which, 
 after its death, congeals into an unctuous mass, from which a considerable quantity 
 of oil may be obtained by expression. The residuum is a concrete fatty substance 
 called spermaceti, which is generally imported in a crude state ; after being purified, 
 it is cast into blocks or cakes. These are of a white colour, have a peculiar lustre, 
 are transparent, brittle, smooth, but not greasy ; smell peculiar, but weak. Sp. 
 gr. '948. Spermaceti burns with a brilliant flame, without smell, and is used in the 
 manufacture of candles ; also for medical purposes. 
 
 Spermaceti oil is more pure, and burns more perfectly and brilliantly than com- 
 mon whale oil ; and it is accordingly much used for the finer kinds of lamps. 
 
 SPIGELIA, or CAROLINA PINK, a perennial, herbaceous, medicinal plant 
 (S. Marylandica), indigenous in the S. states of the N. American Union. The part 
 chiefly valued is the root, which, in its newly dried state, is celebrated as anthel- 
 minthic. It is purchased by the Americans from the Creek and Cherokee Indians, 
 but, losing power by keeping, little is carried to Europe. 
 
 SPINEL, an ornamental stone which occurs crystallized either in regular octa- 
 hedrons, or in macles presenting different forms. It is of various shades of red, 
 violet, or yellow, more rarely black. Sp. gr. 3"5. By lapidaries, the scarlet-coloured 
 is termed spinel ruby ; the rose-red, balas ruby ; the yellow or orange red, the 
 rubicelle; and the violet-coloured, almandine ruby. The first is the most valuable. 
 Spinel is not so hard as the oriental ruby, and is readily distinguished, both by its 
 colour and crystallization. It is principally found in Ceylon and the Malay penin- 
 sula. The pale ; blue, and pearl-gray varieties are found in Sweden. 
 
 SPIRITS, distilled liquors, modifications of Alcohol, which differ from each 
 other in taste and flavour, and some of them in colour, though this last difference 
 is adventitious, as, when first prepared, they are all limpid and colourless, and ac- 
 quire the peculiar tint by which they are ultimately distinguished from the casks 
 in which they are kept, or from some colouring substance added during their pre- 
 paration. They derive their taste and flavour from particular essential oils with 
 which they are impregnated, and which differ according to the substances that 
 furnish each spirit or are employed in the manufacture. Commercially, they are 
 classed as Foreign and Colonial, and British, and for fiscal purposes, the former are 
 subjected to the customs, the latter to the excise department of the public revenue. 
 Foreign and Colonial Spirits consist of brandy, procured from wine. ; rum, 
 from the fermented juice of the sugar-cane ; and geneva, made chiefly from rye ; 
 a particular account of which will be found under these ^respective heads. Other 
 spirituous liquors are prepared abroad ; but, with the exception perhaps of In- 
 dian arrack, usually manufactured from rice, they are unimportant and little 
 known beyond the countries of production. 
 
 British Spirits are made principally from barley, employed either in the state 
 of grain or malt, according to the kind desired. In Scotland and Ireland, where 
 spirits are the national beverage, the liquor is preferred in its pure and simple 
 state [Whisky], and it is supplied to the retailers directly from the distilleries, 
 
SPO 
 
 631 
 
 SQU 
 
 which are very numerous. In England, on the other hand, heer is the general 
 drink of the people ; while spirits, the use of which is confined chiefly to large 
 towns, are not considered palatable until compounded with and disguised by 
 the addition of other ingredients [Gin], and hence the rectifier has been con- 
 stituted the individual who furnishes the spirits for retail, — leaving distillation a 
 kind of monopoly in the hands of a comparatively small number of persons. Re- 
 peated attempts nave been made, by the imposition of high duties and otherwise, to 
 diminish the consumption of spirits ; but in no instance with success. Whenever 
 the tax is carried beyond certain moderate limits, it gives rise to illicit distillation ; 
 and without in any degree lessening the evils of drunkenness, produces other kinds 
 of demoralization, bringing the law into contempt, and enabling those who despise 
 its enactments to undersell the fair trader. 
 
 The Spirit Duties are the most important of all under charge of the excise ; both with respect to 
 the amount of revenue received, and to the extent of official employment which they impose. 
 
 In England, spirits were first subjected to the excise in 1660. After various fluctuations, the 
 duty stood in 1790 (reckoned in Imperial) at 3s. 4|d. per gallon ; at which it continued until 1819, 
 when it was brought up to the maximum rate of 12s. 7d. per gallon. This high duty remained 
 until 1826, when, in consequence of the satisfactory result of a great diminution in the duty in 
 Scotland and Ireland in 1823, it was reduced to 7s. a-gallon. The effect of this alteration was an 
 increase in the quantity brought to charge from 3,655,232 gallons in 1825, to 7,007,204 gallons in 
 1826. In 1830, the rate was raised to 7s. 6d. a-gallon. 
 
 In Scotland and Ireland, the duties, after various changes, were reduced, the former from 6s. 2d., 
 the latter from 5s. 7td. to 2s. 4|d. per gallon ; which, however, was raised, in 1826, to 2s. lud., 
 and, in 1830, to 3b. 4d. per gallon. In 1834, the Irish duty was lowered to 2s. 4d. ; but it was again 
 made equal to the Scottish in 1842 (5 Vict. c. 15). 
 
 The act 3 Vict. c. 17, added 4d. per gallon to the duties after May 15, 1840 ; thus making the 
 rates 7s. lOd. in England, and 3s. 8d. in Scotland and Ireland ; which duties are reckoned on 
 spirits of hydrometer proof. On the malt used by distillers, a drawback is allowed of 8d. per gall. 
 The consumption of spirits in the United Kingdom, 26,729,004 gallons in 1831, increased in 1836 
 to 31 ,348,334 gallons ; but in the next five years, it fell off to 24,124,921 gallons, the quantity shown 
 below for 1841. This decrease is mainly attributed to the progress of temperance associations in 
 Ireland. The amounts stated, however, are not believed to show the whole consumption, as the 
 duties are still sufficiently high to afford some encouragement to smuggling. 
 
 Total Number of Proof Gallons of Spirits that paid Duty in 1831 and 1841. 
 
 1831. 
 
 Ram. 
 
 Brandv, 
 &e. " 
 
 British " 
 Spirits. 
 
 Total. 
 
 3,479,911 1,209,796, 7,434,04712,123,75412 
 125,702 38,994 5,700,689 5,865,385 
 18.984 ,A on " ° "'"^nl " 
 
 10,2091 8,710,672 8,739,865 
 
 ,217,073,1,127,849 8,185,499 11,530,421 
 48,523 40,291 5,989,905 6,078,719 
 12,374 17,964 6,485,443 6,515,781 
 
 England, galls. 
 Scotland, . .do. 
 Ireland do. 
 
 United King- 
 dom, do. 
 
 > T et Duty,.. £ l,629,88l'l,415,06ll 5,189,66ll 8,234,603 l,063,087'l, 354,079 5,168,862J 7,586,028 
 
 3,624,5971,258,999 21,845,408 26,729,004 
 
 1841. 
 
 Brandy, 
 &c. 
 
 British 
 Spirits. 
 
 i I 
 
 2,277,970 1,186,104 20,660,847 24, 
 
 The number of gallons distilled in 1841 were as follows : — In England, 5,919,207 ; Scotland, 
 8,5i'4,333; Ireland, 6,359,124 ; total, 20,782,664. Imported into England— from Scotland, l,8y4,657 
 gallons, from Ireland, 354,893 ; into Ireland from Scotland, 569,779 gallons ; into Scotland from 
 Ireland, 98,253 gallons. S 
 
 SPONGE (Fr. Eponge. Ger. Schwamm. It. Spugna. Arab. Isfenj), a light, 
 porous, elastic, brownish yellow substance, procured by divers, chiefly in the Greek 
 Archipelago and Red Sea, and of an inferior description in the West Indies. It is 
 now ascertained to be a species of zoophyte. It grows into irregular tubes of a 
 woolly consistence, and generally adheres by a broad base to rocks submersed in 
 the ocean. When first taken, it has a strong fishy smell, and requires to be care- 
 fully washed from a gelatinous slime which covers its surface, in order to prevent 
 its growing putrid. Sponges are prepared for use by washing them anew and 
 beating them free of all stony matter, and they are even bleached to deprive them 
 of colour. Their price varies exceedingly, according to the fineness of their tex- 
 ture. They are nsed for domestic purposes, in the arts, and in surgery. S 
 
 SPRAT, a small fish (Clupea sprattus), resembling a young herring, found in 
 large shoals on the Norfolk, Suffolk, Kent, and Essex coasts. It is also taken in 
 the Forth, near Edinburgh, where it is called the garvie herring, and on the eastern 
 coast of Irelaud. Sprats are in season from November to March, when an abun- 
 dant supply is always to be obtained at Billingsgate. Within the last few years they 
 have been extensively used as a manure. The fishing for this purpose, called the 
 stow boat fishery, is chiefly prosecuted on the Kentish coast. 
 
 SQUILL (Fr. Sci'le. Ger. Meerzwiebel. It. Scilla, Cipolla marina. Sp. 
 
STA 
 
 g:j2 
 
 STA 
 
 Cebola albarrana), or sea-onion, is a perennial bulbous-rooted plant (Scilla mari- 
 tima), found on the shores of Spain, Portugal, North of Africa, and the Levant. The 
 bulbs are pear-shaped, and vary in size from that of the fist to the compass of a child's 
 head. They are the only part used, and should be chosen plump, fresh, sound, 
 full of a clammy juice, nauseous, acrid, and bitter, and causing inflammation 
 when rubbed on the skin. In the shops, squill is commonly met with in the form 
 of the dried shreds of the root. It is used medicinally, chiefly as an expectorant. 
 
 STADE TOLL. [Hamburg.] 
 
 STAMPS, impressions made upon paper or parchment by government for the 
 purposes of revenue. They always denote the tax levied, and sometimes the nature 
 of the instrument stamped. Stamp-duties were first imposed in Holland, 1624 ; 
 and they not long afterwards became general in Europe ; there being, as Adam 
 Smith remarks, " no art which one government sooner learns of another, than that 
 of draining money from the pockets of the people." They were introduced into 
 England in a temporary form in 1671 ; and having been revised in 1693 (5 Wm. 
 & M. c. 21), were in time extended, so that besides crown grants, diplomas, pro- 
 bates of wills, and law and other formal proceedings, every instrument recording 
 a transaction between two individuals was subjected to a stamp-duty before it 
 could be used in a court of justice. Newspapers and legacies [Succession Duties] 
 were also brought under the same system. Stamps were likewise adopted as a 
 convenient method of imposing a duty upon particular classes of persons, as phy- 
 sicians, barristers, and attorneys, who are taxed before they can begin practice, 
 under the form of an admission-stamp ; and notaries, solicitors, bankers, pawn- 
 brokers, and appraisers, who are not qualified to exercise their callings without a 
 yearly license. The stamp acts, voluminous in number and extent, were consoli- 
 dated in 1815 by 55 Geo. III. c. 184, a schedule annexed to which exhibits the 
 whole duties exigible in Britain. They have been since mitigated, particularly by 
 5 Geo. IV. c. 41, which exempts law proceedings from stamps. In 1842, the stamp- 
 duties in Ireland, formerly lower than those in the sister island, were raised to the 
 same level, until October 10, 1845, by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 82. And the following table 
 exhibits those chiefly of importance in commerce : — 
 
 Table of principal Stamp Duties. 
 
 Bills and Promissory Notes. I Debentures 5s. 
 
 Insurance Policies. 
 
 Not exceeding two months after date, 
 
 Longer 
 
 or lixty d»ys after rifkt. 
 
 Period. 
 
 s. d 
 
 s. d 
 
 For £2 and not above £5, 5s. 1 
 
 1 6 
 
 Ab. 5,5s. .. 20.... 1 6 
 
 2 
 
 20 .. 30.... 2 
 
 2 6 
 
 30 .. 60.... 2 6 
 
 3 6 
 
 50 .. 100.... 3 6 
 
 4 6 
 
 100 .. 200.... 4 6 
 
 5 
 
 200 .. 300.... 5 
 
 6 
 
 300 .. 500.... 6 
 
 8 6 
 
 500 .. 1000.... 8 6 
 
 12 6 
 
 1000 .. 2000.... 12 6 
 
 15 
 
 2000 .. 3000.... 15 
 
 25 
 
 3000 25 I 30 
 
 Foreign, 
 Drawn singly same as inland bills. 
 When in sets, then for every bill of t 4 
 
 each set not exceeding £'100 1 6 
 
 Above £100 and not above £200 3 
 
 200 .. 500 4 
 
 500 .. 1000 5 
 
 100O .. 2000 7 6 
 
 2000 .. 3000 10 
 
 3000 15 
 
 The duty on a promissory note for the pay- 
 ment of any sum by instalments, or of several 
 sums at different times, is the same as that 
 on a promissory note payable within a period 
 not exceeding two months after date, for 
 a sum equal to the whole amount to be paid. 
 N. B. — Promissory notes for £100 or under 
 are not to be drawn payable to (he bearer 
 on demand, except hankers' re-issuable notes, 
 which require a different stamp. 
 Bills of Lading 6d. 
 
 Life. l. ». 
 
 When sum not above £50 2 
 
 Above £50 and not above £ 100 5 
 
 100 and under £500 1 
 
 1000. 
 
 1 
 
 When 500 
 
 .. 1000 .. 3000 3 
 
 .. 3000 .. 5000 4 
 
 .. 5000 and upwards 5 
 
 Fire. 
 
 Duty on each policy £0 
 
 Besides 3s. per cent, per annum on every 
 insurance made or renewed. 
 
 Exemptions.— Public hospitals ; also agricul- 
 tural produce, farming stock, and imple- 
 ments of husbandry, provided the insurance 
 shall be effected by a separate and distinct 
 policy. 
 
 Sua..— Coasting Voyage. ». d. 
 
 Premium not above 20s. per cent. 
 
 If sum not above £100 1 3 
 
 Every £100, and also for any fractional 
 part of £100 1 3 
 
 Premium above 20s. per cent. 
 
 If sum not above £100 2 6 
 
 Every £100, and part of £100 2 6 
 
 Foreign Voyage. 
 
 Premium not above 15s. per cent. 
 
 If sum not above £100 1 3 
 
 Every £100, and part of £100 1 3 
 
 Premium above 15s. and not above 30s. 
 per cent. 
 
 If sum not above £100 2 6 
 
 Every £100, and part of £100 2 6 
 
 Premium above 30s. per cent. 
 
 If sum not above £100 5 
 
 Every £100, and part of £100 5 
 
 For any certain term not exceeding three 
 months. 
 
STA (533 STE 
 
 s. d. Receipts «. a. 
 
 Every £100, and part of £100 2 6 Formeneyamountingto£5cStunder£lO. .0 3 
 
 Exceeding three months 5 01 10 .. 20. .0 6 
 
 If the separate interests of two or more distinct 20 .. 60. .1 
 
 persons shall be insured by one policy, then 50 .. 100.. 1 6 
 
 the said duty of Is. 3d., 2s. 6d., or 5s., as the 100 . . 200. .2 6 
 
 case may require, shall be charged thereon, 200 . . 300. .4 
 
 in respect of each and every fractional part ! 300 . . 500. .5 
 
 of £100, as well as in respect of every full ! 500 1000. .7 6 
 
 sumof£100, which shall be thereby insured 1000 or upwards. .10 
 
 upon any separate and distinct interest. ! For any sum acknowledged to be in full 
 
 Protests. «. d.' ofalldemands 10 
 
 On bill or note for any sum less than £20. .2 N.B. — By 9th Geo. IV. c. 27, any person who 
 
 £20 and less than £100 3 purchases receipt -stamps to the amount of 
 
 100 .. 5(0 5 £1 at one and the same time, from any duly 
 
 500 or upwards 10 appointed distributor or sub-distributor, is 
 
 Protest of any other kind 5 entitled to a discount of 71 per cent, on every 
 
 And for every sheet upon which the same shall [ complete sum of £'1. of purchase money 
 
 be written after the tirst, a further duty of5s. See Scfjlkment. 
 
 The stamp laws, in reference to mercantile writings, are explained under Bills 
 of Exchange, Policy, Receipt, and other heads. Farther information will be 
 found in Chitty's Practical Treatise on the Stamp Laws. 
 
 STAPLE, originally a public market whither traders were obliged to carry 
 their goods for sale ; but now applied to the chief productions of a country. 
 
 STARCH (Fr. A midon. Ger. Amidam), a substance found in a variety of vege- 
 tables, but procured generally from wheat flour or potatoes. The greater part of 
 the common or wheat starch employed in this country is made in or near London. 
 Potato starch is made chiefly in districts where potatoes are cheap and abundant, 
 more particularly in Scotland. The process for obtaining it, in both cases, consists in 
 diffusing the powdered or bruised grain or seed, or the rasped root or stem, in cold 
 water, which becomes white and turbid ; the grosser parts may be separated by a 
 strainer, and the milky liquor that passes deposits the starch, which is to be 
 washed in cold water and dried in a gentle heat. 100 lbs. of wheat produce about 33 
 lbs. starch ; and 100 parts of skinned potato from 15 to 17 parts of starch. The best 
 kind is white, soft, and friable, and easily reduced to powder. Sp. gr. about 1'5. 
 It is insoluble in cold water and alcohol, but readily affords a gelatinous solution 
 in warm water, which is largely employed for stiffening articles of wearing ap- 
 parel, and for dressing some descriptions of goods after weaving. It is also much 
 employed by the calico-printer. Potato starch is said to be much more susceptible 
 of moisture than wheat starch, and goods which are stiffened with it are apt to 
 yield in damp weather, and to become mouldy if laid by. A duty of 3£d. per lb. 
 was formerly levied in Britain on starch, but it was abolished in 1834, at which 
 time the annual consumption was about 8,700,000 lbs. S 
 
 STEAM-ENGINE, a piece of mechanism by which the force arising from the pro- 
 perties of elasticity and of instantaneous condensation, possessed by steam, is either 
 employed I o produce a continuous rotatory motion (with a fly-wheel which constitutes 
 a reservoir of power) for the purpose of driving machinery, or for any other use that 
 power may be put to. In common with most other important applications of 
 physical principles, no individual can lay claim to its invention ; but its germ is 
 to be found in the steam-pumps of the Marquis of Worcester (1663) and Captain 
 Savery (1698); and in a more advanced state in the "atmospheric engine" 
 of Newcomen (1705), also employed for pumping water only, but which, by the 
 genius of James Watt (b. 1736, d. 1819), was eventually converted into the modern 
 steam-engine. [Machinery.] S 
 
 STEAM NAVIGATION was attempted by various individuals in the course 
 of the 18th century ; but the experiments which tended more than any other to 
 develop this application of steam were the joint labour of three Scotsmen— Patrick 
 Miller of Dalswinton, Dumfriesshire, James Taylor, his son's tutor, and William 
 Symington, mining-engineer, — Miller preparing the proper vessel and propelling 
 apparatus, Taylor recommending the steam-engine as the working-agent, and 
 Symington effecting the modifications necessary in its structure. This took place 
 between 1786 and 1789 ; and in 1802 a steam-tug, made by Symington, with a 
 single paddle-wheel in the stern, was placed on the Forth and Clyde Canal ; but 
 the project was abandoned through fear that the undulation produced by it would 
 prove injurious to the banks. Symington's apparatus, though then neglected in 
 this country, had been seen and examined by many, and especially by Robert 
 Fulton, an American, then studying painting under West ; and who, with less 
 merit as an inventor than Symington, but with more ample resources and greater 
 
STE 634 STO 
 
 energy, succeeded, in conjunction with Chancellor Livingstone, in introducing 
 steam navigation into the United States in 1807, when the Clermont of 160 tons 
 was launched at New York. Four years afterwards, it was successfully estab- 
 lished in this country by Henry Bell, an enterprising house-carpenter of Glasgow, 
 who in 1811 started the Comet, of 25 tons burden and 3 horse power, to ply to a 
 bath hotel which he had set up at Helensburgh. 
 
 The progress of steam navigation was afterwards rapid, particularly in the 
 United States, owing to the number and extent of its rivers, for which alone 
 steamers were at first considered to be adapted. As improvement advanced, how- 
 ever, and confidence increased, they came gradually into use as marine vessels, for 
 which purpose they were first fitted in 1818 by David Napier, engineer, Glasgow, 
 who, from that year until 1830, effected more for the improvement of steam naviga- 
 tion than any other man ; and whose cousin, Robert Napier, is also honourably 
 distinguished in the same walk. Mr David Napier established regular steam com- 
 munication between Britain and France and Ireland ; by degrees almost all parts 
 of the shores of Europe were traversed in like manner ; and in 1838 a line of 
 steamers, of gigantic size, commenced running between England and the United 
 States. Steam-vessela have since been adopted for many other parts of the ocean; 
 and their increasing use in every civilized country has produced, and is daily 
 producing, results which it is impossible fully to estimate. 
 
 We refrain from entering into any details respecting the formation of steam- 
 vessels ; but we may notice that of late years not a few have been built of iron, 
 from its superior buoyancy to wood ; and that a magnificent one called the Mam- 
 moth or Great Britain, is about to be launched at Bristol, on which 1500 tons of 
 iron have been expended. Her dimensions are given as follows : — Length of keel, 
 282 feet ; length over all, 324 feet ; breadth, 51 feet ; depth of hold, 32 feet ; power 
 of engines, 1000 horses ; burden, 3200 tons ; displacement, 3000 tons ; and load 
 draught, only 16 feet. The hull is divided into five distinct water-tight compart- 
 ments. Another important feature in the Great Britain is the adoption of the 
 screw propeller, which will save the cumbrous appendages of paddle-wheels and 
 boxes. The screw propeller, as originally tested by the Archimedes steamer, was 
 placed in the dead wood under its counter, and between the keel and stern post ; 
 and it consisted of a helix, making but one revolution about a horizontal axle pass- 
 ing longitudinally through the ship, and put in motion by a steam-engine. But 
 this plan is said to be considerably modified and improved: in the Great Britain. 
 Should this bold experiment prove successful, it will probably lead to an entire 
 revolution in the system of steam navigation. 
 
 The number and tonnage of British steam-vessels cannot be very accurately stated, because no 
 correct information can be obtained respecting unregistered vessels, which ply only within the 
 limits of their respective ports ; and which appear to be very numerous in the Mersey, Humber, 
 Thames, Clyde, and other rivers. According to an approximate statement prepared in 1839, the 
 merchant-steamers at the end of 1838 were, for the British islands, 766 in number, having a bur- 
 den (including 62,680 tons for engine-room, &c), of 142,168 tons; and adding the aggregate 
 colonial tonnage in 1837, 15,664 tons, there is given a total for the empire of 157,840 tons, the 
 amount of horse-power being 63,250. Of the 766 British steamers, 484 were river steamers and 
 small coasters, and 282 large coasters and sea-going ships. In 1838, the United States possessed 
 an aggregate steam-tonnage of 155,473 tons, and 57,019 horse-power. 
 
 On December 31, 1841, the registered mercantile steam-marine of the British islands amounted 
 to 95,795 tons ; but adding to this the engine-room tonnage, and allowing for colonial and un- 
 registered vessels, the aggregate must have amounted to fully 200,000 tons, exclusive of steam 
 mail-packets and vessels of war, of which a large and yearly increasing fleet is now maintained. 
 
 A large steam-navy is now also possessed by France ; but very few war-steamers have as yet 
 been built in the United States. The number of steam-vessels possessed by other countries is 
 comparatively inconsiderable. S 
 
 STEARIN, the harder portion of animal fats ; olein or elain being the softer 
 one. Stearin yields an acid, called stearic acid, and having the form of brilliant 
 white scaly crystals, which is now largely employed in soap and candle making. 
 
 STEATITE, a species of soap-stone found in Scotland, Anglesea, and many 
 other parts. The white varieties, or those which become so by calcination, are 
 used in the manufacture of porcelain ; others are employed for fulling. 
 
 STEEL, a compound of iron and a minute quantity of carbon. [Iron.] 
 
 STEELYARD, a weighing-machine consisting of a lever of unequal arms. 
 
 STERLING, a term which has long been applied to the standard money of 
 England. The derivations of this word, offered by various authors, are numerous 
 perhaps beyond those of any other in our language. See Ruding's A nnals of the 
 Coinage of Britain, vol. i. p. 21-24. 
 
 STOCKS. [Funds.] 
 
 STONE, the name of a weight in different parts of Europe. The standard Bri- 
 
STO 635 STO 
 
 ti<h stone = 14 lbs. avoirdupois. Formerly the stone of butcher-meat or fish in 
 London (still partially used) was only 8 lbs. avoirdupois ; while in Scotland, the 
 common commercial stone was 16 lbs. Scots troy = 17*39 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 STONE-TRADE. The principal kinds of stone used in building are the lime- 
 stones or calcareous rocks of the geologist, commonly called freestone ; of these 
 it would be useless to describe or enumerate more than a few. In England, Port- 
 land stone, so called from its principal quarries being in Portland Island, Dorset- 
 shire, holds the first rank, and is that used in London for stone building, and for 
 the ornamental parts of edifices. St Paul's, Westminster and Blackfriars Bridges, 
 Newgate, and indeed most of the public buildings of the metropolis, are examples 
 of its use. About 30,000 tons of Portland stone are said to be annually exported 
 to London ; the best blocks bringing from 18s. to 22s. per ton ; and the inferior 
 from 6s. to 8s. Bath stone, used in that city and neighbourhood, is softer and far 
 less durable than the preceding. Purbeck stone, from Dorsetshire, coarser and 
 harder than the preceding, is valued for steps, paving, door- sills, and copings. 
 Yorkshire stone resembles the last. Rag stone, obtained from quarries on the banks 
 of the Thames and Medway, is used for paving. The quarries of Gateshead Fell 
 furnish the celebrated " Newcastle grindstones." There are various other kinds ; 
 as, Oxford stone and Ketton stone, distinguished according to their principal locali- 
 ties. But, upon the whole, the quarries in England are not of any great extent 
 or value ; and bricks are in consequence the chief building material. 
 
 In Scotland, however, where stone is used almost to the entire exclusion of 
 bricks, the quarries are numerous and some very excellent, particularly Craigleith, 
 near Edinburgh, and Cullalo in Fife. Superior granite is also found in various 
 places, particularly near Aberdeen, from whence about 12,000 tons are annually 
 shipped to London for works where strength and durability are required ; and in 
 Kirkcudbrightshire, from whence that employed in the construction of the Liver- 
 pool Docks was partly derived. 
 
 In Ireland, there are quarries of granite in the county of Dublin, and near Newry, 
 in the county of Down ; red sandstone in Tipperary and the county of Cork ; and 
 limestone, of a rich kind, in Queen's County, and in the counties of Dublin, Meath, 
 and Cork. Other varieties of stone are found in different parts. S 
 
 STOPPAGE IN TRANSITU, is the right which the seUer of goods has to 
 stop them in their passage to the buyer, if the buyer has become bankrupt or in- 
 solvent before they come into his custody, and is unable to pay their price. It has 
 been the subject of much debate whether this right partakes of the nature of lien, 
 or is an exercise of property on the part of the seller ; but no practical rule has 
 arisen out of these discussions, and the right is practised as an arbitrary exercise 
 of expediency. It remains then simply to state the circumstances in which, accord- 
 ing to the tenor of the decisions, it may be exercised. " All persons standing in the 
 relation of vendor and vendee, or consigner and consignee, on a sale or consignment 
 of goods on credit, may exercise the right of stoppage in transitu ; and there are 
 cases in which the law recognises this right, though the contract under which the 
 goods have been consigned may not be literally a contract of sale. Hence, where 
 a factor or agent, by order of his principal, purchases goods for him, and consigns 
 them to him on credit, with an additional charge on account of commission, making 
 himself liable to the original vendor in the first instance, and no privity exists 
 between such vendor and the principal, the factor or agent is so far considered 
 as the vendor of the goods to the principal, as to be entitled to stop them in tran- 
 situ, upon the insolvency or bankruptcy of the latter, though he may not perhaps 
 be considered as standing in that relation for all purposes " {Cross, 363-4). There is 
 no analogy to a general lien in the right to stop in transitu, and therefore it can only 
 be exercised for the price of the individual commodity stopped, and cannot be had 
 recourse to for a general balance. On the other hand, if the balance of accounts 
 between the parties, taking the price of the goods into consideration, be not 
 against the buyer — in other words, if it was so much in his favour that the de- 
 livery of the goods will not turn it against him— there is no right to stop. 
 
 The most difficult questions occur as to the position in which commodities may 
 be stopped. While they are at the order of the vendor by being in the hands of 
 his servants, there can be no doubt that the right exists, or, more properly speaking, 
 the right of keeping possession exists ; on the other hand, when they have come 
 under the order of the purchaser, by being in the hands of himself or his servants, 
 there is as little doubt that the right ceases. The time for its exercise is while the 
 property is in the hands of a middle-man, who holds for the benefit of whichever 
 party has a just legal claim, A shipowner, carrier, packer, wharfinger, is such 
 
sto m<\ mn 
 
 middle-man. The property is liable to stoppage though the middle-man has been 
 appointed by the consignee. But the consignee's connexion with the middle-man 
 may be such that the latter's repositories are virtually those of the consignee, 
 having been hired by him ; so if the purchaser use the wharfinger's or packer's ware- 
 house as a place for the custody and disposal of his goods, it is virtually his own 
 warehouse, and the right to stop ceases on their arrival there. If the consignee 
 keep the goods in the seller's warehouse, paying warehouse rent, the seller has 
 ceased to have any control over them. There may be a commencement of delivery 
 not so far completed as to give the purchaser sufficient possession to bar stoppage. 
 Thus, where a bargeman, intrusted with a cargo of iron, landed part of it at the 
 vendee's wharf, but hearing that the consignee had become bankrupt, immediately 
 re-loaded it, it was found that he legally used the right of stoppage in favour of 
 the seller (Crawshay and Others v. Eades, lfi.| C, 181). When there is a right 
 to stop in transitu, it is sufficiently exercised by notice being given to the middle- 
 man in whose hands the property is ; if he should disregard the notice and deliver 
 the goods, the delivery will not be valid. {Cross on Lien and Stoppage in Transitu, 
 36\,etseq.) 
 
 STORAGE, warehouse rent. 
 
 STORAX, a balsam obtained from the Styrax officinalis, a tree found in the 
 Levant, Italy, and France. It was formerly used in medicine. 
 
 STORES, the supplies of food, liquor, and other articles provided for the sub- 
 sistence and accommodation of a ship's crew and passengers. [Customs Regu- 
 lations. Warehousing System.] 
 
 STRANDING OF A VESSEL. In recovery of losses from underwriters, it is 
 often a question of material consequence, whether the vessel was or was not 
 " stranded," according to the legal meaning of the term. [Policy.] To constitute 
 stranding, it is not sufficient that the vessel has struck, if she has been speedily got 
 off, however much she may be injured. In Wells v. Hopwood (3 B. <§• Adol. 20), 
 a vessel arrived in a tide harbour, and proceeded to discharge her cargo at a quay 
 on the side, which could be done at high-water only, and could not be completed 
 in one tide. At the first low ebb the vessel grounded on the mud, but, on a sub- 
 sequent ebb, the rope by which her head was moored to the opposite side of the 
 harbour stretched, and the wind blowing from the east at the same time, she did 
 not ground entirely, as it was intended she should, in the mud, but her forepart 
 got on a bank of stones and rubbish. The vessel was strained, and her seams 
 opened, closing again at high tide ; and though she was in the end uninjured, the 
 cargo was damaged, and it was held a stranding. In this case Lord Tenterden 
 observed, " That where a vessel takes the ground, in the ordinary and usual course 
 of navigation and management, in a tide river or harbour, upon the ebbing of the 
 tide, or from natural deficiency of water, so that she may float again upon the 
 flow of the tide or increase of water, such an event is not to be considered a strand- 
 ing within the sense of the memorandum. But where the ground is taken under 
 any extraordinary circumstances of time or place, by reason of some unusual or 
 accidental occurrence, such an event shall be considered a stranding within the 
 meaning of the memorandum." In Kingsford v. Marshall (8 Bingh. 458), the 
 ground was taken where the master intended, but the vessel m taking it struck 
 against some hard substance which pierced the bottom. The cargo was damaged, 
 but this was held not to constitute a stranding. " If the ship," says Mr Marshall, 
 " be forced aground, and remain for any time stationary, whether it be on piles, 
 on the muddy bank of a river, or on rocks on the seashore, provided there be a 
 settlement of the ship, so that the voyage is actually interrupted, that is a strand- 
 ing, without reference to the degree of damage she sustains (232). {Park on In- 
 surance, 177, &c. Marshall on Insurance, 231-234.) [Insurance. Policy.] 
 
 STRAW-PLAT consists generally of the stalks of wheat, but sometimes also of 
 those of rice, rye, or darnel grass, which are platted in order to be made up into 
 hats or bonnets. This branch of industry, which is every where of a domestic kind, 
 appears to have originated in Italy, and to have been introduced about the middle 
 of last century into England. The large size of the wheat-straw, however, in this 
 country operated against the manufacture until within the last 50 years, when, 
 owing to the adoption of splints or slips of straw in lieu of whole straws, and 
 the interruption of the Italian trade by war, it rose into importance in Bedford- 
 shire, Hertfordshire, and Buckinghamshire ; the principal markets being Luton, 
 Dunstable, and St Albans. Various kinds of plat are distinguished in trade, but 
 they are continually changing with the caprice of fashion. 
 
 The straw used in Tuscany, the great straw-plat district of Italy, is said to le 
 
STU 637 SUG 
 
 that of Trlticum turgidum, a variety of bearded wheat, cultivated solely for the 
 straw ; being sown close, and consequently produced thin and short : the upper 
 joint of the stalk is that chiefly used. The beauty of the Tuscan plat is also greatly 
 increased by the mode of joining it so as to form, by the combination of several 
 narrow strips, an extended sheet of platted work. British plat, again, is common- 
 ly joined by making the several rows of plat overwrap each other a little, and then 
 joining the two overwrapping pieces with a needle and thread ; and the articles 
 made of split-straw are besides inferior to those of whole-straw of equal fineness, 
 in pliability and durability. The Tuscan manufacture is chiefly followed in the 
 neighbourhood of Florence, Pisa, Sienna, and the Val d'Arno. S 
 
 STUCCO, a compound of Paris Plaster and Lime-, used in forming cornices. 
 
 STURGEON, a large cartilaginous fish (Sturio), of which there are several varie- 
 ties. It is caught occasionally on various parts of our coast, most frequently in 
 the estuaries, or but a short distance up rivers ; and is frequently brought to the 
 London market from various localities. In the N. of Europe, the Caspian, and 
 other places, the sturgeon fisheries are of great importance. Caviar is made of 
 the roe of the female ; isinglass is obtained from the dense membrane forming the 
 air-bladder ; and the flesh, besides being preserved by salting and pickling, is in 
 request for the table while fresh. 
 
 SUCCADES, sweetmeats or preserves in sugar. 
 
 SUCCESSION DUTIES. The vicesima hereditatum, the twentieth penny of 
 inheritances, imposed by Augustus on the Romans, is the earliest example we have 
 of a tax upon the transference of property from the dead to the living. Many of 
 the casualties of the feudal law were of the same nature ; but the Dutch appear 
 to have been the first to adopt succession taxes in their modern form. In this 
 country, up to the session of 1853, real property was exempt, and they were levied 
 solely upon personal property, which is effected partly by a stamp-duty propor- 
 tioned to the amount of the deceased's effects, but graduated differently for testate 
 and intestate successions,— and partly by per centage duties on legacies or residues. 
 Succession duties are objectionable in principle [Tax], being in the general case a 
 tax on capital ; but, on the other hand, they possess the advantage of being easily 
 collected. 
 
 SUGAR (Du. Suiker. Fr. Sucre. Ger. Zucker. It. Zucchero. Por. Acucar. 
 Rus. Sachar. Sp. Azucar. Arab. Sukkur. Malay, Soola) exists in all vegetables 
 having a sweet taste, but is obtained chiefly from the sugar-cane (Saccharum offi- 
 cinarum), which contains it in greater quantity than any other plant. The sugar- 
 cane thrives from the equator to the 32d degree of latitude. It is one of the largest 
 of the grasses, growing from 8 to 12 feet in height, and acquiring a diameter of one 
 or two inches ; the sugar being contained in the loose, cellular, juicy pith with 
 which the stalk is filled. In the British West Indies, from August to November 
 is generally considered the best time for planting the cane. When ripe, commonly 
 about March or April, it is cut off at the root, stripped of leaves and ends, and then 
 passed twice through a mill so as to express all the juice. To prevent fermentation, 
 a portion of lime (about 1 to 1600) is mixed with the juice, which is then evaporated 
 by a moderate and cautious ebullition. When the syrup is sufficiently concentrated, 
 it is drawn off into shallow wooden coolers, where it becomes a soft solid, composed 
 of loose crystalline grains. It is then put into barrels with holes in the bottom, 
 through which a black ropy juice, called molasses, gradually drops, leaving the 
 crystallized sugar comparatively white and dry. In this state it constitutes raw 
 or muscovado sugar. This generally concludes the process with the planters in the 
 British colonies ; but in many foreign settlements it is usual to purify the raw sugar 
 partially, by covering its surface, in conical shaped vessels, with a layer of moist clay, 
 — the water from which gradually filters through it, carrying off some molasses. 
 Sugar thus treated is called clayed sugar, and has lost its crystalline appearance. 
 In this country the raw sugar is purified by boiling a solution of it with white of 
 eggs, or the serum of bullocks' blood, lime-water being commonly used at the same 
 time. When properly concentrated, the clarified juice is received in conical earthen 
 vessels, the apex of which is undermost, in order that the fluid parts may be col- 
 lected, and afterwards drawn off by the removal of a plug. In this state it is called 
 looj, lump, or refined sugar ; and the name double refined is given when the opera- 
 tions are repeated. Sugar, however, is now mostly refined by what is called the 
 patent process ; the chief improvement of which consists in conducting the evapo- 
 ration in vacuo, by which means the syrup is concentrated at a low temperature. 
 By this plan there is much less empyreumatic syrup formed ; and even a consider- 
 able quantity of sugar can be obtained from molasses. 
 
SUG 638 SUG 
 
 A more regular form of crystallization is given to sugar by carrying the evaporation 
 only a certain length, and then permitting the syrup to cool slowly ; but the addi- 
 tion of spirit of wine is necessary in order to make it crystallize, otherwise it forms 
 barley sugar. In crystals it is called brown or white sugar candy, according to its 
 purity ; the latter being the purest form in which sugar exists. Sugar candy is the 
 only kind of refined sugar made in China and India : the Chinese sugar-candy, 
 whieh is of the finest quality, is consumed in the European settlements in the East 
 to the almost total exclusion of other sugar. Bastards is a coarse kind of crusted 
 loaf sugar, made from the syrups and otner refuse of the best sugar. 
 
 Raw sugar should be dry, in large sparkling hard grains, of a clear yellow 
 colour, without smell, and of a strong sweet taste, without any peculiar flavour. 
 It varies very much in quality. It is chosen, for the purpose of refining, by the 
 sharpness and brightness of the grain ; and those kinds are preferred which have 
 a peculiar gray hue. Soft-grained yellow sugars, although whiter, are not so fit 
 for refining ; for which reason sugars from particular countries are seldom used. 
 The best are those of Jamaica and other parts of the West Indies ; while the East 
 India, Java, Manilla, and Siam varieties are generally of low quality. 
 
 Refined sugar should be very hard and brittle, of a close compact texture, and 
 break with sharp, semi-transparent, splintery fragments. It should have a brilliant 
 white colour, a pure sweet taste, and should dissolve entirely in spirits. 
 
 The use of cane-sugar is said to have originated in China, from whence the plant 
 was conveyed to India, Arabia, and Egypt ; through which channels it became 
 early known in Europe, where, however, its culture made little progress until the 
 period of the Crusades (1099-1244), when the increased communication with the 
 East tended to spread a taste for sugar throughout the Western world. In the 
 12th century, sugar-planting was extensively followed in Sicily ; thence, or through 
 the Moors, it passed to Spain, Madeira, and the Canaries ; and shortly after the 
 discovery of America the cane was carried to Hayti and Brazil, from whence it 
 gradually spread through the West Indies. Aided by slave labour, sugar soon 
 became the most important staple of those countries ; and the supplies required by 
 the European states were long almost exclusively derived from their American 
 settlements, — each generally granting, by means of fiscal regulations, a monopoly 
 of its home market to its own colonies. The subsequent progress of the trade it is 
 unnecessary to detail in this place. Suffice it to say, that, notwithstanding the 
 shock given to industry in the British possessions by the measure of slave emanci- 
 pation (1838), the exportation of sugar from the different countries from which the 
 European market is chiefly supplied, was estimated in 1839 as follows :— British 
 West Indies and Mauritius, 3,571,378 cwts. ; British India, 519,125 ; Danish West 
 Indies, 450,000 ; Dutch do., 260,060 ; French Sugar Colonies, 2,160,000 ; United 
 States, 900,000 ; Brazil, 2,400,000 ; Spanish West Indies, 4,481,342 ; and Java, 
 892,475 : total, 15,634,380 cwts. Of this fully one-fourth was sent to the United 
 Kingdom, where sugar is more generally used* than in any other part of Europe. 
 
 The produce of the British sugar colonies formerly exceeded the wants or the 
 home market, and the surplus was generally shipped to Hamburg and other con- 
 tinental ports ; but of late years the ratio of the supply to the demand has been 
 entirely changed, partly through the increased wants of our augmented population, 
 and partly owing to the falling off in the sugar crop of our West India colonies, 
 in consequence of the disinclination of the emancipated negroes to the hard labour 
 requisite for the cultivation of the cane. Through the latter cause mainly, the 
 imports from these colonies gradually declined from 4,103,800 cwts. in 1831, to only 
 2,214,764 cwts. in 1840, and 2,151,217 cwts. in 1841 ; and as foreign produce was at 
 the same time shut out by a prohibitory duty, the consequence was a rise of price, 
 until, in November 1840, British plantation sugar in bond averaged 57s. lO^d. per 
 cwt. ; Brazilian, of nearly equal quality, being at same time only 22s. This difference 
 led, in 1840, to 2'MQ cwts. of foreign sugar being entered for consumption, notwith- 
 standing the high duty of 63s. the cwt. with which it was burdened. Afterwards 
 our supply was augmented, chiefly by an increased importation of East India 
 sugar, the duty on which had been lowered to the same rate as West India in 1836. 
 Still, down to 1843, the price of raw sugar in Britain averaged from 10s. to 20s. 
 per cwt. higher than on the Continent. 
 
 The annexed table shows the total imports into the United Kingdom since 
 1824, the quantity of different kinds retained for home consumption, the produce 
 of the duty thereon, and the average price of British plantation muscovado sugar, 
 in bond, as taken from the London Gazette :— 
 
SUG 
 
 639 
 
 SUG 
 
 Year* 
 
 Total Imports. 
 
 Ketaiaed for Cunsumptiou 
 
 in the United Kingdom. 
 
 Produce of Duty. 
 
 Price of Bri- 
 tish Plant. 
 p«Cwt. 
 
 British Plantation 
 and Mauritius. 
 
 BritishE. India. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwta. 
 
 Cwt*. 
 
 Cwta. 
 
 L. 
 
 a d. 
 
 1825 
 
 3,908,135 
 
 2,972,623 
 
 107,200 
 
 25 
 
 3,079,848 
 
 4,176,655 
 
 38 6 
 
 1826 
 
 4,419,095 
 
 3,430,652 
 
 143,312 
 
 26 
 
 3,573,990 
 
 4,950,991 
 
 30 7 
 
 1827 
 
 4,110,018 
 
 3,270,885 
 
 69,856 
 
 186 
 
 3,340,927 
 
 4,650,192 
 
 35 9 
 
 1828 
 
 4,968,020 
 
 3,504,164 
 
 97,244 
 
 11 
 
 3,601,419 
 
 5,002,297 
 
 31 8 
 
 1829 
 
 4,856,393 
 
 3,421 ,409 
 
 118,400 
 
 12 
 
 3,539,821 
 
 4,896,242 
 
 28 7 
 
 1830 
 
 4,916,004 
 
 3,590,041 
 
 131,979 
 
 24 
 
 3,722,044 
 
 4,767,342 
 
 24 11 
 
 1831 
 
 5,366,262 
 
 3,667,396 
 
 113,536 
 
 79 
 
 3,781,011 
 
 4,650,590 
 
 23 8 
 
 1832 
 
 4,867,749 
 
 3,575,329 
 
 79,600 
 
 605 
 
 3,655,534 
 
 4,394,338 
 
 27 8 
 
 1833 
 
 4,739,292 
 
 3,553,450 
 
 98,283 
 
 71 
 
 3,651,804 
 
 4,414,302 
 
 29 8 
 
 1834 
 
 4,743,414 
 
 3,620,522 
 
 121,007 
 
 60 
 
 3,741,579 
 
 4,559,392 
 
 29 5 
 
 1835 
 
 4,448,267 
 
 3,757,851 
 
 98,680 
 
 31 
 
 3,856,562 
 
 4,667,900 
 
 33 5 
 
 1836 
 
 4,649,161 
 
 3,378,144 
 
 110,522 
 
 33 
 
 3,488,399 
 
 4,184,165 
 
 40 10 
 
 1837 
 
 4,482,578 
 
 3,684,712 
 
 270,055 
 
 43 
 
 3,954,810 
 
 4,760,565 
 
 34 7 
 
 1838 
 
 5,<'30,374 
 
 3,491,225 
 
 418,375 
 
 65 
 
 3,909,665 
 
 4,656,892 
 
 33 8 
 
 1839 
 
 4,678,219 
 
 3,348,298 
 
 477,252 
 
 49 
 
 3,825,599 
 
 4,586,936 
 
 39 2 
 
 1840 
 
 4,035,845 
 
 3,074,198 
 
 518,320 
 
 2,316 
 
 3,594,834 
 
 4,449,070 
 
 49 1 
 
 1841 
 
 4,905,018 
 
 2,992,142 
 
 1,066,032 
 
 257 
 
 4,058,431 
 
 5,123,986 
 
 38 11 
 
 1842 
 
 4,699,261 
 
 2,940,365 
 
 935,997 
 
 103 
 
 3,87fi,465 
 
 4,884,415 
 
 
 The 4,035,845 cwts. imported in 1840 (the latest year of which the details are furnished in the 
 official tables) were composed of 2,214,764 cwts. from British W. Indies, 545,007 from Mauritius, 
 498,730 from E. Indies, 395,215 from foreign West Indies, chiefly Cuba, 215,962 from Brazil. 69,981 
 from the Philippines, 31,918 from Java, &c, 9250 from Siam, 1625 from Colombia, and 53,393 
 cwts. from other places. In the same year, 230,000 cwts. were re-exported, chiefly to Germany, 
 Russia, the Netherlands, and Italy. 
 
 A considerable quantity of the imports is converted into refined sugar, a manufacture which 
 forms an important branch of industry in Britain ; besides which, from 400,000 to 600,000 cwts. of 
 sugar syrup or molasses are likewise imported annually from our West India colonies, mainly for 
 refining. Of the raw sugar thus employed, about 200,000 cwts. yearly (mostly foreign produce) 
 are refined in bond for exportation, under the act 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 61 . Where a duty has been paid 
 on colonial sugar refined, it is drawn back on exportation, at the rate shown in the tariff, which, 
 up to 1843, was 30s. 8d. per cwt. on single, and 35s. 8d. on double refined. The exports of refined 
 sugar, in 1840, amounted to 235,179 cwts. ; of which Italy took 70,066 cwts. ; Turkey, 33,376 
 cwts. ; British America, 3<>,127 cwts. ; British W. Indies, 20,038 cwts. ; Russia, 15,165 cwts. ; Aus- 
 tralia, 12,267 cwts. ; and Spain, 11, 910 cwts. Formerly the exports weremuch more considerable, 
 owing to the demands of Germany and Prussia, shipments to which have almost entirely ceased, 
 these countries now refining for themselves. 
 
 A duty on British plantation sugar imported into England of Is. 6d. per cwt. was imposed in 
 1661 ; which rate was doubled in 1669. The dutv was 3s. 4d. the cwt. from 1703 to 1747 ; 4s. lOd. 
 from 1747 to 1759; 6s. 4d. from 1759 to 1779 ; 6s.8d\ from 1779to 1781. It was raised in 1782 to 12s. 3d. 
 per cwt. ; in 1791, to 15s. ; 1797, to 17s. 6d. ; 1803, to 24s. It was afterwards gradually increased 
 to 30s. ; which rate, with the exception of a short period at the conclusion of the war, when it stood 
 at 27s., continued till 1819. It was then reduced to 27s., at which it remained until 1833, when it 
 was lowered to 24s., the rate still maintained (1843). On East India sugar, the duty from 1793 to 
 1803 was 37 and 38 per cent, ad valorem: afterwards, it was lis. and 8s. the cwt. higher than the 
 duty on British plantation ; but, in 1836, the duties were assimilated, by the reduction of that on 
 East India from 32s. to 24s. per cwt. ; leaving, however, the former rate exigible on British sugar 
 imported from any British possession within the limits of the East India Co.'s territory, in which 
 the importation of foreign sugar is not prohibited. Mauritius produce was charged the same as 
 East India prior to 1825, when it was made the same as British plantation. On foreign sugar, 
 the duty was fixed, in 1825, at 63s., which rate still continues (1843). To all the preceding rates 
 5 per cent, was added from May 15, 1840, by the act 3 & 4 Vict. c. 1. See Tariff at the end. 
 
 The tare allowed in London on British plantation sugar is as follows : — Casks under 8 cwts., 
 14 lbs. ; under 9 cwts., 1 cwt. 7 lbs. ; under 10 cwts., 1 cwt. 14 lbs. ; under 11 cwts., 1 cwt. 1 qr. ; 
 increasing 7 lbs. for every additional hundredweight. The draff, 2 lbs. per hhd. and tierce, and 
 1 lb. per barrel. The terms are two months prompt, or 5 per cent, per annum allowed for cash. 
 East India sugar, 3 months. No discount. 
 
 West India sugar is imported in hogsheads, varying in weight from 13 to 16 cwts. ; or in tierces 
 of from 7 to 9 cwts. Mauritius is commonly in mats or bags, each weighing from 1 to 1£ cwt. ; 
 and East India in bags of from 1 to li cwt. The box of sugar-candy usually contains about 70 lbs. 
 
 Beet-Root Sugar is derived from the juice of the Beta vulgaris, chiefly the white variety, by 
 operations nearly the same as those by which cane-sugar is made ; though greater nicety is re- 
 quired in rendering the beet-juice crystallizable, on account of its greater rawness, and the smaller 
 quantity of saccharine matter it contains. When this sugar is refined, it isundistinguishable from 
 the other. Five tons of clean roots yield about 4J cwts. of coarse sugar, which give about 160 lbs. 
 of double-refined, and 60 lbs. of inferior lump-sugar; the remainder is molasses. The beet-root 
 sugar manufacture sprung up in France under the spurious encouragement afforded by the con- 
 tinental system of Napoleon ; and in 1841, 142,518 acres were cultivated for this purpose, yielding 
 employment to no fewer than 389 manufactories. It is also pursued, though to a minor extent, in 
 Prussia and Russia. As the expense of the manufacture, however, greatly exceeds the value of 
 the produce, according to the price of colonial sugar, it is only by heavy imposts on the latter, or 
 a system of bounties, that it can be carried on to advantage. The reduction of the duty on colo- 
 nial sugar was attempted by th« French government in 1842, but without success. 
 
 In the United Kingdom, the manufacture of beet-root sugar is regulated by the act 1 Vict. c. 57 ; 
 it is subjected to the same duty as colonial sugar, but none is made. 
 
SUG 640 SUR 
 
 Maple Sugar is composed of the evaporated sap of the maple-tree (Acer saccharinum) , cast 
 into moulds about the size of a brick. It is made chiefly in N. America. The quantity produced 
 in Canada has been reckoned at 32,500 cwts., equal to more than 2000 hhds. of West India sugar. 
 
 Further information on the subject of this article will be found in Moseley's Treatise on Sugar, 
 Edwards' History of the West Indies, Porter on the Nature and Properties of the Sugar-Cane, 
 Vre's Dictionary of Arts, and under the heads India (British) and West Indies. S 
 
 SUGAR OF LEAD, more properly acetate of lead, is prepared by digesting 
 litharge or other oxides of the metal in pyroligneous acid. It has a singularly 
 sweet and somewhat astringent taste. Sp. gr. 2'57. It crystallizes in white acicular 
 masses, the state in which it generally occurs in commerce. It is used in medicine, 
 dyeing, and calico-printing. 
 
 SULPHUR, or BRIMSTONE (Fr. Souffre. Ger. Schwefel. It. Zolfo), an 
 elementary, combustible, solid, non -metallic substance, of a peculiar yellow colour, 
 and very brittle. It has neither taste nor smell, though when rubbed it has a faint 
 peculiar odour. Sp. gr. after being fused, 1'990. When pure it is bright yellow, 
 and very inflammable ; burning with a clear blue flame, and leaving no resi- 
 duum. It is an abundant product of nature, especially in volcanic districts ; 
 and in other places exists in combination with oxygen and sundry metals. It 
 occurs in various forms. Native sulphur, largely imported from Sicily, is in square 
 or oblong masses or blocks, called rough brimstone. Stick or roll sulphur is chiefly 
 obtained from sulphuret of copper in this country. Sublimed sulphur, or flowers of 
 sulphur, is a fine crystalline bright yellow powder, obtained by condensing the 
 vapour of sulphur rapidly in capacious receivers. Refined sulphur is that purified 
 by distillation in an iron still, and condensed in an iron receiver kept cool by water. 
 Sulphur is employed for making gunpowder, sulphuric acid, and for a variety of 
 other purposes in the arts ; it is also employed in medicine. 
 
 The chief supply of this mineral is obtained in Sicily, our imports from which 
 have greatly increased since 1825, when, owing to a reduction of the import-duty 
 from £15 to 10s. a-ton, and the increased demands of our manufactures, the an- 
 nual consumption of Sicilian sulphur increased in 12 years from 7000 tons to be- 
 tween 30,000 and 40,000 tons. A great increase likewise took place in the imports 
 into France. In July 1838, the Sicilian government, in consideration of a bonus 
 of 400,000 Neapolitan ducats a-year, granted to a French company a monopoly of 
 the sulphur-mines, the produce of which was to be limited to 600,000 quintals, to 
 be supplied to them at fixed prices ; but this monopoly, after an armed remonstrance 
 from Britain, in consequence of its being at variance with commercial treaties, 
 was abolished in July 1840 ; and the trade is now on its former footing. S 
 
 Sulphuric Acid (Fr. Acide Sulfurique. Ger. Schwefelsaiire) , when pure, is a colourless oily 
 fluid, acrid, corrosive, and intensely sour ; and consists of three equivalents of oxygen, one of 
 sulphur, and one of water. When as pure as usually prepared, it is of the specific gravity 1*847. 
 This acid was formerly obtained by the decomposition of green vitriol, whence its old name of oil 
 of vitriol ; but it is now procured by burning a mixture of about 8 parts sulphur and 1 of nitre, 
 in a furnace so placed that the resulting fumes may pass into close leaden chambers containing 
 water. The fumes as they arise are absorbed by the water, which gradually becomes a dilute 
 sulphuric acid ; and the acid is procured in a concentrated state by evaporation of this solution. 
 The annual amount of this manufacture in Britain is calculated by Mr Brande at 50,000 tons ; 
 which, estimated at 10s. per cwt., makes its value £500,000. 
 
 There is perhaps no substance more abundantly employed in the arts and manufactures. It is 
 used in medicine. It is employed by bleachers for souring the cloth ; by dyers for dissolving their 
 indigo; by calico-printers; by brassfounders, button-makers, gilders, and japanners, for cleaning 
 the surface of the metals with which they work ; and by hatters, tanners, paper-makers, and many 
 others. It is also used extensively in many chemical manufactures. 
 
 SUMACH (Fr. Sumac. Ger. Schmack. It. Sommaco), a shrub (Rhus coriaria) 
 which is a native of Persia and Syria, as well as the S. of Europe. Its shoots, 
 after being cut, dried, and reduced to powder, are used for the purposes of dyeing 
 and tanning. An ounce contains 78 or 79 grains of tannin. Of all astringents it 
 bears the greatest resemblance to galls. It is considered of good quality when its 
 odour is strong, colour of a lively green, well ground, and free from stalks. The 
 best is the Sicilian. Nearly 500 tons are annually consumed in this country. 8 
 
 SUMATRA. [Eastern Islands.] 
 
 SUNN, a material similar to hemp, the produce of the Cortalaria juncea, in 
 general use in the hotter parts of Asia for cordage. In India, two kinds are dis- 
 tinguished, ,phool and boggy. The first of these is the most esteemed. 
 
 SUPERCARGO, a person employed in a ship to oversee the cargo or trade. 
 
 SUPPLIES, the sums annually granted to the sovereign by parliament. 
 
 SURVIVORSHIP, in life assurance, is a reversionary benefit contingent upon 
 the circumstance of some life or lives surviving some other life or lives, or of the 
 lives falling according to some assigned order. [Interest, Compound.] 
 
SUW C41 SWE 
 
 S D W ARROW or S AOUARI NUTS, are a species of Butter Nuts or berries, 
 the produce of a large tree (Caryoear tomeJttosum), which grows in Guiana. 
 
 KDEN, a country of the N. of Europe, forming the eastern and more import- 
 ant section of the Scandinavian peninsula, lies between latitude 55° 20' and 69° 
 N., and longitude 11° 10' and 24° 12' E. ; having N.E. Russian Finland ; E. and 
 S. Gulf of Bothnia and Baltic ; S.W. Sound, Cattegat, and Skager Rack ; W. and 
 X. Norway. Area, 170,000 sq. miles. Population in 1839, 3,109,772. Govern- 
 ment, a hereditary monarchy, with a state-council and a representative diet. S 
 
 Sweden may be generally described as rather a flat country ; except the frontier towards Nor- 
 way, and the N. part, which is diversified with mountains, deep valleys alternating with sandy 
 wastes, and in some parts forests. The central region contains extensive plateaux of table-land , co- 
 vered with trees. And the S. provinces consist chiefly of sandy plains, interspersed with lakes 
 and hills, which are sometimes bleak and barren, but elsewhere clothed with woods. The country 
 is watered by numerous lakes and rivers ; and the use of both for internal navigation is facilitated 
 and extended in some places by canals ; the chief work of this kind being the celebrated Gotha Na- 
 vigation from Gottenburg to Soderkceping, connecting the Cattegat and the Baltic. The climate 
 in the S. and W. parts is similar to that of the N. of Germany ; but towards the N. it is severe, 
 though much milder than might be expected from its high latitude. 
 
 The soil, though mostly thin and poor, has been greatly improved by culture, especially around 
 Carlstad and Lake Wetter. The chief agricultural products are — rye in the S. and barley in the 
 N.; potatoes, oats, and mas!in, with small quantities of wheat and' pease ; and the supply is now 
 more than equal to the consumption. Flax is also grown, and in some places madder, buckwheat, 
 woad, and tobacco. Domestic animals are numerous, but inferior. The chief articles for export 
 are derived from the mines and the forests, particularly the former, which are mostly situated in 
 the central provinces; their chief product is iron [Iron] ; copper and lead, however, being also 
 worked to some extent ; but there is no coal. The forests, though covering nearly one-half of the 
 surface, contain a comparatively small number of timber trees ; and the export of wood is, from 
 this cause, not so considerable as might at first be supposed. 
 
 The manufactures are chiefly domestic, the peasantry supplying themselves, as whiter employ- 
 ment, with nearly all the coarse woollens, linens, and cottons required by them. There are, be- 
 sides, a good many cloth factories, with sugar refineries, distilleries, leather, paper, soap, tobacco, 
 and glass works : the other manufactures are trifling. 
 
 The trade of Sweden has been reduced below its natural limits by the restrictive duties imposed 
 by the government, with the view of protecting home manufactures ; but latterly this system has 
 been relaxed ; and, at the same time, exportation encouraged by the reduction, in 1840, of one- 
 half the customs on bar-iron, and the cessation, in 1842, of those on wood. Exports, principally 
 iron (about 70,000 tons annually) ; with timber, linseed, copper, alum, corn, tar, cobalt, and other 
 articles. Imports, chiefly sugar, coffee, and other tropical products; salt, wines, silk, wool, cot- 
 ton, cotton twist, cotton manufactures, hemp, hides, skins, and oil. In 1840, the exports were 
 officially valued at 20,434,000 rixdollars banco (£1,700,000) ; and the imports at nearly the same. 
 The chief commercial relations are with Britain, the United States, Holland, the Hanse Towns, 
 and Denmark. The trade with Britain consists in exchanging iron (16,000 tons), linseed, bat- 
 tens, and deals, and occasionally a little oats and barley, for manufactures (mostly cotton twists 
 and woollens), wine, coffee, indigo, and spices. 
 
 Ports. — Stockholm, the capital, chief manufacturing seat, and principal commercial emporium, 
 lies on the E. coast, partlv on a number of small islands, at the junction of Lake Malar with the 
 Baltic, in lat. 59= 2o' N.,'long. 18° 4' E. Pop. 85,000. The entrance to the port is difficult, but 
 the harbour is deep and capacious, the largest vessels lying close to the quays. 
 
 Gottenburg is advantageously situated at the W. entrance of the Gotha navigation, at the head 
 of a fiord near the Cattegat, in lat. 57° 42' N., long. 11° 56" E. Pop. 28,700. The harbour is 
 formed by two long chains of rocks, protected at its mouth by Fort Nya-Elfsborg. 
 Measures, Money, &c. 
 
 = 5801 troy grains. The mark, land-staten-urigt, 
 or country and city weight, = 5526 troy grains. 
 The mark, jern-wigt, or stapelstad.-<wigt, for 
 weighing iron and commodities in entrepot, = 
 5250 troy grains : the jern-wigt is f ths of the 
 victualie-wigt. 
 
 The apothecaries* pound of 12 ounces, each of 
 8 drams or 24 scruples, = 5501 troy grains. 
 
 The gold and silver mint mark of 16 lods, or 
 64 quentins, = 3252 troy grains. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are stated in riksdalers of 
 48 skillings, each of 12 rundstycken or ore. 
 
 The principal coins are the gold ducat, worth 
 9s. 2d. nearly ; the silver species-riksdaler 4s. 4Jd. , 
 and daler of 8 skillings, 8Jd. ; also, in copper, 
 the daler of 2f skillings, 3d. ; pieces for 1, 2, and 
 3 skillings ; rundstycken, and half rundstycken. 
 Gold and silver coins, however, are now rarely 
 used, the circulating medium being composed 
 almost entirely of copper, and a depreciated 
 paper money. The paper is of two kinds : Banco, 
 consisting of the notes of the National Bank, is 
 that in which merchants' accounts are generally 
 reckoned : Riksgaid, or government paper, is 
 that commonly employed by shopkeepers, and 
 in small payments. Since 1835, rixdollars banco 
 2S 
 
 Measures and Weights.— The aln or ell of 2 
 feet = 23.38 Imp. inches ; and 100 ells = 64-94 
 Imp. vards ; the fathom is 3, and the ruthe 8 
 ells. The Swedish mile = 2250 ruthes = 11689 
 Imp. yards, or about 6 Imp. miles, 5 furlongs. 
 
 The tunnaland = 1-220 Imp. acre. 
 
 The kann, liquid measure, contains 2 stoops, 
 or 8 quarters ; and 100 kanns = 57'56 Imp. gal- 
 lons ; the anker is 15, the eiiner 30, the tunna 
 48, the ahm fio, the oxhufvud 90, the pipe 180, 
 and the fader 360 kanns. 
 
 The tunna, corn measure, of 2 spann, 8 fjer- 
 dinear, 32 kappar, or 56 kanns, = 4-029 Imp. 
 bushels ; but as 4 kappar are allowed to every 
 tunna of wheat, oats, rye, or barley, for good 
 measure, the tunna of corn may be estimated at 
 4£ Imp. bushels. 
 
 The commercial weight is termed victitalie- 
 Wigt ; and the pound or skolpund, victualie- 
 wigt, of 2 marks. 32 lods, or 128 quentins = 8848 
 Dutch as = 6563 troy grains ; also 100 lbs. vic- 
 tualie-wigt = 93-76 lbs. avoirdupois. Thelispund 
 is 20 lbs. victualie-wigt ; the sten, 32 lbs. ; the 
 centner, 120 lbs. ; the waag, 165 lbs. ; and the 
 skeppund is 20 lispunds or 400 lbs. victualie-wigt. 
 
 The mark, berg-icerk-wigt , or miner's weight, 
 
SWE 642 TAL 
 
 are exchanged for rixdollars specie, at the rate 
 of 2| of the former for one of the latter. Riksgald 
 is of only $ds the value of banco ; 2 riksdalers 
 banco being reckoned equal 3 riksdalers in riks- 
 gald. The rixdollar is thus worth — in banco, 
 about Is. 8d. ; and in riksgald, Is. l$d. sterling. 
 
 The paper money includes notes so low as 8 
 skillii gs banco, about 3^d. sterling. 
 
 The Revenue, according to the budget of 1 842, 
 amounted only to 10,742,880 rixdollars banco, 
 or £795,240, the country being very lightly 
 taxed. 
 
 SWEETS, an English fiscal name for home-made wines and sweetened spirit- 
 uous compounds. The trade between the different portions of the United King- 
 dom is regulated, in respect to countervailing duties and drawbacks, by the act 
 6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 72. Every retailer is required to take out an annual excise- 
 lio.pimf* oostinff .£1 1^ 
 
 SWITZERLAND, a country of Central Europe, bounded N. and E. by Ger- 
 many ; S. by Italy ; and W. by France. Area, 15,257 sq. miles. In 1850, the population 
 was 2,395^)00. It is a confederation of 22 states or cantons, namely, Schaffhausen, 
 Thurgau, Zurich, Aargau, Basle, Soleure, Berne, Lucerne, Zug, Schweitz, St 
 Gall, Appenzell, Glarus, Uri, Unterwalden, Friburg, Neufchatel, Vaud, Geneva, 
 Valais, Tessin, Grisons ; all democratic republics except Neufchatel, in which the 
 King of Prussia exercises sovereignty. S 
 
 Switzerland is the most mountainous country of Europe. The ranges of the Alps, and their 
 numerous offsets, extend over the S. and S.E. districts, occupying about one-half of the surface. 
 Along the W. boundary runs the Jura ridge ; and the country between these two mountain- 
 systems has towards the S. the form of a plain, interspersed with isolated hills; and towards the 
 N. it is traversed by groups of hills of moderate elevation. The Alpine and other mountain-chains 
 are separated by deep valleys or narrow plains, which form the beds of extensive lakes, as Geneva, 
 Constance, Neufchatel, Lucerne, and others ; or the basins of large rivers, such as the Rhone, 
 Rhine, Inn, Ticino, and Doubs, which all rise in Switzerland. This difference of elevation pro- 
 duces a singular variety of aspect and climate ; for, while the valleys are scorched by heat, per- 
 petual winter reigns in the heights : but, upon the whole, the country is cold for its latitude. 
 
 Switzerland is almost wholly a pastoral country. Except in Thurgau, little corn is produced ; 
 and cattle (800,000), sheep, and goats, constitute the chief riches of the rural population. The land 
 is mostly divided among numerous small proprietors, whose diminutive patches occupying but a part 
 of their time, they are necessarily led to employ the remainder in weaving and such like employ- 
 ments, in which they engage for a mere pittance of wages. This, joined to low fiscal burdens, arid 
 the absence of all restrictions on trade or free intercourse with foreigners, has led to manufacturing 
 industry being in a considerable state of advancement in Switzerland, notwithstanding its geo- 
 graphical disadvantages. The chief sites are the German cantons of Appenzell, St Gall, Thur- 
 gau, Zurich, Aargau, and Basle, distinguished for their cotton and silk fabrics; and the French 
 cantons of Geneva and Neufchatel, for their watches and jewellery. 
 
 The principal exports are silks, cottons, lace, watches, jewellery, straw-plat, cattle, cheese, 
 wine, and liqueurs. The imports consist of wheat (mostly from S. Germany), salt, wine, oil, 
 colonial produce, woollens, leather, hemp, flax, tobacco, cotton wool, cotton twist, hardware, 
 iron and other metals, fancy wares, drugs and dyes. The chief commercial relations are with 
 the adjoining states and England. Much of the intercourse with foreign countries is conducted by 
 way of Trieste and Genoa. Switzerland, besides, possesses a considerable share of the transit 
 trade between Germany and Italy, Austria and France. The roads are almost every where good ; 
 but carriage is costly, owing to the rugged nature of the country. 
 
 Chief cities, Geneva, Basle, Zurich, Berne, St Gall, Lausanne, Schaffhausen and Appenzell. 
 
 Measures, Money, &c. 
 
 Measures and Weights. — In 1837, Berne, Zu- 1 In the other cantons, the measures and weights 
 rich, Lucerne, Friburg, Zug, Soleure, Basle, occasion great confusion. 
 
 Aargau, Thurgau, Schaffhausen, Glarus, and St j Money. — The most general mode of accounting 
 Gall, adopted the following measures and weights is in francs, of 10 batzen, or 100 rappen. The 
 founded upon the French metrical system : — Swiss franc (in silver) = 1 French franc 48 cen- 
 
 The foot = 3 decimetres ; and 16,000 feet = 1 times = Is. 1-^d. sterling ; but in exchanges its 
 stunde = 5249 Imp. yards. The ell = 6 deci- value is in general slightly enhanced, from being 
 metres ; and 100 ells = 65-62 Imp. yards. The reckoned in gold, at the rate of 16 to the French 
 mass = li French litre; and 100 mass = 3301 jlouis d'or = 18s. 9jd. 
 
 Imp. gallons. The viertel = 10 mass — 1*65 Imp. In Geneva, accounts are kept in French francs 
 peck ; and 100 viertels = 41*26 Imp. bushels, 'and centimes. Usance of bills from Biolland, 
 The pound of 32 loths = J kilogramme ; and 100 j Britain, and France, 30 days' sight ; from Ger- 
 pounds = 110*24 lbs. avoirdupois. I many and Italy, 15. Days of grace abolished. 
 
 TAEL, a Chinese weight ; also a money of account. [China.] 
 TALC, a mineral allied to mica, used in tracing lines on wood, &c. 
 TALLOW (Fr. Suif. Ger. Talq. It. Sego. Por. and Sp. Sebo. Rus. Sato, 
 toplence), animal fat separated by fusion from the membrane in which it occurs, 
 and clarified. It is procured chiefly from oxen and sheep. It is firm and brittle, 
 has a peculiar odour ; and is applied to various uses, but particularly to the ma- 
 nufacture of soap and candles, and the dressing of leather. Tallow is an important 
 article of trade in the United Kingdom, where, in addition to the native supply, 
 estimated at 120,000 tons, about 60,000 tons are annually imported : which last, 
 
TAM 643 TAX 
 
 excepting trifling quantities from the La Plata states and Sicily, is brought almost 
 exclusively from Russia. 
 
 The exports from Russia average about 65,000 tons annuallv, 9-lOths of -which are shipped from 
 St Petersburg, where five kinds are distinguished : 1. Yellow candle, in two sorts : this kind is ob- 
 tained from oxen, and about 6-7ths of the whole shipments are composed of the first sort. 2. Lo- 
 patny, in one sort, called second candle. 3. White candle, in two sorts, procured from sheep and 
 goats. 4. Siberia soap, in three sorts : this kind is a mixture of Kalmuc sheep and oxen fat. 
 5. Ordinary soap, in three sorts : it is chiefly derived from Kalmuc sheep. 
 
 Russian tallow is shipped in casks weighing from 8 to 10J cwt. gross each. The tare fluctuates 
 from 10 to 12 per cent. The braacking and taring take place on delivery for shipment. 
 
 TAMARIND, the fruit of the Tamarindus Indica, is a pod containing a viscid 
 acid pulp, connected with the seeds by tough strings or fibres. 
 
 TAPIOCA, a nutritive substance prepared from the starch of the farinaceous 
 roots of the Jatropha manihot, or cassava plant, extensively cultivated in S. Ame- 
 rica, especially Brazil. It is imported in pearl-like globules. 
 
 TAR (Fr. Goudron. Ger. Theer. Rus. Degot, Sinola shitkaja. Sw. Tj'drra), 
 a thick empyreumatic oil, of a dark -brown or black colour, obtained by burning 
 pine and fir trees in a close smothering heap, with a channel through which the 
 tar exudes. It is chiefly used for resisting moisture in ships and outhouses. It is 
 largely made in Russia, from whence about 12,000 lasts are annually imported 
 into Britain, besides nearly 2000 lasts from Sweden and the United States. The 
 last contains 12 barrels, each of 26£ Imp. gallons. S 
 
 TARE (from the Italian tarare, to abate), is a deduction from the gross weight 
 of goods on account of the package in which they are contained : the remainder is 
 called net weight. It is often fixed as to particular commodities by a conven- 
 tional rule among merchants, in which case it is called customary tare, in contra- 
 distinction from the real tare ascertained by measurement. Trett, Draft, and 
 Cloff, are old allowances of the same kind, now nearly obsolete. 
 
 TARES or FITCH, a species of pulse ( Vicia sativd) cultivated as herbage. 
 
 TARIFF, a table of duties payable on goods imported or exported. The Bri- 
 tish tariff has undergone great alterations since the commencement of the present 
 century, especially in 1809, 1819, 1825, 1833, 1842, 1853, 1860, and 1861. The 
 last, which contains numerous important reductions, will be found at the end of 
 the present volume. See Supplement. 
 
 TARTAR (Fr. Tartre cru, blanc et rouge. Ger. Roher Weinstein. It. Tartaro 
 volgare), an acidulous salt which exists in the juice of the grape, and is deposited 
 in wine-casks in the form of a crystallized incrustation, more or less thick, which 
 is scraped off. This is crude tartar, or argol. It is either white or red according 
 to the colour of the wine : the former is preferred, as it contains fewer impurities 
 than the red ; but the properties of both are essentially the same. When good, it 
 is thick, hard, brittle, and brilliant, with but little earthy matter. The German 
 or Rhenish argol is reckoned the best ; after which that from Bologna. It is also 
 brought from Florence, Naples, Sicily, and the Cape of Good Hope. It is used in 
 hat-making, gilding, dyeing, and in the preparation of tartaric acid. 
 
 TARTAR [Cream of], (Fr. Cremede tartre. Ger. Weinstein rahm. It. Tartaro purgato), 
 the bitartrate of potassa of chemists, is argol or crude tartar purified by solution and crystalliza- 
 tion. It occurs in small, irregular, gritty crystals, or in the form of a fine white powder. It ha3 
 an acid harsh taste. Cream of tartir is used in medicine and the arts. 
 
 Tartaric Acid is procured chiefly from white argol by the action of prepared chalk and sulphuric 
 acid. The crystals formed are of considerable size, permanent, without smell or colour, and very 
 acid to the taste. It is used in many of the arts, particularly dyeing and calico-printing ; and is 
 much employed as a cheap substitute for citric acid in lemonade and effervescing solutions. 
 
 TAX, a portion of the produce of the capital and labour of a country, placed at 
 the disposal of the government. Security, protection, and good order being pro- 
 ductive of universal advantage, it is obvious no individual can complain that he is 
 made to contribute in the same proportion to his means as others for their attain- 
 ment. Still, like all other values, trie smaller the sacrifice for which they can be 
 obtained so much the better. Every mode by which the expenses of government 
 can be diminished and taxation reduced is an advantage to the public, precisely of 
 the same kind that a diminution in the cost of procuring any commodity is to 
 an individual. Hence, the best plan of finance, says M. Say, is to spend little ; and 
 the best of all taxes the least. 
 
 The general principles which, according to Adam Smith, should regulate all 
 taxes are the following :— 1st, The subjects of every state ought to contribute to- 
 wards the support of the government as nearly as possible in proportion to their 
 respective abilities, — that is, in proportion to the revenue which they respectively 
 enjoy under the protection of the state. 2d, The tax which each individual is 
 
TAX 644 TAX 
 
 bound to pay ought to be certain and not arbitrary. The time of payment, the 
 manner ot payment, the quantity to be paid, ought all to be clear and plain to the 
 contributor, and to every other person. 3d, Every tax ought to be levied at the 
 time and in the manner in whicn it is most likely to be convenient for the contri- 
 butor to pay it. ith, Every tax ought to be so contrived as both to take out and 
 to keep out of the pockets of the people as little as possible over and above what 
 it brings into the public treasury. Perhaps these principles are as just and com- 
 prehensive as they can be made ; and that system of taxation is best which con- 
 forms most nearly to them. 
 
 Taxes must ultimately fall either on revenue or capital. There is perhaps no 
 single tax which is not partly derived from each of those sources. But, assuredly, 
 the largest proportion of all taxes, judiciously imposed, is paid out of revenue ; the 
 desire to preserve their place in society, to preserve their capitals unimpaired, and 
 to improve their condition, stimulating most men to endeavour to discharge the 
 burden of a moderate tax by an increase of labour or of saving. A tax, however, 
 is not necessarily a tax on capital, because it is laid on capital, or a tax on income 
 because it is laid on income. A moderate tax laid on capital may be, and gene- 
 rally is, defrayed from a saving of income ; while an oppressive tax laid on income 
 has in most cases to be paid out of capital. But of all taxes those are the most 
 injurious which necessarily fall on capital ; for every such tax, by diminishing 
 the funds destined to support productive industry, lessens the revenue of the people, 
 — the only source from which taxes can be permanently paid ; and thus lays the 
 sure foundation of national poverty and distress. 
 
 A tax is said to be direct when it is immediately taken from income or property; 
 and indirect, when it is imposed on the articles on which the income or property is 
 expended. All taxes are disliked, and the more directly they are imposed, the 
 more hateful they become. Hence, in most countries, the number and amount of 
 direct taxes are small comparedwith those which are levied indirectly. The latter 
 always meet with a more cheerful acquiescence on the part of the people, being 
 felt the least, because no formal demand is made upon them ; while they can often 
 be so wisely contrived, that the consumer shall scarcely know that he pays them. 
 Besides, when placed upon the proper description of articles, — as luxuries, — the 
 payment of them becomes optional. The facility, however, with which indirect 
 taxes may be levied, renders it necessary to consider the incidence and effects of 
 them with peculiar caution. 
 
 If a duty be levied on a particular commodity, its price will sustain an equal rise; 
 for if it did not, the profits of the producers would be sunk below the common level, 
 and their business would be abandoned. But it depends on the circumstance of 
 the commodity being a luxury, whether a tax on it will fall wholly on the con- 
 sumer. In so far as necessaries are used by persons of property, taxes on them 
 are also defrayed by the consumers ; but, in so far as they are required by labour- 
 ers, the effect of taxes on them differs in no respect from the effect of equal imposts 
 laid directly on wages, — at least in those cases where the wages are as low as is 
 consistent with the preservation of the number of labourers. 
 
 Taxes should be allowed to interfere as little as possible with the progress of 
 national wealth ; and it should always be an object to derive them from the results 
 of the successful employment of capital and industry, and not to press them upon any 
 intermediate stage of production. Hence taxes upon raw materials are objection- 
 able. They increase the price of such materials, and thus limit the power of the 
 manufacturer to purchase them, and to employ labour in augmenting their value ; 
 while, by increasing the price of the exported manufactures, they limit the demand 
 for them abroad. Taxes upon home manufactures are liable to similar objections, 
 since, by increasing the price they diminish the consumption, and consequently dis- 
 courage the manufactures, and the employment of labour and capital. On the other 
 hand, luxuries are a fair subject of taxation. Taxes upon such articles do not 
 interfere with industry or production ; but care must be taken to proportion the 
 charge in each case to the value of the commodity. Excessive duties are less 
 productive than moderate duties ; while the causes of their failure are injurious 
 to public wealth by discouraging consumption, and to its morals, by offering an 
 inducement to smuggling. Experience alone can show the precise rate at which 
 the revenue is most productive, consistently with an unchecked consumption and 
 an absence of contraband dealing ; but it may be assumed, that whenever a tax 
 adds very greatly to the price of an article of general consumption, it puts it out 
 of the reach of many who are desirous to purchase it, and creates, by the chance 
 of a large profit, a temptation to evade the payment of the duty. When a country 
 
TEA 645 TEA 
 
 possesses any exclusive, natural, or acquired advantage, in the production of com- 
 modities, as Great Britain in coal, China in tea, and Russia in tallow, an export 
 duty is perhaps the most unexceptionable of all taxes, from its falling wholly on 
 the foreigners by whom the articles exported are bought and consumed. Care 
 should be taken, however, not to impose such a duty on commodities which can be 
 produced at nearly the same cost abroad, for its effect would then be to put an 
 entire stop to their exportation, by causing the market to be supplied by others. 
 Care must likewise be taken that the imposition of an export-duty does not pro- 
 voke injurious retaliation from foreign states. 
 
 The only legitimate object of taxation is revenue ; but duties are often imposed 
 on the importation of merchandise without reference to this object, and solely 
 with the view of directing trade into particular channels. Thus protective duties 
 are imposed for the purpose of artificially raising the price of the productions 
 and manufactures of foreign countries, so as to restrain or prevent their compe- 
 tition with similar articles produced at home ; and discriminating duties, or duties 
 not levied equally upon the produce or manufactures of different countries, are 
 imposed (in Britain now solely with reference to the colonial trade), with the view 
 of giving an advantage to the country on whose commodities the tax is lightest as 
 compared with others. The impolicy of all such duties has been already explained 
 in the article Commerce. 
 
 TEA (Chin. Cha, Te. Du. Te. Fr. The. Ger. Thee. It. Te. Por. Cha. 
 Rus. Tchai. Sp. Te), the leaf of an evergreen shrub (Thea), 3 to 6 feet in height, 
 resembling a myrtle, and bearing a white blossom something like a wild rose. The 
 leaves, elliptic, serrated, and alternate, are classed as black and green ; but it is 
 still uncertain whether these are obtained from one or more species, or from varieties 
 of the same species. The plant is a native of China and Japan ; it is also cultivated 
 in Java. Assam, and other places ; but at present the only commercial source of 
 tea is China, where it is grown in almost every province except the most northerly, 
 though the finer kinds are confined to a few localities. Formerly, all the black 
 tea was brought from the province of Fo-kien, and the green from that of Kiaug- 
 nan ; but the culture of the first for exportation is now extended to Qnang-tung, 
 and of the other to Tche-kiang. From these places it has hitherto been conveyed, 
 from 400 to 700 miles, mostly by land-carriage, to Canton for shipment ; but, under 
 the late treaty with Great Britain, it will doubtless find its way to nearer ports. 
 
 The plant is propagated from seeds, which are deposited in rows. The first crop of leaves is 
 not collected until the third year; and when the trees are six or seven years old, the produce be- 
 comes so "uferior that they are removed. There are commonly three gatherings of the leaves 
 yearly, — in April, Midsummer, and August. The earliest possess the most delicate colour and 
 aroma ; leaves of the second gathering have less valuable qualities ; and those last collected are 
 of a dark colour, large, coarse, and so inferior that they are consumed only by the poorest of the 
 natives. After being gathered, and partially dried by exposure to the sun, they are farther dried 
 in a heated pan. They are then removed to" a table where they are rolled and cooled ; after which 
 they are sifted and sorted into several varieties. The object of the drying and rolling is both to 
 diminish the bulk and to enable the leaves to preserve their flavour. 
 
 Descriptive Table of the principal Teas. 
 Black Teas. I teas, with a leaf that is generally entire and cnr- 
 
 1 . Bohea is a coarse leaf, distinguished by con- 1 ly , but younger than in the coarser kinds. Padre 
 taining a larger proportion of the woody fibre | souchong, packed in separate paper bundles of 
 than other teas ; its infusion is of a darker colour, ! about i lb. each, is so fine as to be used almost 
 and as it has been more subjected to the action | exclusively for presents. The finest kinds of sou- 
 of fire, it keeps longer without becoming musty ! chong are sometimes scented with flowers ; and 
 than the finer sorts. Two kinds are brought from they cannot be obtained, even in China, except 
 China : the lowest called Canton bohea, is a mix- at high prices. An exceedingly crisped and curled 
 ture of refuse congou with a coarse tea called i leaf,called*ancA?,has lately grown into disrepute, 
 roping. The better kind of bohea comes from the j from being often mixed with a ferruginous dust. 
 
 district of that name in Fo-kien, and having been 
 of late esteemed equally with the lower congous, 
 has been packed in the same square chests, while 
 the old bohea package is of an oblong shape. 
 
 •2. Congou (a derivation from Koong-foo, " la- 
 bour or assiduity ") long formed the bulk of the 
 
 4. Pekoe, being composed mainly of the young 
 spring-buds, is both dear and small in quantity. 
 With a view to preserve the fineness of flavour, 
 the application of heat is very limited in drying, 
 whence this kind is more liable to injury from 
 keeping than any other sort. 
 
 East India Company's cargoes ; but the quality Green Teas. 
 
 gradually fell off; and of late the consumption f 1. Ttcankay, the bohea of green teas, has-al- 
 of bohea has increased in this country to the i ways formed three-fourths of the whole of those 
 diminution of congou, the standard of which has teas imported, being used by the retailers^ro mix 
 been considerably lowered. A particular variety | with the finer kinds. The leaf is older, and not 
 called campoi (from Kien-poey, " selection," or I so much twisted or rolled as in the dearer kinds : 
 " choice"), has ceased to be prized from the ! there is altogether less care bestowed on its pre- 
 absence of strength, — a characteristic generally paration. 
 
 esteemed beyond delicacy of flavour. 2. Hyson-skin is an inferior kind of hyson ; all 
 
 3. Souchong (from Seaou-choong , " small or those leaves that are of a coarser, yellower, and 
 
 scarce sort ") is the finest of the stronger black | less twisted or rolled appearance, are set apart 
 
TEA 646* TEX 
 
 and sold as the refuse, or " skin tea," at amuch ' in China Yu-tsim, "before the rains," because 
 lower price. i gathered in early spring. 
 
 3. Hyson (corrupted from the Chinese term for j In collecting green tea, the leaves only are 
 " flourishing spring"), is a fine sort gathered ' taken, beingnipped off abovethe foot-stalk, while 
 in the early part of the season. Every leaf is i of the black teas the foot-stalk is always collected, 
 twisted and rolled by hand ; and, on account of j Thus black tea contains much of the woody fibre, 
 the extreme care required in its preparation, the while the green is exclusively the fleshy part of 
 best is difficult to procure, and very expensive, the leaf itself. Green tea is thus dearer than black; 
 
 4. Gunpowder is nothing but a more carefully- j it besides does not keep so long, and is less able 
 picked hyson, consisting of the best rolled and ! to contend with the chances of injury during a 
 roundest leaves, which gives it that granular ap- ; long sea- voyage. Black tea, likewise, abounds 
 pearance whence it derives its name. | much more in strength. On these grounds it forms 
 
 5. Young Hyson, until spoiled by fraudulent j the great bulk of the importations into Britain, 
 mixture to meet the large demand of the Ameri- In the United States, however, the demand for 
 cans, was a genuine delicate young leaf, called I green tea is more considerable than for black. 
 
 Tea must have been used in China from a remote period ; but it was unknown 
 in Europe until the beginning of the 17th century, when it was introduced by the 
 Dutch. It was carried from Amsterdam to London. Afterwards small quantities 
 were brought to England by the East India Company ; but it did not become an 
 object of trade with them until about 167B? when they imported 4713 lbs. In the 
 beginning of the last century it came more into use ; and in 1746, the quantity con- 
 sumed increased to 2,358,589 lbs. ; in 1768, to 6,892,075 lbs. ; in 1785, to 10,856,578 
 lbs. ; in 1800, to 20,358,702 lbs. ; and in 1833, to 31,829,619 lbs. Hitherto the East 
 India Company had enjoyed a monopoly of the British trade, and the price of tea 
 was in consequence much higher than in other countries : but their exclusive 
 privileges were abolished, April 22, 1834, when the trade was thrown open, subject 
 to the regulations of the act 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 101. The competition of private 
 traders afterwards reduced the price ; and the quantity consumed in the United 
 Kingdom increased in 1835 to 36,574,004 lbs. ; and in 1836 to 49,142,236 lbs. ! The 
 war with China and distressed condition of our manufacturing population, sub- 
 sequently led to a great falling off in the consumption ; but in 1851 it amounted to 
 no less than 36,396,078 lbs. From 2,000,000 to 4,000,000 lbs. are besides annually 
 imported for re-exportation, chiefly to British America and Germany. 
 
 Tea is also largely consumed in the United States ; considerable quantities are 
 likewise used in Holland and in Russia, which last country is supplied overland by 
 way of Kiachta. In other parts, the consumption is quite inconsiderable. 
 
 The British duties on tea have varied greatly at different periods. From 1819 to 1834, an ad 
 valorem excise duty was levied of 96 per cent, on all teas sold under 2s. per lb., and 100 per cent. 
 on all that were sold at or above 2s. per lb. In 1834, tea was removed from the excise to the cus- 
 toms department of the revenue, when there were imposed — on bohea, Is. 6d. per lb. ; on congou, 
 twankay, hyson-skin, orange pekoe, and campoi, 2s. 2d. per lb. ; and on souchong, hyson, flow- 
 ery pekoe, and other kinds not enumerated, 3s. per lb. These rates ceased July 1, 1836; since 
 which a fixed duty of 2s. Id. per lb. has been imposed on all teas. 
 
 TEAK, a large Indian tree (Tectona grandis), having a trunk erect, lofty, and 
 of an enormous size. It has some resemblance to oak in its timber, but its quality 
 is reckoned preferable for shipbuilding ; and the country ships of India, as well as 
 many of the vessels trading between India and this country, are constructed of it. 
 It is easily worked, and at the same time strong and durable. Alternate exposure 
 to a vertical sun and to the drenching rain of the wet monsoons, whioh would rend 
 in pieces European oak, produce no injurious effect upon teak. Being of an oily 
 nature, it also possesses the valuable property of preserving iron, while oak destroys 
 it. The teak most esteemed is grown in the Ghauts. There are also extensive 
 forests of it on the banks of the Irrawady in Birmah ; and it is largely exported 
 from Rangoon to Calcutta and other parts of India. Its quality, though inferior 
 to that of Malabar for shipbuilding, has been found fitter for machinery. 
 
 African' Teak is a name improperly given to a species of timber largely imported from Sierra 
 Leone. Though for some purposes useful, it is destitute of several of the most valuable properties 
 of teak, and is, in fact, the product of an entirely different tree. 
 
 TEXAS, a State of N. America, between the United States and Mexico, ex- 
 tending from latitude 26° to 38° N., and from longitude 94° to 107° W. Area, 
 310,000 sq. miles. Population, 350,000. Texas is an integral not a federal republic. 
 
 Texas was formerly a province of Mexico ; but having been peopled chiefly by Anglo-Ameri- 
 cans, disputes arose, and afterwards an insurrection, which resulted, April 21, 1836, in its inde- 
 pendence, by the defeat of Santa Anna, the Mexican president, at San Jacinto. It is both a fine 
 and a fertile country, mostly level, and well suited for the growth of cotton, which is its agricul- 
 tural staple. The grains chiefly cultivated are maize and wheat ; but the rearing of live-stock 
 forms the principal occupation, especially in the prairies. Slavery exists, and industrial progress 
 is mainly dependent on its continuance, as the climate is too hot and relaxing for free labour. 
 The position of the country, however, is favouraV.o for trade ; and in exchange for cotton and 
 other products sent to Britain, partly by way of New Orleans, the Texians import manufactures, 
 <Sre. There is also a considerable inland trade with the United States, at Santa Fe, to which 
 
THR 647 TIN 
 
 goods are brought by way of Pittsburg and St Louis. The Texan ports are, Galveston, Ma- 
 tagorda Bav, and Aransas. The currency and weights are similar to those of the United States ; 
 but some of the measures are Mexican. Texas was recognised by the United States, March 3, 
 1837 : and treaties were concluded with Frauce, September 25, 1839, and with Britain, November 
 10, 1840. See Sdpflehekt. 
 
 THREAD (Fr. Fil. Ger. Zwirn. Du. Garen. It- Refe. Por. Fio. Sp. Hilo, 
 Torzal. Rus. Nitki), a small line, formed by twisting together fibres of flax, cot- 
 ton, or silk. The various kinds used in sewing, and in making bobbin net, and some 
 other textile fabrics, consist of two or more yarns, firmly twisted together. 
 
 TILES (Fr. Tuiles. Ger. Dachziegel), a kind of thin brick, or plate of baked 
 clay, used chiefly for covering roofs, but occasionally also for paving floors and 
 making drains. Down to 1833, an excise duty was levied in Britain on tiles. 
 
 TIMBER, wood adapted for house or ship building. The trade in timber is one 
 of great extent and importance. A considerable portion of that (Oak) used in ship- 
 building is of home-growth, but the greater portion of that (Pine) employed in 
 house-carpentry is imported,— the sources of supply being the countries around the 
 Baltic, especially Prussia and Norway, and our colonies in N. America. The pro- 
 duce of the N. of Europe is generally of excellent quality ; but much of the colonial 
 timber is very inferior. Teak is brought from Africa, mahogany from Honduras 
 and other places, and cabinet and dye woods from a variety of quarters ; but these 
 scarcely enter into competition with the timber of N. America and the Baltic. The 
 duty on foreign timber was, in 1787, only 6s. 8d. the load of 50 cubic feet ; but it 
 was gradually raised until, in 1804, it amounted to 25s. In 1810, it was raised to 
 54s. 8d. ; and from 1814 to 1820, it was 64s. lid. and 65s. the load. Colonial timber 
 was admitted free until 1798, when a duty was imposed of 3 per cent, ad valorem ; 
 but the trade in this kind scarcely existed prior to 1803, when the duty was changed 
 to a specific rate of 2s. per load ; which, nowever, was abolished in 1806. From 
 this year colonial timber was admitted free until 1821, when a duty of 10s. the load 
 was imposed, and at same time the duty on European timber reduced from 65s. to 
 5.5s. the load, leaving a preference duty in operation of 45s. ; which system continued 
 till 1842. These differential duties led to the substitution of the inferior timber 
 of N. America for the superior produce of the N. of Europe. The average annual 
 importation of N. American timber, only 16,533 loads in the five years from 1803 to 
 1807, gradually increased, until, on an average of the five years, 1829-1833, it 
 amounted to 412,682 loads ; while the importation of Baltic timber fell off in the 
 same period from 232,477 loads to 122,783 loads. In 1841, the consumption of 
 foreign and colonial timber in the United Kingdom, and the duty derived therefrom, 
 were as follow : — Battens, deals, and staves, 177,058 great hundreds (120), £778,990; 
 timber, 8 in. sq. and upwards, from British America, 613,679 loads, £337,795 ; do. 
 from other parts, 131,479 loads, £370,302 : making in all, of revenue, £1,487,087. 
 
 Proposals for a reduction of the timber duties were made by Earl Grey's govern- 
 ment in 1831, and by Lord Melbourne's in 1841 ; but nothing was effected until 
 1842, when the duty on colonial timber was reduced to Is. per load. At same time, 
 foreign timber was lowered to 30s. the load ; deals, 35s. ; and after October 10, 
 1842, to 25s. and 30s. respectively. The mode of charging the duty was also im- 
 proved. Formerly it was disproportionably heavy on the smallest and least valu- 
 able kinds of deals, battens, and planks ; while, in measuring unsawn timber, the 
 cubic contents were, it is alleged, over-estimated from 10 to 20 per cent. ; and the 
 sawers complained that timber partly cut up was charged proportionally lower 
 than in the log, by which their interests were needlessly injured. S 
 
 TIN (Fr. Fer blanc. Ger. Weissblech), a white brilliant metal. Its surface is 
 but slowly impaired by exposure to the atmosphere, nor is it oxidized even by the 
 combined agency of air and moisture. Its malleability is very considerable. In 
 ductility and tenacity it is inferior to several metals. It is soft and inelastic. 
 Sp. gr. 7'2. Fusing point, 442° Fahr. It is employed, when in a liquid state, in tin- 
 ning or covering iron and copper plates, to protect them from rust ; also in the 
 fabrication of a great variety of utensils. Alloyed with lead it forms pewter. It is 
 likewise used in the process of enamelling ; in silvering looking-glasses ; by dyers, 
 when solved, to heighten red colours ; and for many other purposes. 
 
 Tin is rather a scarce metal : it is principally found in primitive rocks, and oc- 
 curs disseminated in them, and in beds, but principally in veins, mostly in a state 
 of crystallization, being rarely compact, and is frequently accompanied by other 
 minerals. The ore from which it is chiefly obtained is an oxide of the metal. Tin 
 is found abundantly in Cornwall and the western part of Devonshire : it is also 
 procured in Germany. Bohemia, and Hungary, in Europe ; in Chili and Mexico, in 
 America ; and in Malacca and Banca, in Asia. S 
 
TIN 648 TON 
 
 British Tin.— The annual produce of the tin mines and works of Cornwall is estimated at 4000 
 tons, worth from £65 to £80 a-ton. About 30,000 cwts. of un wrought tin are annually exported 
 from Britain, chiefly to France, Italy, and Russia; which is exclusive of tin and pewter wares 
 and tin plates, in declared value nearly £400,000, sent to the United States, Italy , Germany, 
 France, the colonies, &c. From 10,000 to 30,000 cwts. of Banca and Malay tin are besides im- 
 ported for re-exportation to the continent and the United States. 
 TINCAL. [Borax.] 
 
 ' TOBACCO (Du. Tabak. Fr. Tabac. Ger. Taback. It. Tobacco. Por. & Sp. 
 Tabaco. Rus. Tabak. Arab. Bujjerbang. Mai. Tambracoo. Chin. Sang-yen), 
 the dried stimulating narcotic leaves of a plant indigenous to America, but exten- 
 sively cultivated in the Old World, — its use, either for smoking, chewing, or snuff- 
 ing, being now common in all countries. There are several species, — the principal 
 being the Nicotiana Tabacum, grown in Virginia, the great commercial source of 
 the " weed." It is an annual herb, raised from seeds sown in March in prepared 
 protected beds, from which it is transplanted in May ; and it attains perfection in 
 September. It has then a stem from three to six feet in height, bearing large ob- 
 long spear-shaped leaves, which, after being gathered, and cured by fermentation 
 and drying, are ranged horizontally and pressed in the hogsheads in which they 
 are exported ; the finest, however, being generally made into a kind of rolls. 
 Tobacco requires considerable heat to come to perfection, but with care it may be 
 reared in temperate climates ; and it is thus cultivated to a great extent in Hol- 
 land, France, Prussia, and other countries, in several of which the trade is, for 
 fiscal purposes, monopolized by the government. For a more detailed account of 
 the rearing of tobacco, see Porter's Tropical Agriculturist. S 
 
 Tobacco was introduced into Europe by the Spaniards and Portuguese, who acquired the habit 
 Of smoking from the natives of America ; and it was brought to England by Raleigh and his co- 
 adventurers, 1586. Its use afterwards increased rapidly. The planting of tobacco was even intro- 
 duced into England; in which, notwithstanding several prohibitions, it was continued until 
 the Restoration, when, for the purposes of revenue, the exclusive supply of the home market 
 was secured to the American colonists; though its cultivation in Ireland was permitted until a 
 recent period. Tobacco having been always the subject of an extensive smuggling, especially 
 before 1825, the custom-house accounts of the trade cannot be implicitly relied en. In 1842, 
 the quantity of unmanufactured tobacco imported into the United Kingdom amounted to 
 38,204,641 lbs. ; of manufactured and snuff, 733,937 lbs. ; total, 38,938,578 lbs. : of which about 
 19-20thswere brought from the United States, and the remainder chiefly from Cuba, Colombia, 
 Hayti, and the East Indies. The total quantity entered for consumption in the same year was 
 22,378,062 lbs. ; the surplus imported being re-exported chiefly to Germany, Holland, Belgium, 
 Spain, Portugal, Italy, west coast of Africa, and Australia. 
 
 Dealers distinguish between strip and leaf, or strip-leaf and hand-nvrk ,- the former being the 
 technical name for that from which the stem of the leaf has been taken away, before the latter is 
 packed, whereas hand-work is the leaf packed whole, stem and all. Upon the arrival of tobacco 
 in Britain it is lodged in bonded warehouses, where every cask is opened, and the portion which 
 from damage is considered to be not worth paying duty upon, removed and consumed. Afterwards, 
 it is conveyed to the manufacturer, who communicates to it one of the three forms in which it is 
 used — common tobacco, cigars, or snuff. 
 
 The Duty in Britain on foreign unmanufactured tobacco was in 1786 only lOd. per lb. ; but in 
 1787 it was increased to Is. 3d. ; in 1796 to Is. 7d. ; and afterwards gradually to 4s. in 1815 ; which 
 high rate was continued until 1825, when it was reduced to 3s., — the existing rate. As the price 
 of tobacco in bond varies from 2id. to 6d. per lb., the duty is from 600 to 1440 per cent. : the ave- 
 rage rate is about 900 per cent. The Irish duties were assimilated to those of Britain in 1813. Tiie 
 net revenue levied in the United Kingdom on the article is about £5,500,000; only one foreign 
 commodity, sugar, bringing in a larger sum. 
 
 The duty was collected both through the customs and excise until 1825, since which it has been 
 levied wholly by the customs. A strict survey of the manufacturers was, however, maintained by 
 the excise until 1840, when it was abolished (3 & 4 Vict. c. 18) ; but the smuggling and adultera- 
 tion alleged to be practised, led in 1842 to a partial re-establishment of the excise surveillance by 
 the 5 & 6 Vict. c. 93. 
 
 Tobacco is prohibited to be imported in vessels of less than 120 tons, or exported in those 
 under 70 tons ; and the places of import are limited to London and Liverpool (to which 
 two nearly the whole is brought), and a few other principal ports. A charge of 2s. per hhd. is made 
 on its being placed in the bonded warehouse, and the same when it is taken out ; but no other rent 
 is due for five years. On being re-shipped it is subject to an allowance of shrinkage from the seller 
 to the buyer of 30 lbs. per hhd. on Virginia and Kentucky, and 15 lbs. per hhd. on Maryland, on the 
 landing weights ; the draff of the former 8 lbs., and the latter 4 lbs., with a tret on all sorts of 4 lbs. 
 per 104 lbs. When taken out for home consumption the same allowances of draff and tret are 
 made as for exportation, and the duty is charged on the net weight. [Customs Regulations.] 
 
 TOLU BALSAM, the concrete juice of the Myroxylon toluiferum, is of a brown- 
 ish-yellow colour, transparent, with the taste and odour of the white balsam of 
 Peru. It is imported from South America in earthenware jars or tin cases ; but it 
 is much adulterated. 
 
 TON, a British measure of weight, equal 20 cwts. or 2240 lbs. avoirdupois ; in 
 the measurement of a ship, it is reckoned at 40 cubic feet. 
 
 TONNAGE of a Ship, is properly an expression for its interior capacity by the 
 number of tons of sea-water which it could contain ; therefore, if the interior 
 
TON 
 
 649 
 
 TOY 
 
 volume were found in cubic feet, on dividing that volume by 35 (the number of 
 cubic feet of sea-water equal in weight to one ton), the quotient would be the ton- 
 nage required. In practice, however, it has been found convenient to adoj t em- 
 pirical rules for finding the tonnage of ships. Prior to 1836, the established method 
 in this country was founded on very erroneous principles. By considering the 
 breadth and depth nearly the same, the rule implied the square of the breadth ; 
 and hence increasing the breadth of a vessel increased her nominal tonnage for 
 the payment of dues more than it increased her real capacity. Vessels, accordingly, 
 came to be built narrow and deep ; and thus not only less efficient but highly dan- 
 
 §erous. But this pernicious practice was abolished, and an improved system intro- 
 ueed, by the act 5 & 6 Wm. IV. c. 56, of which the following is an abstract : — 
 
 tiply these three measurements together, and, 
 dividing the product by 92-4, the quotient will 
 be the number of tons to be added to the result 
 as above found. In open vessels, the depths 
 are to be measured from the upper edge of the 
 upper strake. 
 
 In steam-vessels, the tonnage due to the cub- 
 ical contents of the engine-room must be de- 
 ducted ; the contents being ascertained thus :— 
 Measure the inside length of the engine-room in 
 feet and decimal parts of a foot from the fore- 
 most to the aftermost bulkhead, then multiply 
 the said length by the depth of the vessel at the 
 midship division, and the product by the inside 
 breadth at the same division , at two-fifths of the 
 depth from the deck, taken as aforesaid, and 
 divide the last product by 92-4, and the quotient 
 will be the tonnage of the engine-room. 
 
 The length of the engine-room and the ton- 
 nage due to its cubical contents must be set 
 forth in the registry ; and any alteration on them 
 will require a new registry. 
 
 Vessels whose tonnage is required when their 
 cargoes are on board, must be measured thus : 
 — Measure first the length on the upper-deck, 
 between the after-part of the stem and the fore- 
 part of the stern-post ; secondly, the inside 
 breadth on the under side of the upper-deck, at 
 the middle point of the length ; and, thirdly, 
 the depth from the under side of the upper-deck 
 down the pump-well to the skin ; multiply these 
 three dimensions together, and divide the pro- 
 duct by 130 : the quotient will be the amount of 
 the registered tonnage. 
 
 The amount so ascertained must be carved 
 on the main beam of each vessel. 
 TONTINE, a loan raised on life annuities, with the benefit of survivorship. 
 Thus, an annuity at a certain rate of interest is granted to a number of subscribers, 
 who are divided into classes according to their ages ; and annually the whole fund 
 of each class is shared among its survivors, till at last it falls to one, and on his 
 death it reverts to the party who established the tontine. The term is derived from 
 the name of the inventor, Lorenzo Tonti, a Neapolitan, 
 
 TOPAZ, an ornamental stone, in considerable estimation. It occurs massive, 
 in rounded pieces, and crystallized in prisms. Sp. gr. 3*5. It is sometimes limpid 
 and nearly transparent, or of various shades of yellow, green, blue, or red, and 
 translucent. It becomes electric by heat, with polarity. Topaz occurs chiefly in 
 Minas Novas in Brazil, and the Ural Mountains ; but it is also found in the German 
 tin mines, the Mourne Mountains in Ireland, and Cairngorm in Aberdeenshire. 
 
 TORTOISE-SHELL (Malay, Sisik kurakura), the scales of the tortoise ; used 
 for combs, snuffboxes, spectacles, as well as for inlaying and various other works. 
 There are several kinds both of land and marine tortoises, but the shell of commerce 
 is usually obtained from a marine species found within the tropics, called the ca- 
 retta or hawksbill tortoise, the Testudo imbricata of Linnaeus. Tortoise-shell 
 abounds in the seas of the Indian Archipelago ; and it is imported extensively from 
 Singapore. An inferior kind is brought from the West Indies. 
 
 TOYS (Du. Speelgoed. Fr. Jouets, Bimbelots. Ger. Spielzeug, Speilsachen. 
 It. Trastutli), children's playthings, baubles, and trifling ornaments of all sorts. 
 These articles form, in this country, the subject of an immense commerce. Bir- 
 mingham, denominated by Burke " the toyshop of Europe," is the chief seat of 
 the manufacture of metallic ornaments, trinkets, and bijouterie ; and an almost 
 infinite variety of toys are made iu London and other cities throughout the king- 
 
 VesseJs not jmpelled by steam, previous to 
 being registered, must be measured while the hold 
 is clear, thus : — Divide the length of the upper- 
 deck between the after part of the stem and the 
 fore part of the stern-post into six equal parts. 
 Depths. — At the foremost, the middle, and the 
 aftermost of those points of division, measure in 
 feet ar.d decimal parts of a foot the depths from 
 the under side of the upper-deck to the ceiling 
 at the limber strake. In the case of a break in 
 the upper-deck, the depths are to be measured 
 from a line stretched in a continuation of the 
 deck. Breadths. — Divide each of those three 
 depths into five equal parts, and measure the 
 inside breadths at one-fifth and at four-fifths 
 from the upper-deck of the foremost and after- 
 most depths, and at two-fifths and four-fifths 
 from the upper-deck of the midship depth. 
 Length. — At half the midship depth measure the 
 length of the vessel from the after-part of the 
 stem to the fore-part of the stern-post ; then to 
 twice the midship depth add the foremost and 
 the aftermost depths for the sum of the depths ; 
 add together the upper and lower breadths at 
 the foremost division, three times the upper 
 breadth, and the lower breadth at the midship 
 division, and the upper and twice the lower 
 breadth at the after division , for the sum of the 
 breadths ; then multiply the sura of the depths 
 by the sum of the breadths, and this product by 
 the length, and divide the final product by 3500, 
 which will give the number of tons for register. 
 If the vessel have a poop or half-deck, or a break 
 in the upper-deck, measure the inside mean 
 length, breadth, and height of such part thereof 
 as may be included within the bulkhead, — mul> 
 
TRA 650 TUR 
 
 dom ; besides which, considerable quantities are imported from Holland, Germany, 
 France, India, and China. 
 TRADE. [Commerce.] 
 
 TRADE-WINDS,a name given to certain remarkable aerial currents, on account 
 of their signal importance in commerce. 
 
 In those parts of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans which are remote from the influence of the 
 land, between the limits of about 28° or 30° N. and S. latitude, there is a constant easterly wind. 
 On the north side of the equator it blows from between the- north and the east, and on the south 
 side from between the south and the east, inclining more to the north and south.according to the 
 distance from the equator : these winds are denominated the N.E. and SE. trade-winds ; and are 
 produced by a modification of the currents of cold air flowing from the poles to the equator, caused 
 by the rotation of the earth on its axis. The direction and extent of the trade-winds vary with 
 the season of the year ; and in some parts of the world their course is entirely altered. The most 
 remarkable of these modifications of the trade-winds are the Indian Monsoons. 
 
 TRAGACANTH, or GUM-DRAGON, a gum produced by a species of Astra- 
 galus growing in Persia and Turkey. It is more costly, and extremely different 
 in many of its properties from gum-arabic. The finest kind occurs in twisted, 
 vermicular, rounded or elongated pieces, almost transparent, whitish, brittle, in- 
 odorous, with a slightly bitter taste. It is also found in large tears, of a vermicular 
 form, a reddish colour, and mixed with impurities. It is used in topical dyeing, 
 and in pharmacy for making powders into troches. 
 
 TREACLE, the viscid brown syrup which drains from sugar when refining. 
 
 TRET, a deduction of 4 lbs. for every 104 lbs. from the weight of goods for dust, &c. 
 
 TRIPOLI, the most easterly of the Barbary States, consists chiefly of a line of 
 coast, extending about 800 miles along the Mediterranean, from Cape Razatin to 
 Port Bomba. Population, 660,000. It is nominally a dependency of the Porte. 
 
 For a few miles inland, the country is of exuberant fertility, but beyond this the interior 
 consists either of sandy deserts, or of the barren mountainous districts of Gavian and Mesalata. 
 The coast tract produces in luxuriance many articles peculiar to the finest tropical climates, 
 and corn is raised in abundance. The date forms the staple of the interior and sandy districts. 
 
 Tripoli, the capital and chief port, is situated on a neck of land projecting a short distance into 
 the sea, in lat. 32° 53' N. long. 13° 1 1' E. Pop. 25,000. Exports, wool, drugs, madder roots, barilla, 
 hides, goat and sheep skins dressed, salt, trona, ostrich feathers, gold-dust, ivory, gum, dried 
 fruits and dates, lotus-beans, cassol-venere, saffron, bullocks, sheep, and poultry. Imports, ma- 
 nufactured goods, colonials, timber, and naval stores. The principal intercourse is with the Levant, 
 Malta, and Tunis. S 
 
 TRIPOLI, an earthy substance used in polishing hard bodies. 
 
 TROY, a term applied to the English weight for the precious metals. [Measures.] 
 
 TRUCK SYSTEM, a name given to the practice of paying workmen in goods 
 instead of money. Though attended with some advantages, it was found to be 
 susceptible of very great abuses. It was accordingly prohibited under penalties 
 by 1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 32. 
 
 TRUFFLE, a delicate subterranean fungus {Tuber cibarium), esteemed as an 
 article of diet. It is imported from France and Italy. 
 
 TUNIS, one of the Barbary States, lies betwixt Algiers on the W. and Tripoli 
 on the E. Area, 72,000 sq. miles. Population, 2,000,000. The monarch, or bey, 
 possesses absolute power, and is now independent of the Porte. S 
 
 This state is composed chiefly of a large peninsula, stretching into the Mediterranean to within 
 less than 100 miles of Sicily. The climate is fine, and the soil fertile, except when the usual rains 
 are withheld. All the coast is capable of bearing cotton, sugar, and spice3. Indigo and silk might 
 also be procured with a little care. The mountains near the capital contain silver, copper, and 
 lead, and near Porto Farina there is one of quicksilver ; but the mines are not worked. 
 
 Tunis, the capital and chief port, is an irregularly built and dirty town, in lat. 36° 48' N. , long. 10° 
 16' E. Pop. 120,000. The staple exports are olive-oil, wool, redcaps, grain, hides, gold-dust, ivory, 
 sponges, tunny fish, wax, and soap, the whole amounting annually to about £370,000. The im- 
 ports are woollens, cottons, linens, with coffee, spices, sugar, metals, silk, wine, &c. The gov- 
 ernment monopolizes the trade in many articles ; as tobacco, wax, wool, and provisions, which it 
 farms out to individuals. The chief intercourse is with Marseilles. With Britain there is little 
 trade, except through the medium of Gibraltar and Malta. 
 
 TUNNY, a large fish (Thynnus vulgaris) belonging to the mackerel tribe, — the 
 object of important fisheries in the Mediterranean. 
 
 TURBOT, a flat fish (Rhombus maximus), weighing generally from 5 to 10 lbs., 
 taken on nearly all the coasts of Britain, but principally off Scarborough. It is in 
 season from May to Michaelmas. 
 
 TURKEY, oe the OTTOMAN EMPIRE, embraces— 1st, European Turkey, 
 which, including the dependencies of Wallachia, Moldavia, and Servia, comprises, 
 excepting Greece, almost the whole of the great easterly peninsula of S. Europe, 
 extending from lat. 39° to 48£° N., and from long. 15^° to 29° E. Area, 210,000 
 sq. miles ; population, 11,000,000. 2d, Asiatic Turkey, comprising Asia Minor, the 
 adjacent islands, the greater part of Armenia ana Kurdistan, with Syria and 
 
TUR 
 
 651 
 
 TUR 
 
 Palestine, Mesopotamia, and a portion of Arabia. Area, 437,000 sq. miles ; pop. 
 10,000,000. The empire likewise includes Egypt and other African districts ; but 
 these are now merely nominal dependencies. Government, despotic, but tempered 
 by the laws of the Koran. S 
 
 European Turkey may be considered a mountainous country, though it has some very extensive 
 plains,— the principal being that comprising Wallachia, Moldavia, and Bulgaria; considerable 
 portions of Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly are also level. The country generally is well watered 
 by the Danube, Save, and other rivers. Asia Minor consists chiefly of an extensive table-land, 
 traversed from W. to E. by mountain-ranges, which extend into Armenia and Kurdistan. Towards 
 the S. the surface spreads but into extensive plains, naturally fertile, but at present desert and unin- 
 habited, except the coast district of Syria, which contains the lofty chain of Lebanon. 
 
 The climate of European Turkey is colder and more changeable than that of the parts of Italy 
 and Spain under the same latitudes ; and that of Asiatic Turkey is almost equally variable. The 
 relative temperature of the different divisions is best indicated by their vegetable products. In 
 Croatia, Bosnia, and the adjoining provinces of European Turkey, the mountains are covered 
 with oak and elm ; S. of the Balkan, the country, besides forests of sycamore, carob, and plane 
 trees, contains vineyards and orchards, but is destitute of the olive, which does not thrive N. of 
 1st. 4(i 5 . The productions of Albania resemble those of the opposite coast of Italy ; and in 
 Thessaly — thegarden of European Turkey — oil, wine, cotton, tobacco, figs, pomegranates, oranges, 
 and lemons grow to perfection. The vegetation is similar in the more sheltered parts of Asia 
 Minor. In Armenia and Kurdistan, the olive and orange ripen only in the warmer valleys. S. of 
 Taurus we enter an entirely new region, where the date, banana, sugar cane, and indigo, be- 
 token a close approach to the products of tropical climate?. 
 
 Every branch of industry is in a backward state in Turkey. In most parts power makes law ; 
 and there is no real security of property. The cultivators are congregated in villages, and agri- 
 culture is in a very rude condition. Still, so great is the fertility, that there is a surplus of corn 
 for exportation. The grains chiefly cultivated are maize, wheat.'rye, barley, oats, and buckwheat. 
 Wine is grown in most of the European provinces ; oil chiefly in the Asiatic ; flax, hemp, saffron, 
 cotton, tobacco, castor-oil, and madder are also reared; likewise silk, especially round Brusa, in 
 Asia Minor. Sheep and goats furnish the principal animal food of the people. 
 
 Manufactures appear formerly to have attained greater excellence than was to be expected ; 
 but of late years they have been depressed by foreign competition, and the domestic weaving of 
 cotton stuffs for family use is now almost the only branch of consequence. Copper, lead, iron, 
 and other metals exist in various parts ; but mining industry is little pursued. 
 
 Commerce is impeded by the want of roads ; and almost all merchandise is conveyed throughout 
 the country on the backs of camels and horses. In European Turkey, after Constantinople, Adrian- 
 ople, Salonica, and Bucharest in Wallachia, are the principal trading cities ; and, next to Smyrna, 
 Trebisonde and Aleppo are the chief in Asia, being the seats of an extensive caravan trade' with 
 Persia, Bussora, Bagdad, and other places. The principal exports from Turkey are sheeps' wool, 
 raw silk, goats' hair, cattle, horses, hides, skins, corn, cotton, tobacco, fruit, mastic and other 
 gums, gall-nuts, valonia, honey, wax, saffron, madder, anise, linseed, turpentine, safflower, 
 whetstones, carpets, leather ; with Arabian, Persian, and Indian goods. The chief imports are 
 cottons and cotton yarn, linens, woollens, and silks, tropical products and dye-stuffs, hardware, 
 earthenware, paper, and furs. 
 
 The trade between England and Turkey was long monopolized by a chartered company, incor- 
 porated 1581. In 1753, the chief abuses of the Turkey Company were removed ; and in 1825 it finally 
 surrendered its privileges. The declared value of British produce and manufactures exported from 
 the United Kingdom to Turkey, on an average of the five years tol841, was £1,292,531 ; about three- 
 fourths of which consisted of cotton manufactures and yarn ; the remainder chiefly of refined sugar, 
 iron and steel, woollens, machinery, coal, plate and jewellery, hardware, earthenware, tinwares, 
 haberdashery and linens : nearly one-half of these goods are forwarded to Persia, mostly by way of 
 Constantinople and Trebisonde. These are exclusive of British products shipped to Syria and 
 Palestine, amountingto nearly ,£250, 000 yearly, principally cottons. Besides these, coffee, spices, 
 and other foreign and colonial articles are shipped from England to Turkey. The principal exports 
 from Turkey to Britain are raisins, figs, valonia, raw silk, opium, madder, sheep's wool, skins, 
 cotton wool, and sometimes wheat. 
 
 Trade is mostly in the hands of English, French, Italians, Greeks, Armenians, and Jews. The 
 policy of the Porte in respect to importations has always been liberal, and the provision monopolies 
 and restrictions which formerly existed, have it is believed been abolished. Her commercial sys- 
 tem is in fact the best feature in the government of Turkey. 
 
 Ports.— Constant inopl*-, the capital, in lat. 41° 0' N., long. 28° 59/ E., is advantageously situate 
 at the junction of the Bosporus with the Sea of Marmora. The interior presents a strange com- 
 bination of magnificence and meanness. Pop. 600,000. The town occupies a triangular peninsula, 
 forming, with the suburbs of Galata and Pera, the magnificent port of the Golden Horn. This 
 port is safe and capacious ; but the approach to it in summer is retarded by the unremitted blow- 
 injr of tho N. wind from the TClack Sea down the Rosphorns. Sea of Marmora, and the Dardanelles. 
 Tne trade ot Constantinople is very considerable, it being an entrepot for a great portion of 
 European and Asiatic Turkey, as well as Persia. 
 
 The chief other ports are — in European Turkey, Galatz in Moldavia on the Danube, and Sal- 
 onica in Macedonia ; in Asiatic Turkey, Smyrna on the W. coast of Asia Minor, Trebisonde on the 
 Black Sea, and Beyrout in Syria. 
 
 Measures, Weights, Monky, &c 
 
 Measures and Weights. — The pik or ell is of 
 two kinds ; the greater pik, called halebi or 
 archim, used in the measurement of silks and 
 woollens, = 27 - 90 Imp. inches ; the lesser pik, 
 termed emlasse, used in the measurement of 
 cottons and carpets, = 27-06 Imp. inches ; but 
 
 in trade the pik is reckoned at 27 Imp. inches = 
 I Imp. yard. The berri, or Turkish mile, = 
 1826 Imp. yards. 
 
 Thealmude, liquid measure, — 1} Imp. gal- 
 lon nearly, and 100 almudes = 115-10 Imp. 
 gallons ; the aliuude of oil weighs 8 okes. 
 
TUR 
 
 652 
 
 TUS 
 
 is very variable, on account of the continued 
 debasement of the coin. In 1810, £l was worth 
 only 12 piastres ; but in 1839 it was equivalent 
 to 104, and in 1842 to nearly 120 piastres. 
 
 The common or silver purse (keser) is 500 
 piastres ; the gold purse (kise) is 30,000 piastres; 
 the jukg is 2 common purses, or 1000 piastres. 
 
 No regular system of coinage exists at present 
 in Turkey. And bills and prices are generally 
 reckoned by European merchants according to 
 the rates borne by foreign coins, particularly 
 Spanish and German dollars. 
 
 Bills on London are commonly drawn at 61 
 days' sight ; on other places, 31 days' sight. No 
 uniform custom prevails as to days of grace. 
 
 A Treaty between Britain and Turkey in 1838 
 engages the Porte " to abolish all monopolies of 
 agricultural produce, or of any other articles 
 whatsoever, as well as all permits from the local 
 governors, either for the purchase of any article, 
 or its removal from one place to another when 
 purchased." It allows British merchants to 
 purchase, export, or re-sell all kinds of mer- 
 chandise ; and other powers are entitled to esta- 
 blish their trade 6n the same basis. The duties 
 it fixes are 3 per cent, ad valorem on all goods 
 imported or exported, and they are to be subject 
 to a septennial revision. 
 
 The fortin, corn measure, of 4 killows, = 3*84 
 Imp. bushels ; and 100 killows = 12 Imp. quar- 
 ters nearly. 
 
 The oke of 4 chequees, or 400 drams, = 19800 
 troy grains = 2 lbs. 13 oz. 4J drams avoirdu- 
 pois ; the cantar or quintal of 44 okes, or KIO 
 rottoli, = 124*46 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 
 Gold, silver, and precious stones, are weighed 
 by the chequee, = 4950 troy grains : the chequee 
 is divided into 100 drams, each of 16 karas, or 
 64 grains ; the dram = 49J troy grains ; and 1 J 
 dram = 1 metical = 74£ troy grains = 2| drams 
 avoirdupois nearly. The fineness of gold is ex- 
 pressed by dividing the unit of reference into 24 
 carats, each of 4 grains : the fineness of silver by 
 dividing it into 100 carats, each of 4 grains. 
 
 The preceding are the Constantinople weights ; 
 but in Smyrna, 100 killows = 17$ Imp. quarters ; 
 2 killows of Smyrna = 3 killows of Constanti- 
 nople nearly. The cantar or quintal is 7i bat- 
 mans, 45 okes, 100 rottoli, or 18000 drams, = 
 127'29 lbs. avoird. In other respects as above. 
 
 The batman of Persian silk is 6 okes ; the 
 quintal of cotton yarn, 45 okes ; the taffee of 
 Brussa silk, 610 drams; the chequee of goat- 
 wool, 800drams; thechequeeofopium,250 drams. 
 Money. — Accounts are stated in piastres 
 {grusch) of 40 paras, each para consisting of 2J 
 good or 3 current aspers. The rate of exchange 
 
 TURMERIC, the dried roots or bulbs of a tropical plant (Curcuma longa), are 
 about the size of a pigeon's egg — oblong, tough, externally grayish, internally of a 
 deep yellow colour, with an aromatic smell and a bitterish acrid taste. Our sup- 
 plies are brought from Bengal, Java, and China : of these the Chinese is the best. 
 Turmeric, after being imported, is reduced to a powder, which is used in dyeing 
 and in medicine ; also as a seasoning, being an ingredient in curry. S 
 
 TURNSOLE, a blue dye, obtained from a lichen found in the Canaries. 
 
 TURPENTINE (Fr. Terebenthine. Ger. Turpentin. It. Trementina), a name 
 for several resinous juices of trees, chiefly of the pine tribe. These juices agree in 
 most of their properties, being originally fluid and transparent, of a strong and 
 rather pleasant odour, and a pungent taste ; inflammable and soluble in oils, alco- 
 hol, and ether, but not in water. When distilled, they yield an essential oil, called 
 oil or spirit of turpentine, and a solid matter, called rosin, is left in the still. The 
 principal varieties are — 1. Common turpentine, derived from the Pinus sylvestris, 
 and largely imported from the United States. 2. Venice turpentine, from the 
 P. larix, or larch tree. 3. Chio turpentine, from the Pistacia terebinihus, and im- 
 ported from Chio, Cyprus, and the Greek Archipelago. Turpentine is largely em- 
 ployed in the arts, especially in painting and varnishing ; also in medicine and 
 surgery. S 
 
 TURTLE, a name given to the marine tortoise, some species of which, especially 
 the green turtle, found on the coasts of almost all the islands and continents of 
 the torrid zone, are highly prized as food. They abound particularly in the 
 Cayman Isles, in the West Indies, from whence they are imported. 
 
 TUSCANY, an Italian grand-duchy, lying on the N.W., between the Apen- 
 nines and the Mediterranean, separating the Papal States and Lucca. Area, in- 
 cluding Elba, &c, 8381 sq. miles. Population in 1 836, 1,436,780. Capital, Florence, 
 an inland city, pop. 97,548. Government, an absolute monarchy. S 
 
 A considerable portion of the territory is occupied with branches of the Apennines; while from 
 Leghorn to the S. frontier, the maritime district, called the Marcmma, once full of flourishing 
 cities, is now a pestilential desert. The finest part is the broad and fertile vale of the Arno, ex- 
 tending from Florence to Pisa. About one-third of Tuscany is planted with vines and olives, or 
 cultivated as arable land, and nearly two-thirds consist of forests or plantations of chesnuts, and 
 pasture-ground. The corn raised is insufficient for the consumption. The chief productions for 
 export are oil, silk, fruit, lamb and kid skins, potash, timber, cork, marble and alabaster, iron 
 from Elba, borax, alum, and anchovies fished on the coast; a little wine; with straw-plat, 
 woollen caps, coral articles, and some other manufactures. Trade is mostly concentrated at 
 
 Leghorn or Livorno, the chief commercial emporium of Italy, situate;! in lat. 43° 32' N., long. 
 10° 17' E., 14 miles from Pisa, and 45 from Florence, to which a railway is in progress. I'd]). 
 75,000, including numerous English. The town is neat ; and the harbour is tolerably spacious, but 
 not sufficiently deep for large vessels, which lie in the roads, where there is srood anchorage. There 
 are three lazarettos, and extensive warehouses in porto franco. The cliief imports are corn from 
 the Black Sea, French woollens, English cottons, hardware, salt-fish, and colonial articles, espe- 
 cially sugar from Havana and Brazil, coffee, and spices. The exports, besides the native products 
 already noticed, include the rcshipment of Black Sea wheat, and many of the other imports. 
 
TYP 
 
 (T>3 
 
 UXT 
 
 The transit-track- of Leghorn, particularly with the Levant and Black S?a, is less considerable 
 than formerly ; but the very low charges of the port, and the facilities afforded by its warehouses 
 and lazarettos, within which last ships may be unladen without being detained to perform quar- 
 antine, enable it still to preserve a very important share of this trade. In 1838, 3582 vessels 
 entered the port, including 195 British, in burden 29,307 tons. The yearly exports are estimated 
 at from £1,400,600 to £2,000,000. 
 
 Measures, Weights, Money, &c. 
 -The braccio of 20 
 
 Measures and Weiohts. 
 soldi •= 22*979 Imp. inches, and 100 braccia = 
 0383 Imp. yards ; the passetto is 2 braccia, and 
 the canna 5. The Tuscan mile — 2833 braccia. 
 
 The sacato, land-measure, of 10 stagoli, = 
 5928 Imp. square yards ; the quadrato = 4074 
 Imp. square yards. 
 
 The baril.wine measure, of 20 fiasci, = 10*03 
 Imp. galls.; the oil baril of 16 fiasci, = 7'36Imp. 
 galls. : the soma is 2 barili, and the cogna 10. 
 
 The stajo, corn-measure, of 2 mine, = 2*676 
 Imp. pecks ; and 100 staja = 66ft Imp. bushels : 
 the sacca of 3 staja = 2 Imp. bushels ; and the 
 moggio of 24 staja = 2 Imp. quarters nearly. 
 
 The Tuscan pound of 12 ounces, 96 drams, 
 
 288 denari, or 6912 grani, = 5240 trov grain9 ; 
 and the quintal of 100 lbs. = 74*86 lbs.*avoird. 
 
 Money. — Accounts are stated in lire, divided 
 into 100 centimes, or into 20 soldi each of 12 
 denari. The lira, valued in silver, is equivalent 
 to 786d. or 7id. sterling nearly; and £T.30, 
 53 centimes = £1 sterling. 
 
 In 1836 a ioint-stock bank was established at 
 Leghorn, which issues notes varying in amount 
 from £T.200 to £T.2000. 
 
 Principal coins : the ruspone, worth about £ 1 8s. 
 5Jd. sterling ; the zecchin, 9s. 5Jd. ; the france- 
 scone, 4s. 4fd., or 10 pauls; the paul, 5£d. 
 
 Bills from Britain are usually drawn at 3 
 months' date. 
 
 TYPE, a piece of metal, generally an alloy of lead with regulus of antimony, on 
 one end of which, called the face, is cast the figure of a letter or other character 
 used in printing. There are a great variety of sizes. The quantity of each usually 
 required is called a, fount, and is purchased by the pound weight. A fount compre- 
 hends a certain proportion of capital, small capital, Roman and Italic letters, with 
 points, numerals, &c. Letter-founding was invented in Germany in the 15th cen- 
 tury. In the reign of Anne most of our type was imported from Holland ; but after 
 1720, the improvements of William Caslon of London rendered the English types 
 superior to any in Europe. The art is still extensively pursued in the metropolis ; 
 also in Edinburgh, where it has attained the greatest perfection. 
 
 u. 
 
 ULLAGE, in Gauging, what a cask wants of being full. 
 
 UMBRELLA (Fr. Parapluie), a well-known article, employed as a covering 
 against rain ; a smaller kind — the parasol— being also used by ladies as a protec- 
 tion from the sun. Both are of Asiatic origin, where they are used entirely for 
 the latter purpose ; and were introduced into this country by way of Italy in the 
 early part of last century. In Europe, such coverings are used by almost all classes ; 
 but in the East their use is confined to the highest, whose rank also they sometimes 
 denote. They are extensively made in Birmingham, London, and other cities in 
 this country. The finer kinds are covered with silk ; and the commoner with a 
 peculiar kind of cotton cloth, largely manufactured in Perth and Carlisle. 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, the nucleus 
 of the wealth and power of the British empire, consists of two large islands, situa- 
 ted in the N. Atlantic Ocean, off the W. shores of Continental Europe, between 
 lat. 50° and 59° N., and long. 2° E. and 11° W., and numerous smaller islands 
 adjoining thereto. Area, 121,853 sq. miles. Population in 1841, — England and 
 Wales, 15,911,725 ; Scotland, 2,620,610; Ireland, 8,179,359; total, 26,711,694. 
 Capital, London, in lat. 51° 30' N., long. 0° 5' W. Pop. 1,870,727. Government, a 
 constitutional monarchy ; with a parliament consisting of a House of Lords made 
 up (excluding minors) of 417 hereditary peers and 30 bishops, and a House of Com- 
 mons of 658 representatives, chosen by about 996,000 electors qualified by holding 
 a certain amount of property. S 
 
 All the departments of British industry and production having received prominent attention in 
 the different articles of the present work, we deem it unnecessary in this place to do more than 
 give a summary of the most recent commercial and financial tables issued by the government. 
 Imports and Exports of the United Kingdom. 
 
 Years Official Value 
 Ending Jan. 5. | of import*. 
 
 Official Value of Exports. 
 
 Declared Value of 
 
 British Produce and 
 
 Manufacture*. 
 
 British Produce 
 and Manufacturi-i. 
 
 Foreign and Co'o- 
 nial Merchandise. 
 
 Total Exportt. 
 
 1841* £67,432,964 i £102,7(15,372 1 £13,774,306 
 
 1842 64,377, 9«2 M2,180,517 14,723,151 
 
 1843 65 204,729 100,260.101 13.584,158 
 
 £116,479,678 
 116,903,668 
 113,844,259 
 
 £51.406,430 
 51,634,623 
 
 47,381,023 
 
 * For preceding years see the article Commerce. 
 
UNI 
 
 C54 
 
 tJNI 
 
 Quantities of the Principal Articles of Foreign 
 
 and Colonial Merchandise entered for 
 
 Home Consumption. 
 
 Years to January 5, 
 
 Bark cwt. 
 
 Butter cwt. 
 
 Cheese cwt. 
 
 Coffee lbs. 
 
 Corn: Wheat ...qrs. 
 
 Other kinds qrs. 
 
 Flour cwt. 
 
 Cotton wool : 
 
 United States, .lbs. 
 
 East Indies lbs. 
 
 Brazil lbs. 
 
 Other places. ..lbs. 
 Dyes: Indigo lbs. 
 
 Lac lbs. 
 
 Flax & Hemp... cwt. 
 
 Hides cwt. 
 
 Molasses cwt. 
 
 Oil, olive gi 
 
 Train StSperm. . . tuns 
 
 Pepper lbs. 
 
 Quicksilver lbs, 
 
 Rice cwt. 
 
 Rice in husk bush. 
 
 Saltpetre cwt. 
 
 Seeds: Clover., .cwt. 
 
 Flax & ]mt.. bush. 
 Silk, Raw, &c. ..lbs. 
 Spirits : Rum . .gals. 
 
 Brandy gals 
 
 Sugar cwt 
 
 Tallow cwt. 
 
 Tea lbs, 
 
 Timber : foreign 
 
 loads 
 
 Colonial loads 
 
 Battens, deals, 
 
 staves hund. 
 
 Tobacco lbs. 
 
 Wine gals. 
 
 Wool, Sheep's — lbs. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1842. 
 
 640,714 
 
 505,893 
 
 249,272 
 
 251 ,265 
 
 220,678 
 
 248,335 
 
 28,723,735 
 
 28,420,980 
 
 2,024,848 
 
 2,300,888 
 
 1,442,378 
 
 649,484 
 
 1,317,815 
 
 1,214,220 
 
 453,016,218 
 
 353,353,283 
 
 51,931,138 
 
 59,667,420 
 
 13,952,644 
 
 14,095,987 
 
 12,297,659 
 
 13,180,411 
 
 3,011,990 
 
 2,809,195 
 
 649,943 
 
 765,894 
 
 1,998,583 
 
 1,998,898 
 
 304,502 
 
 456,222 
 
 423,126 
 
 402,422 
 
 1,989,466 
 
 1, £39,646 
 
 24,503 
 
 23,717 
 
 2,742,637 
 
 2,750,798 
 
 331 ,649 
 
 303,479 
 
 216,097 
 
 245,887 
 
 353,844 
 
 374,135 
 
 325,492 
 
 368,175 
 
 141,304 
 
 81,209 
 
 3,292,964 
 
 2,764,250 
 
 4,885,475 
 
 5,046,870 
 
 2,510,668 
 
 2,278,861 
 
 1,108,773 
 
 1,165,137 
 
 3,604,450 
 
 4,065,714 
 
 1,118,397 
 
 1,243,112 
 
 32,262,905 
 
 36,396,078 
 
 167,624 
 
 131,468 
 
 639,038 
 
 614,057 
 
 190,266 
 
 177,032 
 
 23,096,281 
 
 22,308,385 
 
 6,840,537 
 
 6,460,018 
 
 49,809.5(12 
 
 53.020,067 
 
 Declared Value of Principal Articles of British 
 
 and Irish Produce and Manufactures 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Apparel £ 
 
 Arms, ammunition- 
 Beef, pork, &c 
 
 Beer, ale. 
 
 Books 
 
 Brass and copper 
 
 Butter, cheese 
 
 Cabinet wares 
 
 Coals, culm 
 
 Cordage 
 
 Cotton manufactures 
 
 Cotton yarn 
 
 Earthenware 
 
 Fish 
 
 Glass 
 
 Haberdashery 
 
 Hardwares 
 
 Hats 
 
 Horses 
 
 Iron, steel 
 
 Lead and shot 
 
 Leather, saddlery . . . 
 Linen manufactures . 
 
 Linen yarn 
 
 Machinery 
 
 Oil, linseed, &c 
 
 Painters' colours 
 
 Plate, jewellery 
 
 Salt 
 
 Silk manufactures. . . 
 
 Soap, candles 
 
 Stationery 
 
 Sugar, refined 
 
 Tin wares, &c 
 
 Wool 
 
 WoollenmanufaCiures. 
 
 Woollen yarn 
 
 Other articles 
 
 Total,.. £ 
 
 Years to January 5, 
 
 1841. 
 
 632,844 
 332, 101 
 288,719 
 422,222 
 147,331 
 
 1,450,464 
 266,334 
 78,124 
 576,520 
 163,521 
 17,567,310 
 
 7,101,308 
 573,184 
 262,492 
 417,177 
 575,843 
 
 1,349,137 
 143,485 
 85,446 
 
 2,524,859 
 237,312 
 417,074 
 
 3,306,088 
 822,876 
 593,064 
 105,937 
 206,356 
 204,427 
 213,479 
 792,648 
 450,640 
 282,403 
 440,893 
 499,603 
 356,021 
 
 5,327,853 
 452,957 
 
 1,738,378 
 
 51.406,430 
 
 1842. 
 
 582,848 
 343,776 
 128,091 
 360,420 
 141,866 
 
 1,523,744 
 223,863 
 76,548 
 675,288 
 130,415 
 16,232,510 
 
 7,266,968 
 600,760 
 197,989 
 421,936 
 635,127 
 
 1,623,961 
 125,402 
 149,688 
 
 2,877,278 
 242,334 
 432,775 
 
 3,347,555 
 972,466 
 551,361 
 114,619 
 185,902 
 214,126 
 175,615 
 788,894 
 342,620 
 274.544 
 548,336 
 477,195 
 584,828 
 
 5,748.673 
 552,148 
 
 1,762,154 
 
 51,634.623 
 
 Declared Value of the Produce and 
 Exported to different Countries in 
 
 Manufactures of 
 each of the Years 
 
 the United Kingdom 
 1840 and 1841. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1841. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1810. 
 
 1841. 
 
 Russia £ 
 
 1,602,742 
 
 119,425 
 
 78,016 
 
 201,462 
 
 219,345 
 
 5,408,499 
 
 3,416,190 
 
 880,286 
 
 2,378,149 
 
 1,110,244 
 
 44,743 
 
 33,157 
 
 404,252 
 
 45,872 
 
 1,111,176 
 
 2,660,338 
 
 166,545 
 
 89,204 
 
 1,138,559 
 
 25,827 
 
 223,033 
 
 79,063 
 
 63,904 
 
 492,128 
 
 417,091 
 
 1,607,175 
 
 197,813 
 
 117,938 
 
 191,481 
 
 363,821 
 
 5,654,033 
 
 3,610,877 
 
 1,066,040 
 
 2,902,002 
 
 1,036,212 
 
 38,280 
 
 24,608 
 
 413,849 
 
 49,738 
 
 1,053,367 
 
 2,578,697 
 
 223,734 
 
 119,523 
 
 1,220,261 
 
 34,684 
 427,093 
 238,486 
 
 44,126 
 410,798 
 384,574 
 
 Mauritius £ 
 
 E. I. Co.'s Territories 
 and Ceylon 
 
 325,812 
 
 6,023,192 
 524,198 
 349,521 
 325,463 
 
 2,004,385 
 
 47,240 
 
 2,847,913 
 
 3,574,970 
 
 251,979 
 
 863,520 
 5,283,020 
 
 465[330 
 
 2,373 
 
 359,743 
 
 2,625,853 
 
 614,047 
 
 1,334,870 
 
 799,991 
 
 357,214 
 
 16,546 
 
 340,140 
 
 5,595,000 
 862,570 
 285,514 
 84,419 
 
 1,269,351 
 
 67,275 
 
 2,947,061 
 
 2,504,004 
 
 169,142 
 
 895,441 
 
 7,098,642 
 
 6,767 
 
 434,901 
 
 21,265 
 
 158,972 
 
 2,556,554 
 
 989,362 
 
 438,089 
 
 536,046 
 
 350,407 
 
 14,491 
 
 
 
 
 Sumatra, Java 
 
 
 Holland 
 
 Australia, "Van Die- 
 men's Land 
 
 New Zealand, &c... 
 
 British America 
 
 West Indies 
 
 Hayti 
 
 
 
 Portugal Proper 
 
 Azores 
 
 
 Other Foreign W. I. 
 
 .... Canaries 
 
 United States 
 
 Texas 
 
 Italv&Italian Islands 
 Malta 
 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 
 Turkey and Contin- 
 ental Greece 
 
 Morea and Greek 
 
 
 Colombia 
 
 La Plata States 
 
 Chili 
 
 
 Peru 
 
 
 Channel Isles & Man 
 Other Places 
 
 
 W. Coast of Africa.. 
 Cape of Good Hope . 
 
 Total,.. £ 
 
 51,406,430 
 
 51,634,623 
 
UNI 
 
 655 
 
 UNI 
 
 Public Revenue in 1839, 1840, and 1841, and Expenditure in 1841. 
 
 CUSTOMS EXCTSE. 
 
 I Foreign.. 
 Spirits-J Rum 
 
 ( British . . 
 
 Malt 
 
 Hops 
 
 Wine 
 
 Sugar, molasses. . 
 
 Tea. 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Tobacco, snuff... 
 
 Butter, cheese 
 
 Currants, raisins- 
 Corn 
 
 Cotton and wool- 
 Silk 
 
 Paper 
 
 Soap 
 
 Candles, tallow . . 
 
 Glass 
 
 Bricks, tiles,slates 
 
 Timber 
 
 Auctions 
 
 Excise Licences. . 
 
 Post Horses 
 
 Sundries 
 
 Total.. 
 
 STAMPS. 
 
 Deeds, kc 
 
 Probates,Legacies 
 Marine Insurance 
 Fire Insurance.. . 
 
 Bills, Notes 
 
 Newspapers 
 
 Advertisements. . 
 
 Stage-coaches 
 
 Receipts 
 
 Sundries 
 
 Total. . 
 
 TAXES. 
 
 Land Taxes 
 
 Windows 
 
 Servants 
 
 Horses 
 
 Carriages 
 
 Dogs 
 
 Add 1 10 per cent.. 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Totals. . 
 
 Post-Office 
 
 Crown Lands.. . 
 Other Receipts... 
 In all.. 
 
 Yean ended January 5, 
 
 1840. 
 
 £ 
 
 1,341 
 
 1,273. 
 
 5,442, 
 
 4,845, 
 280, 
 
 1,849. 
 
 4,827l 
 
 3,658. 
 779, 
 
 3,495. 
 318, 
 323. 
 
 1,098, 
 559, 
 262. 
 629, 
 784, 
 182, 
 718, 
 463. 
 
 I,6u3. 
 298, 
 
 1,028. 
 228, 
 
 1,617, 
 
 37-91 1,506 
 
 1,699,283 
 2,017,686 
 292,978 
 923,005 
 781,629 
 238,394 
 125,026 
 497,216 
 173,047 
 469 ,001 
 
 7,217^265 
 
 £ 
 
 1,290,581 
 
 1,155,613 
 
 5,201,664 
 
 4,983,602 
 
 341 .44(1, 
 
 1,791,646 
 
 4,650,017 
 
 3,472,864 
 
 921,552 
 
 3,588,192 
 
 375,256 
 
 339, 880 
 
 1,156,640 
 
 785,491 
 
 240,628 
 
 583,982 
 
 808,201 
 
 186,283 
 
 738,553 
 
 523,380 
 
 1,730,551 
 
 316,246 
 
 1,054,115 
 
 216,636 
 
 1,674,395 
 
 38,127,4(»8 
 
 38,118,222 
 
 1,174,100 
 1,298,622 
 201,482 
 384,286 
 447,467 
 159,852 
 
 1,710,533 
 2,098,078 
 299,398 
 944,321 
 773,114 
 244,416 
 131,590 
 438,047 
 175,070 
 473,256 
 7,287,823 
 
 1,181,283 
 1,404,642 
 216,823 
 416,170 
 481,499 
 170,951 
 
 28 0,919 
 
 3.942.689, 4,152,287 
 
 2,390,764! 1,342,604 
 
 357,815 482,422 
 
 24 8,31(> | 300,966 
 
 52,058,349151,693^510 
 
 £ 
 
 1,361,453 
 
 1,063,087 
 
 5,178,175 
 
 5,263,363 
 
 69,055 
 
 1,721,281 
 
 5,307,675- 
 
 3,973,668 
 
 887,723 
 
 3,550, 
 
 397,236 
 
 410,827 
 
 568,341 
 
 664,57 
 
 257,735 
 
 586,219 
 
 815,864 
 
 205,839 
 
 682,192 
 
 443,018 
 
 1,500, 
 
 311,788 
 
 1,036,582 
 
 199,864 
 
 1,661,521 
 
 1,665,297 
 2,132,473 
 284,496 
 964,146 
 743,312 
 245,866 
 131,605 
 460,733 
 174,747 
 473,685 
 
 7,276,360 
 
 4,715,353 
 
 1,495,540 
 
 438.298 
 
 271,660 
 
 52,315,433 
 
 Expenditure 
 In the Year ended January 5, 
 
 1842. 
 
 Collection ok Revenue. £ 
 Preventive Service 
 
 2,162,056 
 561,990 
 
 Total.. 
 
 PUBLIC DEBT. 
 
 Interest of Permanent Debt 
 
 2,724,046 
 
 24,333,352 
 4,076,776 
 
 
 135,669 
 
 Interest on Exchequer Bills .... 
 Total 
 
 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 896,465 
 29,442,262 
 
 371,8(0 
 
 318,000 
 32,465 
 122,717 
 498,551 
 319,299 
 4,022 
 
 1,666,854 
 
 533,761 
 571,805 
 487,08" 
 
 1,602,626 
 
 Branches of Royal Family 
 
 Lord-Lieut, of Ireland's Estab. . . 
 
 
 Miscellaneous Annuities 
 
 Total. . 
 
 JUSTICE 
 
 Police & Criminal Prosecutions. . 
 
 Total. . 
 
 DIPLOMATIC. 
 
 Ministers' Salaries and Pensions- 
 Consuls' Salaries and Pensions . . 
 Disbursements, Outfit, &c 
 
 Total.. 
 
 FORCES. 
 
 a™~ (Effective (92,630*) 
 
 Amy ^ Non-effective (86,26u)... 
 
 Navv i Effective (40,273) 
 
 ■^avy \ Non-effective (22,447)... 
 Ord- ( Effective (9531) 
 
 185,770 
 
 128,890 
 
 36,671 
 
 351,331 
 
 3,971,425 
 
 2,446,996 
 
 5,103,358 
 
 1,385,716 
 
 1,655,393 
 
 159,73.) 
 
 14,722,627 
 
 400,000 
 
 117,153 
 
 356,424 
 
 121, 326 
 
 239,122 
 
 192,749 
 
 119,531 
 
 159. 738 
 
 276,716 
 
 462,837 
 
 122,425 
 
 931,372 
 
 213.315 
 
 242,814 
 
 54,465,M18 
 
 
 Total. . 
 
 
 Public Works 
 
 Public Warehouses, &c 
 
 Remun. for Services, Losses, &c. 
 Special and Temporary Objects. . 
 
 Education, Science, and Art 
 
 
 Post-ofhce 
 
 Payments from Crown Lands 
 
 In all.. 
 
 Customs Duty Collected at the Principal Ports in 1841. 
 
 England. 
 
 England. 
 
 London 11,757,262 Chester 77,593 Leith 1604,098 Dublin 1977,718 
 
 Liverpool 4,140,593 Southampton... 72,262 Glasgow !526,K>0 Belfast 1372,792 
 
 Bristol 1,046.800 Yarmouth 69,726 " 
 
 Hull. 
 
 Newcastle I 
 
 Gloucester : 
 
 Plymouth 
 
 Whitehaven. ... 
 Stockton 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 - £ 
 
 Greenock 423,535 
 
 Port-Glasgow 100,827 
 Aberdeen 78,12" 
 
 Cork (263,364 
 
 Waterford.... 1 168,359 
 Limerick 170,552 
 
 712,124 Sunderland 67,205 
 
 410,076 Lvnn 64 
 
 123,688 Portsmouth... . 62,227 
 
 126,727 Goole 61,599 
 
 86,299 Truro 44,1 
 
 85,724 Rochester 40,713] Perth. I2,381 t Galway 27, 
 
 Dundee ' 48,138 Londonderry. 108.507 
 
 Montrose. ... 31,713 Newry 42.010 
 
 Grangemouth 20,692 61igo 36,627 
 
 * Exclusive of Queen's troops paid by the East India Company. 
 
UNI 656 UNI 
 
 UNITED STATES OF N. AMERICA, a confederacy of democratic republics 
 which claims the portion of that continent extending from the Atlantic on the E. 
 to the Pacific on the W., and from British America on the N. to Mexico, Texas, 
 and the Gulf of Mexico on the S. ; but the settled part is nearly confined to the 
 region lying between lat. 29° and 47° N., and long. 67° and 95° W., which is divided 
 into 26 states, 3 " territories " Cor half-formed states), and a federal district. It 
 has an area of about 2,000,000 square miles, and a population (1840) of 17,063,353, 
 including 2,487,355 negro slaves in the S. states ; but excluding about 200,000 
 Indian aborigines. Capital, Washington, pop. 23,364. The federal government 
 comprehends a president, the executive head, appointed for four years by electoral 
 colleges, and a congress composed of two legislative chambers, — a senate made up 
 of two members chosen by each of the state legislatures for six years, and a house 
 of 233 representatives, elected for two years by the people. S 
 
 The Physical Geography of this immense country presents various distinct features. Two prin- 
 cipal chains of mountains intersect it from N. to S. ; on the W. the Rocky Mountains, a prolonga- 
 tion of the Mexican Cordillera, 8000 feet in mean height, which run nearly parallel to the Pacific 
 coast at the distance of several hundred miles ; and on the E. the Alleghany Mountains, about 
 2500 feet in mean height, which run nearly parallel to the Atlantic coast, at a distance varying from 
 70 to 300 miles. These two chains divide the entire territory into three regions, — the Western or 
 Pacific region, watered by the Columbia river ; the Eastern or Atlantic region , watered by the Hud- 
 son, Delaware, and other streams ; and the Middle region, comprising the great and fertile valley of 
 the Mississippi, and watered by that river and its mighty tributaries the Ohio and the Missouri. 
 
 The Atlantic region, the fir.-t settled, is the most populous and improved portion, but not the 
 most favoured as to soil and climate. From the Alleghanies to the Mississippi the country is much 
 more fertile, particularly the basin of the Ohio— a rich and beautiful tract, the garden of the 
 United States. These two districts, embracing the whole country E. of the Mississippi, were ori- 
 ginally almost a continuous forest, the greater part of which still remains. Beyond that river is 
 the prairie tract, occupying the central part of N. America, W. to nearly the Rocky chain ; where 
 commences a barren sandy district, several hundred miles in length by 300 in breadth. The Pacific 
 slope is said to be densely wooded, but it is only partially explored. 
 
 The Climate on the N. resembles that of Canada, — extremely cold in winter, and warm in summer, 
 with a rapid transition from the one season to the other ; and along the whole Atlantic coast it 
 may be generally described as much colder than in the same parallels in Europe, the difference 
 being equivalent to about 1 degrees of latitude. This difference lessens as we proceed westwards ; 
 and on, the shores of the Pacific the climate resembles that of the W. of Europe on the same 
 parallel. In the southern states the summers are hot and unhealthy, especially in July, August, 
 and September ; but the remainder of the year is commonly mild and pleasant. 
 
 The Productions of the Soil differ according to climate and situation. Timber, though still common 
 in the Atlantic states, has been mostly cleared from localities whence it can be readily carried 
 away. Agriculture is as yet but imperfect, the state of the country still rendering it more profit- 
 able to cultivate a large surface rudely, than a small one laboriously. The principal objects of cul- 
 tivation, ranged in their order of importance, are in the different divisions as follow : — In the north- 
 ern or New England states (Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and 
 Connecticut), Indian corn, grass, rye, oats, flax, wheat, buckwheat, barley, andhemp ; in the mid- 
 dle and western states, wheat, Indian corn, tobacco, grass, oats, buckwheat, flax, barley, potatoes, 
 spelts, rye ; and in the southern states, cotton, wheat, tobacco, Indian corn, rice, barley, and hemp. 
 
 The crop of the chief articles in 1840, and the states ranking highest in production, were as fol- 
 low :— Indian corn, 377,531,875 bushels (Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia); wheat, 84,823,272 
 bushels (Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, Virginia) ; oats, 123,071.341 bushels (New York, Penn- 
 sylvania, Ohio, Virginia) ; rye, 18,645 ; 5b7 bushels (Pennsylvania) ; barley, 4,101 ,504 bushels (New 
 York) ; potatoes, 108,298,060 bushels (New York, Maine) ; hemp and flax, 95,252 tons (Virginia) ; 
 rice, 80,841,422 lbs. (S. Carolina); tobacco, 219,163,319 lbs. (Virginia, Kentucky); cotton, 
 790,479,275 lbs. (Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, Alabama) ; sugar, 115,110,809 lbs. (Louisiana) ; 
 and silk cocoons, 61,522 lbs. (Connecticut). 
 
 The live-stock in 1840 consisted of 4,335,669 horses and mules; 14,971,586 neat cattle (New 
 York, Ohio) ; 26,301,293 swine (Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio) ; and 19,311,374 sheep (New York, 
 Ohio, Vermont), yielding 35,802,114 lbs. wool. 
 
 Mining is prosecuted to some extent. Coal is worked in Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Ohio, where 
 there is an immense formation extending into Indiana and Illinois. Iron is generally diffused ; and 
 mines are worked in Pennsylvania and other states. Lead is raised in Wisconsin, Illinois, and Mis- 
 souri ; and of late years gold has been collected in N. Carolina, Georgia, and in Virginia. Other mi- 
 nerals exist ; but only a trifling quantity is raised. Salt is produced chiefly in New York and Virginia. 
 
 In 1840, 27,603,19) bushels of bituminous coal, and 803,489 tons (each of 28 bush.) anthracite, 
 were produced ; 286,903 tons cast, and 197,233 tons bar iron ; 31,239,453 lbs. lead; $529,605 value 
 of gold ; and 6,179,174 bushels domestic salt. 
 
 Manufactures were established after the separation from the mother-country ; and having been 
 since fostered by tariff protection, they have risen to some importance in the northern states, espe 
 daily Massachusetts. Cotton and woollen goods are largely made at Lowell in that state ; the 
 coarser kinds of hardware and machinery at Pittsburg in Pennsylvania and other places ; and a 
 variety of other goo4s v — as leather articles, linen, linen-yarn, cordage, glass, paper, soap, and 
 candles, at different places. Distillation and brewing are conducted on a great scale, especially 
 in New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio ; and a little wine is made in N. Carolina and other states. 
 
 In 1840 the value of woollens made was $20,696,999; of cottons, $46,350,453; of flaxen goods, 
 
 t 322,205; of silks, $119,814; of mixed manufactures, $6,545,503; of hats, caps, bonnets, &c, 
 10,1«0,847; of leather articles, $33,134,403; of glass, $2,890,293; of paper, $5,641,495; of 
 cordage, $4,078,306 ; and the quantity of spirits distilled, 41,402,627 gallons ! 
 
 The Internal Trade, which is of great activity and extent, is facilitated by the magnificent navi- 
 
UNI 
 
 C57 
 
 UNI 
 
 gation of the Hudson, Ohio, Mississippi, and other rivers, and of the great lakes which separate 
 the Suites from Canada ; and also by the numerous canals and railways by which these and the 
 Atlantic ports and populous districts are connected. These public works, partly formed by joint- 
 stuck companies, and partly state undertakings, want the finish and durability of those of Britain, 
 but some are of great extent,— as the Erie Canal, 363 miles in length, joining Lake Ontario and 
 the Hudson, and the railway connecting the Ohio with the Delaware- In 1838, the canals in ope- 
 ration afforded 3026 miles of artificial inland navigation ; and the total mileage of railways chartered 
 in 1840 was 9378, of which 3430 were open, and traversed by 475 locomotives. The roads, however, 
 excepting those in New Englaud, and a national one 700 miles in length, from Baltimore to St 
 Loua on the Mississippi, are very indifferent ; in many parts being mere forest tracks. 
 
 The External Commerce and navigation of the United States exceeds that of any other nation of 
 the world,— Great Britain alone excepted. Her staple export is cotton wool, the shipment of which 
 in 1841 was estimated in the public accounts at $54,330,341 , being in value more than one-half of the 
 whole domestic exports of the Union. The chief other articles of that yearwere tobacco, $12,576,703 ; 
 flour, $7,759,646 ; rice, $2,010,107 ; other grain, $6,967, 7"9 ; pork, bacon, beef, &c, $4,360,180 ; 
 lumber, naval stores, and ashes, $6,264,852; produce of fisheries, $2,846,851 ; cotton manufac- 
 tures, $3,122,546 ; other manufactures, $6,203,617 : the whole making, with unenumerated 
 articles, and $2,746,486 of coin, $106,382,722. The cotton is sent chiefly to Britain, France, and 
 Germany ; tobacco principally to Britain and Holland ; the flour and provisions partly to Europe, 
 but chiefly to Brazil and the West Indies, which are also the great marts for lumber. 
 
 The imports are made up of cottons, woollens, linens, hardware, earthenware, and other manu- 
 factures from Britain ; silks and wines from France and Spain ; tea from China ; sugar and coffee 
 from Cuba and Brazil ; linens, woollens, and hosiery from Germany ; salt from England and Portugal ; 
 with spices, dve-stuffs, and numerous other articles from all parts. In 1841 the whole amounted 
 to $127,946,177, whereof $14,724,300 were in foreign, and $113,221,877 in American shipping. 
 
 The mercantile marine of the Union amounted in 1840 to 2,180,764 tons, owned chiefly in the 
 northern states. 
 
 Progress of the Exports and Imports for a Series of Years. 
 
 !;:.«. 
 
 1837- 
 
 Exports. ! Dollars. | Dollars. 
 
 Domestic. . 101,189,082 106,916,680 
 
 Foreign .... 20,504,495 21,746,360 
 121,693,5 77 128,663,040 
 Imports jl49,895,742 189,980,035;140, 989,217 113,717,404 169,092,132 
 
 Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. 
 95,564,414 96,033,821 103,533,891 
 21,854,962; 12,452,795 ] 17,4 94,525 
 117^4197376108,486,616 121,028,416 
 
 1840. 
 
 1841. 
 
 Dollars. 
 106,382,722 
 15,46 9,081 
 132,085,946121,851,803 
 
 The following Table shows the Population of the several States and Territories 
 according to the Census of 1840, and their Imports and Exports in 1841. 
 
 Pop. Imports. | Exports. Pop. Imports. Exports. 
 
 Atlantic States 
 
 Maine 
 
 NewHampshire 
 
 Vermont , 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 Rhode Island.. 
 Connecticut. . . 
 
 New York 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Marvland 
 
 Columbia, F.D 
 
 Virginia 
 
 N. Carolina — 
 
 S. Carolina 
 
 Georgia 
 
 501 
 
 284 
 
 291 
 
 737 
 
 108 
 
 309 
 
 2,428 
 
 1.724 
 
 373 
 
 78 
 
 470 
 
 43 
 
 1,239 
 
 753 
 
 594 
 
 Dollars. 
 700,961 
 73,701 
 246,739 
 699 20,318,003 
 830 339,592 
 978 295,989 
 921 75,713,426 
 033 10,346.698 
 
 2,315! 
 
 3,276| 
 
 6,101,313 
 
 77,263; 
 
 377-237 
 
 220,360! 
 
 1,557, 431 1 
 
 449,007| 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1,091,565 
 
 10,348 
 
 277,987 
 
 11,487,343 
 
 278,465 
 
 599,348 
 
 33,139,833 
 
 5,152,501 
 
 19,166 
 
 38,585 
 
 4,947,166 
 
 769,331 
 
 5,630,286 
 
 383,056 
 
 8,043, 
 
 3,696,513, 
 
 1,519,467 
 212,267 
 685,866 
 476,183 
 383,702 
 779, 
 
 Western States. 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Indiana. 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Tennessee | 829,210 
 
 Arkan sas ( 97 ,574 
 
 Alabama 590,756 
 
 Mississippi 375,651 
 
 Louisiana ! 352,411 
 
 Territories I 
 
 Florida 64,477 
 
 Wisconsin 30,945 
 
 Iowa 43,112 
 
 Dollars 
 11,318 
 137,800 
 
 33,875 
 ' 7,523 
 530,819 
 10,256,350 
 145,181 
 
 Dollars. 
 793,114 
 
 10,981,271 
 34,387,' 
 
 1 7-Q63..153 127-946177 121-851-803 
 
 Value of Imports from and Exports to Foreign Countries in 1841, 
 
 U. Kingdom. . 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 British India 
 Brit.W.Indie« 
 Brit. America 
 Other colonies 
 
 France . . . 
 
 Russia 
 
 Holland... 
 Belgium . . 
 Hanse Towns 
 Spain 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Domestic j Foreign 
 Produce. Produce. 
 
 Dollars. | 
 
 46,662,815 
 
 21.079 
 
 1,236,6411 
 
 1.105.594 1 
 
 1,968,187 
 
 105,322, 
 
 Dollars. | Dollars. 
 46,155,735 3,386,538 Italv 
 1,020,931! 
 
 532,334 
 3,714,879, 
 6,292,29rt| 
 
 142,977; 
 
 430,86' 
 92,962 
 
 364,273 Havti 
 133,627 
 
 51,099,638 
 23,993,812 
 2,817,448 
 1,638,022 
 374.833 
 2,449,964 
 1,310,696 
 
 57,859,146 4,507,256 Brazil 
 18,410,367 3,356,388 
 146,118. 879,611 
 2,237,444 277,4 
 1,673,726 150,156 
 4,110,655 450,061 
 386,001 27,819 
 
 Sicilv.... 
 ,989jRest of Europe 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Venezuela. 
 
 Sp. W. Indies 
 Other W.Indies 
 
 Argen.Republic 
 Chili, Peru .... 
 
 ina. 
 
 Other countries 
 
 Total.. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Dollars. 
 1,739,293 
 1,959,965 
 3,284,957 
 2,012,004 
 1,809,684 
 14,127,047 
 1,884,912 
 6,302,653 
 1,612,513 
 1,755,356 
 3,985,388 
 3,787,992 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Domestic Foreign 
 Produce. Produce- 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1,205,881 
 
 2,285,558| 
 886,513 
 532,41 9| 
 
 1,093,634; 
 
 5,828,856 
 
 1,952,170! 
 
 2,941,991 
 509,007| 
 846,410. 
 715,322 
 
 2,761 ,504 ! 
 
 Dollars 
 192,499 
 149,983 
 
 1,150,107 
 230,083 
 61,923 
 660,158 
 170,807 
 575,282 
 152,939 
 256,578 
 485,494 
 
 1,734,459 
 
 127,946,177 106,382,722 15,469, <'81 
 — ^ 
 
UNI (558 UNI 
 
 The fisheries of the United States are of great importance. The cod-fishery is prosecuted with 
 activity by the NewEnglanders, who are likewise extensively engaged in the northern and southern 
 whale-fisheries. In 1840, a capital of $16,429,620, and 36,584 men, were employed in the fisheries ; 
 the whole producing 773,947 quintals of smoked and dried fish, 472,359 barrels pickled fish, 4,764,708 
 gallons spermaceti, and 7,536,778 gallons whale and other fish oil, besides $1,153,234 in value of 
 whalebone and other articles. 
 
 The commerce and navigation of the United States rose into importance during the wars con- 
 sequent on the French revolution, when they acquired a great proportion of the general and 
 carrying trade of Europe; and in the interval from 1791 to 1807, their exports increased from 
 $19,000,000 to $108,000,000, and their imports from $52,000,000 to $138,500,000. But this pro- 
 sperity was checked by the lawless violence which reigned after the .Berlin and Milan decrees of 
 Napoleon on the one hand, and the British orders in council on the other, concerning the respec- 
 tive rights of the neutral and the belligerent. And even after the return of peace, the high duties 
 imposed with the view of protecting the manufactures of the northern states, rendered the progress 
 of trade by no means commensurate with the general advance of the Union in wealth and popula- 
 tion. The declared value of the British and Irish produce and manufactures annually exported 
 to the United States was, on an average of the three years 1805-6-7, £11,749,137 ; of the five years 
 1816-20, £6,948,609 ;ofthe ten years 1821-30, £6,009,770; and of the ten years ia3I -40, £7,834,381, 
 havingin the speculative years 1835 and 1836 been £10,568,455 and £12,425,605, respectively. 
 The trade with other countries maintained nearly the same proportions. 
 
 The protective policy of the United States was begun in 1789. It was extended in 1816, par- 
 ticularly as to woollens and cottons, new manufactures of which had sprung up in the northern 
 states during the short war with Britain. And it was still farther extended by the celebrated 
 tariff of 1828. This measure, however, having roused the indignation of the southern states, 
 especially South Carolina, and nearly led to a disruption of the Union, was modified in 1832 ; and 
 Mr Clay's Tariff Bill, passed March 2, 1833, further provided for the gradual reduction of all 
 duties exceeding 20 per cent, to that rate by June 30, 1842. The good effects anticipated from Mr 
 Clay's bill have been frustrated by a new tariff passed in August 1842, which re-imposes extrava- 
 gant-rates on manufactured goods; but the rising discontent of the southern states renders it 
 probable that this tariff will be only of short duration. 
 
 The objjctions of the southern states to the tariff of 1842 (as to that of 1828) arises, as is well 
 known, from their being wholly agricultural, and the buyers, not the producers, of manufactured 
 goods. In this way they not unnaturally exclaim against a law, the tendency of which is both to 
 force them to purchase the comparatively dear goods of the northern states, and at the same time 
 to deprive them of the most profitable market in which to make their sales of cotton, tobacco, rice, 
 and other raw products : for there can be no doubt, that to the same degree in which the tariff 
 prevents them from buying foreign manufactures, it goes to exclude their agricultural produce from 
 foreign countries. 
 
 THEPRrNciPAL Ports, stated in their order from N. to S. along the Atlantic, are the following : — 
 
 Boston, in Massachusetts, 210 miles N.E. of New York, lies on a peninsula in a bay in lat. 
 42° 21' N., long. 71° 5' W. Pop. 93,383. The harbour is deep, capacious, and safe, with extensive 
 wharfs ; and its entrance is fortified. The trade consists chiefly in exporting manufactured goods, 
 beef, pork, fish, and whale-oil, in exchange for flour, rice and other grain, cotton, tobacco, stores, 
 coals, &c, from the more southern states ; but it has also an extensive foreign trade. 
 
 New York, the commercial capital of the United States, lies in lat. 40° 43' N., long. 74° 10' W., 
 on Manhattan Island, at the mouth of the Hudson, opposite Long Island and Staten Island, through 
 the channel between which, called the Narrows, the port is usually approached from the Atlantic. 
 Pop. 312,710. The inner bay forms a magnificent harbour, 8 miles in length by 4 or 5 in breadth ; 
 and the largest ships may lie close to the quays. By means of the Hudson and the extensive 
 system of canals and railways with which New York is connected, it is the port not only for the 
 surrounding country, but in a great measure also for Upper Canada, Ohio, Michigan, and Indiana j 
 while, by means of the Erie canal and lake, and the Ohio and Wabash canals, goods may be con- 
 veyed to the emporiums on the Mississippi, even to New Orleans, and conversely. It has also an 
 extensive transit trade with the S. states. Its imports and exports thus embrace every article 
 that enters into the trade of the Union. The value of the merchandise annually loaded and un- 
 loaded is estimated at nearly $200,000,000 ; and the coasting arrivals exceed 5000. In 1839, 21 IS 
 vessels (546,856 tons) arrived from foreign ports; and the imports amounted to $99,296,495, and 
 the exports to $34,928,872. The great excess of imports arises from the produce of the Western 
 States being mostly sent down the Mississippi to New Orleans, while their foreign supplies are 
 chiefly derived through New York. 
 
 Philadelphia lies 80 miles S. W. of New York, in Pennsylvania, between the Delaware and Schuyl- 
 kill, 6 miles above their confluence, in lat. 39° 57' N., long. 75° 11' W. Pop. 228,691. Thequayson 
 the Delaware are accessible to the largest merchantmen. This port is chiefly distinguished for its 
 coasting trade ; largely exporting flour, provisions, and manufactures to New York, Baltimore, 
 &c. ; though its foreign commerce is also pretty extensive, the imports annually amounting to 
 from $12,000,000 to $15,000,000. 
 
 In New York and Philadelphia, the spring and the/all, when the country buyers arrive or give 
 their orders, are distinguished as the trade seasons. The spring trade begins about the middle or 
 end of January, and terminates about the first of May : in Philadelphia, however, it commences 
 for the western trade about one month earlier. The fall trade begins both in New York and in 
 Philadelphia on the 1st August, and closes towards the commencement of November. Goods in- 
 tended for either season should arrive at least one week before it commences. 
 
 Baltimore, in Maryland, 100 miles S.W. Philadelphia, on Potapsco Bay, 14 miles above its en- 
 trance into the Chesapeake, in lat 39° 17' N., long. 76° 38' W. Pop. 102,313. It is favourably 
 situated ; and is one of the greatest emporiums in the world for flour and tobacco. The chief" other 
 exports are hemp, flax, corn, timber, and iron. Imports, manufactures, &c. 
 
 Charleston, in S. Carolina, in lat. 32° 46' N., long. 79° 57' W., at the confluence of the Couper 
 and Ashley rivers, 6 miles from the ocean. Pop. 29,261. Exports chiefly cotton and rice; with 
 naval stores, hams, bacon, &c. Imports, corn, flour, fish, and coarse manufactures from the N. 
 and middle states, with a variety of foreign goods, mostly at second-hand from New York. 
 
 Savannah, in Georgia, in lat. 32 3 2' N., long. 81° 3' W,, on the Savannah river, 12 milea from 
 
URU 
 
 URU 
 
 its mouth. Pop. 11,214. It lies 00 miles S. W. Charleston, and its trade is very similar. The 
 total annual exports approach $15,000,000. 
 
 Mobile, in Alabama, 115 miles E. New Orleans, in lat. 30° W N., long. 88° 11' W., at the 
 mouth of the Mobile river, in the Gulf of Mexico. Exports, chiefly cotton. Imports, trifling. 
 
 New Orleans, in Louisiana, the great and flourishing emporium of the western and southern 
 states, lies in lat. 29° 58' N., long. 90° 9* W., on the Mississippi, 105 miles from its mouth, in the 
 Gulf of Mexico. Pop. 102,191. It is built on a swampy unhealthy plain. The river is very deep 
 at the town, and is navigable for the largest vessels several hundred miles inland ; btit there is 
 a bar at its main entrance at Balize, with only from 12 to 14 feet water at tide. Exports, cotton, 
 flour, corn, meal, bacon, pork, tobacco, shingles, stores, lead, sugar, &c, the whole amount- 
 ing in 1839 to $30,995,936, exceeding in value the American produce shipped at New York; but 
 the imports are comparatively small, amounting in 1839 to only $12,864,942. 
 Measures, Money, Banks, &c. 
 
 Measures and Weights same as in Britain, 
 except the measures of capacity, which continue 
 to be those used in England prior to the intro- 
 duction of the imperial system. Commodities 
 
 formerly sold by the hundredweight, however, 
 are now, with few exceptions, sold by the 100 
 lbs., termed in some of the states a quhita'. 
 
 The barrel of flour contains 5 Winchester 
 bushels of wheat, and weighs 196 lbs. net. The 
 barrel of Indian corn contains 3Jth Winchester 
 bushels, each bushel weighingabout 57 lbs. The 
 hogshead of Indian meal contains 800 lbs. ; the 
 barrel of pickled beef or pork, 200 lbs. 
 
 Money. — The integer of account is the dollar 
 ($), which is divided into 100 cents. 
 
 Gold coins ; the eagle (of 10 dollars) weighing 
 258 troy grains, 9-1 Oths tine, or 232| grains pure, 
 and 2o\ grains alloy; also the half-eagle and 
 quarter-eagle, in the same proportion. 
 
 Silver coins ; the dollar (of 100 cents), weigh- 
 ing 412$ troy grains, 9-10ths fine, or 3714 grains 
 pure, and 41i grains alloy ; also the half-dollar, 
 
 dollars, and the dollars of Mexico, Peru, ana 
 Bolivia, 897-l<'O0ths in fineness, and 415 grains 
 in weight, at 100 cents each ; and French 5 franc 
 pieces, 900-1000ths in fineness, and 384 grains 
 in weight, at 93 cents each. {Act of Congress, 
 March 3, 1843). 
 
 Banks of issue have been established in all 
 parts of the Union. They are partly state con- 
 cerns, and partly joint-stock associations char- 
 tered with partners liable only for the amount 
 of their shares, or for some fixed multiple there- 
 of. Many being without any solid foundation , 
 and most, if not all of them, conducting their 
 operations loosely, they became involved in the 
 speculative undertakings which prevailed in 1835 
 and 1836, and in May 1837 the whole suspended 
 specie payments. In 1838 cash payments were 
 resumed by such as continued solvent ; but the 
 greater number again suspended in October 
 1839, when the great bank of the United States, 
 in Pennsylvania, originally with a capital of 
 §35,«'K)0,000, gave way ; since which, though the 
 
 quarter-dollar, dime or ^ dollar, and half-dime, New York banks have continued to fulfil their 
 
 in the same proportion. 
 
 Copper coins ; the cent weighing 208 troy 
 grains, and the half-cent. 
 
 The expenses of the mint being defrayed by 
 the government, coin is exchanged for bullion, 
 deducting J per cent, for the advance for the 
 time required for coining. The remedy of the 
 mint is 1 part in 144. 
 
 The value of the eagle, of full weight, is 41s. 
 l-16d., equal £2, Is. 1-^d. sterling nearly; and 
 
 engagement:-, the banking system generally has 
 fallen into utter lawlessness and confusion. 
 
 On January 1, 1839, the number of banks 
 was 508, and of branches, 131 ; their, aggre- 
 gate capital, $259,642,610 ; and circulation, 
 $100,670,640. 
 
 Finances.— The revenue of the federal govern- 
 ment is derived almost wholly from the produce 
 of the sales of public lands and the customs 
 duties ; the former fluctuating usually from 
 
 of the dollar, 50*l7d , equal 4s. 2£d. sterling 1 about $2,000,000 to $6,000,000 ; the latter from 
 
 nearly. But the value of the dollar of account, 
 which since 1834 [Eagle] has been estimated in 
 gold at ^th of the eagle, or rather |th of the 
 half-eagle (few eagles being coined), is only 
 49*32d., equal nearly 4s. l|d. sterling. 
 
 The par of exchange with Britain, deduced 
 from the gold coins, is thus 49J pence per dollar, 
 equal $4*86$ cents per £1 sterling. But in prac- 
 tice the rate is commonly expressed (as more 
 particularly explained under Exchange), by a 
 per centage upon an assumed par of 4s. 6d. per 
 dollar : the true par, stated in this form, is 9i 
 per cent, premium ; or £109, 10s., valuing the 
 dollar at 4s. 6d., = £100 in British sterling 
 money. When the premium is above 9i per 
 cent, therefore, the exchange is in favour of 
 Britain ; when below 9i per cent., against it. 
 
 Bills ca Europe are commonly drawn at 60 
 days' sight. The days of grace are 3. The 
 foreign exchange is regulated chiefly by the state 
 of the bill market of New York. 
 
 The following foreign gold coins are allowed 
 currency by weight : those of Britain, 91 5i-1000ths 
 in fineness, at 94^j cents per dwt. ; and those of 
 France, 899-1000ths in fineness, at 92^ cents 
 per dwt. And the following foreign silver coins 
 are allowed currency by tale: Spanish pillar 
 
 §15,000,000 to $20,000,000. 
 
 The public debt amounted in 1 794 to $76,096,468; 
 in 1812 it was reduced to $45,154,189; but in 
 1816, after the conclusion of the war, it had in- 
 creased to $123,016,325. In ia34 it was entirely 
 redeemed, and in the following years a surplus 
 accrued, which on January 1, 1837, amounted 
 to $43,000,000, which, after reserving $5,000,000, 
 was to be distributed among the states by quar- 
 terly instalments ; but the last instalment was 
 indefinitely deferred, owing to the commercial 
 and banking embarrassments which occurred 
 afterwards. 
 
 Most of the individual states, and some of the 
 cities, have contracted debt, principally for ca- 
 nals, railways, public buildings or institutions ; 
 and the amount of these debts at the close of 
 1840, was about $250,000,000, a great part of 
 which is due in Britain. A large portion of this 
 money has been injudiciously expended ; but 
 this does not afford the shadow of a pretext for 
 the " repudiation " of their debts by Michigan, 
 Mississippi, Louisiana, and other states, — a 
 course so disgraceful, that besides bringing a flood 
 of dishonour upon those states, it has to a certain 
 extent affected the value of all American secu- 
 rities in the markets of Europe. See Supp. 
 
 URUGUAY, a small South American republic, lying between Brazil and the 
 river Plata. Area, 80,000 sq. miles ; population 70,000, chiefly Spanish Americans, 
 Indians, and mixed races. S 
 
 A considerable portion of the country consists of table-land, yielding nothing but pasture for 
 large herds of wild cattle. Towards the west the table-land is intersected by numerous valleys, 
 
USA 660 VEN 
 
 which, as well as those adjoining the Plata, contain many fertile tracts, where tlie grains and fruitfl 
 of Southern Europe are cultivated with success. The eastern coast district is low and poor, being 
 mostly covered with sand and intersected by lakes. It is not known whether the precious metals 
 are found, but at San Carlos a rich copper mine is worked. 
 
 Montevideo, the metropolis, and only port of consideration, is a strongly fortified town, situated 
 on a peninsula on the northern shore of the river Plata, 120 miles E. of Buenos Ayres, in lat. 34°54'S., 
 long. 56° 13' E. Pop. 12,000. The harbour is the best on the Plata ; but is exposed to the violent 
 west winds called pamperos. It is of a circular shape, 4 miles in diameter, with a narrow entrance, 
 and is deep enough for large ships. The trade resembles that of Buenos Ayres. In 1836, the value 
 of merchandise exported was £631,392. ; in 1862, British imports were £645,453. 
 
 Measures and Weights same as Spain. Money. — Accounts are kept in dollars, worth, according 
 to a recent quotation, about 44d. or 3s. 8d. sterling. 
 
 USANCE, the customary or usual time for which bills are drawn. 
 
 USQUEBAUGH, an Irish compound of spirits, raisins, cinnamon, cloves, &c. 
 
 USURY, is the taking, on previous agreement, in England and Scotland of more 
 than £5, in Ireland more than £6, for the forbearance of £100 during a year, and so 
 in proportion. Of late years the usury laws have been relaxed in favour of bills 
 not having more than 12 months to run, and simple loans above £10, not on real 
 security, as explained under Interest. S 
 
 V. 
 
 VALONIA, the acorn of a species of oak (Quercus cegilops) produced in the 
 Morea and Asia Minor. It is used in tanning ; the astringent principle is mostly 
 confined to the acorn-cup. Valonia is of a bright drab colour, becoming black, 
 however, when exposed to damp, which injures it. About 160,000 cwts. are an- 
 nually imported into the United Kingdom. 
 
 VAN DIEMEN'S LAND, or TASMANIA, an insular appendage to the S.K 
 part of the Australian continent, subject to Britain. Area, 27,000 sq. miles. Popu- 
 lation in 1847, 70,758, including 24,133 convicts. See Tasmania, in Supplement. 
 
 The island is intersected from north to south by a chain of mountains about 3500 feet in height ; 
 and the remainder is composed of alternate hill and dale, a great part clear, well watered by 
 rivers, and mostly fit for cultivation or pasturage. The climate is cooler than that of New South 
 "Wales, and the country has not the same extremes of barrenness and fertility. Wheat, barley, 
 oats, and potatoes are produced of superior quality ; and the sheep supply fine wool, though it 
 is said scarcely equal to that of the continent. Blackwood and pine are the chief timber trees. 
 
 Van Diemen's Land was discovered by Tasman in 1642. In 1803, a convict establishment was 
 founded by the British. After 1813, it was frequented by voluntary emigrants ; and between 1824 
 and 1838, the grants of land were not less then 1,128,000 acres. In 1839 the sales amounted to 42,386 
 acres, at the average of 10s. l|d., and in 1840 to 88,296 acres, at lis. 4d., exclusive of town lots and 
 military grants. In 1838, 108,000 acres were under crop, yielding 970,000 bushels corn, including 
 550,000 of wheat; and the live-stock consisted of 1,214,000 sheep, 75,000 cattle, 9650 horses, and 
 2400 goats. In the same year there belonged to the colony 101 vessels, burden 8382 tons ; of these, 
 nineteen, burden 2000 tons, were employed in the whale-ftshing. 
 
 The principal exports are, wool (in 1841, 3,597,531 lbs.) whale-oil, bark, &c, amounting in 
 1840 to £867,000 ; and the imports, comprising all sorts of British manufactures, colonial products, 
 spirits, wines, farming implements, &c, amounted in the same year to £988,356, including 
 £737,250 from Britain; the shipping inwards and outwards amounting each to about 80,000 tons. 
 
 Hobart-Town, the capital, on the S. side, possesses a splendid harbour on the Derwent river, 
 20 miles from its mouth, in lat. 42° 54' S., long. 147° 21' B. ; pop. in 1838, 14,382. Launceston, 40 
 miles up the Tamar river, is the principal settlement on the N. side. 
 
 Measures and Weights same as Britain. Currency, British coins and local bank-notes and 
 cheques. Public revenue in 1838, £138,591 ; expenditure, £133,681. S 
 
 VANILLA, the succulent fruit or pod of a parasitical plant ( Vanilla aroma fira) 
 found in Mexico. It is of a yellow or darkish-brown colour, corrugated, about 
 eight inches long, containing in its cavity, besides numerous minute shining black 
 seeds, a substance which is black, oily, and balsamic. It is an aromatic, employed 
 in confectionary, the preparation of liqueurs, and in flavouring chocolate, s 
 
 VEDRO, the principal Russian measure for liquids, = 271 Imp. gallons. 
 
 VELLUM, a fine white smooth kind of parchment made of calf-skin. 
 
 VELTE, a French measure for brandy, reckoned in Cognac at 1'61 Imp. gallon ; 
 in Bourdeaux at 1'58 do. ; and in Nantes at 1'24 Imp. gallon. 
 
 VELVET (Fr. Velours. Ger. Sammet. It. Velluto), a beautiful silk fabric, of a 
 compound texture ; having, in addition to the warp and shoot of plain silk, a soft 
 shag or pile on the outside, occasioned by the insertion of short pieces of silk thread 
 doubled under the shoot ; the other side being a strong close tissue. Its richness 
 depends upon the relative number of the pile threads ; and manufacturers accord- 
 ingly designate different qualities as velvet of two, four, or six threads, according 
 to the number. Velvet is now also made of cotton ; a strong kind of which, callod 
 Velveteen, is used for men's apparel. 
 
 VENEZUELA, one of the three republics of Colombia, occupies the N.E. corner 
 
VEIt 661 WAR 
 
 of S. America, between New Granada and British Guiana, having Brazil on tho 
 S. Area, 404,000 sq. miles. Pop. 905,000, including 250,000 whites of Spanish 
 origin. Capital, Caraccas ; pop. 25,000. Constitution, a federal republic. 
 
 Venezuela has been only partially explored. The N. part is mountainous, containing on the 
 N.W. a branch of the Andes, but the remainder is generally level, particularly the course of the 
 Orinoco, a magnificent river which intersects the country from "W. to E., sometimes overflowing 
 considerable districts. The S. part mainly consists of llanos, boundless plains similar to the 
 pampas of La Plata, affording pasturage to innumerable herds of cattle. Culture and colonization 
 are mostly confined to the coast territory, especially the vales of Aragua ; where are reared coffee, 
 cacao, tobacco, indigo, and cotton, which, with jerked beef, hides, mules, drugs, and dye-woods, 
 form the leading exports. The imports chiefly consist of cottons and linens, with woollens, 
 silks, flour, pork, and wine ; and the principal commercial relations are with the United States, 
 Britain, Denmark, Germany, Spain, France, and Holland. In 1839, the exports amounted to 
 £895,198, and the imports to £717,091. 
 
 La Guayra, the port of Caraccas, and chief trading city, lies on the Caribbean Sea, in lat. 10 3 36' N. 
 long. 66 3 56' W. Pop. 4000. The port is a mere roadstead ; and the town is gloomy, hot, and 
 unhealthy. In 1839, 26,337 tons of foreign shipping arrived, with cargoes valued at £570,318 ; 
 and the exports amounted to £388,795. Maracaybo, on the strait connecting the great lake of 
 that name with the sea, and Angostura, 240 miles up the Orinoco, are the chief other ports. 
 
 Measures and Weights same as Spain. Money, Colombian dollars of 8 reals : usual exchange, 
 $6 = £1. Revenue in 1840, $2,245,259; expenditure, $1,933,750. S 
 
 VERDIGRIS (Fr.Vert-de-gris. Ger. Griinspan), the snbacetate of copper. When 
 pure, it occurs in blueish acicular crystals ; but commonly it is in large masses, 
 from having been packed when moist in leather bags. Its purity may be tested 
 by diluted sulphuric acid, in which it entirely dissolves, leaving the impurities, if 
 any, behind. It is employed as a pigment, in hatmaking, dyeing black, &c. 
 
 VERDITER, a blue pigment, is a carbonate of copper, generally made by de- 
 composing solution of sulphate of copper, with the addition of chalk. 
 
 VERJUICE, the expressed juice of unripe grapes, or of crab-apples. 
 
 VERMICELLI, a thready paste of flour and water, similar to Maccaroni. 
 
 VERMILION, a beautiful scarlet powder, the red sulphuret of Mercury. 
 
 VICTORIA. See Supplement. 
 
 VINEGAR (Fr. Vinaigre. Ger. Essig. It. Aceto. Por. and Sp. Vtnagre), is 
 an impure Acetic Acid, of which four varieties are known in commerce, namely, 
 wine, malt, sugar, and wood vinegar. The best is that prepared in France from wine. 
 In this country, beer or malt vinegar was the kind chiefly used before the present 
 improved method of producing it from pyroligneous acid. This acid, some- 
 times called crude vinegar, is obtained by the destructive distillation of wood, 
 and is now manufactured on a large scale. It is at first contaminated with tar, 
 but after being refined and diluted with water, it is applicable to all the purposes 
 for which common vinegar is used. Vinegar is apt, on exposure to the air, to 
 become turbid and ropy, and at last vapid : it should therefore be kept in bottles 
 completely filled and well-corked. Good French vinegar will keep in perfection 
 many years, if the bottle be not frequently opened. 
 
 The manufacture and sale of vinegar are regulated by the act 58 Geo. III. c. 65. An excise duty 
 of 2d. per gallon is levied upon the manufacture ; and at present about 3,000,000 gallons are 
 annually brought to charge. Nearly 9000 gallons of foreign vinegar are likewise imported. 
 
 VIOLIN. [Musical Instruments.] 
 
 VITRIOL, or COPPERAS, a salt formed by the union of sulphuric acid with 
 oxides of iron, copper, and zinc ; the first forming the sulphate of iron, called green 
 vitriol ; the second, sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol ; and the third, sulphate of 
 zinc, or white vitriol. Sometimes the name of red vitriol is given to the sulphate 
 of cobalt. Vitriol, when pure, occurs in beautiful crystals. It is extensively used 
 in dyeing, ink-making, the manufacture of colours, alid in medicine. 
 
 WAINSCOT, a name applied to the oak imported in logs from N. Europe. 
 
 WALNUT, a large European tree (Juglans regia), yielding a nut the kernel of 
 which is prized both for the table and for the oil which may be expressed from it. 
 The timber of the tree was much employed in furniture-making before the intro- 
 duction of mahogany, and it is still extensively used by the turner. 
 
 WANGHEES, a kind of canes imported from Canton. 
 
 WAREHOUSING or BONDING SYSTEM, a system under which certain 
 warehouses are appointed, under the charge of officers of the customs, in which 
 goods may be deposited without being chargeable with duty until they are cleared 
 for consumption. This system affords the most liberal convenience to the mer- 
 chant, and a general facility to the trade of a country. The tax on a commodity 
 is paid just when it is wanted, and when it is therefore least inconvenient to pay it. 
 
WAR 
 
 m 
 
 WAR 
 
 Suppose, for example, that a merchant imports goods, and is required to pay a duty 
 upon them immediately, and before he has found a market for them ; he must 
 either pay the tax and hold the goods ? in which case the consumer will hare to repay 
 not only the tax but the interest on it ; or he must sell the goods, and if he parts 
 with them at a loss or inconvenience, trade is injured, and the geueral wealth and 
 consequent productiveness of taxation proportionally diminished. Besides, the 
 necessity of having to pay duties immediately on importation is a bar to the entrepot 
 and carrying trade of a country. Notwithstanding the obvious advantages of the 
 warehousing system, however, it is only partially known in foreign countries, and in 
 our own dates no farther back than 1803 (43 Geo. III. c. 132), previous to which 
 the duties on all goods imported had either to be paid at the moment of their impor- 
 tation, or a bond was required, with security for their future payment. Since 
 1803 the system has undergone several improvements, the whole of which are 
 embraced in the existing warehousing act passed in 1833. 
 
 Abridgment of the Warehousing Act, 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 57, with the Alterations 
 of later Acts, viz. 4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 89, and 5 & 6 Vict. c. 47, and c. 56, &c. 
 
 § 1. Consolidation of former acts. by Treasury) ; and if any goods be not so cleared, 
 
 § 2. The Commissioners of the Treasury are the commissioners of customs may cause them 
 
 to be sold, the produce to be applied to the pay- 
 ment of charges, and the overplus, if any, paid 
 to the proprietor. When sold, such goods are 
 held subject to all the conditions to which they 
 were subject previous to sale, except that a 
 further time of 3 months from the sale be allowed 
 to the purchaser for clearing. If not so cleared, 
 they are forfeited. 
 
 § 15. If any goods entered to be warehoused, 
 or to be delivered, be lost by accident, commis- 
 sioners of customs may remit the duties. 
 
 § 16. No goods warehoused can be removed, 
 except upon due entry for exportation, or for 
 home use, except goods to be shipped as stores, 
 and which may be shipped without entry or pay- 
 ment of duty for any ship of the burden of 70 
 tons at least, bound upon a voyage to foreign 
 parts, the probable duration of which out and 
 home will not be less than 40 days: Provided 
 such stores be borne on the victualling bill, and 
 shipped as the commissioners may appoint. 
 
 § 17. Rum of the British plantations may be 
 shipped as stores without entry or payment of 
 duty, and any surplus stores may be delivered 
 to be reshipped for the same ship, or for the 
 same master in another ship, without entry or 
 payment of duty, if duly borne upon the vic- 
 tualling bills. If the ship for which surplus 
 stores have been warehoused, be broken up or 
 sold, the stores maybe so delivered for the use of 
 any other ship belonging to the same owners, or 
 may be entered for payment of duty, and deliver- 
 ed for their private use, or that of the master. 
 
 § 18. Upon the entry of such goods for home 
 use, the person entering them must deliver a 
 bill of the entry and duplicates, as in the case 
 of goods entered to be landed, as far as the rules 
 are applicable, and at the same time must pay 
 the full duties, according to the quantity first 
 taken of the respective packages at the time of 
 the first entry and landing, without abatement, 
 except as by this act otherwise provided ; and if 
 the entry be for exportation or for removal to 
 any other warehouse, and any of the packages 
 be deficient, a like entry inwards must be passed 
 in respect of the quantities so deficient, and the 
 full duties be paid on the amount before delivery 
 or removal, except as by this act is otherwise 
 provided ; and if any goods so deficient be such 
 as are charged according to value, it is to be 
 estimated at the price for which the like goods 
 of the best quality have been lately sold. 
 
 § 19. The duties upon tobacco, sugar, and 
 spirits, when taken out for home use, are to be 
 charged upon the quantities actually delivered ; 
 except that if sugar be not in a warehouse of 
 special security, no greater abatement on ac- 
 couut of deficiency is to be made than shall be 
 
 1. Consolidation of former acts. 
 
 2. The Commissioners of the Treasury are 
 to appoint ports for the purposes of the act ;* and 
 the commissioners of customs, subject to their 
 directions, are to appoint in what places therein, 
 and in what manner, goods may be warehoused. 
 
 § 3. Whenever a warehouse is approved of, it 
 must be so stated in the order of appointment. 
 
 § 4. Appoints warehouses and bonds previous 
 to the act to continue. 
 
 § 5. The commissioners of customs are to pro- 
 vide tobacco warehouses at the legal ports. 
 
 § 6. The treasury and commissioners of cus- 
 toms may revoke any former warrant or order, 
 or make alterations or additions. 
 
 § 7- Orders as to warehouses of special secu- 
 rity, must be published in the Gazette. 
 
 § 8. Before any goods are entered in any 
 warehouse, the proprietor or occupier thereof, 
 if he be willing, is to give general security for 
 the payment of the full duties on all goods ware- 
 housed, or for the due exportation thereof; and 
 if he be not willing, the different importers must 
 give security in respect of their particular goods. 
 
 § 9. If any warehoused goods be the property 
 of the occupier, and be bond fide sold by him, 
 on a written agreement signed by the parties, 
 or a written contract of sale made, executed, 
 and delivered by a broker or other person legally 
 authorized for the parties, and the price so sti- 
 pulated is actually paid or secured by the pur- 
 chaser, every such sale is valid, although the 
 goods remain in the warehouse ; provided that 
 a transfer, according to the sale, be entered in a 
 book to be kept by the officer in charge, who 
 must enter such transfers, upon application of 
 the owners, and produce the book upon demand. 
 
 § 10. Goods to be stowed in warehouse so as 
 to afford easy access ; and if taken out without 
 due entry, the occupier is liable for the duties. 
 
 §11. Warehoused goods, fraudulently conceal- 
 ed or removed, are forfeited ; and any person 
 gaining access to the goods, except in the pre- 
 sence of the proper officer, forfeits £500. 
 
 § 1 2. Within one month after any tobacco has 
 been warehoused, and upon the entry and land- 
 ing of any other goods, the proper officer is to 
 take a particular account thereof, and mark 
 " Prohibited" on goods prohibited for home 
 use; and no alteration can be made on the 
 packages, except in the cases after mentioned. 
 
 § 1 3. All goods entered must be carried to the 
 warehouse under the care of the proper officer. 
 
 [By 5 & 6 Vict, c 47, § 52, any person frau- 
 dulently removing goods entered to be ware- 
 housed, forfeits treble their value, or £100.] 
 
 § 14. Goods warehoused must be cleared for 
 exportation or home use within 3 years, and all 
 surplus stores of ships within 1 year from the 
 day of the first entry (unless further time given 
 
WAR 
 
 6G3 
 
 WAR 
 
 after the rate of 3 per cent, for the first 3 months, 
 and 1 per cent, for every subsequent month 
 during which the sugar is warehoused ; and also j 
 except, that if spirits (being any other than rum ' 
 of the British plantations) be not in a warehouse 
 of special security, no greater abatements for 
 deficiency is to be made than as follow : — 
 For every 100 gallons, hydrometer proof, via. : 
 For any time not exceeding 6 months, 1 gal. ; 
 for any time exceeding 6 months, and not ex- 
 ceeding 12 months, 2 gals. ; exceeding 12 
 months, and not exceeding 18 months, 3 gals. ; 
 exceeding 18 months, and not exceeding 2 
 years, 4 gals. ; exceeding 2 years, 5 gals. 
 No abatement is made for deficiency of spirits 
 by leakage or accident, and not by natural eva- 
 poration, except as otherwise specially provided. 
 [By 4 & 5 Wm. IV. c. 89, § 20, the commis- 
 sioners may remit duties on the whole, or any 
 portion of wines, spirits, and other fluids un- 
 avoidably lost in warehouses ; and the following 
 goods, in warehouses of special security, are 
 charged by their measure or weight, as actually 
 delivered, viz. : wine, currants, raisins, figs, 
 hams, cheese, and mahogany.] [ Vide a\so Corn.] 
 § 20. If after any goods have been duly enter- 
 ed and landed to be warehoused, the importer 
 further enters them for home use or for exporta- 
 tion as from the warehouse, they are considered 
 as warehoused, although not actually deposited. 
 (5 SI, 22, 23, 24. Any goods which have been 
 warehoused may be removed by sea or inland 
 carriage to any other warehousing port. 
 
 § 25. Goods so rewarehoused are in the same 
 situation as when first warehoused, and the 
 time which they are allowed to remain reware- 
 housed is reckoned from the day when they are 
 first entered to be warehoused. 
 
 § 26. If upon their arrival at the port of des- 
 tination, the parties are desirous forthwith to 
 export the goods, or to pay duty thereon for 
 home use, without actually lodging them, the 
 officers, after all the formalities have been duly 
 performed < except the actual labour of lodging 
 them), may consider them as virtually reware- 
 housed, and the account taken for the reware- 
 housing may serve as the account for delivering 
 them, as if from the warehouse, either for ship- 
 ment or for payment of duties. 
 
 § 27. Goods may be removed from one ware- 
 house to another with official permission. 
 
 § 28. Goods so removed are subject to the 
 same conditions as when originally warehoused. 
 § 29. When particular security has been given 
 by the importer of warehoused goods in respect 
 of the same, and they are disposed of, so that the 
 original bonder is no longer interested in them, 
 the officers may admit fresh security by the new 
 proprietor, and cancel the original bond. 
 
 § 30. If the person removing any goods from 
 one port to another, continue to be interested in 
 them, after they have been duly rewarehoused 
 in some warehouse, in respect of which security 
 is required, and not held under general security, 
 the bond in respect of the rewarehousing con- 
 tinues in force, until fresh bond be given by some 
 new proprietor. 
 
 § 31. It is lawful in the warehouse to sort, 
 and repack goods, and to make lawful alterations 
 necessary for their preservation, or in order to 
 the disposal of them, provided they be repacked 
 in the packages in which the same, or some part 
 of the same parcel, were imported, or in pack- 
 ages of entire quantity equal thereto, or in such 
 other packages as the commissioners of customs 
 may permit (not being less, if the goods be to be 
 exported, or to be removed to another ware- 
 house, than may be required by law for impor- 
 tation) ; and to draw off wine or rum of the 
 British plantations into quart or pint bottles, 
 for the purpose only of being exported ; and to 
 
 draw off rum into casks containing not less than 
 20 gallons each, for the purpose only of being 
 disposed of as stores for ships ; and to draw off 
 any other spirits into quart bottles, under such 
 regulations as the commissioners of customs may 
 direct, for the purpose only of being exported ; 
 and to draw off and mix with wine any brandy 
 secured in the same warehouse, not exceeding 
 the proportion of 10 gallons of brandy to 100 
 gallons of wine ; and to fill up any casks of wine 
 or spirits from any other casks of the same, re- 
 spectively secured in the same warehouse ; and 
 to take such moderate samples of goods as may 
 be allowed, without entry and payment of duty, 
 except as the same may eventually become pay- 
 able, as on a deficiency of the original quantity. 
 In a warehouse of special security, it is lawftrfto 
 rack off any wine from the lees, and to mix any 
 wines of the same sort, erasing from the casks 
 all import brands. 
 
 § 32. But no alteration is to be made on goods 
 or packages, nor wine, rum, brandy, or spirits 
 to be bottled, drawn off, mixed, or filled up, 
 nor samples to be taken, except after notices 
 given, and under the official regulations. 
 
 § 33. To provide for the case of surplus quan- 
 tities, which on repacking are not sufficient to 
 fill whole packages, and for waste, the duties 
 having been levied with regard to the state in 
 which the goods are imported, it is provided 
 that after goods have been repacked, the com- 
 missioners of the customs may cause or permit 
 refuse, damaged, or surplus goods not contained 
 in the packages to be destroyed; and if the 
 goods be for home use, the duties must be im- 
 mediately paid upon any part of such surplus as 
 may remain, which is delivered for home use 
 accordingly ; and if they be such as may not be 
 so delivered, the surplus is to be disposed of for 
 exportation, as the commissioners may direct; 
 and thereupon the quantity contained in each 
 package must be ascertained and marked upon 
 the same, and the deficiency ascertained, and the 
 proportion which such deficiency may bear to 
 the quantity in each package is to be marked on 
 the same, and added to such quantity, and the 
 total is to be deemed to be the imported contents 
 of such package, except as otherwise provided 
 by the act. But the commissioners may accept 
 the abandonment, for the duties, of any quantity 
 of tobacco or coffee, or pepper or cocoa, or lees 
 of wine, and of any whole packages of other 
 goods, and cause or permit the same to be 
 destroyed, and deduct the quantity from the 
 total quantity of the same importation, in com- 
 puting the amount of the deficiency. 
 
 § 34. No foreign casks, bottles, &c, except 
 any in which some goods have been imported 
 and warehoused, are to be used in repacking, 
 unless the full duties have been paid thereon. 
 
 § 35. The commissioners of customs may per- 
 mit any stuffs or fabrics of silk, linen, cotton, or 
 wool, or of any mixture of them, with any other 
 material, to be taken out of warehouse to be 
 cleaned, refreshed, dyed, stained, or calendered, 
 or to be bleached or printed, without payment 
 of duty, under security that they be returned 
 within the time appointed ; and they may, 
 under like security, permit rice, the produce of 
 places within the limits of the E. I. Co. 's charter, 
 to be delivered out to be cleaned, with such al- 
 lowance for waste as may seem reasonable, f By 
 5 & 6 Vict. c. 47, § 51 , this provision is extended, 
 and the commissioners are authorized to allow 
 any goods to be removed and cleaned.] 
 
 § 36, Allowing copper ore to be taken to be 
 smelted, repealed by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 56, § 9. 
 
 § 37. No goods warehoused, imported in bulk, 
 maybe delivered, except in the whole quantity 
 of each parcel, or in a quantity not less than 
 1 ton weight, unless by special leave. 
 
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 664 
 
 WAT 
 
 , § 4, it is provided that nothing con- 
 this sectioi 
 
 § 38. Nor are they to be delivered, until I IV. c 
 they or their packages be marked as the com- I tained in this section shall be held to extend to 
 niissioners may deem necessary and practicable. I loss occasioned by fire, and by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 47, 
 § 39. The Treasury may make regulations for § 50, the commissioners are authorized to remit 
 ascertaining the amount of any decrease or in- the duties on any goods destroyed " by any un- 
 crease of. the quantity of any particular sorts of j avoidable accident " in the warehouse.] 
 goods, and direct what abatement of duty pay- ' § 42. Upon the entry outwards of goods to be 
 able under this act for deficiencies may be made ; I exported from the warehouse, and before cocket 
 
 is granted, the person in whose name they are 
 entered must give security by bond in double the 
 value of the goods, with one surety, that they 
 shall be duly exported, and landed at the place 
 for which they are entered outwards, or other- 
 wise accounted for. 
 
 § 43. Requiring bond on the exportation of 
 beef or pork that they are not to be used as sea- 
 stores, is repealed by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 47, § 49. 
 
 § 44. No goods are to be exported from the 
 warehouse to the Isle of Man, except such as 
 may be imported thither in virtue of license. 
 
 § 45. All goods must be removed under the 
 care of the proper officer. 
 
 § -50. Warehoused goods must not be exported 
 in ships under 70 tons burden. 
 
 § 47. Goods landed in docks, and lodged in the 
 custody of the proprietors thereof, under this 
 act, not being seized as forfeited, are to continue 
 liable to such claim for freight as they were liable 
 to whilst on board ; and the directors and pro- 
 prietors of such docks are authorized, upon duo 
 notice by the master or owners, or others in- 
 terested, to detain such goods until the freights 
 and other charges be duly satisfied, or until a 
 deposit be made equal in amount to the claim. 
 
 but if such goods be lodged in warehouses of 
 special security, no duty is to be charged for 
 any amount whatever of deficiency on exporta- 
 tion, except in cases where suspicion may arise 
 that part has been clandestinely conveyed away ; 
 nor are such goods (unless wine or spirits), to 
 be measured, counted, weighed, or gauged for 
 exportation, except in such suspicious cases. 
 
 § 40. In warehouses not of special security, 
 the following allowances for waste are to be 
 made on exportation, viz. : — 
 Wine, upon every cask, viz. :— For any time 
 
 not exceeding 1 year, 1 gal. ; exceeding 1 
 
 year, and not exceeding 2 yeavs, 2 gals. ; ex- 
 ceeding 2 years, 3 gals. 
 Spirits, upon every 100 gallons hydrometer proof, 
 
 viz. — For any time not exceeding 6 months, 1 
 
 gal. ; exceeding 6 months, and not exceeding 
 
 12 months, 2 gals. ; exceeding 12 months, and 
 
 not exceeding 18 months, 3 gals. ; exceeding 
 
 18 months, and not exceeding 2 years, 4 gals.; 
 
 exceeding 2 years, 5 gals. 
 Coffee, cocoa-nuts, pepper, for every 100 lbs., 
 
 and in proportion for any less quantity, 2 lbs. 
 
 § 41. In cases of embezzlement and waste 
 through misconduct of officers, damages to be 
 made good to the proprietor. [By 5 & 6 Wm. 
 
 WARRANTY, in the contract of insurance, is an engagement on the part of the 
 insured, that a certain thing has happened, or is to happen. It is part of the consider- 
 ation for which the underwriter accepts the engagement ; it is therefore an absolute 
 condition, and if it do not occur as specified, the insurance is void, whether the cir- 
 cumstance be owing to the conduct of the insured or not, and whether it affect the 
 risk or not. Warranty and mere representation differ from each other in this, that 
 the former must absolutely agree with the event to the most minute particular, while 
 the latter only requires to agree in substance, and does not affect the contract, unless 
 through fraud or negligence it shall have increased the actual risk. It is divided 
 into express and implied, — the latter being merely used to express the conditions 
 on the part of the insured necessarily arising from the nature of the contract ; as, 
 that the ship shall be seaworthy, navigated with skill and care, that the voyage is 
 lawful, and shall be performed without wilful deviation, &c. The most important 
 and ordinary warranty during peace, is generally as to the time of sailing. Where 
 a ship is warranted " to sail " on a particular day, she must be really on her voy- 
 age, having made every preparation, by having taken in her whole cargo, cleared 
 at the custom-house, &c. ; and if so prepared for her voyage, and having set sail, 
 she be afterwards detained in some port of the same territory, as by an embargo, 
 or to form convoy, it will be held as compliance ; but not so if the preparations for 
 commencing the voyage have not been completed, or if, having been completed, the 
 vessel is prevented from breaking ground by stress of weather or otherwise. " As 
 to the question, what shall amount to a sailing, to satisfy the warranty, there can be 
 no doubt that, where a ship once breaks ground, and is fairly under sail upon her 
 voyage, though she go ever so little a way, and afterwards put back from stress of 
 weather, or apprehension of an enemy in sight ; or if she be then put under an em- 
 bargo, and detained beyond the time of sailing ; this is still a beginning to sail, and 
 the interruption does not alter the case, because the warranty is already complied 
 with " {Marshall, 365). There is a distinction between a warranty to sail, as above, 
 and a warranty to depart, the latter being held to import that the vessel is finally 
 out of port. 
 
 All express warranties must appear on the face of the policy. It does not re- 
 quire, however, to appear in the body of the policy,— a note on the margin suffices. 
 [Seaworthiness and Deviation.] (Park on Insurance. Marshall on Insurance.) 
 
 For warranty in insurance against fire and on lives, see Insurance. 
 
 WATCH (Fr. Montre. Ger Uhr, Taschenuhr), a pocket timepiece composed 
 of wheels and pinions, — a regulator to direct the quickness or slowness of the 
 wheels, and a spiral spring which communicates motion to the whole. Chronome- 
 
WAX 665 WES 
 
 ters are watches having the variable force of their mainspring equalized by a fusee 
 or variable lever, and also an expansion balance as a compensation for heat and 
 cold. Nautical chronometers are larger machines of the same kind, secured in a 
 box, and used for ascertaining the longitude at sea. 
 
 Spring watches were invented about 1658 by Dr Hooke, or as some contend in 1656 by Mr Huy- 
 ghens, and various improvements have been since effected in their construction. In 1764, a 
 chronometer made by J. Harrison of London was adjudged to entitle him to the premium of 
 £30,000 originally offered by Queen Anne for the discovery of the longitude. Besides Harrison, 
 the names of Mud'ge, Earnshaw, sen., Arnold, sen., Brockbank, and Arnold & Dent, have attained 
 celebrity as chronometer-makers. 
 
 Watch movements are made chiefly in London, Coventry, and Lancashire ; but they are polish- 
 ed and adjusted in most large towns throughout the kingdom. Watch-cases, though not subject 
 to any duty, are stamped at the assay offices to determine the fineness of the metal. The annual 
 value of the manufacture in this country is estimated at £1,500,000, and nearly 20,000 British 
 watches are annually exported. 
 
 The principal seat of the watchmaking trade on the continent is Switzerland. In that country, 
 says Dr Bowring, it is carried on in the mountainous districts of Neuchatel, where nearly 120,000 
 are produced annually, in the canton of Berne, and in the district of Geneva. " Switzerland has 
 long furnished the markets of France ; and though the names of certain French watchmakers 
 have obtained a European celebrity, yet I was informed by M. Arago that an examination into 
 this trade had elicited the fact that not ten watches were made in Paris in the course of a year, the 
 immense consumption of France being furnished from Switzerland, and the Swi?s works being 
 only examined and rectified by the French manufacturers. The contraband trade into France was 
 immense." {Report on Switzerland, p. 34.) The Swiss and French watches, however, are com- 
 monly much inferior to the Engli-h, being in general single-cased and flimsy in their construction. 
 
 WAX (Du. Wasch. Fr. Cire. Ger. Wachs. It. Por. & Sp. Cera. Rus. Wosk),or 
 Bees' Wax, a firm solid substance, moderately heavy, and of a yellow colour, formed 
 by melting the comb into cakes after expressing the honey. The best is that of a 
 lively colour, and an agreeable odour something like that of honey. When new it is 
 toughish, yet easy to break ; but by age it becomes harder, more brittle, loses its fine 
 colour, and in a great measure its smell. Wax is generally bleached and used in 
 making candles. It is also used in taking casts and moulds, and as an ingredient in 
 cerates and ointments. In addition to our large home supply, about 8000 cwts. are 
 annually imported, chiefly from W. coast of Africa, Barbary, and the E. Indies ; but 
 in small quantities also from the W. Indies, United States, Germany, and France. 
 
 WEIGHTS. [Measures.] S 
 
 WELD, a plant (Reseda luteold) formerly cultivated in Britain for the yellow 
 dye which it yields ; but which is now superseded by quercitron. 
 
 WESTERN AUSTRALIA, a British colony, comprising the settlements of 
 Swan River and King George's Sound, lies between lat. 31° and 35° 8' S., and to 
 the W. of long. 125° E., on the S. W. corner of that continent. 
 
 This colony was founded in 1829 ; but being established on principles which led to the dispersion 
 of the early settlers, its progress was discouraging until of late, when affairs were placed on a more 
 hopeful footing, chiefly through the exertions of the Western Australian Company. 
 
 The leading geographical feature is the Darling range, extending N. and S., parallel to and 
 about 50 miles distant from the W. coast ; and from whence the Swan, Avon, Murray, and other 
 rivers running to the westward take their rise. The soil is of a mixed character, and the climate 
 resembles that of E. Australia. The capital is Perth, on the river Swan, which has also Freemantle 
 near its mouth ; and at King George's Sound, on the S. coast, are the insignificant towns of Au- 
 gusta and Albany ; but there are scarcely any commodious harbours. The statistics of the colony 
 in the year 1840-41 were as follows :— Population, 4000; stock of every kind, 40,000; shipping 
 entered inwards, 30,000 tons. Exports of wool, 50,000 lbs. ; revenue, £9,650. 
 
 Australixd lies to the rf. of the preceding settlement, between Gantheaume Bay, in lat. 27° 
 W, and the Arrowsmith River, in lat. 29° 30 7 S. Its great recommendation is the fine harbour of 
 Port Grey, in lat. 28 3 55' S. An extensive tract of the country has been purchased by the Western 
 Australian Company from the British government ; and colonization is proceeding" on the prin- 
 ciple which has been applied in South Australia. S 
 
 WEST INDIES (BRITISH), comprise Jamaica, one of the Greater Antilles ; 
 a variety of the smaller islands forming the Caribbean Chain, classed as Wind- 
 ward and Leeward; and the Bahamas. Total population, 7 14,720, — more than four- 
 fifths being emancipated negroes. These islands have, with few exceptions, colonial 
 governments, with an elective legislative assembly, who enact all local laws, sub- 
 ject, however, to the veto of a governor appointed by the crown. S 
 
 The general aspect of the West India archipelago is mountainous. Many of the islands exhibit 
 manifest proofs of volcanic origin ; and they are all subject to violent shocks of earthquakes. Their 
 soil is in general productive far beyond that of most parts of Europe ; moisture and heat combin- 
 ing to produce a surprising luxuriance of vegetation. The year, as in most tropical climates, is 
 divided into two seasons, the dry and the wet ; yet four may be distinguished, — the spring, with 
 gentle showers in April and May ; the hot sultry summer, from May tifl. October, when the heavy 
 autumnal rains begin, and continue till December ; from which till April, in fact the winter, 
 serene and cool weather prevails. Between August and the end of October, the islands, except 
 Trinidad and Tobago, which lie farthest S., are subject to furious hurricanes; these, however, 
 are not very frequent, and are unknown except during this short period. 
 
WES 
 
 cm 
 
 WES 
 
 Jamaica, the most important of the British West India Islands, situate 100 miles S. of Cuba, ia 
 165 miles long by 40 in average breadth. It is traversed from E. to VV. by the lofty Blue Mountains, 
 covered with majestic forests. On the N. side the surface rises from the shore with gentle undula- 
 tions, separated by spacious valleys, and clothed with pimento groves and coffee plantations. On the 
 S. side the land is bolder, and interspersed with hill-ranges, between which are extensive savannahs 
 and sugar-estates. But upon the whole, the island, though well watered, and in some parts fertile, 
 is not generally productive, and requires skilful cultivation to make it yield heavy crops. The 
 seat of government is Spanish Town ; it lies inland 16 miles distant from Kingston, the principal 
 town, situated on Port Royal, on the S. coast, in lat. 17° 58' N., long. 76° 46' W., pop. 33,000. The 
 other ports (all free) are Morant, BlackRiver, and Savanna-la-Mar, also on the S. coast ; and Lucea 
 and Montego Bay, Falmouth, St Ann, Ports Maria and Antonio, and Annotto Bay on the north. 
 
 Windward Islands. Barbadoes, the most easterly of the Caribbean chain and oldest of the 
 British W. India colonies, is about 21 miles in length, and 14 in breadth. The surface, though 
 irregular, is comparatively low, and is almost all highly cultivated ; while, being directly exposed 
 to the N. B. trade-wind, it is cooler and more salubrious than any of the other islands. Capital, 
 Bridgetown, in Carlisle Bay, on the S. W. coast, in lat. 13° 5' N., long. 59° 41' W. ; pop. 20,<>00. 
 
 St Vincent, 108 miles W. from Barbadoes, extends about 17 miles from N. to S. It is rugged 
 and mountainous, and only about one-third is under cultivation ; but the soil of the good land is 
 well adapted for sugar. Capital, Kingstown, on the S. W. coast. The Grenadine islets are depen- 
 dencies of St Vincent. 
 
 St Lucia, about 20 miles N. N. E. St Vincent, is rather fertile, though hilly ; but the climate is 
 moist, variable, and noted for its unhealthiness. Capital, Carenage. 
 
 Grenada, 68 miles S. S. W. St Vincent, is also fertile, but unhealthy. About 5-8ths of the sur- 
 face is cultivated. Capital, Port George. 
 
 Tobago, 16 miles N. E. Trinidad, is exceedingly mountainous, with a climate resembling the 
 latter. Cultivation is mostly confined to low lands, on the S. side, where is situate Scarborough, 
 the capital, in lat. 1 1° 15' N., long. 60° 40 7 W. 
 
 Trinidad, taken from Spain in 1797, is the most southerly of the Windward Islands, and lies 
 only 13 miles distant from the N. E. coast of Venezuela in S. America. It is crossed from W. to 
 E. by three mountain-chains, well wooded ; and the valleys and plains are said to be naturally ex- 
 tremely fertile ; but the greater portion of the interior is uncultivated, and indeed partly unexplored. 
 The settled districts are mostly confined to the N. W., and a few places along the S. W. coast. 
 Capital, Port Spain, with a good harbour on the W. side. 
 
 Leeward Islands. Antigua, 40 miles N. Guadaloupe, is oval-shaped, and about 20 miles in 
 length. It has comparatively little of the mountainous character, is without rivers, and tie 
 climate is remarkable for its want of moisture. Capital, St John, on the N. W. side, lat. 18° 22' 
 N., long. 64° 42' W. ; but the best port is English Harbour, on the S. coast. 
 
 St Christopher or St Kitts, 50 miles W. by N. Antigua, abounds in rugged barren mountains ; 
 but the soil of the plains is exceedingly rich. Capital, Basseterre on the S. W. side. 
 
 Dominica, lying between Guadaloupe and Martinique, contains high rugged hills, interspersed 
 with well-watered valleys, having a light soil, adapted rather for coffee than sugar. Ports, 
 Roseau, or Charlotte Town, the capital, on the S.W. side, and Prince Rupert's Bay on the N.W. 
 
 The only others worthy of notice are— Nevis, 3 miles S. E. St Kitts, a beautiful spot, though 
 only a single mountain ; capital, Charlestown : Montserrat, 32 miles S. E. Nevis, of which two- 
 thirds are mountainous or barren ; capital, Plymouth : AnguiUa, a long flat island, contiguous to 
 St Martin, and 45 miles N. W. St Kitts : Barbuda, a level fertile island, the property of the 
 Codrington family, 36 miles N. Antigua : And Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Anegada, and others of 
 the Virgin Islands, a cluster of lofty islets adjoining Porto Rico. 
 
 The Bahamas or Lucayas are a chain of low islands scantily covered with soil, stretching 
 from Florida to Hayti, on the remarkable sand flats and coral reefs called the Bahama Banks. 
 Principal island, New Providence, containing Nassau, the capital. 
 
 The great staples of the West Indies are sugar, rum, molasses, and coffee ; many also produce 
 cocoa (chiefly Trinidad and Grenada), cotton, and tobacco; and some indigo, pimento, ginger, 
 lignum vitae, and other hardwoods and drugs. These are almost wholly shipped to the United 
 Kingdom ; and the following table shows the total quantities of the leading articles exported in 
 1831 and 1841 from the different islands ; to which, for the sake of comparison, we have added 
 the quantities brought from Demerara and Berbice. [Guiana.] 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 Barbadoes 
 
 Area. 
 
 Population. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1841. 
 
 Sugar. Rum. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Supar. 
 
 Rum. 1 Coffee. 
 
 Sq.m. 
 
 6,250 
 
 164 
 
 130 
 
 275 
 
 125 
 
 102 
 
 2,000 
 
 108 
 
 69 
 
 280 
 
 20 
 
 47 
 
 5,424 
 23,000 
 22,000 
 
 370,000 
 102,500 
 26,530 
 16,000 
 22,500 
 13,700 
 39,330 
 35,000 
 23,500 
 18,830 
 11,500 
 7,600 
 7,730 
 20,000 
 76,000 
 76,000 
 
 Cwt. 1 (M*. 
 
 1,429,093 3,522,463 
 379,(152! 26,733 
 221,662| 160,211 
 72,376 12.628 
 
 15,644,07* 
 
 2,420 
 
 44 
 
 89,349 
 
 5,863 
 
 ' 3,008 
 212 
 
 6i3J36D 
 4 
 
 '95,716 
 1 ,991 ,352 
 1,585,402 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 528,585 
 
 257,108 
 
 110,205 
 
 51,115 
 
 84,270 
 
 48,164 
 
 284, C05 
 
 144,103 
 
 63,936 
 
 42,342 
 
 12,124 
 
 10,839 
 
 8,397 
 
 100 
 
 415,261 
 
 90,063 
 
 0*1* | Lb,. 
 
 1,276,551 7,618,890 
 249i 1,513 
 88,999 .... 
 
 
 13,037 
 
 83,704 
 
 153,614 
 
 2,297 
 
 14,906 
 
 55,118 
 
 8,011 
 
 2,936 
 
 9,281 
 
 834 
 
 4,566 
 
 935,735 
 
 120,301 
 
 18,287 
 
 133 
 
 76 
 
 38,622 
 
 7,848 
 
 12 
 
 127,609 
 
 *5,i30 
 
 745,631 
 
 1,363,938 
 
 Grenada 
 
 Tobago 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 Antigua 
 
 St Christopher 
 
 Dominica 
 
 Nevis 
 
 185,771 
 121,249 
 327,167 
 193,177 
 101,968 
 56,339 
 49,924 
 26,137 
 15,559 
 
 802,134 
 122,088 
 
 328,471 
 498,717 
 
 64,933 
 163,849 
 256,932 
 
 63,007 
 147,750 
 
 40,629 
 48 
 
 2,332,970 
 224,579 
 
 Tortola 
 
 Bahamas. 
 
 Demerara 
 
 
 4,103,696 
 
 7,843,920 
 
 20,030,80? 
 
 2,151,217 2,770,139 
 
 9,927,689 
 
WES 607 WIIE 
 
 The great falling off between 1831 and 1841 is attributable mainly to the change produced by the 
 measure of negro emancipation ; but of late years there have likewise been deficient crops arising 
 from ordinary causes. 
 
 The imports consist of lumber from British America; herrings, codfish, flour, salt beef, and 
 other kinds of provisions ; wine ; and manufactures of all kinds from the mother-country. On an 
 average of the live years to 1841, the declared value of British produce and manufactures carried 
 to our West India colonies (including Guiana), amounted to £3,400,000. Of this, however, a con- 
 siderable portion is destined for re-exportation to the Spanish main. 
 
 Vessels with homeward cargoes begin to arrive in Britain in April and continue till October. 
 And the annual orders for plantation stores are received by our West India merchants in autumn, 
 distributed amongst the manufacturers or dealers in September and October, and shipped in Novem- 
 ber and December. 
 
 Measures and Weights, same as Britain. Money.— Accounts are now generally kept in sterling ; 
 but in some places in dollars, which by proclamation, September 21, 1838, are valued at 4s. 2d. 
 sterling each : the value of the gold doubloon is fixed at £3, 4s. The Colonial Bank, instituted 
 in London, 1836, has branches in most of the islands, which issue notes, and otherwise conduct 
 bu-iness on the Scottish system. [See Colony. Slave. Sugar.] 
 
 WEST INDIA ISLANDS (FOREIGN), embrace, besides Hatti, now inde- 
 pendent, the following possessions of European powers : — 
 
 Spain has the magnificent island of Cuba, already described. Porto Rico, a large, well watered, 
 fertile, and comparatively healthy island, 80 miles E. of Hayti ; area, 3,700 square miles ; popu- 
 lation. 360,000, including only 42,000 slaves : Capital, San Juan: chief exports in 1839, 692,458 
 cwts. sugar ; 85,434 cwts. coffee; and 3,311,720 gallons molasses. Also the islets Margarita, 
 Testi : i»s\ Turtuga, Blanquilla, Orchilla, Rocca, and Ave*. 
 
 Fkance possesses Quadaloupe, 40 miles S. E. Antigua, consisting really of two islands, Grande 
 Terre and Guadaloupe Proper or Basse Terre, separated by the Salt River Channel. Chief ports, 
 Basse Terre, the capital ; and Point-a-Pitre, nearly destroyed by an earthquake, February 1843. 
 Chief exports in 1836, 36,377,548 kilog. sugar; 2,554,424 kilog. molasses; 915,354 kilog. coffee. 
 Martinique, 20 miles N. St Lucia ; capital, Fort Royal ; chief exports in 1836, 22,994,754 kilog. 
 su?ar ; 2,483,593 litres molasses ; 519,507 kilog. coffee. Also the islets Marie Qalante, All Saints, 
 Deseada, and St Martin (H. part). 
 
 Holland has Bonaire, Curacoa, Oruba, St Martin (S. part), Saba, and St Eustatius. 
 
 Denmark possesses St Thomas and St John in the Virgin group ; also St Croix. 
 
 Sweden has only St Bartholomew. 
 
 The geographical character, productions, and course of trade of these islands, are similar to 
 those of the British West India Islands. S 
 
 WHALE, a cetaceous class of marine animals, of which there are several species ; 
 the principal being the Greenland whale (Bal&na mysticetus, Linn.), usually from 
 50 to 60 feet in length, and from 30 to 40 feet in circumference, inhabiting chiefly 
 the Arctic seas ; and the spermaceti whale, already described. [Spermaceti.] 
 Both are of commercial importance on account of the oil contained in their fat or 
 blubber, and of the tchakbane, or horny laminae in their upper jaw, which is ap- 
 plied to various useful purposes ; and large fleets are fitted out for their capture. 
 
 The Northern Whale Fishery originated in the discoveries of the voyagers who, in the end of 
 the 16th century, attempted to find a passage through the Northern Ocean to India. It was first 
 pursued, by the English and Dutch, in the seas of Greenland and Spitzbergen ; and their example 
 was speedily followed by others. The fishery was long confined to these seas; but after 1815, 
 re gradually abandoned for Davis* Straits, where also whales have recently become so 
 -.hat their pursuit by British vessels has nearly ceased. In the twenty years ending 1834, 
 the average annual number of our ships employed in this fishery, was 120 ; aggregate burden, 
 ■ ns ; procuring 1024 whales, yielding ) l,3l3 tuns oil, and 590 tons whalebone ; making the 
 annual produce, at the average prices of £28, 15s. per tun for oil, and £163 per ton for whale- 
 bone, about £420,000. The vessels were fitted out mostly from the north-eastern ports. But 
 this great fishery, which in 1820 employed 50,000 tons of shipping, manned by our best seamen, 
 now engages only one or two vessels from Peterhead and the adjoining ports. 
 
 The Southern Whale Fishery was begun by the British during the interruption which the 
 northern fishery suffered owing to the American war, and it gradually rose to importance. It con- 
 sists of two branches :—\st, The capture of the spermaceti whale, the cruising ground for which 
 extends from the meridian of Japan to beyond Australia, and longitudinally from Cape Horn 
 to the Indian Archipelago : the vessels are found and provisioned for three years, the period 
 of their general absence from England : 2d, The common black whale of the Southern seas, 
 met with principally on the S.E. coast of South America. Of late years, this fishery has also 
 fallen off; and, in 1840, the shipping fitted out from Britain, for both the Northern and Southern 
 fisheries, amounted to only 15,000 tons. It has also been nearly abandoned by the Australian 
 colonists, by whom it was prosecuted for some years, owing to the greater profits derived from 
 investing their capital in sheep-farming. 
 
 Notwithstanding this decline of the British fishery, however, it would appear that the activity 
 and enterprise of the Americans can still render whaling voyages so profitable, that, in 1841, they 
 had engaged in them no fewer than l! '3,000 tons of shipping. See United States. S 
 
 WHARF, a sort of quay erected contiguous to a harbour or roadstead. Wharf- 
 age, the dues payable for its use in the landing or shipping of goods. 
 
 WHEAT (Dan. Hvede. Du. Tarw. Fr. Froment, Bit. Ger. Weitzen. It. Grano, 
 Formento. Por. & Sp. Trigo. Ru. Pscheniza), the most valuable of the bread- 
 corns of the temperate zone, is a plant of which there are numerous species ; the 
 most important in Britain and Northern Europe being Winter or Lammas Wheat 
 {Triticum hybernum). It is generally sown in autumn, but often in spring, 
 
Will GG8 WIN 
 
 in which case it is sometimes called spring-wheat. Of this species there are nume- 
 rous varieties ; but they may be divided into two classes, red and white ; the former 
 the more hardy, but the latter excelling in the quality of their produce. The best 
 soils for wheat are those which are stiff or clayey. From two to three bushels 
 of seed are required to the acre ; and the produce, though very variable, may be 
 held for a fair crop to be 30 bushels per acre. But the average produce of 
 England does not perhaps exceed 22 bushels, nor that of Scotland 25. The weight 
 of the straw is reckoned to be about double that of the grain. An acre, therefore, 
 yielding 25 bushels of wheat, at the rate of 60 lbs. per bushel, would yield 3000 lbs. 
 of straw, or about 26£ cwts. (Low's Agriculture.) The average yield of flour is 
 12.J lbs. to 14 lbs. of grain. In the United Kingdom, wheat is produced chiefly in 
 England, particularly in the counties of Kent, Essex, Suffolk, Rutland, Hertford, 
 Berks, Lincoln, Hants, and Hereford. In Scotland, and especially in Ireland, the 
 climate is in general too cold and moist for the profitable culture of wheat ; though, 
 in the counties of Haddington, Edinburgh, Linlithgow, Perth, Forfar, and Stirling, 
 there are extensive tracts distinguished both for the quantity and quality of their 
 produce. [Corn.] 
 
 WHISKY, a spirituous liquor distilled from barley, and called malt or grain 
 spirit, according as more or less of the former is used in the process. Malt whisky 
 is esteemed the best, especially when the distillation is conducted slowly in small 
 stills. This spirit is largely manufactured in Scotland, Ireland, and the United 
 States. The finest is the Scotch, especially that of the Highland distilleries. 
 
 WHITEBAIT, a small species of herring (Clupea alba), caught in the Thames 
 below Woolwich, from April to September. 
 
 WHITING, a fish of the cod kind (Merlangus Vulgaris, Cuv.), caught in abun- 
 dance all round our coast, particularly in January and February. 
 
 WINE (Du. Wyn. Fr. Vin. Ger. Wein. It. & Sp. Vino. Por. Vinho. Rus. 
 Wino), is the fermented juice of the grape. The varieties of wine depend chiefly 
 on the quantity of sugar contained in the must, and the manner of its fermentation. 
 When the quantity of sugar is sufficient and the fermentation complete, the wine 
 is generous and perfect ; if the proportion of sugar be too small, the wine is thin 
 and weak ; if it be too large, part of it remains undecomposed, and the wine is 
 sweet and luscious ; and if it be bottled before the fermentation is completed, it 
 will, as in the case of champagne, proceed slowly in the bottle, and on drawing 
 the cork, the wine will sparkle in the glass. When the must is separated from 
 the husk of the grape, before it is fermented, the wine has little colour, and is 
 called White wine. But if the husks are allowed to remain in the must while it is 
 fermenting, the alcohol dissolves the colouring matter of the husks, and the wine 
 is coloured ; such is called Red wine. Wines besides vary much in flavour ; a 
 quality which, in a few kinds, is imparted by nature, but which in the general case 
 is produced by the art of the manufacturer. 
 
 The vine is a hardy plant, but agrees best with light gravelly soils, or those 
 abounding in volcanic debris, and a temperately warm climate. In colder coun- 
 tries, the grape-juice becomes too poor, and in warmer too saccharine for wine- 
 making. In Europe, the wine district is comprised between lat. 36° and 51° N., 
 within which limits almost all the wines of commerce are produced ; and from 
 whence large quantities are sent to the N. of Europe and to America. In the east, 
 comparatively little is grown or used ; being forbidden to the Mohammedans as 
 the cause of " more evil than profit ;" and never taken by the Hindoos but as a 
 medicine. In China, rice and palm wine are made in large quantities, but little is 
 made from the grape ; though of late they have evinced a taste for European wines, 
 particularly sherry. S 
 
 Descriptive Table of the Principal Wines. 
 
 ** France is the vineyard of the earth. Her 
 fertile soil, gentle acclivities, clear sunny skies, 
 and fine summer temperature, place her, in con- 
 junction with her experience and the advantages 
 of science applied to vinification, the foremost 
 in the art of making the juice which so gladdens 
 the human heart " (Redding, pp. 53, 57). The 
 departments which excel in the quality, though 
 not in the quantity, of their produce, are those 
 comprised in the ancient provinces of Burgundy 
 and Champagne, whence the wines derive their 
 names. 
 
 Burgundy, grown chiefly in the department 
 of C6te d'Or, is a fine dry wine, of the most 
 exquisite delicacy, flavour, and bouquet. It is 
 
 light, yet with sufficient body and spirit. It is 
 made both red and white ; but the latter is little 
 known in Britain. The choice red growths are 
 Romanee Conti, Chambertin, and La Tache. The 
 best white is Mont Racket. Alcoholic strength, 
 15 per cent. Burgundy, however, possesses 
 rreater stimulant powers than can be explained 
 jom this proportion of spirit. 
 
 Champagne, a class of light wines of su- 
 perior delicacy, divided into red and white 
 kinds, each either still or sparkling (mousseux). 
 The red is little known in Britain. The white 
 is generally in perfection the third year of bot- 
 tling. The still is comparatively strong and 
 heating,— but when of superior quality, has the 
 
WIN 
 
 WIN 
 
 peculiar aroma of the wine in an eminent degree. ! 
 'J be sparkling is chosen of moderate efferves- I 
 cencc ; that which merely creams on the surface ; 
 idemi-mousseux) being preferred to the full , 
 frothing wine igrand-mousseux) ; which last 
 also keep worst. Champagne is improved in 
 summer by ice. Ale. strength, sparkling, 12 per 
 cent. ; still, 14 per cent. Sillery is a white still 
 kind of the first class, produced near Rheims. 
 
 Claret is a name given in England to the red 
 wine of Medoc, in the Gironde, imported from 
 Bordeaux ; or more commonly a mixture of that 
 wine and Beni Carlos, or some other full wine. 
 In France, Clairet is a general name for all rose- 
 coloured wines. When in perfection, claret 
 should be of a rich colour ; a bouquet partaking 
 of the violet, and of a very agreeable flavour. 
 The prime growths are Lafitte, Latour, and 
 Margaux. It is less heating, and more aperient 
 than most other wines ; but is comparatively 
 short-lived : it is preferred when about 10 years 
 old. Ale. strength, 15 per cent. 
 
 Sauterne, a fine dry lightish-brown wine, is 
 also the growth of the'Gironde ; as are likewise 
 Pontac and Barsac, both durable, dry, and also 
 lightish-brown in colour. 
 
 Graves, a class of wines of the Bordelais. The 
 white kinds have a dry flinty taste, with an 
 aroma resembling cloves : the choicest are St 
 Bris and Carbouneeux. Of the red kinds Haut 
 Brim ranks highest. They keep for 90 years, j 
 
 Her in Hope is grown near Tain on the Rhone. 
 The white variety is of superior quality ; it is of 
 a straw-yellow colour, rich taste, very peculiar 
 odour, and lasts nearly a century without de- 
 terioration. The red variety is short lived. 
 
 Cote Rotie is a red wine, grown near Lyons. 
 Though slightly bitter, it excels in clearness, ' 
 colour, and perfume. 
 
 Routillon, a class of wines, the best of which 
 have body and fineness, and at first are very 
 sweet and of a deep colour ; but in eight or ten 
 years they acquire a golden hue and a delicate j 
 agreeable taste. Masdeu, one variety, is said ~ 
 to combine in some degree the fulness and vinous 
 properties of Port, with the flavour, aroma, and ! 
 bouquet which characterize the French wines. 
 
 Fronti'jnan, a muscadine wine of Languedoc, 
 occurs both red and white ; and will keep about . 
 20 years in bottle : when old it resembles Malaga, j 
 Lunel, also grown in Languedoc, resembles Fron- 
 tignan, but is stronger. 
 
 Rivesolles, a rich white muscadine, grown ' 
 near the Pyrenees, belongs to the class called in ' 
 France vins de liqueur. 
 
 Spain follows France in the excellence of its 
 wii.es. And from north to south, sites, soils, 
 and exposures of the happiest kind for the vine, 
 cover the face of the country. 
 
 Sherry, the most important, grown at Xeres ' 
 near Cadiz, is made both pale and brown. The ! 
 pale is generally preferred ; but * ' sherries are ' 
 never to be judged by colour, but solely by taste." 
 When good, this wine has a fine flavour, warm 
 taste, and some portion of the agreeable bitterness ! 
 of peach-kernels. When new, it is harsh and ' 
 fiery, but is mellowed by being kept four or five I 
 years in wood : it does not attain perfection 
 until 15 or 20 years old. When of a due age and 
 good condition it is very fine and wholesome, 
 and free from excess of acfd, with a dry aromatic 
 flavour and fragrancy which render it a fit ! 
 stimulant for delicate stomachs. Of late years 
 its manufacture has been greatly unproved, — 
 ale. str. 20 per cent. Amontillado is a rare, dry, 
 delicate kind of sherry. 
 
 Paxarette, made near Xeres r ^ronj.*he sherry 
 grape, is a rich cordial malmsey w'.tie, sparkling, 
 and of a light amber colour. Tent, likewise 
 grown near Cadiz, is a rich red muscadine, 
 drank generally as a stomachic. 
 
 77 is a secondary kind, with a peculiar 
 taste, from being mingled with wine burned a 
 little in the boiling. Lagrimas Malaga is made 
 from the droppings of the grape without pressure. 
 Mountain is a sweet variety of Malaga. 
 
 Beni Carlos is a deep red* wine imported from 
 Valencia. 
 
 The Spantsh Island of Majorca, and the Ma- 
 deiras and Canaries, likewise produce good wine. 
 
 Alba Flora is a white kind, grown in Majorca ; 
 it approaches Sauterne in flavour. 
 
 Madeira is a strong dry white wine, uniting 
 great strength and richness of flavour, with a 
 fragrant aud diffusable aroma. It is mellowed 
 and improved in flavour by a voyage to India. 
 It is very durable, and indeed is said not to he 
 in condition until it has been 10 years in wood 
 and 20 in bottle. It is highly stimulant, and is 
 well adapted for debilitated constitutions ; though 
 in its purest form more acid than either port or 
 sherry. Ale. str. 22 per cent Sercial is a fine 
 kind of Madeira ; and Malmsey is a very rich 
 luscious species of the highest quality, made 
 from over-ripe grapes. Tinto is a red kind, 
 wanting the high aroma of the white sorts, and 
 when old resembling tawny port. 
 
 Teneriffe, or Vidonia, Is a dry canary wine 
 resembling Madeira, but inferior. 
 
 Portugal — Port, a red wine of the Upper 
 Douro, is, whennewand unmixed, rough, strong, 
 and slightly sweet ; but after being kept in 
 bottle, it loses some of its astringency and most 
 of its sweetness, while its flavour is improved. 
 Being, however, largely brandied, it requires, 
 if imported green, to be'kept three or four years 
 in wood, and from four to seven in bottle, before 
 the odour of the brandy is subdued, and the 
 genuine aroma of the wine developed. It is 
 heatii:g, but when of good quality, wholesome ; 
 though peculiarly noxious when taken in excess. 
 Ale. str. 22 per cent. 
 
 Lisbon is a secondary wine. White Lisbon 
 resembles inferior Madeira ; it is made both 
 dry and muscadine. Rd Lisbon is coarse and dry. 
 
 Bucellas, a light white wine grown near Lis- 
 bon, resembles Barsac when pure ; but, as im- 
 ported, it is fiery from sophistication with brandy. 
 
 Carcavellas, also imported from Lisbon, is a 
 sweetish white wine grown near GZira. 
 
 Figueira, is a strong coarse red wine. 
 
 Germany produces little good wine except 
 on the banks of the Rhine (chiefly between Bonn 
 and Mayence), and its tributaries, the Mayn, 
 Moselle, and Neckar. The growths of these dis- 
 tricts, however, form a class of a peculiar and 
 distinct character. They are generous, dry, finely 
 flavoured, and endure age beyond example. 
 They average about 12 per cent, of alcohol. The 
 inferior kinds are naturally acid, but this is not, 
 as is sometimes alleged, the constant character 
 of the German wines. Of the Rhine wines the 
 choicest is Johannisberg ,• of the Mayn wines, 
 Hockheim, or, as it is called in England, Hock 
 (a term sometimes vulgarly applied to all Ger- 
 man wines) ; of the Moselle wines, Brauneberg ; 
 and of the Neckar wines, Bessingheim. 
 
 Austria possesses scarcely any but poor wines ; 
 but Hungary produces the celebrated 
 
 Tokay, a rich luscious wine, of a peculiar 
 aromatic flavour ; it is, however, scarce, dear, 
 and little known in Britain. 
 
 Italy has none of any celebrity except 
 
 Lacryma Christi, a first class wine, grown 
 only in small quantities near Naples. It is lusci- 
 ous, rich, red, and of exquisite flavour. 
 
 Sicily produces and exports wine in abund- 
 ance ; but it is generally of very low quality, and 
 fiery from mixture with coarse brandy. 
 
 Marsala or Bronte Madeira, is a dry white 
 wine, of great body, resembling second cla.ss 
 Madeira. 
 
WIN 070 WOO 
 
 Syracuse, is the name given to a luscious red 
 muscadine ; also to a white vin de liqueur. 
 
 JEtna, the best, is a strong red wine. 
 
 Cape of Good Hope. The Cape wines, ex- 
 cept Constantia (a rich luscious kind), are of the 
 worst description, being generally infected with 
 the earthy taste common to wines grown on bad 
 soils. Some are sweet, but the larger part are 
 dry. They are called Cape Madeira, Cape Sherry, 
 Cape Hock, &c. 
 
 Asia produces no wine for exportation, ex- 
 cept perhaps the celebrated Shiraz of Persia, 
 some of which is occasionally sent to India. 
 
 America. Wine is made both on the north 
 and south continent, particularly in N. Caro- 
 lina ; in Peru and Chili ; and at Mendoza in 
 Buenos Ayres, near the Andes ; but none is ship- 
 ped to Europe. 
 
 Australia. Some attention is bestowed on 
 wine in the colony of New South Wales. 
 
 In 1841, the quantity of wine imported into the United Kingdom was 7,708,502 gallons : and 
 there were entered for consumption 2,412,821 gallons Spanish ; 2,387,017 Portuguese ; .353,740 
 French; 107,701 Madeira; 55,242 Rhenish (or German); 25,635 Canary; 137 Fayal ; 441,238 
 Cape; and 401,429 Sicilian and other sorts ; total, 6,184,960 gallons. On January 5, 1842, there 
 were under bond, 10,775,380 gallons ; whereof in London, 6,618,569 ; and in Dublin, Leith, and 
 other ports, 4,156,811 gallons. The surplus imported beyond the consumption is re-exported 
 chiefly to India and our colonies in Australia and America. 
 
 Prior to 1693, the wines of France were those chiefly consumed in this country ; but the higher 
 duties imposed on them in that year, and the fiscal advantages given by the Methuen Treaty to 
 Portuguese wines in 1703, led gradually to the former being nearly superseded by the latter and 
 the wines of Spain. And after 1793 (when Britain used about 7,000,000 wine gallons yearly) , the 
 consumption of all kinds was checked by the extravagant duties imposed for the prosecution of the 
 war. In 1825, these were modified to 7s. 3d. per (Imp.) gallon on French wine ; 4s. lOd. on other 
 foreign sorts ; and2s.5d. on Cape; and in 1831, when the discriminating duty on French wine 
 was abolished, they were fixed at 5s. 6d. per gallon on all foreign wines, and 2s. 9d. on Cape. Since 
 the reduction in 1825, a considerable increase has taken place in the consumption of sherry. 
 
 The Standard Gauges of wine recognized in trade are — pipe of Port, 115 gals. ; pipe of Lisbon, 
 117 gals. ; pipe of Cape or Madeira, 92 gals. ; pipe of Teneriffe, 100 gals. ; butt of Sherry, lOtf 
 gals. ; hogshead of Claret, 46 gals. ; aum of Hock, 30 gals. — all Imperial measure. 
 
 Farther information will be found under Customs Regulations, Warehousing System, and 
 in the articles on the different wine countries; also in the well-known Treatises on Wine by Dr 
 Henderson and Cyrus Redding. 
 
 WINTER'S BARK (Wintera aromatica), a spice resembling canella alba. 
 
 WO AD, a plant (Isatis tinctoria), from the roots and leaves of which a blue 
 dye is obtained ; but its use is now almost entirely superseded by indigo. 
 
 WOOD. [Timber.] 
 
 WOOL (Du. Wol. Fr. Laine. Ger. Wolle. It. and Sp. Lana. Por. La, Laa. 
 Rus. Wolna, Scherst), the fleecy covering or pile of the Sheep. Wools are dis- 
 tinguished by their length or staple, and by the fineness of their filaments. Long 
 wool, commonly that which exceeds 3 inches in length, is best adapted for the 
 manufacture of worsted stuffs ; while short wool, thatless than 3 inches, is chiefly 
 employed for cloths and other articles. These two kinds, which are the produce 
 of distinct varieties of sheep, are also distinguished by the manner in which they 
 are prepared for being spun. The long wools, like flax, are combed ; while the 
 short wools are carded ; whence the former are familiarly termed combing wools, 
 and the latter carding or cloth wools. In England, the chief long-woolled sheep is 
 the Leicester, and the chief short- woolled the South Down. The fleece of the latter 
 is very fine ; it is, however, greatly inferior to that of the Merinoes, a Spanish 
 breed, but which has been introduced with signal success into Germany, Australia, 
 and the Cape Colony. S 
 
 Wool ought to be pliable, elastic, and above all, soft to the touch, a property for which the 
 Saxon wools are noted : the filament too ought to be regular, it should be free from hairs or 
 kemps. Farther, it ought to be curly or crispy, with the peculiar property of felting. Each fleece 
 contains wool of diflerent qualities ; the best is that on the spine and sides. And that shorn from 
 the live sheep, called fleece wool, is superior to that cut from its skin after death, called dead tcool ; 
 the latter being comparatively harsh, weak, and incapable of imbibing the dyeing principles, an 
 objection to which also black wool is liable. The assorting or stapling of wool is sometimes per- 
 formed by the manufacturer, but chiefly by wool-staplers, who purchase the raw material from 
 the grower, and dispose of it, after it is assorted, to the manufacturer. 
 
 The exportation of wool was prohibited in 1660, mainly from a desire to preserve to ourselves 
 the English long wool, a kind not produced in any other country ; but this policy was more 
 injurious to the agriculturist than beneficial to the manufacturer, and the improvements in ma- 
 chinery having enabled short wools to be applied to many of the purposes for which long wools 
 bad been appropriated, the prohibition was withdrawn by Mr Huskisson in 1825. Since then, the 
 exports of British wool have gradually increased, and in 1841 amounted (exclusive of yarn) 
 to 8,471,235 lbs., of which 7,544,196 lbs. went to Belgium, and 894,704 lbs. to France. 
 
 The importation of foreign wool into Britain was free until 1802, when it was subjected to a 
 duty of 5s. 3d. per cwt. ; which was gradually raised to 6s. 8d. in 1813; and in 1819 (by Mr Van- 
 sittart) to 56s. per cwt., or 6ri. per lb. This extravagant rate was gradually reduced in 1824 and 
 1825 to id. per lb. on wool under Is. per lb. in value, and to Id. per lb. on higher sorts. In 1819, 
 the duty on colonial wool was fixed at Id. per lb., and since 1825 it has been admitted free. 
 
 Prior to 1800, our annual imports of wool seldom excQede<J cr '»,000,000 lbs. ; afterwards they 
 rapidly increased, but down to 1814 they chiefly consisted of to"., >ish produce. Since the peace, 
 the great source of supply has been Germany ; though of late years considerable quantities have 
 likew.se been brought from Australia, India, S. America, and "the C;ipe Colony. In 1841 there 
 were imported from Germany, 20,958,775 lbs.; Russia, 4,131,652 lbs.; Denmark, 77H.256 lbs.; 
 
woo 671 woo 
 
 Portugal, G79.071 lbs.; Spain, 1 ,088,200 lbs. ; Italy, 1,502,254 lbs.; Turkey, 447,563 lbs.; Cape 
 Colonv, 1,079,910 lb^. ; India, ;J.<m>8,664 lbs.; New S. Wales, 7,993,060 lbs. ; Van Diemen's Land, 
 3,597,531 lbs. ; S. Australia, 759,909 lbs. ; La Plata States, 5,105,637 lbs. ; Peru, 3,144,4f»2 lbs. ; 
 Chili, 923,832 lbs. ; making, with small quantities from other places, in all, 56,179,641 ibs. The 
 quantity entered for home consumption was 52,862,020 lbs.; namely, 22,051,796 lbs. at duty of 
 Id. p rib., 14.495,0H2 lbs. at jd. do, 4306 lbs. red wool at 6d.peT lb. do., and 16,310,916 lbs. colonial 
 wool, duty free. The surplus imported was re-exported to Belgium, France, and the United 
 State*. The Peruvian wool, it mav be observed, is mostly that of the alpaca, a species of llama. 
 
 The sack of British wool of 2 weys, or 13 tods = 3C4 lb-. Tho last is 12 sacks. And the pack 
 =.240 lbs. The German bale weighs about 3-50 lbs. See tftrmJRnorr. 
 
 WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE. This art existed in England at a remote 
 p: riod, but in a rude state, as a great part of the raw wool produced in the king- 
 dom was exported to Flanders in exchange for the finer cloths, down to the reign 
 of Edward III., when the manufacture received an impulse from the immigration 
 of a number of weavers from Ghent. Numerous laws were afterwards passed 
 for its regulation ; including among others the prevention of the exportation of 
 British wool, the confinement of the art to certain localities ; and the prohibition 
 of the use of machinery. These laws, though in course of time abolished, mate- 
 rially retarded the manufacture. The statute of Edward VI. discouraging ma- 
 chinery, only repealed in 1807, was so effectual a bar to improvement, that until 
 nearly the end of last century, the several processes were conducted in the same 
 barbarous manner as in the reign of Edward III. Since 1807, a variety of 
 machines have been applied to the carding and spinning of wool ; while the power- 
 loom has been employed in the weaving. The repeal of the prohibition to export 
 British wool, which was not effected until 1825, by allowing the French to procure 
 the long staple wool of England, at first enabled them to produce new stuffs superior 
 to any that we had ever manufactured ; but this superiority was not of long con- 
 tinuance. Stimulated by competition, our manufacturers in a few years introduced 
 improved processes, which enabled them to produce merinos and other stuffs in 
 every respect equal to those of France. And in the course of the ten years follow- 
 ing the removal of the restriction, their exportation of such goods, instead of de- 
 clining, increased to the extent of 50 per cent. {Porter's Progress of the Nation, p. 190). 
 
 Three great divisions of the trade are commonly recognised, — the manufacture 
 of woollen cloth, of worsted or stuff articles, and of hosiery. And the chief districts 
 in which they are pursued are as follow :— Woollen cloth in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, Gloucestershire, Wilts, and Somerset ; stuffs or worsteds at Bradford, 
 Halifax, Leeds, and in Norfolk ; hosiery in Leicestershire ; woollen yarn in 
 Suffolk and Lancashire. Besides which, carpets are made at Kidderminster, 
 Wilton, and Axminster ; and tweeds, plaiding, and woollen shawls, in Scotland. 
 
 The English cloth manufacture is carried on generally in three ways. 1st, The 
 domestic system, under which there is a number of small masters, mostly occupy- 
 ing little farms, 2d, Under the master-clothier system of the West of England, 
 where one individual purchases the wool and gives it out to distinct classes of 
 manufacturers to be worked up. 3d, Under the factory system, where one indi- 
 vidual employs a number of workmen under his own superintendence. Nearly 
 three-fourths of the whole woollen manufacture is located in the West Riding of 
 Yorkshire, where the goods are chiefly sold in an undressed state in public halls 
 in the principal towns. A considerable quantity is also purchased in the different 
 districts by drapers, who give out samples to the manufacturers, and get the cloth 
 sent direct to their warehouses. The woollens of Norfolk and the West of Eng- 
 land are generally sold at fairs or markets, or to parties sent round by the drapers. 
 
 The annual value of the manufacture in 1698 was estimated at £6,000,000 ; in 
 1741, £8,340,000; in 1774, it was, according to Arthur Young, £12,794,877 ; and 
 in 1800, according to Mr Luccock, £17,500,000. In 1834 it was estimated by Mr 
 YoHatt as follows : 108,000,000 lbs. of British wool at Is. 3d., and 46,535,232 lbs. 
 of imported wool at 2s. 6d., £12,556,904 ; wages of 350,000 persons at £25 each, 
 £8,750,000 ; dyes, oils, and other raw materials, £1,450,000 ; wear and tear of 
 fixed capital, profits, &c, £4,250,000 ; total, £27,006,904. But, since 1834, a con- 
 siderable fall has taken place in the price of raw wool. 
 
 The sale of woollens was long confined to the home market. And it was not 
 until the beginning of last century that the exports to the continent and to our 
 colonies became of importance. The value of woollens exported was in 1700 nearly 
 £3,000,000 ; and in 1800 about double that sum. Their value has not since in- 
 creased ; but, owing to the diminished price of wool, and the greater economy in 
 the various manufacturing processes, the quantities have on the whole considerably 
 increased. At present, the most prosperous department of the trade is that in 
 worsted and stuff goods. Of late years, cottons nave, from their cheapness, in a 
 
WOR 072 ZIN 
 
 great degree superseded the lower qualities of cloths ; a circumstance which, joined 
 to the increasing rivalry of France, Germany, and Belgium, renders it improbable, 
 unless new markets shall be opened in China or elsewhere, that much extension 
 will in future be given to our manufacture of woollen cloths. 
 
 In 1841, exports consisted of 213,125 pieces cloth ; 11,491 pieces napped coatings, duffles, &c. ; 
 22,131 pieces kerseymeres; 37,160 pieces baize; 2,007,366 pieces woollen or worsted stuffs; 
 1,820,244 yards flannel; 2,187,329 yards blanketing; 809,315 yards carpeting; 5,015,087 yards wool- 
 lens mixed with cotton; 135,909 dozen pairs stockings ; and £163,900 in value of tapes, small wares, 
 &c. The total declared value was £5,748,673; whereof the United States took £1,521,980; Ger- 
 many, £883,878; Holland, £316,769; Belgium, £110,792; Russia, £102,733; Portugal, 
 £164,251 ; Italy, £203,797 ; Gibraltar and Spain, £152,603 ; India and China ; £532,710 ; Aus- 
 tralia, £91,851; British America, £515,344; Brazil, £329,984; Mexico and South American 
 States, £468,070 ; and the remainder in smaller quantities to different places. The above was 
 exclusive of 4,903,291 lbs. yarn, mostly to Germany. S 
 
 WORMSEED, the unexpanded flowers and calyxes of a species of Artemisia. 
 They are imported from the Levant and Barbary, and are used in medicine. 
 
 WORMWOOD, a perennial herb {Artemisia absinthium), indigenous to Britain, 
 celebrated for its intensely bitter, tonic, and stimulating qualities. 
 
 Y. 
 
 YARD, the British standard measure of length. [Measures.] 
 YARN (Fr. Fil Ger. Gam. It. Filato. Por.Fio. Rus. Prasha. Sp. Hilo), simple 
 spun thread. Its quality is expressed in England by numbers, denoting the number 
 of hanks in an avoirdupois pound weight; reckoning the length of the hank of cotton 
 yarn at 840 yards, or 7 leys of 120 yards each. The hank of worsted yarn is some- 
 times counted in the same way, but more generally at 560 yards, or 7 leys of 80 
 yards each. Linen yarn is estimated in England by the number of leys or cuts, 
 each of 300 yards, contained in a pound ; but in Scotland by the number of pounds 
 in a spindle or 48 leys : thus, No. 48 in England is called 1 lb. yarn in Scotland. S 
 YEAST, or BARM, a product of the fermentation by which beer is made ; upon 
 the surface of which it swims from involving bubbles of carbonic acid gas. It may 
 be obtained in the form of a firm paste. Mixed with moistened flour it excites the 
 panary fermentation, and is thus used for making bread. 
 
 Z AFFRE, an impure oxide of cobalt, prepared by calcining its ores, and mixing 
 the product with about twice its weight of finely powdered flint. It is used for 
 communicating a blue colour to glass, porcelain, and earthenware ; and, when 
 roasted with potashes, washed, and pulverized, forms Smalts. About 2600 cwts. 
 are annually imported from Norway and Germany. 
 
 ZEALAND, NEW, a group of islands lying in the Pacific, 1300 miles S.E. 
 of Australia. They are subject to Britain; and in 1841 were placed under a go- 
 vernor and council, s 
 
 There are two principal islands, separated by Cook's Strait— New Ulster and New Munster. 
 The latter, and the greater part of the former, are intersected by a mountain-chain, elevated in 
 some parts 14,000 feet ; and there are several subordinate ranges. The country generally is well 
 watered, wooded, and fertile ; and the climate salubrious and temperate, resembling that of 
 France. New Ulster alone — the N. island — has been colonized by the British. Auckland, the 
 capital, advantageously situated on its N. W. side, on the Waitemata, in lat. 36° 51' S., long. 
 174° 45' E., is rapidly rising into importance, and has a spacious harbour. Russell, towards the 
 N. E. extremity, on the Bay of Islands, and "Wellington, on the S. on Cook's Strait, are the 
 other principal stations. Timber and flax are at present the chief products ; but as colonization 
 is progressing rapidly, and the natives evince an aptitude for civilized usages, little doubt can be 
 entertained that these fine islands will become ere long the sites of an extensive commerce. 
 
 ZINC, or SPELTER (Fr. Zinc. Ger. Zink. It. Zinco. Chin. Pi-yuen), a 
 metal of a blueish-white colour and lustre. Sp. gr. 7. At common temperatures 
 it is tough and intractable ; but heated to between 220° and 320° it becomes malle- 
 able ana ductile ; so that it may be hammered out, rolled into sheets and lenves, 
 and drawn into wire. Being cheap, light, and a metal which, when superficially 
 oxidized, long resists the further action of air and water, it is now employed as a 
 substitute for lead in lining water cisterns and roofing ; alloyed with copper it 
 forms brass ; and several of its compounds are used in medicine. Zinc is obtained 
 either from calamine, a native carbonate, or blende, a native sulphuret. Both are 
 found in this country, especially in Flintshire and Derbyshire. But British zinc 
 is inferior to that of Germany, from whence, chiefly by way of Prussia and Ham- 
 burg, from 100,000 to 170,000 cwts. are annually imported (commonly as ballast in 
 ships bringing wool) ; of which about 80,000 cwts. are entered for home consump- 
 tion, and the rest is re-exported, mostly to India. 
 
SUPPLEMENT 
 
 AGA ALP 
 
 AGAL-AGAL. This is usually written Agar-agar. It is the Sphaero- 
 eoccus spinostts of Agardh. A large trade is carried on in this prepared sea- 
 weed in the East, from Singapore and the Eastern Archipelago generally to China. 
 It is used not only for food but as a stiffening material for paper and fabrics. 
 
 ALGERIA. The total population in 1854 was 2,056,298 natives in districts 
 under military government ; Civil Europeans, 155,607, and about 70,000 mili- 
 tary. The custom duties and navigation dues received in 1854 amounted to 
 £102,111. The number of vessels entered at ports of Algeria was 6817, regis- 
 tering 437,912 tons, of which 1417 vessels were from French ports, 1712 from 
 foreign ports, and 3688 employed in the Algerian coasting-trade. The value 
 of the total imports in the same year was £3,249,378, and of the exports 
 £1,687,043. There were in all 1,903,675 acres under cultivation with grain, 
 which produced 25,772,000 bushels, valued at £5,509,753. In 1853 there 
 were 1688 tobacco-planters, cultivating 2287 acres of land, the produce being 
 1,637,523 kilogrammes of tobacco, valued at 1,435,226 francs. 
 
 ALKALI. Of alkali and barilla we imported 903 tons in 1858 from the Two 
 Sicilies and Peru, ranging in price from £17. 10? to £19. 10*. The aggregate 
 value was £14,216. The average imports of the four years ending 1858 were 
 about 1200 tons. 
 
 ALMONDS. The trade in this shelled-fruit has largely increased. In 1853 
 the total import of sweet almonds was 33,106 cwt., of the computed value of 
 £98,532., upon which a duty of 10s per cwt. was paid, and 12,140 cwt. were 
 retained for home consumption. The Spanish almonds were valued at £4. 7* 2d 
 per cwt. ; those brought from Gibraltar at £5. 13* per cwt. Of bitter almonds 
 8370 cwt. were imported in the same year, valued at £3. per cwt., which came 
 in free of duty. 
 
 ALOES. The average annual imports of this drug have been lately on the 
 increase. Previous to 1850 they scarcely averaged 130 tons ; in 1858 they 
 reached 265 tons. The bulk of this comes from Southern Africa and the East 
 Indies. The average price fixed for the value was £1. 12* 8<7- per cwt. for Cape 
 aloes, £6. 16* 6d for Barbados, and £7. for Socotrine. 
 
 ALPACA, the name of a species of Peruvian sheep ; also of its wool, from 
 which a fabric has been manufactured of great variety and utility. The alpaca 
 is hardy, can feed on the refuse herbage left by other animals, and though smaller 
 in size than the llama, is like it, used in Peru to carry burdens. Nine- 
 tenths of its wool is black, the rest brown or grizzled. The staple is of extra- 
 ordinary length, of a singularly soft and silky quality, and when carefully 
 managed loses nothing of its gloss, in dyeing and finishing. The use of it 
 has rapidly extended in the worsted manufactures of Yorkshire, especially by 
 improved processes. The quantity of the wool imported from 1836, when Mr. 
 Salt of Saltaire made his first purchase, to 1840, averaged 5SO,000 lbs. per annum. 
 In 1851 the import had reached 2,186,480 lbs. ; and the advance in price had 
 risen from lOd per lb. in 1836 to 2* 6d per lb. in IS 52. — See Wool 
 
 Nearly contemporaneous with the introduction of alpaca wool was the bringing 
 into general use in Yorkshire of an article similar in many of its properties, 
 
ALU 2 AUS 
 
 namely, mohair, or goat's wool. This article is of very ancient use in manu 
 factures, having been employed, as we are taught in the Book of Exodus, for th 
 furniture and covering of the Jewish tabernacle. The wool is grown in th 
 neighbourhood of Angora, in the centre of Asia Minor, and is brought fron 
 thence on the backs of camels to Constantinople for shipment. Although man; 
 attempts have been made to extend its growth beyond this immediate districl 
 they have hitherto generally failed. Formerly, yarn was spun by hand in Turke; 
 itself to a large extent, and exported to France ; but English spun mohair yari 
 has now entirely superseded it. The export of this yarn to France in 1851 
 amounted to 400,000 lbs. ; and in Germany its consumption is greatly increasing 
 It is manufactured in Yorkshire, chiefly into articles for ladies' dresses, of grea 
 softness, lustre, and brilliancy. On the Continent, and in some parts of England 
 there is a large and increasing production from this article of what is calle< 
 Utrecht velvet, for hangings, furniture, linings of carriages, &c. 
 
 ALUM. About 13,000 tons of alum are made in the United Kingdom 
 which, at an average of £8. per ton, makes an aggregate sum of £104,000 pe 
 annum. In 1858, 1453 cwt. of alum and 1115 cwt. of roche alum were imported 
 worth together £1156. The exports of alum in the same year amounted to 
 70,000 cwt. of the value of £29,735. 
 
 AMBERGRIS. The imports of ambergris are very small, only amounting 
 to a few ounces a year. In 1858, 120 ounces were brought in of the value o 
 £211. 
 
 ANCHORS. With the extension of shipping in all parts of the world, th 
 demand for anchors increases ; and as the vessels now built are usually of a mucl 
 larger tonnage than formerly, heavier anchors and more of them are required 
 One anchor is considered necessary for every 20 tons. The aggregate manu 
 facture must be very large, seeing that besides those required for our own mer 
 cantile and naval vessels, 16,772 tons of anchors, grapnels, &c. valued a 
 £261,500, were exported in 1858. 
 
 ANIML In 1858 the imports of this resin were 2623 cwts., chiefly from th 
 west and east coasts of Africa, of the aggregate value of £18,229. 
 
 ANNATTO. The imports of this colouring substance were 3835 cwts. ii 
 1858, valued at £11,846. The duty was removed in 1845. 
 
 APOTHECARY'S WARES. Under this designation various otherwise unde 
 scribed and unenumerated articles of drugs, &c, are annually shipped from thi 
 country to the value of about half-a-million sterling. 
 
 APPAREL. Under this heading, ready-made clothes, old and new, are shippe< 
 to the value now of about £2,500,000. annually, exclusive of about £400,00i 
 slops and negro clothing. The largest portion, upwards of £1,000,000, goes to 
 Australia. 
 
 ARGOL. The crust or sediment of wine vats. The imports have beei 
 largely on the decrease of late years. In 1854, 30,000 cwts. were imported ; whil 
 in 1858, but 13,544 cwt. were received. It comes chiefly from the Mediterraneai 
 and Peninsular ports. 
 
 . ARMS AND AMMUNITION. The exports under this head have increase* 
 of late years beyond the sum mentioned at page 354. It comprises the tw< 
 items of guns and gunpowder : the average value of the ten years ending 1851 
 was £600,000, about half of which amount was guns and half gunpowder. 
 
 ARROWROOT. The imports of this starch for food are now very large 
 In 1858, 27,324 cwts. were imported, and nearly all entered for home consump 
 tion. The aggregate value was stated at £64,359. The duty has been A\d pe 
 cwt. since June, 1853. St. Vincent, Barbados, and some other of the Wes 
 India islands, furnish the chief supplies. The manufacture, however, is exten 
 sively carried on in Natal, Sierra Leone, Penang, Brazil, and other quarters. 
 
 ASPHALT UM. This bituminous substance, when of a good and pure cha 
 racter, is much used as a black coating or varnish. The imports in 185* 
 amounted to 2232 tons, of the value of about £20,000. Some came from Cuba 
 valued at £7. per ton ; the bulk from the south of France at £9. ; and the bes 
 or Egyptian qualities were worth £14. 10s 6d. There is no duty levied on it. 
 
 AUSTRIA. The population of the Austrian empire in 1855, exclusive o; 
 
A US 3 BAD 
 
 the military was 39,411,309, and the total area 243,472. The revenue in 1856 
 was £27,316,227, and the expenditure £33,551,594. The public debt stood at 
 £241,700,000. The total number of merchant vessels that belonged to Austria at 
 the commencement of 1857 was 651 sea-going vessels of 233,973 aggregate tonnage, 
 with 6804 men as crews; and 2742 coasting vessels of 88,837 tons, with 10,153 
 crew. The value of the imports of the empire in 1855 was £23,646,491, and 
 of the exports nearly the same. In 1853, 5,400,000 cwt. of beet-root sugar was 
 made in Austria. In the same year there were 1000 miles of railway in operation, 
 and 39,000,000 passengers were conveyed over them; 694,230 cwt. of tobacco was 
 consumed. The number of foreign vessels that enter and clear at the port of 
 Trieste is about 2500, but the number of British vessels engaged in the trade has 
 been declining, now scarcely numbering 1 00. The value of our imports from 
 Austria range from three quarters to one million sterling per annum, and the 
 exports of British manufactured goods sent in return, are to the value of one 
 million. The transit trade of goods through Austria to Turkey and other coun- 
 tries has been to the value of £14,500,000 per annum. A very large proportion 
 of the trade of Austria passes the frontiers of the neighbouring German States, 
 from whence the imports have been increasing in importance of late years, 
 although the exports to them have been more stationary. Of about 140,500,000 
 acres, the computed extent of the Austrian Empire, there were in 1851 : — 
 
 In forest .... 44,500,000 acres | In vineyards . . . 1,740,000 acres 
 In pasture . . . . 22,000,000 „ I In olive, laurel, and chest- 
 In meadow and garden . 20,000,000 „ not grounds . . . 155,000 „ 
 In arable land . . . 52,000,000 „ j 
 
 The agricultural produce that year was: wheat, 67,679,000 bushels; rye, 
 99,000,000; barley, 740,600,000; oats, 131,567,000; maize, 56,000,000; rice, 
 1,500,000; other kinds of grain, 170,000,000; pulse, 11,000,000; potatoes, 
 142,500,000 bushels; wine, 622,500,000 gallons; tobacco, 845,507 cwts.; flax 
 and hemp, 3,098,000 cwts.; linseed, 579,253 cwts.; hops, 72,599 cwts.; olive 
 and seed oil, 647,278 cwts.; wool, 444,568 cwts. The consumption of beet root 
 in the sugar factories in 1853 was 5,360,055 centners, of 123£lbs. each. 
 
 The live stock comprised 3,230,000 horses; 1 16,2 10 mules and asses; 3,795,348 
 bulls and oxen; 6,615,136 cows; 16,801,545 sheep; 2,275,900 goats; and 
 7,401,3C0 swine. 
 
 Wool is a very important item both of import and of export in Austria, the 
 coarser sorts being imported in large quantities chiefly from Russia; while the 
 finer kinds for the most part grown in Hungary, form one of the chief staples of 
 that country, and are annually exported to a far greater extent than that of the 
 imported, to supply the manufactories of the States of the Zollverein, of France, 
 and of Belgium. From 1831 to 1840 the annual importation of wool did not 
 quite amount to 50,000 cwts., and from 1841 to 1850 it did not rise beyond 
 63,000 cwts., but in 1851 it was 101,800 cwts., in 1852, 135,500 cwts., and in 
 1853, 120,800 cwts. In 1854 the blockade of the Russian ports having stopped 
 the usual outlets for the wool of that country, a large quantity was furnished to 
 Austria, and the import then rose to 291,800 cwts. In 1855 it was 210,730 cwts., 
 and in 1856 it fell to 184,220 cwts. 
 
 Flax and hemp, from 1841 to 1850 were annually imported to the extent of 
 about 176,000 cwts. In 1854, owing to the failure of the crop of the preceding 
 year, the quantity was only 91,100 cwt. In 1856 the importations rose to 
 207,100 cwts., a large proportion being Roman hemp, and exceeding the quantity 
 exported by 160,000 cwts. 
 
 AZORES. The entries of vessels at the ports of • the Azores in 1856 were 
 685, of 9 1 ,905 tons. The value of the cargoes brought in ranges from £200,000 to 
 £400,000 in value, and of those cleared from £300,000 to £430,000. The imports 
 into the island of St. Michael in 1857 were valued at £131,684, of which 
 £59,600 was from Great Britain. The exports from this island in the same 
 year comprised among other products, 120,788 boxes of oranges, valued at 
 £78,290; 2604 quarters of wheat, 1830 of Indian corn, and 14,670 of beans, 
 together valued at £ 1 13,000. 
 
 BADEN. This Grand Duchy has a superficies of 278 geographical square 
 
BAD 4 BAL 
 
 miles, and its inhabitants in 1858 were calculated in round numbers to be 
 1,380,000. A third of the superficies is arable land, another third is covered 
 with forests, and the remaining third with gardens, fields, pasture lands, &c. 
 The grain crops are valued at about £41,000,000; pulse and root crops, 
 £1,000,000. The most important plant is tobacco, which during the last fifteen 
 years has been cultivated with the greatest success. The total quantity raised 
 is now about 180,000 cwts. Considerable quantities of this tobacco are exported 
 to the Zollverein and other countries, such as Austria, France, Spain, and North 
 America. In 1856 the tobacco crop was valued at £385,000. The cigar manu- 
 factories employ a considerable number of workmen, particularly those of Mann- 
 heim, Rauenberg, Leimen, and Sandhausen. One factory alone gives employ- 
 ment to several hundred workmen, and produces annually 20,000,000 cigars. 
 The cultivation of the vine has made during the last twenty years very remark- 
 able progress. The finer sorts of wine begin to rival the best growths (" Crus,") 
 of France and of the Lower Rhine, which is evident by the daily increasing 
 exportation of these wines to Switzerland, Northern Germany, Holland, England, 
 and also to North America. In good years the wine crop represents annually 
 a value of £1,000,000. The best growths are those of the Tauber, Wertheim, 
 Ortenau, Lake of Constance, and Margrafter. The Grand Duchy possessed in 
 1858 no less than 600,000 cattle of all sorts, 70,000 horses, 200,000 sheep (the 
 greater part with fine wool) 24,000 goats, 500,000 pigs, 15,000 beehives, 14,000 
 donkeys, and more than 20,000,000 poultry, comprising geese, turkeys, ducks, 
 fowls, pheasants, &c. The number of manufactories in 1849 was 335, employ- 
 ing 17,105 workmen. During the last ten years this number has been augmented 
 by several large establishments. The most important manufactory is at Ettlingen, 
 near Rastadt; shirtings and cotton velvets, consuming annually at least 2500 
 bales of cotton, and employing constantly 1800 workmen There are 980 power 
 looms, 50 hand looms, 250 for cutting the velvet, and 2800 mule jennies. The 
 manufacture of beet root sugar at Waghausel, near Bruchsel, is one of the largest 
 in the Zollverein. More than a million of quintals of beet root are annually 
 made into 60,000 to 80,000 quintals of sugar; the number of workmen con- 
 stantly employed is 560, but during several months of the year it increases to 
 2,200. The manufacture of wooden and musical clocks, employed in 1855 no 
 less than 1570 master workmen, and three times that number of common 
 workmen. The clocks made in the Black Forest are known and appreciated as 
 much for their cheapness as for their excellent construction, in every country 
 where clocks are made use of. The total value of the clocks sold exceeds 
 £1,000,000. This trade is, however, now subject to a severe competition, in 
 consequence of the rapid progress which a like industry has made in North 
 America, where it is earned on by natives of the Black Forest and others. Each 
 of the 270,000 families of the Grand Duchy consumes per year 232 lbs. of meat 
 of all sorts. If we calculate the net revenue raised in middling years from 
 agriculture, forests, and mines, we find a total of nearly 44,000,000 florins, or a 
 gross revenue of 110,000,000 florins, £19,166,667. One cannot too much 
 admire the intelligent perseverance which the Government has manifested for 
 many years past, by accelerating and extending its river and land communications. 
 From the years 1831 to 1854, £2,728,750 have been expended in the construc- 
 tion of new roads and in altering and improving old ones, m repairing the banks 
 of the Rhine and other rivers, and in constructing ports, &c; independent of 
 £3,400,000 which the construction of the railroad ana telegraphs had cost the 
 Government. The Government of the late Grand Duke Leopold expended no 
 •less than £7,916,667 during this period of twenty-four years, in order to give to the 
 country the advantages of a perfect system of locomotion appropriate to the 
 necessities of the times. 
 
 BALANCE OF TRADE. A very great improvement has been made in the 
 mode of keeping the public accounts since the remarks in the body of this work 
 were published. Dating from 1854, the Statistical Department of the Board 
 of Trade have published the computed real value of the imports and the 
 declared value of the exports ; so that now a more correct approximation can 
 be made of the extent and character of our trade inwards and outwards. 
 
BAL 
 
 BAL 
 
 The official and real values of exports once bore very nearly the same pro- 
 portion to each other which it appears the imports still do— the real value or 
 money-price being about a fifth or a sixth more than the official value, as might 
 be expected to be the case when the official columns were measured by the 
 prices in 1694. But the comparative amount of these ratings at once and sud- 
 denly changed in 1819: in that year the real value of exports suddenly sunk 
 below the official, and this difference has gone on continually increasing up to 
 this hour, when it has become perfectly enormous. I may refer to the following 
 figures, taken from the Parliamentary returns, for the proof of this startling 
 observation : — 
 
 Table showing the official and declared value of Exports of Great Britain and 
 Ireland in the undermentioned years. 
 
 Official value of Declared value 
 
 Exports. of Exports. 
 
 . £44,236,533 . . £36,968,964 
 
 : 43,814,372 . . 35,458,048 
 
 . 126,130,986 . . 58,842,377 
 
 . 132,017,681 . . 52,849,445 
 
 . 164,539,504 . . 63,596,025 
 
 . 109,331,158 . . 73,676,854 
 
 . 25^413,304 . . 95,688,085 
 
 . 305,542,703 . . 116,608,756 
 
 So that while before 1819 the official value of the exports was always below 
 their real value ; since that year, while the official and real value of the imports 
 has preserved the same proportion, that of the exports has so enormously 
 changed that the official value is now to the real — that is, the money received 
 for them — as 305 to 116! There has been some powerful cause at work to have 
 suddenly produced a change so prodigious. I leave it to statistical philo- 
 sophers to say what that cause is. 
 
 The difference, and it is a most important one, probably arose from this, — 
 that the official valuation of both imports and exports was made in 1694; but 
 the former consists chiefly of raw produce, such as corn, cotton, and the like, 
 as to which the application of machinery and the division of labour, as well as 
 the change of our currency, have had comparatively little influence; while the 
 exports are, for the most part, of manufactured goods, on which capital, machi- 
 nery, and a contracted currency have had an immense and decisive influence. 
 The returns since 1854, when the real value of the imports was first ascertained, 
 prove this decisively, for they are as follows : — 
 
 
 Official value of 
 
 Declared value 
 
 
 
 Exports. 
 
 of Exports. 
 
 
 1813 . 
 
 . £34,207,253 . 
 
 . £45,494,219 
 
 1821 
 
 1814 . 
 
 . 42,875,996 . 
 
 . 51,603,028 
 
 1822 
 
 1815 . 
 
 . 35.717,071 . 
 
 . 41,617,873 
 
 1847 
 
 1816 . 
 
 . 41,111,427 . 
 
 . 41,761,132 
 
 1848 
 
 1817 . 
 
 . 42,700,521 . 
 
 . 46,603,249 
 
 1849 
 
 1818 . 
 
 • 33,534,171 . 
 
 . 35,208,321 
 
 1852 
 
 1819 . 
 
 . 38,395,625 . 
 
 . 36,424,652 
 
 1855 
 
 1620 . 
 
 . 40,831,744 . 
 
 . 33,059,630 
 
 1858 
 
 Years. 
 
 I M POETS. 
 
 EXPOBTS. 
 
 Official 
 Value. 
 
 Real 
 Value. 
 
 Official 
 Value. 
 
 Real 
 Value. 
 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 
 124,136,018 
 117,284,881 
 131,937,763 
 136,215,849 
 138,159,144 
 
 152,389,053 
 143, .542 ,850 
 172,544,154 
 187,844,441 
 163,795,803 
 
 214,071,842 
 226,198,262 
 258,305,453 
 253,296,713 
 305,542,703 
 
 97,184,726 
 95,688,085 
 115,826.948 
 122,066,107 
 116,608,756 
 
 The columns of exports here are of the British produce and manufactures only, 
 both in the officirl and real columns, because it is there that the prodigious 
 change, as compared with the imports in the same years, has occurred. The 
 colonial produce exported bears in real and official value, much the same pro- 
 portions as the imports. 
 
 Although the official value of imports does not afford an exact test of their 
 real value, yet it affords a close approximation to it, differing only in the real 
 value being somewhat greater than the official; whereas the official retums 
 of exports for the last thirty years exhibit returns enormously at variance with 
 the real value, — the real being eighty or ninety per cent, below the official, which 
 difference is yearly increasing with the fall in the money value of our exports. 
 Fortunately this is now placed beyond a doubt by the returns of the real value 
 of import, which, since the year 1854, have been made up in consequence of Mr. 
 
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 6 
 
 BAN 
 
 Porter's representations of the deceptive nature of the official returns of exports 
 and imports considered as a test of their real value. The following are the 
 returns of the official and declared (or real) value of both exports and imports 
 since the improvement recommended by Mr. Porter came into operation, in 
 1854:— 
 
 True Balance of Trade as shown by the Eeal and Declared Value of Exports 
 and Imports, 1854-58. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports, 
 
 Real 
 
 Value. 
 
 Exports, Declared Value. 
 
 Balance 
 against 
 England. 
 
 British 
 Produce and 
 Manufacture. 
 
 Foreign 
 and Colonial 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Total 
 Exports. 
 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 
 152,389,053 
 143,542,850 
 172,544,154 
 187,844,441 
 164,583,832 
 
 97,184,726 
 95,688,085 
 115,826,948 
 122,066,107 
 116,608,756 
 
 1^,636,366 
 21,003,215 
 23,393,405 
 24,108,194 
 23,174,023 
 
 115,821,092 
 116,691,300 
 139.220.353 
 146,174,301 
 139,782,779 
 
 36,567,961 
 26,851,650 
 33,823,801 
 41,670,140 
 24,801,053 
 
 
 Balance against England in five years 
 
 . 
 
 £163,714,505 
 
 This is the state of the fact, established by the decisive evidence of the returns 
 of the real value of the imports and exports, as now ascertained since the real 
 value of the former has been entered according to Mr. Porter's suggestions. 
 
 It has generally been considered that to carry on a profitable commerce, the 
 balance of trade, as it is termed, should be in our favour; that is, that the value 
 of the goods exported should be greater than those imported. But there are seve- 
 ral matters which are generally overlooked in the estimate. 1st. Great Britain 
 is the entrepot or port of receipt for most of the goods of foreign produce intended 
 for the continent and other quarters. Large cargoes come here for orders, or are 
 stored or landed to be transhipped. 2ndly. We now do most of the carrying 
 trade of the world, and large profits are therefore made by our merchants and 
 dealers on freights, insurance, commission, and brokerage. Articles of foreign 
 merchandise imported for re-export, as well as those worked up in manufactures, 
 are therefore indirectly beneficial to our commerce. 
 
 BANKRUPTCY.— A short Act was passed (20 and 21 Vict. c. 60), 13th 
 August, 1859, to amend the Irish Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act, which recites 
 that "Whereas by the Irish Bankrupt and Insolvent Act, 1857, unclaimed divi- 
 dends made before the passing of the said Act are exempted from the operation 
 of its two hundred and ninety-fourth Section, but no provision is thereby made 
 for the disposal of such unclaimed dividends, and it is expedient to amend the 
 said Act by supplying the said omission: be it enacted by the Queen's most 
 excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords spiritual and 
 temporal, and Commons, in the present Parliament assembled, and by the autho- 
 rity of the same, as follows: — 
 
 " The Court may order that dividends which had been declared before the 
 passing of the said Irish Bankrupt and Insolvent Act, 1857, and which have re- 
 mained unclaimed for the space of three years from the declaration thereof, shall 
 be divided and paid amongst the other creditors, in manner provided by the 
 Sixth of William the Fourth, Chapter Fourteen, Section One hundred and 
 twenty-eight. " The said recited Act and this Act shall be treated and con- 
 strued as one Act." 
 
 According to an estimate made by Mr. Perry, the careful compiler of the 
 Bankrupt and. Insolvent Weekly Gazette, the number of compositions and 
 assignments, and arrangements out of Court may be taken at 10,000 to 12,000 
 annually, and the number of estates admimstered in bankruptcy does not exceed 
 1000. 
 
 The number of fiats issued in England and Wales, was in 1832, 1700, and in 
 1833, 1283; at about which number it remained until 1837, when it rose to 1939. 
 This great increase consisted almost entirely of country fiats, which rose from 
 
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 724 to 1408. The number of town fiats did not exceed the average of the pre- 
 ceding 4 years. In the five years ending July 5, 1848, the number of certificates 
 respectively granted, by the five Commissioners of the London Bankruptcy 
 Court were as follows: 
 
 First-class Certificates ... 
 
 Evans. 
 
 Fonblanque. 
 
 Fane. 
 
 Holroyd. 
 
 Goulburn. 
 
 17 
 
 31 
 
 161 
 
 51 
 
 47 
 
 Second-class „ 
 
 283 
 
 251 
 
 245 
 
 230 
 
 167 
 
 Third-class „ 
 
 18 
 
 177 
 
 169 
 
 55 
 
 48 
 
 Certificates suspended ... 
 
 140 
 
 134 
 
 40 
 
 152 
 
 227 
 
 Certificates refused 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 Adjournment of Bnkrpts'. 
 Examination, sine die 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 49 
 
 31 
 
 134 
 
 134 
 
 The number of sittings held before each London Commissioner in the four years 
 ending 1859, under the arrangement clauses of the Bankrupt Law Consolidation 
 Act, 1849 -, the Joint Stock Winding-up Act, and the 7 and 8 Vict. c. 70, was 
 as follows: — 
 
 
 Evans. 
 
 Fonblanque. 
 
 Fane. 
 
 Holroyd. 
 
 Goulburn. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 Arrangements - 
 Joint-Stock Comps. Act 
 7 and 8 Vict. c. 70 
 
 Total - - 
 
 161 
 27 
 23 
 
 239 
 57 
 16 
 
 219 
 56 
 
 17 
 
 177 
 58 
 20 
 
 210 
 19 
 24 
 
 1006 
 
 217 
 
 100 
 
 211 
 
 312 
 
 292 
 
 255 
 
 253 
 
 1323 
 
 In the District Courts of Bankruptcy the returns were: — 
 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 "3 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 8£ 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 n 
 
 ill 
 
 
 h! 
 
 M 
 H 
 
 Arrangements. 
 
 170 
 
 158 
 
 648 
 
 84 
 
 41 
 
 37 
 
 6 
 
 Joint Stock Comps. Act. 
 
 nil. 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 niL 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 7 and 8 Vict c 70. 
 Total .... 
 
 nil. 
 
 nil. 
 
 16 
 
 niL 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 niL 
 
 170 
 
 163 
 
 681 
 
 84 
 
 76 
 
 41 
 
 25 
 
 The average number of public sittings in Bankruptcy in the London Court in 
 the 6 years ending 1859 were 4322, and private sittings 2903. 
 
 An official return published early in 1860, shewed that the total amount of 
 monies paid into the Bank of England to the credit of the Accountant in Bank- 
 ruptcy, on general account of Bankrupt's estates, for the year 1858 was 
 j£l,431,717, by official assignees and others, £48,187 of sale of stock from 
 Bankruptcy Fund Account. There was paid out by order of the Lord Chancel- 
 lor for investments, £110,000, and by order of the Commissioners, £ 483,304. 
 The amount transferred as dividends was £1,000,851, and paid out as dividends 
 in the year was £976,539. On the unclaimed dividend account there was paid in 
 £1500, and paid out for investment £1600. There was paid into the Chief 
 Registrar's Account by assignees, &c, £43,532, interest on stock, £49,606, by 
 Commissioners of Inland Revenue, £21,201. The net balances standing on the 
 1st January, 1859, were in the General Bankrupts' Estates Account, 2 > 12,124 
 in cash, £36,532 in stock, and £93,200 in Exchequer bills. In the Bankruptcy 
 Fund Account £1,579,822 in stock. In the Unclaimed Dividend Account 
 £223 in cash and £9146 in stock. In the Chief Registrar's Account £13,623 
 in cash, and £112,788 in stock. 
 
 The general expenses incurred were, in salaries, £54,456, compensations in 
 London, £8124; in the country, £9221; retiring annuities, £3798; expenses 
 and travelling, &c, £8437, surplus monies invested in stock, £30,000, total, 
 £114,106. The salaries of the five London Commissioners are £2000 a year, 
 of the ten Country Commissioners, £1800; of the London Registrars £1000, 
 
BAN 8 BAN 
 
 and of the Country Registrars, £800. The Accountant has £1500 and his 
 chief clerk £800. The Master has £1200. The ushers in London have 
 salaries of £100, and in the country of £80. 
 
 In 1857, there were 30 failures reported in Canada East, with liabilities 
 amounting to 1,790,000 dol.; in 1858, there were 62 failures, with liabilities of 
 1,726,810 dol. In Canada West, in 1857, there were 134 failures, with liabilities 
 of 4,886,000 dol. ; in 1858, there were 251 failures, with liabilities of 1,689,255 dol. 
 For the purpose of comparison with these figures, it may be added that the re- 
 ported failures in New York City in 1857, were 915, with liabilities of 135,129,000 
 dol.; in 1858, there were 406, with liabilities of 17,773,462 dol. The total re- 
 ported failures throughout the United States and the British Provinces, in 1857, 
 were 5,118, with liabilities of 299,801,000 dol.; in 1858, the failures were 4,537, 
 with liabilities of 100,187,571 dollars. 
 
 In the annual circular of Messrs. Dun, Boyd, and Co. mercantile agents, New 
 York, it is stated that the number of failures in the United States in the year 
 1859 was 3913, involving liabilities of 64,294,000 dol. This is a decrease in the 
 number of failures since 1858 of 312, and in liabilities of 31,455,662 dol. Of the 
 failures in 1859, 123, with liabilities of 4,759,000 dol. occurred in Boston, and 
 160, with debts to the extent of 1,927,000 dol., in the rest of Massachusetts ; 61, 
 with liabilities of 1,159,000 dol., occurred in Maine; 25, with liabilities of 
 307,000 dol., in New Hampshire; 36, with liabilities of 560,000 dol., in Ver- 
 mont ; 12, with liabilities of 256,000 dol., in Providence ; and 10, with debts 
 amounting to 359,000 dol., in the rest of Ripple Island. The number in New 
 York city was 299, with liabilities of 13,218,000 dol. Of the whole number of 
 failures in 1859, 401 were classed as swindling and absconding debtors with obli- 
 gations amounting to 5,650,000 dol. ; and as not dishonest, but who will pay 
 little or nothing, 673, with debts to the extent of 7,932,009. The number likely 
 to pay in full was stated at 130, whose indebtedness amounted to 6,242,000 dol. 
 
 The number of failures in Canada and the British Provinces for the same year 
 was 350, with debts to the amount of 4,073,000 dollars. 
 
 The aggregate of the past three years shews a bankrupt debt in the United 
 States and British N. America of the enormous sum of 468,255,571 dol., of which 
 amount 262,908,508 dol. will prove an absolute loss to the creditors. This is 
 irrespective of the immense losses by railroad and other public corporate compa- 
 nies. In 1857 the failures in the city of New York were about eighteen and a 
 half per cent, and in 1859 rising seven per cent, thus proving that the effects of 
 the crisis were more immediately felt in the cities of the Union, for the per cent- 
 age of 21 cities shews about the same ratio. The failures of the two years 1858 
 and 1859, were mostly confined to the country. The number appears large, 
 but the amount involved was comparatively small. 
 
 BANKRUPTCY. — Some most sweeping changes have been made in the 
 law of Bankruptcy of late years by the Bankruptcy Law Consolidation Act of 
 1849, and more especially in 1861. Formerly the simple object of distributing 
 the estate of an insolvent amongst his creditors and the releasing the debtor from 
 his liabilities was sought by a threefold division of jurisdiction under Bankruptcy, 
 Protection and Insolvency. 
 
 But the Act of the Lord Chancellor " to amend the Law relating to Bank- 
 ruptcy and Insolvency in England," 24 & 25 Vict. c. 134, completely changed 
 the practice, and by abolishing the distinction between traders and non-traders, 
 founded at the same time a uniform scheme for administering then- property 
 under courts acting upon the same principles. Every simply unfortunate 
 debtor has now a ready means of escaping from protracted imprisonment, and 
 of being relieved from his liabilities. 
 
 Until this act, (observes Mr. Holdsworth in his popular digest), " our law 
 had always made a marked distinction between its dealing with traders and with 
 non-traders, who were unable to pay their debts. The former were styled 
 bankrupts, and the latter insolvents. The administration of their estates was 
 committed to two distinct sets of courts, and was ordained upon very different 
 principles. One of the leading features of the act, is the abolition of this 
 
BAN 8* BAN 
 
 distinction between insolvents and bankrupts. Both traders and non-traders, 
 who foil to meet their engagements will in future become bankrupts ; and both 
 will in general obtain as bankrupts an advantage which was previously confined 
 to the former class, a final release from their liabilities. It is true that the acts 
 which constitute bankruptcy on the part of a trader do not always have the same 
 effect in regard to a non-trader ; but when once bankruptcy is established, both 
 classes are now dealt with on the same principles and by the same courts. By the 
 19th and 20th section of the act, it was provided that the jurisdiction of the 
 insolvent debtors' court, and of the county co;rts in insolvency matters, 
 should cease and determine, except so far as relates to the completion and 
 winding-up of business pending in these courts when the act came into operation 
 on October 11, 1861. 
 
 The powers of the Court of Bankruptcy are now defined by the 12th clause of 
 " The Bankruptcy Consolidation Act, 1849," (12 & 13 Vict. c. 106), and the 
 1st clause of " The Bankruptcy Act, 1861," 24 & 25 Vict. c. 134. 
 
 Under the first of these the court, in the exercise of its primary jurisdiction, 
 has superintendence and control in all matters of bankruptcy, and hears, 
 determines, and makes orders in any matter of bankruptcy whatever, so far as 
 the assignees are concerned, relating to the disposition of the estate and effects 
 of the bankrupt, or of any estate or effects taken under the bankruptcy and 
 claimed by the assignees for the benefit of the creditors, or relating to any acts 
 done or sought to be done by the assignees in their character of assignees, by 
 virtue or under colour of the bankruptcy ; and also in any matter of bankruptcy 
 whatever, as between the assignees and any creditors or other person appearing 
 and submitting to the jurisdiction of the court, and also in any application for an 
 order of discharge, and in any other matter, whether a bankruptcy or not, where 
 the court has jurisdiction over the subject of the petition on application, but 
 subject to an appeal. While the latter section provides that the existing court 
 of bankruptcy shall have and exercise, for the purposes of that act, all the powers 
 and authorities of the superior courts of law and equity, and all the jurisdiction 
 powers and authorities now possessed by the court for the relief of insolvent 
 debtors in England. At present this court consists of the London and Country 
 Commissioners. Within the London district this court has the sole and entire 
 jurisdiction in all bankruptcy business. The remainder of the country is divided 
 into seven districts, those of Manchester, Leeds, Devonport, Birmingham, Bristol, 
 Exeter, and Neweastle-on-Tyne. 
 
 In each of these there is a court of bankruptcy, presided over by a Commis- 
 sioner with the same powers as are possessed by the London Commissioners. 
 The act however contemplates the ultimate abolition of the Country district 
 courts, for it confers upon the Crown power, if upon any vacancy in the office of 
 commissioner of any country district, there shall no longer be a commissioner 
 for such district, to transfer all the jurisdiction, powers and authorities held by 
 the commissioner of such district, to the judges of the county courts, or any of 
 them exercising jurisdiction within such district or any part thereof, (sec. 4). 
 Moreover, with a -view to the eventual transfer of the whole country bankruptcy 
 jurisdiction to the county courts, power is given to Her Majesty in Council to 
 create additional county court districts in the country, if it shall be found 
 expedient to invest the judges thereof with jurisdiction in bankruptcy, and to 
 make such new arrangements of the districts of the bankruptcy and county 
 courts respectively as may be found desirable in order to assign a convenient 
 district or districts to such new court or courts. The county courts have indeed 
 an exclusive jurisdiction in bankruptcy conferred upon them immediately, in 
 one class of cases, for the 94th section provides, that when a debtor not resident 
 in the metropolitan district (that is 20 miles distant from the General Post 
 Office), petitions for an adjudication of bankruptcy against himself, and knows 
 or verily believes that the debts justly due and proveable under his bankruptcy, 
 amount in the whole to a sum not exceeding ,£300, he shall file his petition in 
 
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 the county court for the district in winch he shall have resided for the six months 
 next before the filing of his petition, or for the longest period during those six 
 months, unless he is in custody, and then in the county court of the district in 
 which he is in custody. 
 
 Moreover, at the first meeting of creditors, after the adjudication of bank- 
 ruptcy, the majority in number and value of the creditors present at such 
 meeting or at any adjournment thereof, may determine that the proceedings in 
 the bankruptcy shall be transferred to, and henceforth prosecuted in, the county 
 court of any district other than the metropolitan district, and the court shall 
 order the same accordingly, upon being satisfied that such resolution was duly 
 made (sec. 109). The London and district bankruptcy court sits daily for the 
 dispatch of business, holidays excepted. The place and the time for the sittings 
 of county courts are regulated by general orders. 
 
 From the decisions of the bankruptcy commissioners, and of the county 
 court judges acting in bankruptcy, an appeal lies to the Court of Appeal in 
 Chancery, which must be presented within thirty days. 
 
 The fees payable in the matter of bankruptcy are to be taken exclusively by 
 means of stamps. Their amount is from time to time fixed by general orders 
 issued by or with the sanction of the Lord Chancellor. 
 
 By section 51, the commissioners are empowered to sit at chambers for the 
 dispatch of such part of the business of their courts as can, without detriment 
 to the public advantage arising from the discussion of questions in open court, 
 be heard in chambers. The transaction of the unopposed and purely adminis- 
 trative business of the court is still further facilitated by clause 52, which 
 empowers the registrars to make adjudication of bankruptcy, to receive the 
 surrender of any bankrupt, to grant protection, to pass the last examination of 
 any bankrupt in cases where the assignees and creditors do not oppose, to hold 
 and preside at meetings of creditors, to audit and pass accounts of assignees, and 
 to sit in chambers and dispatch there such part of the administrative business of 
 the court and such uncontested matters as shall be defined in general orders, or as 
 the commissioners in any particular matter shall direct. But the registrar may 
 not commit any one or hear a disputed adjudication, or any question of the 
 allowance or suspension of an order of discharge. The registrar may sojourn 
 any matter coming before him for the consideration of the commissioners. And 
 (sec. 53) any party during the proceedings before the registrar may take the 
 opinion of the commissioner upon any point or matter arising in the course of 
 such proceedings, or upon the result of such proceedings. 
 
 The registrars of the court may, during vacation, or the illness or absence, 
 from any reasonable cause, of any commissioner, act as his deputy. 
 
 All persons having the legal capacity of entering into binding contracts are 
 liable to be adjudged bankrupts. Aliens and denizens, as well as natural born 
 subjects, may incur this liability. A wife, being a sole trader in the city of 
 London under the customs thereof, the wife of a convict sentenced to transport- 
 ation, and peers, or members of parliament may become bankrupts. 
 
 But by clause 69, it is expressly enacted, that no debtor who is not a trader, 
 shall be adjudged bankrupt, except in respect of some one of. the acts of bank- 
 ruptcy hereinafter desci-ibed as applicable to a non-trader. The law on this 
 point is still contained in the 69th section of " The Bankruptcy Consolidation 
 Act, 1849," which enacts that " all alum makers, apothecaries, auctioneers, 
 bankers, bleachers, brokers of all kinds, brickmakers, builders, calenderers, 
 carpenters, carriers, cattle oi sheep-salesmen, coach proprietors, cowkecpers, 
 dyers, fullers, keepers of inns, taverns, hotels or coffee-houses, lime-burners, 
 livery-stable keepers, market-gardeners, millers, packers, printers, shipowners, 
 shipwrights, victuallers, warehousemen, wharfingers, persons using the trade or 
 profession of a scrivener, receiving other men's moneys or estates into their trust 
 or custody, persons insuring their shops or their freight or other matters against 
 the perils of the sea, and all persons using the trade of merchandise by way of 
 
BAN 86 BAN 
 
 bargaining, exchange, bartering, commission, consignment, or otherwise, in 
 gross or retail, and all persons who either for themselves, or as agents or factors 
 for others, seek their living by buying and selling, or buying and letting for hire, 
 or by the workmanship of goods or commodities, shall be deemed traders." 
 The acts of bankruptcy in a trader may be either of the following : — 
 If he shall depart this realm, that is to postpone the payment of his debts ; 
 or being out of the realm, shall remain abroad with the intent to defraud or 
 delay his creditors ; or shall depart from his dwelling-house with the same 
 object ; or otherwise absent himself, or begin to keep house, or suffer himself to 
 be arrested or taken in execution for any debt not due, or yield himself to prison, 
 or suffer himself to be outlawed, or procure himself to be arrested or taken in exe- 
 cution, or his goods, money or chattels to be attached, sequestered or taken in 
 execution ; or make, or cause to be made, either within this realm or elsewhere, 
 any fraudulent grant or conveyance of any of his lands, tenements, goods or 
 chattels, or make any fraudulent gift, delivery, or transfer of same. Making 
 any arrangement for paying or securing the debt of a petitioning creditor, and not 
 paying, securing or compounding a debt on which a trader-debtor summons 
 has issued, under the 78 — 86 clause of the Act 1849 ; lying in prison for 14 
 days under arrest ; escaping from custody when arrested ; filing a declaration that 
 he is unable to meet his engagements. 
 
 Another act of bankruptcy peculiar to a trader arises under the 73rd section of 
 " The Bankruptcy Act, 1861," which provides that — 
 
 " If any execution shall be levied by seizure and sale of any of the goods or chattels of any 
 trader debtor upon any judgment recovered in any action personal for the recovery of any 
 debt, or money demand, exceeding fifty pounds, every such debtor shall be deemed to have 
 committed an act of bankruptcy from the date of the seizure of such goods and chattels : Pro- 
 vided always, that unless in the meantime a petition for adjudication of bankruptcy against the 
 debtor be presented, the sheriff or other officer making the levy shall proceed with the execu- 
 tion, and shall, at the end of seven days after the sale, pay over the proceeds, or so much as 
 ought to be paid to the execution creditor, who shall be entitled thereto, notwithstanding such 
 act of bankruptcy, unless the debtor be adjudged a bankrupt within fourteen days from the 
 date of the sale, in which case the money so received by the creditor shall be paid by him to 
 the assignee under the bankruptcy, but the sheriff or other officer shall not incur any liability 
 by reason of anything done by him as aforesaid : Provided also, that in case of bankruptcy the 
 costs and expenses of such action and execution shall be retained and paid out of the proceeds 
 of the sale, and the balance only after such payment be paid to the assignees." 
 
 The acts of bankruptcy committed by a non-trader are defined by the 70th 
 section of the Act of 1861 as follows: — 
 
 "If any person not being a trader shall with intent to defeat or delay his creditors, (1) 
 depart this realm, or (2) being out of this realm, shall with such intent remain abroad, or shall 
 (3) with such intent make any fraudulent conveyance, gift, delivery or transfer of his real or 
 personal estate, or any part thereof respectively, such person shall be deemed to have thereby 
 committed an act of bankruptcy: Provided always that before any adjudication in bankruptcy 
 Bhall be made against the debtor under this section, the following rules shall be observed : — 
 
 " 1. A copy of the petition for adjudication shall be served personally on the debtor either 
 within the jurisdiction, or in such place or country, or within such limits abroad, as the Court 
 shall upon application for the purpose, direct. 
 
 '• 2. Such copy-petition shall have endorsed thereon a memorandum, in a form to be settled 
 by a general order, specifying the time within which the debtor is to appear on such petition; 
 and such time shall, when the service is to be made abroad, be the time which the court shall 
 think reasonable, having regard to the place or country where the service is to be made. 
 
 li 3. In no case shall the time for appearance be less than thirty days after service. 
 
 " 4. If such personal service has not been effected, the court must be satisfied that every 
 reasonable effort was made to effect the same, and that the attempt to serve such petition came 
 to the knowledge of the debtor, and was defeated by his conduct 
 
 li 5. If at the expiration of the time limited for appearance the court shall on the hearing 
 of such petition be satisfied that an act of bankruptcy has been committed within the meaning 
 of this section, it may adjudge such debtor to be a bankrupt" 
 
 The 71st section enumerates two distinct acts of bankruptcy common to both 
 traders and non-traders : first, that of lying in prison ; and second, that of 
 escaping out of prison. In the latter case the person is deemed to have been 
 a bankrupt from the time of his arrest ; in the former case, only after the expira- 
 
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 tion of fourteen days, or if a non-trader, two months. We give the section 
 entire: — 
 
 " If any debtor, whether a trader or not, having been arrested or committed to prison for 
 debt, or on an attachment for non-payment of money, shall (1) upon such or any other arrest 
 or commitment for debt or non-payment of money, or upon any detention for debt, lie in prison, 
 being a trader, for fourteen days, or not being a trader, for two calendar months, or having 
 been arrested for any cause, shall lie in prison as aforesaid after any detainer for debt lodged 
 against him and not discharged, every such debtor shall thereby be deemed to have committed 
 an act of bankruptcy ; or (2) if any such debtor having been arrested, committed or detained 
 for debt, shall escape out of prison or custody, every such debtor shall be deemed to have thereby 
 committed an act of bankruptcy from the time of such arrest, commitment or detention. But 
 no debtor shall be adjudged bankrupt on the ground of having lain in prison as aforesaid, unless 
 having been summoned he shall not offer such security for the debt or debts in respect of which 
 he is imprisoned or detained, as the commissioner or registrar whose duty it would otherwise 
 be to adjudicate shall deem reasonably sufficient" 
 
 The three requisites to make a mere bankrupt as a trader when done by a 
 creditor are — 1. Proof of trading; 2. Proof of an act of bankruptcy committed; 
 3. Proof of a sufficient petitioning creditor's debt. 
 
 By section 89, " the amount of the debt of any creditor petitioning for adjudication of 
 bankruptcy against a debtor, whethei a trader or not, shall be as follows— that is to say:— 
 
 "The debt of a single creditor, or of two or more persons being partners, shall amount to 
 £50 or upwards.— The debt of two creditors shall amount to £70 or upwards.— The debt of three 
 or more creditors shall amount to £100 or upwards." 
 
 The petitioning creditor's debt must not be merely an equitable debt, though 
 such a debt may be proved under a bankruptcy. It must not be founded on an 
 illegal consideration, nor be one based by the Statute of Limitations. 
 
 With a view to enquiry, the court has power to summon before it any person 
 whom it shall believe capable of giving information — including the bankrupt, his 
 wife, family, or servants — and to require him or her to produce any books or 
 documents, and to examine him or her upon oath touching the trading and act 
 of bankruptcy. 
 
 The court having been satisfied on the points we have mentioned, will adjudge 
 the debtor bankrupt, and will forthwith appoint an official assignee. Sec. 
 100, 101. 
 
 But itt. order to give the debtor an opportunity of disputing the adjudication, if 
 he pleases, it is provided tsec. 104), that before notice of any adjudication of 
 bankruptcy is given in the London Gazette, and at or before the time of putting 
 in execution any warrant of seizure granted upon such adjudication, a duplicate 
 adjudication shall be served on the person adjudged bankrupt, either personally 
 or by leaving the same at the usual or last known place of business of such per- 
 son, who is to be allowed seven days from service, or such extended time not 
 exceeding fourteen days in the whole, as the court thinks fit, to show cause to 
 the court against the validity of such adjudication. If the debtor, within such 
 time, shows to the satisfaction of the court that the petitioning creditor's debt, 
 trading, and act of bankruptcy upon which the adjudication is grounded, or 
 either of such matters [i.e. of course as to the trading, where it is necessary to 
 prove trading on the part of a debtor], are insufficient to support the adjudica- 
 tion ; and no other creditors, debt, trading, and act of bankruptcy sufficient to 
 support such adjudication (or such of the last-mentioned matters as are requisite 
 to support such adjudication in lieu of the petitioning creditor's debt, trading, 
 and act of bankruptcy, which have been deemed insufficient), are proved to the 
 satisfaction of the court, the court thereupon is to order the adjudication to be 
 annulled. 
 
 If, however, cause for annulling the adjudication be not so shown to the satis- 
 faction of the court, the court will forthwith cause notice of the adjudication to 
 be inserted in the London Gazette, and will thereby appoint two public sittings 
 of the court for the bankrupt to surrender and conform, the last of which shall be 
 on a day not less than thirty days, and not exceeding sixty days from such 
 advertisement, which is to be the day limited for surrender. But the court may, 
 
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 from time to time, enlarge the time for the bankrupt surrendering himself, so as 
 every such order be made six days at least before the day on which such bank- 
 rupt was to surrender himself. 
 
 And the same clause also enacts that if any person adjudged bankrupt shall, 
 before the expiration of the time allowed for showing cause, surrender himself 
 and give his written consent to the adjudication being advertised, the court may 
 forthwith cause the notice of adjudication to be advertised, and may appoint the 
 sittings for the bankrupt to surrender and conform. 
 
 Every debtor petitioning against himself must file a statement (verified by 
 oath) of his debts and liabilities, of the names and residences of his creditors, and 
 of the causes of his failure, within such time, after filing his petition, and in such 
 form as the general orders may direct. Sec. 93. 
 
 When a debtor petitions for adjudication against himself, and knows or 
 believes that the debts, proveable under his bankruptcy, will not exceed £300, 
 he must state this fact on oath. If he be resident in the metropolitan district, his 
 petition, in any case, must be filed in the London Court of Bankruptcy. But if 
 he be resident out of the metropolitan district, and his debts do not exceed £300, 
 he is then to file his petition in the county court for the district in which he has 
 resided for the six months next before the filing of his petition, or for the longest 
 period during those six months, unless he is in custody, and then in the county 
 court for the district in which he is in custody; but such court, if it make adju- 
 dication, is to transfer the proceedings to the county court in which the debtor, 
 if not in custody, would have been required to petition. Sec. 94. 
 
 The Act of 1861 not only places it in the power of any prisoner to obtain his 
 release by petitioning for an adjudication of bankruptcy, but also contains pro- 
 visions compelling every prisoner to become bankrupt, and thus to accept his 
 release on the condition of surrendering his property to his creditors. Prisoners 
 may petition in forma pauperis, on affidavit that they have not the means of 
 paying the expenses of an adjudication. 
 
 The 100th section directs that the gaoler of every prison in England and 
 Wales, within which any person is confined for debt, shall on the first day of 
 every month make a return of the name of every such person, the date of his 
 imprisonment, the nature and amount of the debt for which he is imprisoned, 
 and whether he is willing, or refuses to petition the Court of Bankruptcy, or is 
 unable to do so by reason of poverty. This return is also to include the name 
 and addresses of every creditor at whose suit such prisoner is detained, and is to 
 be made by gaolers of prisons, situated within the London district, to the Lon- 
 don court, and by the gaolers of prisons within the country districts to the dis- 
 trict Court of Bankruptcy, or the county court having jurisdiction in bankruptcy, 
 within the jurisdiction of which the gaol is situate, as the case maybe. 
 
 The bankruptcy commissioner, or county-court judge, on receiving this return, 
 is to direct his registrar to attend at the gaol on a day, at least seven, and not 
 more than twenty-one, days from the date of the return. Notice of the day on 
 which the registrar will attend is to be forthwith given to the gaoler, and also to 
 the execution and detaining creditors of every person included in such return. 
 On the day named the registrar will attend at the prison and examine every 
 prisoner included in such return who shall have been in prison, being a trader 
 for fourteen days, or not being a trader for two calendar months, touching his 
 estate and effects, dealings and transactions. He is also to ascertain the last 
 place of abode and business of each prisoner within the last six months next 
 prior to his imprisonment. Having done this, the registrar has power to make 
 an order of adjudication in bankruptcy against every such prisoner, and to grant 
 him protection, and to make an order for his release from prison, and to direct in 
 what court the adjudication shall be prosecuted, having regard to the amount of 
 debts and the place of K^de or residence of the prisoner within the six months 
 next preceding the imprisonment. Sec. 101. 
 
 If any prisoner rb/usc to appear to be sworn, or to answer all lawful questions 
 
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 of the registrar, or of any creditor present, respecting his debts, liabilities, deal- 
 ings, and transactions, or to make a full discovery of his estate and effects, and of 
 all his books and accounts, or to produce the same, or to sign his examination 
 when taken, the registrar is to report the same to the court, and the court may, 
 by warrant, under the hand and seal of the judge or commissioner, commit the 
 prisoner to the common gaol of the county, there to be kept with or without 
 hard labour for any time not exceeding one month, and the court may at the 
 same time adjudge the prisoner a bankrupt. 
 
 By section 105, forthwith after insertion of adjudication in the Gazette, or if 
 he surrenders himself before the expiration of the time for showing cause, forth- 
 with on such surrender, the bankrupt, if required by the official assignee, must 
 deliver upon oath all documents in his own power relating to his estate, and dis- 
 cover those in the power of any other person; and if he be not in prison, he 
 must, on notice after his surrender, attend his assignees, and assist in making 
 out the accounts. He may inspect his books, &c, for the purpose of finishing 
 his examination in their presence, or that of some person appointed by them, 
 and bring two persons to assist him; and if after he has obtained his " order of 
 discharge" he attend his assignees, which he is compellable to do, he is to be 
 allowed five shillings a day. 
 
 When the bankrupt has surrendered, the court may from time to time make 
 such allowance to him out of his estate as shall be necessary for the support of 
 himself and his family, until he has passed his last examination. But no such 
 allowance is to be made by the court for any period after the adjournment of the 
 last examination sine die. 
 
 Previously to the passing of this Act three classes of certificates were granted 
 to bankrupts, in accordance with what were supposed to be their merits, but the 
 duties of the court are now confined to granting, suspending, or refusing a cer- 
 tificate of discharge. 
 
 The 159th clause, which regulates this matter, lays down the following rules: — 
 
 I. If on the hearing of any application for an order of discharge the assignees or any creditor 
 shall allege, and if with or without such allegation, the court shall be of opinion that there is 
 ground for charging the bankrupt with acts or conduct amounting to a misdemeanor under this 
 act, the court shall, if the bankrupt consent thereto, direct a clear statement in writing of the 
 charge to be delivered to the bankrupt, and shall appoint a day for trying the bankrupt on such 
 charge, and, if the bankrupt require it, shall summon a jury for such purpose, and may direct 
 the creditors' assignee, or the official assignee, or any of the creditors of the bankrupt, to act as 
 prosecutor on such trial : Provided always, that in every case of accusation against a bankrupt 
 of acts amounting to a misdemeanor, it shall be competent to the court to direct that the 
 bankrupt be indicted and prosecuted in one of the ordinary courts of criminal justice; and in 
 all other cases the order of discharge shall take effect immediately from its date, subject to the 
 appeal herein provided. 
 
 II. If on such trial by a jury or by the commissioner alone the bankrupt shall be convicted 
 of any offence by this act made a misdemeanor, the commissioner shall, in addition to the 
 punishment awarded for the offence, have power to direct that the order of discharge be either 
 wholly refused or suspended during such time and upon such conditions as he shall think fit. 
 
 III. If the bankrupt shall not be accused of acts amounting to misdemeanor, or if he shall 
 have been accused and acquitted, but in either case there shall be made, or shall appear to the 
 court to exist, objection to the granting of an immediate discharge, the court shall proceed to 
 consider the conduct of the bankrupt before and after adjudication, and the manner and cir- 
 cumstances in and under which his debts have been contracted ; and if the court shall be of 
 opinion — 
 
 1. That the bankrupt has carried on trade by means of fictitious capital, or— 
 
 2. That he could not have had at the time when any of his debts were contracted, any 
 
 reasonable or probable ground of expectation of being able to pay the same, or— 
 
 3. That, if a trader, he has, with intent to conceal the true state of his affairs, wilfully 
 
 omitted to keep proper books of account, or — 
 
 4. Whether trader or not, that his insolvency is attributable to rash and hazardous specula- 
 
 tion, or unjustifiable extravagance in living, or— 
 
 5. That he has put any of his creditors to unnecessary expense by frivolous or vexatious de- 
 
 fence to any action or suit to recover any debt or money due from him, 
 the Court may either refuse an order of discharge, or may suspend the same from taking effect 
 for such time as the court may think fit, or may grant an order of discharge, subject to any 
 condition or conditions touching any salary, pay, emoluments, profits, wages, earnings or 
 income which may afterwards become due to the bankrupt, and touching after-acquired pro- 
 
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 perty of the bankrupt, or may sentence the bankrupt to be imprisoned for any period of time, 
 not exceeding one year from the date of such sentence. 
 
 Then the clause concludes with this important provision : — " Provided always, 
 that no person shall be liable by virtue of this act to any criminal proceedings or 
 penalty in respect of any matter which may have occurred before the passing 
 of this act, to which he would not have been liable if this act had not passed." 
 
 Persons, whose certificates have been refused before the passing of this act, 
 may, after the expiration of three years from such refusal, apply to the court 
 for an order of discharge, and the court may grant it either absolutely or subject 
 to any condition or conditions, in the same manner as if the bankruptcy of such 
 applicant had taken place after the commencement of this act. Sec. 160. 
 
 Among the criminal offences under the act are the committing of forgery, 
 the insertion of false advertisements under the bankruptcy acts in any news- 
 paper, the forging the signature of any officer or the seal of the court. By the 
 221st section it is enacted, that any bankrupt who shall do any of the acts or 
 things following with intent to defraud or defeat the rights of his creditors, shall 
 be guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be liable at the discretion of the court before 
 which he shall be convicted to punishment by imprisonment for not more than 
 three years, or to any greater punishment attached to the offence by any existing 
 statute. 
 
 1. If he shall not upon the day limited for his surrender, and before three of the clock of 
 such day, or at the hour and upon the day allowed him for finishing his examination, after 
 notice in writing served upon him personally, or left at his usual or last known place of abode 
 or business, and after notice in the London Gazette, surrender himself to the court (having no 
 lawful impediment allowed by the court), and sign or subscribe such surrender, and submit to 
 be examined before such court from time to time : 
 
 2. If he shall not upon his examination fully and truly discover, to the best of his know- 
 ledge and belief, all his property, and how and to whom, and for what consideration, and when 
 he disposed of any part thereof, except such part as has been really and bond fide before sold or 
 disposed of in the way of his trade or business, if any, or laid out in the ordinary expense of 
 his family, or shall not deliver up to the court, or dispose as the court directs of all such part 
 thereof as is in his possession, custody or power, except the necessary wearing apparel of him- 
 self, his wife and children ; and deliver up to the court all books, papers and writings in his 
 possession, custody or power, relating to his property or affairs : 
 
 3. If he shall, after adjudication, or within sixty days prior to adjudication, with intent to 
 defraud his creditors, remove, conceal or embezzle any part of his property to the value of ten 
 pounds or upwards : 
 
 4. If any person having to his knowledge or belief proved a false debt under his bank- 
 ruptcy, he shall fail to disclose the same to his assignees within one month after coming to the 
 knowledge or belief thereof : 
 
 5. If he shall, with intent to defraud, wilfully and fraudulently omit from his schedule any 
 effects or property whatsoever : 
 
 6. If he shall, after the filing of the petition for adjudication, with intent to conceal the 
 state of his affairs, or to defeat the object of the law of bankruptcy, conceal, prevent or with- 
 hold the production of any book, deed, paper or writing relating to his property, dealings or 
 affairs : 
 
 7. If he shall, after the filing of the petition for adjudication, or within three months next 
 before adjudication, with intent to conceal the state of his affairs, or to defeat the objects of the 
 law of bankruptcy, part with, conceal, destroy, alter, mutilate or falsify, or cause to be con- 
 cealed, destroyed, altered, mutilated and falsified, any book, paper, writing, or security or 
 document relating to his property, trade, dealings or affairs, or make or be privy to the 
 making of any false or fraudulent entry or statement in or omission from any book, paper, 
 document or writing relating thereto: 
 
 a If, within the like time {i.e. three months before adjudication), he shall, knowing at the 
 time that he is unable to meet his engagements, fraudulently and with intent to diminish the 
 sum to be divided amongst the general body of his creditors, have made away with, mort- 
 gaged, encumbered or charged any part of his property, of what kind soever, or if after adjudi- 
 cation he shall conceal from the court or his assignee any debt due to or from him. 
 
 (The above offences, it will be seen, may be committed both by traders and 
 non-traders; those which follow are peculiar to traders: — ) 
 
 9. If, being a trader, he shall, under his bankruptcy, or at any meeting of his creditors 
 within three months next preceding the filing of the petition for adjudication, have attempted 
 to account for any of his property by fictitious losses or expenses: 
 
 10. If, being a trader, he shall, within three months next before the filing of the petition 
 for adjudication, under the false colour and pretence of carrying on business and dealing in the 
 ordinary course of trade, have obtained on credit from any person any goods or chattels with 
 intent to defraud : 
 
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 11. If, being a trader, he shall, with intent to defraud his creditors, within three months 
 next before the filing of the petition for adj udication, pawn, pledge, or dispose of, otherwise 
 than by bond fide transactions in the ordinary way of his trade, any of his goods or chattels 
 which have been obtained on credit and remain unpaid for. 
 
 If it appear to any court under this act that the bankrupt have been guilty of 
 any of these offences, such court may exercise such power for the summoning, 
 apprehending, committing, remanding, bailing and otherwise proceeding in 
 respect of such bankrupt, as are exercised by justices of the peace in respect of 
 persons charged before them with any felony or misdemeanor. Sec. 222. 
 
 The court may direct the creditors' assignee, or, if there be none, the official 
 assignee, or any of the creditors of the bankrupt, to act as the prosecutor, and 
 give him a certificate of the court having so directed, and upon the production of 
 this certificate, the costs of the prosecution are to be allowed by the court before 
 which any person is tried, in all respects as the expenses of prosecutions for 
 felonies are now paid and borne. Sec. 223. 
 
 The court may direct the assignees to lay the papers before the Attorney- 
 General (or the Solicitor-General during a vacancy in the office of Attorney- 
 General) for his direction thereon, either while the bankruptcy is pending before 
 the court, or when it has been brought to a conclusion. Sec. 224. 
 
 As to the mode of trial we have already seen that by the 159th section of the 
 same act, if, on the hearing of the application for the order of discharge of any 
 bankrupt, the assignee or any creditor shall, or without such allegation, the 
 court itself, shall be of opinion that there is ground for charging the bankrupt 
 with one of the above misdemeanors, the court may either: — 
 
 First. With the consent of the bankrupt, direct a clear statement, in writing, 
 of the charge to be delivered to the bankrupt, and appoint a day for trying him, 
 summoning a jury for that purpose if the bankrupt require it; or 
 
 Secondly. Without the consent of the bankrupt, the court may direct him to 
 be indicted before one of the ordinary criminal courts. 
 
 By the 226th clause the court has power to commit to prison persons wilfully 
 disobeying its rules and orders. 
 
 We have given as full an abstract of the most important sections of this 
 elaborate act as appeared essential. Many of the clauses and points in a 
 summary of this kind it is quite impossible even to allude to. But there have 
 been several admirable cheap digests made of it, among which we may enumerate, 
 The Bankruptcy Manual, by Mr. C. E. Lewis, 2s 6d, and the Law of Bankruptcy, 
 by Mr. W. A. Holdsworth, Is. The most complete work on the subject is 
 Leonard Shelford's Law of Bankruptcy aud Insolvency. London, Maxwell, 1862. 
 12mo. 1238 pp. Price £2. 
 
 BANKS. — To Sections I. and II. of the article in the body of this work, the 
 Historical Notice, and the Objects and Principles of Banking, nothing need be 
 added, but the other divisions of the subject may be traced down to the present 
 period in the same order of description, namely — 
 
 III. The Bank of England.— The tables which have been brought down 
 in continuation of the text in the body of the work speak for themselves as to 
 the operations of the Bank of England, but a few observations may be made 
 thereon: — 
 
 Discount of Mercantile Bills. — The Bank objects to publish any details as to 
 its discount operations unless such returns are specially called for by the Govern- 
 ment. In 1855, the total amount of commercial paper discounted by the Bank 
 was £22,136,590; in 1856, £30,924,699; in 1857, £49,146,679. The last named 
 year was an exceptional one, but the average monthly amount of bills under dis- 
 count by the Bank would seem to be about £3,000,000. 
 
 The private banks and discount brokers, however, take the largest share, for 
 besides Messrs. Gurney's and other large discount brokers, there are now three 
 discount companies in London—the London, the National, and Mercantile Dis- 
 count Companies. The discount brokers complain of the want of accommoda- 
 tion afforded them by the Bank of England, which, while it deals with private 
 
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 individuals, refuses to discount for them, and a curious effort at coercion or in- 
 convenience was made by one large discount house in April, 1860, which with- 
 drew bank notes from the Bank of England to the amount of more than one 
 million and a half sterling. 
 
 Deposits oy Private Parties. — These may be considered to average now about 
 14 millions. On February 7, 1846, the private deposits were £18,400,000. The 
 highest amount for some years was then £14,620,000 in July, 1852. In 1859 the 
 private deposits reached £16,836,238 in June. The Joint-stock Banks and pri- 
 vate bankers, however, monopolise a large share of the deposits of the pnblic; 
 the former from paying interest thereon, and the latter from the facilities afforded 
 to depositors. 
 
 Branch Banks. — Besides a west-end branch, the Bank of England has now 
 ten provincial branch Banks. The following alterations have been made since the 
 statement at page 53. The branches at Gloucester, Norwich, and Swansea have 
 been closed, and a branch bank opened at Leicester. 
 
 The Profits of the Bank have been pretty steady, and of late years show an 
 increase. In 1852 the dividend on Bank stock rose to 7£ per cent; in 1853, to 
 8 per cent; in 1854, to 9 per cent, and in subsequent years it has been 9£ and 
 10 per cent. The rest has always been kept above £3,000,000, and in several 
 years of late has averaged three millions and a half. 
 
 Circulation. — The Circulation of the Bank it will be seen now averages about 
 £21,000,000 in notes held by the public, besides about eight or nine millions 
 held by the Bank. In December, 1859, the note issue stood at £30,743,815, of 
 which £21,150,405 were in the hands of the public, and £9,593,410 held by the 
 Bank. 
 
 Accounts. — The appended tables bring down the accounts of the Bank to the 
 latest period. 
 
 
 Liabilities^ 
 
 Assets. 
 
 Circulation. 
 
 Deposits. 
 
 Securities. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 1841— January 5 
 
 16,112,000 
 
 7,049,000 
 
 22,362,000 
 
 8,557,000 
 
 March- 30 
 
 16,537,000- 
 
 7,212,000 
 
 22,328,000 
 
 4,339,000 
 
 July 20 
 
 16,821,000- 
 
 7,746,000 
 
 22,275,000 
 
 5,170,000 
 
 October 12 
 
 17,592,000- 
 
 7,529,000 
 
 23,428,000 
 
 4,713,000 
 
 1842— January 4 
 
 16,632,000- 
 
 7,948,000 
 
 22,680,000 
 
 4,779,000 
 
 Marcl>29 
 
 16,952,000 
 
 8,657,000 
 
 22,586,000 - 
 
 6,125,009 
 
 July 16 
 
 18,279,000- 
 
 8,565,000 
 
 21,713,000 
 
 7,818,000 
 
 December 30 
 
 19,230,000- 
 
 9,063,000 
 
 20,560,000 
 
 10,330,000 
 
 1843-Marcb25 
 
 20,093,000 
 
 12,033,000 
 
 23,830,000 
 
 11,054,000 
 
 June 17 
 
 19,521,000- 
 
 10,495,000 
 
 21,604,000 
 
 11,427,000 
 
 September 9 
 
 19,496,000- 
 
 11,727,000 
 
 22,394,000 
 
 12,018,000 
 
 December 30 
 
 19,098,000- 
 
 11,751,000 
 
 21,067,000 
 
 12,855,000 
 
 1844— March 23 
 
 21,122,000- 
 
 13,972,000 
 
 22,479,000 
 
 15,784,000 
 
 June 15 
 
 21,237,000- 
 
 13,483,000 
 
 21,916,000 
 
 15,900,000 
 
 September 7 
 
 21,200,000 
 
 12,275,000 
 
 21,800,000 
 
 15,209,000 
 
 December 28 
 
 20,100,000 
 
 15,600,000 
 
 24,000,000 
 
 14,800,000 
 
 By the last Bank Charter Act (7 & 8 Vict. c. 32) which came into operation 
 on the 1st Sept. 1844, it was enacted that the issue of promissory notes of the 
 bank should be kept distinct from the general banking business of the Company, 
 and be carried on separately as " the Issue Department of tlie Bank of Eng- 
 land? From the same date the Company are to appropriate securities to the 
 value of fourteen million pounds to the Issue Department, of which the public 
 debt of the Government to the Company is to be deemed a part, and so much 
 gold coin and gold and silver bullion as shall not be required by the banking 
 department ; thereupon an equal amount of bank notes (including those in cir- 
 culation) shall be transferred from the issue department to the banking depart- 
 ment, and the whole amount shall be deemed to be issues on the credit of such 
 securities, coin, and bullion. 
 
 § 3 declares, that the amount of silver bullion retained by the issue depart- 
 ment shall not at any one time exceed a fourth part of the gold coin and bullion 
 
 c 
 
BAN 
 
 10 
 
 BAN 
 
 held at the same time. All persons may demand from the issue department 
 notes for gold bullion at the rate of £3. 17s 9d per oz. of standard gold. 
 
 The accounts of the Bank were previously published, but less frequently and 
 in another and shorter form. The accounts in the form directed by the new 
 Act are, partly from their increased detail, and partly from their appearing in 
 two separate shapes, somewhat less generally intelligible than in the old form. 
 
 From the number of columns (about 16) that would be requisite to carry 
 down the returns for sixteen years, and the immense mass of figures, it seems 
 scarcely desirable to continue the quarterly returns down to the present time in 
 their new form. I may therefore give a brief summary of the averages at the 
 close of each year: — 
 
 Liabilities. 
 
 Assets. 
 
 
 Circulation. 
 
 Deposits. 
 
 Securities. 
 
 Bullion. 
 
 Rest. 
 
 1845-6 
 
 2!, 000, 000 
 
 17,000,000 
 
 26,500,000 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 3,500,000 
 
 1847 
 
 19,000,000 
 
 14,000,000 
 
 26,800,000 
 
 10,000.000 
 
 3,800,000 
 
 1848-51 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 17,000,000 
 
 25,200,000 
 
 15 000,000 
 
 3,200,000 
 
 1852-53 
 
 23,000,000 
 
 18,500,000 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 8,500,000 
 
 1854-55 
 
 21,000,000 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 26,500,000 
 
 14,000,000 
 
 3,500.000 
 
 1856 
 
 21,000,000 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 28,400,000 
 
 11,000 000 
 
 3,300,000 
 
 1857 
 
 21,100,000 
 
 20,500,000 
 
 38,600,000 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 3,400.000 
 
 1858 
 
 21,435,000 
 
 20,490,000 
 
 26,098,000 
 
 18,985,000 
 
 3,115,000 
 
 1859 
 
 20,830,000 
 
 22,870,000 
 
 30,830,000 
 
 16,130,000 
 
 3,160,000 
 
 IV. London Bankers. — There are now 56 private banking firms in London, 
 with 200 partners as follows: 
 
 London Private Banking Firms in January, 1860. 
 
 Name of Finn. 
 Barclay, Bevan, Tritton, and Co. 
 Barnett, Hoares, and Co. - 
 Bennett, W. 
 
 Biddulph, Cocks, Biddulph, and Co. 
 Biggerstaffs > 
 
 Bosanquet, Franks, Whatman, and Harman - 
 Brown, Janson, and Co. - 
 Brown, John, and Co. - 
 Call, Marten, and Co. - 
 
 Challis and Son - 
 Child and Co. - 
 Coutts and Co. - 
 Cunliffe, Son, and Co. - 
 Cunliffe, Roger, Son, and Co. 
 Curries and Co - 
 
 Davies, Robert, and Co. - 
 Dimsdale, Drewett, Fowler, and Barnard 
 Drummond, Messrs. - 
 
 Feltham, John, and Co. - 
 Fuller, Banbury, and Co. - 
 Glyn and Co. - 
 Goslings and Sharpe - 
 
 Hallett, Maude, and Hallet 
 Hanburys and Lloyds ... 
 Hankeys and Co. - 
 
 Herries, Farquhar, and Co. 
 Heywood, Kennards, and Co. 
 Hill and Sons .... 
 Hoares, Messrs. - - - - 
 
 Holyland, E. and Son - 
 
 Hopkinson and Co. ... 
 
 Johnston, Hugh and John, and Co. 
 Jones, Loyd, and Co. - 
 
 Lacy and Son - 
 Lubbock, Sir J. W. and Co. 
 Marryatt and Co. ... 
 
 M artins and Co. - 
 
 Masterman, Peters, Mildred, Masterman, and Co. 
 Olding, Sharpe, and Co. - 
 Praeds and Co. - 
 Prescott, Grote, Cave, and Co. 
 
 Place of Business. 
 54, Lombard-street 
 Lombard-street 
 Metropolitan Cattle-market 
 43, Charing-cross - 
 63, West Smithfield 
 73, Lombard-street 
 32, Abchurch-lane - 
 25, Abchurch-lane 
 25, Old Bond-street 
 37, West Smithfield 
 
 I, Fleet-street 
 
 58 and 59, Strand 
 
 24, Lombard-street 
 
 24, Bucklersbury - 
 
 29, Cornhill 
 
 187, Shoreditch - 
 
 50, Cornhill 
 
 49, Charing-cross 
 
 42, Lombard-street 
 77, Lombard-street 
 
 67, Lombard-street 
 19, Fleet-street 
 
 14, Gt. George-st. Westmin. 
 60, Lombard-street 
 7, Fenchurch-street 
 
 16, St. James's-st Westmin. 
 4, Lombard-street 
 
 17, West Smithfield 
 37, Fleet-street - 
 113, Leadenhall-street 
 
 3, Regent-street, St. James's 
 
 28, Cannon-street 
 
 43, Lothbury 
 60, Smithfield 
 
 II, Mansionhouse-street 
 3, King William-street 
 
 68, Lombard-street 
 
 35, Nicholas-lane, Lomb.-st. 
 
 29, Clement's-lane 
 189, Fleet-street - 
 62, Threadneedle-Btreet 
 
 Number of 
 
 Partners. 
 
 - 4 
 
BAN 
 
 11 
 
 BAN 
 
 Name of Firm. 
 Puget, Bainbridges, and Co. - • 
 
 Ransom, Bouverie, and Co. 
 Robarts, Curtis, and Co. - 
 Samuel and Montagu • 
 
 Seale, Low, and Co. - 
 
 Scott, Sir Samuel, Bart, and Co. 
 Shank, John - 
 Smith, Payne, and Smith 
 Spielman and Co. - 
 
 Spooner, Attwoods, and Co. 
 Stevenson, Salt, and Sons 
 Stride, J. and W. S. 
 Twining, R. and Co. - 
 
 "Williams, Deacon, Labouchere, Thornton, and Co. 
 Willis, PercivaL and Co. - 
 
 56 Finns. 
 
 Place of Business 
 
 Number of 
 Partners. 
 
 12, St. Paul's Churchyard - 4 
 
 1, Pall-mall East - - 5 
 
 15, Lombard-street - 5 
 
 21, Cornhill - - 2 
 
 7, Leicester-square - 2 
 
 1, Cavendish-square - 2 
 
 Metropolitan Cattle-market 1 
 
 1, Lombard-street - 6 
 
 79, Lombard-street - 1 
 
 27, Gracecburch-street - 3 
 
 20, Lombard-street - 2 
 
 41, West Smithfield - 2 
 
 215 and 216, Strand - 2 
 
 Birchin-lane - - 6 
 
 76, Lombard-street - 4 
 
 Total Number of Partners - 200 
 
 Several private banks have discontinued business. Thus the failure of Messrs. 
 Strahan, Paul, and Bates, on the 11th June, 1855, was attended with striking 
 disclosures as regarded the conduct of business. For their malpractices the 
 three partners were criminally prosecuted and sentenced, on the 27th Oct. to 
 14 years' transportation, although some modification of the severity of the sen- 
 tence was subsequently made. 
 Messrs. White, Ludlow, and Co., of the Haymarket, failed a year or two ago, 
 Messrs. Tisdale and Ward have ceased business as bankers. Messrs Sapte. 
 Muspratt, Banbury, and Co., are amalgamated with Fuller and Co Messrs. 
 Dixon, Brooks, and Dixon, of Chancery Lane, are amalgamated with the Union 
 Bank. Messrs. Bouverie and Co. joined the firm of Ransom and Co. 
 
 Metropolitan Joint-Stock Banks. — Compared with former years, the 
 following are the statistics of the banking business of London : — 
 
 Jan. 1845. 
 
 Jan. 1855. 
 
 Jan. 1860. 
 
 Firms. Partners. 
 
 Firms. Partners. 
 
 Firms. Partners. 
 
 Private Banks 60 217 
 
 59 205 
 
 56 199 
 
 Joint Stock ditto 5 3103 
 
 6 4323 
 
 8 not known. 
 
 The five Joint-stock Banks which were in existence in 1845 were the London 
 and Westminster, the London Joint-Stock, the Union Bank of London, the 
 Commercial Bank, and the London and County Bank. The Royal British 
 Bank was established in 1849, but failed a few years ago. Three new banks 
 were established in 1855 — the City Bank, the Bank of London, and the Unity 
 Bank. The Western Bank of London was established in 1856, and ceased to 
 exist in 1859, the bulk of its business being transferred to the London and 
 County. 
 
 The financial comparison of the three periods stands as follows: — 
 
 Paid-up Capital. Surplus Fund. Deposits. 
 
 Five Banks in January, 1845 £2,0(53,925 188,001 7,984,305 
 
 Six Banks in January, 1855 2,772,795 486,217 26.338,586 
 
 Eight Banks in January, 1860 3,899,045 738,804 39,855,078 
 
 The subjoined Tables have been made up, exhibiting their respective capitals 
 and extent of transactions, as well as the periods at which they were severally 
 opened. The first table shows the capitals and liabilities in the close of 1859. 
 The second table specifies the amount of each guarantee fund, the ratio of capital 
 and guarantee fund liabilities, and the rate of distribution declared ; that of the 
 London and Westminster, which in 1858 was 18 per cent., being 20 for 1859; 
 while that of the London Joint-Stock has been lowered from the exceptional 
 amount of 32 £ to 23 £. The Commercial and Gty Banks, which paid 5 per 
 cent, in 1858, went up respectively to 7 and 6 per cent, in 1859. The third table 
 supplies a statement of the progress of each establishment during the past ten 
 years: — 
 
BAN 
 
 12 
 
 BAN 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Year founded. 
 
 Paid-up Capital. 
 
 Current and Deposit 
 Accounts. 
 
 London and Westminster 
 London Joint-stock 
 Union Bank of London - 
 London and County 
 Commercial Bank of London 
 City Bank - 
 Bank of London - 
 Unity 
 
 1834 
 1836 
 1839 
 1839 
 183* 
 1855- 
 1855 
 1855 
 
 £ 
 
 1,000,000 
 600,000 
 720,000 
 500,000 
 300,000 
 300,000 
 300,000 
 179,045 
 
 3,899,015 
 
 £ 
 11,115,«97 
 9,556,797 
 9,318,391 
 4,975,029 
 926,314 
 2,222,976 
 1,599,140 
 140,734 
 
 39,855,078 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Guarantee 
 Fund. 
 
 Rate of Divi- 
 dend and Bonus 
 per Annum. 
 
 Proportion of paid- 
 up Capital and 
 Guarantee Fund to 
 Current and Depos it 
 Accounts. 
 
 London and Westminster 
 London Joint-stock 
 Union Bank of London - 
 London and County 
 Commercial Bank of London 
 City Bank - 
 Bank of London - 
 Unity 
 
 £ 
 190,591 
 228,340 
 94,633 
 105.000 
 75,000 
 33,000 
 12,240 
 NiL 
 
 738,804 
 
 Per Cent. 
 20 
 23.J 
 15 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 NiL 
 
 Per Cent. 
 10-07 
 
 8-66 
 
 8-74 
 1216 
 40-48 
 14-84 
 19-52 
 77-18 
 
 Table exhibiting the quinquennial progress of the London Joint-Stock Banks 
 within the past 10 years, showing the respective amounts of current and deposit 
 accounts, guarantee funds, dividend and bonus per annum, also the ratio of decen- 
 nial increase of current and deposit accounts per cent. : — 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Current and 
 
 Deposit 
 Accounts. 
 
 Guaran- 
 tee 
 Fund. 
 
 Dividend 
 and Bonus 
 per Annum. 
 
 Ratio of Decen- 
 nial Increase of 
 Current and De- 
 posit Accounts. 
 
 1349 
 
 1854 
 1859 
 1849 
 1854 
 1859 
 1849 
 1854 
 1859 
 1849 
 1854 
 1859 
 1849 
 1854 
 1859 
 
 ) London and West- I 
 £ minster - - ( 
 
 > London Joint-stock - I 
 | Union Bank of London \ 
 
 5 London and County - \ 
 
 ) Commercial Bank of ) 
 £ London - - { 
 
 £ 
 
 3,680,523 
 7,177,244 
 11,115,697 
 2,792,507 
 6,161,154 
 9,556,797 
 2,835,617 
 7,031,477 
 9,318,391 
 1,675,494 
 3,779,945 
 4,975,029 
 
 541,804 
 1,265,903 
 
 926,314 
 
 £ 
 
 107,844 
 134,626 
 200,000 
 132,723 
 155,852 
 229,370 
 50,000 
 50,000 
 94,633 
 28,383 
 61,671 
 105,000 
 17,418 
 64,012 
 75,000 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 6 
 14 
 18 
 
 Bf 
 25* 
 18 
 
 6 
 15 
 15 
 
 6 
 12 
 11 
 
 6 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 Per Cent. 
 1 202-00 
 
 I 242-23 
 
 I 228-62 
 
 I 196 93 
 
 > 70-97 
 
 The aggregate increase of deposits in the first five years was 120*50 per cent.; 
 in the second period, 41-22 per cent. The ratio of increase in the aggregate for 
 the past 10 years has been 211*40 per cent. 
 
 The following statement of the dividends and value of the shares of some of the 
 principal London and Colonial Joint Stock Banks made up to January 1859, 
 shows the profitable return of banking business in London, when prudently con- 
 ducted. 
 
BAN 
 
 13 
 
 BAN 
 
 London and Westmin- ) 
 
 ster Bank J 
 
 LondonJointStockBank 
 London <fc County Bank 
 Union Bank of London 
 
 Oriental Bank 
 
 Agra and United Ser- ) 
 
 viceBank (Limited) ) 
 
 City Bank (Estab- ) 
 
 lishedl856 only)...) 
 
 Union Bank of Australia 
 
 Colonial Bank 
 
 BankofXewSouthWales 
 Chartered Mercantile ) 
 
 Bank of India ) 
 
 Bank of Australasia 
 
 Paid 
 up on 
 Shares. 
 
 50 
 
 Dividend 
 declared. 
 
 17 per ct 
 
 27 £ Per ct 
 12 per ct 
 
 15 per ct 
 10 per ct 
 
 10 per ct 
 
 5 per ct 
 
 and carries 
 
 forward 
 
 5 per cent. 
 
 20 per ct 
 
 7 per ct 
 
 20 per ct 
 
 16 per ct 
 20 per ct 
 
 Present 
 value 
 pr. Sbr. 
 
 04 
 
 Cost of 
 
 100 
 Shares. 
 
 £ 
 
 2,000 
 
 1,000 
 2,000 
 1,000 
 2,500 
 
 5,000 
 5,000 
 
 2,500 
 2,500 
 2,000 
 
 2,500 
 
 4,000 
 
 Present 
 value of 
 lOOShrs. 
 
 £ 
 
 5,000 
 
 3,400 
 3,100 
 2,400 
 4,000 
 
 6,800 
 6,400 
 
 5,200 
 3,300 
 4,800 
 
 6,200 
 
 9,200 
 
 Net 
 Profit. 
 
 £ 
 
 3,000 
 
 2,400 
 1,100 
 1,400 
 1,500 
 
 1,800 
 1,400 
 
 2,700 
 
 800 
 
 2,800 
 
 8,700 
 
 5,200 
 
 150 per ct 
 
 240 per ct 
 55 perct 
 
 140 per ct 
 60 per ct 
 
 36 per ct 
 28 perct 
 
 108 per ct 
 32 per ct 
 140 per ct 
 
 148 per ct 
 
 130 per ct 
 
 Yielding an average on the above of 15 J per cent, dividend, and of 105£ per 
 cent, on the paid-up capital. 
 
 The number of Joint Stock Banks in the metropolis including branches, has 
 been as follows, in the last few years : 
 
 1854 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 This is exclusive of the numerous branches and sub-branches of the National 
 Provincial Bank, and the London and County Bank. 
 
 V. English Provincial Banks. 
 
 In December 1859, the number of Joint Stock Banks in England and Wales, 
 (including those of London) was 94 ; of Scotland 15* and of Ireland 8; besides 
 which there were about 18 Foreign and British Colonial Banks, having offices in 
 London. 
 
 The number of separate Joint Stock Banks and their branches, were as follows : in 
 
 England and Wales 
 Scotland : 
 Ireland . . . 
 
 1854 
 
 630 
 454 
 215 
 
 1299 
 
 1855 
 
 624 
 481 
 214 
 
 1319 
 
 1856 
 
 656 
 581 
 206 
 
 1443 
 
 1857 
 
 669 
 642 
 209 
 
 1520 
 
 1858 
 
 674 
 746 
 209 
 
 1629 
 
 The following return distinguishes the counties, and shows the progress of bank- 
 ing establishments in the last five years. 
 
 Number of Joint Stock Banks, including Branch Establishments, in each 
 County in England and "Wales, Scotland, and Ireland (including the Banks of 
 England and Ireland and their Branches), in the Years 1854 and 1858. 
 
 Counties. 
 
 1854 
 
 1858 
 
 Counties. 
 
 1851 
 
 1858 
 
 ENGLAND and WALES. 
 Bedford . 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 ENGLAND and WALES. 
 
 
 
 Berks 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 Essex 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 Bucks 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 Gloucester 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 Cambridge . 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Hants 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 Chester 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 Hereford . • 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 Cornwall . , 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 Herts . • 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 Cumberland . 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 Huntingdon • 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Derby . . 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 Kent 
 
 23 
 
 26 
 
 Devon 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 Lancaster • 
 
 35 
 
 38 
 
 Dorset 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 Leicester . • 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 Durham . 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 Lincoln . . 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
BAN 
 
 U 
 
 BAN 
 
 Counties. 
 
 ENGLAND and WALES. 
 Middlesex (exclusive of Me- ) 
 
 tropolis) . . j 
 
 Metropolis 
 Monmouth 
 Norfolk . 
 Northampton 
 Northumberland 
 Nottingham 
 Oxford 
 Rutland 
 Salop 
 
 Somerset . 
 Stafford . 
 Suffolk 
 Surrey- 
 Sussex 
 Warwick . 
 Westmoreland 
 Wilts 
 
 1854 
 
 1858 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 32 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 3G 
 
 36 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 Counties 
 
 ENGLAND and WALES 
 Worcester 
 York, East Riding 
 
 „ North Riding 
 
 „ West Riding 
 Berwick-upon-Tweed 
 Anglesey . 
 Brecknock 
 Cardigan . 
 Carmarthen 
 Carnarvon 
 Denbigh . 
 Flint 
 
 Glamorgan 
 Merioneth 
 Montgomery 
 Radnorshire 
 
 Total for England and 
 Wales 
 
 SCOTLAND 
 
 Aberdeen . 
 
 Argyll 
 
 Ayr 
 
 Banff 
 
 Berwick 
 
 Bute » 
 
 Caithness . 
 
 Clackmannan 
 
 Cromarty . 
 
 Dumbarton 
 
 Dumfries . 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 Elgin 
 
 Fife 
 
 Forfar 
 
 Haddington 
 
 Inverness . 
 
 Kincardine 
 
 Kinross 
 
 Kirkcudbright 
 
 Lanark 
 
 Linlithgow 
 
 Moray 
 
 Nairn 
 
 Orkney and Shetland 
 
 Peebles 
 
 Perth 
 
 Renfrew . 
 
 Ross 
 
 Roxburgh . 
 
 Selkirk 
 
 Stirling . 
 
 Sutherland 
 
 Wigtown . 
 
 Total for Scotland 
 
 2.3 
 
 746 
 
 IRELAND 
 Antrim 
 Armagh 
 Cavan . 
 Carlow 
 Clare 
 Cork 
 
 Donegal . 
 Down 
 Dublin 
 Fermanagh 
 Galway ; 
 Kerry 
 Kildare . 
 Kilkenny . 
 King's County 
 Limerick . 
 Londonderry 
 Longford . 
 Louth 
 Mayo . 
 
 Meath 
 Monaghan 
 Queen's County 
 Roscommon 
 Sligo 
 
 Tipperary . 
 Tyrone 
 Waterford 
 Westmeath 
 Wexford . 
 Wicklow . 
 
 Total for Ireland 
 
 >. 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 
 IS 
 
 13 
 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 215 
 
 209 
 
 Qngdom 
 
 1,299 1,629 
 
 An account showing the amount of notes circulated in England and Wales by 
 Private Banks and Joint-Stock Banks and their branches, at the commencement 
 of each year since 1855. 
 
 
 Bank of 
 
 Private 
 
 Joint Stock 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 England. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Total. 
 27,899,237 
 
 1855 
 
 £20,852,000 
 
 3,943,067 
 
 3,104,170 
 
 1856 
 
 19,920,000 
 
 3,911,880 
 
 3,080,116 
 
 26,912,696 
 
 1857 
 
 20,007,000 
 
 3,729/209 
 
 3,051,574 
 
 26,787,783 
 
 1858 
 
 20,295,000 
 
 3,099,644 
 
 2,473,473 
 
 25,868,117 
 
 1859 
 
 20,484,689 
 
 3,343,026 
 
 2,904,770 
 
 26,692,485 
 
 1860 
 
 21,831,320 
 
 3,594,235 
 
 3,071,653 
 
 28,497,208 
 
BAN 
 
 15 
 
 BAN 
 
 The following is a List of the several Private and Joint-Stock Banks which 
 have ceased to issue their own Notes since the passing of the Bank Act of 1844, 
 with the dates when they ceased to issue, and the causes: — 
 
 Date of last 
 Return. 
 
 Prior to f 
 the 12th 
 October, 
 1844, J 
 
 •when the^ 
 Act came 
 into ope- 
 ration. 
 
 April 12, 1845 
 Sept. 13, , 
 April 11, 1846 
 July 4, , 
 
 Oct. 10, , 
 
 Dec. 5, , 
 
 May 29, 1847 
 Oct. 9, , 
 
 Oct. 16, 
 Oct. 23, 
 
 Oct 
 
 Nov. 6, „ 
 Hot 27, „ 
 
 July 29, 1848 
 Oct. 7, , 
 Dec. 2, , 
 Dec 23, . 
 Sept. 22, 1849 
 Oct. 20, , 
 June 24, 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Jan. 
 Feb. 
 May 
 June 
 
 Oct. 
 
 July 3, 1852 
 
 Aug. 28, „ 
 
 Jan. 29, 1853 
 
 April 23, „ 
 Aug. 6, „ 
 
 June 3, 1854 
 Oct. 6, 1855 
 Nov. 24,1855 
 
 Dec. 29, 
 
 April 5, 1856 
 July 12, 
 Aug. 9, 
 
 NAMES. 
 
 Bristol Old Bank— Baillie Ames & Co. - Bk. of EngL Notes 
 Bishop Waltham, Hants.— Gunner «fc Co. Ditto 
 
 3. Cambridge Bank — Fisher and Sons - - Ditto 
 
 4. Ditto Humfrey and Son - Closed, 1845 
 
 5. Margate Bank— Cobb & Co. - - - Bk. of Engl. Notes 
 
 6. Oxford University & City Bank— Sir John 
 
 Lock and Co. ----- Ditto 
 
 7. Staines Bank— Thomas Ashby <fc Co. - Ditto 
 x. Wrexham and N. Wales Bk.— R M. Lloyd Ditto 
 9.*Western District Joint-Stock Banking Co. Dissolved - 
 
 Total Istuesqivenuppriortothe Act of\84i taking effect amount to 
 10. Whitby Bank- Frankland & Wilkinson - YorkCity&County 
 1 l.*Suffolk Joint-Stock Banking Company - Dissolved - 
 12. Dover Union Bank — Latham & Co. - Bankrupts - 
 13.*Stockton and Durham County Joint- 
 Stock Bank ------ Dissolved - 
 
 14. Romsey and Hampshire Bk.— Wm. Foot- 
 
 ner & Sons ------ Bk. of Engl. Notes 
 
 lo.*Leeds <fe West Riding Joint-Stock Bank- 
 ing Company - Dissolved - 
 16.*Leeds Commercial Joint- Stock Bank - Ditto 
 
 17. Abingdon and Wantage— Henry Knapp Bankrupt - 
 
 18. Penzance Union Bank— Ricketts, Entho- 
 ven & Co. --------- 
 
 19. Leek & Congleton— Fowler, Gaunt & Co. Bk. of EngL Notes 
 
 20. Salisbury and Fordingbridge Bank— Bro- 
 die & Co. - - - - - - Bankrupts 
 
 21. Shaftesbury and Hendon Bank— Brodie 
 & King '------ Closed 
 
 22. Shrewsbury & Market Drayton— Adams 
 <fe Warren ------ Bankrupts 
 
 23. Honiton Bank— Flood & Lott - - Ditto 
 
 24. Bridport Bank— Gundry <fc Co. - - Ditto 
 
 25. St. Albans <fc Herts Bank— Gibson & Sturt Closed 
 
 26. Grantham Bank— Kewney «fc King - 
 27.*Sheffleld and Retford Joint Stock Bank - Closed 
 
 St. Albans Dank— John Samuel Story - Bankrupt 
 
 29. Wrexham Bank— Samuel Kenrick - Closed 
 
 30. Yeovil Old Bank- Messrs. J. &H.B.Batten Bk. of Engl. Notes 
 
 31. Christ church Bank— Messrs. Tice <fc Welch Closed 
 
 32. Reigate and Dorking Bank— Messrs. Nash 
 <fe Xeale ------ Bankrupts 
 
 33. Bedford and Bedfordshire Banking Co.— 
 Trapp & Co. Closed 
 
 34. Peterboro' Bank— Simpson & Co. - Closed 
 
 35. Oxford Bank- J. & R. Morrell 
 
 36. Marlboro' and North Wilts -Ward & Co. - 
 
 37. Bromsgrove Bank— Rufford & Co. - - Bankrupts - 
 
 38. Stourbridge Bank— Rufford <fc Co. - - Bankrupts - 
 
 39. Newport Old Bank— Williams <fc Sons - Bankrupts - 
 
 40. Warminster <fe Wiltshire Bank— Everett, RavenbilL, & Co. 
 
 41. Stourbridge Old Bank— Bate <fc Robins— (United with Mid- 
 land <fe Birmingham Joint-Stock Bank) - - - - 
 
 42.*Newcastle, Shields, & Sunderland Union 
 
 Joint-Stock Bank ----- Dissolved - 
 
 43. Marlborough Bank— Tanner & Co. - - Closed - 
 
 44. Walsall Old Bank— Charles Foster <fc Sons— (Incorporated 
 with Birmingham Banking Company) - - - - 
 
 45. Winchester <fe Hampshire Bank— Wickham & Co. 
 46*Storey & Thomas Bank— Shaftesbury - - - - 
 
 47. Cardiff Bank— Towgood <fe Co.— (Incorporated with West of 
 England <fc South Wales District Banking Company) - 
 
 48. Lichfield Bank— Palmer <fc Green - - Bankrupts - 
 49*Cheltenham & Gloucestershire Banking Co. - 
 
 50. Hertford & Ware Bank— S. Adams <fe Co. Bankrupts - 
 
 51. Hemel Hampstead Bk.— Smith & Whittingstall, Bankrup t s- 
 
 Carried forward^ 
 
 No. of 
 Banks 
 
 Amount. 
 
 £89,540 
 
 1,993 
 8,753 
 2,615 
 9,996 
 
 15,705 
 9,244 
 4,464 
 
 18,125 
 
 160,435 
 2,076 
 7,449 
 9,577 
 
 8,290 
 
 3,875 
 
 18,937 
 13,914 
 
 31,461 
 4,009 
 
 9,813 
 
 9,700 
 19,015 
 24,698 
 
 2,333 
 19,401 
 18,744 
 
 3,743 
 
 3,239 
 10,033 
 
 2,840 
 
 13,700 
 
 8,515 
 12,832 
 14,277 
 12,490 
 16,799 
 17,295 
 
 8,600 
 24,896 
 
 17,560 
 
 84,130 
 19,073 
 
 19,937 
 6,737 
 9,714 
 
 7,001 
 22,786 
 12,786 
 23.635 
 23,842 
 
 £812,888 
 
BAN 
 
 16 
 
 BAN 
 
 Aug. 16, „ 
 Oct. 11, „ 
 Dec. 6, „ 
 June 6, 1857 
 June 27, „ 
 Oct. 12, „ 
 Dec. 12, „ 
 Dec. 26, ., 
 Feb. 13, 1858 
 
 Brought over 
 
 52. Knighton Bank— Davies & Co. - - 
 
 53. Bath City Bank— G. Moger & Son 
 
 54. Worcestershire Bank— Farley, Turner, & Co. 
 
 55. Kettering Bank— John C. Gotch & Sons, Bankrupts - 
 
 56. Kettering Old Bank— Smith, Hilder, & Co. Bankrupts - 
 
 57. Stone Bank— W. Moore ------. 
 
 58. Worcester Bank— Farley, Lavender, & Co. Bankrupts - 
 
 59. Birmingham & Warwickshire Bank— J. L. Moilliet & Sons 
 
 60. Blandford Bank— Oak & Snow 
 
 £812,888 
 9,090 
 4,572 
 
 14,309 
 9,192 
 
 38,038 
 9,154 
 
 15,463 
 
 18,132 
 9,723 
 
 Total Reduction in the Circulation under Act 7 & 8 Vic, c. 32, to Nov. 1859 £940,561 
 51 Private Banking Firms, with Branches £748,472 
 *9 Joint-Stock Banking Companies - - 192,089 
 
 £940,561 
 
 State op the Fixed Issues in November, 1859 
 Original fixed issue of 203 Private Banks (England and Wales) by the 
 
 Act of 1844 
 Deduct 51 Private Banks, since ceased to issue 
 
 - £5,153,407 
 
 748,472 
 
 Present amount of fixed issue of 151 Private Banks - £4,404,935 
 
 Original fixed issue of 72 Joint-Stock Banks, by same Act - 3,495,446 
 Deduct 9 Joint- Stock Banks, since ceased to issue - - 192,089 
 
 Present amount of fixed issue of 63 Joint Stock Banks - 3,303,857 
 
 Fixed issue of Private and Joint-Stock Banks - - £7,708,292 
 
 No alteration has taken place in the fixed issues of the Irish Banks since the Act 
 of 1844. The following is, therefore, the exact present state of the fixed issues: — 
 
 Summary. 
 Bank of England - - -£14,475,000 
 
 151 Private Banks in England and Wales - 4,404,935 
 63 Joint-Stock Banks in England and Wales 3,303,357 
 14 Banks in Scotland - 2,749,271 
 
 Banks in Ireland - 6,354,494 
 
 Total fixed issue of Banks in the United 
 
 Kingdom on the 8th November, 1859 -£31,287,057 
 VI. Scottish Banks. — The confidence felt in the security of Scotch banks 
 has been much shaken, not only by the failure of the Koyal British Bank, esta- 
 blished in London on the Scotch principle, but also by the suspension of the 
 Western Bank of Scotland of Glasgow, in November, 1857, which brought ruin 
 on a great many persons. The Edinburgh and Glasgow Bank was united in 
 July, 1858, with the Clydesdale Bank, and the Perth Banking Company, in 
 August, 1857, with the Union Bank of Scotland. The following table shows the 
 present position of the Scotch Banks. 
 
 Place. 
 
 When 
 
 Esta- 
 blished. 
 
 No. of 
 Part- 
 ners. 
 
 t, . , _ Dividen. 
 ? "^? Percent. 
 Ca P ltaL inl859. 
 
 Fixed 
 issue. 
 
 Actual is- 
 sue in 1858. 
 
 Aberdeen. 
 Aberdeen Town and County Bank 
 N. of Scotland Banking Company 
 
 Edinburgh. 
 Bank of Scotland 
 Royal Bank of Scotland 
 British Linen Company 
 Commercial Bank of Scotland 
 National Bank of Scotland 
 Union Bank of Scotland 
 
 Dundee. 
 Dundee Banking Company 
 Eastern Bank of Scotland 
 
 Inverness. 
 Caledonian Banking Company - 
 
 Glasgow. 
 City of Glasgow Bank - 
 Clydesdale Banking Company 
 
 Perth. 
 Central Bank of Scotland 
 
 1825 
 1836 
 
 1695 
 1727 
 1746 
 1810 
 1825 
 1830 
 
 1763 
 1838 
 
 1838 
 
 1839 
 1838 
 
 1834 
 
 485 
 1331 
 
 Stock. 
 
 Stock. 
 646 
 1393 
 1095 
 
 80 
 400 
 
 755 
 
 1300 
 1307 
 
 420 
 
 £ 1 £ 
 134,575 9 
 200,000 10 
 
 1,000,000 8 
 2,000,000 6 
 1,000,000, 9 
 600,000. 10 
 1,000,000 8 
 1,000,000 9 
 
 60,000 10 
 114,020 10 
 
 1 
 125,000 8 
 
 670,000 3 
 807,380 7 
 
 78,12£| 9 
 
 £ 
 70,133 
 154,310 
 
 300,485 
 183,000 
 438,024 
 374,880 
 297,024 
 454,346 
 
 33,451 
 33,636 
 
 53,434 
 
 117,921 
 240,685 
 
 42,933 
 
 £ 
 123,194 
 189,580 
 
 445,487 
 416,128 
 491,550 
 492,354 
 407,101 
 543,241 
 
 41,870 
 35,180 
 
 67,206 
 
 238,434 
 267,373 
 
 55,012 
 
 9212 
 
 3,789,100 
 
 2,794,262 
 
 3,813,710 
 
BAN 
 
 17 
 
 BAN 
 
 VII. Banks in Ireland.— The number of Irish banks it will be seen has 
 not increased in the last twenty years. There are now but eight against 
 nine then existing. The Agricultural and Commercial Bank of Dublin has been 
 wound-up. The Tipperary Bank, owing to the Sadleirs' frauds, failed; and the 
 Clonmel and Carrick-on-Suir National Banks were amalgamated in December, 
 1856, with the National Bank. The paid-up capital of the Irish Banks is 
 almost uniformly the same as it was twenty years ago, for it then stood at 
 £4,926,511. The last Act of Parliament for regulating banks in Ireland, is the 
 8 and 9 Vic. cap. 37, passed in the year 1845. 
 
 Joint- Stock Banks of Ireland in 1860. 
 
 Place. 
 
 When 
 Esta- 
 blished. 
 
 No. of 
 Part- 
 ners. 
 
 Paid-up 
 Capital 
 
 Dividen. 
 in 1859. 
 
 'Amount of Actual is- 
 fixed issue, sue in 1S58 
 
 Dublin. 
 Bank of Ireland 
 Hibernian - 
 
 National Bank— head office in) 
 London - - - ) 
 
 1783 
 1825 
 
 1835 
 
 515 
 
 £ 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 £ 
 9 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 £ 
 
 3,738,428 
 No issue. 
 
 852,269 
 
 £ 
 3,223 777 
 
 1,037,691 
 
 Provincial Bank of Ireland—* 
 head office in London ) 
 Royal Bank of Ireland - 
 
 Belfast. 
 Belfast Banking Company 
 Northern Banking Company 
 Ulster Banking Company 
 
 1825 
 1836 
 
 1000 
 640 
 
 540,000 
 209,175 
 
 20 
 10 
 
 927,667 
 No issue. 
 
 923,517 
 
 1S27 
 1825 
 1835 
 
 261 
 224 
 401 
 
 125,000 
 150,000 
 183,405 
 
 12 
 10 
 9 
 
 281,611 
 213,410 
 311,079 
 
 359,770 
 258,620 
 379,690 
 
 6,183,065 
 
 3041 
 
 4,957,580 
 
 
 6,354,494 
 
 Account showing the monthly average amount of Notes circulated in England and Waes by 
 Private and Joint-Stock Country Banks, and their branches. 
 
 1855, March 3 
 
 Private. 
 
 Joint-stock. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 3,733,792 
 
 3,000,238 
 
 6,734,030 
 
 „ June 2 
 
 3,800,342 
 
 3,043,029 
 
 6,843,971 
 
 „ September 1 
 
 3,601,430 
 
 2,927,357 
 
 6,528,787 
 
 „ December 1 
 
 3,876,412 
 
 3,096,088 
 
 6,972,500 
 
 1856, March 1 
 
 3,675,173 
 
 2,907,219 
 
 6,642,392 
 
 „ June 7 
 
 3,742,973 
 
 2,97,600 
 
 6,740,573 
 
 „ September 6 
 
 3,571,057 
 
 2,964,632 
 
 6,535,739 
 
 „ December 6 
 
 3,725,302 
 
 3,057,250 
 
 6,782,552 
 
 1857, March 7 
 
 3,652,033 
 
 3,052,571 
 
 6,704,604 
 
 „ June 6 
 
 3,679,387 
 
 3,027,839 
 
 6,706,226 
 
 „ September 5 
 
 3,525,474 
 
 2,945,066 
 
 6,470,540 
 
 „ December 5 
 
 3,239,479 
 
 2,641,454 
 
 5,880,933 
 
 1858, March 13 
 
 3,059,999 
 
 2,552,039 
 
 5,612,038 
 
 „ June 5 
 
 3,311,335 
 
 2,880,067 
 
 6,191,402 
 
 „ September 25 
 
 3,225,500 
 
 2,805,905 
 
 6,031,405 
 
 „ December 18 
 
 3,327,309 
 
 2,877,253 
 
 6,201,622 
 
 BANKS FOR SAVINGS. On the 20th November, 1858, there were in 
 England 473 Savings Banks, holding £30,859,679, belonging to 1,169,595 
 depositors, being on an average about £26. 10s for each depositor. At the same 
 time there were also in Wales 32 Savings Banks, holding £907,384, belonging 
 to 30,376 depositors, being on an average nearly £30 to each depositor. In 
 Scotland there were 47 Savings Banks, holding £1,960,610, belonging to 
 123,273 depositors, being an average of close upon£16. In Ireland there were 
 52 Savings Banks, holding £1,804,163 in deposits, belonging to 59,893 
 depositors, an average of over £31 each. There were two Savings Banks in the 
 Channel Islands, holding £415,506, belonging to 15,749 depositors, or an aver- 
 age of about £26. The recapitulation shows a gross amount of deposits of 
 £35,947,341 in 606 banks, by 1,398,886 depositors. The aggregate rate of 
 interest paid is £2. 18s \0d per cent. On the 1st January, 1859, the capital held 
 by the Savings Banks was £36,193,400, of which £31,505,130 was in England, 
 £906,927 in Wales, £1,960,299 in Scotland, and £1,821,044 in Ireland. The 
 trustees had received from depositors in the year 1858, £7,901,925, and paid out 
 
 c 
 
 t 
 
BAN 
 
 18 
 
 BEE 
 
 £7,839,903. On the 20th November, 1859, the amount of deposits, including 
 interest lodged in savings banks, was £40,997,630; the individual depositors were 
 1,479,723, and there were besides 27,633 charitable and friendly societies as de- 
 positors. The following shows the distribution of savings banks and their progres- 
 sion in different parts of the kingdom. 
 
 18.14 
 
 England. 
 
 Wales. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Total United Kingdom. 
 
 4G0 
 
 27 
 
 46 
 
 52 
 
 585 
 
 1855 
 
 463 
 
 29 
 
 47 
 
 52 
 
 591 
 
 1850 
 
 4G9 
 
 31 
 
 47 
 
 52 
 
 599 
 
 1857 
 
 472 
 
 32 
 
 46 
 
 51 
 
 603 
 
 1858 
 
 473 
 
 32 
 
 47 
 
 52 
 
 606 
 
 From the foregoing details, compared with the statements given in the body 
 of the work, it will be seen that in 20 years there has been an increase of about 
 14^ millions in the amount of deposits in Savings Banks. 
 
 BASKET RODS. In 1858 the quantity of osiers imported was 96,722 
 bundles peeled, worth about 4s 6d per bundle, and 133,029 bundles unpeeled, 
 worth about 2s 4d per bundle. The aggregate value of these was £37,453. 
 They came chiefly from Holland, Hamburg, and Belgium. We also imported 
 145,695 cubic feet of baskets, worth at 4s 4\d the cubic foot, £31,567. There 
 has been a duty of Ad per cubic foot since August 8, 1854, which brought in 
 £2416 in 1858. We import the bulk of these from France. 
 
 BAVARIA. The population in 1852 was, including 86,838 military, 
 4,558,658 souls, or 1 53 to the square mile. The revenue in 1854 was £3,478,563, 
 and the expenditure £3,732,551. The deficit was made up by a lottery and an 
 increase of direct taxes. The public debt of Bavaria in 1851 amounted to 
 £13,699,562. The number of mines in the kingdom in the year 1854-55 was 
 550, employing 3908 work-people. There were also 135 smelting works, 
 foundries, &c, in which were employed 3811 persons, and eight salt mines, &c, 
 employing 2913 hands, and producing 923,116 cwts. of salt of different kinds. 
 The total value of the mineral produce at the place of production was about one 
 million sterling. The quantity of coal and peat obtained was 3,287,398 cwts.; 
 363,373 cwts. of raw or pig iron was made, 325,592 cwts. of rolled or bar iron, 
 and 2848 cwts. of steel; a large quantity of vitriol, besides antimony, alum, 
 &c. In the 12 years ending with 1857, 66,721 persons had emigrated from 
 the Palatinate chiefly to North America, of whom 36,511 were females. 
 
 BEEF. The importation of beef, fresh or cured, like all articles of provisions, 
 is now free, the duty having been abolished on the 19th of March, 1846. The 
 imports in 1858 were 168,496 cwts. of salt beef chiefly from the United States, 
 and 62 cwts. of fresh or slightly salted from Holland. 
 
 BEEF- WOOD. This Australian wood, sometimes called in the colony the 
 swamp oak, is now referred to the Stenocarpus saligmis. 
 
 BEER. At the close of 1859 there were in the United Kingdom 2497 licensed 
 brewers, of whom 2268 were in England, 86 of these carried on business in London. 
 Manchester stands first in the number of provincial brewers, 100 being returned for 
 that district. Cambridge ranked second, having 9 1 , then followed Newcastle with 
 77, Durham and Hants with 74 each, Liverpool with 73, Surrey with 65, Hull, and 
 other localities in smaller numbers. Scotland had 120 brewers; Edinburgh with 20, 
 Stirling, Perth, Haddington, 14 each, Ayr and Dumfries following in rotation. 
 
 Ireland had 109, of these 16 carried on business in Dublin, 15 at Naas, 10 at 
 Galway, and 7 in Waterford. 
 
 But besides these brewers, par excellence, there were in the United Kingdom, 
 £3 066 licensed victuallers, of whom 24,808 brewed their own beer. There were 
 40,537 beer retailers licensed to have beer drank on their premises, and of the: e 
 11,420 brewed their own beer. 909 out of 2,898 beer-shop keepers not licensed 
 to have beer drank on the premises were brewers. 
 
 The following is rn account of the number of Licenses granted for the 
 manufacture and sale of Beer in the United Kingdom, and the amount of duty 
 charged in the year ending 31st of March, 1857. 
 
BEE 
 
 19 
 
 BEL 
 
 Brewers of strong beer 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Duty. 
 
 40,568 
 
 225 
 
 56 
 
 461 
 
 1,662 
 
 80,168 
 
 39,608 
 
 2,702 
 
 £77,554 
 
 152 
 
 307 
 
 461 
 
 5,495 
 
 160,326 
 
 130,995 
 
 2,985 
 
 
 Retail brewers 
 
 
 Sellers of strong beer • 
 
 Retailers of beer, cider, &c, charged 
 according to rating 
 
 
 Not to be drunk on the premises 
 
 Brewers of strong beer are charged a license duty of from 10s 6d to j£78. 15* 
 per annum; of table beer, 10* 6d to £2. 2* per annum; retail brewers, £5. 10s 3d; 
 and brewers from sugar, £1. per annum; sellers of strong beer, not being brewers, 
 £3. 6* lfd per annum; retailers charged according to rating of premises, 
 £l. 2s Q\d and £3. 6s \%d per annum. Retailers of beer to be drunk on the pre- 
 mises, £3. 6* \\d; Retailers of beer not to be drunk on the premises, £1 . 2s 0^d. 
 
 The proportionate consumption of malt m the several divisions of the kingdom 
 was as follows:— 1857 1859 
 
 England 
 Scotland 
 Ireland 
 
 QRS. 
 
 QBS. 
 
 4,142,5S7 
 
 4,370,912 
 
 *53,5657 
 
 192,879 
 
 260,491 
 
 296,614 
 
 4,556,643 4,866,405 
 
 Now taking the average of one quarter of malt for three barrels of beer, we 
 may arrive at an approximation of the quantity of ale and beer relatively made 
 in each country, which would be about as follows in 1 857 : — 
 
 Eneland 12,427,761 barrels. 
 
 Scotland 460,695 „ 
 
 Ireland 781,473 „ 
 
 13,661,929 ", 
 Equal to 492,117,447 gallons. 
 
 Deducting the quantity exported in that year, we have 476,458,131 gallons 
 left for home consumption, which if equally divided among the whole population 
 (of say 28,000,000) would give a proportion of 17 gallons per head as the average 
 aunual consumption. Ireland and Scotland drink, however, but a small quantity 
 of malt liquor, whiskey being the favourite beverage. Viewed relatively to the 
 proportion of malt made, the consumption of beer and ale per head in each 
 division of the kingdom would be as follows, after allowing for that shipped, 
 which we will even take to be all of English brewing, England: — Malt made 
 (deducting therefrom that required for the beer exported) 4,520,000 quarters. 
 This would give 28 gallons of beer per head of the population per annum. 
 Ireland: — Malt made, 219,866 quarters, equal to 659,598 barrels of beer; or 
 about five gallons per head per annum to the population. Scotland : — The con- 
 sumption of malt by brewers, was only 153,565 quarters, or less than one- 
 third of the quantity used in distillation. The consumption of beer would 
 therefore only be about five gallons per head, or about the same as in 
 Ireland. The exports of beer and ale have been largely increasing of late years, 
 keeping pace in some degree with the extension of settlement and colonization. 
 To the East Indies and Australia the shipments are very large. But it is since 
 1852 that the greatest progress in the shipments has been made. Previous to 
 that year the value of the shipments was only about half a million sterling. 
 In 1859 the exports reached 613,831 barrels, of the value of £2,116,207. 
 
 BELGIUM. The population of this kingdom has increased about half a 
 million in ten years. The numbers in each province in 1850 were as follows: — 
 Antwerp, 420,556; Brabant, 734,617; W. Flanders, 631,137; E. Flanders, 
 783,450; Hainault, 733,740; Liege, 467,843; Limburg, 188,198; Luxemburg, 
 192,588; Namur, 274,073; total, 4,426,202. The anticipated public revenue 
 in 1856 was £ 6,029,660, and the expenditure £6,552,992. The public debt of 
 the kingdom on the 1st January 1851, was £24,854,079. The number of vessels 
 that entered the Belgian ports in 1855, was 2558 vessels and 441,554 tons, of 
 
 C 2 
 
BEL 
 
 20 
 
 BOA 
 
 which 128 ships and 17,252 tons were in ballast; of these 392 vessels, registering 
 5,732 tons, were Belgian. - The official value of the imports and exports of 
 erchandise, including those for transit, was as follows : — 
 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 
 Imports. 
 
 £17,697,240 
 17,802,680 
 20,960,840 
 22,568,680 
 24,877,920 
 27,145,480 
 
 Exports. 
 
 £18,804,600 
 18,350,000 
 20,863,320 
 25,205,320 
 28,539,080 
 27,921,920 
 
 At the close of 1855 there were 430 miles of railway completed in Belgium, 
 at a cost of construction of £7,181,583. The traffic returns show that 5,073,042 
 passengers passed over the lines; 84,022 cwts. of passengers' luggage ; 2,099,648 
 tons of merchandize, and 12,766 head of cattle and horses. The total receipts 
 for goods and passengers were £932,346, and for telegrams, £10,637. Tho 
 expenditure on the lines was £532,717. The miles traversed, 43,447,814. 
 
 In the sitting of the Belgian Senate in 1860, the Duke de Brabant (the heir 
 to the throne) spoke at considerable length upon the commercial prospects of 
 Belgium. The question under discussion was the Budget for Foreign Affairs. 
 After alluding to the commerce of Belgium 25 years ago, and its present pros- 
 perous condition, his Royal Highness said : — " Official returns show, in fact, that 
 our special commerce, which really represents the proper movement of the 
 country, has tripled since 1836. The special exportation — that is to say, that of 
 national produce — during the period from 1840 to 1858 has followed this pro- 
 gress, as in France and England, as will be seen from the following figures: — 
 1840. 1858. Increase. 
 
 England l,285,000.000f 2,915,000,000f 127 per cent. 
 
 France 695,000,000f l,980,000,000f 156 
 
 Belgium 140,000,000f 424,000,000f 204 „ 
 
 Thus, it will be seen that Belgium has, relatively, made more progress than her 
 neighbours; yet the latter have not been inactive." His Royal Highness, after 
 passing in review the industry of Belgium as it now exists, dwelt upon the 
 necessity of opening new markets for Belgian produce, and of appointing Belgian 
 agents in every part of the world. To do this effectually, Belgium ought to have 
 a great commercial port — and that port should be Antwerp. 
 
 BILLS OF EXCHANGE. From some very elaborate calculations and 
 inquiries, carried out by Mr. W. Newmarch, extending over a period of ten 
 years and upwards, he deduced the following facts : — 
 
 
 In Circulation 
 at one time. 
 
 Under Discount 
 at one time. 
 
 £18,000,000 
 12,000,000 
 70,000,000 
 16,000,000 
 
 £15,000,000 
 12,000,000 
 60,000,000 
 13,000,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 116,000,000 
 
 100,000,000 
 
 Out of the hundred and sixteen millions in circulation there would therefore be 
 sixteen millions of bills and notes not discounted by the holders of them, of 
 which three millions of the inland bills held would be in Scotland, ten millions in 
 England, and three millions foreign bills not discounted. 
 
 BLACK-WOOD. This is a name given to an East Indian furniture wood, 
 obtained in Malabar, from the Dalbergia latifolia. It is locally termed rose-wood. 
 
 BLANKETS. This branch of the woollen manufacture shows a considerable 
 progress, as marked by the exports. In 1858, 5,850,129 yards of blankets were 
 shipped of the declared real value of ,£396,011; of these 3,691,412 yards went to 
 the United States; 914,530 to Australia, and 357,983 to British N. America. 
 
 BOARD OF TRADE. A common term for an official departmental branch 
 of the Government, having jurisdiction over the trade and navigation of tho 
 
BOL 
 
 21 
 
 BOO 
 
 country. It consists of a President and Vice-President, and the committee of the 
 Board are termed the Lords Commissioners of the Privy Council of Trade. They 
 have under their control the collection and publication of the Statistics of Trade, 
 the Navigation laws, inquiries into losses of vessels, and other similar duties. 
 
 BOLIVIA. The area of this South American republic is 374,480 square miles, 
 and the population 1,750,000. We import about £40,000 worth of merchandise 
 annually from Bolivia, but export no manufactures thereto. 
 
 BONES. The trade in bones has now reached to a very large extent, not only 
 for manufacturing purposes but also as a fertilizer for the soil. The foreign im- 
 ports at present exceed 85,000 tons, valued at £466,760, while those collected at 
 home are computed at nearly the same amount. Those imported average about 
 £5. 10« per ton; the price having more than doubled within the last ten years. 
 Those obtained at home are more valued in consequence of the gelatine they con- 
 tain. Some of the shank and other bones are used for handles to knives, 
 forks and tooth brushes, and for buttons, combs, &c. and the bone waste or dust, 
 after they are boiled and crushed for manure. The prices in London in the 
 early part of 1860, were for bone ash, £4. 10* to £4. 15s per ton.; \ inch bones 
 per quarter, 17* to 18s; bone dust, 19* to £1.; animal charcoal, £4. 5* to £4. 10*. 
 
 BOOKS. In 1787 the duty on imported books, if bound, was 19*. 3d. per 
 cwt. In 1819 it was advanced to £6. 10*. the cwt. for bound books, and £5. 
 for unbound. By the stat. 41 Geo. III. (1800) c. 107, sec. 7, the importation 
 of reprints of English copyright works was forbidden on pain of forfeiture, 
 £10. penalty, and double the value of the books. 
 
 In 1838 books printed prior to the year 1801, whether bound or unbound, 
 were charged an import duty of £l. the cwt., and those printed subsequently 
 to 1801, £5. the cwt. Books in the foreign living languages, printed since 
 1801, were, under the 4th and 5th Will. IV., c. 89, reduced to £2. 10*. the cwt. ; 
 and foreign reprints of English books imported for sale were, by 3 and 4 Will. IV. 
 c. 52, s. 58, prohibited, under penalty of forfeiture. By 7 Vic. cap. 12 (10 May, 
 1844), the importation of English copyright books was again prohibited. 
 
 In 1845 the rates of duty on original works in the language of the country of 
 export was 15*. per cwt.; on other works published in the country of export, if 
 printed prior to 1801, £1. the cwt.; and printed subsequent to 1801, £2. 10*. 
 the cwt. After the 1st June, 1853, books printed previous to 1801 were ad- 
 mitted duty free. On the 11th June, 1853, the following new rates were im- 
 posed : — Editions printed since 1801, in all languages, £1. 10*. per cwt., except- 
 ing those admitted under treaties of international copyright, which were 
 15*. per cwt.; books of and from any British possession, 15*. per cwt. The fol- 
 lowing figures give the official value of the books bound or unbound imported, 
 and the declared value of the books exported from the United Kingdom: — 
 
 
 Books Imported. 
 
 Books Exported. 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Official Value. 
 
 Duty Keceived. 
 
 Declared Value. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1846 
 
 33,929 
 
 9/201 
 
 174,281 
 
 1847 
 
 40,122 
 
 8,843 
 
 200,485 
 
 1848 
 
 32,810 
 
 7,762 
 
 192,145 
 
 1819 
 
 31,949 
 
 7,751 
 
 205,236 
 
 1850 
 
 
 
 
 
 2*!), 399 
 
 1851 
 
 
 
 
 
 268,032 
 
 1852 
 
 Weight 
 
 
 
 239,433 
 
 1853 
 
 4.472 cwt 
 
 5.8S0 
 
 452,062 
 
 1854 
 
 4,988 
 
 4,5 !2 
 
 445,353 
 
 1855 
 
 5,003 
 
 4,S86 
 
 375,242 
 
 1856 
 
 6,811 
 
 5,054 
 
 429,241 
 
 1857 
 
 6,439 
 
 5,649 
 
 426,521 
 
 1858 
 
 5,434 
 
 5,186 
 
 397,090 
 
 1859 
 
 
 
 
 
 478,287 
 
 The largest quantities of books are shipped to the United States, Australia. 
 India, Egypt (for transit), British North America, France, and Holland. 
 
BOU 22 BRA 
 
 BOURBON. The population of this French Colony was in 1852,106,302 sou!s, 
 and the entries of vessels 261, of which 255 of 68,361 tons were French. The value 
 of the imports was £1,053,028, and of the exports £905,917. Looking at the 
 value of its exports, Bourbon is the most important of the distant colonial 
 possessions of France. The principal imports were 1824 mules; 2074 cattle; 
 531,628 kilogrammes of meat; 937,265 kilogrammes of cod fish; 432,027 of lard; 
 584,519 kilogrammes of olive and cocoa nut oil; 474,180 kilogrammes of soap; 
 5,440,534 litres of wine; cotton fabrics value about £300,000; 2,474,328 kilo- 
 grammes of wheat; 318,828 of flour; and 1,737,478 of grain. In 1852 were im- 
 ported 29,355,291 kilogrammes of sugar; 1,664,131 of rice; 195,947 of coffee; 82,738 
 of cloves; 157,289 of sesame seed; and 25,451 of unmanufactured tobacco. 
 
 BRANDY. The duty on foreign brandy which had stood at 155 per gallon, 
 since 18 March, 1846, was reduced in March, 1860, to 8s 6d per gallon. The 
 quantity imported has been very variable m the last sixteen years, ranging from 
 1,500,000 gallons in 1844, to 5,000,000 gallons in 1853, but the average imports 
 may be taken at 2,500,000 gallons, and the home consumption at half that 
 quantity. The average prices exclusive of duty were in 1854, 8s Ad-, 1855, 
 9s 9±d; 1856, 10* 2d; 1857, 12* lOfrf; 1858, 12s 9rf; 1859, 7s 6d per gallon. 
 
 The production and export of brandy or spirits from France have been as 
 follows in hectolitres of 22 gallons: — 
 
 
 Production. 
 
 Export, 
 
 I 
 
 Production. 
 
 Export. 
 
 1840 
 
 984,825 
 
 200,669 
 
 1855 
 
 856,899 
 
 153,516 
 
 1845 
 
 663,369 
 
 138,456 
 
 1856 
 
 944,685 
 
 192,179 
 
 1850 
 
 959,847 
 
 288,384 
 
 1 1837 
 
 1,323,928 
 
 170,616 
 
 Between the years 1852 and 1858, 844,136 hectolitres of alcohol for the prepa- 
 ration of brandy were imported into France. 
 
 In 1854, the production of brandy in France was 914,140 hectolitres, and in 
 1857, 947,379 hectolitres. The state of the trade in 1854 induced the French 
 Government to lower the duty on foreign brandy to 15 francs per hectolitre. 
 Under this remission the imports increased from 12,800 hectolitres, at which they 
 stood in 1853, to 61,000 hectolitres in 1 854, and to 202,888 hectolitres in 1855, when 
 the remission came into full play, and finally to 376,549 hectolitres in 1857, not- 
 withstanding the large amount of home-made spirits during that year, as stated 
 above. In 1854 the price of brandy in France stood as high as 280 francs the 
 hectolitre. The duty on foreign brandy was increased to 25 francs in Dec. 1857 ; 
 the available stock was then larger than the consumption, the proportions being — 
 
 Stock. Hect 
 
 Home produce - - 947,379 
 
 Imports - • - 370,549 
 
 1,323,928 
 
 Consumption. Hect. 
 
 Home - 846,589 
 
 Exports - 170,616 
 
 1,017,205 
 
 Leaving a balance in hand of 306,723 hectolitres, the largest which had ever 
 occurred since 1848. The quantity of brandy on hand in France in Jan. 1858, 
 was 965,276 hectolitres. In 1854 the exports amounted to 155,111 hectolitres, 
 being 94,111 hectolitres more than the imports. The latter exceeded the former 
 in 1857 as already shown, and also in 1855 when the numbers were, imports, 
 202,888 hectolitres; exports, 153,516. The proportions in the year 1858 were 
 completely reversed, the quantities being— imports, 512 hectolitres; export?, 
 137,482. The imports of brandy into France have now totally ceased, and the 
 country resumes its place as a large exporting State. The annual quantity of 
 brandy consumed in Paris was in 1858 of the value of 15,047,500 francs, being 
 at the rate of 14 francs 28 cents per inhabitant, or 14 centimes per day. Owing 
 to the vine disease, attention was directed to the distillation of brandy from other 
 substances, and in 1857 the proportions distilled from each kind were — 
 
 Beet-root - 429,000 hectolitres 
 
 Molasses of all kinds - - 150,000 „ 
 
 Farinaceous substances - - 100,000 „ 
 
 Wines and lees - - 133,000 „ 
 
 Other substances - - 35,379 „ 
 
 Total - 847,379 
 
BEA 
 
 23 
 
 BEA 
 
 Shipments from Charente to Great Britain, 30th June, 1857, to 30th June, 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 G. Salignac (United Vineyards P. Co.) 
 
 James Hennessy and Co. 
 
 Otard, Dupuy, and Co. 
 
 Renault and Co. 
 
 J. Duret and Co. (Vine Growers' Co.) 
 
 J. Rizat ... 
 
 P. Boutilleau (Champagne Vineyard 
 
 Ps.Co.) - 
 Mart ell and Co. 
 Arbouin, Marett, and Co. 
 Denis, H. Mounie, and Co. 
 C. Huvet & Co. (Anglo-Australian Co. 
 Jules, Robin, and Co. - 
 
 2220 
 1648 
 1204 
 1000 
 
 692 
 688 
 552 
 448 
 444 
 
 Brought up 
 G. Sayer and Co. 
 Augier Freres - 
 Sazerac, Forge et Fils 
 Thomas Hine and Co. 
 N. C. Godard and Co. 
 Roullet and Co. 
 Planat and Co. 
 Pinet, Castillon, and Co. 
 Le Coq Freres - 
 Dulary, Bellamy, and Co. 
 Caminade and Co. 
 Sundries 
 
 1858. 
 
 Hhds. 
 
 13,812 
 436 
 292 
 210 
 200 
 168 
 156 
 145 
 124 
 116 
 116 
 20 
 6092 
 
 Carried over - - 13,812 Total - - 24,156 
 
 The following shows the imports and exports of brandy, in gallons, in the 
 
 United Kingdom; the difference will be the home consumption and stock held. 
 
 The consumption in the three years ending 1859, averaged 1,235,560 gallons. 
 
 Re-exported. 
 2,378,770 
 1,113,586 
 910,423 
 1,539,075 
 1,047,759 
 671,475 
 1,054,171 
 
 customer for brandy; the shipments to those Colonies 
 from Engarid and the Continent having been, in gallons, in: — 
 
 1853 - - 2,071,346 I 1856 - - 1,228,177 
 
 1854 - - 577,678 1857 - - 986,442 
 
 1855 - - 477,016 | 1858 - - 594,554 
 
 1859 - - 915,149 
 
 Although a favourite spirit from its purity, the heavy duty had hitherto kept 
 down the consumption of foreign brandy, and British brandy took its place in 
 many quarters. The total proof gallons of British brandy "permitted" from 
 rectifiers' stocks were as follows: — 
 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Re-exported. 
 
 1846 
 
 2,437,203 
 
 639,734 
 
 1847 
 
 2.728,471 
 
 978,860 
 
 1848 
 
 2,429,089 
 
 846,405 
 
 1849 
 
 4,479,549 
 
 1,134,052 
 
 1850 
 
 3,237,464 
 
 971,997 
 
 1851 
 
 2,930,967 
 
 1,029,533 
 
 1852 
 
 3,959,452 
 
 2,199,997 
 
 ilia i 
 
 s a large 
 
 customer for 
 
 
 Imported. 
 
 1853 
 
 5,005,911 
 
 1854 
 
 2,963,027 
 
 1855 
 
 1,943,908 
 
 1856 
 
 2,540,438 
 
 1857 
 
 2,900,250 
 
 1858 
 
 1,064,663 
 
 1859 
 
 4,030,134 
 
 1839 
 1840 
 1841 
 1842 
 1843 
 1844 
 
 315,945 
 
 1845 
 
 314,567 
 
 1846 
 
 308,063 
 
 1847 
 
 332,091 
 
 1848 
 
 313,651 
 
 1849 
 
 313,675 
 
 1850 
 
 360,417 
 
 1851 
 
 398,433 
 371,786 
 317,246 
 284,066 
 460,798 
 345,350 
 387,772 
 
 BRAZIL. The total population of this empire in 1856 was returned at 
 7,677,800. It is now divided into twenty provinces, 16 of which are named cor- 
 rectly in the body of the work, but in the place of Rio Negro and Fernando, 
 there are the following: Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catharina, Parana, and Ama- 
 zonas. The revenue of the empire in 1858-59 was £4,380,900, and the expen- 
 diture £4,455,229. In 1857 the customs duty was derived from the following 
 sources, on imports, £2,654,778 ; exports, £422,536; shipping dues, j£21,759; 
 inland taxes, £534,181 ; municipal taxes, £125,171; miscellaneous charges, 
 £19,333. The public funded debt of the empire in January 1857 was, £6,415,978 
 internal debt, and £5,493,100 foreign debt; total, £11,909,078. The vessels 
 which entered the ports in the year ending June 1857 were 371, of 32,167 tons, 
 under the national flag, and 2404 of 853,536 tons, foreigners. The entries at the 
 principal ports were as follows: — 
 
 Rio Janeiro - 
 
 Bahia - 
 
 Pernambuco - 
 
 Maranhao - 
 
 Para - 
 
 Rio Grande do Sul and contiguous ports 
 
 Santos - 
 
 Paranagua - 
 
 Carried over - 
 
 1102 
 317 
 394 
 
 oo 
 
 Tons. 
 615,984 
 95,193 
 90,850 
 18,491 
 25,316 
 35,996 
 21,951 
 14,973 
 
 818,754 
 
BRA 24 BRA 
 
 Vessels. Tons. 
 
 Brought over 
 
 _ 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 25G9 
 
 818,754 
 
 Parahiba 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 75 
 
 27,095 
 
 Fortaleza 
 
 _ 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 13 
 
 4,925 
 
 Santa Catharina 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 • 
 
 88 
 
 8,140 
 
 Alageos 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 ■ 
 
 42 
 
 17,645 
 
 Sergipe 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 • 
 
 23 
 
 4,125 
 
 Ilio Grande do Norte and Parnahiba 
 
 " 
 
 15 
 
 5,006 
 
 2775 885,703 
 
 In 1858 there were 213 British vessels of 51,515 tons engaged in the direct 
 trade, which entered the port of Pernambuco, the value of their cargoes being 
 £1,006,429, and 74 vessels of 20,531 tons, indirect, valued at £15,556. 
 
 The total value of the imports of Brazil in the year ending June 1857 was 
 £13,761,773, and of the exports, £12,722,601. The quantity of coffee exported 
 from Rio in 1855 was 2,409,543 bags; from Bahia the shipments in 1858 were 
 24,870 tons of sugars, 44,651 bags of coffee, 8465 of cocoa, 3212 of cotton, 108,915 
 hides, and of tobacco 1191 rolls, 44,351 mangotes, and 13,861 bales. There are 
 two lines of steamers now running monthly from British ports to Brazil; the 
 Royal Mail Company's steamers from Southampton, and the Anglo-Lusitanian 
 from Liverpool. The exports of British manufactures to Brazil average in 
 value about £4,000,000 to £5,000,000, and the imports thence £2,500,000. 
 
 By an imperial rescript, dated Rio de Janeiro, 18th November, 1858, the fol- 
 loAving regulations were established respecting the settlement of colonists. 
 
 Art. I. To those colonists who arrive at any port of the empire with their 
 passage paid, and who wish to establish themselves in the colonies created by the 
 Government, purchasing land, it shall be sold on the following conditions: — 
 
 1. If paid for in ready cash, the price shall be 1 real per square fathom for the 
 better quality, \ real for the inferior. 
 
 2. But if credit is taken, the price shall be 1^ real and 1 real respectively. 
 
 3. Those who buy on credit and pay the amount before it falls due shall have 
 an abatement of 6 per cent for the time which shall be wanting to complete the 
 term for the contract. 
 
 4. The colonists who shall purchase on credit cannot alienate nor subject to 
 any onus whatever either the land or improvements thereon, both being mort- 
 gaged for the payment. This, however, does not "interfere with the passing of 
 the property by inheritance or by will ; in either case the lands will pass to 
 the heir or legatee, but subject to the mortgage. 
 
 5. The title deed shallbe passed by the Director-General of Public Lands in 
 the capital, and by their delegates in the provinces, under the inspection and with 
 the approval of the presidents of the same. They shall be given gratuitously, 
 without any pecuniary charge whatever. 
 
 6. If the families of which this rescript treats (which are those who shall form 
 agricultural establishments) consist of five or six persons, and if they buy lands 
 for ready money, the Government will pay the passage of one member; and if 
 the families consist of more than six persons, the Government will pay that of two. 
 It is, however, declared that in the number of persons composing a family those 
 are not comprehended who shall be more than fifty or under twelve years of age. 
 
 7. To form a family it must be composed of husband and wife, or father and 
 children, or brothers and sisters, or guardians and wards. 
 
 8. Besides the gratuitous passages conceded by condition the 6th, the Govern- 
 ment will pay those of children under twelve years of age. 
 
 9. If the colonists arriving at one port of Brazil shall have to proceed to ano- 
 ther in order to reach their settlement, the expenses of the passage to the second 
 port shall be at the cost of the Government. 
 
 10. On the lots of land which shall be sold the Government will order a house 
 to be erected to serve provisionally, and will prepare the ground by clearing a 
 space equal to 100 square fathoms; and also will furnish to each family or colo- 
 nist established on his own account the seeds sufficient for that space during the 
 first year; also, a horse or mule, an ox or cow, a cock and two hens, and a small 
 pig. This favour, however, will ce.ase with the first year. 
 
BEE 25 BEU 
 
 11. The benefits expressed in the foregoing paragraphs are assured only to the 
 first 150 families who shall settle on any colony established by the Government. 
 
 It is understood that to be entitled to the said benefits it is not necessary that 
 the colonist be married, it being sufficient that he buy land in the colony and 
 form an agricultural establishment. 
 
 12. To enjoy the benefits herein conceded the colonists must bring attestations 
 from the Brazilian consul of their being persons of good conduct and of their 
 being accustomed to agricultural work, and also of the relationship between the 
 members of each family. (Signed) Maequez de Ounda. 
 
 BREMEN. The area is 96 square miles, and the population in 1852 had risen 
 to 85,000. The number of merchant vessels belonging to the port in 1855 was 
 264, registering 140,418 tons. The number of vessels that entered the port in 
 the same year was 2557, measuring 398,446 tons, and employing 15,378 seamen; 
 of these, 432 were in ballast. The British vessels employed show a progressive 
 increase, and numbered 172 in 1855. The imports in 1855 by sea and land were 
 to the value of £8,875,829, and the imports to £8,354,053. 
 
 BRISTLES. The annual imports have now increased to about 2,000,000 lbs. 
 During the war with Russia the brushmakers were sadly inconvenienced by the 
 stoppage of supplies, and various substitutes were brought into use, consisting of 
 strong vegetable fibres and grasses, which having proved cheap and useful still 
 hold then- ground. 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA. This new British colony situate on the north-west 
 coast of America, includes Queen Charlotte's Island (5, 150 square miles), and con- 
 tains in the aggregate 225,220 square miles. The boundaries of the colony on 
 the continent are the 49th parallel of latitude on the south, a line running N.W. 
 from the 114th degree of longitude along the Rocky mountain range, theEinley, 
 Simpson, and Bear rivers forming the northerly boundary. 
 
 The colony has attracted considerable notice in consequence of the gold fields 
 on the Erazer and other rivers— which extend for hundreds of miles east and north 
 of the coast. The site for the seat of government and seaport is in a position 
 about 10 miles below the town of Langley, on the north bank of Frazeris River, and is 
 named New Westminster. It is about 14 nautical miles within the sand heads, 
 and here the rising ground begins. The river is 400 yards broad, or wider and 
 deeper than the Thames at London Bridge; the shore is bold and suitable for 
 wharves and quays for vessels to he alongside, and ships with a fair wind might 
 reach so far without difficulty under sail. The site is well placed, locally, in a 
 military point of view, as it has the river between it and the boundary fine. 
 The channel into the river is rather tortuous. It is reported to have a depth of 
 18 feet at low water, with six feet rise of tide, and it is not exposed to any very 
 heavy sea. Land is sold at 10* per acre. The progress of British Columbia in 
 commerce is, on the whole, considering the smallness of the population, satisfac- 
 tory. The value of the imports in 1859 was £117,219; the customs duties, in- 
 cluding harbour dues, in the same period was £18,464. The other sources of 
 taxation are miners' licenses of £1 a year each, spirit licenses in towns £25 a 
 year, and in rural districts £10 a year; wholesale licenses in town and country 
 £10 a year ; trading licenses in the mines £10 a month. These bring up the 
 revenue to about £50,000, leaving a surplus after defraying all the civil and 
 judicial expenditure of the colony. 
 
 BRUNSWICK. The* latest statistics give the population returns at 247,462 
 souls in 1854.' The net revenue in that year from import duties was 217,841 
 thalers. The quantity of cotton imported in 18o3 was* 4764' centners or cwt.; of 
 flax, tow, hemp, &c, 2452 centners, the quantity of flax &c, ex'ported was, however, 
 much larger, amounting to 5602 centners; of hops, 2356 centners; of Nuremburg 
 toys and other fine wooden wares, 5109 centners, and of wooden furniture and 
 household wooden wares, 1725 centners; of fancy wares of mother of pearl, 
 metal, glass, &c, 6254 centners; hides and sole leather, 966 centners; beer and 
 mead, 1605 centners; spirits 1639 centners; starch and maccaroni, 7130 cent- 
 ners; oil, 4449 centners; silk stuff's, 342 centners; mixed silks, 1035 centners; 
 
BUE 
 
 26 
 
 BUL 
 
 coals, 9215 centners; woollen goods, 22,683 centners; books and prints, 3529 
 centners. There were 8 beet root sugar manufactories in the State at the close 
 of 1853, which consumed 736,101 cwt. of beet root. 
 
 BUENOS AYRES. The area of the Argentine Republic is computed by the 
 latest authorities to be 927,000 square miles, and the population 2,000,000.' General 
 Urquiza is the President of the Confederation. The computed net value of our im- 
 ports fromBuenos Ayres have averaged in the five years ending with 1 858,£ 1 ,300,000. 
 They consisted in 1858 of 4,776,965 lbs. of wool, 4,301,533 lbs. of tobacco, 833,350 
 nutria skins, 892,206 sheep and lamb skins, 58,856 cwt. of tallow, and 4421 cwt. of 
 horse grease, 11,512 tons of bones, 121,123 cwt. of hides, 11,660 cwt. of horse 
 hair, 268 tons of horns, and 556 tons of guano. The shipments of British pro- 
 duce and manufactures are a little over £1,000,000 in value, and there is also 
 foreign produce shipped to the value of about £30,000 per annum. In the year 
 ending May, 1855, 860 vessels, measuring 202,672 tons, entered the port of 
 Buenos Ayres. If the revolutionary dissensions in the River Plate were once 
 definitively settled a large extension of commerce might be looked for, especially 
 with the free navigation of the central rivers conceded. Free ports were re- 
 cently established at Bahia Blanca, at the embouchure of the Colorado river, 
 and at Carmen, at the mouth of the Rio Negro, while a town is forming at the 
 entrance of the Salado near Cape San Antonio, so that extra facilities are thus 
 afforded to commerce. A branch steamer runs with the monthly mails from Rio 
 Janeiro to the River Plate. 
 
 BULLION. Since the last edition of this work was published very great 
 changes have taken place in the supply of gold, by the discovery of important 
 placers or gold fields in Australia, California, and more recently still in British 
 Columbia. The California gold fields were first discovered in 1849, and in the 
 eleven years, ended 1859, are estimated by competent authorities to have 
 yielded gold of the value of about £123,000,000 sterling. The Australian gold 
 fields, although discovered a year or two later, are estimated to have produced 
 between 1851 and 1859 gold of the value of £88,000,000 sterling. The colony 
 of Victoria has been the most productive, although gold is obtained in New 
 South Wales, and has been found in Tasmania and New Zealand. 
 
 Immense sums of gold have within the short period of eleven years been 
 added to the previously existing stock. We believe the following to be the best 
 estimate of them which we can publish : — 
 
 1851 . 
 
 1852 . 
 
 1853 . 
 1854. 
 1855 . 
 
 £ 8,654,000 
 15,194,000 
 22,435,000 
 22,077,000 
 19,875,000 
 
 Brought over 
 
 1856 . 
 
 1857 . 
 
 1858 . 
 
 1859 . 
 
 . £88,235,000 
 21,275,000 
 21,366,000 
 20,747,000 
 21,000,000 
 
 It is 
 
 Carried over £88,235,000 Total . . £172,623,000 
 
 still a question for discussion whether these immense supplies have as 
 
 yet had any effect on the value of gold at all. There is one very striking fact, 
 which would seem to indicate that they have had no effect — the price of silver; the 
 amount of gold which has to be given for a quantity of silver has remained 
 unaltered. The following has been the price of silver per oz. for a series of years. 
 
 1851 . . . . d. 60| 1856 . . . . d. 60 
 
 1852 61£ 1857 61f 
 
 1853 60f 1858 61f 
 
 1854 61f 1859 6l| 
 
 1855 . 60| 1860 ; . 62J 
 
 Whence it is evident that there has been no very material fluctuation. 
 Now there are some circumstances which would render it more probable that 
 there would be a rise in the gold-price of silver, than in the gold-price of any 
 other article. While gold from new supplies, must have had, apart from other 
 circumstances, a tendency to be depreciated, silver, from a new demand, must 
 
BUL 
 
 27 
 
 BUL 
 
 have had a tendency to become of greater value. The enormous increase of our 
 imports from the East has led to a most unusual export of silver, the only com- 
 modity which the Orientals will take in payment for them. The following table 
 was laid before the Committee of the House of Commons on the Bank Acts : — 
 
 Exports of Silver to the East from Great Britain and the Mediterranean. 
 
 7,934,000 
 
 14,108,000 
 
 . . '20,146,000 
 
 1851 
 
 , 
 
 . £ 1,716,000 | 1855 
 
 1852 
 
 » 
 
 . 2,630,000 1 1856 
 
 1853 
 
 • 
 
 5,559,000 1857 
 
 1854 
 
 • 
 
 • 4,583,000 
 
 Total 
 
 56,678,000 
 
 The tendency of a stidden demand for so great a sum in silver to augment its 
 value is evident. It is true that a large quantity of silver has been liberated in 
 the same period from the currency of France ( M. Chevalier estimated the amount 
 at £45,080,000 down to the 1st of January, 1858) ; but, even taking this 
 into the account, the great drain for exportation to the East must have had 
 rather a tendency to produce an augmentation of value. Nevertheless we see 
 that no such augmentation has taken place, but that the relative values of silver 
 and gold continue to be what they were eight years ago. We scarcely see how 
 this is compatible with a depreciation of gold at present. Those who believe 
 that there is such a depreciation, must prove that there are in the case of silver 
 counteracting circumstances which make it an exception to the general rule, and 
 prevent its gold-price from rising when the gold-prices of other commodities are 
 rising. But we have never seen any attempt to indicate such circumstances, 
 and we do not believe that any such exist ; on the contrary, we conceive that 
 from its intrinsic tendency to rise in value, silver would almost certainly be 
 affected by a simultaneous depreciation of gold if any such existed. 
 
 The teaching, therefore, of the experience of the last few years is, that the 
 value of gold is not very easily depreciated, and that our standard of value is in 
 consequence more stable than we should have beforehand imagined it to be. 
 M. Leon Faucher estimated that in 1851 the American production of silver 
 was £7,680,000 or nearly 1£ millions more than in 1848. In 1857 Mr. New- 
 march considered the American produce of silver to be 10 millions sterling per 
 annum, and the total silver produce of the world at not less than 12 millions per 
 annum, or nearly double the amount produced in 1848. The estimated imports 
 of Silver into the United Kingdom rose from £4,200,000 in 1852 to £5,500,000 
 in 1856, and there has been a large consumption for coin and other purposes in the 
 United States. The large supplies of quicksilver from California since 1853 have 
 already reduced the price of that metal more than one half, and thereby rendered 
 it profitable to re-open silver-mines previously abandoned, and to extend the 
 production of silver-mines actually in operation. 
 
 The imports of Silver into the United Kingdom from the places of production, 
 exclusive of coin and bullion received from the Continent, were as follows : — 
 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 
 X 5,580,000 J 1855 
 6,750,000 I 1856 
 5,960,000 | 1858 
 6,060,000 | 1859 
 
 5,720,000 
 7,590,000 
 8,000,000 
 5,000,000 
 
 Export of Silver from Southampton to India, China, and the Straits. 
 
 Year. 
 
 India. 
 
 China. 
 
 Straits. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 
 £. 
 
 £, 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 1854 
 
 428,230 
 
 2,783,440 
 
 
 3,135,670 
 
 1855 
 
 4,738,909 
 
 1,376,773 
 
 316,061 
 
 6,431,743 
 
 1856 
 
 8,381,505 
 
 3,166,514 
 
 565,972 
 
 12,113,991 
 
 1657 
 
 11,378,017 
 
 4,479.315 
 
 874,583 
 
 16,731,915 
 
 1858 
 
 8,985,835 
 
 1,355,117 
 
 102,981 
 
 4,753,933 
 
 1859 
 
 11,163,384 
 
 3,374,250 
 
 290,887 
 
 11,828,524* 
 
 • Including Government Remittances, about £6,173,124. 
 
BUL 
 
 28 
 
 BUL 
 
 The following is a statement of the amount of bullion purchased and sold by 
 the Bank of England, distinguishing gold from silver, &c. — 
 
 1840. 
 
 £214,394 
 75,097 
 
 Bar gold purchased -, r 
 Foreign coin . » 
 
 Total ; 
 
 Bar gold sold . ', 
 
 Foreign coin sold . I 
 
 Total . 
 British gold coin- 
 Excess of paymentsto the public 
 Excess of receipts 
 
 1841. 
 Bar gold purchased . 
 
 Foreign coin purchased . 
 
 Total . 
 Bar gold sold . 
 Excess of payments to public 
 Excess of receipts . 
 Received from the Mint . 
 1842. 
 Bar gold purchased 
 Foreign coin purchased 
 
 Total . 
 Bar gold sold . 
 Excess of payments . 
 Excess of receipts 
 Receipts from the Mint 
 
 1843. 
 Bar gold purchased 
 Foreign coin purchased 
 
 Total 
 Bar gold sold 
 Foreign coin sold 
 
 Total . 
 Excess of payments 
 Excess of receipts . 
 Received from the Mint 
 
 1844 
 Bar gold purchased . 
 Foreign coin purchased 
 
 Total . 
 Bar gold sold . 
 Excess of payments . 
 Excess of receipts 
 Received from the Mint 
 
 1845. 
 Bar gold purchased 
 Foreign coin purchased 
 
 Total 
 Bar gold sold 
 Foreign coin sold 
 
 Total . 
 Excess of payment of gold coin 
 Excess of receipts 
 Received from the Mint 
 
 1846. 
 Bar gold purchased 
 Foreign coin purchased 
 
 Total 
 Bar gold sold 
 Foreign coin sold 
 
 Total . 
 Excess of payment of coin 
 Excess of receipts . 
 Received from the Mint 
 
 1847 
 Bar gold purchased 
 Foreign coin purchased 
 
 Total . 
 
 289,491 
 
 281,112 
 217,176 
 
 498,288 
 
 2,173,000 
 2,111,000 
 
 1,191,008 
 89,714 
 
 1,280,722 
 
 1,793 
 
 1,950,000 
 
 2,410,855 
 
 351,145 
 
 2,634,032 
 197,854 
 
 2,831,086 
 
 3,338 
 
 3,962,429 
 
 2,763,000 
 
 1,329 
 
 4,277,441 
 240,832 
 
 4,51 8,273 
 1,368 
 2,712 
 
 4,080 
 2,895,050 
 3,013,165 
 1,668,885 
 
 3,739,971 
 24,706 
 
 3,764,677 
 ] 1,220 
 4,272,265 
 1,194,401 
 1,832,061 
 
 2,412,071 
 
 1,376,053 
 
 "3,78 8,124 
 
 13,858 
 
 1,550 
 
 15,408 
 
 5,306,397 
 
 142,949 
 
 4,300,227 
 
 3,262,406 
 1,269,713 
 4,532,119 
 
 4,805,153 
 
 Bar gold sold . 
 Foreign coin sold . 
 
 Total 
 Excess of payments of coin 
 Excess of receipts 
 Received from the Mint 
 
 1848. 
 Bar gold purchased ' . 
 Foreign coin purchased 
 
 Total 
 Bar gold sold 
 Foreign coin sold 
 
 Total . 
 Excess of payments of coin 
 Excess of receipts 
 Received from the Mint 
 
 1849. 
 Bar gold purchased 
 Foreign coin purchased . 
 
 Total . 
 Bar gold sold . 
 Foreign coin sold 
 
 Total 
 Excess of payments 
 Excess of receipts 
 Received from the Mint 
 
 1850. 
 Bar gold purchased 
 Foreign coin purchased 
 
 Total 
 Bar gold sold 
 Foreign coin sold 
 
 Total . 
 Excess of payments of coin 
 Excess of receipts . 
 Received from the Mint . 
 1851. 
 Bar gold purchased . 
 Foreign coin purchased . 
 
 Total . 
 Bar gold sold 
 Foreign coin sold 
 
 Total . 
 Excess of payments of coin 
 Excess of receipts . 
 Received from the Mint . 
 
 Total . 
 
 1852. 
 Bar gold purchased 
 Foreign coin purchased 
 
 Total 
 Bar gold sold 
 Foreign coin sold 
 
 Total . 
 Excess of payments of gold coin 
 Received from the Mint 
 
 1853. 
 Gold received , 
 Gold delivered 
 
 Gold received . 
 Gold delivered 
 
 Gold received . 
 Gold delivered 
 Gold purchasad 
 Gold sold . 
 
 1854. 
 
 1855. 
 
 , 296,356 
 804.330 
 
 , 2,100,586 
 . 6,005,244 
 . 1,869,553 
 . 5,228,407 
 
 , 4,477,388 
 . 1.320,650 
 
 5,798,0 38 
 30,942 
 
 1,748,647 
 
 1,779,589 
 3,606,239 
 2,927,573 
 2,313,060 
 
 3,024,799 
 621,859 
 
 3,646,658 
 
 29,924 
 
 86,847 
 
 116,771 
 
 2,994,980 
 
 1,661,051 
 
 2,248,046 
 
 2,549,837 
 
 388,386 
 
 2,938,223 
 
 507,064 
 
 735,953 
 3,955,466 
 
 114,355 
 1,421,762 
 
 5,182,280 
 917,304 
 
 7,099,584 
 
 159,266 
 157,057 
 
 307,323 
 
 4,650,280 
 
 17,705 
 
 17,705 
 
 4,540,212 
 
 13,167,670 
 2,183,101 
 
 15,350,771 
 
 75,801 
 
 1,301,904 
 
 1,377,705 
 1,716,589 
 8,755,600 
 
 19,219,475 
 14,057,354 
 
 15,523,374 
 12,192,202 
 
 17,286,808 
 
 12,362,884 
 
 8,310,358 
 
 3,391,981 
 
BUL 29 BUL 
 
 The gold bullion purchased and sold by the Bank of England in the last five 
 years has been as follows : — 
 
 
 
 
 Gold Coin 
 
 
 Bullion Purchased. 
 
 Bullion Sold. 
 
 Received from the 
 Mint. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1855 
 
 8,310,358 
 
 3,391,981 
 
 4,008,823 
 
 1856 
 
 7,070,831 
 
 1,967,630 
 
 6,002,250 
 
 1857 
 
 8,870,298 
 
 3,024,894 
 
 4,859,561 
 
 1858 
 
 10,823,986 
 
 2,712,196 
 
 880,500 
 
 1859 
 
 3,550,608 
 
 2,814,177 
 
 2,999,410 
 
 £ 
 
 88,6*6,061 
 
 13,910,878 
 
 23,750,544 
 
 Silver bought and sold by the Bank of England :— 
 
 
 Purchased. 
 
 Sold. 
 
 1840 
 
 £419,509 
 
 £679,661 
 
 1841 
 
 
 
 1842 
 
 251,400 
 
 154,701 
 
 1843 
 
 1,999,370 
 
 229,842 
 
 1844 
 
 108,768 
 
 400,455 
 
 1845 
 
 738,967 
 
 743,388 
 
 1846 
 
 1,245,182 
 
 349,162 
 
 1847 
 
 409,134 
 
 1,513,605 
 
 1848 
 
 604,306 
 
 1,547,013 
 
 1849 
 
 
 186,623 
 
 
 Purchased. 
 
 Sold. 
 
 1850 
 
 £.. 
 
 £183,826 
 
 1851 
 
 . . 
 
 
 1852 
 
 2,500 
 
 16,952 
 
 1853 
 
 5,346,588 
 
 5,370,159 
 
 1854 
 
 5,162,646 
 
 5,160,591 
 
 1855 
 
 4,713,668 
 
 4,713,028 
 
 1856 
 
 473,291 
 
 
 1857 
 
 397,441 
 
 
 1858 
 
 400,024 
 
 
 The total imports of silver into France during the three years, 1853-4-5, were 
 £13,332,000, and the exports were no less than £32,440,000, indicating a balance 
 in favour of exports over imports of silver of £19,108,000. During the same 
 period the aggregate imports of gold into France were £47,216,000 and the 
 total exports £10,272,000, showing a balance on the side of imports over exports 
 of gold of £36,944,000. The gold sent into France, it will be noticed, exceeds 
 greatly in value the silver drawn from it. Part of this excess is probably due to 
 the French transit trade in the precious metal, whilst part is very likely hoarded 
 in the provinces. It is evident from a general comparison of these figures that, 
 under the influence of the Eastern demand for silver, the stock of this metal, cir- 
 culating in France and in other continental countries, is being gradually with- 
 drawn and replaced by gold. 
 
 The Custom House Returns from 1834 to 1857 show that £94,517,189 of 
 treasure (silver bullion and coin) had been received in India, and of that 
 sum only £18,162,794 was re-exported, leaving a balance in India of 
 £76,354,395 ; and of this sum no less than £66,224,173 passed through 
 the Mints of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay, and was converted into Company's 
 rupees. It is asserted by many that the silver is hoarded, but the owners would 
 scarcely have paid seigniorage, and had the silver melted and converted into 
 rupees for the sake of hoarding ; and it is more than probable that it was 
 required to pay for the annual enormously-increased production of indigo, sugar, 
 oil seeds, lac dye, &c, improving, therefore, the means of the cultivators. If the 
 period between 1800 and 1835 be taken into consideration, the probability is, that 
 about £150,000,000 sterling of silver have remained in India, realizing, even at 
 this day, the assertion of Pliny, that India is the sink of the precious metals. 
 There has been an aggregate shipment of upwards of 72| million pounds value 
 of specie in the last nine years, (185 1-59), or an average of £8,000,000 per annum; 
 of which about 7£ millions was silver and only half a million gold. This heavy 
 drain serves not only to keep up the price and demand for silver, but also 
 diminishes the quantity available for small coinage for circulation here. It is 
 rendered necessary, however, to compensate the wear and tear of 4 per cent, on 
 the silver in circulation in India, (calculated to amount to £400,000,000) and to 
 meet the balance of trade with China, where silver is also the circulating 
 medium. 
 
BUL 
 
 30 
 
 BUT 
 
 Computed real value of the Imports and Exports of Bullion and Specie. 
 
 1 
 
 IMPORTS. 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 TOTAL. 
 
 1 
 
 GOLD. £. 
 
 SILVER £. | 
 
 GOLD. £. 
 
 SILVER £. 1 
 
 1844 
 
 3,760,000 
 
 110,000 
 
 1844 
 
 247,124 
 
 3,432,257 
 
 3,679,381 
 
 1845 
 
 3,730,000 
 
 740,000 
 
 1845 
 
 224,728 
 
 8,842,158 
 
 4,006,886 
 
 1816 
 
 4,530,000 
 
 1,240,000 
 
 1846 
 
 532,859 
 
 2,401,407 
 
 2,937,266 
 
 1847 
 
 4,880,000 
 
 410,000 
 
 1847 
 
 4,784,152 
 
 3,818,445 
 
 8,fi02.5«'7 
 
 1843 
 
 5,790,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 1848 
 
 1,555,396 
 
 7,011,594 
 
 8,596,990 
 
 1849 
 
 3,640,000 
 
 
 1849 
 
 1,190,924 
 
 7,721,543 
 
 8,912,467 
 
 1850 
 
 2,940,000 
 
 
 1850 
 
 2,574,568 
 
 4,305,778 
 
 6,940,346 
 
 1851 
 
 11,500,000 
 
 5,600,000 
 
 1851 
 
 3,97%364 
 
 5,084,187 
 
 9,059,551 
 
 1852 
 
 15,500,000 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 1852 
 
 4,325,824 
 
 5,909,640 
 
 10,295,464 
 
 1853 
 
 21,000,000 
 
 7,500,000 
 
 1853 
 
 12,751,778 
 
 6,154,975 
 
 18,906,753 
 
 1854 
 
 19,800,000 
 
 6,500,000 
 
 1854 
 
 16,552,845 
 
 6,033,723 
 
 22,586,568 
 
 1855 
 
 17,300,000 
 
 6,600,000 
 
 1855 
 
 11,847,213 
 
 6.980,965 
 
 18,828,178 
 
 1850 
 
 7,070,000 
 
 7,600,000 
 
 1856 
 
 12,038,299 
 
 12,815,498 
 
 24,851,797 
 
 1857 
 
 
 
 1857 
 
 15,061,500 
 
 18,505,468 
 
 33,560,968 
 
 1853 
 
 22,793,126 
 
 6,700,064 
 
 1858 
 
 12,567,040 
 
 7,001,836 
 
 19,628,876 
 
 1859 
 
 22,297,668 
 
 14,772,458 
 
 1859 
 
 18,081,139 
 
 17,607,664 
 
 35,688,803 
 
 The imports of bullion were not officially registered at the Custom House under 
 the Act 20 & 21 Vict. c. 62, before Nov. 1857, and therefore the figures for pre- 
 vious years can only be regarded as an approximate estimate. The years 1 844 to 
 1850 and 1856 show the quantities purchased by the Bank of England only. 
 
 Messrs. Pixley, Abell and Langley, bulhon brokers of Old Broad Street, state 
 the arrivals of Australian gold in this country at the following amounts :— 
 
 1857 .... 2,542,718 Ounces. 
 
 1858 .... 2,431,277 „ 
 
 1859 .... 2,457,736 „ 
 
 BUTTER. The following official returns show the quantities of butter 
 entered for home consumption into the United Kingdom : — 
 
 
 
 IMPORTED 
 
 FROM 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 llanse 
 
 
 
 
 Channel 
 
 Other 
 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Holland. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 France. 
 
 Islands. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1848 - 
 
 50,916 
 
 194,113 
 
 14,588 
 
 738 
 
 68 
 
 27,722 
 
 288,144 
 
 1849 - 
 
 37,228 
 
 201,059 
 
 21,633 
 
 294 
 
 14 
 
 19,237 
 
 279,465 
 
 1850 - 
 
 46,999 
 
 225,174 
 
 18,446 
 
 598 
 
 114 
 
 29,229 
 
 320,560 
 
 1851 - 
 
 54,262 
 
 234,502 
 
 17,242 
 
 3,982 
 
 405 
 
 33,792 
 
 344,185 
 
 1852 - 
 
 49,920 
 
 211,452 
 
 16,828 
 
 1,663 
 
 44 
 
 7,996 
 
 287,903 
 
 1853* - 
 
 69,748 
 
 239,557 
 
 25,700 
 
 31,862 
 
 2,408 
 
 28,636 
 
 397,911 
 
 1854 - 
 
 82,694 
 
 263,747 
 
 55,090 
 
 46 064 
 
 7,395 
 
 23,821 
 
 478,811 
 
 1855 - 
 
 90,419 
 
 260,145 
 
 51,647 
 
 21,790 
 
 3,495 
 
 20,772 
 
 448,268 
 
 1856 - 
 
 87,227 
 
 276,111 
 
 63,204 
 
 32,096 
 
 12,154 
 
 27,586 
 
 498,378 
 
 1857 - 
 
 58,014 
 
 255,367 
 
 62,409 
 
 24,828 
 
 28,448 
 
 13,946 
 
 443,012 
 
 1858 - 
 
 48,013 
 
 201,402 
 
 53,270 
 
 28.631 
 
 39,964 
 
 13,740 
 
 385,050 
 
 1859 - 
 
 54,065 
 
 214,844 
 
 60,952 
 
 36,732 
 
 41,819 
 
 13,122 
 
 421,534 
 
 Amount of Customs Duties Received 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0.\ THh 
 
 IMPORTATION FROM 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Hanse 
 
 
 
 
 Channel 
 
 i Other 
 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Holland. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 France. 
 
 Islands. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 1848 - 
 
 25,458 
 
 97,057 
 
 7,298 
 
 369 
 
 34 
 
 10,485 
 
 140,701 
 
 1849 - 
 
 18,613 
 
 100,530 
 
 10,828 
 
 147 
 
 7 
 
 8,280 
 
 138 405 
 
 1850 - 
 
 23,500 
 
 112,587 
 
 9,240 
 
 299 
 
 57 
 
 12,687 
 
 158.370 
 
 1851 - 
 
 27,131 
 
 117,251 
 
 8,649 
 
 1,991 
 
 203 
 
 12,193 
 
 107,418 
 
 1S52 - 
 
 54,961 
 
 105,726 
 
 8,424 
 
 831 
 
 22 
 
 3,610 
 
 143,574 
 
 1855* - 
 
 24,497 
 
 81.778 
 
 8,770 
 
 8,525 
 
 645 
 
 7,543 
 
 131,756 
 
 1854 - 
 
 20,690 
 
 65,949 
 
 13,773 
 
 11,516 
 
 1,849 
 
 5,926 
 
 119.703 
 
 1855 - 
 
 22,609 
 
 65,037 
 
 12911 
 
 5,448 
 
 874 
 
 5,098 
 
 111,977 
 
 1856 - 
 
 21,807 
 
 69,028 
 
 15,801 
 
 8,024 
 
 3,039 
 
 6,759 
 
 124,458 
 
 1857 - 
 
 14,504 
 
 63,843 
 
 15,602 
 
 6,207 
 
 7,112 
 
 3,325 
 
 110,593 
 
 1858 - 
 
 12,011 
 
 50,351 
 
 13,317 
 
 7,159 
 
 9,991 
 
 2,600 
 
 95,489 
 
 1859 - 
 
 13,517 
 
 53,711 
 
 15,238 
 
 9,184 
 
 10,405 
 
 2,482 
 
 104,587 
 
 * The Duty on Foreign Butter was reduced, on 4th June, 1853, from 10*. to 5s. per cwt., and 
 in March, 1860, was abolished altogether. 
 
CAC 31 CAL 
 
 CACAO. In 1853 the duty on Cocoa was reduced to Id. per pound, and on 
 cocoa paste or chocolate to 2d. The imports average 6,000,000 to 7,000,000 lbs. 
 of which about one half are entered for home consumption. Cocoa, except for 
 ship's use in the navy, is not a very popular beverage in this country, and does 
 not make the progress in consumption which tea and coffee have done. The 
 imports in 1858 were unusually large, amounting to 10,338,404 lbs , of which 
 4,413,145 lbs. came from Trinidad, and Grenada, &c, and 3,849,230 lbs. from 
 Ecuador. The quantity taken for consumption in 1858 was 3,071,115 lbs., and in 
 1859, 3,480,987 lbs. The average value is about 6d. per pound The chocolate 
 imported in 1858 amounted to 36,064 lbs. of which the greater portion was taken 
 for consumption, and even 8,651 cwt. of husks and shells were imported, being 
 used as a flavouring beverage by the Irish and lower classes generally, as well as 
 for mixing. The value of this refuse is 17*. 3d. per cwt. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. An important Pacific State on the North-west coast of 
 America, belonging to the United States, which has risen into great importance 
 from its extensive and productive gold fields. It comprises an area of 155,980 
 square miles, and has many important towns, the principal being the sea port of 
 San Francisco. The State is divided into 43 counties, of which 20 may be classed as 
 agricultmal and grazing, 13 as mining, and the remainder as mixed mining and 
 agricultural. The ports of entry in the State, besides San Francisco, are Stockton 
 (on a branch of the San Joaquin river), Sacramento (on a river of the same 
 name), Benicia, in Suisun Bay, Montery, San Pedro, and San Diego, to the 
 south of this ; but the trade with all these ports, except San Francisco, is 
 strictly coasting. The Sacramento, Feather and San Joaquin rivers are navi- 
 gated constantly by steam-vessels. The Sacramento empties into Suisun Bay 
 about 37 miles from San Francisco, and is navigable by steamers for 370 miles. 
 The Feather is a branch of the Sacramento, and is navigable but to fight 
 draught steamers only for about 60 miles. The San Joaquin flows into Suisun 
 Bay, and is navigable for about 100 miles. 
 
 The startling discovery of the vast metallic and mineral wealth of California, 
 attracted to her shores in the space of twelve months, in 1849, more than 
 100,000 people, 80,000 of whom were Americans, and an extensive commerce 
 has since sprung up at San Francisco with China, the ports of Mexico on the 
 Pacific, Chili, the islands in the Pacific and Australia, 
 
 California became as if by magic a State of great wealth, and commercial 
 importance. It was at first thought that the tide of immigration would keep up at 
 the large ratio of 100,000 per annum, but this has not proved to be the case, 
 the State progresses now somewhat slower in population, the departures almost 
 balancing the arrivals, and the annual increase by immigration scarcely exceeds 
 30,000. The population might indeed have been very largely swelled by the 
 Chinese immigrants, who arrived in considerable numbers, but their reception 
 was strongly opposed, and they have been much ill-treated ; there seems also no 
 probability of the prejudice against them being removed. In June, 1847, the 
 Califomian Star, the first newspaper published in the district, gave a return of 
 the population of the village of San Francisco, as 459 souls, 321 males and 138 
 females, of these 375 were whites and the rest Indians and negroes ; now the 
 city has covered the sand beach, mounted the hills, overflowed into the valleys 
 beyond, encroached upon the waters, and promises ere long at the ratio of in- 
 crease to cover the peninsula between the ocean and the bay. The first brick 
 building in San Francisco was erected in Sept. 1848, and there was then but one 
 other such building at Monterey. There are now in the city (although it has 
 suffered severely on several occasions from fire) 18 or 20 churches and 700 
 brick houses mostly of two, three and four stories high, generally fireproof, some 
 few are five or six stories high. The mining population numbered about 
 100,000 in 1858, and they earned about 8.?. per man per day on the average, 
 the rates of wages for miners being 6*. to 14*. per day. 
 
 Notwithstanding the changes which are yearly taking place a large proportion 
 of the wealth of the country still consists of its gold mines, which judging by 
 
CAL 32 CAL 
 
 the exports yield as largely as ever. The shipments according to the manifests 
 at the Custom House for the last six years have been as follows : — 
 
 1853 £10,981,000 | 1856 - -£10,197,752 
 
 1854 10,400,000 1857 - 9,868,037 
 
 1855 8,923,830 | 1858 - 9,490,4G0 
 
 In former years there was doubtless a far larger amount taken from the country 
 by individuals which did not pass through the Custom House books than there 
 is now. In 1854 the United States Branch Mint was established at San 
 Francisco, and has coined since that period : — 
 
 1854 £1,344,700 11857 £2,891,000 
 
 1855 ----- 4,191,535 1858 ----- 3,429,640 
 
 1856 5,029,340 | 
 
 In 1857 the taxable property in the State was assessed at £26,361,254. This 
 value was exclusive of mines, which are not taxed. There is a large amount of 
 European capital invested in the country, yielding on an average 20 per cent. 
 per annum, of this about £300,000 belong to non-resident English. The value 
 of merchandise passing through British hands may be estimated at about 
 £250,000. In 1858 there were 279 quartz mills in operation throughout the 
 mining districts for crushing ore ; of these 119 were worked by steam, 153 by 
 water, and 7 by mule and horse power, with an aggregate of 2,610 stamps. It was 
 also estimated that there were more than 6000 miles of artificial water-courses, 
 constructed at a cost of upwards of £2,500,000, built by the owners themselves, 
 this outlay being the supposed worth of their labour. There is yet a vast 
 field for capital in this branch of enterprise, some counties having scarcely any 
 artificial supply of water, which is essential in washing out the gold. 
 
 The number of saw mills in the State is 388, of which 128 are propelled by 
 steam, and 200 by water, and their aggregate capacity is about 500,000,000 
 feet (board measure) per year ; a large timber trade has sprung up between 
 Australia and the Pacific coast. 
 
 The value of the exports from California, exclusive of coin and bullion, have 
 risen from £978,651 in value in 1854, to £15,039,247 in 1858, A. Forbes 
 in his work on California gave the population of the country for 1831 at 
 18,700 Indians, and 5000 white and free settlers of all classes, and the live- 
 stock at 216,627 horned stock, 155,455 sheep, 32,201 horses, 2,844 mules, and 
 834 hogs. 
 
 The population of California in 1850 was, according to the census, about 
 92,000, of whom 69,610 were Americans, and 22,358 foreigners. The live-stock 
 then comprised 21,719 horses, 1,666 asses and mules, 4,280 milch cows, 258,379 
 working cattle and oxen ; 17,570 sheep, and 2,776 hogs. Another census, taken 
 in 1852, represented the population at 264,436. The live-stock then was stated at 
 64,773 horses, 16,578 mules, 104,339 cows, 315,392 beef cattle, and 29,065 working 
 oxen. The population of the State of California on the 31st Dec. 1853, was esti- 
 mated at 328,000 souls — composed as follows: Americans, 215,000; Germans, 
 25,000; of Spanish blood, 20,000; Chinese, 15,000; miscellaneous foreigners, 
 5,000; Indians, 20,000 ; and negroes, 2,500 ; of these about 65,000 were women 
 and, perhaps, 30,000 children. In 1858 it consisted of about 15,000 French, 
 15,000 British, 30,000 Chinese, besides a large number of Germans and other 
 foreigners. The population of the city of San Francisco is now about 60,000. 
 The number of vessels which entered the port in 1853, coasting and foreign, was 
 1028, measuring 558,755 tons, and the clearances were 1653 ships of 640,075 
 tons. The value of the goods imported was £7,000,000 or £20 per head of the 
 population. The export of gold however amounted to £12,000,000 or £34 per 
 head, exclusive of quicksilver and other produce. The tonnage (steam and 
 sail ) owned in San Francisco amounted to 63,423 tons, and in other parts of the 
 State steamers registering 23,566 tons. The freights paid at the port of San 
 Francisco for the year 1853 amounted to £351,000, and the custom duties to 
 £489,688, but in 1857 the custom duties were only £301,404. The arrivals 
 of passengers by sea have been as follows : in 1852, 35,185, in 1853, 51,359, and 
 in 1854, 47,730, in 1858, 40,739. In 1852 990 ships of 444,515 tons entered the 
 
CAL 33 CAL 
 
 port, in 1853 926 ships of 260,956 tons, and in 1854 617 of 407,485 tons. A large 
 portion of the passenger traffic is carried on by steamers from the Isthmus. The 
 total number of passengers who crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1853, was 
 32,111 and 30,108 in 1854. While the average passage by sailing vessel round 
 Cape Horn from New York to San Francisco is 108 days, by way of Panama, 
 the passage is made in less than half that time. Previous to the emigration of 
 the last few years, the population of Oregon, did not exceed 1000 inhabitants, 
 exclusive of the Hudson's Bay Company's employees, at present it may be 
 estimated at least at 50,000. Some 20 or more saw mills and several flour 
 milLs are now actively employed in preparing lumber and meal for home use 
 and importation. The trade with San Francisco keeps 20 vessels of about 
 4000 tons fully occupied, and there is a semi-monthly line of mail steamers 
 running. There are now 43 river steamers plying to and from San Francisco, 
 and the upper towns of the State. 
 
 In the official year ending June 30, 1858, the entries of vessels at San 
 Francisco numbered 255, registering 148,546 tons; 17 vessels measuring 240 
 tons were built in the State in the same year. There were registered, licensed 
 and enrolled, at San Francisco Custom House in 1858, the following vessels, 
 over 20 tons burden :— 
 
 Tons. | Tons. 
 
 24 ocean steamers . , . .25,130 40 brigs 7,166 
 
 43 river steamers .... 9,096 ; 190 schooners 12,943 
 
 26 ships 11,750 68 sloops 2,334 
 
 58 barques ... . 16,042 | In all 449 vessels . . 81,461 
 
 Every year additional attention is turned to the raising of sheep and cattle. 
 In 1858 the number of sheep was stated at 650,000, cattle 814,642, horses 
 160,800, nrales 20,500, and pigs 151,000. The growth of the grape vine is 
 occupying considerable attention ; in 1858 nearly 4,000,000 vines were in cultiva 
 tion, 186,200 acres were under culture with wheat, producing about 3,563,000 
 bushels, 236,500 acres with barley, producing 5,410,000 bnshels, 48,700 with 
 oats, produce 1,386,000 ; 13,200 with Indian corn, yield 630,000 bushels; 15,888 
 with potatoes, produce 1,465,239 bushels, besides pulse, hay, &c. 
 
 One of the influences of Gold in California has been to plant a powerful and 
 thriving commercial State on the Atlantic, destined to work a singular revolution 
 among the sluggish States of the Eastern Archipelago and Asia. Already it 
 has drawn thousands of plodding and thrifty Chinese to its shores. Already it 
 has opened up a trade with the hitherto sealed empire of Japan ; it has dotted 
 the Pacific with ships, and given life and energy to the people of the Sandwich 
 Island group. It has drawn an overland traffic across the vast prairies, steppes, 
 and mountains of the heretofore untraversed Continent. It has vastly stimulated 
 trade with Peru, Chili, New Granada, Nicaragua, and other republican Staies. 
 It has led to the construction of a railway across the isthmus of Panama 
 uniting the increased commerce of the two oceans. It has opened up to steam 
 navigation the rivers and lakes of Nicaragua, Oregon, and Upper California ; 
 thousands of steamboats will soon cut the billows in all directions, eastwards 
 and westwards, freighted with wealth and produce. Day by day steadier and 
 safer channels of communication are being opened up with the Atlantic ports, 
 with the United Kingdom,, with Europe and the world at large, and railroads 
 with their accompanying telegraphs will ere many more years have elapsed 
 extend across the entire American Continent, and the Australian continent ; and the 
 two isthmuses will be hourly travelled by rail, if they are not severed by water. 
 
 There is already one railway in California 22 miles in length, running from 
 Sacramento to the foot of the Sierra Nevada Hills, which cost £240,000. In 
 1857 there were 82,452 passengers passed over it, and its receipts from that 
 source amounted to £25,283, and from freight to £10,285, while its current 
 expenses were £18,266. It is intended to continue the line to Marysville, a dis- 
 tance of 42 miles. The estimated cost of this extension amounts to £290,000. 
 There are two telegraph bines running from the city of San Francisco to the 
 
 D 
 
CAN 34 CAN 
 
 mines. One is 210 and the other 350 miles in length. In the State there 
 are 8 or 10 large foundries engaged in making and repairing machinery. 
 
 The establishment of mail lines across the Continent by the American govern- 
 ment will have a tendency to attract the attention and draw the people of the 
 Western States to the Pacific side, especially as the routes are to nave military 
 protection. 
 
 CANADA was formerly composed of two provinces, the upper and lower, now 
 known as the eastern and western, and consolidated into one. This province extends 
 in length from the coast of Labrador to the western extremity of Lake Superior, 
 16,000 miles, with an average breadth of 230 miles, being nearly three times as 
 large as Great Britain and Ireland. It contains an area of about 350,000 square 
 miles, diversified with broad lakes, gigantic rivers, fertile farms, dense forests, 
 smiling villages, and large cities. Its population at the present time is not far 
 from three millions of inhabitants. In western Canada the soil is unequalled for its 
 fertility. In the year 1851 the wheat crop in Upper Canada was 12,682,550 
 bushels. In the last ten years the growth of wheat in the whole of the United 
 States increased 48 per cent., and that of Canada in the same period increased 
 400 per cent. In Indian corn, the increase in the States for ten years was 56 
 per cent., and in Canada 163 per cent. Of oats, the increase in the same length 
 of time has been in Upper Canada 133 per cent., against 17 per cent, in the 
 United States. The increase in cattle, sheep and horses, has been in about the 
 same ratio. From facts taken from the last census reports of Canada and the 
 United States, (taken within a year of each other) it appears that Canada far 
 exceeds the most productive State in the Union in wheat, peas, rye, barley, oats, 
 hay, buckwheat, hemp, flax, hops, maple sugar, and potatoes. 
 
 It is not, however, in agriculture that this colony alone excels, but the pro- 
 ducts of the forest are immense, and nothing has served to open up and develop 
 the tracts of timber lands in Canada so much as the Grand Trunk Railroad, 
 of which 1100 miles are now open. Upon the line of the road between Portland 
 and Montreal immense saw mills have been erected, and vast amounts of lumber 
 have been manufactured and sent to various markets, making Portland the 
 shipping port for this trade. One mill alone paid the Grand Trunk road in 
 1859 the enormous amount of 60,000 dollars for freight ; this is but the one in- 
 stance of many. 
 
 From the Report of the Commissioners of Crown Lands for 1856, we take the 
 following statistics : — 
 
 GENERAL TERRITORIAL SUMMARY OF UPPER CANADA. 
 
 Vacant Crown Land surveyed ------- 4,797,550 Acres 
 
 Do. Clergy Lands, do. ------- 487,683$ „ 
 
 Total of disposable Public Lands, Seigniories excepted do. - 5,285,2334 „ 
 
 Township Lands hitherto alienated ------ 6,373,597 ,, 
 
 Total hitherto surveyed in Townships ------ 11,658,830 „ 
 
 Extent of Seigniories --------- 10,678,931 „ 
 
 Total organized ---------- 22,337,761 „ 
 
 Unsurveyed Crown Lands -------- 112,075,029 „ 
 
 Total area of Lower Canada ----___ -134,412,800 Acres 
 The area of Lower Canada here given is only an approximation of its 
 smallest probable extent, its northern boundary being but imperfectly known 
 and undetermined. 
 
 GENERAL TERRITORIAL SUMMARY OP LOWER CANADA. 
 
 Vacant Surveyed Crown Lands ------- 830,398J Acres 
 
 Do do Clergy Lands ------- 422,9444 „ 
 
 Do do School Lands ------- 193,643j „ 
 
 Total of disposable Public surveyed lands ----- 1,446,9864 „ 
 Private Lands 19,388,997J „ 
 
 Total of surveyed Lands 20,835,984 „ 
 
CAN 35 CAN 
 
 Unsurveyed Waste Lands of the Crown ----- 56,770,416 Acres. 
 
 Total area of Upper Canada within the water shed of the St Law- 
 rence and Lakes --------- 77,606,400 Acres. 
 
 In Lower Canada there are now over 5,000,000 acres of Crown Lands saleable. 
 During the year 1858 nearly 50,000 acres were sold for 22,249 dollars ; some- 
 thing less than an average of half a dollar an acre. In Upper Canada, the sales 
 of Crown Lands reached 121,608 acres, the purchase money amounting to 
 138,693 dollars. Of the Clergy reserves there remain in Lower Canada 482,464 
 acres, and in Upper Canada 337,195. Of this description of lands there were 
 sold during the year 4,116 acres in Lower Canada, and 25,812 in Upper Canada. 
 Of the million of acres set apart in Upper Canada some years ago for common 
 schools, only about 25,000 acres remain unsold. 
 
 In 1851 the gross amount of wheat grown was 16,202,272 bushels, showing 
 an increase of 400 per cent, during the 10 previous years, while, in the United 
 States, the increase had only reached 48 per cent. In oats the produce increased 
 70 per cent., while that of the States was only 17 per cent. Even in Indian 
 corn Canada compares favourably with the States, her increased production being 
 equal to 163 per cent., while that of the States was only 56 per cent. But 
 perhaps these points would be best understood by comparing them with those of a 
 separate State of the Union, which should be a fair representative of its pro- 
 ductive condition. Ohio has been selected for the comparison, and those who 
 know that State will acknowledge that Canada has chosen no mean competitor. 
 The land in Ohio is valued at nearly double that of the average of the Union, 
 and has more than three times as many inhabitants to the square mile, 
 having 49 '55, while the average of the Union, is only 15*75. Let us look at 
 some of the principal items. 
 
 CANADA. 
 
 IN OHIO. 
 
 Population -- 1,842,265 
 
 Acres occupied, cultivated ------ 7,300,839 
 
 ,, uncultivated 10,638.957 
 
 Total occupied 17,939,796 
 
 Acres occupied to each inhabitant - - - - 9 3 4 
 
 Acres of Wheat 1,136,311 
 
 Produce in bushels ------- 16,155,946 
 
 Bushels per acre ------- 14 2 
 
 Bushels per inhabitant ------ 8-9 
 
 Assessed value of occupied Lands - - - - £65,879,048 
 
 Oats, produce in bushels ------ 21,434,840 
 
 Barley „ „ ------ 1,389,499 
 
 Rye „ „ ------ 869835 
 
 Peas „ „ 4,223,487 
 
 Cows ---------- 591,438 
 
 Horses --- 385,377 
 
 Sheep 1,597,843 
 
 Cattle 74,106 
 
 1,980.427 
 
 9,851,439 
 
 8.146,000 
 
 17,997,493 
 
 9 18 
 
 1,231,437 
 
 14,487,351 
 
 .12 
 
 7-3 
 
 £89,689,651 
 
 13,472,742 
 
 354,358 
 
 425,718 
 
 55,168 
 
 544.499 
 
 463,397 
 
 3,942,929 
 
 814,448 
 
 These were the statistics of 1851, since then the country has been advancing 
 at even a more rapid rate. In 1851 the gross wheat produce amounted to 
 16,155,956 bushels, in 1856 to 26,555,684 which is equal to 643 per cent, in the 5 
 years, and raises the return from 8-9 bushels to 10'6 bushels per head of population. 
 In barley and rye the returns are even more satisfactoiy, the surplus produce of 
 1855 being 566,534 bushels, while that of 1856 was 989,447, showing an increase of 
 74-5 per cent, in one year. In Indian corn an increased ratio of increase is seen, 
 the exports of 1855 being 73,066 bushels, those of 1856 being 164,495, the increase 
 amounted to 125 per cent., but even this is exceeded by that of oats, which pre- 
 sent an increase of 250 per cent, in one year, the quantity exported in 1855 
 being 370,275 bushels, while, in 1856, it amounted to 1,296,677 bushels. The 
 ratio of increase in the productions of the field appears to increase with that of 
 the population ; the latter, however, presents some remarkable features. In 
 1763, the population of Canada was given at 82,000 ; 1814, 430,000 ; 1823, 
 
 z> 2 
 
CAN 
 
 36 
 
 CAN 
 
 1841 
 1851 
 
 1856 
 
 575,000 ; 1831, 772,000 ; 1844, 1,199,000 ; 1848, 1,491,000 ; 1851, 1,842,265 ; 
 1856, 2,500,000. If we compare these returns with those of the States and also 
 of this country, say for the last decennial census, we can form some idea of the 
 relative population progress of Canada In Great Britain the increase amounted 
 to 13-2 per cent. ; in the United States to 35 per cent., while the population of 
 Canada increased 69 per cent., or if we were to take the western province alone 
 we should find an increase of no less than 104 per cent, in the ten years. 
 The value of the imports into Canada were, in 
 
 £2,694,161 
 
 5,358,697 
 
 10,896,096 
 
 Thus, while the export trade since 1851 shows an increase of, in round numbers, 
 150 per cent., the imports have fully doubled themselves in the same period. 
 
 If we take the present productive returns of the cultivated lands as a basis for 
 our calculation, it will be seen that the already occupied land in the 
 colony would support a population of about 10,000,000 inhabitants, and if the 
 present progressive rate of increase is sustained, at the close of the present century 
 we may expect to see Canada occupied by a population something like 20,000,000 
 in number. Whatever her numbers may be, it is quite certain that for years to 
 come the great strength of the country will lie in the productions of her soil. 
 With these she will pay for our manufactures ; her surplus will supply our 
 wants and our surplus will administer to her necessities and comforts, and the 
 scales of commercial benefit be kept pretty evenly balanced. 
 
 Canada, and particularly Western Canada, is essentially an agricultural 
 country. Three-fourths of her people are engaged in agriculture, and the other 
 fourth is mainly dependent upon these. The facilities afforded to the agriculturist 
 by the introduction of railways into Canada have added to the value of real 
 estate in the country, an amount almost incredible. In many parts of the pro- 
 vince land has risen from 6 to 40 dollars per acre. The total number of miles 
 of railway in the colony is now over 2000, and the increased value of real estate 
 from this cause alone is estimated at over £30,000,000. There are already in 
 operation the following lines : 
 
 Montreal and Lachine 
 Montreal and New York - 
 Ontario, Simcoe and Huron 
 Ottawa and Prescott 
 Port Hope and Lindsay- 
 Port Dalhousie and Thorold 
 
 8 miles. 
 62 
 94 
 54 
 42 
 
 Buffalo, Brantford and Goderich 160 miles. 
 Cobourg and Peterboro' 28 
 
 Champlain and St. Lawrence - 44 
 Erie and Ontario - 20 
 
 Great Western - - - - 357 
 Grand Trunk - 1092 
 
 London and Port Stanley - - 26 
 
 Total running . . 1992 miles. 
 In addition there are the following lines now constructing : — 
 Grand Trunk extension, - - 20 miles. Brockville and Ottawa - - 75 
 
 Port Dalhousie and Thorold, ex- 
 
 tension - - - - - 20 Total forming - 115 miles. 
 
 When these roads are in full running order, their cost will have summed up to 
 
 nearly £20,000,000. The weekly expense of keeping them running will be 
 
 £20,000 per week, or £1,040,000 per annum— and the annual interest on the 
 
 capital invested, £1,200,000. 
 
 The following is a comparative statement of imports, exhibiting in contrast 
 the value of, and amounts of duties collected on, goods entered for consumption 
 during the years 1853, 1854, 1855, and 1856, respectively: 
 
 Whence 
 Lmpoeted. 
 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 
 Duty. 
 
 
 1853. 
 
 £ 
 
 4,622,280 
 
 158,164 
 
 869 
 
 2,945,536 
 
 268,507 
 
 1854. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 £, 
 
 4,553,233 
 
 258,148 
 
 4,403 
 
 5,676,127 
 404,183 
 
 1853. 
 
 £ 
 ) 
 
 V 1,028,676 
 
 J 
 
 1854. 
 J 
 
 1,224,751 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 £ 
 
 1,127,220 
 
 Great Britain . 
 N. Am. Colonies 
 West Indies 
 United States . 
 Other Countries 
 
 £ 
 
 5,740,832 
 
 168,778 
 
 668 
 
 3,883,274 
 338,777 
 
 £ 
 
 3,325,865 
 
 216,496 
 
 3,533 
 
 5,207,169 
 268,477 
 
 £ 
 881,445 
 
 Total . 
 
 7,995,359 10,132,331 
 
 ) 9,021,542 
 
 14,896,096 
 
 1,028,676 
 
 ! 1,224,7 51 
 
 881,445 
 
 1,137,220 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CAN 
 
 37 
 
 CAN 
 
 Comparative Statement of the Exports of Canada, from 1851 to 1857 in Currency. 
 
 
 1851. 
 
 1852. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1855. 
 £ 
 
 1856. 
 £. 
 
 1857. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 Produce of the Mine . 
 
 21,680 8,394 
 
 27,339 
 
 7781 
 
 31,458 
 
 41,411 
 
 71,617 
 
 Do Sea . 
 
 62,324 74, 162 
 
 85,000 
 
 87,428 
 
 114,980 
 
 114,086 
 
 135,028 
 
 Do Forest 
 
 1,515 8791,614,585 
 
 2,355,255 
 
 2,495,342 
 
 1,986,980 2,504,970 
 
 2,932,596 
 
 Animals and their produce 
 
 219,859 295,929 
 
 342,632 
 
 208,318 
 
 398, 796 641,014 
 
 520,809 
 
 Vegetable Food 
 
 Other Agricultural products . 
 
 941,8721, 57,065 
 9,507 27,847 
 
 1,995,095 
 26,619 
 
 1,822,826 
 17,936 
 
 J 3,257,599 3,743,068 
 
 2,220,706 
 
 Manufactures .... 
 
 15,528 
 
 16,236 
 
 35,106 
 
 42,437 
 
 119,0191 93,407 
 
 99.705 
 
 Other Articles .... 
 
 37,972 
 
 26,875 
 
 15,824 
 
 11,246 
 
 17,140! 10,799 
 
 j 
 
 30,280 
 
 2,824,630 3,251,393 
 
 4,882,870 
 
 4,760,264 
 
 5,925,975 7,148,759 
 
 6,016,743 
 
 Add val. of ships built at Quebec 
 
 416,550, 2,600 
 
 620,187 
 
 552,063 
 
 304,t86j 303,269 
 
 345,861 
 
 Add 20 per ct. to Inland Ports . 
 Grand Total of Exports 
 
 211,470| 1908 
 
 447,268 
 
 442,470 
 
 816,253 559,725 
 
 389,051 
 
 3,453.651 3,836,801 
 
 1,930,335 5 754,797 
 
 7.047.115 «. 011.754 
 
 8,751,656 
 
 The extent and comparative state of the exporting and importing trade of the 
 Province is exhibited by the following details, which show the exports of pro- 
 duce and imports of foreign merchandize, with the total amount of duties collected 
 for the last four years : — 
 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Duty. 
 
 1858 
 
 23,472,609 dols. 
 
 29,078,537 dols. 
 
 3,381,339 dols. 
 
 1857 
 
 27,006,627 
 
 39,430,598 
 
 3,925,051 
 
 1856 
 
 32,047,017 
 
 43,584,387 
 
 4,508,882 
 
 1855 
 
 28,188,461 
 
 36,086,169 
 
 3,525,782 
 
 Notwithstanding the large decrease in the trade, as above exhibited, the 
 exports more nearly equal the imports in 1858 than for the previous years, shown 
 as follows : 
 
 Imports 
 Exports 
 
 1858. 
 29,078,537 dols. 
 23,472,609 
 
 1857. 
 39,430,598 dols. 
 27,006,627 
 
 185a 
 43,584,387 dols. 
 32,047,017 
 
 Difference 5,605,928 dols. 12,423,971 dols. 11,537,370 dols. 
 
 The following figures exhibit the consumption of the principal articles ot 
 necessity in the entire Province for three years : 
 
 1856. 
 Muscovado sugar, lbs. - - 33,862,902 
 Tea, lbs. - 6,714,367 
 
 Coffee, do - 
 Tobacco, do 
 Cottons, value, dollars 
 Linens, do. - 
 Silks, do. - 
 Woollens, do. 
 Leather manu£ do. - 
 
 1,897,388 
 3,053,869 
 5,028,935 
 
 400,380 
 1,162,076 
 4,323,172 
 
 416,777 
 
 1857. 
 25,061,095 
 3,791,760 
 1,374,121 
 2,926,185 
 4,796,046 
 
 334,985 
 1,025,839 
 3,907,789 
 
 514,493 
 
 185S. 
 27,899,005 
 6,015,981 
 1,778,835 
 3,294,154 
 3,315,119 
 
 138,110 
 
 658,045 
 2,658,515 
 
 447,346 
 
 Turning to the exports, we find the following to be the principal articles sent 
 out of the Province in the past three years : — 
 
 Wheat, value 
 
 Flour „ 
 
 Barley and Rye, value 
 
 Oats, value - 
 
 Products of the Forest - 
 
 1856. 
 - 6,977,843 dols. 
 
 1857. 
 2,789,975 dols. 
 4,537,642 
 
 684,056 
 
 360,815 
 11,730,357 
 
 1858. 
 
 2,355,096 dols. 
 
 3,065,810 
 
 1,015,635 
 
 753,486 
 
 9,447,727 
 
 907,281 
 
 457,423 
 
 10,016,883 
 
 The value of ships built at Quebec in 1858 was 743,640 dollars against 
 ,383,444 dollars in 1857. 
 The total exports from Canada were in — 
 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1857. 
 
 Products of Agriculture . 
 
 . £3,656,395 
 
 £4,384,083 
 
 £2,747,516 
 
 Products of the Forest 
 
 . 1,986,980 
 
 2,504,970 
 
 2,932,516 
 
 Othei products 
 
 587,486 
 
 562,979 
 
 682,492 
 
 It thu appears that the value of the agricultural produce exported from Canada 
 
CAN 
 
 38 
 
 CAN 
 
 fell nearly one half between 1856 and 1857, owing to the fall in the price of 
 wheat, from 10^ and 11* per bushel to 4s 6d and 5* in the close of 1857 and 
 1858. 
 The exports of wheat and flour were respectively — 
 
 Wheat Bushels. 
 
 1855 .... 3,193,748 
 
 1856 . . . . . 4,997,656 
 
 1857 .... 2,762,654 
 
 Flcur Barrel* 
 643,936 
 878,775 
 743,949 
 
 The total importations were in value — 
 
 
 1850 . . . £3,396,414 | 1853 . . . £6,396,300 J 1856 . 
 
 1851 . . . 4,287,000 j 1854 . . . 8,105,865 1857 
 
 1852 . . . 4,457,300 1 1855 . . . 7,217,234 • 1858 . 
 
 . £8,717,000 
 
 . . 7,885713 
 
 5,995,706 
 
 The year 1852 was a prosperous year; there was a good crop and fair prices; 
 but importations were only £5,000,000. The five following years were years of 
 wonderful expansion, not less than £16,000,000 of foreign capital was expended 
 in the colony. There were immense crops and war prices. No wonder, then, 
 that the importations were enormous. 
 
 
 
 Value of Exports from Montreal 
 
 
 Total Value of Imports at Mon- 
 
 (inclusive of via Rouse's Point, 
 
 
 treal during Thirteen Years. 
 
 St. Hyacinthe, and Coaticook) 
 for Eleven Years. 
 
 1845 
 
 £2,614,911 
 
 
 1846 
 
 2,303.908 
 
 £395,075 
 
 1847 
 
 2,063,420 
 
 403,017 
 
 1848 
 
 1,707,434 
 
 417,902 
 
 1849 
 
 1,637,409 
 
 439,005 
 
 1850 
 
 1,793,695 
 
 436,193 
 
 1851 
 
 2,294,710 
 
 529,807 
 
 1852 
 
 2,311,471 
 
 681,866 
 
 1853 
 
 3,503,697 
 
 913,757 
 
 1854 
 
 4,055,251 
 
 755,372 
 
 1855 . . , 
 
 3,093,145 
 
 704,129 
 
 1856 
 
 4,036,174 
 
 1,304,333 
 
 1857 
 
 4,212,135 
 
 
 GROSS AMOUNT OF DUTIES COLLECTED AT THE FORT OF MONTREAL FOR 
 TWELVE YEARS. 
 
 1846 
 
 . £137,519 
 
 1 1850 
 
 . 
 
 . £258,474 
 
 1854 . 
 
 £478,361 
 
 1847 
 
 135,016 
 
 1851 
 
 
 315,211 
 
 1855 
 
 310,061 
 
 1848 
 
 140,499 
 
 1 1852 
 
 
 333,269 
 
 1856 
 
 469,025 
 
 1849 
 
 191,888 
 
 1 1853 
 
 
 449,102 
 
 1857 
 
 461,790 
 
 ARRIVALS 
 
 FROM SEA AT THE 
 
 PORT OF MONTREAL 
 
 FOR FOURTEEN 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1843 
 
 106 
 
 
 36,631 
 
 1850 , 
 
 222 
 
 56,867 
 
 1844 
 
 182 
 
 
 48,186 
 
 1851 
 
 
 275 
 
 58,885 
 
 1845 
 
 202 
 
 
 51,295 
 
 1852 
 
 
 185 
 
 45,154 
 
 1846 
 
 221 
 
 
 55,868 
 
 1853 
 
 
 253 
 
 60,507 
 
 1847 
 
 221 
 
 
 63,308 
 
 1854 
 
 
 258 
 
 71,072 
 
 1848 
 
 164 
 
 
 42,157 
 
 1855 
 
 
 197 
 
 48,533 
 
 1849 
 
 150 
 
 
 87,793 
 
 1856 
 
 
 222 
 
 68,609 
 
 The financial agents for Canada, in London, Messrs. Baring and Co. and Messrs. 
 Glyn and Co., made a very important communication to the Stock Exchange 
 early in January, 1860, from the Provincial Government, relative to the con- 
 solidation of its then existing debts into one new 5 per cent, stock. 
 
 The total of the various liabilities of the Colony was stated to be £11,661,010, 
 and the holders were presented with the option of converting them into one Con- 
 solidated 5 per Cent. Stock, irredeemable for twenty-five years. A portion of 
 these liabilities consist of £700,000 to the English Government for the balance 
 of a guaranteed loan ; £400,000 to the current revenue for amounts of debt re- 
 cently paid off; £250,000 for certain indemnity claims on the "Feudal Tenure 
 Fund;" and £1,250,000 currency debt, making a total of £2,600,000, which it 
 was contemplated to meet in cash. For that purpose an issue was made on the 
 
CAN 39 CAN 
 
 London market, increased to £2,800,000, by a requirement of £200,000 for the 
 public buildings at Ottawa, the new capital of the Colony. By this condensa- 
 tion of a number of securities, some of which are of an indirect character, into 
 one sole stock, increased market-ability was obtained, and £69,000 in annual 
 interest saved. 
 
 In 1857 the net revenue of the colony was £963,238, and the expenditure 
 £1,073,093. Customs yielded £281,802., of the gross revenue, the territorial 
 branch £104,386., and public works £102,307. The interest on the debt was 
 £281,036. ; civil government cost £58,512 ; the administration of justice, 
 £126,552; legislation (the Council and Assembly), £126,434.; and education, 
 £110,009. The total tonnage of ships entered at Canadian ports was 5,283,969, 
 and the tonnage of ships cleared out 5,144,756: 110 sailing vessels, of 44,380 
 tons, and 16 steamers, of 2,556 tons, were built in Canada in the year 1857, 
 while 152 sailing vessels and 28 steamers were registered. The value of the 
 imports for consumption was £8,871,885, and that of the exports of domestic 
 produce £6,076,491. The exports to the United Kingdom were £2,429,650., 
 and to the United States £3,301,609. The articles exported from Canada included 
 2,562 tons of copper ore, 95,762 cwt. of dried fish, 21,880 barrels of potashes, 
 37,984 tons of elm timber, 48,539 tons of oak, 500,781 tons of white pine, 61,323 
 tons of red pine, 51, 250 hundreds of standard deals, and 222,611m. feet of planks 
 and boards, 5,482 horses, 10,871 oxen and bulls, 12,143 cows and calves, 10,276 
 swine, 14,626 cwt. of butter, l,275,U411bs. of wool, 831,412 bushels of barley and 
 rye, 866,860 of oats, 220,726 of peas, 2,762,454 of wheat, and 743,949 barrels of 
 flour. The gross revenue received from the several canals in 1857 was £85,320. 
 1,595 vessels, of 223,206 tons, passed through the Canadian canals in 1857. 
 3,155,556 gallons of spirits were distilled, yielding a duty of £20,762. 
 
 For the eight years from 1841 to 1848, during which the protective policy 
 existed, the total* imports of Canada were £22,638,348; the total duty collected, 
 £2,308,499; and the total free goods, £509,495. The averages being 
 £2,829,793, £288,545, and £63,687; the duty being thus about 10 J per cent, 
 and the free goods only 2£ per cent, of the whole imports. 
 
 For the next period of six years to the passing of the reciprocity acts, and 
 general adoption of more liberal views — 1849 to 1854 — the total imports, duty, 
 and free goods, were respectively £29,429,934. £3,937,292. £2012,368. 
 averaging .£4904,988. £656,215, and £335,395 per annum; the duty being thus 
 about 13J I* 1 " cent., and the free goods nearly 7 per cent, of the total imports. 
 For the last period of four years, from 1855 to 1858, the following results are 
 shown:— Imports, £30,447,879; duty, £3,152,281; free goods, £8,868,250. The 
 annual averages having been £7,611,970, £788,070, and £2,217,070; the duty 
 being 10J per cent., and the free goods 29 per cent, of the imports. 
 
 CANALS. In England and Wales there are altogether 112 canals, the 
 total length of which, including their branches, amounts to 2574 miles, and the 
 total cost has been £25,700,000. In Scotland there are 10 canals, in total length 
 225 miles, which cost nearly £2,500,000. In Ireland there are three canals, total 
 length 276 miles, which cost upwards of £5,000,000. The entire cost of the 
 3074 miles of canals in Great Britain and Ireland has been £33,254,000., or about 
 £11,000 per mile. The working stock of boats, horses, pumping-engines, hoists, 
 &c, has been estimated to exceed £3,000,000. 
 
 In British America the Rideau Canal extends in a circuitous course from Lake 
 Ontario to Kingston down the Rideau to the Ottawa. The excavation is 120 
 miles, but the whole navigation 160; lockage, 437 feet; 47 locks. 
 
 The Welland Canal, by which the Falls of Niagara are avoided, is a very im- 
 portant work. Its locks are 150 feet in length of chamber, by a width of 26 J 
 feet ; its dimensions being well suited for the class of vessels best adapted to the 
 Western Lakes, and of which large numbers pass through it, as well of Canadian 
 as American craft. This canal is 28 miles in length, having about 30 cut-stone 
 locks. It surmounts an elevation between Lakes Ontario and Erie of 330 feet, 
 wliile the elevation from tide-water to Lake Ontario, being over 200 feet, is over- 
 come by the St. Lawrence Canals, seven in number of various lengths, from 
 
CAN 40 CAN 
 
 12 miles to one mile (but in the aggregate only 41 miles of canal), having locks 
 200 feet in length between the gates, and 45 feet in width, with an excavated trunk 
 from 100 to 140 feet wide on the water surface, and a depth often feet of water. 
 These canals are chiefly used for ascending the stream, as large steamers, 
 drawing 7 feet of water, with passengers and mails, leave Kingston at the foot of 
 Lake Ontario in the morning, and without passing through a single lock, reach 
 the wharf at Montreal the same day before dark. The great chain of canals is 
 proposed to be completed by the construction of a ship canal from the St. Law- 
 rence to Lake Champlain, so as to enable the propellers of Chicago to reach 
 Burlington and Whitehall. The navigation of the Upper Ottawa is also being 
 improved by canals. The canals of Canada now afford a large revenue, and ac- 
 commodate a considerable trade. On the whole, it may safely be asserted, that no 
 country in the world is possessed of more important and extensive canals, or a 
 more magnificent system of inland navigation, than Canada. The following are 
 the particulars of the St. Lawrence and other Canadian canals : — 
 
 Lachine Canal, 44f feet lockage, 5 locks, 200 by 45 feet. 
 
 Beauhamois Canal, 82£ feet lockage, 9 locks, 200 by 45 feet. 
 
 Cornwall Canal, 48 feet lockage, 7 locks, 200 by 55 feet. 
 
 Farran's Point Canal, 4 feet lockage, 1 lock, 200 by 45 feet. 
 
 Bapid Plat Canal, 11£ feet lockage, 2 locks, 200 by 45 feet, 
 
 Pt. Iroquois Canal, 6 feet lockage, 1 lock, 200 by 45 feet. 
 
 Galop's Canal, 8 feet lockage, 2 locks, 200 by 45 feet. 
 
 Welland Canal, 330 feet lockage, 27 locks, 150 by 26£ feet. 
 
 Sault St. Marie Canal, 20 feet lockage, 2 locks, 350 by 75 feet. 
 
 The carrying trade and navigation of the provincial canals of Canada in 1857 
 was as follows : — 15,866 Canadian vessels, of 1,512,270 tons, which paid nearly 
 £4,000 in tolls; 4,417 American vessels, of 802,924 tons, which paid about 
 £3,400 in tolls. The net revenue, after deducting all incidental expenses, 
 was about £30,000, when the tolls were abolished in 1860. 
 
 By means therefore of these internal improvements of Canada, vessels draw- 
 ing ten feet can be taken from Fond du Lac, on Lake Superior, to the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence, a distance of twenty-two hundred miles. The Erie Canal will, after 
 the proposed enlargement, admit vessels drawing only seven feet, or about two- 
 thirds of the capability of draught on the Canadian canals. And now that the 
 employment of steam on the canals is no longer an experiment, this difference of 
 capacity for draught is the more important. The present depth of the Erie 
 Canal is four and three-quarters feet, and is a sufficient reason to account for the 
 decrease in the canal revenue since 1852. The smallness of the locks is another 
 disadvantage. The smallest locks on the Erie and Welland Canals are as 
 fjllows:— • 
 
 Length. Width. 
 
 Erie Canal . 100 ... 17£ 
 
 Welland Canal . .150 . . . 26£ 
 
 The last annual report of the Canal Committee of the State of New York 
 gives some interesting details. The whole length of the canals is nine hundred 
 and twenty-four miles. The tolls received during the year 1859 amounted to 
 1,723,944 dollars, being a decrease from 1858 of 386,808 dollars. The greatest 
 number of days in which the Erie canal has been navigable for the past nineteen 
 years was in 1859 — two hundred and forty*two days; the least number in 1856 — 
 two hundred and fourteen days. The greatest number of boats passing any one 
 lock during this period was in 1843, when 43,957 boats passed lock No. 36, Erie 
 canal; in 1859 the number was 20,274. The greatest aggregate amount of 
 tolls received in anyone year since 1830, was in 1847, being 3,674,323 dollars; 
 the least amount during the same period was in 1841, when only 1,034,883 dol- 
 lars was received. The total amount of tolls received on all the canals from 
 1826 to 1859, both years inclusive, 69,674,428 dollars. The estimated value of 
 Hour which had passed on the canal and reached tide- water at Albany, from 1834 
 to 1859, is set down at 295,301.566 dollars; wheat, 116,914,062 dollars; other 
 grain, 122,727,273 ; making a total of 534,942,901 dollars. 
 
CAN 41 CAN 
 
 The aggregate length of the canals in the United States in 1858 was 5131£ 
 miles. This was independent of the enormous extent of inland river navigation. 
 The following list gives the details of the principal canals in each State of the 
 Union: — 
 
 Canals of America. 
 
 In Maine the Cumberland and Oxford Canal unites Sebagopond with Portland 
 Harbour: length of excavation 20 £ miles, affording a navigation, natural and 
 artificial, of 50 miles. 
 
 In Vermont, the Bellows Fall Canal, half a mile in length, overcomes a fall of 
 fifty feet by nine locks. The White River Canal and Waterqueechy Canal, in 
 Hartland, are similar works. 
 
 In Massachusetts, Middlesex Canal reaches from Merrimack, at Chelmsford, 
 to Boston: length 26 miles. Blackstone Canal extends from Worcester to Pro- 
 vidence, 45 miles. Hampshire and Hampden Canal is the continuation of the 
 Farmington Canal, from Southwick to Northampton, 20 miles. Pawtucket 
 Canal, at Lowell ; Montague Canal, at Montague; and South Hadley Canal, are 
 short cuts passing round falls in the Merrimack and Connecticut. 
 
 In Rhode Island, Blackstone Canal, extending from Providence to Worcester, 
 is partly in the State and partly in Massachusetts. 
 
 In New York, the Erie Canal extends from Buffalo, on Lake Erie, to Albany, 
 on the Hudson, 363 miles ; rise and fall, 698 feet ; locks, 84. Champlain Canal ex- 
 tends from Whitehall to Albany, 72 miles. Oswego Canal extends from Salina, 
 on the Erie Canal, to Oswego, on Lake Ontario, 38 miles. Cayuga and Seneca 
 Canal extends from Geneva, on Seneca Lake, to Montezuma, on the Erie Canal, 
 20 miles. Crooked Lake Canal connects that lake with Seneca Lake, 7 miles. 
 Chemung Canal extends from Elmira, on the River Chemung or Tioga, to 
 Seneca Lake, 18 miles, with a navigable feeder from Painted Post, 13 miles. 
 Chenango Canal extends from Utica, on the Erie Canal, to the Susquehanna, at 
 the mouth of the river Chenango, 93 miles. Black River Canal extends from 
 Rome, on the Erie Canal, to Carthage, on Black River, 76 miles. These canals 
 have all been constructed by the State, making a total of 700 miles. The Hud- 
 son and Delaware Canal extends from the Hudson, near Kingstown, to the mouth 
 of the La kawaxen, 83 miles, whence it is continued up the Lackawaxen, in 
 Pennsylvania, 25 miles to Honesdale. 
 
 In New Jersey, the Morris Canal extends from Jersey city, on the Hudson, by 
 Newark and Paterson, to the Delaware, at Phillipsburg, 100 miles: the principal 
 elevations are passed by inclined planes. The Delaware and Ranton Canal is 
 adapted for small sea vessels, and extends from New Brunswick, on the Ranton, 
 through Trenton, to Bordentown, on the Delaware, 42 miles, with a navigable 
 feeder from Bull's Island, in the Delaware, to the Main Canal at Trenton, 23 miles. 
 
 In Pennsylvania, the Pennsylvania Canal includes a series of canals and 
 railroads, constructed by the State. The Delaware division extends along the 
 Delaware, from Easton to Bristol, 60 miles ; the main trunk, from the termina- 
 tion of the railway at Columbia up the Susquehanna to the mouth of the 
 Juniatta, and up that river to Holidaysburg, 172 miles. The Alleghany Moun- 
 tain is passed by the Portage Railroad, from Holidaysburg to Johnstown, whence 
 the canal is continued down the valleys of the Conemaugh and Alleghany rivers 
 to Pittsburg, 104 miles, making the distance from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, by 
 railway and canal, 394 miles. Susquehanna and North Branch division, from 
 the mouth of the Juniatta to that of Lacawannock Creek, in the North Branch, 
 114 miles. West Branch division, from its junction with the North Branch to 
 the base of the Alleghany Mountain, above Bald Eagle Creek, 72 miles, or, with 
 side cuts, 76 miles of navigation. Beaver division, from the Ohio up the Beaver 
 Creek, 25 miles. French Creek division, from Franklin, on the Alleghany, up 
 the French Creek, 221; miles, or, including the French Creek feeder, 46 miles ; 
 making GOO miles of canal constructed by the State. The Sandy and Beaver 
 Canal connects the Ohio Canal at Akron, and the French Creek division with 
 Lake Erie at Erie. The Mahoning Canal is a cross canal of 83 miles long. 
 There is a canal called the Beaver and Erie, 136 miles long, connecting with 
 the Ohio 28 miles below Pittsburgh. Private works are the Lackawaxen Canal, 
 
CAN 42 CAN 
 
 extending up the Laekawaxen to Honesdale, 25 miles, and being a continuation 
 of the Hudson and Delaware Canal. The Lehigh Canal, from the Morris Canal, 
 on the Delaware, up the Lehigh, 46§ miles. The Schuylkill Canal, from Phil- 
 adelphia to Port Carbon, 110 miles. The Union Canal, connecting the Schuyl- 
 kill Canal, near Reading, with the Pennsylvania Canal, at the mouth of the 
 Swatara, 80 miles, with a navigable feeder down the Swatara of 24 miles. The 
 Conestoga Canal, from Lancaster to the mouth of the Conestoga, is 18 miles in 
 length. The Codorus Canal extends from York down the Codorus to the Sus- 
 quehanna. Length of canals in Pennsylvania, 900 miles. 
 
 In Delaware, the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal lies chiefly in Delaware ; it is 
 13^ miles in length, and navigable by sloops, being 10 feet deep and 66 feet broad. 
 
 In Maryland, Port Deposit Canal, 10 miles, extends from the boundary line to 
 Port Deposit, along a line of rapids. Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, beginning at 
 Georgetown and extending up the valley of the Potomac, is principally in Mary- 
 land: it is completed to a few miles above Williamsport, 100 miles from George- 
 town: the projected length to the Ohio at Pittsfield is 340 miles: the Alleghany 
 Mountain is to be passed by a tunnel four miles in length. 
 
 In Virginia, Dismal Swamp Canal, partly in North Carolina, connects the waters 
 of the Chesapeake with the Albemarle Sound, 22£ miles. The James River 
 Canal extends from Richmond, 30| miles; with this, the Blue Ridge Canal, 
 seven miles in length, and some other short cuts, the navigation of James River 
 into the valley is effected. The Roanoke Navigation is a series of cuts, locks, and 
 sluices, rendering the river navigable from Weldon, in North Carolina, to Salem 
 in the valley, 244 miles. 
 
 In North Carolina, the Dismal Swamp Canal is partly in this State and partly 
 in Virginia: the North- West Canal, six miles in length, is a branch of this work. 
 Weldon Canal passes round falls in the Roanoke, 12 miles. 
 
 In South Carolina, the Santee Canal, 22 miles in length, connects the Santee 
 with the Cooper River, which enters the sea at Charleston harbour. The Wingaw 
 Canal, of 10 miles, was commenced, but is given up. Columbia, Camden, and 
 other canals, have been constructed round the falls of the Saluda, Waterce Pedee, 
 and Broad Rivers. 
 
 In Georgia, the Savannah and Ogeechee Canal extends from Savannah to the 
 Ogeechee, 16 miles; it is to be continued to the mouth of Oconee, in the Alata- 
 maha, 80 miles. 
 
 In Alabama, the Mussel Shoals Canal will extend from Florence, at the head of 
 steam boat navigation in the Tennessee, to a point above the Shoals, whence the 
 Tennessee and Holston may be ascended to Knoxville, 700 miles from the mouth 
 of the former river. 
 
 In Louisiana, Carondelet Canal is a short cut, admitting small sea vessels, from 
 lake Pontchartrain into a basin in the rear of New Orleans. The New Orleans 
 and Teche Canal, from that city to the Atchafalaya, near the mouth of the 
 Teche, is about 100 miles in length. 
 
 In Kentucky, the Louisville and Portland Canal, passing the falls in the Ohio 
 below Louisville, is above two miles in length and 200 feet wide at the top: it 
 overcomes a fall of 24 feet, and admits steam vessels of the largest size. 
 
 In Illinois, there is a canal from Chicago, on Lake Michigan, to the mouth 
 of the Vermillion, in Rlinois, a distance of 96^ miles, 60 yards wide. 
 
 In Ohio, the Ohio Canal extends from Portsmouth up the Scioto, a little 
 below Colombus, thence through Newark to the Muskingum, at Coshocton ; up 
 that river and down the Cuyahoga to Cleaveland, 316 miles; with navigable 
 feeders to Colombus, 1 1 miles, and Granville, 6 miles, &c. and a lateral canal of 
 9 miles to Lancaster; total length, 341 miles. The Miami Canal extends from 
 Cincinnati to the Miami, near Hamilton, up the valley of the Miami to Dayton, 
 66 miles. It is to be continued to the Muamee, at Defiance, and down that 
 river below the rapids. The Wabash and Muamee Canal terminates in this State. 
 
 In Indiana, the Wabash and Erie Canal, extends from the mouth of the Tippe- 
 canoe to below the rapids of Muamee, at Fort Meigs, in Ohio, a distance of 200 
 miles, 130 miles of the route is within the limits of Indiana. 
 
 The canal from Durance to Marseilles, which was begun in 1836, was opened 
 
CAN 43 CAP 
 
 July 8, 1847. It is 83,000 metres in length, of which 17,000 are subterranean 
 passages through the Alps. 
 
 The canal of Isabella II. was inaugurated at Madrid on the 25 June, 1858, 
 by the Queen. This great work, by which the bed of the Lozoya is changed, 
 and its waters brought to the Spanish capital by a canal nearly 50 miles long 
 was accomplished in seven years. 
 
 In India a canal of one hundred and eighty miles has been made in the valley of 
 the Ganges at a cost of £2,000,000. It was commenced about 1847, and opened in 
 1857. Excepting the Erie and St. Lawrence Canals, it is the most valuable 
 communication in the world; and, if it were carried to Calcutta, it would be the 
 most important without exception. 20 to 30 miles of canal are open in Rajah- 
 mundry, and 40 miles in Madras. 
 
 A canal on a magnificent scale, with its branches about 406 miles long is form- 
 ing for the Punjaub, for which the waters of the river Ravee have been diverted. 
 
 CANDIA, or CRETE. This island has been increasing in prosperity from 
 year to year. In 1851 the population was estimated at 260,000 souls. In 1857 
 there was in the three cities of Canea, Candia, and Retimo 6,672 houses, 2,542 
 shops, and 51 soap manufactories. The exports, which in 1837 were only of the 
 value of £64,000, had risen in 1856 to £433,200, and the imports in the same 
 period from £127,804 to £406,832. The manufactures consumed in the island 
 came principally from Great Britain and Syra, in Greece. The amount is about 
 £52,000, consisting principally of cotton twist, grey calicoes, and printed cloths. 
 A large portion of the export trade is carried on by Turkish merchants in ves- 
 sels owned and manned by Turks. The revenue in 1858 was £144,752, and 
 the expenditure about £27,300 less than the revenue. 
 
 CANDLES. In 1851 it was estimated that the average make of tallow can- 
 dles was 1000 tons per week, and of wax, sperm, and composite 6000 tons per 
 annum; but the manufacture has very greatly increased in the last eight or ten 
 years. The shipments especially of composite or stearine candles have become 
 very considerable. In 1853 the exports were 2,584,591 lbs. of stearine candles, 
 and 1,295,139 lbs. of other kinds. In 1858 the exports of stearine candles were 
 3,242,652 lbs., and of other kinds of candles 981,706 lbs. 
 
 CAPE. The rapid increase in the quantity of wool, from 113,000 lbs. in 1833 
 to 7,700,000 lbs. in 1853, and then to 19,500,000 lbs. in 1859, proves the suitability 
 of the climate for the breeding and rearing of sheep. The increase in the number 
 of cattle and of sheep may be measured in some degree by the number of hides 
 and skins exported; the number of hides in 1853 being 5,278, and, in 1857, 
 192,039; and of sheep and goat-skins, 168,708 in 1854, and 1,037,399 in 1857. 
 
 More than sufficient corn of all descriptions is now grown for the wants of the 
 colony. The importation of American flour has already ceased; whilst on the 
 other hand 1,000,000 lbs. of flour, 8,000,000 lbs. of bran, 1500 quarters of 
 barley and beans, and 3,119 quarters of oats, were exported in 1857. 
 
 The increased demand for Cape Wines in the English and other markets has 
 been promptly responded to by an increased supply, one among the many proofs 
 daily arising of the immense productive powers of this colony. The following 
 figures show the quantities of Cape wines, exclusive of Constantia, exported 
 during six years: — 
 
 1852 . . Gallons 250,256 i 1855 • . Gallons 491,258 
 
 1853 . . . 271,767 1856 . '. . 720,299 
 
 1854 . . . 361,325 I 1857 . . 946,316 
 
 The quantity imported from the Cape into this country has increased very 
 rapidly. In 1854 we imported 282,043 gallons; in 1855 the quantity was 
 369,477 gallons; in 1856 it rose to 493,524; in 1857 to 787,753; in 1858 it was 
 654,119; and in 1859 to 786,620 gallons; in the last year the quantity con- 
 sumed in the United Kingdom was 781,587 gallons. The value of this commo- 
 dity has increased during the period just named from £49,357 to £178,559. It 
 is the most valuable export of the colony next to wool; and any steps which 
 may be taken for improving its quality or adapting it to English tastes deserve 
 to meet with every encouragement. 
 
 It may be safely stated that but a mere spec of the land suitable for the growth 
 
CAP 44 CAP 
 
 of corn and wine, for feeding cattle and sheep, is yet rendered productive. One 
 of the finest wine districts (Oudts Horn) has only just become accessible to the 
 dealer. Every new road or pass opened will in a few years afterwards increase 
 enormously the surplus quantity of agricultural produce available for exportation. 
 Another useful product of the soil is aloes, the export of which has increased 
 from 9,319 lbs. in 1853 to 806,960 lbs. in 1857. The total quantities produced 
 in the colony in 1855 were estimated at — 
 
 Wheat . . . 994,273 Bushels. | Wine . 34,221 Pipes. 
 
 Barley and Bye . . 400,237 „ Brandy . 4,406 „ 
 
 Oats and Maize . .2.501,320 „ I 
 
 And the stock of horses, cattle, and sheep, at — 
 
 Horses . . . 138,947 i Goats . 1,256,593 
 
 Cattle .... 458,386 Pigs . ; . . 35,069 
 
 Sheep . . . . 6,500,000 I 
 
 The power to increase these already large figures may be best illustrated by 
 comparing the actual area of the colony with the number of acres under cul- 
 tivation. 
 
 The total area is 116,930 square miles, or very nearly 80,000,000 acres. That 
 under cultivation is in 
 
 Wheat ..... 73,908 
 
 Barley . . . . . . 19,039 
 
 Oats and Maize ..... 70,172 
 
 Vine . . . . . . . 11,854 
 
 Orangeries and gardens . . 11,320 
 
 186,292 
 
 The connection of the trade and commerce of the colony, with its agricultural 
 prosperity, is too close not to advance with it, and we find, therefore, that the 
 British exports to the Cape have increased from £985,266 in 1854 to £1,602,807 
 in 1858; and, by comparing this with the population, we find the average con- 
 sumption per head of British manufactures in 1858, was just £6; nearly half the 
 population being coloured, and, of course, comparatively small consumers. 
 
 To faciHtate the management of this increasing trade, the colony is well sup- 
 plied with banking accommodation. There are sixteen Joint-Stock Banks, the 
 shares of which are all at a premium, and some at high premiums, 
 
 If we compare the consumption of British manufactures with that of other colo- 
 nies, the importance of the Cape Colony will be strikingly exhibited. 
 
 Thus, the population of the Cape is 267,000. The value of our exports, 
 £1,602,607, or £6 per head. Or if whites only are considered, fair allowance 
 being made for the supply of the coloured people, it is above £10 each, 
 whilst in — 
 
 New South Wales • '. '. 
 
 Victoria . . . 
 
 British North American Colonies . 
 
 Mauritius . • . 
 
 West Indies ... 
 
 United States . . . 
 
 France .... 
 
 With the exception, then, of Victoria, there is no colony which consumes per 
 head so large a quantity of English manufactures; and there is every reason to 
 believe this proportion will increase as population progresses ; for, as the climate, 
 soil, and the physical features of a country mainly determine the employment of 
 a people, so here the absence of rivers, and the want of coal and iron, will make 
 agriculture the most profitable occupation, and the colony will export, as its 
 population increases, larger and larger quantities of wool, wine, hides, horses, 
 com, &c, importing, on the other hand, in as rapidly increasing quantities, British 
 manufactures. In comparing the imports to the Cape Colony with those of 
 our Australian colonies, we must, in justice to the Cape, show the nature of 
 them. Thus Victoria, out of a Customs revenue of £1,777,000, receives — 
 
 Population. 
 
 Value of our 
 
 Exports. 
 £2,919,325 
 
 Per head. 
 
 350,000 
 
 or £8-34 
 
 500,000 
 
 5,419,354 
 
 or 10-83 
 
 . 3,000,000 
 
 3,159,055 
 
 or 1-015 
 
 226,000 
 
 601,899 
 
 or 2 66 
 
 853,000 
 
 1,791,931 
 
 or 2-11 
 
 . 24,000,000 
 
 14,023,983 
 
 or 0.59 
 
 . 36,000,000 
 
 4,861,558 
 
 or 013 
 
CAP 
 
 45 
 
 CAP 
 
 £807,000 for duty on spirits 
 70,000 „ wine 
 
 15,000 „ beer 
 
 172,000 „ tobacco, snuff, and cigars. 
 
 1,064,000 
 Whereas the Cape, with its Customs revenue of £260,000, collects only £22,500 
 from the same sources. 
 
 The attention given by the Cape Parliament to local matters is indicated by the 
 great public works either in progress or in preparation, among which the railway 
 to Wellington, 100 miles in length; the formation of docks, and a harbour of 
 refuge in Table Bay; increased accommodation for landing and shipping at Port 
 Elizabeth, and the "tidal works at the Kowie River, are the most important. 
 
 Twenty years ago there was but one newspaper in the colony; that was pub- 
 lished under the direction of the Government, and rarely contained any political 
 information. Now there are eight newspapers published in Cape Town during 
 the week, four of which are printed by steam, and issue together 3,500 copies 
 daily, except on Friday, when the Gazette only is published, the circulation of 
 which is 1,400 copies. Besides these, there are sixteen country papers and four 
 monthly magazines. 
 
 The following table shows the distances between Cape Town and the principal 
 postal towns in the colony: 
 Name of Post Town. 
 
 Albert, Prince 
 
 Alice 
 
 Aliwal North 
 
 Beaufort, Fort 
 
 Beaufort, West 
 
 Bedford 
 
 Burghersdorp 
 
 Caledon 
 
 Calrinia 
 
 Clanwilliam 
 
 Colesberg 
 
 Cradock 
 
 George ; 
 
 Graaff-Reinet 
 
 Graham's Town 
 
 Hope Town 
 
 By the population returns it appears that the 267,000 inhabitants of the 
 colony, in 1855, were divided into rural and urban in the following proportions: — 
 Rural . . . 173,753 | Urban .... 93,343 
 
 The number of inhabitants in the principal towns is given as follows : — 
 
 . 1,226 
 
 [iles. 
 
 Name of Post Town. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 282 
 
 Malmesbury . , 45 
 
 652 
 
 Middelburg 
 
 
 . 
 
 • 550 
 
 666 
 
 Namaqualand 
 
 
 
 . 396 
 
 646 
 
 Paarl 
 
 
 
 . 38 
 
 330 
 
 Port Elizabeth . 
 
 
 
 . 510 
 
 582 
 
 Queen's Town 
 
 
 . 
 
 . 640 
 
 600 
 
 Richmond 
 
 
 
 . 450 
 
 72 
 
 Riversdale 
 
 
 , 
 
 . 206 
 
 270 
 
 Simon's Town . 
 
 
 
 . 22 
 
 150 
 
 Somerset East 
 
 
 . 
 
 . 547 
 
 540 
 
 Stellenbosch 
 
 
 
 . 26 
 
 550 
 
 Swellendam 
 
 
 . 
 
 . 144 
 
 300 
 
 Tulbagh 
 
 
 
 . 80 
 
 480 
 
 Uitenhage . 
 
 
 . 
 
 . 508 
 
 600 
 
 Wellington 
 
 
 
 . 43 
 
 600 
 
 Worcester . 
 
 
 * 
 
 . 80 
 
 Cape Town 
 Graham's Town 
 Graaff-Reinet . 
 Port Elizabeth 
 George Town 
 Swellendam 
 Worcester 
 
 . 25,189 
 
 Elim 
 
 . 5,432 
 
 Caledon . 
 
 . 3,662 
 
 Genadendal 
 
 • 4,793 
 
 Paarl 
 
 . 1,934 
 
 Stellenbosch 
 
 . 2,276 
 
 Wellington 
 
 . 2,072 
 
 Wynberg 
 
 . 3,540 
 
 . 3,800 
 
 . 2,926 
 
 . 1,672 
 
 . 2,062 
 
 In 1856 the imports of Port Elizabeth were £746,575; and in 1857 they 
 amounted to £1,256,943, being an increase of more than half a million sterling. 
 The value of the exports for 1856 were £737,490, and the exports for 1857 were 
 valued at £1,065,101, being an increase of more than three hundred thousand 
 pounds. 
 
 CUSTOMS DUES RECEIVED AT POST ELIZABETH. 
 
 1840 
 1-11 
 1848 
 
 £4,113 
 10,789 
 25,759 
 
 1852 
 1856 
 1857 
 
 £49,198 
 80,000 
 122,162 
 
 1«40 
 1844 
 1848 
 
 CUSTOMS DUES RECEIVED A.T TABLE BAT. 
 
 . £37,491 i 1852 
 
 57,043 1856 
 
 . 77,941 I 1857 
 
 £99,550 
 92,040 
 132,000 
 
CAP 
 
 46 
 
 CAP 
 
 It will be seen by the above figures that the amount of Customs dues received 
 at Port Elizabeth, in 1857, was within ten thousand pounds of that received in 
 Table Bay in the same year. 
 
 REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OP THE CAPE COLONY. 
 
 
 Revenue. Expenditure. 
 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 1835 
 
 £133,417 
 
 £134,576 
 
 1847 
 
 £222,013 
 
 £193,688 
 
 1836 
 
 158,697 
 
 147,579 
 
 1848 
 
 234,375 
 
 245,985 
 
 1837 
 
 167,037 
 
 145,816 
 
 1849 
 
 237,805 
 
 274,235 
 
 1838 
 
 188,459 
 
 168,508 
 
 1850 
 
 245,785 
 
 245,655 
 
 1839 
 
 174,845 
 
 192,688 
 
 1851 
 
 234,884 
 
 223,115 
 
 1840 
 
 171,205 
 
 181,853 
 
 1852 
 
 289,482 
 
 252,495 
 
 1841 
 
 179,590 
 
 172,422 
 
 1853 
 
 308,472 
 
 268,111 
 
 1842 
 
 226,261 
 
 226,035 
 
 1854 
 
 295,802 
 
 309,497 
 
 1843 
 
 221,721 
 
 250,266 
 
 1855 
 
 306,026 
 
 329,565 
 
 1844 
 
 229,604 
 
 223,460 
 
 1856 
 
 348,362 
 
 353,151 
 
 1845 
 
 247,369 
 
 223,672 
 
 1857 
 
 491,505 
 
 460,676 
 
 1846 
 
 201,624 
 
 189,494 
 
 1858 
 
 463,010 
 
 494,959 
 
 Statement of the Revenue of the 
 
 Cape of Good Hope in 
 
 the years ended 
 
 31st December, 1854 and 1855 
 
 : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1854. 
 
 ' 1855. 
 
 
 Customs . . . 
 
 
 
 £122,184 
 
 £129,841 
 
 
 Land Sales . 
 
 . . 
 
 
 12,297 
 
 5,836 
 
 
 Land revenue 
 
 
 
 23,027 
 
 23,091 
 
 
 Rents, exclusive of land 
 
 , . 
 
 
 554 
 
 608 
 
 
 Transfer dues . . 
 
 
 
 44,118 
 
 36,291 
 
 
 Auction dues . 
 
 . . 
 
 
 24,598 
 
 23,804 
 
 
 Licences . 
 
 
 
 3,568 
 
 30 
 
 
 Stamps • . 
 
 . 
 
 
 21,234 
 
 23,857 
 
 
 Postage 
 
 
 
 13,881 
 
 14,627 
 
 
 Fines, forfeitures, and fees of court : 
 
 
 4,780 
 
 5,279 
 
 
 Fees of office 
 
 
 
 2,893 
 
 2,986 
 
 
 Sale of Government property 
 
 
 
 370 
 
 535 
 
 
 Reimbursements to Government . 
 
 
 5,623 
 
 5,972 
 
 
 Miscellaneous receipts . 
 
 
 
 700 
 
 213 
 
 
 Interest 
 
 . . 
 
 
 180 
 
 84 
 
 
 Special receipts . 
 
 
 
 123 
 
 3,812 
 
 Total 
 
 280,137 273,866 
 
 Statement of the Expenditure of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope 
 (exclusive of Expenditure by the Agent-General in London) in the years ended 
 31st December, 1854 and 1855:— 
 
 ESTABLISHMENTS. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1855. 
 
 Civil 
 
 £29,587 
 
 £30,305 
 
 Judicial . 
 
 27,282 
 
 26,396 
 
 Revenue . . . 
 
 15,700 
 
 15,916 
 
 Ecclesiastical . . 
 
 14,372 
 
 15,390 
 
 Educational . . • 
 
 3,839 
 
 3,722 
 
 Medical . 
 
 2,863 
 
 4,168 
 
 Police and Gaols . 
 
 16,919 
 
 17,094 
 
 Border Department 
 
 i 35,333 
 
 33,654 
 
 Pensions, Retired Allowances, Ac. 
 
 7,535 
 
 9,479 
 
 3BVICES, EXCLUSIVE OF ESTABLISHMENTS 
 
 
 
 Administration of Justice . 
 
 5,558 
 
 5,017 
 
 Revenue services . . 
 
 347 
 
 318 
 
 Ecclesiastical . . , < 
 
 1,412 
 
 
 Educational .' . 
 
 3,755 
 
 4,294 
 
 Charitable allowances . • 
 
 600 
 
 1,005 
 
 Hospitals . . 
 
 , 5,264 
 
 5,836 
 
 Police and Gaols ; . 
 
 , 10,234 
 
 7,909 
 
 Rent 
 
 3,053 
 
 3,089 
 
 Transport . . . « 
 
 8,532 
 
 13,139 
 
 Conveyance of mails . 
 
 23,093 
 
 22,045 
 
 Works and buildings . . , 
 
 4,668 
 
 6.600 
 
 Roads, streets, and bridges ■ 
 
 45,865 
 
 38,715 
 
 Miscellaneous . . , 
 
 4,796 
 
 9,454 
 
 Border Department • « 
 
 5,143 
 
 2,485 
 
 Parliamentary • . , 
 
 11,706 
 
 9,225 
 
 287,456 
 
 285,255 
 
CAP 
 
 47 
 
 CAP 
 
 The first bale of Eastern Province wool was shipped at AlgoaBay in 1823, and 
 in 1858 its produce figured at £1,200,000. In point of fixed and moveable pro- 
 perty the frontier districts will bear something beyond comparison with the 
 Western, when, after glancing at the following figures, it is remembered that the 
 former dates from 1820, and the latter from 1652: — 
 
 Fixed property 
 
 Stock 
 
 Industrial produce 
 
 Western. 
 
 £4,000,000 
 
 1,450,000 
 
 804,000 
 
 Eastern. 
 
 £1,800,000 
 
 2,840,000 
 
 1,147,000 
 
 6,254,000 5,787,000 
 
 Leaving an excess of only £467,000 in favour of the Western Province. 
 
 In 1854 the total exports of the Cape Colony amounted to £652,000, and in 
 1857 reached £1,832,000, having trebled in three years — a circumstance, we 
 believe, without parallel. In 1855 the colony's imports were returned at 
 £1,175,000; in 1857, a lapse of only two years, they were £2,637,000. 
 
 COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF THE RETURNS OP ARTICLES EXPORTED FROM 
 PORT ELIZABETH, FOR THE TEARS 1854 AND 1855. 
 
 ARTICLES. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1855. 
 
 Difference in 1855. 
 
 
 Increase. 
 
 1 Decrease. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 1 Value. 
 
 Aloes, lbs. - 
 
 251,863 
 
 £3,578 
 
 370,711 
 
 4,677 
 
 148,848 
 
 1,099 
 
 i 
 
 
 Beef and Pork, casks 
 
 207 
 
 757 
 
 158 
 
 539 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 54 
 
 218 
 
 Batter, lbs. - - - 
 
 26,847 
 
 1,668 
 
 53,240 
 
 2,612 
 
 26,393 
 
 944 
 
 
 
 Corn, Grain, <fcc.— Barley 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 153 
 
 88 
 
 153 
 
 88 
 
 
 
 Beans and Peas, muids- 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 510 
 
 472 
 
 443 
 
 435 
 
 
 
 Bran, lbs. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 89,010 
 
 323 
 
 89,010 
 
 323 
 
 
 
 Oats, muids - - 
 
 2,460 
 
 738 
 
 2,036 
 
 783 
 
 — 
 
 45 
 
 434 
 
 
 Feathers (Ostrich), lbs. - 
 
 86 
 
 335 
 
 195 
 
 967 
 
 100 
 
 632 
 
 
 
 Fish, cured, lbs. 
 
 48,300 
 
 242 
 
 84,850 
 
 450 
 
 36,550 
 
 208 
 
 
 
 Fruits, dried, lbs. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 120 
 
 4 
 
 120 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Hides, number - - 
 
 7,630 
 
 5,316 
 
 38,185 
 
 27,965 
 
 31,155 
 
 22,640 
 
 
 
 Horns, number 
 
 30,719 
 
 764 
 
 101,117 
 
 2,072 
 
 61,390 
 
 1,308 
 
 
 
 Horses, number - - 
 
 9 
 
 264 
 
 15 
 
 324 
 
 6 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 Ivory, lbs. - - 
 
 28,046 
 
 6,985 
 
 11,398 
 
 4,790 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 16,648 
 
 2,186 
 
 Skins, Goat, No. - - 
 
 85,262 
 
 11,114 
 
 87,656 
 
 10,779 
 
 2,394 
 
 — 
 
 
 385 
 
 „ Seal, „ 
 
 237 
 
 64 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 237 
 
 60 
 
 „ Sheep, „ 
 
 70,566 
 
 2,608 
 
 104,238 
 
 5,669 
 
 33,682 
 
 3,061 
 
 
 
 Tallow, lbs. 
 
 23,893 
 
 590 
 
 212,481 
 
 5,153 
 
 189,089 
 
 4,563 
 
 
 
 Wax, Bees, lbs. - - 
 
 184 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 184 
 
 10 
 
 „ Berry, lbs. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 375 
 
 18 
 
 375 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 Wool, lbs. - - - 
 
 6,559,459 
 
 337,524 
 
 9,680,250 
 
 508,283 
 
 3,100,796 
 
 170,159 
 
 
 
 Other articles - 
 
 Total - - - 
 
 — 
 
 5.416 
 
 378,070 
 
 — 
 
 3,710 
 579,757 
 
 
 
 
 1,707 
 
 
 
 
 Increase 
 
 £206,125 
 
 
 
 Decrease - - 
 
 
 
 
 Total increase - 
 
 201,679 
 
 
 
 SPECIE IMPORTED. 
 
 
 
 
 1854. 
 
 
 1855. 
 
 From Great Britain 
 
 Nil 
 EXPORTED TO 
 
 
 £100 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 - £1,910 
 
 
 600 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 3,000 
 
 
 Nil 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 3,923 
 
 
 1,885 
 
 Ditto, in foreign vessels 
 
 1,000 
 
 
 Nil 
 
 
 9,833 
 
 
 2,485 
 
 
 CUSTOMS DUES. 
 
 
 
 Customs duties . 
 
 - £40,757 
 
 
 41,375 
 
 Fees 
 
 222 
 
 
 — 
 
 Rent 
 
 47 
 
 
 66 
 
 £4,616 
 
 41,016 
 
 41,441 
 
 The Custom Duties collected at the several ports throughout the colony 
 
CAP 
 
 48 
 
 CAT 
 
 during the year 1859, amounted to £261,606. 4s Gd, showing an increase of 
 £2,180. 17s 4J, over the year 1858, as follows: — 
 
 Port. 
 
 1859. 
 
 Capetown 
 
 £140,194 9 1 
 
 Simon's Town 
 
 143 4 2 
 
 Port Beaufort 
 
 1,373 4 3 
 
 Mossel Bay 
 
 1,176 13 1 
 
 Port Elizabeth . 
 
 118,018 13 10 
 
 1858. 
 
 
 £150,162 8 
 
 4 
 
 G85 12 
 
 4 
 
 997 8 11 
 
 1,180 14 
 
 6 
 
 105,698 16 
 
 
 
 £261,606 4 5 £252,426 7 1 
 
 The shipments of wool from the port of Algoa Bay, the shipping port of the 
 Eastern province were in 1857, 14,064,261 lbs., in 1858, 13,909,112 lbs., and in 
 1859, 15,464,280 lbs. 
 
 Commercial Progress op the Cape op Good Hope Colony prom 1800 
 
 to 1859. 
 
 
 «3 
 
 t 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Total 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Total 
 
 Customs 
 Revenue. 
 
 Total 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 ft 
 M 
 
 
 Value 
 Imports 
 
 
 Value 
 
 
 Amount 
 
 Western 
 
 Eastern 
 
 Western 
 
 Eastern 
 
 Western 
 
 Eastern 
 
 
 
 
 Province 
 
 Province 
 
 Province 
 
 Province 
 
 Province 
 
 Province 
 
 £ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 1 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1800 
 
 70,919 
 
 
 
 
 246,382 
 
 
 19,136 
 
 
 
 8,680 
 
 1821 
 
 104,763 
 
 93,743 
 
 499,537 
 
 10,000 
 
 509,537 
 
 103,537 
 
 1,500 105,037 
 
 
 
 23,489 
 
 1830 
 
 134,493 
 
 121,463 
 
 402,319 18,455 
 
 420,774 210,764 
 
 24.439 235,203 
 
 22,031 
 
 688 
 
 22,719 
 
 1840 
 
 171,205 
 
 181,653 
 
 831,551 79,247 910,728 
 
 602,464 
 
 72,031 674,495 
 
 37,501 
 
 4,140 
 
 41,641 
 
 185<> 
 
 245,785 
 
 245,655 
 
 922,296 354,749 1,277,045 
 
 341,928 
 
 294,905 636,853 
 
 70,093 
 
 27,616 
 
 99,709 
 
 1857 
 
 406,702 
 
 343,024 
 
 1,354,636 1,282,556 2,637,192 
 
 746,9«0 
 
 1,084,640 1,833,700 
 
 131,073 
 
 122,035 
 
 253,108 
 
 1859 
 
 469,075 
 
 505,284 
 
 1,226,661} 1,152,369 2, 179,030 
 
 784,166 
 
 1,033,914 1,818,080 
 
 141,038 
 
 120,568 261,606 
 
 CASTOR OIL. The duty on this medicinal oil was removed on the 19 th 
 March, 1845, and the imports are now very large. In 1858, 21,475 cwts. were 
 imported, valued at £58,292. Of this the great bulk, 20,592 cwt., came from the 
 East Indies; small imports of castor oil stearine have occasionally arrived from 
 the United States, but there was no commercial demand found for it. 
 
 CATECHU —See Cutch. 
 
 CATTLE TRADE. In 1851 the cattle in Great Britain were estimated to 
 amount to 4,500,000. In 1856 there were in Scotland about 1,000,000, and in 
 Ireland 3,600,000, so that the number must be much larger than the former 
 estimate. It is generally considered that about a fourth part of the entire 
 stock is annually slaughtered for consumption, and we may therefore take it at 
 fully 2.000,000 head of cattle. It is to the large towns that cattle live or dead 
 are chiefly brought for consumption. The number of beasts shown at the Great 
 Metropolitan Christmas Cattle market has not very largely increased, but the 
 weight and quality of the meat are widely different from what they were some 
 years ago. In Newgate and Leadenhall Markets, the supplies of meat now 
 reach about 70,000 tons per annum, whilst throughout the kingdom the aggre- 
 gate weight of butchers' meat consumed cannot be less than 750,000 tons a year. 
 Mr. Ormanby, of the North Western Railway, computed in 1853, the cattle 
 traffic passing over all the lines of railway in the United Kingdom at 1,253,353 
 oxen, and 181,925 calves, the aggregate value of this stock being over 
 £14,000,000. This is omitting pigs, sheep, dead meat, &c. 
 
 One hundred and fifty years ago the average weight of a beast at Smithfield 
 Market was not above 370 lbs., now it exceeds 800 lbs. 
 
 If we take the second important town of the kingdom, Liverpool, we find the 
 cattle trade there of a very large extent, upwards of 1200 beasts are slaughtered 
 weekly, besides other stock. The Livei-pool cattle market is chiefly supplied 
 from Ireland. The number of cattle and calves imported there by sea, was in 
 1852, 176,000, and in 1853, 155,000. In addition to these large quantities are 
 brought by railway from Scotland, and a few driven in from the neighbouring 
 
CAT 
 
 49 
 
 CAT 
 
 counties. At Newcastle the cattle brought to market the last few years have 
 averaged about 39,000 head; at Manchester, 91,000; at Glasgow, 34,000; and 
 at Wolverhampton, 25,000 head are slaughtered in the year. The consumption 
 of London is about 270,000 oxen, 30,000 calves, 1,500,000 sheep, and 30,000 
 pigs. 
 
 The growing consumption of butchers' meat in the United Kingdom has be- 
 come an important consideration, and especially, as to a future adequate supply. 
 The graziers being unable to meet the increasing demand. The increased con- 
 sumption arises from two causes, which in all probability will continue to 
 operate, namely — the increase of the population, at the rate of 1000 per day, 
 and the improvement in the condition of the operative classes, consequent upon 
 the enormous extension of commerce and manufactures, and the abundant em- 
 ployment created by railway and other national works. 
 
 The importation of foreign cattle is wholly confined to a few neighbouring 
 States, owing to the danger and difficulty of longer sea voyages, which involve a 
 heavy per centage of loss by deaths. From those countries, too, whence we ob- 
 tain the largest and best supply of cattle and sheep, the exportation appears to 
 have reached its maximum. And, although the quality is greatly improved by 
 judicious crossings with English types, the actual gross weight of meat is con- 
 siderably smaller than formerly. This may, in some degree, be owing to the 
 stringency of the Customs regulations for preventing the introduction of diseased 
 animals into the country. But, on the other hand, it is evident that in such 
 small, populous, and flourishing countries as Holland and Belgium, from whence we 
 obtain the best supply of both cattle and sheep, the exporting power must neces- 
 sarily be limited. The number of sheep from Germany has certainly increased; 
 but these are chiefly Merinos, and their quality may be judged of, when we state 
 that they do not fetch more than 15s to 185 each in the market, after an expense 
 of 2s 6i per head for freight, and a heavy per centage of loss on the voyage. 
 
 Had it not been for the increased supply and improved quality of the animals 
 imported from Ireland, the price of butchers' meat in London would have been 
 much higher even than it now is. The old Irish herds of animals of all kinds 
 have been supplanted or crossed with the best English breeds to so great an ex- 
 tent that the Irish graziers can now successfully compete with those of England 
 in the size and quality of either cattle, sheep, or swine. Some Irish oxen 
 having sold at Smithfield at from £21 to £27, and sheep from 50* to 65$ per 
 head. 
 
 The following table will show the decrease in the importations of animals since 
 1854:— 
 
 Importations op Cattle and Sheep in the Years 1850 to 1859 
 inclusive. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Cattle of all Ages. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Aggregate Number. 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 66,462 
 86,520 
 93,061 
 125.253 
 114,200 
 97,400 
 92,777 
 92,963 
 59,001 
 85,477 
 
 143,498 
 201,859 
 230,037 
 259,420 
 183,400 
 162,000 
 135,588 
 177,207 
 184,482 
 250,580 
 
 209,960 
 288,379 
 323,098 
 384,673 
 297,600 
 259,400 
 228,365 
 270,170 
 243,483 
 336,057 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 , 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1856..- 
 
 1857 
 
 1858 
 
 1859 
 
 From 1850 to 1854 
 1854 to 1859 
 
 Total decrease . . 
 
 485,496 
 427,618 
 
 1,018,214 
 
 909,S57 
 
 1,503,710 
 1,337,475 
 
 57,878 
 
 108,357 
 
 166,235 
 
CEY 50 CHE 
 
 From the above facts it appears that the aggregate importation has fallen off 
 considerably since 1854, being an average of 1 1,575 cattle of all ages, and 21,671 
 sheep and lambs per year; whilst the quality of the latter is much inferior to 
 what it was previously, despite the great increase of price in the English market. 
 There is therefore no reason to expect that we shall have much increase of com- 
 petition in the cattle market with the foreigner. 
 
 CEYLON. According to the official returns the population of Ceylon 
 in 1855, was 1,609,234 ; of whom 6,320 were whites. 
 
 The persons employed in agriculture number 542,225 ; in manufactures 
 45,273 ; and in commerce 59,390. There are also 16,726 " aliens and resident 
 strangers " not included in the population returns. The number of inhabitants to 
 the square mile is nearly 66, there being an area in square miles of 24,700. In 
 1856, 68,004 coolies arrived in Ceylon ; and 34,644 left the island ; leaving a 
 balance of settlers of 33,360. This source of increased population has been 
 going on now for some years ; and in certain parts of the island there are more 
 foreigners than native inhabitants. 
 
 The Blue Book for 1857 gave the population of the island at 1,722,534, besides 
 5430 military, of these only 4815 were whites. The number of vessels that 
 entered the ports of Ceylon in 1857 was 3624, registering 444,781 tons, of 
 which 641 measuring 60,670 tons were in ballast. The value of the imports, 
 including specie, was £2,714,565 in 1856 and 3,106,64 in 1857, of the exports 
 £1,653,612 in 1856 and £2,588,460 in 1857. The principal imports in the 
 latter year consisted of 46,569 tons of coal and coke, cotton manufactures and 
 twist of the value of £380,600 ; 6400 bales of cotton, cutlery and hardware of the 
 value of £l 6,000, salted and dried fish 5300 cwt. ; paddy and husked rice 932,102 
 bushels, cattle 10,565, and haberdashery and millinery value £30,000. 
 
 The following statistics illustrate the progress of this fine British colony : — 
 
 
 1837. 
 
 1847. 
 
 1857. 
 
 Population 
 
 1,243,000 
 
 
 1,727,964 
 
 Revenue 
 
 £871,994 
 
 437,502 
 
 578,028 
 
 Imports 
 
 £411,167 
 
 1,421,787 
 
 3,106,664 
 
 Exports 
 
 £308,000 
 
 961,116 
 
 2,588,460 
 
 Vessels Inwards 
 
 73,868 tons. 
 
 2.8,738 
 
 448,781 
 
 Vessels Outwards 
 
 79,502 tons. 
 
 228,998 
 
 431,782 
 
 Coffee shipped 
 
 43,164 cwt. 
 
 245,000 
 
 602,265 
 
 CHANKS. The shell which under this name forms so large an article of 
 commerce to Bengal is the Turbinella pyrum of Lamarck. The slices or seg- 
 ments of circles of these solid porcellaneous shells are made into armlets and 
 anklets, and pass under the name of bangles, being usually richly ornamented 
 either with colours, gilt devices, or gems. They are never removed from the 
 person, and are cast with the body either into the grave or river, hence the large 
 demand for the shells. The chank fishery of Ceylon at one time employed 600 
 divers, yielding a revenue to the island government of £4,000 a year. It is now 
 free. Frequently four and a half millions of these shells are obtained in a year 
 in the Gulf of Manaar. Their gross average annual value as imported in the 
 rough into Ceylon is about j£8000. 
 
 CHEESE as a food and condiment is in general use in all countries where it 
 can be easily obtained ; and its varieties are innumerable from the globular 
 Dutch and the hard horny Suffolk skim to the cream and rich Cheddar and ripe 
 Stilton. Various estimates, founded on the supposition that two thirds of the 
 population will each consume three quarters of a pound of cheese annually, bring 
 up the home production to 100,000 tons, which added to the foreign imports 
 would give a total consumption of cheese for the United Kingdom of about 120,000 
 tons. In 1850 there were produced in the United States 113 million pounds of 
 cheese, nearly all of which was required for home consumption, the total export 
 amounting to scarcely 9 million pounds. The imports of foreign cheese, nearly 
 all of which was retained for home consumption were in 1840, 226,462 cwt., in 
 
CHE 51 CHI 
 
 1S50, 347,803 cwt, and in 1859, 406,547 cwt. There is no reason why we should 
 not make cheese enough for our own consumption, except, perhaps, that it 
 would trench somewhat largely on the milk supply for our town popula- 
 tions. Of the imports in 1859, 323,132 cwt. came from Holland, and 61,768 cwt. 
 from the United States. The duty on foreign cheese was last reduced on the 
 4th of June, 1853, from 5* to 2s 6d per cwt. ; in March, 1860, the duty was 
 entirely removed. The amount of duty received was £107,375 in 1848, £70,408 
 in 1852, and about £48,000 on the average subsequently. 
 
 CHICORY. The cultivation of chicory on the Continent is not of recent date. 
 Its use has existed for nearly 70 years. "When coffee as well as sugar and other 
 colonial produce became high-priced in France and Germany, chicory was almost 
 universally used by the labouring classes as a substitute. As Von Thaer truly 
 observes of all plants which have been proposed as substitutes for coffee, and 
 which when roasted and steeped in boiling water yield an infusion resembling 
 coffee, chicory is the only one which has maintained its ground. Indeed even in 
 this country it is held in extensive public estimation. At first it was only mixed 
 with pure coffee as an adulteration, by fraudulent dealers. But this practice 
 extended itself so widely, that for the defence both of the honest dealer and of 
 the public the sale had to be legalized, and much chicory in the unmixed state 
 is now bought and used instead of and along with genuine coffee. 
 
 Finding there was an increasing demand for the root, it soon came to be 
 cultivated in this country as a marketable crop, being raised chiefly in the 
 counties of Kent, Surrey, Essex, Bedford, Norfolk, Suffolk, Chester, and York. The 
 extent of the home-production has never been very accurately ascertained. In 
 1840 Mr. McCulloch estimated it at 3000 tons; and in 1850 it was computed to 
 have risen to 6000 tons, for within a circuit of ten miles of the city of York 
 3000 acres were then under cultivation with this crop. The yield of root 
 from an acre is about 10 tons ; which is reduced by drying, &c, to about 2| 
 tons. The admission duty free of foreign-grown chicory in 1854 led to the 
 abandonment of much of the home culture ; and according to Mr. Gladstone, 
 there are not now 500 acres under culture with chicory in Great Britain. 
 
 Mr. Braithwaite Poole, in his work, " The Statistics of British Commerce," 
 published in 1852, stated that there were then about 10,000 acres under cultiva- 
 tion, producing 70,000 tons of green root. The actual production made into 
 chicory powder in England and Guernsey he estimated at 14,000 tons, which at 
 £22 per ton gave a total value for the crop of £308,000 ; the duty on foreign 
 was then £20 per ton for raw, and 6d. per pound for roasted. In 1853, it was 
 stated by a deputation of the coffee planters, that the consumption of chicory in 
 this country amounted to 12,000 tons per annum. 
 
 How far circumstances are gradually giving to the infusion of chicory, in 
 some countries, the character of a national beverage, may be judged of from the 
 fact that we now import 6000 tons of foreign-grown chicory, besides the un- 
 ascertained quantity produced here, which may be half as much, or fully as 
 much again — that the quantity of the dried root consumed in France is about 16 
 million of pounds a year — and that in some parts of Germany the women are 
 becoming regular chicory-topers, and are making of it an important part of their 
 ordinary sustenance. The import of chicory root into Hamburgh in 1858 was 
 30,708 cwt., and of chicory powder and coffee substitutes 11,300 cwt. 
 
 The late Professor Johnston, in his " Chemistry of Common Life," speaking 
 of chicory, says : " When ground, and exposed to the air, it becomes moist and 
 clammy, increases in weight, and acquires a distinct smell of liquorice and a 
 sensibly sweet Jirst taste. It possesses in no degree the pleasant aroma which 
 recommends the genuine roasted coffee. When infused, even in cold water, it 
 imparts to it a dark colour, and a sweetish-bitter taste. To many the addition of 
 a little of this bitter liquid to the infusion of genuine coffee appears an improve- 
 ment — a remarkable illustration of the creation of a corrupt taste by an adultera- 
 tion, which demands afterwards the continuance to satisfy its own craving. The 
 bitter substance itself, however, is not considered unwholesome. Very many 
 
 E 2 
 
CHI 52 CHI 
 
 bitter substances of this kind possess a tonic property, and it is not unlikely that 
 the bitter of chicory may be among the number. But the use of chicory," 
 adds the Professor, " appears to have originated from other causes than the 
 discovery, or even the supposed presence of a tonic property in its bitter 
 ingredient. A little of the roasted chicory gives as dark a colour to the- water, 
 and as bitter a taste, as a great deal of coffee, and hence it was originally intro- 
 duced into the coffee-houses for a purpose akin to that which takes cocculus 
 indicus into the premises of the fraudulent brewer — it gave colour and taste to the 
 beverage of the drinker, and at the same time saved the expensive coffee of the 
 seller. The public taste gradually accommodated itself to the fraudulent mixture: 
 it became by-and-by even grateful to the accustomed palate, and finally a kind of 
 favourite necessity to the lovers of bitter coffee." 
 
 Tracing down the fiscal charges on chicoiy, we find that a quarter of a century 
 ago the duty on the raw or kiln-dried root was £1 per cwt., and on roasted or 
 ground £2. 16s per cwt. under the 6th and 7th Will. IV. c. 60. By an excise 
 order, dated Aug. 31, 1840, it was ordered that no objection be made on the 
 part of the revenue to dealers in and sellers of coffee mixing chicoiy with coffee, 
 or to their having the same so mixed in their possession. Considerable quan- 
 tities then began to be imported, and the consumption became extensive, on 
 account of the comparatively high price of coffee. The Government then 
 placed a duty on importation of £20 per ton on the root, and £56 per ton on the 
 roasted or ground chicory. On the 10th Oct., 1854, the duty was taken off; and 
 now a duty of £6 per ton is to be levied in 1861 both on foreign and British grown. 
 
 It is a strange fact that the consumption of coffee has not increased in 
 this country, even with the reduction of duty. We consumed no more coffee in 
 1859 than we did in 1849, and three million pounds less than in 1846, notwithstand- 
 ing a lower rate of duty and an increased population of about three millions. 
 Whether the public taste' does not run on coffee, or adulteration has any influence 
 in checking consumption, we cannot definitively say. Certainly the number of 
 coffee houses has largely increased ; but tea must, we presume, be the favourite 
 beverage ; for we find that the consumption has risen in the same period of ten 
 years from 50 millions to nearly 76£ million pounds. And yet the relative 
 prices of the two dietetic substances are materially different. Belgium, with a 
 population of about five millions, consumes as much coffee as we do, and the 
 United States and North American Provinces six times as much. The produc- 
 tion in the world is now in excess of the consumption, and the produce of Ceylon has 
 to seek a foreign market, in consequence of the diminished demand in Great Bri- 
 tain. The admixture of chicory has certainly not extended the sale of coffee, and 
 it has been attended with no benefit to the poorer consumers, who pay nearly as 
 much for chicory, or the mixture, as they would for low-priced coffees, which are 
 infinitely superior in nourishment, and in their general effect upon the constitu- 
 tion. It may do for the Continent to artificially protect the chicory grower ; 
 but we, who have extensive coffee-producing colonies, need no such bounty. 
 
 CHILI. The area of this republic in 1855 was stated at 139,335 square 
 miles, and the aggregate population at 1,439,120; distributed as follows through 
 the several provinces. 
 
 Provinces. Population. Provinces. Population. 
 
 Atacama 
 
 Coquimbo 
 
 Aconcagua 
 
 Santiago . 
 
 "Valparaiso 
 
 Colchagua 
 
 Talca 
 
 Maule 
 
 50,690 
 110,589 
 111,504 
 272,499 
 116,043 
 192,704 
 
 79,439 
 156,244 
 
 Conception , 110,291 
 
 Arauco 43,466 
 
 Valdivia 29,293 
 
 Chiloe 61,586 
 
 Ueble 100,792 
 
 Colon (Magallanes . . . 153 
 coion { Llan , luihue § f ( 3)826 
 
 Total . . 1,439,120 
 
 The revenue in 1856 was £1,676,684, of which £831,640 was derived from 
 
 customs, £199,467 from Government monopoly of tobacco, and £376,000 was 
 
 from extraordinary resources; £213,573 being the final instalment of the 
 
 Peruvian debt. The expenditure in the same year was £1,454,788. The public 
 
CHI 
 
 53 
 
 CHI 
 
 debt stood at £1,655,875, of which £1,250,600 was foreign debt. The number 
 and tonnage of vessels entered at the several ports of Chili in 1855 were — 
 
 Name of Porta. 
 
 Number of Vessels. 
 
 Tons Burden. 
 
 Valparaiso - 
 
 Coquimbo - 
 
 Huasco - 
 
 Copiapo and Coldera 
 
 Talcahuano - 
 
 Constitucion - 
 
 Valdivia - 
 
 Ancud • •«.-■■ 
 
 1,267 
 272 
 154 
 315 
 352 
 206 
 63 
 128 
 
 361,743 
 
 112,088 
 
 62,165 
 
 118,488 
 
 106,877 
 
 29,692 
 
 15,379 
 
 35,710 
 
 
 2,757 
 
 841,482 
 
 Total Value of the Imports of Chili from each Countby in each year 
 from 1852 to 1856. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1652. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Great Britain and Colonies 
 
 5,457,007 
 
 4,082,950 
 
 5,964,660 
 
 6,559,920 
 
 6,905,274 
 
 France and Colonies . 
 
 2,231,486 
 
 2,251,397 
 
 2,493,652 
 
 2,823,566 
 
 4,265,253 
 
 Germany . , » 
 
 1,561,684 
 
 1,530,420 
 
 2,013,091 
 
 1,677,714 
 
 1,917,880 
 
 Belgium . . • 
 
 234,058 
 
 249,101 
 
 251,508 
 
 404,533 
 
 398,979 
 
 Spain and Colonies 
 
 207,182 
 
 243,028 
 
 558,332 
 
 396,613 
 
 303,813 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 66,313 
 
 77,842 
 
 125,909 
 
 92,143 
 
 136,069 
 
 Holland 
 
 255,464 
 
 185,952 
 
 137,078 
 
 187,403 
 
 92,701 
 
 China 
 
 192,460 
 
 221,485 
 
 214,466 
 
 144,350 
 
 210,513 
 
 Polynesia 
 
 4,723 
 
 3,535 
 
 22,933 
 
 16,107 
 
 33,089 
 
 America (U. S.) . 
 
 1,621,373 
 
 1,148,120 
 
 2,119,344 
 
 2,095,232 
 
 2,518,779 
 
 California (U. S.) 
 
 1,353,193 
 
 46,019 
 
 88,475 
 
 195,548 
 
 — 
 
 Mexico i . . 
 
 7,808 
 
 20,081 
 
 36,210 
 
 199,641 
 
 31,390 
 
 Central America . 
 
 98,765 
 
 87,901 
 
 195,412 
 
 129,880 
 
 148,413 
 
 New Granada t 
 
 2,471 
 
 7 
 
 — 
 
 444,994 
 
 464,696 
 
 Brazil 
 
 407,726 
 
 464,134 
 
 592,242 
 
 1,133,607 
 
 562,098 
 
 Paraguay . . 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 11,234 
 
 Uruguay . • 
 
 114,995 
 
 129.629 
 
 150,133 
 
 — 
 
 218,445 
 
 Equador . . . 
 
 79,723 
 
 75,031 
 
 123,020 
 
 217,881 
 
 180,497 
 
 Peru 
 
 795,578 
 
 642,601 
 
 1,097,864 
 
 730,661 
 
 736,142 
 
 Bolivia . . 
 
 1,970 
 
 223 
 
 246 
 
 51,715 
 
 25,810 
 
 Argentine Republic . 
 
 634,137 
 
 94,212 
 
 1,243,724 
 
 920,220 
 
 642,966 
 
 Other Countries 
 
 Total - { Do » ars 
 
 19,216 
 15,347,332 
 
 30 
 
 — 
 
 11,559 
 
 19,804,041 
 
 11,553,696 
 
 17,428,299 
 
 18,433,287 
 
 3,069,466 
 
 2,310,739 
 
 3,485,659 
 
 3,686,675 
 
 9,960,808 
 
 The value of the exports from Chili in 1856 was £3,631,904. 
 CHINA. The imports from, and exports to, China are thus represented. 
 Including Hong Kong, the imports to the United Kingdom, from the year 1854 
 to the year 1858, average £9,163,063 sterling annually. In the year 1857, when 
 there was an enormous demand for the raw silks of China, the imports were in- 
 creased to £ 1 1,448,639. In the following year they were reduced to £ 7,073,509, 
 so that the result is that considerably more than a value of £9,000,000 is annually 
 imported from China into Great Britain. But neither the imports nor the ex- 
 ports give any adequate idea of the amount of British capital employed, for 
 there is a vast deal of trade that is not represented in the official returns, as the 
 coasting trade of China, the trade of China with foreign countries, such as 
 Siam, Cochin China, and other places. There is believed to be now engaged 
 in the trade with China an amount of British capital more nearly approach- 
 ing fifty than forty millions sterling, while the revenues derived from this 
 trade exceed ten millions. Between three and four millions of this are re- 
 ceived into the Treasury of the Indian Empire, and the balance into Her 
 Majesty's exchequer in this country. The export trade to China has progressed 
 wonderfully. In 1854 the exports of British and Irish produce were £ 1,000,7 16 ; 
 
CHI 
 
 54 
 
 CHI 
 
 the average for five years is £1,964,848, and for the year 1859, they amounted 
 to £4,457,631, including Hong-Kong. Independent of this there has been a 
 considerable export of foreign and colonial merchandise. These statistics do 
 not represent the most important articles of British commerce, and those articles 
 are opium and silver. 
 
 The trade at Canton is associated with this remarkable fact, that it continues 
 about the same as it did before the opening of the other ports, that is to say the 
 opening of the other ports has led to an extension of our relations equal to the 
 whole of their trade. From 1852 to 1855, the Canton tonnage averaged 
 182,935 tons; in 1856 it was 209,673 tons. There, as elsewhere, the general 
 proportion of shipping engaged is about one-half British, one-quarter American, 
 and the other quarter the rest of the world. In Canton about two-thirds of the 
 shipping is employed in the direct trade, and about one-fourth in the indirect trade. 
 The annual exports averaged for the years 1852-56 (including ten months of 1858) 
 5,654,684 dollars; for the ten months of 1858, 6,799,752 dollars. The average 
 imports are 6,992,919 dollars; for the ten months of 1858, 10,656,589 dollars. 
 
 Shanghae is the port which represents the maximum of trade with China, 
 and the returns from thence are of a much more satisfactory and authentic 
 character than those from any other port. The Custom-house there is admin- 
 istered by foreigners. 
 
 The average shipping from 1855 to 1858 was (tonnage entered) 193,102 tons. 
 In 1858, it was 242,624 tons. 
 
 The average value of exports and imports in British and American vessels 
 
 
 In 1856. 
 
 In 1857. 
 
 In 1858. 
 
 Exports 
 
 . 8,601,462 doL 
 
 . 14,549,226 doL 
 
 . 19,017,049 doL 
 
 Imports 
 
 . 28,637,981 „ 
 
 . 33,334,435 „ 
 
 . 30,623,759 „ 
 
 From 1852 to 1856 the entries of vessels at Canton numbered about 400, of 
 150,000 to 200,000 tons in the aggregate; subsequently the trade was inter- 
 fered with by the war and possession taken of Canton. At Shanghae the 
 entries in 1858 numbered 754 vessels of 242,624 tons with cargoes, of which 
 290 and 120,205 tons were British. At Amoy, the entries in the same year 
 were 596 vessels of 180,559 tons, of which 331 and 99,331 tons were British. 
 At Foochowfoo the entries were 218 vessels and 75,522 tons, of which 166 and 
 49,751 tons were British. At Ningpo, 115 British vessels of 17,845 tons en- 
 tered in 1858. The British imports at Canton in 1856 were to the value of 
 £2,171,239, and the exports to £1,951,599. The quantity of tea shipped in 1856 
 from Canton was 42,740,404 lbs., of which 31,819,000 came to Great Britain. 
 The imports into Shanghae in 1858 were to the value of £5,893,967, and the 
 exports £9,555,417. The extent of the trade of Shanghae may be judged of 
 by the following details : — 
 
 Total Quantities and Value of Silk and Tea exported from the Poet of 
 Shanghae, in each Year from 1852 to 1858. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Silk. 
 
 Tea. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 
 Bales. 
 26,216 
 41,293 
 48,120 
 55,537 
 91,924 
 76,464 
 72,729 
 
 £. 
 
 1,928,120 
 2,749,653 
 2,714,049 
 3,568,906 
 7,714,488 
 7,320,118 
 Not stated. 
 
 Lbs. 
 46,732,036 
 49,773,920 
 36,123,600 
 76,711,659 
 42,871,433 
 45,757,711 
 45,465,702 
 
 2,174,600 
 2,485,099 
 1,796,459 
 3,413,584 
 1,647,012 
 3,351,661 
 Not stated. 
 
CHI 55 CHI 
 
 Tea exported to various Countries from Shanghae in 1858. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Black. 
 
 Green. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 12,507,037 
 
 8,214,620 
 
 20,721,657 
 
 Hong Kong, Whampoa, and Foochoo 
 
 765,417 
 
 1,146,736 
 
 1,912,153 
 
 Australia .... 
 
 326,129 
 
 143,602 
 
 469,731 
 
 The Continent 
 
 529,080 
 
 72,775 
 
 601,855 
 
 United States 
 
 71,089 
 
 21,051,555 
 
 21,122,644 
 
 Halifax and Montreal 
 
 43,914 
 
 584,148 
 
 628,062 
 
 Manilla .... 
 Total 
 
 — 
 
 9,600 
 
 9,600 
 
 14,242,666 
 
 31,223,036 
 
 45,465,702 
 
 Total Value of the British Trade in British and other Vessels at the 
 Ports of Siiaxghae, Amot, and Foochowfoo. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Rate of 
 Exchange. 
 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 £. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 £. 
 
 s. d 
 
 1852 - 
 
 4.685,571 
 
 1,171,393 
 
 11,484,200 
 
 2,871,050 
 
 5 
 
 1853 - 
 
 3,939,848 
 
 1,280,450 
 
 13,344,892 
 
 4,337,091 
 
 6 6 
 
 1854 - 
 
 1,179.756 
 
 368,673 
 
 11,702,147 
 
 3,650,921 
 
 6 3 
 
 1855 - 
 
 3,497,895 
 
 L122.241 
 
 19,963,763 
 
 6,4' 5,040 
 
 6 5 
 
 1856 - 
 
 6,162,369 
 
 2,156,829 
 
 25,803,632 
 
 9,031,271 
 
 7 
 
 1857 - 
 
 10,387,084 
 
 3,527,280 
 
 32,411,487 
 
 11,005,567 
 
 6 94 
 
 Progress of British Trade at Shanghae from 1848 to 1857. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 1848 
 
 548,797 
 
 1,100,653 
 
 1849 
 
 992,888 
 
 1,465,621 
 
 1850 
 
 977,039 
 
 2,005,151 
 
 1851 
 
 1,141,106 
 
 2,899,541 
 
 1852 
 
 1,171,393 
 
 2,871,050 
 
 1853 
 
 1,280,451 
 
 3,837,090 
 
 1S54 
 
 368,673 
 
 3,656,921 
 
 1855 
 
 1.122,241 
 
 6,405,041 
 
 1856 
 
 2,156,829 
 
 9,031,271 
 
 1857 
 
 3,527,280 
 
 11,005,567 
 
 Value of British Trade in British Vessels at Amoy. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Rate of Exchange. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 *. d. 
 
 1853 
 
 133,306 
 
 62,553 
 
 5 
 
 1854 
 
 141,027 
 
 73,789 
 
 5 
 
 1855 
 
 244,341 
 
 197,266 
 
 4 11 
 
 1856 
 
 221,500 
 
 211,292 
 
 4 11 
 
 1P57 
 
 313,034 
 
 344,768 
 
 5 
 
 1858 
 
 925,944 
 
 699,357 
 
 4 7 
 
 Value of British Trade in British Vessels at Foochowfoo. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1854 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 
 £ 
 
 34,896 
 
 97,916 
 
 97,260 
 
 379,846 
 
 £ 
 
 459,649 
 
 814,034 
 
 1,382,142 
 
 1,184,111 
 
CHI 
 
 56 
 
 CHI 
 
 Quantities of Tea exported to various Countries from the Port of 
 Foociiowfoo, in each Year from 1855 to 1858. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1857. 
 
 1858. 
 
 Great Britain 
 United States 
 Australia . « 
 Continent 
 
 Total . 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 22,700,000 
 
 11,900,000 
 
 900,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 22,883,100 
 
 7,863,200 
 
 4,372,100 
 
 3,119,800 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 20,489,400 
 
 7,267,200 
 
 2,730,500 
 
 1,395,700 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 18,513,500 
 
 4,885,700 
 
 3,960,100 
 
 630,300 
 
 36,500,000 
 
 38,238,200 
 
 31,882,800 
 
 27,689,600 
 
 The following is a Summary of the Trade with Ningpo. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Kate of Exchange. 
 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 
 £. 
 
 26,694 
 70,568 
 77,206 
 136,359 
 
 £. 
 
 1,210 
 49,972 
 132,776 
 734,161 
 
 *. d. 
 6 2 
 6 3 
 
 6 8 
 
 7 3 
 
 The aggregate amount of our trade with China, imports and exports, including 
 those of India, reached in 1857 the amount of £22,122,469, although there 
 was a cessation of the tea trade with Canton. In 1858, even with the effects 
 of the commercial panic of the previous year, and the stoppage of Canton trade, 
 the aggregate commerce with China, British and Indian, was over £20,000,000, 
 exclusive of any colonial trade, Australian, or with the Archipelago. In 1833, 
 the declared value of British manufactures exported to China was only £630,578; 
 in 1840, it was as low as £524,198; and, at the close of the war of 1842, it stood 
 at £969,381. In a few years after the opening of the five new ports to foreign 
 commerce, the value of British goods shipped had increased fully 50 per cent 3 
 while it has now nearly trebled in value: — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Value of the British 
 
 Value of the Imports 
 
 
 Exports to China. 
 
 from China. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1849 
 
 1,537,100 
 
 6,170,672 
 
 1850 
 
 1,674,145 
 
 
 1851 
 
 2,161,268 
 
 7,971,491 
 
 1852 
 
 2,503,599 
 
 7,712,771 
 
 1853 
 
 1,749,597 
 
 8,255,215 
 
 1851 
 
 1,000,716 
 
 9,125,040 
 
 1855 
 
 1,277,944 
 
 8,746,590 
 
 1856 
 
 2,216,123 
 
 9,421,648 
 
 1857 
 
 2,449,982 
 
 11,448,639 
 
 1858 
 
 2,876,447 
 
 7,043,000 
 
 1859 
 
 4,457,631 
 
 
 From the foregoing figures it will be seen that the aggregate direct trade with 
 China may be taken at about £12,000,000, 1857 being an exceptional instance, 
 Although the balance of trade would seem to be largely against us, it is more ap- 
 parent than real, as much of the trade is carried on through India, and we arc 
 equally interested in that, and also in the American trade to some extent. The 
 shipments of silver to China are, however, large in payment for merchandise, as 
 may be seen from the following return : — 
 
 Exports of Silver to China, from England. 
 
 £ £ 
 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 
 58,972 
 
 102,316 
 
 51,816 
 
 . 455,676 
 
 . 1,920,496 
 
 ), to 21 June ., 
 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 £1.859,225. 
 
 . 1,376,773 
 
 . 3,166,514 
 
 . 4,479,315 
 
 . 1,355,117 
 
 . 3,374,250 
 
CHI 
 
 57 
 
 CHI 
 
 Part of the silver shipped this year is for Government account. 
 
 For one of our most important articles of consumption we are exclusively 
 dependent upon China, the petty supplies received from India being scarcely 
 worth notice. And it is somewhat strange that, while such strenuous efforts 
 have been made of late years to extend the production of cotton in different 
 countries, so little has been done towards promoting the growth of tea — an article 
 of easy culture and not difficult manufacture, and which pays the grower so well. 
 The import and consumption of tea in this country has more than doubled since 
 the consular ports were thrown open. So also with silk : the demand has been 
 extensive, and China can supply enormous quantities. From a trivial export, 
 silk has become the second great staple of shipment. Although our imports from 
 China have hitherto consisted chiefly of three or four principal staples, there is 
 no reason, looking at the extensive resources of that vast and extended empire, 
 why they should continue so restricted, Something has even been done of late 
 years in this respect. Chinese wool has come in to some extent, having risen in 
 some years to half a million of pounds. Although from its harsh quality, and 
 mixed and dirty character, it is only fitted for coarse woollens, yet it is saleable 
 at low prices. There are other drugs besides camphor, rhubarb, and essential 
 oils to be obtained from thence. A demand has sprung up for sugar, and we can 
 draw supplies from China as well as from Manila. There are other spices, too, 
 besides cassia lignea to be procured from China. 
 
 In addition to the exports to Great Britain, China exports tea, silk, drugs, and 
 sundries to the continent of Europe, North and South America, Australia, 
 New Zealand, India, and the various settlements of the Eastern Archipelago. 
 The Indian trade, as the figures we have given show, has now reached about 
 £10,000,000 in value, one article, opium, constituting the chief export ; and this 
 since the recent treaty had increased in value by upwards of £1,500,000. The 
 shipments of cotton from India to China would seem to be declining. Whether 
 this arises from a greater demand from England, an increased home production 
 in China, or the internal rebellion, we are not prepared to state. The American 
 imports from China since the opening of the five ports have more than doubled 
 in value. 
 
 The British interest in the indirect trade, of which we have already spoken, is 
 also worthy of notice. In addition to the large balance against us on the direct 
 trade, we have to provide for that created by the excess of value in exports to 
 Australia, America, &c., all of which are paid for by bills drawn on London. 
 We may except a small portion remitted direct by Australia in gold. India 
 forms the only exception. Her exports amount to over nine millions, while the im- 
 ports are under one million. In this way we settle, indirectly, the balance of trade. 
 
 The extension and development of commercial intercourse with the nations of 
 the west will materially enlighten the people as to the existing state of manufac- 
 tures, industry, and invention. It will tend to dispel that arrogance and conceit 
 — that jealous feeling which has set its face against familiar intercourse with 
 Europeans, and prohibited them from passing beyond mere coast provinces. 
 
 INDIAN TRADE WITH CHINA. 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 IMPORTS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Silk, Drugs, 
 
 Year. 
 
 Opium. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Other 
 
 Total. 
 
 and Sundries. 
 
 
 Value. 
 
 \ alue. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 
 Valua 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1849 
 
 5,345,719 
 
 1,013,512 
 
 167,059 
 
 6,526,290 
 
 831,361 
 
 1850 
 
 5,543,588 
 
 741,504 
 
 116,754 
 
 6,401,846 
 
 809,801 
 
 1851 
 
 5,074,078 
 
 1,160,364 
 
 118,093 
 
 6,352,535 
 
 989,369 
 
 1852 
 
 6,082,307 
 
 2,291,926 
 
 148,784 
 
 8,523,017 
 
 924,159 
 
 1853 
 
 6,470,916 
 
 1,020,444 
 
 122.959 
 
 7,620,319 
 
 866,943 
 
 1854 
 
 5,802,4C9 
 
 808,570 
 
 93,695 
 
 6,704,734 
 
 810,337 
 
 1855 
 
 5,684,978 
 
 639,143 
 
 121,013 
 
 6,445,134 
 
 915,049 
 
 1856 
 
 5,592,532 
 
 810,628 
 
 189,793 
 
 6,592,953 
 
 787,717 
 
 1857 
 
 6,505,586 
 
 715,852 
 
 347,546 
 
 7,568,984 
 
 599,672 
 
 1858 
 
 8,241,032 
 
 394,393 
 
 732,312 
 
 9,366,837 
 
 915,858 
 
CHI 
 
 58 
 
 CHI 
 
 CO 
 
 us 
 
 00 
 
 CD 
 
 1 
 
 £6,712 
 
 8,475 
 
 16,494 
 
 13,046 
 
 1,205,995 
 
 3,953 
 
 198,485 
 
 2,282 
 
 5,106 
 
 15,687 
 
 18,562 
 
 6,743 
 
 4,755 
 
 198,604 
 
 4,201 
 
 194 
 
 40,303 
 
 
 
 U5 
 
 cf 
 
 
 
 ■a 
 
 r* 
 
 £17,628 
 
 25,760 
 
 28,939 
 
 21,224 
 
 1,821,040 
 
 2,182 
 
 266,336 
 
 4,359 
 
 17,070 
 
 63,572 
 
 48,211 
 
 15,332 
 
 10,193 
 
 383,190 
 
 6,475 
 
 1,048 
 
 143,288 
 
 2,876,447 
 
 
 
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CIN 62 COA 
 
 CINNAMON. — In 1830 the duty was 6d per lb. on British grown and Is on 
 Foreign, and the consumption was 40,588 lbs. In 1841 it had declined to 15,625lbs., 
 but the duty was then reduced 50 per cent., and in 1852 the consumption had 
 recovered to 36,325 lbs. In the following year the duty was lowered to 2d per lb. 
 alike on British and Foreign, and the consumption in 1859 was 50,789 lbs. In 
 1860 the duty was wholly removed. 
 
 CLEARING HOUSE. — In New York a daily clearing house was established 
 by the bankers in October, 1853, and one at Boston in March, 1856. The 
 total sums cleared are nearly 4 millions sterling per day The average sum total 
 cleared in 1854 and 1855 was about 1150 millions sterling, by balances of 
 60 millions. In the Second Report of the Committee on Banks of Issue, a 
 return was given of the business of the London Clearing House in 1839, the 
 daily clearings being stated at about 3 millions sterling, or 1 \ million per day 
 less than in 1810, and 1 million per day less than the New York clearing of 
 1854-1856. There must be some mistake in this, for the transactions in the 
 twenty years since must have increased proportionately with the increase of 
 business in the metropolis. 
 
 Beside the Bankers' clearing house, the Railway Companies established a 
 clearing house in London in 1842 to facilitate the interchange of their business 
 transactions. In 1852 the aggregate annual amount of the accounts examined 
 and settled in the Railway Clearing House was about £3,000,000, which was 
 arranged by a transfer of balances amounting to under £400,000. Besides 
 settling the accounts and apportioning the receipts of the through traffic, it has 
 confided to it by Act of Parliament, legal powers, and the duty of protecting the 
 interests of the associated Companies, in so far as the transactions in which 
 they have a reciprocal interest are concerned, and of securing to each Company 
 an adequate remuneration for the use they respectively make of each other's 
 stock of" carriages, waggons, and sheets or tarpaulins. 
 
 CLOCKS. — The wood and musical clocks made in the Black Forest, and the 
 Grand Duchy of Baden, are known and appreciated as much for their cheapness as 
 for their construction in eveiy country where clocks are made use of. In 1855 
 this trade employed no less than 1570 master- workmen, and three times that 
 number of common workmen. The total annual value of the clocks sold 
 exceeds £1,000,000. This manufacture has, however, of late years been trans- 
 ferred by degrees from the mountains of Wurtemberg to the plains of America 
 by the numerous emigrants annually leaving Germany. Formerly the Ameri- 
 cans used to send a large number of wooden clocks to England for exportation 
 to Australia and other colonies ; but now the Germans there are able not only 
 to beat them out of the field, but even to compete successfully with their own 
 German countrymen in the home market of their father-land. 
 
 The large and rapidly increasing manufacture of this article in America is 
 evident from the following authentic statistics of the trade. In Connecticut there 
 are 7 manufactories, employing 1300 persons, and producing annually 800,000 
 wooden clocks ; in Bristol 14 manufactories with 400 persons, making 200,000 
 clocks. Altogether there are in 7 places, 32 manufactories, employing 2500 
 workmen, and producing annually 1,617,000 wooden clocks. 
 
 The rates of duty levied on clocks was fixed by the tariff of June 1853, as 
 follows : under 5s value 45 per dozen ; under 12* 6d 8s per dozen ; under +3. 
 2s each ; under .£10. 4s each; above £10. 10s each. In 1858, 228,417 clocks 
 under 12* 6d value, and 19,211 above that value were imported, nearly all of 
 which, except 5000 or 6000 were retained for home use. 
 
 CLOVES. — In 1830 the duty was 2s on British, and 3s on Foreign, and the 
 consumption was 60,111 lbs. In 1835 it had increased to y3,533 lbs. and in 
 1836 the duty was lowered to 6rt per pound for all descriptions. In 1850 the 
 consumption had increased to 175,287 lbs. and in the following year there was a 
 further reduction of duty to 2d per pound. In 1859 the consumption in the 
 United Kingdom was 272,823 lbs. 
 
 COAL. — The amount annually raised in this country is about sixty-five 
 millions of tons, of which three quarters of a million is consumed by our steam 
 marine, and a similar quantity by the transatlantic steamers; four millions for 
 
COA 63 COA 
 
 domestic and other purposes in London alone, eleven millions in the mills of 
 Manchester and neighbourhood, one million in the salt works, ten millions in 
 gas making, about ten millions more in the provinces, and about twenty-two 
 millions are either wasted or not accounted for. The Newcastle coal-field, the 
 Golconda of England, the black diamond mine out of which our fortunes are 
 dug, yields about sixteen millions of tons annually, and Mr. Nicholas Wood, of 
 Hetton, the prince of English coal viewers, computes that this alone would take 
 1500 years to exhaust. The thickness of the beds of coal at Liege is about 55 
 feet ; those of Staffordshire, 151 feet ; those of Ruhr, 134 feet. The export of 
 coal from England reached in 1859, 6,979,800 tons. It is estimated that 
 this country alone could supply the demands of all Europe for 4000 years to 
 come. To give an idea of the dynamic force contained in these enormous masses of 
 coal, it has been estimated that three tons of the material are equivalent to the 
 labour of a man throughout his whole life. In a paper read by Mr. Birch before the 
 Royal Society, it is stated, " That the human labourer exerting his strength 
 upon a treadmill, can raise his own weight, say 150 lbs., through a height of 
 10,000 feet per day, or something less than two miles vertically." The mechanical 
 virtue of fuel is best estimated by ascei*taining the number of pounds which a given 
 quantity, for instance one bushel, will raise to a given height, say one foot, against 
 gravity. In the steam engine this is called the duty of the fuel. Now the pre- 
 sent maximum duty of one bushel of good coal, in the improved Cornish steam- 
 engine, is equivalent to 100,000,000 lbs. lifted through one foot, but it has been 
 made to raise 125,000,000 feet ; now as there are 84 lbs. in one bushel, this 
 divisor gives one pound, 1,500,000 feet, just the result of a man's toil for one 
 day on the treadmill. Thus a pound of coal is really worth a day's wages. If 
 we estimate a life-time of hard work at twenty years of 300 working days each, 
 we have for a man's total dynamic effect 6000 days, which in coal is represented 
 by the amazingly small amount of three tons. The actual annual expenditure 
 of power in England by coal is represented by the equivalent of 66,000,000 of 
 able-bodied labourers, supposing only 10,000,000 to be used in the production 
 of steam, but the real amount is six-and-a-half-times what is here assumed, if 
 the quantity used as fuel be included. It is interesting to know that, with the 
 exception of 7,000,000 tons of coal exported to foreign countries, the whole of 
 the coal raised is consumed in this country, and that, setting aside the propor- 
 tion employed in our domestic economies, it goes to the production of that 
 gigantic creative power which so distinguishes manufacturing England. 
 
 The coal power of this country, as compared with the Continental States, 
 connected as it immediately is with our manufacturing capabilities and our 
 commercial relations forms an important section of these statistics. 
 
 The annual production of— English Tons. 
 
 France is - 5,490,702 
 
 Belgium - 8,285,432 
 
 Austria (coal and lignite) 1,162,950 
 
 Prussia (coal and peat) _____ 7,454,624 
 
 Spain (coal and peat) _____ 144,293 
 
 Total produce of the Continent - 22,538,001 
 
 The British Islands produce of coal, in every respect superior to that obtained 
 in any foreign State, with the exception of a portion of the Belgian coalfield, 
 is three times this quantity, or, as before stated, 65,000,000 tons. 
 
 COAL FIELDS.— The following list of the principal coal-fields in the 
 United Kingdom, with the areas of each in square miles, has been computed 
 from the Ordnance and other geological maps, and corrected as far as possible 
 by inquiries and personal knowledge : — 
 
 ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 Districts. Sq. Miles. Districts. Sq. Miles. 
 
 Northumberland and Durham - - 840 
 
 Cumberland (West) - 96 
 
 Yorkshire - 964 
 
 Lancashire -_-___ 30S 
 
 Cheshire ______ 90 
 
 North Wales 160 
 
 Shropshire ----- 75 
 Staffordshire - - - - 302 
 
 Warwickshire - - - - 105 
 Forest of Dean - 35 
 
 Gloucester and Somerset - - 48 
 South Wales _ - - _ 1045|[ 40G8 
 
COA 64 COA 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 This coal-field extends from Cupar and Dalkeith, on the east, to Irvine and Ayr, 
 on the west coast, with several interruptions ------ 
 
 Total Great Britain ------- 57G8 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 The Shannon - 14981 Sligo - - - - - - 307 
 
 Kilkenny, South - - - - - 126 Dungannon - - - - - 32 
 
 North 205! Ranioan 10=2227 
 
 Dundalk »l 
 
 Total for the United Kingdom - - - - 7995 
 
 In Great Britain there are about 1520 collieries. The largest of these are in 
 the counties of Northumberland, Durham, Derby, and Leicestershire. The 
 works in the first two frequently extend over an area of from 400 to 500 acres. 
 The excavated galleries in Killingworth Colliery, Northumberland, extend 
 about 1 60 miles, though the distance from one extreme point to another is not 
 more than 5 miles. The best guide, in this respect, is the length of the air- 
 courses ; and in the Hetton Colliery, Durham, the air has to travel 72 miles 
 through the works. It does this, however, through 17 different galleries, the 
 average distance of which is only 4£ miles. The Haswell Colliery, Durham, 
 has 35 miles of galleries in work, and the air travels through ten ways, of the 
 average distance of 3£ miles each. Seaton Delaval, (Northumberland), has 
 five air-courses, of 1^ mile each. 
 
 In 1829, Mr. Hugh Taylor, after carefully examining the areas of our coal 
 fields, and computing the quantity of workable coal in each, named 1727 years 
 as the possible period requisite to exhaust the coal fields of Durham and Nor- 
 thumberland. Dr. Buckland regarded Mr. Hugh Taylor's estimate as a very 
 exaggerated one, and was disposed to give 400 years as the probable duration of 
 these fields ; at the same time stating that his estimate was " vague and conjec- 
 tural." But it must not be forgotten that Mr. Hugh Taylor then estimated the coal 
 consumption of the Northern district at 3,960,000 tons per annum, and that 
 of the United Kingdom at 15,580,000 tons ; Mr. Brandling, at the same time, 
 estimating it at only 12,000,000 tons. 
 
 Mr. G. C. Greenwell estimated, in 1846, the total quantity of merchantable 
 coals remaining in the Northumberland and Durham coal fields, in an acces- 
 sible state, as 1,251,232,504 Newcastle chaldrons, or 3,315,766,135 tons. " If," 
 says that coal engineer, "the annual demand should be equal to 10,000,000 tons, 
 or 3,773,515 Newcastle chaldrons, it will be exhausted in 331 years." At this 
 time, the rapidly increasing demand was the subject of especial remark in 
 Observations addressed to the Coalowners, by Mr. T. John Taylor. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Y. Hale assumed the total quantity of coal remaining in the 
 Great Northern coal field, in 1853, at 5,575,432,173 tons. " This, divided by 
 14,000,000 tons annually excavated for sales and pit consumption, gives 365 
 years ; but if the demand increased to 20,000,000 tons the duration of the coal 
 field would be only 256 years." 
 
 Now, according to Mr. Robert Hunt's Mineral Statistics, the exhaustion of 
 the Northumberland and Durham coal fields for three succeeding years has been 
 going on at the following rate :— In 1856, 15,492,969 tons; 1857, 15,826,525 
 tons ; 1858, 15,853,484 tons ; so that at the present rate, assuming the above 
 to represent the facts correctly, the duration of the coal in this district would be 
 about 348 years. 
 
 The preceding remarks have reference only to the so-called Newcastle coal 
 field, but from these an approximate estimate may be made. The entire area 
 of the " coal measures " of the United Kingdom has been assumed, with a fair 
 approach to correctness, to be 11,859 square miles, or 7,589,760 acres. The 
 area of the " coal beds " is considerably less than this. We may, however, 
 regard the Durham and Northumberland coal fields as being about one-eighth 
 of the entire area from which we draw our fossil fuel. 
 
 The Mineral Statistics, already quoted, shows the total produce of the 
 United Kingdom in 1856 to have been 66,645,450 tons of coals ; in 1857 
 
COC G5 COD 
 
 65,394,707 tons ; in 1858, 65,008,649 tons ; therefore we derive nearly one- 
 fourth of our coals from the Newcastle district, three-fourths are, and will 
 continue to be obtained from the remaining seven-eighths of the British 
 coal fields. Now, after a careful examination of the whole question — con- 
 sidering the rapid exhaustion of the South Staffordshire coal basin, and the 
 enormous drain upon the Yorkshire and Lancashire fields — we are convinced 
 that there exists in the United Kingdom nnworked, but workable, coal 
 sufficient to meet a demand of 70,000,000 tons per annum for 700 vears. 
 
 COCCULUS IXDICUS.— The imports of this drug are rather considerable. 
 In 1854 there was imported into London 4093 bags and packages. In 1855, 
 827 bags ; in 1856, 833; and in 1857, 1958. According to the Board of Trade 
 returns, the total imports were 549 cwts. in 1857, and 368 cwts. in 1858; but 
 only a small quantity was taken for consumption. 
 
 COCHINEAL.— The imports in the five years ending with 1858, have aver- 
 aged 23,000 cwts. Of the 22,237 cwts. valued at £468,587 imported in 1858, 
 5132 cwts. came from France, the Canary Islands, 6566 from Honduras, 2805 
 from Central America, 2334 from New Granada, and 3006 from France. 
 Cochineal has been admitted free of duty since 1st March, 1845. 
 
 The total exports from Guatemala in the last eight years were as follows: — 
 
 1851 . 
 1852. 
 1853 . 
 
 1854. 
 
 1,248,852 lbs. 
 
 1855. 
 
 574,938 „ 
 
 1856. 
 
 317,077 „ 
 
 1857. 
 
 2,623,420 „ 
 
 1858. 
 
 1,567,^04 lbs. 
 1,824,966 „ 
 1,481,088 „ 
 2,012,425 „ 
 
 COCOANUTS AND COCOANUT OIL.— Cocoanut culture is largely at- 
 tended to in Ceylon, and the resulting products of oil and coir have greatly 
 increased of late years. The exports of cocoanut oil from Ceylon were in 1855, 
 1,234,081 gallons; in 1856, 1,096,473; and in 1857, 1,767,413 gallons. 
 
 The whole value of the cocoanut products shipped from Ceylon in 1857 were 
 
 Nuts no. 1,420,856 value £3.717 
 
 Coir rope .... cwts. 18,881 „ 13,984 
 Coir yarn . „ 31,652 „ 21,364 
 Copperah or dried cocoanut . „ 20,381 „ 12,143 
 Oil gals. 1,767,413 „ 223,254 
 
 Making an aggregate export value of £274,462 from the cocoanut groves of 
 the island, exclusive of any use of the wood, leaves, and of local consumption 
 of nuts, oil, &c. Although palm oil, from the large quantity which now comes into 
 commerce, has supplanted to a great extent cocoanut oil, the imports of the 
 latter were in 1858, 197,788 cwts., valued at £375,840. There were also im- 
 ported 2,500,000 cocoanuts from various quarters. 
 
 COD. — The following is a statement of the British caught dried cod fuh 
 exported annually from St. John's, Newfoundland : — 
 
 Quintals, l Quintals. 
 
 1838 724,515 | 1848 928,366 
 
 - - 865,377 ; 1849 1,175,167 
 
 915,795 j 1850 1,089,1x2 
 
 1811 1,009,725 I 1851 1,017,674 
 
 1849 1,007,9S0 I 1852 972,021 
 
 1^13 - - - - - 936,202 1853 922,718 
 
 1844 852,162 18-54 774,117 
 
 |0tf 1,000,333 j 1854 831,986 
 
 1846 — 1856 1,392,322 
 
 1847 837.973 I 1857 1,038,059 
 
 In 1848 the average take of cod fish by the French on the Newfoundland 
 shores was stated at about 1,500,000 quintals Taking the cod fishery alone 
 the following was an estimate given by Mr. Matthew Warren in a lecture deli- 
 vered before the Mechanics' Institution, St. John's, in 1857. The fish are 
 valued at 10s the quintal, and the oil at £30 per tun: — 
 
 F 
 
COD GG COD 
 
 TAKEN BY THE AMERICANS. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1,500,000 quintals of cod fish ----- £750,000 
 
 4,500 tuns of cod oil --__.. 135,000 
 
 BY THE FRENCH. 
 
 1,600,000 quintals offish - - 800,000 
 
 4,000 tuns of oil -----_. 120,000 
 
 BY THE BRITISH EXTORTED. 
 
 1,000,000 quintals of fish - 500,000 
 
 4,000 tuns of Oil 120,000 
 
 LABRADOR BRITISH FISHING. 
 
 300,000 quintals cod fish - - - - - - 150,600 
 
 £2,575,000 
 
 Making a total of 4,400,000 cwts. of cod fish caught annually on the shores and 
 banks belonging to Newfoundland, worth, with the oil, more than £2,500,000.; 
 and this is exclusive of the seal, salmon, and herring fisheries. 
 
 The following shows the proportion of cod fish exported from St. John's, New- 
 foundland, to various countries, in 1852, in quintals or cwts. : — 
 
 Portugal ----- 126,459 
 
 Spain 99,097 
 
 Italy ----- 32,827 
 
 British West Indies - - - 121,176 
 
 Brazils - ... - 95,702 
 
 British America - 32,333 
 
 England ----- H,3ll 
 
 Scotland ----- 7,003 
 
 Ireland ----- 5,014 
 
 Other parts - - - - 98,576 
 
 629,498 
 
 In the report of the British Fisheries Commissioners, for 1858, a detailed 
 abstract is given of the total quantity of cod, ling, and hake cured from the 
 10th of October, 1820, when the system of encouragement and improvement of 
 the cod fishery commenced, to the year 1858; and from this we are enabled to 
 extract some figures calculated to show the extent of the fisheries : — 
 
 
 Quantity Cured 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Pickled. 
 
 Exported Dried 
 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 In 1821 
 
 . 
 
 50,235 
 
 
 4,920 
 
 19,578 
 
 In 1831 
 
 . 
 
 50,293 
 
 
 3,780 
 
 20,168 
 
 In 1841 
 
 - 
 
 76,849 
 
 
 7,038 
 
 25,293 
 
 In 1851 
 
 • 
 
 98,903 
 
 
 6,588 
 
 24,154 
 
 In 1858 
 
 - 
 
 95,596 
 
 
 4,584 
 
 32,152 
 
 The branding and punching of cod and ling was discontinued on the 5th Jan. 
 1850, as well as the collection of returns for England, the duties of the Commis- 
 sioners being now confined to Scotland and the Isle of Man. The bounty up to 
 the 5th April, 1830, was 4s per cwt. for fish cured dried, and 2s Gd per barrel for 
 fish cured in pickle, taken by the crews of vessels or boats not on the tonnage 
 bounty, while the bounty for vessels licensed for the cod and ling fisheries on 
 the tonnage bounty was 50s per ton for tonnage and cargo, up to the 5th July, 
 1826 j 45s from thence to the 5th July, 1827; 40s to the 5th July, 1828; and 
 35s to the 5th April, 1830, when the bounties ceased altogether, and have not 
 since been renewed. There is no means of separating fishing boats and men, so 
 as to know how many are specially engaged in the cod fishery. 
 
 On that part of the coast of Ireland connected with Lough Foyle for nine 
 months in the year the trade continues in cod. The cod fishing commences in 
 October; they move out, and, as the weather settles in spring, the fishermen 
 follow them eight miles out, and finally twenty miles out to Hawden Bank. 
 From the 1st Oct. to the 1st May about 150 boxes of cod are shipped weekly by 
 steamer to Liverpool, and from May to July about 90 boxes per week ; total to 
 Liverpool during the season, 5220 boxes; to Glasgow double that quantity: 
 total, 15,660 boxes, each box contains 14 fish. The fishermen generally 
 contract with the buyers at 7* per dozen of fourteen fish all the year round. 
 Thus the amount received by the fishermen is £5481 annually for cod fish. 
 The buyers pay 3s freight and Gd per box for packing. 
 
 COD LIVER OIL. The oil obtained from the livers of the common cod 
 and various other allied species is now a very important article of commerce. 
 
COD 67 COD 
 
 The other species from which this oil is procured are the dorse (Morrhua 
 callarius), which yields a white description of oil, the coal fish {Merlangus car- 
 bonarius), the burbot {Lota vulgaris), the ling {Lota molva), and the torsk 
 {Brosmius vulgaris). 
 
 Most of the cod-oil met with in the London market is the produce of the bank- 
 fisheries of Newfoundland, where, according to Pennant ( Arctic Zoology, vol. 3), it 
 used to be thus procured: — " They take half a tub, and boring a hole through the 
 bottom, press hard down into it a layer of spruce-boughs, upon which they place the 
 livers, and expose the whole apparatus to as sunny a place as possible. As the livers 
 corrupt the oil runs from them, and, straining itself through the spruce-boughs, 
 is caught in a vessel set under the hole in the tub's bottom." At Newhaven, 
 near Edinburgh, the fishermen simply boil the livers in an iron pot, and then 
 filter the oil through a towel containing a little sand. 
 
 The quantity of oil produced from each quintal of cod is supposed to pay for the 
 labour of sphtting and the salt used in curing. It is not easy to obtain pure cod 
 liver oil. That which comes from Rouen, on the coast of Normandy, is obtained 
 from the boiled livers of the ray fish (Raia bates and R. clavata). A variety from 
 Norway is procured from the roes and entrails of the Gadus species boiled together ; 
 and some sent from Senegal to France is said to be obtained by roasting the entrails 
 of a species of crab, C. ruHcola. So important has this product become, that Messrs. 
 Langton, Brothers, and Scott, of Upper Thames Street, London, have established 
 a special manufacture of cod liver oil at Newfoundland, under the management 
 of a well-known extractor. It is now purified, and rendered beautifully clear. 
 31,038 gallons of oil were exported from the Gaspe fisheries on the St Lawrence 
 in 1848, and 50,794 gallons in 1849. 
 
 Newfoundland is the great manufactory of " cod liver oil." Large quantities 
 of this valuable medical oil being made in almost every section of the colony, and 
 manufactures have been set up, and much capital invested in the undertaking. 
 The liver of the cod fish, in years past, was but little valued in the fishing-rooms 
 of the colony. But no sooner had Mr. Fox, an English chemist, arrived with 
 apparatus for rendering the liver, and made known its valuable qualities, than it 
 rose in price, and was much cared for by those in charge of the oil-tubs and 
 fishing-rooms. Mr. Fox also made known the value of the heads of the fish, 
 which had been formerly thrown into the sea, or on the manure heap, from which 
 he manufactured large quantities of superior isinglass ; and from the bones of 
 the head remaining, after the chemical process which had extracted the isinglass, 
 he made (with the addition of other substances) glue ; thus turning what had for 
 a hundred years been thrown aside as offal to valuable account. When the great 
 cod liver oil mania commenced, the discovery was looked upon as a new 
 one ; but it appears from inquiries into the subject, that the discovery was 
 made, half a century ago, by Monsieur L'Artone, a French chemist, " who ex- 
 tracted oil from the liver of the cod-fish, by which means he was enabled to 
 perform many miraculous cures in cases of consumption." Newfoundland, 
 perhaps, possesses greater facilities for the manufacture of this oil than any other 
 portion of the world. 
 
 The method of extracting oil from the cod-livers by steam is employed in one 
 establishment at St. John's, Newfoundland, producing so very superior an article, 
 that a medal was awarded for it at the Great Exhibition in 1851. There is also 
 an establishment at Blanc Sablon for the same purpose. 
 
 In 1845 but 3527 gallons of cod-oil were exported from Newfoundland. In 
 1857 it had risen to 496,833 gallons, besides 327 tuns and 150 gallons of 
 manufactured or refined cod liver oil. 
 
 In the north of Germany cod liver oil was in use nearly a quarter of a century 
 ago as an article of established reputation in their Materia Medica ; and a good 
 account of it is to be found in Rieke's Neuern Arzneimittel, published in 1837. 
 
 The common and most impure specimens of the oil are much used in the 
 leather manufactories of Holland and the North of Germany. It is supposed to 
 possess the power of dissolving and removing the gelatinous matter of the hide. 
 
COD 
 
 G8 
 
 COP 
 
 As a popular remedy in cases of scrofula, rheumatism, and consumption, it has 
 long enjoyed a high reputation. The dose for an adult is from one to three 
 table-spoonfuls three times a day ; for children the same number of tea-spoonfuls. 
 In the preparation of the oil putrefaction and charring should be especiallyavoided. 
 Dr. Bennett has published a treatise on cod liver oil, in which he alludes to 
 four distinct varieties, the white, yellow, red, and brown. The classification is, 
 however, arbitrary, as the difference appears to depend upon the degree of care 
 used in preparing it, the heat and pressure employed, and the comparative 
 freedom from impurities. 
 
 COFFEE. Some interesting facts come out in comparing the quantities con- 
 sumed in different countries. Among European States, Belgium stands highest, 
 and England lowest. In Belgium, the consumption in 1855 was 44,409,860 lbs., 
 which with a population of 4,426,202, gives about 10 lbs. for each individual, 
 while chicory being home grown and untaxed, is also used in prodigious quanti- 
 ties. In Denmark, with a population of 1,400,000, the consumption in 1852 was 
 6,899,158 lbs., or nearly 5 lbs. per head, besides one-third as much chicory in ad- 
 dition. The States of the German Union, numbering 32,559,173 inhabitants, 
 consumed in 1855 125£ million pounds, or close upon 4 lbs. for each taken on an 
 average, but this includes chicory and other coffee substitutes. In France in 
 1857 the consumption was 62,000,000 lbs. to a population of 36,000,000, or not 
 quite 2 lbs. per head, but the consumption of chicory is also very large. In the 
 United States the consumption averages about 200,000,000 lbs. to a population 
 of 27 millions, or nearly 8 lbs. per head. Coming now to our own country, 
 Great Britain, we find the consumption has scarcely varied for many years at 1 \ 
 lbs. per head per annum. There is, however, a growing taste for tea in this 
 country which has been continuous, it being found that in use one pound of tea 
 goes as far as three of coffee. In the United States there is no duty on either 
 tea or coffee. The Americans consume about four times as much coffee as tea. 
 Taking tea and coffee together, their average is about 8 pounds, while ours 
 is under 5 pounds. The consumption of the southern portion of the Union is 
 and always has been much greater in proportion to the population than that of 
 the northern and eastern States, owing to the fact that the bulk of the residents 
 of that section of the country use coffee as a beverage both at the morning and 
 evening meal, and indeed not a small part consider the coffee urn an indispen- 
 sable accessory even to the dining table. 
 
 Consumption of Coffee in Great Britain. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Consumption. 
 
 Rate of Duty 
 on B. P. 
 
 Consumption 
 per Head. 
 
 Tax per Head. 
 
 1841 
 1851 
 1859 
 
 18,687,537 
 21,000,000 
 23,000,000 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 28,370,857 
 32,504,545 
 34,492,947 
 
 s. d. 
 6 
 3 
 3 
 
 Lbs. 
 1.515 
 1.647 
 
 1.498 
 
 s. d. 
 
 10A 
 5 
 4,1 
 
 The rapid decline in the consumption of coffee, which fell six millions of 
 pounds in 1850 as compared with 1847, has of late years been somewhat re- 
 covered by the exertions made by the Ceylon coffee planters to prevent the frau- 
 dulent sale of chicory for coffee, by which the unprincipled retail vendors of 
 ground coffee obtained more than cent per cent profit. 
 
 The sources of supply have veiy much altered in the last quarter of a century. 
 Of the 65,353,029 lbs. imported in 1859, 42,364,978 lbs. came from Ceylon, 
 9,343,923 lbs. from the West Indian and other British possessions, 4,700,000 lbs. 
 fro n Brazil, and the same quantity from Central America, and 4,253,000 from 
 other countries. 
 
COF 
 
 COF 
 
 Distribution of the Coffee Crop of Ceylon for Four Years to 30th 
 September in each Year. 
 
 
 1855-6. 
 
 1856-7. 
 
 1857-8. 
 
 1858-9. 
 
 Places. 
 
 Plan, and 
 
 Plan, and 
 
 Plan, and 
 
 Plan, and 
 
 
 Native. 
 
 Native. 
 
 Native. 
 
 Native. 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 London 
 
 334.380 
 
 284,822 
 
 381,460 
 
 402,405 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 
 
 4,186 
 
 13,938 
 
 11,320 
 
 10,625 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 
 
 5.G57 
 
 
 7,575 
 
 
 France 
 
 
 
 38,878 
 
 litsa 
 
 47,874 
 
 lio',640 
 
 Falmouth 
 
 
 
 
 133 
 
 20,449 
 
 13,638 
 
 Rotterdam 
 
 
 
 
 
 33,075 
 
 8,205 
 
 United States 
 
 
 
 16,503 
 
 '5,000 
 
 
 13,532 
 
 Australia 
 
 
 
 6,016 
 
 33,227 
 
 14,222 
 
 11,881 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 
 
 3,837 
 
 1,794 
 
 6,702 
 
 3,247 
 
 Maulmein 
 
 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 . . . 
 
 Belle Isle 
 
 
 
 12,(520 
 
 
 
 
 Pamboeuf 
 
 
 
 5,516 
 
 
 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 
 
 12,014 
 
 21,8*87 
 
 . . . 
 
 *7,*042 
 
 Genoa 
 
 
 
 4,455 
 
 , . . 
 
 . . . 
 
 
 P'enang 
 
 
 
 1,527 
 
 
 
 
 Monte Video 
 
 
 
 
 ' 172 
 
 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 
 
 
 7,842 
 
 
 
 Bremen 
 
 
 
 ' ' 9 
 
 5,535 
 
 
 
 Trieste 
 
 
 
 
 
 '6,9*50 
 
 
 Mediterranean 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,781 
 
 
 Calcutta 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,250 
 
 ' 1*003 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,129 
 
 
 Cherbourg 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,906 
 
 . . . 
 
 Lost in Sibella 
 
 
 
 
 
 9,885 
 
 
 Bombay 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - " *258 
 
 Akyab 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 804 
 
 Madras 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,212 
 
 Egypt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 T 
 
 otal 
 
 
 446,198 
 
 545,913 
 
 552,643 
 
 584,552 
 
 The following table carries down the information given in the body of the 
 work respecting coffee to the present time. Account of the quantities of coffee 
 imported, exported, and consumed in the United Kingdom; with the rates of 
 import duty, revenue arising therefrom, and price of fine West India coffee, in 
 bond, in July of each year named: — 
 
 Years. 
 
 1840 
 1841 
 1842 
 1843 
 1844 
 1849 
 1846 
 1847 
 1848 
 1819 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 18-12 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 53,110,CG0 
 
 54.935,510 
 55,634,733 
 66,500,358 
 64,061,479 
 56,992,116 
 48,892,72f 
 60,697,214 
 65,353,329 
 
 Imported. Exported. 
 
 Cwt. 
 70,250,766 
 43,317,762 
 41,444,414 
 38,912,469 
 46,523,188 
 50,377,915 
 51,813,651 
 55,354,044 
 57,053,450 
 63,315,78 
 50,803,152 
 
 Cwt. 
 12,707,414 
 14,274,096 
 
 9,505,644 
 12,683,443 
 
 6,305,982 
 19,220,621 
 11,739,999 
 13,358,802 
 24,088,477 
 34,852,083 
 12,169,752 
 
 22,712,859 
 
 12,937,552 
 26,656,892 
 32,589,111 
 28,766,528 
 27,602,836 
 15,782,710 
 28,761,314 
 29,580,779 
 
 Duty per lb. 
 
 B. Pos. 6d per lb. 
 For. from B. P. 9d per lb. 
 E. L Is, others Is 3d. 
 From July 9, 1842 B.P. 4Jdlb. 
 Foreign Countries 8£d lb. 
 I B. P. 4d, For. 6d lb. from ) 
 I 6 June, 1844. j 
 
 f After 15April, 1851, both ] 
 
 ) kinds of raw Coffee 3d. ] 
 
 Kiln dried, 3d, ground 6d. 
 
 I After 4 June, 1853, both ) 
 
 ' kinds, raw 3d, dried 4d. J 
 
 ( After 21April, 1855, both j 
 
 I raw 4d, dried 5d lb. j 
 
 After 6 April, 1857, both ) 
 
 kinds, 3d raw, dried or > 
 
 ground 4d. ) 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 Price per Cwt. 
 
 £ 
 
 8. 8. 
 
 921,551 
 
 
 887,747 
 
 
 768,886 
 
 
 697,376 
 
 
 681,616 
 
 
 717,871 
 
 
 756 838 
 
 
 746,436 
 
 
 709,632 
 
 20 to 110 
 
 642,520 
 
 20... 100 
 
 565,659 
 
 30 ... 92 
 
 444,670 
 
 36 ... 80 
 
 438,076 
 
 35... 75 
 
 463,666 
 
 50 ... 90 
 
 468,392 
 
 50 ... 86 
 
 547,887 
 
 47... 90 
 
 586,767 
 
 48 ... 85 
 
 456,805 
 
 69 
 
 442,120 
 
 66 
 
 431,361 
 
 
COF 70 COF 
 
 The gross revenue is given subsequent to 1851; the net revenue in previous 
 year. 
 
 The imports and consumption of coffee in France have been: — 
 
 IN KILOGRAMMES OF TWO AND ONE-FIFTH LBS. 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Consumption. 
 
 1848 
 
 27,456,293 
 
 14,862,334 
 
 1849 
 
 31,697,746 
 
 18,150,865 
 
 1850 
 
 22,672,043 
 
 15,363,535 
 
 1851 
 
 31,990,450 
 
 18,659,248 
 
 1852 
 
 34,403,195 
 
 21,573,322 
 
 1853 
 
 27,783,261 
 
 19,946,762 
 
 1851 
 
 34,977,033 
 
 21,720,009 
 
 1855 
 
 34,915,120 
 
 26,740,593 
 
 1856 
 
 40,090,439 
 
 23,222,436 
 
 1857 
 
 53,650,474 
 
 27,997,432 
 
 The imports of coffee into the United States have been as follows:- 
 
 
 Quantity, 
 lbs. 
 
 Value. 
 Dollars. 
 
 Taken for 
 
 Consumption. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1848 - - - 150,559,138 
 
 1849 - 165,334,700 
 
 1850 - - - 144,986 895 
 
 1851 -J 216,043,870 
 
 1852 - 205,542,855 
 
 1853 - - 193,112,300 
 
 1854 - - 182,470,853 
 
 1855 - 238,214,533 
 
 1856 - - -! 235,865,268 
 
 1857 - 240,676,227 
 
 1858 - 189,211,300 
 
 8,199,129 
 9,058,352 
 11,215,076 
 
 15,5*2*5,954 
 18,3*4*1,081 
 
 208,5*2*0,910 
 204,991,595 
 175,687,790 
 179,481,983 
 216,438,375 
 165,974,720 
 174,769,920 
 
 The following figures show the production and consumption of coffee, in 
 the principal countries:— 
 
 PRODUCTION IN MILLIONS OF POUNDS. 
 
 - 
 
 1832. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1845. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1855. 
 
 Brazil ------ 
 
 80,6 
 
 156,8 
 
 180 
 
 302 
 
 320 
 
 Java ------ 
 
 40,3 
 
 1,120 
 
 120 
 
 140 
 
 125 
 
 Cuba and Porto Rico - 
 
 56,0 
 
 56,0 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 St. Domingo - - - - 
 
 44,8 
 
 33,6 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 British West Indies - - - 
 
 24,6 
 
 13,4 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 Sumatra, Mocha, Bourbon, &c. - 
 
 44,8 
 
 24,6 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 British India and Cevlon 
 
 6,7 
 
 6,7 
 
 10 
 
 32 
 
 62 
 
 French and Dutch West Indies - 
 
 17,9 
 
 6,7 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 La Guayra and Costa lUca - 
 
 13,4 
 
 22,4 
 
 20 
 
 29 
 
 15 
 
 329,1 
 
 432,2 
 
 428 
 
 610 
 
 610 
 
 CONSUMPTION OF THE CHIEF COUNTRIES IN MILLIONS OF POUNDS. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1845. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1855. 
 
 Holland and Netherlands - -j 90,7 
 Germany and North Europe - 71,7 
 France and South Europe - - 78,4 
 Great Britain - - - - 22,9 
 United States & BritishN. America 82,0 
 
 112,0 
 89,6 
 89,6 
 27,2 
 
 117,0 
 
 125,0 
 100,0 
 95,0 
 34,3 
 135,0 
 
 108,0 
 175,0 
 105,0 
 41,1 
 140,0 
 
 140,0 
 170,0 
 110,0 
 35,7 
 210,5 
 
 315,7 
 
 435,4 
 
 4S9,3 
 
 559,1 
 
 66(5,2 
 
COI 71 COL 
 
 COIR. — The imports of coir rope, twine, and strands, chiefly from Ceylon and 
 India, was, in 1858, 81,138 cwts., valued at £103,880, against 75,510 cwts., 
 valued at £101,939 in 1857. Coir yarn is much used for cocoa-nut matting, 
 an article largely manufactured for door-mats, covering hall floors, public 
 rooms, &c. 
 
 COLONY. — Since this work was published, the following changes have taken 
 place in British colonies: — In North America, Great Britain has extended her 
 colonial possessions by taking over the Bed River Settlement and Vancouver 
 Island from the Hudson's Bay Company, and founded a new colony in British 
 Columbia, in the North-west territory. In Africa, the island of Fernando Po has 
 been given back to Spain; a new colony has been formed at Natal, and the 
 British possessions in Northern Africa further extended by the occupation of 
 British Kaffraria. In Australasia, Victoria to the south, and Queen's Land 
 to the north, have been separated from New South Wales, and made indepen- 
 dent Governments. Swan River and King George's Sound constitute one 
 colony under the name of Western Australia. The name of Van Diemen's 
 Land has been changed to Tasmania. The New Zealand islands, although 
 forming one colony, have been divided into seven or eight separate and inde- 
 pendent provinces. In the East we have taken possession of Hong-Kong and 
 Labuan, although these cannot be termed colonies. In the Pacific the sove- 
 reignty of the Feejee Isles has been accepted, and Norfolk Island colonised 
 by the transfer of the descendants of the mutineers of the Bounty from Pitcairn's 
 Island. 
 
 France has taken possession of a portion of Cochin China, and of Gaboon, in 
 Western Africa. Denmark has given up to us Serampore, in Bengal. 
 
 The cost of the several colonies of the British empire at the expense 
 of the British Exchequer, in the year 1857, amounted to no less than 
 £4,115,757, against £4,887,957 in 1856, £4,804,956 in 1855, £4,466,201 in 
 1854, and £3,845.018 in 1853. In 1857 the list was as follows:— Gibraltar, 
 £423,589; Malta, 442,722; the Cape of Good Hope, £682,015; Mauritius, 
 £74,881 ; Bermuda, £156,061; St. Helena, 62,640; Heligoland, £1,274; the 
 Ionian Islands, £109,470; the Falklands, £6,523; Hong Kong, £303,735; 
 Jamaica, £103,761 ; the Bahamas, £52,045 ; Honduras, 33,802; West Indies, 
 £305,981; Canada, £236,484; Nova Scotia, £154,605; New Brunswick, 
 £9,430; Prince Edward's Island, £1,500; Newfoundland, £20,114 ; Vancou- 
 ver's Island, .£210; the West Coast of Africa, £126,039 ; Ceylon, £119,279 ; 
 Labuan, £12,445 ; North Australia, £5,666 ; West Australia, £94,769 ; South 
 Australia, £9,940; Victoria, 44,113; New South Wales, £59,646; Tasmania, 
 £96,936 ; and New Zealand, £112,395. 
 
 The following table, from the Board of Trade returns, shows the increase of 
 exports to the principal British Colonies between 1843-47: — 
 
 Ionian Islands - - - - 90 per cent, i Sierra Leone - - - - 172 per cent. 
 
 Ea*t Indies - - - - 139 „ Cape Colony - - - - 270 „ 
 
 Mauritius - - - - 157 „ Australia - - - - 792 „ 
 
 N. A. Colonies - 146 j 
 
 Our export trade of British produce and manufactures to the various British 
 possessions amounted, in declared value, in 1859, to £46,125,046, or nearly one- 
 third of the whole shipments. 
 
 COLOUR TRADE. — The export trade in painters' colours has largely in- 
 creased of late years, owing to the extension of emigration and progress of set- 
 tlement in the colonies. In 1859 the value of the shipments was £460,374. The 
 chief quarters to which they are sent are, Australia, British America, the United 
 Suites, the East Indies, and the Continent. 
 
COM 
 
 72 
 
 COM 
 
 COMMERCE.— Statement op the Amount of the Foreign 
 Colonial Trade of the United Kingdom, from 1840 to 1859: — 
 
 
 Official Value. 
 
 Real or Declared 
 
 
 
 
 
 Value of British and 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports of 
 
 Exports of 
 
 Expoi'ts of Bri- 
 
 Irish Produce and 
 
 Foreign and 
 
 Foreign and 
 
 tish and Irish 
 
 Manufactures 
 
 
 Colonial 
 
 Colonial 
 
 Produce and 
 
 Exported. 
 
 
 Merchandize. 
 
 Merchandize. 
 
 Manufactures. 
 
 
 1840 
 
 £67,492,710 
 
 £13,774,K!5 
 
 £102,706,850 
 
 £51,406,430 
 
 1841 
 
 64,444,268 
 
 14,723,373 
 
 102,179,514 
 
 51,634,623 
 
 1842 - - 
 
 65,253,286 
 
 13,586 422 
 
 100,255,389 
 
 47,381,023 
 
 1843 
 
 70,214,912 
 
 13,956,288 
 
 117,876,659 
 
 52,279,709 
 
 1844 
 
 75,449 374 
 
 14,398,177 
 
 131,558,477 
 
 58,584 292 
 
 1845 
 
 85,297,508 
 
 1^,279,318 
 
 134,598'584 
 
 60,111,082 
 
 1846 
 
 75,934,022 
 
 16,296,162 
 
 132,312,894 
 
 57,786,876 
 
 1847 
 
 90,921,866 
 
 20,040 979 
 
 126,131,029 
 
 58.842,377 
 
 1848 
 
 93,547,134 
 
 18,375,886 
 
 132,619,154 
 
 52,849,445 
 
 1849 
 
 105,874,607 
 
 25,509 670 
 
 164,539,504 
 
 63,596,025 
 
 1850 
 
 100,460,433 
 
 21,874,212 
 
 175,416,709 
 
 71,367,885 
 
 1851 
 
 110,484,997 
 
 23,729,016 
 
 190,658,314 
 
 74,448,722 
 
 1852 
 
 109,331,158 
 
 23,328,308 
 
 196,176,601 
 
 78,076,854 
 
 1853 
 
 123,099,313 
 
 27,744,772 
 
 214,327,454 
 
 98,933,781 
 
 1854 
 
 152,389.053 
 
 18,(;3ti,366 
 
 
 94,184,726 
 
 1855 
 
 143,542,850 
 
 21,003,215 
 
 
 95,688,085 
 
 1856 
 
 175,544,154 
 
 23 393,405 
 
 
 115,826,948 
 
 1857 
 
 187,844,141 
 
 24,108,194 
 
 
 122,066,107 
 
 1858 
 
 164,5S:3,832 
 
 23,174,023 
 
 
 116,668,756 
 
 1859 
 
 
 
 
 130,440,427 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS AFFECTING BRITISH 
 COMMERCE, FROM 1841 TO 1860. 
 
 1841. Jan. 20. A circu\ar is addressed by 
 Captain Elliott to British subjects in 
 China, announcing that arrangements 
 have been made with the Government 
 of China to the following effect :— 1. The 
 cession of the island and harbour of 
 Hong Kong to the British Crown. All 
 just charges and duties to the empire 
 upon the commerce carried on there to 
 be paid as if the trade were to be con- 
 ducted at Whampoa, 2. An indemnity 
 to the British Government of 6,000,000 
 dollars (1,000,000 payable at once), and 
 the remainder in equal annual instal- 
 ments, ending in 1846. 3. Direct com- 
 mercial intercourse between the two 
 countries upon an equal footing. 4. The 
 trade of the port of Canton to be opened 
 within ten days of the Chinese new 
 year, and to be carried on at Whampoa 
 until further arrangements are practi- 
 cable at the new settlement. 
 — — Feb. 5. The Pennsylvania Bank sus- 
 pends payment, and is followed by 
 other banks in Philadelphia, Baltimore, 
 and other place3, but those of New York 
 and New England continue specie pay- 
 ments. 
 
 Feb. 10. The Upper and Lower Pro- 
 vinces of Canada united by special act, 
 and Lord Sydenham sworn in as Gov.- 
 General. 
 
 Feb. 25. The Bogue Forts of the city 
 
 of Canton captured by the British; the 
 city almost deserted by its inhabitants. 
 
 March 26. A suspension of hostilities 
 
 proclaimed by Captain Elliott, chief su- 
 perintendent of British commerce in 
 China, and the trade of the port of 
 Canton declared open. 
 
 j 1841. May 16. Yucatan declares its indepen- 
 dence of Mexico, and frames a constitu- 
 tion at Merida, 
 
 — May 21. The foreign trade of Canton 
 again suspended, and hostilities re- 
 newed between the Chinese and Eng- 
 lish. The British troops took posses- 
 sion after a severe action on the 25th, 
 and on the 27th a capitulation took 
 place, by which the Chinese agreed to 
 pay 6,000,000 dollars in one week, as a 
 ransom for the city; also that the 
 Chinese troops, except those of the pro- 
 vince, should be withdrawn within six 
 days sixty miles into the interior, and 
 that all losses sustained from the par- 
 tial destruction of the factories should 
 be paid. The sum stipulated was duly 
 paid. 
 
 — July 13. A treaty for the settlement of 
 the affairs of the East between the Sul- 
 tan of Turkey and the Pacha of Egypt, 
 signed at London by the representatives 
 of Austria, France, Great Britain, Prus- 
 sia, and Russia, by which the hereditary 
 possession of Egypt is confined to Me- 
 hemet Ali and his descendants in a- 
 direct line. The annual contribution 
 of Egypt to the Porte is fixed at 80,000 
 purses, or £400,000. The Viceroy not 
 to be allowed to build aship of warwith- 
 out the permission of the Sultan. 
 
 — Aug. 27, The Chinese fortress of Amoy 
 captured by the British forces under Sir 
 H. Pottinger. 
 
 — Oct. 1. The Chinese Island of Chusan 
 captured ty the British forces under Sir 
 H. Gough. 
 
 — Dec. 20. A treaty for the suppression of 
 the African slave trade, allowing a 
 
COM 
 
 COM 
 
 mutual and limited right of search, 
 signed at London by the representatives 
 of Great Britain, France, Austria, Prus- 
 sia, and Russia 
 1842. Jan. fit. Insurrection in Afghanistan. 
 6000 British troops massacred. A por- 
 tion of the Canton ransom, £550,000, 
 arrived in London. 
 
 March 11. Sir Robert Peel proposes an 
 
 income-tax of about three per cent. 
 
 March 18. Chinese try to retake Ningpo. 
 
 Aug. 10—18. Serious disturbances in 
 
 the manufacturing districts, and a ge- 
 neral turn-out for higher wages. 
 
 — — Aug. 20. The Maine boundary treaty 
 settled at Washington by Lord Ash- 
 burton and Daniel Webster. 
 
 Aug. 29. Treaty of peace between Great 
 
 Britain and China concluded near Nan- 
 kin. The Chinese agree to pay 21,000,000 
 dollars in four years, to open five of 
 their principal ports, Canton, Amoy, 
 Foochoo-fow, Ningpo, and Shanghae to 
 resident Consuls and to British com- 
 merce, and to cede the Island of Hong 
 Kong in perpetuity to the English Go- 
 vernment. 
 
 - Sept. 13. General Pollock defeats an 
 Affghan army, 13,000 strong, and a few 
 days afterwards occupies Cabul. 
 
 Sept. 23. A great fire at Liverpool des- 
 troys twenty warehouses, many dwell- 
 ing houses, and property to the value of 
 half a million. 
 
 Oct. 1. The Affghan war terminated by 
 
 proclamation of the Governor-General. 
 
 Dec. 31. The Great Seal of England 
 
 affixed to the treaty between the Bri- 
 tish Government and China. 
 
 1S43. March 23. Annexation of Scinde to the 
 British Empire by order of the Go- 
 vernor-General of India. 
 
 Jan. A treaty of commerce and na- 
 vigation between England and Russia 
 settled. 
 
 April. A memorial from the Bombay 
 
 Chamber of Commerce, complaining of 
 the interference of the East India Com- 
 pany with respect to the rates of ex- 
 change, presented to the Board of 
 Control. 
 
 Aug. 26. A dreadful fire at Kingston, 
 
 Jamaica, 400 houses reduced to ashes, 
 and property amounting to nearly hall 
 a million sterli'iir destroyed. 
 
 June 24. The Act of Incorporation for 
 
 the new Bank of Madras published, and 
 the bank opened July 1. 
 
 June 26. The ratifications of the treaty 
 
 of peace with China exchanged and 
 proclaimed at Hong Kong. 
 
 1813. Jan. 9. A fire at Port-au-Prince, St. Do- 
 mingo, destroys twelve squares, 600 
 buildings, and property valued at 
 4,000,000 dollars. 
 
 Feb. 17. Sir Charles Napier, with 2S00 
 
 British troops, defeats 22,000 Belooches 
 in India. 
 
 March 15. A great fire at Valparaiso 
 
 destroys property of the value of 
 1,500,000 dollars. 
 
 . Oct. 24. A destructive fire occurred at 
 
 Canton, by which more than 1400 
 houses were burnt, includingthe Danish 
 factory, Turner's factorv, and part of 
 the French factory, I 
 
 1843. Nov. 5. A French squadron takes pos- 
 session of the Society Islands, deposing 
 Queen Pomare. 
 
 1844. April 1. A Supplementary Treaty with 
 China presented to Parliament. 
 
 - June 1. The Emperor of Russia arrives 
 in London on a visit to the Queen, and 
 leaves on the 9th. 
 
 June 22. The third instalment of the 
 
 Chinese ransom (1,000,000 dollars) re- 
 ceived in London. 
 
 April 12. A treaty of annexation of 
 
 Texas to the United States, signed by 
 President Tyler, but rejected by the 
 Senate on the 8th June. 
 
 August. Tangiers and Mogadore, in 
 
 Morocco, bombarded, and the fortifica- 
 tions destroyed by the French fleet. 
 
 Sept. 10. Peace concluded between 
 
 France and Morocco, in which all the 
 demands of the former Power were 
 granted. 
 
 Oct. 24. Buenos Ayres declared in a 
 
 state of blockade by England and 
 France. 
 
 — — Nov. 20. The troops of General Rosas 
 defeated on the Parana by the combined 
 English and French force. 
 
 — — Dec. 11. Sir Robert Peel's Ministry 
 resigns on the question of the abolition 
 of the Corn laws, but, upon the failure 
 of Lord John Russell to form a Ministry, 
 resumes office. 
 
 Dec. 21. The Sikh army, numbering 
 
 30,000 men, defeated by the British 
 forces on the Sutlej. 
 
 Oct. 28. TheNew Royal Exchange opened 
 
 in state by Queen Victoria. 
 
 1845. Feb. 3. A fire destroys one- fourth of 
 the city of Bridgetown, Barbados, and 
 property to the amount of two million 
 dollars. 
 
 May 28. A dreadful fire took place in 
 
 Quebec, Canada, in which more than 
 1500 buildings were consumed, and pro- 
 perty to the amount of several million 
 dollars destroyed. 
 
 June 28. A second dreadful fire takes 
 
 place at Quebec, reducing another third 
 part of the city to ruins; 1300 dwellings 
 destroyed, and at least 6000 persons 
 rendered houseless. 
 
 July 19. A destructive fire breaks out 
 
 in the city of New York, destroying 302 
 stores and dwelling houses, and property 
 to the amount of 6,000,000 dollars. 
 
 Feb. 10. Sir Hugh Gough with 20,000 
 
 men defeats the Sikh anny numbering 
 36,000, and drives them across the Sutlej 
 with a loss of 10,000 killed and wounded, 
 while the British loss was only 2,400. 
 
 Feb. 28. The measures of Sir Robert 
 
 Peel for reforming the Corn Laws and the 
 general system of Trade, carried in the 
 House of Commons by a majority of 97. 
 May 29. The BiU for the Repeal of the 
 Corn Laws passed its second reading in 
 the House of Lords by a majority of 47. 
 
 June 12. A most disastrous fire occurred 
 
 at St John's, Newfoundland, by which 
 nearly the whole town was destroyed. 
 All the public buildings were burnt, 
 and nearly 6000 persons had to pass the 
 succeeding night in the open air, The 
 loss of property was estimated at a mil- 
 lion sterling. 
 
COM 
 
 74 
 
 COM 
 
 1845. July 3. A Bill for reducing the Duty 
 on Imports repealing the tariff of 1842, 
 passed the American House of Re- 
 presentatives in Congress, abolishing 
 all specific duties and minimums. It 
 was only carried in the Senate on July 
 28, by the casting vote of the Vice- 
 President. 
 1847. April 26. The Bogue forts in the China 
 Seas captured and destroyed by the 
 British under General Daguilar and Sir 
 John Davis. 
 
 1849. Oct. 15. A Treasury circular announces 
 that after January 1, 1850, British ves- 
 sels from British or other ports will be 
 allowed to enter American ports with 
 cargoes, the produce of any part of the 
 world, on the same terms as to duties, 
 imports, and charges as vessels of the 
 United States and their cargoes. 
 
 Dec 24. A l&rge fire at San Francisco, 
 
 California, consumed 1,500,000 dollars 
 worth of property. 
 
 1850. Dec. France protests and Lord Palmer- 
 ston remonstrates at Vienna against the 
 proposed extension of the Germanic 
 Confederation beyond the Alps. 
 
 1851. May 1. The Exhibition of the Works of 
 Industry of All Nations in Hyde Park, 
 inaugurated by Queen Victoria. 
 
 Dec. 2. Coup d'etat by Louis Napoleon. 
 
 Paris occupied by troops. National 
 Assembly and Council of State dissolved 
 and Universal Suffrage re-established. 
 
 1852. May. Offensive operations carried on 
 against the King of Ava by General 
 Godwin; Martaban and Rassein taken. 
 
 June 1. The first Submarine Cable, 80 
 
 miles long, successfully laid. 
 
 June 17. The islands Kuatan, Bonaeca, 
 
 Utilla, Barbarat, Helene and Morat, in 
 the Bay of Honduras, constituted into a 
 British colony under the name of "The 
 Bay Islands." 
 
 July 8. A tremendous fire broke out at 
 
 Montreal which raged two or three days, 
 destroying more than 1100 houses and 
 rendering upwards of 12,000 people 
 houseless. 
 1853 Nov. 30. A Turkish squadron destroyed 
 by the Russians at Sinope, in the Black 
 Sea. 
 
 Dec. 10. The French and British Fleets 
 
 enter the Black Sea. 
 
 1854. March 11. Queen Victoria reviews the 
 fleet, under the command of Sir Charles 
 Napier, at Portsmouth, before it leaves 
 for the Baltic. 
 
 April 11. The Emperor Nicholas issues 
 
 a manifesto to all his Russian subjects 
 stating the object of the war with Tur- 
 key and the Allied Powers. 
 
 April 12. The French squadron sails 
 
 from Brest to join the British fleet in 
 the Baltic. 
 
 April 22. Odessa bombarded by the 
 
 Allied fleets. 
 
 April 30. The first railway opened in 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 March. The Chancellor of the Exche- 
 quer announces an intended increase of 
 the property tax, and an issue of 
 £1,750,000 of unfunded debt. A French 
 loan of £10,000,000 and one for Turkey 
 of £2,750,000 announced. 
 
 March 26. The declaration of war 
 
 against Russia published in a supplement 
 to the London Gazette. 
 Numerous failures occurred. 
 
 1854. April. £6,000,000 of Exchequer bills ne- 
 gociated by Mr. Gladstone. 
 
 June 10. The Crystal Palace at Syden- 
 ham, opened by Queen Victoria. 
 
 Dec. The war exercises a depressing 
 
 influence on trade, which also suffers 
 from the changes which had taken place 
 in our mercantile relations with Austra- 
 lia and America. 
 1856. Feb. 18. The Chancellor of the Exche- 
 quer notifies the intention of the Go- 
 vernment to raise a loan for £5,000,000 
 and to fund Exchequer Bills to the 
 amount of £8,000,000. 
 
 April 2. The Czar authorizes the ex- 
 portation of wheat from all the Russian 
 ports. 
 
 April 5. The Sultan's permission for 
 
 the establishment of the Ottoman Bank 
 received in London. 
 
 April 15. A treaty signed between Eng- 
 land, France, and Austria guaranteeing 
 the independence and integrity of the 
 Ottoman Empire. 
 
 April 20. The ports of Greytown and 
 
 San Juan del Norte are blockaded by a 
 fleet of French, English, and American 
 
 — — April 28. The treaty of peace with 
 Russia is published, and formally pro- 
 claimed on the 29th. 
 
 May 9. The Government of Denmark 
 
 publish a protocol containing proposals 
 for the redemption of the Sound Dues, to 
 which the Governments of Russia, Swe- 
 den, and the Grand Duchy of Olden- 
 burg had given their official adhesion. 
 
 1856. July 15. The district of Natal, Southern 
 
 Africa, constituted a separate colony. 
 August 2. News from Monte Video re- 
 ports the passing of a law by the Argen- 
 tine Confederation, levying double duty 
 on goods shipped from Buenos Ayres and 
 Uruguay, in order to enforce a direct 
 trade, with Europe. 
 
 Nov. 8. The Chinese at Canton attempt 
 
 to destroy the British ships by fire-rafts. 
 
 Nov. 21. The Board of Trade notify that 
 
 Carthagena, New Granada, is declared a 
 free port. 
 
 Dec. 9. A treaty is concluded after two 
 
 years negociation between Great Britain 
 and the Sultan of Morocco and Fez. 
 1858. Jan. 14. Austria refuses, in correspon- 
 dence with France on the navigation of 
 the Danube, to recognise the right of the 
 parties to the Treaty of March 30, to in- 
 terfere with the Riverian convention. 
 
 — — Jan. 5. Commissioner Yeh is captured 
 at Canton, and sent a prisoner on board 
 the Inflexible. 
 
 Feb. 10. The blockade of Canton is 
 
 raised 
 
 Feb. 12. Lord Palmerston moves for 
 
 leave to bring in a bill to transfer from 
 the East India Company tothe Crown the 
 government of Her Majesty's East India 
 dominions. 
 
 March 22. Commissioner Yeh arrives 
 
 at Calcutta. 
 
 March 24. A loan of £5,000,000 for the 
 
 East India Company is announced in 
 London, with interest at 5 per cent. 
 
COM 
 
 75 
 
 COM 
 
 1853. April 13. A fearful conflagration breaks 
 out at Christiana ; the Bank, the Exche 
 quer, and a great portion of the city 
 destroyed, the loss being estimated at 
 about 10,000,000 francs. 
 
 — - April 23. A resolution is agreed to in 
 the House of Commons, imposing a 
 duty of one penny on bankers' cheques. 
 
 April 27. Afire occurs at St, Katharine's 
 
 Docks which destroys property valued 
 at about £100,000. 
 
 April 29. The allied English and French 
 
 Fleets are at anchor at the mouth of the 
 Peiho, and six days are granted to 
 China for a reply to the demands of the 
 Plenipotentiaries. 
 
 - April 30. The Chancellor of the Exche- 
 quer moves a resolution " That it is ex- 
 pedient to transfer the government of 
 India to the Crown," which is agreed 
 to. 
 
 May 17. The United States by Treaty 
 
 guarantee the perpetual sovereignty 
 and neutrality of the State of Panama. 
 
 May 20. The Chinese forts at the mouth 
 
 of the Peiho are captured by the Eng- 
 lish and French forces, 
 
 May 25. The bill imposing a penny 
 
 stamp on cheques comes into operation. 
 
 June 2. A Convention is concluded be- 
 tween the British and Brazilian Govern- 
 ments relating to outstanding claims 
 with Brazil. 
 
 June 11. The Board of Trade notifies 
 
 that by Imperial decree a new system is 
 established for the measurement of ves- 
 sels in Russia. 
 
 June 13. Russia and America sign 
 
 Treaties of Peace with China, which 
 country is now thrown open to the com- 
 merce of Europe, A previous Treaty 
 with Russia, made 28 May, fixes the 
 southern limits of the Russian frontier, 
 leaving the left bank of the Amoor in 
 possession of the latter Power. 
 
 — — June 21. A fire breaks out at Fresh 
 Wharf, Lower Thames Street, destroy- 
 ing property valued at £100,000. 
 
 June 26. The Treaty of Tien-tsin, con- 
 sisting of 56 articles, is signed by the 
 Earl of Elgin and the Chinese Imperial [ 
 Commissioner. 
 
 — — June 29. A most destructive fire breaks : 
 out in the London Docks which rages ' 
 for several houvs, accompanied by tre- 
 mendous explosions from the saltpetre 
 warehouses; the loss is computed at 
 about £150,000. 
 
 July 13. A Russian ukase imposes a 
 
 duty of five copecs per rouble upon all 
 articles of European imports and ex- 
 ports, except raw and refined sugars. 
 
 — — Aug. 4. The Mersey Dock Board hav- 
 ing completed a capacious dock at the 
 north end of Liverpool, intended for the 
 accommodation of the timber trade, 
 name it the Canada Dock. 
 
 - Aug. 5. Telegraphic communication es- 
 tablished across the Atlantic from 
 Valencia, Ireland, to Trinity Bay, New- 
 foundland. 
 
 Aug. 11. The Netherlands Government 
 
 declares the following ports open f.oin 
 the 1st June, 1859, to the ships of all na- 
 tions. In Java: Anjer, Bantam, Indra- 
 uiayoe, Cheribon, Tagal, Pekalongan, 
 
 Rembang, Passaroewang, Probolingo, 
 Bezoeki, Panoroekan, Banjoewangie, 
 Pangool, Patjitan, Tjilatjap, and Wyn- 
 koopsbay. In Sumatra: Natal and 
 Priaman. In Borneo : Sampit 
 
 1853. Aug. 19. A Convention signed at Paris 
 by the Plenipotentaries of France, Great 
 Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sar- 
 dinia, and Turkey, organizes the Princi- 
 palities of Moldavia and Wallachia into 
 united States under the sovereignty of 
 the Sultan. 
 
 Aug. 26. Lord Elgin concludes atYeddo 
 
 a treaty of commerce with Japan, by 
 which a permanent British mission is 
 agreed to, and resident Consuls at the 
 ports thrown open to commerce. The ports 
 fixed upon are Hakodadi, Kanagawa, 
 and Nagasaki, at which British trade is 
 permitted from the 1st July, 1859. Neee- 
 gata to be opened on the 1st Jan. 1860; 
 Hiogo on the 1st Jan. 1863; Yeddo, in 
 Jan. 1862, and Oasaca in 1863. 
 
 Sept 1. The last sitting of the Court of 
 
 Directors of the East India Company ; a 
 new Council for India under a Secretary 
 of State having been appointed. 
 
 A grand celebration at New York and 
 many other American cities, in honour 
 of the successful laying of the Atlantic 
 Submarine Cable. 
 
 Sept 13. The port ofVillafranca is ceded 
 
 for 20 years to Russia by Turin. 
 
 Nov. 1. A Royal proclamation issued 
 
 transferring the government of India to 
 the Crown, and nominating Lord Can- 
 ning Viceroy. 
 
 Nov. 1. A decimal system of weights and 
 
 measures, similar to that of France, comes 
 into operation in Saxony. The new 
 Austrian currency is circulated, and the 
 National Bank resumes its cash pay- 
 ments. 
 
 Nov. 2. Electric communication is 
 
 opened between the towns of Melbourne, 
 Sydney, and Adelaide. 
 
 Nov. 6. The new Chinese Tariff and 
 
 trade regulations are signed by Lord 
 Elgin at Shanghae. 
 
 Nov. 11. Russia notifies to Austria its 
 
 intention to terminate the Treaty of 
 commerce concluded July 8, 1856, for 
 eight years, but determinable at any 
 time by a previous notice of 12 months. 
 
 — — Nov. 13. A fire at Valparaiso destroys 
 property to the amount of 3,000,000 dol- 
 lars. 
 
 Dec, 3. The first through train on the 
 
 Suez railroad crosses the Isthmus in 11 
 hours from Suez to Alexandria. 
 
 Dec. 18. By a decree of the President 
 
 of the Dominican Republic, the ports of 
 Samana, Romana, and Monte Christi, in 
 St. Domingo, are declared closed to 
 foreign commerce. 
 
 Dec. 31. A new treaty of commerce and 
 
 navigation concluded between Great 
 Britain and Russia. 
 
 1859. Jan. 2. By a Treaty of alliance at Rio, 
 between Brazil, the Argentine Confede- 
 ration, and Uruguay, the independence 
 and integrity of the latter State is 
 guaranteed. 
 Jan. 15. General Giffraid, the new Pre- 
 sident of the Republic of Hayti, opens 
 by a decree to commerce the ports of St 
 
COM 
 
 7G 
 
 COM 
 
 Mark, Miragoane, Aquin, and Port de 
 Paix. 
 
 1859. Jan. 18. A treaty of commerce, naviga- 
 tion, and friendship concluded between 
 the State of Nicaragua and Great Britain, 
 by which the neutrality of the Isthmus is 
 recognised. 
 
 — — April 26. The King of Sardinia refuses 
 to comply with the summons of Austria 
 to disarm. The French Charge d' Af- 
 faires at Vienna announces to the Aus- 
 trian Government that the French Em- 
 peror would consider the crossing of the 
 Ticino by the Austrian troops as a decla- 
 ration of war. 
 
 April 29. The Emperor of Austria pub- 
 lishes his declaration of war, and his 
 troops cross the Ticino. 
 
 May 3. The French Emperor publishes 
 
 his declaration of war. 
 
 May 7. A French loan for £20,000,000 
 
 opened. 
 
 May 10. The Emperor Napoleon leaves 
 
 Paris for the seat of war. 
 
 May 20. The battle of Montebello 
 
 fought, in which the allies defeat the 
 Austrians. 
 
 June 4. The battle of Magenta fought, 
 
 and on the 8th the French Emperor and 
 King of Sardinia enter Milan. 
 
 COMMERCIAL TREATIES.--The following is a list of the countries 
 with which we now have Treaties of Commerce, Navigation, and Reciprocity. 
 
 1859. June 24. Battle of Solferino fought, in 
 which the Austrians are defeated, but 
 with very heavy loss on both sides. 
 
 June 25. The English and French at- 
 tempting to force the passage of the Peiho, 
 are repulsed by the Chinese with a loss 
 of 634 killed and wounded, the loss of 
 3 gun boats, and others greatly injured. 
 
 July 9. The island of San Juan, near 
 
 Vancouver's Island, taken possession of 
 by General Harney with the United 
 States troops. Governor Douglass, of 
 British Columbia, protests. 
 
 July 1 1. A Treaty of Peace signed by 
 
 the Emperors of France and Austria at 
 Villafranca. 
 
 July 25. A strike commences among 
 
 the builders of London for shorter work- 
 ing hours, which is continued for many 
 months. 
 
 Oct. 22. Announcement made in the 
 
 Spanish Cortds by General O'Donnell 
 that Spain was about to commence war 
 with Morocco. 
 1860. Jan. 20. A Treaty of Commerce signed 
 at Paris between Her Majesty and the 
 French, by which important commercial 
 concessions in respect to duties are 
 made by each nation. 
 
 Abyssinia 
 Austria 
 
 Bavaria 
 Belgium 
 Bolivia 
 Borneo 
 
 Bremen 
 Buenos Ayres 
 
 Chili 
 China 
 Costa Rica - 
 
 Denmark - 
 Dominica - 
 
 Ecuador - 
 
 France 
 
 Frankfort - 
 
 Nov. 2, 1849 
 July 3, 1838 
 
 | Mar. 2, 1841 
 
 Oct. 27, 1851 
 Sept. 29, 1840 
 May 27, 1847 
 
 Aug. 3, 1841 
 Feb. 2, 1825 
 
 Oct. 4, 1854 
 Oct. 8, 1843 
 Nov. 27, 1849 
 
 June 16, 1824 
 Mar. 6, 1850 
 
 May 3, 1851 
 
 Jan. 26, 1826 
 
 I May 13, 1832 
 [ Dec 29, 1835 
 
 Reciprocity 
 Reciprocity 
 
 See Prussia 
 Reciprocity 
 Reciprocity 
 
 See Han se Towns. 
 Reciprocity 
 
 Reciprocity 
 
 Reciprocity 
 
 Reciprocity 
 Reciprocity 
 
 Reciprocity 
 
 Reciprocity 
 Navigation 
 
 Reciprocity 
 
 Most favoured 
 
 nation 
 Most favoured. 
 
 Conditional 
 
 Most favoured 
 Most favoured 
 
 Most favoured 
 
 Most favoured 
 
 Most favoured 
 
 Most favoured 
 
 Conditional 
 
 Most favoured 
 Conditional 
 
 Most favoured 
 Conditional 
 
 Most favoured 
 Navigation 
 
 Equalization of 
 Shipping Dues. 
 
 National treatment. 
 
 National treatment. 
 
 National treatment. 
 
 British ships not to 
 pay a higher duty 
 than 1 dollar per 
 ton (register) in 
 ports of Borneo. 
 
 National treatment on 
 vessels over 120 
 tons burthen. 
 
 National treatment. 
 
 National treatment. 
 
 National treatment. 
 National treatment. 
 
 National treatment. 
 
 National treatment 
 in direct trade and 
 in ballast. 
 
 National treatment. 
 
 Mar. 2, 1841 
 
 Frankfort (Customs 
 
 Union) - 
 Germany (Customs 
 
 Union) - - ' 
 
 Greece - - Oct. 4, 1837 
 
 Guatemala - Feb. 20, 1849 
 
 Reciprocity 
 Reciprocity 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Aug. 3, 1841 .SeeHanse Towns. 
 
 National treatment: 
 Most favoured National treatment. 
 Conditional 
 
COM 
 
 77 
 
 COM 
 
 Hanover - - July 22, 1844 
 
 f Sept. 29, 1825 
 Hanse Towns - < 
 
 I Aug. 3, 1841 
 
 Hesse Cassel - ) M « iq 4 i 
 
 Hesse Darmstadt - \ Mar * 2 ' 1841 
 Honduras - Aug. 27, 1856 
 
 Japan - - Aug. 26, 1853 
 
 Johanna - - June 3, 1850 
 
 Liberia - - Nov. 21, 1848 
 
 Lubeck 
 Mecklenburg 
 
 Schwerin 
 M ecklenburg-Stre- 
 
 litz 
 Mexico 
 Morocco - 
 Muscat 
 
 Reciprocity Most favoured 
 Conditional 
 Reciprocity 
 
 See Prussia. 
 
 Reciprocity Most favoured 
 
 - Most favoured 
 
 Reciprocity Most favoured 
 
 Reciprocity Most favoured 
 
 Conditional 
 
 Equalization of 
 
 Shipping Dues. 
 
 National treatment. 
 
 National treatment, 
 
 direct. 
 ■ National treatment, 
 Indirect 
 
 National treatment. 
 
 National treatment. 
 National treatment. 
 
 Aug. 3, 1811 See Hanse Towns. 
 - May 1, 1844 Reciprocity Most favoured National treatment. 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 New Granada 
 (Colombia) 
 Oldenburg 
 Paraguay - 
 
 Persia 
 Peru 
 
 Portugal - 
 
 May 1, 1844 
 Dec. 26, 1826 
 Dec. 9, 1856 
 May 31, 1839 
 
 Mar 2, 1841 
 Mar. 17, 1824 
 
 Oct. 27, 1837 
 
 Mar. 27, 1851 
 
 Apr. 18, 1825 
 Apr. 4, 1844 
 Mar. 4, 1853 
 
 Mar. 4, 1857 
 Apr. 10, lb50 
 
 - July 3, 1842 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Prussia, &c (Cus- 
 toms Union) 
 
 Reuss Gleitz 
 
 Reuss Schleitz 
 
 Reuss Lobenstein 
 and Ebersdorn? - 
 
 Roman States 
 
 Russia 
 
 Sandwich Islands - 
 
 Sardinia - 
 
 Saxe Weimar Eise- 
 nach 
 
 Saxe Meiningen - 
 
 Saxe Altenburg - 
 
 Saxe CoburgGotha 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Schwartzburg 
 Rudolstadt 
 
 Schwartzburg Son- 
 dershausen 
 
 Siam 
 Sicilies 
 
 Apr. 2, 1824 
 Mar. 2, 1841 
 
 ► Mar. 2, 1841 
 
 Nov. 17, 1853 
 Jan. 12, 1859 
 July 10, 1851 
 Jan. 23, 1851 
 Feb. 27, 1858 
 
 Mar. 2, 1841. 
 
 ( June 20, 1826 
 April 18, 1855 
 May 13,1856 
 April 29, 1845 
 
 Reciprocity 
 Reciprocity 
 Reciprocity 
 
 Most favoured 
 Most favoured 
 Most favoured 
 Most favoured 
 
 See Prussia. 
 
 - Most favoured ; 
 East Indies 
 Reciprocity Most favoured 
 Conditional 
 
 Most favoured 
 Most favoured 
 Most favoured 
 Conditional 
 Most favoured 
 Most favoured 
 Conditional 
 
 Most favoured 
 Conditional 
 
 Reciprocity 
 Reciprocity 
 Reciprocity 
 
 Reciprocity 
 
 Reciprocity 
 
 Reciprocity 
 Reciprocity 
 
 See Prussia 
 
 Reciprocity Most favoured National treatment. 
 
 Navigation 
 
 Reciprocity Most favoured National treatment. 
 
 Conditional 
 Reciprocity Most favoured National treatment. 
 
 Conditional 
 
 - National treatment 
 
 National treatment 
 National treatment. 
 National treatment 
 Sum not exceeding 5 
 per cent, on im- 
 ports, to cover 
 tonnage dues, &c 
 
 National treatment. 
 
 National treatment. 
 National treatment. 
 National treatment. 
 
 National treatment 
 
 on vessels over 200 
 
 tons burden. 
 National treatment, 
 
 in direct trade and 
 
 in ballast. 
 National treatment 
 
 National treatment 
 
 Reciprocity 
 
 See Prussia. 
 
 Reciprocity 
 
 Most favoured 
 Conditional 
 
 - Most favoured British shipping ex- 
 empt 
 
 Most favoured National treatment, in 
 Conditional direct trade and in 
 
 ballast. 
 
COM 
 
 78 
 
 COB 
 
 Sweden and Nor- Mar. 18, 1826 Reciprocity- 
 way 
 Switzerland 
 Thuringian Union 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Tuscany - 
 
 United States 
 
 Sept. 6, 1855 
 Mar. 2, 1841 
 Jan. 5, 1809 
 Aug. 16, 1838 
 Apr. 5, 1847 
 July 3, 1815 " 
 Oct. 20, 1818 
 Aug. 6, 1827 
 June 5, 1854 
 
 - Apr. 5, 1847 
 
 {July 3, 1815 ") 
 Oct. 20, 1818 f 
 Aug. 6, 1827) 
 June S, 1854 
 
 Uruguay = 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Wurtemberg 
 
 Aug. 26, 1812 
 
 Nov 7,1825; 
 Oct. 29, 1834 
 Mar. 2, 1841 
 
 Reciprocity 
 See Prussia. 
 
 Reciprocity 
 
 Reciprocity 
 
 Reciprocity 
 
 Reciprocity 
 
 Reciprocity 
 Reciprocity 
 See Prussia. 
 
 Equalization of 
 hipping Dues. 
 
 Most favoured National treatment. 
 Decree, Oct. 26, 1849 
 Most favoured 
 
 Most favoured 
 
 Most favoured 
 
 National treatment. 
 
 National treatment. 
 Notification, Oct. 
 15, 1849. 
 Most favoured National treatment. 
 
 Conditional 
 Most favoured 
 
 National treatment 
 
 COPPER. The imports of copper ore and regulus have largely increased 
 of late years, having risen from 40,000 or 50,000 tons some ten or fifteen years 
 back to 97,000 in 1858. There is also a larger quantity of partially wrought 
 copper or metal imported. The imports, which were under 30,000 cwts. in 1844, 
 reached 218,000 cwts. in 1859. Very full and precise information is now given 
 as to the production of copper, and all the statistics connected with the trade in 
 copper in the Mining Records, issued annually from the Museum of Practical 
 Geology. Mr. Robert Hunt gives the following as the production of copper in the 
 United Kingdom: — 
 
 Copper Ore, tons 
 Value of Copper Ore 
 Fine Copper, tons 
 Estimated Value of ditto 
 
 1857. 
 
 1858. 
 
 218,698 
 
 £1,560,922 
 
 17,375 
 
 £2,154,545 
 
 226,852 
 
 £1,336,535 
 
 14,456 
 
 £1,562,693 
 
 There are 164 mines, of which 123 are in Cornwall and Devon. The mean 
 average price of fine copper ore was .£124. in 1857, and £108. in 1858. In 
 1859 it went up as high as £144. 17*. The total quantity of copper ore produced 
 from British and from foreign and colonial ores in 1858 was 31,611 tons, of the 
 value of £73,4 17,1 49. 
 
 The following continues, down to the present time, the value of the exports of 
 this metal in its manufactured state : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Declared Value. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Declared Value. 
 £. 
 
 
 £. 
 
 
 1839 
 
 1,280,586 
 
 1850 
 
 1,978,196 
 
 1840 
 
 1,450,464 
 
 1851 
 
 1,639,156 
 
 1841 
 
 1,523,744 
 
 1852 
 
 1,704,083 
 
 1842 
 
 1,810,742 
 
 1853 
 
 1,854,331 
 
 1843 
 
 1,644,248 
 
 1854 
 
 1,768,950 
 
 1844 
 
 1,735,873 
 
 1855 
 
 2,110,906 
 
 1845 
 
 1,694.441 
 
 1856 
 
 2,648,259 
 
 1846 
 
 1,558,187 
 
 1857 
 
 3,124,049 
 
 1847 
 
 1,541,868 
 
 1858 
 
 2,854,551 
 
 1843 
 
 1,V57,944 
 
 1859 
 
 2,600,307 
 
 1849 
 
 1,875,865 
 
 
 
 In 1859,unwrought copper of the value of £471,076 went to France, j£l03,576 
 to India, besides sheet and copper, &c. of the value of £612,484. Holland and 
 Belgium, the United States and Brazil, are the other principal purchasers. 
 
 CORN. In the absence of any reliable data, it has been impossible hitherto 
 
COE 
 
 79 
 
 COR 
 
 to determine, with any degree of accuracy, the amount of grain and provisions 
 annually produced, the quantity stored, or whether a larger or smaller breadth 
 of land" has been sown in one season than another, throughout the kingdom. 
 The injury that results from this ignorance has not been confined alone to 
 the farmers, who are frequently outwitted by importers and others flooding the 
 markets, but all dealers in, and consumers of, agricultural products are equally 
 liable to sustain pecuniary loss therefrom, by making false calculations and de- 
 pending upon erroneous estimates. The shipowner, the merchant, the corn 
 dealer, the baker, and the wheat grower in the colonies and foreign countries, all 
 sutler from the absence of correct statistics as to the home production and con- 
 sumption of grain. Of late years we have had agricultural statistics collected 
 in Ireland and Scotland, but there are none for England and Wales. In the 
 Journal of Agriculture of Edinburgh, for June, 1856 (p. 177), in a long and 
 elaborate statistical article, I took some pains to estimate the production, con- 
 sumption, and commerce of grain in Great Britain, America, and France, and 
 from that article I may extract a few facts. 
 
 Towards the fourth quarter of the last century, we began to import largely of 
 grain, the excess of imports of corn over exports having amounted in that 
 period to about 20,000,000 quarters. From 1800 to 1837 the annual average of 
 wheat and wheat-flour imported did not exceed half a million quarters; but sub- 
 sequently to that year, on the repeal of the Cora Laws, the receipts from abroad 
 began largely to increase, averaging in the next four years more than 2,000,000 
 quarters. While the quantity of all kinds of corn imported from 1843 to 1846 
 did not exceed, on the average, 4,000,000 quarters; the famine year, 1847, 
 brought in immense supplies, reaching to nearly 12,000,000 quarters. 
 
 In the last twenty years we have imported from various countries the follow- 
 ing quantities of grain in quarters, including pulse: — 
 
 1840 - 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 3,475,098 
 
 1850 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 7,920,864 
 
 1841 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 3,258,698 
 
 1851 
 
 - 
 
 • 
 
 - 
 
 8,093,401 
 
 1842 - 
 
 
 
 3,361,756 
 
 1852 
 
 - 
 
 ■ 
 
 - 
 
 6,641,729 
 
 1843 - 
 
 - 
 
 • 
 
 1,305,516 
 
 1853 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 8,847,608 
 
 1844 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 2,747,951 
 
 1S54 
 
 m 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 6,850,500 
 
 1845 - 
 
 - 
 
 • 
 
 2,157,727 
 
 1855 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 5,729,241 
 
 1846 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 3,790,951 
 
 1856 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 8,197,253 
 
 1847 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 9,436,677 
 
 1857 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 8,545,182 
 
 1848 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 6,945,492 
 
 1858 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 ■ 
 
 10,188,265 
 
 1849 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 9,651,956 
 
 1859 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 9,220,737 
 
 
 Total Quarters 
 
 . 
 
 _ 
 
 126,366,611 
 
 
 
 Annual 
 
 Average 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 6,318,330 
 
 
 We also received large quantities of flour and meal, namely:- 
 
 Year. 
 
 Wheat Floui. 
 
 Other kinds of Meal. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1840 . 
 
 1,537,838 
 
 8,708 
 
 1,546,546 
 
 1841 . 
 
 
 
 
 1,263,126 
 
 12,530 
 
 1,275,656 
 
 1849 
 
 
 
 
 1,129,852 
 
 21,003 
 
 1,150,855 
 
 1843 
 
 
 
 
 436,878 
 
 5,584 
 
 442,462 
 
 1844 
 
 
 
 
 980,645 
 
 4,056 
 
 984,701 
 
 1845 
 
 
 
 
 945,864 
 
 3,052 
 
 948,916 
 
 1846 
 
 
 
 
 3,190,429 
 
 157,137 
 
 3,347,565 
 
 1847 
 
 
 
 
 6,329,058 
 
 2,304,933 
 
 8,633,991 
 
 1848 
 
 
 
 
 1,754,449 
 
 275,788 
 
 2,030,237 
 
 1849 
 
 
 
 
 3,349,839 
 
 162,001 
 
 3,511,840 
 
 1850 
 
 
 
 
 3,819,440 
 
 18,568 
 
 3,838,008 
 
 1851 
 
 
 
 
 5,314,414 
 
 18,955 
 
 5,333,369 
 
 1852 
 
 
 
 
 3,865,173 
 
 1,546 
 
 3,860,719 
 
 1853 
 
 
 
 
 4,621,506 
 
 16,504 
 
 4,638,010 
 
 1854 
 
 
 
 
 3 646,505 
 
 58,655 
 
 3,705,160 
 
 1855 
 
 
 
 
 1,904,224 
 
 18,094 
 
 1,922,318 
 
 1856 
 
 
 
 
 3,970,100 
 
 21,267 
 
 3,991,367 
 
 1857 
 
 
 
 
 2,178,148 
 
 6,028 
 
 2.184,176 
 
 1858 
 
 
 
 
 3,856,127 
 
 9,869 
 
 3,865,996 
 
 1859 . 
 
 3,328,324 
 
 
 
COR 80 COE 
 
 TOTAL GRAIN AND MEAL IMPORTED IN IMPERIAL QUARTERS. 
 
 1840 - 3,920,014 1850 - 9,019,590 
 
 1841 - 3,627,562 1851 - 9,618,028 
 
 1842 - 3,697,279 1852 - - - 7,746,669 
 
 1843 ... - 1,433,891 1853 - - - 10,173,135 
 
 1844 - 3,030,681 1854 - 7,909,544 
 
 1845 - 2,429,916 1855 - 6,278,813 
 
 1846 - 4,752,174 1856 ... - 9,339,425 
 
 1847 - - - 11,912,864 1857 ... - 9,169,180 
 
 1848 - 7,528,472 1858 - 11,289,080 
 
 1849 - 10,609,661 1859 - 11,293,705 
 
 Average of the twenty years, 7,242,454 quarters. 
 
 France and the United Kingdom contain a population of 65,000,000, who are 
 fast acquiring that higher standard of eomfort which enables the masses to con- 
 sume good wheat-bread in place of much cheaper vegetable food. In Northern 
 and Central Europe, in Italy, in France, and the United States, brown bread 
 and maize bread are gradually giving way to wheaten bread. 
 
 Place good wheaten bread and that made from Indian-corn meal on the tables 
 of the million, and rye-bread, meal dumplings, and oatmeal porridge will in a 
 few years cease to exist. Even in the British West Indies, Cuba, Brazil, and 
 Central America, the consumption of American wheat and flour is largely on 
 the increase, and is taking the place of plantains, yams, and other indigenous 
 farinaceous food. 
 
 The estimates of the production of wheat in the United Kingdom vary con- 
 siderably. I take it that the breadth of land under wheat at present is fully 
 5,000,000 acres, which, at a yield of four quarters per acre for a good harvest, 
 would give a return of 20,000,000 quarters. The average import for many 
 years past, we have seen, has been upwards of 7,000,000 quarters of grain and 
 meal, but in the last seven years it has been fully 9,350,400 quarters per annum. 
 We will take the whole supply, in round numbers, at 30,000,000 quarters. Of 
 our home produce about 2,000,000 quarters would be required for seed, for 
 starch, manufacturing, and other purposes, leaving, say, 28,000,000 quarters to 
 supply the population in ordinary years. 
 
 In considering this question, much will depend upon the ratio of consumption 
 by which we calculate. Mr. Caird places it at about 5\ bushels per head for 
 26,000,000 persons. Some statists reckon it as high as one quarter, but pro- 
 bably the medium of 6 bushels per head may be considered a fair average. For 
 all practical purposes, then, we may take the population of the United Kingdom 
 now at 28,000,000, and the annual consumption by these, at 6 bushels per head, 
 would be 21,000,000 quarters. 
 
 I may here quote an estimate of the Bankers* Circular, which is more mode- 
 rate. The writer frames it upon the following deductions:— He takes the quan- 
 tity of wheat sold in the markets, whence the averages are drawn, as one-third 
 of the total growth in England and Wales, and, adding the quantity imported, 
 considers the total would furnish a near approximation to the consumption, if 
 the produce of Ireland and Scotland is added. The figures thus given show an 
 average annual consumption in the following six years of about 18,000,000 quarters. 
 
 Total. 
 Quarters. 
 18,164,424 
 18,895,004 
 18,791,535 
 18,728,142 
 19,918,596 
 16,212,856 
 
 Mr. Colquhoun, an able statistical writer, about forty years ago calculated the 
 consumption in Great Britain, for a population of 17,000,000, to be 9,170,000 
 quarters of wheat, and 25,780,000 quarters of other grain. Twenty-five years 
 ago, Mr. James Macqueen (General Statistics of the British Empire) estimated 
 the land under culture in the kingdom, with wheat at upwards of 5,000,000 acres, 
 and in other kinds of grain at 10,000,000 acres, his summary of the quantity and 
 value of the grain crops being as follows: — 
 
 
 Home Produce. 
 
 Imports of Wheat & Flour. 
 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 1849 
 
 14,361,949 
 
 4,802,475 
 
 1850 
 
 14,064,741 
 
 4,830,263 
 
 1851 
 
 13,461,123 
 
 5,330,412 
 
 1852 
 
 14,563,539 
 
 4,164,104 
 
 1853 
 
 13,612,736 
 
 6,235,860 
 
 1854 
 
 11,739,771 
 
 4,473,085 
 
COR 81 COE 
 
 Acres, Produce per Acre. Quantity. £ 
 
 Wheat - 5,000,000 4 Quarters 20,000,000 at 50s. 50,000,000 
 
 Bailey - 2,000,000 5 Quarters 10,000,000 at 36s. 18,000,000 
 
 Oats, &c - 8,000,000 6 Quarters 44,000,000 at 30s. 60,000,000 
 
 Total value - - £134,000,000 
 
 These figures, although too high at that period, are very near the mark now, 
 except of course as to the value. 
 
 The estimated consumption of the cereals and pulse in Great Britain was thus 
 given in 1825: — 
 
 Quarters. 
 Wheat .......... 11,000,000 
 
 Barley ------... 8,000,000 
 
 Oats ---------- 20,000,000 
 
 Pease and Beans ------- 2,200,000 
 
 Rye --- 800,000 
 
 Total quarters - - 42,000,000 
 In Jacob's Report of the Corn Trade and Agriculture, the average production 
 of wheat in England, in the eleven years ending with 1827, was stated at 
 12,760,000 quarters, 1,300,000 quarters being reserved for seed. The largest 
 harvest was 16,000,000 quarters in 1820; the smallest 11,500,000 in 1824. 
 
 Mr. Braithwaite Poole, a very careful and well-informed inquirer, in his 
 Statistics of British Commerce, published in 1852, states that the annual aver- 
 age production of all sorts of corn in the United Kingdom has been estimated 
 by competent parties at rather more than 60,000,000 quarters, and £30,000,000 
 in value ; but, in the absence of general official returns, we cannot vouch for its 
 accuracy, although, from various comparisons, there are reasonable grounds for 
 assuming this calculation to be as nearly correct as possible. Some persons in 
 the corn trade imagine the aggregate production to approach almost 80,000,000 
 quarters; but I cannot find any data extant to warrant such an assumption 
 
 According to this estimate, the produce of grain, &c. in different districts 
 would be about as follows: — 
 
 Wheat. Oats. Barley. Beans, &c. 
 
 England . 15,200,000 12,500,000 6,375,000 1,875,000 
 
 Ireland . 1,800,000 11,500,000 1,120,000 540,000 
 
 Scotland . 1,225,000 6,500,000 1,800,900 150,000 
 
 Quarters 18,225,000 30,500,000 9,295,000 2,565,000 
 
 ESTIMATED ACREAGE. 
 
 Wheat Oats. Barley. Beans, <fe& 
 
 England . 3,800,000 2,500,000 1,500,000 500,000 
 
 Ireland . 600,000 2,300,000 320,000 50,000 
 
 Scotland . 350,000 1,300,000 450,000 50,000 
 
 4,750,000 6,100,000 2,270,000 680,000 
 
 Mr. M'Culloch, in his Geographical Dictionary, article " Scotland," assumed 
 the distribution of the crops for North Britain to be as follows: — 
 
 Acres. Produce TotaL 
 
 Wheat - 220,000 3 Quarters 660,000 
 
 Barley - - - 280.000 3i ... 980,000 
 
 Oats - - - 1,275,000 i\ ... 5,7?7,500 
 
 Beans and Pease - 100,000 3 ... 300,000 
 
 1,175,000 7,677,500 
 The statistics taken for 1857 show the following figures for Scotland: — 
 
 Acres. Produce (Quarters). 
 
 Wheat - 223,152 769,366 
 
 Barley - 198,387 811.817 
 
 Oats and Rye - - - 955,831 4,111,068 
 
 Beans - - . 42,873 129,720 
 
 1,420,293 5,821,971 
 
 O 
 
COR 82 COE 
 
 The Irish Census Commissioners in 1858 returned the land under cultivation 
 with cereal crops at — 
 
 Acres. Quarters. 
 
 Wheat - 551,386 546,964 
 
 Oats - 1,970,929 1,981,241 
 
 Barley, Rye, &c. 207,210 207,240 
 
 2,735,525 2,735,445 
 
 According to the agricultural statistics partially taken recently in some of the 
 English counties, under the Poor-Law Inspectors, it was roughly assumed that 
 the land now under cereal crops in England and Wales might be taken to be — 
 
 Wheat -------- 3,807,846 acres 
 
 Barley 2,667,776 ... 
 
 Oats ........ 1,302 782 ... 
 
 Rye --------- 73,731 ... 
 
 Beans and Pease -••••• 698,188 ... 
 
 8,550,323 
 
 Having glanced at the production and consumption of grain in our own coun- 
 try, let us next examine the great American fields of production in the United 
 States and Canada. 
 
 The shipments of corn of various kinds from the great grain depots of Ame- 
 rica and the continent are now on an enormous scale; but those of the New 
 World are fast outstripping the Old. Witness the following figures, showing 
 the shipments from the principal ports, at stated periods: — 
 
 
 
 
 Bushels of Grain. 
 
 Odessa, 1853 
 
 , 
 
 , 
 
 21,997,696 
 
 Galatz and Ibraila, 
 
 1851 
 
 • . 
 
 12,7.12,000 
 
 Dantzic, average 
 
 . 
 
 • 
 
 4,408,000 
 
 St. Petersburg, do. 
 
 • 
 
 . 
 
 7,200,000 
 
 Archangel, do. 
 
 < 
 
 . 
 
 2,128,000 
 
 Riga, do 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 St. Louis, 1853 
 
 . • 
 
 • 
 
 5,081,488 
 
 Milwaukie, 1854 
 
 < 
 
 > 
 
 3,747,161 
 
 New York, do. 
 
 • ■ 
 
 » 
 
 9,500,000 
 
 Buffalo, do. 
 
 • 
 
 . 
 
 22,000,000 
 
 Chicago, 1856 
 
 • 
 
 - 
 
 21,583,291 
 
 Cleveland, 1853 
 
 - 
 
 ■ 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 The Hon J. Perkins, junior, of the American Patent Office, in his report on 
 the agriculture of the United States for 1853, stated the following to be the 
 amount of the several grain crops and pulse raised: — 
 
 Indian Corn 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Rye 
 
 Oats 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Beans and Pease 
 
 Rice 
 
 600,000,000 bushels 
 110,000,000 .. 
 
 14,000,000 .. 
 160,000,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 9,300,000 .. 
 250,000,000 .. 
 
 
 1,153,800,000 .. 
 Or 144,412,500 quarters. 
 
 The aggregate value of these crops he gave at £82,000,000 sterling. The 
 value of American flour alone exported in the year 1853 was nearly £3,000,000 
 sterling. The land under cultivation in the United States is about 118,000,000 
 acres. 
 
 An examination of the statistics proves that by far the largest production of 
 wheat in America is between the parallels of 40° and 50° latitude— compre- 
 hending Ohio, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and the largest part of Illinois, 
 which annually produce half the wheat raised in the United States. Compared 
 with the production immediately south of them, the wheat raised in Michigan, 
 
COE 
 
 83 
 
 COR 
 
 Wisconsin, and Canada, is as yet comparatively small, but still largely on the 
 increase. 
 
 The state of Ohio usually raises about one-fifth of all the wheat grown in the 
 States. The laws of Ohio require the assessors to ascertain annually the precise 
 breadth in acres of wheat and Indian corn planted, and the quantity produced. 
 The acres planted in wheat averaged, in 1850 to 1852, 1,731,000; and the aggre- 
 gate produce of those three years was 10,000,000 quarters, and the average 
 3,332,000 quarters. The average yield per acre of the three years was about 
 15 bushels. 
 
 In the year 1853 an average crop of wheat was raised in the United States, 
 and, owing to the scarcity in Europe, as much as 3,000,000 quarters of flour and 
 wheat was exported ; but it left the home markets very bare. The domestic 
 consumption by the white population may be taken at 13,563,000 quarters, and 
 for seed 1,250,000 quarters — making an aggregate home demand of 14,813,000 
 quarters. Out of a crop of 25,000,000 bushels, Ohio can export about 14,000,000 
 bushels. The following was the production and export of wheat in the United 
 States, in the years named, in bushels : — 
 
 Yean. 
 
 Crop. 
 
 Export. 
 
 1849 , 
 
 100,485 9 14 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 1850 
 
 143,000,000 , 
 
 ; 7,732,191 
 
 1851 
 
 101,000.000 , 
 
 , 12,038,380 
 
 1852 , 
 
 , 143,000,000 
 
 16,551,902 
 
 1853 
 
 110,000,000 
 
 24,000,000 
 
 1854 
 
 150,000,000 
 
 19,000,000 
 
 In 1855 there was very little wheat and flour shipped from the States* 
 
 I can give the value in subsequent years of the shipments of grain and meal 
 from the United States, but not the quantities. 
 
 Wheat • • 
 
 Flour • - 
 
 Indian Corn 
 
 Indian Meal 
 
 Rye Meal 
 
 Other Grain and Pulse - 
 
 Dollars 
 
 £ 
 
 Fiscal Years ending June 30, Value in Dollars 
 of 8hipment; 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1857. 
 
 1858. 
 
 1,329,246 
 
 10,896,908 
 
 6,961,571 
 
 1,237,122 
 
 236,248 
 
 238,976 
 
 15,115,661 
 
 29,275,148 
 
 7,622,565 
 
 1,175,688 
 
 214,563 
 
 2,718,620 
 
 22,240,857 
 
 25,882,316 
 
 5,184,666 
 
 957,791 
 
 115,828 
 
 680,108 
 
 9,061,504 
 
 19,328,884 
 
 3,259.039 
 
 877,692 
 
 56,235 
 
 642,764 
 
 20,900,071 
 
 56,122,215 
 
 55,061,566 
 
 33,226,118 
 
 4,180,015 
 
 11,224,449 
 
 11,012,313 
 
 6,645,223 
 
 Average prices of grain in the United States: — 
 
 
 1856. 
 
 1857. 
 
 1858. 
 
 
 Dols. Cents. 
 
 Dols. Cents. 
 
 Dols. Cents. 
 
 Wheat Flour, sup. ban-el 
 
 7 
 
 47 
 
 6 
 
 23 
 
 4 73 
 
 Corn Meal, barrel 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 54 
 
 3 67 
 
 Wheat, White Western, bushel 
 
 2 
 
 06 
 
 1 
 
 69 
 
 1 43 
 
 Wheat, Red Winter 
 
 1 
 
 83 
 
 1 
 
 56 
 
 1 24 
 
 Wheat, Spring . 
 
 1 
 
 65 
 
 1 
 
 39 
 
 1 02 
 
 Rye 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 92 
 
 79 
 
 Oats . 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 43 
 
 Indian Corn 
 
 
 
 81 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 76 
 
 The New York Courier and Enquirer, a highly respectable commercial 
 journal, has taken great pains to furnish reliable estimates of the wheat pro- 
 duction, and after extended inquiry and considerable research, gives the follow- 
 ing tables, which seem entitled to weight. 
 
COE 84 COR 
 
 Estimate of the Growth of Wheat in the different American States and Terri- 
 
 tories in 1855, as compared 
 
 with the production of 1847, as per Patent Office 
 
 Report, and 1850, 
 
 by Census Returns, viz. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1847. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1855. 
 
 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Maine 
 
 . 
 
 89,000 
 
 296,259 
 
 400,000 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 - 
 
 610,000 
 
 185,658 
 
 250,000 
 
 Vermont 
 
 - 
 
 664,060 
 
 525,925 
 
 700,000 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 • 
 
 256,000 
 
 31,221 
 
 100,000 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 - 
 
 4,500 
 
 49 
 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 - 
 
 125,000 
 
 41,762 
 
 80,000 
 
 New York 
 
 - 
 
 14,500,000 
 
 13,121,498 
 
 15.000,000 
 
 New Jersey- 
 
 - 
 
 1,100,000 
 
 1,601,190 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 - 
 
 14,150,000 
 
 15,367,691 
 
 18,000,000 
 
 Delaware 
 
 - 
 
 410,000 
 
 482,511 
 
 500,000 
 
 Maryland 
 
 - 
 
 4,690,000 
 
 4,494,680 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 Disk Columbia 
 
 - 
 
 
 17,370 
 
 20,000 
 
 Virginia 
 
 * 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 11,232,616 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 - 
 
 2,350,000 
 
 2,130,102 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 - 
 
 1,300,000 
 
 1,066,277 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 Georgia 
 
 - 
 
 1,950,000 
 
 1,088,534 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 Florida 
 
 - 
 
 
 1,027 
 
 550,000 
 
 Alabama 
 
 - 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 294,044 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 - 
 
 500,000 
 
 137,990 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 - 
 
 
 417 
 
 
 Texas 
 
 - 
 
 1,110,000 
 
 41,689 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 - 
 
 200,000 
 
 199,588 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 - 
 
 8,750,000 
 
 1,619,386 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 - 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 2,140,822 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 Ohio 
 
 - 
 
 16,800,000 
 
 14,487,351 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 Michigan 
 
 • 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 4,925,889 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 Indiana 
 
 - 
 
 7,500,000 
 
 6,214,458 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 Illinois 
 
 - 
 
 4,900,000 
 
 9,414,575 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 Missouri 
 
 - 
 
 1,750,000 
 
 2,966,928 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 Iowa 
 
 - 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 1,530,481 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 m 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 4,286,131 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 m 
 
 
 1,401 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 Kansas 
 
 - 
 
 ... 
 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 - 
 
 
 196,516 
 
 500,000 
 
 Utah 
 
 - 
 
 
 107,702 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 Oregon 
 
 - 
 
 50,000 
 
 211,043 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 California 
 
 " 
 
 •• 
 
 17,328 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 
 
 114,245,560 
 
 100,479,150 
 
 175,200,000 
 
 These estimates indicate a product of 65 per cent, beyond that of 1850, or 
 175,000,000 in the aggregate. If we allow 3£ bushels of wheat per head (other 
 grain being largely used), or 100,000,000 of bushels for home consumption, there 
 would then be on hand, for export or future stock, about 75,000,000 bushels. 
 
 Some of the States show a product of from 100 to 500 per cent, beyond that 
 of 1847 — the Irish famine year. This increase is almost incredible ; but we 
 think the facts will fully bear us out in our estimates, viz : — 
 
 Estimated Production of Wheat in some of the old, as well as the new States 
 and Territories, in 1855, compared with 1847 and 1850, shewing the vast 
 increase in the supply. 
 
 1847. 
 Bushels. 
 
 North Carolina - 2,350,000 
 
 South Carolina - 1,300,000 
 
 Georgia - 1,950,000 
 
 Tennessee - 8,750,000 
 
 Missouri - 1,750,000 
 
 Illinois - 4,900,000 
 
 Indiana - 7,500,000 
 
 Iowa - 1,000,000 
 
 Wisconsin - 1,200,000 
 
 California 
 
 Minnesota - . . 
 
 Kansas and Nebraska 
 Oregon - 50,000 
 
 30,750,000 
 
 1850. 
 
 1855. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 2,130,102 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 1,066.277 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 1,088,534 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 1,619,386 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 2,966,928 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 9,214,575 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 6,614,458 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 1,530,581 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 4,286,131 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 17,328 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 1,401 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 21*1,943 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 30,547,614 
 
 77,500,000 
 
COE 
 
 85 
 
 COE 
 
 From 1847 to 1850 there was no increase; but from 1850 to 1855 the increase 
 was 120 per cent. 
 
 American States and Territories where there is a Surplus beyond the 
 Consumption required for each, viz. — 
 
 
 
 Quantity 
 
 
 
 
 Produced. 
 
 Consumed. 
 
 Excess. 
 
 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 New York * 
 
 . 
 
 14,500,000 
 
 12,200,000 
 
 2,300,000 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 - 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 1,800,000 
 
 700,000 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 • 
 
 18,000,000 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 Delaware and Maryland 
 
 - 
 
 6,500,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 Virginia 
 
 - 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 10,500,000 
 
 N. Carolina, S. Carolina and Georgii 
 
 i - 
 
 11,000,000 
 
 7,700,000 
 
 3,300,000 
 
 Texas and Arkansas 
 
 - 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 1,300,000 
 
 709,000 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 - 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 3,300,000 
 
 4,700,000 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 • 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 Ohio 
 
 • 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 11,000,000 
 
 Missouri and Wisconsin 
 
 . 
 
 14,000,000 
 
 2,800,000 
 
 11,000,000 
 
 Illinois 
 
 - 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 Indiana 
 
 - 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 3,800,000 
 
 8,200,000 
 
 Iowa and Minnesota 
 
 - 
 
 11,000,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 Missouri 
 
 - 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 Kansas, New Mexico and Utah 
 
 - 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 700,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 California and Oregon 
 
 • 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 1,800,000 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 Total . 
 
 a 
 
 • 
 
 m 
 
 96,600,000 
 
 Deduct : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 Deficiency in ten other States 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 12,450,000 
 
 
 For Seed and Stock 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 20,000,000— 
 
 - 32,450,000 
 
 Surplus for Export 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 bushels 
 
 64,150,000 
 
 In order to show the relative productiveness of the several States, we have ex- 
 amined the subject carefully, and we think the following conclusions are very 
 near the truth : — 
 
 Table showing the Average Number of Bushels per acre, and the Time of Har- 
 vesting in each of the principal Wheat-growing States. 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Vermont 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Virginia 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Texas 
 
 Oregon 
 
 
 Average No. of 
 Bush, to Acre. 
 
 Time of Harvestiag. 
 
 
 7 to 12 
 
 Aug. 
 
 10 to Aug. 20 
 
 
 12 to 20 
 
 Aug. 
 
 1 to Aug. 10 
 
 
 10 to 20 
 
 July 
 
 25 to Aug. 10 
 
 
 15 to 25 
 
 Aug. 
 
 10 to Aug 20 
 
 
 10 to 20 
 
 July 
 
 15 to Aug 10 
 
 
 15 to 25 
 
 July 
 
 1 to July 10 
 
 
 12 to 22 
 
 June 
 
 20 to July 10 
 
 
 12 to 20 
 
 June 
 
 
 
 10 to 20 
 
 June 
 
 to July 1 
 
 
 10 to 20 
 
 June 
 
 10 to July 10 
 
 
 8 to 15 
 
 June 
 
 10 to June 20 
 
 
 8 to 12 
 
 June 
 
 1 
 
 
 8 to 12 
 
 June 
 
 1 
 
 
 8 to 15 
 
 June 
 
 1 to June 20 
 
 
 8 to 12 
 
 June 
 
 10 to June 20 
 
 
 12 to 15 
 
 July 
 
 1 
 
 
 10 to 20 
 
 July 
 
 1 to Aug. 1 
 
 
 12 to 30 
 
 June 
 
 20 to July 20 
 
 
 12 to 25 
 
 June 
 
 1 to July 25 
 
 
 15 to 25 
 
 July 
 
 10 to July 30 
 
 
 12 to 20 
 
 July 
 
 10 to July 25 
 
 
 15 to 25 
 
 July 
 
 15 to July 30 
 
 
 20 to 25 
 
 May 
 
 15 to June 15 
 
 
 20 to 25 
 
 Aug. 
 
 1 to Sept. 1 
 
COE 
 
 86 
 
 COE 
 
 Value of the Breadstuff's and Provisions exported from the United States to 
 foreign countries, for each fiscal year, from 1846 to 1858, viz.: — 
 
 1846 
 1847 
 1848 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 
 27,701,121 dollars. 
 
 68,701,921 
 
 37,472,751 
 
 38,155,507 
 
 26,051,373 
 
 21,944,651 
 
 25,857,027 
 
 Wheat, bushels 
 
 Flour, barrels 
 
 Indian corn, bushels - 
 
 Barley and rye, do. 
 
 Meal, barrels 
 
 Beans and pease, bushels 
 
 Oats, do. 
 
 Potatoes, do. 
 
 1853 
 
 32,985,322 dollars. 
 
 1854 
 
 65,901,240 
 
 1855 
 
 23,051,362 
 
 1856 
 
 59,390,906 
 
 1857 
 
 . 58,333,176 
 
 1858 
 
 85,924,848 
 
 a Canada 
 
 were, in 
 
 
 1847. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1854. 
 
 719,688 
 
 2,666,903 
 
 1,442,677 
 
 670,808 
 
 786,058 
 
 651,400 
 
 
 831 
 
 57,636 
 
 25,332 
 
 43,353 
 
 112,383 
 
 22,038 
 
 4,031 
 
 4,842 
 
 121,570 
 
 243,770 
 
 133,651 
 
 168,672 
 
 1,028,310 
 
 33,651 
 
 
 6,477 
 
 7,568 
 
 In 1853, 2,666,903 bushels of wheat were exported, and in 1852 nearly 2,000,000 
 bushels. The following comparison shows the relative production of Canada 
 and the United States as regards the grain crops: — 
 
 Wheat, bushels 
 Barley, „ 
 Oats, „ 
 Eye, 
 Maize, „ 
 
 Population, 
 
 United States. 
 -*- 
 
 Canada. 
 
 1840, 
 
 84,823,272 
 
 4,161,504 
 
 123,071,341 
 
 18,645,567 
 
 377,531,875 
 
 1850. 
 
 92,086,000 
 
 5,167,016 
 
 146,567,879 
 
 14,188,639 
 
 592,326,612 
 
 1842. 
 
 8,221,991 
 
 1,031,335 
 
 4,788,167 
 
 292,370 
 
 691,359 
 
 1851. 
 
 16,155,946 
 
 1,339,499 
 
 21,434,840 
 
 869,985 
 
 2,029,544 
 
 17,067,453 23,091,488 
 
 1,176,837 1,843,500 
 
 From the above table it will be seen that, in proportion to its extent and po- 
 pulation, Canada is a more agricultural country than the United States. The 
 usual quantity allowed for the consumption of each inhabitant is generally five 
 bushels, which would leave for export six or seven million bushels of wheat. 
 The great quantity of Indian corn grown in the States enables them, by making 
 it a staple of consumption, to export a large stock of flour. In Canada, little 
 Indian corn being grown, wheat becomes of necessity the great staple of food. 
 
 GRAIN IMPORTS BEFORE AND AFTER FREE TRADE. 
 
 A few statistics are grouped together below in illustration of the imports of 
 grain and flour into the United Kingdom before and after the adoption of the 
 free-trade policy in 1849. Of wheat the totals stand thus : — 
 
 BEFORE FREE TRADE. 
 
 Year. 
 1843 
 1844 
 1845 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 940.120 
 
 1,099,077 
 
 871,710 
 
 Year. 
 1846 
 1847 
 1848 
 
 Qrs. 
 1,432,591 
 2,656,455 
 2,580,059 
 
 
 AFTER FREE TRADE. 
 
 
 Year. 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 3,738,995 
 3,812,008 
 3,060,268 
 4,915,430 
 3,431,227 
 
 Year. 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 Qrs. 
 2,667,702 
 4,072,833 
 3,437,957 
 4,241,719 
 4,043,574 
 
COE 
 
 87 
 
 COR 
 
 These figures exhibit an average in the former period of 1,596,858 quarters, 
 and in the second of 3,742,171 quarters, or an increase under free trade of about 
 134 percent. Extending the comparison to other grain, the totals stand thus: — 
 
 BEFORE FREE TRADE. 
 
 Tear. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 1843 
 
 365,396 1846 
 
 2,358,360 
 
 1844 
 
 1,648,874 1847 
 
 6,780,222 
 
 1845 
 
 1,286,017 1 1848 
 AFTER FREE TRADE. 
 
 4,364,533 
 
 Year. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 1850 
 
 4,181,869 
 
 1855 
 
 3,061,539 
 
 1851 
 
 4,281,393 
 
 1856 
 
 4,124,420 
 
 1852 ... 3,581,461 
 
 1857 
 
 5,107,225 
 
 1853 
 
 3,932,178 
 
 1858 
 
 5,946,546 
 
 1854 
 
 3,419,273 
 
 1859 
 
 5,358,908 
 
 The average between 1843 and 1848 was 2,800,567 quarters, and in the last 10 
 years 4,299,481 quarters, or an increase under the present system of 53 per cent. 
 The imports of meal and flour of all kinds next invite attention, and have been as 
 under : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Cwt 
 
 1843 
 
 442,462 
 
 1844 
 
 934,701 
 
 1845 
 
 948,916 
 
 Year. 
 
 AF1 
 Cwt. 
 
 1850 ... 3,838,008 
 
 1851 
 
 5,333,369 
 
 1852 
 
 3,866,719 
 
 1853 
 
 4,638,010 
 
 1854 
 
 3,705,160 
 
 BEFORE FREE TRADE. 
 
 Year. 
 1846 
 1847 
 
 1848 
 
 IE TRADE. 
 
 Year. 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 Cwt 
 3,247,565 
 8,633,991 
 2,030,237 
 
 Cwt 
 1,922,318 
 3,991,369 
 2,184,176 
 3,865,996 
 
 The average between 1843 and 1848 was 2,732,212 quarters, and in the last 10 
 years 3,669,991 quarters — showing an increase of 34 per cent. The increase in 
 the quantity of grain and flour imported has been very generally shared in by 
 all the various countries from which we draw our supplies. 
 
 I will take one more country into consideration — the great empire of France, 
 which ranks high as a producing country. With the exception of Eussia, from 
 which no accurate statistical returns have been obtained, more than one-half of 
 the wheat grown in Europe is produced in France — the yield, twenty years ago, 
 having been about 24,832,500 quarters, now 28,000,000 quarters. 
 
 Importation and Exportation of Grain into and from France from 
 
 
 1816 to 1852. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Imported in excess of Exports. 
 
 Exported in excess 
 
 of Imports. 
 
 rom 1816 to 1821 
 
 6,247,178 hectolitres 
 
 . 
 
 — hectolitres. 
 
 „ 1822 „ 1827 
 
 — 
 
 „ 
 
 - 
 
 1,248,601 
 
 „ 
 
 „ 1828 „ 1832 
 
 9,527,466 
 
 ii 
 
 • 
 
 — 
 
 „ 
 
 „ 1833 „ 1837 
 
 — 
 
 m 
 
 ■ 
 
 944,130 
 
 1f 
 
 „ 1839 „ 1842 
 
 1,126,473 
 
 ii 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 M 
 
 „ 1843 „ 1847 
 
 18,697,132 
 
 it 
 
 . 
 
 — 
 
 M 
 
 „ 1848 „ 1852 
 
 — 
 
 
 - 
 
 12,187,416 
 
 
 The hectolitre contains 22 imperial gallons, 3 hectolitres heing a trifle more than a quarter. 
 
 In 1853, France imported 4,184,190 hectolitres of wheat, spelt, and meslin, 
 of the value of 92,637,966 francs; 313,671 metrical quintals of flour; 83,351 
 hectolitres of rye; 11 1,000 hectolitres of barley; 66,773 hectolitres of oats; and 
 24,603 hectolitres of maize. 
 
COE 
 
 88 
 
 COR 
 
 The average production of wheat in France is estimated at 80,000,000 hecto- 
 litres (about 28,000,000 quarters), the highest production during the last twenty- 
 five years having been 97,000,000 in 1847, and the lowest 52,000,000 in 1830. 
 In the United Kingdom, out of about 50,000,000 acres under cultivation, 
 15,000,000 are sown in wheat, and other cereal crops, while in France 
 50,000,000 are cultivated for grain; but while the average growth of wheat per 
 acre in England is fully 3 quarters, in France it is but lg quarters. The growth 
 of wheat has increased veiy much of late years— much faster in proportion than 
 the population; and there are numerous evidences that the bulk of the people 
 are much better fed and in a more prosperous condition than they used to be. 
 The following table will show the progress of the population and production 
 during twenty years: — 
 
 Average production of Wheat in five Years. 
 From 1827 to 1831 57,821,336 hectolitres. 
 „ 1832 „ 1836 68,684,919 
 „ 1837 „ 1841 71,512,258 „ 
 
 „ 1842 „ 1846 72,015,564 „ 
 
 „ 1847 „ 1851 86,121,123 „ 
 
 The highest and lowest annual average prices of wheat in France during the 
 fifty years from 1803 to 1852, taken in intervals of five years, have been as 
 follows: — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Population 
 
 1831 
 1836 
 1841 
 1846 
 1851 
 
 32,569,223 
 33,540,910 
 34,240,178 
 35,400,486 
 35,781,821 
 
 
 
 Lowest price. 
 
 Highest price. 
 
 Average of five years. 
 
 
 
 F. c. 
 
 F. c. 
 
 F. c. 
 
 
 •or 
 
 Q 1803 to 1807 
 
 18 60 
 
 20 19 
 
 19 59 per 
 
 hectolitre. 
 
 
 1808 „ 1812 
 
 15 18 
 
 34 34 
 
 22 39 
 
 Jt 
 
 
 1813 „ 1817 
 
 17 78 
 
 36 16 
 
 24 86 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 1818 „ 1822 
 
 15 89 
 
 24 65 
 
 19 18 
 
 
 
 
 1823 „ 1827 
 
 14 81 
 
 18 31 
 
 16 58 
 
 
 , 
 
 5> 
 
 1828 „ 1832 
 
 21 17 
 
 22 59 
 
 22 04 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 1833 „ 1837 
 
 14 72 
 
 16 37 
 
 15 94 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 1838 „ 1842 
 
 18 34 
 
 22 49 
 
 20 35 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 1843 „ 1847 
 
 18 93 
 
 29 38 
 
 22 28 
 
 
 i 
 
 ',', 
 
 1848 „ 1852 
 
 14 26 
 
 17 50 
 
 15 60 
 
 
 i 
 
 The lowest average was f. 14.26=335 per qr. in 1850, the highest f. 36.16= 
 76s 8d per qr. in 1817. The ten years' averages during the above periods have 
 been: — 
 
 F. 
 1803 to 1812 .... 20 
 1813 „ 1822 .... 22 
 1823 „ 1832 .... 19 
 1833 „ 1842 . . . . 18 
 1843 „ 1852 .... 18 
 
 And the general average for the same fifty years was f. 19.88= 
 The following have been the yearly averages per hectolitre :- 
 
 1846 
 1847 
 
 1849 
 
 F. 
 
 C. 
 
 
 23 
 
 86 
 
 1850 
 
 29 
 
 38 
 
 1851 
 
 16 
 
 36 
 
 1852 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 
 
 C. 
 
 
 
 99 
 
 
 
 02 
 31 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 94 
 
 
 
 =46« Id 
 
 per qr. 
 
 
 F. 
 
 c. 
 
 , 
 
 li 
 
 26 
 
 . 
 
 14 
 
 64 
 
 . 
 
 17 
 
 50 
 
 The average price of wheat in France in the three years 1851, 1852, and 
 1853, was 43s Z\d per quarter. 
 
 According to the "Statistique Territoriale" the cultivated area under grain 
 a few years ago in France was — 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Rye 
 
 Barley 
 
 Oats 
 
 Maize 
 
 Hectares. 
 
 5,586,786 
 2,577,253 
 1,188,189 
 3,000,634 
 631,732 
 
 Average crop 
 in hectolitres. 
 
 12.45 
 10.79 
 14.02 
 16.30 
 12.06 
 
 12,984,594 
 The hectare is about two acres. 
 
COE 
 
 80 
 
 COE 
 
 The average produce of wheat per acre in France, prior to 1844, according to 
 an official report, was under 14 bushels; but the foregoing returns make the pro- 
 duce equal to about 17 bushels to the acre. The progress of Algeria as a grain- 
 exporting country is worthy of notice, particularly since the adoption of the 
 customs law. The shipments have advanced in the following ratio: — 
 
 1850 
 1854 
 1856 
 1857 
 
 Wheat 
 
 2,868 hect. 
 1,033,718 „ 
 2,000,000 „ 
 1209,53 qrs. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 10,856 hectolitres. 
 559,048 
 
 20,285 qrs. 
 
 So that in four years the export of corn from thence has risen from 13,700 hec- 
 tolitres to about 1,600,000 hectolitres, besides about 100,000 shipped as flour 
 and biscuits to the army in the East, during the war. There was under culture 
 with grain in Algeria in 1855, 707,852 hectares, which produced 9,124,571 
 hectolitres. 
 
 The production and export of grain in Russia and Germany, in India and 
 Australia, in Chili, and other quarters, would form an interesting review; but 
 this would lead me too much into detail to be followed out in the present in- 
 quiry. The reliable facts and figures already adduced in this article may, how- 
 ever, prove useful to some who have not the same advantages for careful elaborate 
 research, and will at least serve to mark the rapid advance making in the cul- 
 ture and commerce of grain abroad. 
 
 Average Gazette Prices of British Wheat, Barley, and Oats per Imperial 
 Quarter, and the Foreign Imports of Grain: — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Average price per quarter. 
 
 Foreign and Colonial Grain en- 
 tered for Home Consumption. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Other Grain. 
 
 
 *. d. 
 
 * d. 
 
 «. d. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 1840 
 
 66 4 
 
 36 5 
 
 25 8 
 
 1,993,3S3 
 
 1,481,715 
 
 1841 
 
 64 4 
 
 32 10 
 
 22 o 
 
 2,409,754 
 
 848,944 
 
 1842 
 
 57 3 
 
 27 6 
 
 19 3 
 
 2,717,454 
 
 644,311 
 
 1843 
 
 50 1 
 
 29 6 
 
 18 4 
 
 940,120 
 
 365,396 
 
 1844 
 
 51 3 
 
 33 8 
 
 20 7 
 
 1,099,077 
 
 1,648,874 
 
 1845 
 
 50 10 
 
 31 8 
 
 22 6 
 
 871,710 
 
 1,286,017 
 
 1816 
 
 54 8 
 
 32 8 
 
 23 8 
 
 1,432,591 
 
 2,358,360 
 
 1847 
 
 69 9 
 
 44 2 
 
 28 8 
 
 2,656,455 
 
 6,780,222 
 
 1848 
 
 50 6 
 
 31 6 
 
 20 6 
 
 2,580,959 
 
 4,364,533 
 
 1849 
 
 44 3 
 
 27 9 
 
 17 6 
 
 3,845,378 
 
 5,806,578 
 
 1850 
 
 40 3 
 
 23 5 
 
 16 5 
 
 3,738,995 
 
 4,181,869 
 
 1851 
 
 38 6 
 
 24 9 
 
 18 7 
 
 3,812,008 
 
 4,281,393 
 
 1852 
 
 40 9 
 
 28 6 
 
 19 1 
 
 3,060,268 
 
 3,581,461 
 
 1853 
 
 53 3 
 
 33 2 
 
 21 
 
 4,915,430 
 
 3,932,178 
 
 1854 
 
 72 5 
 
 36 
 
 27 11 
 
 3,431,227 
 
 3,419,271 
 
 1855 
 
 74 8 
 
 34 9 
 
 27 5 
 
 2,667,702 
 
 3,061,539 
 
 1856 
 
 69 2 
 
 41 1 
 
 25 2 
 
 4,072,833 
 
 4,124,420 
 
 1857 
 
 56 4 
 
 42 1 
 
 25 
 
 3,437,957 
 
 5,107,225 
 
 1858 
 
 44 2 
 
 34 8 
 
 24 6 
 
 4,241,719 
 
 5,946,546 
 
 1859 
 
 43 9 
 
 33 6 
 
 23 2 
 
 4,023,578 
 
 5,276,447 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 57,925,522 
 
 68,225,011 
 
 
 
 Average - 
 
 2,896,276 
 
 3,411,250 
 
COE 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 COS 
 
 
 Imported from. 
 
 1848. 
 
 1858. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Other 
 Grain. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Other 
 Grain. 
 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Russia . • 
 
 522,437 
 
 161,449 
 
 29,718 
 
 612,216 
 
 997,564 
 
 672,442 
 
 Denmark 
 
 191,735 
 
 231,745 
 
 577,446, 
 
 299,783 
 
 180,162 
 
 382,067 
 
 Prussia . . 
 
 522,049 
 
 68,410 
 
 271,094 
 
 625,978 
 
 100,608 
 
 271,353 
 
 Mecklenburg Schwerin 
 
 146,077 
 
 5,283 
 
 31,650 
 
 110,839 
 
 
 
 Hanover . . 
 
 16,099 
 
 113,474 
 
 33,823 
 
 27,264 
 
 45,447 
 
 9,635 
 
 Hamburgh 
 
 359,598 
 
 57,965 
 
 249,120 
 
 143,205 
 
 
 69,044 
 
 Holland 
 
 163,584 
 
 179,923 
 
 91,774 
 
 82,113 
 
 32,379 
 
 31,228 
 
 Belgium 
 
 171,732 
 
 613 
 
 12,701 
 
 77,884 
 
 
 17,587 
 
 France . . • 
 
 216,524 
 
 4,535 
 
 159,549 
 
 818,251 
 
 
 401,927 
 
 Turkey Proper . . 
 
 16,000 
 
 
 172,583 
 
 66,594 
 
 
 372,774 
 
 Wallachia and Moldavia 
 
 7,169 
 
 
 220,166 
 
 133,556 
 
 
 644,987 
 
 Egypt . 
 
 17,158 
 
 
 341,310 
 
 464,644 
 
 
 314,839 
 
 United States 
 
 78,184 
 
 
 941,225 
 
 594,644 
 
 
 399,804 
 
 East Indies . . 
 
 22P 
 
 
 7 
 
 1,985 
 
 
 
 British North America 
 
 27,18! 
 
 228 
 
 13,317 
 
 100,821 
 
 10,757 
 
 45,085 
 
 Sweden . 
 
 
 
 
 81,942 
 
 427,885 
 
 50.608 
 
 Other Countries . 
 
 122,54^ 
 
 2,580,959 
 
 5,747 
 
 1,848,879 
 
 142,931 
 
 299,348 
 
 
 40,647 
 
 406,785 
 
 4,010,265 
 
 36,382 
 
 4,082,445 
 
 Re-exported • 
 Entered for Consumption . 
 
 967,056 
 7,476 
 
 3,444,836 
 5,244 
 
 4,241,719 
 
 1,856,281 
 
 38,571 
 4,236,864 
 
 31,687 
 1,846,626 
 
 868,706 
 
 1,550.593 
 
 Quantities of British Wheat, Barley, and Oats sold in the principal Market 
 Towns in England and Wales. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 1841 
 
 8,913,927 
 
 
 
 1842 
 
 4,091,234 
 
 
 
 1843 
 
 5,302,298 
 
 
 
 1844 
 
 5,456,307 
 
 2,834,407 
 
 1,989,730 
 
 1845 
 
 6,666,240 
 
 2,468,489 
 
 2,000,952 
 
 1846 
 
 5,958,962 
 
 2,938,398 
 
 1,970,448 
 
 1847 
 
 4,637,616 
 
 2,041,130 
 
 960,334 
 
 1848 
 
 5,399,834 
 
 2,401,737 
 
 1,022,875 
 
 1849 
 
 4,453,983 
 
 2,099,821 
 
 851,080 
 
 1850 
 
 4,688,247 
 
 2,235,271 
 
 866,082 
 
 1851 
 
 4,487,041 
 
 2,333,710 
 
 940,006 
 
 1852 
 
 4,854,513 
 
 2,389,439 
 
 947,550 
 
 1853 
 
 4,560,912 
 
 2,474,206 
 
 880,408 
 
 1854 
 
 3,913,257 
 
 2,267,997 
 
 765,438 
 
 1855 
 
 5,256,874 
 
 2,608,862 
 
 816,688 
 
 1856 
 
 5,046,736 
 
 2,678,936 
 
 701,159 
 
 1857 
 
 5,243,940 
 
 2,262,733 
 
 537,364 
 
 1858 
 
 5,203,948 
 
 2,434,378 
 
 482,766 
 
 COSTA RICA. — The number of vessels that entered the port of Punta Arenas 
 in 1858, was 68, of 26,069 tons. The shipments in that year consisted chiefly 
 of 60,355 quintals of coffee, 11,678 hides, and 462,000 feet of cedar wood. 
 Total Value of Imports and Exports, distinguishing British, from 1854 to 1858. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 British. 
 
 Total. 
 
 British. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 
 £ 
 
 142,000 
 53,100 
 73,000 
 15,000 
 
 136,600 
 
 £ 
 
 205,000 
 141,311 
 188,969 
 40,000 
 200,000 
 
 £ 
 
 97,445 
 66,190 
 86,179 
 88,207 
 40,117 
 
 £ 
 
 164,237 
 153,480 
 168,362 
 257,473 
 192,847 
 
COT 
 
 91 
 
 COT 
 
 COTTON.— The following table continues down the British trade in cotton 
 to the present time from the year 1840, given at page 219. 
 
 Account of the Quantities of Cotton imported into the United Kingdom, and the 
 Quantities exported and entered for Home Consumption ; also the average 
 prices of Upland, or Bowed Georgia, in each year, from 1841 to 1859. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1842 
 1843 
 1844 
 1845 
 1846 
 1847 
 1848 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 Imports. 
 
 United 
 
 States. 
 
 414,030,779 
 574,738,520 
 517,218,622 
 626,650,412 
 401,949,393 
 364,599,291 
 600,247,488 
 634,504,050 
 493,153,112 
 596,638,962 
 765,630,544 
 658,451,796 
 722,151,346 
 681,629,424 
 780,040,016 
 654,758,048 
 833,237,776 
 961,707,264 
 
 Other 
 Countries. 
 
 lbs. 
 117,719,307 
 98,454,596 
 128,892,682 
 95,329,541 
 65,906,881 
 110,108 324 
 112,782.673 
 120,964,962 
 170,423,749 
 160,740,787 
 164,151,904 
 236,826,953 
 165,181,803 
 210,121,528 
 243,846,288 
 314,560,848 
 201,104,400 
 264,281,808 
 
 TotaL 
 
 lbs. 
 531,750,086 
 673,193,116 
 646,111,304 
 721,979,953 
 467,856,274 
 474,707,615 
 713,020,161 
 755,469,012 
 663,576,861 
 757,379,749 
 929,782,448 
 895,278,749 
 887,333,149 
 891,751,952 
 1,023,886,304 
 969,318,896 
 1,034,342,176 
 1,225,989,072 
 
 Exports. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 42,251,302 
 
 39,619,979 
 
 47,222,560 
 
 42,916,384 
 
 65,930,704 
 
 75,054,320 
 
 74,203,792 
 
 98,893,536 
 
 102,469,696 
 
 111,980,400 
 
 111,875,456 
 
 148,569,680 
 
 125,554,800 
 
 124,368,160 
 
 146,660,864 
 
 131,927,600 
 
 149,609,600 
 
 175,143,136 
 
 Retained for 
 
 Consumption 
 
 and Stock. 
 
 lbs. 
 473,976,400 
 581,303,105 
 554,196,602 
 679,063,569 
 401,925,570 
 399,653,295 
 638,816,369 
 656,575,476 
 561,107,165 
 644,550,800 
 817,906,992 
 746,709,069 
 761,778,349 
 767,383,792 
 877,225,440 
 837,391,296 
 906,000,000 
 1,050,845,936 
 
 72. <u 
 pp. 
 
 Note.— After the removal of the import duty on cotton, which took effect from the 19th 
 March, 1845, the only means of ascertaining the consumption and stock is by subtracting the 
 exports from the imports. 
 
 Of the 201,104,400 lbs. imported from other countries than the United States 
 in 1858, there were received from the East Indies 132,722,576 lbs., from Egypt 
 38,232,320 lbs., from Brazil 18,617,872 lbs., from the West India Islands and 
 British and Dutch Guiana only 493,248 lbs., from St. Helena 2,010,736 lbs., from 
 South Africa 1,001,280 lbs., from Mauritius 1,678,656 lbs., from the Continent 
 5,532,566 lbs., from Peru 274,208lbs.,fromthe West Coast of Africa 237,912 lbs., 
 and the rest from other quarters. 
 
 The supply of cotton from India has largely increased of late years, and, not- 
 withstanding the extensive demand for local consumption by the natives, con- 
 siderable exports may always be depended upon when the price is remunerative 
 enough to induce shipments. The total exports from all parts of India have 
 been as follows : 
 
 
 
 
 Price of 
 
 Years. 
 
 To;United Kingdom. 
 
 To all places. 
 
 Surat 
 per lb. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 d. 
 
 1850-51 
 
 141,446,798 
 
 226,473,683 
 
 X 
 
 
 1851-52 
 
 81,104,223 
 
 253,552,831 
 
 3 
 
 
 1852-53 
 
 181,360,994 
 
 262,908,173 
 
 1 
 
 
 1853-54 
 
 138,183,429 
 
 197,761,765 
 
 3; 
 
 
 1854-55 
 
 119,513,537 
 
 173,780,192 
 
 4| 
 
 
 1855-56 
 
 170,771,510 
 
 237,179,949 
 
 | 
 
 
 1856-57 
 
 253,410,036 
 
 319,653,524 
 
 4 
 
 
 1857-58 
 
 197,221,247 
 
 260,354,052 
 
 *l 
 
 
COT 
 
 92 
 
 COT 
 
 Statement showing the number of hales of Cotton Imported, Exported, and 
 taken for Consumption in each year for the United Kingdom, with the Stock 
 held in the ports at the close of each year, from 1841 to 1859 inclusive, also 
 the average weekly consumption per annum. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Taken for 
 Consumption. 
 
 Stock 
 in ports 
 31 Dec. 
 
 Weekly 
 Consumption. 
 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Bales. 
 
 1811 
 
 1,344,000 
 
 116,300 
 
 1,192,300 
 
 429,800 
 
 22,929 
 
 1842 
 
 1,392,900 
 
 134,400 
 
 1,160,400 
 
 456,600 
 
 22,315 
 
 1843 
 
 1,744,100 
 
 120,200 
 
 1,367,300 
 
 653,800 
 
 26,294 
 
 1844 
 
 1,681,600 
 
 136,800 
 
 1,428,600 
 
 749,600 
 
 27,473 
 
 1845 
 
 1,855,700 
 
 119,900 
 
 1,574,400 
 
 885,400 
 
 30,119 
 
 1846 
 
 1,134,194 
 
 194,200 
 
 1,585,900 
 
 545,790 
 
 80,370 
 
 1847 
 
 1,232,700 
 
 221,850 
 
 1,105,998 
 
 451,190 
 
 22,230 
 
 1848 
 
 1,738,441 
 
 189,500 
 
 1.505,331 
 
 496,050 
 
 26,602 
 
 1849 
 
 1,905,248 
 
 256,300 
 
 1,586,608 
 
 558,390 
 
 30,512 
 
 1850 
 
 1,748,137 
 
 272,400 
 
 1,513,007 
 
 531,120 
 
 29,481 
 
 1851 
 
 1,904,565 
 
 268,500 
 
 1,662,585 
 
 494,600 
 
 31,973 
 
 1852 
 
 2,357,278 
 
 282,800 
 
 1,911,558 
 
 657,520 
 
 35,799 
 
 1853 
 
 2,264,270 
 
 349,600 
 
 1,854,610 
 
 717,580 
 
 37,012 
 
 1854 
 
 2,172,597 
 
 316,400 
 
 1,949,327 
 
 624,450 
 
 37,487 
 
 1855 
 
 2,278,218 
 
 316,900 
 
 2,099,208 
 
 486,470 
 
 40,371 
 
 1856 
 
 2,468,869 
 
 358,700 
 
 2,263,899 
 
 332,740 
 
 41,998 
 
 1857 
 
 2,417,586 
 
 337,250 
 
 1,960,566 
 
 452,510 
 
 39,049 
 
 1858 
 
 2,442,629 
 
 348,600 
 
 2,174,559 
 
 371,980 
 
 41,818 
 
 1859 
 
 2,828,900 
 
 437,050 
 
 2,294,310 
 
 469,520 
 
 44,121 
 
 Note.— The capacity of the cotton hales imported into Liverpool has materially increased 
 of late years. The average of all the hales has risen from 381 lbs. weight in 1847 to 423 lbs. 
 in 1859. 
 
 COTTON MANUFACTURES. —The following tables exhibit the course 
 and progress of our export trade in cottons, and the quantities of the different 
 descriptions of these goods which composed the shipments at different periods, 
 continued from page 223. 
 
 Account of the Declared Value of Cotton Manufactures and of Cotton Twist 
 and Yarn exported to different Countries in 1840 and 1850. 
 
 
 
 
 1840. 
 
 1850. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Manufactures. 
 
 Twist and 
 Yarn. 
 
 Manufactures. 
 
 Twist and 
 Yam. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Russia . . 
 
 69,292 
 
 1,082,912 
 
 39,413 
 
 245,625 
 
 Sweden 
 
 
 
 2,336 
 
 63,386 
 
 5,735 
 
 19,885 
 
 Norway . 
 
 
 
 10,996 
 
 15,609 
 
 25,525 
 
 27,477 
 
 Denmark . 
 
 
 
 2,183 
 
 4,024 
 
 33,478 
 
 46,118 
 
 Prussia 
 
 
 
 645 
 
 1,309 
 
 3,024 
 
 22,315 
 
 Hanover . , 
 
 
 
 , . 
 
 
 3,615 
 
 185,423 
 
 Hanse Towns 
 
 
 
 919,710 
 
 2,451,299 
 
 797,253 
 
 2,277,399 
 
 Holland . 
 
 
 
 540,746 
 
 1,642,151 
 
 509,211 
 
 1,265,749 
 
 Belgium • 
 
 
 
 93,665 
 
 4,416 
 
 68,024 
 
 158,135 
 
 France 
 
 
 
 64,039 
 
 43,625 
 
 123,088 
 
 31,916 
 
 Portugal . 
 
 
 
 721,299 
 
 26,816 
 
 585,933 
 
 24,814 
 
 Spain and Canaries 
 
 
 
 34,905 
 
 432 
 
 36,091 
 
 2,815 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 
 
 610,456 
 
 3,369 
 
 216,187 
 
 2,749 
 
 Italy and Italian Isl 
 
 3S 
 
 
 1,119,135 
 
 510,040 
 
 1,134,890 
 
 528,091 
 
 Malta 
 
 
 
 62,345 
 
 16,198 
 
 126,973 
 
 19,015 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 
 
 
 39,245 
 
 9,311 
 
 79,081 
 
 15,678 
 
 Greece 
 
 
 
 497 
 
 
 119,574 
 
 24,032 
 
 Turkey 
 
 
 
 741,880 
 
 152,774 
 
 1,877,344 
 
 80,758 
 
 Wallachia and Moldavia 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 134,885 
 
 76,103 
 
 Carried ove 
 
 r 
 
 
 5,023,374 
 
 6,027,671 
 
 5,919,324 
 
 5,054,097 
 
COT 
 
 93 
 
 COT 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1850. 
 
 Manufactures. 
 
 Twist and 
 Yarn. 
 
 Manufactures. 
 
 Twist and 
 Yarn. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Brought over . 
 
 5,023,374 
 
 6,027,671 
 
 5,919,324 
 
 5,054,097 
 
 Syria and Palestine • 
 
 174,526 
 
 40,693 
 
 202,033 
 
 69,308 
 
 Egypt 
 
 62,621 
 
 1,540 
 
 326,877 
 
 20,900 
 
 Barbary States 
 
 46,790 
 
 80 
 
 13,313 
 
 201 
 
 West Coast of Africa 
 
 261,297 
 
 895 
 
 270,069 
 
 125 
 
 British South Africa . 
 
 121,674 
 
 1,079 
 
 187,365 
 
 1,184 
 
 Cape Verd Islands . 
 
 2,431 
 
 . 
 
 1,132 
 
 . 
 
 Ascension and St. Helena ) . 
 
 1,349 
 
 , , 
 
 3,221 
 
 
 Mauritius . . . 
 
 152,338 
 
 , 
 
 115,412 
 
 174 
 
 British India 
 
 2,964,454 
 
 847,530 
 
 4,128,427 
 
 1,040,328 
 
 Eastern Archipelago 
 
 367,866 
 
 41,864 
 
 489,812 
 
 14,546 
 
 China and Hong Kong 
 
 238,271 
 
 88,748 
 
 891,691 
 
 126,569 
 
 Australia <fc South Sea Islands 
 
 146,156 
 
 1,521 
 
 318,099 
 
 3,392 
 
 British North America 
 
 530,297 
 
 18,312 
 
 569,091 
 
 24,036 
 
 British West Indies & Guiana 
 
 1,162,887 
 
 10,038 
 
 505,983 
 
 194 
 
 British Honduras . 
 
 . . 
 
 
 125,445 
 
 1,796 
 
 Foreign West Indies . 
 
 380,939 
 
 401 
 
 578,607 
 
 694 
 
 Hayti 
 
 157,260 
 
 240 
 
 155,200 
 
 . 
 
 United States • . 
 
 898,669 
 
 13,361 
 
 2,128,061 
 
 6,861 
 
 Mexico . • • 
 
 232,912 
 
 2,150 
 
 156,744 
 
 . 
 
 Colombia . . 
 
 238,556 
 
 90 
 
 , 
 
 . 
 
 Central America . . 
 
 . . 
 
 , , 
 
 178,714 
 
 10,826 
 
 New Granada . . 
 
 . , 
 
 m , 
 
 173,241 
 
 190 
 
 Venezuela • . 
 
 . , 
 
 , 
 
 188,456 
 
 150 
 
 Ecuador . . . 
 
 . . 
 
 , . 
 
 15,218 
 
 277 
 
 Brazil . . . 
 
 1,451,345 
 
 828 
 
 1,511,186 
 
 1,041 
 
 River Plate States . . 
 
 299,647 
 
 1,184 
 
 24,891 
 
 124 
 
 Uruguay . . . 
 
 . . 
 
 , 
 
 347,645 
 
 136 
 
 Buenos Ayres . . 
 
 . 
 
 
 479,652 
 
 6,031 
 
 Chili 
 
 877,446 
 
 3,330 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 Peru 
 
 465,846 
 
 . 
 
 371,499 
 
 19 
 
 Russian North America ; 
 
 , 
 
 . . 
 
 3,313 
 
 . 
 
 Channel Islands . • 
 Total 
 
 44,369 
 
 253 
 
 42,813 
 
 512 
 
 16,302,220 
 
 7,101,308 
 
 20,530,435 
 
 6,383,704 
 
 Statement of the Quantity and Declared Value of British Cotton Manufac- 
 tured Goods exported from the United Kingdom, distinguishing the descriptions 
 of goods, in various years since 1840 (in continuation of the table given at p. 
 223.) 
 
 White or Plain Cotton 
 
 1840. 
 
 1845. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1859. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 yards 
 
 433,114,373 
 
 678,415,780 
 
 767,654,316 
 
 1,232,467,158 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 
 value £ 
 
 Printed or Dyed Cotton 
 
 yards 
 
 7,803,772 
 357,517,624 
 
 9,661,014 
 413,270,289 
 
 9,817,197 
 590,528,595 
 
 14,272,999 
 686,501,068 
 
 2,563,445,393 
 37,040,127 
 
 value £ 
 
 8,494,448 
 
 8,368,794 
 
 10,713,238 
 
 11,349,204 
 
 
 Hosiery <fc SmallWares, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 including Stockings 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 value £ 
 
 1,265,090 
 
 1,126,288 
 
 1,343,262 
 
 1,927,099 
 
 
 1,702,613 
 
 Twist & Yarn, pounds 
 
 118,470,223 
 
 135,144,865 
 
 131.370,368 
 
 165,493,548 
 
 
 192,341,516 
 
 value £ 
 
 7,101,308 
 
 6,963,235 
 
 6,383,704 
 
 7,249,116 
 
 
 9,465,704 
 
 Other kinds of Cotton 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Goods 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total declared value £ 
 
 24,668,618 
 
 26,119,331 
 
 28,257,401 
 
 34,798,41S 
 
 
 48,208,444 
 
 * The white and printed or dyed Cottons are not distinguished in 1859. 
 
 This single branch of British manufactures has now become of vital national 
 importance. It is interwoven with all that relates to the employment of our 
 population, of oiir capital, and of our shipping ; and bears directly on our na- 
 tional credit, our solvency, and our domestic peace, contentment, and security. 
 
COT 94 COO? 
 
 Its rapid growth is wonderful; its magnitude is stupendous; and its connection 
 with all that is precious and important in the country, is so close and inseparable, 
 that the boldest and the most far-seeing minds in the community cannot con- 
 template any serious vicissitude befalling it without the utmost alarm and 
 terror. 
 
 In the official organ of the Cotton Supply Association of Manchester, it was 
 stated early in 1860, that upwards of 500,000 workers are now employed in our 
 cotton factories, and it has been estimated that at least 4,000,000 persons in this 
 country are dependent upon the cotton trade for subsistence. A century ago 
 Lancashire contained a population of only 300,000 persons; it now numbers 
 2,300,000. In the same period of time this enormous increase exceeds that on 
 any other equal surface of the globe, and is entirely owing to the development 
 of the cotton trade. In 1856 there were in the United Kingdom 2,210 factories, 
 running 28,000,000 spindles and 299,000 looms, by 97,000 horse power. Since 
 that period a considerable number of new mills have been erected, and exten- 
 sive additions have been made to the spinning and weaving machinery of those 
 previously in existence. The amount of actual capital invested in the cotton 
 trade of this kingdom is estimated to be between £60,000,000 and £70,000,000 
 sterling. The quantity of cotton imported into this country in 1859 was 
 1,226 million pounds' weight, the value of which at 6d per lb. is equal to 
 £30,650,000 sterling. Out of 2,829,110 bales of cotton imported into Great 
 Britain in that year, America supplied us with 2,086,341, that is 5-7ths of the 
 whole. In other words, out of every 7 lbs. imported from all countries into 
 Great Britain, America has supplied 5 lbs. India sent us about 500,000 bales, 
 Egypt about 100,000, South America, 124,000; and other countries between 
 8,000 and 9,000 bales. In 1859 the total value of the exports from Great Bri- 
 tain amounted to £"130,513,185, of which £47,920,720 consisted of cotton goods 
 and yarns. Thus, more than one-third, or £1 out of every £3 of our entire exports, 
 consists of cotton. Add to this the proportion of cotton which forms part of 12 
 millions more exported in the shape of mixed woollens, haberdashery, millinery, 
 silks, apparel, and slops. Great Britain alone consumes annually 25 millions' 
 worth of cotton goods. 
 
 In the British dependencies in the East Indies, we have a population of more 
 than 150 millions; and the value of cotton manufactures exported to them in 
 1853 was £5,680,000, or equal to 9d per head. To Russia, with its population 
 of 67 millions, our exports amounted to £180,000, or equal to &-d per head; 
 but to those parts of Russia supplied through ports in the Black Sea, with a 
 population of three millions, our exports amounted to £13,000, or \\d per 
 head. France had 36 millions (or nearly 37 millions) of population; and to 
 Prance, in 1853, we sent cotton manufactures to the value of £155,710, or at the 
 rate of Id per head. To British North America, with a population of 2,456,000, 
 we exported £749,000 worth of cotton manufactures; which was equivalent to 
 6.s \%d per head, The United States, with a population of 27 millions, took to 
 the value of £4,182,901, or at the rate of Zs \d per head. While our exports 
 in that year amounted to 32,712,000, we retained at home not less than 
 £21,224,000 worth of cotton manufactures — showing that the people of the 
 United Kingdom consumed our staple manufacture at the rate of 15a bd per 
 head per annum. 
 
 To the population of the globe, about 850 millions, Great Britain supplied 
 cotton manufactures to the extent of very nearly £54,000,000 sterling, being an 
 average of 1* 3\d per head. The £53,000,000 or £54,000,000 sterling repre- 
 senting the products of the cotton industry of Great Britain and Ireland, may 
 be regarded as one-half the cotton industry of the world. Foreign countries, be- 
 sides taking one-half of the raw cotton sent into the market, receive large sup- 
 plies of cotton yarn from Great Britain; and in Asia and Africa cotton is still 
 largely spun by hand. Hence the cotton industry of the world may be valued 
 at £120,000,000 sterling, which would give an average consumption per year, 
 for every man, woman, and child upon the globe, of 2s 9§d worth of cotton 
 manufactures, or about fourteen yards each per annum of excellent calico. 
 
CUB 
 
 95 
 
 CUE 
 
 CUBA.— The population in 1854 was 1,449,4G2 souls, of whom 564,698 were 
 whites, 216,177 free mulattoes, and 668,587 slaves. The number of vessels that 
 entered the ports in 1855 was 3848, of 754,993 tons, of which but 865 vessels 
 and 154,714 tons was under the Spanish flag. The value of the imports in 1855 
 was £0,633,378. and of the exports £7,395,6000. The exports included 1,905,580 
 boxes of sugar, 31,214 pipes of spirits, 473,399 arrobas of coffee, 54,970 arrobas 
 of bleached wax, 372,608 cwt. of copper ore, 9,921,711 lbs. of tobacco, 356,582 
 thousand of cigars, and 256,100 bocoyes (of 30 gallons) of molasses. 
 
 CURRANTS. — Great Britain is the currant market of the world, its con- 
 sumption exceeding that of all other nations, and three-fourths of the entire 
 produce being imported into this country. The Morea furnishes us with three- 
 fifths, and the Ionian Islands with two-fifths of our supply. The far greater 
 proportion of the value of the currants we import is paid for by our exports of 
 British manufactures ; and during the five years, 1851-55, our exports to the 
 Ionian Islands exceeded our imports therefrom by £177,129, and in the three 
 years ending 1858, they about balanced each other. The exports of currants 
 have been as follows since 1844: — 
 
 cwts. 
 
 1844 ' 284,378 
 
 1845 . 352,706 
 
 1846 . 395,094 
 
 1847 . 395,574 
 
 1848 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 
 cwts. 
 402,267 
 457,592 
 429,607 
 721,119 
 
 1852 . 
 
 1853 . 
 
 1854 . 
 
 1855 . 
 
 cwts. 
 347,088 
 267,265 
 120,253 
 163,729 
 
 1856 . 351,725 
 
 1857 . 398,894 
 
 1858 . 582,380 
 
 1859 . 557,861 
 
 The quantities entered for home consumption in the last few years have 
 been as follows : — 
 
 cwts. cwts c w ts. cwts. 
 
 1856 . 226,123 | 1857 . 255,95*6 | 1858 . 384,531 | 1859 ; 482,425 
 
 Of the total imports in 1858, 455,136 cwts. came from Greece, and but 89,458 
 cwts. from the Ionian Islands. 
 
 The carrying trade between the United Kingdom and the currant-producing 
 countries of the Mediterranean, is principally carried on in British bottoms, to 
 the extent in ships of 72 per cent, and in tonnage of 62 per cent, of the whole 
 commercial marine employed. The average consumption per head of our 
 population is not one ounce per week. The recent reduction in the duty to 
 Is per cwt. may have some effect in stimulating consumption, for in 1834 when 
 the duty was reduced from £44. 6s M to £22. 3* Ad per ton, the consumption 
 was increased from 5,593 to 9,296 tons; and when in 1844 the duty was reduced 
 from £22. 3s Ad to £15. 15«, the consumption increased from 9,296 tons to 
 14,912 tons. 
 
 The following are the rates of duties levied by different States on currants: — 
 £. j. d. £. s. ' 
 
 Austria and the Zollverein 11 per ton. 
 Holland . . 1 16 8 „ 
 
 France . . 5 0,, 
 
 Russia 
 
 United States . 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 4 
 3 5 
 7 
 
 per ton. 
 „ 
 „ 
 
 
 Currants imported from 
 
 The Ionian Islands. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 cwts. 
 
 cwts. 
 
 1831 
 
 162,363 
 
 21,132 
 
 1832 
 
 108,079 
 
 45,148 
 
 1833 
 
 97,912 
 
 28,569 
 
 1^34 
 
 153,404 
 
 31,094 
 
 1835 
 
 127,571 
 
 45,286 
 
 1836 
 
 136,773 
 
 56,216 
 
 1837 
 
 156,043 
 
 52,468 
 
 1838 
 
 94,440 
 
 74,162 
 
 1839 
 
 133,374 
 
 71,524 
 
 1840 
 
 Average 
 
 133,343 
 
 83,795 
 
 1,303,302 
 
 529,395 
 
 130,330 
 
 52,939 
 
CUE 
 
 96 
 
 CUS 
 
 
 
 
 Currants imported from 
 
 
 The Ionian Islands. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 cwts. 
 
 cwts. 
 
 1841 , 
 
 
 107,604 
 
 65,021 
 
 1842 
 
 
 
 156,840 
 
 106,175 
 
 1843 
 
 
 
 142,485 
 
 92,173 
 
 1844 
 
 
 
 133,953 
 
 141,194 
 
 1845 
 
 
 
 175,872 
 
 168,045 
 
 1846 
 
 
 
 266,308 
 
 125,034 
 
 1847 
 
 
 
 185,659 
 
 205,555 
 
 1848 
 
 
 
 174,656 
 
 225,175 
 
 1849 
 
 
 
 171,709 
 
 282,819 
 
 1850 
 
 
 
 138,202 
 
 275,201 
 
 
 1,653,288 
 
 1,686,392 
 
 1851 
 
 54,596 
 
 105,115 
 
 1852 
 
 
 
 233,501 
 
 447,742 
 
 1853 
 
 
 
 59,321 
 
 130,986 
 
 1854 
 
 
 
 43,260 
 
 61,849 
 
 1855 
 
 
 
 37,605 
 
 88,801 
 
 1856 
 
 
 
 50,332 
 
 269,657 
 
 1857 
 
 
 
 82,863 
 
 263,426 
 
 1858 
 
 
 
 89,458 
 
 455,136 
 
 
 
 
 650,936 
 
 1,822,712 
 
 CUSTOMS. — The gross total amount of Customs Duties collected in the 
 United Kingdom for the year ending March 31, 1859, was £24,155,852. The 
 following is a statement of the several articles upon which the principal amount 
 is obtained, to Dec. 1857, 1858, and 1859:— 
 
 
 1857. 
 
 1858. 
 
 1859. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1. Sugar 3 
 
 5,266,427 
 
 6,051,801 
 
 5,944,893 
 
 2. Tea 
 
 5,060,032 
 
 5,186,171 
 
 5,406,111 
 
 3. Tobacco and Snuff 
 
 5,253,432 
 
 5,454,216 
 
 5,552,347 
 
 4. Wines . . . 
 
 1,965,361 
 
 1,827,087 
 
 1,842,137 
 
 5. Spirits— Rum . . 
 
 1,378,424 
 
 1,396,267 
 
 1,459,796 
 
 6. „ Brandy . 
 
 968,621 
 
 830,521 
 
 979,574 
 
 7. Corn 
 
 473,383 
 
 586,783 
 
 527,545 
 
 8. Coffee . 
 
 456,805 
 
 442,120 
 
 429,339 
 
 9. Wood— Sawn and Split 
 
 354,698 
 
 362,571 
 
 382,516 
 
 10. „ Not Sawn or Split . 
 
 221,997 
 
 202,499 
 
 228,747 
 
 11. Silk Manufactures 
 
 250,995 
 
 270,536 
 
 307,246 
 
 12. Currants 
 
 201,599 
 
 302,819 
 
 379,264 
 
 13. Molasses . • 
 
 150,308 
 
 200,417 
 
 158,192 
 
 14. Butter . , . 
 
 110,593 
 
 95,489 
 
 104,320 
 
 15. Raisins . . . 
 
 92,574 
 
 129,411 
 
 151,176 
 
 16. Cheese . 
 
 48,200 
 
 44,370 
 
 49,395 
 
 17. Miscellaneous . • 
 Gross Total . 
 
 742,922 
 
 772,774 
 
 801,726 
 
 22,956,571 
 
 24,155,852 
 
 24,704,324 
 
 Of the above total amounts, the proportion collected from each division, with 
 the proportion per cent, of the total amount collected in 1858, was as under: — 
 
 London . . . 
 Liverpool . 
 
 78 other Ports in England 
 26 „ ,, Scotland 
 19 „ „ Ireland 
 
 Totals 
 
 Gross 
 Receipts. 
 
 Proportion 
 
 per cent, of 
 
 Total Amount. 
 
 £12,332,061 
 3,622,503 
 3,669,395 
 2,266,440 
 2,265,453 
 
 510 
 150 
 152 
 9-4 
 9 4 
 
 24,155,852 
 
 100-0 
 
CUS 
 
 97 
 
 CUS 
 
 The customs duties, except on some of the most important articles of con- 
 sumption, have been gradually abolished, and in other cases materially reduced. 
 The gross duties received in 1862 was almost wholly derived from the following 
 twelve articles : — 
 Cocoa 
 Coffee 
 Corn . 
 
 Dried Fruits . 
 Hops 
 Pepper 
 Spirits 
 
 £16,361 
 
 Sugar and Molasses 
 
 . 6,641,231 
 
 433,360 
 
 Tea . 
 
 . 5,582,793 
 
 962,482 
 
 Timber 
 
 . 229,234 
 
 372,461 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 . 5,714,448 
 
 55,969 
 
 Wine 
 
 . 1,123,605 
 
 106,080 
 
 Other articles . 
 
 132,794 
 
 2,622,728 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 £23,993,546 
 
 Amongst the minor articles included in the last item were beer and ale, cards, 
 chicory, hops, malt, vinegar, and plate, retained in the tariff simply for the pur- 
 pose of countervailing imposts levied by the Inland Kevenue on that class of 
 articles produced or manufactured in this country. In this category are also in- 
 cluded a few items which brought only trifling sums to the Exchequer, but 
 which nevertheless are inadmissible free of duty because of the relation they bear 
 to staple articles that contribute largely to the revenue, as for instance, arrowroot, 
 pearl barley, biscuit, sago, smolina and starch, tapioca, vermicelli, and maccaroni, 
 with others of a farinaceous character, all of which are assessed at the same rate 
 as flour, preserved ginger and plums, marmalade, succades, and other such articles 
 in which the saccharine element abounds. 
 
 Turning to 1851, a year of better fiscal results than that which preceded or 
 succeeded it, we find that the customs revenue amounted to £22,258,301. At 
 that period upwards .of 40 a articles were subject to duty on importation, and to 
 that number should be added all unenumerated merchandise classed under the 
 general denomination of " goods either in part or wholly manufactured and 
 charged with an ad valorem duty of 10 per cent." 
 
 In 1862, notwithstanding the entire abolition of duties on all those articles, 
 and great relaxations on others, the aggregate receipts of customs exhibit an 
 amount greater by £1,735,245 than that of 1851. These figures and facts would 
 seem to furnish a signal proof of the great resources and progressive wealth of 
 the nation. 
 
 The gross amount produced by customs duties upon the principal and other 
 articles of foreign and colonial merchandize in the last three years has been as 
 follows: — 
 
 
 
 
 1860. 
 
 1861. 
 
 1862. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Cocoa .... 
 
 14,506 
 
 14,902 
 
 16,361 
 
 Coffee 
 
 
 
 445,999 
 
 442,253 
 
 433,360 
 
 Corn 
 
 
 
 751,044 
 
 837,633 
 
 962,482 
 
 Fruits 
 
 
 
 362,589 
 
 346,818 
 
 372,461 
 
 Hops 
 
 
 
 9,671 
 
 99,620 
 
 55,969 
 
 Pepper 
 
 
 
 98,430 
 
 100,105 
 
 106,080 
 
 Spirits 
 
 
 
 2,531,482 
 
 2,641,493 
 
 2,622,728 
 
 Sugar 
 
 
 
 6,092,545 
 
 6,414,411 
 
 6,641,231 
 
 Tea 
 
 
 
 5,444,157 
 
 5,521,322 
 
 5,582,793 
 
 Timber and Wood 
 
 
 
 304,457 
 
 246,314 
 
 229,234 
 
 Tobacco . 
 
 
 
 5,674,054 
 
 5,604,035 
 
 5,714,448 
 
 Wine 
 
 
 
 1,174,105 
 
 1,219,533 
 
 1,123,605 
 
 Other articles 
 
 
 
 262,725 
 
 168,974 
 
 132,794 
 
 Tota 
 
 I 
 
 
 £23,165,764 
 
 £23,657,513 
 
 £23,993,546 
 
 Between the years 1847 and 1861, the customs duties repealed or reduced 
 (deducting war duties imposed) amounted to £6,500,711. Deducting the charges 
 for collection, the net revenue derived from customs articles in the last three 
 years was as follows: 1860, £22,852,383; 1861, £23,446,526; 1862, £23,709,505.. 
 
cus 
 
 98 
 
 DEN 
 
 The following comparative table will show the recent reduction of duties on 
 the most important articles : — 
 
 
 1840. 
 
 1863. 
 
 Cocoa . 
 
 Id and 6d per lb. 
 
 Id per lb. 
 
 Coffee . 
 
 6d and Is „ 
 
 3d „ 
 
 Corn 
 
 6d to 20s 4c? per qr. 
 
 Is per qr. 
 
 Currants 
 
 22s 2d cwt 
 
 7s per cwt 
 
 Figs 
 
 15s 
 
 Free. 
 
 Raisins 
 
 7s 6d and 15s cwt 
 
 Free. 
 
 Pepper . 
 
 6d per lb. 
 
 6c? per lb. 
 
 Rum 
 
 9s per gall. 
 
 8s 3d per galL 
 
 Brandy 
 
 22s 6d „ 
 
 8s 6d „ 
 
 Geneva 
 
 22s U „ 
 
 8s 6c* 
 
 Sugar . 
 
 24s to 63s cwt. 
 
 12s 8c? to 18s Ad cwt 
 
 Tea 
 
 2s \d per lb. 
 
 Is pei lb. 
 
 Timber 
 
 28s to £2. 15* per load 
 
 £1. to £2. per load. 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 3s to 9s per lb. 
 
 3s to 5s per lb 
 
 Wine . 
 
 5s 6d per galL 
 
 Is to 2s per gall. 
 
 A Statement showing the Gross Receipt and Net Produce of the Customs of the 
 United Kingdom, from 1849 to 1859, with the Charges of Collection. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Gross 
 Receipt 
 
 Net 
 Produce after 
 deducting 
 Drawbacks, 
 Bounties, Re- 
 payments on 
 Over-entries, &c. 
 
 Charges 
 
 of 
 
 Collection. 
 
 Rate per Cent, of 
 Collection. 
 
 On 
 
 the Gross 
 Receipt. 
 
 On 
 
 the Net 
 Produce. 
 
 1849 - 
 
 1850 - 
 
 1851 - 
 
 1852 - 
 
 1853 - 
 
 Years ended 
 31st March. 
 1853 - 
 
 1856 - 
 
 1857 - 
 
 1858 - 
 
 1859 - 
 
 £ 
 23,483.956 
 22.194,142 
 22,373,662 
 22,312,514 
 22,737,284 
 
 22,245,118 
 23,481,818 
 23,959.528 
 23,603,770 
 21,376.169 
 
 £ 
 
 22,268,864 
 22,019.784 
 22,197,075 
 22,137,120 
 22,515,913 
 
 21,991,675 
 23,213,797 
 23,488,136 
 23,275,743 
 23,998,380 
 
 £ 
 1,301,727 
 1,283,805 
 1,290,756 
 1,268,422 
 1,302,721 
 
 1,236,088 
 
 1,257,248 
 
 1,107.551* 
 
 843,757* 
 
 838,203* 
 
 £ s. d, 
 5 15 9 
 5 15 8 
 5 15 4 
 5 13 8 
 5 14 7 
 
 5 11 2 
 5 7 1 
 4 12 5 
 3 11 6 
 3 8 9 
 
 £ :. d. 
 5 16 11 
 5 16 7 
 5 16 4 
 5 14 7 
 5 15 9 
 
 5 12 5 
 5 8 4 
 4 14 4 
 3 12 6 
 3 9 10 
 
 CUTCH. — The imports of cutch, which is chiefly used here as a tanning sub- 
 stance, are mixed in the Board of Trade returns with what is termed terra japo- 
 nica, but is properly gambier, imported from Singapore. This is an inspissated 
 astringent substance obtained from the Uncaria gam Mr, and comes entirely from 
 the Straits settlements, while cutch comes from India. The imports of this mis- 
 named terra japonica averaged about 9000 tons annually in the three years 
 ending with 1859. The imports of cutch, which had been about 2400 tons in 
 each of the previous two years, were in 1859 4515 tons. 
 
 DENMARK. — Differences which had existed for some time, and led to hos- 
 tilities with Germany, were definitively arranged in the close of 1858, and, by 
 decree of the 6th November of that year the constitutional law of Denmark, was 
 withdrawn from the duchies of Holstcin and Lauenburg, The population of 
 Denmark Proper was, in 1855, 1,500,000, and of the three duchies about 
 1 .000,000. The shipping belonging to Denmark Proper in 1 857 consisted of 2G51 
 vessels, measuring 65,909 lasts (of two tons) : twenty-seven of these were steamers 
 pf 1837 aggregate horse power. The Duchies of Sleswick and Holstcin had 2708 
 vessels measuring 47,452 lasts; of these only eleven were steamers, of 508 horse 
 power in all. 
 
 Of the carrying trade during the year 1856, 73 per cent, was conducted in 
 Danish ships engaged in the export, and 41 per cent, in Danish ships engaged 
 in the import trade. Of the trade with England, 62 per cent, was carried on in 
 
DEN 99 DOC 
 
 Danish ships. The number of foreign ships engaged in the whole trade of Den- 
 mark in 1856 was 22,676, of 528,629 commercial lasts burden. The proportion 
 of English ships was 979. 
 
 VALUE OF THE IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF DENMARK. 
 
 Imports. Exports. 
 
 1847 ... - £4,805,403 £3,451,591 
 
 1852 - 5,266,169 3,871,048 
 
 The whole import and export trade in 1856 amounted to about £11,428,927. 
 We thus perceive that the trade of Denmark has been steadily and sensibly im- 
 proving during the last ten years. Since the abolition of the Sound Dues (to which 
 Great Britain paid, as her proportion of the redemption, £1,250,000) the im- 
 portance of Denmark to the British wool and cotton trade has been greatly 
 increased, and Copenhagen has become an entrepot for Russian produce destined 
 for England on the one hand, and for British wool and cotton goods on the 
 other. Since the years 1854 and 1855, when the trade of Iceland and the Faro 
 Islands was thrown open to foreign nations, another valuable market has pre- 
 sented itself to British trade. The most important export articles from these 
 parts of the Danish dependencies being sheep, wool, tallow, salted fish, ponies, 
 eider down, and cod-liver oil. The principal imports from England are coal, 
 iron, salt, and manufactured goods. The exports from Denmark are chiefly live 
 stock and agricultural produce. The distillation of brandy has of late years 
 made rapid strides, while its exportation has correspondingly increased. 
 
 DOCKS. — The great extension of foreign trade and commerce has led to an 
 enlarged demand for dock accommodation, and a very great extension has con- 
 sequently been given to dock space in the principal ports, while new docks have 
 been formed in many localities where none previously existed. 
 
 In 1850 there were 130 wet docks, including graving docks, in Great Britain 
 and Ireland, which had cost in the aggregate upwards of £30,000,000, and covered 
 a water area of 1000 acres. Since that period upwards of 500 acres more of dock 
 accommodation has been formed. 
 
 I.— Docks of the Port of London. 
 
 In London there are about 30 wet docks, covering a water area of 336 acres, 
 the property of six incorporated Companies, the aggregate cost of whose works 
 exceed £9,300,000. These docks accommodate upwards of 9000 vessels, of an 
 aggregate tonnage of about 2,700,000 tons, yielding an annual revenue in dues 
 and warehouse rent exceeding £1,500,000 to the Companies, enabling them to 
 pay dividends averaging from 3 to 5 per cent, per annum. The Victoria and 
 Commercial Docks each paid 5 per cent, in 1858. 
 
 In 1850, the trade of the port having more than doubled, the Victoria Docks 
 were projected, to meet the rapidly increasing requirements of the trade, and to 
 accommodate the large steamers navigating the river. In 1849 the number of 
 British and Foreign steamers which entered the port of London, exclusive of plea- 
 sure or passenger steamers, was 1353, with a tonnage of 300,000 tons. Many 
 of these vessels could not enter the existing docks except at the expense of un- 
 shipping their paddles. Of 9567 ships in the foreign trade, measuring 1,819,171 
 tons, which entered the port of London in the year 1848, only 4915, measuring 
 1,172,707 tons, availed themselves of the accommodation provided by the existing 
 docks. And in 1849, of 9970 British and foreign ships that entered the port, only 
 5025 made use of the docks. 
 
 The entire area comprised within the docks is about 200 acres, of which more 
 than one-half, about 110 acres, is water space. This consists of the entrance, 
 with its lock, the tidal chamber of 16 acres, and the main dock of 74 acres. The 
 basin and dock are 4050 feet in length, and 1050 feet in width, at the level of 
 high water mark. In addition to the quay room afforded by the sides of the" 
 
DOC 
 
 ICO 
 
 DOC 
 
 basin and dock, four jetties, each 581 feet long and 140 feet wide, project from 
 the north side into the dock ; these jetties, with the sides of the dock and of the 
 basin, provide a length of three miles of quay space. 
 
 By comparing the appended returns, the progress of the Dock business of 
 London, and the accommodation afforded to shipping will be readily seen. 
 
 Year 1850. 
 
 Water 
 Area. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Ships 
 Entered. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 Dividend. 
 
 St. Katharine 
 
 London 
 
 East and West India 
 
 Commercial 
 
 East Country 
 
 Totals 
 
 Acres. 
 11 
 32 
 112 
 57 
 
 £ 
 
 2,152,800 
 
 3,938,310 
 
 2,065,668 
 
 313,400 
 
 103,800 
 
 No. 
 
 703 
 
 1,255 
 
 2,546 
 
 646 
 
 214 
 
 Tons. 
 152,046 
 349,384 
 480,183 
 174,210 
 
 46,500 
 
 £ 
 
 231,552 
 
 457,397 
 
 420,000 
 
 17,000 
 
 4,300 
 
 £ 
 
 34 
 
 5 
 6 
 4 
 3 
 
 213 
 
 8,573,978 
 
 5,364 
 
 1,202,323 
 
 1,130,249 
 
 Year 1858. 
 
 Water 
 Area. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Ships 
 Entered. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Cost 
 per Acre. 
 
 Dividend 
 per ann. 
 
 East and West India 
 
 London 
 
 St. Katharine 
 
 "Victoria . . 
 
 Commercial • 
 
 East Country* 
 
 Total 
 
 Acres. 
 112 
 32 
 11 
 110 
 70 
 1 
 
 £ 
 
 2,065,668 
 
 3,938,310 
 
 2,152,800 
 
 900,000 
 
 514,410 
 
 103,800 
 
 No. 
 3,621 
 
 975 
 
 863 
 2,318 
 1,222 
 
 214 
 
 Tons. 
 817,320 
 403,146 
 201,796 
 814,136 
 401,470 
 
 46,500 
 
 £ 
 
 18,443 
 
 123.072 
 
 195,640 
 
 8,181 
 
 7,348 
 
 103,800 
 
 6 
 
 t 
 
 5 
 
 336 
 
 9,374,988 
 
 9,213 
 
 2,684,368 | 
 
 Comparative Statement of the Vessels and their Tonnage which entered the 
 undermentioned Docks. 
 
 East and West India . 
 
 London 
 
 St. Katharine . 
 
 Victoria 
 
 Total 
 
 1857. 
 
 1858. 
 
 1859. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 3,668 
 979 
 944 
 
 1,782 
 
 842,572 
 390,759 
 201,941 
 594,773 
 
 3,621 
 975 
 863 
 
 2,318 
 
 817,320 
 403,146 
 201,796 
 814,136 
 
 882 
 
 923 
 
 2,416 
 
 369,312 
 207,066 
 756,012 
 
 7,313 
 
 2,030,045 
 
 7,777 
 
 2,236,398 
 
 4,221 
 
 1,332,390 
 
 The figures include not only loaded vessels from foreign ports, but coasters, 
 colliers, light ships, and vessels returned from dry dock. 
 
 The undermentioned account gives the number and tonnage of loaded vessels 
 from foreign ports which entered the three docks named, as extracted from the 
 Customs' published list during the years specified, viz.— 
 
 * Not being able to get a return for the East Country Dock, 
 same number of ships and tonnage as entered in 1850. 
 
 have assumed merely the 
 
DOC 
 
 101 
 
 DOC 
 
 London J • 
 St Katharine 
 Victoria 
 
 1858. 
 
 1859. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 945 
 477 
 672 
 
 384,794 
 139,272 
 396,919 
 
 899 
 495 
 421 
 
 INI* OS 
 
 CO (O O 
 
 The dock area is now deemed to be insufficient. The want of greater accommo- 
 dation in the existing docks for the foreign and home trade of the port of London; 
 the all but entire deficiency of diy docks; and the crowded state of the navigation 
 of the river have threatened to drive from the metropolis to rival ports a large 
 proportion of the shipping which enters the Thames. During the last thirty 
 years the British tonnage entering the port of London has increased from 
 784,000 tons to 1,888,000, and in the same period the Foreign tonnage has 
 increased from 215,605 to 1,073,000 tons, or nearly five times the amount of 
 former times ; the greatest increase has taken place within the last eight years, 
 mainly owing to the repeal of the Navigation Laws. But while all this vast in- 
 crease has been going on, no proportionate extent of dock accommodation has 
 been provided, and the Thames — the great highway of our trade and commerce 
 — like some of the principal street thoroughfares of the metropolis, has become 
 inconveniently crowded with traffic, so much so as to render its navigation tedious 
 and expensive. 
 
 The appended returns will serve to convey an idea of the present aggregate 
 foreign trade of the United Kingdom, from which it will be seen that nearly 15 
 millions of tons weight of sea-borne cargo are annually conveyed to and from 
 our ports. 
 
 IMPORTS. 
 
 Date. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Register 
 
 Tons Weight of 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Cargo carried. 
 
 1852 
 
 38,051 
 
 7,887,447 
 
 6,169,599 
 
 1853 
 
 42,876 
 
 8,943,106 
 
 7,525,063 
 
 1854 
 
 41,591 
 
 9,161,366 
 
 7,290,996 
 
 1855 
 
 40 980 
 
 8,951,239 
 
 6,254,259 
 
 1856 
 
 30,604 
 
 8,241,703 
 
 
 1857 
 
 32,693 
 
 8,732,180 
 
 
 1853 
 
 34,591 
 
 8,816,133 
 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 
 No. Of 
 
 Register 
 
 Tons Weight of 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Cargo carried. 
 
 1852 
 
 39,361 
 
 8,242,702 
 
 6,418,245 
 
 1853 
 
 44,779 
 
 9,447,104 
 
 7,316,457 
 
 1854 
 
 43,494 
 
 9,507,721 
 
 7,639,473 
 
 1855 
 
 42,597 
 
 9,538,231 
 
 8,370,363 
 
 1856 
 
 41,355 
 
 9.662,513 
 
 
 1857 
 
 44,401 
 
 10,343,399 
 
 
 1858 
 
 42,834 
 
 9,936,705 
 
 
 In 1750 there cleared from the port of London 179,860 tons of shipping, but 
 the entries in that year cannot be ascertained. In 1800 there entered 796,632 
 tons, and cleared 729,554 tons; and in 1857 the entries were 2,834,107 and the 
 clearances 2,143,884 tons. 
 
DOC 
 
 102 
 
 DOC 
 
 Entries of Vessels at the Port of London, distinguishing the Foreign, 
 Coasters, &c. 
 
 Foreign Trade: 
 
 British 
 
 Foreign 
 Irish Trade 
 Colliers 
 Coasters 
 Fishing Vessels . 
 
 1820. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1840. 
 
 No. i Tons. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 3,354 
 856 
 420 
 
 5,921 
 10,676 
 
 4,949 
 
 655,239 
 
 122,619 
 
 43,891 
 
 no record 
 
 H 
 
 »1 
 
 3,910 
 1,268 
 797 
 6,944 
 11,316 
 4,851 
 
 744,229 
 207,500 
 105,409 
 
 1,413,243 
 918,049 
 
 no record 
 
 4,513 
 2,215 
 1,000 
 8,970 
 11,643 
 3,588 
 
 930,291 
 333,929 
 149,755 
 
 1,768,301 
 932,757 
 
 no record 
 
 Foreign Trade: 
 
 British . 
 
 Foreign . 
 Irish Trade 
 Coasters and Colliers 
 Fishing Vessels 
 
 1850. 
 
 1857. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 No. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 6,499 
 
 3,415 
 
 502 
 
 21,253 
 
 1,376,714 
 
 528,234 
 
 125,862 
 
 3,125,056 
 
 no record 
 
 6,570 
 4,189 
 
 1,808,854 
 1,025,253 
 
 The following series of tables will mark the progress of the trade with the 
 British Colonies from the Thames in the last thirty years : — 
 
 Statement of the Number and Tonnage of Vessels which entered the Port of 
 London with Cargoes from the Colonies and Dependencies of England in the 
 years 1828, 1837, 1847, and 1857. 
 
 Colonies. 
 
 1828. 
 
 1837. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Gibraltar , 
 Malta 
 
 Possessions in Africa 
 Do. Asia and Australia 
 N. American Colonies 
 West Indies 
 Channel Islands 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 92 
 131 
 210 
 508 
 173 
 
 1,775 
 586 
 23,873 
 57,140 
 69,416 
 147,462 
 14,181 
 
 27 
 3 
 140 
 223 
 258 
 387 
 451 
 
 6,783 
 425 
 31,308 
 93,110 
 92,504 
 109,574 
 37,671 
 
 1,130 
 
 314,433 
 
 1,489 
 
 371,375 
 
 1847. 
 
 Colonies- 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Gibraltar . 
 Malta 
 
 Possessions in Africa 
 Do. Asia and Australia 
 N. American Colonies 
 West Indies 
 Channel Islands 
 
 Total . 
 
 Vessels. 
 9 
 30 
 214 
 437 
 462 
 369 
 503 
 
 Tons. 
 
 818 
 
 5,461 
 
 58,072 
 
 209,211 
 
 205,935 
 
 111,340 
 
 52,077 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 8 
 
 Tons. 
 1,027 
 
 914 
 
 2,006 
 
 818 
 6,488 
 58,072 
 210,125 
 208,541 
 111,310 
 52,077 
 
 2,024 
 
 642,914 
 
 14 
 
 4,547 
 
 647,461 
 
DOC 
 
 103 
 
 DOC 
 
 1857. 
 
 Colonies. 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total 
 Tonnage. 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 Gibraltar. Malta, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ionian Isles 
 
 22 
 
 7,528 
 
 2 
 
 340 
 
 7,868 
 
 Possessions in Africa 
 
 166 
 
 52,257 
 
 7 
 
 2,198 
 
 54,455 
 
 E. Indian and Austra- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lian Colonies, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Falkland Isles 
 
 491 
 
 328,655 
 
 49 
 
 36,662 
 
 365,317 
 
 N. American Colonies 
 
 192 
 
 86,775 
 
 143 
 
 90,731 
 
 177,506 
 
 West Indies 
 
 391 
 
 116,072 
 
 21 
 
 7,637 
 
 123,709 
 
 Channel Islands . 
 
 591 
 
 72,461 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 72,461 
 
 1853 
 
 663,748 
 
 222 
 
 137,568 
 
 801,316 
 
 An Account of the Number of Vessels and their aggregate Tonnsge that have 
 Entered the Port of London from Foreign parts, distinguishing the British 
 from the Foreign, since 1820. 
 
 1820 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 3.354 
 
 655,239 
 
 856 
 
 122,619 
 
 4,210 
 
 677,858 
 
 1821 
 
 3,000 
 
 585,994 
 
 571 
 
 89,073 
 
 3,571 
 
 675,067 
 
 1822 
 
 3,230 
 
 603,167 
 
 597 
 
 106,099 
 
 3,827 
 
 709,266 
 
 1823 
 
 3,031 
 
 611,451 
 
 865 
 
 161,705 
 
 3,896 
 
 773,156 
 
 ISM 
 
 3,1:32 
 
 607,106 
 
 1,643 
 
 264,098 
 
 4,775 
 
 871,204 
 
 1825 
 
 3.989 
 
 785,565 
 
 1,743 
 
 302,122 
 
 5,732 
 
 1,087,687 
 
 1826 
 
 3.495 
 
 675,026 
 
 1,586 
 
 215,254 
 
 5,081 
 
 890,280 
 
 1827 
 
 4,012 
 
 769,102 
 
 1,534 
 
 221,008 
 
 5,546 
 
 990,110 
 
 1828 
 
 4,084 
 
 767,212 
 
 1,303 
 
 195,929 
 
 5,387 
 
 963,141 
 
 1829 
 
 4,108 
 
 784,070 
 
 1,300 
 
 215,605 
 
 5,408 
 
 999,675 
 
 1830 
 
 3.910 
 
 744,229 
 
 1,268 
 
 207.500 
 
 5,178 
 
 951,729 
 
 1831 
 
 4,140 
 
 788^968 
 
 1,557 
 
 269,159 
 
 5,697 
 
 1,060,147 
 
 1832 
 
 3,274 
 
 640,057 
 
 886 
 
 154,514 
 
 4,160 
 
 794,571 
 
 1833 
 
 3 421 
 
 678,289 
 
 1,061 
 
 175,883 
 
 4,483 
 
 854,172 
 
 1834 
 
 3,786 
 
 735,693 
 
 1,280 
 
 216,063 
 
 5,066 
 
 951,756 
 
 1835 
 
 3.780 
 
 740,255 
 
 1,057 
 
 188,893 
 
 4,837 
 
 929,148 
 
 1836 
 
 3,845 
 
 772,046 
 
 1,465 
 
 255,875 
 
 5,310 
 
 1,027,921 
 
 1837 
 
 4,079 
 
 821,788 
 
 1,517 
 
 240,135 
 
 5,626 
 
 1,061,923 
 
 1838 
 
 4,366 
 
 893,925 
 
 1,727 
 
 277,902 
 
 6,093 
 
 1,171,827 
 
 1839 
 
 4,860 
 
 988,867 
 
 2,375 
 
 357,163 
 
 7,255 
 
 1,345,030 
 
 1840 
 
 4,547 
 
 934,660 
 
 2,221 
 
 354,456 
 
 6,768 
 
 1,289,116 
 
 1841 
 
 4,642 
 
 999,259 
 
 1,999 
 
 317,608 
 
 6,641 
 
 1,316,367 
 
 1842 
 
 4,767 
 
 1,002,453 
 
 1,640 
 
 281,468 
 
 6,407 
 
 1,283,921 
 
 1843 
 
 4,589 
 
 1,022,550 
 
 1,633 
 
 186*111 
 
 6,222 
 
 1,317,671 
 
 1844 
 
 4,741 
 
 1,008,463 
 
 2,144 
 
 353,346 
 
 6,885 
 
 1,361,809 
 
 1845 
 
 5,123 
 
 1,109,387 
 
 2,439 
 
 393,101 
 
 7,562 
 
 1,502,491 
 
 1846 
 
 5,228 
 
 1,134,646 
 
 2,483 
 
 394,531 
 
 7,711 
 
 1,529,177 
 
 1847 
 
 6,271 
 
 1,436,986 
 
 3,132 
 
 494,791 
 
 9,403 
 
 1,931,777 
 
 1848 
 
 G,4S9 
 
 1,387,070 
 
 3,078 
 
 432,111 
 
 9,567 
 
 1,819,171 
 
 1849 
 
 6,923 
 
 1,445,319 
 
 3,047 
 
 445,205 
 
 9,970 
 
 1,890,524 
 
 1850 
 
 6,499 
 
 1,376,714 
 
 3,415 
 
 528,234 
 
 9,914 
 
 1,904,948 
 
 1851 
 
 6,593 
 
 1,449,353 
 
 3,748 
 
 720,969 
 
 10,341 
 
 2,170,322 
 
 1852 
 
 6,028 
 
 1,389,711 
 
 3,958 
 
 770,446 
 
 9,986 
 
 2,160,157 
 
 1853 
 
 6.2«1 
 
 1,524,219 
 
 5,502 
 
 1,069,894 
 
 11,763 
 
 2,594,113 
 
 1854 
 
 6,151 
 
 1,654,234 
 
 4,792 
 
 1,013,589 
 
 10,943 
 
 2,667,723 
 
 1855 
 
 5,745 
 
 1,528,497 
 
 4,025 
 
 892,089 
 
 9,770 
 
 2,420,586 
 
 1856 
 
 6,164 
 
 1,699,423 
 
 3,758 
 
 945,860 
 
 9,922 
 
 2,645,283 
 
 1857 
 
 6,570 
 
 1,808,854 
 
 4,189 
 
 1,025,253 
 
 10,759 
 
 2,834,107 
 
 1858 
 
 6,804 
 
 1,888,261 
 
 4,368 
 
 1,073,048 
 
 11,172 
 
 2,961,309 
 
 From the foregoing returns it will be seen that in 1820 the number of shipi 
 which entered the river was 4210, measuring 677,858 tons, of these 856 ships 
 and 122,619 tons were foreigners. In 1830 the total number were 5178 ships and 
 
DOC 
 
 104 
 
 DOC 
 
 951,799 tons, of which 1268 ships and 207,500 tons were foreigners. In 1840, 
 out of 6768 vessels and 1,289,116 tons, 2221 ships and 354,456 tons were 
 foreigners. In 1850 the entries were 9914 ships and 1,904,948 tons, and of 
 these 3415 vessels and 528,234 tons sailed under a foreign flag. In 1855, of 
 9770 vessels and 2,420,586 tons, 4025 ships and 829,089 tons were owned by 
 foreigners. These figures show incontrovertibly how rapid and extensive has been 
 the increase of the foreign tonnage employed" in this port, for while in 1S20 the 
 foreign ships numbered only one-fourth of the entire entries, in 1855 they 
 had reached four-fifths, while more than half the tonnage employed was 
 foreign bottoms. The whole commerce of the countiy in 1859 was carried on 
 by 9,089,550 tons of shipping entered, of which 3,700,597 tons were foreign 
 vessels, and of 10,242,624 tons cleared upwards of 4,000,000 were foreign 
 bottoms. 
 
 The aggregate number of vessels, sailing and steam, that entered the port of 
 London in 1857 from foreign countries and British possessions, exclusive of 
 colliers, coasters, and fishing vessels, was 10,759 ships, registering 2,834,107 
 tons, and in 1858, 11,172 of 2,961,309 tons. 
 
 The progressive increase of shipping movements in the port is shown by the 
 following figures: — 
 
 1827 
 1837 
 1847 
 
 1857 
 
 Aggregate Tonnage Entered. 
 
 990,110 
 1,061,923 
 1,931,777 
 2,834,107 
 
 Showing a progressive decennial increase of late years of about 900,000 tons. 
 
 The following returns show the Number and Tonnage of British and Foreign 
 Vessels which Entered the Port of London with Cargoes from Foreign Ports, 
 distinguishing the Countries whence they arrived : 
 
 1837. 
 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Russia . 
 
 431 
 
 100,290 
 
 57 
 
 20,587 
 
 Sweden . , 
 
 4 
 
 750 
 
 88 
 
 28,491 
 
 Norway . . 
 
 1 
 
 163 
 
 113 
 
 34,319 
 
 Denmark . . 
 
 5 
 
 829 
 
 92 
 
 7,218 
 
 Prussia . . 
 
 132 
 
 19,561 
 
 203 
 
 45,267 
 
 German States 
 
 175 
 
 50,314 
 
 242 
 
 16,353 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 524 
 
 78,489 
 
 270 
 
 25,585 
 
 France 
 
 301 
 
 44,357 
 
 311 
 
 14,871 
 
 Portugal, Azores and Madeira 
 
 306 
 
 29.743 
 
 12 
 
 1,413 
 
 Spain and Canaries . 
 
 252 
 
 29,889 
 
 44 
 
 4,973 
 
 Italian States 
 
 119 
 
 17,535 
 
 18 
 
 4,701 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 
 34 
 
 4.576 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Turkey and Continental Greece 
 
 61 
 
 9,333 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Morea and Greek Islands 
 
 20 
 
 2,816 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Egypt 
 
 I 
 
 148 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Tunis, Barbary, and Morocco 
 
 14 
 
 1,626 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Madagascar 
 
 3 
 
 581 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Foreign Possessions in Asia . 
 
 9 
 
 2,899 
 
 2 
 
 508 
 
 China 
 
 32 
 
 21,275 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Northern States of America . 
 
 15 
 
 4,513 
 
 53 
 
 27,924 
 
 Foreign West Indies 
 
 23 
 
 4,539 
 
 17 
 
 3,712 
 
 Foreign Colonies in America . 
 
 85 
 
 16,487 
 
 5 
 
 1,129 
 
 The Whale Fisheries 
 
 Total , 
 
 21 
 
 6,911 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 2.5G8 
 
 447,624 
 
 1,527 j 
 
 237,051 
 
DOC 
 
 105 
 
 DOC 
 
 1847. 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Russia 
 
 719 
 
 155,752 
 
 314 
 
 55,961 
 
 Sweden . . 
 
 11 
 
 1,103 
 
 197 
 
 49*98 
 
 Norway . • 
 
 3 
 
 240 
 
 164 
 
 47,462 
 
 Denmark . . 
 
 40 
 
 6,518 
 
 587 
 
 39,938 
 
 Prussia 
 
 231 
 
 32,066 
 
 362 
 
 70,844 
 
 German States • 
 
 193 
 
 51,817 
 
 324 
 
 22,600 
 
 Holland . 
 
 588 
 
 116,159 
 
 286 
 
 21,720 
 
 Belgium . . 
 
 223 
 
 42.467 
 
 133 
 
 20,787 
 
 France 
 
 693 
 
 88.880 
 
 825 
 
 23,089 
 
 Portugal, Azores and Madeira 
 
 350 
 
 36,095 
 
 13 
 
 1,761 
 
 Spain and Canaries . 
 
 245 
 
 24,471 
 
 50 
 
 5,120 
 
 Italian States 
 
 127 
 
 16,902 
 
 45 
 
 11,239 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 
 32 
 
 4,136 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Greece 
 
 50 
 
 7,320 
 
 1 
 
 210 
 
 Moldavia and Wallachia 
 
 18 
 
 2,716 
 
 26 
 
 5,186 
 
 Turkish Dominions . 
 
 85 
 
 14,538 
 
 9 
 
 2,595 
 
 Syria and Palestine . 
 
 1 
 
 136 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Egypt 
 
 106 
 
 28,652 
 
 15 
 
 3,330 
 
 Tunis, Algeria and Morocco . 
 
 12 
 
 1,579 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Africa, Foreign Possessions . 
 
 4 
 
 777 
 
 2 
 
 756 
 
 Asia „ „ 
 
 33 
 
 12,122 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 China 
 
 62 
 
 28,347 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Foreign West Indies 
 
 127 
 
 34,054 
 
 44 
 
 9,259 
 
 America, United states 
 
 14 
 
 31,322 
 
 180 
 
 92,248 
 
 „ Central and South . 
 
 188 
 
 50,223 
 
 11 
 
 2,637 
 
 The Whale Fisheries 
 Total 
 
 16 
 
 5,306 
 
 
 — 
 
 4241 
 
 793,698 
 
 3091 
 
 487,797 
 
 1857. 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Russia, Northern Ports • 
 
 547 
 
 131.962 
 
 418 
 
 77,845 
 
 „ Southern Ports 
 
 78 
 
 27,835 
 
 81 
 
 28,732 
 
 Sweden . . . 
 
 128 
 
 20,462 
 
 509 
 
 111,281 
 
 Norway 
 
 . 
 
 2 
 
 256 
 
 207 
 
 66,304 
 
 Denmark 
 
 ■ • . 
 
 96 
 
 22,299 
 
 555 
 
 44,817 
 
 Prussia 
 
 > • 
 
 398 
 
 75,531 
 
 409 
 
 80,142 
 
 Germany 
 
 > • . 
 
 208 
 
 74,889 
 
 347 
 
 58,014 
 
 Holland 
 
 , 
 
 509 
 
 150830 
 
 316 
 
 47,249 
 
 Java 
 
 • 
 
 7 
 
 3,319 
 
 4 
 
 2,195 
 
 Belgium 
 
 > • 
 
 411 
 
 79,878 
 
 134 
 
 36,112 
 
 France 
 
 
 863 
 
 173,160 
 
 354 
 
 27,674 
 
 Pondicherry 
 
 3 
 
 1,652 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Portugal, Azores and Madeira 
 
 263 
 
 39,388 
 
 34 
 
 6,717 
 
 Spain and Canaries . 
 
 245 
 
 39,701 
 
 52 
 
 7,921 
 
 Philippine Islands . 
 
 8 
 
 4.034 
 
 6 
 
 4,128 
 
 Italian states • . 
 
 154 
 
 23,504 
 
 56 
 
 11,783 
 
 Greece 
 
 58 
 
 10,515 
 
 2 
 
 230 
 
 Turkey 
 
 55 
 
 15,836 
 
 16 
 
 3,514 
 
 Wallachia and Moldavia 
 
 38 
 
 7,110 
 
 15 
 
 3,684 
 
 Syria 
 
 3 
 
 815 
 
 2 
 
 325 
 
 Egypt 
 
 25 
 
 8,331 
 
 18 
 
 6,104 
 
 Morocco . 
 
 44 
 
 6,462 
 
 __ 
 
 — 
 
 United States 
 
 30 
 
 23.571 
 
 159 
 
 129.450 
 
 Cuba and Foreign West Indies 
 
 70 
 
 20,353 
 
 115 
 
 33,536 
 
 Central and South America . 
 
 199 
 
 101,813 
 
 129 
 
 71,917 
 
 Chinese Empire 
 
 65 
 
 43,087 
 
 11 
 
 8,670 
 
 Siam 
 
 1 
 
 284 
 
 
 
 
 
 East Coast of Africa 
 
 1 
 
 347 
 
 
 
 
 
 West Coast. Foreign Possessions 
 
 27 
 
 6,072 
 
 9 
 
 2,157 
 
 South Sea Islands . 
 
 1 
 
 177 
 
 
 
 
 
 Other Islands . 
 
 1 
 
 319 
 
 
 
 
 
 Whale Fisheries . 
 
 3 
 
 917 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Total 
 
 4542 
 
 1,114,909 
 
 3938 
 
 870,531 
 
 There also entered in ballast 175 British ships, measuring 30,197 tons, and 29 foreign ships of 
 17.1S4 tons. 
 
DOC 
 
 106 
 
 DOC 
 
 II. The Liverpool Docks. — The progress of dock accommodation in 
 Liverpool has been also very extensive of late years, the trade of the port having 
 risen to an enormous aggregate, nearly the whole of the cotton imports, and the 
 principal portion of the American timber and emigration trade centring there, 
 whilst it is also one of the chief steam-shipping ports of the kingdom. Ten years 
 ago there were fifty docks of all sorts, and basins covering a water area of about 
 200 acres, estimated to have cost upwards of £10,000,000. Within the last few 
 years, nine docks and graving docks have been constructed, and about 150 
 acres more of water space added to the accommodation of the port. Liverpool 
 owns about 1 ,000,000 tons of shipping, sail and steam. The entries of vessels 
 from foreign ports in 1858 amounted to 2,320,334 tons, exclusive of coasters. 
 The value of the exports of British produce from Liverpool in that year was 
 about £51,000,000, against £29,000,000 from London. The dock dues were 
 further reduced in 1844 and 1848. The Albert Dock was opened in 1845. In 
 1849, £314,857 was expended in dock improvements, and in 1855, ,£328,465, 
 in each case more than a year's revenue. About £1,090,000 has been expended 
 on the Birkenhead Docks, which comprise the Morpeth Dock with 3 5 acres, 
 Egerton, Z\, the Great Float 150, and the Deep Water Basin 37 acres. Since 
 the last edition of this Cyclopaedia was printed, the following additions have 
 been made to the dock accommodation: Albert Dock, 8 acres; the North, 55 
 acres; Toxteth, 2 acres; Harrington, 1 acre; South Dock, 16 acres; and Duke's, 
 2 acres; besides the Birkenhead Docks already mentioned. The following shows 
 the extension of the trade of Liverpool: — 
 
 1841 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Dock Dues Received. 
 
 16,108 
 
 2,425,461 
 
 £ 
 
 175,506 
 
 1842 
 
 16,458 
 
 2,425,319 
 
 177,232 
 
 1843 
 
 16,606 
 
 2,445,278 
 
 188,286 
 
 1844 
 
 18,411 
 
 2,632,712 
 
 185,164 
 
 1845 
 
 20,521 
 
 3,016,531 
 
 223,247 
 
 1846 
 
 19,951 
 
 3,096,444 
 
 213,423 
 
 1847 
 
 20,899 
 
 3,351,539 
 
 244,435 
 
 1848 
 
 20,311 
 
 3,284,963 
 
 197,617 
 
 1849 
 
 20,733 
 
 3,639,146 
 
 224,224 
 
 1850 
 
 20,457 
 
 3,536,337 
 
 211,743 
 
 III. Docks at other Ports of the United Kingdom — Although it is 
 Impossible to give detailed accounts of all the public works of the kind that have 
 been lately constructed, a few of the principal may be mentioned. 
 
 Southampton. — In 1842 new docks were opened at this port. The 
 open dock or great tidal basin has 16 acres surface of water, with a depth of 
 18 feet at low water, and 31 feet at high water. The entrance from the Itchen 
 estuaiy is 150 feet wide, from the north side of which is a jetty 180 feet long, 
 and 25 feet wide, where a large trade is carried on with the Irish and West of 
 England steamers, and sailing vessels from France, with eggs, butter and 
 poultry; which trade has wonderfully increased of late, owing to the facilities 
 afforded in the rapid transit to London by rail. At the East Quay is erected 
 one of the finest pair of sheers in England, which is worked by steam power, 
 and capable of lifting 50 tons. The quays round the open dock {measure 3300 
 feet, and are capable of affording quay berths for ten ships of the largest 
 tonnage. On the south side are the entrances to three graving docks, viz. the 
 Eastern Dock, the Middle, and Western Docks. 
 
 Length from gates to head III* 
 
 Length on blocks 
 
 Width of gates 
 
 Depth of water over blocks at ordinary springs 
 Depth at neaps 
 
 Eastern Dock. 
 
 Middle. 
 
 Western. 
 
 ft. 
 
 ft. 
 
 ft. 
 
 538 
 
 282 
 
 346 
 
 425 
 
 233 
 
 343 
 
 80 
 
 51 
 
 66 
 
 25 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
DOC 107 DOC 
 
 From the increased trade and demand for quay berths in 1856, an extensive 
 jetty was erected on the south side of the open dock, at which two of the 
 largest steamers can be accommodated to land and ship cargoes. 
 
 The inner dock has 10 acres surface of water, and the entrance thereto is 56 
 feet wide, and as this entrance is provided with gates, there is always a depth 
 of water of 32 feet. The quays round this dock measure 1810 feet, and at the 
 west end four jetties are run out, 190 feet long, and 25 feet wide, at which eight 
 vessels of the largest tonnage can lie to land or take in their cargoes. 
 
 The inner dock is capable of affording quay berths to fourteen of the largest 
 class steam ships, and is also provided with extensive import and export sheds, 
 warehouses and vaults. 
 
 Southampton. — The following return shows the 
 
 Tonnage of Vessels which Entered the Southampton Docks during the 
 
 Year 1859. 
 
 Tons. 
 From East Indies and Australia, via Alexandria . 98,831 
 
 West Indies . . . 79,887 
 
 Brazils .... 22,577 
 
 Peninsular . . I 47,361 
 
 United States . . . . .66,734 
 
 France ; 75,415 
 
 Channel Islands .... 74,876 
 
 Cape of Good Hope . . . 71,61 
 
 Ireland, &e. ..... 98,309 
 
 Total steam tonnage . 561,151 
 
 Sailing ships entering the Docks during the year 1859 . 95,012 
 
 Total sailing and steam ships . 656,163 
 
 Quantity of Specie Landed and Shipped at Southampton Docks 
 during the Year 1859. 
 
 Packages. 
 
 Landed from East Indies and Mediterranean 594 
 
 West Indies ... I 9,288 
 
 Brazils . . . J 521 
 
 France and America . I ; 1,997 
 
 12,400 
 
 Shipped to the East Indies I I I I 56,063 
 
 West Indies III 307 
 
 Brazils . . . 469 
 
 56,839 
 
 South Shields. — The Tyne Docks, formed at South Shields, inclose an 
 area of 179 acres, of which 50 acres are water area, the depth being 24 leet 6 in. 
 at an average spring tide. The entrance basin is 9£ acres in extent, with a 
 depth of 25 feet for a width of 200 feet in the centre of the channel, gradually 
 shoaling to the sides. One entrance has a width of 80 feet, and there is a lock 
 300 feet in length and 100 feet in width, with gates 60 feet wide. 
 
 In 1858 the quantity of coal shipped at South Shields amounted to 1,203,524 
 tons, and it is all shipped from the Tyne Docks. 
 
 At Sunderland there is a dock with a tidal and half-tidal entrance, occupying 
 a water area of 19 acres. A new deep-water dock is proposed to be formed at 
 the Low Lights in the river Tyne. From the Northumberland docks one million 
 and a half of tons of coal are now shipped annually. 
 
 Swansea. — On the 23rd September, 1859, the new South Docks were 
 opened at Swansea, consisting of 13 acres, having 4800 feet of quay wall, with 
 a depth of water throughout of 24 feet; in addition to which is a half-tide basin 
 of 4 acres, with 1600 feet of quay wall, communicating with the dock by a lock 
 300 feet by 60 feet. The tonnage entering this port has risen from 270,000 
 tons in 1851 to upwards of 500,000 tons in 1858. 
 
 The inner basin is excavated to a depth of 29 feet 6 inches, the entrance to 
 28 feet; but the foundations of the walls are of sufficient depth to allow of an 
 
DOC 108 EAS 
 
 increased deepening of the entrance channel to an extent of about 3 feet. The 
 half-tide basin will accommodate steamers of the largest size. The entrance is 
 70 feet wide, being 15 feet wider than the entrance of the Bute Dock recently 
 opened at Cardiff. 
 
 West Hartlepool. — Capacious wet docks, 350 and 320 feet long, with 
 large graving docks, were opened in this harbour on the 1st June, 1847, 
 and the number of ships which entered to load or for refuge have increased 
 from 1242 of 169,021 tons in 1848 to 4807 vessels and 589,990 tons in 
 1858. The coals and coke shipped thence were only 169,021 tons in 1848, 
 whilst in 1858 the quantity had risen to 770,361 tons. Besides the tidal har- 
 bour, 44 acres water space, the docks, building, timber, and bond yards, cover 
 an area of upwards of 175 acres. 
 
 At Goole there are four wet docks, covering 10 acres of water space, besides a 
 dry basin and patent slip. 
 
 At Great Grimsby there is an enclosure upwards of 1^ miles in extent, con- 
 sisting of quay and water space, enclosing 150 acres of ground claimed from the 
 sea. There is a cargo dock of 30 acres, and a tidal basin of 20 acres water area, 
 with locks, graving docks, &c. 
 
 At 31iddlesborough there is a wet dock of 9 acres water area, opened in 
 May, 1842, in which upwards of 300 vessels are annually accommodated, taking 
 away above half a million tons of coal. 
 
 In Aberdeen there is a capacious dock of 34 acres, called the Victoria Dock. 
 
 At Dundee the completed docks and tidal harbours afford water accommoda- 
 tion of 42 acres. 
 
 At Greenock there are three tidal harbours of 18| acres water area, and at 
 Montrose there is a wet dock of 4 acres. 
 
 A graving dock for ocean steamers was completed in 1859 at the mouth of 
 the Liffey, near Dublin. 
 
 EARTHENWARE.— In a lecture delivered before the Society of Arts in 
 April, 1860, by Mr. Goddard, some interesting details were furnished on the 
 Lambeth stoneware manufacture. Drain pipes are now a large article of con- 
 sumption. At one time there were 40 kilns in Lambeth burning these pipes, 
 and turning out about 60 miles per annum. The laboratory is supplied with 
 stoneware stills and jars from 1 to 300 gallons, condensers, worms, pipes and pumps 
 for conveying acids, jugs and ladles for lifting, and funnels for straining. 
 Candle makers are largely supplied with bottles, pickle jars, jam jars, ginger 
 beer, potash, and porter bottles. Distillers, wine and spirit merchants have 
 barrels, bottles or cans, flat bottles, &c. The domestic uses are more numerous 
 than select, Staffordshire ware being more approved, except for beer mugs, 
 blacking bottles, warmers, butter pots, and others of a like character. 
 
 Druggists' pots, tobacconists' jars, insulators for telegraphic wires, stands for 
 aquariums, are all made of stoneware, besides a numerous array of vessels and 
 apparatus for individuals of all trades and requirements. There are now 70 
 kilns in Lambeth, turning out each perhaps on an average £50 per kiln per 
 week, and consuming upwards of 20,000 tons of coals per annum. Twenty- 
 three thousand tons of clay are annually changed into useful articles, giving 
 employment to more than 800 persons, and the returns of the Lambeth potters 
 cannot be estimated at less than £150,000. In the whole trade some 12 miles of 
 sewer and drain pipes are turned out per week, and about 1000 soil pans. 
 
 The estimated weight of the earthenware of all sorts manufactured at the 
 various potteries in the United Kingdom in 1850 was 160,000 tons, of the value 
 of £3,500,000, of which the china was put down at about one-half. The con- 
 sumption of gold alone in the embellishment exceeds £40,000 per annnm. The 
 average value of exports of earthenware and porcelain from the United King- 
 dom in the three years ending 1859 was £1,300,000, of this fully one-third goes 
 to the United States. In 1843 the value of exports of earthenware was only 
 £573,000. 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY.— The functions of this Corporation are now 
 wholly political, being jointly managed by the Board of Control, under a Secre- 
 
EAS 109 EAS 
 
 tary of State appointed for India, and the Conrt of Directors. The Act of 16 
 and 17 Vict. c. 95, which came into operation on the 30th April, 1854, made 
 material alterations in the constitution of the Directors by vesting in the Crown 
 the appointment of some of the directors. By that Act the number of Directors was 
 reduced to t-ighteen; in lieu of thirteen directors ten may act; and in all dis- 
 patches and written documents, instead of the signatures of a majority of the direc- 
 tors, those of the chairman and deputy chairman, with that of the senior mem- 
 ber of the Court, or any two of them, countersigned by the secretary or deputy 
 secretary, suffices. Before the second Wednesday in April, 1854, the Queen 
 was to appoint three of the first directors for two, four, and six years; all the 
 directors appointed by the Queen to be persons who have served ten years in 
 India, either in the service of the Crown or of the Company. In the month of 
 March, 1854, the existing directors, and those out by rotation in April, 1853, had 
 to appoint from their own body fifteen of the first directors — five for two years, 
 five for four years, and five for six years; such fifteen directors, with the three 
 directors appointed by the Crowu, constitute the direction of the Company. 
 The directors appointed by the Queen may be increased to six, casual vacancies 
 may be supplied by the Crown until those not so appointed are reduced to twelve. 
 Vacancies in the number of Crown directors, or of the Company's directors, to 
 be filled up by the Crown, or the Company. Directors to be appointed for six 
 years, and to be re-eligible. On the expiry of terms of office, biennial elections 
 to be holden on the second Wednesday in April. Six of the fifteen directors 
 first appointed by the Company were to be persons who had served ten years in 
 India. Qualification by the possession of India stock, £1000 stock to be deemed 
 sufficient. Existing rights of patronage ceased, and became subject to the Board 
 of Control. Any natural-born subject of the Queen desirous of being admitted 
 into the college at Haileybury, or of being appointed an assistant surgeon in 
 the Company's forces, may be admitted as a candidate for such admission or 
 appointment. Regulations are to be made by the Board of Control, and also 
 respecting admissions into the military seminary of Addiscombe ; persons 
 qualified and entitled only according to the regulations to be appointed to the 
 civil and military services of the Company. Engineers to be appointed by the 
 Board of Control. The debts and liabilities of the Company are all charged 
 on India. The dividend of \0\ per cent, on the capital is to be paid in England 
 out of the revenues of India ; and a security fund is established for its guarantee. 
 The dividend is redeemable by Parliament at any time after April, 1874, on 
 payment of £200 for every £100 stock. 
 
 The East India territories annexed to the British dominions since 1849 have 
 been Jeitpore (Bundelcund), Sumbulpore (Bengal), Bughut (Cis-Sutlej Hill 
 States), part of Sikkim (N.E.India), Oodeypore (S.W. frontier of Bengal), Pegu 
 (Martaban and the Tenasserim Provinces), the territory resumed from Meer Ali 
 Morad, one of the Ameers of Scinde; the country of Jularam Sonaputtee and 
 Northern Cachar, the Nagpore territory, Oude, Jhansi (Bundelcund), andBooda- 
 wul (Candeish). The area of these States occupies a space of 118,968 square 
 miles. The reasons for annexation were partly failure of heirs and partly mis- 
 conduct towards the British Government. Pegu, conquered from the Burmese, 
 includes 2306 square miles and 133,000 souls. 
 
 The Indian finances, debt, &c. may here be treated of, reserving for the 
 article INDIA those details more especially relating to shipping and commerce. 
 On the 30th April, 1857, there were in India 281,569 troops, of which 254,286 
 were Company's troops, and 27,283 royals. Of the Company's troops, 150,036 
 were in Bengal. The mutiny in India, and the heavy expenses arising therefrom 
 interfered materially with the progress of revenue collection, and entailed a heavy 
 del t on the country. The various aggressive and defensive wars have largely 
 added to the Indian debt. Thus during the Nepaul and Mahratta wars from 
 1815 to 1820, there was an aggregate deficit in expenditure over revenue 
 of nearly £5,500,000. In the first Burmese war and the siege of Bhurtpoor, 
 from 1825 to 1827, of £13,500,000. 
 
 The Affghan, Scinde, and Gwalior wars, 1838 to 1844, caused a deficit of 
 
EAS 
 
 110 
 
 EAS 
 
 nearly £9,000,000; the first Sikh war, 1846 to 1848, of about £3,000,000; and 
 the second Sikh war of £1,500,000; the second Burmese war of about £3,500,000; 
 while the mutiny led to a deficiency of upwards of £30,000,000. The debt of the 
 Government of India, which, on the 30th April, 1834, amounted to £41,350,952, 
 and on which interest was payable of £1,959,594, had risen, in April, 1860, to 
 £97,851,807, with interest payable amounting to £4,461,029. 
 
 Return of all Stocks, Loans, Debts, and Liabilities chargeable on the 
 East India Revenues, at Home and Abroad, made out for England to 31st 
 December, 1859; for India to 30th April, 1858. 
 
 India. 
 
 Registebkd Debt. 
 
 Loans. 
 
 Bearing 
 Interest. 
 
 Not 
 Bearing 
 Interest. 
 
 Total. 
 
 £ 
 
 50,828,788 
 
 37,324 
 50,866,112 
 
 Bearing 
 Interest. 
 
 £ 
 2,303,728 
 
 50,699 
 369,709 
 562,379 
 
 3,286,515 
 
 Not 
 Bearing 
 
 Interest. 
 
 Total. 
 
 £ 
 
 2,389,684 
 
 50,699 
 369,709 
 562,379 
 
 3,372,471 
 
 Government of India 
 
 Bengal 
 
 N. Western Provinces 
 
 Punjaub 
 
 Madras • 
 
 Bombay • 
 
 Government of India 
 
 Bengal 
 
 N. Western Provinces 
 
 Punjaub 
 
 Madras . . 
 
 Bombay • 
 
 Government of India 
 
 Bengal 
 
 N. Western Provinces 
 
 Punjaub . . 
 
 Madras . 
 
 Bombay 
 
 £ 
 50,776,151 
 
 23,450 
 
 £ 
 
 52,637 
 
 13,874 
 
 £ 
 
 85,956 
 
 85,956 
 
 50,799,601 
 
 66,511 
 
 Treasury Notes. 
 
 Service Funds. 
 
 1,037,613 
 
 153,100 
 2,550 
 
 1,193,263 
 
 896 
 
 1,038,509 
 
 153,100 
 
 2,550 
 
 2,479,139 
 
 751,774 
 1,569,308 
 
 115,939 
 
 2,595,078 
 
 751,774 
 1,569,308 
 
 896 
 
 1,194,159 
 
 4,800,221 
 
 115,939 
 
 4,916,160 
 
 Bills Payable. 
 
 Deposits 
 and Miscellaneous. 
 
 - 
 
 1,083,421 
 25,005 
 488,014 
 126,702 
 109,511 
 522,539 
 
 1,083,421 
 25,005 
 488,014 
 126,702 
 109,511 
 522,539 
 
 3,348 
 
 160,553 
 20,000 
 
 109,991 
 227,021 
 
 4,327,054 
 
 1,580,604 
 
 1,340,531 
 
 828,020 
 
 427,378 
 
 698,234 
 
 4,330,402 
 
 1,741,157 
 
 1,360,531 
 
 828,020 
 
 537,369 
 
 925,255 
 
 - 
 
 2,355,192 
 
 2,355,192 
 
 520,913 
 
 9,201,821 
 
 9 722,734 
 
 Return of all Stock?, Loans, Debts, and Liabilities chargeable on the East India 
 Revenues, at Home and Abroad — continued. 
 
 India. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Bearing 
 Interest. 
 
 Not 
 Bearing 
 Interest. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Government of India 
 
 Bengal 
 
 N. Western Provinces 
 
 Punjaub 
 
 Madras • . 
 
 Bombay , i 
 
 £ 
 
 56,599,979 
 
 10,553 
 
 70,699 
 
 369,709 
 
 1,600,694 
 
 1,798,879 
 
 £ 
 
 5,665,903 
 1,605,609 
 1,828,545 
 961,722 
 550,763 
 1,220 773 
 
 £ 
 62,265,182 
 1,766,162 
 1,S99,244 
 1,324,431 
 2,151,457 
 3,019,652 
 
 60,600,513 
 
 11,826,315 | 72,426,828 
 
EAS 
 
 111 
 
 ECU 
 
 In England there were the following liabilities: 
 
 East India Bonds . ill'. 
 
 East India Debentures ..... 
 
 India 5 per cent. Stock ..... 
 
 Owing for Exports ..... 
 
 Warrants for various Payments and Bills of Exchange outstanding 
 
 Pay-Office Demands and Admiralty Claims, &c 
 
 Capital of Indian Railway and other guaranteed Companies re- 
 maining in the Home Treasury, after deducting Sums (partly 
 estimated) drawn by them in India 
 
 Miscellaneous . ( . 
 
 Total 
 
 979,517 
 956,000 
 999,000 
 286,826 
 343,447 
 592,740 
 
 ,087,080 
 343,227 
 
 . £30,587,837 
 
 The above is exclusive of the charge upon the revenues of India, under the Act of 3 and 4 
 Will. IV. cap. 83, of the Dividend at the rate of £10. 10*. per cent, per annum, on the sum of 
 £6,000,000, the capital stock of the East India Company, which is subject to redemption by 
 Parliament on payment to the Company of £200 sterling per £100 stock. 
 
 There are also contingent liabilities in respect of interest-guaranteed Indian Railway and 
 other Companies, and of Repayments to them of Capital expended ; but no estimate can be 
 formed of the amount of these liabilities. 
 
 India Office, 31st January, 1860. 
 
 GEORGE FRIEND, Accouhtant-Generai* 
 
 In examining the Indian Expenditure we find that in the seven years ending 
 with 1858 the disbursements were under the following heads: 
 
 
 Aggregate for 
 7 Years. 
 
 Annr.al 
 Average. 
 
 Civil and Political Establishments 
 
 Judicial and Police Charges - 
 
 Roads and Public Works 
 
 Military Charges, including Buildings - 
 
 Navy and Marine Charges 
 
 Mint Charges - 
 
 Interest on Debt - 
 
 Total Expenditure in India £ 
 
 £ 
 
 17,918,554 
 
 18,086.936 
 
 9.644,377 
 
 80,878,496 
 
 4,373,669 
 
 520,869 
 
 16,158,356 
 
 £. 
 
 2,559,793 
 
 2.583,848 
 
 1,377.766 
 
 11,554,071 
 
 624,810 
 
 74,410 
 
 2,308,336 
 
 147,581,257 
 
 21,083,036 
 
 Besides the foregoing sum, £22,764,660 was expended in England, disbursed 
 as follows, making a total expenditure of £170,345,917 in the seven years, or 
 an average expenditure of £24,335,131. 
 
 
 
 
 Establish- 
 
 
 
 
 Dividends 
 
 
 ments at 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 Interest 
 
 Home, Civil, 
 
 
 
 Charges 
 
 Proprietors 
 
 on the 
 
 Military, and 
 
 All other 
 
 TotaL 
 
 IN 
 
 of 
 
 Home 
 
 Maritime, 
 
 Charges. 
 
 England. 
 
 East India 
 Stock. 
 
 Bond Debt. 
 
 Pensions, Re- 
 cruiting, and 
 Miscellaneous 
 Expenses. 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1851-52 
 
 625,059 
 
 121,022 
 
 490,214 
 
 1,270,082 
 
 2,506,377 
 
 1852-53 
 
 634.070 
 
 117,509 
 
 503,162 
 
 1,442,747 
 
 2,697,488 
 
 1853-54 
 
 632,970 
 
 112,012 
 
 495,648 
 
 2,021,659 
 
 3,262,289 
 
 1854-55 
 
 628,335 
 
 153,518 
 
 546.216 
 
 1,683,666 
 
 3,011,735 
 
 1855-56 
 
 632,689 
 
 152,017 
 
 493,834 
 
 1,986,089 
 
 3,264,629 
 
 1856-57 
 
 627,893 
 
 155,494 
 
 483,778 
 
 2,262,508 
 
 3,529,673 
 
 1857-58 
 
 626,860 
 
 159,165 
 
 764,782 
 
 2,941,662 
 
 4,492,469 
 
 
 4,407,876 
 
 970,737 
 
 3,777,634 
 
 13,608,413 
 Average 
 
 22,764,660 
 3,252,094 
 
 ECUADOR. — The population of this South American Republic is now 
 987,000 souls. Its agriculture, commerce, and general trade are steadily in- 
 
ECU 
 
 112 
 
 ECU 
 
 creasing. The value of the exports now averages half a million sterling ; they 
 consist chiefly of cocoa, about 14,766,000 lbs.; straw hats, 32,255 dozen; hides, 
 raw and tanned; tobacco, 5,151 cwts.; bark, about the same quantity; orchilla 
 weed, 22,600 cwt.; caoutchouc, 748 cwt.; timber, sarsaparilla, coffee, &c. The 
 trade with Panama, carried on by means of the steam packets which touch at 
 Guayaquil, is rapidly increasing. The decimal system was adopted for monies, 
 weights, and measures, in Oct. 1858. 
 
 The annual revenue and expenditure of this State are each about £200,000. 
 The foreign debt of Ecuador amounts to £1,824,000, being the portion of the 
 debt of Colombia assigned to this State, when it became an independent pro- 
 vince, and the accumulated arrears, besides which it has an internal debt of 
 about £130,000. 
 
 The progress of the external trade of this republic is shown by the following 
 movements of shipping and statistics: 
 
 ENTRIES AT THE PORT OP GUAYAQUIL. 
 
 No. Tonnage. 
 
 1852 175 21,746 I 
 
 1853 245 27,768 
 1855 246' 19,198 
 
 The quantity and value of the several 
 from Guayaquil in 1858 were as follows: 
 
 Articles. 
 
 
 Cocoa , 
 
 Quintals 
 
 Straw Hats 
 
 Dozens 
 
 Hides, Tanned 
 
 No. 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 Quintals 
 
 Sarsaparilla 
 
 
 Tamarinds 
 
 
 Coffee 
 
 
 Orchilla 
 
 
 Bark 
 
 
 Timber 
 
 Lo^s 
 
 Canes . 
 
 Each 
 
 Mangroves 
 
 Poles 
 
 Fire Wood 
 
 
 India Rubber 
 
 Quintals 
 
 Specie 
 
 
 Gold Dust 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 1856 
 
 216 
 
 42,612 
 
 1857 
 
 257 
 
 46,199 
 
 1858 
 
 190 
 
 42,913 
 
 les of domestic produce im] 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 
 Value. 
 
 198,591 
 
 
 £264,748 
 
 24,519 
 
 
 73,557 
 
 20,465 
 
 
 12,279 
 
 2,072 
 
 
 10,360 
 
 944 
 
 
 2,832 
 
 787 
 
 
 918 
 
 923 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 16,111 
 
 
 10,740 
 
 5,333 
 
 
 15,999 
 
 17,844 
 
 
 26,766 
 
 72,600 
 
 
 2,420 
 
 2,865 
 
 
 358 
 1,604 
 
 1,208 
 
 
 2,416 
 
 426,997 
 
 
 • 
 
 46,941 
 
 
 • 
 
 386 
 
 £474,324 
 
 Value of the Principal and other Articles Imported into the Port 
 of Guayaquil in the Years 1857 and 185,8. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Manufactures : —Cotton 
 „ Linen . 
 
 „ Woollen 
 
 „ Silk and Raw 
 
 Hosiery . 
 
 Thread and Tape . 
 
 Wearing Apparel . 
 
 Hardware 
 
 Metals:— Iron, Copper, Lead. 
 
 Earthenware and Porcelain 
 
 Glass .... 
 
 Soap, Candles, Wax, &c 
 
 Grocery .... 
 
 Flour .... 
 
 Wine .... 
 
 Spirits .... 
 
 Drugs, Spices, <tec. . 
 
 Stationery, Books, &c. . 
 
 Furniture . . . 
 
 Other Articles . . 
 
 <tc. 
 
 Total . 
 
 1857. 
 
 £ 
 
 193,728 
 
 92,161 
 
 122,932 
 
 31,616 
 
 14,331 
 
 12,422 
 
 9,684 
 
 21,757 
 
 7,373 
 
 5,729 
 
 4,974 
 
 10,000 
 
 21,362 
 
 36,486 
 
 16,441 
 
 21,842 
 
 6,327 
 
 7,514 
 
 6,883 
 
 37,438 
 
 1858. 
 
 £ 
 134,761 
 
 22,796 
 
 51,076 
 
 12,805 
 
 9,588 
 
 4,940 
 
 10,731 
 
 27,885 
 
 15,236 
 
 8,745 
 
 13,330 
 
 28,769 
 
 30,513 
 
 26,029 
 
 45,580 
 
 32,389 
 
 5,969 
 
 4,180 
 
 7,271 
 
 13,863 
 
 681,000 | 506,456 
 
ECU 
 
 113 
 
 EGY 
 
 Value of Imports and Exports at the Port of Guayaquil, in each 
 Year, from 1852 to 1858. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1852 
 
 303,180 
 
 304,385 
 
 1853 
 
 360,988 
 
 347,180 
 
 1854 
 
 317,094 
 
 359,882 
 
 1855 
 
 328,265 
 
 358,392 
 
 1856 
 
 395,739 
 
 389,484 
 
 1857 
 
 681,000 
 
 741,162 
 
 1858 
 
 506,456 
 
 474,324 
 
 EGGS. — The import of foreign eggs for consumption in the United Kingdom 
 is enormous, and' yearly increasing. In a long statistical paper " On the 
 Trade and Commerce in Eggs and Poultry," which I published in the 
 Quarterly Journal of Agriculture of Edinburgh for October, 1856, 1 furnished 
 some curious and interesting details on the trade and consumption of eggs 
 in various countries, which may be consulted by those who are specially 
 interested in the subject and desire to obtain fuller information. The following 
 Table shows the Quantities of Eggs entered annually for Home Consumption in 
 the United Kingdom, and the Duty Received. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imported from all Parts. 
 
 Customs Duties. 
 
 
 Number. 
 
 £ 
 
 1848 --- 
 
 88,106,455 
 
 32,127 
 
 1849 - 
 
 97,884,551 
 
 35,695 
 
 1850 - 
 
 105,780,532 
 
 38,577 
 
 1851 - 
 
 115 524,243 
 
 42,149 
 
 1852 - 
 
 108,320,550 
 
 39,507 
 
 1853* - 
 
 123,607,041 
 
 28,896 
 
 1854 - - 
 
 85,279,356 
 
 From 8th August. 
 Cubic Feet 
 
 
 1854 - - - 
 
 184,816 
 
 18,005 
 
 1855 - 
 
 500,031 
 
 16,668 
 
 1856 
 
 586,978 
 
 19,566 
 
 1857 ... 
 
 635,055 
 
 21,169 
 
 1858 - 
 
 672,760 
 
 22,426 
 
 1859 - 
 
 743,572 
 
 24,787 
 
 * The duty on Foreign Eggs \eas reduced, on 8th June 1853, from lO^d. to 4d. per 120, 
 and subsequently altered on 8th August 1854, to 8d. per cubic foot of the containing 
 package. 
 
 Two hundred eggs are estimated to be packed in one cubic foot, hence 
 the foreign imports in 1859 numbered 148,714,400. France and Belgium are 
 the chief sources of supply, but eggs even reach us now, by steamers, from 
 Spain and more distant quarters. The home production of eggs is large, and 
 the imports from Ireland, of which we have no specific details, must also be 
 considerable, for the poultry kept in Ireland have doubled in number in the 
 last ten years, and are now nearly 12,000,000 head. 
 
 EGYPT. — The trade with Egypt has greatly increased of late years. In 
 1843 the total value of the imports into Alexandria was £1,005,412, of which 
 but £236,590 was from Great Britain. In 1857 the total imports were 
 £2,850,942, of which £1,301,181 came from Great Britain. The total exports 
 in like manner have increased from £1,321,268 to £4,592,531, the proportions 
 
EGY 
 
 114 
 
 EMI 
 
 shipped to Great Britain standing respectively at £310,614 and £2,500,000, 
 while in the two previous years, 1855 and 56, they were half a million more. 
 Of the imports in 1857, £892,245 was British cotton manufactures. The 
 number of vessels that entered at Alexandria in 1856 was 2344. 
 
 The following tables show the rapid progress of this country within late 
 years. 
 
 ENTRIES OF VESSELS AT THE PORT OP ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Steamers. 
 
 Sailing Vessels. 
 
 Passengers. 
 
 16,460 
 26,680 
 33,429 
 36,683 
 45,487 
 
 00 00 00 00 00 
 Cn V< in in in 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 212 
 247 
 306 
 349 
 358 
 
 2143 
 2357 
 2344 
 2153 
 2043 
 
 The value of the goods which pass through Egypt to and from India, already 
 amount to between three and four millions sterling, and is yearly increasing, 
 besides large amounts of specie. 
 
 PORT OF SUEZ. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Sailing 
 Vessels. 
 
 Passengers 
 
 from 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Natives. 
 
 Negro 
 Population. 
 
 Military. 
 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 
 291 
 302 
 374 
 372 
 
 2692 
 2588 
 3905 
 5899 
 
 1361 
 1508 
 1552 
 1796 
 
 351 
 
 76 
 
 350 
 
 136 
 
 1103 
 
 8 
 
 2770 
 
 96 
 
 EMIGRATION.— In the fifteen years ending with 1858, 3,419,048 emigrants 
 left the United Kingdom for various destinations, exclusive of many others who 
 left in passenger ships, which did not come under the supervision of the Emigra- 
 tion Commissioners. Of these the largest number went to America, 2,294,792 
 proceeding to the United States, and 532,049 to the British North American 
 Colonies, principally Canada, but many of the latter only passed through the 
 Province to the Western States. It is a remarkable fact as showing the im- 
 provement in the condition of those who emigrated, that the Irish emigrants 
 sent home between the years 1855 and 1858 upwards of two millions sterling to 
 bring out their friends and relatives to join them. 533,974 proceeded to the Aus- 
 tralian Colonies. The largest emigration was in the years 1851-54, when it 
 averaged 340,000 per annum, but of late years it has been declining. 
 
 To encourage immigration, and at the same time to prevent the land being 
 bought up by large speculators, the Canadian Government has offered free grants 
 of land to settlers in special localities under certain conditions, of which the fol- 
 lowing is a summary: — The grants are of 100 acres each. Applicants for these 
 must be full eighteen years old. Within one month after the land has been 
 allotted to him, the applicant must take possession of it; he must put in a state 
 of cultivation at least twelve acres in four years ; he must build a house (twenty 
 feet by eighteen), and reside on the lot until the conditions of the settlement 
 are duly performed. Families of several settlers entitled to lands, if they wish 
 to reside on a single lot, will be free to do so ; but they must make the clearings 
 required on each lot. The Government has opened a road through the district, 
 and the settlers must keep that road in repair. 
 
 All lands intended for sale in the Australian Colonies, exclusive of New 
 
EMI 115 EMI 
 
 Zealand, are disposed of by public auction, or at least they must in the first in- 
 stance pass that ordeal; and they are not sold for less than 20* per acre, except- 
 ing in the case of Tasmania, where, by a recent Act, the pastoral lands may be 
 sold for 1 0s per acre. With such exceptions, these are Imperial regulations of 
 the past regime; but some of the local governments who have now power to 
 legislate on the subject, are contemplating important changes, and have with 
 that view repeatedly, but as yet unsuccessfully, brought forward new projects, 
 with the chief object of giving increased facilities for the settlement of a resident 
 population. In New Zealand the land is disposed of upon terms which are dif- 
 ferent in each province, varying from 5* to 40s per acre. 
 
 There are Government emigration officers in London, Liverpool, Glasgow, 
 and all the other principal outports. These officers act under the immediate 
 directions of Her Majesty's Emigration Commissioners, and the following is a 
 summary of their duties : — 
 
 They procure and give, gratuitously, information as to the sailing of ships and 
 means of accommodation for emigrants; and whenever applied to for that pur- 
 pose, they see that all agreements between shipowners, agents, or masters, and 
 intending emigrants are duly performed. They also see that the provisions of 
 the Passengers' Act are strictly complied with, viz. : that passenger-ships are 
 sea-worthy, that they have on board a sufficient supply of provisions, water, 
 medicines, &c, and that they sail with proper punctuality. 
 
 They attend personally at their offices on every week day, and afford gratui- 
 tously all the assistance in their power to protect intending emigrants against 
 fraud and imposition, and to obtain redress where oppression or injury has been 
 practised on them. 
 
 Free and assisted passages to the Colonies are granted for New South Wales, 
 by Her Majesty's Emigration Commissioners, 8, Park-street, Westminster; for 
 South Australia, by the South Australian Government Emigration Agent, 8, 
 Great Queen-street, Westminster; for Otago, New Zealand, by the Otago Emi- 
 gration Office, 20, St. Andrew-square, Edinburgh ; for Canterbury, New 
 Zealand, by the Canterbury Emigration Office, 32, Charing Cross; and for the 
 Cape, by the Hon. W. Field, Emigration Commissioner, Bridge-street, West- 
 minster. 
 
 All these gentlemen will, if requested, supply forms of application. Eligible 
 for such passages are — 1. Persons in the habit of working for wages as agricul- 
 tural labourers, shepherds, herdsmen, and copper miners. 2. Single female 
 servants, under the age of 35. 3. Married country mechanics, such as masons, 
 bricklayers, blacksmiths, farriers, wheelwrights, sawyers, carpenters, and gar- 
 deners. 4. The same class of mechanics when single, if they accompany their 
 parents, or are either with a sister or sisters not less than 12 years old. 
 
 For the Cape, passages are also granted to cabinet-makers and upholsterers, 
 painters, plumbers and glaziers, plasterers, blockmakers, whitesmiths, tinplate- 
 workers, wheelwrights, shipwrights, boatmakers and sailmakers, coopers, coach- 
 builders, saddlers and harnessmakers, shoemakers, tailors, bookbinders, compo* 
 sitors and printers, butchers and bakers. 
 
 The ages of married couples must not, in the case of either the husband or 
 wife, exceed 45 years. Husbands cannot be accepted without their wives, nor 
 wives without their husbands. Single women under 18, without their parents, 
 are not admissible, unless under the care of some near married relations. Fami- 
 lies with two children under 7 and three children under 10 years of age are 
 ineligible for free passages to New South Wales, but they may obtain passages 
 for South Australia, Otago, Canterbury and the Cape. Widowers, and widows 
 with young children, persons who have been in the habitual receipt of parish 
 relief, or who have not been vaccinated, or not had the small-pox, cannot be 
 accepted. 
 
 In every emigrant ship dispatched to the Cape, a free eabin passage is given 
 to a certificated teacher, together with his family, on condition of instructing the 
 
EMI 116 EXC 
 
 emigrants during the voyage. Assisted emigration to Natal is confined to the 
 nominees of the Colonists. 
 
 Mr. Richard W. Butler, of Hobart Town, forwards to Tasmania "respectable 
 single females, accustomed to domestic occupations." Candidates for a free 
 passage must be between the ages of 16 and 35, and must have been accustomed 
 to the duties of cooks, housemaids, nurserymaids, nursery governesses, &c. The 
 agency is conducted by Mr. Thomas B. Parker, at the Tasmanian Emigration 
 Office, 29, Bucklersbury, London. 
 
 A portion of the passage money must be contributed by the emigrants. For 
 South Australia these part payments are: 
 
 Married agricultural labourers under 45 must pay - £10 
 
 When over 45 and under 50 „ 5 
 
 Over 50 and under 60 „ 10 
 
 Single men under 40 ,,-190 
 
 Female servants „ 10 
 Single country mechanics, accompanied by 
 
 parents and sisters „ - 5 
 
 For New South Wales the part payments are:— £2 per head for children under 12 ; £4 per 
 head for all persons between 12 and 40 ; £8 for all persons between 40 and 50. For single men 
 over 49, for single women over 35, and for the wives or husbands of persons resident in the 
 colony, the full payment of £12 each is to be paid. The part payments for emigrants to the 
 Cape are £1 from every male, and 10s from every female adult. 
 
 Emigrants to whom free passages have been granted must find their own out- 
 fits, without which they are not allowed to embark. The smallest quantity of 
 clothing which will be passed is — For men and lads — 6 shirts, 6 pairs of stock- 
 ings. 2 flannel shirts, 2 pairs of shoes or boots, 2 complete suits of strong outer 
 clothing, and 2 lbs. of marine soap. For women and girls — 6 shifts, 2 flannel 
 petticoats, 6 pairs of stockings, 2 pairs of strong boots or shoes, 2 strong gowns 
 (one of warm material), 4 towels, 3 sheets for each berth, and 2 lbs. of marine 
 soap. Two or three coloured shirts for men, and an extra supply of flannel for 
 women and children, are very desirable. 
 
 Emigrants sent out by the Commissioner for the Cape are provided with 
 cooking utensils, bedding, canvass bags to contain linen, knives and forks, 
 spoons, metal plates and drinking mugs, which articles will be the property of 
 the emigrants, provided they behave well on the voyage. Bedding and cooking 
 and mess utensils are also found for free emigrants to New South Wales 
 and South Australia. The Otago agent provides cooking utensils, but the 
 emigrants must find bedding (viz. for each bed, 1 mattress, 1 bolster, 
 2 blankets, 1 coverlet), and mess utensils (viz. for each person 1 knife and fork, 
 1 deep tin or pewter plate, 1 spoon, 1 drinking-mug, 1 hook-pot). The same 
 articles are to be found by emigrants who have obtained assisted passages to 
 Canterbury. 
 
 The baggage of each emigrant must not weigh more than half a ton. It must 
 be closely packed in one or more boxes, not more than 2 feet 8 inches long, 1 
 foot 6 inches wide, and 1 foot 6 inches deep. The owner's name should 
 be painted on the boxes. Mattresses and feather beds, firearms, wine, spirits, 
 beer, gunpowder, percussion caps, and lucifer matches cannot be taken by 
 emigrants. 
 
 EXCISE DUTIES.— A return, issued from the office of the Accountant Gene- 
 ral, of the excise duties received during the years 1857 and 1858, shows that the 
 gross sums raised were very nearly the same in both of those years — rather 
 more than 18£ millions. The articles from which the greatest excise duties 
 were raised were, spirits, ,£9,299,000 being due to this source of revenue; 
 £5,568,000 by the duty on malt; £1,229,000 by that on paper of all kinds 
 The hop duties in 1858 produced a sum of £417,526, and 348,869 were paid bj 
 the railway companies as the duty on the sums received for the conveyance 
 passengers. Of the whole 18£ millions, £12,500,000 arc raised in Englanc 
 ,13,500,000 in Scotland, and £2,500,000 in Ireland. 
 
EXP 117 EXP 
 
 EXPORTS —From 1840 to 1853 the aggregate amount of British exports 
 exceeded the national debt by nearly £100,000,000; the declared value of British 
 and Irish exports having been £877,269,124, while during the same period the 
 highest amount of the national debt was only £791,809,838 in 1848. 
 
 In 1853 the exports amounted to nearly a hundred millions sterling, the 
 amount having increased in fourteen years about 83 per cent. These exports 
 were distributed to foreign countries and British possessions in the proportion of 
 66 to 33 per cent, respectively. The bulk of the foreign exports were principally 
 to Europe and North and South America,. Of the exports to British possessions, 
 the East Indies took the largest proportion till 1853, when the Australian ex- 
 ceeded the Indian exports. 
 
 To show the effect of free trade, in 1832 the total value of exports was 
 £36,450,594; in 1853 the amount was £98,933,781; the most rapid advance 
 having been made since 1848. The effect of the gold discoveries in the United 
 States and Australia has been to stimulate trade. The exports in the four years, 
 from 1850 to 1854, to the United States had been increased to the extent of 
 £14,500,000 by gold. With respect to Australia in 1852 and 1853, the only 
 years influenced by gold, the exports had risen £11,500,000. So that, during 
 four yean, the gold discoveries had already stimulated trade to the extent of 
 £26,000,000. 
 
 At page 5 of this Supplement I have already given the real value of the 
 exports to 1858. In 1859 the net value of the exports of British produce and 
 manufactures was ,£130,440,427, showing an increase of 6 per cent, over 1857, 
 and upwards of 11 per cent over 1858. The real value of the foreign and colonial 
 merchandise exported for the past three years was as follows: 
 
 1857 - £24,108,194 
 
 1858 ... 23,174,023 
 
 1859 - - - 25,203,163 
 
 It would naturally be expected that, to prove the healthy and prosperous 
 condition of the trade of the country, the values of imports and exports respec- 
 tively, representing (to use a commercial term) the acconnt current between 
 our merchants and their customers abroad, should as nearly as possible balance 
 each other, so that we should neither appear to receive more goods than we can 
 afford to pay for, nor to supply more than are duly accounted for to us in return. 
 We find, however, to take the past year as an example, that after deducting the 
 value of the foreign articles imported and not consumed in this country (with 
 respect to which, therefore, no liability can be incurred by us abroad, or, if 
 incurred, is discharged by their re-exportation), from the total value of the 
 imports, the remaining amount exceeds the value of the British produce exported 
 by upwards of 23 £ millions. 
 
 Thus, Real value of imports in 1859 ... £179,334,981 
 
 Deduct Real value of foreign and colonial merchandise 
 exported - 25,203,163 
 
 Real value of imports to be consumed in this country - 154,131,818 
 
 Real value of exports of British produce - - - 130,440,427 
 
 Difference - - 23,691,391 
 
 The explanation of this discrepancy is however at once found in the fact thaj 
 the value of the exports, as declared by the merchant here on shipment, neces- 
 sarily excludes the charges for freight, insurance, shipping, and landing, incident 
 to the conveyance of the goods to a foreign port, and their delivery there, and 
 also the profit attendant on their transport from one country to another, while 
 the value assigned to the imports, on the other hand, being computed from the 
 prices which the goods bear in this market, must include both the charges just 
 enumerated and the profit realized by the importer. This consideration 
 we deem quite sufficient to account for a difference not amounting to 13 per 
 cent. 
 
EXP 
 
 118 
 
 EXP 
 
 From a return issued by the Board of Trade, of the declared value of 
 British and Irish produce and manufactures exported from the United King- 
 dom during 1859, the following list has been compiled, showing the order 
 in which the various communities of the world rank as our customers. Its 
 chief feature is the extraordinary growth of our Eastern trade. In 1857, the 
 value of our exports to Australia was exactly equal to those to India, namely, 
 £11,600,000. In the subsequent two years the Indian total has increased 75 
 per cent., while our commerce with Australia, although better in 1859 than 
 1858, shows a decline. Within the same period, also, our dealings with China 
 have doubled. Contrasted with the figures of 1858 the trade with our posses- 
 sions during the past year (which still constitutes more than 35 per cent, of the 
 entire export operations of the United Kingdom), presents an increase in all 
 instances save those of the West Indies, Singapore, the Channel Islands, Mauri- 
 tius, the Ionian Islands, and British Honduras. The shipments to the United 
 States, which experienced a serious check after the panic of 1857, have recovered 
 to a point beyond their former scale, and are now more than 17 per cent, of our 
 total exports alone. Germany, although her trade with us has declined for the 
 past three years, takes about half as much as the United States, and then 
 follow South America and Holland. France presents a falling off sufficient to 
 indicate a most unhealthy state of the commercial relations of the two countries. 
 In 1857 Turkey stood before Russia; but last year their positions were trans- 
 posed. Spain, Portugal, Naples, and the Papal States all figure on the unfa- 
 vourable side. Sardinia, however, shows a good increase. Sweden and Nor- 
 way have also earned on a large trade, while that with Belgium has been un- 
 satisfactory. Finally, it is to be remarked that our trade with European States 
 is every year becoming of a more secondary character as compared with that 
 which we have established among our colonial and American progeny. It is to 
 those quarters that the magnificent augmentation exhibited in the present total 
 over 1858, and which renders it of unprecedented amount, is entirely due. The 
 general increase is £13,831,671, while to the colonies and the United States it 
 was £14,022,424. The balance of our business carried on with all other parts 
 of the world resulted, therefore, in a falling off. 
 
 EXPORTS OP BRITISH PRODUCE AND MANUFACTURES. 
 
 1858. 
 
 1859. 
 
 1. British possessions:— 
 India 
 Australia 
 
 British North America - 
 Hongkong 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 British West Indies 
 Singapore 
 Gibraltar 
 Ceylon . - 
 
 Malta 
 
 Channel Islands 
 Mauritius 
 British Guiana 
 West Coast of Africa (Brit) 
 Ionian Islands 
 Natal 
 
 British Honduras 
 Heligoland 
 St. Helena 
 Aden 
 
 Falkland Islands 
 Ascension 
 Kooria Mooria 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 16,782,386 
 
 19,832,699 
 
 10,463,032 
 
 11,225,616 
 
 3,159,845 
 
 3,615,087 
 
 1,145,669 
 
 1,931,595 
 
 1,602,612 
 
 1,762,168 
 
 1,792,323 
 
 1,606,700 
 
 960,335 
 
 1,430,324 
 
 852,728 
 
 714,267 
 
 541,131 
 
 667,680 
 
 433,066 
 
 624,107 
 
 508,264 
 
 612,953 
 
 603,103 
 
 567,204 
 
 459,743 
 
 555,346 
 
 263,725 
 
 279,058 
 
 337,905 
 
 251,032 
 
 100,785 
 
 174,936 
 
 136,710 
 
 115,644 
 
 282 
 
 60,238 
 
 34,957 
 
 43,890 
 
 36,899 
 
 42,705 
 
 33 
 
 11,183 
 
 6,917 
 
 9,637 
 
 — 
 
 977 
 
 — 40,222,457 
 
 
 46,125,046 
 
EXP 
 
 119 
 
 EXP 
 
 
 
 1853. 
 
 
 1859. 
 
 
 2. United States:— 
 
 
 £. 
 
 
 £, 
 
 
 Atlantic ports 
 
 - 
 
 13,994,815 
 
 ... 
 
 22,174,245 
 
 
 California - 
 
 
 496,633 
 
 
 437,038 
 
 
 
 
 14,491,448 
 
 
 22,611,283 
 
 
 
 3. Germany: — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hanse Towns 
 
 - 
 
 9,021,877 
 
 
 9,180,104 
 
 
 Prussia 
 
 - 
 
 1,956,199 
 
 
 1,492,541 
 
 
 Hanover 
 
 • 
 
 1,640,189 
 
 
 987,049 
 
 
 Mecklenburg - 
 
 » 
 
 59,331 
 
 
 64,370 
 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 m 
 
 61,584 
 
 
 53,095 
 
 
 
 
 
 12,749,110- 
 
 
 
 11,777,162 
 
 4. South America:— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brazil 
 
 m 
 
 3,984,817 
 
 
 8,686,353 
 
 
 Chili 
 
 m 
 
 1,117,580 
 
 
 1,474,563 
 
 
 Buenos Ayres - 
 
 - 
 
 1,008,819 
 
 
 958,177 
 
 
 Peru 
 
 - 
 
 1,163,155 
 
 
 857,008 
 
 
 New Granada - 
 
 - 
 
 505,749 
 
 
 729,468 
 
 
 Veragua 
 
 - 
 
 522,670 
 
 
 692,688 
 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 _ 
 
 316,738 
 
 
 317,706 
 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 . 
 
 26,963 
 
 
 22,251 
 
 
 
 
 
 8,646,491 ■ 
 
 
 
 8,738,214 
 
 6. Holland 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 5,473,312 
 
 
 5,379,794 
 
 6. France 
 
 - 
 
 
 4,863,312 
 
 
 4,744,103 
 
 7. Russia:— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Northern ports 
 
 
 2,724,609 
 
 
 3,493,016 
 
 
 Southern porta 
 
 * 
 
 367,890 
 
 
 546,183 
 
 
 Territory in N. E. Asia 
 
 ■ 
 
 — 
 
 
 13,762 
 
 
 Settlement on N.W. Coast 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 of America - 
 
 ~ 
 
 — 
 
 
 602 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,092,499 
 4,255,612 
 
 
 4,053,563 
 3,752,458 
 
 8. Turkey 
 
 _ 
 
 m 
 
 
 9. Foreign West Indies, Hayti, <fcc. 
 
 - 
 
 2,587,063 
 
 
 2,556,971 
 
 10. China (exclusive of Hongkong) 
 
 ■ 
 
 1.730,778 
 
 ... 
 
 2,526,036 
 
 11. Egypt 
 
 > 
 
 ■ 
 
 1,985,829 
 
 ... 
 
 2,195,882 
 
 12. Spain and the Canary Islands 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 2,179,126 
 
 ... 
 
 2,081,627 
 
 13. Belgium 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 1,815,257 
 
 ... 
 
 1,474,873 
 
 14. Sardinia 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 1,174,580 
 
 ... 
 
 1,406,884 
 
 15. Portugal and the Azores 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 1,548,20T 
 
 ... 
 
 1,398,020 
 
 16. Two Sicilies 
 
 - 
 
 • 
 
 1,569,168 
 
 ... 
 
 1,161,788 
 
 17. Java 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 832,045 
 
 
 1,073,088 
 
 18. Tuscany 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 933,921 
 
 ... 
 
 801,779 
 
 19. Austria 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 1,228,199 
 
 ... 
 
 789,886 
 
 20. Denmark (including Iceland) 
 
 _ 
 
 - 
 
 595,309 
 
 ... 
 
 724,002 
 
 21. West Coast of Africa, foreign 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 691,405 
 
 ... 
 
 710,239 
 
 22. Philippine Islands 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 541,475 
 
 ... 
 
 684,788 
 
 23. Syria 
 
 _ 
 
 - 
 
 760,497 
 
 ... 
 
 677,387 
 
 24. Mexico 
 
 ■ 
 
 - 
 
 411,831 
 
 ... 
 
 597,951 
 
 25. Sweden 
 
 _ 
 
 - 
 
 428,144 
 
 ... 
 
 546,632 
 
 26 Norway 
 
 _ 
 
 - 
 
 295,288 
 
 
 497,644 
 
 27. Greece 
 
 _ 
 
 - 
 
 249,462 
 
 ... 
 
 262,309 
 
 28. Papal States 
 
 _ 
 
 - 
 
 409,543 
 
 
 259,987 
 
 29. Central America 
 
 _ 
 
 ■ 
 
 393,179 
 
 ... 
 
 226,662 
 
 30. African ports in the Red Sea 
 
 _ 
 
 - 
 
 4.525 
 
 ... 
 
 •204,924 
 
 31. South Sea Islands 
 
 _ 
 
 . 
 
 67,-33 
 
 
 114,949 
 
 32. Wallachia and Moldavia 
 
 „ 
 
 - 
 
 175,986 
 
 ... 
 
 111,027 
 
 33. Morocco 
 
 
 - 
 
 84,076 
 
 
 96,390 
 
 34. Cape Verd Islands 
 
 
 - 
 
 14,725 
 
 ... 
 
 22,159 
 
 35. Algeria 
 
 
 - 
 
 21,033 
 
 ... 
 
 22,169 
 
 36. Persia 
 
 
 - 
 
 8,998 
 
 ... 
 
 18,915 
 
 37. Tunis 
 
 " 
 
 - 
 
 4,520 
 
 ... 
 
 5,597 
 
 38. Eastern Coast of Africa 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 1,927 
 
 
 4,391 
 
 39. Japan 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 — 
 
 ... 
 
 2,892 
 
 40. Camboja, Cochin China, <fc Tonquin 
 
 . 
 
 — 
 
 
 505 
 
 41. Ladrone Islands 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 468 
 
 
 372 
 
 42. Greenland and Davis's Straits 
 
 _ 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 43. French Possessions in India 
 
 
 £1 
 
 831 
 
 £1 
 
 — 
 
 
 6,608,765 
 
 30,440,427 
 
 * £200,000 for telegraph wires. 
 
EXP 
 
 120 
 
 EXP 
 
 Declared Value op Exportation. 
 
 1858. 
 
 Apparel and slops 
 
 Beer and ale 
 
 Books 
 
 Butter 
 
 Candles 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Coal and culm 
 
 Cordage 
 
 Cottons 
 
 Cotton yarn 
 
 Earthenware - 
 
 Fish 
 
 Furniture 
 
 Glass 
 
 Haberdashery 
 
 Hardwares 
 
 Leather 
 
 Linens 
 
 Linen yarn 
 
 Machinery 
 
 Iron and steel 
 
 Copper and brass 
 
 Lead 
 
 Tin 
 
 Oil seed 
 
 Painters' colours 
 
 Pickles and sauces 
 
 Plate and jewellery 
 
 Salt 
 
 Silks 
 
 Soap 
 
 Soda 
 
 Spirits 
 
 Stationery 
 
 Sugar, refined 
 
 Wool 
 
 Woollens 
 
 Woollen yarn 
 
 Unenumerated articles 
 
 £1,943,358 
 
 £2,191,432 
 
 1,851,755 
 
 2,116,207 
 
 390,584 
 
 478,287 
 
 541,053 
 
 717,395 
 
 157,618 
 
 187,830 
 
 90,718 
 
 137,564 
 
 3,045,434 
 
 3,266,174 
 
 166,625 
 
 190,900 
 
 33,421,843 
 
 38,742,740 
 
 9,579,479 
 
 9,465,704 
 
 1,153,579 
 
 1,313,364 
 
 576,737 
 
 458,739 
 
 258,022 
 
 241,902 
 
 569,205 
 
 607,578 
 
 3,462,832 
 
 4,288,780 
 
 3,277,607 
 
 3,826,030 
 
 2,012,916 
 
 1,997,703 
 
 4,124,356 
 
 4,607,245 
 
 1,746,340 
 
 1,684,489 
 
 3,599,352 
 
 3,701,094 
 
 11,197 072 
 
 12,327,093 
 
 2,855,051 
 
 2,600,307 
 
 616,215 
 
 668,037 
 
 1,621,849 
 
 1,884,380 
 
 844,978 
 
 930,875 
 
 380,559 
 
 460,374 
 
 289,910 
 
 341,824 
 
 455.006 
 
 495,162 
 
 286,222 
 
 253,575 
 
 2,096,300 
 
 2,351,839 
 
 209,503 
 
 225,918 
 
 813,727 
 
 1,024,283 
 
 206,429 
 
 305,900 
 
 803,738 
 
 840,172 
 
 362,472 
 
 343,958 
 
 902,341 
 
 639,967 
 
 9,776,944 
 
 12,032,831 
 
 2,966,743 
 
 3,080,306 
 
 7,954,284 
 
 9,412,462 
 
 116,608,756 
 
 130,440,427 
 
 Subjoined are the quantities of provisions, &c., imported and taken for home 
 consumption; — 
 
 
 
 
 Taken for Home 
 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Consumption. 
 
 -A. 
 
 
 1858. 
 
 1859. 
 
 1858. 
 
 1859. 
 
 Grain, wheat, qrs. 
 
 4,241,719 
 
 4,000,922 
 
 4,275,435 
 
 4,023,578 
 
 Grain of other descriptions, qrs. 
 
 4,087,079 
 
 3,905,942 
 
 4,135.382 
 
 3,954,814 
 
 Indian Corn, qrs. 
 
 1,750,825 
 
 1,314,303 
 
 1,762 320 
 
 1,321,633 
 
 Flour and meal, cwt 
 
 3,860,764 
 
 3,330,770 
 
 3,894,972 
 
 3,357,250 
 
 Provisions: — 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bacon, pork, lard, <fec, cwt. 
 
 576,289 
 
 583,710 
 
 Free 
 
 Free 
 
 Butter and cheese, cwt. 
 
 751,653 
 
 832,210 
 
 740,000 
 
 818,759 
 
 Animals, No.; 
 
 285,043 
 
 347,341 
 
 Free 
 
 Free 
 
 Eggs, No. - - 
 
 134,685,000 
 
 148,631,000 
 
 134,552,000 
 
 148,714,400 
 
 Cocoa, lbs. - 
 
 10,338,404 
 
 6,006,759 
 
 3,071,115 
 
 3,480,987 
 
 Coffee, lbs. - 
 
 60,697,265 
 
 65,353,029 
 
 35,338,111 
 
 34,492,947 
 
 Sugar, cwt. - 
 
 9,010,796 
 
 9,098,880 
 
 8,746,729 
 
 8,905,744 
 
 Tea, lbs. - 
 
 75,132,535 
 
 75,077,452 
 
 73,217,484 
 
 76,362,008 
 
 Rice, cwt. - 
 
 3,092,023 
 
 1,450,090 
 
 1,761,865 
 
 1,306,672 
 
 Spirits, gallons 
 
 8,506,055 
 
 11,056,671 
 
 4,561,735 
 
 4,911,676 
 
 Wines, gallons 
 
 5,791,636 
 
 8,196,026 
 
 6,697,224 
 
 7,262,965 
 
 Tobacco, lbs. 
 
 62,217,705 
 
 50,671,264 
 
 34,110,751 
 
 34,791,262 
 
 Currants and raisins, cwt. 
 
 939,865 
 
 986,919 
 
 643,338 
 
 785,970 
 
 Lemons and oranges, bushels - 
 
 972,653 
 
 1,103,296 
 
 983,777 
 
 4,077,820 
 
 Spices, lbs. 
 
 16,082,218 
 
 11,614,903 
 
 4,760,677 
 
 5,015,737 
 
 Ditto, cwts. 
 
 72,254 
 
 33,833 
 
 20,689 
 
 21,049 
 
EXP 121 no 
 
 The following were the comparative imports and exports of raw materials: — 
 
 Imported. Exported. 
 
 ' 185S 
 Flax, cwt 
 Hemp, cwt. 
 Raw silk, lbs 
 Cotton, cwt. 
 Wool lbs. 
 Tallow, cwt. 
 
 1858. 1859. 
 1,283,905 1,432,037 
 
 882,110 1,088,249 
 
 6,227,576 9,920,891 
 
 9,235,198 10,946,331 
 
 126,738,723 13.1,374,634 
 
 1,235,789 1,074,336 
 
 1858. 1859. 
 
 2,3*14,519 2,15*2,327 
 
 1,535,800 1,563,778 
 
 26,702,542 29,106,750 
 
 22,397 6,791 
 
 stands thus: — 
 
 Imported. 
 
 1858. 1859. 
 
 827,652 987,080 
 
 207,081 343,034 
 
 Taken for Home 
 
 Consumption. 
 
 1858. 1859. 
 
 812,895 954,872 
 
 83,012 47,747 
 
 Silk manufactures of Europe, lbs. 
 Ditto, of India, pieces . 
 
 FACTORIES. — The provisions mentioned, p. 297, were amended by 16 and 
 17 Vict. c. 104, enacting, that from Sept. 1853 no child shall be employed in 
 any factory before six o'clock in the morning, or after six o'clock in the evening 
 of any day, and no child shall be employed for any purpose on any Saturday 
 after two o'clock in the afternoon. But children on any day but Saturday, from 
 September 30 to April 1, may for one month be employed between seven in the 
 morning and seven in the evening; notice being given to the inspector of such 
 employment, and hung up in the factory. Children not to be employed in re- 
 covering lost time after seven in the evening. 
 
 The cotton factories of the United Kingdom number now about 2250. They 
 are chiefly located in England, in Lancashire, Cheshire, Yorkshire, Nottingham, 
 and Derby, with some few in other counties. In Scotland, in Lanark and Ren- 
 frew, while the few carried on in Ireland are more widely scattered. About 
 400,000 persons are directly employed in the cotton factories. In 1856 the 
 grand total number of factories in the United Kingdom amounted to 5117 — viz., 
 4432 in England and Wales, 530 in Scotland, and 155 in Ireland. The total 
 number of spindles was 33,503,580, and of power-looms 369,205. The amount 
 of moving power is 137,711 by steam and 23,724 by water. The total number 
 employed included 273,137 males, and 409,360 females, making together 682,497. 
 There were in the whole of the United Kingdom 460 silk factories, 417 flax fac- 
 tories, 525 worsted factories, 1505 woollen factories, and 2210 cotton factories. 
 The cotton factories employ 379,213 hands, the woollen 79,091 hands, the 
 worsted 87,724 hands, the flax 80,262 hands, and the silk factories 56,137 hands. 
 
 Of children under 13 years of age, attending school, there were employed 
 24,687 boys, and 21,534 girls; and 70,247 males between 13 and 18 years of age 
 were employed. 
 
 FIGS. — The imports of this dried fruit are considerable, chiefly from Smyrna. 
 The imports entered for consumption in 1858 were 38,046 cwts., of which 
 24,877 were from Turkey, and 10,500 cwts. from Spain and Portugal. 
 
 The duty established on the 15th May, 1840, was 15* 9d per cwt.j in March, 
 1860, this was reduced to 7*. 
 
 The following particulars as to Smyrna figs are interesting. 
 
 Along the Meander, eighteen miles from Naslii Bazaar is the village of Or- 
 toxi, beyond which to the eastward, the fig of commerce is not produced. The 
 whole valley of Aidin from this place to the sea produces figs of the finest 
 quality. The fig of commerce is called " lop," and is divided into two sorts; 
 
 1. Eleme, or picked by hand. 
 
 2. Bazeinrghan injiry, or merchant's figs. 
 
 There is another smaller sort called " h'ourda," sent to Scala Nuova for the 
 Greek islands. The fig for fresh eating is called " shekerinjiry," or sugar fig, 
 and will not preserve for exportation. Naslii contains 3500 people, with a large 
 village population in the neighbourhood. The fig and fruit orchards are even 
 more carefully cultivated than at Aidin. The average produce of figs is about 
 130,000 kintals of 125 lbs. English each. The average annual import of figs from 
 Turkey in the last five years has been 30,000 cwt. 
 
FIS 
 
 122 
 
 PIS 
 
 FISHERIES. The annual returns of the Fishery Commissioners of Irelana 
 and Scotland enable us to form an estimate of the extent and progress of the 
 coast fisheries in those parts of the kingdom, but we have now no details for 
 England and Wales. The collection of returns for England was discontinued after 
 the 5th January, 1850, at the same time that the branding and punching of cod 
 and ling ceased. 
 
 The take of fish necessarily varies considerably, and I need not cumber these 
 pages with an annual return for a long series of years. The number of cod, 
 ling and hake taken in Scotland in 1858 was upwards of 3,000,000, of which 
 95,596 cwts. were cured dry, and 4584 barrels in pickle, and upwards of 70,000 
 cwts. were consumed fresh; 32,152 cwts. were exported, of which 13,831 cwts. 
 went to Ireland, 14,603 cwts. to the Continent, and 3717 cwts. to places out of 
 Europe. In 1859 the take of cod was close upon 4,000,000 fish; 1 18,383 cwts. were 
 cured dry, and 5363 barrels in pickle; and 35,923 cwts. were exported. The 
 average quantity of cod cured in Scotland may be taken at 100,000 cwts., in one 
 or two years it has reached 110,000 or 112,000 cwts. 
 
 The quantity of herrings taken and cured is more variable. In 1858, 636,124 
 barrels were cured, and upwards of 80,000 barrels consumed fresh. Of those 
 cured, 233,374 barrels were officially branded ; 350,204 barrels were exported, 
 of which 269,819 went to the Continent, chiefly to Stettin, Dantzic, Hamburg, 
 and Rotterdam; 79,054 barrels went to Ireland, and 1331 barrels to places out 
 of Europe. In 1859 only 491,487 barrels of herrings were cured and 158,676 
 barrels branded. Number of barrels of herrings exported: — 
 
 1820 
 1830 
 1840 
 
 253,516 
 181,654 
 252,522 
 
 1850 
 1855 
 1859 
 
 340,256 
 442,264 
 272,980 
 
 The number of boats, decked or undecked employed in the shore curing, her- 
 ring and cod and ling fisheries on the coasts of Scotland and the Isle of Man in 
 1858, was 12,516, in which were 43,072 fishermen and boys. There were also 
 employed 1152 fish curers, and 1961 coopers. The estimated value of the 
 boats was £274,990; of the nets, £384,014; and of the lines, £66,552; making 
 a total of £725,556. Of the tonnage engaged 107,907 tons were British, and 
 16,512 foreign. The total tonnage employed was 214,286 tons, and 105,367 
 persons in all were employed in the fisheries. 
 
 The following distinguishes the employment, &c. of the boats: — 
 
 
 Men. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Importing stave wood or hoops 
 
 Importing salt 
 
 Carrying herrings or codfish coastwise to market 
 
 Exporting, ditto 
 
 1096 
 1897 
 1929 
 8733 
 
 5,453 
 26,424 
 26,298 
 35,902 
 
 94,077 
 
 7,757 
 159 
 
 8,596 
 
 Total ... 
 
 8655 
 
 16,512 
 
 There are not wanting signs that Continental States are beginning, though 
 slowly, to perceive the disadvantages belonging to a restrictive system of trade, 
 and are applying to fisheries and their produce that freedom which will gradually 
 encourage importation from other countries, and which Great Britain, and Scot- 
 land especially, will be so well able to supply. Not long ago Belgium gave the 
 example, and in the course of 1858, the Fishery Committee of the Dutch Go- 
 vernment signified that great modifications have been made in the laws regula- 
 ting the Dutch Fisheries; that instead of the former total prohibition of foreign 
 herrings, a low duty upon their importation has been substituted, which, it is 
 said, will probably be removed altogether in a few years. Holland had hitherto 
 been remarkable for her jealousy upon the subject of fisheries, and for her perse- 
 verance in a rigorous exclusiveness, which results have shown to have been but 
 
FIS 123 FI3 
 
 little to her own benefit. It may be, perhaps, that the rapid and very remarkable 
 rise of the Scotch Fisheries, under the measures adopted in this country for 
 their development, of which the crews both of the Dutch cruisers and fishing 
 busses have personal and direct evidence, have brought about the introduction 
 of a liberal and more amicable policy; certain it is that the astonishing success 
 of these fisheries, and the trade derived from them, have induced the Dutch 
 Government to direct their special attention to the system upon which they are 
 conducted, with a view to assimilate their own in a great degree to it. The 
 Government of Denmark, which owns the fisheries upon the coast of Iceland, 
 have likewise modified the former restrictions that subsisted there; and when 
 these principles extend to and reach nations of greater size, wealth, and powers 
 of consumption, the issue cannot fail to tell favourably upon Scottish fishermen 
 and their employers, and to give to the maritime population and industry of this 
 country the best encouragement to adventure and improvement, and to its capi- 
 tal new outlets for successful and profitable employment. 
 
 For a long period the official brand affixed by our Government officers, had 
 given character and importance for quality and cure to the trade in herrings on 
 the Continent, but the Government in 1858, after inquiry, endeavoured to do 
 away with it altogether at the public expense, or else to make it self-supporting. 
 Considerable difference of opinion prevailed among the curers on the subject, 
 some were for retaining the brand, others for abolishing it altogether. However, 
 the Lords of the Treasury having regard to the strongly expressed opinion of 
 those engaged in the trade, and of their customers and agents on the Continent, 
 who attach much importance to the value of the Government brand, agreed to 
 its continuance, subject to a fee of Ad for each barrel branded. And an act 
 authorising this charge was passed (21 and 22 Vict., cap. 69.) 
 
 The foreign merchants announced their resolution, in regard to their future 
 dealings for herrings in this countiy, in the following circular in Feb. 1859 : — 
 
 " The prevailing agitation on the part of some curers in Scotland against the brand, and a fee 
 of Ad per barrel, to be paid in future, has caused some alarm in the Continental markets, as 
 only by virtue of this official guarantee the transactions of Scotch herrings have so consider- 
 ably increased, particularly within the last ten years, and that in proportion as the demand for 
 Norwegian herrings has fallen off, which is simply on account of the withdrawing of the 
 4 Brake' in Norway, which has destroyed all confidence respecting the quality, salting, assort- 
 ment, and proper size of the barrels. 
 
 " We have, therefore, with experience before us, no hesitation to declare, that buying her- 
 rings in Scotland, on our part, without the brand, would be quite out of the question; that 
 curers would therefore be obliged to consign all their herrings to the Continental markets ; 
 that no house would make any advance before the herrings had arrived and been properly 
 examined, and even then to a more limited extent; and that many of us would also entirely 
 withdraw from a trade thus exposed to endless troubles and vexations. 
 
 •'Of the import of Stettin, one-third is re-exported to Poland, Bohemia, and Austria; of 
 Danzic two-thirds, and of Koenigsberg one-half to Russia and Poland, all of which are crown 
 and full brand herrings. The official brand being thus the only guarantee both for sellers and 
 buyers, not a single barrel of unbranded herrings would be taken in these markets, even at a 
 reduction of two dollars or 6s per barrel. 
 
 "As regards our home consumption, the case is much the same, thousands of barrels, floating 
 as well as in bond, change hands without being examined, particularly if speculation is going 
 on, the crown and full brand fixes the price, irrespective, however, of an allowance we make 
 for the mark of those curers well known in our markets as the best The proper assorting, 
 packing, and salting is thus taken into account, and herrings thus treated always command 
 ready sales and the highest prices, so that those curers who take proper care in this respect 
 need not be afraid that their care and attention are not duly rewarded. 
 
 '•Without the brand all speculation and competition would be at an end, as very few would 
 be able to take the trouble of examining every barrel ; the transactions would be confined to a 
 very few houses, who, of course, would have to take a larger profit from the retail dealers in 
 the interior, in order to make it worth their attention, and to meet the losses on the endless 
 repudiation of contracts and sales to which they would have to be subjected on the ground of 
 the slightest objections to quality, and that particularly in falling markets. The Scotch 
 curers and commission-houses would be subjected to the same difficulties here, for some ground 
 of refusal is soon to be found ; whilst at present the Government brand is a legal tender in 
 every Court of Justice, even in this country. 
 
 " The genuineness of the brand is, therefore, carefully regarded and watched in Prussia, and 
 any attempt at fraud would inflict not only confiscation of the goods, but the defrauders would 
 bo s. nt to the House of Correction, as a treaty exists between Prussia and Great Britain for 
 the protection of government and private stamps. We are fully aware that a year ago, an 
 attempt was made at Harburg (Hanover) to imitate the brand, where, unfortunately, no treaty 
 
PIS 124 F1S 
 
 of the above kind exists with Great Britain, and therefore no other punishment could be in- 
 flicted on the defrauders than the removal of the forged brand in the presence of the police. 
 The lesson they, however, thus received, will, no doubt, prevent their making a second at- 
 tempt, for they afterwards could not sell the herrings anywhere, and the greater part of them 
 have been consigned to a watery grave, whilst the defrauders are themselves branded in the 
 opinion of every honest man. 
 
 " If we have thus already proved the necessity of keeping up the brand for the benefit of 
 the herring trade in general, but most particularly for the benefit of the curers themselves, we 
 are at a loss to find what interest they can have in forcing us to take an article we will not 
 have, and of which we cannot make use. 
 
 "The fee of id per barrel, which the British Government intend taking for the brand in 
 future, must in the end come out of our pockets, and not out of theirs, and it is we who would 
 have more cause to complain of it. No curer is obliged to have his barrels branded; if, there- 
 fore, some of them are disposed to send unbranded herrings to the Continental markets, they 
 are at perfect liberty to try the experiment at their own risk; for, as regards ourselves, we 
 positively declare that, with the exception of a limited quantity of the July catch, in order to 
 have early new herrings in the market, during the regular fishing teason we will not buy any 
 herrings without the official crown and full brand." 
 
 Signed by forty-two Firms. 
 
 The Irish Sea Coast Fishery does not appear to be in that progressive state of 
 general improvement which could be desired. In some localities, where the 
 means of transit by steam are available, an activity in capture and an increase in 
 business are perceptible. There appears, by the returns from the Railway Com- 
 panies, an addition of sixty tons in the amount conveyed in the year 1858 over 
 that carried in 1857. The Commissioners attribute the languid state of the Sea 
 Fisheries of Ireland, in a great measure, to the want of curing establishments. 
 In districts remote from railway and steam communication there is no constant 
 and steady demand for sea fish, and the sale depends upon the casual require- 
 ments of the neighbourhood, the vendors being at the mercy of the purchasers 
 so far as price is concerned. The salmon fisheries of Ireland present a much 
 more flourishing condition; they are progressively improving. 
 
 In 1857 the quantity of fish, in gross, conveyed by the Southern and Western 
 Railway and Midland Great Western, was — 
 
 1,350 tons. 
 Of which salmon and turbot constituted • • 381 „ 
 
 Making the gross of coarse fish . » • 969 „ 
 
 For the year 1858, the gross quantity was — 
 
 1,410 tons. 
 Of which salmon and turbot constituted . . 304 „ 
 
 Making of coarse fish . • . . 1,106 „ 
 
 Mr. Fennell, in reporting to the Commissioners, says — The advantages of 
 steam transit, as applying to the development of the fishing, is telling with good 
 effect on that part of the northern coast connected with Lough Foyle, for a con- 
 siderable distance around. Steamers call daily at Moville, and receive the fish 
 for Liverpool and Glasgow; the principal fishes are cod and turbot; of the for- 
 mer, all go to Liverpool fresh; to Glasgow, about one-third fresh, and two- 
 thirds " green-salted," that is, not dried, neither in pickle, but simply salted 
 and sent in baskets. A few years ago there was only one buyer at Moville, now 
 there are fifteen; some of whom have prospered well, realized money, and built 
 good houses to let as well as to occupy; the improvement in the condition of 
 the fishermen, and improvement of their boats, is commensurate. The cod 
 fishing commences about the 1st of October and ends about the 1st of July; 
 thus, for nine months in the year trade continues in cod. 
 
 The turbot fishing continues from March to November, so that throughout 
 the whole year profitable employment is afforded. 
 
 A considerable quantity of soles and plaice are also shipped from the trawlers. 
 The cod fishing commences in October, in the Lough opposite Moville; they 
 move out, and as the weather settles in spring, the fishermen follow them eight 
 miles out, and finally twenty miles out to " Hamden Bank." From the 1st of 
 October to the 1st of May, about 150 boxes of cod are weekly shipped to Liver- 
 
FIS 
 
 125 
 
 FLA 
 
 pool; and from May to July, about 90 boxes per week; total to Liverpool, during 
 the season, 5220 boxes; to Glasgow, double that quantity; total, 15,660 boxes; 
 each box contains fourteen fish. 
 
 The fishermen generally contract with the buyers at 7* per dozen of fourteen 
 fish, all the year round; thus, the amount received by the fishermen is £5481 
 annually for cod fish; the buyers pay 3s freight, and 6d per box for fishing. 
 Turbot average to the fishermen about 3s per dozen; there are about twelve 
 dozen of turbot shipped weekly for forty weeks; total, 5760, at 3*, ,€814. Soles, 
 &c, about £500 annually; total received annually by fishermen, £6795. 
 
 FLAX. — The declared value of the exports of British linen manufactures and 
 linen yam, in the year 1840, amounted to £4,128,000; since then it has been as 
 follows: — 
 
 1841 
 
 £. 
 4,320,021 
 
 1850 . 
 
 £. 
 
 4,828,994 
 
 1842 
 
 3,372,300 
 
 1851 
 
 5,058,822 
 
 1843 
 
 3,702,052 
 
 1852 
 
 5,372,351 
 
 1844 
 
 4,075,028 
 
 1853 
 
 6,913,409 
 
 1845 
 
 4,096,936 
 
 1854 
 
 5,052,959 
 
 1846 
 
 3,706,213 
 
 1855 
 
 5,050,993 
 
 1847 
 
 3,608,744 
 
 1856 
 
 6,253,760 
 
 1848 
 
 3,296,238 
 
 1857 
 
 6,164,833 
 
 1849 
 
 3,225,894 
 
 1858 
 
 5,870,696 
 
 In 1859 the total value was £6,291,734. 
 
 Flax is largely cultivated in the United Kingdom, especially Ireland ; but 
 besides the amount produced at home, it is imported to a considerable extent 
 from abroad. 
 
 According to an official return of the imports of flax into the United King- 
 dom from 1801 to 1853, it appears that in fifty-three years we imported 2,252,422 
 tons of flax, which, at the moderate average price, for the whole term, of £40 
 per ton, amounted to £90,096,880. Of this immense quantity and value so 
 imported, 1,587,395 tons, worth £63,495,800, came from Russia. And, with 
 the exception of a few hundred tons received from our Australian possessions 
 (only 292 tons in the last ten years) the remaining quantity of 665,027 tons 
 imported was of the growth of other foreign countries. Of hemp we imported 
 1,829,291 tons, of which 1,505,189 tons, at an average price for the whole term 
 of £35 per ton, and worth £52,681,615, came from Russia. As regards the 
 residue of the importation, 324,102 tons, the circumstances are different from 
 the case of flax; fully three-fourths of that quantity, consisting chiefly of the 
 less valuable fibres, sunn and jute, having been supplied from our East Indian 
 possessions. We therefore took from Russia in those fifty-three years — of flax, 
 1,587,395 tons, worth £63,495,800 ; and of hemp, 1,505,189 tons, worth 
 £52,681,615; together 3,092,584 tons, worth £116,177,415. 
 
 It was stated by a deputation, which waited in January, 1860, upon the Presi- 
 dent of the Board of Trade, that there were then 651,000 spindles in Ireland, 
 of which, however, 121,000 were idle, owing to the depressed state of trade and 
 the want of an open market, and at least 2,000,000 of the Irish people were 
 more or less dependent upon the linen trade. Ireland at present used more 
 flax than France could produce, and bought two-thirds of the entire flax worked 
 in Irish mills, from foreign countries. £12,000,000 are invested in om* linen trade, 
 and between £3,000,000 and £4,000,000 are annually distributed by its means. 
 
 The following comparison of the increase in imports of foreign hemp and flax 
 indicates the progress of this branch of industry. The flax dressed and undressed 
 imported into the United Kingdom, in the year 
 
 1830 was 944,096 cwt. 
 1840 ... 1,253,240 „ 
 
 1850 
 1859 
 
 1,822,918 cwt. 
 1,432,037 „ 
 
 According to the latest returns, there appears to be now in the United King- 
 dom 417 flax mills or factories, with about 1,300,000 spindles, and 8,700 power- 
 looms, employing 80,260 persons; of these, 139 factories are in England and 
 
FLA 
 
 126 
 
 FLA 
 
 Wales, 168 in Scotland, and 110 in Ireland. Scotland and Ireland employ 
 two-thirds of the hands, and keep 846,000 of the spindles going. 
 
 In the close of 1858, there were on the average in Ireland, of idle and partially 
 employed spindles, about one-eighth of the whole number, — the whole number 
 being nearly 600,000, — and many of the mills were totally out of work, caused 
 chiefly by the dearth and scarcity of the raw material. 
 
 The imports of foreign fibre for the last few years have been far below the 
 requirements of the trade, and the home cultivation has been decreasing instead 
 of extending to meet the demand. In 1858 the price of hand-scutched flax ad- 
 vanced nearly 50 per cent. Capitalists (we are told by the organ of the Irish 
 linen trade) ready to invest largely in the erection of power-loom factories for 
 the weaving of linen, are kept back from engaging in the enterprise because of 
 the state of the markets and the famine rates of flax. The produce of the 
 100,000 acres now in cultivation with flax in Ireland, is fully absorbed by the 
 wants of local factory owners, and the demand for continental markets. 
 
 By the extension of free trade measures in France, the linen manufactures of 
 that country would be able to take 10,000 tons per annum of that quality of flax 
 which cannot be raised on their own lands. The Irish flax spinning trade, we 
 all know, is of vital importance to the general commerce of Ulster. Every inci- 
 dental circumstance that affects the linen manufacture, gives its peculiar tone in 
 a greater or less degree to all other sections of trade, from that of the highest 
 merchant to the humblest shopkeeper. 
 
 But it is not only Ireland that is affected by this deficiency of supply, the evil 
 presses equally great on English and Scotch spinners. 
 
 Although there is necessarily a limit in this country to the extended cultiva- 
 tion of flax, owing to the exhausting nature of the crop, and the stipulations in 
 leases, which, in many cases, prohibit its culture; yet there is no reason why in 
 India, our North American, and other colonies, where there is abundance of 
 cheap land at disposal, its production should not be stimulated and extended. 
 
 In India it might be produced in abundance, and there does not appear to be 
 any valid or sufficient reason Avhy, with land so much cheaper, and the cost of 
 labour so trifling, the fibres of India — some of which equal, if they do not 
 surpass, the best of Europe — should not, with a little encouragement, care, and 
 perseverance, become a large and constantly increasing item of import here. 
 The importance of this Flax Supply question may be judged of by a comparison 
 of the progress of home cultivation, import, and manufacture. 
 
 In 1850 we imported 91,145 tons of flax, dressed and undressed. In 1858 
 our foreign imports only reached 64,145 tons. The quantity of linen and yarn 
 exported in 1850 was in value £4,845,030, and the quantity kept for home con- 
 sumption was valued at £9,700,000, together £14,545,030. 
 
 In 1859 the value of the linen and yarn exported was £6,219,734, and if we 
 assume the proportion used at home at double that amount, we have a total of 
 about £18,659,000. 
 
 Extent of land under culture in Ireland with flax. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 1812 
 
 73,000 
 
 1826 to 1846 . 
 
 not known 
 
 1813 
 
 
 52,000 
 
 1847 
 
 
 58,312 
 
 1814 
 
 
 62,000 
 
 1848 
 
 
 53,000 
 
 1815 
 
 
 91,000 
 
 1849 
 
 
 60,314 
 
 1816 
 
 
 93,000 
 
 1850 
 
 
 91,040 
 
 1817 
 
 
 57,000 
 
 1851 
 
 
 140,536 
 
 1818 
 
 
 83,000 
 
 1852 
 
 
 137,008 
 
 1819 
 
 
 77,000 
 
 1853 
 
 
 174,579 
 
 1820 
 
 
 91,000 
 
 1854 
 
 
 151,403 
 
 1821 
 
 
 80,000 
 
 1855 
 
 
 97,075 
 
 1822 
 
 
 86,000 
 
 1856 
 
 
 106,311 
 
 1823 
 
 
 95,000 
 
 1857 
 
 
 97,721 
 
 1824 
 
 
 112,000 
 
 1858 
 
 
 91,555 
 
 1825 
 
 86,000 
 
 
 
FLO 
 
 127 
 
 FEA. 
 
 FLORIN. — In order to introduce if possible the decimal divisions in our coin- 
 age, a new silver coin under the title of the florin, of the value of 2s, was 
 minted in 1849, and since that period nine or ten million pieces have been put 
 into circulation 
 
 FRANCE.— The population of the empire in 1856 was 36,039,364. The 
 revenue in 1858 was £74,680,000, and the expenditure 74,200,000. The public 
 funded debt on the 1st June, 1858, was ,£336,883,871, and the unfunded debt 
 £40,072,780, while the annual interest charged was £16,000,000. 
 
 Fiance, like England, has participated largely in the increased commerce 
 arising out of the gold discoveries in Australia and America, and her financial 
 condition has been thereby considerably improved. At no former period has 
 France been so rich in the precious metals, and the coinage has exceeded that of 
 all former periods. The following is a statement of the amount coined under 
 different reigns from the introduction of the decimal system in 1793 to Decem- 
 ber, 1859: 
 
 COINAGE OP FRANCE. 
 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 First Republic 
 
 
 106,237,255 
 
 106,237,255 
 
 Napoleon Buonaparte - 
 
 528,024,440 
 
 887,582,321 
 
 1,415,606,761 
 
 Louis XVIII 
 
 389,333,060 
 
 614,668,520 
 
 1,004,001,580 
 
 Charles X. - 
 
 52,918,920 
 
 631,914,637 
 
 684,833,557 
 
 Louis Philippe 
 
 215,912,800 
 
 1,750,273,238 
 
 1,966,186,038 
 
 Republic (Inscription Angel for 
 
 
 
 
 15 sous gold) 
 
 56,921,220 
 
 
 56,921,220 
 
 „ (Hercules for silver) - 
 
 
 259,628,845 
 
 259,628,845 
 
 „ (Head of the Goddess 
 
 
 
 
 of Liberty) 
 
 370,361,640 
 
 199,470,488 
 
 569,833,128 
 
 Louis Napoleon 
 Totals 
 
 or 
 
 3,463,265,980 
 
 180,085,578 
 
 3,648 351,558 
 
 5,081,738,060 
 
 4,629,860,882 
 
 9,711,599,942 
 
 £203,209,522 
 
 £185,194,435 
 
 £388,463,997 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Millions. 
 
 Milions. 
 
 Millions. 
 
 5,199 
 
 4,976 
 
 10,175 
 
 6,220 
 
 5,777 
 
 11,997 
 
 5,774 
 
 7,418 
 
 13,192 
 
 10,922 
 
 11,075 
 
 21,997 
 
 From the foregoing statement we find that more gold has been coined in the 
 present reign than in all the previous reigns. 
 
 The commercial progress of France in the last ten years has been very con- 
 siderable. Divided into quinquennial periods, from 1838 to 1847 inclusive, the 
 official values of the imports and exports were as follows, expressed in millions 
 of francs: 
 
 1st Period, 1838 to 18J2 
 2nd Period, 1843 „ 1847 
 3rd Period, 1848 „ 1852 
 4th Period, 1853 „ 1857 
 The total actual value of the foreign commerce of France, imports and ex- 
 ports, in 1857, was £212,132,000. 
 
 Official Value of the Imports and Exports of France (exclusive of Specie) 
 in each year from 1846 to 1857. 
 
 1846 
 1847 
 1848 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 
 The figures for 1855, 1856, and 1857 are the real, not the official values. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 50,250,684 
 
 47,213,276 
 
 53,713,001 
 
 50,828,276 
 
 34,475,736 
 
 46,120,709 
 
 45,690,308 
 
 56,909,316 
 
 46,965,549 
 
 61,241,972 
 
 46,309,237 
 
 65,186,502 
 
 57,526,920 
 
 67,258,631 
 
 65,255,733 
 
 74,452,003 
 
 68,367,701 
 
 71,507,250 
 
 86,388,000 
 
 86,688,000 
 
 109,634,000 
 
 106,368,000 
 
 107,560,000 
 
 104,572,000 
 
FEA 128 PEA 
 
 The number of sailing vessels which belonged to France on 1st June, 1856, 
 were 14,023, registering 826,663 tons, of which 3778 vessels and 192,875 tons 
 belonged to ports in the Mediterranean. The number of steam ships was 225, 
 measuring 45,493 tons, of which 1 1 7 were owned in the Mediterranean porta 
 and 108 in Atlantic ports. Of the entire tonnage 12 vessels were above 800 
 tons, 17 from 700 to 800 tons, 28 from 600 to 700 tons, 63 from 500 to 600 tons, 
 159 from 400 to 500 tons, 280 from 300 to 400 tons, 661 from 200 to 300, 1444 
 from 100 to 200, 5542 from 10 to 100 tons, and 6042 under 10 tons. In 1859 
 the French mercantile marine had increased to 14,900 sailing vessels and 330 
 steamers, registering about 1,000,000 tons, of these 3810 sailing vessels and 148 
 steam ships belonged to Mediterranean ports. 
 
 The number of vessels that entered at French ports in 1855 were 25,051 
 vessels (sailing and steam), of 3,554,672 tons, manned by 260,092 men as crews. 
 Of these, 10,295 vessels, of 1,308,196 tons, with 108,104 men, were French, and 
 14,756 vessels, of 2,246,476 tons, with 151,988 men, were foreigners. Of the 
 French vessels 8450 were from foreign countries, 1452 from French colonies, 
 and 393 from the cod and whale fisheries. 2064 vessels, of 252,104 tons, came 
 in ballast. The number of vessels engaged in the coasting trade which entered 
 French ports in 1855 was 92,073, measuring 3,391,680 tons, with 400,876 men as 
 crews. In 1858 the total entries in French ports numbered 24,063 loaded vessels, 
 measuring 3,811,114 tons, of which more than half, (13,525 ships and 2,224,131 
 tons,) were foreigners. 
 
 The imports and exports have steadily advanced from £50,250,684 imports 
 in 1846 to £78,069,246 in 1856. The exports in the same period from 
 £47,213,276 to ,£81,074,595. In the five years ending with 1855, specie of 
 the value of £83,735,065 was imported into France, of which was re-ex- 
 ported .£57,440,344, showing a clear addition to the coin and bullion of 
 £26,294,711. 
 
 The extent of railways opened in France on the 1st January 1855 was 2796 
 miles, on which there had been expended for construction, &c. £74,772,997, or 
 an average of £26,743 per mile. About one-third of the amount had been con- 
 tributed by the State, and the remainder by private companies. The total 
 number of passengers conveyed in 1854 was 28,070,458 ; of merchandise, 
 8,364,501 tons. The total receipts were £8,077,846; the average gross receipts 
 per mile was £3096, and the expenditure £1336, making the net receipts 
 £1761. The share capital of the railways on the 1st January, 1855, was 
 £35,295,200, loans on bonds £28,023,547, loans on advances from Government 
 £7,337,134, advances from other sources £1,206,241; making a total of 
 i£7 1,862,142. The total cost incurred, and estimated as required, for 6896 miles 
 conceded, was £156,286,122. The third-class passengers constitute about one- 
 half of the travellers by rail. The number of beet root sugar factories in France 
 in 1856 was 275 in work, and 110 out of work. The sugar manufactured was 
 1,811,025 cwts. The principal factories are situated in the departments of Nord, 
 Aisne and Pas-de-Calais. The annual average price of wheat per imperial 
 quarter in France was in 1851, 345 8d; 1852,41s 4d; 1853,53s 9d; 1854,67s 2d; 
 1855, 68s 4d; 1856, 71s Id. The total population of the four French colonies 
 of Martinique, Guadaloupe, Guiana, and Reunion or Bourbon, was, in 1858, 
 442,787, and of these about 240,114 were slaves. Algeria has already been 
 noticed in this Supplement. 
 
 The importations of 1857 into France were £2,076,000 less than in 1856, and 
 £2,077,200 more than those of 1855. The total real value of imports in 1857 was 
 £107,560,000 against £109,634,000 in 1856, and against 86,388,000 in 1855; and 
 the total real value of exports was £104,572,000 in 1857, against £106,368,000 
 in 1856, and against £86,688,000 in 1855. 
 
 The total number of vessels entered steadily increased from 22,987 in 1855, to 
 25,673 in 1856, and to 25,736 in 1857, showing a slight augmentation over the 
 preceding one in spite of the crisis, but for which it may be fairly inferred that 
 the augmentation would have been much greater. The chief increase, however, 
 appears to be owing to French vessels, which numbered 10,971 in 1857, against 
 
FEA 129 FEA 
 
 10,312 in 1856, and against 9587 in 1855; for the foreign shipping entered, 
 which rose from 13,400 in 1855 to 15,361 in 1856, fell to 14,755 in 1857. The 
 total tonra.^e entered was 4,121,777 in 1857 (of which 1,636,917 were French, 
 and 2,484,860 were foreign), 4,068,781 in 1856 (of which 1,248,086 were French, 
 and 2,054,482 were foreign). The decrease in foreign tonnage was more than 
 compensated for by the increase of French tonnage, which it is difficult to re- 
 concile with the complaints embodied in a petition to the Emperor some time 
 back, that ships were lying idle in the ports without chance of being chartered, 
 and that the crews were discharged. These complaints appear to have still less 
 foundation on examining the return of vessels cleared outwards. The total rose 
 from 13,770 (5768 French, and 8002 foreign) in 1855, to 14,333 (5,950 French, 
 and 8383 foreign) in 1856, and to 15,977 (7010 French, and 8967 foreign) in 
 The tonnage also increased from 2,030,698 in 1855 (933,948 French, 
 and 1,096,750 foreign) to 2,307,490 (1,025,136 French, and 1,255,355 foreign) in 
 1856, and to 2,590,166 (1,213,822 French, and 1,376,344 foreign) in 1857. If 
 a comparison be made between the import and export trades, it will be seen that 
 the number of vessels and their tonnage entered are nearly double those cleared 
 outwards, while the real value of goods showed £1,988,000 of imports over ex- 
 ports last year; £3,268,000 on the same side in 1856, but in 1855 an excess of 
 £3,300,000 of exports over imports. 
 
 If the various articles of trade be examined, we shall find some interesting 
 facts in relation to the domestic economy of the country. For instance, the im- 
 portation of horned cattle has regularly "decreased, and that of sheep as regularly 
 increased; and while the total of all kinds has been augmented to 678,526 in 
 1857 from 608,635 the year before— which showed a falling off 625,396, in 1855 
 — the cost has constantly and regularly diminished. Thus the real value of 
 cattle imported in 1855" was £2,316,000; in 1856, £2,240,000; and in 1857, 
 £2,116,000. So that France obtained in 1857 69,891 head of cattle more than 
 in the preceding year, and at a less cost by £124,000, which fact may be taken 
 as evidence of improvement in the feeding and condition of the population, and 
 is, moreover, one of the benefits of progress towards free trade, since the inhabi- 
 tants of France are so far provided with better nourishment and at less expense. 
 
 A large portion of the raw spirits imported from England is coloured, 
 flavoured, and otherwise " doctored" for exportation as French brandy. How 
 great the increase has been will be seen by the following figures: — The importa- 
 tion in 1855 was 13,645,796 gallons, of the real value ;of |£2,144,000; in 1856, 
 11,667,348 gallons, real value £2,152,000; and in 1857, 22,133,269 gallons, real 
 value £3,364,000. It would also appear that France is ceasing to produce suffi- 
 cient corn for her consumption, for in 1855 there were imported 1,235,843 
 quarters; in 1856, 2,859,212 quarters; and in 1857, 1,852,911 quarters. The 
 flour imported respectively for those years was 27,974 tons, 83,830 tons, and 
 11,132. The total real value of the corn and flour imported was £4,908,000 
 in 1855, £12,132,000 in 1856, and £4,648,000 in 1857; so that although the 
 importation of farinaceous food was upwards of 2/5ths more in 1857 than in 
 1855, the cost was £260,000 less for the larger than for the smaller quantity. 
 The rice imported was 32,382 tons, real value £708,000, in 1855; 67,446 tons, 
 real value £1,380,000, in 1856; and 95,611 tons, real value £1,464,000 in 1857. 
 
 From the French colonies there was imported in 1855, 90,747 tons sugar, 
 valued at £2,492,000; in 1856, 93,531 tons, value £3,104,900; and in 1857, 
 84,961, value £3,480,000; while from foreign States there were imported during 
 the corresponding years, 59,654 tons, value £1,384,000; 32,899 tons, value 
 £1,172,000; and 1,804,000. Coffee rose in 1857 to 27,947 tons, value £1,660,000, 
 from 23,222 tons, value £1,300,000 the year before, which was a falling off as 
 compared with the importations of 1855, set down at 36,740 tons, that were 
 valued at £1,327,000. The French appear to be gradually becoming a tea- 
 drinking nation, for although the coffee importation has fluctuated, that of tea 
 has steadilv increased from 183 tons in 1855 to 197 tons in 1856, and 233 tons in 
 1857. 
 
YEA. 130 TEA 
 
 The importations of olive oil fell off from 24,456 tons to 19,171 in 1856, 
 and to 18,248 in 1857. Wool fluctuated from 33,535 tons, in 1855, to 48,983 
 in 1856, then down to 37,719 in 1857. Silks of all sorts also fluctuated, 
 and varied in price; and linen fabrics shared the same fate. The quantities of 
 coal imported have steadily risen from 3,817,161 tons, value £3,572,000, in 
 1855, to 3,915,519, value £3,400,000, in 1856, and 4,205,721 tons, value 
 £3,212,000 in 1857. The benefit of a liberal commercial policy is here again 
 visible, for France was enabled to procure nearly 400,000 tons more fuel at a 
 cost inferior by £360,000 than she did two years previously. The importations 
 of machinery were 2294 tons, value .£140,600 in 1855, against 4183 tons, value 
 £244.000, in 1856, and 5037 tons, value £304,000 in 1857. The importations 
 of metals during these three years were respectively:— Pig iron, 118,209 tons, 
 value £804,000; 127,272 tons, value £916,000; 94,740 tons, value £684,000; 
 bar iron, including rods, 54,610 tons, value £528,000; 68,696 tons, value 
 £700,000; 22,957 tons, value £256,000; copper, 11,791 tons, value £1,508,000; 
 91,939 tons, value £1,196,000; 11,093 tons, value £1,444,000; lead, 33,942 
 tons, value £576,000 ; 23,928 tons, value £604,000 ; 20,478 tons, value 
 £516,000; and zinc, 25,605 tons, value £636,000 ; 19,139 tons, value £496,000; 
 25,499 tons, value, £712,000. The remarkable falling off in the importa- 
 tion of pig and bar iron in 1857 will show that, whatever were the suffer- 
 ings of the iron trade, they did not proceed from the competition resulting 
 from the excessive importations of foreign irons. The importations of 
 nitrates of soda and potassa were 10,452 tons, value £292,000, in 1856 ; 8061 
 tons, value £212.000. in 1856; and 13,172 tons, value £392,000 in 1857. The 
 value of gold imported during the three years respectively were — £15,236,000, 
 £18,600,000, and £22,748,000; and of silver, £4,836,000, £4,695,000 and 
 £3,932,000. The values of the numerous classes of goods that come under the 
 denomination "various" entered were for £20,876,000 in 1855; for £24,488,010 
 in 1856; and for £25,862,000 in 1857. 
 
 The exportation of cattle of all descriptions has increased from 116,709 head 
 in 1855, valued at £548,000, to 124,822 head, value £592,000, in 1856, and to 
 147,428 head, value £608,000 in 1857. The exportations of wines show a 
 falling of in 1857 as compared with the two previous ones, which may be taken 
 as a natural consequence of the oidium, while those of spirits show a decrease as 
 compared with 1856, but an increase as compared with the year before. The 
 quantities of wines and spirits shipped and sent abroad were 30,259,904 gallons, 
 value £8,368,000, in 1855; 31,303,739 gallons, value £10,728,000, in 1856; and 
 26,293,958, value £8,568,000, in 1857. The exportation of com rose from 9908 
 quarters in 1855 to 67,706 quarters in 1856, and to 85,781 quarters in 1857. 
 The exportations of flour during the same periods were respectively 10,078 tons, 
 8876 tons, and 14,803 tons — the real values of the grain and flour being 
 £248,000 in 1855, £304,000 in 185G, and £408,000 in 1857. The exportations 
 of cotton thread were 235 tons, value £ 28,000, in 1855; 259 tons, value £32,000, 
 in 1856; and 483 tons, value £72,000, in 1857. During the same periods the 
 exportations of linen thread were 138 tons, value £24,000; 205 tons, value 
 £36,000; and 208 tons, value £44,000; while the corresponding exportations of 
 hemp and flax were 300 tons, value £12,000; 1147 tons, value £52,000; and 
 2134 tons, value £48,000. The exportations of madder fell off in quantity but 
 increased in value, from 16,300 tons, value £584,000, in 1455, to 16,069 tons, 
 value £684,000, in 1856, and to 12,023 tons, value £616,000, in 1857. Of 
 books, engravings, and music, there were exported during the three years 1712 
 tons, value £676,000; 2046 tons, value £800,000; and 2156 tons, value 
 £756,000. Of machinery, 3425 tons, value £156,000; 3412 tons, valud 
 £176,000; 3716 tons, value £196,000. 
 
 Of furnitures, quantities to the value of £210,000, £296,000, and £332,000. 
 Of dress, £252,000, £352,000, and £312,000. The quantities of metal work of 
 all sorts exported were 10,504 tons, value .£1,948,000, in 1855, against £11,877 
 tons, value £1,636,000, in 1856; and 12,911 tons, value £1,648,000, in 1857. 
 Of paper there were sent abroad during the three years 7383 tons, value 
 £500,000; 8384 tons, value £572,000; and 8853 tons, value £600,000. Of pre- 
 
FEA 131 PEA 
 
 pared leather, 4101 tons, value £1,356,000; 4298 tons, value £1,764,000; 4467 
 tons, value £2,040,000. Of gloves and leather made up, 1825 tons, value 
 £2,060,000; 2303 tons, value £2,812,000; 2535 tons, value £3,280,000; and of 
 soap, 7524 tons, value £240,000; 7851 tons, value £268,000; 6685 tons, value 
 £228,000. The exportations of salt varied from 117,170 tons in 1855, value 
 £84,000, to 229,577 tons, value £160,000, in 1856; and then down to 147,815 
 tons, value £104,000, in 1857. The exportations of silk, raw and dyed, also 
 fluctuated from 395 tons, value £1,148,000, in 1855, to 493 tons, value 
 £1,576,000, in 1856, and to 474 tons, value £1,532,000, in 1857. Of tissues 
 (linen, woollen, silk, and cotton) there were exported during the three years 
 20,239 tons, value £24,380,000; 20,375 tons, value £29,056,000; and 20,796 
 tons, value £27,940,000. Of refined sugars, 32,263 tons, value £1,032,000; 
 35,766 tons, value £1,432,000; and 33,939 tons, value £1,304,000. Of glass, 
 29,276 tons, value £660,000; 30,490 tons, value £748,000; and 30,605 tons, 
 value £800,000. Of porcelain and pottery, 8676 tons, value £352,000; 1 1,019 
 tons, value £456,000; and 12,052 tons, value £464,000. And of various goods 
 the values exported were £17,451,000, £21,192,000, and £23,688,000. 
 
 The exportations of gold were £3,388,000 in 1856 and £4,916,000 in 1857; 
 and of silver, £15,740,000 in 1856, and £18,324,000 in 1857. 
 
 The value of the gold coin struck off under the reign of the Emperor Napoleon 
 III., up to 1859, was 3,468,265,980f =£138,730,639, and that of silver coin 
 180,085,578f.=£7,203,423; from 1793 up to 1859 the total value of the gold 
 and silver coin struck off in France was 9,711,559,942f. or £388,463,997. 
 
 The quantity of wine consumed in Paris in 1858 was 1,456,145 hectolitres in 
 casks, and 12,367 hectolitres in bottle ; of alcohol the quantity was 80,470 
 hectolitres, and of cider 20,878 hectolitres. Of meat it was 28,136,473 kilo- 
 grammes ; of sea fish, 9,222,820f. worth ; fresh water fish, l,076,154f.; oysters, 
 2,053,072f. ; poultry and game,18,315,708f.;butter,19,328,785f;eggs,9,641,744f.; 
 and fuel, 406,590,121 kilogrammes. 
 
 The table on the next page shows the extent, nature, and value of our exports 
 to France during the last six years. 
 
 A return of the Articles of Home, Colonial, and Foreign Merchandise, and their 
 Values, exported from the United Kingdom to France during the years 1854 — 
 1859, respectively; distinguishing the Produce and Manufactures of the United 
 Kingdom from those of the East Indies and Her Majesty's Colonial Possessions, 
 and of Foreign Countries:— 
 
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FEA 
 
 134 
 
 FUN 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 Aggregate exports from the United Kingdom to France, 1854—1859. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Produce and 
 
 Manufactures 
 
 of the 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 Foreign and 
 
 Colonial Produce 
 
 and 
 
 Manufactures. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 Declared Value. 
 
 Computed 
 Real Value. 
 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 £. 
 3,175,290 
 6,012,658 
 6,432,650 
 6,213,358 
 4,863,131 
 4,754,354 
 
 £. 
 3,216,175 
 4,409,223 
 4,038,427 
 5,113,465 
 4,379,070 
 4,500,504 
 
 £. 
 6,391,465 
 10,421,881 
 10,471,077 
 11,326,823 
 9,242,201 
 9,254,858 
 
 FRAUDS UPON CREDITORS.— Frauds were frequently committed upon 
 creditors by secret bills of sale of personal chattels, whereby persons were 
 enabled to keep up the appearance of being in good circumstances and possessed 
 of property, and the grantees or holders of such bill of sale had the power of taking 
 possession of the property of such persons to the exclusion of the rest of their 
 creditors. For the remedy of such collusive practices, the 17 and 18 Vict. c. 36, 
 provides that every bill of sale shall be void unless the same, or a copy thereof, 
 and of every schedule annexed, attestation of executors, together with an affida- 
 vit of the time of making, and a description of the residence and occupation of 
 the person giving the same, be filed within twenty-one days after the making of 
 such bill with the clerk of the docquets and judgments in the Court of Queen's 
 Bench, in like manner as a warrant of attorney in any personal action given by 
 a trader, is now required to be filed. 
 
 By sec. 2, in every bill of sale,if subjectto any defeasance, conditioner declara- 
 tion of trust, the same must be written on the same paper or parchment as the 
 bill of sale. Officers of Court to keep a book containing particulars of each bill 
 of sale, and a search to be permitted on the payment of 1*. 
 
 FUNDS. In the article under this head in the body of the work, the infor- 
 mation as to the progress and state of the National Debt was brought down to 
 1841, but very great alterations have taken place since that period, and I now 
 proceed to show what is the present state of the National Debt and the several 
 stocks of which it consists: — 
 
 State of the National Debt. 
 
 
 1850. 
 
 1859. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Annual 
 charge. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Annual 
 charge. 
 
 Funded Debt 
 Unfunded Debt 
 
 £. 
 
 769,272,562 
 17,756,600 
 
 £. 
 
 27,687,884 
 405,072 
 
 £. 
 
 786,801,154 
 18,277,400 
 
 £. 
 27,731,713 
 472,586 
 
 787,029,162 
 
 28,025,523 
 
 805,078,554 
 
 28,204,299 
 
 The chief additions made to the National Debt since the details given at page 
 322, have been as follows:— 
 
 In 1843, £44,897 Exchequer bills purchased and converted into stock by the 
 National Debt Commissioners, involving an annual charge of £1359. 
 
 In 1844, £15,217 of Exchequer bills purchased, by which an annual charge 
 was creat d of £461. 
 
 The Irish loan of £8,000,000 at 3 per cent, contracted in 1847, by which 
 £8,938,547 capital was added to the debt, and £270,838 annual charge. 
 
FUN 
 
 135 
 
 FUN 
 
 In 1848, £2,288,435 was raised on loan in the 3 per cents., involving an 
 annual charge of £69,339. 
 
 In 1S53, £1,683,661 was added for Exchequer bills and bonds funded, 
 creating an annual charge of £49,870; and a 3 per cent loan of £16,000,000 was 
 raised, the annuities and interest payable on which incurred an annual charge of 
 £601,670. 
 
 In 1856, Exchequer bills to £3,333,250 were funded, and the annual 
 charge thereon is £100,997. Two loans of £5,000,000 each were also raised, 
 which added £10,931,875 to the funded debt, and £331,236 to the annual 
 charge. 
 
 The loan contracted to meet the wants of the Irish in 1847 was wholly paid 
 off in five years. The addition made to the National Debt by the Russian war 
 was £36,645,987, and of this £3,536,305 has since been extinguished. But 
 taking into accoimt the subsequent increased taxation, the total cost to this 
 country of the struggle with Russia, cannot be estimated at less than 
 £70,000,000. 
 
 Amount of the Funded and Unfunded Debt of the United Kingdom, with 
 the Increase or Decrease thereof, in the various years when War or Peace 
 commenced, between 1691 and 1859. 
 
 
 
 
 Amount of Debt, and of Increase (*) 
 
 War or Peace, and its Duration. 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 or Decrease (f). 
 
 Funded. 
 
 Unfunded. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 
 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 
 1691 
 
 
 
 3,130.000 
 
 3,130,000 
 
 
 
 { 
 
 1,200 000 
 
 13,322,925 
 
 14,522,925 
 
 War, 7 years to 
 
 1697 
 
 ♦1,200,000 
 
 ♦10,192,925 
 
 ♦11,392,925 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 3,200,00G 
 
 9,567,225 
 
 12,767,225 
 
 Peace, 5 years to 
 
 1702 
 
 *2 00",000 
 
 +3.755,700 
 
 fl,755,700 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 26,078,0^5 
 
 8,621,762 
 
 34,699,847 
 
 "War, 11 years to 
 
 1713 
 
 *22,87t«,085 
 
 ♦945,463 
 
 ♦21,932,622 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 34,766,199 
 
 5,613,485 
 
 40,379,684 
 
 Peace, 5 years to 
 
 1718 
 
 •8,^88, 114 
 
 f3,008,277 
 
 ♦5,679,837 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 49,811,715 
 
 4,593,393 
 
 54,405,108 
 
 War, 3 years to 
 
 1721 
 
 •15,045.516 
 
 tl,020,092 
 
 *14,025,424 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 42,962,486 
 
 3,651,397 
 
 46,613,883 
 
 Peace, 18 years to 
 
 1739 
 
 +6, 849. 229 
 
 t94 1,996 
 
 f7,791,225 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 68,420,147 
 
 7,391,985 
 
 75,812,132 
 
 War, 9 years to 
 
 1748 
 
 •25,457,661 
 
 ♦3,740,588 
 
 ♦29,198,249 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 73,759,470 
 
 815,555 
 
 74,575,025 
 
 Peace, 8 years to 
 
 1756 
 
 \ 
 
 ♦5,339.323 
 
 f6,576,430 
 
 fl,237,107 
 
 
 
 
 129,160,193 
 
 3,555,856 
 
 132,716,049 
 
 War, 7 years to 
 
 1763 
 
 ♦55,400,723 
 
 ♦2,74<>,301 
 
 ♦58,141,024 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 124,763,009 
 
 2,399,404 
 
 127,162,413 
 
 Peace, 1 1 years to 
 
 1774 
 
 14,397,184 
 
 + 1,156,452 
 
 +5,553,636 
 
 
 
 { 
 
 212,773.347 
 
 19,070,284 
 
 231,843,631 
 
 War, 9 years to 
 
 1783 
 
 ♦88,010,338 
 
 ♦16,670,880 
 
 ♦104,681,218 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 234.034,7 K- 
 
 13,839,718 
 
 247,874,434 
 
 Peace, 10 years to 
 
 1793 
 
 ♦21,261,369 
 
 f5, 230,566 
 
 •16,030,803 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 522,231,786 
 
 15,421,222 
 
 537,653,008 
 
 War, 9 years to 
 
 1802 
 
 •288,197,070 
 
 tl,581,504 
 
 ♦289,778,574 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 528,260.642 
 
 19,472,154 
 
 547,732.796 
 
 Peace, 1 year to 
 
 1803 
 
 •6,028,856 
 
 •4,050,932 
 
 ♦10,079,788 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 816,311,941 
 
 44,727,108 
 
 861,039,049 
 
 War, 12 years to 
 
 1815 
 
 ►288.051,299 
 
 +25,254,954 
 
 ♦313,306,253 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 752,064,119 
 
 23,151,400 
 
 775,215,519 
 
 Peace, 40 years to 
 
 1854-55 
 
 f64,247,822 
 
 t21,575,708 
 
 185,823,530 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 780,119.722 
 
 27,989,000 
 
 808,108,722 
 
 War, 2 years to 
 
 1856-57 
 
 ♦28,055,603 
 
 ♦4,837 600 
 
 ♦32,893,203 
 
 Peace, 2 years to 
 
 
 \ 
 
 786,801,154 
 
 274,400 
 
 805,078,554 
 
 1858-59 
 
 ♦6,681.432 711,600 
 
 +3,030,168 
 
 The following is a brief description of the several Stocks which now constitute 
 the Public Debt:— 
 
FUN 136 PUN 
 
 Three per Cent. Consolidated Annuities. This Stock, commonly known as the 
 Three per cent. Consols, originated in 1751, when several descriptions that had 
 been previously kept separate were consolidated into one, bearing a uniform rate 
 of interest at 3 per cent, per annum. This Stock constitutes the most important 
 portion of the Public Debt. At the period of its consolidation, it amounted 
 only to £9,137,812 ; but in 1858, it stood at £400,829,812. 
 
 Reduced Three per Cent. Annuities. This Stock was formed at the same 
 period as the one just described, when it amounted only to £17,701,323. In 
 March, 1859, the amount stood at £115,104,504. 
 
 Debt due to the Bank of England. This debt consists of various sums which 
 have been borrowed by the Government from the Bank, at different periods since 
 its first establishment in 1694, when it amounted to £1,200,000. In 1859 it 
 stood at £11,015,100. 
 
 New Annuities at Three per Cent., formerly Reduced Three and a Quarter per 
 Cent. Annuities. This Stock originated in 1830 by the conversion of the New 
 4 per Cents., which had been formed in 1822 from the Navy 5 per Cents. The 
 holders had the option of receiving £100 of this Stock, or £70 of 5 per Cents., 
 or of being paid off at par. The Stock created in 3| per cents, in 1830, 
 amounted to £150,119,609, and £469,398 of the 5 per Cent. Annuities. In 
 1844 the rate of interest was reduced to 3 a per cent., and the Stock consolidated 
 with several others, amounting to £248,860,663. The amount of Stock paid to 
 dissentients was £103,352, leaving the capital Stock at £248,757,311, effecting 
 thereby a saving of interest to the amount of £621,893 per annum. In 1854 
 the rate of interest was further reduced to 3 per cent. The present rate of in- 
 terest on this Stock is not liable to any further reduction until after the 10th of 
 October, 1874. The amount of unredeemed capital in 1859, was £212,661,740. 
 
 The sum of the above Stocks comprehends the capital chargeable with the 
 uniform rate of 3 per cent, per annum interest, exclusive of Irish Stock, and 
 in 1859, stood at £739,611,156. 
 
 New Five per Cent. Annuities. This Stock originated from the conversion of 
 1830, referred to above, the holders of which were guaranteed against any 
 further reduction in the rate of interest for 45 years, or until after the 5th of 
 January, 1875. The amount of this Stock in 1859, stood at £430,604. 
 
 New Three and a-Halfper Cent. Annuities. This Stock was created in 1853, 
 and stood in 1859 only at £240,746. 
 
 New Two and a-Halfper Cent. Annuities. This Stock, also created in 1853, 
 amounted, in March, 1859, to £2,985,472. 
 
 The Irish Funds. The total amount of the Irish Funded Debt is about 
 £43,000,000, and is made up of the following Stocks: — 
 
 1. The New Annuities at Two and a-Halfper Cent., amounting to £30S0. 
 
 2. The Consolidated Three per Cent. Annuities, which amounted to £6,373,044 
 in March, 1859. 
 
 3. The Reduced TJireeper Cent. Annuities, amounting to £122,607. 
 
 4. The New Annuities at Three per Cent., formerly Three and a Quarter per 
 Cent. Annuities, amounting to £33,98,3,376. 
 
 5. Debt due to the Bank of Ireland, amounting to £2,630,769 at 3£ per cent, 
 interest. 
 
 6. The New Five per Cent. Annuities, amounting to £2000. 
 
 The total of the above Stocks on the 5th January, 1858, was £43,114,876. 
 
 That portion of the National Debt which consists of terminable Annuities of 
 various descriptions, is not included in the statements of the principal Stocks, 
 but is given in the annual charge. Amongst these are the following: — 
 
 Long Annuities, which originated in 1780, and subsequently received several 
 additions, but all terminated in January, 1860. They were principally granted 
 as premiums or bonuses to the subscribers "to loans. In 1858, the amount was 
 £1,157,710 for Great Britain, and £135,357 for Ireland. By their expiry in 
 1860, a yearly saving ensued of £1,599,500. 
 
 Annuitiesfor Terms of Tears. These Annuities have been granted at various 
 
FUJN 137 FUE 
 
 dates, and expire at different periods: they are created under the 59 Geo. III., 
 cap. 34; the 10 Geo. IV., cap. 24; and the 3 Will. IV., cap. 14, in exchange 
 for Stock or money transferred to the Commissioners for the reduction of the 
 National Debt. The amount in 1859 was .£930,423. Annuities to the amount 
 of £306,000 per annum ceased in October, 1859. The terminable Annuities 
 valued by estimate by Mr. Finlaison in 1859 amounted to £3,363,757. 
 
 Life Annuities. These Annuities were created under the Acts 48 Geo. HI. 
 cap. 142, the 10 Geo. IV., cap. 24, 3 Will. IV., cap. 14, and 16 and 17 Vict., 
 cap. 45, and are payable at the National Debt Office, Old Jewry. The 
 Commissioners grant annuities in exchange for Stock or Money, on single or 
 joint lives, according to the age of the respective parties, at rates set forth in the 
 last-mentioned act. 
 
 In 1829, Mr. Finlaison, the Government Actuary, found that the Tables, which 
 had been used in calculating these Annuities, occasioned an annual loss to the 
 public of about £100,000, owing to the improved value of human life ; the con- 
 sequence was, the introduction of the Tables now in use. The amount of these 
 Annuities chargeable upon the public revenue, on the 31st of March, 1859, was 
 £1,098,499. 
 
 The Dead Weight Annuity. This is an Annuity of £585,740, paid by the 
 public to the Bank of England, and arose out of the pensions due to the Army 
 and Navy, at the termination of the war in 1815, which then amounted to nearly 
 £5,000,000 per annum. It was estimated that the whole of these pensions 
 would terminate in forty- five years, by a gradual decrease annually. By the 
 Act 4 Geo. IV., cap. 22, an annuity was authorized to be contracted for the 
 amount of £2,800,000. The Bank of England agreed to take a part of this 
 Annuity, to the amount £585,740 per annum, for which they paid between 1823 
 and 1828 inclusive, £13,089,419. The Annuity expires in 1867. 
 
 The remainder of the Government Annuities consist of tontines and life annui- 
 ties, amounting to £5523, granted under various Acts of Parliament. 
 
 In addition to the several Stocks which have been thus briefly described, are 
 two others, which, though they do not come under the denomination of the Go- 
 vernment Securities, are ranked amongst the principal Stocks in which investments 
 are made; of these, the first is — 
 
 Bank Stock, the capital of the Corporation of the Bank of England, as a 
 banking company, the origin of which is given elsewhere, amounts to the sum of 
 £14,553,000. The dividends payable on this Stock, during the last seven years, 
 have ranged between 7 and 9 per cent, per annum. 
 
 East India Stock. The Capital Stock of this Corporation amounts to 
 £6,000,000 sterling. The Company obtained their original charter in the same 
 manner as the Bank of England, viz., by a loan to the extent of £2,000,000 to 
 the Government, which has increased at different times to its present amount. 
 The Corporation ceased to be a commercial company under the 3 and 4 Will. 
 IV., cap. 85, and only act as a political body in connexion with Government. 
 The dividend is fixed at \0\ per cent, on the Capital Stock, or £630,000 per 
 annum, which is paid out of the revenues of India. 
 
 East India Bonds. These securities were issued by the East India Company, 
 as security for debt due to the public, in sums of £100, £200, £300, £500, and 
 £1000 each, and payable to the Company at par, when 6 months' interest has 
 accrued upon them, which is computed up to the day they are negociated, and is 
 payable on the 31st March and the 30th September. £2,905,000 of a 4 per 
 cent, debenture loan was issued in London in 1857, under the Act 21 Vict., 
 cap. 3. 
 
 The number of fund holders does not vary to any very great extent, the average 
 number in the five years ending 1859, was 267,890 persons. In 1859, of the 
 266,719 persons entitled to dividends there were 93,296 for dividends under 
 £5; 44,020 under £10; 86,312 not exceeding £50; 22,863, £100; 12,668, 
 j£ J 200; 3627 under £300; 2364 under £500; 1168 under £1000; 375 under 
 £2000, and only 223 who drew dividends exceeding that amount. 
 
 FURS —In cold countries furs and garments of skin are more appreciated 
 
FCJR 
 
 138 
 
 FUR 
 
 than with us, the sheep or lamh-skin jacket, the seal-skin garments, the buffalo 
 robes or bear- skins for sledge use or for wrappers, otter caps, mitts and gaunt- 
 lets, victorines, cuffs, muffs and boas, become essential articles of dress. 
 
 The destruction of wild animals by the hunter is enormous in the prairies 
 and wilds of North and South America, the steppes of Russia and Siberia, the 
 jungles of India, and the deserts of Africa. Several ships almost entirely 
 freighted with furs from the Hudson's Bay Company's vast hunting-grounds in 
 Arctic America arrive each season, and an inspection of their stores before their 
 periodical sales in December, January and March, is such a sight as is not often 
 to be witnessed. 
 
 It is difficult to calculate the exact extent or value of the fur trade ; but eight 
 or ten years ago it was estimated that the fur trade of the world amounted to 
 about £7,000,000 sterling in value, of which Russia supplied one-third. 
 
 We imported in 1855 about 4,000,000 skins of wild animals ; of these, 
 2,750,000 were of the smaller animals of the weasel, fisher or marten, and cat 
 tribe, the musquash, nutria, rabbit, squirrel, &c. ; 600,000 were seal-skins, and 
 nearly 400,000 were racoon-skins. 
 
 In 1856 the skins imported numbered about 3,500,000 ; of these nearly one- 
 half were re-exported. The extent of the foreign trade in skins and furs is 
 shown by the figures for 1856 ; and from these it appears that we exported over 
 five millons of skins, of which the declared value was £320,000 ; of these, 
 2,382,036 were sheep-skins, undressed, without the wool, and about 1,400,000 
 hare and rabbit-skins, obtained in the United Kingdom. 
 
 Furs have been at all times prized in China as objects of comfort and luxury. 
 In the northern provinces they are used as defences against cold; while through- 
 out the empire they constitute an important part of the dress of every rich noble 
 or ostentatious person. With the least change of air the Chinese immediately 
 alter their dress ; and even at Canton, which is under the tropic, they wear furs 
 in the winter. The first cargo taken to China by sea was in 1779, in Cook's 
 ship, after he had been killed, and they realized £2000. 
 
 In Siberia, sables, martens, stoats, foxes, squirrels and ermines are tracked 
 and trapped by the hunters for their furs. As a general rule, the furs of the 
 eastern are of a better quality than those in the western provinces ; but the 
 ermines near the rivers Irtish, Oby, and Ishim form an exception, being of three 
 times the value of those found beyond the river Lena. Skins are disposed of in 
 Yakoutsk to the value, annually, of £300,000 or £400,000 sterling ; and furs of 
 more than twice that value are sold in a single town bordering on Chinese 
 Tartary. 
 
 The following return illustrates the extent of our foreign supplies and com- 
 merce in Furs : — 
 
 An Account of the Number of Furs imported into the United King- 
 dom in 1856, distinguishing the countries whence imported, and the total 
 
 number of each exported in the same year. 
 
 Badger, undressed : 
 
 
 
 Beaver, undressed: 
 
 
 
 Quantities imported — 
 
 
 Number. 
 
 Quantities imported — 
 
 
 Number. 
 
 From Russia 
 
 
 1,810 
 
 From Hanse Towns 
 
 ^ , 
 
 3,255 
 
 Hanse Towns . 
 
 . 
 
 2,412 
 
 United States . 
 
 
 9,541 
 
 British North America 
 
 997 
 
 British North America 
 
 70,012 
 
 Other parts 
 
 • 
 
 43 
 
 Other parts 
 
 • 
 
 30 
 82,838 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 • 
 
 5,262 
 891 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 Cat, undressed : 
 
 r 
 
 67,273 
 
 Bear, undressed: 
 
 
 
 Quantities imported— 
 
 
 
 Quantities imported— 
 
 
 
 From Hanse Towns . 
 
 ~ 
 
 25,020 
 
 From Hanse Towns . 
 
 I 
 
 263 
 
 Holland . 
 
 
 1,032 
 
 United States . 
 
 
 2,170 
 
 Belgium . 
 
 
 2,350 
 
 British North America 
 
 9,175 
 
 United States . 
 
 
 3,360 
 
 Other parts 
 
 , 
 
 262 
 
 British North America 
 
 360 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 Other parts 
 
 . , 
 
 16 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 « 
 
 11,870 
 9,157 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 
 32,138 
 7,625 
 
FUR 
 
 Chinchilla, undressed: 
 Quantities imported — 
 From Hanse Towns 
 St. Thomas 
 New Granada 
 Buenos Ayres 
 Chili 
 Peru. 
 
 Quantities re-exported . 
 
 Coney, undressed: 
 Quantities imported — 
 From Hanse Towns 
 France . 
 
 British North America 
 Other parts . 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 Deer, undressed : 
 Quantities imported— 
 From United States 
 
 British East Indies 
 British North America 
 Other parts . 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 Deer, Indian, half dressed : 
 Quantities imported— 
 
 From British East Indies 
 Quantities re-exported . 
 
 Deer. Indian, tanned, tawed, or 
 dressed : 
 Quantities imported— 
 
 From British East Indies . 
 British North America 
 Other parts 
 
 Quantities re-exported , 
 
 Ermine, undressed : 
 Quantities imported— 
 From Hanse Towns . 
 United States . 
 British North America 
 Other parts 
 
 Quantities re-exported . • 
 
 Ermine, dressed: 
 Quantities imported 
 
 From Hanse Towns . . 
 Quantities re-exported . 
 
 Fisher, undressed: 
 Quantities imported — 
 From United States . 
 
 British North America 
 Other parts . , 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 139 
 
 FUR 
 
 Number. 
 
 1,500 
 
 5,000 
 
 12,900 
 
 8,469 
 
 26,067 
 
 32,678 
 
 86,614 
 28,731 
 
 55,640 
 
 14,382 
 
 70,733 
 
 1,530 
 
 142,285 
 24,150 
 
 50.900 
 
 19,359 
 
 1,929 
 
 1,731 
 
 73,919 
 31,852 
 
 1,500 
 
 9,140 
 366 
 207 
 
 9,713 
 6,823 
 
 93,249 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,854 
 
 420 
 
 96,523 
 1,920 
 
 1,300 
 4 
 
 3,495 
 14,647 
 
 18,150 
 4,796 
 
 Fitch, undressed: 
 
 Quantities imported— Number. 
 
 From Russia .... 5,000 
 
 Hanse Towns . . 140,667 
 
 Belgium .... 7,088 
 
 Other parts . , . 200 
 
 Quantities re-exported . ' 
 
 Fox, undressed : 
 Quantities imported— 
 From Hanse Towns 
 United States . 
 British North America 
 Other parts . 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 Fox Tails, .undressed: 
 Quantities imported— 
 From Hanse Towns . 
 
 15S,955 
 
 1,588 
 
 44,126 
 
 35,598 
 
 175 
 
 81,487 
 79,063 
 
 2,630 
 
 Hare, undressed : 
 
 
 
 
 Quantities imported 
 
 
 
 
 From Sweden . . 
 
 
 
 5,911 
 
 Denmark , ; 
 
 . 
 
 
 41,010 
 
 Prussia . . 
 
 . 
 
 
 36,500 
 
 Hanover . 
 
 . 
 
 
 68,000 
 
 Hanse Towns . 
 
 , 
 
 
 107,425 
 
 Other parts . 
 
 • 
 
 
 2,939 
 261,785 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 8,600 
 
 Kangaroo, undressed: 
 
 
 
 
 Quantities imported — 
 
 
 
 
 From Fernando Po 
 
 I 
 
 . 
 
 586 
 
 Vest Coast of Africa . 
 
 
 500 
 
 British Possessions 
 
 on 
 
 the 
 
 
 Gold Coast . 
 
 . 
 
 
 2,420 
 
 British Settlements in Aus- 
 
 
 tralia 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 Kolinski, undressed : 
 Quantities imported— 
 From' Russia 
 
 Denmark , 
 
 Hanse Towns . 
 
 Leopard, undressed : 
 Quantities imported— 
 From British Possessions in 
 South Africa 
 British East Indies . 
 Other parts 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 Lion, undressed : 
 Quantities imported — 
 From Spain . . '• 
 Other parts . 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 3,565 
 54 
 
 5,360 
 11,145 
 56,244 
 
 72,749 
 
 120 
 24 
 
 144 
 
 20 
 
FUR 
 
 140 
 
 PUR 
 
 Lynx, undressed : 
 Quantities imported — 
 From United States 
 
 British North America 
 Other parts . . 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 Marten, undressed : 
 Quantities imported— 
 From Hanse Towns . 
 France 
 United States 
 British North America 
 Other parts 
 
 Quantities re-exported • 
 
 Marten tails, undressed: 
 Quantities imported — 
 From Hanse Towns . . 
 France . . . 
 Other parts • 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 Minx, undressed : 
 Quantities imported — ' 
 From Hanse Towns . . 
 United States . 
 British North America 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 Minx, dressed : 
 Quantities imported — 
 From France . 
 United States 
 
 Quantities re-exported . 
 
 Musquash, undressed : 
 Quantities imported — 
 From Hanse Towns . « 
 United States . 
 British North America 
 Other parts 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 Nutria, undressed : 
 .Quantities imported— 
 From Uruguay . 
 
 Buenos Ayres . 
 Other parts 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 Otter, undressed : 
 Quantities imported— 
 From Hanse Towns . 
 United States . 
 British North America 
 Other parts 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 Panther (the puma), undressed: 
 
 Number. 
 
 Quantities imported— 
 
 
 Number. 
 
 1,501 
 
 From British North America 
 
 13 
 
 . 14,182 
 5 
 
 Other parts 
 
 • 
 
 3 
 
 15,688 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 7,059 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Racoon, undressed:' 
 Quantities imported— 
 
 
 
 
 From Hanse Towns . 
 
 . 
 
 . 10,378 
 
 . 13,469 
 
 United States . 
 
 . 
 
 . 481,713 
 
 3,100 
 
 Other parts 
 
 . 
 
 6,030 
 
 9,809 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 . 180,247 
 
 
 
 498,121 
 
 152 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 . 
 
 • 380,870 
 
 206,777 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 46,367 
 
 Sable, undressed : 
 
 
 
 ~~ ~~ 
 
 Quantities imported — 
 
 
 
 
 From United States 
 
 , 
 
 844 
 
 . 40,230 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 . 
 
 1,675 
 
 . 11,920 
 
 
 
 
 
 8,600 
 
 Seal, in the hair, not tanned 
 
 tawed. 
 
 i- ■ 
 
 or dressed : 
 
 
 
 60,750 
 
 Quantities imported — 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 From Russia 
 
 
 8,883 
 
 .— — _ 
 
 Norway . 
 
 . 
 
 . 18,280 
 
 
 Denmark . 
 
 . 
 
 . 23,240 
 
 
 Hanse Towns . 
 
 , 
 
 . 41,339 
 
 . 4,710 
 . 48,741 
 . 59,015 
 
 Holland . 
 United States . 
 
 • 
 
 . 65,149 
 . 41,364 
 
 Uruguay . 17,032 
 Greenland and Davis' Straits 87.053 
 
 
 British North America 
 
 . 371,275 
 
 112,466 
 . 46,171 
 
 Other parts 
 
 • 
 
 7,619 
 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 
 681,234 
 3,695 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 ~ — 
 
 80 
 
 Squirrel or Calabar, undressed : 
 
 
 
 
 Quantities imported— 
 
 
 
 580 
 
 From Russia 
 
 
 . 400,000 
 
 578 
 
 Hanse Towns 
 
 
 1,778,691 
 
 
 Other parts 
 
 
 . 10,046 
 
 23,650 
 
 838,758 
 
 327,500 
 
 522 
 
 1,190,430 
 , 529,664 
 
 21,400 
 
 150,243 
 
 4,178 
 
 175,821 
 8,949 
 
 2,514 
 
 2,198 
 
 15,111 
 
 107 
 
 19,930 
 16,464 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 Squirrel or Calabar, tawed: 
 Quantities imported— 
 From Hanse Towns . 
 Other parts 
 
 2,188,737 
 1,529 
 
 1,012 
 2 
 
 1,014 
 
 Squirrel or Calabar tails, undressed 
 (entered at value) : 
 Value of quantities imported— Value. 
 
 From Hanse Towns . . . £4,112 
 Other parts . . . 1,208 
 
 Value of quantities re-exported . '925 
 
 Swan, undressed: 
 
 Quantities imported— Number. 
 
 From Holland • . . . . 1,771 
 
 British North America . 646 
 
 Other parts ... 1 
 
 2,8 
 
FUR 
 
 141 
 
 FUR 
 
 Ticrer, undressed: 
 
 
 
 Wolf, undressed: 
 
 
 (Quantities imported— 
 
 Number. 
 
 Quantities imported— 
 
 Number. 
 
 From West Coast of Africa 
 
 
 18 
 
 From Hanse Towns 
 
 260 
 
 British Possessions in 
 
 South 
 
 
 United States 
 
 78 
 
 Africa . 
 
 
 33 
 
 British North America 
 
 9,647 
 
 British East Indies . 
 
 
 166 
 
 
 
 
 Other parts 
 
 • 
 
 27 
 
 
 9,885 
 
 
 
 244 
 
 Quantities re-exported . 
 
 336 
 
 Quantities re-exported . . 
 
 * 
 
 21 
 
 Wolverines, undressed : 
 
 Quantities imported — 
 
 From United States 
 
 British North America 
 
 2 
 
 1,065 
 
 Weasel, undressed: 
 Quantities imported— 
 From British North America 
 
 94 
 
 Quantities re-exported 
 
 1,067 
 
 Declared 
 
 Foreign Skins (British dressed), 
 
 Declared 
 
 Value. 
 
 exported in the year 1856 : 
 
 Value. 
 
 £ 
 
 Goat and Kid, 177,311 
 
 .£14,713 
 
 . 25,134 
 
 Musquash, 738,137 
 
 . 43,945 
 
 . 21,919 
 
 Nutria, 1,200 
 
 152 
 
 
 Seal, 69,040 
 
 . 35,405 
 
 . 1,337 
 
 Squirrel, 172,880 
 
 Other kinds, not distinguished 
 
 . 5,800 
 
 . 116,550 
 
 in the entries . . 
 Total Number, 4,836,454 . 
 
 . 52,560 
 
 2,579 
 
 £320,044 
 
 An Account of the Number and declared Value of Skins exported in the 
 Year 1^56, distinguishing those of the produce of the United Kingdom from 
 Foreign Skins dressed or otherwise prepared in this country. 
 
 British Skins exported in the 
 year 1856: 
 Calf, undressed, 12,194 dozen 
 Coney and Hares, 1,381,298 
 Sheep, dressed in the wool, 
 
 358 cwt .... 
 undressed, without the 
 
 wool, 2,382,036 
 Other kinds, not distinguished 
 
 in the entries 
 
 The vast territories of the Hudson's Bay Company, forming great hunting 
 grounds for fur-bearing animals, furnish the largest quantity of furs used in 
 trade. Russia is next in importance, but it has a different race of animals. The 
 fur produce of the United States and of Canada is also considerable. 
 
 The average annual value of the peltries exported from America by the 
 Hudson's Bay Company between 1827 and 1833 amounted, according to Mr. 
 McGregor, to £210,000, of which possibly one- sixth part was received from the 
 territories west of the Rocky Mountains. Mr. Wyeth estimated the amount of 
 the furs derived from those territories by the Company in 1836 at about £28,000 
 London price, for which is given about £4000 worth"(prime cost of goods), the 
 services of 350 men, employed in various parts of the business, shipping to bring 
 supplies and take back returns, and two years' interest on the investments. 
 
 Mr. Alex. Simpson estimates the entire value of the furs and other articles 
 traded by the Company from the Indians, in all its territories and possessions, at 
 rather less than £200,000 per annum ; but, he adds, that in the year when 
 they reached £211,000, the net profits were declared at £119,000. The average 
 profit on £200,000 is said to be £110,000. The entire stock-in-trade of the 
 Company is not more than £400,000. The shares which were originally worth 
 £100 each, are now worth £225. 
 
 The average value of the annual export c f furs by the Hudson's Bay Com- 
 panv of late years has been about £360,000. At their half-yearly sale in April, 
 1857, the proceeds were £230,000. 
 
 A large proportion of furs used in America and elsewhere, are cured and 
 dressed in London ; and although England does not use expensive furs, yet 
 London is the great fur mart of the world. 
 
 The ermine is considered the most precious, and next to that the Russian 
 sable ; but the real sables are rare, for according to our latest Russian statistics, 
 only 55,000 skins of the beautiful little animal were produced during an entire 
 year in the Czar's empire. The prices paid for them are almost fabulous, a fine 
 set being worth £400. The sable fur lining of one of the Emperor's cloaks, 
 shown ta the Exhibition in 1851 ; was valued at £1000. Next to the salle 
 

 FUR, 
 
 142 
 
 FUR 
 
 in popularity and costliness, ranks the marten or American sable— a fur rich 
 and high-priced, and so fashionable as to be almost universally sought for. The 
 Hudson Bay sables are next in value, and are almost as expensive as the Rus- 
 sian. Next is the mink, pre-eminent for beauty, wear and durability. It is 
 not, perhaps, so delicate looking as the stone mai-ten, or so artful looking as the 
 African monkey, or so captivating as the ermine ; but is quite as graceful and 
 more thrifty than them all. Besides the mink, the stone marten, the fitch, the 
 Siberian squirrel, and the Persian and Russian lamb, are in daily use. The 
 skin of the black bear forms the most magnificent sleigh robes — a good turn-out 
 of which, including robe and apron, costs upwards of £20. The Canadian furs 
 most esteemed in Europe, and of which they have no representatives, are the 
 black fox and the silver fox. These are found only in the Hudson's Bay Ter- 
 ritory, or on the north shore of the St. Lawrence. The racoon and the musk- 
 rat are also confined exclusively to the American continent. In England 
 valuable furs are but little worn — the climate not requiring the lengthened wear 
 of furs at any one time. The musquash, the rabbit, and the American hare, 
 dyed, form therefore the bulk of the furs worn here. 
 
 The aggregate value of furs exported from St. Paul, Minnesota, in 1858, was 
 £32,204 ; in 1857, £36,500 ; and in 1856, £19,350. The apparent decrease 
 in 1 858 was not in quantity, but occasioned by the decreased value of the furs. 
 St. Paul is becoming a great depot and outlet for the fur trade. Prior to 1844 
 the entire fur product of the Red River valley, North and South of the British 
 boundary, was collected by the agents of the Hudson's Bay Company, and sought 
 the seaboard through Nelson's River and Hudson's Bay. In 1844 an effort 
 was made from St. Paul to get the furs of the Red River Valley. The first year 
 only £300 worth came that way; in 1856 the value amounted to £15,000. 
 From Pembina, in 1857, there were received at St. Paul £24,000 worth of furs. 
 In 1858, owing to a failure and scarcity in the " buffalo crop," the amount was 
 considerably less from that source. 
 
 The large overland traffic which has sprung up between St. Paul and the Red 
 River demands new facilities of communication. The immense annual caravans 
 which come from these settlements laden with the products of the chase, and 
 returning with the proceeds of their barter, is an interesting characteristic of 
 trade. In 1 858 the aggregate arrivals of the Red River carts, those ships of 
 the wilderness, is stated at six hundred. In 1844 the whole product of that 
 region which sought American channels, was conveyed in six carts. 
 
 The superiority of the outlet at St. Paul for the Red River region over the mul- 
 titudinous portages of Nelson's River, has been abundantly proved. Establish a 
 railroad communication with the Red River valley, and the whole trade of the 
 Hudson's Bay Company would seek the avenue of exportation through St. Paul. 
 The annual export of furs from the basin of the Winnipeg, directly tributary 
 to St. Paul, is about £200,000. 
 
 Value of the Skins and 'Funs imported and exported from the 
 United States. 
 
 
 
 Exports, 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Produce of the United 
 States. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1849 
 
 120,300 
 
 131,245 
 
 1850 * 
 
 203,000 
 
 170,500 
 
 1851 
 
 197,630 
 
 195,552 
 
 1852 
 
 230,215 
 
 159,701 
 
 1853 
 
 346,704 
 
 159,220 
 
 1854 
 
 252,444 
 
 177,706 
 
 1855 
 
 302,247 
 
 141,906 
 
 1856 
 
 524,087 
 
 190,490 
 
 1857 
 
 471,108 
 
 223,210 
 
 1858 
 
 290,443 
 
 200,477 
 
FUE 143 FUR 
 
 Bears are found in considerable numbers in the Minnesota Territory and other 
 parts of the new settled States of America, also in small numbers in Canada and 
 the Lower Provinces, but they are constantly diminishing before the progress 
 of civilization. The black bear is by far the most numerous, but few of the 
 grizly species being found. An average skin is worth five dollars — a very good 
 one (she-bear), from six to seven. They are principally used for saddle hous- 
 ings and harness trimmings, and sometimes for sleigh robes. Their hides are 
 best when just issuing from their winter's sleep ; and at that season the Indians 
 are reaping their bear harvest. 
 
 Two or three thousand bear-skins are annually imported by the Hudson's 
 Bay Company, and as many more from the United States and Canada, &c. 
 
 The buffalo is the monarch of the peltry tribe in the " Far West " of North 
 America. Immense herds of these animals range the vast prairies extending 
 from the Mississippi to the Missouri. The luxurious meadows furnish them 
 with abundant subsistence the year round. They are not met with till you 
 advance some two or three hundred miles west of the Mississippi, to the head 
 waters of the Missouri or its tributaries. Incredible numbers, amounting, as 
 was estimated, to several hundred thousand in a drove, were seen by Governor 
 Stevens and his party in the summer of 1853, on his survey of the Northern 
 Pacific Railroad route. Two days were required to pass some droves, from 
 which it may be inferred that they were from forty to fifty miles in length, ex- 
 tending on cither side as far as the eye could reach. Some of the mules and 
 horses getting mingled in the droves, it was found impossible to retake them, 
 and they were lost. 
 
 The skins dressed in the Indian fashion with the hair on, and termed buffalo 
 robes, make admirable defences against the cold, as blankets, sleigh wrappers, &c 
 
 The average price of buffalo robes in the Minnesota Territory is about four 
 dollars wholesale, and seven or eight retail Very large black robes sometimes 
 bring as high as ten dollars cash. 
 
 The number of buffaloes annually slaughtered on the Missouri plains is esti- 
 mated at 400,000. 150,000 buffalo robes are received at various fur stations, 
 and 100,000 buffaloes are supposed to be killed by the Indians merely to obtain 
 their skins for tent coverings. Of the remaining 150,000, some are diverted to 
 the use of blankets, saddles, skin boots, &c, a large number also freeze or 
 starve to death in winter in the snow banks, which for months are found in 
 drifts of from five to ten feet in depth, and many of them are drowned in 
 crossing the Missouri river in large herds, by crowding one upon another. 
 These hides are, of course, lost. In a very few years the buffalo will be extinct, 
 for they are now slaughtered with a recklessness that destroys as if they were 
 inexhaustible and innumerable. 
 
 One steamer brought down in 1853 to St. Louis, from the Kansas river, 4000 
 packs of buffalo robes, valued at £32,000. 
 
 The average annual return of the buffalo robes purchased during the last eight 
 or ten years is as follows : 
 
 Robes. 
 American Fur Company . ; 70.000 
 
 Hudson's Bay Company . , 10,000 
 
 All other Companies . . 10,000 
 
 90,000 
 
 In the north-west the Hudson Bay Company purchase from the Indians but a 
 very small number; their only market being Canada, to which the cost of trans- 
 portation nearly equals the produce of the furs; and it is only within a very 
 recent period that they have received buffalo robes in trade. Out of the great 
 number of buffalos annually killed throughout the extensive regions inhabited by 
 the Camanches and other kindred tribes, no robes whatever are furnished for 
 trade. During only four months of the year (from November until March) are 
 the skins good for dressing; those obtained in the remaining eight months being 
 valueless for traders; and the hides of bulls are never taken off or dressed as 
 
FUE 
 
 144 
 
 FUR 
 
 robes at any season. Probably not more than one-third of the skins are taken 
 from the animals killed, even when they are in good season, the labour of prepar- 
 ing and dressing the robes being very great, and it is seldom that a lodge trades 
 more than tAventy skins in a year. It is during the summer months and in the 
 early part of autumn that the greatest number of buffalos are killed, and yet at 
 this time a skin is never taken off for the purposes of trade. 
 
 It appears by an official report that the whole number of animals killed by the 
 hunting tribes in 1854, 1855, and 1856, was as follows: Bears, 4733; beavers, 
 11,497; black muskrats, 110,941; cross foxes, 1650; deer, 59,928; elk, 16; fawn, 
 5069; fisher, 6078; grey fox, 32,985; red fox, 5088; lynx, 1230; marten, 21,522; 
 mink, 306,086; musquash, 2,472,381; opossum, 65,329; otter, 8596; racoon, 
 1,134,301 ; silver fox, 333; sable, 320; silver grey rabbit, 2095, and sea otter, 362. 
 
 The following is a return of the yearly importations of furs by the Hudson's 
 Bay Company from their possessions about Hudson's Bay, in the past four years. 
 The aggregate number of skins would seem to be declining, but it is chiefly in 
 the more common kinds of peltries, for the higher priced ones, such as the foxes, 
 otter, bears, wolf and wolverine, racoon, &c, are still obtained in large quantities: 
 
 Skins. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1857. 
 
 1858. 
 
 1859. 
 
 Beaver 
 
 61,789 
 
 67,613 
 
 72,241 
 
 68,299 
 
 Badger 
 
 785 
 
 1,090 
 
 1,285 
 
 1,503 
 
 Bear 
 
 3,803 
 
 3,199 
 
 3,566 
 
 3,G52 
 
 Fisher 
 
 4,885 
 
 4,886 
 
 5,189 
 
 5,750 
 
 Fox, Silver 
 
 807 
 
 826 
 
 894 
 
 946 
 
 „ Cross 
 
 2,686 
 
 2,718 
 
 3,307 
 
 3,176 
 
 „ Red 
 
 9,749 
 
 8,851 
 
 10,295 
 
 10,277 
 
 „ White 
 
 1,715 
 
 2,158 
 
 1,542 
 
 1,920 
 
 „ Kit 
 
 5,668 
 
 9,811 
 
 5,546 
 
 4,566 
 
 Lynx 
 
 18,907 
 
 20,794 
 
 28,102 
 
 21,549 
 
 Marten 
 
 144,461 
 
 110,843 
 
 108,752 
 
 86,248 
 
 Mink 
 
 40,378 
 
 43,318 
 
 40,336 
 
 33,895 
 
 Musquash 
 
 280,543 
 
 291,112 
 
 219,829 
 
 170,893 
 
 Otter 
 
 8,984 
 
 9,822 
 
 9,968 
 
 8,641 
 
 Rabbit 
 
 70,685 
 
 60,929 
 
 54,516 
 
 42,362 
 
 Racoon 
 
 301 
 
 187 
 
 85 
 
 154 
 
 Seal, Hair 
 
 288 
 
 588 
 
 498 
 
 25 
 
 Skunk 
 
 7,728 
 
 8,124 
 
 8,460 
 
 9,141 
 
 Swan 
 
 646 
 
 775 
 
 829 
 
 840 
 
 Wolf 
 
 8,786 
 
 6,789 
 
 12,007 
 
 8,153 
 
 Wolverine 
 
 649 
 
 643 
 
 697 
 
 900 
 
 677,243 
 
 660,086 
 
 587,944 
 
 482,890 
 
 The Company's importation from the North-west coast of America has to be 
 added to the foregoing, and comprised in the last two years the following 
 number of skins : 
 
 Skins, 
 
 1858. 
 
 1859. 
 
 Skins. 
 
 1858. 
 
 1859. 
 
 Beaver 
 
 17,468 
 
 20,015 
 
 Brought up 
 
 57,472 
 
 54,G12 
 
 Badger 
 
 84 
 
 64 
 
 Musquash 
 
 14,129 
 
 5,251 
 
 Bear 
 
 4,677 
 
 3,951 
 
 Otter 
 
 2,506 
 
 2,267 
 
 Deer 
 
 1,837 
 
 2,689 
 
 Sea Otter 
 
 301 
 
 147 
 
 Fisher 
 
 933 
 
 1,341 
 
 „ Pups - 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 Fox, Silver 
 
 194 
 
 171 
 
 Tails - 
 
 186 
 
 40 
 
 „ Cross 
 
 568 
 
 559 
 
 Rabbit 
 
 41,018 
 
 2,210 
 
 „ Red 
 
 607 
 
 518 
 
 Racoon 
 
 1,902 
 
 2,296 
 
 Lynx and Cat 
 
 4,889 
 
 1,815 
 
 Seal, Hair 
 
 12,892 
 
 10,423 
 
 Marten 
 
 26,217 
 
 12,150 
 
 Wolf 
 
 785 
 
 406 
 
 Mink 
 
 Carried up 
 
 30,482 
 
 11,339 
 
 Wolverine 
 
 4J0 
 102,125 
 
 468 
 
 57,472 
 
 54,612 
 
 Total - 
 
 78,144 
 
GAS 145 GLA 
 
 GAS CO MP ANTES. —In the United Kingdom 991 cities and towns are fur- 
 nished with gas. Of these 95 are supplied by municipal corporations or private 
 individuals, and 896 by trading companies. In Scotland 149 towns are lighted 
 without, and eight with special Acts of Parliament. In Ireland 52 towns are 
 lighted without, and four towns with special Acts of Parliament. In England 
 533 towns are lighted without, and 150 with Acts of Parliament. The sum ex- 
 pended by the 839 gas companies in England, Ireland, and Scotland amounts to 
 £25,041,309, and by the private individuals and corporations on the remaining 
 95 gas works to £2,114,595, being a total of £27,155,814. A ton of English 
 gas coal will yield 9000 cubic feet of gas, 14 cwt. of coke, 10 gallons of tar, and 
 1 gallons of ammoniacal liquor, while the light from each ton is equal to 
 420 lbs. of sperm candles. A ton of Scotch cannel coal will yield 11,500 cubic feet 
 of gas, 10 cwt. of coke, 14 gallons of tar, and 14 gallons of ammoniacal hquor, 
 while the light is equal to 820 sperm candles; and a ton of Boghead cannel (the 
 Torbane mineral) will give, when manufactured into gas, light equal to 1950 lbs. 
 of sperm candles. The quantity of gas manufactured annually exceeds twenty- 
 five thousand millions of cubic feet. 
 
 In London alone 500,000 tons of coal are used by 1 5 companies, producing 
 4500 million cubic feet of gas, and 500,000 chaldrons of coke. 
 
 GENEVA.— The quantity of this spirit consumed in England is not large, 
 and varies but little from year to year. A good deal, however, comes here for 
 shipment abroad. The following figures give the imports and consumption for 
 the last seven vears: — 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Taken for Consumption. 
 
 
 Proof Gallons. 
 
 Proof Gallons. 
 
 1853 
 
 288,520 
 
 27,991 
 
 1854 
 
 184,157 
 
 25,765 
 
 1855 
 
 219,041 
 
 25.241 
 
 1856 
 
 195,895 
 
 27,312 
 
 1S57 
 
 178,041 
 
 25,929 
 
 1858 
 
 130.173 
 
 26.255 
 
 1859 
 
 147,950 
 
 28,890 
 
 GLASS. — The aggregate manufacture of crown and sheet glass in 1830 was 
 about 12,000 tons, valued at £250,000; of plate glass, 1,750,000 superficial 
 feet, weighing about 2300 tons, valued at £280,000, and of rough glass, 
 400,000 feet, 1000 tons, worth £20,000. Of flint glass, 20,000 tons, valued at 
 £1,000,000, and of bottle glass, 23,000 tons, worth £150,000: in all, £1,680,000. 
 In that year there were 43 glass bottle works in the kingdom, with 87 furnaces 
 and 64 flint-glass works, and 1 8 crown and sheet glass works, and 6 plate-glass 
 works. 
 
 In 1845 the excise duty on glass, which yieUed £600,000, or £700,000, to 
 Government, was given up, and since the remission of the duty the home use of 
 glass and the quantity exported has largely /hcreased. 
 
 There was excise duty paid upon 110,0^0 cwts. of glass of all kinds in 1845, 
 producing a revenue of £115,000. Thare was a duty levied on window- glass 
 imported of 20* 6d per cwt. until 6th April, 1857, when it was removed. 
 
 / 
 
 VALUE OF THE BRITISH MADE GLASS EXPORTED. 
 
 1846 
 
 . £262,547 
 
 1853 
 
 . £501,936 
 
 1847 . 
 
 291,190 
 
 1854 
 
 549.244 
 
 1848 
 
 237,574 
 
 1855 
 
 490,711 
 
 1849 . 
 
 254,350 
 
 1856 
 
 581,972 
 
 1850 
 
 307.755 
 
 1857 
 
 659,007 
 
 1851 . 
 
 327,950 
 
 1858 
 
 570,554 
 
 1852 
 
 378,827 
 
 1859 
 
 607,578 
 
 Since the removal of the excise duty there are no means of ascertaining pre- 
 cisely the quantity of glass made, but the following estimate from competent 
 authorities of the quantity made in 1850 will serve for comparison with the 
 official return for 1840. 
 
GLA 
 
 146 
 
 GLA 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports of British Manufactures. 
 
 Window Glass. 
 Cwts. 
 
 Plate Glass. 
 Square Feet. 
 
 Window Glass. 
 Cwts. 
 
 Plate Glass. 
 Value. 
 
 1848 
 1S49 
 1850 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 31,037 
 25,557 
 21,015 
 12,298 
 17,100 
 27,577 
 31,639 
 25,420 
 30,553 
 56,070 
 95,582 
 
 90,442 
 68,106 
 122,394 
 174,448 
 150,162 
 221,304 
 838,982 
 749,151 
 1,059,002 
 761,790 
 638,294 
 
 19,708 
 17,386 
 15,518 
 16,460 
 22,168 
 39,158 
 35,514 
 21,537 
 28,500 
 32,026 
 26,008 
 27,686 
 
 £15,242 
 13,303 
 18,335 
 20,929 
 21,866 
 48,730 
 59,294 
 35,691 
 60,430 
 87,366 
 51.760 
 61,133 
 
 The imports and exports as regards plate and window glass have been as 
 follows, since the reduction of the duty. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1850. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 146,838 
 
 240,000 
 
 9,051 
 
 
 33,623 
 
 66,000 
 
 104,882 
 
 400,000 
 
 525,720 
 
 460,000 
 
 820,114 
 
 1,166,000 
 
 Crown 
 
 Broad 
 
 Plate 
 
 Flint 
 
 Bottles 
 
 Our glass manufactures now form a very important item of British industry 
 and the value of that annually produced exceeds in amount £2,000,000 sterling. 
 The exports probably average half a million sterling. In the coarser kinds of 
 flint glass, and in bottles of a common description, the Continental competition 
 in foreign markets is still active against us. In 1849, we imported about 73,000 
 cwt. of coarse glass bottles, of which 30,000 were re-exported; 26,000 square feet 
 of window glass, of one-ninth of an inch thickness, of which nearly the whole 
 was re-exported; and 68,000 square feet of glass exceeding that thickness, of 
 which 18,000 were re -shipped. We are fast increasing our own production, 
 and since the window duty has been taken off, the demand has largely increased. 
 The imports of foreign glass are now very heavy. In 1851, we imported 
 12,298 cwt. of window glass, of which nearly all was kept for home use; in 
 1852, 16,967 cwt., of which 13,170 cwt. were kept for home consumption. 
 White flint glass goods, to the weight of 102,000 lbs. were imported in 1851, 
 i»nd only 48,765 in 1852. Of fancy and coloured glass, 682,012 lbs. were 
 imported in 1851, and 551,693 lbs. in 1852, of which all but about 100,000 lbs. 
 were sold in this country. In 1849, we imported 43,000 cwt. of bottles, but we 
 at the same time exported 232,000 cwt. 
 
 In 1854 we imported 31,639 cwts of window glass (nearly all from Belgium), 
 of which 27,127 cwts. were retained for home consumption, which at the com- 
 puted value of 14s per cwt., was valued at £22,147. The quantity of plate- 
 glass, cast or rolled, whether silvered, polished, or rough, imported in the same 
 year, was 794,194 lbs. At the average price of 9d per lb. fixed for the value, 
 this was worth £29,782. The great bulk of this glass, 514,322 lbs., came 
 from France. This seems principally to have been for export. The computed 
 value of the foreign glass is now somewhat higher; the window glass being es- 
 timated at 15« 6d per cwt., and the plate glass at 1* per lb., while the orna- 
 mental flint glass imported is worth about £3. 15* per cwt. 
 
 In 1858 we imported the following quantities of foreign glass, chiefly from 
 Belgium, Holland, and France — 
 
GLA 
 
 147 
 
 GLA 
 
 Description. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Window glass, and shades and cylinders 
 Cwts. 
 Flint-glass, cut or coloured, and fancy 
 
 ornamental glass - Cwts. 
 Plate-glass - - Lbs. 
 White flint-glass, not cut, engraved, 
 
 or ornamented - - Lbs. 
 
 95,582 
 
 8,952 
 638,994 
 
 608,743 
 
 £ 
 
 73,678 
 
 32,979 
 80,504 
 
 8,477 
 
 145,638 
 
 With the exception of the cut flint glass, which pays a duty of 10s per cwt. 
 since 4th June, 1853, the importations of glass are free. 
 
 Mr. James Hartley, the extensive glass manufacturer of Sunderland, speak- 
 ing of the progressive increase in the manufacture of crown and sheet glass, 
 states that in 1844, the last year of the duty, there was made by the fourteen 
 companies then existing, 6700 tons of crown and sheet glass, paying £500,000 
 dutv. There are now ten companies working 40 furnaces, with 284 pots, 
 making 35,500,000 feet annually, equal to 15,000 tons, value £225,000; being 
 an increase of considerably more than cent, per cent., and at a charge to the 
 public of less than one-half that of the former duty. In polished plate there are 
 six companies, the same as previous to the repeal of the duty, but their pro- 
 duce has also doubled. They now make 3,000,000 feet of polished plate an- 
 nually, equal to 5500 tons, valued at £450,000. 
 
 Of Hartley's patent rough plate, the quantity now manufactured annually is 
 2,240,000 feet of 2 lb. to the foot, valued at £30,000. 
 
 In 1825, the window duty was repealed on all houses having not more than 
 seven windows, and in 1851 the duty was abolished altogether, and an inhabited 
 house duty imposed instead. The following shows the number of houses charged 
 with duty in Great Britain, and the revenue brought in — 
 
 Duty. 
 £2,578,581 
 1,244,128 
 1,350,930 
 1,770,603 
 1,878,800 
 
 The abolition of the excise duty on glass, and the assessed tax on windows, 
 gave a great impetus to the enlarged use of glass in large buildings, and the 
 number of windows in dwelhng houses; and the construction of green-houses to 
 new buildings have been also greatly extended. 
 
 The produce of the little kingdom of Belgium — the greatest glass producing 
 country in the world — is 50,000,000 feet of sheet glass annually, equal to 
 22,300 tons, or 25 percent, more than is made in England of both crown and 
 sheet glass. They export of this quantity about 85 per cent., of which 6 per 
 cent, comes to England. England retains 85 per cent, of its produce for home 
 use, and exports 1 5 per cent. 
 
 The exports of crystal and mirror glass from Belgium have been to the under- 
 mentioned amounts in the years named: — 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 No. of Houses. 
 
 1820 - 
 
 ■ 
 
 968,008 
 
 1830 - 
 
 ■ 
 
 371,427 
 
 1840 - 
 
 ■ 
 
 394,036 
 
 1850 - 
 
 ■ 
 
 492,833 
 
 1851 - 
 
 • 
 
 — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Crystal — Kilogrammes. 
 
 Mirror Glass. 
 
 
 
 Value -Francs. 
 
 1850 - 
 
 1,249,541 
 
 890,826 
 
 1851 - 
 
 706,305 
 
 960,625 
 
 1852 - 
 
 815,258 
 
 12,437,858 
 
 1853 -*S - 
 
 1,100,312 
 
 1,228,575 
 
 1854 - - 
 
 1,356,738 
 
 . 1,524,943 
 
 1855 - 
 
 1,514,408 
 
 1,272,789 
 
 1856 - 
 
 1,835,063 
 
 1,826,427 
 
GLA 
 
 148 
 
 GOL 
 
 The total value of the exports of glass from Belgium of native manufacture 
 in 1855, was £391,000. 
 
 The following shows the Imports of Glass from Belgium in kilogrammes of 
 2£ lbs. for six years. 
 
 Window Glass. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1851. 
 
 1852. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 
 United States 
 England 
 Holland 
 Hamburg 
 Turkey- 
 Other Countries . 
 
 5,213,099 
 1,980,241 
 1,920,439 
 1,337,411 
 1,085,118 
 3,144,694 
 
 4,948,538 
 1,865,896 
 1,848,428 
 1,661,632 
 1,215,312 
 4,903,762 
 
 7,878,668 
 2,965,150 
 1,835,498 
 1,532,211 
 1,151,780 
 5,244,558 
 
 11,112,534 
 
 4,306,675 
 2,628,817 
 2,098,508 
 1,299,762 
 5,815,313 
 
 6,946,189 
 2,859,131 
 2,186,004 
 2,063,539 
 1,252,411 
 6,456,722 
 
 7,250,767 
 2,900,322 
 2,289,874 
 2,046,496 
 3,032,576 
 5,159,459 
 
 14,681,002 
 
 16,443,568 
 
 20,607,865 
 
 27,261,609 
 
 21,763,996 22,679,494 
 
 GLOVES. The imports of foreign made kid gloves have largely increased 
 of late years. In July, 1842, the duty was fixed at 2s 5d per dozen pairs for 
 habit mitts, and 4s 8d for women's mitts, and 3s 8d for gloves. In 1860 the 
 duty was removed. The number of pairs imported on which duty was paid in 
 1858, was 3,637,178, of the value of £365,963, and the duty received amounted 
 to ^49,172. 
 
 GOLD. — Since the article on Bullion in this supplement has been printed, 
 some official details have been laid before the Statistical Congress held in Lon- 
 don by the delegates from the Australian Colonies, which rate the production of 
 gold there, up to the close of 1859, at £101,371,828; made up as follows: — 
 
 Raised in New South Wales £7,253,616 
 
 „ Victoria . 93,810,212 
 
 „ South Australia . • : 160,000 
 
 „ Tasmania . 8,000 
 
 „ New Zealand . 140,000 
 
 £101,371,828 
 About £25,000,000 of the Californian gold has been coined at the San Fran- 
 cisco Mint, and about £85,000,000 at the whole of the United States mints; 
 £5,000,000 of the Australian gold has been coined at the Sydney Mint. In 
 France the excess of imports over exports of gold, from 1847 to 1859, was 
 £86,485,305, and within the same period the gold coined in France amounted 
 in value to £138,730,639. 
 According to Baron Humboldt's estimates, the Mexican mines produced — 
 
 Dollars. 
 From the Conquest to the year 1800, the sum of 1,973,947,283 
 
 Coinage of the Mint of Mexico, from 1800 to 1856 383,621,288 
 
 Coinage of provincial Mints to 1856 . 425,135,588 
 
 2,782,704,159 
 
 Since 1856 there is no reliable return from the provincial mints. The entire 
 coinage, however, of the country and capital may be fairly taken at an annual 
 average of 16,500,000 of silver and 1,000,000 gold dollars; and it is estimated that 
 bullion and specie are smuggled out of the country, on the Pacific and on the 
 northern frontier, to the value of 7,000,000 dollars annually. This supply is 
 susceptible of immense increase, when the state of the country may invite im- 
 migration. Silver, especially, seems to be inexhaustible. 
 
 Of £45,090,824 gold imported into the United Kingdom in the years 1858 
 and 1859, the sums drawn from the several mines were as follows, from — 
 
 
 1858. 
 
 1*59. 
 
 Russia 
 
 £1,446,813 
 
 £2,070,066 
 
 Australia . . 
 
 9,064,763 
 
 8,624,566 
 
 Mexico and South America 
 
 3,848,419 
 
 1,738,700 
 
 United States 
 
 4,502,464 
 
 7,909,342 
 
 In consequence of the very general introduction of plated and alloyed goods, 
 
GOL 149 QUA 
 
 the manufacture of gold and silver plate has not made much progress. The fol- 
 lowing table shows the number of ounces of gold and silver plate upon which 
 duty was paid, and the quantity retained for home use, in 1825 and in 1850: — 
 
 Duty Paid. Retained for Home Use. 
 
 Gold. Silver. Gold. Silver. 
 
 Oz. Oz. Oz. Oz. 
 
 1825 ; 7662 1,258,658 7624 1,188,176 
 
 1850 . 7373 735,865 7370 659,106 
 
 The improvement that has been made in the manufacture of plated wares has 
 had a great influence in diminishing the sale of real plate, although it may have 
 led to an increased consumption of the precious metals. 
 
 There are no means for obtaining correct returns of the quantities of gold 
 and silver annually consumed in the manufacture of gold and silver wares in 
 the United Kingdom. It must, however, be very considerable, as articles of pre- 
 cious metals are produced in almost all large towns. The chief seat of electro- 
 plating is at Birmingham. It has been ascertained that not less than one thou- 
 sand ounces of fine gold are used weekly there; and that the consumption of 
 gold leaf in eight manufacturing towns is equal to 584 ounces weekly. For 
 gilding metals by electrotype and the water gilding processes not less than ten 
 thousand ounces of gold are required annually. At the present time the 
 consumption of fine gold and silver in Europe and the United States is estimated 
 at £ 10,000 annually. 
 
 According to the returns of the French Mint authorities, the manufactures of 
 the French silversmiths, goldsmiths, and jewellers, consume annually gold to the 
 value of 32,489,720 francs, and silver to the value of 14,226,204 francs, the 
 total value being upwards of one million sterling. It is estimated that the 
 labour employed upon these metals about equals the value of the raw material. 
 Thus the annual value of the manufactures sent forth to the markets of the 
 world by French goldsmiths, silversmiths, and jewellers is upwards of two mil- 
 lions sterling. 
 
 GREECE. — The population of Greece in 1853 was 1,043,153. The revenue 
 in 1858 was £652,689. The entries of vessels at the port of Piraeus in 1857 
 numbered 643, of 146,629 tons, with cargoes valued at £340,000. At Patras 
 in 1856, 718 vessels and 62,297 tons entered, with cargoes valued at £296,000, 
 The value of the imports into the kingdom in 1853 was £721,783, and of the 
 exports £321,032, exclusive of currants. 
 
 GUANO. —The great importance of the trade in this fertilizer will be seen 
 from the following details. Although small supplies are brought from other 
 quarters, yet it is to Peru that we mainly look for the bulk of our imports, and 
 the Peruvian guano is also the most valuable, containing the largest portion of 
 ammonia. 
 
 The exportation of guano began in 1841, under contract with the house of 
 Messrs. Queros, Allies, and Co. Subsequently Messrs. Anthony Gibbs and Son 
 were appointed agents for the United Kingdom, and in 1856 they were requested 
 by the Peruvian Government to take charge also of the guano sales in Spain, 
 previously confided to Messrs. C. de Murrieta and Co., which they undertook at 
 a voluntary reduction of one per cent, on the former commis. ion. A change of 
 agents in the United States also caused a considerable saving to the Peruvian 
 Government in the commission and charges. 
 
 In introducing to the National Convention a bill to authorise the sale of 
 guano on the Chincha Islands, Senor Roca made the following statements : — 
 
 The net produce of a ton of guano to Peru, sold in England, is 23 dollars 
 5 cents.; in the United States it is 21 dollars 5 cents. 
 
 The loss to Peru by perils of the sea, waste in loading, transhipment, &c., ia 
 calculated at twelve per cent. The quantity of guano on those islands was thus 
 estimated: — 
 
 The North Island, according to the estimate of Senor Faraguet, a French 
 engineer, 4,189,477 tons; the Middle Island, according to the estimate of Senor 
 
GT7A 
 
 150 
 
 GUA 
 
 Castauon Canas and others, 2,505,948 tons; the South Island, according to the 
 same authority, 5,684,677 tons. Total, 12,376,100 tons. 
 
 This aggregate indicates tons of measurement, which will yield an increase of 
 one-third when reduced to tons of weight, which are those sold in the market. 
 Calculating on this well-known fact, the ahove 12,376,190 tons will yield 
 16,501,466 tons weight, or saleable, 
 
 The report of Don Geronimo Fernandez, the Government Surveyor of Peru, 
 inserted in El Interprete del Pueblo of Jan. 27, 1852, contained a detailed 
 table of the quantities of guano, from which it would appear that there were 
 then on the 
 
 Tons. 
 South or Chipana Islands » . 7,921,407 
 
 Central or Chincha Islea , . 18,250,000 
 
 North or Lobos Islands . . 854,016 
 
 Quantity. 
 Tons. 
 14,000 
 
 Computed Real Value. 
 £. 
 154,000 
 
 22,410 
 
 246,510 
 
 57,762 
 
 635,382 
 
 61,055 
 
 671,605 
 
 73,567 
 
 809,237 
 
 95,083 
 
 1,045,913 
 
 199,732 
 
 2,197,052 
 
 86,293 
 
 949,223 
 
 106,312 
 
 1,169,432 
 
 221,747 
 
 2,439,217 
 
 255,535 
 
 2,868,380 
 
 177,016 
 
 2,053,386 
 
 264,230 
 
 3,434,990 
 
 302,207 
 
 3,788,198 
 
 37,025,493 
 
 This was exclusive of the subterranean deposits of Iquique, Punta de Lobos 
 of the south, and discoveries of other deposits to which he drew the attention of 
 the Peruvian Government, and which he believed to be as rich as the Chincha 
 Islands. 
 
 Imports op Guano prom Peru into Great Britain from 1845 to 18 58* 
 Year. 
 
 1845 
 1846 
 1847 
 1848 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 
 1,936,949 22,462,525 
 
 The total imports of guano from all quarters in 1859 were very small, only 
 amounting to 84,122 tons. The computed value is taken at £11. per ton down 
 to 1854; £11. 4s 6d in 1855; £11. Us in 1856; £13. in 1857; and £12. 10* 8d 
 in 1858. 
 
 During the first ten years the Peruvian Government sold the guano by the 
 cargo of £9. 5* per ton, raising the prices until they reached £12. 10s per ton in 
 1858, when they were selling the same article in the United States at £11. per 
 ton. On the matter being taken up in Parliament, the prices were, however, 
 equalized to £12. in 1858. 
 
 In 1856 the price was advanced in London £2. per ton, and again reduced 
 from £13. 10s to £12. per ton by the agents of the Peruvian Government in the 
 autumn of 1858. This reduction was probably the result of an official letter from 
 Lord Malmesbury, dated the 28th of July in that year, to Sefior de Rivero, the 
 Peruvian Minister in this country, urging that a reduction of price was greatly 
 desired, and that it would benefit Peru by causing an increased consumption. 
 
 Guano exported from Peru by the several Contractors, showing the Quan- 
 tities Sold, Lost on the Voyage, with the Stock remaining on hand. 
 Year. Total Consignments. 
 
 Tons. 
 1840 to 1856 . 1,960,079 
 
 1857 . . . 789,754 
 
 1858 (first six months) 635,589 
 
 3,385,422 
 
 Sold. 
 Tons. 
 1,626,405 
 304,598 
 66,607 
 
 Lost. 
 Tons. 
 23,885 
 19,156 
 379 
 
 Stock on Hand 
 
 Tons. 
 
 316,789 
 
 466,009 
 
 568,603 
 
 1,997,601 
 
 43,420 
 
 1,351,401 
 
QUA 151 GUT 
 
 Value of the Sales dubing the Period. 
 
 Year. Gross Produce of Sales. Charges and Expenses. Net Produce of Sales. 
 
 1840 to 1856 . £20,052,704 £12,201,776 £7,850,928 
 
 1857 . . 4,939,423 2,607,574 2,331,849 
 
 1858 (first six months) 1,114,145 507,983 640,412 
 
 26,106,272 15,317,333 10,828,189 
 
 GUATEMALA, a Central American Republic, composed of seventeen 
 departments, and comprising a population stated in 1852 at 970,450. 
 The trade of the Republic is shown in the following figures: — 
 
 Imports. Exports. 
 
 1851 , . . £316,377 £280,800 
 
 1852 . . • 195,388 173,710 
 
 1853 . . . 174,766 119,809 
 
 1854 . . 165,296 406,660 
 
 1855 . . . 241,242 256,578 
 
 1856 . • . 213,626 348,459 
 
 1857 . . . 226,987 323,678 
 
 1858 . . . 244,967 390,785 
 
 One half of the import trade, and nearly all the export trade, is carried on 
 with Great Britain. The principal exports in 1858 were indigo, 259,000 lbs ; 
 cochineal, 1,984,640 libras; 43,304 hides; 1865 logs of mahogany; 58,299 
 arrobas of sugar; 1793 bales of sarsaparilla; and 1020 bales of country ma- 
 nufacture. 
 
 At the Atlantic ports in 1858 there were 104 arrivals of vessels of the burthen 
 of 6007 tons; and at the Pacific ports 42 vessels of 14,036 tons, making a total 
 of 146 vessels of the burthen of 20,043 tons. 
 
 The Custom-house value of the imports amounted to 1,223,770 dollars, upon 
 which duties were paid to the amount of 327,875 dollars. The value of the ex- 
 ports was 1,924,509 dollars; thus leaving a balance in favour of the export trade 
 of the country of 700,739 dollars. 
 
 The exports of the woollen manufactures of the Republic are on the increase, 
 and for the first time flour has been exported. 
 
 GUIANA, BRITISH. The resources of this Colony are considerable, and 
 progressive, and its exports have always of late years considerably exceeded the 
 imports. The imports in 1855 were to the value of £886,016, and the exports 
 to £1,331,371. The revenue in 1857 was £266,636, and the expenditure 
 £280,879. From January, 1841, to June, 1858, £846,154 was expended by 
 this Colony for immigration, of which £691,777 was paid out of the colonial 
 funds, and the rest by the planters. 
 
 GUNNY BAGGING or GUNNY CLOTH. This strong sack cloth is 
 made from jute, a species of CorcJiorus in Bengal, and from Sunn fibre (Crotalaria 
 juneea) in Bombay and Madras. Large quantities are used in the East as a 
 wrapping material for bales of rice, spices, cotton, and other dry goods. There 
 is a large demand in the United States for gunny-bagging to pack the cotton for 
 shipment, and as it takes about six yards for every bale, a crop of 3,500,000 
 bales requires 21,000,000 yards of bagging, about one-third of this supply is im- 
 ported gunny cloth from Bengal, the rest and what is used for other packing 
 purposes, is principally hemp bagging. The shipments from Bengal average 
 about 9,000,000 pieces, and from Madras and Bombay about 11,000 bags. 
 
 GUTTA PERCHA, an elastic gum-like caoutchouc or India rubber, which 
 exudes from a tree growing in Borneo, Singapore, and other parts of the East. 
 The first specimen seen in England was sent to the Society of Arts in 1843 by 
 Dr. Montgomerie. The first articles made of it were a lathe band, a short piece 
 of pipe, and a bottle case, which were presented to the Society in 1844. Being 
 impervious to water, the uses to which gutta percha has been recently applied 
 have become too many for enumeration. In 1844 only two cwt. were shipped 
 from Singapore experimentally. In 1845 the exports rose to 169 piculs; in 
 1846 to 5364; in 1847 to 9226 piculs. The picul is 133£ lbs. In 1858 the im- 
 
GUT 152 HAM 
 
 ports into the United Kingdom were 19,641 cwts., valued at £127,908. One of 
 the largest demands at the present time for gutta percha is for casing or insulat- 
 ing copper electric wires in submarine cables. 
 
 HAMBURG. This large city with a population in 1858 of 222,379, is the 
 most important maritime centre of commerce in Germany, being the main chan- 
 nel of communication between North Germany and foreign countries. Its 
 trade with Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Russia is also most extensive. The 
 revenue of the city in 1859 was £604,031, and the expenditure £622,402. The 
 public debt on the 1st January, 1860, was £4,654,869, of which £2,174,925 was 
 for a loan raised in consequence of the great fire in 1842. 
 
 The imports from Great Britain into Hamburg in 1856, amounted to 
 £13,062,417, and the imports from Hamburg into Great Britain to £5,571,215, 
 being a balance in favour of this country of £7,491,202. 
 
 The commerce of Hamburg has doubled in ten years. In 1846 the imports 
 were to the value of £21,124,929, and the exports £20,729,405. In 1855 the 
 imports were of the value of £39,641,864, and the exports £38,041,620. The 
 exports of British manufactures to Hamburg are about ,£8,000,000 in value, and 
 of foreign goods £2,200,000 ; and our imports from Hamburg amount to more 
 than £4,000,000 per annum. The value of the Hamburg exports to transatlan- 
 tic places in 1856 was £4,969,190. 
 
 The value of the imports, in 1858, was as follows: — 
 
 Marcs Banco. 
 By sea . . , 214,846,670 
 
 ByAltona,&c. . . j 49,888,300 
 
 By land and river • , 237,471,830 
 
 502,206,800 
 
 £37,665,510 
 
 The duties which the Hamburg State levies are very moderate, and are raised 
 in a very simple manner. Goods passing the Custom House are never examined, 
 except on information given to the authorities that fraud will be attempted. 
 Goods are allowed to pass the Custom House on the written stamped declaration, 
 on the oath of a citizen, of their nature and value, estimated according to the 
 quotations of the official prices current ; or, if there are none such, according to 
 the price of the invoice, with the additional expenses incurred, till the goods 
 reached Hamburg. 
 
 In pursuance of the treaty concluded with Denmark for the redemption of 
 the Sound Dues, the sum due from Hamburg, £12,040, was voted by the Bur- 
 gerschaft, and paid to the Danish Government in 1857. 
 
 There is a considerable and yearly increasing amount of maritime insurance 
 business carried on at Hamburg, which has compelled several of the Insurance 
 Companies to augment their capitals. The sum insured here against sea risk in 
 1856 was £51,000,000, and it has since greatly increased. 
 
 The vessels entered inwards at the port of Hamburg in 1857 were 4306 laden, 
 of 1,136,457 tons, and 761 in ballast of 144,042 tons, of which the English ves- 
 sels numbered 1831, of 616,203 tons, 90 of these being in ballast. The steamers 
 in the same year were inwards, 1235 voyages and 553,761 tons; outwards, 1232 
 voyages and 530,073 tons. Of these English steamers made 635 voyages, in- 
 cluding 313,327 tons. On the 1st January, 1858, there were owned by Ham- 
 burg citizens and carrying the Hamburgflag 491 ships, mfeasuring 191,244 
 tons, and 20 steamers of 16,011 tons. 
 
 Hamburg has always been a large emigration port. In 1857, 127 vessels 
 took 31,240 persons chiefly to the United States and Canada. Of these emigra- 
 tion vessels, 90 were Hamburg ships and 14 of them steamers. Very stringent 
 measures have recently been adopted by the different German States with a view 
 to prevent emigration. 
 
 The population of the city and its suburbs was, in 1852, 158,775. The 
 average revenue of the city si about £400,000, and the expenditure 
 
HAM 
 
 153 
 
 HEM 
 
 269,021 
 
 460,235 
 
 317,472 
 
 431,821 
 
 392,973 
 
 452,947 
 
 455,306 
 
 423,596 
 
 567,084 
 
 480,546 
 
 467,708 
 
 551,169 
 
 slightly in excess of this. The ordinary revenue is derived from land and 
 fire tax, excise, customs, stamp duties, tolls, and ground rents. The expenditure 
 is incurred for the payment of members of the Senate, military and police, har- 
 bour expenses, buildings, charitable institutions, and interest and expenses on 
 the public debt. The amount of the public debt in 1852 was £4,990,031, of 
 which a little over £3,000,000 was for the fire loan incurred in 1842. The 
 total number of vessels that belonged to Hamburg in 1855 was 448, of 
 159,663 tons. The number of vessels that entered the port in 1855 was 4593, 
 measuring 927,006 tons. The imports were in 1846 valued at £22,124,929, 
 and in 1855 at £39,641,864. The exports in the same years were respectively 
 £20,729,405 and £38,041,620. The imports of cotton at Hamburg were, in 
 
 Raw Cotton. Cotton Yarn. 
 
 Cwts. Cwts. 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 The other chief imports in 1855 were 506,915 centners (120 lbs.) of sugar, 
 942,556 do. of coffee, 36,576 of tea, 322,734 of rice, 140,711 of tobacco, 298,222 
 of dye woods, 14,890 of indigo, and 111,670 of hides, 101,912 of herrings, 807,807 
 of iron, 205,675 lasts of coal, 123,093 centners of wool, 54,083 lasts of grain, 
 110,578 centners of clover seed, and 349,210 centners of zinc. 
 
 HANOVER. — The population of this kingdom according to the census of 1858 
 was 1,843,976, showing but a small increase in the last eighteen years. Thecity of 
 Hanover has a population with the suburbs of 53,000 souls. The annual amount 
 of emigration is calculated at 12,000. The arrivals of British shipping at Hano- 
 verian ports during 1858 were 256, with a tonnage of 12,896 lasts, and the 
 departures 247, of 12,896 lasts. The mercantile marine owned consisted of 720 
 ships of 34,768 lasts, 1950 coasters of 17,343 lasts, and 14 steam vessels of 
 680 lasts. The total public debt in 1859 was about £9,000,000, of which the 
 greater portion comprised the railway debt, the interest of which was more than 
 covered by the railway receipts. The actual debt of the country may there- 
 fore be set down at about £2,368,258. The financial condition of Hanover, 
 unencumbered as it is with any considerable debt, and possessing undoubted 
 elements of future wealth and prosperity, is sound and satisfactory. 
 
 HAYTI, see St. Domingo. 
 
 HEMP. — The following return continues the account of the imports of Hemp 
 since 1839, given at page 364. 
 
 
 
 
 Hemp Undressed. 
 
 
 
 From 
 
 From other 
 
 From all 
 
 
 
 Russia. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 
 1840 
 
 599,078 
 
 84,990 
 
 684,068 
 
 
 1841 
 
 
 
 542,764 
 
 109,401 
 
 652,165 
 
 
 1842 
 
 
 
 415,565 
 
 170,340 
 
 585,905 
 
 
 1843 
 
 
 
 463,061 
 
 272,682 
 
 735,743 
 
 
 1844 
 
 
 
 655,954 
 
 257,279 
 
 913,233 
 
 
 1845 
 
 
 
 603,286 
 
 328,564 
 
 931,850 
 
 
 1846 
 
 
 
 620,656 
 
 262,238 
 
 882,894 
 
 
 1847 
 
 
 
 542,857 
 
 268,708 
 
 811,565 
 
 
 1848 
 
 
 
 536,400 
 
 309,371 
 
 845,771 
 
 
 1849 
 
 
 
 636,938 
 
 424,955 
 
 1,061,893 
 
 
 1850 
 
 
 
 600,992 
 
 447,643 
 
 1,048,635 
 
 
 1851 
 
 
 
 664,580 
 
 628,831 
 
 1293,411 
 
 
 1852 
 
 
 
 537,132 
 
 531,024 
 
 1,068,156 
 
 
 1853 
 
 
 
 806,396 
 
 412,374 
 
 1,218,770 
 
 
 1854 
 
 
 
 20,539 
 
 709,025 
 
 729,564 
 
 
 1855 
 
 
 
 943 
 
 727,438 
 
 1 728,381 
 
 
 1856 
 
 
 
 522,738 
 
 248,795 
 
 771,533 
 
 
 1857 
 
 
 
 550,950 
 
 231,321 
 
 782,271 
 
 
 1858 
 
 
 
 612,474 
 
 274,157 
 
 886,631 
 
 
 1859 
 
 731,661 
 
 356,588 
 
 1,088,349 
 
 
her 
 
 154 
 
 HOL 
 
 HERRINGS. — Some late details respecting the herring fishery have already 
 been given in this supplement, but the annual returns of herrings cured and ex- 
 ported may be brought down, in continuation from p. 365, to the present time. 
 
 
 No. of Barrels Cured. 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Periods. 
 
 
 
 Barrels 
 Branded 
 
 Barrels 
 Exported. 
 
 Gutted. 
 
 Uh gutted 
 
 TotaL 
 
 Year ended 5th April, 1841 
 
 431,157 
 
 126,105} 
 
 557,2621 
 
 154,189 
 
 250,137 
 
 1842 
 
 489,6204 
 
 177,624f 
 
 667,245? 
 
 190,9224 
 
 284,736 
 
 1843 
 
 442,290 
 
 181,129| 
 
 623,419^ 
 
 162,713 
 
 291,8004 
 313,5164 
 
 1844 
 
 473,556| 
 
 191,803 
 
 665,359§ 
 
 182,988 
 
 5th April, 1844, to 5th ) 
 January . . 1845 f 
 
 393,312 
 
 132, 720 J 
 
 526,C32| 
 
 140,632 
 
 266,3734 
 
 Year ended 5th Jan. 1846 
 
 411,271 
 
 121,375 
 
 532,646 
 
 142,4734 
 
 243,194 
 
 „ „ 1847 
 
 414,915} 
 372,9894 
 
 192, 535 J 
 
 607,451 
 
 156,2781 
 
 255,714 
 
 1848 
 
 189,754 
 
 562,7434 
 
 146,500| 
 
 250,181 
 
 1849 
 
 392 827 
 
 251,541} 
 263,6731 
 
 644,3681 
 
 153,944 
 
 249,994 
 
 * „ 1851, ) 
 for Scotland and the > 
 
 507,0244 
 
 770,698} 
 
 213,2864 
 
 340,256A 
 
 378,187 
 
 165,8224 
 
 544,0094 
 
 172,9244 
 
 266,908 
 
 Isle of Man only J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Year ended 5th Jan. 1852 
 
 417,233} 
 
 176,797J 
 
 594,031 
 
 201,6364 
 169,1594 
 
 264,2044 
 
 „ 31st Dec. 1852 
 
 375,693 
 
 123.094A 
 
 498,7874 
 778,039| 
 
 283,526 
 
 „ „ 1853 
 
 560,367 
 
 217,672J 
 
 248,1364 
 
 342,630| 
 
 1854 
 
 458,5794 
 582,715} 
 
 177,982? 
 183,988} 
 
 636,562} 
 
 211,844 
 
 361,696§ 
 
 M »» 1855 
 
 766,7033 
 
 280,5814 
 
 442,264 
 
 „ „ 1856 
 
 466,4291 
 
 143,559 
 
 609,988A 
 
 223,281 
 
 347,611} 
 
 „ 1857 
 
 465,2921 
 
 115,521} 
 165,730} 
 
 580,813| 
 
 218,992 
 
 367,1604 
 
 M M 1858 
 
 470,393} 
 
 636,124 
 
 233,374 
 
 350,2044 
 
 n » I 859 
 
 381,059} 
 
 110,428 
 
 491,487} 
 
 158,676 
 
 272,979 
 
 * The Collection of Returns for England ceased from the 5th January, 1850. 
 HIDES. — Since the removal of the duty on tanned hides, the imports have 
 very largely increased. In 1858 the general imports included the following:-— 
 
 Value. 
 
 CWt. 282,226 991,949 
 
 „ 446,062 1,169,412 
 
 lbs. 1,307,364 117,930 
 
 „ 379,289 104,796 
 
 „ 2,198,471 95,503 
 
 66,816 7,223 
 
 Dry Hides . 
 Wet ditto . 
 Tawed, Curried, <fec 
 Varnished, &c. . 
 
 Tanned 
 
 Russia Leather 
 Hide Pieces, &c 
 Dressed . , 
 
 value 
 
 5,000 
 1,491 
 
 £2,493,604 
 
 HOLLAND -—The total population of this kingdom on the 31st December, 
 1854, was 3,238,753 souls, or an average of 257 to the square mile. In the pro- 
 vinces of North and South Holland it is as much as 550 to the square mile. The 
 area is 12,608 square miles, the province of Limbourg having been added to it, 
 comprising 848 square miles. The average annual revenue in the five years 
 ending with 1855 was £6,000,000. The expenditure in 1855 was £6,145,055. 
 The public debt in that year stood at £99,342,569. The shipping owned in 
 the kingdom in 1855 were 2230 vessels, of 551,854 tons. In the four years 
 ending with 1855,720 vessels, of 180,320 tons, were built in the Dutch ports. 
 The entries of vessels at ports in Holland in 1855 comprised 7788 of 1,303,450 
 tons, with cargoes, and 469 of 81,093 tons in ballast. The steam traffic is very 
 considerable in Holland, and consisted of 1193 steam vessels, of 349,920 tons, 
 entering with cargoes, and 138, of 57,049 tons, in ballast; 1052 of the entire 
 entries were British steamers. 
 
 The following shows the value of the foreign trade of Holland: — 
 
 Exports. 
 
 £ 
 19,166,838 
 20,228,733 
 22,707,053 
 22,733,472 
 25,731,733 
 26,171,089 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 £ 
 23,701,273 
 
 Home Consumption. 
 £ 
 15,698,380 
 
 1850 : ; 
 
 1851 . 
 
 25,332,769 
 
 16,697,271 
 
 1852 . 
 
 26,893,296 
 
 17,138,868 
 
 1853 . 
 
 26,754,310 
 
 17,078,761 
 
 1854 . 
 
 29,707,043 
 
 20,374,626 
 
 1855 i 
 
 28,555,505 
 
 20,819,156 
 
HOL 155 HOP 
 
 The number of each kind of live stock in the kingdom in 1854 was 234,193 
 horses, 2007 asses and mules, 1,144,953 head of cattle, 858,266 sheep, 239,733 
 pigs, and 101,222 goats. The agricultural produce of the kingdom in the same 
 vearwas 557,859 quarters of wheat, 1,249,292 of rye, 457,312 of buckwheat, 
 521,406 of barley, 1,062,132 of oats, 72,070 of peas, and 213,159 of beans, 
 3,619,564 quarters of potatoes, 189,241 do. of turnips, 31,400 cwt. of hemp, 
 132,000 cwt. of flax, 59,3^8 cwt. of tobacco, 9,873 quarters of hemp seed, 3 1,062 
 quarters and 560 cwt. of linseed, 212,250 quarters of cabbage seed, 4286 do. of 
 mustard, 5710 cwt. of clover, and 2576 quarters of bird seed. 
 
 HONDURAS. — The republic of Honduras comprises the departments of 
 Comayagua, Cholutaca, Gracias Yoro, Tejucigalpa, Olancho, and Santa Bar- 
 bara, and contains a population of 358,000 souls. The ports are Omao and 
 Truxillo. The imports at the former were in 1858 105 vessels, of 4542 tons, 
 with cargoes valued at £26,417; at Truxillo, 53 vessels, of 3844 tons, with 
 £32,446 in cargoes. The total value of the imports by the Atlantic and Pacific 
 average £140,000 per annum, and the exports are the same. The imports consist 
 chiefly of cotton manufactures, about £ 70,000 ; woollens, £11 ,000 ; linen and silk, 
 £12,000; hardware and cutlery, glass, china, earthenware, sugar, coffee, grain, 
 and other provisions, drugs, wines and spirits, to the value of £10,000; sta- 
 tionery, leather, and furniture. 
 
 HONEY. — During the last four years the following quantity of honey (incwts.) 
 was imported into the United Kingdom: — 
 
 From 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 
 
 Denmark 
 Hanseatic Towns 
 Holland . 
 Belgium . 
 France 
 Spain 
 
 Portugal . 
 Tuscany . 
 Jamaica . 
 Cuba 
 
 United States 
 Other countries 
 
 Total import . 2874 3645 3885 4446 
 
 HOPS. — The number of statute acres under culture with hops in this coun- 
 try at various periods is shown in the following figures: — 
 
 Acres, j Acres. 
 
 1810 - - 38,265 1840 . . 44,805 
 
 1820 - - 50,048 1850 - - 43,125 
 
 1830 - - 46,726 I 1859 - - 47,601 
 
 The largest quantity of land under culture with hops in the last fifty years 
 was 57,757 cwts. in 1855. The highest average produce was 13£ cwts. per acre 
 in 1808; 6 or 7 cwts. per acre is, however, about a general average. 
 
 By a calculation made from reliable sources, the calculated outlay paid for 
 labour in picking, drying, and preparing hops for market in Kent alone in an 
 ordinary year amounts to upwards of £4U0,000; and when to this sum are added 
 other incidental expenses, together with additional charges on the revenue for 
 assistants engaged in levying the duty, it will be found that very little short of 
 half a million of money is put into general trade circulation within the county 
 in payment for labour in the process of hop gathering. 
 
 A few statistics regarding the highest and lowest scale of duties for a series 
 of years may not be uninteresting or without use: — From 1712 to 1750 the duty 
 varied from £6,526 in 1725 to £91,880 in 1746. From 1751 to 1800 it varied 
 from £14,895 in 1782 to £203,663 in 1794. From 1801 to 1850 it ranged 
 from £15,463 in 1802 to £269,331 in 1826. From 1851 to 1859 it varied from 
 £47,369 in 1854 to £398,635 in 1853. In 1859 the duty was £328,070. 
 
 The dates of the occasions when payment of the duty on hops has been de- 
 
 172 
 
 243 
 
 219 
 
 18 
 
 139 
 
 293 
 
 570 
 
 60 
 
 127 
 
 276 
 
 35 
 
 7 
 
 695 
 
 84 
 
 — 
 
 9 
 
 100 
 
 455 
 
 419 
 
 164 
 
 — 
 
 483 
 
 94 
 
 71 
 
 455 
 
 543 
 
 421 
 
 448 
 
 — 
 
 — — 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 638 
 
 898 
 
 1320 
 
 781 
 
 275 
 
 201 
 
 421 
 
 2539 
 
 — 
 
 157 
 
 79 
 
 — 
 
 273 
 
 212 
 
 297 
 
 348 
 
HOP 
 
 156 
 
 HTJD 
 
 ferred are 1820, 1821, 1822, 1823, 1824, 1827, 1828, 1829, 1831, 1849, 1850, 1857, 
 and 15th of May, 1858. 
 
 1844 
 
 H 
 
 29,285,004 
 
 1845 
 
 « 
 
 32,974,749 
 
 1846 
 
 ■ 
 
 50,704,025 
 
 1847 
 
 • 
 
 45,134,365 
 
 1848 
 
 M 
 
 44,343,985 
 
 1849 
 
 - 
 
 16,650,915 
 
 1850 
 
 M 
 
 48,537,669 
 
 1851 
 
 H 
 
 27,042,996 
 
 1852 
 
 - 
 
 51,102,494 
 
 1853 
 
 - 
 
 31,751,693 
 
 1854 
 
 H 
 
 9.877,126 
 
 1855 
 
 ■ 
 
 83,221,004 
 
 1856 
 
 ■ 
 
 55,868,624 
 
 1857 
 
 - 
 
 47,717,561 
 
 1858 
 
 - 
 
 53,125,101 
 
 1859 
 
 - 
 
 68,496,727 
 
 Retained for Home Consumption. 
 
 29,131,245 
 32,823,538 
 50,255,528 
 44,677,304 
 43,986,956 
 16,376,104 
 48,267,158 
 20,138,906 
 50,146,639 
 30,949,590 
 9,291 958 
 82,368,448 
 54,303,375 
 46,267,457 
 48,947,850 
 67,143,999 
 
 Lbs. Charged with Duty. Exported. 
 
 153,849 
 
 151,211 
 
 448,497 
 
 457,061 
 
 357,029 
 
 274,811 
 
 270,511 
 
 904,090 
 
 955,855 
 
 802,103 
 
 585,168 
 
 852,856 
 1,565,249 
 1,450,104 
 4,177,251 
 1,352,728 
 
 HOSIERY. The manufacture of hosiery is chiefly carried on in the Midland 
 counties of Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, and Leicestershire, and a few other 
 small towns in England; at Balbriggan in Ireland; and at Hawick, Galashiels, 
 &c. in Scotland. Hosiery consists chiefly of stockings, socks, drawers, braces or 
 suspenders, gloves, caps, shawls, sheets, &c. made of cotton, wool, or silk. The 
 trade altogether employs upwards of 80,000 individuals, and 40,000 looms. The 
 fixed capital in mills and frames approaches £500,000, and the entire manufac- 
 ture has been estimated at £4,000,000 annually. 
 
 The abolition of the duties on the importation of the raw materials used in the 
 trade, acted very sensibly upon this branch of industry ; and since the year 1 844, 
 a large increase in the number of machines employed in the manufacture of 
 stockings, &c. has taken place; although the larger proportion of the manu- 
 factures are consumed at home, the exports to foreign countries are annually in- 
 creasing. 
 
 The following figures, showing the declared value of British hosiery exported 
 in the years 1853-54, 57 and 58, will give some idea of the extent of this trade. 
 
 THE HOSIERY TRADE. 
 
 
 1853. 
 
 1854. 
 
 1857. 
 
 1858. 
 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 Cotton Stockings 
 
 461,360 
 
 185,371 
 
 272,109 
 
 160,811 
 
 „ Hosiery and small wares 
 
 238,025 
 
 212,705 
 
 382,535 
 
 305,404 
 
 Silk Stockings 
 
 23,605 
 
 755 
 
 17,167 
 
 6,655 
 
 „ Hosiery and small wares 
 
 43,521 
 
 6,681 
 
 32,702 
 
 28,786 
 
 Woollen Stockings 
 
 261,259 
 
 98,909 
 
 130,198 
 
 88,397 
 
 „ Hosiery and small wares 
 
 239,032 
 
 126,589 
 
 222,745 
 
 425,640 
 
 1,266,802 
 
 630,010 
 
 1,057,456 
 
 1,015,693 
 
 HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY. This Company, by Parliamentary Com- 
 mittee has been shorn of much of its territory and some of its exclusive privi- 
 leges of trade. The island of Vancouver, which had been granted to it on 
 lease in 1849, was reclaimed by the Crown and made a Government Colony 
 in 1859. A portion of the Red River territory has also been included in the 
 boundary of Canada. Its fur trade is still, however, a \ery profitable and im- 
 portant one, and the Company has effected much towards Arctic discovery by 
 means of its employees. Under the head of FURS in the supplement, some de- 
 tails of the Company's trade will be found. 
 
 The capital employed by the Company is £1,265,068, and consists of stock 
 standing in the names of the proprietors, £500,000; valuation of the Company's 
 lands and buildings, exclusive of Vancouver's Island and Oregon, £318,884. 
 Amount expended up to September 16, 1856, in sending miners and labourers 
 to Vancouver's Island, in the coal mines, and other objects of colonization, ex- 
 clusive of the trading establishments of the Company, and which amount will be 
 
HUB 157 IND 
 
 repayable by the Government if possession of the island is resumed, £81,071. 
 Amount invested in Fort Victoria and other establishments and posts in Van- 
 couver's Island, — this amount is not exactly ascertained,— estimated at £75,000. 
 Amount paid to the Earl of Selkirk for Red River Settlement, £85,111. Pro- 
 perty and investments in the territory of Oregon ceded to the United States by 
 the treaty of 1846, and which are secured to the Company as possessory rights 
 under the treaty, 1,000,000 dols.— say £200,000. The distribution of profits to the 
 shareholders for the years 1847 to 1856, both inclusive have been, — 1847, 10 per 
 cent, dividend; 1848, 10 per cent.; 1849, 10 per cent.; 1850, 20 per cent., of 
 which 10 percent, was added to stock; 1851, 10 per cent.; 1852, 15 per cent., of 
 which 5 per cent, was added to stocky 1853, £18. 4* 6d per cent., of which 
 £8. 4s6dwas added to stock; 1854, 10 per cent.; 1855, 10 per cent.; 1856, 
 10 per cent. The price of the stock, ex dividend, was — July, 1847, £200; 1848, 
 £200; 1849, £200; 1850, £210; 1851, £210; 1852, £215; 1853, £225; 
 1854, £210; 1855, £207^; 1856, £200; 1857, £192; 1859, £107; 1860,£190. 
 Out of 268 proprietors in July, 1856, 196 purchased their stock at from 220 to 
 240 per cent. 
 
 ICE has become an important article of trade in the United States, both for 
 home use and export. Our winters being short, we are also largely dependent 
 on foreign supplies. The exports from the United States to the West Indies, 
 India, and other colonies, is considerable. The city of Boston is the chief port 
 of shipment; 150,000 to 200,000 tons is sent annually from thence to the cities 
 of the Southern States, the West Indies, South America, and India. The cities 
 of New York and Philadelphia consume more than half a million tons annually. 
 In 1858 we imported as much as 10,831 tons of ice. 
 
 IMPORTS and EXPORTS. See COMMERCE. 
 
 INCOME AND PROPERTY TAX. In 1803 the real property assessed in 
 Great Britain was £967,284,000, in 1812 it was £1,143,216,000, and in 1842 it 
 had reached £1,820,000,000. The gross estimated rental of property assessed 
 to the poor-rate in England and Wales alone in 1856 was £86,077,676. Incomes 
 from trades and professions as assessed to the income-tax were in 1 8 1 2 £2 1 ,2 1 7,600, 
 in 1848, £56,990,000, and in 1858, £102,835,990. The amount of property 
 assessed to the property and income-tax in the United Kingdom in the year 
 ending 5th April, 1857, was £266,894,336. If we calculate this income to be 
 worth thirty years purchase, we shall have £80,006,830,000 of personal property 
 in the kingdom, exclusive of the property of all those who are stated to have 
 under £100 a-year income. 
 
 In 1854 the property tax was extended to incomes, and brought in £6,614,000 
 to the revenue. 
 
 The rates charged were as follows :— 
 
 Years ending 31st of March. 1857. 1858. 1859. I860. 
 
 On Incomes of and above £150 . Is. 4d. 7d. 5d. 9d. 
 
 On Incomes from £100 to £150 . ll^d. 5cL 5d- 5£d. 
 
 The gross produce of the Property and Income Tax has been as follows: — 
 
 Great Britain. Ireland. United Kingdom. 
 
 1856 . £14,223,900 £1,179,001 £15,402,901 
 
 1857 . . 15,161,282 1,223,212 16,3*4,494 
 
 1858 . 10,870,965 896,341 11,767,306 
 
 1859 . . 6,275,357 536,875 6,812,232 
 
 1860 . . 9,757,212 732,371 9,789,483 
 
 The total amount of incomes assessed to the tax in 1858 was £103,000,000. 
 
 In 1851 the property and income tax was continued to April, 1852, and rc- 
 imposed in 1852. In April, 1853, it was extended, at 5d. in the pound, to 
 incomes between £100 and £150, and also extended to Ireland. In April, 
 1854, the tax was doubled, and in 1855 increased on incomes of £150 and up- 
 wards 2d in the pound, and on incomes between £100 and £150 l^d in the 
 pound. In 1857 a reduction was made on incomes of £150 and upwards from 
 
IND 158 IND 
 
 Bd to Id in the pound, and between £100 and £150 from ll\d to 5d in the 
 pound. In 1858 the tax was reduced on incomes of £150 a year and upwards 
 to 5d in the pound. In 1859, in addition to the rate of 5d in the pound on all 
 incomes above £100 a year, further rates were imposed by the 22nd and 23rd 
 Vict. cap. 18, viz., Ad in the pound on incomes of £150 a year and upwards, a'. d 
 £d in the pound on incomes between £100 and £150 a year. 
 
 The profits of trade on which income tax was charged in the last year 
 (1858-59) was as follows:— 
 
 England - £73,444,000 
 
 Scotland - - - - 6,780,000 
 
 Ireland - 4,587,000 
 
 United Kingdom - - 84,811,000 
 
 In the year ending 5th April, 1859, the annual value of property assessed 
 under Schedule A amounted to £137,667,000. The number of persons in Great 
 Britain with incomes above £5,000 was in Schedule D 1359, and in Schedule E 
 70, and in Ireland under the two schedules 54 ; 55 of these individuals had each 
 incomes exceeding £50,000 a -year. 
 
 INDIA (BRITISH). — A recent Parliamentary Blue-book gives the following 
 as the area and population of the British territories in India: — 
 
 British States. 
 
 Bengal 
 Madras 
 Bombay 
 
 Total. 
 
 Area in Square Miles. 
 573,778 
 132,090 
 131,544 
 
 Population. 
 97,763,562 
 22,437,297 
 11,790,042 
 
 Bengal 
 Madras 
 Bombay 
 
 837,413 
 
 Native States. 
 
 515,533 
 51,802 
 60,575 
 
 131,990,901 
 
 38,702,206 
 5,213,671 
 4,460,370 
 
 
 627,910 
 
 48,376,247 
 
 Total of British and Native States 1,465,322 180,367,148 
 
 The revenue of India (in India) in 1856-57 was £31,691,015, and the 
 expenditure £28,079,202, leaving a surplus of £3,611,813. The home charge, 
 however, swept off £3,529,673, thus reducing the net surplus to £82,140. 
 Land yielded a revenue of £17,722,170 ; excise, £45,685; sayer and akbarry, 
 £1,441,197 ; and moturpha, £108,418 ; the Mint yielded £262,409 ; Post- 
 office, £183,325; stamps, £622,165; customs, £2,092,644; salt, £2,685,574; and 
 opium, £5,002,400. These were the gross receipts, afterwards reduced, more 
 or less, by charges of collection, &c. The expenditure in India included 
 £2,546,023 (net) for judicial and police charges, £10,795,788 for military 
 charges, £491,186 for marine and pilotage, and £2,240,590 for the interest of 
 debt. The public debt of British India, including the bond debt in England, is 
 £59,461,969, paying an interest of £2,396,084. The bond debt in England 
 figures for £3,915,317. In 1856-57 41,235 vessels of 4,549,278 tons entered 
 and cleared at ports in India. 6949 vessels were European and 34,286 native. 
 The imports into British India in 1856-57 are valued at £28,608,284, and the 
 exports at £26,591,877. Of the imports Bengal took £14,172,485; Madras, 
 £2,540,739; and Bombay, £11,895,060. In the list of importing (into India) 
 countries, the United Kingdom figures for £16,739,897 (or more than one-half 
 of the whole imports); France, for £1,059,507; Suez, for £4,260,725, and 
 China for £2,071,894. All other countries are under £1,000,000. Penang, 
 Singapore, and Malacca are rated at £889,360, and Australia at about £537,000. 
 America makes a very poor figure, only £153,377. From England were im- 
 ported £1,154,540 worth of cotton twist and yarn, £4,835,957 of cotton piece 
 
IND 159 IND 
 
 goods, £607,464 of military stores, and £825,634 of manufactured metals. All 
 the cotton goods are, as may be anticipated, supplied by England. It must be 
 explained that of the total imports of £28,608,284, about one-half consists of 
 merchandise/and the other of" treasure," in the shape of the precious metals, 
 gold and silver. The exports (£26,591,877) include only £1,233,426 worth of 
 treasure. Bengal exports, £13,443,967; Madras, £2,407,906; and Bombay, 
 £10,740,004. Great Britain is a customer for £10,635,607; the Americas, for 
 £1,380,103; the Arabian and Persian Gulfs, for £1,139,523; Ceylon, for 
 £1,069,320; China, for £8,016,684; and France, for £1,441,736. The exports 
 include £4,437,949 of raw cotton (£3,412,200 to England), £2,025,058 of dye 
 stuffs, £2,587,456 of grain (only £811,270 to England), £7,056,630 of opium, 
 £1,118,654 of seeds, about £1,000,000 of raw and manufactured silk, and 
 £1,786,077 of sugar and candy. The exports of opium are steadily increasing. 
 £6,505,587 worth of opium is exported to China, the great consumer of this in- 
 valuable narcotic, £18,785 to New South Wales, £531,219 to Penang, Singa- 
 pore, and Malacca, and £1039 to "other countries." The actual quantities of 
 the principal articles exported from India are as follows, viz.: — 319,653 lbs. of 
 raw'cotton, 2.181,660 qrs. of wheat, 9,383,925 gunnies and bags, 10,897,930 lbs. 
 of indigo (value £1,937,907), 637,416 cwts.of jute, 72,385 chests of opium (value 
 £7,056,630) 28,305,712 qrs. of rice (value £2,301,182), 693,827 cwt. of saltpetre, 
 or nitrate of soda, 2,142,403 cwt. of seeds, 16,602 pieces of Cashmere shawls 
 (value £290,640), 1,756,778 lb. of raw silk, 1,568,571 cwt. of sugar, and 17,253 
 cwt. of tallow; about 820,000 lbs. of tea and 18,434,666 lbs. of wool. 
 
 The declared value of the aggregate of British produce and manufactures ex- 
 ported to India in 1858 amounted to £18,283,852, and the value of the exports 
 to China and Hong Kong to £2,876,447. The exports to India included 
 £9,389,419 of cotton goods, £1,969,227 of cotton yarn, £121,385 of woollen and 
 worsted stuffs, and £489,789 of woollen manufactures. In 1814 the aggregate 
 value of our exports to India was, instead of £18,283,852, only £2,113,473, and 
 in 1826 it was only £3,662,012. In 1840 it had risen to £6,023,192; in 1853 to 
 £8,185,695; and in 1854 to £10,025,469; so that in the space of four years an 
 increase to the amount of £8,000,000 took place. The value of the exports to 
 China in 1827 was £610,637; it is now upwards of £2,500,000. The foreign pro- 
 duce exported to India in 1858 was valued at £660,823, and that to China at 
 £89, 122 only. The imports of foreign produce and manufactures into the United 
 Kingdom from India in 1858 were valued at £17,407,185, and the imports from 
 China at £7,043,089, including £5,036,293 of tea and £1,836,645 of silk. Opium 
 figures lurgelyin the trade between India and China. In 1857-8, 37,353 chests 
 of opium, valued at £4,615,630, were exported from India to Hong Kong, 
 and 30,651 chests, valued at £3,625,402, to other ports in China. The total 
 value of the exports of all goods from India to China in 1857-8 was £5,180,496 
 to Hong Kong, £4,186,341 to the rest of China; total £9,366,837. The total 
 value of imports into India from China was £915,858. 
 
 The following is a septennial review of the exports of Cotton, Sugar, Bum 
 and Coffee from India to Great Britain: — 
 
 Year. Cotton. Sugar. Rum. Coffee. 
 
 lbs. cwts. gala. lbs. 
 
 1831 ... 25,805,153 185,579 2,828 7,547,390 
 
 1838 ... 40,217,734 588,465 53,309 7,785,964 
 
 1845 ... 58,437,426 1,340,678 713,221 21,647,481 
 
 1851 ... 84,923,022 1,306,450 298,966 38,530,010 
 
 1858 ... 132,722,626 794,891 241,403 46,752,271 
 
 Perhaps the statement of the increase of tonnage is the most striking. The 
 number of ships nearly doubled in the three years ending 1st May, 1857. 
 
 Entered. Cleared. 
 
 Tons. Tons. 
 
 1854-55 1,637,379 1,614,877 
 
 1855-56 2,077,137 2,129,069 
 
 1856-57 2,206,932 2,344,348 
 
IND 
 
 160 
 
 IND 
 
 The aggregate value of the trade (imports and exports) of India now averages 
 about £37,500,000 sterling, and the revenue £25,000,000. This is exclusive 
 of specie. 
 
 The Custom House returns from 1834 to 1857 show that £94,517,189 of trea- 
 sure (silver bullion and coin) have been landed in India, and of that sum only 
 £18,162,794 have been re-exported, leaving a balance in India of £76,354,395; 
 and of this sum no less than £66,224,174 passed through the mints of 
 Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, and was converted into Company's rupees. It 
 is asserted by many that the silver is hoarded, but the owners would scarcely 
 have paid seigniorage, and had the silver melted and converted into rupees for 
 the sake of hoarding; and it is more than probable that it was wanted to pay for 
 the annual enormously-increased production of indigo, sugar, oil seeds, lac dye, 
 &c. &c. ; improving, therefore, the means of the cultivators. If the period between 
 1800 and 1835 be taken into consideration, the probability is, that about 
 £150,000,000 sterling of silver have remained in India, realizing, even at this 
 day, the assertion of Pliny, that India is the sink of the precious metals. In- 
 deed, it is currently believed that the aggregate of silver in circulation, or held 
 in India, exceeds £400,000,000. 
 
 The trade of India, although now large, is capable of very great extension. 
 The supplies of Indian cotton to this country have risen to an average, in the 
 last four years, of 186,500,000 lbs., and are progressively increasing, owing to 
 the enhanced demand for this raw material. Large quantities of wool are also 
 now shipped from Northern India, and the other chief exports are hemp, jute, 
 and other vegetable fibres in immense quantities; oil-seeds, pepper, nutmegs, 
 ginger, cardamoms, and other spices; horns, hides, and skins; rice, to the extent 
 of 178,580 tons; indigo, madder, turmeric, and other valuable dye-stuffs; teak 
 wood, silk, and silk manufactures, drugs, sugar, tea, wax, &c. From the vast 
 extent of country and climate, and the industry of the people, now peace and 
 confidence are restored, there is no reason why the productive resources and re- 
 venue of India should not be largely increased, and the trade with England 
 and China be more extensively developed. It will be seen by the following 
 summary that, even under the disadvantages of the lately disturbed state of 
 Bengal, the trade has made great progress. 
 
 Value op the Imports and Exports to and prom British India 
 in Quinquennial Periods. 
 
 Average of 
 
 Five Years, 
 
 ending 
 
 Imports of Merchandise. 
 
 Imports of Specie. 
 
 From United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 From other 
 Countries. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1839 
 1844 
 1849 
 1854 
 1859 
 
 £3,272,946 
 5,489,128 
 6,430,413 
 8,118,828 
 
 12,090,651 
 
 £1,697,672 
 2,202,300 
 2,705,713 
 2,637,305 
 3,275,342 
 
 £4,970,618 
 7,691,428 
 9,136,126 
 10,756,134 
 15,365,993 
 
 £2,345,335 
 2,762,164 
 3.073,250 
 4,474,107 
 
 11,223,10 
 
 Average of 
 
 Five Years, 
 
 ending 
 
 Exports of Merchandise. 
 
 Exports of Specie. 
 
 To United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 To other 
 Countries. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1839 
 1844 
 1849 
 
 1854 
 1859 
 
 £4,162,945 
 6,745,236 
 6,457,407 
 6,782,153 
 8,782,400 
 
 6,908,584 
 7,014,533 
 9,217,637 
 8,117,441 
 13,405,336 
 
 £11,071,530 
 13.789,770 
 15,675,044 
 14,899,594 
 22,187,736 
 
 £251,069 
 462,791 
 
 1,320,503 
 646,470 
 850,601 
 
IND 
 
 161 
 
 IND 
 
 Quantities of the principal Articles op the Produce and Manu- 
 facture of India Imported into the United Kingdom. 
 (Continued from page 378.) 
 
 
 1840. 
 
 1845. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1858. 
 
 Cotton, Raw 
 
 cwts. 
 
 678,606 
 
 521,762 
 
 1,061,364 
 
 1,281,131 
 
 1,155 346 
 
 Cotton Goods 
 
 pieces 
 
 349,961 
 
 213,901 
 
 114,472 
 
 189,340 
 
 113,480 
 
 Silk, Raw 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1,108,465 
 
 1,723,298 
 
 1,569,995 
 
 877,364 
 
 577,528 
 
 Silk, Manufactured 
 
 pieces 
 
 556,591 
 
 737.928 
 
 709,252 
 
 407,497 
 
 181,257 
 
 Indigo . 
 
 cwts. 
 
 62,000 
 
 87,910 
 
 60,949 
 
 55,405 
 
 55,629 
 
 Shellac 
 
 cwts. 
 
 25,256 
 
 22,412 
 
 20,244 
 
 20,822 
 
 17,949 
 
 Sugar 
 
 cwts. 
 
 498,730 
 
 1,340,659 
 
 1,382,906 
 
 742,020 
 
 775,899 
 
 Pepper 
 
 lbs. 
 
 5,814,756 
 
 9,042,944 
 
 6,800,361 
 
 2,046,837 
 
 4,987,649 
 
 Saltpetre 
 
 cwts. 
 
 183,603 
 
 307,703 
 
 267,680 
 
 184,068 
 
 320,142 
 
 Rice, not in the husk . 
 
 cwts. 
 
 320,752 
 
 514,485 
 
 688,692 
 
 2,151,175 
 
 3,571,609 
 
 Cocoa-nut Oil 
 
 cwts. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 125,335 
 
 77,875 
 
 Hides - 
 
 No. 
 
 52,559 
 
 116,654 
 
 101 193 
 
 133,717 
 
 179,549 
 
 Skins, Goat and Sheep . 
 
 No. 
 
 74,696 
 
 94,163 
 
 90,799 
 
 618,947 
 
 1,500.897 
 
 Ivory 
 
 cwts. 
 
 2,312 
 
 3,974 
 
 3,467 
 
 2,599 
 
 5,096 
 
 Teak 
 
 loads 
 
 1,465 
 
 3,756 
 
 10,066 
 
 15,712 
 
 37,885 
 
 Value of Imports (including Treasure) at the Principal Ports in each 
 Presidency, by Sea, in each of the years ended 30th of April, 1855, 1856, 
 and 1857. 
 
 Ports. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1857. 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 Calcutta - - 
 Arracan - 
 
 Chittagong - - 
 Tenasserim Provinces 
 Balasore - - - 
 
 Total 
 
 Madras. 
 Fort St, George 
 Ganjam - 
 
 Vizagapatam - - 
 Rajamundry 
 
 South Arcot - - 
 Tanjore - 
 
 Madura - - 
 Tinnevelly 
 
 Malabar - - 
 Canara - 
 Masulipatam - - 
 
 Total 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 Bombay - • 
 
 Gogo - 
 
 Kurrachee - - 
 
 Mai wan - 
 
 Surat - - 
 
 Tarrapoor 
 
 Viziadroog - - 
 
 Total 
 
 £6.965,592 
 
 54,428 
 
 4,292 
 
 220,148 
 
 218 
 
 £13,180,394 
 
 30 667 
 
 2,837 
 
 124,652 
 
 £13,959,734 
 
 41,614 
 
 4,314 
 
 165,! 36 
 
 887 
 
 7,244,678 
 
 13,338,550 
 
 14,172,485 
 
 1,014,050 
 6,255 
 1,297 
 
 1,775 
 8,211 
 77,482 
 13,315 
 40,003 
 59,723 
 59,445 
 
 1,948,956 
 
 1,815 
 
 2,150 
 
 1,822 
 
 7,853 
 
 92.949 
 
 12,596 
 
 9,706 
 
 72,149 
 
 51,878 
 
 2,059,430 
 
 1,383 
 
 936 
 
 4,376 
 
 13,504 
 
 172,017 
 
 11,325 
 
 62,446 
 
 177,334 
 
 37,984 
 
 4 
 
 1,281,556 
 
 2,201,873 
 
 2,540,739 
 
 6,150,838 
 
 209 
 
 80,898 
 
 34 
 
 12,066 
 
 94 
 
 624 
 
 9,549,912 
 
 93 
 
 152,980 
 
 824 
 132 
 441 
 
 11,732,745 
 
 380 
 
 161,800 
 
 16 
 
 169 
 
 6,244,763 
 
 9,704,359 
 
 11,895,060 
 
 Total Value of Imports and Exports, including Treasure, of 
 British India, by Sea. 
 Years. Imports. 
 
 1841 . . £10,202,193 
 
 1842 . . . 9,629,901 
 
 1843 . . 11,046,894 
 
 Exports. 
 £13,822,070 
 14,342,294 
 13,767,621 
 
 Total 
 Average 
 
 30,878,988 
 10,292,996 
 
 41,931,985 
 13,977.328 
 
IND 
 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 
 162 
 
 Total imports and exports, £24,270,324. 
 £15,370,598 
 17,292,549 
 16,902,240 
 
 IND 
 
 Total 
 Average 
 
 49,565,387 
 16,521,796 
 
 £18,705,439 
 20,798,342 
 21,519,863 
 
 61,023,644 
 
 20,341,215 
 
 Total imports and exports, £36,863,011. 
 Per centage increase in ten years, 51.12. 
 
 Value of the Total Exports from each Presidency, by Sea, distinguishing 
 Merchandise and Treasure, in each of the years ended 30th of April, 
 1855, 1856, and 1857. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 Madras. 
 
 Merchan dise. 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 
 £10,655,850 
 12,936,800 
 12,914,542 
 
 £391,506 
 112,536 
 529,425 
 
 £11,047,416 
 13,049,336 
 13,433,967 
 
 £1,546,848 
 1,964,500 
 2,329,429 
 
 £521,814 
 70,730 
 
 78,477 
 
 £2,068,662 
 2,035,230 
 2,407,906 
 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 Total. 
 
 6,724,524 
 
 8,136,959 
 10,094,480 
 
 353,653 
 417,910 
 645,524 
 
 7,078,177 
 8,554,869 
 10,740,004 
 
 18,927,222 
 23,038,259 
 25,338,451 
 
 1,267,033 
 
 601,178 
 
 1,253,426 
 
 20,194,255 
 23,63<),435 
 26,591,877 
 
 Value of the Total Exports by Sea (including Treasure) from the Prin- 
 cipal Ports of each Presidency, in each of the years ended 30th of April, 
 1855, 1856, and 1857. 
 
 Ports. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1857. 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 
 
 
 Calcutta - 
 
 £10,266,838 
 
 £11,765,831 
 
 £12,830,768 
 
 Chittagong - - - 
 
 21,276 
 
 18,287 
 
 27,941 
 
 Balasore 
 
 45 
 
 298 
 
 291 
 
 Arracan - - 
 
 563,082 
 
 1,072,642 
 
 309,094 
 
 Tenasserim Provinces 
 
 Total - - 
 
 196,175 
 
 192,278 
 
 275,873 
 
 11,047,416 
 
 13,049,336 
 
 13,443,967 
 
 Madras. 
 
 
 
 
 Fort St. George (Madras) 
 
 1,048,609 
 
 874,276 
 
 1,106,388 
 
 Ganjam - 
 
 47,388 
 
 119,128 
 
 89,837 
 
 Vizagapatam 
 
 55,017 
 
 136,435 
 
 151,868 
 
 Rajahmundry 
 
 93,972 
 
 127,702 
 
 98,193 
 
 South Arcot 
 
 58,605 
 
 74,087 
 
 85,441 
 
 Tanjore - 
 
 252,929 
 
 312,327 
 
 314,951 
 
 Madura - - 
 
 56,027 
 
 40,553 
 
 34,725 
 
 Tinnevelly 
 
 195,232 
 
 97,811 
 
 276,606 
 
 Malabar - - - 
 
 133,814 
 
 133,540 
 
 126,400 
 
 Canara - 
 
 127,069 
 
 116,371 
 
 110,239 
 
 Masulipatam 
 
 Total 
 Bombay. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 13,258 
 
 2,068,662 
 
 2,035,230 
 
 2,407,906 
 
 
 
 
 Bombay 
 
 Gogo - - 
 
 7,047,432 
 283 
 
 8,519,780 
 
 10,708,551 
 
 Kurrachee 
 
 22,412 
 
 25,530 
 
 27,988 
 
 Surat - - 
 
 5,387 
 
 7,289 
 
 2,744 
 
 Trombay - 
 
 1,568 
 
 176 
 
 18 
 
 viziadroog - . - 
 Total 
 
 1,095 
 
 2,094 
 
 703 
 
 7,078,177 
 
 8,554,869 
 
 10,740,004 
 
IND 
 
 163 
 
 IND 
 
 Peoduce and Mantjfactuees of the Umted Kingdom Exported to India 
 
 1840-1858. 
 
 Years. 
 
 5-2 
 
 Cotton yarn. 
 
 Woollen and Wor- 
 sted Stuffs. 
 
 Woollen 
 
 anufactures 
 
 xclusive of 
 
 Stuffs). 
 
 S»5 
 
 21 
 
 Kgregate of 
 t is h Produce 
 d Manufac- 
 es Exported 
 to India. 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 S- 
 
 
 <&U 
 
 Declar'd 
 
 Quan- 
 
 Declar'd 
 
 Quan- 
 
 Declar'd 
 
 Declar'd 
 
 Declar'd 
 
 Declar'd 
 
 
 Value. 
 £. 
 
 tity. 
 Lbs. 
 
 Value. 
 
 tity. 
 
 Value. 
 £. 
 
 Value. 
 £. 
 
 Value. 
 £. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 £. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 £. 
 
 1840 
 
 3,025,656 16,013,708 
 
 847,530 
 
 63,422 
 
 122,784 
 
 168,254 
 
 1,858,968 
 
 6,023,192 
 
 1841 
 
 2, 766, 630 1 13,144,648 
 
 660,982 
 
 55,952 
 
 108,377 
 
 162,710 
 
 1,896,301 
 
 5,595,000 
 
 1842 
 
 2,515.397 12,050,839 
 
 545,075 
 
 34,924 
 
 79,926 
 
 130,577 
 
 1,898,918 
 
 5,169,888 
 
 1843 
 
 3,230,576 16,802,958 
 
 706,838 
 
 78,720 
 
 205,364 
 
 172,930 
 
 2,088,811 
 
 6,404,519 
 
 1844 
 
 3,763,962 22,084,132 
 
 1,024,230 
 
 96,120 
 
 194,620 
 
 244,022 
 
 2,463,832 
 
 7,695,666 
 
 1845 
 
 3,371,207116,823,846 
 
 839,216 
 
 41,086 
 
 86,452 
 
 230,028 
 
 2,176,875 
 
 6,703,778 
 
 1846 
 
 3,254,141 24,193,923 
 
 1,087,744 
 
 27,674 
 
 67,177 
 
 170,769 
 
 1,854,625 
 
 6,434,456 
 
 1847 
 
 2,434,082 15,688,997 
 
 744,453 
 
 23,949 
 
 50,094 
 
 192,881 
 
 2,048,595 
 
 5,470,105 
 
 1848 
 
 2,344.763 17,991,526 
 
 693,108 
 
 28,972 
 
 64,947 
 
 153,091 
 
 1,821,237 
 
 5,077,146 
 
 1849 
 
 3,501,891 22,193,700 
 
 874,947 
 
 36,901 
 
 73,785 
 
 153,030 
 
 2,200,621 
 
 6,803,274 
 
 1850 
 
 4,180,386 20,965,471 
 
 1,039,808 
 
 27,157 
 
 41,768 
 
 282,857 
 
 2,477,846 
 
 8,022,665 
 
 1851 
 
 4,415,182 25,734,C68 
 
 1,213,449 
 
 30,840 
 
 43,294 
 
 272,608 
 
 1,862,063 
 
 7,806 596 
 
 1852 
 
 4,288,374 24,802,091 
 
 1,070,068 
 
 26,944 
 
 41,449 
 
 199,521 
 
 1,753,495 
 
 7,352,907 
 
 1853 
 
 4,511,805 25,472,070 
 
 1,168,264 
 
 38,065 
 
 68,445 
 
 226,954 
 
 2,210,227 
 
 8,185,695 
 
 1854 
 
 5,921,449 26,531,939 
 
 1,230,766 
 
 30,279 
 
 55,558 
 
 327,646 
 
 2,490,550 
 
 10,025,969 
 
 1855 
 
 5,174,155 28,944,460 
 
 1,283,931 
 
 20,965 
 
 31,724 
 
 277,356 
 
 4,160,328 
 
 10,927,694 
 
 1856 
 
 5,509,050125,244,086 
 
 1,175,785 
 
 45,765 
 
 82,297 
 
 238,218 
 
 4,802,089 
 
 11,807,439 
 
 1857 
 
 5,786,471:29,027,859 
 
 1,147,379 
 
 50,271 
 
 84,168 
 
 437,772 
 
 5,623,863 
 
 13,079,653 
 
 1 1858 
 
 9,3S9,429 36,782,583 
 
 1,969,227 
 
 78,114 
 
 121,385 
 
 489,789 
 
 6,314,022 
 
 18,283,852 
 
 (Pari. Return, No. 38, Sess. 2, 1859.) 
 The total Declared Value of the Exports for some of these years differ from 
 those in the Annual Statements of the Trade and Navigation of the United King- 
 dom. 
 
 
 Exports from India to China.' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 siS*l 
 
 Manufactures 
 and Produce 
 
 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Opium. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 All other 
 Articles of 
 
 1 Va 
 u fa ( 
 
 Pn 
 rted 
 to ( 
 
 Imported 
 into India 
 
 
 
 
 
 Manufac- 
 ture and 
 Produce, 
 
 "iota 
 Man 
 and 
 Expo 
 India 
 
 from China. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 £. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 Chests. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 1836-37 
 
 31,375 
 
 3,934.459 
 
 ... 
 
 1,287 984 
 
 219,619 
 
 5,442,062 
 
 525,544 
 
 1837-38 
 
 26,484 
 
 2,904,284 
 
 ... 
 
 1,025,947 
 
 164,994 
 
 4,095,225 
 
 440,066 
 
 18:58-39 
 
 31,852 
 
 2,791,132 
 
 ... 
 
 1,253,555 
 
 210,455 
 
 4,255,142 
 
 461,005 
 
 1839-40 
 
 3,948 
 
 191,422 
 
 ... 
 
 696,803 
 
 116,314 
 
 1,004,539 
 
 201,188 
 
 1840-41 
 
 17,839 
 
 1,267,887 
 
 ... 
 
 707,839 
 
 200,933 
 
 2,176,659 
 
 629,272 
 
 1841-42 
 
 25,695 
 
 1,839,401 
 
 
 822,013 
 
 215,380 
 
 2,883,794 
 
 566,805 
 
 1842-43 
 
 30,108 
 
 2,820,352 
 
 ... 
 
 1,377,630 
 
 193,960 
 
 4,397,492 
 
 572,362 
 
 1843-44 
 
 32,341 
 
 4,229,542 
 
 
 1,279,164 
 
 216,080 
 
 5,724,786 
 
 638,985 
 
 1844-45 
 
 29,594 
 
 4,133,591 
 
 
 1,181,459 
 
 237,031 
 
 5,552,081 
 
 804,316 
 
 lMlo-413 
 
 40,965 
 
 5,541.735 
 
 
 820,620 
 
 146,341 
 
 6,508,696 
 
 733,514 
 
 1846-47 
 
 38,057 
 
 4,271,320 
 
 
 863,504 
 
 97,158 
 
 5,231.982 
 
 666,892 
 
 1847-48 
 
 34,349 
 
 3,507,804 
 
 62,196,060 
 
 626,120 
 
 108,920 
 
 4,241,844 
 
 1,014,595 
 
 1848-49 
 
 49,262 
 
 5,345,719 
 
 96,119,905 
 
 1,013,512 
 
 167,059 
 
 6,526,290 
 
 831,301 
 
 1849-50 
 
 47,509 
 
 5,543,588 
 
 52,445,222 
 
 741,504 
 
 116,754 
 
 6,401,846 
 
 809,801 
 
 1850-51 
 
 48,030 
 
 5,074,078 
 
 77,050,629 
 
 1,100,364 
 
 118,093 
 
 6,352,535 
 
 989,369 
 
 1851-52 
 
 58,089 
 
 6,082,307 
 
 160,717,651 
 
 2,291,926 
 
 148,784 
 
 8,523,017 
 
 924,159 
 
 1852-53 
 
 56,412 
 
 6,470,916 
 
 75,571,742 
 
 1,026,444 
 
 122,959 
 
 7,620,319 
 
 866,943 
 
 1853-54 
 
 60,054 
 
 5,802,469 
 
 55,777,008 
 
 808,570 
 
 93,695 
 
 6,704,734 
 
 810,337 
 
 1854-55 
 
 69,910 
 
 5,684,978 
 
 45,893,923 
 
 639, 143 
 
 121,013 
 
 6,445,134 
 
 915,049 
 
 1855-56 
 
 63,427 
 
 5,592,532 
 
 56,691,112 
 
 810,628 
 
 189,793 
 
 6,592,953 
 
 787,717 
 
 1856-57 
 
 66,305 
 
 6,505,586 
 
 48,784,561 
 
 715,852 
 
 347,546 
 
 7,568,984 
 
 599,672 
 
 1857-58 
 
 68,004 
 
 8,241,032 
 
 20,524,119 
 
 393,493 
 
 732,312 
 
 9,366,837 
 
 915,858 
 
IND 
 
 164 
 
 IND 
 
 Declared Value of Articles, the Produce or Manufacture of the 
 United Kingdom, Exported to British India. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1845. 
 
 1850. 
 £. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1858. 
 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 Apparel - 
 
 90,744 
 
 109,328 
 
 119,761 
 
 119,847 
 
 217,502 
 
 Arms, ammunition 
 
 103,133 
 
 235,654 
 
 75,327 
 
 21,041 
 
 173, C 07 
 
 Beer and ale - 
 
 110,747 
 
 167,483 
 
 126,917 
 
 458,319 
 
 655,759 
 
 Cotton manufactures 
 
 3,025,656 
 
 3,371,207 
 
 3,703,468 
 
 4,630,945 
 
 8,499,934 
 
 „ Twist and yarn 
 
 847,530 
 
 839,216 
 
 1,005,345 
 
 1,212,029 
 
 1,835,142 
 
 Glass manufactures 
 
 104,628 
 
 103,961 
 
 58,165 
 
 102,250 
 
 93,194 
 
 Iron and steel 
 
 302,349 
 
 158,021 
 
 343,918 
 
 1,242,853 
 
 1,902,157 
 
 Hardware and cutlery - 
 
 93,644 
 
 119,896 
 
 120,184 
 
 137,848 
 
 251,831 
 
 Copper wrought and unwrought - 
 
 373,876 
 
 451,197 
 
 574,160 
 
 364,833 
 
 680,170 
 
 Machinery and engines 
 
 66,057 
 
 91,838 
 
 48,232 
 
 404,906 
 
 353,803 
 
 Linen manufactures 
 
 63,750 
 
 61,158 
 
 39,788 
 
 56,954 
 
 19,498 
 
 Woollen manufactures - 
 
 291,036 
 
 316,950 
 
 293,692 
 
 277,550 
 
 541,745 
 
 Other articles - 
 
 550,042 
 
 677,809 
 
 733,237 
 
 939,779 
 9,949,154 
 
 1,478,644 
 
 Total 
 
 6,023,192 
 
 6,703,778 
 
 7,242,194 
 
 16,782,386 
 
 In the total exports and imports, including treasure, the three Presidencies 
 share in the following manner: — 
 
 Value. — 1853. 
 imports. 
 
 Calcutta 
 
 Madras 
 
 Bombay 
 
 Total 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 £4,993,675 
 
 840,532 
 
 4,236,656 
 
 10,070,863 
 
 Treasure. 
 
 £3,393,987 
 
 576.854 
 
 2,860,536 
 
 6,831,377 
 
 Total 
 
 £8,387,662 
 
 1,417,386 
 
 7,307,192 
 
 16,902,240 
 
 Calcutta 
 Madras 
 Bombay 
 
 Total 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 £10,738,555 
 2,121,614 
 7,604,464 
 
 20,464,633 
 
 Treasure. 
 £476,375 
 
 542,473 
 1,055,230 
 
 Total. 
 £11,214,930 
 2,157,996 
 8,146,937 
 
 21,519,863 
 
 The vegetable and animal products of India form at present the principal 
 sources of the industrial pursuits of the inhabitants, and of the wealth of India. 
 
 The cultivation of silk receives a good deal of attention from the natives, but 
 the best qualities are the produce of European establishments. The silk is 
 classed into two bunds — namely, the rainy and the dry weather bunds; the name 
 being derived from the season in which it is obtained. The inferior qualities of 
 silk are generally used by local manufacturers; the better qualities are almost 
 wholly shipped to Europe. This most valuable product is capable of great ex- 
 tension and improvement. If its production were more carefully attended to, it 
 might rival the finest silks of Italy. There is no doubt that, with continued at- 
 tention, the Punjaub will soon rival Bengal in the production of this important 
 staple. The raw silks from Burmah, and some from Assam, are of a peculiar 
 coarseness, yet the length and strength of the thread are such as to render this 
 silk peculiarly adapted for the manufacturing of fringes. Experiments made in 
 France with this silk will no doubt lead in a short time to the exportation of 
 large quantities to Europe. Bengal exported in the year 1851-52 raw silk to 
 the amount of 16,212 maunds, valued at 6,302,806 rupees, and in 1856-7, 
 1,756,778 lbs. 
 
 Saltpetre is manufactured chiefly by natives. It constitutes a very important 
 part of the export trade of India, being shipped to Europe and to the United 
 States in large quantities. The quantity exported is about 700,000 maunds an- 
 nually, value between forty and fifty millions of rupees. Taking the maund at 
 84 lbs. 4 oz., this gives about 59,000,000 of lbs. of saltpetre. Jute has of late 
 
IND 165 IND 
 
 become one of the most important articles of export. Ten years ago the quantity- 
 exported was very trifling. Since that time the consumptive demand, both in 
 Europe and America, has increased so rapidly that the quantity now exported is 
 enormous. In the year ending May, 1851, the quantity exported was 793,299 
 maunds, valued at 1,970,715 rupees. The export has since nearly doubled, 
 in 1857, 673,416 cwts. were shipped, and there is every probability that the 
 quantity produced will annually increase. See Jute. 
 
 Shell lac and lac dye, the production of which is annually on the increase, are 
 important articles of export. The forests of Assam — indeed, of most parts of 
 India — furnish an almost unlimited quantity of the insect known as Coccus lacca, 
 from which lac dye and shell lac are prepared. Stick lac is the lac insect with 
 its resinous covering on the branches of the trees on which it was produced; 
 seed lac is the insect and resin separated from the wood; lac dye is the colouring 
 matter of the insect ; shell lac is the resin separated by melting and straining. 
 In the year ending May, 1851, the quantity of shell lac exported from Bengal 
 was 48,922 maunds, valued at 421,936 rupees; of lac dye, 46,289 maunds, valued 
 at 925,396 rupees. In 1857, 49,475 cwts. were shipped of the value of £ 1 05,575. 
 
 Of seeds cultivated for their oil, Bengal furnishes a great variety, several of 
 which are exported in considerable quantities to Europe and America. The 
 principal seeds grown for oil are flax, rape, mustard, and castor oil beans. Oil 
 seeds exported in the year ending May, 1855, amounted to 271,449 maunds. 
 Recently very large exports have been made to England of linseed, the high 
 price in England stimulating the trade. The quantity of castor oil exported 
 averages about 71,071 maunds, valued at 710,709 rupees. 2,142,403 cwts. ot 
 oil seeds were shipped from India in the year ending 30th April, 1857, valued at 
 £1,118,654. 
 
 Cotton is generally cultivated all over India. The local consumption is very- 
 great; it has been estimated as high as 20 lbs. annually for each individual, while 
 other estimates reduce the quantity to 5 lbs. per head. In forming an estimate of 
 the local demand, it is necessary to bear in mind that cotton takes the place of 
 hemp, flax, hair, and wool, for all the purposes to which these are applied in 
 Europe. The production of cotton is, therefore, very great. Taking the popu- 
 lation at 162 millions, this gives, at 20 lbs. per head, 3240 million lbs., and at 5 lbs. 
 810 million lbs. A portion is also exported, cotton being one of the staple articles 
 of export to China and Great Britain. 
 
 The exports of cotton from Bengal in the year ending May, 185 1, were 281,230 
 maunds, valued at 2,812,629 rupees. The great proportion from that Presidency 
 goes to China. In the year ending 1854 — 
 
 To England. Other Parts, 
 
 lbs. lbs. 
 
 Bengal exported . 
 
 2 065,056 
 
 12,031,152 
 
 Madras exported 
 
 3,721,984 
 
 3,485,032 
 
 Bombay exported . 
 
 . 127,396,389 
 
 44,062,152 
 
 Forming an export to Great Britain and elsewhere, from India, of 195,278,720 
 lbs. of cotton— equal to nearly 2,325,000 maunds. 
 
 Rice may be said to occupy the greatest breadth of any one of the cultivated 
 plants in the south of India. Notwithstanding local consumption by nearly 
 every inhabitant of the lower parts of the country, the quantities exported are 
 very considerable. There is a common error in reference to the place rice occu- 
 pies in the food of the native population of India. This error has led to others. 
 There can be no greater mistake than to suppose that the population subsist 
 mainly on rice. More properly speaking, the principal article of food is wheat 
 and millet, especially in Upper India, where rice is only partaken of as a 
 luxury. " A rice-eating coward" is a term of reproach in India. In the lower 
 parts of Bengal, and, consequently, more under the eye of Europeans, the prin- 
 cipal food is rice; but in the more remote parts, and particularly in some parts 
 of Upper India, wheaten bread is the staple food of the people, and the breadth 
 under wheat exceeds that of any other crop. Even in those districts where rice 
 
IND 166 INti 
 
 forms the principal article of diet, oil, milk, ghee, and the seeds of the leguminous 
 plants, supply those elements of nutrition in which rice is mainly deficient. 
 
 India supplies rice for the Mauritius, Bourbon, and other European colonies 
 in the Indian Ocean, where the native population subsist mainly upon rice. 
 Large quantities are also shipped to Europe ; England and France taking 
 the greater part. The shipment is confined to the principal qualities, although 
 India produces not less than 150 different kinds of rice. In the year ending 
 May, 1851, Bengal exported — 
 
 Maunds. 
 
 Rice 
 
 Wheat . 
 
 Grain 
 
 Dholl and Peas 
 
 Oats 
 
 Paddy . 
 
 Flour 
 
 3,597,859 
 
 222,208 
 
 71,326 
 
 78,530 
 
 14,610 
 
 1,145 
 
 5,611 
 
 3,991,292 
 Valued at 4,408,392 rupees. 
 
 Wheat, barley, oats, flax, sesamum, poppy, and all the pulses, are winter crops 
 gathered in spring. Rice is sometimes taken twice in Southern India — first 
 sown in May, reaped in the month of July, the land re-sown in August and 
 reaped in November. In Northern India, rice and millet are sown in May or 
 June, and reaped in August or September. 
 
 Of the countries which trade with India, after our own, China is pre-eminent. 
 The total value of the trade, import and export, between India and China, in- 
 clusive of bullion, was as follows: — 
 
 Value of Imports. Value of Exports. 
 
 1848 
 
 £2,050,937 
 
 £2,595,444 
 
 1853 
 
 £3,297,751 
 
 £4,348,857 
 
 1849 
 
 3,940,363 
 
 6,283,614 
 
 1854 
 
 1,402,101 
 
 1,424,778 
 
 1850 
 
 3,134,717 
 
 3,866,108 
 
 1855 
 
 1,287,678 
 
 6,633,959 
 
 1851 
 
 2,836,653 
 
 3,746,604 
 
 1856 
 
 2,528,066 
 
 6,663,004 
 
 1852 
 
 3,231,952 
 
 4,582,172 
 
 1857 
 
 2,071,894 
 
 8,016,684 
 
 Value of Imports. Value of Exports. 
 
 The trade of no other countiy with India approximates to that of China. 
 Next in value as to imports is " Arabia and the Persian Gulf." Between 
 1848 and 1857 the value varied from £912,996 to £1,096,202. And then 
 follows " Singapore and the Malacca Straits," the value of the imports from 
 which varied in the same period between £875,644 and £915,725. For exports, 
 Singapore stands second to Arabia and the Persian Gulf. The value of the 
 domestic produce of India exported thither ranged between 1848 and 1857 from 
 £45,366 to £985,128, while the value of the exports to Arabia varied 
 between £260,139 and £1,072,098. 
 
 Value of the Trade between British India and Australia. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1848 
 
 £8,475 
 
 £4,312 
 
 1853 
 
 £294,917 
 
 £106,450 
 
 1849 
 
 12,512 
 
 8,582 
 
 1854 
 
 391,344 
 
 216,837 
 
 1850 
 
 63,938 
 
 11,881 
 
 1855 
 
 202,391 
 
 138,084 
 
 1851 
 
 114,183 
 
 13,485 
 
 1856 
 
 382,186 
 
 143,193 
 
 1852 
 
 178,787 
 
 39,102 
 
 1857 
 
 536,274 
 
 184,096 
 
 The increased prosperity of the colonies shows itself in the trade to India as 
 well as in the trade to England. 
 
 Trade of the Principal Ports — Calcutta. 
 It is scarcely necessary to give a detailed account of the trade of every sub- 
 sequent year since 1841 for Calcutta. The value of the merchandise imported 
 there in 1852-53 was 486,90,452 rupees, and in 1853-54 5,58,98,251 rupees. 
 These figures may be readily turned into pounds sterling by striking oft" 
 the last figure. The ships and tonnage which entered the river with thesa 
 imports were 618 vessels and 305,409 tons. The gross amount of exports, 
 
IKD 167 IND 
 
 excluding specie, was in 1852-53 Rs. 11,18,36,891, and in 1853-54 only Rs. 
 10,67,70,907, a decrease of Rs. 50,65,000. Of this amount, however, thirty-two 
 lakhs arose from the diminished price of opium. During 1853-54, the increased 
 production did not pay. The 36,178 chests offered for sale in the previous year 
 were purchased for Rs. 4,02,00,944, while the 40,787 chests of 1853-54 fetched 
 only Rs. 3,69,02,087, The export of indigo increased by seventeen lakhs, of 
 saltpetre by 6^ lakhs, of rice by fourteen, of silk by 13f , of hides by Rs. 
 3,86,192, and of jute by Rs. 4,27,805. The export of all the remaining staples 
 of Bengal declined, that of cotton having fallen by Rs. 20,77,380, sugar by 
 seventy lakhs of rupees, gunny cloth by 6 lakhs, and linseed by nearly five. 
 
 The subsequent annual reports of the trade of Calcutta display the growing 
 importance of its trade. The total movement for 1855-56 shows an increase of 
 more than £8,000,000 sterling. 
 
 Imports. Exports. Total. 
 
 1854-55 ... ... Rs. 7,27,30,898 11,92,64,707 19,19,95.605 
 
 1855-56 ... ... „ 13,87,08,627 13,75,20,997 27,62,29,624 
 
 Increase ... 6,59,77,729 1,82,56,240 8,42,34,019 
 
 Of this amount £5,810,000 consisted of specie imported within the year. 
 What becomes of this vast mass of bullion it would be difficult to say. It is 
 quite clear that a fifth of it is not exported by sea. It is almost certain that it 
 does not cross the frontier. It must, therefore, remain in the country, but 
 though the process has gone on for years there is no perceptible increase of the 
 circulation. Many officials, to whom this mass of bullion is as great a puzzle as 
 it seems to be to the economist, believe that the bulk of the money is turned into 
 ornaments by the artisans and shopkeepers. That class which in India is wholly 
 untaxed accumulates money rapidly, and this is its only idea of permanent in- 
 vestment. The quantity of ornaments possessed by families of weavers, oil 
 dealers, braziers, and goldsmiths, is sometimes astonishing. For instance, in a 
 case tried in an interior court, it appeared that the plaintiff, a common workman, 
 had borrowed £50 on the security of his wife's jewels. That is exactly 
 as if a Spitalfields weaver possessed watches and rings to the value of three 
 years' wages. 
 
 The value of bullion received into the Calcutta Mint during the last five years 
 was as follows:— ■ 
 
 Gold. Silver. 
 
 1853-4 ... £101,190 ... £1,436,617 
 
 1854-5 ... 10,885 ... 127,862 
 
 1855-6 ... 203,205 ... 4,536,314 
 
 1856-7 ... 118,066 .. 5,478,257 
 
 1857-8 ... 48,657 ... 6,054,969 
 
 The great increase in exports in 1855-56 was in the following articles: — 
 
 
 Increase. 
 
 
 Increase. 
 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 Indigo 
 
 55,44,000 
 
 Gunny bags and cloth 
 
 10,21,000 
 
 Rice ... 
 
 47,00,000 
 
 Jute .. 
 
 9,97,000 
 
 Silk ... 
 
 15,81,000 
 
 Mustard seed 
 
 16,84,000 
 
 Silk piece goods ... 
 
 9,06,000 
 
 
 
 The trade in the last named article has sprung up almost entirely within a 
 year, and has reached a total exceeding 32,660 tons. The increase in imports, 
 specie excluded, was chiefly in machinery (£750,000) and piece goods 
 (£170,000). The former fact proves nothing, as the machines are chiefly 
 locomotives, but the latter indicates the increasing comfort of the people. 
 
 The tables on the next page give the latest returns of the trade of Bengal. 
 
IND 
 
 168 
 
 IND 
 
 Statement of some of the Leading Articles of Export from Calcutta 
 during the years ending July, 1856 and 1857. 
 
 
 
 Great Britain. 1 France. 
 
 North America. 
 
 00 a 
 
 00 \'S1 
 
 39 
 
 
 OJ - 
 
 Produce. 
 
 
 
 a a3<ilg ^3^ 
 
 a a so 
 
 a a sn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sf*S 
 
 Sa-^2 E^^S 
 
 flS*s 
 
 Sls^S 
 
 « C3-S- 
 
 
 
 «»3 
 
 2 » '» 3 
 
 2"S 
 
 s * 
 
 2 "» 
 
 Sugar - 
 
 Tons 
 
 28,800 
 
 38,600 
 
 2,956 
 
 1,178 
 
 3,438 
 
 900 
 
 Rum - 
 
 Gals. 
 
 294,800 
 
 390,970 
 
 117,653 
 
 74,610 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 Saltpetre 
 
 Tons 
 
 11,300 
 
 12,800 
 
 3,790 
 
 4,327 
 
 10,777 
 
 13,126 
 
 Raw silk 
 
 Lb. 
 
 724,800 
 
 963,100 
 
 146,964 
 
 37,148 
 
 1,036 
 
 None 
 
 Corahs - 
 
 Pieces 
 
 130,580 
 
 517,380 571 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 5,640 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Tons 
 
 10,580 
 
 10,380 None 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 Rice - 
 
 „ 
 
 29,000 
 
 46,600 9,018 
 
 4,208 
 
 9,933 
 
 6,872 
 
 Hides - 
 
 Pieces 
 
 2,643,148 
 
 1,617,520' 354,070 
 
 61,294 
 
 490,585 
 
 362,391 
 
 Safflower 
 
 Tons 
 
 647 
 
 927 16 
 
 71 
 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 Jute 
 
 ii 
 
 17,300 
 
 25,450, 3,59C 
 
 2 671 
 
 7,753 
 
 4,060 
 
 Linseed 
 
 H 
 
 10,870 
 
 38,980 1,498 
 
 1,393 
 
 55,298 
 
 35,596 
 
 Mustard seed 
 
 „ 
 
 82,660 
 
 7,650. None 
 
 130 
 
 None 
 
 None 
 
 Cutch - 
 
 
 320 
 
 91 223 
 
 362 
 
 442 
 
 229 
 
 Lac dye 
 
 
 616 
 
 468 11 
 
 11 
 
 None 
 
 76 
 
 Indigo 
 
 Chests 
 
 14,600 
 
 20,500) 7,055 9,043 
 
 1,983 
 
 2,515 
 
 Value of the Principal Articles of Merchandise (domestic and foreign), 
 and of Treasure, exported from the Presidency of Bengal by Sea, distin- 
 guishing the Value thereof, to the United Kingdom in each of the years 
 ended 30th of April, 1855, 1856, and 1857. 
 
 
 Total Exports. 
 
 To United Kingdom. 
 
 Principal Articles. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1857. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1857. 
 
 Coffee - - 
 
 £7,077 
 
 8,881 9,053 
 
 3,350 
 
 137 
 
 429 
 
 Cotton, Raw 
 
 92,872 
 
 158,115 209,334 
 
 729 
 
 7,270 
 
 41,744 
 
 Cotton Goods, including Twist 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 and Yarn 
 
 52,893 
 
 31,194 52,536 
 
 15,017 
 
 1.450 
 
 5,352 
 
 Drugs - - 
 
 51,624 38,906 ; 57,452 
 
 28,542 
 
 24,300 
 
 46,215 
 
 Dyes 
 
 1,512,095 2,004,733 1,496,464 
 
 1,068,934 
 
 1,153,671 
 
 891,477 
 
 Grain - - 
 
 1,231,153 2,245,614 
 
 1,958,334 
 
 545,695 
 
 1,251,39c 
 
 721,913 
 
 Gums - 
 
 198 1,104 
 
 1,191 
 
 184 
 
 756 
 
 937 
 
 Gunnies and Bags 
 
 213,614 302,113 
 
 376,080 
 
 515 
 
 3,160 
 
 417 
 
 Hides and Skins 
 
 355,827! 372,248 
 
 497,935 
 
 173,639 
 
 220,273 
 
 252,742 
 
 Ivory and Ivory Ware 
 
 695 970 
 
 934 
 
 613 
 
 582 
 
 597 
 
 Jewellery and Precious Stones 
 
 14,416 8,580 22,929 
 
 6,679 
 
 1,049 
 
 17,537 
 
 Jute - 
 
 229,241 328,798 274,957 
 
 184,588 
 
 285,449 
 
 201,122 
 
 Lac and Lacquered Ware 
 
 92,130' 126,411 103,972 
 
 63,089 
 
 59,405 
 
 62,009 
 
 Oils - - 
 
 29,225 45,402| 52,726 
 
 17,178 
 
 24,509 
 
 30,454 
 
 Opium - 
 
 3,694,817 3,638,912; 3,818,804 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Saltpetre - - 
 
 457,714 423,489 540,325 
 
 187,095 
 
 278,013 
 
 226,834 
 
 Seeds - 
 
 644,089 824,099 
 
 577,875 
 
 444,191 
 
 589,812 
 
 212,708 
 
 Shawls - - 
 
 40,424 51,541 
 
 33,873 
 
 14,730 
 
 14,342 
 
 10,793 
 
 Silk, Raw - 
 
 460,309 671,588 
 
 687,666 
 
 446,720 
 
 641,118 
 
 562,094 
 
 „ Goods - - 
 
 248,577, 325,008 
 
 248,719 
 
 230,214 
 
 317,187 
 
 240,230 
 
 Spices - 
 
 5,357 15,548 
 
 18,326 
 
 13 
 
 5,537 
 
 6,384 
 
 Sugar and Sugar Candy 
 
 820,798 940,255 
 
 1,345,043 
 
 696,041 
 
 782,512 
 
 1,028,982 
 
 Tea - - 
 
 15,815 22,745 
 
 70,271 
 
 15,476 
 
 20,97 i ;> 
 
 69,585 
 
 Timber and Woods 
 
 115,577, 105,534 
 
 177,804 
 
 106,759 
 
 93,279 
 
 160,682 
 
 Wool, Raw - - 
 Principal and other Articles 
 
 35 — 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of Merchandise : - 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 
 
 Domestic Produce 
 
 10,545,772 12,810,513 
 
 12,786,703 
 
 4,331 457 
 
 5,841,506 
 
 4,847,927 
 
 Foreign „ 
 Total 
 
 110,078, 126,287 
 
 127,839 
 
 63 604 
 
 63,333 
 
 54,109 
 
 10,655,850 12,936,800 
 
 12,914,542 
 
 4,395,061 
 
 5,904,839 
 
 4,902,036 
 
 Treasure 
 Total Merchandise and Treasure 
 
 391,566, 112,536 
 
 529,425 
 
 39,405 
 
 — 
 
 4,530 
 
 11,047,416 13,049,336 
 
 13,443,967 
 
 4,434,466 
 
 5,904,839 
 
 4,906,566 
 
IND 169 IND 
 
 The subsequent supplies of rum, sugar, saltpetre, cotton, linseed, indigo, and 
 shellac from disaffected districts were much affected by the mutiny. The import 
 trade from Great Britain to Bengal was, however, but little affected, and the 
 trade returns for the years ending January 1857 and 1858 were about the same. 
 
 In exports from Calcutta, on the contrary, there was a great reduction. Thus 
 the shipments in the twelve months were • — 
 
 Year ending 31st Jan. 1857. Year ending 31st Jan. 1858. 
 
 Saltpetre, maunda ... ... 306,867 .. 299,231 
 
 Sugar, mds. ... ... ... 1,103,950 ... 291,779 
 
 Corahs, pieces ... ... ... 296,108 .. 122,230 
 
 Cotton, mds. ... ... ... 301,613 ... 261,750 
 
 Cotton to China ... .. 205,936 ... 11,323 
 
 Mustard seed, mds. ... ... 911,041 .. 589,803 
 
 Borax ... ... ... 30,098 ... 10,123 
 
 In other words the reduction in sugar was eighty per cent., in corahs more 
 than fifty per cent., in cotton more than forty-five per cent., in mustard seed forty 
 per cent., and in borax more than two-thirds. The produce of the North- West 
 declined more than a clear half, and the peasantry had to pay a fine equal to half 
 the profit of a year's trade for their own insensate apathy. Other articles in 
 which Bengal could supply the deficiencies created by the mutinies rose rapidly. 
 Thus during the same periods there were shipped — 
 
 1858. 
 
 1.698,981 
 
 990,899 
 
 35,822 
 
 16,983 
 
 2,661,295 
 
 61,661 
 
 760,523 
 
 13,205 
 
 11,515 
 
 This statement shews clearly that the reduction was due to the mutinies, and 
 not to any cause generally affecting Indian trade. 
 
 The nominal returns for subsequent years exhibit a slow but progressive in- 
 crease. Valule in rupees of 
 
 Year. Imports. Exports. TotaL 
 
 1855-56 13,87,08,627 13,75,20,947 27,62,29,574 
 
 1856-57 14.70.02,315 14,66,37,449 29,36,39,764 
 
 1857-58 15,21,45,131 14,24,07,413 29,45,52,544 
 
 1858-59 15,46.49,766 15,25,67,555 30,72,17,321 
 
 showing an increase in the total movement of trade of about a million and a 
 quarter. The trade of Calcutta and Bombay are now as nearly as possible 
 equal, and the entire trade of India, with Kangoon, but without Singapore and 
 Ceylon, exceeds seventy millions. In the last year of the Company's monopoly 
 it was not five. 
 
 The figures quoted by no means however represent the true position of the 
 Bengal trade. While the exports have increased from Rs. 13,38,10,495 in 1857- 
 58 and Rs. 11,92,74,707 in 1855-56 to Rs. 14,62,98,753 in 1858-9, the imports 
 have increased as follows : — 
 
 1855-56 - - Rs. 8,06,08,182 | 1857-58 - Rs. 7,40,74,244 
 
 1856-57 - - 8,02,41,782 | 1858-59 - - 10,37,78,305 
 
 an increase of twenty-two per cent, within four years. The addition is almost 
 entirely in the imports from Great Britain, which have risen from Rs. 5,23,84,514 
 in 1854-55, to rupees 8,25,53,754 in 1858-59. The most important items of in- 
 crease are 
 
 
 1857. 
 
 Rice, mannds 
 
 875,457 
 
 to Mauritius 
 
 991,080 
 
 Shell lac, mds. 
 
 22,644 
 
 Lac dye 
 
 15,857 
 
 Hides, pieces 
 
 785,159 
 
 Hemp, mds. 
 
 42,489 
 
 Linseed 
 
 258,564 
 
 Ginger 
 
 8,345 
 
 Cutch 
 
 1,037 
 
 
 Increase. | 
 
 1 Increase. 
 
 Cotton 
 
 R3. 10,37,928 
 
 1 White and grey cottons Rs. 1,72,28,679 
 
 Haberdashery 
 
 8,18,318 
 
 Ale - - - 15,00,821 
 
 Hardware - 
 
 5,99,185 
 
 Twist - - - 31,20,698 
 
 Copper 
 
 6,51,599 1 
 
 1 
 
 showing a new trade of two millions sterling with Manchester alone. 
 
IND 170 IND 
 
 In exports the greatest fluctuations were in 
 
 Increase. I Increase. 
 
 Silks - - Rs. 10,26,928 I Jute - - Rs. 21,49,089 
 
 Opium - - 42,85,474 I Linseed - - 20,81,914 
 
 Sugar - - 38,63,928 | Mustard seed - 14,84,683 
 
 The only article in which any decrease of importance occurred was rice, of 
 which there was exported less by half a million sterling than in the previous 
 year. The import of treasure was — 
 
 1854-55 - Ra 64,08,606 ■ Brought over Rs. 13,12,69,584 
 
 1855-56 - - 5,81,00,445 I 1857-58 - - 7,80,70,887 
 
 1856-57 - - 6,67,60,533 I 1858-59 - - 5,08,71,461 
 
 Carried over - 13,12,69,584 I Total - 26,93,11,932 
 
 Bombay. 
 Taking the returns of 1853-54, we find by comparison that there was an in- 
 crease on the average of the previous five years of 18 lakhs of rupees, or nearly 
 a million sterling in the exports from Bombay. The trade of the island has since 
 also increased with marvellous rapidity, having doubled in the last five years: — 
 
 Years. Imports. Exports. 
 
 1853-54 ... Rs. 8,43,83,626 Rs. 9,50,71,893 
 
 1854-55 ... 7,82,52,261 8,16,98,816 
 
 1855-56 ... 11,57,73,041 10,29,10,161 
 
 1857-58 ... 14,48,46,391 12,57,93,939 
 
 1858-59 ... 16,31,60,036 14,67,53,599 
 
 58,64,15,355 55,22,37,408 
 
 Five years' average value 11,72.83,071 11,04,47,481 
 
 Value for 1858-59 .. 18,38,15,410 15,95,08,825 
 
 Increase in 1858-59 ... Rs. 6,65,32,339 4,90,61,344 
 
 This immense increase has occurred chiefly in the trade with Great Britain 
 and China. The home trade has increased between 1855 and 1859 as follows: — 
 
 Imports. Exports. Total. 
 
 1854-55 Rs. 3,42,72,657 2,39,54,125 5,82,26,782 
 
 1858-59 6,54,81,594 4,84,65,442 11,39,47,036 
 
 The trade having almost exactly doubled. The increase in imports has been 
 chiefly in piece goods (the demand for which in 1858-59 rose by £1,600,000), in 
 metals, raw silk, sugar and wines. In exports the rise in the last year was 
 steady, an increase of thirty-three lakhs in seeds being the only remarkable 
 item. The whole of this trade it must not be forgotten has grown up since 
 1813. In that year, when the Court of Directors declared their monopoly the 
 only real protection for trade, the commerce of Bombay amounted to precisely 
 forty lakhs, or one-fiftieth the present traffic. The increase has not yet reached 
 its limit. There is a boundless demand for wheat, seeds, and cotton, and Bom- 
 bay exported 219,700,000 lbs. of cotton last year to Great Britain alone. 
 
 The trade with China is of course too dependent on opium to be healthy, but 
 even to China the export of cotton doubled in 1859, reaching the value of 
 Rs. 78,00,000. 
 
 Oil-seeds form a valuable article of export. In 1857 the value of this staple 
 alone was thirty-six lakhs, showing an increase of twelve lakhs over the shipments 
 of 1856. The value of the exports to Great Britain in 1857 was Rs. 3,13,36,005. 
 The opium trade increased half a million in the course of that year. The re- 
 turns for 1857-58 place the value of the export of this drug at Rs. 1,61,62,265. 
 The total value of the imports during the year was Rs. 16,91,60,036. In 
 1856-57 it was Rs. 14,38,46,391. The total value of the exports was 
 Rs. 14,57,53,599, showing an increase of Rs. 2,09,59,660 over the return of 
 1856-57. 
 
 The year 1857-58 which was so injurious to the trade of Bengal was exceed- 
 ingly favourable to that of Bombay. So rapid indeed has been the increase of 
 
ItfD 171 IND 
 
 trade in Western India as to repair the deficit of the Eastern Presidency, and 
 bring up the trade of the Indian continent beyond the level of the previous 
 year. 
 
 1856-57. 1857-58. 
 
 Exports ... Ra 8,68,07,850 Ra 12,51,06,993 
 
 Imports ... 14,48,46,391 16,31,60,036 
 
 Total ... 23,16,54,241 28,82,67,029 
 
 The trade therefore appears to be, within a fraction, a million sterling more 
 than that of Calcutta. The result is, however, only apparent. Of the increase 
 at Bombay one million is due to opium, of which drug India exported during the 
 year to the value of about eight millions sterling. There is, moreover, an item of 
 silver export to the extent of two millions, chiefly to Calcutta and die Punjab. 
 The trade of the two Presidencies excluding opium and treasure, stands as 
 follows : — 
 
 Calcutta. Bombay. 
 
 Exports ... Rs. 7,97,35,055 Rs. 5,86,39,734 
 
 Imports ... 7,40,74,244 8,81,74,063 
 
 Total ... 15,38,09,299 14,68,13,797 
 
 Calcutta, therefore, maintains her supremacy, in actual trade, but only by a 
 small amount. The difference in the value of the two ports to the home trade 
 is, however, more marked. While Bombay exported Rs. 4,11,69,344 to Great 
 Britain, and imported from thence Rs. 4,13,30,000, Calcutta exported only Rs. 
 3,89,71,601, but imported Rs. 6,69,34,474. It must be remembered, again, that 
 while Calcutta monopolizes nearly the entire sea-borne trade of Bengal, Bombay 
 possesses some twenty-five ports, several of which possess a small foreign trade 
 of their own. Altogether, it would appear that Bombay has almost caught 
 Calcutta in the commercial race, a curious result when the difference in the 
 wealth and population of the Presidencies is considered. 
 
 The total trade of India is shown by these statements to be enormous, the 
 value being for 
 
 Exports. Imports. 
 
 Bengal ... Ra 12,71,95,089 Rs. 15,21,45,131 
 
 Bombay ... 12,51,06,993 16,31,60,036 
 
 Madras ... 4,00,60,506 4,05,63,826 
 
 Or with Pegu a trade for all India exclusive of the Straits Settlements, of more 
 than 66 millions sterling, one-third of the entire trade of Great Britain in 1844. 
 
 The cotton trade of Bombay is rising rapidly, and now forms nearly half 
 the total exports. The following was the value in the years named. 
 
 1853-54 - Ra 2,47,76,102 I 1856-57 - Ra 3,92,08,743 
 
 1854-55 - 2,17,43,900 1857-58 - 4,03,77,704 
 
 1855-56 - 3,07,40,899 | 
 
 There is cotton enough in India to keep all the mills in Lancashire at work. 
 I have stated in foregoing pages that more than a hundred and sixty millions 
 of people are chiefly clothed with home grown cotton, but the price realized 
 must rise before it can compete successfully with the slave labour of the 
 West. 
 
 The table at the top of the next page gives the — 
 Value of the Principal Articles of Merchandise (domestic and foreign), 
 and of Treasure, exported from the Presidency of Bombay by Sea, distin- 
 guishing the Value thereof, to the United Kingdom in each of the years 
 ended 30th April, 1855, 1856 and 1857;— 
 
1XD 
 
 172 
 
 IND 
 
 
 Total Exports. 
 
 To United Kingdom. 
 
 Principal Articles. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1857. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1857. 
 
 Coffee - - 
 
 £41,116 
 
 65.042 
 
 73,376 
 
 27,198 
 
 53,317 
 
 51,352 
 
 Cotton, Raw- 
 
 2,166,402 
 
 3,067,475 
 
 3,912,253 
 
 1,578,923 
 
 2,320,454 
 
 3,109,376 
 
 Cotton Goods, including Twist 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Yarn 
 
 581,055 
 
 614,171 
 
 703,745 
 
 512 
 
 228 
 
 30 
 
 Drugs - - 
 
 24,241 
 
 16,490 
 
 27,328 
 
 16,200 
 
 6,619 
 
 15,639 
 
 Dyes - 
 
 77,439 
 
 51,189 
 
 75,345 
 
 17,397 
 
 18,265 
 
 39,771 
 
 Grain - - 
 
 72,723 
 
 126,145 
 
 87,990 
 
 2,240 
 
 29,234 
 
 3,092 
 
 Gums - 
 
 43,021 
 
 82,091 
 
 25,327 
 
 37,960 
 
 27,922 
 
 21,565 
 
 Gunnies and Bags 
 
 340 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Hides and Skins 
 
 11,474 
 
 11,994 
 
 12,177 
 
 8,698 
 
 10,512 
 
 11,899 
 
 Ivory and Ivory Ware 
 
 65,867 
 
 81,223 
 
 126,874 
 
 64,501 
 
 79,009 
 
 123,298 
 
 Jewellery and Precious Stones 
 
 20,302 
 
 77,769 
 
 111,855 
 
 1,181 
 
 4,617 
 
 34 
 
 Lac and Lacquered Ware 
 
 157 
 
 467 
 
 1,603 
 
 31 
 
 — 
 
 369 
 
 Oils - 
 
 41,487 
 
 56,230 
 
 69,971 
 
 33,342 
 
 41,691 
 
 49,247 
 
 Opium - - - 
 
 2,536,461 
 
 2,561,929 
 
 3,237,826 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Saltpetre 
 
 17,457 
 
 18,546 
 
 26.618 
 
 15,257 
 
 18,392 
 
 25,958 
 
 Seeds - - 
 
 121,446 
 
 312,584 
 
 375,309 
 
 87,254 
 
 214,761 
 
 186,935 
 
 Shawls - 
 
 157,566 
 
 157,422 
 
 256,628 
 
 134,567 
 
 137,129 
 
 216,976 
 
 Silk, Raw - - 
 
 39,796 
 
 36,118 
 
 90,552 
 
 13,887 
 
 8,791 
 
 55,043 
 
 „ Goods 
 
 13,242 
 
 13,577 
 
 31,445 
 
 19 
 
 128 
 
 20 
 
 Spices - - 
 
 71,449 
 
 126,143 
 
 62,300 
 
 30,513 
 
 69,400 
 
 23,895 
 
 Sugar and Sugarcandy 
 
 158,678 
 
 136,501 
 
 83,470 
 
 452 
 
 30,004 
 
 5,364 
 
 Tea - 
 
 24,640 
 
 39,997 
 
 50,541 
 
 24 
 
 1,539 
 
 13,917 
 
 Timber and Woods 
 
 6,715 
 
 13,183 
 
 17,170 
 
 2,352 
 
 1,128 
 
 2.466 
 
 Wool, Raw 
 
 Principal and other Articles 
 
 205,546 
 
 272,102 
 
 314,095 
 
 205,135 
 
 270,647 
 
 306,796 
 
 
 
 
 of Merchandise: — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Domestic Produce 
 
 5,031,691 
 
 5,664,682 
 
 6,917,402 
 
 1,761,776 
 
 2,247,161 
 
 2,775,151 
 
 Foreign „ 
 Total 
 
 1,692,834 
 
 2,472,277 
 
 3,177,078 
 
 601,704 
 
 1,170,133 
 
 1,655,484 
 
 6,724,524 
 
 8,136.959 
 
 10,094,480 
 
 2,363,480 
 
 3,417,294 
 
 4,430,635 
 
 Treasure 
 Total Merchandise and Treasure 
 
 353,653 
 
 417,910 
 
 615,524 
 
 31,944 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 7,078,177 
 
 8,554,869 
 
 10,740,004 
 
 2,395,424 
 
 3,417,294 
 
 4,430,635 
 
 Madras. 
 
 The value of the total exports of the Madras Presidency, for the four years 
 1852-1856 inclusive, was Ks. 14,32,93,799, and that of the imports Rs. 
 11,35,20,461; a few of the principal articles being as follows: — 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 
 Value Rs. 
 
 Cotton wool 
 
 . 
 
 1,80,91,229 
 
 Cotton goods 
 
 . 
 
 1,17,30,434 
 
 Indigo 
 
 - 
 
 1,35,86,681 
 
 Rice 
 
 - 
 
 2,11,28,930 
 
 Sugar 
 
 - 
 
 1,05,88,376 
 
 Coffee 
 
 - 
 
 27,69,086 
 
 Hides 
 
 . 
 
 24,71,379 
 
 Treasure - 
 
 - 
 
 2,73,46,975 
 
 Rupees 10,77,13,090 
 
 Imposts. 
 
 Value Rs. 
 Cotton goods, twist and yarn 1,83,45,293 
 Horses - - 33,16,210 
 
 Grain - - 64,80,792 
 
 Military stores - 27,32,569 
 
 Railway materials 24,66,255 
 
 Timber and planks 1 8, 49, 555 
 
 Malt liquors - 16,26,009 
 
 Treasure - 4,21,37,054 
 
 Rupees 
 
 ,53,737 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Madras 
 Harbour. 
 
 Presidency 
 Generally. 
 
 Madras 
 Harbour. 
 
 Presidency 
 Generally. 
 
 1852-53 
 1853-54 
 1854-55 
 1855-56 
 
 Rs. 
 1,21,96,753 
 1,55,15,861 
 1,61,64,640 
 2,41,49,293 
 
 Rs. 
 2,36,50,344 
 2,74,12,628 
 2,56,06,917 
 3,68,50,572 
 
 Rs. 
 
 1,26,37,612 
 1,93,48,364 
 1,44,62,938 
 1,27,60,080 
 
 Rs. 
 
 3,69,83,420 
 4,06,72,176 
 3,20,48,539 
 3,35,89,655 
 
 6,80,36,547 
 
 11,35,20,461 
 
 5,94,08,994 
 
 14,32,93,79^ 
 
IXD 
 
 173 
 
 IXD 
 
 In this period there has been no very sensible increase to the export trade, 
 either from the city or from the whole country, and any increase observable in 
 the imports may be attributable to the large quantities of railway materials 
 lately sent out: but the great staples of its export trade, cotton and cotton goods, 
 indigo, cereal grains and pulse, sugar, coffee and hides have been steady, and 
 the articles imported being more numerous and more varied, and their individual 
 values smaller, any fluctuations in their amounts would be less sensibly felt. It 
 seems to be acknowledged that in many parts of the country, certainly in all 
 where the condition of the people is improving, they are rapidly accumulating 
 the precious metals; and perhaps no part of Asia has been more steadily accumu- 
 lating bullion than has the delta of the Godavery since Colonel Cotton com- 
 menced his improvements there. 
 
 The Madras Presidency is steadily absorbing 37,07,519 rupees per annum of 
 the bullion of the world. These commercial tables show that the value of the 
 articles exported exceeds that of the imports, and the difference must of neces- 
 sity be paid for by bullion. The value of the exports from Madras, exclusive of 
 treasure, has annually averaged rupees 2,89,86,706, while that of the imports 
 has been Rs. 1,78,45,851, and this must be made good by bullion, until the 
 wants of the people so increase as to call for further imports in return for the 
 articles which they produce and send to other countries. 
 
 Value of the Principal Articles of Merchandise (domestic and foreign), 
 and of Treasure, exported from the Presidency of Madras by Sea, distin- 
 guishing the Value thereof to the United Kingdom, in each of the years 
 ended 30th April, 1855, 1856, and 1857. 
 
 
 Total Exports. 
 
 To United Kir 
 
 igdom. 
 
 Principal Articles. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1857. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1856. 
 
 1S57. 
 
 Coffee - - 
 
 £34,611 
 
 46,278 
 
 50,390 
 
 7,717 
 
 14,956 
 
 18,132 
 
 Cotton, Raw 
 
 169,490 
 
 89,361 
 
 316,362 
 
 104,491 
 
 58,900 
 
 261,080 
 
 Cotton Goods, including Twist 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Yarn 
 
 183,155 
 
 134,282 
 
 125,960 
 
 68,050 
 
 35,810 
 
 39,952 
 
 Drugs - - 
 
 3,085 
 
 3,412 
 
 5,791 
 
 1,326 
 
 1,052 
 
 3,163 
 
 Dyes ... 
 
 227,720 
 
 427,271 
 
 453.249 
 
 209,93! ; 
 
 351,795 
 
 354,829 
 
 Grain - - 
 
 438,654 
 
 524,503 
 
 541,132 
 
 21,320 
 
 83,101 
 
 86,265 
 
 Gums - 
 
 229 
 
 54 
 
 17 
 
 128 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 Gunnies and Bngrs 
 
 1,381 
 
 221 
 
 167 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Hides arid Skins 
 
 35,091 
 
 47,487 
 
 62,418 
 
 29,282 
 
 40,806 
 
 56,612 
 
 Ivory and Ivory Ware 
 
 359 
 
 191 
 
 288 
 
 359 
 
 187 
 
 258 
 
 Jewellery and Precious Stones 
 
 12,779 
 
 10,640 
 
 10,402 
 
 10,544 
 
 9,288 
 
 9,788 
 
 Jute 
 
 — 
 
 278 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 278 
 
 — 
 
 Oils - 
 
 60,246 
 
 52,908 
 
 56,467 
 
 46,095 
 
 33,424 
 
 37,690 
 
 Saltpetre - - 
 
 9,620 
 
 7,355 
 
 9,403 
 
 8,649 
 
 7,211 
 
 8,849 
 
 Seeds - 
 
 47,264 
 
 136,774 
 
 165,470 
 
 7,045 
 
 14,514 
 
 14,945 
 
 Shawls - - 
 
 348 
 
 742 
 
 139 
 
 348 
 
 716 
 
 139 
 
 Silk, Raw 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 3,922 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 3,922 
 
 „ Goods - - 
 
 1,634 
 
 2,450 
 
 1,286 
 
 51 
 
 243 
 
 119 
 
 Spices - 
 
 29,335 
 
 55,344 
 
 23,608 
 
 5,070 
 
 8,564 
 
 6.072 
 
 Sugar and Sugarcandy 
 
 156,223 
 
 282,348 
 
 357,564 
 
 145,825 
 
 279,897 
 
 355,118 
 
 Tea - - 
 
 49 
 
 333 
 
 249 
 
 27 
 
 17 
 
 119 
 
 Timber and Woods 
 
 6,226 
 
 9,520 
 
 13,723 
 
 3,220 
 
 5,625 
 
 9,958 
 
 Wool, Raw - - - 
 Principal and other Articles 
 
 1,682 
 
 8:0 
 
 121 
 
 1,682 
 
 843 
 
 121 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of Merchandise: — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Domestic Produce 
 
 1,514,688 
 
 1,940,902 
 
 2,307,446 
 
 697,979 
 
 975,221 
 
 1,294,279 
 
 Foreign „ 
 Total 
 
 32,160 
 
 23,598 
 
 21,983 
 
 15,541 
 
 8,143 
 
 4,127 
 
 1,546,848 
 
 1,964,500 
 
 2,329,429 
 
 713.520 
 
 983,364 
 
 1,298,406 
 
 Treasure 
 Total Merchandise and Treasure 
 
 521,814 
 
 70,730 
 
 78,477 
 
 93,531 
 
 42 
 
 — 
 
 2,068,662 
 
 2,035,230 
 
 2,407,906 
 
 807,051 
 
 983,406 
 
 1,298,406 
 
IND 
 
 174 
 
 IKD 
 
 INDIGO. — The quantity of indigo imported into the United Kingdom in 
 1845 was 90,424 cwt.; in 1850, 70,482 cwt.; in 1855, 59,760 cwt.; and in 
 1859, 63,237 cwt. 
 
 The following shows the particulars of the indigo trade in London for the last 
 eight years: — 
 
 Years. 
 1852 
 
 1853 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 185G 
 
 1857 
 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 India, chests. 
 
 Spanish, serons. 
 
 33,052 
 
 4317 
 
 34,102 
 
 3360 
 
 24,919 
 
 3343 
 
 30,883 
 
 3710 
 
 27,277 
 
 1984 
 
 27,060 
 
 1966 
 
 22,495 
 
 2205 
 
 30,222 
 
 2703 
 
 30,388 
 
 3652 
 
 25,782 
 
 3110 
 
 24,169 
 
 3774 
 
 24,746 
 
 4005 
 
 22,826 
 
 6295 
 
 23,505 
 
 5811 
 
 19,444 
 
 7452 
 
 24,748 
 
 7711 
 
 In February Sales 
 In May Sales 
 In July Sales 
 In October Sales . 
 
 Imports 
 
 Deliveries for home use and 
 
 export 
 Imports 
 Deliveries - 
 Imports 
 Deliveries - 
 Imports 
 Deliveries - 
 Imports 
 Deliveries - 
 Imports 
 Deliveries - 
 Imports 
 Deliveries - 
 Imports 
 Deliveries - 
 
 East India Indigo Sold. 
 
 1859. 1858. 1857. 1856. 1855. 1854. 
 
 Chests. Chests. Chests. Chests. Chests. Chests. 
 
 4300 2100 5500 5200 6500 7500 
 
 1500 2500 4700 3500 6000 3500 
 
 6490 6600 7000 4400 7700 7500 
 
 6000 7000 4000 7800 7500 6000 
 
 Total 
 
 1859. 
 
 Chests. 
 
 Imported . 19,444 
 
 Delivered . 24,748 
 
 Stock, 31st Dec 13,738 
 
 1859. 
 
 Imported . 7452 
 Delivered .7711 
 Stock, 31st Dec 987 
 
 18,200 18,200 21,200 20,900 27,709 24,500 
 
 1858. 
 Chests. 
 22,826 
 23,505 
 19,044 
 
 1857. 
 Chests. 
 24,169 
 24,746 
 19,779 
 
 1856. 
 Chests. 
 30,388 
 25,782 
 20,356 
 
 1855. 
 Chests. 
 22,495 
 30,222 
 15,750 
 
 1854. 
 Chests. 
 27,227 
 27,060 
 23,488 
 
 1853. 1852. 
 
 Chests. Chests. 
 
 24,919 33,052 
 
 30,883 34,102 
 
 23,324 29,278 
 
 Guatemala Indigo, in serons, etc. 
 
 1858. 1857. 1856. 1855. 1854. 
 
 1853. 
 
 6295 
 5811 
 2256 
 
 3774 
 4005 
 1588 
 
 3652 
 3110 
 1819 
 
 2205 
 2703 
 1277 
 
 1984 
 1966 
 1780 
 
 1852. 
 4317 
 
 3343 
 3710 3360 
 996 1359 
 
 
 Prices of 
 
 Indigo. 
 
 
 Duty Paid. 
 
 
 
 
 
 I860. 
 
 1859. 
 
 1858. 
 
 1857. 
 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 
 
 Per lb. 
 
 Indigo, Bengal, good and fine violet 
 
 s. 
 
 d. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. d. s. d. 
 
 s. d. s. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. s. d. 
 
 and purple 
 
 7 
 
 3 to 8 
 
 8 
 
 7 3 to 9 3 
 
 7 3 to 9 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 to 10 2 
 
 
 r ord. and mid. ditto 
 
 5 
 
 9 7 
 
 
 
 6 3 7 
 
 6 3 7 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 3 8 9 
 
 a5 
 
 good and fine copper 
 
 6 
 
 9 7 
 
 6 
 
 7 7 9 
 
 7 7 
 
 9 
 
 a 
 
 9 9 9 
 
 .2 
 
 ord. and mid. 
 
 5 
 
 3 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 6 9 
 
 5 6 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 9 8 6 
 
 1 
 
 Consuming, good 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and fine 
 
 6 
 
 6 7 
 
 G 
 
 6 6 7 9 
 
 6 6 7 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 3 8 9 
 
 8 
 
 Consuming, ord. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *3 
 
 and mid. 
 
 4 
 
 9 6 
 
 3 
 
 5 6 6 3 
 
 5 6 6 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 9 8 
 
 * 
 
 Oude— good and fine 
 
 4 
 
 3 6 
 
 6 
 
 4 3 6 9 
 
 4 3 6 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 7 6 
 
 H 
 25 
 
 ord. and mid. 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 2 6 3 9 
 
 2 6 3 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 3 5 9 
 
 
 Madras— good and fine - 
 
 3 
 
 6 5 
 
 
 
 3 6 5 3 
 
 3 6 5 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 6 5 9 
 
 i£ 
 
 ord. and mid. 
 
 1 
 
 3 3 
 
 3 
 
 11 3 3 
 
 1 1 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 3 
 
 
 Kurpah— good and fine - 
 
 B 
 
 9 7 
 
 8 
 
 6 7 3 
 
 6 7 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 9 2 
 
 
 ord. and mid. 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 f. 
 
 10 5 9 
 
 1 5 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 6 9 
 
 " Spanish , Guatemala— Flores - 
 
 
 
 9 7 
 
 6 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 
 7 
 
 3 7 10 
 
 Sobres - 
 
 4 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 9 6 10 
 
 5 9 6 10 
 
 5 10 7 
 
 Cortes - 
 
 2 
 
 3 5 
 
 9 
 
 3 5 6 
 
 3 5 
 
 (5 
 
 3 
 
 5 6 
 
 Caraccas— Flores - 
 
 
 none 
 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 
 
 none 
 
 Sobres - 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 4 3 5 6 
 
 4 3 5 
 
 6 
 
 B 
 
 6 3 
 
 Cortes - 
 
 2 
 
 3 3 
 
 9 
 
 2 10 4 
 
 2 10 4 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 9 4 9 
 
INS 
 
 175 
 
 INS 
 
 INSURANCE. — Stuns paid for Govebnment Duty by the several Fire 
 Insurance Offices for the years 1855, 1856, 1857, and 1858. Abstracted from 
 Parliamentary Returns: — 
 
 
 Founded 
 
 1855. 1856 
 
 1857. 
 
 1858. 
 
 London Offices. 
 
 Alliance - 
 
 
 
 
 
 1824 
 
 £43,668 £43,545 
 
 £44,906 
 
 £46,285 
 
 Atlas - - - 
 
 1808 
 
 37,923 38,733 
 
 39,135 
 
 40,013 
 
 Church of England 
 
 1840 
 
 4,058 
 
 4,132 
 
 4,151 
 
 4,396 
 
 County - - - 
 
 1806 
 
 59,555 
 
 61,010 
 
 62,201 
 
 63,818 
 
 Emperor - 
 
 1855 
 
 128 
 
 314 
 
 684 
 
 395 
 
 Equitable - - - 
 
 1850 
 
 2,732 
 
 2,844 
 
 333 
 
 2,765 
 
 General - 
 
 1837 
 
 10,606 
 
 10,783 
 
 12,455 
 
 16,954 
 
 Globe - - - 
 
 1803 
 
 36,324 
 
 37.853 
 
 38,641 
 
 39,455 
 
 Guardian - 
 
 1821 
 
 51,456 
 
 31,982 
 
 32,151 
 
 32,645 
 
 Hand-in-Hand - - 
 
 1696 
 
 9,450 
 
 9,971 
 
 10,190 
 
 9,901 
 
 Imperial - 
 
 1820 
 
 47,951 
 
 49,440 
 
 51,477 
 
 54,432 
 
 Law - - - 
 
 1845 
 
 27,524 
 
 28,929 
 
 29,958 
 
 32,137 
 
 Law Union - 
 
 1854 
 
 2,920 
 
 3,920 
 
 4.864 
 
 6,024 
 
 London - - - 
 
 1725 
 
 28,014 
 
 28,228 
 
 29,317 
 
 30,859 
 
 Phoenix - 
 
 1782 
 
 124,140 
 
 126,952 
 
 128,747 
 
 132,571 
 
 Preserver - - - 
 
 1843 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 Royal Exchange 
 
 1720 
 
 77,694 
 
 77,891 
 
 78,601 
 
 81,048 
 
 Koval Farmers' - - 
 
 1840 
 
 11,414 
 
 11,355 
 
 11,492 
 
 11,735 
 
 State - 
 
 1856 
 
 — 
 
 240 
 
 806 
 
 2 655 
 
 Sun - - - 
 
 1710 
 
 190,257 
 
 193,951 
 
 195,668 
 
 198,613 
 
 Union - 
 
 1714 
 
 26,455 
 
 27,030 
 
 27,832 
 
 29,096 
 
 United Kingdom Provident - 
 
 1855 
 
 226 
 
 532 
 
 651 
 
 824 
 
 Unity - 
 
 1852 
 
 20,265 
 
 20,097 
 
 17,526 
 
 15,444 
 
 Westminster - - 
 
 1747 
 
 27,705 
 
 29,655 
 
 27,749 
 
 30,366 
 
 Country Offices. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Birmingham - - 
 
 1808 
 
 14,193 
 
 14,125 
 
 14,658 
 
 15,053 
 
 Birmingham District 
 
 1834 
 
 7,943 
 
 8,273 
 
 8,418 
 
 8,630 
 
 Essex and Suffolk - - 
 
 1802 
 
 6,096 
 
 6,268 
 
 6,473 
 
 6,788 
 
 Hants, Sussex, and Dorset 
 
 1803 
 
 2,324 
 
 2,260 
 
 2,303 
 
 2,318 
 
 Kent - - - 
 
 1802 
 
 14,066 
 
 14,428 
 
 14,254 
 
 14,816 
 
 Kent Mutual - 
 
 1844 
 
 2,610 
 
 2,882 
 
 2.895 
 
 2814 
 
 Lancashire - - 
 
 1852 
 
 18,160 
 
 19.386 
 
 20,264 
 
 21.544 
 
 Leeds and Yorkshire 
 
 1824 
 
 18,114 
 
 19,086 
 
 19,795 
 
 24,245 
 
 Liverpool and London 
 
 1836 
 
 21,057 
 
 22,986 
 
 32,882 
 
 46,613 
 
 Manchester - 
 
 1824 
 
 36,228 
 
 36,688 
 
 37,177 
 
 40,161 
 
 Midland Counties, late Lincolnshire 
 
 1851 
 
 1,869 
 
 2,196 
 
 2,355 
 
 2,848 
 
 Newcastle-on-Tyne - - 
 
 1783 
 
 6,008 
 
 5,862 
 
 5,863 
 
 5,857 
 
 Norwich Equitable 
 
 1729 
 
 2,693 
 
 2,729 
 
 2,816 
 
 2,901 
 
 Norwich Union - - 
 
 1797 
 
 75,130 
 
 76,581 
 
 78,301 
 
 79,892 
 
 Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire - 
 
 1736 
 
 3,735 
 
 3,948 
 
 4,277 
 
 4.650 
 
 Provincial - 
 
 1852 
 
 2,583 
 
 3,305 
 
 3,913 
 
 4,814 
 
 Queen - - . 
 
 1857 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 690 
 
 Royal Insurance, Liverpool 
 
 1845 
 
 25,037 
 
 28,729 
 
 33,855 
 
 41,035 
 
 Salop - - - 
 
 1780 
 
 3,833 
 
 4,005 
 
 3,956 
 
 4,105 
 
 Sheffield 
 
 1808 
 
 2,055 
 
 3,317 
 
 3,504 
 
 3.396 
 
 Shropshire and North Wales - 
 
 1837 
 
 1,734 
 
 1,793 
 
 1,852 
 
 1.943 
 
 West of England 
 
 1807 
 
 49.928 
 
 50,734 
 
 51,130 
 
 51,525 
 
 Yorkshire - - 
 
 1824 
 
 19,949 
 
 21,002 
 
 21,656 
 
 21,93J 
 
 Scottish Offices. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caledonian - 
 
 1805 
 
 9,814 
 
 9,633 
 
 10,920 
 
 11,407 
 
 National - • - - 
 
 1841 
 
 5,341 
 
 5,677 
 
 5,779 
 
 5,973 
 
 North British - 
 
 1809 
 
 19,344 
 
 20,414 
 
 21,215 
 
 21.6C8 
 
 Northern - - - 
 
 1836 
 
 10,080 
 
 11,489 
 
 15,673 
 
 17,423 
 
 Scottish Union - 
 
 1824 
 
 25,040 
 
 26,768 
 
 27,533 
 
 28,615 
 
 Scottish Provincial - - 
 
 1825 
 
 5,380 
 
 6,846 
 
 7,492 
 
 8,098 
 
 Irish Offices. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 National - - » 
 
 1822 
 
 5,609 
 
 5,767 
 
 5,935 
 
 6,242 
 
 Patriotic - - _ | 
 
 1824 
 
 4,986 
 
 5,566 1 
 
 5,898 j 
 
 5,545 
 
 The value of property insured from fire, was 
 
 In 1801 - 
 1811 . 
 1821 - 
 
 £232,240,000 I In 1831 
 366,700,000 1841 
 408,030,000 1851 
 
 £526,650,000 
 601,540,000 
 722,000,000 
 
ION 176 IEO 
 
 IONIAN ISLANDS.— The total population of these islands in 1857 was 
 227,230, of these 50,604 was engaged in agriculture, 8528 in manufactures, 
 and 6644 in commerce. The expenditure of the islands average about 
 £140,000. The greater portion of the revenue is derived from customs duties, 
 export charge on olive oil, currants, and wines, and import dues on general 
 merchandise, foreign wines and spirits, tobacco, and grain, besides stamp duties 
 and other miscellaneous charges. The live stock owned in the islands in 1857 
 comprised 11,080 horses, 8559 horned cattle, 109,780 sheep, and 90,563 goats. 
 
 The currant crop has already been spoken of under the article Currants. 
 The yield of oliveoil declined from 314,152 ban-els in 1855 to 73,118 ban-els in 
 1857, although the acreage under culture with olives increased in the same 
 period from 292,787 acres to 510,822 acres. The wine produced is about 150,000 
 ban-els ; a small quantity of cotton is grown, 
 
 IRON. — The invention of the process of puddling by Mr. Cort in 1784 opened 
 a new and extensive field for the industry of the nation; coal became the me- 
 dium of the manufacture of wrought iron instead of charcoal. The process has 
 expanded the production of this kingdom from 17,000 tons in 1740 to 3,500,000 
 tons in 1859. The facility with which malleable iron can be produced with coal 
 has caused the erection of magnificent and colossal ironworks, finding profitable 
 occupation for a great number of men, and employing throughout the ramifications 
 of its manufacture and its subsequent uses an amount of wealth almost incalculable. 
 
 The extended use of iron in the great manufactories, indeed, the entire substi- 
 tution of this material for wood, in many instances where it was little used a 
 very few years ago, has already raised the question among the best informed 
 commercial men, as to how the supply is to be kept up to meet the progressive 
 demand. Not only the rapid multiplication of steam engines and machinery of 
 all sorts, but the construction of roads uniting the opposite shores of islands and 
 continents, the building of ships traversing the seas of both hemispheres, and the 
 erection of warehouses, churches, and whole streets of cottages, in all of which 
 iron is the only or the principal material, show a demand for it which confounds all 
 ideas of calculation. And, besides these grand fabrications of commerce, which 
 the advancement of science has carried, on such a scale of magnitude, to the 
 very outposts of civilization, invention has been actively employed among the 
 lighter articles of domestic convenience and farming husbandry in bringing iron 
 into extensive adaptation and wear. House-fittings of all kinds, pieces of 
 room furniture, kitchen and yard utensils, and implements of the field, have 
 been daily appearing of greater elegance of form combined with superior 
 strength, because they, too, in the progress of mechanical art, have been 
 fashioned of the universal metal. In the middle of the nineteenth century, 
 while our travellers are carried by steam over iron roads and our merchants 
 cross the ocean in iron ships, our grandmothers, at home, rest in iron arm-chairs, 
 and our infants sleep in iron cots in the nursery. Truly it is an age of iron. 
 
 If the ratio of increase for the future is to advance equal to the past, it is esti- 
 mated that the production of iron in 1970 will have reached 490 millions of tons, 
 an aggregate transcending ordinary appreciation. 
 
 Beginning with 1806, the British production doubled in 18 years. It had 
 again doubled at the close of the next 12 years ; again at the close of 11 years, 
 and it has very nearly doubled once more in the subsequent interval of 13 years. 
 But allowing the consumption of the entire globe to double but once in 20 years — 
 a moderate estimate, when it is considered that not one-eighth of its civilized or 
 semi-civilized surface is yet covered with railroads, and that the demand for 
 them for eveiy quarter is urgent and hardly resisted — the total consumption of 
 iron will be 14 millions of tons in 1875 and 28 millions in 1855. 
 
 The Scotch mineral field contains large quantities of argillaceous ore. The 
 most valuable scams of carbonaceous or black band ores hitherto discovered 
 belong to the Scotch coal field. The average yield of metallic iron from these 
 ores is 35 to 41 per cent. So far from the iron-making materials of the 
 United Kingdom being exhausted, as is represented by some, although in some 
 of the smallest fields, as Shropshire and Staffordshire, a large portion of the ores 
 
IRO 
 
 177 
 
 IRO 
 
 have been wrought, in others there is still abundance. The present average con- 
 sumption of ores of all kinds is about eight million tons, and at this rate the Welsh 
 field alone contains a sufficiency of ore for supplying the non-works of this 
 country for 2000 years. 
 
 The annual consumption of iron in Europe and the United States is estimated 
 at the present time at seven millions of tons. Of this great aggregate, Great 
 Britain produces about one -half and consumes one-fourth. The figures are 
 thus stated: 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Great Britain . 
 
 3,586,000 
 
 Austria . 
 
 600,000 
 
 United States 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 Prussia . 
 
 200,000 
 
 France 
 
 650,000 
 
 Denmark 
 
 20,000 
 
 Belgium 
 
 950,000 
 
 Germany 
 
 200,000 
 
 Russia 
 
 675,000 
 
 Spain 
 
 27,000 
 
 Sweden and Norway . 
 
 179,000 
 
 
 
 Italy .... 
 
 72,000 
 
 Total . . 
 
 6,880,000 
 
 The rest of the world in Asia, Africa, and America, furnishes too little to be 
 computed ; but may possibly raise the aggregate production to 7,000,000 tons. 
 
 Mr. Robert Hunt states the quantity of ore raised from all parts of the United 
 Kingdom, and used in the manufacture of pig iron, in 1858 at 8,040,959 tons, 
 and the produce of pig iron therefrom to have been 3,456,064 tons. The value 
 of this being estimated by him at the furnace at £3 per ton, makes the total 
 value of the produce £10,368,192, or taking the mean average price (deduced 
 from all the sales of the year) at £3. 2* per ton, it gives a market value for the 
 British pig iron of £10,713,798. 
 
 The following is his summary of the pig-iron produced in different districts 
 in 1858- 
 
 Northumberland 
 Durham .... 
 
 Yorkshire, North Riding 
 ., West Riding . 
 
 Lancashire .... 
 Cumberland .... 
 Derbyshire .... 
 Shropshire .... 
 Staffordshire, North 
 „ South 
 
 The foreign shipments of pig iron during the years 1851, 1852,1853, and 1859, 
 were as follow:— 1851, 162,670tons; 1852, 224,097 tons; 1853, 314,240 tons; 1859, 
 313,513 tons; of which the following are some of the more important particulars: 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 45,312 
 
 Northamptonshire . . . 
 
 9,7.30 
 
 265,184 
 
 Gloucestershire . . . 
 
 23,580 
 
 189,320 
 
 Wiltshire and Somersetshire . 
 
 2,040 
 
 85,936 
 
 North Wales .... 
 
 28,150 
 
 2,840 
 
 South Wales, Anthracite District 
 
 50,774 
 
 26,264 
 
 „ Bituminous District 
 
 835,704 
 
 131,577 
 
 Scotland .... 
 
 925,500 
 
 101,016 
 
 
 , 
 
 135,308 
 
 Total Produce, United Kingdom 
 
 3,456,064 
 
 597,809 
 
 
 
 
 1851. 
 
 1852. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1859. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tone. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 United States 
 
 80,019 
 
 100,706 
 
 151,256 
 
 84,990 
 
 British America 
 
 22,401 
 
 11,825 
 
 25,440 
 
 10,421 
 
 Germany 
 
 31,341 
 
 42.229 
 
 42,750 
 
 18,559 
 
 Holland 
 
 18,175 
 
 23,716 
 
 24,740 
 
 38,784 
 
 France 
 
 10,641 
 
 17,924 
 
 29,100 
 
 65,581 
 
 Italy 
 
 7,316 
 
 7,423 
 
 18,505 
 
 
 Denmark, <fec. 
 
 5,939 
 
 6,419 
 
 8,020 
 
 
 Spain and Portugal 
 
 5,527 
 
 4,174 
 
 5,940 
 
 
 Retrospect of the Iron Trade of Great Britain since 1806, and the increased pro- 
 portion which Scotland bears to the whole. 
 
 FURNACES IN BLAST, AND THE PRODUCTION IN GREAT BRITAIN IN 
 
 
 THE YEARS: 
 
 Production 
 
 
 Furnaces in Blast. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1806 
 
 216 
 
 243851 
 
 1825 
 
 374 
 
 581,367 
 
 1840 
 
 402 
 
 1,396,400 
 
 1848 
 
 .623 
 
 1,998,558 
 
 1852 
 
 655 
 
 2,701.000 
 
 1858 
 
 617 
 
 3,456,054 
 
IEO 
 
 178 
 
 IEO 
 
 OF WHICH THERE WERE IN SCOTLAND IN THE TEARS: 
 
 
 
 Production. 
 
 Price. 
 
 Furnaces in Blast. Tons. 
 
 JE. s. d. 
 
 1806 
 
 18 
 
 22,840 
 
 7 
 
 1813 
 
 18 
 
 23,450 
 
 8 
 
 1823 
 
 22 
 
 30,500 
 
 4 15 
 
 1833 
 
 31 
 
 44,000 
 
 2 16 
 
 1843 
 
 62 
 
 248,300 
 
 2 15 
 
 1853 
 
 114 
 
 740,000 
 
 2 1 
 
 1859 
 
 125 
 
 950,000 
 
 2 11 10 
 
 The increase and fluctuations in the number of furnaces in the various dis- 
 tricts, so far as can be ascertained from the varied and conflicting sources of 
 information, are shewn in the following table. The increase in the South Wales 
 and Scottish districts has been the most rapid and striking. In 1823 Scotland 
 possessed only 9 furnaces, while in 1850 it had 113 in blast, and in the close of 
 3859, 125. In South Wales the number has more than doubled, having been in 
 1823 but 72, while in 1858 it amounted to 147: 
 
 Districts. 
 
 
 1823. 
 
 1825. 
 
 1828. 
 
 1830. 
 113 
 
 1840. 
 
 1847. 
 151 
 
 1850. 
 
 1858. 
 
 South Wales - 
 
 _ 
 
 72 
 
 82 
 
 89 
 
 _ 
 
 143 
 
 148 
 
 North Wales - 
 
 . 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Shropshire 
 
 - 
 
 38 
 
 36 
 
 31 
 
 48 
 
 — 
 
 28 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 Staffordshire - 
 
 _ 
 
 84 
 
 81 
 
 95 
 
 123 
 
 — 
 
 93 
 
 118 
 
 169 
 
 Yorkshire 
 
 _ 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 — 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 44 
 
 Derbyshire 
 
 - 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 — 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 28 
 
 Northumberland, 
 
 Cum- N 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 berland, Durham - - j 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
 55 
 
 Lancashire and 
 
 West ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cumberland - 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 Forest of Dean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 Various - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 Scotland - 
 
 Totals - 
 
 - - 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 262 
 
 18 
 278 
 
 26 
 359 
 
 — 
 
 89 
 
 113 
 
 132 
 
 253 
 
 402 
 
 433 
 
 459 
 
 619 
 
 The increased production of each district between the years 1823—1850 is 
 not less striking. 
 
 The following shows the blast furnaces and production in each district in 
 1850: 
 
 Districts. 
 
 Blast Furnaces. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 In. 
 
 Out. 
 
 Total. 
 
 South Wales: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eastern - 
 
 54 
 
 19 
 
 73 
 
 ^ 
 
 Northern - 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 70 
 
 1 
 
 Central - 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 > 700,000 
 
 Western - 
 
 12 
 
 22 
 
 34 
 
 Southern - 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 J 
 
 North Wales - 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 10,000 
 
 Shropshire - 
 
 23 
 
 10 
 
 33 
 
 90,000 
 
 South Staffordshire 
 
 105 
 
 43 
 
 148 
 
 600,000 
 
 North Staffordshire 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 55,000 
 
 Yorkshire (North) - 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 25,000 
 
 Yorkshire (South) - 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 20,000 
 
 Derbyshire - 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 29 
 
 60,000 
 
 Northumberland, Cumber- ) 
 land, and Durham - J 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 38 
 
 90,000 
 
 Lancashire and West Cum- ) 
 berland j 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 10,000 
 
 Scotland - 
 
 113 
 
 
 
 113 
 
 690,000 
 
 Forest of Dean 
 
 Totals - 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 30,000 
 
 459 
 
 171 
 
 630 
 
 2,380,000 
 
IEO 
 
 179 
 
 IEO 
 
 The percentages of increase in the number of furnaces in the undermentioned 
 districts, between 1823 and 1850, as compared with the total quantities of iron 
 produced therein during the same period, is thus shewn: — 
 
 Districts. 
 
 Increase per cent. 
 
 in number of 
 
 furnaces 
 
 Increase per cent, 
 of production. 
 
 Excess per cent 
 
 of production 
 
 over increase of 
 
 furnaces. 
 
 Scotland 
 Staffordshire - 
 Derbyshire 
 South Wales - 
 
 Shropshire 
 Yorkshire 
 
 1250 
 
 HO 
 
 140 
 
 200 
 
 Decrease. 
 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 2800 
 500 
 420 
 400 
 
 60 
 150 
 
 1300 
 360 
 280 
 200 
 
 20 
 190 
 
 The extraordinary development of the power of production, which has enabled 
 Scotland, with an addition to her furnaces of 1250 per cent., to increase the 
 quantity of iron produced by more than 2800 per cent., is mainly to be attributed 
 to the almost universal adoption of the hot blast — a system more generally in 
 use in Scotland than in other parts. The more extended application of chemical 
 and mechanical science may, however, be traced in the fact of the increased pro- 
 ductiveness of each district. In the case of Shropshire the decrease in the num- 
 ber of furnaces is not easily accounted for, when taken in connection with the 
 increased quantity of iron produced. The ore in this district is exceedingly 
 rich, and the hot blast, we arc informed, is in very general use in the county. 
 The total quantities of iron produced, and the number of furnaces in the different 
 periods for which any record exists, will be found in the following table: — 
 
 Years. Furnaces. Tons. Years. Furnaces. 
 1740 59 17,350 1828 278 
 1750 — 22,000 1830 359 
 1788 85 68,000 1835 
 1796 
 1802 
 1805 
 1820 
 
 Furnaces. 
 59 
 
 85 
 121 
 168 
 169 
 
 1823 
 1825 
 
 253 
 262 
 
 Tons. 
 17,350 
 22,000 
 68,000 
 125,000 
 170,000 
 250,000 
 400.000 
 442,000 
 581,000 
 
 1840 
 1847 
 1848 
 1850 
 1860 
 
 402 
 433 
 452 
 467 
 833 
 
 Tons. 
 702,000 
 653,417 
 1,000,000 
 1,200,000 
 1,396,400 
 1,999,600 
 2,093,736 
 2,380,000 
 3,500,000 
 
 The value of the enormous quantity of pig iron produced in 1860 may be esti- 
 mated at about 50s. per ton, which would give as the value of the rough iron 
 smelted in that year a sum of £8,750,000. The value of the material after the 
 further application of labour is, of course, very considerably increased. In some 
 few instances such an amount of labour is bestowed upon iron, when converted 
 into steel, as to cause it to realize as much as the more precious metals. A piece 
 of iron small in weight will, by being made into watch-springs, yield a very 
 large return for the labour expended upon it. A fair mode of estimating the 
 value of a portion of the manufactured iron may be obtained from the table of 
 exports. Thus, in 1858 the exports of iron, cast and wrought of all descrip- 
 tions, exclusive of hardware, cutlery, and machinery, amounted in quantity to 
 1,357,156 tons, and the declared value was £11,364,859, being at the rate of 
 nearly £9 per ton. If we estimate the whole of the iron manufactured in this 
 country at this rate, it will give as the value of the iron manufactures in 1860 
 a sum of £31,500,000. This, however, does not include machinery or mill- 
 work, or the finer portions of the manufacture involved in the production of 
 hardware aud cutlery,the exports of which amounted in 1859 to over £7,527,000; 
 and it will probably not be too much to place the entire value of the iron manu- 
 factured at a sum of £40,000,000. 
 
IBO 
 
 180 
 
 IEO 
 
 The following table gives the production of each district in the years 1823, 
 1825, 1830, 1840, 1850, and 1858:— 
 
 Districts. 
 
 1823. 
 
 1825. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1858. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 South Wales 
 
 182,300 
 
 223,500 
 
 277,006 
 
 505,000 
 
 700,000 
 
 886,478 
 
 Staffordshire 
 
 133,500 
 
 171,700 
 
 212,600 
 
 427,650 
 
 655,000 
 
 733,117 
 
 Shropshire 
 
 57,900 
 
 86,300 
 
 73,400 
 
 82,750 
 
 90,000 
 
 101,016 
 
 Yorkshire 
 
 27,300 
 
 35,300 
 
 28,900 
 
 56,000 
 
 45,000 
 
 275,256 
 
 Scotland 
 
 24,500 
 
 29,200 
 
 37,500 
 
 241,000 
 
 690,000 
 
 925,500 
 
 Derbyshire 
 
 14,000 
 
 19,100 
 
 17,900 
 
 31,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 131,577 
 
 North Wales 
 
 — 
 
 13,100 
 
 — 
 
 26,500 
 
 10,000 
 
 28,150 
 
 Northumberland ) 
 Forest of Dean > 
 Lancashire ) 
 
 Totals 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 11,000 
 
 90,000 
 
 45,312 
 
 2,320 
 
 3,000 
 
 5,329 
 
 15,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 23,580 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 10,000 
 
 2,840 
 
 442,000 
 
 581,300 
 
 653,400 
 
 1,396,400 
 
 2,380,000 
 
 3,152,826 
 
 Some interesting results may be ascertained from these tables by a comparison 
 of the number of furnaces in each year with the amount of iron produced, and 
 the average produce of each furnace. The results are as follows: — 
 
 
 Number of Furnaces. 
 
 Total Produce. 
 
 Average 
 
 Produce of each Furnace. 
 
 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1823 
 
 . 
 
 253 
 
 442,000 
 
 — 
 
 1700 
 
 1825 
 
 • 
 
 262 
 
 581,300 
 
 — 
 
 22o0 
 
 1830 
 
 • 
 
 359 
 
 653,400 
 
 — 
 
 1800 
 
 1840 
 
 . 
 
 402 
 
 3,396,400 
 
 — 
 
 2400 
 
 1850 
 
 - 
 
 459 
 
 2,380,000 
 
 — 
 
 5200 
 
 1858 
 
 - 
 
 619 
 
 3,456,064 
 
 — 
 
 5590 
 
 The following shews the production of iron in the north of England district in 
 the close of 1854 : — 
 
 English Blast Furnaces and Kolling Mills North of the Humber. 
 
 Name of Firm. 
 
 Name of Works. 
 
 In Blast. 
 
 Out Blst. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Pig Iron. 
 
 MaL Iron 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Derwent Iron Company 
 
 Consett 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 700 
 
 600 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Crookhall 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 800 
 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Bradley 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 450 
 
 — 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Bishopwearmuth. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 500 
 
 Bolckow and Vaughan - 
 
 Witton Park - 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 4 
 
 500 
 
 300 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Middlesbro' 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 400 
 
 300 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Eston 
 
 6 
 
 — 
 
 6 
 
 750 
 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Eston 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 250 
 
 
 
 Bell Brothers 
 
 Clarence 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 400 
 
 _ 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Felling 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 260 
 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Wylam 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 120 
 
 — 
 
 Losh, Wilson, and Bell - 
 
 Walker 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 560 
 
 300 
 
 J. Carr and Company - 
 
 Tyne Main 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 
 Weardale lion Company 
 
 Tow-law 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 500 
 
 _ 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Stanhope 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Spinney Moor - 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 300 
 
 James Wakinshaw 
 
 Monkwearmouth 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 Hawks, Crawshay <fc Co. 
 
 Gateshead 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 250 
 
 Tyne Iron Company 
 
 Jennington 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 180 
 
 30 
 
 Hareshaw Iron Company 
 
 Hareshaw 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Bedlington Iron Company 
 
 Bedlington 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 200 
 
 150 
 
 Birtley Iron Company - 
 
 Birtley 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 180 
 
 10 
 
 Gilkes, Wilson, Leatham, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Bell 
 
 Middlesbro' 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 400 
 
 
 
 Cochrane and Company 
 
 Ormsby 
 
 — 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 B. Samuelson and Co. - 
 
 Eston 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stockton Iron Company 
 
 Stockton 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 S. Durham Iron Company 
 
 Darlington 
 
 — 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Snowdon and Hopkinson 
 Total 
 
 - - 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 200 
 
 52 
 
 27 
 
 79 
 
 6600 
 
 3050 
 
IEO 
 
 181 
 
 IEO 
 
 In the second quarter of 1843 there were in the whole of the South Stafford- 
 shire district only 71 furnaces in blast; in the same quarter of 1844, 91 ; in 1845, 
 103; in 1846, in the midst of the great demand for the new railways, and the 
 enormous speculative purchases which at that time took place, there were, for 
 about nine months of the year, 108 furnaces in blast. In 1847 and 1848 the 
 number again fell off; in October, 1849, there were only 90 furnaces in, and 58 
 furnaces out of blast; subsequently ten of these were pulled down, and no mate- 
 rial alteration occurred until the end of 1852, when the number again increased, 
 and continued until the end of 1856, when there were more than 150 furnaces 
 going. The returns in relation to the " mills and forges " are of the same cha- 
 racter. During the last seven years the number of works in the district have 
 very much increased. The following table gives the market price (which is 
 always rather different to the trade price), of bar and pig iron of this district for 
 every quarter for eleven years . — 
 
 
 Figs. 
 
 Bars. 
 
 
 Pigs. 
 
 Bars. 
 
 
 per ton. 
 
 per ton. 
 
 
 per ton. 
 
 per ton. 
 
 1846-First Quarter 
 
 .£5 
 
 £10 
 
 1851— Third Quarter 
 
 .£2 10 
 
 £5 15 
 
 Second 
 
 . 4 10 
 
 y 
 
 Fourth 
 
 . 2 10 
 
 5 15 
 
 Third . 
 
 . 4 15 
 
 9 « 
 
 1852— First Quarter 
 
 . 2 10 
 
 5 15 
 
 Fourth 
 
 . 5 
 
 10 
 
 Second 
 
 . 2 15 
 
 6 
 
 1847— First Quarter 
 
 . 5 
 
 10 
 
 Third 
 
 . 3 
 
 6 10 
 
 Second 
 
 . 4 15 
 
 9 15 
 
 Fourth 
 
 . 3 10 
 
 9 O 
 
 Third 
 
 . 4 10 
 
 9 10 
 
 1853- First Quarter 
 
 . 4 10 
 
 10 
 
 Fourth 
 
 . 3 5 
 
 8 
 
 Second . 
 
 . 4 
 
 9 10 
 
 1818— First Quarter 
 
 . 3 
 
 8 
 
 Third 
 
 . 3 15 
 
 9 
 
 Second < 
 
 . 3 
 
 3 
 
 Fourth 
 
 . 3 15 
 
 9 
 
 Third 
 
 . 2 15 
 
 6 10 
 
 1851— First Quarter £4 10 to 5 
 
 10 
 
 Fourth 
 
 . 3 
 
 G 10 
 
 Second 
 
 . 5 10 
 
 10 
 
 1819 -First Quarter 
 
 . 3 5 
 
 7 
 
 Third 
 
 . 6 
 
 10 10 
 
 Second 
 
 . 3 
 
 6 10 
 
 Fourth 
 
 . 5 10 
 
 10 
 
 Third 
 
 . 2 15 
 
 6 
 
 1855— First Quarter 
 
 . 4 10 
 
 9 
 
 Fourth , 
 
 . 2 15 
 
 6 
 
 Second . 
 
 . 3 15 
 
 9 
 
 1850 - First Quarter 
 
 . 3 
 
 6 5 
 
 Third 
 
 . 3 10 
 
 8 15 
 
 Second 
 
 . . 2 15 
 
 6 
 
 Fourth , 
 
 . 4 5 
 
 9 
 
 Third 
 
 . 2 15 
 
 6 
 
 1856— First Quarter 
 
 . 4 5 
 
 8 15 
 
 Fourth 
 
 . 2 15 
 
 6 
 
 Second 
 
 . 4 10 
 
 8 15 
 
 1851- First Quarter 
 
 . 2 15 
 
 6 
 
 Third 
 
 . 4 10 
 
 8 15 
 
 Second , 
 
 . 2 10 
 
 5 15 
 
 Fourth 
 
 . 4 8ito9 
 
 From the foregoing it will be seen that the lowest prices were in 1851, when 
 the make of pig iron was not more than two-thirds of what it now is, whilst the 
 means of conversion have increased in proportion. The number of furnaces 
 existing and in blast, in North Yorkshire, in 1857, was as follows: — 
 
 Ironworks. 
 
 
 Furnaces. 
 
 In Blast. 
 
 Geveland 
 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 "Witton Park 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Ormesby 
 
 . 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 Tees 
 
 . 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 Yorkshire 
 
 • 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 Clarence • 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 Stockton 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 South Durham 
 
 . 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Norton 
 
 . 
 
 2-37 
 
 2-34 
 
 Average number of furnaces in activity during the year 1856 
 
 S3 
 
 At present we are largely indebted to Sweden for our supply of suitable iron 
 for the manufacture of steel. The following figures give the imports thence 
 since 1845: — 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1845 
 
 18.G07 
 
 1853 
 
 23,540 
 
 1846 
 
 30,840 
 
 1854 
 
 24,436 
 
 1847 
 
 28,264 
 
 1855 
 
 36,423 
 
 1848 
 
 20,438 
 
 185G 
 
 38,741 
 
 1849 
 
 26,605 
 
 1857 
 
 44,282 
 
 1850 
 
 28,096 
 
 1858 . 
 
 23,889 
 
 1851 
 
 35,467 
 
 1859 
 
 42,713 
 
 1852 i 
 
 . 23.817 
 
 
 
IEO 
 
 182 
 
 IEO 
 
 If we add to this the import from Russia and Norway, and the steel made in 
 England, the annual make here may be estimated at fully 50,000 tons. Trance 
 produces about 15,000 tons of steel; Prussia, 6000 tons; Austria, 13,500; and 
 the United States, 11,000. 
 
 Pig Iron Works in Scotland on the 1st op January, 1860. 
 
 Proprietors. 
 
 Works. 
 
 Furnaces. 
 
 In Blast; 
 
 Out of Blast. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Messrs. William Baird and Company 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto 
 Messrs. Mary and Cuninghame 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto 
 Coltness Iron Company 
 Dalmellington Iron Company 
 Monkland Iron and Steel Co. . 
 Messrs. Addie and Rankin 
 Messrs. Wilsons and Company 
 Messrs. John Wilson's Trustees 
 Messrs. Colin Dunlop and Company 
 Wiliam Dixon, Esq. . . 
 
 Ditto 
 Robert Stewart, Esq. . 
 Shotts Iron Company 
 
 Ditto 
 Robert Bell, Esq. 
 Messrs. Freeland and Lancaster 
 M essrs. William Wilson and Co. 
 Forth Iron Company 
 Lochgelly Iron Company 
 Messrs. A. Christie and Company . 
 Carron Iron Company 
 Messrs. G. and J. Miller 
 Messrs. Jas. Russell and Son 
 Messrs. C. and A. Christie . , 
 
 Gartsherrie 
 
 Eglinton 
 
 Blair 
 
 Lugar . 
 
 Muirkirk 
 
 Glengamock 
 
 Ardeer 
 
 Cambroe 
 
 Coltness 
 
 Dalmellington 
 
 Monkland 
 
 Lungloan 
 
 Summerlee 
 
 Dundyvan 
 
 Clyde and Quarter 
 
 Govan 
 
 Calder . 
 
 Omoa . 
 
 Shotts . 
 
 Castlehill 
 
 Wishaw , 
 
 Portland 
 
 Kinneil , 
 
 Forth 
 
 Lochgelly 
 
 Lumphinnans 
 
 Can-on 
 
 Devon 
 
 Almond 
 
 Gladsmuir 
 
 Gaiscube 
 
 Nithdale 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 4 
 
 "2 
 9 
 4 
 4 
 8 
 4 
 9 
 6 
 8 
 4 
 7 
 3 
 5 
 3 
 4 
 
 2 
 4 
 3 
 5 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 "i 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 "2 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 "4 
 2 
 3 
 3 
 1 
 1 
 3 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 4 
 
 "3 
 
 2 
 
 "2 
 3 
 
 16 
 7 
 5 
 4 
 3 
 9 
 4 
 6 
 9 
 5 
 9 
 6 
 8 
 8 
 9 
 6 
 8 
 4 
 5 
 3 
 3 
 5 
 4 
 7 
 4 
 1 
 4 
 3 
 3 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 125 
 
 49 
 
 174 
 
 Furnaces in Blast. 
 
 Make. 
 
 Shipments and Home Consumption. 
 
 Stock. 
 
 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 31st December, 18 
 
 ... 62 
 
 248,300 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 1844 
 
 ... 73 
 
 295,000 
 
 
 
 
 160,000 
 
 ... 
 
 1845 
 
 ... 88 
 
 475,000 
 
 
 390^ 000 
 
 
 245,000 
 
 ,,, 
 
 1846 
 
 ... 98 
 
 570,000 
 
 
 666,000 
 
 
 149,000 
 
 
 1847 
 
 ... 100 
 
 510,000 
 
 
 579,000 
 
 
 80,000 
 
 
 1848 
 
 ... 103 
 
 580,000 
 
 
 562,000 
 
 
 93,000 
 
 ... 
 
 1849 
 
 ... 112 
 
 690,000 
 
 
 578,000 
 
 
 210,000 
 
 ... 
 
 1850 
 
 ... 105 
 
 595.500 
 
 
 535,000 
 
 
 270,000 
 
 ,,, 
 
 1851 
 
 ... 112 
 
 760,000 
 
 
 680,000 
 
 
 350,000 
 
 ... 
 
 1852 
 
 ... 113 
 
 775,000 
 
 
 675,000 
 
 
 450,000 
 
 
 1853 
 
 ... 114 
 
 710,000 
 
 
 950,000 
 
 
 210,000 
 
 ... 
 
 1851 
 
 ... 117 
 
 770,000 
 
 
 860,000 
 
 
 120,000 
 
 ... 
 
 1855 
 
 ... 121 
 
 825,000 
 
 
 847,000 
 
 
 98,000 
 
 ... 
 
 1856 
 
 ... 128 
 
 832,000 
 
 
 842,000 
 
 
 88,000 
 
 ... 
 
 1857 
 
 ... 123 
 
 915,000 
 
 
 843,000 
 
 
 160,000 
 
 ... 
 
 1858 
 
 ... 132 
 
 945,000 
 
 
 810,000 
 
 
 295,000 
 
 ... 
 
 1859 
 
 ... 125 
 
 950,000 
 
 
 915,000 
 
 
 330,000 
 
 
 Production 
 
 of Malleable Iron in Scotland. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 1845 
 
 
 35,000 
 
 1850 
 
 80,000 
 
 1855 
 
 110,000 
 
 
 1846 
 
 
 45,000 
 
 1851 
 
 90,000 
 
 1856 
 
 125,000 
 
 
 1847 
 
 
 60,000 
 
 1852 
 
 90,000 
 
 1857 
 
 100,000 
 
 
 1848 
 
 
 90,000 
 
 1853 
 
 120,000 
 
 1858 
 
 90,000 
 
 
 1849 
 
 
 80,000 
 
 1854 
 
 110,000 
 
 1859 
 
 100,000 
 
 
IRO 
 
 183 
 
 IEO 
 
 Pig Iron. 
 
 8. 
 
 d. 
 
 85 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 133 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 a 
 
 67 
 
 3 
 
 Bar Iron. 
 
 Years 
 
 £ s. d 
 
 
 6 18 6 
 
 1847 
 
 6 10 
 
 1848 
 
 10 12 
 
 1849 
 
 9 12 6 
 
 1850 
 
 9 5 
 
 1851 
 
 9 14 6 
 
 1*52 
 
 8 7 6 
 
 1853 
 
 7 4 
 
 1854 
 
 5 19 
 
 1855 
 
 5 
 
 1856 
 
 6 2 6 
 
 1857 
 
 9 10 
 
 1858 
 
 9 15 
 
 1859 
 
 Average Prices of Pig and Bar Iron in Scotland for the last 
 Twenty-six Years. 
 Years. 
 
 1834 
 1835 
 1836 
 1837 
 1838 
 1839 
 1S40 
 1841 
 1842 
 1843 
 1844 
 1845 
 1846 
 
 The price of pig iron in 1810 was £9. os; in 1815, 
 1825, £11; in 1830, £5; in 1835, £4. 15s; in 1840, £3. 15*. 
 
 But in 1 796, the quantity of British iron made was 125,000 tons. The quantity 
 of foreign iron retained for home consumption was 45,600 tons. The total exports 
 of iron and hardware amounted to but 408 tons. The total home consumption to 
 170,100 tons. The contrast in 1850 and 1860 is striking indeed, as showing 
 the progress of this manufacture. The figures for 1850 stand thus: — 
 
 Tons. I Tons. 
 
 British iron made . 2,380,000 Iron and hardware exported 809,100 
 
 Foreign iron retained . 28,000 | Iron consumed at home . 1,598,900 
 
 In connexion with the foregoing, the following table will show not only the 
 rate of increase in the exports ot iron, steel, and machinery, but also the gra- 
 dually increasing proportion which, in the periods given below, the value of these 
 exports bore to the total exports of the country. In 1314 they amounted only to 
 4.08 per cent, of the whole, and in 1858 to 16.80 per cent. 
 
 Pig Iron. 
 
 Bar Iron. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 65 4 
 
 8 5 
 
 44 4 
 
 5 10 
 
 45 6 
 
 5 17 6 
 
 44 7 
 
 5 9 
 
 40 1 
 
 5 7 6 
 
 45 5 
 
 10 10 
 
 61 5 
 
 9 7 6 
 
 79 9 
 
 9 15 
 
 71 
 
 8 15 
 
 72 4 
 
 8 17 6 
 
 69 2 
 
 8 16 6 
 
 54 5 . 
 
 7 10 
 
 51 10 
 
 7 7 6 
 
 £7. 10*; 
 
 in 1820, £7; 
 
 Years. 
 
 Total value of exports. 
 
 Total value of iron and 
 steel, hardware, & mach'y. 
 
 Proportion per cent, to 
 total Supply. 
 
 1814 
 1821 
 1831 
 1811 
 
 1850 
 1858 
 
 £43,447,000 
 35,826,000 
 37,102.000 
 51,034,000 
 71,367,000 
 
 116,608,756 
 
 £1,772,000 
 2,900,000 
 3,514,000 
 5,052,000 
 9,033,000 
 
 19,592,969 
 
 408 
 8.01 
 9.46 
 9.78 
 12.65 
 16.80 
 
 In 1825, the United Kingdom exported as follow! 
 Iron and steel, wrought and unwrought 
 Hardware and cutlery - 
 Machinery and mill-work 
 
 £1,049,000 
 
 1,392,000 
 
 212,000 
 
 Total ----- £2,652,000 
 
 The declared value of all exports of British iron and unwrought steel, includ- 
 ing hardwares and cutlery, machinery, and mill-work, was in 1823, £2,111,448; 
 in 1830, £2,698,226; 1839,£5,231,631; 1847, £8,870,775; 1851, £8,594,961; 
 and in 1858, £19,593,000. 
 
 The proportion from different ports, at which the shipments for 1851 were 
 made, was as follows : — 
 
 London • £1,582,498 
 
 Liverpool - 4,813,773 
 
 Bristol - 223,217 
 
 Hull - - - - 1,073,732 
 
 Other English Ports - 320,981 
 
 Total, English Ports 
 ... Scotch Ports 
 ... Irish Ports 
 
 £3.014,201 
 
 561,819 
 
 IS 941 
 
 Together - - £8,594,961 
 
 The quantities of foreign iron imported into the United Kingdom in 1854 were 
 (follows: — iron ore, 851 tons; chromate of iron, 2670 tons; pig iron, 898 
 
IEO 
 
 184 
 
 IEO 
 
 tons; bar iron, unwrought, 41,745 tons; iron wire, 770 tons; iron bloom, 762 
 tons; iron slit or hammered into rod, 53 tons; old, broken, and cast iron, 751 
 tons; iron hoops, 26 tons; cast iron, 52 tons; unwrought steel, 1408 tons; 
 steel scrap, 226 tons; wrought iron and steel manufactures, 15,458 tons; and 
 fancy ornamental articles of iron and steel, 323 tons. The quantity of foreign iron 
 exported was 27 tons of chromatc of iron, 4341 tons of iron in bars, unwrought, 
 1340 tons of unwrought steel, and 3810 tons of iron and steel machinery and 
 manufactures. The quantity of British iron exported in 1854 was as follows: — 
 293,432 tons of pig iron, 604,662 tons of bar iron, 12,056 tons of bolt and 
 rod iron, 69,338 tons of cast iron, 7937 tons oi iron wire, 26,084 tons of anchors 
 and grapnels, 30,709 tons of hoops, 8141 tons of nails, 111,269 tons of other 
 sorts (except ordnance), 12,242 tons of old iron, and 20,793 tons of unwrought 
 steel. The quantity of British hardware and cutlery exported from the United 
 Kingdom in 1854 amounted to 32,054 tons, and the declared value to £3,867,598. 
 In 1853 the quantity was 32,375 tons, and the value £3,665,051. 
 Iron Manufactures, &c. Exported in 1858. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pig iron . 
 
 363,103 
 
 £. 
 
 1,084,290 
 
 Iron ore 
 
 1,144 
 
 774 
 
 Bar iron 
 
 233,587 
 
 1,909,483 
 
 Railroad iron 
 
 433,250 
 
 3,565,224 
 
 Bolt and rod iron 
 
 26,400 
 
 224,269 
 
 Cast iron 
 
 78,202 
 
 823,084 
 
 Iron wire 
 
 10,220 
 
 209,073 
 
 Anchors, &c. 
 
 16,772 
 
 261,500 
 
 Iron hoops . . . 
 
 32,867 
 
 320,799 
 
 Iron nails 
 
 13,055 
 
 300,245 
 
 Sheet iron, hoilers, plates, <tec. 
 
 53,841 
 
 596,140 
 
 Other sorts . 
 
 53,342 
 
 1,293,214 
 
 Chromate of iron 
 
 82 
 
 1,304 
 
 Old iron . . . 
 
 18,937 
 
 94,889 
 
 Steel 
 
 17,860 
 
 620,303 
 
 Ordnance 
 
 4,428 
 
 60,268 
 
 Total 
 
 1,357,156 
 
 11,364,859 
 
 This is exclusive of hardware and cutlerv to the value of £3,277,607; ma- 
 chinery and mill work, £3,599,352; and tinned plates, £1,351,151, which makes 
 a total export iron trade of £19,592,969. 
 
 United States.— The growth of the iron trade and manufacture of the United 
 States, during the last forty-five years, has been enormous. In 1816 there were 
 153 furnaces, producing 54,000 tons of pig iron ; in 1845 there were 540 blast fur- 
 naces, averaging 900 tons each annually, yielding 486,000 tons; and950bloomeries, 
 lorges, rolling and splitting mills, yielding of bar, and hoop iron, &c, 29 1,600 tons 
 — and of blooms, castings, machinery and stove plates, 151,500 tons — making that 
 year an aggregate of 929,100 tons, of the value of 33,940,500 dollars. In 1853 
 the rapid increase in this class of manufacture was such as to yield much more 
 than a million tons of pig-iron. 
 
 The American railway companies have been pressing upon Congress to procure 
 a refunding of the duties paid upon imported railway iron within the last ten 
 years. This would amount to about 14,000,000 dollars, all collected upon Eng- 
 lish manufactures. The annual report of the Secretary of the Treasury makes 
 some interesting statements of the growth of this branch of industry. The 
 State of Pennsylvania alone manufactured in 1855, 439,186 tons of pig iron, 
 and of finished iron 227,837 tons, of which 127,550 tons was nails, rods, and bars; 
 82,107 of rails, 21,505 of sheets and plate, and 2675 of hammered bars. Thisis 
 only from one iron district, yielding about half the annual production of the 
 country. The whole annual production of the United States is now about 
 1,000,000 tons, and the consumption was 1,386,000 in 1855. The manufacture 
 of the United States is already as iarge as that ol Great Britain was in 1835. 
 In the year 1810, the production of iron in the United States amounted to 
 
IRO 185 IEO 
 
 50,000 tons, fVom which amount it slightly and gradually declined onward to 
 1S20. Between that and 1840, it increased through almost uniform gradations 
 till it reached 325,000 tons. In Pennsylvania but 100,000 tons were made in 
 that year, although in 1842 the production amounted to 190,000. Throughout 
 the whole country, the two years 1840 and 1841 witnessed a decline of nearly 
 100,000 tons, when the production began to rise rapidly and steadily till it 
 reached 800,000 tons in 1847 and 1848. In consequence of the pecuniary re- 
 vulsions and disquietudes of that period, the domestic manufacture of iron fell 
 by gradual stages to 500,000 tons in 1854 ; from which epoch it again rose at a 
 uniform and rapid rate, till in 1855, it amounted to 1,000,000 tons. In 1847, 
 the production in Pennsylvania was 389,350 tons; but it sunk, in 1849, to 
 253,370 tons. In 1854, it had increased to 424,234 tons, with 201,963 tons of 
 finished iron. In these ironworks of Pennsylvania more than thirty millions of 
 dollars are invested; and more than 40,000* men and boys are employed in the 
 two branches of the business— the making and the finishing — who represent, it 
 is supposed, a population of nearly 200,000 souls, a very considerable fraction of 
 the whole population. 
 
 The subjoined statement shows the value of iron and articles wholly or in part 
 composed of iron, imported into the United States in 1852: — 
 
 Dollars. 
 Pig iron . . 1,142,717 
 
 Eailroadiron . . 10,650,191 
 
 Manufactures of cast . 1,219,202 
 
 Manufactures of wrought . 3,460,112 
 Manufactures not specified 2,319,280 
 
 Carried over . 18,791,502 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 - Brought over . 18,791,502 
 
 Cutlery . . 1,607,158 
 
 Other manufactures composed 
 
 of steel in part . 916,889 
 
 Old iron . . 311,444 
 
 Total . . 21,626,993 
 
 About 30,000 men are employed in the United States in iron castings; 25,000 
 in the manufacture of pig iron, and 14,000 in wrought iron. 
 
 The following statement shows the value of iron of all kinds imported into 
 the United States. 
 
 Years. Dollars. I Years. Dollars. 
 
 1821 . . . 1,213,041 I 1851 . . . 9,113,862 
 
 1831 , . . 1,965,511 I And manufactures of iron . 8,183,143 
 
 1841 . . 4,020,002 | 1858 . . . 17,328,039 
 
 France. — The make of iron in France has been as follows: — 
 
 Years. Pig Iron. Bar Iron. 
 
 1S24 . tons 194,636 . tons 139,564 
 
 1836 . 3"3,739 . 201,691 
 
 1847 . 583,054 . 371,252 
 
 1852 . 515,102 . 297,449 
 
 In 1825 France took only 3273 tons of British iron; in 1852 she took 22,813 
 tons,in 1854, 42,234 tons, in 1857, 119,967 tons, and in 1859 but 75,531 tons. 
 
 IRON MANUFACTURES. It is estimated that upwards of 400,000 per- 
 sons are employed directly in the hardware and cutlery manufactures in Eng- 
 land, and the aggregate value of such goods produced annually exceeds 
 £20,000,000. 
 
 Hardware is a term employed to denote every description of metals when 
 manufactured into articles of use, whether of iron, eopper, tin, brass, or pewter, 
 &c. consisting of all kinds of implements, such as edge tools, spades and shovels, 
 scythes and sickles, screws, hammers, hinges, spoons, anvils, vices, sad irons, 
 tubes, guns, &c. The principal seats of manufacture are in Birmingham, Wol- 
 verhampton, Dudley, Walsall, and those neighbourhoods.- Cutlery is the term 
 used to designate all kinds of sharp cutting instruments, such as table knives and 
 forks, razors, scissors, swords, penknives, surgical instruments, &c. The great 
 seat of manufacture is Sheffield. Liverpool is the great outport for all these 
 manufactures to the Western world; and, if under this head we include wire, 
 nails, chains, anchors, mill-works, castings, machinery, steam engines, &c, we 
 find altogether upwards of 100,000 tons exported in 1850 from that port, amount- 
 ing in value to £3,500,000. Steel, bars and pieces of wrought iron hardened by 
 
LEO 
 
 186 
 
 IVO 
 
 a peculiar process, is principally made in Sheffield, where there are sixty-two 
 establishments, with fifty-six furnaces, for converting iron into steel, and seventy- 
 four engines, with 1,353 horses. Three sorts of steel are manufactured, called 
 blistered, shear and cast, the last-named being the most valuable, serving to 
 make the blades of penknives, razors, surgical instruments, swords, and all 
 kinds of cutlery. 
 
 The price of bar steel varies according to the price of the iron from which it 
 is made, but as a general average, its price in commerce may be taken at £5 per 
 ton beyond the price of the iron from which it is made. Bar steel produced 
 from the better irons is usually dearer than the common kind on acsount of their 
 scarcity. In 1855 the approximate prices were, shear steel in ordinary size, 
 £60 per ton nett, coach spring steel from foreign iron, £22 nett; and pure 
 English iron, £18. The manufacture of steel in England is now about 50,000 
 tons, and is chiefly confined to Sheffield. 
 
 In 1855 the weight and value of the steel made here was as follows: — 
 
 £1,035,000 
 
 23,000 tons of cast steel, all qualities, at £45 
 7,000 tons of bar steel, including German faggot, single and 
 
 double shear steel, average £35 
 10,000 tons coach spring steel at £19 per ton 
 
 40,000 tons - 
 
 245,000 
 190,000 
 
 £1,147,000 
 
 In 1852 the quantity of unwrought steel sent from Sheffield to Liverpool for 
 shipment, chiefly to the United States, but also to the Mediterranean and East 
 Indies, amounted to 80,000 bundles of 1^ cwt., and 22,000 long narrow cases, 
 averaging five cwts. each, being altogether 19,500 tons in weight, and £425,000 
 in value. Besides these, 4000 casks of files, weighing 2000 tons, worth 
 £230,000, were forwarded from Sheffield through Liverpool, principally for 
 shipment, and which come generally under the denomination of steel, but 
 should more properly be placed in the category of hardware or cutlery. The 
 manufacture of steel in Sheffield is now said to be 2500 tons monthly, with 
 every prospect of an increase of 25 per cent. ; the bulk of this trade is for expor- 
 tation through the port of Liverpool. 
 
 The declared value of the exports of hardware and cutlery were in 1845, 
 £2,183,000; in 1850, £2,641,432; in 1855, £2,960,391; and in 1859, 
 £3,826,030. Of the exports in the last-named year, £1,179,039 went to the 
 United States, £472,007 to Australia, £270,010 to India, £215,526 to Germany, 
 and about £150,000 each to Brazil and British North America. 
 
 ISINGLASS. Besides the isinglass obtained from the sturgeon — different 
 species of isinglass are now imported from Brazil, Canada, the Hudson Bay 
 Company's Territories, India, and other quarters. 
 
 The following shows the present sources of the supply and price : — 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1853. 
 
 1858. 
 
 Average Price 
 per Cwt. in 1858. 
 
 Russia 
 
 United States 
 
 Brazils 
 
 East Indies . . . 
 
 British North America 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 Other parts . . 
 
 Cwts. 
 1056 
 
 662 
 307 
 
 95 
 104 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1184 
 
 30 
 
 417 
 
 244 
 
 33 
 
 73 
 
 45 
 
 £ s. d. 
 41 8 
 18 1 4 
 18 9 10 
 13 16 6 
 
 29 8 
 20 4 5 
 
 30 4 11 
 
 Total 
 
 2284 
 
 2026 
 
 
 IVORY. In 1827 we imported upwards of 3000 cwt. of ivory; in 1842, 
 5000 cwt.; in 1850, 8000 cwt.; and in 1858, 12,279 cwt., nearly all of which 
 was taken for home consumption. The trade returns embrace all ivory under 
 the designation of " teeth," and these include those of the sea-horse. 
 
 The African elephant yields the largest tusks. Mr. Gordon Cumming had 
 
IVO 187 IVO 
 
 one weighing 173 lbs. Mr. Cawood, of Graham's Town, had a pair in his pos- 
 session, weighing 330 lbs. A tusk was recently shipped from Camaroon to 
 Liverpool, weighing about 164 lbs. ; and, two or three years since, one to Bris- 
 tol, weighing about 147 lbs. 
 
 At the Great Exhibition in 1851, some tusks of the African elephant were 
 shown, which weighed 162 lbs. each, measured 8 feet 6 inches in length, and 22 
 inches in basal circumference. It is a singular fact that the domestication of 
 the elephant is usually attended by the deterioration of the length and quality of 
 the ivory. The grinders, or teeth proper of the elephant are worthless, or of 
 but little use, and on the West Coast of Africa are never purchased. 
 
 The total imports of ivory in the last six years have been as follows, speci- 
 fying also the quantity from Africa and the Mediterranean ports respectively, 
 in cwts.: — 
 
 Years. Africa. Mediterranean. Total. 
 
 1853 4,882 1,283 10,388 
 
 1854 3,462 1,048 9,299 
 
 1855 3,974 871 8,376 
 
 1856 1,772 1,819 9,866 
 
 1857 2,735 2,415 9,890 
 
 1858 3,146 2,945 12,279 
 
 The imports from India and the East, according to a parliamentary paper, 
 have been in the last ten years: — 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1849 . . . 4058 
 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 
 3444 
 2580 
 4425 
 
 Cwts. 
 1854 . . . 3642 
 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 
 2748 
 5027 
 3349 
 5300 
 
 The estimated value of the ivory imported has been as follows : — 
 
 Average Price per Cwt. 
 
 £. £. s. d. 
 
 1854 "... 230,420 ... 25 10 
 
 1855 ... 219,964 ... 26 10 
 
 1856 ... 343,517 ... 35 13 
 
 1857 ... 421,318 .. 42 18 
 
 1858 ... 410,608 ... 34 1 
 
 From Ceylon the quantity exported has not averaged during the last five years 
 £200 in value. The quality of the African ivory varies considerably. That best 
 adapted for the English market comes from the Camaroon coast, and the most 
 esteemed rims from 50 lbs. weight upwards, the next in value 35 lbs. to 50 lbs., then 
 from 18 lbs. to 35 lbs. All below 18 lbs. are called scrivelloes, and are of the least 
 value, except those adapted to cutting billiard balls, which, in proportion to their 
 size and cost, are the most valuable of all. Tusks are valued in proportion to 
 their size; those that weigh 1 cwt. or more are the best, and fetch from £40 to 
 £50 the cwt. ; the second class comprehends such as require two teeth to make 
 a cwt. or more ; the third class, three or more to the cwt. 
 
 Gaboon, Loango, Congo, and Ambriz, are next to the Camaroons in quality 
 for ivory. Gaboon and its immediate neighbourhood, being that part of the 
 coast which is made their head-quarters by the Liverpool and Bristol traders, 
 gxports an enormous quantity of ivory annually to all parts, but principally 
 to England, France and the United States, not less than 80 tons. 
 
 The Gold Coast ivory, and that brought down for shipment to Sierra Leone 
 and Cape Coast Castle, ranks next, and is tolerably good. Gambia teeth are 
 usually very bad, always broken, very crooked, cracked in the hollows, and more 
 or less damaged. 
 
 Fine ivory is known by having no cracks or flaws, either in the solid or in 
 the hollow. Cracks in the ivory are a serious detriment, and must be always 
 particularly noticed. The elephant's tusks that are only rather tapering in 
 shape are most liked ; very crooked teeth must be guarded against, as they cut 
 up to great disadvantage. Broken-pointed teeth, or those with deep flaws, or 
 
IYO 188 JAV 
 
 otherwise damaged about the point, must be avoided. Teeth with large hollows 
 are not at all liked, as there must inevitably be a great waste in cutting them 
 up; in short, a fine tooth is known by being of a neat tapering shape, and a small 
 hollow, free from cracks, with a fine, thin, clear coat, free from flaws; it is also 
 transparent, which may be discovered by holding the point to a candle. 
 
 The Gold Coast ivory may generally be known by having a rough hewn hole 
 made near the end of the hollow, and are teeth much esteemed. 
 
 The annual consumption of ivory in Sheffield is to the extent of about 
 £60,000 in value, and about five hundred persons are employed in working it up 
 for trade. The number of tusks required to make up the weight consumed 
 in Sheffield, about 180 tons, would be 45,000. According to this, the number 
 jof elephants killed every year is 22,500; but supposing that some tusks were 
 cast and some animals died, it might be fairly estimated that 18,000 are killed 
 for this purpose. 
 
 JAPAN. The trade of Japan so long a sealed book to the world of commerce, 
 was opened in 1854. by Commodore Perry, who on the 13th March of that year, 
 concluded a treaty with that nation by which two ports were opened for trading 
 purposes— Simoda, in the Gulf of Idzu, and Hakodadi, in the Straits of Saugor, 
 on the Island of Jesso. In August, 1858, a treaty was signed on behalf of Great 
 Britain, by which the following ports were opened to British subjects:— Hako- 
 dadi, Kanagawa, and Nagasaki, on July 1st, 1859; Nee-egata, or some other 
 port on the west coast of Niphon, January 1st, 1860, and Hioga on January 1st, 
 1863. After January 1st, 1862, British subjects to reside at Yeddo, and after 
 January 1st, 1863, in Osacca, for the purposes of trade only. An import duty 
 of 5 per cent, is levied on building materials, rice, metals (except precious me- 
 tals and corn, which are free), machinery, raw silk, cotton and woollen goods. 
 Intoxicating liquors are charged 35 per cent. Unenumerated goods pay a duty 
 of 20 per cent. Japanese products pay an export duty of 5 per cent. Al- 
 ready a fair amount of trade has been earned on with Japan. Cargoes com- 
 prising Japan vegetable wax, a solid fat (obtained from the berries of the Rhus 
 succadeneaj, tea, lacquered wares, bronze articles, and other goods have come in. 
 
 The islands are said tc contain at a moderate computation fifty millions 
 of inhabitants, and two of the chief cities have a population of upwards of a 
 million souls each. The indigenous products are numerous. The rice grown is 
 considered the best in Asia, and they cultivate as much hemp and cotton in their 
 fields as they can find room for. The whale fishery is prosecuted on many parts 
 of the coast. Osacca is the commercial metropolis of the most fertile and popu- 
 lous portion of the empire, and built at the mouth of the only navigable river. 
 Matsmai, a large town with about 60,000 inhabitants, is situated on a bay at the 
 south-west part of the island of Jesso. A Japanese Embassy has lately (1860) 
 visited the United States, and we may probably expect to see a Japanese Mi- 
 nister domiciled in London. 
 
 Tc Europe the removal of the embargo formerly laid on trade with this po- 
 pulous and civilized nation, has afforded commercial facilities and maritime ad- 
 vantages; and to the Japanese the benefits of the introduction of Christianity, 
 European arts and manufactures, the improvements of science, and greater 
 political liberty are offered. 
 
 JAVA. The area of the Islands of Java and Madura is 51,336 square 
 miles, and according to recent official statistics, the population now amounts 
 to 20,352 Europeans, 138,356 Chinese, 24,615 Arabians and other foreign 
 Orientals, 11,405,358 free natives, and 5260 native serfs, making together 
 a total of 11,594,158. The population of the other Dutch possessions in the 
 Eastern Archipelago is 5,477,640, making a grand total of more than 17,000,000 
 under Dutch laws and the Dutch flag. 
 
 The duties and dues levied, brought in 1854, £669,660. The merchandise 
 imported in that year was to the value of £2,823,112, and the specie £535,905. 
 The exports were merchandise £5,688,378, and specie £382,085. The quantity 
 of produce raised in the island in 1855, was 1,516,602 cwts. of coffee; 1,484,727 
 cwts. of sugar; 803,532 lbs. of indigo; 1,604,411 lbs. of tea; 218,088 lbs. of cinna- 
 
JAV 
 
 189 
 
 JUT 
 
 mon; 169,109 lbs. of cochineal; 653,871 lbs. of pepper; and 3270 lbs. of tobacco; 
 the tobacco raised in the two previous years averaged 2,500,000 lbs. 
 
 In 1858 the value of the trade amounted to £14,747,414 or £2,258,538 more 
 than that at Singapore, and less than that of the whole Straits Settlements by 
 £1,682,738. The chief articles of produce were indigo, coffee, rattans, rice, 
 spices, sugar, tobacco and tin. The ships, which arrived in 1858, amounted 
 altogether to 2882, with a tonnage of 222,900 lasts, or 445,800 tons. The 
 number of ships, which left Java and Madura in 1858 was 3344 with a tonnage 
 of 237,776 lasts or 475,552 tons. 
 
 The following figures show the progress of the trade of Java and Madura: — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports, including Specie. 
 
 [Exports. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1842 
 
 2,173.433 
 
 4,865,291 
 
 1843 
 
 1,879,282 
 
 4,916,069 
 
 1844 
 
 2,111,862 
 
 5,840,470 
 
 1845 
 
 2,257,650 
 
 5,491,264 
 
 1846 
 
 2,282,209 
 
 4,846,482 
 
 1847 
 
 1,973,264 
 
 4,953,765 
 
 1848 
 
 1,757,509 
 
 4,374,005 
 
 1849 
 
 2,008,224 
 
 5,025,526 
 
 1850 
 
 2,033,499 
 
 4,804,741 
 
 1851 
 
 2,543,533 
 
 6,032,654 
 
 1852 
 
 2,626,298 
 
 4,805,569 
 
 1853 
 
 2,665,409 
 
 5,862,980 
 
 1854 
 
 3,359,017 
 
 6,070,463 
 
 The quantity of produce raised in the island of Java in 1851 and 1855, was 
 ! follows: — 
 
 
 1851. 
 
 1855. 
 
 Coffee 
 
 cwts. 
 
 1,387.572 
 
 1,516,602 
 
 Sugar 
 
 cwts. 
 
 1,524,958 
 
 1,484,726 
 
 Indigo 
 
 lbs. 
 
 954,325 
 
 803,532 
 
 Tea . 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1,023,373 
 
 1,604,411 
 
 Cinnamon 
 
 lbs. 
 
 211,067 
 
 .218,088 
 
 Cochineal . 
 
 lbs. 
 
 172,885 
 
 169,109 
 
 Pepper 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1,022,147 
 
 653,871 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 lbs. 
 
 771,856 
 
 3,270 
 
 Our export trade with Java has been largely on the increase of late years. 
 In 1840 the whole value of the British manufactures exported to Java, with 
 Sumatra, was but £349,521; in 1850, the exports to Java alone were valued 
 at £507,499; and in 1859, they had risen to £1,037,088. 
 
 JUTE, a name for the fibre of Corchorus olitorius and C. capsularius, plants 
 extensively grown in India. There is a large export trade in jute, which is now much 
 used in some of our manufactures, mixed with flax, or as a substitute for it. In 
 the imports jute, sunn, and other hemp-like fibres are mixed up in the trade re- 
 turns. Although it is comparatively a recent article of English commerce our 
 imports from India reached 1,088,249 cwts. in 1859. Besides the large ship- 
 ments to Great Britain and America, it is also extensively used in India, almost 
 all the small Hindu fanners weave cloth of it, and every farmer requires some 
 for the use of his farm. Various thick coarse fabrics are made from it, of which 
 whole cargoes amounting to tens of thousands of pieces are now annually taken 
 off by the Americans from Calcutta for cotton bagging and similar purposes. 
 Mention has been made of this trade under the heading Gunsy-bagging. Be- 
 sides being extensively employed in the manufacture of coarse goods, such as 
 carpetings, bags, sacks, and even mixed with canvas or sail-cloth, it is now 
 used in Dundee for many finer fabrics, such as with the cotton warps of cheap 
 broad cloths, to mix with silk, &c. The shipments of jute from India now 
 average about 46,000 tons a year. 
 
LAC 190 LEA 
 
 LAC. The quantity of this resin imported in various forms is very consider- 
 able. In 1858 the imports of shellac were about 20,000 cwts. and of lac dye 
 12,000 cwts. 
 
 LACE AND BOBBIN NET MANUFACTURES. In 1850 there were 
 3200 machines (34,382 quarters width) at work, returning £2,300,000, employ- 
 ing about £2,965,945 capital, and 133,015 hands. The capital in bobbin-net 
 machineiy alone was estimated at £1,359,445. In 1856 the machinery was 
 increased to 3500 (full 40,000 quarters in width), and greater power in produc- 
 tion in the new ones. A far larger proportion was employed upon silk materials, 
 and the number of frames making fancy goods forms now far the largest 
 proportion. These changes will serve to account for the very large increase in 
 the returns of the trade in 1856 beyond 1850. In the latter year, 1050 ma- 
 chines at least were rotary circulars, making plain goods by power in fac- 
 tories; 1050 making fancies were worked by power, probably more. About 
 2158 machines in all, partly " levers," partly circulars, some pushers, 
 and some traverse- warps, made fancy goods. The materials are all imported, 
 and cost on importation £920,000. The returns were about £3,680,000. 
 This left for wages, interest, and profits, £2,760,000. If to these figures be 
 added the cost of raw materials (all imported) in the warp lace trade, £60,000, 
 and the ultimate returns, £360,000, the result of the operations of the entire 
 machine-wrought English lace trade will be: — Raw materials used, cost 
 £980,000; total returns, £2,040,000; paid in wages, interest, wear and tear, 
 and profits, £3,060,000. The entire number of hands employed may be stated 
 at 135,000. In embroidering and finishing of lace, including wages at the 
 machines, as well as the subsequent processes, there was paid to at least 130,000 
 hands, in 1856, £2,200,000 in wages alone, in this department of the Notting- 
 ham lace trade. 
 
 The value of the cotton lace and patent net exported in 1859 was £397,035; 
 and of the linen lace, £3448. The imports of lace in 1858 were, thread or cot- 
 ton pillow lace, chiefly from Belgium, £17,988; silk lace, principally from 
 France, £21,504; Brussels point and other kinds, £3774. 
 
 LARD. The quantity of lard imported from America is very large. In the 
 three years ending 1850, it averaged 12,000 tons per annum, but of late years it 
 has not been so much, for in the three years ending 1859, the imports from 
 the United States averaged only about 7000 tons. 
 
 LEAD. The average production of lead ore in the United Kingdom in the 
 ten years, ending with 1857, was 90,656 tons, from which 63,800 tons of lead 
 was obtained. The quantity of ore necessary to obtain 100 tons of lead was 
 142 tons; the proportion of lead to ore being about 70 per cent. The value of 
 the lead ore raised in 1858 was 95,855 tons, worth £1,370,726, and the mineral 
 obtained therefrom 68,303 tons, valued at £1,489,005. The ratio of pig lead 
 produced in the ten years ending 1858 in the several districts of the kingdom was 
 — in England, 70 per cent. ; in Wales, 21 £; in Ireland, 2 8; in Scotland, 2.4; in 
 the Isle of Man, 2.9. 
 
 The imports of lead ore in 1858 were 2207 tons, and of pig and sheet lead 
 14,139 tons. The exports of lead were — 
 
 Years. Tons. Declared Value. 
 
 1856 ... 23,134 .. £582,269 
 
 1857 ... 22,088 ... 549 523 
 
 1858 ... 19,555 ... 459,954 
 
 1859 ... 20,491 ... 480,943 
 
 LEATHER. The uses of leather are so numerous that it is somewhat diffi- 
 cult without any official data to form any correct estimate of the extent of the 
 home consumption. If we take the article of shoe leather alone, and allow half 
 the population of the United Kingdom (say 14,500,000 persons) to use two pairs 
 of shoes per annum, and calculate them but at 5* per pair, we get at a money 
 value paid for this single article of £7,125,000. But there are numberless other 
 uses of skins and leather, for saddlery and harness, fire buckets and hose, port- 
 manteaus, buff leather, shamoy, gloves, parchment, book-binding, upholstery, 
 
LEA 
 
 191 
 
 LEA 
 
 &c. In 1850 it was calculated that there were about 6,000,000 hides and skins 
 adapted for various descriptions of leather annually imported. The number 
 now received annually is nearly 10,000,000; sheep and goat skins it will be per- 
 ceived have largely increased. 
 
 If we take the total imports of foreign hides and skin to weigh — 
 
 Tons. 
 30,000 
 The common estimate is that one-fourth of our live stock are annu- 
 ally slaughtered. This would furnish for the United Kingdom in 
 round numbers— 
 4,000,000 ox and cow hides at 30 lbs. 
 
 500,000 calf skins at 40 lbs. 
 8,000,000 sheep and lamb skins at 1 lb. 
 100,000 horse hides at 14 lbs. 
 100,000 goat skins at 1 lb. 
 
 This would give a total of . . Tons 97,240 
 
 About 14,000 tons of hides and leather are, however, now exported. There 
 are about 500 tanneries in the United Kingdom, employing from 350,000 to 
 400,000 persons directly and indirectly. Supposing the foregoing estimate to 
 be an approximation to the truth, this would give a total of about 83,000 tons 
 of leather used here, Avhich taking it at an average of 2s per pound, would give 
 a stun of £18,592,000; but probably £30,000,000 would be nearer the aggre- 
 gate value. 
 
 The following statement shows the number of unmanufactured hides and 
 skins imported into Great Britain for tanning and leather dressing; a portion of 
 these, however, are re-exported in the raw state: — 
 
 . about 
 
 54,000 
 
 . about 
 
 9,000 
 
 • about 
 
 3,570 
 
 . about 
 
 625 
 
 • about 
 
 45 
 
 
 1840. 
 
 1S50. 
 
 1858. 
 
 Hides . . cwts. 
 Seal skins . . No. 
 Goat skins . . No. 
 Sheep skins . . No. 
 Lamb skins, dressed and undressed, No. 
 Kid skins . . No. 
 Deer skins . No. 
 
 407,112 
 560,596 
 387,436 
 91,682 
 1,792,507 
 713,942 
 411,785 
 
 591,921 
 
 779,924 
 
 479,541 
 
 " 389,557 
 
 1,919,013 
 
 501,374 
 
 93,472 
 
 861,687 
 
 719,926 
 
 1,241,370 
 
 2,449,476 
 
 1,315,418 
 
 473,655 
 
 98,779 
 
 The import of hides in the last column is for 1859. The total value of 
 hides and skins now imported may be taken to be about £3,500,000. 
 
 Imports of Manufactured Hides and other Manufactures of Leather. 
 
 
 1840. 
 
 1850. 
 1,896,798 
 
 3,260,101 
 
 1859. 
 
 Hides, tanned, <fec, . . lbs. 
 Russia Hides . . No. 
 Boots, shoes, goloshes, &c . pairs 
 Gloves . . . pairs 
 
 8,954 
 5,580 
 
 1,543,217 
 
 4,962,192 
 
 713,274 
 4,590,261 
 
 Declared Value of the Exports of Leather Manufactures of British 
 
 Produce. 
 
 
 1840. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1859. 
 
 Leather, wrought and unwrought 
 Saddlery and Harness 
 
 £ 
 
 320,912 
 
 96,162 
 
 £ 
 484,905 
 123,960 
 
 £ 
 
 1,708,072 
 
 289,631 
 
 Total 
 
 417,074 
 
 618,864 
 
 1,997,703 
 
LEA 
 
 192 
 
 LEA 
 
 Prices of Tanned Leather at the close of each Year from 1847 to 1859 
 
 inclusive. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Crop 
 Hides. 
 
 English 
 Butts. 
 
 Foreign 
 Butts. 
 
 Crop 
 Bellies. 
 
 Crop 
 Shoul- 
 ders. 
 
 Common 
 
 Dressing 
 
 Hides. 
 
 Harness 
 
 and 
 
 Saddlers 
 
 Hides. 
 
 Shaved. 
 
 Dressing 
 
 Hides. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d 
 
 1. d. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 1847 
 
 84 to 16 
 
 11 to 23 
 
 9 
 
 tol6 
 
 54 to 6A 
 5 - 6| 
 
 84 tolOJ, 
 
 8 tolO 
 
 94tol3 
 
 9 to 14 
 
 1848 
 
 74 - 16 
 
 9-23 
 
 9 
 
 -15 
 
 6 - 84 
 
 64 - 84 
 
 9 -12 
 
 7 -11 
 
 1849 
 
 7 - 16 
 
 84 - 23 
 
 BJ 
 
 -16 
 
 44 - 6 
 
 64 - 9 
 
 74 -10 
 
 7 - 9 
 
 9-13 
 
 7-11 
 
 1850 
 
 7J - 16 
 
 10 - 23 
 
 N 
 
 -16 
 
 5 - 6 
 
 74 -10 
 
 9-13 
 
 8-11 
 
 1851 
 
 8 - 16,10 - 22 
 
 9' 
 
 -16 
 
 5i - 64 
 74 - 9 
 
 8 -104 
 
 74 -10 
 
 9 -13 
 
 9 -12 
 
 1852 
 
 94 - 15 11 - 20 
 
 H 
 
 -16A 
 
 94 -11 
 124 -14 
 
 9| -11 
 
 10 -13 
 
 104 -13 
 
 1853 
 
 12 - 18 13| - 22 
 
 12', 
 
 -19 
 
 94 -11 
 
 I24 -14 
 
 13 -15 
 
 14 -16 
 
 1854 
 
 12 - 1814 - 22 
 
 12.1 
 
 -19 
 
 9 -11 
 
 12 -14 
 
 12 -14 
 
 134 - 15 
 
 134 -16 
 
 1855 
 
 13 - 18 15 - 26 
 
 18.' 
 
 -22 
 
 9 -11 
 
 12 -14 
 
 14 -154 
 154 -164 
 
 15 -164 
 
 15 -184 
 
 1856 
 
 154 - 21J20 - 27 
 
 18 
 
 -25 
 
 10 -12 
 
 15 -18 
 
 16 -18 
 
 164 -20 
 
 1857 
 
 16 - 22118 - 28 
 
 18 
 
 -26 
 
 9 -12 
 
 15 -19 
 
 16 -18 
 
 18 -20 
 
 18 -21 
 
 1858 
 
 14 - 21 15 - 32 
 
 14 
 
 -26 
 
 9 -11 
 
 13 -17 
 
 13 -17 
 
 15 -19 
 
 15 -19 
 
 1859 
 
 14 - 221164 - 32 
 
 16 
 
 -27 
 
 10 -12 134 -164 17 -17 
 
 16 -19 
 
 15 -19 
 
 
 Kips. 
 
 
 Calf Skins. 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 
 
 Petersb. E. India. 
 
 20to351b. 
 
 35to401b. 
 
 40to601b. 
 
 60to801b. 80tol201b 
 
 Decemher, 
 
 d. <Ld. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. d 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d.'d. d. 
 
 1847 
 
 HAtol4 
 
 
 
 tol6 
 
 11 to 19 
 
 12 to 22 
 
 12 to 24 
 
 15 to 21 12 to 19 
 
 1848 
 
 114 -16 
 
 H 
 
 -17J 
 
 -16,^ 
 
 10 - 18 
 
 114 - 21 
 
 12 - 22 
 
 14 - 20 12 - 18 
 
 1849 
 
 111 -17 
 
 9 
 
 10 - 17 
 
 10| - 20 11 - 2014 - 1911 - 17 
 
 1850 
 
 111 -154 
 
 H 
 
 -164 
 
 10 - 18 
 
 Hi - 2012 - 21 
 
 14 - 18 11 - 15 
 
 1851 
 
 111 -15 
 
 9] 
 
 -154 
 
 10 - 16 
 
 11 - 18 114 - 19 
 
 13 - 1711 - 15 
 
 1852 
 
 11 -15 
 
 •»' 
 
 -154 
 
 -18J 
 
 10 - 16 
 
 11 - 18,11 - 18 
 
 12 - 17 11 - 154 
 
 1853 
 
 13 -18 
 
 11 
 
 13 - 21 
 
 14 - 2315 - 24 
 
 15 - 22 12 - 20 
 
 1854 
 
 13 -18 
 
 10 
 
 -18 
 
 13 - 21 
 
 134 - 23,14 - 24 
 134 - 23 14 - 24 
 
 15 - 22 12 - 20 
 
 1855 
 
 14 -18 
 
 11 
 
 -19 
 
 13 - 21 
 
 15 - 23 13 - 22 
 
 1856 
 
 19 -24 
 
 17 
 
 -24 
 
 17 - 27 
 
 17 - 29 1 , 17 - 30 
 
 17 - 28 15 - 25 
 
 1857 
 
 19 -24 
 
 15 
 
 -24 
 
 17 - 26 
 
 18 - 27)17 - 29 
 
 17 - 26 16 - 24 
 
 1858 
 
 16 -20 
 
 12 
 
 -24 
 
 14 - 24J15 - 25 15 - 26 
 
 14 - 23,13 - 22 
 
 1859 
 
 17 -22 
 
 12 
 
 -24 
 
 16 - 28117 - 30,16 - 31 
 
 15 - 27:14 - 25 
 
 
 Horse Hides. 
 
 
 Australian 
 
 N. America 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 S. Amer. 
 
 Basils. 
 
 Tanned Hides 
 
 Hemlock 
 
 
 English. 
 
 without 
 Butts. 
 
 
 and Sides. 
 
 Tanned. 
 
 December, 
 
 d. d, 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 1847 
 
 10 tol5 
 
 8 0tol56 
 
 7 toll 
 
 5. 
 
 to 6 
 
 6 to 6J 
 
 
 1848 
 
 8 -134 
 
 80-14 
 
 54 - 114 
 
 4 
 
 - 5 
 
 6-5 
 
 
 1849 
 
 74 -13 
 
 60-110 
 
 54-llS 
 
 5, 
 
 - 5i 
 
 6 - 5<l 
 
 1850 
 
 7 -12 
 
 56-116 
 
 51-11 
 
 5J 
 
 - 5| 
 
 5-6 
 
 
 1851 
 
 7 -11 
 
 5 6-110 
 
 54 - 11 
 
 5 
 
 - 6j 
 
 54- 6J 
 
 64- 71 
 
 
 1852 
 
 7 -10 
 
 5 - 12 
 
 74-12 
 
 7, 
 
 :- 8 
 
 
 1853 
 
 84 -11 
 
 5 0-15 
 
 11 -15 
 
 R 
 
 -10| 
 
 9 - 91 
 
 
 1854 
 
 8{ -11 
 
 40-136 
 
 9-15 
 
 9-10 
 
 84- 9[ 
 
 
 1855 
 
 8i -10 
 
 4 0-12 
 
 9 -15 
 
 9 -10 
 
 8 - 9^ 
 
 1856 
 
 124 -14 
 
 70-160 
 
 6-14 
 
 13 -14 
 
 U4-124 
 
 1857 
 
 14 -16 
 
 60-176 
 
 9-15 
 
 12 -13 
 
 10 - 11 
 
 1858 
 
 11 -15 
 
 50-16 6 
 
 9 -154 
 
 9-9i 
 94 -ll| 
 
 9 - 9i 
 
 10 -114 
 
 1859 
 
 12 -16 
 
 6 0-17 6 
 
 9 -16 
 
LEA 
 
 193 
 
 LEA 
 
 Prices of Foreign Raw Goods, at the same Periods. 
 
 
 Buenos Ayres and 
 Monte Video Hides. 
 
 Rio Grande. 
 
 Cape 
 Hides 
 Salted. 
 
 Cape 
 
 Kips 
 
 Salted. 
 
 Austra- 
 lian 
 Salted. 
 
 West 
 India 
 Hides 
 
 
 Salted 1 Light 
 
 Salted 
 
 Light 
 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Heavy Ox and 
 Ox. Cow. 
 
 Heavy 
 Ox. 
 
 Ox and 
 Cow. 
 
 
 
 
 Salted. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d. Id. d. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d. Id. d. d d. 
 
 1847 
 
 34 to 6 
 
 3 to 3*3 to 3| 
 
 3 to 34 
 
 8 to 3| 
 
 14 to 3 
 
 34 to 5 1* to 2|2i to 4 
 34 - 5 1 - 2 ll - 2} 
 
 1848 
 
 3 - 6 
 
 2£ - 3*2 - 2|3 - 34 
 
 2 - 2f 
 
 1 - 3 
 
 1849 
 
 3 - 6 
 
 2| - 3i 
 
 2f - S| 
 
 n - tj 
 
 34 - 4 
 
 H - n 
 
 14-3 
 
 4 - 6* 14 - 2| l| - 2-i 
 4 - 6V2 - 3 2 - 34 
 
 1850 
 
 {: '4 
 
 3f - 4 
 
 34. - 3f 
 
 34 - 32 
 
 H - 3| 
 
 If - 34 
 
 1851 
 
 3* - 4 
 
 3f - «3 
 
 H - 31 
 
 2 - 3f 4 - 6 12* - 3J 24 - 33 
 
 1852 
 
 4 - 74 
 
 4 - 4f 
 
 44 - 51 
 
 35-4 
 
 3| - 4 
 
 2* - 4* 4 - 6 2i - 34 2f - 4 
 
 1853 
 
 54 - 8 
 
 4 - 4| 
 
 4| - 54 
 
 4 - 4| 
 
 44 - 4f 
 
 24 - 4| 4 - 6 2| - 3| 3 - 44 
 
 1854 
 
 7 - 94 
 
 5 - 51 
 
 5 - 5J 
 
 4f - 5i 
 
 5 - 54 
 
 3 - 54,54 - 6i!2| - 4i 3 - 5 
 3f - 6f 6 - 74 34 - 54 44 - 7 
 
 1855 
 
 74 - 11 64 - 74 6 - 7 
 
 lOl - 15 8 - 8f 8 - 8| 
 
 6 - M 
 
 6-6| 
 
 1856 
 
 7f - 8* 
 
 n - si 
 
 5 - 8 17 - 9 15 - 74 5 - 8 
 
 1857 
 
 11 -14 164 - 7 64 - 7 
 84 -114 5* - 7 |5* - 7 
 
 6-64 
 
 6 - 64 
 6 - 6| 
 
 34 - 64 6 - 7 34 - 5 44 - 6i 
 24 - 64 5 - 8 24 - 44 4 - 6\ 
 
 1858 
 
 5f - 6 
 
 1859 
 
 9 -13 8 - 5f|8 - 84 
 
 7f - 8 
 
 7f - 8 T 
 
 34 - 8*j5 9 |2f - 5f 34 - 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 South American 
 Horse Hides. 
 
 Peters- 
 burgh 
 Kips. 
 
 Drysalted and Brined East India Kips. 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Salted. 
 
 5 to 7 lbs 
 Firsts. 
 
 5 to 7 lbs. 
 Seconds. 
 
 5 to 7 lbs. 
 Thirds. 
 
 9 to 15 lbs. 
 First and 
 
 Dec 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s. d. s.d. 
 
 s. d. s. d 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 1847 
 
 6 Oto 9 
 
 9 Oto 10 
 
 8 to 94 
 8-9| 
 
 7 to 9 5 to 7 
 
 34 to 5 
 
 5 to 7 
 
 1848 
 
 4 6-50 
 
 7 6-86 
 
 7 - 94 5 ► 74 
 
 34-5 
 
 44 - 74 
 
 1849 
 
 3 6-50 
 
 5 6-76 
 
 8-10 
 
 74 - 104; 6-84 
 
 44 - 6£ 
 
 54 - 84 
 
 1850 
 
 3 0-50 
 
 5 0-66 
 
 8-94 
 
 8 - 10 64 - 8 
 
 54-6 
 
 54 - 7 
 
 1851 
 
 3 0-46 
 
 3 6-56 
 
 8 - 94 
 
 64 - 84' 54 - 6f 4* - 54 
 
 64 - 94 j 5 - 74 1 34-5 
 
 54 - 6f 
 
 1852 
 
 3 6-56 
 
 5 - 7 6 
 
 8-9 
 
 54-8 
 
 1853 
 
 3 0-59 
 
 5 3 - 8 10 - 104 
 
 64 - 10 1 54 - 741 34-5 
 
 54 - 84 
 
 1854 
 
 3 0-46 
 
 5 - 6 3 104 - 11 
 
 64 - 11 54 - 84 
 
 44 - 6 
 
 5-84 
 
 1855 
 
 4 0-69 
 
 5 6 - 9 3 
 
 none. 
 
 8 - 114 7-94 
 
 54 - 74 
 
 7-10 
 
 1856 
 
 6 -10 6 
 
 8 6 - 12 6 
 
 134 - 15 
 
 13 - 16 11 - 14 
 
 10 - 12 
 
 10 - 144 
 
 1857 
 
 6 - 10 8 - 10 6 
 
 12 - 13 
 
 10 - 124 8 - 11 
 
 6-8 
 
 6-104 
 
 1858 
 
 3 6 - 8 6 8 - 13 
 
 9 - 104 
 
 10 - 14 ! 7 - 11 
 
 44 - 7 
 
 44 - 104 
 54 - 11 
 
 1859 
 
 5 - 9 6 9 6 - 12 6 11 - 13 11 - 144 84 - 12 
 
 54 - 84 
 
 
 Dry East India 
 Kips. 
 
 Buffalo Hides. 
 
 Newfoundland 
 
 
 
 
 
 Seal Skins, 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Firsts, Seconds 
 and Thirds. 
 
 Calcutta. 
 
 Singapore and 
 Penang. 
 
 Batavia. 
 
 small. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 1847 
 
 34 to 7 
 
 2 to 3 
 
 2 to 3 
 
 3 to 4 
 
 24 to 36 
 
 1848 
 
 3 - 7 
 
 2-24 
 
 2-24 
 
 24 - 34 
 
 27-36 
 
 1849 
 
 44 - 74 
 
 2 - 3 
 
 2-3 
 
 3 - 4 
 
 42-44 
 
 1850 
 
 44 - 8 
 
 24-3 
 
 24 - 4 
 
 3 - 4f 
 
 42 - 44 
 
 1851 
 
 34 - 74 
 
 24 - 34 
 
 24 - 34 
 
 3-44 
 
 36 - 39 
 
 1852 
 
 3 - 7f 
 34 - 74 
 
 2 - 34 
 
 2 - 34 
 
 24 - 44 
 
 30-33 
 
 1853 
 
 2 - 44 
 
 2-34 
 
 24 - 4f 
 
 43 - 44 
 
 1854 
 
 34 - 74 
 
 24 - 5| 
 
 24 - 44 
 
 3-54 
 
 46 - 48 
 
 1855 
 
 44 - 9 
 
 24 - 54 
 
 3-5 
 
 3 - 64 
 
 52 - 56 
 
 1856 
 
 8 - 134 
 
 4 - 8 
 
 44 - 84 
 
 5-9 
 
 54 - 56 
 
 1857 
 
 7 - 12 
 
 44 - 8 
 
 34 - 64 
 
 44 - 9 
 
 45 - 51 
 
 1858 
 
 2| - 10 
 
 3 - 54 
 
 24 - 44 
 
 3 - 74 
 
 48 - 51 
 
 1859 
 
 3 - 11 
 
 1-11 
 
 3 - 44 
 
 3 - 74 
 
 51 - 52 
 
LEA 
 
 194 
 
 LEA 
 
 Prices of Market Hides, Calf Skins, and Horse Hides, — of Bark, and 
 other Tanning Materials,— of Glue Pieces, Glue, Cod Oil, and Tal- 
 low, at the same Periods. (From Messrs. T. J. and T. Powell's Trade Cir- 
 culars.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Foreign Bark. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Market 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Market 
 Hides. 
 
 Calf 
 
 Horse 
 
 English. 
 
 Flemish. 
 
 German and 
 
 Mimosa. 
 
 
 Skins. 
 
 Hides. 
 
 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 
 
 Dec 
 
 
 
 
 Per Load. 
 
 Per Ton. 
 
 Per Ton. 
 
 Per Ton. 
 
 d. d. 
 
 8. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 £8. £ s. 
 
 £ s. £ 8 
 
 £ 8. £ 8. 
 
 £ 
 
 8. £ 8. 
 
 1847 
 
 1| to 4 
 
 5 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 0tol2 
 
 4 to 6 
 
 3 to 4 10 
 
 7 
 
 Oto 8 
 
 1848 
 
 ll - 4 
 
 5 -0 
 
 7 
 
 12 0-14 
 
 5 0-70 
 
 4 0-50 
 
 B 
 
 0- 11 
 
 1849 
 
 U - 4 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 13 0-15 
 
 5 0-70 
 
 4 10 - 5 15 
 
 8 
 
 0-11 5 
 
 1850 
 
 If - 4± 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 12 10 - 14 10 
 
 5 10 - 7 
 
 5 0-65 
 
 10 
 
 0-11 5 
 
 1851 
 
 If - 4f 
 
 4 6 
 
 6 6 
 
 12 0-14 10 
 
 4 10 - 5 10 
 
 4 0-50 
 
 7 
 
 0-10 
 
 1852 
 
 2-4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 10 0-14 
 
 5 0-60 
 
 4 0-55 
 
 8 
 
 0-10 
 
 1853 
 
 3 - 4i 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 12 0-14 10 
 
 5 10 - 6 5 
 
 4 10 - 5 10 
 
 9 
 
 0- 14 
 
 1854 
 
 H - 4f 
 4| - 6i 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 
 
 13 10- 15 10 
 
 5. 10' - 6 10 
 
 4 10 - 5 10 12 
 
 0-16 10 
 
 1855 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 13 10-16 
 
 5 10 - 6 10 
 
 4 10 - 5 10 
 
 12 
 
 0-14 
 
 1856 
 
 5-8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 13 10-16 
 
 5 - 6 10 
 
 4 10 - 5 5 
 
 a 
 
 10-11 
 
 1857 
 
 4 - 6£ 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 16 0-18 
 
 5 - 7. 
 
 4 10 - 5 5 
 
 7 
 
 0- 8 10 
 
 1858 
 
 3* - 7 
 
 7 6 
 
 11 
 
 17 0-22 
 
 5 10 - 8 4 10 - 5 10 
 
 6 
 
 0- 10 10 
 
 1859 
 
 4* - 7 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 17 0-22 
 
 70-8 5 6 0-707 
 
 0-11 
 
 
 Valonia. 
 
 Gambiei 
 
 
 
 Cutch. 
 
 Divi Divi. 
 
 Glue Pieces. 
 
 Hide. 
 
 Sheep and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fleshings. 
 
 
 Per Ton. 
 
 Per Ton 
 
 
 Per Ton. 
 
 Per Ton. 
 
 Per To 
 
 Per Ton. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ s. £ s £ s. £ 
 
 s.£ 
 
 8 £ 8. 
 
 £ s. £ s. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ s. £ s 
 
 1847 
 
 11 0tol5 010 Otoll 
 
 18 
 
 0to20 
 
 8 Oto — 
 
 14 to 28 
 
 7 OtolO 
 
 1848 
 
 7 0-14 01 8 10- 9 
 
 14 
 
 0-16 
 
 8 0- — 
 
 14 
 
 - 25 
 
 7 0-90 
 
 1849 
 
 9 0-13 10|10 0-10 
 
 10,15 
 
 - 16 10 
 
 10 0-12 
 
 14 
 
 - 25 
 
 7 0-90 
 
 1850 
 
 12 0-15 10 13 10- 14 
 
 19 
 
 0-20 
 
 10 0-12 
 
 24 
 
 - 28 
 
 7 - 9 10 
 
 1851 
 
 14 0-16 17 0-18 
 
 0jl7 
 
 0-18 
 
 8 0- 8 10 
 
 16 
 
 - 35 
 
 10 0-11 
 
 1852 
 
 11 0-16 10124 0-25 
 11 0-16 10 35 0-36 
 
 0122 
 
 0-23 
 
 9 0- 10 10 
 
 18 
 
 - 45 
 
 8 10- 9 10 
 
 1853 
 
 0169 
 
 0-56 12 0-14 
 
 24 
 
 - 54 
 
 11 0- 13 10 
 
 1854 
 
 10 10 - 15 10 25 - 25 
 
 1030 
 
 0-32 0,13 0-14 10 
 
 22 
 
 - 55 
 
 13 0-15 
 
 1855 
 
 11 0-17 17 0- 18 
 
 0,25 
 
 .0 - 27 0112 0-13 
 
 22 
 
 - 50 
 
 12 0-13 10 
 
 1856 
 
 11 0-16 017 10- 18 
 
 10; 50 
 
 0-55 010 0-11 10 
 
 30 
 
 - 60 
 
 14 0-17 
 
 1857 
 
 10 0-15 0|l5 0-16 
 
 10 60 
 
 0-62 
 
 9 0-10 
 
 30 
 
 - 70 
 
 20 0-24 
 
 1858 
 
 10 0-16 10 15 0-15 
 
 10; 32 
 
 0-34 
 
 9 0-11 
 
 M 
 
 - 63 
 
 18 0-22 
 
 1859 
 
 10 0-16 10 16 0-16 
 
 5J26 
 
 0-29 
 
 9 0-11 
 
 30 
 
 - 60 
 
 16 0-22 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tallow. 
 
 
 
 Glue. 
 
 Cod Oil. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Town. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 S. America. 
 
 Australian. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Per Ton. 
 
 Per Tun. 
 
 Per Cwt. 
 
 Per Cwt. 
 
 Per Cwt 
 
 Per Cwt. 
 
 £ £ 
 
 £. 8. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1847 
 
 30 to 47 
 
 27 
 
 2 9 
 
 2 6 6 
 
 2 6 
 
 2 3 6 
 
 1848 
 
 30 - 47 
 
 23 10 
 
 ,2 5 
 
 2 5 
 
 2 6 
 
 2 5 
 
 1849 
 
 30 - 47 
 
 31 
 
 2 
 
 1 18 6 
 
 1 16 6 
 
 1 17 6 
 
 1850 
 
 29 - 47 
 
 40 
 
 1 18 6 
 
 1 17 6 
 
 1 18 
 
 1 17 6 
 
 1851 
 
 31 - 47 
 
 33 
 
 1 19 
 
 1 18 
 
 1 18 
 
 1 18 
 
 1853 
 
 31 - 47 
 
 34 
 
 2 9 
 
 2 7 6 
 
 2 8 
 
 2 7 
 
 1853 
 
 40 - 52 
 
 37 
 
 2 18 
 
 2 17 6 
 
 2 15 6 
 
 2 16 6 
 
 1854 
 
 42 - 57 
 
 43 10 
 
 8 7 
 
 3 5 
 
 3 7 
 
 3 6 6 
 
 1855 
 
 38 - 57 
 
 49 
 
 3 8 3 
 
 3 9 6 
 
 3 9 
 
 3 8 6 
 
 1856 
 
 48 - 65 
 
 52 10 
 
 3 
 
 2 19 6 
 
 2 18 
 
 2 19 
 
 1857 
 
 70 - 92 
 
 35 
 
 2 11 6 
 
 2 9 6 
 
 2 9 6 
 
 2 10 
 
 1858- 
 
 56 - 72 
 
 31 10 
 
 2 13 6 
 
 2 10 6 
 
 2 11 6 
 
 2 11 
 
 1859 
 
 50 - 72 
 
 31 10 
 
 2 19 6 
 
 2 17 6 
 
 2 17 6 
 
 2 18 6 
 
LEA 
 
 195 
 
 LEA 
 
 Imports of Hides and Tanning Sitbstances, &c. into the Port of London 
 in the Years 1847 to 1859. 
 
 
 Paver Plate. 
 
 Rio 
 Grande 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 West 
 Coast of 
 
 Cape Salted. 
 
 Austra- 
 
 West 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Salted. 
 
 South 
 
 
 Kips 
 
 lian. 
 
 Indian. 
 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Salted. 
 
 
 
 America. 
 
 Hides. 
 
 and 
 Skins. 
 
 
 
 1847 
 
 34,400 
 
 151,300 
 
 168,300 
 
 12,081 
 
 6,949 
 
 48,500 
 
 8,800 
 
 68,500 
 
 5,500 
 
 1848 
 
 58,748 
 
 207,098 
 
 116,785 
 
 1,480 
 
 7,323 
 
 18,688 
 
 1,154 
 
 44,225 
 
 3,765 
 
 1S49 
 
 39,809 
 
 260,908 119.79? 
 
 4,862 
 
 11,757 
 
 19,595 
 
 1.651 
 
 46,320 
 
 6,221 
 
 1850 
 
 12,050 
 
 139,840 
 
 92,200 
 
 1,518 
 
 18,915 
 
 19,289 
 
 5,337 
 
 65,974 
 
 3,674 
 
 1851 
 
 30,033 
 
 238 346 
 
 69 322 
 
 3,544 
 
 3,149 
 
 27,153 
 
 8,010 
 
 81,681 
 
 2,473 
 
 1852 
 
 10,087 
 
 208.417 
 
 42,932 
 
 2,544 
 
 4,114 
 
 21,394 
 
 1,516 
 
 73,351 
 
 4,452 
 
 1S53 
 
 51,521 
 
 147 388 
 
 58,960 
 
 8,685 
 
 248 
 
 12,272 
 
 982 
 
 82,566 
 
 3,924 
 
 1854 
 
 2,487 
 
 63,947 
 
 44,713 
 
 7,541 
 
 
 17,844 
 
 2,203 
 
 75,000 
 
 6,149 
 
 1 B55 
 
 1,402 
 
 146,696 
 
 38,660 
 
 8,698 
 
 5,206 
 
 58,345 
 
 11,566 
 
 78,738 
 
 5,700 
 
 1856 
 
 116 
 
 103.220 33,442 
 
 7,663 
 
 2,913 
 
 191,608 
 
 36,819 
 
 109,700 
 
 4,309 
 
 1S57 
 
 8,525 
 
 162,258 J 41,884 
 
 10,472 
 
 15,437 
 
 104,810 
 
 40,925 
 
 137,417 
 
 6,161 
 
 1858 
 
 10,783 
 
 34,746 
 
 10,815 | 
 
 42,760 
 
 77,016 
 
 29,233 
 
 175,591 
 
 7,494 
 
 1859 
 
 1,990 
 
 193,675 37,167 
 
 6,554 | 
 
 17,912 
 
 33,781 
 
 10,013 
 
 257,421 
 
 5,195 
 
 
 Kips. Buffalo Hides. 
 
 East India. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 £S£ ! Cata,te - 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Manila. 
 
 Batavia. 
 
 1*47 
 1848 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1S54 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 
 1859 
 
 1,009,000 
 873,346 
 910,370 
 1,308,700 
 1,980.000 
 1,566,800 
 1,702,790 
 2,127,350 
 2,263,330 
 1,970,070 
 3,184,300 
 2,551,750 
 2,813,200 
 
 11,200 
 12,521 
 10,128 
 24,431 
 13,506 
 
 2,950 
 4,7t>0 
 16,728 
 
 3,000 
 
 10,500 
 3,488 
 2,050 
 2,000 
 
 31,000 
 
 32,750 
 
 171,710 
 
 25,600 
 
 13,200 
 
 13,445 
 
 4,512 
 
 2,270 
 
 9,673 
 
 12,761 
 
 10,300 
 
 6,600 
 
 15,1G7 
 
 18,414 
 
 2,151 
 
 13,250 
 
 18,739 
 
 32,000 
 
 11,295 
 
 8,273 
 
 1,561 
 
 7,709 
 
 28,064 
 
 37,083 
 
 45,535 
 
 34,244 
 
 32,853 
 
 40,304 
 
 56,644 
 
 66,585 
 
 50,131 
 
 24,170 
 9,891 
 
 20,1*70 
 14,575 
 21,534 
 6,291 
 6,776 
 8,940 
 13,324 
 12,400 
 17,325 
 2,850 
 
 12,081 
 
 8,660 
 
 13,470 
 
 11,483 
 
 15,361 
 
 6,223 
 
 8,175 
 
 16,485 
 
 12,497 
 
 7,189 
 
 14,796 
 
 12,126 
 
 22,100 
 
 
 
 Newfound- 
 
 
 Tons of 
 
 
 
 South 
 
 American 
 
 Horse Hides. 
 
 land and 
 Greenland 
 Seal Skins. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oak Bark. 
 
 Mimosa. 
 
 Valonia. 
 
 Terra Japon. 
 
 1S47 
 
 104,000 
 
 290,000 
 
 1600 
 
 600 
 
 1760 
 
 4800 
 
 1S48 
 
 111,380 
 
 191,760 
 
 1838 
 
 130 
 
 2643 
 
 4000 
 
 1819 
 
 108,584 
 
 K'3,475 
 
 2135 
 
 219 
 
 4226 
 
 4924 
 
 1850 
 
 89,083 
 
 334.020 
 
 1320 
 
 383 
 
 2395 
 
 2782 
 
 1851 
 
 59,051 
 
 264,073 
 
 1365 
 
 1608 
 
 1650 
 
 2812 
 
 18->2 
 
 61,519 
 
 264,390 
 
 1670 
 
 1723 
 
 2735 
 
 2460 
 
 1853 
 
 181,110 
 
 262,560 
 
 1194 
 
 253 
 
 3700 
 
 3004 
 
 1854 
 
 114,9n6 
 
 175.640 
 
 1609 
 
 22 
 
 3400 
 
 1550 
 
 1855 
 
 110,470 
 
 126,271 
 
 1561 
 
 616 
 
 1445 
 
 3.500 
 
 1856 
 
 93,610 
 
 168,750 
 
 1513 
 
 636 
 
 5900 
 
 3900 
 
 1857 
 
 93,712 
 
 205,139 
 
 1214 
 
 1224 
 
 5220 
 
 3690 
 
 1858 
 
 101,328 
 
 212,100 
 
 1824 
 
 615 
 
 5770 
 
 4500 
 
 1859 
 
 110,518 
 
 169,561 
 
 1964 
 
 1049 
 
 6980 
 
 5000 
 
at 
 
 £7 
 
 £139,860 
 
 at 
 
 9 
 
 9,423 
 
 at 
 
 13 
 
 332,527 
 
 at 
 
 14 
 
 196,616 
 
 at 
 
 16 
 
 147,952 
 
 at 
 
 27 
 
 121,805 
 
 at 
 
 10 
 
 40,000 
 
 at 
 
 9 
 
 1,800,000 
 
 at 
 
 5 
 
 250,000 
 
 LEA 196 LIN 
 
 - If we take the last year's imports of tanning substances at the current prices 
 ■of the day, and add thereto the estimate of the indigenous barks, we shall arrive 
 »t an approximate idea of this important branch of the leather trade. 
 
 Imports of 1859. 
 
 Oak bark, 19,980 tons 
 
 Mimosa bark, 1049 tons . 
 
 Valonia, 25,579 tons 
 
 Sumach, 14,044 tons 
 
 Gambier, 9247 tons 
 
 Cutch, 4515 tons 
 
 Myrabolans, Divi Divi, and other substances, about 4000 tons 
 
 The indigenous Oak bark used may be taken at rally 200,000 tons at 
 Larch bark used in Scotland, probably 50,000 tons 
 
 £3,038,183 
 
 LIGHT DUES. The following were the receipts from light dues throughout 
 the United Kingdom, 1853 to 1858 inclusive:— 1853, £413,191; 1854, £316,091; 
 1855, £313,228; 1856, £353,808; 1857, £311,820; 1858, £292,161. The 
 ordinary expenditure in 1853 was £190,018; in 1854, £195,619; in 1855, 
 £214,7*01; in 1856, £208,006; in 1857, £232,561; and in 1858, £202,108. 
 The extraordinary expenditure during these six , years amounted to £335,500. 
 Within the last five years reductions in the sums paid for light dues have 
 been effected to the amount of £200,341, under the following heads: — 35 
 per cent, off dues on coasting voyages and 50 per cent, off dues on 
 foreign voyages, so that a shipowner in the coasting trade who before the 
 year 1854 paid £100 for lights now pays only £65, and a shipowner in the 
 foreign trade who before 1854 paid £100, now only pays £50. This is total 
 exclusive of the reduction of 75 per cent, allowed in 1854 off the Scotch lights 
 for coasting vessels, and the small reductions off Irish lights allowed in 1855. 
 The total amount of expenditure, ordinary and extraordinary, for the mainte- 
 nance of light-houses and the building of new lighthouses during the year 1858 
 was £278,557. The estimates for future years are £235,000 for the maintenance 
 of lighthouses, including those recently built or now building; and £300,000, as 
 extraordinary expenditure for building new lighthouses, to be spread over several 
 years. The balance at present to the account of the Mercantile Marine Fund, 
 who manage the lighthouses, is £361,645, exclusive of the floating balances in 
 the hands of numerous sub-accountants. 
 
 LINEN. Under the head of Flax some details have already been given respect- 
 ing the linen manufactures of the Kingdom. According to the latest official re- 
 turns, the number of factories working on flax, are as follows: — In Lancashire 
 and Cheshire, 13; in Yorkshire, 60; in Derby, 1; other parts of England, 65. 
 In Scotland, 168, and in Ireland, 110. These employ 21,977 male hands, and 
 53,909 females. The motive horse power in these factories was 18,322, of which 
 14,887 was steam power, and 3935 water power. In Leeds there are 32 firms 
 engaged in flax manufacture, employing 1818 nominal horse power, and 9020 
 operatives, and consuming about 12,000 tons of flax. 
 
 The number of spindles are as follows: — In Ireland, 567,980; in England and 
 Wales, 441,759 ; and in Scotland, 278,304. In 1850 the quantity of linen and 
 yarn, &c. exported was in value £4,845,030, and the quantity kept for home 
 consumption was valued at £9,700,000, together £14,545,030. In 1859 the ex- 
 ports were to the value of £6,291,734, and taking the home consumption at double 
 this quantity, it gives a total value for the trade of £18,875,202. 
 
 The table on the next page continues down the annual returns of the export 
 trade from p. 449. 
 
LIN 
 
 197 
 
 LLO 
 
 CD 
 
 3 
 
 Linen Mani:factukes Exported. 
 
 Linen Yabn Expobted. 
 
 Entered by the Yard. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Small 
 Wares. 
 
 Total 
 Value. 
 
 Exports to 
 U. States. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Total 
 Value. 
 
 Exports 
 
 to 
 France. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 Yards. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 1841 
 
 90,321,761 
 
 3,200,467 
 
 147,088 
 
 3,347,555 
 
 1,231,748 
 
 25,220,290 
 
 972,466 
 
 806,336 
 
 1S42 
 
 69,232,682 
 
 2,217,373 
 
 129,376 
 
 2,346,749 
 
 463,038 
 
 24,490,987 
 
 1.025,551 
 
 749,675 
 
 1843 
 
 84,172,5S5 
 
 2,615,566 
 
 187,657 
 
 2,*03,223 
 
 713,577 
 
 23,358,352 
 
 898,829 
 
 482,357 
 
 1844 
 
 91,283,754 
 
 2,801,609 
 
 223,191 
 
 3,024,800 
 
 937,200 
 
 25,970,569 
 
 1,050 676 
 
 501,241 
 
 1845 
 
 88,401,670 
 
 2,830,784 
 
 205.586 
 
 3,036,370 
 
 908,709 
 
 23,288,725 
 
 1,060,566 
 
 414,350 
 
 1846 
 
 84,799,369 
 
 2,631,809 
 
 i93.999 
 
 2.830,808 
 
 852,720 
 
 19,484,203 
 
 875,405 
 
 262,101 
 
 1847 
 
 89,329,310 
 
 2,759,094 
 
 199,757 
 
 2,958,851 
 
 1,111,108 
 
 12,688,915 
 
 649,893 
 
 116,990 
 
 L848 
 
 89,002,431 
 
 2,597,573 
 
 205.216 
 
 2,802,789 
 
 919,957 
 
 11,722,182 
 
 493,449 
 
 23,003 
 
 1849 111,259,183 
 
 3,209,539 
 
 284,290 
 
 3,493,829 
 
 1,298,357 
 
 17,264,033 
 
 732,065 
 
 50,213 
 
 
 122,342,516 
 
 3,589,439 
 
 358,243 
 
 3,947,682 
 
 1,654,286 
 
 18,220,688 
 
 881,312 
 
 69,261 
 
 1851 
 
 129,106,753 
 
 3,822,935 
 
 284,461 
 
 4,107.39'» 
 
 1 433,733 
 
 18,841,326 
 
 951 426 
 
 64,888 
 
 1852 
 
 133,192 627 
 
 3,872,491 
 
 359.295 
 
 4,231,786 
 
 1 '515,847 
 
 23,928,592 
 
 1,140,565 
 
 79,302 
 
 is. 3 134,743.914 
 
 4,360,326 
 
 402,319 
 
 4,762,645 
 
 2,057,119 
 
 22,893,586 
 
 1,154,977 
 
 66,680 
 
 1854 111,941,220 
 
 3,784,508 
 
 326,314 
 
 4,110,822 
 
 1,668,982 
 
 17,696,567 
 
 944,502 
 
 48,427 
 
 1856 118,258,229 
 
 3,811,234 
 
 309,138 
 
 4,120,372 
 
 1,666,038 
 
 18,177,484 
 
 982,081 
 
 49,861 
 
 16, 410,188 
 
 4,465,244 
 
 422,536 
 
 4,887,780 
 
 2,154,490 
 
 25,118,349 
 
 1,365,980 
 
 70,989 
 
 1857 133,839,593 
 
 4,170,754 
 
 340,126 
 
 4,516,880 
 
 1,425,156 
 
 28,847,811 
 
 1,617,953 
 
 86,110 
 
 -■1,960,291 
 
 3,793.690 
 
 330,666 
 
 4,124,356 
 
 1.344,634 
 
 32,047,492 
 
 1,746,340 
 
 84,323 
 
 Sl97,801 
 
 4,302,899 
 
 304,346 
 
 4,607,245 
 
 1,989,823 
 
 27,287,917 
 
 1,684,489 
 
 
 LINSEED. The imports of all kinds of oil seeds have largely increased of 
 late years, and more especially of linseed. We now receive nearly as much 
 from the East Indies as we do from Russia. 
 
 In 1853 only 608,984 quarters were imported. In 1859 twice this quantity 
 was received from the following sources:— Russia, 665,387 quarters; Prussia, 
 37,622 quarters; British East Indies. 526,566 quarters; and from other coun- 
 tries, 41.336 quarters. Total, 1,270,911 quarters. 
 
 LLOYDS. In the new buildings of the upper story of the north-east wing of 
 the Royal Exchange, the operations and conveniences of this marine institution 
 have been very greatly extended. The Underwriters' room and the Subscription 
 reading-room are both roomy and admirably fitted. ' Lloyds' List,' published 
 eveiy evening under the direction of the Secretary and Committee, gives the 
 shipping movements of the day from the special reports received from the So 
 ciety's numerous agents by post or electric telegraph. 
 
 LLOYDS' REGISTER OF BRITISH AND FOREIGN SHIPPING. 
 The affairs of the Society are under the direction of a Committee in London of 
 twenty-four members, consisting of an equal proportion of merchants, ship- 
 owners, and underwriters. The Chairman for managing the affairs of Lloyds, 
 the Chairman of the General Shipowners' Society, the Chairman and Deputy- 
 chairman of the Liverpool Committee, and the Chairman of the Rotation Com- 
 mittee for the time being are ex-officio members of the Committee. The defini- 
 tions of classification given at page 454 hold good, except that the second des- 
 cription of first-class ships are now designated by A in red. 
 
 Second-class ships are distinguished by the diphthong JE, and consist of ships 
 which are found on survey fit for the safe conveyance of dry and perishable 
 goods on shorter voyages. No ship has been surveyed for the JE* character 
 since 1st Oct. 1857, but ships classed with this character are allowed to retain 
 the same, subject to annual survey, until the expiration of the period for which 
 they were specially surveyed. The number of ships standing on the register 
 books in different classes at two recent periods were: — 
 
 
 
 1856-57. 
 
 1860-61. 
 
 
 1856-57. 
 
 1860-61. 
 
 A 
 
 
 6012 
 
 6119 
 
 Brought over 
 
 8213 
 
 8103 
 
 A in red . 
 
 
 11 
 
 3S4 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 *JE 
 
 
 843 
 
 40S 
 
 With no character as- 
 
 
 
 JE 
 
 
 1307 
 
 1145 
 
 tinned 
 
 2730 
 
 3086 
 
 F 
 
 
 45 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Carried 
 
 over 
 
 8218 
 
 8103 
 
 Total 
 
 10,952 
 
 11,190 
 
 
LLO 198 MAC 
 
 The following fees are charged to the owners of ships prior to their vessels 
 being classed and registered in the book. 
 
 For Entering and Classing Ships, and for Entering and Classing Ships surveyed 
 for Continuation, or repaired for Restoration. 
 
 For each Ship . . under 100 tons . . £10 
 
 Ditto of 100 tons and under 200 . .200 
 
 Ditto 200 „ 300 . .300 
 
 Ditto 300 „ 400 . .400 
 
 Ditto 400 and upwards . . .500 
 
 For Registering Repairs. 
 
 For each Ship . . under 300 tons . £0 10 
 
 Ditto of 300 tons and under 500 . .10 
 
 Ditto 500 ., 1000 . . 2 
 
 Ditto 1000 and upwards . . .300 
 
 For Re-classing Ships (except when repaired) the Characters of which have 
 been expunged, or change of Owners. 
 
 For each Ship . . under 200 tons . . £0 10 
 
 ditto . . .200 — and above . 10 
 
 For special surveys, and where the Surveyors to the Society are required by 
 the owners to superintend the building of ships, or repairs for restoration, or 
 otherwise, a charge will be made according to the nature and extent of the 
 service performed. In all such cases the authority of the Committee is re- 
 quired. 
 
 Certificates of character, signed by the Chairman of the General Committee, 
 or by the Chairman of the Sub-Committee of Classification, and countersigned by 
 the Secretary, are granted upon application; the charge for which is as fol- 
 lows: — 
 
 For Ships under 200 tons . . . I 2s 6d each 
 
 Ditto 200 — and above . . 5s each 
 
 For Ships built under Special Survey, on their First Classification Gratis 
 
 LUBECK. The area of this Hanse Town is 82,824 acres, and the population 
 in 1853 was 54,166 souls, of which 26,098 were the city. The revenue in 1855 
 was £58,877, and the expenditure £68,500. The vessels that entered numbered 
 972, measuring 110,742 tons. The imports were to the value of £3,744,281, 
 of which only £1,054,366 were by sea. 
 
 MACE. In 1830 the duty was 3s 6<7per lb. on British, and As 6d on foreign, 
 and the consumption was 12,600 lbs. In 1835 it had increased to 18,835 lbs. 
 The duty was then fixed at 2s 6d for all descriptions, and in 1852 the consump- 
 tion was 21,485 lbs. In the following year the duty was reduced to Is per lb., 
 and the consumption in 1859 was 34,714 lbs. 
 
 MACKEREL. The excitement on the Devonshire coast when the shoals of 
 mackerel come is veiy great. On their periodical arrivals on the coast, which 
 is their custom in multitudes, for the purpose of feeding on a small fry very 
 similar to whitebait, a practised eye will readily observe their manoeuvres some 
 distance from the shore, inasmuch as the moment they discover the food they 
 love so well, their numbers and greedy propensities cause them to rush on their 
 prey, which, endeavouring to escape from death, disturbs the water in large 
 circles like a shower of hailstones dropping therein; indeed we know of nothing 
 more similar to compare it to. The moment one of these disturbed spots appears 
 on the water, men are placed on the highest cliffs to look out, while the boats with 
 their crews and nets prepared are launched and ready for action. The mackerel 
 are sometimes seen at least a mile from shore, but the moment they attack 
 the small bait, the latter fly towards the beach, till at times they approach 
 within a hundred yards or nearer, and then while the look-out man, who 
 discovers them more readily from an eminence, shouts at the extent of his 
 lungs, the boats are rapidly rowed around the feasting fish in a circle, and then 
 being hauled towards the shore by men on land, some thousands of mackerel 
 are enclosed in a large bag at the extremity of the net. 
 
 On the North American coast a very extensive trade is carried on in pickled 
 
MAC 199 MAD 
 
 mackerel. Even- little creek and bay from Cape Sable to Halifax in Nova Scotia 
 occasionally overflows with this fish, and they are taken in nets, from 100 to 
 600 barrels being secured at a single draught. Men, women and children are 
 then employed night and day in curing them. The mackerel fishing of Nova 
 Scotia furnishes one of its largest exports. In 1850 no less than 96,650 barrels 
 of mackerel were exported from the port of Halifax alone, valued at £120,815, 
 and in 1851 36,000 ban-els went to the United States. In 1852 the value of 
 the mackerel shipped from the province was £101,000. 
 
 There is about 60,000 tons of American boats engaged in the mackerel fish- 
 ing, chiefly from the States of Massachusetts and Maine, and employing 10,000 
 men. The quantity of mackerel taken in 1851 by the Massachusetts boats was 
 about 343,000 barrels, valued at £473,100. Nearly half of the quantity was 
 caught in the Bay of Chaleur and other large bays on the coasts of the British 
 provinces. 
 
 The quantity officially inspected in the State of Massachusetts was as follows: 
 
 1831 ------ 383,559 barrels. 
 
 1841 ------ 55,537 
 
 1851 ------ 329,278 
 
 1856 214,312 
 
 The mackerel are classed into four grades; the third and fourth quality being 
 worth only half the value of No. 1, which may range from 35s to 44* per barrel. 
 
 MADDER. With the progress of our textile manufactures the imports of this 
 dye-stuff have largely increased, as will be seen by the following return: 
 
 
 Madder. 
 
 Madder Root. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 1841 
 
 105,981 
 
 104,671 
 
 210,652 
 
 1842 
 
 86,352 
 
 82,879 
 
 169,261 
 
 1843 
 
 138,633 
 
 101,404 
 
 240,037 
 
 1844 
 
 96,084 
 
 95,970 
 
 190,054 
 
 1845 
 
 67,456 
 
 147,591 
 
 215,047 
 
 1846 
 
 87,246 
 
 133,661 
 
 220,907 
 
 1847 
 
 67,855 
 
 103,325 
 
 171,180 
 
 1843 
 
 81,261 
 
 139,463 
 
 220,724 
 
 1849 
 
 92,736 
 
 161,986 
 
 254,722 
 
 1850 
 
 100.223 
 
 161,637 
 
 261,860 
 
 1851 
 
 92,925 
 
 202,091 
 
 295,016 
 
 1852 
 
 84,385 
 
 179,812 
 
 264,197 
 
 1853 
 
 111,563 
 
 215,017 
 
 326,580 
 
 1854 
 
 102,723 
 
 183,666 
 
 286,389 
 
 1855 
 
 100,251 
 
 175.046 
 
 275,297 
 
 1856 
 
 121,666 
 
 199,750 
 
 321,416 
 
 1857 
 
 109,069 
 
 293,989 
 
 403,058 
 
 1858 
 
 64,910 
 
 256,670 
 
 321,580 
 
 1859 
 
 ~~ 
 
 
 355,562 
 
 Of the imports in 1858 the greater portion of the madder root, 158,000 cwts.. 
 came from Turkey and Syria, 55,198 cwts. from the Two Sicilies, and 25,857 
 cwts. from India, with which is included some portion of munjeet. 
 
 Of the ground madder 461,593 cwts. came from France, 15,812 cwts. from 
 Holland, and the rest chiefly from Spain and Sicily. The average price ranged 
 from £2. 5* to £2. 12s per cwt. 
 
 Under the name of garancine a large quantity of powdered madder root, or 
 a substance obtained by sulphuric acid from it, is imported, chiefly from Holland 
 and France. The weights were in 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cwfc 
 
 1853 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 • 
 
 22,4-26 
 
 1856 
 
 . 
 
 « 
 
 • 
 
 25,342 
 
 1854 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 17,594 
 
 1857 
 
 • 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 30,998 
 
 1855 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 27,066 
 
 1858 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 42,700 
 
 This garancine is worth more than double the price of madder, being valued 
 at £7. per cwt. The aggregate importance of this dye-stuff is seen in the im- 
 
MAD 200 MAI 
 
 mense quantity now purchased for the use of our manufacturers. The total value 
 of the imports in 1858 was— madder, £159,756; madder root, £590,861, and 
 garancine, £299,027; total, £1,049,644. 
 
 MADEIRA. The population of this island has rather decreased than in- 
 creased of late years, owing to extensive emigration. In 1855 upwards of 
 2300 persons left the island, about three-fourths of whom went to Demerara and 
 the British West Indies, and the remainder to Brazil. In 1856 the population 
 was 103,097. There are no statistics approaching to accuracy of the wine, grain 
 or other agricultural produce of the island; but while the vintages since 1852 have 
 been nearly total failures, and the small quantity of wine produced during each 
 year unsound and comparatively valueless, it is quite certain that the cultivation 
 of grain and food of various kinds has been annually greatly extended. The 
 harvest of 1854 produced upwards of 20,000 quarters, more than half being 
 wheat. The sugar-cane has been planted to a considerable extent, and so has 
 the cactus on which the ccchineal insect is propagated, and hopes are enter- 
 tained that both cochineal and sugar, particularly the former, may ultimately 
 become important articles of export. Hitherto the juice expressed from the 
 sugar-cane has been by distillation, converted into a spirit, and consumed on the 
 island. 
 
 The culth ation of the sweet potatoe has been also greatly increased since the 
 vines have become unproductive. The exportation of fruit to England continues 
 to increase, and is encouraged by the rapidity of transport afforded by the con- 
 tract steam-packets from Brazil and Africa calling there on their voyages home. 
 The aggregate value of the imports and exports have, however, gradually de- 
 clined. The imports in 1852 were valued at £154,290, and in 1856 at £118,950; 
 the exports in 1852 at £127,470, and in 1856 at £77,150. 
 
 The number of vessels that entered Funchal in 1856 was 172, of 35,211 tons. 
 The imports of grain and flour are much smaller from the greater attention 
 given to agriculture. The shipments of wine, which in 1852 were 6690 pipes, 
 were only 1891 pipes in 1856. The Customs revenue of the island in the year 
 ending 30th June, 1855, was £13,879. 
 
 MAHOGANY. Thirty years ago the imports of this furniture wood only 
 averaged about 12,000 tons a year, now they exceed 37,000 tons. Of the 
 imports in 1858, 16,310 tons came from British Honduras, 6517 tons from 
 Mexico, 4132 from Cuba, and 3373 from Hayti. The yearly average quantity 
 of mahogany exported in the past ten years from Belize was about eight million 
 feet, equal to 20,000 tons, or 200,000 tons in the ten years, requiring 160,000 
 trees to furnish it. 
 
 MAIZE. Indian corn (Zea Mays) has been long the staple and peculiar 
 food crop or bread-stuff of the United States, although wheat is now largely 
 competing with it there. Whenever Europe is short of food, North America 
 stands ready to supply the deficiency with the excess of her corn crop, the super- 
 abundance of which she is obliged at present to convert into whiskey, or to 
 fatten swine and live stock on. It is the plant of the United States ; and the 
 olive branch might with propriety be taken from the claw of their national eagle, 
 and the Indian corn plant established in its place. 
 
 The importance and value of Indian corn in tropical and semi-tropical coun- 
 tries are too well known to need illustration. On almost every part of the globe 
 where the hand of civilization has broken the turf, this beautiful grain receives a 
 large share of attention. In the western continent it is raised from Canada to 
 Patagonia, and the islands of the South Seas, through almost every variety of 
 climate and people, and over an extent from north to south of more than 7000 
 miles. It was introduced into Africa by the Portuguese in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, and is cultivated more or less from the Mediterranean Sea and the Libyan 
 Desert to the Cape of Good Hope. In Java and the Asiatic Isles it forms an 
 important product.- In Central Asia it is known and valued, as well as in Aus- 
 tralia and the islands of the Indian Ocean. In Europe it is extensively pro- 
 duced; in Hungary, in Lombardy,in France, and in Spain, and we might almost 
 say, from the Ural Chain to the Atlantic. No grain could secure such favour 
 
MAT 201 MAL 
 
 from all parts of the world, except from its intrinsic value. No other cereal, in 
 fact, except rice, is so extensively cultivated. Its flexibility of organization 
 makes it very easy of adaptation to climate and soil. Though it prefers moist 
 and rich soils, with strong heat, there are varieties of it which can be raised in 
 climates at a height of more than 9000 feet above the level of the sea. The 
 wannest regions of the torrid zone produce maize in abundance, where three 
 crops can be taken in a year, while the short summers of Canada have a variety 
 adapted to them. This cannot be said of rice, which requires great heat, and 
 cannot endure a climate of high latitude. Indian corn ripens at a time when 
 most other grains have been harvested; it therefore furnishes employment when 
 there would naturally be but little else to do. But what gives to Indian corn 
 its greatest importance is the actual amount of nutritive matter which it con- 
 tains. It is said to be third in this respect, wheat and rice containing a some- 
 what greater amount; though many place maize second only to wheat. How- 
 ever much it may be raised in small patches for local consumption in other 
 countries, it is in the United States alone that it enters largely and systematically 
 into cultivation. In 1840 the quantity raised in the States was about 377,532,000 
 bushels; in 1850, nearly 600,000,000 bushels; and the produce of 1860 will pro- 
 bably be, at the same rate of increase, about 900,000,000 bushels. 
 
 There is no species of cereal which manifests itself under such various 
 forms, size, colour, and chemical constituents as Indian corn. Varieties are met 
 with exhibiting every grade, size, colour, and conformation between the shrubby 
 reed that grows on the shores of Lake Superior to the gigantic stalk of the Ohio 
 Valley; the tiny ears, with flat, clear, clinging grains of Canada, the brilliant, 
 rounded little pearl, or the bright red grains and white cob of the eight-rowed 
 hematite, to the swelling ears of the big white and yellow round seed of the 
 Southern States. Two or three million quarters of Indian corn are already 
 shipped annually to different quarters from American ports. The general in- 
 troduction of Indian corn and meal since the Irish famine year has overcome most 
 of the prejudices formerly entertained in the United Kingdom; and the con- 
 sumption here now averages about 1,500,000 quarters of the grain, and several 
 thousand hundred weight of the meal. 
 
 The imports of Indian corn into the United Kingdom in the past fourteen 
 years have been as follows: — 
 
 Quarters 
 
 1846 . . 694,184 
 
 1847 . . 3,614,637 
 
 1848 . . 1,577,023 
 
 1849 . : 2,189,164 
 
 1850 . . 1,286,263 
 
 1851 . . 1,821,573 
 
 1852 . . 1,479,890 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 1853 . . 1,554,434 
 
 1854 . 1,357,375 
 1S55 . . 1,218,276 
 1856 . . 1,777,813 
 1S57 . . 1,150,783 
 
 1858 . . 1,750,825 
 
 1859 . . 1,314,303 
 
 Of Indian corn meal, we have received and taken for consumption in the last 
 four years — 
 
 1856 . . 7,880 cwts. | 1858 . . 4,720 crwts. 
 
 1857 . 1,093 I 1859 . 2,449 
 
 MALT. — Under the article Bekk, in the Supplement, some statistics of the 
 consumption of malt have already been given. 
 
 In England and Wales in 1857 there were 6235 maltsters, paying a license 
 duty of from 2s 1\d to £4 14s 6d per annum ; 1 1 roasters of malt, paying £20 per 
 annum; and 21 dealers in malt, paying £10 per annum. The duty derived 
 from all these was £15,338. In Scotland there were 653 maltsters, 2 roasters, 
 and 1 dealer; and the duty received from these licenses was £1,124. In Ireland^ 
 158 maltsters, 9 roasters, and 1 dealer, paying a collective duty of £740. There 
 were, therefore, 7091 persons makers of or dealers in malt. The reduction in 
 numbers of late years is very noticeable, for in 1847 there were 9578 maltsters, 
 distributed as follows: — 8290 in England, 1098 in Scotland, and 190 in Ireland. 
 
 On the 14th of August, 1855, malt was permitted to be made free of duty for 
 distilling purposes and for exportation. The quantity made under this orivilege 
 
MAL 
 
 202 
 
 HAL 
 
 since has averaged rather more than 5,000,000 bushels per annum, the great 
 bulk of which is made and used in Scotland. The estimated quantity of malt 
 used for the beer exported in the three years ending 1859 averaged 1,200,000 
 bushels per annum. Calculating the malt charged with duty at 48,000,000 
 bushels per annum, and the population at 29,000,000, we have a consumption of 
 about 1| bushels of malt for each, and the net revenue yielded £5,400,000, gives 
 a proportion paid per head of 3* 8d. 
 
 In the year ended 31st of March, 1860, a larger quantity of malt was brought 
 to charge than in any year since the duty was imposed, now 163 years ago, 
 having reached 44,565,038 bushels. The increase in the quantity of malt made 
 has been progressive since 1855; and it is the more remarkable, as since that 
 year the account has been diminished by about 3,000,000 bushels used by dis- 
 tillers. This satisfactory growth of the revenue derived from malt is no doubt 
 chiefly due to the uniformly prosperous condition of the country for several 
 years past; but there are other causes which have greatly assisted in this deve- 
 lopment of the malt trade. The increase in the spirit duties in Scotland and 
 Ireland is well known to have caused a considerable augmentation in the con- 
 sumption of beer in those countries, while the free importation of foreign barley, 
 and the improved quality of that article, have enabled maltsters to meet the 
 demands of the brewers. Fully two-thirds of our barley crop is used for malt- 
 ing, but our imports of foreign barley are about 1,700,000 quarters yearly. The 
 average price of barley in England and Wales was, in 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 *. a. 
 
 1815 
 
 31 2 
 
 1840 
 
 36 5 
 
 1820 
 
 34 11 
 
 1845 
 
 31 8 
 
 1825 
 
 40 1 
 
 1850 
 
 23 5 
 
 1830 
 
 32 7 
 
 1855 
 
 34 9 
 
 1835 
 
 29 11 
 
 1858 
 
 34 8 
 
 Out of 4,866,402 quarters of malt made in the United Kingdom in the year 
 ended 30th of September, 1859, 3,541,766 were made by wholesale brewers, 
 914,538 by victuallers, and 410,098 by retail brewers. 
 
 The following table continues down the statistics given at page 462, and shows 
 the quantity of malt charged with duty and the amount of revenue received 
 thereon in various years since 1840, in the different divisions of the kingdom: — > 
 
 Years. 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Amount 
 of Duty. 
 
 1841 
 1845 
 1850 
 1855 
 1859 
 
 Bushels. 
 30,956,348 
 30,508,942 
 §4,423,489 
 30,576,594 
 40,953,190 
 
 Bushels. 
 4,058,246 
 4,353,036 
 4,639,150 
 3,192,091 
 1,575,505 
 
 Bushels. 
 1,149,691 
 1,684,110 
 1,682,102 
 1,439,923 
 2,237,348 
 
 Bushels. 
 36,164,285 
 36,546,088 
 40,744,750 
 35,208,608 
 44,766,043 
 
 £. 
 4,889,237 
 4,937,972 
 5,511,441 
 6,847,104 
 6,852,458 
 
 In 1854 the duty on malt made from barley was increased in consequence of 
 the war from 25 7c?, and 5 per cent, to 4s per bushel, and that made from bere or 
 bigg from 2s, and 5 per cent, to 3s Id per bushel, commencing May 8. On the 
 5th of July, 1856, the war duty was repealed, viz. on malt from barley 1$ 3$d per 
 bushel, and from bere or bigg Is Id per bushel. 
 
 MALTA. — The population of this island was in 1842, 114,499, and in 1857, 
 140,303, of whom 131,262 were Maltese, 1111 British residents, 1084 foreigners, 
 and 6146 military. The area, including the island of Gozo, is 115 square miles. 
 
 Though properly speaking this island is little better than a barren rock, it has 
 become by the perseverance and industry of the inhabitants, as far as the nature 
 of the soil will admit, an exceedingly fertile and well-cultivated district. The 
 cultivated land in the whole island is estimated at 40,000 acres. 
 
 The revenue of the island now averages about £135,000. There are about 
 190 vessels owned in Malta, measuring in the aggregate 31,500 tons. The ex- 
 ports in 1857 were valued at 1,850,872, and the imports at £2,361,046. Malta 
 is the principal place of arrival and departure for steamers in the Mediterranean; 
 
MAR 203 MAR 
 
 British, French, &c, with mails and passengers for India, Constantinople, &c. 
 Of 2856 vessels, registering 432,996 tons, which entered the port in 1857, 879 
 vessels and 153,809 tons were British. 
 
 MARBLE. — There are marble quarries in Somersetshire, Kent, Sussex, 
 Derby and Wales. Ireland is exceedingly rich in some varieties of marble, and 
 of these the black marbles of Kilkenny and Galway and the green kinds from 
 Connamera are well known and much exported. The quarries from which 
 these are obtained are considered capable of almost indefinite extension. 
 
 In Derbyshire there are three quarries near Matlock from which about 20,000 
 cubic feet of marble are annually obtained, and the Ashford Quarry, belonging 
 to the Duke of Devonshire, furnishes about 500 tons of black marble. This is 
 the finest known, both for colour and texture. It lies in beds of from half-an- 
 inch to ten inches in thickness, and the demand for it would be very great, but 
 unfortunately it is extremely subject to veins of white calcareous spar and shakes, 
 which render it difficult to procure in large sizes of pure black. 
 
 Marble is imported from Sardinia, Italy, France and Belgium, in blocks and 
 slabs for working into statuary and ornamental purposes. The following figures 
 show the quantity imported of late years : 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rough Blocks. 
 
 
 
 
 Sawn, &c 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cuts. 
 
 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1853 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 74,972 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 m 
 
 6,661 
 
 1854 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 113,950 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 m 
 
 13,265 
 
 1855 
 
 ■ 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 103,859 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 m 
 
 12,048 
 
 1856 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 63,345 
 
 - 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 17,509 
 
 1857 
 
 _ 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 95,751 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 20,965 
 
 1858 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 81,127 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 22,500 
 
 Manufactured marble has been admitted duty free since 1st June, 1853. 
 
 MARKETS.— Smithfield market was abolished on the 11th June, 1855, 
 after existing for about 800 years, and the great Metropolitan cattle market 
 transferred to a new site in Copenhagen Fields, Islington, was opened on the 
 13th June by the Prince Consort. The new market forms a square area, paved 
 throughout with granite, surrounded by a handsome railing with gates orna- 
 mented with a lofty clock-tower in the centre, and provided with an abundant 
 supply of water. It covers about 1 5 acres, while the lairs, &c, absorb about as 
 much more, and an ample surplus (of 35 acres) is left for future contingencies. 
 
 Under the head of Cattle Trade some particulars have already been given 
 of the five stock slaughtered. The sales at Smithfield in 1854 amounted to 
 263,008 cattle and 1,539,380 sheep. 
 
 The great market-day before Christmas serves as a good criterion of the con- 
 sumption and ruling prices of meat in the metropolis; and the following were 
 the average prices per stone of 8 lbs. and the number of live stock exhibited in 
 two different years — all the stock shown are not usually sold: 
 
 Monday, December 17, 1849. 
 
 Beef - - - 3 4 to 4 
 
 Mutton - - - 3 6 to 4 
 
 Veal - - - 30 to 40 
 
 Pork - - - 32 to 40 
 
 *. d. t. d. Number. 
 
 Beasts ----- 5,765 
 
 Sheep ----- 24,000 
 
 Calves ----- 180 
 
 Pigs ----- 230 
 
 Monday, December 11, 1854. 
 
 Beef - - - 36to54 
 
 Mutton - - - 43 to 54 
 
 Veal - - - 46 to 58 
 
 Pork - - - 36 to 48 
 
 Beasts ----- 6,181 
 
 Sheep ----- 22,822 
 
 Calves ----- 106 
 
 Pigs ----- 238 
 
 There has been an increasing tendency of late years to send up to London 
 country-killed meat, and hence the dead markets of Newgate, Leadenhall, 
 Whitechapel and other localities, do a more increased amount of business. The 
 

 British Vessels 
 
 1S42 
 
 3S9 
 
 1850 
 
 388 
 
 1857 
 
 468 
 
 MAU 204 HEB 
 
 quantity brought into London yearly has been variously estimated at from 
 40,000 to 67,500 tons. 
 
 Billingsgate fish market has been rebuilt and much enlarged and improA r cd. 
 There are also public markets in Farringdon Street and near Hungcrford Bridge. 
 
 The new Coal Exchange was opened in Lower Thames Street by the Prince 
 Consort, Oct. 30, 1849. 
 
 MAURITIUS.— The population of this island in 1857 was 238,363, of whom 
 156,851 were males and 811,512 females. Of the aggregate population 142,534 
 were Indian emigrants introduced to cultivate sugar, &c, very many of whom 
 ultimately settle in the island. Of the Indian population 53,243 were engaged in 
 agriculture and 24,048 in trade and commerce. 
 
 The progress of the island has been steadily onward for some years past, and 
 it has within itself all the necessary elements for making cheap sugar, in a rich 
 soil, the best of machinery and materials for manufacture, and an abundant 
 supply of labour. 
 
 So far from the opinion expressed at page 468 being confirmed, that sugar 
 cultivation had attained its maximum, the exports have more than trebled, and 
 in the three years ending 1857 the average shipments of sugar were 2,209,000 
 cwts. and of rum 273,000 gallons. The imports comprise chiefly grain and live 
 stock, and were to the value of £7 2,000; machinery and mill- work to the value of 
 £76,000, guano 5000 or 6000 tons, and specie. The shipping trade has largely 
 increased, as will be seen by the following statistics of entries : 
 
 Tonnage. Foreign Vessels. Tonnage. 
 
 90,616 50 12,371 
 
 114,608 82 21,609 
 
 182,278 260 89,716 
 
 The revenue of the colony has increased to about £400,000. 
 
 MERCHANT SHIPPING ACT, 1854. This Act, the 17 and 18 Vict. c. 
 104, which commenced May 1, 1855, comprises all the laws affecting British 
 Merchant Shipping, with the exception of the laws relating to the public reve- 
 nue, to emigrant passengers, and those that exclusively refer to East India 
 ships. It is chiefly a consolidation of former statutes, abstracts of many of 
 which have been given in the body of the present work ; but the alteration of 
 details and the additions are numerous and important. As the extreme bulk of 
 the Act, consisting of 548 sections, besides a large mass of fonns and tables, 
 renders an intelligible abridgment hardly practicable, all we shall attempt is 
 to indicate some of the leading changes introduced. 
 
 The Act is divided into eleven parts. The first part relates to the Board of 
 Trade, its functions in superintending merchant shipping and seamen. In this 
 division there is nothing new except the extension of existing provisions, 
 making documents issued by the Board receivable as legal evidence. Important 
 alterations are in Part two, referring to the tonnage, measurement and registry 
 of ships. The chief points of difference between the new and former mode of 
 measurement are, that the number of measurements taken is much greater, and 
 increases with the size of the ship; and the results, or cubical contents, are de- 
 termined by what is known as Stirling's rule. Provision is also made for mea- 
 suring the space between decks, as well as all covered space available for 
 carrying passengers or cargo; the forecastle used by the crew being excepted, 
 unless it exceed one- twentieth of the tonnage of the ship, the excess only being 
 added. In regard to steam-ships, sj-coified deductions are made for machinery, 
 &c. The register tonnage and number of certificate of registry are to be carved, 
 or otherwise permanently marked, on the main beam of all British ships. But 
 the Act does not make it compulsory to adopt the new measurement in regard 
 to ships already registered. - 
 
 Considerable changes are introduced in reference to ownership and registry oj 
 ships. The repeal of the Navigation Laws has rendered the old stringent rules 
 of registry unnecessary; provision being made for simply ascertaining the na- 
 tionality of the ship, for subjecting her to municipal laws, and for preventing a 
 
MER 205 MEft 
 
 fraudulent assumption of the national flag. Greater facilities are also afforded 
 for the transfer of ships by the registered owners, who are empowered ( Section 
 76) to dispose of their ships, by way of mortgage or sale, at any place out of the 
 country or possession in which the port of registry is situate; for which purpose 
 certificates are to be granted by the Registrar. 
 
 Part 3, which relates to masters and seamen, forms a considerable portion of 
 the Act, extending, as it does, over 180 clauses. It moreover contains many 
 important alterations of the former Acts, and much additional matter. Power is 
 given to the Board of Trade to inquire into the misconduct of and to remove 
 shipping-masters. The fees paid to the shipping-offices, on ships under 100 
 tons, are slightly reduced, and on those above 1000 tons slightly raised. Exa- 
 mination and certificates of masters and mates are extended to all home- trade 
 ships employed in carrying passengers (section 131)— but every person who, 
 before the 1st day of January, 1854, has served as master of a home-trade 
 passenger ship (section 135), will be entitled to a certificate of service as master 
 of home-trade passenger ships; and a similar rule applies to mates. No certi- 
 ficate of a home-trade passenger ship will entitle the holder to go to sea as 
 master or mate of a foreign going ship. All indentures of apprenticeship (sect. 
 143) are to be exempt from stamp duty; and all apprentices are to appear before 
 the shipping-master, to whom also the indentures are to be produced: in de- 
 fault of which the shipmaster will incur a penalty not exceeding £5. 
 
 In the engagement and supply of seamen the Board of Trade retains the 
 power of granting licenses to such persons as it may think fit; but any persons 
 (sect. 147) who are bondfde the servants and in the constant employ of the 
 owner, may also provide seamen for his ships. The agreement to be made with 
 seamen (sect. 149), which must be in form sanctioned by the Board, is to con- 
 tain certain particulars with regard to the nature and probable duration of the 
 voyage, number and description of the crew, the capacity in which the seamen are 
 to serve, &c. The engagement of seamen in the colonies and in foreign coun- 
 tries (sections 159-60) is assimilated to the practice in the United Kingdom 
 (except in regard to colonial ships when in their own colony) ; such seamen, in 
 foreign ports, are to be engaged before a British Consular officer. 
 
 With respect to the wages of seamen, advance notes are to be no longer re- 
 cognised. Power is given to relatives to sue on allotment notes, either in the 
 County Court, or in a summary manner. Facilities are to be afforded by the 
 Board of Trade (section 177) to remit, through Money-orders issued by shipping- 
 masters, the wages of seamen and apprentices, to their friends. Savings'-banks 
 for seamen may be established in such ports within the United Kingdom, either 
 in shipping-offices or elsewhere, as may appear expedient to the Board. Freight 
 as the " mother of wages," no longer exists (section 183). In all cases of wreck, 
 unless proof be adduced that he has not exerted himself, the seamen will, like 
 any other hired servant, be entitled to wages for the services actually rendered. 
 But if, through wreck or other casualty, the service terminate before the period 
 contemplated in the agreement, he is only to be entitled to wages for the time 
 of service prior to such termination. The power of recovering wages sum- 
 marily is extended from £20 to £50. The master has also the same remedy 
 (section 191); power being given to any Admiralty Court to determine any 
 question of account which may be raised. Provision is made (section 192), in 
 the event of the relatives of seamen becoming chargeable to the parish, that the 
 charge shall be reimbursed out of the wages of such seamen. In the event of 
 seamen or apprentices being discharged abroad by sale of ship or otherwise (sec- 
 tion 205), certificates of discharge are to be given, and the men are to be sent 
 home at the expense of the owner. 
 
 In regard to provisions and health on board ship, a shipmaster subjects him- 
 self (section 221) to a fine of £20. on omitting to provide proper provisions and 
 water. The result of any official examination in the matter must be entered in 
 the log. But seamen making groundless complaints are to be liable to forfeit 
 a sum not exceeding a week's wages. In case the stipulated allowance of pro- 
 
MEE 20G MEE 
 
 visions be reduced, or of bad quality, without the supply of equivalent substi- 
 tutes, the Act provides compensation to seamen for such privation, of from Ad 
 to Is per day. The expenses attending illness (through injury received in the 
 service of the ship) of masters, seamen, or apprentices, or burial in the event of 
 death (section 228), are to be paid by the owner without any deduction from the 
 wages due. As, also, is the expense of medicine and attendance otherwise given 
 whilst on board. In the event of their removal from the ship through illness (if 
 they afterwards return to their duty), the cost of removal, medical attendance, 
 and subsistence, is also to be defrayed by the owner. In all other cases any 
 '* reasonable expense " incurred by the owner in respect to the illness of sea- 
 men, and in respect to the burial of any seaman or apprentice who may die in 
 the service, is to be deducted from their wages. Every foreign-going ship having 
 100 persons on board is bound to carry a surgeon (section 230), under a penalty 
 of £100, for every voyage. Provision is made that every seaman or apprentice 
 sleeping in a hammock shall have a space of not less than nine superficial feet, or 
 54 cubic feet, and if not in hammocks, not less than 12 feet, or 72 cubic feet; 
 and the space must be kept free from stores or goods of any kind. 
 
 In the event of seamen volunteering in the Navy, and it becomes necessaiy to 
 engage substitutes for the merchant ship they have left, the owners may apply to 
 the Admiralty Court for repayment of any extra expenses thus incurred. It is 
 also provided (section 216) that the owner shall be repaid any advance made, if 
 not duly earned, to seamen so entering the Navy. There is (section 257) a 
 penalty of £10 on any one for enticing seamen or apprentices to desert, and £20 
 for harbouring deserters. 
 
 Power is given (section 240) to any Court having Admiralty jurisdiction in any 
 of her Majesty's dominions to remove the master of a ship and appoint another, 
 upon application of the owner, consignee, agent, mate, one-third or more of the 
 crew. On a shipmaster being superseded during a voyage (section 259), and 
 succeeded in command by another person, he will incur a penalty not exceeding 
 £20, in default of delivering to his successor the various documents relating to 
 the navigation of the ship. 
 
 The official logs (section 282) are to contain, besides the usual entries, parti- 
 culars of births, deatlw, and marriages happening on board ; the amount of 
 wages due to any seaman who may enter the Navy, or who dies during the voy- 
 age; also the circumstances attending collisions, when they occur. All entries 
 in the Log-book, duly made, are to be received in evidence, subject to all just 
 exceptions. 
 
 In respect to Steam Navigation, the Act provides, that foreign steam ships, 
 carrying passengers between places in the United Kingdom (section 291), are to 
 be subject to the same rules as British steamships. The scale of boats to be 
 carried is slightly modified, so as to meet the requirements of different vessels. 
 A penalty, not exceeding £100, in addition to any other liabilities (section 302), 
 is incurred by any person placing an undue weight on the safety-valve of any 
 steam ship. The survey of passenger ships is made to extend to all steamers 
 carrying any persons whomsoever, except the master and the crew, the owner, 
 his family, and servants. 
 
 The rules to be observed with regard to lights and fog signals are not mate- 
 rially altered, the Admiralty having the power from time to time to alter or make 
 regulations. All such regulations are to be advertised in the London Gazette. 
 The new rules for ships passing and meeting each other (section 296), have been 
 altered. 
 
 Many alterations are made in the Pilotage Law, which, as they chiefly relate 
 to minor details, will be best learned from the Act. By (section 354) all home- 
 trade passenger ships are to employ qualified pilots, unless they have pilot- 
 certificated masters and mates, the penalty, in default, not to exceed £100. It is 
 important to notice that the owner is relieved from responsibility (section 388) 
 " for any loss or damage occasioned by the fault or incapacity of any qualified 
 pilot acting in charge of such ship," within any district where the employment 
 
MER 207 MER 
 
 of a pilot is compulsory by law. This is in accordance with the judgment of 
 Dr. Lushington in the case of the Protector, the subject having furnished ma- 
 terials for several conflicting decisions. There is nothing to call for notice in 
 respect to the matter of Lighthouses, except that the jurisdiction of the Trinity- 
 house (section 389) is extended to the Channel Islands. 
 
 With regard to fife-boats, and the saving of life and property from shipwrecks 
 on the coasts of the United Kingdom, power is taken by the Act (section 418) 
 to charge on the Mercantile and Marine Fund the expenses incurred in establish- 
 ing and maintaining life-boats, and for rewarding the preservation of life in all 
 such cases. 
 
 The Wreck and Salvage Lan\ now incorporated in the present Act, has under- 
 gone considerable alteration. The powers of inquiring into wrecks and casual- 
 ties are greatly extended, in which the inspecting officer of Coast-guard, or 
 officer of Customs (section 432), under the sanction of the Board of Trade, may 
 be engaged and take evidence, and may also (section 439) be appointed as re- 
 ceivers. The Board of Trade is to determine all disputes as to the amount 
 payable to receivers, whenever disputes arise. The Board of Trade has also 
 the power (section 434), when nautical knowledge is required, to appoint an 
 assessor. The provisions of the Wreck and Salvage Law, being part of the 
 new Act, are extended to Scotland. 
 
 Important provisions are introduced into the Act in respect to salvage. Saving 
 of life from shipwreck is to take priority of all other claims for salvage; and 
 where the property salved is not sufficient, the Mercantile Marine Fund (section 
 459) is made available for the purpose. Disputes with respect to salvage claims 
 not exceeding £200, are to be referred to the arbitration of two Justices of the 
 Peace, and an umpire if necessary. With the consent of the parties concerned, 
 the same reference may be made for any larger sum; but failing so to agree, the 
 latter cases will, as heretofore, find their way into the Admiralty Court. This pro- 
 vision, however, will be very beneficial in preventing expensive litigation— which 
 is of frequent occurrence -for small amounts not worth the costs. In all claims 
 for salvage, on the salvor abandoning his lien on the property, an agreement 
 entered into by the master, or other person in charge of the ship, to abide the 
 decision of the Admiralty Court, will bind the ship, cargo, and freight payable, 
 as well as the owners thereof, for the salvage which may be adjudged to be pay- 
 able. 
 
 The alteration in the law in regard to the responsibility of shipowners is the 
 last subject to which it seems necessary to direct attention. As grave doubts 
 have existed since the passing of what is known as Lord Campbell's Act, giving 
 compensation for injuries received from accidents, whether or not injury or loss 
 of life by shipwreck were subject to its provisions, it is gratifying to observe that 
 the question is now set at rest, by section 504, which enacts that, in case of 
 loss of life or personal injury caused to any person carried in a ship, or — by 
 reason of the improper navigation of such ship— to any person carried in any 
 other ship or boat, no owner of any seagoing ship shall be answerable in da- 
 mages beyond the value of his ship and the freight due, or to grow due, at the 
 time of the occuiTence. But in no case where any such liability is incurred is 
 the value of such ship and freight to be taken to be less than £15 per registered 
 ton. For the purposes of this part of the Act, freight is deemed to include 
 passage-money, as well as the value of the carriage of goods or merchandise, 
 which removes a doubt entertained in respect to former Acts. 
 
 Such are the principal new features to be found in one of the most elaborate 
 and comprehensive measures that the British Legislature ever gave birth to. 
 
 By a subsequent Act, 17 and 18 Vict. c. 120, no less than 48 Acts, or parts of 
 Acts are repealed, in consequence, chiefly, of their consolidation in the Merchant 
 Shipping Act, the noticeable clauses are (section 7), enabling the Board of 
 Trade, out of the Mercantile Marine Fund, to defray the expenses of the life- 
 boats on the coast, and (section 16) imposing a penalty of £30 on masters of 
 vessels, leaving natives of Asia, Africa, or the South Sea Islands, in England, 
 
MER 
 
 208 
 
 MEX 
 
 who shall become chargeable to any parish, within six months from being so 
 left, unless such person has left the vessel against the consent of the master. 
 
 Subjoined are some of the Tables of the Merchant Shipping Act: — 
 Table P.— (Section 125.) 
 Fees to be charged for Matters transacted at Shipping -offices. 
 
 1. Engagement of Crews. 
 
 
 3. Discharge of Crews. 
 
 
 £. s. 
 
 £. s. 
 
 In Ships under 60 tons 
 
 - 4 
 
 In Ships under 60 tons - 9 4 
 
 60 to 100 ,, 
 
 - 7 
 
 60 to 100 „ - 7 
 
 100 to 200 „ 
 
 - 15 
 
 100 to 200 „ - 15 
 
 200 to 300 „ 
 
 - 1 
 
 200 to 300 „ -10 
 
 300 to 400 „ 
 
 - 1 5 
 
 300 to 400 ,, - 1 5 
 
 400 to 500 „ 
 
 - 1 10 
 
 400 to 500 „ - 1 10 
 
 500 to COO „ 
 
 - 1 15 
 
 5 to 600 „ - 1 15 
 
 600 to 700 „ 
 
 - 2 
 
 600 to 700 „ -20 
 
 700 to 800 „ 
 
 - 2 5 
 
 700 to 800 „ - 2 5 
 
 800 to 900 „ 
 
 - 2 10 
 
 800 to 900 „ - 2 10 
 
 900 to 1000 „ 
 
 - 2 15 
 
 900 to 1000 „ - 2 15 
 
 Above 1000 „ 
 
 - 3 
 
 Above 1000 „ -30 
 
 And so on for Ships of larger Tonnage, 
 
 And so on for Ships of larger Tonnage, 
 
 adding for every 100 tons above 1000, 
 
 adding for every 100 tons above 1000, 
 
 Five Shillings. 
 
 
 Five Shillings. 
 
 2. Engagement of Seamen separately. 
 
 4. Discharge of Seamen separately. 
 
 Two Shillings for each. 
 
 
 Two Shillings for each. 
 
 Table Q.— (Section 126.) 
 Sums to be deducted from Wages by way of Partial Repayment of Fees in 
 
 Table P. 
 
 2. In respect of Engagements and Dis- 
 charges of Seamen separately, upon 
 each Engagement and each Discharge. 
 
 One Shilling. 
 
 1. In respect of Engagements and Dis- 
 charge of Crews, upon each Engage- 
 ment and each Discharge ». d. 
 
 From Wages of any Mate, Purser, 
 Engineer, Surgeon, Carpenter, or 
 Steward ----16 
 
 From all others except Apprentices 1 I 
 
 Table R.— (Section 133.) 
 
 Fees to be charged on Examination. 
 
 £ 
 
 For a Certificate as Master - 2 
 
 For a Certificate as Mate - 1 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 
 Table T.—(Section 314.) 
 
 Fees to be charged for the Survey of Passenger Steamers. 
 
 £. s. d. 
 For Steamers not exceeding 100 tons - - - 2 
 
 For Steamers exceeding 100 and not exceeding 300 tons - 3 
 
 For Steamers exceeding 300 and not exceeding 600 tons - 4 
 
 And for every additional 300 tons an additional - 1 
 
 MERCURY.— See Quicksilver. 
 
 MEXICO. — This republic now consists of 23 departments, 2 territories, and 
 a federal district. The whole area includes 846,615 square miles, with a col- 
 lective population estimated in 1850 at 7,485,205. Sinaloa and Sonora com- 
 prising 7865 square miles and 300,000 population, were delivered up to the 
 United States by the treaty of 1853, and Tehuantepec sold to the United States 
 for 25 million dollars. 
 
 According to the records of the Mexican Government, the value of the foreign 
 imports into that Republic at the present date is about 26,000,000 dollars, and 
 that of the exports 28,000,000 dollars, making a total foreign interchange of im- 
 ports and exports of 54,000,000 dollars per annum. This commerce is distri- 
 buted as follows: 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Exchanges with England - - 33,400.000 
 Exchanges with the United States 8,700,000 
 Exchanges with France - - 5,500,000 
 Exchanges with Germany - - 2,000,000 
 Exchanges with Spain - - 1,200.000 
 Exchanges with Belgium - - 400,000 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Exchanges with Guatemala, Chili, <fec. 500,000 
 Exchanges with Cuba - - 1,200,000 
 Exchanges with India and China 1,000,000 
 
 Total 
 
 54,000,000 
 £10,800,000 
 
MIL 209 MOE 
 
 The number of vessels that entered at Vera Cruz in 1858 were 203, of 
 29,701 tons. The value of cargoes in British vessels that entered were in 1852, 
 £281,229 ; in 1853, £503,718 ; in 1854, £294,534 ; in 1855, £399,891. At 
 Tampico 84 vessels, of 10,140 tons, with cargoes valued at £266,340, entered 
 in 1858. At Mazatlan 50 vessels, of 22,028 tons, entered in the same year. 
 A large trade has recently sprung up in Istle, or Mexican fibre, as it is termed, 
 which is exported from Tampico to the extent of about 3,000,000 lbs. a year to 
 Great Britain, France and the United States. It is a strong fibre obtained from 
 the agave; used as a substitute for bristles in brush-making. About half-a- 
 raillion sterling of specie is shipped annually from Tampico in the British mail 
 contract packets. 
 
 MILK. The aggregate consumption of milk in the United Kingdom has, ex- 
 cluding the other dairy products obtained from it, been roughly estimated at 1300 
 million quarts per annum, which would require to supply it half-a-million milch 
 cows. The demand for milk in London, Liverpool, Manchester and other large 
 towns is very great, and if we could arrive with any precision at the extent of 
 the metropolitan consumption, it would be a curious and instructive investiga- 
 tion. If we take the resident and floating population of London at 3,000,000, 
 and assume that they use a quarter of a pint each per day, this would require 
 a weekly supply of 656,250 gallons, or 17,062,500 barn (or double) gallons a 
 year, for which the consumers pay at least £1,706,250. 
 
 The great proportion of the London supply now comes up by railway from 
 considerable distances, and the country milk trade is daily increasing. Scarcely 
 one-fifth of the London supply is furnished by cows kept in the metropolitan 
 lay-stalls, and no doubt ere long the whole will come from the suburban districts 
 and the home counties. According to the London Directory there are about 
 3000 dairymen for the supply of the metropolis ; what number of itinerant milk 
 vendors there may be would be difficult to state. There are also professed ven- 
 dors of asses' milk for invalids. 
 
 Various plans for the production of artificial milk and the preservation of milk 
 in a solidified form, have been brought before the public from time to time, 
 but none have attained to much commercial importance. 
 
 MOHAIR, The commercial term for the long silky hair of the Angora 
 goat. It is imported under the name of Turkey goats' wooL and the manufac- 
 ture, which chiefly centres in Bradford, is now a very important branch of 
 the woollen trade. The quantity of this goats' hair received has fluctuated con- 
 siderably. From 1844 to 1847 the imports averaged about 1,300,000 lbs., 
 between that period and 1852 they averaged only about 200,000 lbs. annually. 
 Since 1853 the average imports have been about 3,000,000 lbs. 
 
 Mohair is particularly adapted for damasks, velvet for coach linings, curtains 
 and ladies' dresses, mixed with cotton and silk, and produces a most agreeable 
 texture. A large quantity of the yarn spun from it in this country is exported 
 to France and Germany, where it is chiefly manufactured into velvet. 
 
 In the last ten years the price of mohair has advanced with the extended de- 
 mand and consumption. While in 1849 it sold at 1* 8d per lb., in 1859 it had 
 advanced to 3* per lb. 
 
 The Angora goat has been successfully introduced into the Cape Colony, South 
 Australia and parts of the United States. 
 
 MONEY.— See Coinage, Gold, &c. 
 
 MOROCCO. The population of this empire is now only reckoned at about 
 6,000,000, and the value of its import and export trade is a little over 
 £2,000,000 sterling. The population of Mazagan is about 1500, and of Mogadore 
 16,000, of whom 12,000 are Moors, and 4000 Jews. Mogadore harbour is con- 
 sidered the best along the coast. The population of the province of Tangier 
 consists of about 200,000 souls ; the town comprises 8500, 6000 being Moors, 
 and 2200 Jews. The imports into Tangier in 1856 were of the value of 
 £135,566, of which £101,773 was British goods. The exports were £77,263, 
 of which £63,580 was British goods. The town of Tetuan consists of about 
 22,000 Moors, and 10,000 Jews, and the whole province or government 100,000. 
 
MOB 210 NAP 
 
 The vessels that entered at the several ports of Morocco in 1855 were 
 836, of 74,679 tons; the value of their cargoes being £444,753. At Tangier 
 the entries in 1856 were 313 ships, of 1564 tons. At Tetuan, 109 ships, 
 and 1617 tons. AtMogadore, 114 ships, and 14,114 tons, with cargoes valued 
 at £336,513. The chief trade here is British — comprising 61 vessels, and 
 7986 tons, with cargoes of the value of £268,102, while the return cargoes are 
 about the same value. The general trade of Morocco at all the ports in 1856 
 was — imports, £987,119; exports, £1,090,218. The entries of ships in the 
 same year, 98,184 tons, of which 53,357 tons were British. 
 
 MOTHER OF PEARL is that beautiful white enamel which forms the 
 greater part of the substance of most oyster shells, but especially the larger ones 
 found in the seas of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. It is much used now for 
 pearl button making, for paper knives, toys, inlaying work, and various fancy 
 articles. In 1845 it was admitted duty free, but it was only in 1853 that mother 
 of pearl shells were deemed of sufficient importance to appear in the Board of 
 Trade returns. The imports since then have been as follows : — 
 
 Cwts. Value. 
 
 1853 ... 15,480 ... — 
 
 1854 ... 36,644 ... £88,305 
 
 1855 ... 20,120 ... 34,634 
 
 1856 . . 42,032 ... 76,544 
 
 1857 ... 34,324 ... 57,819 
 
 1858 ... 25,108 ... 60,448 
 
 There are about six commercial varieties of these shells, known as the white 
 edge, brought from China and Singapore; the yellow edge, from Manila; pure 
 white, from Bombay, Egypt, and South America; and the black, from the South 
 Sea Islands. These are further subdivided according to size and quality. The 
 smallest are the South American, weighing about half-pound per shell (the 
 single valve) ; the Bombay and Egyptian weigh about | lbs. ; the South Sea 
 (black), 1 lb. ; and the Singapore and Manila as much 1£ lb. The price of these 
 shells has risen greatly of late years, owing to the more varied uses and increased 
 demand. The black or South Sea shells, which were formerly of little value, 
 since the change of fashion which brought into use the large dark pearl buttons 
 for lady's paletots, gentlemen's waistcoats, shooting-coats, &c, have risen fully 
 100 per cent, in price. Even the small time pearl oyster shell from the fisheries 
 of Ceylon, which were deemed worthless, have now come into use for the 
 nacreous substance which they furnish, for although thin it serves for inlay- 
 ing and other purposes. 
 
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. A considerable import and export trade is 
 carried on in musical instruments of various kinds. In 1853 and 1854, the 
 declared value of the British made instruments of all sorts, exported, was 
 £173,300 per annum, but since then the amount has only averaged about 
 £140,000 per annum. About 600 foreign made piano-fortes and 3000 to 4000 
 harmoniums, besides other instruments are imported. The aggregate value of 
 the musical instruments, imported in 1858 was £128,856. 
 
 MYROBALANS. One or more species of this dried fruit, chiefly the 
 Terminalia Chelula, is now largely imported into this country from India for 
 tanning and dyeing purposes. The imports frequently reach 9000 tons a 
 year. 
 
 NAPLES. The political position of this State has been materially altered in 
 the present year 1860. The insurrectionary movement under Garibaldi has re- 
 sulted in the expulsion of the King of Naples, and the annexation of the king- 
 dom by the suffrages of the people to the sovereignty of Sardinia. The popu- 
 lation of the Continental States in 1856 was 6,886,030 souls, and of the Island 
 of Sicily, 2,242,000. The town of Palermo had in 1857, 200,000 inhabitants. 
 The national debt of the kingdom amounted in 1854 to £20,312,000. The 
 revenue in 1856 was £5,271,061. The imports in 1857 of the Continental 
 States amounted to £2,985,000, and of the island, £971,362. The exports 
 were, Continental States, £2,490,000, and the island, £2,193,964. 
 
NAT 211 NEW 
 
 NATAL. This settlement on the south-east coast of South Africa, formerly 
 a dependency of the Cape Colony, was constituted a separate colony in 1849. It 
 embraces an area of not less than 20,000 square miles. Durban is the sea-port 
 and commercial town, but Pietermaritzburg, 50 miles inland, is the seat of Govern- 
 ment. The population of the colony in 1857 was 121,068, of whom 112,906 were 
 coloured. The value of the imports in 1859 was £200,000, and of the exports, 
 £100,000. The principal shipments were wool, £24,000; butter, £18,000; 
 ivory, £16,618; arrow-root, £13,436; sugar and molasses, £9368. The reve- 
 nue of the colony was £51,000. 
 
 NAVIGATION LAWS. All vestiges of these celebrated laws may be now 
 considered to have been swept away by recent statutes. The high-rate of 
 freights in 1853 led to an important inroad on exclusive maritime immunities, 
 and which was chiefly occasioned by a scarcity of seamen to man the mercantile 
 navy. Under the 16 and 17 Vict. c. 131, sect. 31, the famous protective clause 
 requiring the master of a British ship, and the whole or a certain proportion of 
 his crew, to be British seamen is repealed. But the conclusive advance in mari- 
 time liberality was made in 1854 by opening the Coasting Trade to foreign 
 ships. By 16 and 17 Vict. c. 107, no goods or passengers can be carried coast- 
 wise from one part of the United Kingdom to another, nor to or from the Isle 
 of Man or the Channel Islands except in British ships. These restrictive en- 
 actments are repealed by 19 Vict. c. 5; subject to the Customs' Act, 1853. 
 Foreign ships in the coasting trade are to be subject to the same regulations as 
 British ships; and so are foreign steam vessels carrying passengers. 
 
 The national flag still continues under cover, and by 16 and 17 Vict. c. 137, 
 sect. 33, to prevent undue assumption of the British flag it is enacted, that if 
 any person use the British flag and assume the British national character on 
 board any ship, owned by any persons not being entitled by law to own British 
 ships and navigate them under British colours and papers, for the purpose of 
 making such ship appear to be a British ship, it shall be lawful for any officer on 
 full pay in the Naval service, or any officer of Customs, to seize and detain 
 such ship on the high seas or in any British port, and to bring her for adjudica- 
 tion before a Court of Admiralty. If it is made to appear to such Court that 
 such ship has been so navigated under the British flag and British papers, the 
 Court mav pronounce the ship to be confiscated to the Queen. 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK. The population of this British American colony is 
 now 213,187 souls. The latest official statistics of the colony are for 1857, and 
 from these we find that the revenue was £135,094, and the expenditure, 
 £134,598. 3170 vessels, of 587,595 tons entered, and 3181, of 659,277 tons 
 cleared. The imports were valued at £1,418,943, and the exports at 
 £917,775. The principal exports were £11,751 worth of fish (preserved and 
 fresh), £12,039 of dry salted fish, and £45,490 of wet salted fish, £1910 of 
 smoked fish, £77,343 of boards and scantlings, £459,662 of deals, and £116,615 
 of pine timber. There were £643,954 acres of cleared land, the produce of 
 wheat being 206,635 bushels, and that of oats 1,411,164. Wheat averaged 
 8* 9d per bushel, and oats 3s. In 1857, there were 22,044 horses, 106,263 
 horned beasts, 168,038 sheep, and 47,932 swine. The rate of wages for domes- 
 tic labour was £2 105 to £3 per month (with board); predial labour £2 10* to 
 £4 per month; and trades, 5* 6d to 10s per day. 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND. The population of this island in 1857 was 122,638 
 souls. The revenue, £149,324; the vessels which entered the ports of the 
 colony, 1538, measuring 203,162 tons. The value of the imports, £1,413,423 ; 
 and of the exports, £1,651,165. 
 
 NEW GRANADA. The republic is now divided into nine provinces, has 
 an area of 515,235 square miles, and a population in the year 1853 of 2,363,054 
 souls. The number of vessels that entered at Panama in 1858 was 142, of 
 92,034 tons, and with cargoes valued at £11,373,424. The value of the 
 cargoes cleared in the same year was £2,468,203. The vessels that entered at 
 Santa Martha in 1855 were 140, of 46,043 tons, and with cargoes worth 
 £634,500. At the port of Rio Hacha in 1858, 52 vessels, of 10,376 tons, and 
 
NEW 212 NEW 
 
 cargoes worth £22,500; the export cargoes being valued at £98,700. At 
 Carthagena the entries in 1858 were 99 vessels and 73,480 tons. The cargoes 
 entered in 1854 were valued at £62,533, and those cleared at £254,603. At 
 Savanilla in 1858, the entries were 56 ships, 10,652 tons, and cargoes worth 
 £26,213. The clearances were 106 ships, 15,630 tons, with cargoes worth £39 1,1 63. 
 
 The existing communications with the Isthmus are a line of British mail steamers 
 twice each month between Southampton and Aspinwall, connecting with the 
 British Pacific Mail line running between Panama and Valparaiso— touching at 
 fifteen intermediate port3 — an English screw steam-ship between Liverpool and 
 Aspinwall. Lines of sailing vessels to Aspinwall from London, Liverpool, Bor- 
 deaux, Bremen, and New York. A steam -ship line between New York and 
 New Orleans and Aspinwall, connecting with the California line between Panama 
 and San Francisco, and a steam-ship mail line monthly between Panama and 
 San Jose de Guatemala, touching at five intermediate ports. 
 
 The value of exports for 1856, according to the Custom House returns, was 
 5,659,209 dollars. The gold exported, of which no return is made is calculated 
 at 1 ,800,000 dollars, and the silver at 200,000 dollars. The exports of the 
 Isthmus of Panama, consisting of pearl shells, pearls, hides, gold and timber, is 
 estimated at 200,000 dollars. The export of gold, balsam of Tolu, India-rubber 
 and dyewoods from the Atrato district, at 60,000 dollars, and the tobacco, hides 
 and other articles from the ports of Casanare at 16,000 dollars. 
 
 All these gave a total of 7,935,209 dollars, which may be divided as follows: — 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Tobacco, 2,687,598 kilogrammes, at 25 dollars per 100 lbs. on board - 1,348,800 
 
 Quinine, 36,604 quintals, 34 lbs. at 30 dollars per quintal - - 1,098,130 
 
 Coffee, 42,629 quintals, at 10 dollars per quintal - 426,290 
 
 Panama Hats, 261,324, at 15 dollars per doz. ... 326,625 
 
 Hides, 1,063,991, at 12 dollars per quintal - 355,357 
 
 Corn, Meat, and other Provisions - 143,227 
 
 Dyewoods- Brasil Wood, 969 tons, at 40 dollars per ton - - 38,760 
 
 Other Dyewoods, 4583 tons, at 15 dollars per ton - 63,745 
 
 Dividivi, 219l£ tons, at 40 dollars per ton - 87,6G0 
 
 India-rubber, 174,941 kilogrammes, at 35 cents per kilogramme - 61,229 
 
 Cotton, Cigars. Sarsaparilla, &c - - - - - 27,978 
 
 Tiles and Earthenware - 22,319 
 
 Timber for building _.___- 14,940 
 
 Balsam of Tolu, Tortoiseshell, &c. .... 10,596 
 
 Sugar, &c. ------ - 7,565 
 
 Miscellaneous articles, such as Platina, Silver, Copper, Lead, Silver Ore 
 
 and Emeralds -__..- 38,065 
 
 Gold, cleared in the Custom House at Carthagena - 1,587,923 
 
 Total ... - 5,659,209 
 
 To which must be added — 
 
 Gold not declared ...... 1,800,000 
 
 Exports of Panama _....- 200,000 
 
 Silver exported to Venezuela and Ecuador ... 200,000 
 
 Exports of Choco and Casanare, of which no returns are made - 76,000 
 
 Grand Total ... 7,935,209 
 
 Dividing the exports into three classes — namely, natural products, agricul- 
 tural products, and manufactures, we find them ranged as follows: — 
 
 Natural products— value ... dollars 1,415,547 
 
 Agricultural ... - - - 2,178,322 
 
 Manufactures ... - - - 362,105 
 
 The above does not include the products or gold of the Isthmus of Panama. 
 
 The gold produced in the country is divided thus : — 
 
 Washings without machineiy - - dollars 1,600,000 
 
 From rivers by machinery - - 1,149,000 
 
 From veins by chemical process - - 587,923 
 
 Total— equal to the exportation of gold in the previous year 3,356,923 
 
NEW 213 NEW 
 
 The exports of the Isthmus are thus classed : — 
 
 Pearl Shells ----- dollars 60,00 
 
 Pearls ----- 30,000 
 
 Woods ----- 10,000 
 
 Gold ----- 20,000 
 
 Shells .... 80,000 
 
 Total - 200,000 
 According to the Custom House returns, the exports are made in the following 
 proportions to various countries: — 
 
 England - - dollars 2,930,482 
 
 United States ----- 780,510 
 
 Venezuela - 740,338 
 
 Germany ----- 674,374 
 
 France ------ 71,173 
 
 West Indies .... - 68,138 
 
 Other countries ----- 41,886 
 
 Total according to Custom House returns - 5,306,901 
 
 But the foregoing by no means shows the real direction of the exports which 
 is calculated as follows : — 
 
 Dollars. 
 England, Gold, Quinine and Dyewoods - 3,400,000 
 
 United States, Coffee, Quinine, Hiles, Dyewoods and Indian-rubber - 1,450,000 
 Germany, Tobacco ------ 1,000,000 
 
 France, Gold, Quinine, Balsam, &c. 600,000 
 
 Venezuela, Gold and Silver Coin and Provisions - - - 500,000 
 
 Ecuador, Gold and Silver Coin ----- 250,000 
 
 Peru, Gold and Tobacco ----- 300,000 
 
 Other Countries ------ 150,000 
 
 Total - - - - 7,650,000 
 
 NEW SOUTH WALES. The Port Phillip district was separated from 
 New South Wales in 1849, and made a separate colony under the name of 
 Victoria. The northern district of Moreton Bay was also withdrawn from the 
 Sydney Government, and formed into the colony of Queensland in 1859. 15,578 
 immigrants arrived in New South Wales in 1857, 10,205 of whom went out at 
 the public expense, and 5373 at their own expense; 8538 were males, 4412 
 females, and 2628 children under 14. 4612 males and 1961 females left the 
 colony in the same year. The public income amounted to £1,531,137, and the 
 expenditure to £1,543,328. 1100 vessels, of 351,413 tons, entered, and 1204, 
 of 377,147 tons, cleared out in 1857. 132 vessels arrived from the United King- 
 dom, and 810 from the British colonies. 10 vessels were built and 45 registered 
 in the colony in the year. The value of the imports was £6,729,408, including 
 £3,797,350, the produce of the United Kingdom, and £1,640,520 of her colonies. 
 The exports were £4,011,952, of which nearly £3,000,000 was the produce of 
 the colony ( gold included). The exports included 135,805 gallons of ale and 
 beer, 890,527 lbs. of cheese, 151,197 bushels of maize, 107,468 hides and skins, 
 781,670 lbs. of tea, and 17,044,201 lbs. of wool. The value of the gold and 
 bullion in the Royal Mint and banks in 1857 was £1,388,565. The total num- 
 ber of mortgages on lands was 1168, to the amount of £703,389. There were 
 175 mortgages on live stock, including 904,360 sheep, 135,334 horned cattle, 
 3141 horses, to the extent of 655,462. Seventeen mines produced 210,434 tons 
 of coal, valued at £148,158. The Post-office employed 274 persons; the extent 
 of post roads was 1,289,386 miles, and the number of letters that passed by ship 
 and inland was 2,602,919, besides 2,214,411 newspapers. 183,385 acres of land 
 ■were under crop, producing 1,289,044 bushels of" wheat, 1,118,006 bushels of 
 maize, 58,088 bushels of barley, 61,253 bushels of oats, 21,491 tons of potatoes, 
 1301 tons of tobacco, and 53,064 tons of hay, &c. 1128 acres of land were 
 planted with the vine, producing 108,174 gallons of wine, and 1414 of brandy. 
 The live stock in 1857 included 180,053 horses, 2,1 48,664 horned cattle, 8,139,162 
 sheep, and 109,166 swine. 48,341 sheep, and 25,111 cattle were slaughtered in 
 1857, producing 40,597 tons of tallow. 81,360 yards of woollen (cloth and tweed) 
 
NEW 214, NEW 
 
 were manufactured; also 37,228 cwt. of soap, and 1346 cwt. of tobacco. 166,000 
 cwt. of sugar were refined. There were 157 mills of all kinds for grinding 
 grain. Wheat sold in 1857 at 7s Ad per bushel; bread of the very first quality, 
 Z^d per lb., and of the second, 2\d; rice, 5d; tea, 2* 6d; coffee, Is 8d; sugar, 
 7%d; meat (fresh), Z^d; English cheese, 1* 7d, and colonial, Is; potatoes, 14s 6d 
 per cwt.; colonial wine, 9* 2d, and imported wine (best quality), 14s 9d per 
 gallon; brandy, £1 15s 6d per gallon (very dear, of course); colonial beer, 4s, 
 and imported 7s 6d per gallon; candles, 9d per lb.; lamp oil, 10s per gallon; 
 soap, 7d per lb.; starch, Is, and blue, 2s 6d; colonial tobacco, 2s 7d, and im- 
 ported 5s per lb. Men's moleskin coats were 16s each, and jackets 10s; waist- 
 coats, 8s 6d; trousers, 8s and 9s; check shirts, 3s 3d; strong boots, 16s 6d; 
 shoes, lls6d; shepherds' coats, 22s; socks, \0d; handkerchiefs, 9d each, and 
 straw hats, 5s lid Women's print dresses were 6s, and merinoes, 12s each; 
 flannel petticoats, 7s, and calico petticoats, 3s 2d; stockings, Is 2d; shoes, 7s 6d; 
 caps, 2s 6d; shawls, 10s 6d; shifts, 4s Ad; stays, 7s 2d; aprons, Is 3d; and 
 straw bonnets, 6s. Wages, without board, were, in 1857 (average) — carpenters, 
 12s a-day; smiths and wheelwrights, 12s; bricklayers, 13s; and masons, 14s. 
 Farm labourers, with board, £30 to £40 a-year, and shepherds, £30 to £35. 
 Plain cooks, £25 to £30; housemaids, £16 to £18; laundresses, £20 to £25; 
 nurses, £15 to £20; general house servants, £20 to £25; and dairywomen, 
 &c, £18 to £20 a-year. 
 
 The public debt of the colony is now as much as £4,000,000, or about £10 
 per head on every European resident, and the debentures by which this amount 
 has been raised bear interest at the rate of 6 per cent. It is remarkable that 
 while the yield of gold in the adjoining colony of Victoria is declining, more 
 should be obtained in New South Wales; but an explanation of the circum- 
 stance will probably be found in the fact that many persons have abandoned 
 Victorian diggings and tried their fortunes elsewhere. Even now, however, 
 the yield of gold in Victoria exceeds the supplies obtained from New South 
 Wales in the ratio of 5 to 1. Between Jan. 1 and Dec. 9, 1859, 917,000 
 sovereigns and 321,000 half-sovereigns were issued from the Sydney Mint; in 
 the corresponding period of 1858 the numbers were 1,016,500 and 486,000 re- 
 spectively. The receipts of golddust at the Mint were 318,808 oz in 1859, and 
 327,335 oz. in 1858. The Customs' revenue received in the port of Sydney in 
 the ten months ending November 30, 1859, were £541,585 against £492,236 in 
 the corresponding period of 1858, showing an advance of about 10 per cent. 
 The number of horses in New South Wales was in 1848, 97,400, and in 1858, 
 200,700, showing an increase of 103,000, or 106 per cent. The number of 
 horned cattle was in 1848, 1,366,200 and in 1858, 2,1 10,600, showing an increase 
 of 744,400, or 54 per cent.; and the number of sheep was in 1848, 6,531,000, 
 and in 1858, 7,582,000, showing an increase of 1,051,000, or 16 per cent. Since 
 1855, however, the number of sheep in the colony has considerably fallen off— 
 viz., from 8,602,000 to 7,582,000, the principal assigned cause for the diminu- 
 tion being the growing demand for the Victoria markets. It appears that the 
 supply of live stock does not quite keep pace with the increase of population in 
 Victoria and New South Wales, the number of animals being 203 to every 100 
 persons in 1857, and 196 to every 100 in 1858. This circumstance has not 
 escaped the vigilant eye of Sir W. Denison, Governor-General of New South 
 Wales, who, in a paper published on the subject in December, urges that the 
 only mode in which there appears a prospect of overcoming the difficulty, which 
 is becoming every day of greater and greater importance, is by adding to the 
 weight of the stock by providing better and more abundant food, by changing 
 the breed of sheep, substituting as in England an animal with a coarse fleece 
 and a heavier carcase for the present fine woolled varieties, and by paying 
 similar attention to the breeding of cattle. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS. The repeal of the newspaper duty and of the advertise- 
 ment duty has led of late years to a large extension of the newspapers in the 
 United Kingdom, and cheap journals have started up from time to time in 
 various localities, especially in populous districts. Many of these ephemeral 
 
NEW 215 NEW* 
 
 publications were but short lived, and it is doubtful whether most of those main- 
 tained at the present day are profitable commercial speculations, however gene- 
 rally read and patronised. The electric telegraph has afforded the facilities for 
 obtaining intelligence from distant localities, or on important matters, which 
 they have not been slow to avail themselves of. It is difficult to obtain any 
 reliable statistics now as to numbers or circulation, but there are about 500 news- 
 papers published in the United Kingdom, including the Channel Islands. 
 
 The following was the number of stamps issued to Newspapers in 1850:— 
 
 Stamped. 
 
 6,674,892 
 
 641,252 
 
 Total - 79,655,541 
 
 According to the Report of the Select Committee on Newspaper stamps in 
 1851, the number of stamped sheets for newspapers issued in Great Britain and 
 Ireland in the years ending March respectively, were as follows:— 
 
 
 Stamped. 
 
 
 London, 295 papers 
 
 47,178,339 
 
 Scotch 
 
 English— Pro\ incial 
 
 19,028,674 
 
 Welsh" 
 
 Irish— Dublin - 
 
 3,450,384 
 
 
 Irish — Provincial 
 
 2,682,000 
 
 
 1814 at 4d 
 
 . 
 
 28,788,404 
 
 1845 at Id and id 
 
 84,119,770 
 
 1834 at id 
 
 • 
 
 34,718,922 
 
 1851 ditto 
 
 91,651,089 
 
 1837 at Id and %d 
 
 - 
 
 53,897,926 
 
 1 
 
 
 The gross duty received from Newspaper stamps in the United Kingdom in 
 1850 was £356,969, of which £298,264 was collected in England, £32,353 in 
 Scotland, and £26,352 in Ireland. 
 
 The duty on advertisements was repealed July 21, 1853. The newspaper 
 compulsory stamp was repealed in 1855, but it was retained at option for post- 
 age transmission. In 1858, 71,000,000 newspapers were delivered in the United 
 Kingdom, and 7,250,000 book packets passed through the post. The average 
 weight of book packets was 5£ oz. each, and of newspapers 2£ oz. each. The 
 average postage on book packets was 2\d each. — See Post Office. 
 
 In 1850 there were 47 different journals in the Australian colonies, having 
 83 issues weekly, but the gold discoveries, the large tide of emigration, and 
 the progress of settlement have largely increased the number of journals. The 
 total number of newspapers now issued in the Australian colonies amounts to 
 81. Victoria has six daily, and 38 weekly and bi-weekly; New South Wales, 
 two daily, and 18 weekly and bi-weekly; Tasmania, five daily, and three weekly 
 and tri -weekly; South Australia, two daily and three weekly; and in Western 
 Australia there are four weekly journals. In the Cape Colony there are 24 
 papers published, 16 of which are in the Eastern provinces, and the remaining 
 6 at Cape Town, the capital and seaport. Three or four are published in Natal, 
 and a few papers are fdso issued in the Dutch Free State and Kaffraria, while 
 several newspapers are also published along the west coast of Africa, at Sierra 
 Leone, St. Helena, Cape Coast and Liberia. Mauritius, Reunion, and Ceylon 
 have many local newspapers. 
 
 In the United States there were in 1850, 2526 newspapers, which circulated 
 427 millions of copies, and at the present time there are upwards of 4000 pub- 
 lished. In 1854 there were 157 newspapers published in Canada. There are 
 also more than 50 or 60 published in the Lower Provinces of New Brunswick, 
 Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland. In the British West 
 Indies there are about 50, and the Foreign West Indies about 20. The number 
 of newspapers published in Southern and Central America it is impossible to 
 state with precision. 
 
 Passing to Europe, we find that there are about 1500 papers published in 
 Germany, but two-thirds of them are mere advertising sheets. In Switzer- 
 land there are about 243, in France 600 or 700, in Spain and Portugal 40 or 50, 
 in Russia about 100, and nearly as many magazines. Paris possesses at present 
 503 newspapers, 42 of these as treating of politics and national economy, have 
 to deposit a security in the hands of Government. 460 are devoted to art, 
 science, literature, industry, commerce, and agriculture. The most ancient of 
 
NIC 210 NIG 
 
 the latter is the Journal des Savans, and dates from the year 1665. In India the 
 number of English and native papers issued is large, and the newspaper 
 press has even penetrated to New Caledonia, Samoa, Tahiti, the Sandwich 
 Islands, and other groups of the Pacific. 
 
 NICARAGUA. The population of this Central American State is about 
 350,000. The imports in 1855 amounted in value to £27,640, and the exports 
 to £55,320. The exports consisted of the following articles : — 
 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Hides - No. 
 BrazilWood - - Quintals 
 Cedar Planks, &c. - Yards 
 Sugar - Quintals 
 Rice „ 
 Maize „ 
 Cotton „ 
 Aquadiente - - Gallons 
 Other Articles - 
 
 Dollars 
 
 48,670 
 
 50,000 
 
 54,000 
 
 150 
 
 94 
 
 200 
 
 96 
 
 1,000 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 146,010 
 
 100.000 
 
 21,600 
 
 1,500 
 
 376 
 
 850 
 
 288 
 
 400 
 
 5,577 
 
 
 276,601 
 £55,320 
 
 NIGRITIA. A very large extension of trade has taken place of late years 
 with Central and Western Africa, Important discoveries as to the countries and 
 resources of the interior have been made by Drs. Livingstone, Barth, and other 
 travellers. Several Government expeditions have penetrated far up the Niger 
 and its territories. The labours of Mr. Macgregor Laird, and the establishment 
 of a monthly line of mail steamers to various ports on the west coast, have greatly 
 promoted legitimate commerce. This and the stimulus given to cotton culture, 
 palm oil manufacture, the collection of gums, wood, ivory and other articles, 
 are diverting attention from the slave trade. 
 
 British Settlements. At the Gold Coast, the number of vessels that entered 
 in the year 1857 was 429, registering 107,701 tons. The imports were to the 
 value of £118,270, and the exports to £124,394. The latter consisted chiefly 
 of palm oil, £50,402; gold dust, £68,973; ivory, £1538; gum, £1250; and a 
 small amount of guinea grains and ground nuts. 
 
 In Sierra Leone, the population in 1857, was only 40,383, of whom but 105 
 were whites. The number of vessels which entered were 335, of 51,792 tons. 
 The exports were to the value of £288,728, of which the principal were — 
 440,779 lbs. of tobacco, 6669 loads of timber, 471 tons camwood, 552,646 
 gallons of palm oil, 78,769 bushels of palm oil nuts, 243,123 bushels of ground 
 nuts, 36,317 lbs. arrowroot, 200 cwts. bees'-wax, 16,953 bushels of beni seed 
 (sesame), 484 tons of ginger, 572 cwts. of gum copal, 3895 ounces of gold, 
 17,609 lbs. of ivory, and 676,672 lbs. of pepper pods. The imports in the same 
 year were of the value of £172,315. At the Gambia the entries of vessels in 
 1857 were 221, of 32,874 tons. The value of the articles imported was 
 £118,620, and of those exported, 201,628. The staple exports consisted chiefly 
 of 13,554 tons of ground nuts, 62,410 hides, 3929 lbs. of ivory, 68 tons of wax, 
 73,539 lbs. of tobacco ; cotton, and cotton goods, and rice. 
 
 French Settlements. France possesses in Senegambia some colonies divided 
 into two arrondisements — St. Louis and Goree. The first comprises the Isle of 
 St. Louis and other islands and villages, or market towns, and the coast extending 
 from Cape Blanc to the Bay of Jof ; the population being under 10,000. The 
 other consists of the Island of Goree and all the coast of the Bay of Jof up to 
 the Gambia, and the factory of Albreda. The population of Goree and its de- 
 pendencies is stated at 37,931. 
 
 The Republic of Liberia settled by liberated slaves is now recognised as an in- 
 dependent state by the nations of Europe. Its coast line is about 500 miles in 
 length, extending from the neighbourhood of Sierra Leone on the north to Capo 
 
NIG 21? NUT 
 
 Palmas on the south. The total population is estimated at 250,000 souls. The 
 exports have risen to the amount of £100,000, and are rapidly increasing. 
 
 The exports of British produce and manufactures to the West Coast of Africa 
 have been as follows: — 
 
 1845 - £532,028 I 1859 to British Possessions £279,058 
 
 1850 - - 641,975 | „ For. ign Possessions 710,239 
 
 The imports from the British possessions on the West Coast in 1858, were — 
 15,272 cwts. of palm oil from the Gold Coast, 62 cwts. of gum animi and 115 
 cwts. of copal, 36 cwts. of ivory, 1609 cwts. of ground nuts, palm oil, kernels, 
 &c. from the Gambia, 131 cwt. of bees'-wax. From Sierra Leone, 8174 cwts. 
 of ginger, 17,462 cwts. of palm oil, 7819 loads of teak, 1005 tons of oil nuts 
 and kernels, 71 cwts. of ivorv, 43 cwts. of bees'-wax, and 9561 lbs. of pepper. 
 
 NITRATE OF POTASH or SALTPETRE. The import of this sub- 
 stance is now double what it was 20 years ago. The imports in 1859 were 
 445,237 cwts. The duty was removed in 1845. The bulk still comes from the 
 East Indies, but a little is imported from the United States and the Continent. 
 The average price is about £2 .per cwt. 
 
 NITRATE OF SODA. The nitrate ground in the province of Tarapaca 
 covers a space of about 50 square leagues. There have been single square 
 yards of ground that have produced nearly a ton weight of nitrate, the layer 
 being three yards thick. K we allow only 100 pounds weight of nitrate for each 
 square yard, we shall have the enormous quantity of 63,000,000 tons, so that at 
 the present rate of consumption there is sufficient for 1393 years. Iquique is 
 the principal port for its shipment; in 1859, 78,700 tons were exported, and 
 about 26,000 tons received in the United Kingdom. 
 
 NORWAY. The population of Norway in 1855 was 1,490,047 souls. The 
 shipping entered inwards in 1857 were 10,928 vessels, of 476,969 lasts. The 
 ships owned have very much increased of late years. In 1846, the Norwegian 
 tonnage was 291,208 tons, and in 1851, 368,632 tons. In 1859, 2564 Norwegian 
 vessels, registering 578,078 tons, entered our ports. The value of the British ex- 
 ports to Norway in 1859 was £497,644. The aggregate foreign commerce of 
 Sweden and Norway is to the value of £20,000,000. 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA. The population of this colony in 1851 was 276,117; in 
 1857 the revenue was £299,129, and the expenditure £350,542. 5451 vessels, 
 of 605.301 tons, entered inwards ; and 5613, of 564,005 tons, cleared outwards. 
 The value of the imports into the colony was £1,936,176, and that of the ex- 
 ports £1,393,566. The total acreage of land in the colony granted up to 1857, 
 was 5,633,028, and the total land ungranted 5,375,688; 405 grants, of 63,083 
 acres, were made in 1857. 
 
 We import only a small quantity of timber, skins, and oil from Nova Scotia, 
 the computed value of which in 1858 was £83,633, but theaverage value of our 
 exports to this colony exceeds half a million sterling. 
 
 NUTMEGS. In 1830 the duty was 2s 6d per lb. on British, and 3s 6d on 
 foreign, and the consumption was 121,260 lbs., which had increased in 1837 to 
 134,115 lbs. In 1838 "wild" descriptions were admitted at 1* duty. In 1846 
 the rate for British and foreign was equalized at 2s 6d, and for wild it was 
 lowered to 3d. In 1847 a distinction was made between wild " in the shell " and 
 "not in the shell," the former being charged 3^, and the latter 5d. The con- 
 sumption of nutmegs in 1859 was 265,783 lbs. and there is now no duty on them. 
 
 The cultivation is carried on by the Dutch on the Banda Islands, where there 
 are 2456 labourers employed on the plantations, of whom 1836 are on Great 
 Banda or Lonthoir, and the rest on Neira and Ay. The annual average pro- 
 duce in the twenty-five years, 1830 to 1854, was 525,165 lbs. of nutmegs and 
 129,428 lbs. mace, and during the last fifteen of the years 579,321 lbs. nutmegs 
 and 137,392 lbs. of mace. 
 
 NUTRIA. Formerly upwards of a million of these small skins were imported 
 annually from the River Plate, but in later years the numbers received declined. 
 The skin is either dressed as a peltry or shorn as a hatting fur. In 1850 only 
 15,733 were imported. In 1856 the numbers received were 175,821, and in 1858 
 the imports again rose to 856,130, worth at 9%d each, £32,997. 
 
NUT 218 OEA 
 
 NUTS (HAZEL). Besides the home production of small nuts, 165,662 
 bushels were imported in 1858 from Spain, and 13,765 bushels from Sicily. 
 
 NUX VOMICA. The imports of this drag continue to be large, and the 
 opinion holds that it is much employed to give a bitter to pale ales, &c. In 
 1858, the imports were 2997 cwts., of which 318 cwts. were entered for con- 
 sumption. On the average of the four years ending with 1859, 2026 packages 
 were received in London. 
 
 OAKUM. In 1858 the imports of oakum were 506 cwts. besides the large 
 quantity made at home. Old rope, &c. has been much used of late for paper 
 making, owing to the great demand for paper materials. 
 
 OATS. The produce of oats in Ireland is about 10 million quarters yearly; 
 of England, probably, 12,000,000 quarters; and of Scotland, 4,000,000, making 
 with the foreign importations a total consumption for the United Kingdom of 
 28,000,000 quarters for human food, horse feeding, seed, &c. Taking the 
 average value at 245 per quarter, this gives an aggregate of £33,000,000 for 
 this one grain alone. The average foreign imports of oats are now 1,750,000 
 quarters. Our largest supplies are derived from the Northern States of Europe 
 and the Baltic ports, viz. : — about 800,000 quarters from Russia, and 500,000 
 quarters from Sweden and Denmark, Prussia, Hanover, Holland, Belgium, and 
 a few other countries 130,000 to 140,000 quarters each. We also receive a good 
 deal of oatmeal from abroad. 
 
 The following quinquennial returns mark the progress of the imports of oat- 
 meal:— 
 
 Tons. I Tons. 
 
 1835 • - 566,000 | 1850 - - 786,000 
 1840 - - 989,500 J 1858 - - 371,256 
 1845 - - [ 105,800 j 
 
 The production of oats throughout the United States in 1840 was about 
 15,400,000 quarters; in 1850, 18,330,000 quarters; and at the present time, 
 probably exceeds 25,000,000 quarters. 
 
 OCHRE. The imports of this earth have largely increased. In 1858, 
 17,326 cwts. were received from abroad. About 400 tons or more are obtained 
 annually near Truro, and about 100 tons in the Isle of Man. 
 
 OLIVE OIL. The use of olive oil for lubricating machinery and in the 
 woollen manufactures, has been largely replaced by other vegetable oils, and 
 the supply of olive has hence not increased in proportion with palm, cocoa-nut 
 and seed oil. The imports of olive oil have been as follows: — 
 
 Tuns. I Tuns. 
 
 1845 - - 12,315 1855 - - 25,449 
 
 1850 - - 20,784 | 1859 - - 19,786 
 
 ONIONS. A very large trade is now can-ied on in foreign onions. In 1858, 
 the imports were 222,530 bushels, of the value of £k 7,809, of which 120,978 
 bushels came from Holland and Belgium, 51,696 busnels from France, and 
 ii,572 bushels from Portugal. The duty was fixed at Id per bushel on the 4th 
 June, 1853. 
 
 OPIUM. The following figures serve to show the imports and consumption 
 of this drug in the United Kingdom: — 
 
 Imports. Consumption. 
 
 1845 ... 259,644 lbs. ... 3S,229 lbs. 
 
 1850 ... 126,318 ... 42,324 
 
 1855 ... 50,143 ... 34,473 
 
 1858 ... 82,085 ... 77,639 
 
 The Indian trade in opium and its extensive use in China has led to a great 
 deal of discussion, and although its introduction was long prohibited, by late 
 treaties with China, the trade has been legalized. In 1846-47, 22,468 chests of 
 opium (each containing about 140 lbs.) were exported by the East India Com- 
 pany, and which yielded an income of £2,886,201. In 1857-58, the exports had 
 increased to 68,004 chests, yielding £5,918,375 revenue. 
 
 ORANGES. The quantity of this fruit imported has been steadily increasing 
 
OEA 219 OTS 
 
 of late years. The regular steam communication with the producing countries 
 offering great facilities for the shipment. In 1859, 1,103,296 bushels were im- 
 ported, including lemons. Taking these at the value of 10s a bushel, we have 
 an aggregate of £551,648 as the value of this fruit. The duty which had stood 
 at 8d a bushel from 11 June, 1853, was repealed in April, 1860. Two-thirds of the 
 whole imports come from Portugal and her islands, Madeira and the Azores; about 
 150,000 bushels from the Two Sicilies, and the bulk of the remainder from Spain. 
 Of the other products of the orange, about 32,000 lbs. of orange-flower water are 
 now imported, while some considerable trade is carried on in orange wine, orange 
 peel, dried and candied, orange flowers for perfumery purposes, &c. Among the 
 essential oils and essences from the citron family are bergamot from the rind of 
 Citrus bergamia, bigarrade, from C. bigaradia ; lemon, from that of C. viedica; 
 limette, fromC. limetta; neroli,from the flowers of C. bigaradia and C. aurantium; 
 orange, from the fruit of C. aurantium ; petit-grain, from the leaves of C. 
 bigaradia and aurantium. 
 
 In the towns of Grasse, Nice, and Cannes, there are about 1,760,000 lbs. of 
 orange flowers used, valued at £32,000, andfrom these are made 1,100,000 lbs. of 
 first quality orange-flower water, worth £30,000; and 2,200,000 lbs. of second 
 quality, worth £50,880. This is exclusive of the expensive essential oils ; ne- 
 roli, for instance, distilled from orange flowers is worth about £10 per lb. 
 
 ORCHAL. The imports of orchella weed, a name for various species of 
 dye lichens, Roccella, and Lecanera, are now very much larger than in former 
 years. In 1858 the imports reached 44,221 cwts., valued at £92,228. The 
 sources of supply now embrace a more extended range than the few countries 
 from whence these lichens were previously obtained. We receive quantities now 
 from the Western Coasts of Africa and America, about 9000 cwts. from Portu- 
 gal and the Canaries, and considerable supplies come through France and Holland 
 from distant quarters. 
 
 OSTRICH FEATHERS. The elegance of the feathers of the ostrich 
 (Struthio Camelus), arising from their slender stems and the disunited barbs, 
 has occasioned them to be prized in all ages, and they still constitute a valuable 
 article of commerce. Northern and Southern Africa are the quarters from 
 whence we receive our chief supplies. There are three qualities in Morocco, 
 which are known as Jemeny, Sennari, and Haggasi. There are feather mer- 
 chants in Mogadore and other States, who are in communication with all the 
 districts of the Desert where the bird is found. Graham's Town in the Capo 
 Colony is the principal mart for ostrich feathers in Southern Africa. 
 
 The American ostrich (BJiea Americana) inhabits chiefly the vast plains of 
 Patagonia, the Banda Oriental, the province of Entre Rios, and the adjoining re- 
 public. It is smaller than the true ostrich, is without a tail, and the feathers are 
 not so handsome as those of the African bird. The Indians, however, make 
 plumes, parasols, and many beautiful ornaments of the feathers, which are highly 
 valued there, and are occasionally exported. The coarsest part of the ostrich 
 plumage is generally denominated hair, to which it bears some resemblance. 
 By the French it is termed estridge. It was formerly used as a substitute for 
 beaver hair in hat-making, and of the coarser kind a stuff was fabricated. It is 
 said to be still used by the hatters at the Cape. The value of the ostrich feathers 
 imported varies considerably, according to the quantity and quality received. In 
 1857 the imports were 14,922 lbs., valued at £102,132. For three or four years 
 previous the imports were only 11,000 lbs., in 1858 as much as 18,843 lbs. were 
 received, and hence the price declined; the aggregate value being only 
 £56,722. The feathers imported from Northern Africa were only worth about 
 £2 10*, while those from South Africa were valued at £9 10* per lb. A small 
 quantity of paddy-bird feathers, and of unenumerated feathers of the value of 
 £24,000 were imported in 1858. 
 
 OYSTERS are met with on the coasts of N. W. Europe, America, the Medi- 
 terranean, and Adriatic Seas, and are found in banks, whence the difference of 
 flavour and distinctions are made of hill, sand, and clay oysters. In Great Bri- 
 tain, France, and the United States, where the consumption is large, we have 
 
OTS 220 OYS 
 
 learnt the art of transplanting the oysters and fattening them in the beds of 
 rivers and creeks. This is called "parking" them, only the oyster parks are 
 tracts of mud land. Two companies of merchants rent large tracts of the mud 
 land in Southampton water, for the purpose of feeding and preserving oysters 
 for the London market. A telegraphic message is now despatched from London 
 to Southampton, and any quantity of oysters can, in four or five hours after- 
 wards, be received by rail. A large quantity of oysters are opened there 
 and sent to London without the shells, and thus an omit of carriage freight 
 is saved. The oysters that are thus forwarded are for pickling and sauces. 
 They are sent in cans securely covered, and in their own liquor, and keep well 
 during the few hours they are on the rail. The trade is in operation all the year 
 round, and between 30 and 40 vessels are employed in it. A large number of 
 persons are employed in parking, landing, and opening the oysters. The rail- 
 way waggons which take them to London are brought down by a tramway close 
 to where they are landed. These oysters are caught near the Channel Islands, 
 and as soon as a ship load is caught, they are sent to Southampton. They are 
 there thrown on the oyster grounds, and at low water they are placed in rows 
 several layers thick, with spaces between. They are continually shifted to and 
 from the empty spaces to prevent them from being choked by the mud. Ten- 
 pence a thousand is paid for parking, and fifteen-pence a thousand for opening 
 them. 
 
 The oyster fishery of Jersey has been much interfered with of late years by 
 the competition of the French fishermen at Granville. A quarter of a century 
 ago the exports were 150,000 to 160,000 bushels a year. The trade is, however, 
 6till an important one. The fishing is most active from February to May. 
 
 During the spring of 1850 the number of Jersey boats employed in the fishery 
 was 70, and 1120 tons, manned by 350 men; of English boats, 119, of 2898 tons, 
 manned by 623 men — a total of 189 boats, 4018 tons, 983 men. The quantity 
 of oysters caught was 105,000 tubs, which fetched 3s a tub— or £15,750 ! In 
 the autumn of the same year, 40 Jersey boats, of 640 tons, manned by 200 
 men; of English boats, 40, of 640 tons, 220 men. These 80 boats caught 
 19,200 tubs, which sold at 2a 6d per tub, or £3400. The total produce of the 
 oysters dredged in the spring and autumn of 1850 being thus, £19,150. 
 
 The number of oysters taken on the French bank, near Granville, in the sea- 
 son of 1852, was 94 millions, of the value of £40,000. The oyster fishery there 
 employed 1518 men and 253 boats, of 12,650 tons. 
 
 In France, the trade in oysters has much increased of late years in the mari- 
 time quarters, particularly in the department of Charente Inferieure. The fine 
 oysters of Marennes are particularly esteemed. Algiers possesses many oyster 
 beds, and a lucrative trade was carried on from Africa in ancient times to supply 
 oysters for the gourmands of Rome. Not less than 30 millions of oysters aie 
 annually deposited in the beds of the Seudre, and have added about 1,200,000 
 francs to its local commerce. 
 
 The boats of Courseulles and of Bernieres bring to St. Vaast and Brittany more 
 than 30 millions of oysters, to deposit in the beds of those two communes. 
 
 The beds of Tremblade, which supply Bordeaux, employ 200 horses, which 
 make two or three journeys a week from April to September inclusive. About 
 10 millions are annually furnished by L'Eguille. 
 
 The choice oysters of Lussac fetch as much as a penny a piece, and are for- 
 warded exclusively to Paris ; the green oysters of the other beds of La Seudre 
 are sold in the capital at a franc a dozen. There are also parks and preserves 
 at the embouchure of La Charente, at the Isle of Re, at Havre, and at the right 
 and left banks of the Seudre. 
 
 The annual produce of green oysters at Marennes is about fifty millions, 
 which sell for £80,000 sterling annually. Oysters have been laid down in 
 most of the French estuaries, and shipments for this purpose have of late years 
 been made to Brest, the Bay of St. Brieuc, Marseilles, and other localities. 
 
 The importation of oysters into the Zollverein in the years 1825 and 1831 
 was on an average 1898 quintals, or reckoning 100 oysters for 20 pounds, it 
 
OYS 221 PAP 
 
 gave 12 oysters for every 140 or 150 persons. In 1856 the consumption of 
 oysters in "the Zollverein was 6430 quintals, nearly 12 oysters for 111 persons, 
 or about one oyster for 10 persons. In Berlin, the consumption in 1844, was 657 
 quintals, and in 1853,2784 quintals. 
 
 The value of the oysters sold in the city of New York is said now to exceed 
 one million and a quarter pounds sterling. There are about 1520 boats of all sizes 
 engaged in the trade. Baltimore is another great seat of the American oyster 
 trade, and 5,000,000 bushels per year are sold there. 
 
 PALM-OIL. The trade in this very important oil of commerce from Western 
 Africa, has progressed amazingly within the last twenty years. The shipments 
 to America and France direct are considerable, besides our own importations. 
 The imports into the United Kingdom since 1842 have been as follows: — 
 
 1842 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 1845 
 1846 
 1847 
 1848 
 1849 
 1850 
 
 Average import 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 1851 - - 608,550 
 
 1852 - - 523,813 
 
 1853 - - 636,628 
 
 1854 - - 752,618 
 
 1855 - - 810,394 
 
 1856 - - 786,701 
 
 1857 - - 854,791 
 
 1858 - - 778,230 
 
 1859 - - 685,794 
 
 Average import - 715,280 
 
 PANAMA. The transit trade to and from California, and between the 
 Atlantic and Pacific generally, by the Panama railway, has given a great degree 
 of importance to this Isthmus State and to the port of Panama. Formerly, 
 the Western Coast of South America was chiefly furnished with European goods 
 by sea round Cape Horn, but the facilities offered by the Panama railroad have 
 greatly altered this state of things, and many of the most valuable articles of 
 commerce, and all the bullion, are now sent by this route to the Atlantic, to be 
 shipped either to Europe or to the United States, as facilities offer. 
 
 The Panama railway, owned principally in New York, is the most profitable 
 of any on the American continent. It is 49 miles long, was opened in the 
 beginning of 1854, and cost £1,600,000 or a little more than £32,000 per mile. 
 Its earnings for 1859 were £385,090— its expenses £102,000, leaving £283,090. 
 From this, after paying interest upon £ 600,000 of debt, there remained a sum 
 equal to 23| per cent upon £1,000,000 of capital. A dividend of 12 per cent 
 has been paid for several years, and the total undivided surplus of the Company 
 now amounts to £242,000. The passenger fare by this railway across the 
 Isthmus is £5, equal to 2s \^d per mile. 
 
 During the year ending Oct. 1, 1859, there entered the port of Panama, 245 
 vessels, under all flags, measuring in the aggregate 103,012 tons, with cargoes 
 valued at £11,536,000; vessels cleared in the same period with cargoes 
 valued at £2,771,400. 40,000 passengers, and £12,000,000 in specie passed 
 over the Panama railroad in the year 1859. 
 
 PAPER. The increase in the manufacture of this article of late years may 
 be gathered from the following figures. The paper charged with the duty of 
 excise in the United Kingdom in 1840, was 97,237,000 lbs.; in 1859,217,827,197 
 lbs. showing an increase of 120,590,197 lbs in the year 1859 over that of the 
 year 1840. 
 
 The number of paper-mills at work in the United Kingdom in the year 1852, 
 amounted to 380, and iu 1859 to 397. The reduction of the postage rates has 
 been one of the causes of this large increase in the consumption of paper in 
 the kingdom; the introduction of the penny postage has had the effect of increas- 
 ing the number of chargeable letters passing through the Post-office, from 76 
 millions in 1839 to 545 millions in 1859. The proportion of letters to the 
 population in the year 1859 amounted to about 22 to each person in England, 7 
 in Ireland, and 16 in Scotland. The reduction of the stamp-duty on newspapers 
 in 1836 from Z\d to one penny, also led to a great increase in the number 
 of newspapers sent through the Post-office, while the removal of the advertisement 
 
PAP 
 
 222 
 
 PAP 
 
 duty also gave an impetus to the establishment of cheap papers. The number 
 of newspapers delivered in the United Kingdom through the Post-office in 
 1859, was about 70,500,000. There has been also of late years a great increase 
 of cheap literature and periodicals both at home and the colonies, which has 
 largely increased the demand for paper. 
 
 In 1837, the year succeeding that in which the duty on all kinds of paper was 
 equalised, the amount of duty received was £555,942, and from that time the 
 annual sum has increased steadily, till in 1859 it was £1,499,490. The quantity 
 of paper of British manufacture exported in 1837 was 2,569,223 lbs., in 1840, 
 5,058,000 lbs., and this quantity increased each year (a temporary check to its 
 growth being, however, received in 1848) till in 1859 it was 20,142,350 lbs. The 
 quantities of paper imported from abroad fluctuate very considerably, but in no 
 year mentioned are they sufficiently large to be of importance. 
 
 The quantity of waste paper imported from foreign countries, and paper not 
 otherwise enumerated, has varied considerably of late years, much of it, however, 
 is re-exported; in 1848, 49, and 50 it averaged 1,100,000 pounds; in the next 
 three years it only averaged about 700,000 lbs. In 1854 it amounted to 
 3,596,139 lbs., since then it has averaged 1,300,000 lbs., but in 1859 it was 
 1,826,300 lbs., of which 1,191,087 lbs. were taken for consumption. The fancy 
 kinds of foreign paper imported amount to 240,000 lbs., nearly all of which is 
 retained here. The aggregate amount of customs duty received on foreign paper 
 of all kinds, averaged in the ten years ending with 1849, £2870, but in 1859, 
 the annual duty had increased to £14,977. 
 
 Return of the Quantities of Paper Exported on Drawback, Retained for 
 Home Consumption, Charged with Duty, and the amount of Duty received, 
 from the Year 1842 annually, up to the end of 1859 (so far as relates to the 
 Inland Revenue Department). 
 
 Years. 
 
 Exported on 
 Drawback. 
 
 Retained for 
 Home Consump- 
 tion. 
 
 Total Weight 
 ol Paper, Paste- 
 board, &c. charg'd 
 
 Amount of 
 Duty. 
 
 
 
 ■with Duty. 
 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 £. 
 
 1842 
 
 4,662,824 
 
 92,030,499 
 
 96,693,323 
 
 634,550 
 
 1843 
 
 4,204,570 
 
 99,245,057 
 
 103,449,627 
 
 678,888 
 
 1844 
 
 4,900,274 
 
 104,594,874 
 
 109,495,148 
 
 718,592 
 
 1845 
 
 4,864,185 
 
 119,382,886 
 
 124,247,071 
 
 815,371 
 
 1846 
 
 4,836,556 
 
 122,605,926 
 
 127,442,482 
 
 836,341 
 
 1847 
 
 5,853,979 
 
 116,111,336 
 
 121,965,315 
 
 800,397 
 
 1848 
 
 5,180,286 
 
 116,639,943 
 
 121,820,229 
 
 799,445 
 
 1849 
 
 5,966,319 
 
 126,166,341 
 
 132,132,660 
 
 867,121 
 
 1850 
 
 7,762,686 
 
 133,269,788 
 
 141,032,474 
 
 925,526 
 
 1851 
 
 8,305,598 
 
 142,597,945 
 
 150,903,543 
 
 990,305 
 
 1852 
 
 7,328,886 
 
 147,140,325 
 
 154,469,211 
 
 1,013,704 
 
 1853 
 
 13,296,874 
 
 164,336,135 
 
 177,633,009 
 
 1,165,717 
 
 1854 
 
 16,112,020 
 
 161,784,204 
 
 177,896,224 
 
 1,167,444 
 
 1855 
 
 11,118,551 
 
 155,657,843 
 
 166,776,394 
 
 1,094,470 
 
 1856 
 
 14,798,979 
 
 172,917,596 
 
 187,716,575 
 
 1,231.890 
 
 1857 
 
 16,031,063 
 
 175,690,557 
 
 191,721,620 
 
 1,258,173 
 
 1858 
 
 16,548,828 
 
 176,298,997 
 
 192,847,825 
 
 1,265,564 
 
 1859 
 
 20,142,350 
 
 197,684,847 
 
 217,827,197 
 
 1,429,491 
 
 PAPER-HANGINGS. The quantity of paper-hangings imported from 
 abroad was formerly stated in square yards. In 1853 the imports had reached 
 729,255 square yards, of which 578,380 yards were entered for home consump- 
 tion, and the duty received thereon was £3372. After the 8th August, 1854, the 
 imports were taken in pounds weight, the duty imposed being 3d per lb. and the 
 quantity brought in has averaged about 300,000 pounds weight per annum, 
 of which the bulk comes from France: the exports of British made paper- 
 hangings are still given in yards; there were exported in 1858, 14,778,375 yards, 
 of the value of £74,649. The largest quantity went to Australia, the United 
 States, and British North America. 
 
PAR 223 PAS 
 
 PARAGUAY. The population of this State is now estimated at 600,000. 
 The number of vessels that entered at the port of Assumption in 1858, was 217, 
 registering 10,691 tons. The average annual value of the imports was 
 £200,000, and of the exports, £300,000. The chief articles shipped in 1858 
 were 92,575 arrobas (25 lbs.) of Paraguay tea; 272,801 arrobas of tobacco, 
 4159 thousand cigars, 5190 varras of timber, 21,246 pesadas of raw hides, and 
 3952 tanned hides, 2119 arrobas of horse hair, and 314,950 almudes of oranges. 
 
 PARMA. The population of this State is now about 500,000, its revenue 
 £387,500, and its debt £532,000. 
 
 PASSENGERS' ACT. The present consolidating Act is the 18 and 19 
 Viet. c. 119, which extends to every passenger ship conveying more than 
 thirty passengers on any voyage from Britain, Ireland, or the Channel Islands, 
 to any place out of Europe", not within the Mediterranean Sea ; except ships of 
 war, transports, or mail steamers. 
 
 Facilities to be given by master to the proper officers to inspect any ship, 
 whether a passenger ship or not, intended for the carriage of passengers. Any 
 person found on board fraudulently attempting to obtain a passage, or per- 
 sons aiding such attempt liable to a penalty of £5, or imprisonment; and 
 no passenger ship to clear out without a certificate of having complied with 
 the provisions of the act. No ship to be allowed to clear out with a greater 
 number of persons on board, including the master, crew, and cabin passengers 
 than in the proportion of one person to every two tons of the registered 
 tonnage, nor, whatever may be the registered tonnage, with a greater num- 
 ber of passengers, exclusive of cabin passengers, than in the following propor- 
 tions: — to the space occupied by such passengers for their use, and unoccupied 
 by stores, not being their personal luggage, namely, on the main deck and on the 
 deck immediately below, or in any compartment of either, appropriated as 
 aforesaid, one passenger for every twelve such clear superficial feet; or, if the 
 ship is to pass within the tropics, one passenger for ever fifteen such clear 
 superficial feet. Penalty for a greater number of either persons or passengers, 
 for each not above £5 nor less than £2. Two children under twelve years of 
 age to be reckoned as one person or passenger, but children not above one year 
 old not computed. Two lists of passengers to be made out as in schedule, and 
 lists of additional passengers after clearance to be made out. 
 
 Every passenger ship to be surveyed before clearance. Decks to be one inch 
 and a half in thickness, and supported by beams of adequate strength, to the 
 satisfaction of the emigration officer. Height between decks to be at least six 
 feet, and only two tiers of berths allowed on any deck, with an interval of at 
 least six inches between the floor of the berth and the deck. Berths to be con- 
 structed at the rate of six feet in length and eighteen inches in width for each 
 adult passenger; and persons of different sexes, above fourteen, unless husband 
 and wife, not to be in the same berth. Single men to be berthed in a separate 
 compartment in the fore part of the vessel. Adequate number of privies to be 
 provided. Berths not to be removed till forty-eight hours after arrival at the 
 port of debarkation, unless all the passengers previously to that time had volun- 
 tarily quitted the vessel. 
 
 For light and air in any passenger ship, the passengers at all times (weather 
 permitting) to have free access to and from between decks by the hatchway 
 appropriated for their use. Penalty on owner for failure, not above £50 nor 
 less than £20. Two boats to be provided for every ship of 100 tons, and up- 
 wards; three boats, if 200 tons and upwards, the number of passengers exceed 
 fifty; four boats, if of 500 tons, and passengers above 200. One boat to be a 
 long boat, and one a life boat, with life buoys, &c. Each ship to be manned 
 with a proper complement of seamen. Gunpowder, vitriol, guano, green 
 hides, or any other article likely to endanger life, or health, prohibited as cargo, 
 and no part of the cargo to be on deck. (S. 29.) 
 
 Computed number of days of voyage for laying in stores, &c, as follows: — 
 
Sailing vessels. 
 
 Steamers. 
 
 70 or 80 
 
 40 or 45 
 
 70 
 
 40 
 
 84 
 
 50 
 
 84 
 
 50 
 
 105 
 
 65 
 
 126 
 
 75 
 
 140 
 
 85 
 
 140 
 
 90 
 
 120 
 
 85 
 
 150 
 
 SO 
 
 182 
 
 90 
 
 PAS 224 PAS 
 
 North America ". 5 
 
 West Indies . • 
 
 East Coast of South America • 
 
 "Western Africa . , 
 Cape of Good Hope or Falkland Isles 
 
 Mauritius . . 
 
 Ceylon •» . 
 
 Australian Colonies . * 
 
 West Australia . . 
 
 New Zealand . . 
 West Coast, North America 
 
 Dietary'scale for each passenger (exclusive of any providingsby the passengers 
 themselves), of water at least three quarts daily; of provisions, after the rate 
 per week of two-and-a-half pounds of bread or biscuit, not inferior in quality to 
 navy biscuit; one pound of wheaten flour, five pounds of oatmeal, two pounds of 
 rice; two ounces of tea, four ounces of cocoa or roasted coffee, half a pound of 
 sugar, and two ounces of salt. The water to be pure, and the provisions sweet 
 and wholesome. Such issue of provisions to be made daily before two o'clock 
 in the afternoon as near as possible, in the proportion of one-seventh part of the 
 weekly allowance; first issue to be made on the day of embarkation to all pas- 
 sengers on board, and articles to be in a cooked state. Other articles of diet may 
 be substituted by the master, in a fixed proportion, provided the substituted 
 articles be set forth in the contract tickets of the passengers. (S. 30, 34, 37.) 
 
 Emigration Commissioners may substitute other articles of food after notice in 
 the London Gazette. 
 
 In every ship with above 100 passengers, a passenger steward, approved by 
 the emigration officer, to be appointed to be employed in messing and serving 
 out provisions, and maintaining order and cleanliness. Also a cook and cooking 
 apparatus. In foreign passenger ships interpreters to be provided. (Ss. 38-40.) 
 
 No passenger ship, having fifty persons on board, and the computed voyage 
 exceeding eighty days by sailing vessels, or forty-five by steamers, or having 100 
 persons on board, whatever the length of voyage, and not bound to North Ame- 
 rica, allowed to proceed on the voyage without a duly qualified medical practi- 
 tioner on board. Ships bound to North America, and allowing fourteen in lieu 
 of twelve feet superficial space for each passenger, may clear without medical 
 practitioner. But no vessels to clear without medical man, if passengers ex- 
 ceed 500. (S. 41-42.) 
 
 Diseased persons to be relanded and entitled to recover their passage money. 
 If passages not provided by owners, according to contract, passage-money to be 
 returned, with compensation. (Ss. 45-47.) Subsistence money, at the rate of one 
 shilling per day for each passenger, to be paid by the owners, in case the day 
 fixed for sailing be deferred. In case of wreck, another vessel to be provided 
 for the passage, or compensation may be recovered. (S. 48-49-50.) Passengers 
 to be maintained and lodged during the voyage, and for forty-eight hours after 
 arrival. Ships putting back, to replenish provisions, medical stores, &c. 
 
 Surgeon, or in his absence the master, may exact obedience to rules and regu- 
 lations, and persons obstructing liable to a penalty not above £2, to which one 
 month's imprisonment on shore may be added, if convicted by a magistrate. Ab- 
 stracts of the act to be prepared by commissioners, and two copies posted between 
 decks. Penalty on master for neglect not above 40s, or on any person displac- 
 ing or defacing the same a like penalty. Sale of spirits on board prohibited 
 under penalty of £20, or not less than £5. 
 
 No person to act as a passage-broker, without a licence; penalty not less than 
 £20 nor above £50. Directions are given for their issue and for regulating the 
 conduct of the brokers and emigration runners. (Sec 66-75-81.) Passenger's con- 
 tracts to be made on a prescribed form. (Sec.71-74.) Fraudulently altering contract 
 ticket, or inducing any one to part with it, penalty not less than £2, nor above £5. 
 
 Certain exceptions from the provisions of the act in respect and in the case of 
 " Colonial voyages," that is, voyages from one colony to another, and not ex- 
 ceeding three weeks in computed duration. By the above act, fifteen superficial 
 
PAS 225 PAT 
 
 feet of the passenger deck is required for each passenger in ships intended to 
 pass within the tropics; but by 16 and 17 Vict. c. 84, governors of possessions 
 abroad mar, by proclamation, reduce this rate by allowing ships within their 
 respective governments to convey passengers, being natives of Asia or Africa, 
 after the rate of one for every twelve superficial feet instead of fifteen. Certain 
 vessels in the East exempt from the whole of the 1 2th section of the Passengers 
 Act. 
 
 PATENTS. Since the article on Patents first appeared, the expense of ob- 
 taining patents has been reduced, and the patent laws amended. A provisional 
 protection for six months may be now had for £5, and a patent for about £25. 
 By 1 5 and 1 6 Vict. c. 83, upon a provisional specification, a certificate of allowance 
 will be granted for six months, but in lieu the inventor may deposit a complete 
 specification, and such deposit will confer for six months the like rights as letters 
 patent, but will not invalidate letters patents granted to a first inventor. The 
 commissioners are to cause protections to be advertised ; and also applications 
 and oppositions. Specifications and objections are to be referred to the law officer, 
 who is to have power to decide, on hearing any objection, by whom the costs are 
 to be paid ; and he is empowered (s. 15) to cause a warrant to be made for the 
 sealing of letters patent, but the Chancellor to have the same power he now has 
 as to the sealing of such letters patent, and the writ of scire facias \s to lie for the 
 repeal of any letters patent as would lie before the passing of this act. Letters 
 patent (s. 17) to be void upon non-payment of fees, at the proper times. 
 They are to be valid (s. 18) for the whole of the United Kingdom, the Channel 
 Islands, and the Isle of Man, and the Act does not give effect to any letters 
 patent in any colony in which such or the like patent would be invalid by the 
 law in force there at the time being. Unless application be made (s. 19) for the 
 issue of the patent within three months after the date of the warrant the patent 
 is not to issue, nor after (s. 20) the expiration of the protection given by this Act 
 (except where the patent has been destroyed or lost); and the patent may be 
 granted (s. 21) to the personal representatives of an applicant during the term 
 of protection, or within three months after his decease. Letters patent may be 
 dated as of the day of application, and where antedated (s. 24) to be equally 
 valid. Letters patent for foreign inventions (s. 25) are not to continue in force after 
 the expiration of the foreign patent, nor are patents for British inventions to 
 prevent the use of such inventions in foreign ships resorting to British ports, 
 except the ships of foreign states in whose ports British ships are prevented from 
 using foreign inventions. The Act further provides (ss. 27 to 35) that the com- 
 missioners are to cause indexes to be made of specifications, disclaimers, and 
 memoranda of alterations heretofore or to be hereafter filed, which may be 
 printed and published; and a register of patents, and also a register of proprie- 
 tors, are to be kept, to be open at convenient times to the inspection of the 
 public, under regulations. The commissioners are to cause to be printed, and 
 sold at such prices as they think fit, all specifications, disclaimers, and memoranda, 
 and may present copies of the same to such public libraries and museums as they 
 may think fit. More than twelve persons (s. 36) may have interest in a patent. 
 The remaining clauses relate to the form of bringing actions, the fees and 
 salaries of officers, &c. Schedules of the proper forms are given. The follow- 
 ing is the schedule of the fees : — 
 
 Fees to be Paid. 
 
 On leaving petition for grant of letters patent 
 
 On notice of intention to proceed with the application 
 
 On sealing of letters patent 
 
 On filing specification 
 
 At or before the expiration of the third year 
 
 At or before the expiration of the seventh year 
 
 On leaving notice of objections 
 
 Every search and inspection . . c 
 
 Entry of assignment or licence 
 
 Certificate of assignment or licence 
 
 Filing application for disclaimer 
 
 Caveat against disclaimer 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 40 
 
 80 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
PAT 220 PEN 
 
 Stamp Duties to be Paid. 
 
 On warrant of law officer for letters patent . . £5 
 
 On certificate of payment of the fee before the expiration of the third year 10 
 
 Ditto ditto before the seventh year 2 
 
 By 16 and 17 Vict. c. 115, parts of the 15 and 16 Vict. c. 83, which required 
 an extra copy of drawings to be left with a specification, are repealed, and by s. 
 2, copies of provisional specifications are to be opened to public inspection at the 
 commissioners' office. A copy of every specification under the hand of the 
 patentee or applicant to be left at the office. Lord Chancellor, in certain cases, 
 may seal letters patent after the expiration of provisional protection. Doubts 
 are removed by s. 7 respecting the making and sealing of new letters patent 
 for a further term. 
 
 The 16 Vict. c. 5, substitutes stamp duties for fees on passing letters patent, 
 and empowers the commissioners to purchase for public use the indexes of the 
 15,000 specifications prepared by Mr. Woodcroft. 
 
 The following is the schedule of the stamp duties made payable in lieu of the 
 sums under the Act of 1852: — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 Petition for grant of letters patent . . .500 
 
 Certificate of record of notice to proceed . .500 
 
 Warrant of law officer for letters patent . .500 
 
 Sealing of letters patent . . . .500 
 
 Specification . . . . .500 
 
 Letters patent, or a duplicate thereof, before the expiration 
 
 of the third year . . . . . 50 
 
 Letters patent, or a duplicate thereof, before the expiration 
 
 of the seventh year .... 100 
 
 Certificate of record of notice of objections . .200 
 
 Certificate of every search and inspection . .010 
 
 Certificate of entry of assignment or licence . .050 
 
 Certificate of assignment or licence . . .050 
 
 Application for disclaimer . . . .500 
 
 Caveat against disclaimer . . . .200 
 
 Office copies of documents, for every ninety words . 2 
 
 PEARLS. This gem is chiefly obtained from the MeleagAna margaritifera. 
 The value of the pearls imported in the six years ending 1358, averaged 
 £55,000, but in 1858 the imports reached £78,559 ; the pearl fishery of Ceylon 
 netted £20,000 to the Government in 1836. In 1837 there was a small fishery, 
 which realized only £10,631. There was no fishery again until 1855, when 
 the same amount was obtained. In 1860 the fishery was resumed, and brought 
 in about £30,000. 
 
 PEASE. The imports of foreign pease now average about 160,000 quarters 
 per annum. In the ten years ending with 1850, the imports of pease from 
 abroad ranged from 48,971 quarters, the lowest, in 1843, to 236,067 quarters, the 
 highest, in 1849. 
 
 PENANG or PINANG. There are no returns of the population of 
 this island later than 1851, when it was stated at 43,143; that of Province 
 Wellesley on the coast was 67,953. In the island of Penang considerable atten- 
 tion is now paid to spice culture. 9430 square acres are under culture with 
 nutmegs, cloves, &c, 10,410 acres with fruits, 7382 with paddy, and 200 with 
 sugar. In Province Wellesley 5000 acres are under sugar cultivation, 41,000 
 under rice, 3033 with fruits, and about 500 with spices. The exports from 
 Penang in 1854 consisted principally of 64,818 piculs of sugar, 5333 piculs of 
 6pices, 260,370 of rice, 118,522 of betel nuts, 27,563 of tin, and 26,012 of pepper. 
 Many of these articles were the produce of the main land. The number of na- 
 tive vessels and junks that cleared from Penang in 1854 was 2225, measuring 
 35,944 tons, besides which, there left 254 square-rigged vessels, registering 
 62,834 tons. The value of the imports was £581,240, exclusive of £93,061 
 bullion; that of the exports, £689,002, besides £179,945 treasure and bullion. 
 
 The population of Malacca is 70,000, its trade in 1853-54 consisted of 799 
 native vessels, which cleared, measuring in the aggregate 9145 tons, and 206 
 square-rigged vessels, registering 41,060 tons. The value of the merchandise im- 
 ported was £232,771, besides £104,282 in specie; the value of the exports, 
 
PEN 227 PER 
 
 £182,834, and of treasure, £65,551. The total receipts by the Government in 
 Penang in the same year were £22,705, and the disbursements, 42,403. The 
 charges for military and convicts were £16,640; the revenue receipts for Ma- 
 lacca were £12,965, and the expenditure £19,265. 
 
 PEPPER. The pepper plant is a native of India, but it is now found as a 
 regular crop in the East and West Indies, Borneo, Sumatra, the Moluccas, the 
 Malay Peninsula, Siam, and other places. It is strictly tropical in its charac- 
 ter, but grows freely wherever the climate is suitable. The area of the cultiva- 
 tion of the pepper shrub is very limited. In the Eastern hemisphere it is not 
 grown further north than Goa, 15° N.L., further south than 5 Q S.L., further 
 west than the Malabar coast, nor further east than Borneo and the Moluccas. 
 
 The exportation from Malabar and Sumatra goes chiefly to Europe and North 
 America, that from Siam to China. From other points it is sent to the east and 
 west. The consumption in Europe is estimated at 16,000,000 lbs., or about one- 
 third of the entire production. This is, on an average, 1 oz. annually to 
 each European. 
 
 The price per lb. (without duty) was- 
 
 In 1814 
 1822 
 1830 
 1840 
 1859 
 
 *. d. 
 
 1 per lb. 
 
 5i ,, 
 
 H „ 
 
 4 
 
 4 to 5*4 (duty Gd per lb.) 
 
 The estimated produce of pepper is as follows: — 
 
 Lbs. 
 Sumatra, West Coast . 20,000,000 
 „ East Coast . 8,000,000 
 Islands in Straits of Malacca 3,6f>0 000 
 Malay Peninsula . . 3,733,333 
 Borneo .... 2,666,G67 
 
 Lbs. 
 Siam .... 8,000,000 
 Malabar .... 4,000,000 
 
 50,000,000 
 
 In 1830 the duty was 1* per lb. on British, Is 2d on that from places within 
 the East India Company's Charter, and Is 6d on that from other parts. The 
 consumption was 2,009,272 lbs., which had increased to 2,359,935 lbs. in 1835. 
 In 1836 the duty was reduced to 6d per lb. for all descriptions; and in 1859 the 
 consumption was 4,243,437 lbs., yielding to the revenue £111,392. In Mr. 
 Gladstone's Budget in 1860 the duties on other spices were abolished, but that 
 on pepper retained. 
 
 PERU. The area of this republic was given officially in 1852 at 502,761 square 
 miles, and the population at a little over two millions, distributed over the follow- 
 ing departments and provinces: — 
 
 Population. 
 2o0,8ol 
 61,432 
 285,661 
 
 8,453 
 76,332 
 
 2,106,492 
 
 The revenue in 1857 was £3,731,249, of which £3,060,000 was derived from 
 guano receipts, and £400,000 from import duties. The expenditure was 
 £3,272,010; the public debt on the 30th June, 1858, was £8,853,154, of which 
 £5,769,480 was foreign debt. The entries of shipping at Callao in 1858 were 
 1296 vessels, registering 650,000 tons; at Islay 49 vessels, and 19,835 tons. 
 The number of vessels that cleared with guano in the same year was 346, re- 
 gistering 266,709 tons, being only about half the number of the three or four 
 previous years. 
 
 In the first six months of 1858 635,589 tons of guano were consigned by the 
 several contractors, 66,607 were sold, and 568,603 remained on hand. The net 
 produce of the sales was 3,202,059 dollars, the charges and expenses eating up 
 no less than 2.539,915 dollars out of the gross produce, which was 5.570,724 
 dollars. The imports into Callao in 1857 were worth £1, 750,387, and the ex- 
 
 departments. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Departments. 
 
 Amazonas . 
 
 43,074 
 
 Lima 
 
 Aneach 
 
 219,145 
 
 Moquegua 
 
 Arequipa 
 
 119,336 
 
 Puno 
 
 Ayaeucho . 
 
 132,921 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Cuzco 
 
 349,718 
 
 Callao 
 
 Huancavelica 
 
 70,117 
 
 Piura 
 
 Junin 
 
 222,949 
 
 
 Libertad 
 
 266,553 
 
 
PEE 228 PHI 
 
 ports thence £441,434. Silver bars are the chief staple of the export trade, 
 while cotton, woollens, provisions, and wines, and spirits figure most largely 
 among the imports. England, France, and Chili take the lion's share of the 
 import trade of Peru, followed by Hamburg and Panama, while England and 
 Panama appear to be her best customers — that is to say, the largest receivers of 
 her exports. 
 
 PHILIPINE ISLANDS. The coasts of the Philipines extend 800 miles 
 in length, and are deeply indented with bays; the interior is intersected by lakes 
 and rivers, which in two parts of this, their principal island, and seat of their 
 capital, bring the opposite seas of China and the Pacific, within a few leagues of 
 each other, across a district very easily traversable; while the rest of the islands 
 (through which flow two principal lines of foreign navigation, between Europe 
 and China, and the Philipines and South America,) are so situated in relation 
 to each other, that their separation promotes more than their union would do, a 
 facility of internal and external communication strikingly attributable to the 
 whole group, and peculiarly favourable to commercial and industrial relations. 
 
 The soil of the Philipines is exuberantly rich, and the commercial products 
 of hemp, tobacco, sugar, indigo, coffee, sapan wood, rice, and cocoa, are very 
 extensively cultivated in some of the provinces, and susceptible of being so dis- 
 tributed among all the others. 
 
 Through this group is spread a population of from 3,500,000 to 4,000,000 of 
 inhabitants who are christianized, and with the exception of a few mountain and 
 petty tribes and the Mahometans in Mindanao, live in peaceful subordination to 
 the official agencies of the Government here. 
 
 In the Island of Panay, which is below the 12th degree of latitude, and 
 generally described by the name of its chief province Iloilo, the population is 
 559,861. The adjacent islands, Leyte and Samar, contain unitedly, nearly 
 300,000, and in Luzon, the population is little short of 2,000,000. 
 
 Divided into three commercial divisions, north, central, and south, and to the 
 central giving all the provinces between the 13th and 15th degrees of latitude, 
 to the south the group of islands below the 13th, and to the north giving only 
 three of the provinces, Pangasnian and the two Ilocoses with their dependents, 
 Abra and the Union, and from this last division excluding the great range of 
 country along the Pacific ; each of these three divisions has a distinctiveness of 
 character and commercial importance, in population, productions, wealth, indus- 
 try and intelligence. 
 
 The northern part is very highly cultivated, and embraces a population of 
 724,946 inhabitants; and parallel to it is the large, though not numerously po- 
 pulated province of Cagayan, not included in that division, and in which is cul- 
 tivated the finest quality and largest quantity of tobacco in the Philipines. 
 
 The southern division contains a population of upwards of 1,200,000, and the 
 central which depends especially on Manila, within the degrees of latitude indi- 
 cated, is a zone of very great natural resources, and of varied productions, ex- 
 tensively cultivated, and containing nearly 1,500,000 of inhabitants. 
 
 Each of these divisions is of itself a sphere of commercial and industrial 
 activity. From Pangasnian in the north is drawn a principal part of the sugar 
 sent to England, and to Europe; and from thence, and from Ilocos, the indigo 
 which is exported. In Zebu, Iloilo, and the southern islands, is produced the 
 sugar which chiefly supplies Australia; besides hemp, buffalo hides, and horns, 
 tortoise-shell, wax and sandal wood, for the markets of Europe and the United 
 States, and from the rich provinces which crescent Manila, the same productions 
 are sent for export through the capital ; while, independent of foreign trade, the 
 northern division as the granary of the Philipines, and of China in its seasons of 
 dearth, and Pangasnian as the chief ship-building province of the Philipines; 
 and Iloilo, and the south, as manufacturing districts, of webs of much value, 
 and articles of extensive native consumption, have resources of local trade, which 
 enrich and animate their industry. 
 
 In the northern division there are in one of the two provinces of Ilocos, six 
 towns with a population in each of from 5000 to 8000, five towns with from 
 
PHI 229 PIN 
 
 10,000 to 18,000, and one with 31,000 inhabitants, and in Pangasnian six towns 
 with from 5000 to 8000, seven from 8000 to 17,000, two with upwards of 
 21,000, two of 16,000 and one of upwards of 19,000. 
 
 In the southern provinces, Zebu has fourteen towns with from 10,000 to 
 12,000, and in the Island of Panay, or Iloilo, there are thirty-two towns with 
 from 3000 to 8000, seven with 8000 to 10,000, thirteen towns with from 10,000 
 to 15,000, four of 18,000, one of 21,450 and another of 29,820. 
 
 The cheapness and quality of their produce, and the commercial tendency and 
 situation of these possessions generally, cannot be better illustrated, than by the 
 fact, that unfostered by the Spanish authorities, and uninfluenced by Spanish 
 enterprise, which chiefly is directed here to monopolise Government contracts 
 and the carrying and coasting trade, and depending, therefore, chiefly, for 
 foreign supplies and native returns, on native industry and foreign houses, the 
 Philipines, while principally trading with England and the United States, extend 
 their relations to China, the western coast of North America, Australia, India, 
 France, Switzerland, and Germany. Yet, notwithstanding the large propor- 
 tion of commercial resources which are cultivated, and are cultivable in the dis- 
 tant divisions of these possessions, notwithstanding the aggregations of popula- 
 tion we have enumerated in those provinces remote from this capital, and testi- 
 fying the existence there of commercial elements, and an industrial and 
 commercial spirit, and notwithstanding that, for nearly five months in the year, 
 those northern and southern divisions, have alternately their commercial relations 
 with Manila, and supplies of foreign manufacture, and exports of native produce 
 suspended by the opposing monsoons, which impede nearly all navigation with 
 them ; the foreign trade of the Philipines is, at present, confined by law to the 
 port of Manila; here, alone can come from abroad, to be discharged for distribu- 
 tion throughout these possessions, the manufactures of Great Britain, and other 
 countries, and here have to be brought from their remotest provinces, for pur- 
 chase at Manila by foreign merchants, every exportable article of native industry 
 and produce. 
 
 PILCHARD. The catch of pilchards varies considerably. About 25,000 
 hogsheads of fish are shipped annually on an average, but as many as 100,000 
 were cured in 1845. There is a considerable local consumption in Cornwall, 
 and the remainder is exported, for but few find their way to other parts of 
 the kingdom. 
 
 The value of the pilchard fishery may be inferred from the following state- 
 ment of exports: — 
 
 Hhds. | Hhds. . Hhds. 
 
 15,384 1841 • 9,605 1845 . 29,986 
 
 7,627 1842 . 20,714 1846 • 34,353 
 
 12,824 1843 . 8,820 1851 . 26,743 
 
 23,310 1844 . 13,959 
 
 The price has fluctuated to an equal extent during the same period, having 
 ranged from 33* to 60s for winter fish, and from 35s to 70$ for summer fish. 
 
 PIMENTO. All the pimento which arrives in Great Britain comes from 
 Jamaica, and is the produce of Eugenia pimento. An inferior kind (E. aeris) 
 with larger berries, grows in the island of Tobago, and is occasionally imported 
 into France. Another species (E. pimentoides) is stated to yield an ovate berry 
 containing similar useful properties. In 1850, 1022 tons of pimento were im- 
 ported, and in 1855, 2115 tons, of which 1200 tons were re-exported, and 259 
 tons taken for home consumption; the residue remaining in bond. The duty of 
 5s per cwt. was repealed in 1860. 
 
 PINE-APPLES. Scarcely a steamer now arrives from the West Indies or 
 from the West Coast of Africa, without bringing boxes of this delicious fruit. 
 But a special trade has been opencd-up of late years with the Bahamas, where 
 the cultivation of the pine-apple has been extensively entered upon on many of 
 the low out-laying cays or islets. 
 
 It was first commenced in 1842, when a small quantity of the fruit was 
 shipped from the Bahamas to Liverpool. The trade now, however, chiefly centres 
 in London, and ten or twelve vessels arrive during each season freighted with 
 
 
 Hhds. , 
 
 v 
 
 1833 
 
 9,924 
 
 1837 
 
 1834 
 
 . 25,034 
 
 1838 
 
 1835 
 
 • 23,314 
 
 1839 
 
 1836 
 
 . 18,718 
 
 1840 
 
PIN 230 POR 
 
 this fruit, each cargo comprising from 20,000 to 40,000 pine-apples. These meet 
 with a ready sale, owing to the large demand for preserves and confectionary 
 purposes. The trade is carried on hy sailing vessels, as steamers were found to 
 heat and ripen the fruit too quickly. The culture has been much improved, 
 and better prices are obtained by the growers owing to the competition for the 
 British and American markets. 
 
 About thi: ty vessels are constantly engaged in carrying fruit to New York 
 from the West India Islands. In 1854, twenty cargoes of pine-apples, averag- 
 ing 80,000 dozen per cargo, were imported there from Cuba, 20,000 dozen 
 from St Bartholomew, and 200,000 dozen from the Bahamas Islands. 
 
 PLATE AND PLATED WARES. 3000 ounces of gold and 400,000 
 ounces of silver pass annually through the Assay-office, and many more thou- 
 sand ounces of the precious metals are worked-up into small ornaments not 
 subject to duty. The average amount received for duty on gold and silver 
 plate, in the United Kingdom, in the three years ending with March, 1859, was 
 £73,891 per annum. The duty on gold plate stamped being still 17* per 
 ounce, and on silver plate 1* 6c? per ounce. The declared value of the gold and 
 silver plate of British manufacture exported in 1858 was £74,027 (158, '297 
 ounces), and of plated wares, £107,476. The silver plate imported in the same 
 year was 48,043 ounces, worth at 5s per ounce, £12,011. It is subject to a duty 
 of Is 8c? per ounce since June 1853. 
 
 PLUMBAGO. The foreign imports of this mineral substance are now large — 
 the receipts in 1858 were 2881 tons, of which two-thirds were received through 
 Hamburg, and 860 tons from Ceylon. The average shipments from Ceylon are 
 about 1000 tons per annum; and the price £9 to £9 10s per ton. 
 
 POLICY OF INSURANCE. The stamp duties chargeable upon Life Policies 
 are— 
 
 Where the sum insured shall not exceed £500, then for every £50 and any frac- «. d. 
 tional part of £50 - - - - - - 6 
 
 And where it shall exceed £500, and shall net exceed £1000, then for every £100 
 
 and any fractional part of £100 - - - - 1 
 
 And where it shall exceed £1000, then for every £1000 and any fractional part 
 
 of £1000 - - - - - - -10 
 
 The stamp duty payable on Marine policies is — 
 When the premium is 10s - - - - - -03 
 
 When it is above 10s and not exceeding 20s - - - - 6 
 
 „ 20s „ 30s - - 1 
 
 „ 30s „ 40* - - 2 
 
 „ 40s ,, 50s - - - 3 
 
 50s „ - - - - 4 
 
 Time policies for six months - - - - 2 6 
 
 Above that period - - - - - -40 
 
 The net produce of the Revenue from stamps on Insurance Policies in the year 
 ended 31 March, 1859, was as follows : — 
 
 Great Britain . Fire Insurance. 1,838,232 Marine Insurance. 284,636 
 
 Ireland . „ 64,303 „ 688 
 
 United Kingdom . . £1,402,535 £285,324 
 
 PORTO RICO. A West Indian possession of Spain. The area of the 
 island is 3700 square miles; the population in 1855, 500,000, of whom 35,000 
 were slaves. The import and export duties and tonnage dues average a quarter 
 of a million sterling per annum. The entries and clearances average 1300 ves- 
 sels, and 165,000 tons. About 280 British vessels, of 35,000 tons, are employed 
 in the trade. The value of their cargoes in 1857 was £172,071; the imports 
 and exports average about £1,000,000 sterling. The exports in 1855 consisted 
 of 101,437,866 lbs. of sugar, 13,642,264 lbs. of coffee, 33,716 casks of molasses, 
 4100 puncheons of rum, 2,476,687 lbs. of tobacco, 237,500 lbs. of cotton, 4425 
 head of cattle, and 802,762 lbs. of hides. 
 
 The exportation of sugar from Porto Rico since has been as follows: — 
 
 1859 . 91,700,000 lbs. | 1858 . 121,300,000 lbs. | 1857 . 81,000,000 lbs. 
 
 In tobacco there has been a great falling off. The shipments were in 
 
 1859 . 2,825,000 lbs. | 1858 . 4,900,000 lbs. | 1857 . 4,035,000 lbs. 
 
POE 
 
 231 
 
 POS 
 
 PORTUGAL. The area of the five provinces of Portugal proper is 35,400 
 English square miles. The population in 1854 was 3,499,121 s^puls, or 9S*8 to 
 the square mile. The revenue of the kingdom in 1857, including Madeira and 
 the Azores, was £2,867,875, and the expenditure £3,057,261 ; the public 
 debt in 1855 was £21,384,538. 
 
 The sailing vessels which entered Portuguese ports (including the Azores 
 and Madeira), in 1854 were 2790 ships of 202,988 tons, manned by 20,925 
 seamen ; and 353 steam vessels, of 134,960 tons, and carrying 12.838 men. The 
 British flag is the second in importance of the national vessels in the trade. The 
 entries of British sailing vessels with cargoes were 434, measuring 62,097 tons, 
 and about the same number in ballast. Looking at the shipping trade of the 
 principal ports, we find that of 851 vessels which entered Lisbon in 1857, 358 were 
 British, and of 1072 that entered Oporto in 1855, 187 were British. The value 
 of the imports into Portugal in 1854 was £4,171,269, and that of the exports 
 £3,245,925. The following shows the value of the British trade with Portugal: 
 
 
 Imports from, 
 
 Exports to, 
 
 
 Imports from, 
 
 Exports to, 
 
 
 Computed Value. 
 
 Declared Value. 
 
 
 Computed Value. 
 
 Declared Value. 
 
 1849 
 
 ... 
 
 £979,597 
 
 1855 
 
 1,962,044 
 
 1,350,791 
 
 1850 
 
 ... 
 
 1,029,204 
 
 1856 
 
 2,164,090 
 
 1,455,754 
 
 1851 
 
 ... 
 
 1.048,356 
 
 1857 
 
 2,148,7-23 
 
 1,458,321 
 
 1852 
 
 ... 
 
 1,104,213 
 
 1858 
 
 1,079,775 
 
 1,432,238 
 
 1853 
 
 ... 
 
 1,210,411 
 
 1859 
 
 ... 
 
 1,306,449 
 
 1854 
 
 - £2,101,126 
 
 1,370,603 
 
 
 
 
 POSTING. In lieu of the duties under this head, mentioned at p. 541, the 
 following duties are payable by 16 and 17 Vict. c. 88, on licenses : — 
 
 Where the person taking out such license shall keep at one and the same time to 
 
 let for hire one horse or one carriage only . . . 7 10 
 
 And where such person shall keep any greater number of horses or carriages— 
 
 Not exceeding two horses or two carriages . . . . 12 10 
 
 Not exceeding four horses or three carriages . . . . 20 
 
 Not exceeding eight horses or six carriag -s . . . . 30 
 
 Not exceeding twelve horses or nine carriages . . . . 40 
 
 Not exceeding sixteen horses or twelve carriages . . . 50 
 
 Not exceeding twenty horses or fifteen carriages . . . 60 
 
 Exceeding fifteen carriages . . . . . . 70 
 
 Exceeding twenty horses, then for every additional number of ten horses, 
 and for any additional number less than ten over and above twenty, or 
 any other multiple of ten horses, the further additional duty of . 10 
 
 Persons intending to let horses for hire must make entry of their stables, coach- 
 houses, &c, with the proper officer of excise duties. Penalty 1001 for letting horses 
 for hire without license, or keeping a greater number of horses, <fec, than license 
 authorizes (s. 16). 
 
 In 1859 the produce of these licenses was as follows : — 
 
 
 England 
 
 
 
 
 and 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 
 Wales. 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 To let Horses and Carriages for hire '. 
 
 118,266 
 
 15,307 
 
 4,285 
 
 To run Stage Carriages, £'3. 3s per Ann. . . 
 
 9,525 
 
 1,112 
 
 
 Ditto, Supplementary £1. ditto 
 
 240 
 
 15 
 
 
 To keep Hackney Carriages in London at £1 per Ann. 
 
 5,646 
 
 
 
 Licenses for short periods 
 
 9,403 
 
 1,524 
 
 3,552 
 
 POST-OFFICE. The great extension of our home and foreign trade and 
 commerce, the large amount of emigration, the increased facilities afforded by 
 the extra deliveries, and the extension of ocean mail communications, have 
 served to give a very great impetus to letter communication. Within the last 
 twenty years there has been a sevenfold increase in the number of letters de- 
 livered in the United Kingdom. 
 
 In 1859 the number of post-offices in the United Kingdom was 11,412, of 
 which 825 were head post-offices, and 10,587 sub-post-offices. To these must 
 be added 1958 road letter-boxes. Thus the whole number of public receptacles 
 for letters is now 13,370, as compared with 45 18 before the establishment of penny 
 
POS 
 
 232 
 
 POS 
 
 postage. Instead of possessing as formerly only one post-office at which mails 
 are despatched and received, and letters sent out for delivery, London has now 
 ten such post-offices. The postal district system has now been in operation in 
 the metropolis to a greater or lesser extent more than three years. With few 
 exceptions, every resident in London is now within a furlong of a post-office or a 
 road letter-box, and within a quarter of a mile of a money-order office. 
 At the end of 1859 the Post-office staff comprised the following officers : — 
 I. In the British Isles. Postmaster General, Secretary, Assistant secretaries, 
 and Secretaries for Ireland and Scotland, 5 ; other superior officers, such as 
 heads of departments, chief clerks in metropolitan offices, &c. 18 ; surveyors, 15; 
 postmasters, 11,398 ; clerks, &c. 1594 ; mail guards and porters, 209 ; letter 
 carriers, messengers, &c. 11,363 ; Marine mail officers, 7 ; total, 24,609. II. In 
 the Colonies, the posts of which are under the direction of the Postmaster- 
 general, postmasters' clerks, letter carriers, &c. 129. III. Agents in Foreign 
 Countries, for collection of postage, &c. 65 ; in all 24,803 persons. Of the 
 above staff, about 1500 belong to the chief office in London, and (including this 
 number) about 3300 to the London district. 
 
 The subjoined table shows that the distance over which mails are now con- 
 veyed within the United Kingdom by railways, mail coaches, &c, steam- packets, 
 boats, and foot messengers, is about 140,000 miles per day. 
 
 1859.* 
 
 Mails conveyed by Railways. 
 
 Mails conveyed by Mail Coaches, 
 Omnibuses, Mail Carts, &c. 
 
 co . 
 it 
 
 Eft 
 
 11 
 
 i 
 ii 
 
 F 3 2 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 I 
 
 '3 
 
 21 
 
 to 
 
 i 
 
 
 a 
 1 
 
 
 Hs 
 
 I* 
 
 » 
 
 S 
 
 sZ 
 
 > 
 
 n 
 
 S 
 
 
 &* 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 g& 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. a. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 s. d.\ 
 
 England 
 
 27,506 
 
 8f 
 
 3 6f 
 
 i 
 
 19,024 
 
 n 
 
 9 
 
 1 Exemption 
 \ from Tolls. 
 
 Ireland 
 
 3,267 
 
 1 2 
 
 4 1 
 
 i 
 
 8,950 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 f 
 
 Scotland 
 
 United Kingdom - 
 
 4,831 
 
 10£ 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 4,962 
 
 ftg 
 
 6£ 
 
 35,604 
 
 9i 
 
 4 1 
 
 ft 
 
 32,9 36 
 
 n 
 
 9 
 
 I Exemption 
 \ from Tolls. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 {continued) 
 
 Mails conveyed on Foot. 
 
 Mails conveyed by 
 
 Packets and Boats between 
 
 different places in the 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 05 . 
 
 ! 
 
 S a 
 
 © Pi 
 > 
 < 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 •a 
 
 ■ 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 | 
 
 03 . 
 
 2 b 
 
 li 
 
 ii 
 
 • 
 
 bD 
 
 1.. 
 
 6 i 
 
 fcOf- 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 "3 
 
 a 
 
 PS 
 
 a 
 
 "3 
 
 i 
 
 England 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Scotland 
 
 United Kingdom - 
 
 49,803 
 8,362 
 10,799 
 
 d. 
 
 li 
 
 d. 
 H 
 
 N 
 
 d. 
 
 ! 
 
 3. 
 4 
 
 1,134 
 
 62 
 
 1,621 
 
 s. d. 
 1 6£ 
 1 
 4i 
 
 *. d. 
 
 5 6| 
 
 5± 
 
 1 10£ 
 
 d. 
 
 i 
 I 
 
 68,964 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 | 
 
 2,817 
 
 9f 
 
 5 0*| i 
 
 * The Account was taken on the 1st December. 
 
 t In calculating these amounts, the payment to the Chester and Holyhead Railway Company 
 has been omitted, as only part of that payment is for postal service, the remainder being of 
 the nature of a Government grant to increase the general faculties for communication with 
 Ireland. 
 
POS 
 
 233 
 
 POS 
 
 The following table shows the number of letters delivered in the United 
 Kingdom, in 1856 and 1859, and the proportion of letters to population in 1859 
 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 Letters in 
 
 1856. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Letters in 
 
 1859. 
 
 Proportion of Letters 
 to Population. 
 
 England - 
 Ireland - 
 Scotland - 
 
 United Kingdom - 
 
 338 millions 
 42 
 48 „ 
 
 446 millions 
 47 „ 
 52 „ 
 
 22 to each person*. 
 7 to each person. 
 16 to each person. 
 
 478 ., | 545 „ 
 
 18 to each person. 
 
 As compared with 1858, the total for 1859 shows an increase of 22 millions; 
 and as contrasted with the year previous to the introduction of penny postage 
 (1839), an increase (omitting franks) of 469 millions ; making the present 
 number of letters rather more than seven-fold what it was in 1839. In the 
 London Office alone, counting the letters both inwards and outwards and 
 counting forward letters, there has been an increase in the last five years of 
 more than twelve millions. 
 
 It is a striking fact that the number of London District letters, that is, of 
 letters posted in the London District for delivery within the same, — the old 
 twopenny post, — is now equal to the total number of letters, whether general or 
 local, posted twenty years ago in the whole of England and Wales, London 
 inclusive. 
 
 The number of letters given in the foregoing statements includes those from 
 beyond sea. The great bulk, however, are inland; the colonial and foreign 
 forming less than one-fiftieth of the whole. 
 
 The number of registered letters in 1859 was nearly 1,400,000, or one re- 
 gistered letter to about 400 ordinary letters. This number shows an increase 
 of about 6 per cent, on the previous year. 
 
 The following table continues down the return given at page 543: — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Gross 
 Revenue. 
 
 Cost of 
 Management. 
 
 Net Revenue. 
 
 Postage Charged 
 on Government 
 Departments. 
 
 1841-45f 
 1846-501 
 1851-55f 
 
 1856 
 
 1857 
 
 1858 
 
 1859 
 
 £ 
 1,658,214 
 2,143,717 
 2,569,836 
 2,876,127 
 3,018,147 
 3,100,939 
 3,299,825 
 
 £ 
 1,001,405 
 1,304,772 
 1,441,334 
 1,673,556 
 1,713,476 
 1,770,5-54 
 1,835,953 
 
 £ 
 656,809 
 838,944 
 1,128,502 
 1,202,561 
 1,304,671 
 1,330,385 
 1,415,872 
 
 £ 
 
 112,468 
 110,798 
 157,003 
 154,229 
 135,517 
 ■ 138,631 
 149,382 
 
 From this return it will seem that the net revenue is fast approximating 
 to the amount at which it stood before the introduction of the uniform penny 
 postage, namely, £1,633,764 in 1839. 
 
 The number of newspapers delivered in the United Kingdom in 1859 was 
 about 70,500,000. 
 
 The number of letters returned to the writers owing to the failure in the 
 attempts to deliver them, was about 1,900,000. This is equal to about 1 in 280 
 of the whole number of letters. 
 
 * In Glasgow the proportion is as high as 22 letters to each person, in Liverpool 27, in Man- 
 chester 32, in Dublin 34, in Edinburgh 35, and in London 43. 
 t Average of 5 years. 
 
POS 
 
 234 
 
 POS 
 
 Nearly half the non-deliveries was owing to the letters being addressed either 
 insufficiently or incorrectly; more than 11,000 having been posted without any 
 address at all. 
 
 Owing to the same cause, about 470,000 newspapers also were undelivered; 
 being one in 150 of the whole number. 
 
 The average postage of an ordinaiy inland letter continues to be about \%d., 
 and the average postage of a book packet rather more than 2d. 
 
 Excluding official packets, the average weight of an inland letter continues to 
 be rather more than a quarter of an ounce ; that of a colonial letter, rather 
 more than one-third of an ounce ; and that of a foreign letter rather more than 
 a quarter of an ounce. 
 
 The average weight of an inland newspaper passing through the Post Office 
 is about two ounces and a half ; that of a colonial newspaper, rather more than 
 two ounces ; and that of a foreign newspaper, rather more than an ounce ; the 
 average weight of a book packet being about five ounces and a quarter. 
 
 Money Orders. — The whole number of Money Order Offices is now 2481, 
 exclusive of Colonial Money Order Offices in connexion with the United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 The following tables, with that on page 236, show the number of Money 
 Orders issued during the year 1859, with other particulars. 
 
 
 
 Number 
 
 of Money 
 
 Orders 
 
 issued. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 «f 
 
 © e 
 
 ESS 
 
 Com- 
 mission. 
 
 Profit after 
 deducting 
 Expenses. 
 
 Proportion 
 
 of Money Orders 
 
 issued to 
 
 Population. 
 
 England and 
 
 Wales 
 Ireland 
 Scotland - 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 5,932,133 
 
 498,828 
 538,147 
 
 £ 
 
 11,358,057 
 
 891,675 
 
 1,001,298 
 
 5 
 4 
 2 
 
 £ 
 
 99,250 
 8,138 
 8,972 
 
 £ 
 
 27,780 
 
 Loss 684 
 
 2,019 
 
 Nearly 
 1 to every 3 persons 
 1 h 13 „ 
 1 .. 6 ,, 
 
 6,969,108 
 
 13,250,930 | 4f 
 
 116,369 
 
 29,115 
 
 1 „ 4 „ 
 
 Annual Increase in the Total Amount for which Money Orders were issued 
 in the last five years, as compared in each case with the Amount in the year 
 preceding. 
 
 Year. 
 
 England and 
 Wales. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 About 5 per cent. 
 
 « 3 „ 
 
 n 4 
 
 ii 5 ,, 
 
 Average 
 increase 
 
 About 9 percent. 
 
 " II n 
 
 u 4f „ 
 
 u 4 ,, 
 
 About 4 h percent 
 .. H „ 
 
 » 5f „ 
 
 ., n n 
 
 "_2_ .. 
 4? 
 
 About 5£ per cent 
 „ H „ 
 
 H Jt M 
 
 " U " 
 
 tt 3* ft 
 
 The tables on the opposite page, from the last annual report of the Post- 
 master General, furnish some useful statistics for reference and comparison. 
 
POS 
 
 235 
 
 POS 
 
 uinuuu aad luso 
 aad osu,i.ioui 
 
 
 UltlUUT? J3d '4030 
 
 aad assaaoai 
 
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 illl 
 
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 ~*r-*» 
 
 es 
 
 5 
 
 snoiAaad aqj uo 
 
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 «9 
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 E 
 
 a 
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 O 
 
 |s=11|l 
 
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 §§ss 
 
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 « — — fff 
 
 n 
 
 •aB3j£ 
 
 
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 snoiAaad aq? uo 
 
 isss: 
 
 o 
 
 n 
 
 ^usaasdasBaaoui 
 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 ©© o© 
 © © © © 
 © © = ©_ 
 ©*co co'en 
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 CO CO o © 
 
 tf ic"t-T©" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
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POS 
 
 236 
 
 POS 
 
 H 
 
 snoiA3Jd 9in uo 
 
 •lU90ia(l9SB9aD9(I 
 
 1 ■*«-* 
 
 
 2.2,8 
 
 53,790,000 
 51,616,000 
 50,058,000 
 49,318,000 
 
 
 
 
 \IT?9£ 
 
 SnOIA9.ld 911? uo 
 
 \rU99J9d 9SB9JD9(I 
 
 1 ce«>cN 
 
 si 
 
 o o 
 
 7,876,000 
 7,245,000 
 6,704,000 
 6,526,000 
 
 •Jl?9i 
 
 SU0TA9.ld 9U4 UO 
 
 •?U90 J9d 9SB9.I09(I 
 
 j..*- 
 
 II 
 
 10,066,000 
 9,368,000 
 9,236,000 
 9,154,000 
 
 •JB9i 
 
 snotA9Jd on.? uo 
 
 •?U39 J9d 9SB9J090; 
 
 1 CN CM 3 
 
 0** & 
 
 *"1 
 
 35,848,000 
 35,003,000 
 34,118,000 
 33,638,000 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 03 
 
 a 
 H 
 
 a 
 
 £ 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 Increase 
 
 or 
 Decrease 
 per cent. 
 
 on the 
 previous 
 
 Year. 
 
 - 
 
 fine. 
 H Dec. 
 16 Inc. 
 
 
 O +3 
 
 tS.2 
 
 4,425,000 
 4,456,000 
 4,404,000 
 5,107,000 
 
 Decrease 
 
 per cent. 
 
 on the 
 
 previous 
 
 Year. 
 
 1 <N CM *■+ 
 
 II 
 
 31,423,000 
 30,547,000 
 29,714,000 
 28,531,000 
 
 1 
 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 JS-0 
 be •& 
 
 I o 
 
 ■0-° 
 03 S 
 
 is 
 
 s-S 
 
 p* _ 
 
 as 
 
 I 5 
 
 i 
 
 It § 
 
 So L) 
 §-.2 
 
 ■s 
 E 
 
 o 
 
 § 
 
 ■ 
 
 H 
 
 B 
 ta 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 4 
 
 £ 
 313,124 
 
 960,975 
 
 4,937,256 
 
 7,954,533 
 
 9,941,316 
 
 11.805,562 
 
 12,180,273 
 
 12,662,105 
 
 13,250,930 
 
 u 
 
 i 
 
 188,921 
 587,797 
 2,429,8. r )5 
 4,087,703 
 5,219,559 
 6,178,982 
 6,389,703 
 6,689,396 
 6,969,108 
 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 w 
 
 GO 
 
 § 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 £ 
 25,765 
 80,980 
 385,936 
 680,696 
 769,863 
 899,253 
 950,873 
 982,646 
 1,001,198 
 
 55 
 
 1 
 
 16,183 
 
 51,526 
 
 210,093 
 
 374,187 
 
 418,906 
 485,523 
 512,875 
 529,735 
 538,147 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 
 £ 
 47,295 
 77,167 
 339,433 
 585,151 
 683,277 
 806,942 
 818,537 
 857,558 
 891,675 
 
 CJ 
 
 ! 
 
 55 
 
 30,015 
 53,507 
 198,795 
 347,547 
 407,608 
 461,723 
 459,525 
 485,220 
 498,828 
 
 CO 
 
 ■ 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 ■ 
 
 +3 
 
 i 
 
 s 
 
 £ 
 
 240,063 
 802,827 
 4,211,885 
 6,688,684 
 8,488,175 
 10,099,366 
 10,410,863 
 10,821,901 
 11,358,057 
 
 1 
 
 g 
 
 1 
 
 142,723 
 
 482,764 
 2,020,977 
 3,365,969 
 4,393,045 
 5,231,736 
 5,417,203 
 5,674,441 
 5,932,133 
 
 
 1839 - 
 
 1840 - 
 
 Average of Five Years, 1841-45 
 
 184G-50 
 
 „ „ 1851-55 
 
 1856 - 
 
 1857 - 
 
 1858 - 
 
 1859 - 
 
POS 
 
 237 
 
 POS 
 
 Total Profit in each of the last ten years: — 
 
 1850 
 1861 
 
 1852 
 
 18)3 
 1854 
 
 Profit 
 £. 
 
 
 3,236 
 
 1855 
 
 7,437 
 
 1856 
 
 10,689 
 
 1857 
 
 14,149 
 
 1858 
 
 16,167 
 
 1859 
 
 Profit. 
 
 £. 
 20,252 
 22,674 
 24.175 
 25,935 
 29.115 
 
 The increase in the number of Money Orders in 1859 was nearly 300,000, 
 which is at about the same rate as in the previous year. 
 
 The Money Order system, though now productive of a large profit in England 
 and Scotland, is still carried on at "a loss in Ireland. 
 
 In June 1859, the Money Order system was extended to Canada, between 
 which time and the end of the year nearly 4000 Orders were issued in Canada 
 on the United Kingdom, and about 1150 in the United Kingdom on Canada; 
 the average amount of each Order being rather more than £3. 
 
 It was thought prudent, in the first instance, to make the commission rather 
 high, viz., fourfold for that of an inland Money Order, but the charge is about 
 to be lessened. 
 
 This enlargement of the Money Order system has worked very satisfactorily, 
 and will soon lead to its extension to other colonies. Such an extension would 
 be productive of much good; would save much money that now probably runs 
 to waste; would afford great relief to many weak or aged persons, separated by 
 the broad ocean from the younger and more vigorous members of their family; 
 and would materially promote self-supporting emigration. 
 
 By an Act recently passed, the duty of entering into contracts for the Mail 
 Packet service, and of superintending the execution of these contracts, has been 
 transferred from the Admiralty to the Post Office. 
 
 A State3iekt showing the Patment made for each of the Foreign and 
 Colonial Packets under Contract with the British Government ; the 
 estimated Sea Postage on the Correspondence conveyed by each Line of 
 Packet; the Profit or Loss of each Line; the Cost of Sea Conveyance per 
 Ounce of Letters, and per Pound of Printed Matter. 
 
 PACKETS. 
 
 Contract 
 Payments. 
 
 Sea 
 
 Postage. 
 
 Profit. 
 
 Loss. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 15,500 
 
 76,000 
 
 60,500 
 
 - 
 
 The Cost 
 
 Sea 
 
 Conveyance 
 
 per Ounce of 
 
 Letters, and 
 
 per Pound 
 
 of Printed 
 
 Matter.* 
 
 Dover asd Calais - 
 and 
 
 Dovtlt AND OsTEXD 
 
 «. d. 
 
 The estimate of sea postage in this case is based upon an account taken during seren 
 (not consecutive) -weeks, between May and December 1859. It includes the 
 postage on correspondence between this country and the Continent, after deduct- 
 ing the sums repayable to foreign countries, and the British inland rate, which 
 in this as in all other cases has been taken to be 11<7. per letter, and half the pro- 
 duce of printed matter. It does not include any portion of the postage on corres- 
 pondence, passing through the United Kingdom, between the Continent of 
 Europe and foreign countries or British Colonies, the whole of which has been 
 credited to the American, West Indian, or other lines of packets. 
 
 Peninsular 
 
 - I 20,500 I 3, 
 
 000 — 
 
 17,500 
 
 This estimate is based on an account of five outward and six inward mails, taken 
 between May and December 1859. 
 
 • In dividing the Cost of Conveyance, it has been considered that a pound of Printed 
 Matter is equal in point of cost to an ounce of Letters. 
 
POS 
 
 238 
 
 PEI 
 
 PACKETS. 
 
 Contract 
 Payments. 
 
 Sea 
 Postage. 
 
 Profit. 
 
 Loss. 
 
 The Cost 
 
 of Sea 
 
 Conveyance 
 
 per Ounce of 
 
 Letters, and 
 
 per Pound 
 
 of Printed 
 
 Matter. 
 
 £ £ £ £ s. d. 
 
 North American - - *191,000 112,000 — j 79,000 2 6 
 
 This estimate has been based on an account of seven outward and seven inward mails, 
 taken between May and December 1859. 
 
 * Of this sum, £14,700 is paid for the line between Halifax and Bermuda, and 
 Halifax and St. John's ; and £3000 for the line between New York and 
 Nassau. 
 West Indian 
 
 Pacific- - - -\ [ 293,500 | 78,000 | 
 Brazilian 
 
 This estimate has been based on an account of six outward and six inward mails, as 
 regards the West Indies and the Pacific, and on an account of four outward and 
 three inward mails as regards the Brazils. The whole account was taken between 
 May 1859 and January 1860. 
 
 31 
 
 West Coast of Africa 
 
 30,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 26,000 
 
 e m 
 
 This estimate is based on an account of three outward and four inward mails, taken 
 between May 1859 and January 1860. 
 
 The Cape of Good Hope 
 
 32,400 
 
 7,500 
 
 - I 
 
 24,900 
 
 2 4ft 
 
 This estimate is based on an account of two outward and three inward mails, taken 
 between June 1859 and January 1860. Purt of the loss on the service is charge- 
 able to the colony. 
 
 Ac: 
 
 •I 
 
 97,000 29,000 — 
 
 68,000 
 
 2 3ft 
 
 This estimate is based on an account of three mails to Australia, and of three mails 
 to and three from the Mediterranean and the Mauritius. The sum of £97,000 is a 
 moiety of the contract price, the other moiety being chargeable on the Australian 
 colonies, which retain the produce of the mails sent to this country. 
 
 East Indian - 
 
 168,000 84,000 
 
 84,000 
 
 This estimate is based on an account of six outward and six inward mails, taken 
 between May 1859 and January 1860. The sum of £168,000 is the amount 
 payable by the Imperial Government after deducting that which is charged on 
 the East Indian Government. 
 
 POTATOE. It was estimated in the agricultural journals a few years ago, 
 that there were about two million and a quarter of acres under culture with 
 potatoes in the United Kingdom ; if these averaged as much as five tons to 
 the acre, this would give 11,250,000 tons as the entire annual produce, and at 
 £3 per ton these would be worth £33,750,000. But besides this large amount 
 of home produce we import a considerable quantity, particularly of early 
 grown from the Continent. These imports vaiy considerably, in some years, as 
 in 1856, reaching 1,721,953 cwt. 
 
 POULTRY. Under the head of Eggs we have already given details of 
 the more important of the poultry products. The average annual value of the 
 poultry produced in the kingdom has been estimated at £400,000. Three and 
 a half-million head of poultry of all kinds are sold in the two metropolitan 
 markets of Leadenhall and Newgate yearly, and it is considered that about nine 
 or ten million head of poultry of all kinds are killed annually in the countiy, 
 although this can be merely conjectural opinion. 
 
 PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. The population of this British American 
 colony had increased in 1857 to 71,496 souls. The revenue in the same year 
 amounted to £27,636, and the expenditure to £32,348. The number and 
 tonnage of vessels which entered and cleared was— entries 674 vessels, 46,509 
 
PEI 239 rilF 
 
 tons ; clearances 611, of 49,318 tons. The number of vessels built averaged 
 for the three years, ending 1857, nearly 100 a year, in the aggregate about 
 15,000 tons. The value of those built and exported in 1856 was £141,372. 
 The general exports of the colony in 1857 were to the value of £134,465, and 
 of the imports £260,438. The exports, beside timber and ships, consist 
 principally of agricultural produce and fish. 
 
 PROPERTY AND INCOME TAX— See Income Tax. 
 
 PRUSSIA. According to the latest returns the area of this kingdom is now 
 107,163 square miles, the population in 1858 was 17,739,913, and that of the 
 capital, Berlin, 463,645. 
 
 In 1852 there were 1,965,462 farms in the kingdom, of which 17,003 were 
 above 378 English acres in extent. The agricultural produce of Prussia in 
 1851 consisted of 3,674,063 quarters of wheat, 12,020,250 of rye, 3,600,000 of 
 barley, 14,218,125 of oats, and 52,593,750 quarters of potatoes. About 6£ to 1\ 
 million gallons of wine are made. The quantity of land under culture with the 
 vine being 39,000 acres. The number of live stock in the kingdom in 1849 was 
 1,575,417 horses; 7475 mules andasses; 5,371,644 cattle; 16,296,928 sheep, of 
 which 4,452,913 were merino, and 7,942,718 crossbreed; 584,771 goats, and 
 2,466,31 6 pigs. The wool produced by the native sheep amounted to 35,853,242 
 lbs. The total value of the buildings insured in the fire offices in 1849 was 
 £184,548,633. The total number of vessels that entered at ports in Prussia in 
 1854 was 7730, measuring 1,379,118 tons, of which 4794 vessels and 829,606 
 tons were with cargoes. 
 
 In 1858 the entries consisted of 9945 vessels and 828,720 tons, and the 
 clearances of 10,058 ships and 863,740 tons; of these movements 1023 vessels 
 and 127,940 tons were steamers. About half the shipping trade is under the 
 national flag and half foreign. 
 
 The mercantile marine of Prussia consisted in 1859 of 1081 vessels (of which 
 49 were steamers) registering 334,254, manned by 10,27 1 seamen, and 56 1 coasters 
 of 14,432 tons employing 1303 men. 
 
 Ports. Dantzic. The number of ships that entered this port in 1857 
 amounted to 1888, of which 348 were British ; those cleared to 1843, 338 being 
 British. The traffic by steam is daily increasing, Hull and London sending their 
 boats weekly, besides many from several other countries. The Vistula is now 
 continually traversed by such vessels, both paddle and screw. The exportation 
 of grain in 1857 was 337,031 quarters of wheat, 132,692 quarters of rye, 25,370 
 quarters of barley, besides small quantities of pulse, oil-seeds, &c. 
 
 Stettin. The population of this town in 1858 was 53,103. The value of the 
 imports in 1857 was £4,208,636, and of the exports £2,722,451. The value of 
 the timber exported from Stettin in the five years ending 1857 was £1,304,702, 
 of which about half came to England. Since the abolition of the Sound dues the 
 imports generally have largely increased, especially of yarn and cotton, iron, 
 coals, soda and potash, palm and cocoa-nut oil. Stettin is the principal port 
 for foreign herrings. The receipts in the three years ending 1857 averaged 
 151,000 barrels. The exportation of com from this port in 1857 was unprece- 
 dented, 896,335 quarters, being 267 per cent above the average of the seven pre- 
 ceding years. The trade, however, of the following years, 1858 and 1859, was 
 remarkably dull. The tonnage that entered in 1858 was 480,872 tons. The 
 import of yams, linen, cotton and wool, from Great Britain showed, however, a 
 great increase, amounting to 107,548 centals or cwt. 
 
 3/emel. The number of ships that entered and left this harbonr in 1857 was 
 —entries 885 of 269,242 tons; clearances 811 vessels of 236,974 tons. This 
 number was considerably below the average. Of the clearances 5S6 vessels and 
 193,780 tons left for Great Britain. The number of vessels owned in the port 
 was 80 of 37,110 tons — 5 being steamers of 50 or 60 horse-power. 
 
 Konigsberg. The population of this town in 1858 was S0,000. Steam 
 
PEU 
 
 240 
 
 PEU 
 
 dredging machines are now employed in the harbour, and a better depth of 
 water has been obtained. The depth at Pillau is about 23 feet. The rivers 
 Preger and the Naff channel have been kept at an even depth. The vessels 
 arrived at Pillau in 1857 were 1305 of 176,962 tons, of these 163 ships were 
 British. At Konigsberg the arrivals were 1115 sea-going vessels, and 3000 
 coasters and lighters, and 173 barks and rafts from Russia and Poland. The 
 sea-going ships owned in Konigsberg in the early part of 1858 were 29, measur- 
 ing 9354 tons. 
 
 Finances. The revenue of the kingdom of Prussia, in 1858 was £13,436,765, 
 and the debt £36,722,560. 
 
 PRUSSO-GERMAN CUSTOMS' UNION, or ZOLLVEREIN. The 
 
 appended tables will serve to bring down the statistics of the trade and commerce 
 of" the German Customs' Union to the present time, and will be found to contain a 
 mass of very useful information. It may be observed here that the beet root 
 sugar manufacture which centres principally in Prussia is a large and important 
 one for local supply. In 1853 there were in the Zollvcrein 238 factories which 
 operated upon 22,000,000 cwts. of beet root, and produced therefrom 1,540,566 
 cwt. of sugar, on which £306,812 duty was paid. 
 
 Total Real Value of the Imports, Exports and Transit of the German 
 Customs' Union in the undermentioned Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Transit. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1839 
 
 22,895,865 
 
 27,800,007 
 
 8,176,329 
 
 58,872,201 
 
 1840 
 
 25,166,775 
 
 27,443,976 
 
 8,714,090 
 
 61,324,841 
 
 1841 
 
 27,255,151 
 
 28,391,144 
 
 8,191,999 
 
 63,838,294 
 
 1842 
 
 28,300,749 
 
 24,440,672 
 
 8,243,703 
 
 60,985,124 
 
 1843 
 
 31,810,577 
 
 24,502,381 
 
 9,496,715 
 
 65,809,673 
 
 1844 
 
 31,439,139 
 
 26, 303,941 
 
 11,211,599 
 
 68,954,679 
 
 1845 
 
 32,953,964 
 
 26,705,348 
 
 9,568,817 
 
 69,228,129 
 
 1846 
 
 33,223,217 
 
 25,614,672 
 
 10,491,837 
 
 69,329,726 
 
 1850 
 
 27,248,874 
 
 25,942,217 
 
 11,733,663 
 
 64,924,754 
 
 1851 
 
 28,825,711 
 
 26,773,070 
 
 12,560,697 
 
 68,159,478 
 
 1852 
 
 29,472,246 
 
 27,763,635 
 
 13,430,109 
 
 70 66.3,990 
 
 1853 
 
 30,510,302 
 
 37,836,965 
 
 15,826,418 
 
 84,173,685 
 
 1854 
 
 40,367,858 
 
 50.123,960 
 
 18,296,806 
 
 108,788,624 
 
 1855 
 
 47,364,731 
 
 46,285,111 
 
 25,055,400 
 
 118,690,242 
 
 Total Real Value of the Imports, Exports and Transit of the Zollve- 
 rein by way of each frontier country in the Year 1851. 
 
 Frontier Country. 
 
 Imports, including 
 Transit. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Transit. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Russia and Poland 
 
 2,672,088 
 
 1,175,118 
 
 921,442 
 
 Austria .... 
 
 5,418,464 
 
 3,435,594 
 
 3,701,001 
 
 Switzerland . 
 
 4,268,420 
 
 2,743,752 
 
 1,242,153 
 
 France .... 
 
 1,024.667 
 
 733,169 
 
 165,816 
 
 Belgium 
 
 4,014,462 
 
 2,261,703 
 
 385,130 
 
 Holland 
 
 6,883,965 
 
 2,5)9.5,056 
 
 1,831,872 
 
 Hanover 
 
 5,506,436 
 
 4.203,333 
 
 2,176,154 
 
 Mecklenburg 
 
 286,265 
 
 205,605 
 
 26,391 
 
 North Sea ... 
 
 7,206,528 
 
 5,350,176 
 
 1,020,647 
 
 Baltic : 
 
 3,179,528 
 
 3,669,558 
 
 1,090,087 
 
 Total 
 
 40,520,867 
 
 26,773,064 
 
 12,560,693 
 
PEU 
 
 241 
 
 PEU 
 
 Population of the several States of the Zollverein, the Amount of Duty 
 raised, and the Shares of the Net Receipts in Ratio to the Population, 
 in the Year 1854. 
 
 States. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Duty P.eceived. 
 
 Share of Net 
 Receipts. 
 
 Prussia .... 
 Luxemburg . ; 
 Bavaria .... 
 Saxony .... 
 Hanover 
 Wurtemburg . 
 Baden .... 
 Electoral Hesse . 
 Ducal Hesse . . . 
 Thuringian Union 
 Brunswick . 
 Oldenburg . 
 Nassau .... 
 Frankfort 
 
 17,286,484 
 
 192,632 
 4,565,256 
 1,987,612 
 1,840,932 
 1,733,263 
 1,354,768 
 
 727,323 
 
 865,480 
 1,024,929 
 
 247,461 
 
 229,106 
 
 429,060 
 74,867 
 
 * 
 
 Thalers. 
 
 14,993,636 
 
 77,081 
 
 1,104,570 
 
 1,875,124 
 
 1,764,386 
 
 303,891 
 
 696,423 
 
 267,175 
 
 439,009 
 
 324,863 
 
 260,714 
 
 165,773 
 
 61,940 
 
 823,990 
 
 Thalers. 
 
 10,259,747 
 
 112,539 
 
 2,667,096 
 
 1,186,559 
 
 2,092,522 
 
 1,012,601 
 
 791,477 
 
 424,913 
 
 505,628 
 
 611,859 
 
 146,603 
 
 260,417 
 
 250,664 
 
 Total Thalers . . 32,559,173 
 
 £ '. 
 
 23 153,575 
 3,473,785 
 
 20,322.625 
 3,048,393 
 
 Oldenburg and Hanover were admitted into the Union on 1st January, 1854. 
 Area, Population, and Value of the Customs Dues of the States of 
 the Zollyerein according to the latest returns. The area comprises only 
 the parts of the Union subject to the Customs frontier, and not their territorial 
 limits. 
 
 States. 
 
 Square 
 Miles. 
 
 Population 
 in 1858. 
 
 Customs 
 Dues. 
 1857. 
 
 Customs 
 Dues. 
 1858. 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Luxemburg 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Hanover with Schamburg Lippe 
 
 Wurtemburg . 
 
 Baden , 
 
 Electoral Hesse 
 
 Ducal Hesse . « , 
 
 Thuringian Union 
 
 Brunswick . . 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 Nassau . 
 
 Frankfort 
 
 
 5209 
 
 47 
 
 13% 
 
 272 
 
 708 
 
 363 
 
 275 
 
 203 
 
 154 
 
 237 
 
 63 
 
 97 
 
 85 
 
 2 
 
 18,107,274 
 
 192,196 
 
 4,621,279 
 
 2,122,148 
 
 1,865,104 
 
 1,690,898 
 
 1,334,052 
 
 699,798 
 
 862,999 
 
 1,043.771 
 
 249,771 
 
 236,789 
 
 435,777 
 
 80,611 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 16,690,842 
 
 90,185 
 
 1,083,968 
 
 2,639,032 
 
 2,157,797 
 
 406,499 
 
 836,622 
 
 283,426 
 
 567,047 
 
 323,330 
 
 286,118 
 
 259,460 
 
 65.538 
 
 912,297 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 17,529,546 
 
 100,826 
 
 1,303,667 
 
 2,673,750 
 
 2,574,434 
 
 440,705 
 
 1,046,926 
 
 303,846 
 
 604,813 
 
 381,325 
 
 291,720 
 
 278,445 
 
 81,931 
 
 995,237 
 
 Total 
 
 9112 
 
 33,542,467 
 
 20,632,161 
 
 28,612,171 
 
 Declared Value of British and Irish Produce and Manufactures 
 exported to German)-, Holland, and Belgium in the following years: 
 
 Towns. 
 
 1845. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1859. 
 
 Prussia 
 Gennany 
 Holland 
 Belgium 
 
 £ 
 
 577,999 
 6,517,796 
 3,439,035 
 1,479,058 
 
 £ 
 
 424,480 
 7,032,866 
 3,542,632 
 1,136,237 
 
 £ 
 1,100,021 
 8,777,775 
 4,558,210 
 1,707,693 
 
 £ 
 1,492,541 
 10,285,121 
 5,379,794 
 1,474,873 
 
 Total 
 
 12,013,888 
 
 12,136,215 
 
 16,143,099 
 
 18,632,329 
 
 From the above figures it will be seen that within the last ten years our trade 
 with Germany has increased more than 50 per cent. 
 
QUI 
 
 242 
 
 EAI 
 
 QUICKSILVER. There is a largely increased consumption of this metal in 
 the arts and in the gold producing countries. The consumption in California is 
 estimated at 3000 flasks (of 76 lbs. each) annually. Formerly the principal 
 supply of quicksilver was obtained from Spain, but of late years valuable mines 
 of the cinnabar, or ore of mercury, were found in California, and in the five 
 years ending with 1858, the exports were 25,000 flasks annually. The principal 
 mine was, however, closed by an injunction of the Government in Oct. 1858, 
 and hence only 3400 flasks were shipped in 1859. The quicksilver received here, 
 averaging between 2,000,000 and 3,000,000 pounds, is chiefly for transshipment 
 to the Continent, India, and South America. 
 
 RAGS. The aggregate quantity of rags annually collected in the kingdom, 
 with those imported from abroad, exceeds 70,000 tons in weight, worth at least 
 £1,500,000. The import of foreign rags suitable for paper-making has not 
 varied much for the last twenty years, averaging still about 10,000 tons per 
 annum. The imports in 1858 were 11,379 tons, of the value of £246,133, of 
 which 4048 tons came from Prussia, 1668 tons from Russia, 3502 from Germany 
 and Holland, 1118 tons from Italy, and the remainder from Australia, the East 
 Indies, and other places. It takes 100 tons of rags to make 70 tons of paper. 
 
 The importation of rags into the United States for the purpose of paper- 
 making is a great deal more extensive than most people would imagine. During 
 the year 1857 America imported 44,582,080 lbs., valued at 1,448,125 dollars, 
 and making 69,461 bales ; 35,591 bales were from Italy, and more than one- 
 third are entirely linen, the rest being a mixture of linen and cotton. About 
 2000 bales were also imported from the free cities of Hamburg and Bremen. 
 Erance prohibits the exportation of rags, and so does Rome ; the few which 
 America gets from Ancona — a Roman province — being by special permission on 
 payment of large fees. Prussia and Germany generally impose so high an 
 export duty on rags as to stop the trade entirely. The exports from Alexandria 
 and Smyrna are chiefly collected in Asia Minor by agents having licence from 
 the Government, and the domestic demand must be supplied before any can 
 be exported. It is the same with Trieste, where only the surplus is allowed to 
 come away. The Trieste rags are collected all over Hungary. New York and 
 Boston receive the largest quantity, and the place that ships the most is Leghorn, 
 in Italy. 
 
 The imports of woollen rags in 1858 were 3000 tons, of the value of 
 £28,000. 
 
 RAILWAYS. The appended statistical details embrace the latest published 
 returns and information respecting the entire progress of British and Foreign 
 railways. 
 
 General Statistics of Railways in England and Wales, Scotland and 
 Ireland, in the Year 1858. 
 
 Capital: Paid up to 31st Dec. 1858:— 
 
 England 
 and Wales. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 £. 
 
 I Ordinary 
 By Shares. \ Preference - 
 (Total 
 
 151,959,920 
 
 18,501,677 
 
 11,376,184 
 
 181,837,781 
 
 50,800,322 
 
 8,147,969 
 
 2,900,256 
 
 61,854,547 
 
 202,760,242 
 
 2fi,649,646 
 
 14,282,440 
 
 243,692,328 
 
 By Loans - 
 
 68,111,401 
 
 10 031,354 
 
 3,540,424 
 
 81,683,179 
 
 Total - 
 
 270,871,643 
 
 36,681,000 
 
 17,822,864 
 
 325,375,507 
 
 Length of Lines opened for Traffic, Miles 
 
 7,001 
 
 1,353 
 
 1,188 
 
 9,542 
 
 In course of Construction 
 
 775 
 
 130 
 
 247 
 
 1,152 
 
 Passengers Conveyed:— 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( Total No. Conveyed 
 
 15,162,795 
 
 1,983,821 
 
 1,155,767 
 
 18,302,384 
 
 *i e f rioco ) Average No. per Mile 
 i6twass<p er Centage proportion of 
 
 2,201 
 
 1,525 
 
 1,023 
 
 1,965 
 
 
 
 
 
 (. Total Passengers 
 
 13-08 
 
 13 42 
 
 13 68 
 
 1315 
 
 t Total No. Conveyed 
 
 36,199,373 
 
 2,150,334 
 
 3,343,582 
 
 41,693,289 
 
 *2nd ria*s ) Average No. per Mile 
 £na cla * s jPer Centage proportion of 
 
 5,256 
 
 1,853 
 
 2,958 
 
 4,476 
 
 
 
 
 I Total Passengers 
 
 3122 1454 
 
 39-58 
 
 29-95 
 
 * Exclusive of Hoi 
 
 lers of Period 
 
 ical Tickets 
 
 
 
EAI 
 
 243 
 
 EAI 
 
 Passengers conveyed— continued. 
 
 England 
 and Wales. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 3rd Class ( Total No. Conveyed 
 
 64,568,572 
 
 10,647,854 
 
 3,929,038 
 
 79,145,464 
 
 and 1 Average No. per Mile 
 
 9,376 
 
 8,184 
 
 3,477 
 
 8,497 
 
 Parlia- | Per Centaee proportion of 
 
 
 
 
 
 mentary ( Total Passengers 
 
 5568 
 
 72-00 
 
 46-52 
 
 56-86 
 
 Holders of Periodical Tickets 
 
 2fi,216 
 
 6,959 
 
 19,387 
 
 52,562 
 
 Total Passengers Conveyed - 
 
 115,956,957 
 
 14,788,968 
 
 8,447,774 
 
 139,193,699 
 
 Private Carriages Conveyed - 
 
 45,891 
 
 4,934 
 
 3,608 
 
 54,433 
 
 Horses Conveyed - 
 
 190,490 
 
 22,937 
 
 18,491 
 
 231,918 
 
 Dogs Conveyed - 
 
 238,399 
 
 41,092 
 
 29,006 
 
 308,497 
 
 Goods Conveyed: — 
 
 
 
 
 
 General Merchandise - Tons 
 
 21,687,649 
 
 2.895,916 
 
 1,071,055 
 
 25,654,620 
 
 Minerals - - Tons 
 
 38,298,709 
 
 9,040,903 
 
 130,064 
 
 47,469,676 
 
 Live Stock Conveyed* - No. 
 
 8,695,296 
 
 1,426,592 
 
 1,204,118 
 
 11,326,006 
 
 Average Passenger Fares, per Mile 
 
 
 
 
 
 Travelled: 
 
 
 
 
 
 1st Class ... 
 
 216rf. 
 
 1.70<*. 
 
 l-82rf. 
 
 2 09 A 
 
 2nd Class - 
 
 1-48 d. 
 
 l-51rf. 
 
 l-36d. 
 
 l-46rf. 
 
 3rd Class - 
 
 0-88d. 
 
 0-88* 
 
 0-80& 
 
 0-88& 
 
 Receipts from Passengers : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f Total Receipts - 
 
 2,582,163 
 
 250.202 
 
 170,472 
 
 3,002,838 
 
 
 Proportion per cent from 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1st Class to Total Receipts 
 
 
 
 
 
 1st Class 4 
 
 from Passengers 
 
 2936 
 
 2732 
 
 25-39 
 
 28-94 
 
 
 Average per Passenger 
 
 40 86A 
 
 30-26d. 
 
 3539rf. 
 
 3947rf. 
 
 
 Average per Mile of Mean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L Length of Railways 
 
 £375 
 
 £192 
 
 £151 
 
 £322 
 
 f Total Receipts - 
 
 3,104,726 
 
 174,885 
 
 247,766 
 
 3,527,307 
 
 l Per Cent proportion from 
 
 
 
 
 
 ) 2nd Class to Total Receipts 
 
 
 
 
 
 2nd Class \ from Passengers 
 
 35-31 
 
 19-04 
 
 36-75 
 
 30-00 
 
 J Average per Passenger 
 
 20-58A 
 
 19-52d. 
 
 17-78rf. 
 
 20-30A 
 
 f Average per Mile of Mean 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ Length of Railways 
 
 £451 
 
 £134 
 
 £219 
 
 £379 
 
 .Total - 
 
 2,905,439 
 
 472,598 
 
 238,155 
 
 3,616,192 
 
 , •■ ri<> 00 (P er Cent, proportion from 
 and J 3rd Class t0 Total Rec eipts 
 Parlia ^ from Passengers 
 mpntarv / Ay erage per Passenger - 
 meniary # Average per Mile of Mean 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8310 
 
 51-80 
 
 35-78 
 
 34-85 
 
 I0.77rf. 
 
 l-65<f. 
 
 14-54& 
 
 10-19* 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ Length of Railways 
 
 £422 
 
 £363 
 
 £211 
 
 £386 
 
 Periodical Tickets 
 
 196,853 
 
 16,804 
 
 16,245 
 
 229,902 
 
 Total Receipts from Passengers 
 
 1,789,181 
 
 914,490 
 
 672,638 
 
 10,376,309 
 
 Receipts from Passengers' Luggage and 
 
 
 
 
 
 Parcels - 
 
 574,601 
 
 42,805 
 
 29,331 
 
 646,737 
 
 Receipts from Carriages 
 
 43,853 
 
 3,513 
 
 2,851 
 
 50,217 
 
 Receipts from Horses 
 
 116,923 
 
 7,868 
 
 10,667 
 
 135,458 
 
 Receipts from Dogs 
 
 13,266 
 
 1,712 
 
 1,165 
 
 16,143 
 
 Total from Passengers' Luggage and 
 
 
 
 
 
 Parcels, Carriages, Horses, and Dogs 
 
 t775,709 
 
 f58,979 
 
 f45 080 
 
 f879,768 
 
 Receipts from Post-Office Mails 
 
 318,580 
 
 58,332 
 
 64,915 
 
 441,827 
 
 Receipts from Goods, &c:— 
 
 
 
 
 
 General Merchandise 
 
 6,637,585 
 
 765,403 
 
 308,398 
 
 7,711,386 
 
 Minerals - 
 
 3,335,122 
 
 692,893 
 
 18,046 
 
 4,046,061 
 
 Live Stock - 
 
 387,918 
 
 46,837 
 
 66,643 
 
 501,898 
 
 Total - 
 
 10,360,625 
 
 1,505,133 
 
 393,087 
 
 12,258,845 
 
 Total Receipts from all Sources 
 
 20,244,095 
 
 2,536,934 
 
 1,175,720 
 
 23,956,749 
 
 Expenditure : — X 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total Working Expenditure (.includ- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ing Compensation) 
 
 10,105,381 
 
 1,101,597 
 
 461,544 
 
 11,668,225 
 
 Interest on Loans 
 
 3,352,910 
 
 430,536 
 
 154,262 
 
 3,937,780 
 
 Total Expenditure 
 
 13,458,294 
 
 1,532,133 
 
 615,506 
 
 15,605,933 
 
 Average Working Expenditure per 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mile - 
 
 1,53251 
 
 875-67 
 
 451-75 
 
 953-31 
 
 Per Centage proportion of Working 
 
 
 
 
 
 Expei 
 
 lses to Total Receipts 
 
 50- 
 
 44- | 
 
 40- 
 
 49- 
 
 * Exclusive of the Midland Railway, from which no Return of Live Stock conveyed has 
 been received. 
 
 t Including a certain amount not distinguished under the separate items. 
 
 j The Expenditure of Railways as stat.ed in this Table is about 1$ per cent, less than the 
 actual amount, in consequence of some Railways not having furnished complete Returns. 
 
KAI 
 
 244 
 
 EAI 
 
 Net Receipts, after deducting Total Ex- 
 
 England 
 and Wales. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 
 
 
 
 penditure:— 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total - 
 
 j£6,785,801 
 
 £1,004,801 
 
 £560,214 
 
 £8,350,8r6 
 
 Mileage travelled by Passengers :— * 
 
 
 
 
 
 1st Class - 
 
 278,905,486 
 
 32,801,387 
 
 20,533,711 
 
 332,240,584 
 
 2nd Class - 
 
 484,435.688 
 
 20,122,651 
 
 40,743,694 
 
 545,302,033 
 
 3rd Class - 
 
 184,542,287 
 
 23,419,835 
 
 24,273,976 
 
 262,236,098 
 
 Parliamentary Class 
 
 536,980,816 
 
 92,445,703 
 
 35.733,782 
 
 665,158,301 
 
 Total - 
 
 1,503,542,3961 
 
 168,787,576 
 
 121,285,163 
 
 l,853,616,135t 
 
 Mileage travelled by Trains : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 By Passenger Trains 
 
 39,422,377 
 
 4,248,590 
 
 3,274,408 
 
 46,945,375 
 
 By Goods Trains 
 
 33,575,278 
 
 5,086,973 
 
 1,181,439 
 
 39,842,690 
 
 Total - 
 
 72,997,655 
 
 9,335,563 
 
 4,455,847 
 
 86,789,065 
 
 Number of Trains:— 
 
 
 
 
 
 Passenger - 
 
 1,716,621 
 
 229,458 
 
 140,318 
 
 3,086,397 
 
 Goods - 
 
 1,011,481 
 
 197,434 
 
 22,167 
 
 1,231,082 
 
 Total - 
 
 2,728,102 
 
 462,892 
 
 162,485 
 
 3,317,479 
 
 In an anonymous pamphlet published by "A Civil Engineer," in 1860, some 
 statistics as to the gradual development of railway traffic are given, which are 
 worth republishing, they are deduced from the data of ten years' returns, 1849 
 to 1859. Twelve railway companies of different classes throughout the country 
 are taken as a fair type of all the railways. 
 
 In the Table on the following page, the London, Brighton, and South Coast, 
 and its branches, are estimated to increase, in ten years, 73£ per cent., viz. ■ — 
 Main lines, 49 per cent.; Branches, 24£ per cent— 73^ per cent. As evidence of 
 the moderation of this estimate, I quote the last report of the directors: "In 1848 
 the number of passengers conveyed was 2,485,778, and in 1859,8,395,615. In 
 1848 the receipts for passengers amounted to £349,977, and in 1859, to £580,931 ; 
 in 1848 the annual season tickets amounted to £10,427, and in 1859 to £40,218; 
 the goods traffic in 1848 amounted to £61,433, and in 1859 to £157,636. The 
 gross revenue in 1848 amounted to £453,408, and in 1859 to £842,293, showing 
 an increase of £388,885 in eleven years, or 86*4 per cent., being at the rate of 
 £35,353, or nearly 8 per cent, per annum. 
 
 This return shows that the increase of traffic on these twelve lines amounted 
 in ten years to £5,010,014, or 743 per cent., and that £1,216,410 was received 
 from new lines, and to lines added which had come into play, and were drawing 
 revenue in 1859. Allowing the increased progress of traffic of the companies 
 that existed in 1 849 to go on in the same ratio for succeeding years that it has 
 done during the last ten, and the additional lines to increase at only half that 
 rate, we arrive at an increased gross revenue over the whole country of 
 £15,738,598 in ten, or £31,479,196 in twenty years hence. 
 
 A less certain but yet very corroborative proof of the accuracy of this esti- 
 mate may be otherwise deduced. The gross revenue of the railways which in 
 December 1858 was £24,000,000, we find on 31st December, 1859, to be no less 
 than £25,756,100, giving a gross increase of £1,576,100, or in ten years, in the 
 same ratio, an increase of £15,761,000. Now a small proportion only of this 
 increase can be attributed to new lines or branches. The extent opened during 
 1858 was 426 miles, of which 372 miles were single lines, showing that they 
 were chiefly branches, comparatively unimportant as affecting the general 
 amount of traffic ; but taking the traffic at £18 per mile per week, they may be 
 held to have produced £398,736, leaving a clear increase on the main lines of 
 £1,177,364, or in ten years £11,773,640. 
 
 * Exclusive of the Great Northern, South Wales, Glasgow and South Western, Dublin and 
 Drogheda Railways, and a few others, from which incomplete or no Returns of Mileage have 
 been received. 
 
 t Including a certain amount not distinguished in the separate classes of Passengers. 
 
EAI 
 
 245 
 
 EAI 
 
 
 Estimated revenue 
 in 1809, assuming 
 the traffic on the 
 
 main lines to in- 
 
 creue la the 
 
 ratio as during t he- 
 previous ten years, 
 and the traffic 
 
 on the. new lines to 
 increase in half 
 
 she ratio ofthi 
 
 main lines. 
 
 « ~ n — ■ cn-H ift ©o» w ©so 
 S^ooaesoSoQ oo — © 
 =i.© — •.*• ~ ft © © »* w© 
 «tf •<? t-""t>Tt>.' S -,' sf ~ ' rf o — * a» 
 ci c x u- — n cd ao as ■>* © ro 
 to co r^tf n •>? n © «_ o -* 
 « »* i-Tcf eo" ufw 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 ctf 
 
 
 Per cent- 
 age of 
 Increase 
 
 on main 
 lines 
 
 in 1859 
 over 
 1849. 
 
 5U — © C^ —. X © — Li •— 00 »e -* 
 
 
 And attri- 
 butable to 
 
 new lines 
 assumed or 
 
 added to 
 main lines. 
 
 £ 
 
 ' 8,840 
 177,840 
 40,950 
 93,600 
 47,700 
 156,000 
 209,820 
 
 99,840 
 383,760 
 
 1,216,410 
 
 
 Of which 
 
 increase 
 
 there is 
 attribut- 
 able to 
 main lines. 
 
 151,757 
 
 13,197 
 
 90,11)7 
 
 623,347 
 
 114,750 
 
 244,040 
 
 94,836 
 
 230,332 
 
 518,493 
 
 846,988 
 
 989,080 
 1,187,081 
 
 © 
 ©" 
 3 
 
 
 Gross 
 
 increase in 
 traffic of 
 
 18-v.) over 
 
 1849. 
 
 £ 
 151,667 
 
 •is,'.) 17 
 701,187 
 155.700 
 887,640 
 
 802,889 
 798,818 
 
 946,828 
 
 1,372,840 
 
 1,187,081 
 
 01 • 
 
 <©" 
 «* . 
 
 to 
 
 
 Revenue in 
 
 I860, in- 
 cluding main 
 lines and 
 oilier lines 
 added. 
 
 £ 
 888,978 
 49,068 
 
 1,288,217 
 
 353,706 
 
 885,988 
 
 '21)5,705 
 
 913,173 
 
 ! 1,897,773 
 
 1,909,316 
 
 3,570,797 
 2,298,475 
 
 © 
 
 •* - 
 
 of 
 
 
 B 
 
 o . 
 
 I 1 
 
 H 
 
 £ 
 
 212,215 
 86,768 
 68,008 
 
 588,030 
 198,000 
 498,328 
 155,169 
 520,841 
 1,169,460 
 
 962,487 
 
 2,197,957 
 111,804 
 
 rf" 
 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 
 9 
 
 I 
 
 Lancaster and Carlisle Railway . . 
 East Anglian Railway 
 Scottish CentrflJ Railway 
 Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway 
 
 Bristol and Exeter Railway 
 
 London, Brighton, & South Coast Railway 
 
 North British Railway 
 
 London and South Western Railway 
 
 Midland Railway .... 
 
 North Eastern Railway (1849 assumed, by 
 calculation) .... 
 
 London and North-Western (1859 assumed, 
 excluding the Miles added in 1858 and 
 1859) 
 
 Great Northern and East Lincoln Railway 
 
 Revenue in 1849 .... 
 Revenue in 1859 • 
 Increase in Revenue of 1859 over 1849 
 Estimated Revenue in 1869 . 
 
 At the end of 1858, the number of miles of railway open was 9542. The 
 total number of passengers conveyed during the half-year ending December, 
 1858, was 76,500,000, thirty millions of whom were passengers by parliamentary 
 trains. The total receipts from all sources of traffic were £12,825,000 ; the 
 
EAI 246 RAI 
 
 sums derived from the whole number of passengers amounted to £5,782,000, of 
 which £1,958,000 was derived from twenty-two million second-class, £1,688,000 
 from nearly ten million first-class, £1,521,000 from the parliamentary, and 
 £519,000 from thirteen million third-class passengers. The receipts from pas- 
 sengers' luggage, parcels, carnages, horses and dogs, amounted to £485,916. 
 £221,088 were received for carrying mails, and £3,988,000 for carrying thirteen 
 million tons of general merchandize. For carrying twenty-four million tons of 
 coal and other minerals, the railways received £"2,096,020, and £248,737 for 
 conveying live stock. £10,837,000 out of the whole £12,000,000 were received 
 in England and Wales ; £1,358,000 in Scotland, and £629,652 in Ireland. The 
 total number of miles of line open in England and Wales on the 31st December, 
 1858, was 7001 ; in Scotland, 1353 ; and in Ireland, 1188. 
 
 The railway traffic of the United Kingdom for the year 1859 shows, as usual, 
 an increase over that of all preceding years. It amounts, as nearly as can be 
 estimated from the returns, to £25,576,100, being an increase over those of 
 1858, of £1,812,336, and over those of 1857 of £1,413,645. The depression of 
 trade and railway competition at unremunerative rates in 1858 had the effect of 
 annihilating the ordinary increase of traffic, and, for the first time in the history of 
 railway traffic, depressing the receipts £400,000 below those of the preceding year. 
 In order to explain what is meant by " the ordinary increase of traffic," it is 
 necessary to state that during the 14 years preceding 1858 the increase in the 
 traffic re^oipts of railways in the United Kingdom averaged £1,380,000 per 
 annum. In estimating the actual loss of traffic in 1858, as compared with the 
 preceding year, the £1,380,000 must be added to the £400,000 deficiency as 
 compared with 1857, making together £1,780,000 or about 6 per cent, of the 
 whole receipts. This might appear a small matter to persons unacquainted with 
 the mysteries of railway finance, but the effect was to reduce the balances avail- 
 able for ordinary dividends by 20 per cent. 
 
 The continual increase in the capital accounts of railway companies, causes a 
 perpetual increase in the fixed charges against revenue, which must be met 
 before any dividend can be declared on the ordinary capital. The fixed charges 
 of some railway companies are so heavy that a comparatively small depression 
 of trade affects unfavourably the dividend of the ordinary shareholders. What- 
 ever might have been the financial difficulties of railway companies, they cannot 
 be attributed so much to a deficiency of traffic as to the lavish expenditure of 
 capital, and improvident leases and guarantees. 
 
 With the exception of the year 1858, the traffic receipts of railways in the 
 United Kingdom show, from 1842 to 1859, a constant annual increase, which 
 might have tempted many Boards to overload their companies with preference 
 charges, in the anticipation that, at some future period, the increase of traffic on 
 the railways would be more than sufficient to meet all those heavy charges, and 
 pay handsome dividends on the original capital. Had there been previously 
 five or six such years as 1858 to check those sanguine anticipations of continued 
 prosperity, it is probable that railway property generally would now be in a 
 much better position than it is, so far as having lighter preference charges, and 
 more remunerative dividends on the original shares. 
 
 The progressive development of railway traffic must be considered as very 
 satisfactory, for, in the year 1842, the traffic receipts on 1630 miles of railway 
 in the United Kingdom amounted to £4,470,700, while in the year 1859 they 
 amounted, on 9568 miles, to £25,576,100, showing an increase in the mileage 
 of 7938 miles, and in the receipts of £21,105,400, being an advance at the 
 average rate of 467 miles, and of £1,241,500 per annum. 
 
 The expenditure of capital on railways advanced rather faster than the traffic. 
 In 1842 the expenditure on the railways above referred to amounted to 
 £54,380,100, and in 1859 to £222,219,100, showing an increase of £267,839,000 
 in seventeen years, being at the average rate of £15,755,200 per annum. Of 
 course, the expenditure in some of those years was much more than double the 
 average, and in other years less than one-half the average. In the year 1842 
 the gross traffic receipts amounted to 8-22 per cent, of the expenditure on 
 
EAI 247 BAI 
 
 capital account, and thence they gradually rose to 9*14 per cent, in the year 
 1845. The per-centage of gross traffic receipts then declined until, in 1850, 
 owing to the heavy expenditure in that and preceding years, the traffic receipts 
 only amounted to 5 70 per cent, of the outlay. In 1851 the per-centage of 
 traffic to capital increased, and continued to improve up to 1859, when the per- 
 centage of gross traffic to the capital expended was 7 - 94 per cent. Another 
 matter against dividends was the great increase in the working expenses, which, 
 including rates and taxes, rose, in the course of 15 years, from 40 per cent to 
 48 per cent, of the gross receipts. 
 
 From 1842 to 1845 the expenditure on capital account was £21,266,000; 
 from 1845 to 1850 it amounted to £154,876,000 ; from 1850 to 1855, to 
 £61,381,000 ; and from 1855 to 1859, about £30,316,000, showing of late years 
 a considerable decrease in expenditure on capital account. 
 
 In the year 1842 the traffic returns on 1630 miles in the United Kingdom 
 amounted to £4,470,700 ; in 1843, on 1736 miles, to £5,022,650 ; in 1844, on 
 1950 miles, to £5,814,980 ; in 1845, on 2243 miles, to £6,909,270 ; in 1846, 
 on 2840 miles, to £7,945,870 ; in 1847, on 3713 miles, to £9,277,671 ; in 1848, 
 on 4626 miles, to £10,445,100; in 1849, on 5950 miles, to £11,683,800; in 1850, 
 on 6733 miles, to £13,142,235 ; in 1851, on 6928 miles, to £14,987,310 ; in 
 1S52, on 7337 miles, to £15,543,610 ; in 1853, on 7774 miles, to £17,920,530 ; 
 in 1854, on 8028 miles, to £20,000,520; in 1855, on 8240 miles, to £21,123,300; 
 in 1856, on 8761 miles, to £22,995,500; in 1857, on 9171 miles, to £24,162,460; 
 in 1858, on 9568 miles, to £23,763,764 ; and in 1859, on 9883 miles, to 
 £25,576,100. Deducting 48 per cent, for working and other expenses, the 
 traffic receipts of 1859 would admit of an average dividend on the total expen- 
 diture equivalent to 4*13 per cent. 
 
 The following statistics are compiled from a recent parliamentary return. 
 The total amount of capital created up to the 31st December, 1858, appears to 
 have been £325,375,507, and the various companies then possessed the power to 
 raise £67,307,248 additional, making an aggregate of £392,682,755. The 
 average rates of interest paid in 1858 were £3 Is 9d on the original shares, 
 £4 lis 6d on preferential shares, and £4 7* lid on loans. 
 
 Capital and Loans authorized by Acts of Parliament previous to 
 the 31st of December, 1857. 
 By Shares ..... £287,908,636 
 
 By Loans ----- 98,273,070 
 
 386,181,706 
 
 In the year 1358: — 
 By Shares ... - - 5,253,792 
 
 By Loans . _ - 2,199,409 
 
 7,453,201 
 
 Total Capital and Loans authorized previous to the 31st of 
 
 December, 1858 ..... £392,682,755 
 
 Amount ot the Share Capital actually paid up on the 31st December, 1858. 
 Not receiving nor entitled to receive any Preferential Dividend or 
 
 Interest --_.-. £181,837,781 
 
 Dividend on ordinary Share Capital - 6,161,099 
 
 Average Rate of Interest per cent, per annum, 3*388 - £3 7» 6d 
 
 Receiving or entitled to receive Preferential Dividend or Interest - 61,854,547 
 
 Dividend or Interest thereon - 2,829,331 
 
 Average Rate of Interest per cent, per annum, 4-574 - - £4 11* dd 
 
 Total Loan Debt of the Companies on the 31st of December, 1858 - 81,683,179 
 
 Amount of Interest payable thereon . - - - 3,591,148 
 
 Average Rate of Interest per cent, per annum, 4-396 - -£4 7* lid 
 
 Total Amount which, at the end of 1858, the Companies had raised by 
 
 Shares and Loans --.--_ 325,375,507 
 Total Amount which, at the end of 1858, the Companies retained the 
 
 power to raise either by existing or by new Shares, or Loans - 67,307,248 
 Total Amount of Capital raised or authorized to be raised - 392,682,755 
 
 Amount expended in the Construction of Railway Works, £ 
 
 Preliminary Expenses, <fec - - 262,615,442 
 
 Ditto, in Rolling Stock - 25,184,766 
 
 Total - 287,800,203 
 
 Total Capital, 31st of December, 1858 - - 292,248,276 
 Total Loans, ditto ... - 100,434,479 
 Total Capital and Loan to 31st December, 1858 £392,681,755 
 
EAI 
 
 248 
 
 EAI 
 
 Of the 9116 miles open for traffic on the 31st December, 1857, 7053 miles was 
 constructed on the narrow guage, namely, 5776 miles in England, 1269 in Scot- 
 land, and 8 in Ireland: 740 miles in England on the broad guage, and 261 miles 
 on the mixed guage, while 1026 miles were on the Irish guage. 
 
 In June, 1859, the length of lines open throughout this kingdom was 9796 
 miles, of which 7217 were in England and Wales, 1369 in Scotland, and 1210 
 in Ireland. The number of persons employed on railways open was 116,270, 
 and on those in course of construction, 39,975. 
 
 Railways in India. Railway extension, which is so essentially requi- 
 site in India, has been comparatively slow; for although some of the principal 
 companies were incorporated ten years ago, and nearly five thousand miles of 
 railway are sanctioned by the Government, only 800 miles are as yet completed 
 and open for traffic. They are pushing on, however, the construction now with 
 more energy, and upwards of 2000 miles are expected to be opened in 1861. 
 The cost of construction of some of the Indian fines is much lower than the 
 average cost in Europe, and will compare favourably even with the chief Ameri- 
 can fines, as the following table will show: — 
 
 Name of State. 
 
 Year. 
 
 $ 
 
 © 
 5 
 
 o 
 h 
 
 1 
 
 I! 
 "EL © e 
 
 ^H*0 © 
 
 oS C C 
 
 o © 
 
 si 
 
 H 
 * © 
 
 1 4 
 
 s!l 
 
 © 
 
 9 
 
 If 
 
 © a 
 
 «s 
 
 1° 
 
 Proportion per cent, 
 of Working Ex- 
 penses to Receipts. 
 
 Proportion per cent, 
 which Net Keceipts 
 hear to the Capital 
 expended. 
 
 Austria . 
 
 Belgium . 
 
 France 
 
 Germany, exclusive ) 
 
 of Austria & Prussia j 
 Great Britain — 
 
 England and Wales 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland 
 HoUand . 
 Prussia . 
 Sardinia , 
 Spain 
 
 Switzerland 
 Tuscany . 
 United States of ) 
 
 America . . ] 
 
 1856 
 1856 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 [ 1857 j 
 
 1857 
 1856 
 1855 
 1855 
 1856 
 1856 
 
 1855 
 
 Miles. 
 
 1,586 
 
 445 
 
 2,913 
 
 2,226 
 
 6,706 
 
 1,243 
 
 1,070 
 
 163 
 
 2,503 
 
 234 
 
 130 
 
 203 
 
 132 
 
 17,481 
 
 £ 
 16,378 
 16,391 
 25,668 
 
 13,111 
 
 39,275 
 28,225 
 15,664 
 19,931 
 14,101 
 
 19,'888 
 15,556 
 
 8,275 
 
 £ 
 
 2,190 
 2,158 
 2,706 
 
 1,816 
 
 3,161 
 
 2,107 
 
 1,091 
 
 1,709 
 
 1,877 
 
 1,477 
 
 924 
 
 636 
 
 966 
 
 1,234 
 
 £ 
 1,040 
 
 898 
 1,515 
 
 919 
 
 1,597 
 1,166 
 626 
 667 
 909 
 703 
 402 
 295 
 520 
 568 
 
 52-70 
 58 16 
 4401 
 
 49-28 
 
 48-00 
 44-00 
 38 00 
 6096 
 51-59 
 5138 
 58-48 
 54-28 
 46-18 
 
 54 00 
 
 45-04 
 
 44-1 
 
 52-9 
 
 6-32 
 5-48 
 6 58 
 
 5-70 
 
 4-06 
 4-13 
 3-99 
 3-35 
 6-22 
 
 1-48 
 3.34 
 
 6-70 
 
 East Indian . 
 Great Indian Peninsula 
 Madras . 
 
 1858-59 
 1858-59 
 185S-59 
 
 142 
 149 
 96 
 
 12,084 
 8,758 
 7,000 
 
 1,447 
 764 
 499 
 
 770 
 427 
 234 
 
 7. 4 
 5. 14 
 2. 1 
 
 In many of the British Colonies there are now railways in operation, and the 
 extent of mileage is yearly increasing. In Victoria, New South Wales and 
 South Australia, and in Canterbury, New Zealand, there are fines of railways. 
 In the Cape Colony railways are constructing. In British Guiana, Jamaica and 
 Trinidad, railways have been some time completed. In the North American 
 Colonies there are railroads in New Brunswick and Canada; those in the latter 
 colony having been specifically mentioned in the new article under that head in 
 this Supplement. 
 
 Railways in Germany. At the end of 1859 the total length of German 
 railways in actual working was 1767 German miles (each equal to about 
 4 \ English miles). Of these railways, of which 1109 miles belong to private 
 companies, and 658 to the State, Prussia has 665 miles of private railways. 
 Austria, counting only those parts of her dominions included in the Gcr- 
 
EAI 
 
 249 
 
 EA1 
 
 manic Confederation, has 336 miles. There are now only seven States in 
 Germany which have no railways, namely, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Lippe, 
 "Waldeek, the two principalities of Schwarzburg, and the two principalities of 
 Lichtenstein. 
 
 The capital of the German Railway Companies raised in shares amonnted, at 
 the close of 1858, (Austrian railways excluded) to £63,262,100, of which there 
 had been raised by way of loans and debentures £22,800,000. The sum ex- 
 pended upon the State lines had been about £45,000,000 sterling. 
 
 In 1857 the number of persons conveyed on all the German railways was 
 45,191,705, and the quantity of goods 400 million centners (113£ lb. avoir- 
 dupois.) 
 
 The total receipts in the same year were £12,875,913, of which £4,304,988 
 were for passengers, £7,851,957 for goods, and the rest extraordinary 
 revenue. 
 
 The receipts of the different railways varied from 2 per cent, to 23 per cent, 
 upon the capital expended; the average dividend realized in 1857 was 7 percent. 
 
 The following tables will serve for comparison: — 
 
 Country. 
 
 Popula- 
 tion per 
 Statute 
 Square 
 MUe. 
 
 Average Cost 
 
 of Bailways 
 
 per Mile. 
 
 Average 
 Working Ex- 
 penses per 
 Mile. 
 
 Average 
 
 Earnings per 
 
 Mile. 
 
 England . . 1857 
 France . . 1854 
 Belgium . . 1856 
 Prussia . . 1S57 
 Austria . . 1857 
 Germany . . 1857 
 
 304 
 168 
 337 
 133 
 143 
 
 £ 
 39,275 
 25,668 
 16,391 
 14,486 
 18,465 
 16,980 
 
 £ 
 1,564 
 1,191 
 1,259 
 1,248 
 1,239 
 
 931 
 
 £ 
 3,161 
 2,706 
 2,158 
 1,983 
 2,686 
 1,919* 
 
 The average cost of coke per mile travelled is, in Germany, 4« 8d : in England it is 2* 9rf. 
 
 Country 
 
 Average Fares per 
 Mile. 
 
 Average 
 Payment 
 per Cent. 
 to original 
 Share- 
 holders. 
 
 Proportion 
 of Accidents and 
 
 Injuries to 
 Persons carried. 
 
 Number of 
 times less 
 dangerous 
 
 than 
 England. 
 
 1st 
 
 Class 
 
 2nd 
 Class 
 
 3rd 
 Class. 
 
 England . . 1857 
 
 France . . 1854 
 Belgium . . 1856 
 Prussia . .1857 
 Austria . 
 Germany. . 1857 
 
 d. 
 
 201 
 
 1-55 
 1 33 
 14 
 1-4 
 
 d. 
 
 141 
 
 116 
 10 
 11 5 
 11 
 
 d. 
 
 •87 
 
 •84 
 •65 
 ■77 
 •83 
 
 ( 3-88 ) 
 ( 4-26 ) t 
 
 658 
 
 5 48 
 
 7 44 
 
 675 
 
 552 
 
 lin 183,903 
 
 1 in 1.375,092 
 1 in 1,611,237 
 1 in 3,294,075 
 
 7 times 
 16 „ 
 
 S Proportion per cent, of net receipts, less interest, on Preference Shares and on Loans, to 
 the ordinary Share Capital. All the other proportions are per centages of net receipts to the 
 total capital expended, governmental and private. 
 
 Railroads in the United States. The American Railroad Journal gave 
 the length of the railroads in operation in the United States, January 1, 1859, 
 at 27,857 miles, cost 961,047,364 dollars (£192,209,473.) The Secretary of the 
 Treasury's Report on the Finances (December 8, 1857, pp. 44, 45) stated the 
 capital paid up of the railroads in the United States at 49 1,435,661 dollars; 
 the aggregate debt 417,243,664 dollars; annual interest on the debt 25,093,203 
 dollars; the net revenue 48,406,488 dollars; the available income 24,290,826 
 dollars. The following table shows the growth of the American railroad system : — 
 
 Miles built 1st five years— 1828-32 131 I Miles built 4th five years— 1843-47 1,459 
 
 „ 2nd „ —1833-37 1,281 „ 5th „ —1848 52 6,295 
 
 3rd „ —1838-42 2,465 | „ 6th „ —1853-57 12,P45 
 
 Miles built 1858-59 - - 3381. 
 
EAI 250 EEV 
 
 RAISINS. The imports of this dried fruit have been largely increased of 
 late, averaging in the last ten years 320,000 cwts. per annum. In 1858, the 
 receipts were 357,485 cwts., and in 1859, 429,058 cwts. In 1860, Mr. Glad- 
 stone reduced the duty on raisins from 10s to 7s the cwt. 
 
 RAPE SEED. This like all the other oil-seeds has become of increased 
 demand with the progress of manufactures and trade. In 1 845, the imports were 
 but 47,677 quarters ; in 1850 they had risen to 107,029 quarters ; in 1855, to 
 162,353 quarters, and in 1859 to 412,174 quarters. 
 
 REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE, PUBLIC. In 1841, the duty on 
 rice in the husk £21,892, and some other small taxes amounting to £5338, 
 were repealed. In 1842, coffee duties were reduced £201,113; timber and 
 wood £608,414 ; export duties £109,778 ; other custom duties £579,639 ; 
 stage coaches £77,779, and other taxes amounting to £19,643. But in this 
 year, the income and property tax £5,100,000 was imposed ; export duty on 
 coals £141,930 ; spirit duty and stamp duty for Ireland, together £361,745, 
 and other taxes £26,314, making £5,629,989 new taxes, against £1,596,366 
 old taxes repealed or reduced. In 1843 the spirit duty was again reduced in 
 Ireland £240,000; the duty on timber and wood £126,453 reduced, and other 
 taxes, making a total reduction of £411,821. In 1844 a rather larger amount 
 of taxes was reduced, consisting of £86,174 on copper ; £95,816 on currants; 
 £97,140 on wool ; £101,959 on marine insurances ; £45,000 on glass, and 
 some other taxes, amounting in all to £458,810. In 1845, £4,546,306 of taxes 
 were reduced, consisting of £2,309,857 on sugar; £129,183 on molasses; 
 £682,042 on raw cotton ; £115,438 the export duty on coals, which had been 
 imposed in 1842; £380,786 other customs duties; auction duties £305,000 ; 
 and glass £624,000. A duty on auctioneers' and appraisers' licenses, bringing 
 in about £53,720, was imposed. In 1846 a further reduction of customs duties 
 amounting to £1,151,790 was made, viz., butter and cheese £205,437 ; tallow 
 £101,966; clover seed £36,077; spirits £482,286; silk manufactures £162,985; 
 woollen manufactures £27,970 ; and other customs duties £135,069. In 1847, 
 the reductions amounted to £344,886, consisting of £243,085 woods from foreign 
 countries ; £53,152 sugar and molasses ; rum £46,974, and other taxes £1675. 
 In 1848 there was a further reduction of £585,968 taxes, under the following 
 heads, copper ore £35,745 ; colonial rum £69,353 ; sugar and molasses 
 £258,854 ; foreign wood £215,028, and other taxes £6988. The reduction 
 in 1849 was £388,798 ; the greater proportion of which, £355,257, was in sugar 
 and molasses, £29,327 on sperm oil, and £4214 on other petty taxes. In 1850, 
 the reduction of taxes alone reached £1,310,151, being a further abatement on 
 sugar and molasses of £331,073 ; stamps £520,000 ; bricks £456,000, and 
 other small taxes £3078. In 1851, the window duty £1,878,800 was removed; 
 coffee £149,161 ; sugar and molasses £259,804; foreign timber £292,099, in 
 all, £2,679,864. In place of the window duty an inhabited house duty was 
 imposed, calculated to bring in £600,000. In 1852, the only alteration was a 
 further reduction of duty on sugar and molasses of £95,928. In 1853 a large 
 amount of taxation was dealt with, but the new taxes about balanced those 
 removed. The repeals and reductions consisted of about £ 1 ,500,000 on customs 
 articles, and £1,750,000 on excise and stamps, &c. ; the items being tea 
 £968,877 ; butter and cheese £106,535 ; sugar and molasses £78,793 ; raisins 
 £65,659, other customs articles £279,610. Excise on soap, &c. £1,171,000 ; 
 stamps £277,000 ; assessed taxes £300.000. The new taxes imposed in lieu 
 of those abolished were £590,000 excise duty on spirits ; £16,383 customs 
 duties; succession tax estimated to produce £2,000,000 a year, and property tax 
 £750,000. In 1854, owing to the declaration of war with Russia, although 
 £1,284,107 taxes were abolished, fresh taxes amounting to £9,954,643 were 
 imposed. The taxes removed were, tea £980,568 ; chip plat and other articles 
 £2539 ; stamps on bills of exchange reduced, £11,000 ; assessed taxes re- 
 pealed, £290,000. The new taxes imposed were, on foreign spirits £16,694; 
 a reimposition of sugar duties £420,298; other customs duties £3651; war 
 malt duty £2,450,000 j extra excise duty on spirits £450,000 ; income and 
 
EEV 
 
 251 
 
 EEV 
 
 property tax £6,614,000. In 1855, the taxes repealed were trivial; £2960 on 
 window glass and other articles, and £250,000 loss from the abolition of the com- 
 pulsory impressed newspaper stamp ; £5,225,907 of new taxes were imposed, 
 consisting of £1,267,566 on sugar and molasses ; £774,413 on tea ; £155,629 
 on coffee ; £25,546 on colonial spirits, and £2753 on other customs articles ; 
 £1,000,000 on British spirits, and £2,000,000 increased income tax. 
 
 In 1856, with the return of peace the reduction of taxation again proceeded, 
 the malt war tax which had brought in £2,200,000 was removed, and customs 
 duties on various small articles to the extent of £3475 abolished. In 1857, a 
 further large reduction of £10,753,582 was made, consisting of £9,125,000 on 
 property and income tax; £1,054,637 on tea; £418,988 on sugar and molasses; 
 £145,816 on coffee ; and about £9000 on various other small customs articles. 
 In 1858, a further reduction of £2,100,000 on the property and income tax was 
 made. A few new taxes were, however, imposed, amounting to £456,780, 
 consisting of £9080 customs duty on colonial spirits consumed in Ireland ; 
 £280,000 excise duty on spirits, and £167,700 various stamp duties levied. 
 
 In 1859 the income-tax was increased. 
 
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 «J n' — " rf rf — ci ef s 1 "" rf rf "• to ti <£ tf 
 
 VfliSiOCi 
 
 ■OCiQOOiO'OCOOtSi 
 
 X Xi X 00 X i 
 
 XXXXXXXXOO 
 
EEV 
 
 252 
 
 EIC 
 
 The deficiencies in the revenue in the enumerated years were provided for by 
 loans and Exchequer Bills. Between the years 1841 and 1859, an addition was 
 made to the national funded debt of £14,270,397. The Crimean war, the 
 expenses of the China wars, and the large fleet and extended fortifications the 
 countiy has had to keep up, owing to the unsettled state of affairs on the Con- 
 tinent, have led to a greatly increased national expenditure. 
 
 Taking the whole period under review, 1841-1859, there has been a net reduc- 
 tion of taxation of £6,623,942. Notwithstanding this remission, the net revenue 
 paid into the Exchequer has advanced from £46,965,630 in 1841, to £70,578,000 
 in 1859, so that the revenue-yielding powers of the kingdom would seem to have 
 increased in the 18 years about 66 per cent. 
 
 We next give a quinquennial review of the various sources of revenue: — 
 
 
 1845. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1855. 
 
 18C0. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Customs - 
 
 20,196,856 
 
 20,442,170 
 
 20,615,338 
 
 22,700,000 
 
 Excise - 
 
 13,585,585 
 
 14,316,084 
 
 16,389,486 
 
 19,170,000 
 
 Stamps - - - 
 
 7,710,683 
 
 6,558.332 
 
 6,805,605 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 Taxes - 
 
 4,223,842 
 
 4,300,179 
 
 2,945,780 
 
 3,250,000 
 
 Income-tax - 
 
 5,026,570 
 
 5,383,037 
 
 13,718,185 
 
 2,400,000 
 
 Post-offlce - 
 
 753,000 
 
 820,000 
 
 1,137,220 
 
 3,400,000 
 
 Crown Lands 
 
 120,000 
 
 160,000 
 
 280,516 
 
 280,000 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 1,443,820 
 
 770,878 
 
 1,100,057 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 It should be stated that the figures given in the last column are taken from 
 Mr. Gladstone's estimate, based on the system at present in existence ; but the 
 changes proposed by the right hon. gentleman will vary the various totals, in- 
 creasing the income-tax, for example, to £8,472,000. The figures are neverthe- 
 less interesting, as they show that the resources of the country have steadily 
 increased, a great amount of taxation having been remitted. As regards the 
 expenditure a quinquennial review stands thus: — 
 
 
 1845. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1860. 
 
 Interest on debt - 
 Army - 
 Navy - 
 Civil charges 
 
 £ 
 
 28,353,872 
 8,854,296 
 6,809,873 
 5,324,672 
 
 £ 
 
 28,091,590 
 8,955,061 
 6,437,883 
 6,747,340 
 
 £ 
 27,647,899 
 29,377,349 
 19,014,708 
 8,465,832 
 
 £ 
 
 26,200,000 
 15,S00,000 
 13,900,000 
 9,500,000 
 
 It should be observed that the expense of the revenue departments are not in- 
 cluded in the comparison. 
 
 RHUBARB. In 1 858 the imports of this medicinal root were 292,840 pounds, 
 valued at £41,771. Of the Russian rhubarb, valued at 125 per pound, 15,114 
 pounds came in from Russia direct or through Hamburg. Of the cheaper 
 Chinese rhubarb, not worth more than 2s 3d per pound, 273,830 pounds were 
 received. It has been free of duty since March 1845. The exports in the year 
 1858 were 332,938 pounds. 
 
 RIBAND, RIBBON. The quantity of ribbons of various kinds imported in 
 the year 1858 amounted to 383,619 pounds weight, valued at £986,533, nearly 
 all of which were sold and used in this country. The duty received thereon was 
 £143,805. They were subject to various rates of duty: plain silk ribbon of 
 one colour to a duty of 6s per pound; plain satin to 8s per pound: gauze or crape 
 ribbon 14s per pound; if mixed with silk or satin, 12s per pound; duties paid 
 19 March, 1846, plain velvet or plush ribbon, 5s per pound; ditto, figured or 
 brocaded, or with satin or fancy edge, 10s per pound; duty fixed 8 Aug. 1854. 
 In 1860, by the terms of the French treaty, alterations were made in the rates of 
 duty. Belgium and France are the countries from whence we receive the bulk 
 of the ribbons imported. 
 
 RICE. This grain is par excellence the bread- corn of most parts of Asia; 
 
BIC 253 EOS 
 
 the production is most extensive, and the commerce in it immense. Well-in- 
 formed statists agree that a common Indian labourer requires 56 lbs. of rice 
 monthly. If we take but 75,000,000 souls, or less than one-half the population 
 of British India, as rice consumers, this would entail at the foregoing ratio a 
 consumption of 22 £ million tons per annum, besides the large quantity shipped 
 to Ceylon, Mauritius, Bourbon, Great Britain, and other countries, and that 
 saved for seed. For the undetermined population of the various Eastern nations, 
 including China and the numerous islands of the Eastern Archipelago, all be it 
 observed dependent on rice as the main staple of food, it would be impossible to 
 form any reliable estimate. At even 3 cwt. each per annum, the Chinese popu- 
 lation would consume 54,000,000 tons of rice. At least half an acre is supposed 
 to be devoted to the culture of rice in China for every head of its 400,000,000 
 population, and two crops of rice, besides other grain, are frequently raised there 
 in the year. The culture of rice in Java is largely attended to by the Dutch, 
 and considerable quantities are exported. 
 
 The Province of Arracan, in the Bay of Bengal, has become the granary 
 for most of the British Eastern possessions, Singapore, Hong Kong, Ceylon, 
 Mauritius, &c. Akyab and the Bassein district yielded in 1855 upwards of 
 330,000 tons of rice, and the shipments from Akyab rose from 70,000 tons in 
 1850, to 210,571 tons in 1855. Ceylon alone receives about 4,000,000 bushels 
 of paddy and rice yearly, nearly all* from British India. 
 
 While the production of rice in India is so largely on the increase, but little 
 progress is made in its culture in the United States, although more pains is cer- 
 tainly taken there in the cultivation and in the preparation of the grain for mar- 
 ket. Rice is now largely used by our manufacturers for making starch, by some 
 agriculturists for feeding stock, and by the bulk of our population as an esteemed 
 article of food; indeed it has always been much more popular than maize. 
 
 The progressive increase in the imports of rice and paddy into the United 
 Kingdom is shown by the following figures: — 
 
 Rice. Paddy. 
 
 1845 - - 542,160 cwts. 45,287 qrs. 
 
 1850 - - 785,451 ... 37,150 ... 
 
 1855 - - 2,238,158 ... 18,673 ... 
 
 1859 - - 3,692,023 ... 25,877 ... 
 
 The importation of unhusked rice has altered very little, keeping at an average 
 of about 25,000 quarters, but that of cleaned rice has averaged more than 
 3,000,000 quarters in the last eight years. In 1859 the import however fell to 
 1,450,000 cwts. The duty on rice and rice meal is A\d per cwt. and on rough or 
 unhusked rice 9d per quarter. In 1858, 14,298 cwts. of rice meal, and 11,960 
 cwts. of rice dust for feeding cattle were imported. 
 
 BICE PAPER is now ascertained to be made by the Chinese from the pith 
 of the Aral i a papyrifera. 
 
 ROMAN STATES. The area of these States is now only 16,155 square 
 miles. The population in 1853 was 3,124,668. The revenue in 1857, 
 £3,039,321, and the expenditure £3,135,436. The number of vessels that 
 entered at Ancona in 1S57 was 684, of 110,704 tons, of which 53 ships and 
 28,229 tons were British. The imports in 1855 amounted to £2,553,734, and 
 the exports to £1,676,386. 
 
 In 1860 the war in Italy, carried on by Garibaldi, interfered greatly with the 
 trade and commercial progress of these States. 
 
 The value of the trade at Ancona in 1858 was 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 Tons. | Value. 1 
 
 Tons. . Valne 
 
 Foreign 
 
 113,081 £842,373 
 
 111,629 £354,624 
 
 British 
 
 25,666 | 379,292 
 
 25,032 39,269 
 
 ROSIN. In 1858 the imports of foreign made rosin were 701,430 cwts., 
 worth about 9s per bushel, aggregate value, £314,715. The bulk, 682,452 
 cwts., came from the United States. The exports in the same year were 34,193 
 cwts., of which 28,314 cwts. were British made rosin. The import duty was 
 removed in 1845. 
 
BUM 254 RUS 
 
 RUM. The import and consumption of this spirit have largely increased of 
 late years, owing to the extension of the royal and mercantile navies. The 
 comparative imports have been as follows : — 
 
 1845 - 4,808,798 proof gallons. I 1855 - 8,714,337 proof gallons. 
 1850 - 4,194,683 „ 1859 - 6,878,587 „ 
 
 Since 1854, the average imports have been 7,500,000 gallons per annum, about 
 half of which quantity is taken for home consumption : of the imports in 1858, 
 7,311,219 gallons; 6,609,603 gallons were from Demerara and the West India 
 islands ; 153,251 gallons from the foreign West Indies, and the remainder from 
 the Mauritius and British India. The duties have varied of late years. The 
 duty on colonial rum imported into England was fixed at 85 2d per gallon on 
 19th July, 1848, and on 21st April, 1855, the duty was assimilated when im- 
 ported into Scotland. At the same time, a duty of 6s 4d per gallon was fixed 
 for Ireland, which was increased on 19th April, 1858, to 8s 2d the same as the 
 other parts of the kingdom. Foreign rum which had been subject to a duty 
 of 15* per gallon, since 18th March, 1846, was in March 1860 reduced to 8* 3d. 
 
 RUSSIA. The population of the empire of Russia, including the military, 
 with the exception of the people of the Caucasus (about 1,400,000 souls), and 
 the independent tribes in the American Company's possessions (40 or 50,000 
 souls), was stated in 1856 at 71,500,000. The population of European Russia 
 is about 64,000,000 and Asiatic Russia 7,300,000. 
 
 The chief imports into the United Kingdom from Russia in 1858, were 
 6,647,420 lbs. wool; 1,004,563 cwts. tallow; 1,758,234 lbs. bristles; 930,884 cwts. 
 of flax and tow, &c. ; 1552 cwts. of horse hair; 611,283 cwts. hemp ; 555,593 
 cwts. of oil-seeds; 9071 lasts of tar; 3063 cwts. of feathers, and 7,500,000 quills; 
 2,282,163 quarters of grain of all kinds ; 291,324 loads of wood and timber ; 
 13,301 tons of bones, and 12,488 cwts. of pot ashes. 
 
 The receipts from the Customs establishments of the Russian empire for the 
 ten years ending 1852 were almost stationary at an average of £5,000,000. 
 They were derived from the following sources in 1857. 
 
 1857. 
 £. 
 Customs Duties -------- 5,013,818 
 
 Excise on Crimean Salt ------ 38,966 
 
 Bonded Goods and Warehouses - - - - - 39,139 
 
 Various City Dues ------- 162,665 
 
 Neva Bridge Dues and Redemption of Bridge Loan - 42,770 
 
 Receipts from Odessa steamboats, and Lyceum - - 9,517 
 
 £5,306,875 
 Customs Dues in Poland ------ 361,214 
 
 In 1856 the receipts from the Crown domains were £7,947,255. 
 The quantity of gold obtained in the mines of Russia from 1752 to 1852 was 
 1,068,266 lbs. Troy, and the quantities produced in recent years have been — 
 
 Quantity. Value at the rate of 1 13 grs. Troy, 
 
 lbs. Troy. per £ sterling. 
 
 1847 - - - 72,911 3,715,015 
 
 1848 - - - 77,608 3,955,127 
 
 1849 - - - 71,711 3,653,715 
 
 1850 - 66,561 3,391,283 
 
 1851 - - - 67,882 3,458,588 
 
 1852 - 67,952 3,462,154 
 
 The following shows the value of the imports and exports of coin and bullion 
 for the Russian empire for 1848 to 1852. 
 
 Imports. Exports. 
 
 £ £ 
 
 1848 - - - 959,202 2,032,719 
 
 1849 - 862,187 968,577 
 
 1850 - - - 1,231,199 830,542 
 
 1851 - 1,014,464 2,597,015 
 
 1852 - - - 1,988,801 5,056,371 
 1857 - - - ... 3,612,971 
 
EUS 
 
 255 
 
 BUS 
 
 Value of the Imposts and Exports of Merchandise for European Russi 
 
 for six years. 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1849 
 
 - 12,721,242 
 
 13,201,995 
 
 1850 
 
 - 12,050,347 
 
 13,162,879 
 
 1851 
 
 - 13,783,504 
 
 13,311,656 
 
 1852 
 
 - 13,160,409 
 
 15,841.371 
 
 1855 
 
 - 11,711,981 
 
 6,322,790 
 
 1857 
 
 - 22,382,501 
 
 18,674,112 
 
 The last-named year includes specie and bullion which the previous five years 
 do not. 
 
 The extraordinary fluctuations that have taken place in the foreign commerce 
 of Russia in the last few years, may be attributed to the changes in the Russian 
 tariff of 1850 ; to the apprehension of war in 1853, and its actual outbreak in 
 1854; to the sudden influx of renewed trade that occurred immediately after 
 the signature of the Treaty of Peace in the early spring of 1856; and, finally, to 
 the alterations that were again made in the Customs Tariff of the country in 
 the middle of 1857. 
 
 A general spirit of enterprise has arisen among the influential and active 
 commercial classes in Russia, that promises to lead to important results. Com- 
 panies have been set on foot at Moscow for working the mineral resources of the 
 country. Powerful associations have been formed in the Government of Tver; 
 and elsewhere, for giving increased facilities to the trade of Northern Russia, 
 and for augmenting steam navigation on the principal rivers of the empire ; 
 while satisfactory progress continues to be made in the great network of rail- 
 ways in course of construction, and the entire line from St. Petersburg to 
 Warsaw is expected to be completed early in 1861. These important enter- 
 prises will tend rapidly to develop some of the inexhaustible resources of this 
 great empire. 
 
 The value of the Imports, Exports, and Customs dues at the port of St 
 Petersburg have been : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Customs. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1852 
 
 10,391,565 
 
 6,259,074 
 
 2,394,788 
 
 1853 
 
 11,316,697 
 
 8,434,006 
 
 2,042,978 
 
 1854 
 
 3,959,377 
 
 1,517,734 
 
 1,063,610 
 
 1855 
 
 2,521,493 
 
 456,980 
 
 540,670 
 
 1856 
 
 10,904,694 
 
 8,696,631 
 
 1,562,954 
 
 1857 
 
 14,910,463 
 
 9,754,052 
 
 2,099,420 
 
 1858 
 
 15,088,814 
 
 10,828,163 
 
 2,067,825 
 
 The following Specie was comprised in the above returns : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 
 Roubles 3s 2d 
 
 £ 
 
 Silver Roubles. 
 2,860,020 
 7,974,93.5 
 501,423 
 412,774 
 9,343,672 
 3,125,963 
 
 Silver Roubles. 
 
 2,943,338 
 
 2,798,319 
 
 6,594,135 
 
 1,629,H26 
 
 238,116 
 
 10,742,593 
 
 22,816,875 
 
 24,218,787 
 
 47,763,202 
 
 3,834,641 
 
 7,562,507 
 
BUS 256 RUS 
 
 General Statement of Russian Commerce for 1857. 
 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 By European Frontier 
 By Asiatic „ 
 By Polish „ 
 By Finland „ 
 
 Roubles 
 
 £ 
 
 Silver Roubles. 
 
 141,363,189 
 
 11,945,598 
 
 12,056,784 
 
 4,322,563 
 
 Silver Roubles. 
 
 117,941,761 
 
 19,347,199 
 
 13,833,817 
 
 564,022 
 
 169,688,134 
 
 151,686,799 
 
 26,867,287 
 
 24,017,076 
 
 British Trade with Russia. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Computed Real Value of Imports 
 from 
 
 Declared Real Value of Exports 
 to 
 
 Northern Ports. 
 
 Southern Ports. 
 
 Northern Ports. 
 
 Southern Ports. 
 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 £ 
 
 1,299,547 
 20,173 
 9,999,579 
 9,929,104 
 8,452,979 
 
 £ 
 2,952,741 
 452,996 
 1,562,345 
 3,518,480 
 3,487,091 
 
 £ 
 4,798 
 
 1,446,542 
 2,828,287 
 2,724,609 
 3,493,016 
 
 £ 
 
 49,503 
 
 148,695 
 270,532 
 367,890 
 546,183 
 
 In 1857, some modifications were made in the previously existing Russian 
 import tariff. Cotton goods were all reduced considerably, and in some cases to 
 one-fourth the former duty; linen, on the other hand, only to about a half. The 
 following list contains some of the principal items, with the rates of the former 
 and present tariff, in roubles and copecks :— 
 
 Coffee - 
 
 Chocolate - 
 
 Moist Sugar - 
 
 Currants - 
 
 Figs, Raisins, Dates, Prunes, &c. 
 
 Wines, in casks - 
 
 Cyprus Wine - 
 
 French, Italian, Spanish, Austrian, Hungarian 
 
 Wallachian, and Greek Wines 
 Still wines, in bottles (excepting Burgundy) 
 Bottled Porter ... 
 
 Nutmegs, Cloves, and Mace 
 Snuff (rappee) - 
 
 Leather Gloves and Articles of Chamois Leather 
 Printed Linen, pure or mixed with Cotton 
 Cambric Pocket Handkerchiefs 
 White Cotton Yarn 
 Do. Dyed - 
 Do. Dyed Red - 
 
 Do. from Advianople 
 
 Cotton Wadding ... 
 
 Cotton Goods, <fcc. ;— Mescals, Calico, Jaconet, Canvas, Pique, 
 
 &c. Mixed Goods, whether woven or embroidered, from 48 to 
 Iron, in one and a balf inch Bars and Rails, &c. old Wrought "; ^"g ( 
 
 Iron - - - - - per lb. | "g 5 — 50 
 
 Iron under half inch - - - _s.||2^_7o 
 
 Sheet Iron for Boilers - - - - | £ o ] — 90 
 
 Raw Iron and old Cast Iron - - - -J fc< p, ^ — 15 
 
 Zinc in blocks - - - - -120— 60 
 
 Do. in Sheets - - - - -180— 90 
 
 Writing Paper - - . . -10 — 6 — 
 
 
 
 1850 
 
 1857 
 
 
 
 R. C. 
 
 K. C. 
 
 - 
 
 per lb. 
 
 3 70 
 
 2 50 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 3 80 
 
 8 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 — 70 
 
 — 40 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 1 40 
 
 1 — 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 2 45 
 
 2 10 
 
 
 
 2 90 
 
 2 10 
 
 per bottle 
 
 — 50 
 
 — 30 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 — 35 
 
 — 20 
 
 _ 
 
 per lb. 
 
 7 50 
 
 4 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 1 70 
 
 -80 
 
 
 per lb. 
 
 3 — 
 
 2 — 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 1 40 
 
 — 70 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 3 — 
 
 1 25 
 
 . 
 
 _ 
 
 5 — 
 
 3 50 
 
 . 
 
 _ 
 
 6 — 
 
 5 — 
 
 n 
 
 - 
 
 11 — 
 
 5 — 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 11 — 
 
 5 — 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 4 — 
 
 1 — 
 
 1 60 
 
 40 
 
BUS 
 
 257 
 
 IiUS 
 
 1850 
 
 1857 
 
 B. C. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 7 50 
 
 4 — 
 
 2 — 
 
 1 60 
 
 1 40 
 
 1 60 
 
 1 — 
 
 1 — 
 
 — 70 
 
 1 15 
 
 — 40 
 
 1 60 
 
 1 — 
 
 1 — 
 
 1 50 
 
 — 20 
 
 — 12 
 
 Silk Goods (with the exception of Brocades) per lb. 
 
 Mixed Goods two-thirds of the above duty 
 . Broadcloth, Smallcloth, Ladies' Cloth, Castor, and Kersey- 
 mere ----- per lb. 
 Sttiff for Tronsers - 
 Flannel, Shag, and Plush - 
 
 Copperas, Green, Blue, and White - - per lb. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid ----- 
 
 Ground Madder - 
 
 Rasped Dyewoods - 
 
 Raw Sugar, which previously paid from 3r. to 2r. 80c. per lb. was lowered to 
 3r. and 2r.; refined sugar, formerly prohibited, now enters at or. and4r. per lb.; 
 tobacco leaves were reduced from 12r. to 6 silver roubles. 
 
 Baltic Ports. St. Petersburg. — The population of this city in 1857 was 
 returned at 494,656 inhabitants. The entries of ships at St. Petersburg were, 
 in 1852, 1623 ships and 519,710 tons ; and in 1857, 2723 ships and 464,464 
 tons; 209,352 tons were British shipping. In 1857 the movement of shipping 
 at this port, although not quite so great as in 1856, (which was an exceptional 
 year, the Jirst after the termination of the war) was upon the whole satisfactory, 
 indicating, as it does, a progressive increase in tonnage over the ordinary years 
 that preceded it. The increase of steam navigation in the Baltic is remarkable. 
 In 1852, the total number of steamers that entered St. Petersburg was only 178, 
 of which 19 were British ; while in 1857 there were no less than 478, of which 
 number 171 were British. The trade of this port appears to be peculiarly well 
 adapted for the employment of steam ships, and the only wonder is that the 
 intricate navigation of the Baltic did not earlier suggest their more extensive 
 employment, as a probable means of lessening the difficulties and dangers of the 
 passage from Copenhagen to St. Petersburg. 
 
 The following comparative returns show the imports and exports of the 
 principal articles at this port in the years 1852 and 1857. 
 
 Exports from St. Petersburg. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1852 
 
 1857 
 
 Gold and Silver roubles 
 Hemp poods (36 lbs.) 
 Flax . „ 
 Potash . „ 
 Tallow . „ 
 ,, Candles „ 
 Raw Hides „ 
 Russian Leather „ 
 Iron . . „ 
 Copper . „ 
 Bristles . „ 
 Cordage . „ 
 Linen . 1 . pieces 
 Grain . chetwerts 
 Other Goods . roubles 
 
 Total declared value in silver \ 
 roubles of 3s 2d ] 
 
 2,943,338 
 
 1,695,223 
 
 749,688 
 
 787,277 
 
 2,107,134 
 
 1,050 
 
 19,221 
 
 19,890 
 
 244,651 
 
 339,425 
 
 60,778 
 
 246,853 
 
 36,436 
 
 324,775 
 
 8,269,155 
 
 10,724,593 
 1,574,921 
 
 605,312 
 2,692,576 
 
 167,116 
 
 24,758 
 
 377,151 
 
 154,420 
 
 69,324 
 
 424,023 
 
 42,350 
 
 1,580,219 
 
 16,288,023 
 
 39,536,683 
 
 61,604,539 
 
BUS 258 
 
 Imports at St. Petersburg. 
 
 EUS 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1852 
 
 1857 
 
 Gold and Silver 
 
 roubles 
 
 2,860,020 
 
 3,125,963 
 
 Sugar . ... 
 
 poods 
 
 1,336,682 
 
 1,827,674 
 
 Coffee 
 
 H 
 
 183,086 
 
 186,006 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 
 - 
 
 59,914 
 
 Wine t • - 
 
 ankers 
 
 127,687 
 
 . 
 
 Ditto 
 
 poods 
 
 - 
 
 366,674 
 
 Ditto 
 
 , bottles 
 
 836,834 
 
 978,794 
 
 Olive oil . 
 
 poods 
 
 . . 
 
 367,121 
 
 Dye Stuffs 
 
 , • 
 
 ... 
 
 1,186,609 
 
 Salt 
 
 ' »» 
 
 ... 
 
 578,160 
 
 Coal 
 
 
 ... 
 
 14,485,115 
 
 Raw Cotton 
 
 M 
 
 1,527,660 
 
 1,811,518 
 
 Cotton Yarn 
 
 , „ 
 
 45,444 
 
 290,261 
 
 Raw and Spun Silk 
 
 jj 
 
 . 
 
 3,094 
 
 Spun Worsted . 
 
 „ 
 
 . 
 
 66,310 
 
 Cotton manufactures 
 
 poods 
 
 8,256 
 
 26,237 
 
 Flax ditto 
 
 H 
 
 478 
 
 6,899 
 
 Silk ditto 
 
 M 
 
 3,618 
 
 4,482 
 
 Woollen ditto 
 
 M 
 
 6,375 
 
 14,553 
 
 Dresses embroidered, i 
 
 fee. roubles 
 
 ... 
 
 72,090 
 
 Drugs 
 
 • „ 
 
 578,556 
 
 
 
 Spices 
 
 poods 
 roubles 
 
 nports, > 
 roubles J 
 
 10,984 
 
 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 Declared value of Ii 
 
 25,055,291 
 
 25,589,419 
 
 64,999,359 
 
 88,908,190 
 
 Riga is the main outlet and warehouse of what are commonly called the Baltic 
 (East Sea) Provinces, viz. Livonia, Kurland, and Isthonia. It is built upon a 
 sandy plain on the right shore of the Dwina, a broad and sluggish, shallow, intri- 
 cate river. The population in 1858 was stated by our Consul to be about 
 80,000 persons. The produce shipped yearly is to the value of nearly £4,000,000 
 sterling. British interests have absorbed more than half of late years. In 1856 
 and 1857 the mean yearly value of exports to Great Britain was nearly £2,000,000 
 sterling, and exceeded the gross amount of the corresponding trade with all the 
 other countries by more than £200,000 yearly. France has an increasing com- 
 merce with the Baltic Provinces. America has since the late war instituted a 
 small trade, the principal article being tobacco. The average value of the 
 exports for the eight years ending 1853 was, to Great Britain £1,136,584; to all 
 other countries, £1,117,417. The average of the two years following the war, 
 (viz. 1856-57) was, to Great Britain £1,932,064; to all other countries, 
 £1,706,514. 
 
 The charges on shipping and merchandize are very heavy at Biga. The 
 following are the principal mercantile charges a ship has to defray: — 
 
 On cash advances 
 
 Encashment of freight in - 
 
 Commission on freight out 
 
 Clearing the ship (according to size) from 
 
 Custom House fees 
 
 Church money - 
 
 Stamps, &c per ton 
 
 Poor money per cent on freight 
 
 Bills on places removed from London 
 
 Lighterage, if required, as paid. 
 
 2 per cent. 
 
 2 „ 
 
 2 
 
 8 to 30 silver roubles. 
 
 2 roub. 40 cop. 
 
 2 „ 70 „ 
 
 „ 80 „ 
 4 per cent. 
 
 1 per cent, extra. 
 
 Archangel. This town is situate on the right bank of the Northern Dwina, 
 about 40 miles from the White Sea, and contains a population of 14,000. The 
 river here is shallow, only allowing vessels drawing 8 to 9 feet to pass. The 
 harbour for larger vessels is at Sollombol, 4 miles below the town, the village 
 containing 8000 inhabitants. The import trade of Archangel is insignificant; 
 in 1857 they were to the value of £56,898, of which £20,709 were from Great 
 
KITS 
 
 259 
 
 BUS 
 
 Britain. The exports, however, are of considerable importance, being in the 
 same year to the value of £1,348,650, of which £629,105 were shipped to Great 
 Britain. The following figures give the average trade for five years to 1857, 
 including the two years of war, 1854 and 1855: — 
 
 
 Total average exports. 
 
 Average shipments to 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Linseed - - qrs. 
 
 97,609 
 
 55,693 
 
 Wheat - „ 
 
 15,164 
 
 15,155 
 
 Eye - „ 
 
 208,254 
 
 5,047 
 
 Oats - ,, 
 
 204,012 
 
 203,070 
 
 Flax - tons 
 
 6,380 
 
 4,822 
 
 Flax tow - „ 
 
 4,626 
 
 3,396 
 
 Tallow - „ 
 
 224 
 
 146 
 
 Train oil - „ 
 
 610 
 
 37 
 
 Tar and pitch - brls. 
 
 99,550 
 
 88,114 
 
 Mats --- pieces 
 
 622,346 
 
 519,044 
 
 Deals standard dozen 
 
 42,383 
 
 40,567 
 
 Eye flour - - tons 
 
 5,626 
 
 none 
 
 Ports on the Caspian. Steam boat companies have been established 
 under imperial protection to navigate the Caspian and the rivers running into 
 that sea. The company of the Caspian and Kurr have built steamers on a large 
 scale near Astracan. The government building yards have been removed to 
 the maritime fortress of Baku. In 1853, 169 vessels of 11,474 tons entered the 
 Caspian, and 292 vessels of 29,224 tons cleared. 
 
 Ports of the Black Sea and Sea of Azof. Odessa. The population 
 of this city in 1857 was 107,370 inhabitants. It ceased to enjoy the right of a 
 free port in August, 1857. The quarantine system has been abolished here. 
 The neglected condition of the city and of its harbour, and the bad state of the 
 roads leading to the interior, must ultimately affect (unless timely remedies are 
 applied) the commerce it now enjoys, as the natural outlet of the great grain- 
 growing provinces of Russia. The total value of exports from Odessa in 1857 
 amounted to £4,044,375, and the imports to £2,103,076, making a total foreign 
 trade of £6,147,451. The shipments of wheat in 1853, the year before the 
 war, reached 2,1 60,000 quarters, but in 1857 were only 654,707 quarters. Indian 
 corn first came into notice as an export in 1844, when 19,161 chetwerts were sent 
 abroad. In 1857 the exports had increased to 632,252 chetwerts, or 455,221 
 quarters, of the value of £603,039. In the year 1857, 1230 vessels entered 
 Odessa, of a total tonnage of 246,704 tons, 494 of which brought cargoes of the 
 value of £2,154,610. These included 261 British and Ionian vessels, 93 of which 
 brought cargoes of the value of £1,330,769. 
 
 Sea of Azof. Taganrog. During the year 1857, 857 vessels arrived at 
 this port, of 232,965 aggregate tonnage. Of these 228 were British and Ionian, 
 21 bringing cargoes valued at £44,971. 863 vessels cleared, 820 taking cargoes 
 valued at £2,680,650. Of these 227 were British and Ionian, 214 having cargoes 
 valued at £1,033,950. 
 
 JBerdiansk is a small town of about 8000 inhabitants, situated in lat. 46° 50' 
 N., and long. 36° 50' E., at the extremity of a bay. There is a safe anchorage 
 for any amount of shipping for about 8 miles in every direction, with a depth of 
 16 to 20 feet water within half a mile of the shore. The average yearly amount 
 of British vessels loading in this port is 25, consisting of 7500 tons, and taking 
 cargoes valued at about £50,000. The average annual amount of vessels of all 
 nations loading in this port is 255, measuring 64,117 tons, and taking cargoes 
 valued at about £589,829. The want of steam tugs in the Straits of Kertch is 
 much felt, particularly by vessels bound up, a detention of 15 days often taking 
 place, and in the autumn this delay frequently obliges a vessel to return to 
 Kertch for the winter, thereby entailing heavy expenses on the owner. 
 
 The chief exports in 1857 were 846,280 quarters of wheat; 45,028 ditto of 
 
BUS 2G0 SAG 
 
 linseed; 42,568 cwt. of tallow; 1,539,072 lbs. of wool, and 3,373,596 lbs. of 
 hides. 
 
 Mariapol. In 1857, 97 vessels, of 27,961 tons, entered here, of which 5 of 
 1498 tons were British, and 2 of 784 tons, Ionian. The imports amounted to 
 £3467, and the exports to £200,270. The chief shipments were 77,855 quar- 
 ters of wheat, 16,143 of linseed, and 5554 of rapeseed. 
 
 Yeisk. The exports of this new and rising place in 1857, amounted to 
 £80,188; the chief being 13,605 quarters of wheat, and 587,952 lbs. of washed 
 wool. 19 vessels, of 5057 tons entered; 3 of which of 943 tons were British, 
 and 3 of 578 tons, Ionian. 
 
 Kertch. During 1857, 38 vessels, of 5595 tons entered this port, of which 7 of 
 1705 tons, were British, and 2 of 347 tons, Ionian. And in all, 1099 vessels, of 
 273,952 tons reported for the Azof, of which 155 were British, and 60 Ionian. 
 The imports for the year were valued at £12,431, the exports at £66,415. The 
 principal articles were wheat, 14,512 quarters; caviar, 224,568 lbs.; and hides, 
 102,924 lbs. 
 
 Theodosia. Though enjoying "a fine harbour and a mild and healthy climate, 
 this port has hitherto had but little commerce. It has recently, however, been 
 made the military port of embarkation for the Caucasus, and has been selected 
 as the terminus of the Grand Trunk Railway to Moscow. 
 
 The completion of this great work and the emancipation of the serfs, who 
 will be free in a few years to select the most profitable sphere for their labour, 
 together with the natural advantages of Theodosia, will render it the chief city 
 of Southern Russia. The foreign exports at present only amount to £3846, and 
 the imports to about £8000. 51 vessels entered in 1857, of which 4 were Bri- 
 tish, and 1 Ionian, and 75 Russian coasters, with goods to the value of £39,635. 
 The trade of Eupatoria, Balaclava, and Sevastapol is at present on a very re- 
 stricted scale. 
 
 , Russian Finances. The revenue of the empire in 1852 was stated at 
 £43,616,400, and the expenditure about the same; the public debt then stood at 
 £63,185,308. On the 1st January, 1859, it had been increased to £81,260,692. 
 But the largest item of outstanding Russian public securities, are £102,000,000 
 of credit notes, a kind of paper money payable on presentation, which circulate 
 without interest, and are nominally guaranteed by the reserve of precious metals 
 deposited in the fortress of St. Petersburg. Treasury bills are also issued from 
 time to time, according to the necessities of the State, bearing 4| per cent, 
 interest, and payable at eight years date; these are issued in series of three 
 millions of silver roubles. In 1854, there were 27 series of them in circulation 
 for 81 millions of roubles, but we have no information as to the number issued 
 since, nor what proportion has been paid off. 
 
 SADDLERY and HARNESS. The average annual exports of these articles 
 now amount to about £300,000 in value; the largest quantities are sent to Aus- 
 tralia, India, and South Africa. 
 
 SAFFLOWER. The imports of this dye-stuff now amount to about 12,000 
 cwt., of the value of £108,000. It is nearly all received from India, and con- 
 sumed here. The seeds yielding an abundance of fixed oil are also imported 
 for crushing; the oil makes excellent soap. 
 
 SAFFRON, is used as a colouring principle, and an ingredient in several 
 culinary preparations. In 1855, the imports were but 11,000 lbs., it has 
 lately been in greater request, and in 1858 we received about 32,000 lbs., valued 
 at £42,000. The French saffron is esteemed the best, but the largest quantity 
 imported comes from Syria and Palestine. 
 
 SAGO. The imports of this granulated starch have increased year by year, 
 especially since the reduction of the duty to the nominal amount of 4£r/ per cent, 
 in June, 1853. In 1855 our imports for home consumption were 5420 tons, 
 and in 1858, 6943 tons. Of the 172,513 cwts., valued at £149,352 received in 
 1858, 135,125 cwts. came from Singapore, 24,647 cwts. from Borneo, and 8679 
 cwts. from other islands of the Eastern Archipelago. 
 
SAI 261 SAL 
 
 SAIL-CLOTH. In 1858, 3,629,339 yards of sail-cloth, valued at £156,882, 
 and sails to the value of £3662 were exported. 
 
 SALMON. The maximum weight of salmon caught during any one season 
 in the kingdom has been estimated in the aggregate at 4000 tons weight, value 
 £336,000, being sold at an average of £84 per ton, or 9d per lb. ; of which upwards 
 of 2000 tons are disposed of at Billingsgate. 
 
 SALT. Enormous quantities of this mineral are needed for the use of man 
 and the domestic animals. Some years ago an investigation was made to ascer- 
 tain as accurately as possible the amount of salt manufactured in Europe. 
 From a careful examination of the most accurate returns, Prof. Jameson and 
 Sir David Brewster considered the European salt mines and salt springs afforded 
 annually 1£ million to 1£ million tons of salt. In Russia the annual average 
 from 1840 to 1850 was 9,675,000 cwts., and the annual consumption 
 11,1717,86 cwts. The internal consumption of France was then rather more 
 than 200,000 tons, that of England 240,000. 
 
 The estimated quantity of salt manufactured in the United States per annum, 
 is as follows : 
 
 Bushels. 
 Massachusetts (mostly in vats built along the sea shore) - - 46,000 
 
 New York (Ouondago County) about - 6,000,000 
 
 Pennsylvania (Alleghany and Kiskiminetas Rivers) - - 900,000 
 
 Virginia (Kanawha and King's Works) - 3,500,000 
 
 Kentucky (Goose Creek) - 250,000 
 
 Ohio (Muskingum, Hocking River) .... 500,000 
 
 Ohio ( Pomeroy and West Columbia) .... 1,000,000 
 
 Illinois - ----- 50,000 
 
 Blichigan - ----- 10,000 
 
 Texas ------- 20,000 
 
 Florida ------- 100,000 
 
 Total - 12,376,000 
 
 Besides the home-made salt, about 14,000,000 bushels are imported. The 
 amount of salt consumed in the United States is calculated to be about 60 lbs. 
 to each inhabitant; in France, 21£ lbs.; in Great Britain, 25 lbs.; in Bengal it 
 is 13 lbs. per head, in Bombay, 26 lbs., and in Madras, 18 lbs. per head. 
 
 In 1856, Mr. Robert Hunt estimated the make of salt in the United Kingdom 
 at 1,657,613 tons, of which 1,451,350 tons were produced in Cheshire, 190,000 
 tons at Stoke and Droitwich in Worcestershire, and 16,263 tons at Duncrue, 
 near Carrickfergus. The production in most places is increasing. There are 
 upwards of one million feet of pannage contained in the salt works of the king- 
 dom, and the rock mines are about 20 in number. 
 
 In Cheshire the quantity of salt produced is about 1,000,000 tons per annum. 
 There are 30 brine shafts in the district, and the same number of rock salt 
 mines in operation; these give occupation in one way or other to about 5000 
 people, and altogether there is a population of from 25^000 to 30,000 depending 
 upon the trade for their support. The sloops and barges which ply on the 
 Weaver earning away salt and bringing back coals, number about 500. About 
 5,000,000 tons of brine per annum are pumped from the springs. A few years 
 ago a false panic was created that the brine springs in Cheshire were failing, but 
 closer investigation showed that there was rock salt under an area of eight 
 square miles in North wich and Winsford, with a depth of 100 yards of pure 
 fossil salt. This would yield 640 millions tons of salt per square mile, equal to 
 a supply of one'million tons per annum (the present rate) for a period of 5000 
 years. Still this would require a considerable outlay of capital in the altera- 
 tion, reconstruction and removal of works to adapt them to the new state of 
 things. For rock salt has to be converted into artificial brine by dissolving it, 
 before the pure salt can be obtained, and the cost of the commodity would be 
 enhanced to the consumer very materially. The effect of such a change would 
 be to raise the price of common salt from 6s or 7* to at least 10* per ton; butter 
 salt from 8* to 12*, or 14«; while stove salt of various kinds now sold at 10* or 
 12j a ton, could not be produced for less than 16s to 18* a ton. 
 
SAL 262 SAN 
 
 In the eight years ending with 1859, the exports of salt from the United 
 Kingdom averaged 19,622,000 bushels yearly; since that period the quantity has 
 been given in the official returns in tons, and the average shipments of the four- 
 years, 1856-59 was 636,244 tons. About 40 bushels of salt go to the ton. 
 80,000 tons of rock salt are exported annually, chiefly to Prussia, to avoid the 
 duty on manufactured salt. 
 
 Salt is taxed in nearly every country in Europe, and even elsewhere, since the 
 State of New York derives about 33,000 dollars per annum from that source. 
 In most countries the tax exists under the form of a monopoly. British India 
 furnishes a remarkable example, drawing a revenue of about £2,000,000 from it. 
 In Austria this monopoly only extends to the right of working all the salt mines 
 or ponds within the realm, but the retailing of the salt is left to private enter- 
 prise. In 1855 the net produce of the monopoly was nearly £3,000,000. Saxony 
 gets all her salt from Prussia under a treaty. Before 1840 every Saxon tax- 
 payer was bound to take a certain quantity per annum. From 1849 to 1851 
 the net revenue from this source amounted in Saxony to £68,000. In Spain, 
 the State in 1850 sold 1,730,944 fanegasof salt (the fanega is about 3£ bushels), 
 making about 14lb. per head, exclusive of 208,937 fanegas for cattle. The total 
 gross revenue is about 95,000,000 reals (the real is 2\d). The saltworks of 
 Bavaria yield a net revenue of about £210,000, including that derived from salt 
 for manure. In Hanover, salt for manufactures and agriculture only is free. 
 
 In Tuscany the salt monopoly yielded a revenue in 1858 of £152,033. 
 
 SANDWICH ISLANDS. The number of vessels that entered at the port 
 of Honolulu in 1857 was 75, measuring 24,200 tons. The imports average 
 £300,000, and the exports £120,000, the customs' receipts £31,000. 
 
 The value of the domestic produce exported in 1857 was 423,304 dollars, of 
 foreign produce 222,223 dollars. The number of entries of whalers was 387: 
 16,144 gallons of spirits were consumed; 170,306 gallons of sperm oil, 2,018,027 
 gallons of whale oil, and 1,295,525 lbs. of whale bone, were transhipped here from 
 the whalers. 
 
 SAN SALVADOR. The trade of this Republic shows a steady increase in 
 the last few years. In 1858 the entries of vessels were 156 of 55,163 tons, of 
 which 31 of 8,732 tons were British. The largest trade is earned on with the 
 United States. The exports in 1857 were valued at £260,820, and consisted of 
 7450 serons of indigo, 1813 serons of tobacco, 2082 mille of cigars, 7890 lbs. 
 of balsam of Peru, 27,824 hides, 389 marks of silver, 12,225 quintals of sugar, and 
 3486 quintals of rice. The value of the imports in 1859 was £261,275, and of 
 the exports £398,330. 
 
 The revenue of this State in 1858 amounted to 725,978 dollars, derived from, 
 Customs 244,192 dollars, spirits 157,513 dollars, and miscellaneous sources 
 324,273 dollars. The expenditure was 630,794 dollars, leaving a surplus of 
 95,184 dollars. The public debt on the 30th September, 1858, stood at 341,090 
 dollars, 1st, 2nd, and 3rd class bonds, and these were redeemed in the year by 
 bills amounting to 194,911 dollars. 
 
 This rapid growth in the commerce of the State may be mainly attributed to 
 the opening of the resources of the country by the line of steamers connecting it 
 with Panama, and the more immediate contact into which foreigners have been 
 consequently brought with that portion of the Continent, which for want of pro- 
 per facilities for communication had hitherto been almost entirely isolated from the 
 rest of the world. The great progress in the value of the exports is owing to the 
 increasing attention now being paid to agriculture. 
 
 Coffee, rice, and cochineal are attracting the attention of the producers; and 
 with a large labouring population, and a soil and climate suited for the produc- 
 tion of these articles, it is evident that in a few years Salvador will be ranked 
 amongst the most productive countries on the Pacific coast. 
 
 The import duties on foreign goods are 20 per cent., paid as follows — 8 per 
 cent, in cash, 6 per cent, in Government drafts, and 6 per cent, bondf, first and 
 second class. 
 
SAN 2G3 SAX 
 
 The exports are free with a few exceptions: a small permit duty is levied on 
 each seron of indigo. 
 
 Salvador is eminently adapted for agricultural pursuits. Possessing a tem- 
 perate climate, rich and varied soil, magnificent plains watered by innumerable 
 streams, and mountains of gradual declivity covered to their summits with the 
 most luxuriant vegetation, it presents a fieldfor every description of cultivation. 
 The low lands yield the products of tropical climates, and the high lands the 
 grains and fruits of northern climates. Notwithstanding the unsettled state of 
 affairs in Central America for some years, and the active part taken by Salvador 
 in the war in Nicaragua, the trade of the country has made fair progress. The 
 increase in the imports may be attributed, in part, to the lowness of the duties 
 in comparison with those of Guatemala, a circumstance which has induced the 
 merchants of the latter to disembark at Acajutla and La Union a considerable 
 portion of their cargoes. A quantity of these goods, it is well known, is con- 
 stantly smuggled over the frontiers. 
 
 SARDINIA. This kingdom now includes not only the island of that name, 
 but Sicily which was annexed to it by conquest in 1860, and several important 
 Continental States, as Sardinia, Piedmont, Genoa and Tuscany, the Emilia, 
 Naples, and other Italian Provinces. 
 
 Of the large present debt owing by Sardinia, about £8,000,000 have been 
 expended on railways, which are producing a fair rate of interest; another 
 £8,000,000 were spent in various ways during the war with Austria; £2,000,000 
 were absorbed in the expedition to the Crimea, while very large sums have been 
 incurred in the Italian war. A guaranteed loan of £2,000,000 was made to 
 Sardinia by Great Britain in 1855 and 56. The population of this kingdom in 
 1858, exclusive of its recent acquisitions of territory, comprised 5,194,807 in- 
 habitants. 
 
 The revenue and expenditure of this kingdom in the four vears ending with 
 1857 averaged £5,500,000. The public debt on 1st Jan. 1858 was £27,080,809. 
 The number of merchant vessels owned in 1854 was 3174, of 177,852 tons. 
 The entries and clearances 3720 vessels and 500,000 tons. About 230 British 
 ships enter the ports. The value of the imports in 1857 was £16,000,000, of 
 which two-thirds was entered for consumption. The exports in 1 856 were of 
 the value of £12,523,000, of which £7,720,710 were Sardinian produce, and in 
 1857, £14,605,000. Into the island of Sardinia the imports in the same 
 year were to the value of £587,815, and the exports £460,070. 
 
 The vessels that entered at Cagliari were 707 of 114,112 tons, of which 54 
 vessels and 14,097 tons were British. 
 
 SAXONY. The population of this kingdom in 1858 was 2,122,148 inhabi- 
 tants. The capital, Dresden, had, including the military, 117,750; Leipsic, 
 74,209 souls. 
 
 Mining is an old and important branch of industry in the kingdom. The 
 districts into which the mines are officially divided are, Altenberg, Frieberg, 
 Marienberg, and Schwarzenberg, all situate in the Erz-gebrige, or ore mountains. 
 Altenberg chiefly produces tin; Frieberg is the seat of the silver mines; Marien- 
 berg, tin and silver; and Schwarzenberg, coal, iron and cobalt. The value 
 realized by mining in these districts in 1856 was £266,806; the produce of the 
 silver furnaces, £354,557 ; and of the coal, £340,000. The number of mines of 
 all kinds worked was 416, employing 12,581 hands; at the furnaces, in. smelting, 
 1045. 
 
 The trade of Leipsic as reported by the British Consul shows that in 1858 
 385,438 centners in weight of German manufactures, valued at £11,690,817, 
 were brought on sale, and 168,631 centners or cwt. of foreign manufactures, valued 
 at £3,838,020, of which 139,948 centners, valued at £2,115,788 were British 
 manufactures. The live stock in the kingdom in 1850 comprised 88,242 horses, 
 610,557 cattle, 547,334 sheep, 208,983 swine, and 86,547 goats; Th e re nem 722, 
 distilleries at work in 1851, which made 3,214,020 gallons of spirits, chiefly dis- 
 tilled from potatoes, and 766 breweries, where 25,365,000 gallons of beer were 
 made in the year. 
 
SEA 264 SHE 
 
 The receipts and expenses of the kingdom were fixed by resolution of the 
 Diet extraordinary for 1859 at 11,203,540 thalers. The public debt on the close 
 of 1858 stood at 60,729,552 thalers. 
 
 SEALS. The seal fishery is now the most profitable branch of trade in the 
 colony of Newfoundland. Twenty-five years since, about 50 vessels of 50 or 60 
 tons each, were engaged in it; in 1852 it employed 367 vessels of 35,760 tons 
 aggregate tonnage, and 13,000 men. The vessels are from 75 to 200 tons, but 
 those of 130 tons, which carry crews of 40 or 50 men, are preferred. The voyage 
 is begun early in March, rarely exceeds two months, and is often completed in 
 three weeks. Two and three voyages are sometimes made in one season. 
 
 The species of seal which chiefly resort to the Newfoundland coast are the 
 Hood seal {Stemmatopus cristatus) and the Harp seal (Phoca Groenlandica and 
 oceanica.} They whelp their young in January and February on the ice fields 
 of Labrador. The whelping ice, as it is called, is floated southwards by the 
 ocean currents, and is always to be found on the coast of Newfoundland after 
 the middle of March. 
 
 The total number of seals cut up for oil rendering in Newfoundland was in 
 
 1857 - - 530,733 } 1859 - - 396,303 
 
 1858 - - 398,166 | 1860 - - 330,319 
 
 The weight of the carcases in the last two years averaged 1 12,000 cwt. The 
 yield of oil is about 1 1 gallons per cwt. The exports of seal oil from New- 
 foundland during the five years ending in 1850 averaged 4291 tuns for each year, 
 and for the five years ending 1855, 6353 tuns annually. 
 
 In 1850 the average number of seal skins exported from the island was stated 
 at 511,630, valued at £76,596, and the seal oil at 6200 tuns, of the value of 
 £180,000. In 1857, 496,113 seal skins were exported, of the value of £99,217, 
 and 7115 tons of seal oil, valued at £265,131. The imports of seal skins into 
 the United Kingdom from Newfoundland and Labrador in the five years ending 
 1858 averaged about 400,000. The annual number of seals taken on the 
 Labrador shore is 7000 or 8000. 
 
 The vessels employed in the eastern Greenland seal fishery are of various 
 sizes, from 130 to 550 tons. The largest vessels carry from 60 to 70 hands, the 
 smallest 35 to 40. The average quantity of oil to 1000 seals is allowed to 
 be 1 tuns. The total quantity of seals taken by British vessels fitted out from 
 the northern ports of the kingdom for Greenland and Davis' Straits in the eleven 
 years ending with 1859 was 1,035,846. Seal skins have varied in price, according 
 to size, from 4* to 9s; seal oil from £30 to £32. 10s. Although fish oils are 
 being supplanted by vegetable oils for burning purposes, the prospect of in- 
 creased trade with France, and the falling off in the American fisheries, give 
 hope of better prices and improved demand. 
 
 SHEEP. The rearing of sheep in the United Kingdom and many of her 
 Colonies occupies a large share of attention. According to the agricultural re- 
 turns there were in Scotland in 1857 about 6,000,000 sheep; in Ireland in 1858, 
 3,500,000; England and Wales have probably about 28,500,000 sheep, which 
 would bring the total number in the United Kingdom up to 38,000,000. But 
 wc may safely take the whole number in the United Kingdom at 40 millions. 
 Averaging these at 30s per head, we have an aggregate value of £60,000,0CO 
 for the sheep stock of the British islands. Assuming one-fourth of these to be 
 slaughtered annually, and their average weight to be 80 lbs., this gives a yearly 
 supply of 800 million pounds of mutton for our population, w r orth probably 
 £20,000,000 sterling. About 4,000,000 sheep and lambs are required annually 
 for the supply of London, of which more than half are sent up to market 
 slaughtered. We only commenced to import sheep from abroad in July 1842, 
 when 650 head came in upon the repeal of the prohibition. The number of 
 sheep and lambs imported in 1859 was 250,580; and the average of the ten 
 years was 200,000 head. 
 
 Jn the Australian Colonies and New Zealand there were in the year 1857 
 
SHE 
 
 2G5 
 
 SHI 
 
 about 18,000,000 sheep, of which New South Wales had 8,000,000, Victoria 
 5,000,000, South Australia 2,000,000, Tasmania 1,600,000, New Zealand 
 1,000,000, and West Australia a few hundred. The Cape Colony has about 
 6,500,000 sheep. 
 
 On the Continent, Russia has upwards of 50,000,000 head, France 36,000,000, 
 Austria 17,500,000, and Prussia 16,000,000. The United States had in 1855, 
 23,500,000 head. 
 
 SHIPPING. The following series of tables will serve to indicate the progress 
 of the shipping trade of the United Kingdom, by comparison with those for 
 1840, given at page 613. The registered shipping has increased from 3,31 1,538 
 tons in 1840 to 5,609,623 tons in 1858. 
 
 On the 1st January, 1850, the new Navigation Laws came into operation, by 
 which Foreign shipping were admitted to participate in the carrying trade of the 
 country, and the following shows the general progress made since : — 
 
 Entries of Tonnage with Cargoes at Ports in the United Kingdom. 
 
 
 1849. 
 
 1859. 
 
 Colonial Trade - - ] 
 Foreign Trade - - ) 
 Coasting Trade 
 
 6,919,900 
 11,967,473 
 
 2,272, 9C6 
 6,816,584 
 16,532,117 
 
 18,887,373 
 
 25,621,667 
 
 Clearances of Tonnage with Cargoes from Ports in the United Kingdom. 
 
 
 1849. 
 
 1859. 
 
 Colonial Trade - - ] 
 Foreign Trade - - ] 
 Coasting Trade 
 
 7,084,488 
 12,915,584 
 
 2,201,629 
 8,040,995 
 16,509,471 
 
 20,000,072 
 
 26,752,095 
 
 The following table shows the movements of Shipping in Ports of the United 
 Kingdom, comparing the British with the Foreign tonnage, and includes vessels 
 both with cargoes and in ballast, except 1859, which are laden vessels only : — 
 
 1842 
 
 TOh 
 
 NAGE INWABDS. 
 
 Tonnage Odtwaeds. 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Total. 
 
 British. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 3,234,725 
 
 1,205.303 
 
 4,500,028 
 
 3,375,270 
 
 1,252,176 
 
 4,627,446 
 
 1843 
 
 3.545,346 
 
 1,301,950 
 
 4,847.2% 
 
 3,635,833 
 
 1,341,433 
 
 4,977,266 
 
 1844 
 
 3,647,463 
 
 1,402,138 
 
 5,049,601 
 
 3,852,822 
 
 1,444,346 
 
 5,297,168 
 
 1845 
 
 4,310,639 
 
 1,735,079 
 
 6,045,718 
 
 4.235,451 
 
 1,796,136 
 
 6,031,587 
 
 1846 
 
 4,294,733 
 
 1,806,282 
 
 6,101,015 
 
 4,393,415 
 
 1,921,156 
 
 6,314,571 
 
 1847 
 
 4,942,094 
 
 2,253,939 
 
 7,196,033 
 
 4,770,370 
 
 2,312,793 
 
 7,083,163 
 
 1848 
 
 4,565.533 
 
 1,960,412 
 
 6,525,946 
 
 4,724,027 
 
 2,056,654 
 
 6,780,681 
 
 1849 
 
 4,884,210 
 
 2,035,690 
 
 6,919,900 
 
 4,785,428 
 
 2,299,060 
 
 6,994,488 
 
 1850 
 
 4,700,199 
 
 2,400,277 
 
 7,100.476 
 
 4,742,345 
 
 2,662,243 
 
 7,404,588 
 
 1851 
 
 4,938,386 
 
 2,933,708 
 
 7,872,094 
 
 4,882,490 
 
 3,225,614 
 
 8,108,104 
 
 1852 
 
 4,934,863 
 
 2,952,584 
 
 7,887.4 47 
 
 4,459,321 
 
 2,413,260 
 
 6,872,581 
 
 1853 
 
 5,055.343 
 
 3,887,763 
 
 8,946,106 
 
 4,551,498 
 
 4,234,124 
 
 9,447,104 
 
 MM 
 
 5,374 531 
 
 3,786,815 
 
 9,161,366 
 
 4,683,754 
 
 4,137,423 
 
 9,507,721 
 
 1855 
 
 5,270,792 
 
 3,680,447 
 
 8,951,239 
 
 5,036,926 
 
 3,889,227 
 
 9,538,231 
 
 1856 
 
 6,390,715 
 
 4,162,419 
 
 10,553.134 
 
 5,883,861 
 
 4,480,859 
 
 11,035.915 
 
 1857 
 
 6,853,705 
 
 4,621,494 
 
 11,475,199 
 
 6,204,198 
 
 4,136,201 
 
 10,340,399 
 
 1858 
 
 6,439,201 
 
 4,522,499 
 
 10,961,700 
 
 5,873,986 
 
 4,062,719 
 
 9,936,705 
 
 1859 
 
 5,388,953 
 
 3,700,597 
 
 9,089,550 
 
 6,224,318 
 
 4,018,306 
 
 10,242,624 
 
SHI 
 
 2G6 
 
 SHI 
 
 The Foreign shipping engaged in the carrying trade with the United Kingdom 
 before the alteration of the Navigation Laws, compared with 1859, were re- 
 spectively as follows : — 
 
 
 1849. 
 
 1859. 
 
 Entries - 
 Clearances 
 
 Vessels. 
 10,578 
 9,946 
 
 Tons. 
 1,680,894 
 1,667,726 
 
 Vessels. 
 16,835 
 19,812 
 
 Tons. 
 3,772,151 
 4,083,988 
 
 20,524 
 
 3,348,620 
 
 36,647 
 
 7,856,139 
 
 In 1842 the shipping registered as belonging to the United Kingdom and the 
 Colonies numbered 30,815 vessels, measuring 3,619,850 tons, and employing 
 214,609 seamen. In 1859 the shipping belonging to Great Britain and her 
 Colonies, exclusive of India, for which there are no returns, numbered 38,200 
 vessels, registering 5,660,402 tons, and employing 291,431 men, exclusive of 
 masters, so that in eighteen years we have increased our mercantile marine by 
 7385 ships, and more than two million tons. The proportionate average 
 tonnage at present shows a much larger class of vessel in use now than fifteen or 
 twenty years ago. Great Britain owns one-third of the tonnage of the world, 
 and is year by year increasing her superiority and adding first-class ships to her 
 mercantile navy. 
 
 In estimating the extent of British shipping we must not overlook the rapid 
 strides our Colonial marine is making, which forms a most important item in 
 our shipping returns, adding fully one-eighth to the general tonnage. In our 
 Australian settlements, in India, and in the British North American Provinces, 
 the mercantile shipping and colonial steam marine forms a very considerable 
 item in our commerce, carrying trade and national wealth. 
 
 The aggregate tonnage owned by the Colonies in 1850 and 1859 was as 
 follows: — 
 
 
 1850. 
 
 1859. 
 
 European Settlements - 
 African Settlements 
 Australasian Settlements 
 British American do. 
 West Indies - 
 East Indies - - - - 
 
 Ships. 
 177 
 213 
 779 
 
 5582 
 724 
 829 
 
 Tonnage. 
 25,970 
 15,002 
 56,836 
 
 448,339 
 19,926 
 
 101,756 
 
 Ships. 
 
 186 
 
 297 
 
 1479 
 
 6779 
 
 675 
 
 no ret 
 
 Tonnage. 
 31,680 
 27,704 
 147,156 
 600,224 
 22,595 
 urns. 
 
 8304 
 
 667,829 
 
 9416 
 
 829,359 
 
SHI 
 
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SHI 
 
 2G8 
 
 SHI 
 
 Account of the Tonnage of Shipping Registered at each of the Ports of the 
 United Kingdom, including the Channel Islands, on December 31, 1858. 
 
 Sailing Vessels. 
 
 Steam Vessels. 
 
 Under 50 Tons. 
 
 Above 50 Tons- 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 4,281 
 
 21,089 
 
 
 1,193 
 
 6,832 
 
 32 
 
 1,603 
 
 2,988 
 
 — 
 
 4,584 
 
 13,671 
 
 — 
 
 517 
 
 2,173 
 
 — 
 
 1,909 
 
 8,311 
 
 74 
 
 3,488 
 
 3,280 
 
 18 
 
 2,865 
 
 13,751 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 1,254 
 
 — 
 
 5,285 
 
 68,985 
 
 4,769 
 
 5,836 
 
 28,831 
 
 99 
 
 606 
 
 13,183 
 
 387 
 
 3,692 
 
 7,170 
 
 — 
 
 511 
 
 1,228 
 
 447 
 
 1,137 
 
 1,115 
 
 185 
 
 2,331 
 
 4,130 
 
 2,208 
 
 3,830 
 
 11,455 
 
 23 
 
 3,673 
 
 4,689 
 
 76 
 
 5,241 
 
 33,984 
 
 164 
 
 301 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 966 
 
 2,612 
 
 133 
 
 768 
 
 19,797 
 
 87 
 
 1,424 
 
 11,485 
 
 32 
 
 5,109 
 
 13,812 
 
 9 
 
 1,155 
 
 7,013 
 
 968 
 
 155 
 
 2,292 
 
 — 
 
 1,521 
 
 12,073 
 
 126 
 
 389 
 
 226 
 
 375 
 
 7,355 
 
 8,754 
 
 34 
 
 9,003 
 
 23,589 
 
 1,120 
 
 3,212 
 
 2,266 
 
 2,991 
 
 225 
 
 38,198 
 
 3,867 
 
 2,045 
 
 5,419 
 
 — 
 
 11,252 
 
 41,281 
 
 18,364 
 
 1,909 
 
 13,777 
 
 262 
 
 1,325 
 
 10,403 
 
 825 
 
 9,275 
 
 882,074 
 
 62,606 
 
 1,239 
 
 4,727 
 
 36 
 
 2,287 
 
 4,096 
 
 926 
 
 111 
 
 1,907 
 
 — 
 
 2,275 
 
 14,003 
 
 13 
 
 2,741 
 
 5,967 
 
 — 
 
 384 
 
 17,409 
 
 65 
 
 2,407 
 
 10,087 
 
 — 
 
 3,428 
 
 121,088 
 
 10,178 
 
 209 
 
 2,769 
 
 — 
 
 677 
 
 12,373 
 
 327 
 
 2,482 
 
 9,998 
 
 — 
 
 526 
 
 6,823 
 
 — 
 
 6,656 
 
 40,302 
 
 824 
 
 983 
 
 14,446 
 
 22 
 
 4,258 
 
 11,783 
 
 284 
 
 3,006 
 
 2,947 
 
 439 
 
 1,666 
 
 3,104 
 
 10 
 
 11,846 
 
 8,083 
 
 186 
 
 1,486 
 
 5,266 
 
 21 
 
 1,150 
 
 12,445 
 
 711 
 
 2,789 
 
 35,230 
 
 117 
 
 458 
 
 6,784 
 
 67 
 
 685 
 
 263,177 
 
 2,634 
 
 857 
 
 16,471 
 
 31 
 
 3,877 
 
 14,371 
 
 4,071 
 
 344 
 
 26,000 
 
 3,409 
 
 3,268 
 
 223,060 
 
 7,539 
 
 1,553 
 
 15,187 
 
 791 
 
 239 
 
 7,157 
 
 19 
 
 England: 
 Aberystwith 
 Arundel - 
 Barnstaple 
 Beaumaris 
 Berwick - 
 Bideford - 
 Boston 
 Bridgwater 
 Bridport - 
 Bristol 
 Caernarvon 
 Cardiff - 
 Cardigan - 
 Carlisle - 
 Chepstow 
 Chester - 
 Colchester 
 Cowes 
 Dartmouth 
 Deal 
 Dover 
 Exeter 
 Falmouth - 
 Faversham 
 Fleetwood 
 Folkestone 
 Fowey 
 
 Gainsborough 
 Gloucester 
 Goole 
 Grimsby - 
 Hartlepool 
 Harwich - 
 Hull 
 
 Ipswich - 
 Lancaster 
 Liverpool 
 Llanelly - 
 Lowestoft 
 Lyme 
 Lynn 
 
 Maldon - 
 Maryport - 
 Milford - 
 Newcastle 
 Newhaven 
 Newport - 
 Padstow - 
 Penzance - 
 Plymouth 
 Poole 
 
 Portsmouth 
 Preston - 
 Ramsgate - 
 Rochester 
 Rye 
 
 Saint Ives 
 Scarborough 
 Scilly 
 
 Shields - 
 Shoreham - 
 Southampton 
 Stockton - 
 Sunderland 
 Swansea - 
 Teignmouth 
 
SHI 
 
 269 
 
 SHI 
 
 PORTS. 
 
 Sailing Vessels. 
 
 Steam Vessels. 
 
 Under 50 Tons. 
 
 Above 50 Tons. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 E M gland — con tin ued. 
 
 
 
 
 Truro ... 
 
 367 
 
 6,248 
 
 — 
 
 Wells - 
 
 2,286 
 
 7,727 
 
 29 
 
 Weymouth 
 
 616 
 
 7,510 
 
 412 
 
 Whitby - 
 
 1,928 
 
 72,459 
 
 60 
 
 Whitehaven 
 
 141 
 
 27,358 
 
 564 
 
 Wisbeach 
 
 716 
 
 9,895 
 
 1,089 
 
 Woodbridge 
 
 1,106 
 
 2,491 
 
 — 
 
 Workington 
 
 125 
 
 20,211 
 
 17 
 
 Yarmouth 
 
 11,238 
 
 27,187 
 
 647 
 
 London - 
 
 Total, England 
 
 22,379 
 
 688,485 
 
 195,265 
 
 214,785 
 
 3,129,821 
 
 530,560 
 
 SCOTLAND : 
 
 
 
 
 Aberdeen - 
 
 418 
 
 68,731 
 
 4,065 
 
 Avr - 
 
 486 
 
 4,081 
 
 267 
 
 Alloa - 
 
 807 
 
 15,010 
 
 232 
 
 Arbroath - 
 
 608 
 
 13,311 
 
 
 
 Banff - 
 
 1,160 
 
 14,340 
 
 «_ 
 
 Borrowstoness 
 
 607 
 
 4,964 
 
 53 
 
 Campbeltown 
 
 1,406 
 
 856 
 
 384 
 
 Dumfries - 
 
 1,899 
 
 13,554 
 
 85 
 
 Dundee - 
 
 549 
 
 48,307 
 
 2,344 
 
 Glasgow - 
 
 4,676 
 
 164,787 
 
 59,410 
 
 Grangemouth 
 
 365 
 
 7,179 
 
 1,498 
 
 Greenock - 
 
 5,884 
 
 78,627 
 
 14 
 
 Inverness - 
 
 4,005 
 
 8,999 
 
 5,774 
 
 Irvine - 
 
 1,225 
 
 18,391 
 
 293 
 
 Kirkaldy ... 
 
 1,457 
 
 5,989 
 
 228 
 
 Kirkwall - 
 
 621 
 
 2,334 
 
 26 
 
 Leith - 
 
 2,083 
 
 19,438 
 
 7,869 
 
 Lerwick - 
 
 1,296 
 
 737 
 
 — 
 
 Montrose - 
 
 276 
 
 16,219 
 
 
 
 Perth - 
 
 197 
 
 4,106 
 
 393 
 
 Peterhead 
 
 364 
 
 12,501 
 
 327 
 
 Port Glasgow 
 
 1,438 
 
 2,962 
 
 502 
 
 Stornoway 
 
 797 
 
 2,452 
 
 — 
 
 Stranraer - 
 
 843 
 
 353 
 
 _ 
 
 Wick - 
 
 758 
 
 2,779 
 
 188 
 
 Wigtown - 
 
 Total, Scotland 
 
 1,371 
 
 1,226 
 
 316 
 
 35,596 
 
 532,233 
 
 87,268 
 
 Ireland: 
 
 
 
 
 Ballina ... 
 
 36 
 
 236 
 
 37 
 
 Belfast - 
 
 5.5S5 
 
 69,499 
 
 3,114 
 
 Coleraine . - - 
 
 160 
 
 — 
 
 _ 
 
 Cork - - - 
 
 4,263 
 
 42,423 
 
 5,940 
 
 Drogheda 
 
 115 
 
 4,646 
 
 1,328 
 
 Dublin - 
 
 9,156 
 
 28,196 
 
 10,031 
 
 Dundalk ... 
 
 144 
 
 1,861 
 
 1,545 
 
 Galway - . - 
 
 398 
 
 986 
 
 — 
 
 Limerick - 
 
 829 
 
 5,556 
 
 1,673 
 
 Londonderry 
 
 184 
 
 5,899 
 
 2,167 
 
 Newry - 
 
 2,246 
 
 3,543 
 
 406 
 
 Ross - 
 
 61 
 
 4,173 
 
 — 
 
 Skibbereen 
 
 2,093 
 
 51 
 
 — 
 
 Sligo - 
 
 292 
 
 4,232 
 
 269 
 
 Strangford 
 
 913 
 
 2,899 
 
 — 
 
 Tralee ... 
 
 351 
 
 82 
 
 
 
 Waterford 
 
 1,417 
 
 12,808 
 
 8,893 
 
 Westport - 
 
 90 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Wexford - 
 
 Total, Ireland - 
 
 954 
 
 8,034 
 
 223 
 
 29,287 
 
 195,124 
 
 35,606 
 
 Isle of Man 
 
 7,157 
 
 3,277 
 
 1,193 
 
 Channel Islands - 
 
 5,599 
 
 52,391 
 
 228 
 
SHI 
 
 270 
 
 SHI 
 
 Tonnage of Vessels employed in the Fobeign and Colonial Trade of the 
 United Kingdom (including their repeated Voyages), separating British 
 from Foreign Vessels, also Steam from Sailing Vessels, and distinguish- 
 ing the Trade with each Country, in the Year 1858. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Russia 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 Denmark « 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Germany 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Channel Islands 
 
 France 
 
 Portugal - 
 
 Spain 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Italian States - 
 
 Malta 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 
 Greece 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Wallachia and Moldavia 
 
 Syria * 
 
 Africa 
 
 Asia 
 
 British North American 
 Colonies 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 Foreign West Indies 
 
 United States 
 
 Central and Southern States 
 
 Falkland Islands 
 
 The Whale Fisheries 
 
 Total - 
 
 ( Steam 
 ( Sailing 
 
 ! Steam 
 Sailing 
 ! Steam 
 Sailing 
 {Steam 
 Sailing 
 ( Steam 
 ( Sailing 
 
 {Steam 
 Sailing 
 ( Steam 
 ( Sailing 
 
 (Steam 
 Sailing 
 (Steam 
 Sailing 
 
 (Sailing 
 < Steam 
 [ Sailing 
 
 ! Steam 
 Sailing 
 {Steam 
 Sailing 
 (Steam 
 (Sailing 
 
 ! Steam 
 Sailing 
 ! Steam 
 Sailing 
 {Steam 
 Sailing 
 
 ( Sailing 
 ( Steam 
 ( Sailing 
 
 ! Steam 
 Sailing 
 ( Steam 
 ( Sailing 
 C Steam 
 \ Sailing 
 ( Steam 
 I Sailing 
 \ Steam 
 ( Sailing 
 
 ! Steam 
 Sailing 
 I Steam 
 (Sailing 
 ( Steam 
 \ Sailing 
 ( Steam 
 [ Sailing 
 
 {Steam 
 Sailing 
 
 Inwards. 
 
 British. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 82,037 
 
 326,269 
 
 19,568 
 
 35,989 
 
 3,210 
 
 4,397 
 
 61,272 
 
 26,051 
 
 41,411 
 
 103,146 
 
 205,674 
 
 312,782 
 
 272,507 
 
 266,827 
 
 116,025 
 
 98,824 
 
 85,403 
 
 119,002 
 
 455,175 
 
 504,336 
 
 27,785 
 
 70,504 
 
 17,456 
 
 123,717 
 
 17,124 
 
 8,165 
 
 53,691 
 
 85,894 
 
 425 
 
 6,390 
 
 711 
 
 5,780 
 
 18,249 
 
 11,313 
 
 37,006 
 
 42,475 
 
 333 
 
 36,198 
 
 3,266 
 
 4,127 
 
 93,357 
 
 194,0s3 
 
 33,064 
 
 687,663 
 
 18,071 
 
 699,414 
 
 225,145 
 51,357 
 57,522 
 
 136,729 
 
 154,026 
 20,052 
 
 341,068 
 
 685 
 1,823 
 14,328 
 
 6,139,204 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Tons. 
 9,955 
 
 6,949 
 
 215,295 
 
 9,232 
 
 259,862 
 
 2,971 
 
 156,661 
 
 19,554 
 
 289,420 
 
 172,670 
 
 248,201 
 
 78,773 
 
 223,725 
 
 26,375 
 
 103,550 
 
 39,285 
 473,636 
 
 21,189 
 21,064 
 58,554 
 
 4,991 
 
 69,552 
 
 1,455 
 
 502 
 
 750 
 
 34,795 
 
 64,879 
 
 3,257 
 
 800 
 
 76,120 
 
 90,897 
 
 182,283 
 
 16,298 
 
 559 
 
 87,356 
 
 2,237 
 
 915,284 
 
 1,925 
 
 139,794 
 
 Outwards. 
 
 British. Foreign. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 90,938 
 
 222,082 
 
 18,151 
 
 28,803 
 
 4,039 
 
 8,956 
 
 37,659 
 
 59,504 
 
 44,776 
 
 109,435 
 
 202,085 
 
 289,808 
 
 231,177 
 
 243,876 
 
 ,117,033 
 
 70,721 
 
 86,988 
 
 67,141 
 
 458,312 
 
 545,901 
 
 36,059 
 
 66,378 
 
 18,122 
 
 205,159 
 
 25,380 
 
 30,986 
 
 55,110 
 
 142,293 
 
 32,489 
 
 45,234 
 
 2,093 
 
 10,894 
 
 3,292 
 
 9,274 
 
 29,271 
 
 56,267 
 
 115 
 
 6,565 
 
 1,513 
 
 5,345 
 
 78,022 
 
 211.213 
 
 29,208 
 
 885,212 
 
 17,315 
 
 587,615 
 
 1,127 
 
 204,583 
 
 47,313 
 
 69,670 
 
 139,095 
 
 172,877 
 
 20,677 
 
 253,114 
 
 1,505 
 14,404 
 
 6,452,204 
 
 Tons. 
 11,214 
 
 814,945 
 6,093 
 
 161,701 
 11,886 
 
 344,157 
 5,110 
 
 454,137 
 21,832 
 
 314,807 
 
 149,975 
 
 227,193 
 78,881 
 46,791 
 26,619 
 25,574 
 
 174 
 
 25,178 
 
 388,146 
 
 358 
 
 50,489 
 
 25,305 
 
 124,767 
 
 627 
 
 11,787 
 
 739 
 
 242,114 
 
 41,904 
 
 12,616 
 
 666 
 
 18,963 
 
 1,942 
 
 98,613 
 
 4,301 
 
 1,470 
 613 
 
 80,808 
 
 275,795 
 
 54,355 
 
 17,742 
 
 1,118 
 
 140,369 
 
 43,319 
 
 1,051,713 
 
 153 
 
 108,809 
 
 4,896,077 
 
SHI 
 
 271 
 
 SHI 
 
 Colonial Shipping Movements in the Year 1857. 
 
 
 TONNAGE. 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Cleared. 
 
 POSSESSIONS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 From 
 
 
 To 
 
 
 TotaL 
 
 United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 East ladies 
 
 2,206,932 
 
 529.258 
 
 2,342,348 
 
 629,305 
 
 North America: — 
 
 
 
 
 
 Canada 
 
 748,425* 
 
 477,263 
 
 731,367* 
 
 683,681 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 587,595 
 
 94,387 
 
 659.277 
 
 388,421 
 
 Nova Scotiat 
 
 487,615 
 
 64,839 
 
 501,869 
 
 45,971 
 
 Prince Edward's Island - 
 
 62,560 
 
 No return. 
 
 75,336 
 
 No Return. 
 
 Newfoundland - 
 
 203,162 
 
 49,220 
 
 182,045 
 
 28,767 
 
 Bermuda 
 
 43,056 
 
 5,215 
 
 42,994 
 
 8,255 
 
 Honduras 
 
 28,227 
 
 6,835 
 
 31,827 
 
 18,304 
 
 West Indies :— 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bahamas 
 
 37,559 
 
 4,834 
 
 34,452 
 
 5,098 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 94,878 
 
 43,604 
 
 92.103 
 
 43,580 
 
 Virgin Islands - 
 
 3,800 
 
 — 
 
 4,864 
 
 — 
 
 St Christopher 
 
 21,008 
 
 5,327 
 
 20,616 
 
 5,590 
 
 Nevis - 
 
 8,802 
 
 1,624 
 
 8,860 
 
 1,514 
 
 Antigua 
 
 37,064 
 
 10,074 
 
 37,303 
 
 11,834 
 
 Montserrat 
 
 6,516 
 
 — 
 
 6.492 
 
 — 
 
 Dominica 
 
 9,274 
 
 1,721 
 
 8,754 
 
 2,958 
 
 St. Lucia 
 
 9,291 
 
 2,365 
 
 9,360 
 
 2,975 
 
 St. Vincent 
 
 20,476 
 
 6,670 
 
 20,335 
 
 8,036 
 
 Barbados 
 
 96,233 
 
 30,342 
 
 105,563 
 
 30,193 
 
 Grenada 
 
 18,829 
 
 7,709 
 
 18,218 
 
 5,819 
 
 Tobago 
 
 6,153 
 
 2,966 
 
 5,359 
 
 2,836 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 78,710 
 
 21,329 
 
 75,111 
 
 25,619 
 
 British Guiana - 
 
 No Return. 
 
 No Return. 
 
 No Return. 
 
 No Return. 
 
 Falkland Islands - 
 
 18,415 
 
 6,471 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Australia: — 
 
 
 
 
 
 New South "Wales 
 
 351,413 
 
 113,436 
 
 377,147 
 
 33.060 
 
 Victoria 
 
 694,564 
 
 290,680 
 
 684,526 
 
 64,717 
 
 South Australia 
 
 145,567 
 
 39,808 
 
 146,770 
 
 9,580 
 
 Western Australia 
 
 59,822 
 
 5,520 
 
 59,452 
 
 641 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 164,008 
 
 22,128 
 
 167,058 
 
 6,742 
 
 New Zealand - 
 
 78,309 
 
 No Return. 
 
 76,524 
 
 No Return. 
 
 Hong Kong 
 
 541,063 
 
 18,416 
 
 No Return. 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Labuan - 
 
 11,328 
 
 — 
 
 9,167 
 
 — 
 
 Ceylon ... 
 
 444,781 
 
 63,353 
 
 431,782 
 
 40,385 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 271,994 
 
 40,317 
 
 261,356 
 
 61,304 
 
 Natal - 
 
 8,117 
 
 3,161 
 
 7,973 
 
 328 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 382,112 
 
 158,560 
 
 362,890 
 
 85.954 
 
 St. Helena 
 
 175,236 
 
 4,255 
 
 21,062 
 
 15,700 
 
 Gold Coast 
 
 107,701 
 
 47,C68 
 
 107,701 
 
 — 
 
 Sierra Leone 
 
 51,792 
 
 21632 
 
 51,527 
 
 15,603 
 
 Gambia 
 
 32,894 
 
 6,470 
 
 33,433 
 
 5,748 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 879,896 
 
 225,436 
 
 868,512 
 
 343,315 
 
 Malta 
 
 432,996 
 
 95,568 
 
 431,292 
 
 87,312 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 
 343,494 
 
 126,894 
 
 352,163 
 
 50,630 
 
 * Total Shipping engaged in Sea Navigation, 
 t Nine Months ending 30th September, 1857. 
 
SHI 272 SHI 
 
 External Colonial Trade in the Year 1857. 
 
 
 IMPORTS. 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 
 POSSESSIONS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 From 
 
 
 To 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 East Indies 
 
 28,608,284 
 
 16,789,897 
 
 26,591,877 
 
 10,635,607 
 
 
 North America - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Canada 
 
 8,871,885 
 
 3,950,781 
 
 6,076,491* 
 
 2,186,685* 
 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 1,418,943 
 
 538,298 
 
 917,775 
 
 627,436 
 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 1,449,278 
 
 479,718 
 
 1,027,188 
 
 75,769 
 
 
 Prince Edward's Island - 
 
 253,728 
 
 87,802 
 
 134,465 
 
 25,613 
 
 
 Newfoundland - 
 
 1,413,423 
 
 587,363 
 
 1,651,165 
 
 555,293 
 
 
 Bermuda 
 
 136,914 
 
 41,027 
 
 35,103 
 
 4,728 
 
 
 Honduras 
 
 268,692 
 
 169,928 
 
 440,272 
 
 329,052 
 
 
 West Indies:— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bahamas 
 
 211,423 
 
 24,699 
 
 140,195 
 
 54,613 
 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 797,150 
 
 448,151 
 
 1,235,497 
 
 964,732 
 
 
 "Virgin Islands - 
 
 5,634 
 
 — 
 
 10,849 
 
 — 
 
 
 St. Christopher - 
 
 144,582 
 
 69,908 
 
 208,188 
 
 186,016 
 
 
 Nevis 
 
 36,254 
 
 12,385 
 
 51,954 
 
 33,974 
 
 
 Antigua 
 
 234,058 
 
 119,763 
 
 335,269 
 
 277,205 
 
 
 Montserrat 
 
 12,783 
 
 — 
 
 24,782 
 
 — 
 
 
 Dominica 
 
 60,911 
 
 19,318 
 
 98,046 
 
 89,662 
 
 
 St. Lucia 
 
 90,064 
 
 21,550 
 
 99,903 
 
 90,142 
 
 
 St. Vincent 
 
 185,203 
 
 97,788 
 
 220,956 
 
 201,423 
 
 
 Barbados 
 
 976,306 
 
 475,856 
 
 1,345,361 
 
 937,822 
 
 
 Grenada 
 
 109,062 
 
 37,481 
 
 172,218 
 
 159,562 
 
 
 Tobago 
 
 60,424 
 
 18,324 
 
 76,122 
 
 63,231 
 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 803,038 
 
 388,467 
 
 1,073,878 
 
 787,300 
 
 
 British Guiana - 
 
 886,016 
 
 No Return. 
 
 1,331,371 
 
 No Return. 
 
 
 Falkland Islands - 
 
 No Return. 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 No Return. 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 
 Australia:— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 6,729,408 
 
 3,864,901 
 
 4,011,952 
 
 1,987,703 
 
 
 Victoria 
 
 17,256,209 
 
 10,122,201 
 
 15,079,512 
 
 11,483,781 
 
 
 South Australia 
 
 1,623,052 
 
 1,016,814 
 
 1,958,572 
 
 666,136 
 
 
 Western Australia 
 
 94,532 
 
 67,135 
 
 59,947 
 
 39,196 
 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 l,271,087f 
 
 750,591f 
 
 l,354,655t 
 
 448,235f 
 
 
 New Zealand - 
 
 992,995 
 
 460,290 
 
 369,395 
 
 128,319 
 
 
 Hong Kong 
 
 No Return. 
 
 No Return. 
 
 No Return. 
 
 No Return. 
 
 
 Labuan - 
 
 25,257 
 
 — 
 
 7,035 
 
 — 
 
 
 Ceylon - 
 
 3,106,664 
 
 631,368 
 
 2,588,460 
 
 1,348,614 
 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 2,391,106 
 
 759,621 
 
 2,303,786 
 
 1,202,381 
 
 
 Natal --- 
 
 184,549 
 
 129,818 
 
 82,497 
 
 35,295 
 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 2,637,192 
 
 1,911,122 
 
 1,988,406 
 
 1,426,614 
 
 
 St. Helena 
 
 132,354 
 
 58,896 
 
 35,139 
 
 10,877 
 
 
 Gold Coast 
 
 118,270 
 
 76,410 
 
 124,394 
 
 90,825 
 
 
 Sierra Leone 
 
 172,315 
 
 143,204 
 
 288,728 
 
 90,540 
 
 
 Gambia - 
 
 118,620 
 
 60,714 
 
 201,628 
 
 19,031 
 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 No Return. 
 
 No Return. 
 
 No Return. 
 
 No Return. 
 
 
 Malta - 
 
 2,361,046 
 
 19,131 
 
 1,850,872 
 
 833,608 
 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 
 1,092,051 
 
 No Return. 
 
 771,638 
 
 No Return. 
 
 
 SI AM. There are no data from which we can compute with any degree 
 of accuracy the present population of Siam. The number of British vessels 
 which entered and departed from Bangkok, in 1857, was 119 ships and 36,628 
 tons. The value of the imports in the same year (including those by Siam and 
 China vessels) was £525,732. That of the exports to Europe £85,887 ; to 
 Eastern ports £432,257, of which £248,177 was in British vessels. 
 
 On the 3rd April, 1855, Sir John Bowring arrived and negociated a new 
 
 * Exclusive of Ships built in Canada and sold in the United Kingdom, and of 20 per cent. 
 
 additional for Short Returns. 
 t At the Ports of Hobart Town and Launceston only. 
 
SI A 273 SIC 
 
 English treaty, -which was signed on the 18th April, and copies of the treaty 
 were exchanged on. the 17th March, 1856. On the 9th November, 1855, the 
 first steam-boat was built in Siam, by the son of the prime minister, who, just 
 twenty years before, completed the building of the Ariel, the first square-rigged 
 vessel of the Siamese. The First King took an excursion in this steamer, " The 
 Royal Seat," the next day. The Siamese now own 22 steamers, of which 14 are 
 paddle and 8 screw ; 9 belong to the First King, and 2 to the Second King. 
 The mercantile marine of Siam also numbers 70 sailing vessels, registering in the 
 aggregate 22,523 tons, eleven of these vessels are over 500 tons. The principal 
 exports from Bangkok in 1859 (all in piculs of 133£ lbs.), were rice, 839,751 ; 
 paddy, 6230; sapan wood, 203,596; pepper, 13,504; cardamums, 1007; bastard 
 ditto," 1536; hides, 25,536; horns, 4933; teel seed, 6294; stick lac, 2984; tin, 
 739 ; silk, 1079. 
 
 On December 8, 1857, Sir Robert Schomburgk arrived at Bangkok as British 
 Consul General for Siam. 
 
 The First King of Siam has the enormous number of 22,754 officers of different 
 kinds, who receive fixed salaries, amounting in the aggregate to 373,398 ticals, 
 equal to about £53,342. The officers of the Second King are not quite so numer- 
 ous, and he pays in salaries about one-fourth of the sum paid by the First King. 
 There are also, besides, scores of Siamese princes, male and female, who receive 
 their fixed salaries from one or the other of the two sovereigns, and the 
 sum must very considerably swell the whole amount paid by the two Kings. 
 These princes and officers, with an army of about 5000 priests, all live in 
 Bangkok and its suburbs. 
 
 SICILY. The island of Sicily, which formerly belonged to the King of 
 Naples, now forms part of the dominions of the King of Sardinia, having been 
 conquered and annexed in 1860. This change has already been alluded to 
 under the head Naples. 
 
 The value of the Imports and Exports of the Island of Sicily has been as 
 follows : — 
 
 Tear. Imports. Exports. Total Commerce. 
 
 £ £ £ 
 
 1852 1,212,143 1,807,922 3,020,065 
 
 1853 1,132,783 1,710,220 3,843,003 
 
 1854 971,904 1,643,561 2,615,465 
 
 1855 1,144,016 1,606,098 2,750,114 
 
 1856 1,149,637 2,081,083 3,230,720 
 
 1857 971,362 2.192,964 3,164,326 
 
 The Imports and Exports were thus distributed, taking the last-quoted year : — 
 
 Countries. Imports. Exports. 
 
 £ £ 
 
 United States ----- 33,252 481,580 
 
 Baltic, Belgium, and Germany - - 249,617 278,789 
 
 France - 196,079 415,618 
 
 Great Britain and Colonies - 399,385 874,566 
 
 Italian States - - - - - 84,006 107,692 
 
 Other Countries - - - - 9,023 34,719 
 
 971,362 2,192,964 
 
 The total area of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, before the inroads on it, 
 was 42,693 square miles. The population in 1856 stood at 9,117,050. The 
 number of vessels that entered at the pcr.s of the Continental States in 1853, was 
 2712 ships, and 320,088 tons ; of which 279 vessels were British. France and 
 Austria rank the highest in the shipping trade. The total imports were 
 £3,210,819 in 1853, and the exports £1,468,709. The entries of vessels at the 
 port of Naples, in 1856, were 1026, of which 208 were British. In the island 
 of Sicily the entries at the port of Palermo, in 1856, were 426 vessels, of which 
 220 were British. At the port of Messina, in the same year, 3406, of which 
 177 were British. The value of the imports to the island of Sicily were, in 1857, 
 £971,362, and of the exports from it, £2,192,964. 
 
 T 
 
 t 
 
SIL 
 
 274 
 
 SIN 
 
 SILK TRADE. We may form some idea of the magnitude of the silk trade of 
 this country, from the fact that our average import of the raw material, in the 
 eight years ending with 1859, was nearly 10,500,000 pounds, annually, exclu- 
 sive of more than 3,500,000 pounds of waste silk, and knubs or husks. Of 
 the manufactured product trom Europe and India were imported about 1,000,000 
 pounds weight more. While the quantity of raw silk received has thus doubled 
 in the last twenty years, the sources of supply have also much changed. Italy 
 and Syria now furnish us with very little silk; the supplies from France fluctuate; 
 India and China supply us with large quantities, while imports are now coming 
 forward from Japan, Siam and a few other new quarters. Raw silk now comes 
 in free of duty. 
 
 The Imports of Raw Silk, in 1859, were from the following countries : — 
 
 China 
 
 British India - 
 
 Other Countries 
 
 3,192,632 lbs. 
 
 5,805,487 ... 
 
 922,772 ... 
 
 9,920,891 
 
 The total value of all the silk imported in 1857, raw and manufactured, was 
 £16,689,797, in 1858 only £8,516,752, and in 1859, £13,667,194. The pro- 
 duction of raw silk in France appears to double every ten years; in i855, the 
 quantity obtained was 3,000,000 kilogrammes. The production in Austria is 
 about 7,000,000 pounds. 
 
 SILK MANUFACTURE. There are nearly 600 silk tactories in the United 
 Kingdom, in which 5176 horse power is engaged. A capital is embarked of 
 about £50,000,000 sterling, and it gives employment to nearly one million of 
 our population. The export of British silk manufactures is, to some slight 
 extent, increasing, within the last few years, although the home is their prin- 
 cipal demand, Our imports of foreign manufactured silks have been rather on 
 the decline of late years. 
 
 Progress of the Silk Trade of the United Kingdom, from 1845 to i860. 
 
 
 1845 
 
 1850. 
 
 1855. 
 Computed 
 
 1860. 
 Computed 
 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Imports of European silks, exclusive 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 & 
 
 of lace, millinery and ribbons lbs. 
 
 341,441 
 
 698,716 
 
 509,183 
 
 
 India silks - pieces 
 
 782,782 
 
 766,941 
 
 313,285 
 
 
 Raw silk - - - - lbs. 
 
 4,354,696 
 
 4,942,407 
 
 4,584,733 
 
 
 Thrown silk ----»» 
 
 511,832 
 
 469,527 
 
 908,571 
 
 
 British silk manufactures exported, 
 
 
 
 
 
 including thrown and twist, de- 
 
 
 
 
 
 clared value £ 
 
 766,405 
 
 1,255,641 
 
 1,524,343 
 
 2,351,839 
 
 SILVER. See Bullion, Coinage, &c. 
 
 SINGAPORE. Two years after its establishment, the fixed inhabitants of 
 Singapore numbered but 12,000, now they have risen to 80,000, of which about 
 50,000 are Chinese, and 8,000 or 10,000 arrive every year, who either settle in 
 Singapore or proceed to Malacca. Singapore produces annually and ships about 
 5000 tons of gambier, better known in England as Terra Japonica, 6000 or 7000 
 tons of sago and sago flour, and 1250 tons of pepper. Being also the entrepot 
 of the Eastern Archipelago, all the products of the various islands are received 
 there for shipment to Europe. Some 2000 to 3000 prahus and junks visit the port 
 annually from Bally, Borneo, Celebes, Sumatra, Java and the neighbouring 
 islands, from China, Siam, Arracan, Moulmein, and other parts of the Continent. 
 
 The Bugis trade commencing in September and ending in November, is gene- 
 rally esteemed by the local merchants as second only to the trade with China. 
 The junks from China are a larger class of vessel and of considerable burthen. 
 Singapore is also largely frequented by square-rigged vessels. About 700,000 
 
SIN 275 SOU 
 
 tons of shipping annually enter the ports. In 1858 the value of the imports was 
 £6,700,000, and of the exports £5,783,600. 
 
 In 1859 the aggregate value of the trade was rather less, being only eleven 
 millions sterling. 
 
 The great extension of British trade with China, Siam, Java, Borneo, Japan 
 and other Eastern countries has greatly benefited Singapore, which may be looked 
 upon in the light of a large bonded warehouse. 
 
 SKINS. See Fur Trade. 
 
 SLAVE TRADE. According to the latest accounts, the number of the slaves 
 in the Southern States of the North American Union was 4,000,000; Brazil, 
 3,000,000; Cuba and Porto Eico, 705,000; and in the Dutch Colonies about 
 53,000; namely, 39,000 in Surinam, 10,400 in Curacoa, and other West India 
 islands, and 3,600 in the Eastern possessions. 
 
 In March, 1854, the State of Venezuela liberated its slaves, numbering about 
 16,500. Notwithstanding the Convention between the different European States 
 and the efforts Great Britain has made to suppress the slave trade on the coast 
 of Africa, the illicit traffic is still carried on to a small extent on parts of the 
 eastern and western coasts of Africa, particularly by the Portuguese. In Zanzibar 
 especially, 19,000 or 20,000 slaves are annually imported. 
 
 SOAP. In 1853 the excise duty on soap was abolished. The statistics of 
 the previous year show the condition of the manufacture at that period. The 
 number of soap makers was 152 in England, 21 in Scotland, and 143 in Ireland, 
 making 316 manufacturers in all who paid license duty, amounting to £1327. 
 
 The aggregate quantity of soap made was 203,199,830 lbs. of hard soap, and 
 20,859,870 pounds of soft soap, the total excise duty, on which was £1,424,760. 
 The exports of soap and candles were grouped together in that year and stated 
 at 19,586,747 lbs. The quantity of soap exported in 1848 was 10,462,069 
 pounds, and on the average of the three years ending with 1859, 175,000 cwts. 
 or 19,600,000 pounds. 
 
 Of the shipments of 174,410 cwt. in 1859, 49,329 cwts. went to the West 
 Indies, 20,466 cwts. to British North America, 19,449 to Australia, and the rest 
 to other countries. The allowance of soap to paupers and prisoners is 10 or 11 lbs. 
 per head per annum. Assuming the make now to be about 250,000,000 lbs., 
 this would give an average annual consumption of about 10 pounds per head for 
 the kingdom. The French are extensive manufacturers of soap, and more is 
 shipped from the single port of Marseilles to the markets of the Mediterranean, 
 South America, &c. than the entire British export. Marseilles has some advan- 
 tages from being nearer to the sources of supply of palm oil, ground nut oil, &c., 
 and had the advantage of a large export trade before the excise restrictions were 
 removed here. 
 
 SODA. The alkali obtained from common salt and termed in commerce soda 
 ash, is largely used for soap making, as a substitute for potash in glass making, 
 and for bleaching cotton. In 1850 it was manufactured at 30 chemical works in 
 the United Kingdom, the aggregate quantity made being estimated at 104,260 
 tons, for making which 156,390 tons of salt were used. The export has been 
 greatly on the increase; while in 1850 only 8000 tons were shipped, in 1859, it 
 was 101,380 tons. Of the purer carbonate of soda 25,000 tons were made in 1850, 
 and the manufacture has largely increased. 
 
 SOUND. The dues charged by Denmark for the Sound were abolished in 
 1857 by an agreement with several of the principal maritime nations concerned 
 in the navigation, who undertook to redeem the dues by a present payment. 
 Great Britain paid £1,125,206 as her share, and Hamburg £12,040. It may 
 be interesting to glance at the shipping trade passing the Sound as indicative of 
 the Baltic commerce. From 1848 to 1854 inclusive there passed the Sound 
 130,275 ships measuring 12,926,120 lasts; an average of 18,610 ships and 
 1,846,588 lasts annually. The ship last is about 2 tons. In 1855 the number of 
 ships passing the Sound was but 15,787, measuring 1,515,61 1 lasts. This decline 
 arose from the war with Russia. In 1854 the revenue to Denmark from the Sound 
 and River dues was about £20,000, and in 1860, £130,000. 
 
SOU 276 SPI 
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. The population of this colony on the 31st December, 
 1857, was 109,91 7 souls. The revenue for 1 859 was £505,8*70, and the expenditure 
 £587,744. The imports and exports for the last five years have averaged about 
 £ 1 ,500,000. The number of vessels that entered Port Adelaide in 1 857 was 522, 
 measuring 145,567 tons. The trade of the colony has been greatly improved 
 by the placing of steamers on the river Murray and its tributaries, which bring 
 down the wool and produce of the interior to Port Adelaide for shipment. Agri- 
 culture and mining are the principal occupations. The extent of land under cul- 
 tivation in 1857, was 236,000 acres. The live stock in the colony comprised 
 26,220 horses, 310,400 cattle, 2,075,805 sheep and 38,199 pigs. Manufactures 
 are largely on the increase. Among the exports in 1857 were 34,438 tons of 
 flour, 23,654 qrs. of wheat, 56,929 cwts. of wrought copper and 8036 tons of 
 copper ore, 1,422 tons of lead, and 10,106,000 lbs. of wool. 
 
 SOUTH SEA COMPANY. In 1853, Government determined upon com- 
 muting or paying off the various South Sea securities and Stock of the Company. 
 The proprietors claimed the payment in money of their Stock at par, and received 
 the sum of £3,662,784. Of the Old South Sea Annuities, £2,040,545 were paid in 
 money, and £739,233 converted; of the New South Sea Annuities, £1,540,676 
 was paid in money, and £463,607 converted into other Government securities. 
 
 SPAIN. The population of this kingdom, according to the census revised 
 by the Commissioners in May 1857, was 16,301,851. This included the Balearic 
 and Canary Islands. The revenue has gradually increased from £11,379,264 
 in 1853 to £18,126,314 in 1857. The number of vessels belonging to Spain on 
 the 1st of January, 1858, was 5175, registering 349,762 tons, 13,397 fishing and 
 river boats of 61,025 tons, and employing in all 72,502 seamen. The entries of 
 vessels in Spanish ports in 1856 were 10,409 ships and 1,068,903 tons, with 
 87,953 seamen. Of the vessels that entered with cargoes, 1518 of 279,889 tons 
 were from England and 493 of 33,562 tons from British possessions. The value 
 of the imports into Spain in 1857 was £15,554,000, and of the exports 11,686,090. 
 The exports and imports had more than doubled in five years. The exports of 
 British produce and manufactures to Spain averaged £2,100,000 in the three 
 years ending with 1859. There are about 612 miles of railway in operation, 
 893 completed but not yet working, and 2000 miles conceded or authorized. 
 
 SPIRITS. The number of gallons of British spirit distilled in 1851 was as 
 follows. In England 9,595,368; in Scotland, 6,830,710; in Ireland, 7,550,518: 
 total 23,976,586. 
 
 The number of gallons of spirits consumed in Scotland in the five years, 1849- 
 53, was 36,039,712 gallons, of which 34,595,363 was British spirits and the rest 
 foreign and colonial. The quantity consumed in the next five years, 1854-58, 
 was 29,079,188 gallons, of which 27,975,788 gallons were British spirits. The 
 number of gallons consumed in the corresponding periods in England was, 1849- 
 53,70,479,207 gallons, of which 48,151,471 were British. In the five years, 
 1854-58, 78,597,128 gallons, of which 56,218,482 gallons were British spirits. 
 
 The number of gallons of proof spirits distilled in 1859 was 7,230,863 gallons 
 in England, 13,190,865 in Scotland, 7,235,993 in Ireland; total 27,657,721. 
 The quantity on which duty was paid in the kingdom was 24,254,403 gallons at 
 8s a gallon. Amount of duty received £9,701,761. The number of gallons 
 imported into England from Scotland in that year was 4,878,187, and from 
 Ireland 1,496,313 gallons. 
 
 The proof spirits permitted out from distillers' stock for export in 1859, was 
 1,775,274 gallons, and of British compounds and spirits of wine 375,715 gallons. 
 The methylic alcohol sold by the excise between 1st October, 1855 and 31st 
 December, 1859, was 89,327 gallons, and of methylated spirits sold under license 
 by authorized parties in the same period 838,517 gallons. 
 
 Methylated spirits has lately been much used by dyers to produce some of the 
 bright colours which have been in fashion for ladies' dress. It seems that the 
 French have long been in the habit of using this alcohol in dyeing, but in this 
 country the high duty levied on spirits acted as a complete prohibition against the 
 application of them to such a purpose, and enabled the French to maintain an 
 undoubted superiority. 
 
SPI 
 
 277 
 
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 15,141,720 
 7,868,61 l 
 
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 10,593,049 
 7,188,908 
 6,688,448 
 
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 Gallons. 
 
 1,217.694 
 77,994 
 61,881 
 
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 8,881,978 
 
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 2,842,395 
 
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 44,352 
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 $,208,266 
 8,186,862 
 
 8,440,731 
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 179,888 
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 80,301 
 83,909 
 91,690 
 
 107,044 
 77,508 
 81,546 
 79,980 
 65,706 
 77,094 
 91,383 
 
 
 1 
 
 pq 
 
 <;.illons. 
 6,830,710 
 7,172,015 
 §884,648 
 11558,889 
 6)844,819 
 7,175,939 
 7,(>;i0,822 
 6,781.879 
 7,123,900 
 3.305,005 
 
 
 Q 
 z 
 
 •< 
 J 
 
 ■ 
 
 z 
 
 "3 
 
 c 
 
 "3 
 O 
 
 Gallons. 
 2,542,395 
 2,553,427 
 2,902,002 
 2,959,275 
 3,018,409 
 8,177,928 
 3,158,302 
 3,198,230 
 3,331,975 
 1,840,313 
 
 
 d 
 
 1 
 
 Gallons. 
 1, 778,550 
 1,835,989 
 1,708,049 
 1,740,587 
 1,438,980 
 1,442,H()7 
 1,201,791 
 1,042,205 
 1,217,694 
 791,100 
 
 
 1 
 
 Gallons. 
 9,695,868 
 
 9,820,608 
 
 io,;;5o,307 
 
 10,889,011 
 
 10,884,100 
 
 9,343,519 
 10,199,505 
 10,028,591 
 10,592,049 
 
 6,289,740 
 
 
 
 1851 - 
 
 1852 - 
 
 853 - 
 
 854 - 
 
 855 - 
 
 856 - 
 1857 - 
 
 858 - 
 
 859 - 
 
 860, to 30 June - 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
SPI 
 
 278 
 
 STA 
 
 The following have been the successive alterations in the rates of duties on 
 British made spirits. 1853, April 21. The duty on spirits in Scotland was in- 
 creased from 3s 8d to 4* 8d per gallon. In Ireland, from 2s 8d to 3s Ad per 
 gallon, countervailing duties on medicated spirits, sweets or made wines, altered 
 accordingly. Spirits from the Channel Islands, imported into Scotland increased 
 from 4* lOd to bs \0d; into Ireland, from 3* 10* to As 6d. The duty on spirits 
 in Scotland was increased Is per gallon from May 8, 1854, and a further increase 
 of 4d from May 26th. Spirits in Ireland increased 8d per gallon from May 8th. 
 The duty on spirits in Scotland was increased 1* lOd per gallon from April 20, 
 1855, and further increased 2d per gallon from October 1, 1855. In Ireland 
 increased 2d per gallon, and further increased 2d per gallon on the same dates. 
 The duty on spirits in England was increased 2d per gallon from October 1, 1855. 
 
 A license duty of £10. 10s to makers of methylated spirits was imposed 
 October 1, 1855. This methylated spirit is spirits of wine rendered non-potable 
 by the admixture of wood naphtha, and which is then permitted to be used duty 
 free in the arts and manufactures. 
 
 The duty on spirits made in Ireland was increased Is lOd per gallon, from 
 April 19, 1858, and from 29th February, 1860, the duty on British spirits gene- 
 rally in the United Kingdom was increased Id per gallon. The increase in the 
 gross duties received on home made spirits have been upwards of £4,000,000 in the 
 last ten years. 
 
 1850. 1859. 
 
 England - £2,976,674 4,340,197 
 
 Scotland - 1,864,261 2,972,642 
 
 Ireland - 1,103,247 2,687,352 
 
 United Kingdom - - £5,944,182 10,000,191 
 
 The number of licenses issued in 1851, was as follows: — 
 
 1851. 
 
 England, j Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Distillers - 
 Rectifiers - 
 Wholesale Spirit Dealers 
 Retail Spirit Dealers 
 
 12 
 74 
 
 1,551 
 57,564 
 
 160 
 6 
 44 
 
 14,662 
 
 59 
 
 38 
 
 109 
 
 14,657 
 
 222 
 
 118 
 
 1,704 
 
 86,883 
 
 Total 
 
 59,201 
 
 14,872 
 
 14,854 
 
 88,927 
 
 The gross amount paid for these licenses to the Commissioners of Inland Re- 
 venue was ^554,039. 
 In 1859 the numbers stood as follows; — 
 
 1859. 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ireland, j Total. 
 
 Distillers • 
 Rectifiers - 
 Wholesale Dealers 
 Retail Dealers - 
 
 16 
 
 104 
 
 1,568 
 
 62,437 
 
 125 
 
 9 
 
 70 
 
 11,938 
 
 35 
 
 45 
 
 133 
 
 17,168 
 
 176 
 
 158 
 
 1,771 
 
 91,543 
 
 Total 
 
 64,125 
 
 12,142 
 
 17,381 
 
 93,648 
 
 The gross amount paid for these licenses was £571,684. 
 
 SPONGE. The number of boats employed in the sponge fishery in the Otto- 
 man Archipelago is now about 600, employing 4200 men. Of these boats, 70 
 fish on the coasts of Rhodes, 150 on those of Candia, 180 off the Syrian coast, 
 and 200 about the Barbary shores. In 1857, the quantity of sponge exported 
 from the port of Rhodes was 294 cwts. of fine, valued at £51,282; 1195 cwt. of 
 common, worth £24,974; and about 400 cwts. of coarse, worth very little. 
 The imports of sponge in the United Kingdom in the four years 1855-58 
 averaged 315,000 lbs. valued at about £160,000. 
 
 STAMPS. The following is a chronological account of the alterations made 
 in the rates of duties on stamps, &c. in the last ten years: — 
 
STA 
 
 279 
 
 STE 
 
 1850.— Stamps on Agreements, Bonds, Con- 
 veyances, Leases, Mortgages, Settle- 
 ments, Warrant? ot Attorney, and a few- 
 other legal instruments, reduced from 
 Oct. io, isoo. 
 
 Discount on Receipt Stamps increased 
 from £ i. id* to £7 lOs per cent trom Oct. 
 10, 18-50. 
 1853 — Articles ot ClerKship to Attorneys, &c. 
 i educed rroui £120. to £80. from August 
 4, 18.">3. 
 
 Attorneys', Conveyancers,' <fec. Certi- 
 ficates, reduced trom £12. to £9., and 
 from £8. to £6., from August 4, 1853. 
 
 Apprenticeship and Clerkship Inden- 
 tures, without a premium, reduced from 
 £l. 15* to U 6d, from Oct. 10, 1853. 
 
 Debentures or Certificates for receipt ot 
 drawback altered from 5* to various 
 rates from Oct. 10, 1853. 
 
 Life Assurance Policies reduced various 
 rates from Oct. 10, 1353. 
 
 Receipt Stamps -Duty reduced from 
 various rates to Id from Oct 10, 1853. 
 
 Supplements to Newspapers — Duty par- 
 tially repealed irom August 4, 1853. 
 
 Advertisement Duty repealed from 
 August 4, 1853. 
 
 Drafts or Orders for Money on Demand 
 
 — Duty of Id imposed from Oct. 10, 
 1853. 
 
 1853.- Scrip Certificates- Stamp Duty of Id 
 imposed from August 4, 1853. 
 
 Succession Tax— Legacy Duty on suc- 
 cession to real property imposed at vari- 
 ous rates from May 19, 1853. 
 
 1854.— Stamps— Inland Bills of Exchange and 
 Promissory Notes— Duties reduced from 
 Oct. 10, 1854. 
 
 Foreign Bills of Exchange— New Duties 
 imposed at various rates from same date. 
 Pawnbrokers' Licences in Dublin re- 
 duced from £15. to £7. 10* from Oct. 10, 
 1854. 
 
 1855.— Newspaper Stamps— Duty repealed, 
 except for transmission by Post, from 
 June 30, 1855. 
 
 Admiralty Stamps, imposed August 7, 
 1854 
 
 1857.— Probate Court Stamps, and Divorce 
 and Matrimonial Causes Stamps, imposed 
 from Jan. 11, 1858. 
 
 1858.— Draft or Order for Money drawn on a 
 Banker (hitherto exempt) Stamp Duty of 
 id imposed from May 24, 1858. 
 
 1859.— Probates of Wills and Letters of Ad- 
 ministration—graduated stamp duty, ex- 
 tended per Act 22 and 23 Vict, c. 63. 
 
 The revenue received from Stamps by the Inland Revenue Commissioners 
 has not fluctuated to any large amount, having been £7,710,683 in 1845, and 
 £7,752,592 in 1859. 
 
 STARCH. The manufacture of starch is now a very important trade both 
 in this and other countries. In the United States Indian corn and potatoes are 
 largely used for the manufacture. In the United Kingdom, wheat, rice, potatoes, 
 and other suitable vegetable substances are employed. 
 
 Ten years ago the manufacture of starch of all kinds was estimated at upwards 
 of 20,000 tons, of the value of about half a million, besides what was imported. 
 But since that period the progress of our textile manufactures has led to a 
 greatly increased consumption. About 5000 tons a year of what are termed 
 " gum substitutes " are now made from wheat and potatoes. One single print- 
 works in Manchester uses about a ton a day of this starch. The imported 
 starches, arrow-root, cassava, sago, &c. reach also to a considerable amount. 
 
 ST. DOMINGO. The number of vessels that entered at the port of St. 
 Domingo in 1856 was 108, of 12,000 tons, with cargoes valued at £99,000 ; of 
 these, 1 5 vessels were British. The number of vessels that entered at the port 
 of Puerto Plata in 1857 was 138 of 12,413 tons, with cargoes of the value of 
 £188,023. The export cargoes in the same year were to the value of £266,600. 
 
 The value of the Imports were : — 
 
 1856 1857 
 
 At St. Domingo - £94,958 - £ — 
 
 At Puerto Plata - 132,974 - 188,024 
 
 The principal shipments from the port of St. Domingo in 1856 were 2,236,180 
 feet of mahogany, 2016 tons of lignum vitae, 484 tons of fustic, 58,715 lbs. 
 of wax, and 314,134 lbs. of hides. From Puerto Plata in 1857, 1,046,635 feet 
 of mahogany, 51,827 serons (of 100 lbs.) of tobacco, 41,533 lbs. of wax, 
 17,225 lbs. of hides, and 174 tons of dye woods. 
 
 STEAM ENGINES. The employment of steam power has become so 
 general throughout the kingdom, that the number of steam engines employed 
 in factories, on farms, and on railways, must be very considerable. In agricul- 
 ture there are now about 30,000 employed ; the locomotives must number folly 
 6000. Ten years ago there were estimated to be 16,000 stationary engines in 
 the kingdom, working mines, iron works, and rolling mills, factories, flour mills, 
 and various other manufactures, assumed to be worth £25,000. The motive 
 power in the various textile manufactories of the kingdom was returned in 
 1856 at 137,711 horse power. 
 
STE 
 
 280 
 
 STE 
 
 STEAM NAVIGATION. The progress of steam navigation of late years 
 has been very rapid. Great Britain and the United States have the largest 
 number, but many European States have also added considerably to their mer- 
 cantile steam fleet. The number of steam vessels owned by the United King- 
 dom and her Colonies in 1840, was 824 of 95,807 tons. In 1850, it was 1350 
 of 187,631 tons, and in 1859 it had increased to 1854 vessels, of 682,433 tons, 
 and 187,274 horse power, inclusive of those owned by the Colonies. For seven 
 or eight years past about 200 steamers a year have been built and registered in 
 the United Kingdom, besides many built for foreigners. 
 
 The steam tonnage of the United Kingdom has within the last five years 
 increased in a much greater proportion than that of sailing vessels, and in a 
 much greater ratio than that of any other nation. While at the close of 1855 
 it amounted to 288,956 tons, it increased in 1859 to 398,515 tons, being about 
 35 per cent. more. There is apparently a tendency to substitute the rapid and 
 comparatively certain power of steam for the more uncertain power of wind, and 
 this tendency will become stronger should the various experiments for econo- 
 mizing fuel prove to be as successful as they are expected. 
 
 In 1850 the number of British steamers employed in the Trade of the United 
 Kingdom was as follows : — 
 
 Vessels. Tonnage. Men Employed. 
 
 Home Trade - - 320 54,196 4491 
 
 Partly Home and partly Foreign 20 5,298 396 
 
 Foreign - - 86 45,186 3813 
 
 Total 426 104,680 8700 
 
 In 1859 the number had increased in a remarkable degree. 
 
 Home Trade 
 
 Home and partly Foreign-going 
 
 Foreign Trade 
 
 Total 
 This was exclusive of river steamers. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 374 
 
 59 
 
 462 
 
 895 
 
 Tons. 
 
 90,867 
 
 21,123 
 
 277,527 
 
 389,517 
 
 Men. 
 
 6377 
 
 1202 
 
 18,719 
 
 26,298 
 
 The registered steamers in the United Kingdom, exclusive of the Colonial 
 ones, were in 
 
 Below 50 tons 
 Above 50 tons 
 
 1846. 
 
 1857. 
 
 Vessels. 
 410 
 553 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 10,204 
 
 121,052 
 
 Vessels. 
 677 
 1147 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 16,002 
 
 401,464 
 
 963 
 
 131,256 
 
 1824 
 
 417,466 
 
 In 1850 there were 1181 steam vessels of 167,398 net tonnage belonging to 
 the United Kingdom, in 1858 there were 1916 vessels, registering 451,047 tons, 
 exclusive of engine room. 
 
 The Statistics of British owned Steam Vessels in 1858, were as follows : — 
 
 England : 
 
 
 Above 50 tons 
 
 
 Of and u 
 
 Scotland: 
 
 
 Above 50 tons 
 Below 50 tons 
 
 Ireland : 
 
 
 Above 50 tons 
 Below 50 tons 
 
 Channel Islands 
 
 Above 50 tons 
 
 
 
 Below 50 tons 
 
 Colonies : 
 
 
 Above 50 tons 
 Below 50 tons 
 
 essels. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 821 
 
 316,241 
 
 626 
 
 14,334 
 
 244 
 
 83,280 
 
 70 
 
 1566 
 
 125 
 
 34,757 
 
 30 
 
 869 
 
 9 
 
 1405 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 186 
 
 21,087 
 
 94 
 
 2974 
 
 2206 
 
 483,529 
 
STE 281 STE 
 
 From another statement we make the gross registered steam tonnage, exclu- 
 sive of the Colonies 682,433 tons, and the effective horse power 187,274. 
 
 The increase of steam shipping in our coasting and foreign trade in the eight 
 years from 1850 to 1858 rose from 104,680 tons to 369,204, or about 250 per 
 cent. "When we find upwards of eighteen million tons of steam shipping em- 
 ployed yearly in our trade, the inference is plain, that these must supersede, 
 to a great extent, the slower sailirg craft. 
 
 The descriptions of vessels registered were as follows at two periods. 
 
 
 
 1855. 
 
 1859. 
 
 Iron Paddle Vessels 
 
 , 
 
 275 
 
 433 
 
 Iron Screw Vessels 
 
 . ■ 
 
 264 
 
 566 
 
 Wooden Paddle Vessels 
 
 m I 
 
 931 
 
 820 
 
 Wooden Screw Vessels 
 
 • 
 
 10 
 
 35 
 
 Wood and Iron Paddle ditto 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 
 1480 1854 
 
 There are two prominent points noticeable in these figures, the great increase 
 of iron-built steam vessels, and the manifest preponderance which screw steamers 
 are taking over paddle steamers. 
 
 In 1837 there were but 26 steam vessels in the British Royal Navy, of 4536 
 horse power, in 1857 this number had increased to 459, of 102,084 horse power, 
 and three-fourths of the men-of-war kept in commission now consist of 
 steamers. The steam war navies of the two principal countries, according to 
 an official British report, dated 6 July, 1859, were respectively, England 468, of 
 which 30 were building ; France 264, of which 35 were building. 
 
 In 1858 France owned 330 mercantile steam vessels of 72,070 tons, so that we 
 have six times the number of vessels and amount of steam tonnage of the 
 French, even without reckoning the steam vessels owned in India and the 
 Colonies. 
 
 STONE TRADE. Mr. Robert Hunt, in his Mining Records of the United 
 Kingdom, estimates the entire production of building and other stones, and the 
 aggregate value of the quantity raised in each part of the kingdom, as follows. 
 Ills estimate is framed upon returns received from 2400 quarries in 1858. 
 
 Tons. Value. 
 £ 
 
 England - 7,500,000 1,705,508 
 
 Wales - 3,500,000 898,123 
 
 Scotland - - - 4,750,000 1,211,393 
 
 Ireland - - - ... 800,000 
 
 Jersey - 14,200 7,900 
 
 15,664,200 4,622,924 
 
 From Padstow there was shipped of Cornish stone, in 1858, 1900 tons of 
 granite. The Cheeswring granite quarries produce annually about 14,000 tons, 
 and the Par granite quarries 8000 tons, the Penryn quarries 20,000 tons, and 
 the Penzance quarries 4000 tons ; at the Breakwater quarries in the Plymouth 
 district, about 100,000 tons of limestone are annually quarried. 
 
 The principal Portland quarries produce 40,000 tons of stone annually, the 
 price of which is about £ 1 per ton on the wharf. The quarries of the Bath 
 Oolitic district yield about 158,000 tons annually, much of which is sent to 
 distant markets in large blocks. The Great Western Railway carries upwards 
 of 62,000 tons of it. 
 
 STRAW PLAIT. The straw plait trade has been greatly extended of late 
 years, and the annual returns are estimated to be to the value of about one 
 million and a quarter sterling. It gives employment directly and indirectly to 
 80,000 or 100,000 persons, nearly all females. Luton is the chief centre of' the 
 trade, but between 190 and 200 towns, villages, and hamlets in the district are 
 interested in the trade and manufacture. There is a considerable export and 
 import trade in straw plait, hats, &c. The computed value of the imports of 
 both in 1858 was £250,000. The average value of the exports of plait in the 
 
sua 
 
 282 
 
 sua 
 
 five years ending with 1858 was £59,653, of which £43,500 was of British 
 manufacture. The straw plait trade is also of great importance in several of 
 the States of Europe — France, Belgium and Switzerland carry on an extensive 
 business, chiefly for local consumption. In the Black Forest straw plaiting 
 occupies a large number of persons. In Italy the annual value of the production 
 is over one million sterling. 
 
 SUGAR. The consumption of sugar in the world may be roughly estimated 
 at two and a half million tons, of which the United Kingdom uses 462,500 tons, 
 the rest of Europe about as much, and the United States nearly 400,000 tons. 
 The production of tropical or. cane sugar is perhaps only about one million and 
 a half of tons, but maple sugar, date sugar (100,000 tons), beetroot sugar, and 
 potato sugar make up the deficiencies. 
 
 The Imports of Sugar into the United Kingdom in 1859 were drawn from 
 the following sources, and the quantity taken for consumption is added. 
 
 British West Indies and Guiana 
 
 British East Indies - 
 
 Mauritius - 
 
 Cuba and Porto Rico 
 
 Brazil - 
 
 Java and Philippines 
 
 Other Countries - 
 
 Total - 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Taken for 
 Consumption. 
 
 Cwts 
 3,126,520 
 
 877,971 
 1,130 386 
 1,793,756 
 1,112,429 
 
 476,091 
 
 393,064 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 3,139,147 
 
 877,504 
 
 1,136,109 
 
 1,831,145 
 
 962,798 
 
 404,748 
 
 381,820 
 
 8,910,217 
 
 8,733,271 
 
 Besides the above quantity 188,703 cwts. of sugar equal to white clayed, and 
 262,461 cwts. of refined sugar and candy were imported, making in all 9,361,341 
 cwts. of sugar received. Thus in the last twenty years the imports and con- 
 sumption have more than doubled in the kingdom, and the price has materially 
 declined. 
 
 The following estimates will give an idea of the progressive increase in the 
 production of Cane Sugar, in tons, in the principal countries : — 
 
 I860. 
 
 100,000 
 
 110,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 ' - 50,000 
 
 65,000 
 7,500 
 
 15,000 
 160,000 
 148,000 
 175,000 
 100,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 The application of the principle of free-trade to this article has not been less 
 successful than its application to the silk manufacture and the repeal of the 
 duties on corn. Successive reductions were made in 1845, 1846, and 1848, 
 in the discriminative duties on foreign, East India, and colonial sugars ; the Act 
 of 1848 provided for the gradual reduction of duties until July 1854, from which 
 period the duties on sugars from all countries were to be equalized, and to vary 
 from 13* Ad on refined sugar, to 10* on brown raw ; on molasses the duty was 
 fixed at Zs 9d. In consequence of the war with Russia in 1854, the intended 
 commencement in that year of the equalized scale of duties was suspended. 
 
 Official returns attest the favourable results from the reduction of the duties 
 on sugar, the home consumption having increased from an average of 15| lbs. 
 to 37 lbs. for each individual in the United Kingdom, and this greatly in- 
 creased consumption has brought up the revenue to more than it was before the 
 lowering of the duties. 
 
 
 
 
 1850. 
 
 Brazils - 
 
 . 
 
 ■ 
 
 103 ono 
 
 United States 
 
 ■ 
 
 _ 
 
 11,000 
 
 Cuba 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 250,000 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 - 
 
 ■ 
 
 48,200 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 m 
 
 47,250 
 
 Danish ditto 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 5,000 
 
 Dutch ditto 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 14,200 
 
 British ditto 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 129,200 
 
 East Indies 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 67,300 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 57,879 
 
 Java 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 82 000 
 
 Manilla - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 20,000 
 
sua 
 
 283 
 
 sua 
 
 Additional duties on sugar to continue during the war were imposed in 1854. 
 By 17 Vict. c. 29, the following duties were made payable from August 2, 1854: 
 
 s. d. 
 Candy, brown or white refined sugar - - per cwt. 16 
 
 White clayed ----- ditto 14 
 
 Yellow Muscovado, and brown clayed - - ditto 12 
 
 Brown Muscovado - ditto 11 9 
 
 Molasses ----- ditto 4 3 
 
 The Excise Duties on Sugar made in the United Kingdom are the same as 
 
 ustoms Duties. 
 On the 21st April, 1355, a further increase in the duties was made : — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 White clayed being charged - - - 17 6 
 
 Not equal to white clayed - 
 
 Not equal to brown clayed - - - 13 9 
 
 Refined and sugar candy - - - 10 
 
 Molasses - - - - - 054 
 
 On the 5th April, 1857, a reduction was made to the following rates, which 
 are those still in force : — 
 
 16 
 13 10 
 12 8 
 18 4 
 5 
 
 Equal to white clayed - 
 
 Not equal to ditto 
 
 Not equal to brown clayed 
 
 Refined and Sugar Candy 
 
 Molasses 
 
 The annexed table (in continuation of that given at p. 639) shows the total 
 imports since 1842, the quantity of different kinds retained for home consump- 
 tion, the produce of the duty thereon, and the average price of British plantation 
 sugar, in bond, as taken from the London Gazette. 
 
 
 
 Entered for Consumption in the United 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 
 Produce 
 
 
 Years ended 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 of Duty 
 on Sugar 
 
 Price of 
 British 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 British 
 
 
 
 
 and 
 
 Plantation 
 
 
 
 Plantation 
 and 
 
 British 
 East India 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 Molasses. 
 
 per Cwt 
 
 
 
 Mauritius. 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. d. 
 
 5th July 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 £ 
 
 1842 
 
 4,462,591 
 
 3,139,240 
 
 1,021,071 
 
 295 
 
 4,160,606 
 
 5,485,013 
 
 37 
 
 1843 
 
 4,970,056 
 
 2,922,200 
 
 1,017,200 
 
 61 
 
 3,940 461 
 
 5,178,296 
 
 34 7 
 
 1844 
 
 4,617,445 
 
 3,017,099 
 
 932,164 
 
 85 
 
 3,949,348 
 
 5,254,006 
 
 34 9 
 
 1845 
 
 5,704,765 
 
 3,418,254 
 
 1,233,716 
 
 34,557 
 
 4,686,527 
 
 4,995,998 
 
 31 3 
 
 1846 
 
 6,H)6,242 
 
 3,482,214 
 
 1,286,370 
 
 60,036 
 
 4,828,620 
 
 3,584,689 
 
 35 3 
 
 1S47 
 
 6,633,208 
 
 3,120,127 
 
 1,422,876 
 
 1,207,949 
 
 5,750,952 
 
 4,663,562 
 
 32 11 
 
 1848 
 
 7,202,269 
 
 3,703,264 
 
 1,141,990 
 
 780,733 
 
 5,625,987 
 
 4,399,666 
 
 24 3 
 
 1849 
 
 6,924,445 
 
 3,711,214 
 
 1,317,025 
 
 928,956 
 
 5,957,195 
 
 4,423,934 
 
 24 4 
 
 1850 
 
 7,186,067 
 
 4,041,111 
 
 1,321,970 
 
 624,664 
 
 5,987,745 
 
 4,071,945 
 
 25 3 
 
 1851 
 
 6,897,656 
 
 3,495,107 
 
 1,360,367 
 
 1,206,883 
 
 6,064,357 
 
 4,137,518 
 
 27 3 
 
 1852 
 
 7,650,048 
 
 3,409,222 
 
 1,483,955 
 
 1,145,757 
 
 7,038,934 
 
 4,353,603 
 
 22 7 
 
 1S53 
 
 6,741.936 
 
 4,795,828 
 
 1,529,000 
 
 744,132 
 
 7,068,960 
 
 4,081,270 
 
 24 2 
 
 1854 
 
 7,494,566 
 
 4,702,600 
 
 1,304,126 
 
 1,476,620 
 
 7,483,356 
 
 4,420,973 
 
 24 1 
 
 30th June 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1855 
 
 8,233,696 
 
 4,034,254 
 
 754,806 
 
 3,356,120 
 
 8,145,180 
 
 5,330,067 
 
 20 11 
 
 1856 
 
 7,776,129 
 
 4,596,007 
 
 653,221 
 
 1,892,507 
 
 7,141,735 
 
 5,636,067 
 
 23 3 
 
 1857 
 
 7,973,466 
 
 3,956,210 
 
 1,287,637 
 
 2,348,404 
 
 7,592,251 
 
 5,780,635 
 
 36 8 
 
 1858 
 
 8,704,784 
 
 4,260,648 
 
 700,257 
 
 2,967,561 
 
 7,928,466 
 
 5,678,964 
 
 30 7 
 
 1859 
 
 9,137,936 
 
 4,728,609 
 
 920,717 
 
 3,509,686 
 
 9,159,012 
 
 6,465,080 
 
 27 7 
 
 Beet Root Sugar. The duty on beet root sugar having been assimilated to 
 that on colonial in France in 1845, has checked the indigenous manufacture, 
 which had been very rapid. In 1849, 303 factories there produced 61,826,626 
 kilogrammes, or 69,000 tons. In the close of 1857 the number of establishments 
 at work was 282, which manufactured 53,979,866 kilogrammes. The cultivation 
 of the beet root for sugar would at length seem to have reached a culminating 
 point, and it is now being abandoned in many quarters as unremunerative for 
 this purpose. In Germany the manufacture is principally carried on in the 
 
SXJQ 284 SWI 
 
 neighbourhoods of Magdeburg, Halforstadt, and Breslau, in Prussia ; in the 
 Duchies of Brunswick, the Anhalts, and Baden. In 1859 the number of sugar 
 factories in the Zollverein was 257; of these, the greater proportion (214) were 
 in Prussia, about a dozen in Brunswick, 7 or 8 in Bavaria, and 6 in Wurtem- 
 burg. 
 
 While the consumption of sugar generally in the States of the Zollverein in 
 1840 was under 5 lbs. per head of the population, in 1855 it had reached the 
 rate of 63 lbs. per head. In 1842 the consumption of sugar in the Zollverein 
 was at the rate of 81 -64 per cent, colonial, and 1 8*36 per cent, beet sugar; in 1857 
 it was 84-33 per cent, of beet root sugar, against only 15*67 per cent, of colonial 
 produce. The yearly quantities consumed from 1844 to 1846 were 1,278,421 
 cwts. of colonial sugar, and 264,283 cwts. of beet sugar. The quantities con- 
 sumed from 1853 to 1855 were 654,386 cwts. of colonial, and 1,487,452 cwts. of 
 beet sugar. The price of sugar had also fallen in ten years about 35 per cwt. 
 In 1848 about 100,000 tons of beet root sugar was made in Europe; in 1860 it 
 exceeded 420,000 tons, of which 200,000 was made in Germany, 100,000 tons in 
 France, and the remainder in Belgium, Russia and Poland, &c. 
 
 Maple Sugar. The quantity of this sugar made in the United States and in 
 Canada may be fairly considered as amounting to 30,000 tons annually, besides 
 about 50 million gallons of molasses. 
 
 SULPHUR. The average import of sulphur in the three years ending 1859 
 was 55,140 tons, besides what is made here. The manufacture of sulphuric 
 acid has enormously increased, and likewise been greatly reduced in price. In 
 1850 the quantity made in the kingdom was estimated at 300,000 tons, worth at 
 least £1,200,000. France and the United States probably consume as much. 
 
 SUMACH. The consumption of this dye stuff and tanning substance has in- 
 creased to about 1 5,000 tons per annum. 
 
 SWEDEN. The population of Sweden in the close of 1855 was 3,639,332; 
 Stockholm had risen in 1859 to 101,502 inhabitants, and Gottenburg to 30,576. 
 The revenue of Stockholm in 1860 was about £1,500,000, and the expenditure 
 rather exceeded it. The entries of vessels in 1857 were 6474 ships, of 244,837 
 lasts, with cargoes, and 3563 ships, of 216,145 lasts in ballast. The clearances 
 were 8123 ships and 419,273 lasts loaded, and 1764 ships and 82,202 lasts in 
 ballast. The mercantile marine of Sweden at the close of 1857 numbered 3190 
 ships, measuring 147,705 lasts. The exports of Sweden consist exclusively of 
 the raw products of the country, the principal of which are iron and timber. 
 The improvements in agriculture during the last few years enable the southern 
 and western provinces to export annually a fair amount of corn, and the ship- 
 ment of oats to England is considerable. 
 
 The exports from Great Britain to Sweden in the three years ending 1859 
 averaged in value £500,000 per annum. The value of the general import trade 
 of Sweden is now about £5,000,000, and that of the exports £4,500,000. The 
 public debt of the State is under £4,000,000, and has been incurred chiefly for 
 the construction of railways, of which there are about 1 50 miles now in opera- 
 tion. In 1853, 30,100 tons of iron and steel were shipped from Sweden, and 
 257,850 dozen of deals, battens and boards. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. The population in 1850 was 2,392,740. A large quan- 
 tity of goods is conveyed in transit through Switzerland, and this has been 
 gradually increasing of late years, especially wood, spirits, cheese, butter, sugar, 
 coffee, h'on and steel wares, wadding and cotton and yarn, wool and woollen yarn, 
 waste silk, wooden wares, and small wares. In 1855 there were 2270 miles of 
 telegraph wire in operation in Switzerland. The revenue of the Republic in 
 1860 was £638,640, and the expenditure about £10,000 beyond this. The debt 
 at the end of 1860 was about £400,000. The amount of customs' duties re- 
 ceived in 1855 was £229,045, but the cost of collection was more than half this 
 sum, viz. £131,730. The total area was 9,853,724 acres, of which 3,062,293 
 was waste or uncultivated. The live stock in 1854 comprised 100,000 horses, 
 875,000 cattle, 405,000 sheep, 376,000 goats, 279,000 swine ; 491,071 cwts. of 
 butter, and 245,535 cwts. of cheese were made in the year. 
 
TAH 
 
 285 
 
 TAE 
 
 TAHITI. This island, better known as Otaheite, is the principal French 
 colony in the Pacific, and the largest of the Society Islands. In 1842 it was 
 placed nnder the protectorate of France, and in the following year it was for- 
 mally taken possession of by the French Admiral Dn Petit Thouars. The 
 value of the imports in 1856 was £120,000, and of the exports £60,000, making 
 an aggregate trade of £ 180,000. 
 
 The number of vessels, exclusive of coasters, that entered at the port of 
 Papeeti in 1858 was 110, of 10,511 tons, of which 8 were British. The total 
 shipping comprised 135 merchant and coasting vessels, measuring 11,494 tons, 
 and 19 whalers, of 6972 tons. The total value of the foreign imports was 
 £83,862. There had been, however, a considerable decrease in the trade as 
 compared with previous years. The value of the exports was £37,112. The 
 domestic produce formed about half this, and consisted chiefly of oranges, lime 
 juice, arrow root, cocoa nut oil, and mother of pearl shells. 
 
 TAE. The average imports of tar in the three years ending 1859 were 
 about 13,500 lasts. 
 
 TARIFFS. Great alterations and concessions for the extension of commerce 
 have been made of late years by the principal European and American States in 
 their tariffs. The following embrace the principal alterations. 
 
 Tariffs of Foreign Countries. — Rates of Duty upon the principal 
 Articles of British and Colonial Produce and Manufactures levied in 
 each of the Years 1846 and 1853, by the Tariffs of Foreign Countries. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 
 1846. 1853. 
 
 
 Cotton Twist, white - percwt. 
 „ „ coloured, twisted with white 
 
 and coloured threads - „ 
 „ ,, dyed Turkish red, and the 
 same twisted with white or 
 coloured threads - „ 
 ,, or half cotton wicks, with flax or 
 
 hemp ; also pure flaxen wicks - „ 
 ,, twist, nettle threads and prepared 
 
 lint - - „ 
 Cotton Manufactures: 
 All kinds of unbleached, white, plain, \ 
 and with white ornaments, woven, <fcc, / 
 not otherwise described, having as > per lb. 
 much as 8,711 square inches or 6J-|i 
 square yards to the lb avoirdupois - J 
 The same kinds, but of variegated co- \ 
 lours, and with coloured patterns, as f 
 much as 6^| square yards to the lb. i " 
 avoirdupois - - -) 
 Corduroys, velveretts, and cotton velve- 
 teens, coloured; also closely woven 
 stuff, stamped white, of one colour and 
 variegated - - „ 
 
 Printed stuff - - „ 
 
 All kinds with patterns in straw, gold or 
 silver, or tinsel, woven, <fec with or 
 without work ; also cut out for dresses „ 
 
 Handkerchiefs and shawls of cotton 
 alone, of variegated colours, or imita- 
 tion of Turkish and Cashmeres ; also 
 borders and edgings, &c. - „ 
 
 Stockings, nightcaps, gloves, <fec., plain 
 or coloured - - „ 
 
 Galloons, cords, fringes, <fcc., plain or ) 
 coloured - - - - J " 
 
 £ «. d. 
 
 3 5 
 
 4 
 
 7 10 2 
 3 5 
 
 5 
 
 (from 3 1$ 
 (to 10 4 
 
 (from 9 4$ 
 (to 14 3 
 
 9 4$ 
 Prohibited 
 
 1 7 
 
 1 15 h\ 
 
 4 8{ 
 (from 8 7 
 I to 13 1$ 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 2 11 10$ 
 
 3 2 2f 
 
 5 14 1 
 2 11 lOf 
 2 11 lOf 
 
 ] 1 9| 
 \ 2 9$ 
 
 3 8| 
 (from 4 5| 
 (to 9 3i 
 
 11 1$ 
 
 9 3J 
 
 2 2f 
 3 S$ 
 
TAE 
 
 286 
 
 TAE 
 
 Russia— continued. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 1846. 
 
 Linen Manufactures : 
 
 Batiste cambric and lenos (coarse and un- 
 bleached), white plain; also white 
 cambric handkerchiefs, with borders 
 hemmed or not - per lb. 
 
 Fine shirt linen, mixed or not with cotton, ") 
 plain or coloured ; also pocket-hand- [ „ 
 kerchiefs with borders. (By Sea.) - ) 
 
 Coarse and thick linen, mixed with cot- 
 ton or not, plain or coloured. (By Sea.) „ 
 
 Table-cloths, napkins and towels of linen, 
 mixed or not with cotton plain or 
 coloured, hemmed or not (By Sea.) „ 
 
 All printed linen and printed linen hand- 
 kerchiefs. (By Sea) - „ 
 
 Stockings, gloves and nightcaps, &c. - „ 
 
 Galloons, tapes, fringes, &c, plain or 
 coloured - - - „ 
 
 Fishing nets - per cwfc. 
 
 Wool and Woollen Manufactures : 
 
 Wool, sheep's, raw and scoured; also 
 cloth clippings or shearings, white and 
 dyed - - - „ 
 
 Woollen Yam : 
 White and dyed for cloth and carpet 
 fabrics; also for sewing, knitting, 
 embroidery, &c. - - - „ 
 
 Spun, combed, for merino shawls and 
 other stuffs of this kind, dyed and 
 not dyed; worsted, twisted or not 
 dyed; also mixed with silk or cotton. 
 (By Sea) - - - „ 
 
 Woollen Manufactures: 
 
 Cloths, half-cloths, cashmere; also hand- 
 kerchiefs and coverlids, black, black- 
 blue, greens, darker than grass-green ; 
 also white, pale, and bluish - - per lb. 
 
 The same cloths and articles of other 
 colours, except handkerchiefs, cover- 
 lids, and counterpanes - „ 
 
 Flannel, plush or shag, velveteen, and 
 such like articles ; felts ; also blankets, 
 white and with coloured borders, or 
 with interwoven patterns - - „ 
 
 Diagonal, trico, casimere, and other 
 similar materials for trousers, of one 
 colour or variegated, woven, mixed, or 
 not with cotton, flax or hemp - „ 
 
 Carpets or rugs of one or many colours; 
 also worked or embroidered of different 
 pieces, and with figures sewn on - „ 
 
 All close woven articles from combed 
 wool, white or of one colour, woven or 
 interwoven, mixed or not with cotton, 
 as camlets, moreens, cassinettes, &a, 
 having as much as 3f| square yards to 
 the English lb. - - - » 
 
 The same manufactures of all denomina- 
 tions, printed or embroidered, having 
 as much as 3£f square yards to the 
 English lb. - ,",' 
 
 All light manufactures made of combed 
 wool, mixed or not with cotton, white 
 or of one colour, and with patterns 
 woven, &c. : viz. merino, half merino, 
 mousseline-de-laine, &c. (except bunt- 
 ing), having more than 3i£ square 
 yards to the English lb. - „ 
 
 Stockings,nightcaps,under-v?sts, jackets, 
 and gloves, plain or coloured - „ 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 5 10£ 
 
 from 7 10J 
 to 1 14 6 
 
 Prohibited 
 
 8 7J 
 
 Prohibited 
 6 9 
 
 Prohibited 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 8 12 6 
 
 4 6 
 
 10 6 
 
 6 9 
 
 4 6 
 
 10 6 
 
 4 8| 
 
 9 
 
 Prohibited 
 
 13 1 J 
 5 10 
 
TAE 
 
 287 
 
 TAE 
 
 Russia — continued. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Linen Manufactures— continued. 
 Handkerchiefs and shawls, woollen and 
 
 with coloured patterns, woven or in- 
 
 terwoveu, in imitation of Turkish and 
 
 Cashmere ; also with only the border 
 
 woven or sewn on, and borders and 
 
 stuffs of this kind - 
 Silk Manufactures: 
 Non-transparent. 
 
 Silk stuffs, plain or coloured, figured or 
 flowered, and with patterns woven, 
 &c; also handkerchiefs, scarfs, ri 
 bands, <fec 
 
 The same stuffs, handkerchiefs, scarfs, 
 ribands, <fcc with patterns of gold, 
 silver, <fec. - 
 
 "White, or of one colour, with coloured 
 patterns, woven, &c ; also of the same 
 materials, handkerchiefs, scarfs, ri- 
 bands, chenille and articles thereof, 
 with or without fringes 
 
 Similar articles, with gold, silver, «fcc 
 woven, <fec. - 
 
 Handkerchiefs and shawls of silk, and 
 mixed with coloured patterns, woven, 
 Ac, in imitation of Turkish and Cash- 
 meres ; also with the borders alone, 
 woven, <fcc - 
 
 per lb. 
 
 :i 
 
 Linen Yarn of all kinds 
 
 -per cwt. 
 
 Metals: 
 Steel, all kinds, raw - - „ 
 
 Copper or brass articles of all kinds ("ex- 
 cept military stores and accoutrements), 
 vessels and'latten articles of all kinds „ 
 
 Lead, manufactured - - „ 
 
 Iron and steel wire and springs - „ 
 
 Sheet Iron, manufactured articles of, 
 
 tinned or not, all kinds - - „ 
 
 Tin, in sheets - - ,, 
 
 Tin, varnished - - „ 
 
 Tin articles of all kinds, not painted - „ 
 Tin articles of all kinds, painted with ) 
 
 pictures, gilding, and other ornaments J " 
 Sewing Needles ... per lb. 
 
 Packing Needles, harness, saddlers' and 
 
 sailmakers' needles - - ,, 
 
 Swords, sabre and dagger blades, with or 
 without gold and silver - ,, 
 
 Cutlery, and Hardwares. Knives, «tc, 
 with handles of wood, horn, <fcc. ; also, 
 scissors, snuffers, &c with knife blades, 
 polished or not (excepting surgical in- 
 struments) - - „ 
 The same, with handles of ivory, mother 
 
 of pearl, <fcc. - - „ 
 
 Saws, files, &c - - - per cwt 
 
 Smiths' work, forged, without filing or 
 
 polishing, as anchors, nails - - „ 
 
 Whitesmiths' and locksmiths" work, not 
 
 polished, as locks, hinges, screws, &c. per lb. 
 The same articles, polished, and with 
 brass facings, also steel pens - „ 
 
 Firearms, and parts thereof - „ 
 
 Gla*s and Crystal : 
 Window Gla*s, glass ware, plain and 
 
 cast, or stamped, but not cut - per cwt. 
 
 Glass, manufactured, coloured or painted ; 
 also crystal ware, cut, with gilding, 
 painting, Ac. - 
 
 £ «. d. 
 
 1 15 5J 
 
 C from 18 9 
 (to 1 18 3 
 
 2 6 10| 
 
 4 4 4} 
 4 13 9 
 
 from 
 to 
 
 from 
 to 
 
 1 17 3f 
 
 2 8 
 
 3 12 
 
 12 6 
 
 3 9 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 1 16 
 
 2 5 
 
 3 6 
 
 4 2 114 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 13 6 
 
 3 6| 
 Prohibited 
 
 4 6 
 
 1 1 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 4 
 
 1 16 
 
 2. 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 
 9 
 
 9 3 
 
 N 
 
 from 15 11 
 to 49 16 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1 9 74 
 
 18 6± 
 
 1 7 9} 
 
 1 17 0» 
 
 2 6 31 
 
 1 9 71 
 1 11 14 
 
 7 94 
 
 2 11 
 
 
 18 
 
 10*. 
 
 6 
 
 s 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 1 11 
 
 2 1 
 
 H 
 
 9 
 
 ■i 
 H 
 
 6 4 
 
 N 
 
 5 
 
 C| 
 
 1 
 
 N 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 2 7* 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 10 
 
 l 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 q 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 ■a 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 M 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
TAE 
 
 288 
 
 TAE 
 
 Russia — continued. 
 Articles. 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Glass and Crystal — continued. 
 
 Mirrors - each 
 
 Earthenware and Porcelain : 
 Plain, and of one colour; also smoking 
 
 pipes of clay, <fec. (By Sea) - per cwt. 
 The same, with gilding, silver, <fec - „ 
 China, or porcelain ware, of all kinds - „ 
 Leather Manufactures : 
 Boots and shoes of all kinds (except 
 
 ladies' made of silk) - - per lb. 
 Ladies' ditto ditto, of silk - „ 
 Gloves of all kinds, and chamois leather 
 
 articles - - - „ 
 Harness, and saddles of all kinds - „ 
 Porter, in bottles - - -per bottle 
 Spirits ; Rum and Arrack - per 9J galls. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Prohibited 
 
 1 4 
 3 2 3 
 
 Prohibited 
 
 Prohibited 
 Prohibited 
 
 Prohibited 
 4 6 
 1 8 
 5 7 6 
 
 £ s. d. 
 ( from 4£ 
 (to 8 6 8 
 
 1 9 
 
 2 1 5| 
 4 13 4 
 
 3 8\ 
 7 5 
 
 11 1\ 
 1 5| 
 1 2 
 
 3 1 8 
 
 Russia (19th June, 1859.)— Except Poland and Ports of Sea of Azoff. 
 (Import Duties.) 
 
 Articles. 
 
 New Duty. 
 
 Old Duty. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ *. d. 
 
 Iron ; Cast, raw - - 36 lbs. avd. 
 
 1-90 
 
 5-70 
 
 „ Wrought; Bar of 1-12 inch and\ 
 
 
 
 upwards - - - / 
 
 
 
 „ Rail and scrap, ( 
 
 1 1*30 
 
 1 32 
 
 By the White Sea - ( " 
 
 
 Baltic and Black Seas - V 
 
 
 
 By land -J 
 
 
 
 Bar of less than \ inch: 
 
 
 
 By the Black Sea - „ 
 
 1 13 
 
 2 2-6 
 
 By land - - „ 
 
 
 1 7 
 
 „ Assorted 
 
 
 
 By the Black Sea - „ 
 
 1 510 
 
 2 26 
 
 By land - - „ 
 
 
 
 „ Boiler, Plate, Sheet, and Still 
 
 2 26 
 
 2 10-20 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Cocoa - per lb. 
 
 Iron— Anchors - * -per 300 lbs. 
 „ Bar - „ 
 „ Hoops - - - „ 
 „ Scissors ... per lb. 
 
 Steel— Cast - - - per 75 lbs. 
 „ All other kinds (except shear) - 
 
 Woollen Manufactures: 
 Half wool, or wool mixed with cotton or flax : 
 
 All kinds, except flannel - per 9-10 lb. 
 
 Ships, foreign, bought by a Swedish subject, 120 
 
 tons measurement - 
 Ships' Stores, foreign,boughtby Swedish subjects, as: 
 Ropes, new ... per 18f lbs. 
 Canvas, linen or hemp, sail and tent 
 
 cloth - per 9-10 lb. 
 Fish, salted codfish, per barrel (nearly 4 bushels) - 
 ,, ,, herrings ditto ditto 
 
 £ s. d. 
 2 
 10 
 5 
 8 4 
 5 10 
 3 4 
 . Prohibited 
 
 10 } 
 
 ) 25 per cent, ad 
 ) \ alorem 
 
 10 
 
 li 
 
 4 2 
 
 3-310 
 
 £ s. d, 
 
 u 
 
 8 4 
 Prohibited 
 Prohibited 
 
 2 8 
 
 2 2.} 
 
 5 
 
 Less than \ 
 7 quarters > Is. 3d. 
 wide - ; 
 more „ Is. 8d. 
 10 per cent, ad 
 valorem 
 
 CJ 
 
 1 
 3 9 
 1 0.} 
 
TAB 
 
 289 
 
 Norway. 
 
 TAB 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Cotton Manufactures, unbleached cloth per 1^ lb. 
 Linen Yam, untwisted, undyed - „ 
 „ Sailcloth - - » " m 
 Woollen Manufactures - - » 
 Iron, bar - - per 5 cwt. 
 Machinery for agricultural and industrial purposes 
 Coals - - - - per cwt 
 
 £ $. d. 
 9 
 II 
 
 11 
 11 
 9 
 
 Free 
 
 1 
 
 £ s. d. 
 7 
 2\ 
 01 
 7 
 7 1 
 ( Same as the raw 
 I material 
 
 0$ 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 Cotton Yam, twisted - - per 1^ lb. 
 
 (from 
 I to 
 
 44 
 7 
 
 | o oi 
 
 „ „ not twisted - „ 
 
 
 3} 
 5J 
 
 6i 
 
 Of 
 
 „ „ dyed „ 
 
 (from 
 I to 
 
 o o 14 
 
 „ Manufactures, white, not other- ) 
 
 wise described ; also wadding \ " 
 
 ( from 
 [to 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 „ netting (tricotage) white or coloured „ 
 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 Linen Yarn, all sorts • „ 
 
 ( from 
 [to 
 ( from 
 (to 
 
 li 
 2 9f 
 
 ii 
 
 „ Thread - - „ 
 
 o 24 
 
 4 2f 
 
 2* 
 
 „ Manufactures ■ » „ 
 
 ( from 
 [to 
 
 4f 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 Wool Yarn, dyed - - „ 
 
 If 
 
 2f 
 
 „ Manufactures, coarse - „ 
 
 
 2j 
 
 o 34 
 
 „ „ fine, milled, and clipped „ 
 
 
 1 3| 
 
 1 6 
 
 Hardwares and Cutlery : 
 
 
 
 
 Iron and steel wire - per 1 1 0^ lbs. 
 
 
 7 Oi 
 
 3 44 
 
 Ironmongery, coarse and rough - „ 
 
 
 3 6} 
 
 7 0| 
 
 ,, fine and polished • „ 
 
 
 7 Oi 
 
 14 OJ 
 
 Incrusted, facetted and plated - per 1^ lb. 
 
 
 o i 14 
 
 44 
 
 Copper, plates or sheets, hammered or 
 
 
 
 
 rolled; also bolts, nails and 
 
 
 
 
 wire - - per 110^ lbs. 
 
 
 13 5 
 
 6 44 
 
 „ Manufactures - „ 
 
 Ad valo 
 
 Specific 
 
 Tin, unwrought - per l^j lb. 
 
 
 o o 04 
 
 Free 
 
 Lead, pig - - per 110^ lbs 
 
 
 1 4 
 
 Free 
 
 „ rolls - - - ii 
 
 
 2 2 
 
 1 6 
 
 Leather Manufactures: 
 
 
 
 
 Saddlery, without mounting - per 1^ lb. 
 
 
 5J 
 
 4} 
 
 Gloves - - - „ 
 
 
 2 3 
 
 2 9f 
 
 Shoemakers' work of all kinds - ,, 
 
 (from 
 (to 
 
 1 8i 
 2 0| 
 
 o h 
 
 1 6 
 
 2 9f 
 
 Salt, rock per 1,101 lbs. 
 
 Coals (20 barrels, 1 commercial last) 100 barrels 
 
 
 1 17 6 
 
 14 Of 
 
 Beer, in casks - per barrel 
 
 
 5 8 
 
 6 9 
 
 Earthenware or Pottery, all kinds per 110^ lbs 
 
 
 4 6 
 
 2 4J 
 
 Porcelain, &c - „ 
 
 (from 
 (to 
 
 6 9 
 18 
 
 from 18 9 
 to 4 15 
 
 Sugar, refined - - „ 
 
 Prohibited 
 
 14 Of 
 
 Rum, at eight degrees - - per hhd 
 
 
 2 14 
 
 2 6 
 
 (Above that degree, the scale in proportion ) 
 
 
 
 
 ZOLLVEREIN. 
 
 Cotton Yarn, unmixed or mixed, un- 
 bleached, one or two threads, and 
 waddings - - perllOflbs. 
 
 Linen Yarn, bleached or dyed - „ 
 „ „ thread - „ 
 
 6 
 3 
 6 
 
 9 
 9 
 12 
 
TAE 
 
 290 
 
 TAE 
 
 Zollverein — continued. 
 Articles. 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Linen Manufactures : 
 Raw twilling and drilling - per 11 0£ lbs. 
 Ribbons, batiste, borders, fringes, 
 gauze, cambric, woven .trimmings, 
 laces, stockings, &c. <fec. - „ 
 Thread lace - - „ 
 Coffee - - - „ 
 
 £ s. d. 
 6 
 
 3 6 
 
 8 5 
 
 1 13 
 
 £ s. d. 
 12 
 
 4 10 
 9 
 15 
 
 Zollverein. — (Import Duties.) January 1, 1860. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 New Duty. 
 
 Old Duty. 
 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ * d. 
 
 Castor Oil in casks, if, when cleared at the") 
 
 
 
 
 Custom House, 1 lb. per centner off 
 turpentine oil, or | lb. of rosemary oil ( 
 
 lbs. avd. 
 110i 
 
 £ 16 
 
 Not distinguished. 
 
 be added - - -/ 
 
 
 
 
 Milled and Rifled Forged Iron Pipes, for 
 
 
 
 
 gas and water-works, to be added to 
 
 
 
 
 Class of Fashioned Iron, paying 
 
 „ 
 
 — 
 
 9 
 
 Pens of steel or metallic composition, to 
 
 
 
 
 be omitted from Class of Hardwares, 
 
 
 
 
 paying a duty of - 
 
 „ 
 
 Not specified. 
 
 7 10 
 
 India Rubber Plates, and more or less 
 
 
 
 
 cleaned gutta perch a 
 
 n 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 Lees of all sorts, excepting beer and wine, 
 
 
 
 
 omit beer - 
 
 »» 
 
 1 13 
 
 — 
 
 Tallow - 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Pasteboard Covers - 
 
 
 1 6 
 
 3 
 
 Dyed Silk and Fleuret Silk, also Yarn of 
 
 
 
 
 Cotton and Silk (Twisted) - 
 
 n 
 
 1 4 
 
 1 13 
 
 Tulle to be added to Ribands and Fringes, ) 
 paying - - - - J 
 
 
 
 ) from 16 10 
 J to 8 5 
 
 " 
 
 
 Artificial Manures to be added to Manure 
 
 n 
 
 Free. 
 
 
 Ice, Raw - 
 
 „ 
 
 
 / 
 
 Asphaltum - 
 
 n 
 
 it 
 
 > 16 
 
 Coal Tar - 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 Cement (Mastic, prepared with resins and 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 other materials) - 
 
 »* 
 
 " 
 
 
 Zollverein. — (Export Duties ) May 28, 1859. 
 
 The Exportation of Cattle, Swine, Sheep, 
 and other Animals for Food, beyond 
 the Western frontier of the Zollverein lbs. avd. 
 
 Prohibited. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Holland. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Iron, in blocks, pigs, ore, forged staves, rods, \ 
 band, and plate iron, and rails for railroads j 
 „ Anchors and Cables - 
 
 Machinery - - - - - 
 
 Copper, plates, bolts, and nails - per 220 lbs. 
 
 foals - - - _ [ per 10 muds. 
 
 coals \ per 1000 lbs. 
 
 Linen Manufactures: 
 Sailcloth - per roll 
 Cables, nets, and all other ropework per 220 lbs. 
 
 Salt, raw - „ 
 
 Sugar, raw, form and clay - „ 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1 per cent, ad val. 
 
 G per cent. „ 
 6 per cent. „ 
 
 6 8 
 
 2 6 
 
 3 4 
 
 10 
 10 
 3 4 
 1 8 
 
 £ 5. d. 
 
 i per cent, ad val. 
 
 1 per cent. „ 
 1 per cent. „ 
 18 
 
 J Free 
 
 6 
 
 3 4 
 
 Free 
 
 4 
 
TAE 
 
 291 
 Belgium. 
 
 TAE 
 
 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1846. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Woollen Yarn : 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ 8. d. 
 
 Unbleached and untwisted - - per cwt 
 
 
 18 
 
 1 19 11 
 
 Twisted or dyed - - „ 
 
 
 1 4 
 
 1 15 10* 
 
 Woollen Manufactures: 
 
 
 
 
 Casimeres, and similar articles - „ 
 
 
 7 9 8 
 
 4 14 6± 
 
 Coatings, calmucks, duffels, and other 
 
 
 
 
 similar thick stuffs - „ 
 
 
 1 5 44 
 
 3 3 10J 
 
 Linen Manufactures: 
 
 
 
 
 Unbleached, plain, according to the) 
 number of threads - - i " 
 
 (from 
 
 ho 
 
 1 10 
 
 from 4 24 
 
 6 16 10 
 
 to 9 6 4f 
 
 Printed or bleached, plain cloth, accord- ) 
 ing to the number of threads - J " 
 
 (from 
 (to 
 
 1 4 
 
 from 1 16 
 
 9 
 
 to 16 6 1* 
 
 Dyed - - - - ,> ' 
 
 ( frojn 
 (to 
 
 1 16 
 3 16 
 
 from 1 16 
 to 10 14 4 
 
 Silk Manufactures, all sorts of plain stuffs per lb. 
 
 
 3 64 
 
 1 9£ 
 
 „ ,, Ribbons - ,, 
 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 9£ 
 
 Copper, in cakes, blocks, <&e. - per cwt. 
 
 
 5 
 
 OJ 
 
 Ore - - - - „ 
 
 
 10 
 
 Free 
 
 Tin, raw - - - „ 
 
 
 1 3 
 
 Free 
 
 Lead, raw - - - „ 
 
 
 71 
 
 Free 
 
 Earthenware - - „ 
 
 Ad valorem 
 
 Specific 
 
 Coals - per ton 
 
 
 10 8 
 
 11 94 
 
 Herrings - per 1000 
 
 
 7 84 
 
 6 2 
 
 Salt - per cwt. 
 
 
 1 9 
 
 7 
 
 Note— In 1852 a discriminating duty of 10 per cent, in favour of Belgian vessels was abolished. 
 This duty amounted to 20 per cent, upon imports from places beyond the Cape of Good 
 Hope and Cape Horn. 
 
 France. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1853. 
 
 In French 
 Vessels. 
 
 In Foreign 
 Vessels. 
 
 In French 
 Vessels. 
 
 In Foreign 
 Vessels. 
 
 Steel, Raw, drawn - - per cwt 
 „ Cast, drawn „ 
 
 £ *. d. 
 2 1 8 
 2 1 8 
 
 £ *. d. 
 2 4 9 
 2 4 9 
 
 £ 8. d. 
 1 8 4 
 1 16 7 
 
 £ 8. d. 
 1 10 9 
 3 5 
 
 France— {Import Duties.) 
 
 January 9, 1859 
 
 
 Articles. 
 
 New Duty. 
 
 Old Duty. 
 
 
 £ $. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Feathers (Dress), Cock and Vulture, all 
 
 
 
 colours : lbs. avd. 
 
 
 
 In French vessels - - - 110-20 
 
 
 r 2 8 
 
 In foreign vessels and by land - „ 
 
 } 
 
 1 2 3 86 
 
 „ Others, White: 
 
 
 
 In French vessels - - - 
 
 > * Free 
 
 J 8 2 8 
 
 In foreign, and by land 
 
 
 \ 8 9 9 
 
 „ Black: 
 
 
 
 
 In French vessels - 
 
 
 
 4 1 4 
 
 In foreign, and by land 
 
 
 ) 
 
 v 4 6 
 
 Grease, extracted from skins from India : 
 
 
 
 
 In French vessels 
 
 
 9-6 
 
 16 
 
 In foreign „ - 
 
 . 
 
 3 24 
 
 12 2 
 
 ,, From elsewhere: 
 
 
 
 
 In French vessels 
 
 
 2 
 
 19 22 
 
 In foreign „ - 
 
 1 
 
 3 24 
 
 12 2 
 
TAE 292 
 
 France — (Import Duties) — continued. 
 
 TAE 
 
 New Duty. 
 
 Old Duty. 
 
 Sago and Salep from India and French 
 
 Colonies in America : lbs. avd. 
 
 In French vessels - - 11020 
 
 Sesame, from the West Coast of Africa: 
 
 In French vessels - „ 
 
 Flax or Linseed from Zealand for sowing : 
 
 In French vessels - „ 
 
 Bark Quin quina (Peruvian) , fr om Entrepots : 
 
 In French vessels - „ 
 
 Foreign, and by land - „ 
 
 Cochineal, from French Colonies - 1 lb. 
 
 Sarsaparilla, from Senegal and French 
 
 Guyana : lbs. avd. 
 
 In French vessels - - 110-20 
 
 „ From Entrep6ts : 
 
 In French vessels 
 
 In foreign „ - 
 
 „ From elsewhere out of Europe : 
 
 In French vessels 
 
 In foreign », - 
 
 Iris, of Florence: 
 
 In French vessels - - j 
 
 In foreign vessels and by land - ; 
 
 Aloes, from countries beyond Europe: 
 
 In French vessels 
 
 In foreign and by land 
 „ From Entrepots: 
 
 In French vessels 
 
 In foreign „ 
 Benzoin, from countries beyond Europe : 
 
 In French vessels 
 
 In foreign „ - 
 
 „ From Entrepots: 
 
 In French vessels 
 
 In foreign „ - 
 
 Balsam Copaiva, from out of Europe : 
 
 In French vessels - - 1 lb. adv. 
 
 In foreign „ 
 „ From Entrepots: 
 
 In French vessels 
 
 In foreign „ - 
 
 Cotton, from India: lbs. adv. 
 
 In French vessels - - 110-20 
 
 In foreign „ - n 
 
 Wood for Ebonist's trade, of more than 8 
 inches thick, from countries beyond 
 Europe: 
 
 In French vessels - - 220-2 
 
 In foreign „ • - „ 
 „ From Entrepots: 
 
 In French vessels - „ 
 
 „ of 8 inches and less, from beyond 
 Europe : 
 
 In French vessels - - », 
 
 In foreign „ - „ 
 „ from Entrepots : 
 
 In French vessels » „ 
 
 In foreign „ „ 
 
 „ for buildings, rough, or merely hewn 
 square or sawn, being in thickness 
 more than 3-15 inches: 
 In French vessels - - load 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 24 
 
 96 
 Free 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 Free 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 8 
 
 4 
 8 
 
 4 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 0-7 
 
 2-88 
 
 1 
 1-44 
 
 Free 
 4 9-8 
 
 2 4*8 
 
 9-6 
 5 7-2 
 
 3 2-4 
 5 72 
 
 Free 
 
 from 9 6 
 
 to 6 
 
 from 5 7 
 
 to 17 2-4 
 
 from 9 6 
 
 to 14 9-6 
 
 from 4 
 
 to 18 
 
 from 4 
 
 to 2 11 7-2 
 
 from 9 7 2 
 
 to 2 4 4-8 
 
 from 17 2-4 
 
 to 2 11 7-2 
 
TAB. 293 TAB 
 
 France — (Import Duties) — continued. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 New Duty. 
 
 Old Duty. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Steel, in bands or in sheets, white or brown, 
 
 
 
 not polished or tempered : 
 
 
 
 „ of more than yso of an inch thick, 
 
 and any width - lbs. avd. 110-20 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 ) 
 
 „ of 1 millimetre or less thick, and 
 
 
 1 Not distin- 
 
 38-10 inches wide - „ 
 
 1 10 
 
 l guished 
 
 ,, less than 38-10 inches wide - „ 
 
 2 4 
 
 3 
 
 Copper, pure or alloyed with Zinc (Brass), 
 
 
 
 laminated in bars or plates : 
 
 
 
 In French vessels - - »» 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 In foreign „ „ 
 
 12 
 
 1 4 
 
 Detached Pieces of Agricultural Ma- 
 
 
 
 chinery in brass or pure iron, or 
 
 
 
 coated with steel: 
 
 
 
 In French vessels - -\ q n ^ n 
 In foreign „ - _J^U20 
 
 12 | 
 
 from 12 to 48 
 from 12 9^ to 86 
 
 France — ( Export Duties.) 
 
 
 The prohibition to export articles of war 
 removed - 
 
 •_ 
 
 __ 
 
 Corsica. 
 
 
 
 Sulphate of Iron - - lbs. avd. 110 20 
 
 Free 
 
 1-20 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 
 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 
 Articles, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1846. 
 
 1853. 
 
 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. d. 
 
 fRaw - - per lb. 
 
 (from 
 (to 
 
 2f 
 Oil* 
 
 from 
 to 
 
 3 
 
 1 u 
 
 Cotton Yarn accord- ) white or coloured - 
 ing to number \ 
 
 „ 
 
 ( from 
 (to 
 
 4| 
 2 3 
 
 from 
 to 
 
 4 
 2 3 
 
 f Twisted for sewing, Ac. 
 
 II 
 
 { from 
 (to 
 
 o 54 
 
 4 6 
 
 from 
 to 
 
 6 
 3 7± 
 
 Cotton Manufactures, printed or dyed 
 
 1» 
 
 {from 
 (to 
 
 11 
 
 11* 
 
 from 
 to 
 
 HA 
 
 1 3 T6 
 
 „ muslins and cambrics, bleached 
 
 II 
 
 < from 
 (to 
 
 11 
 19 
 
 from 
 to 
 
 1 «iV 
 
 1 11* 
 
 Towelling, bleached or unbleached 
 
 H 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 9^ 
 
 Canvas and duck - 
 
 M 
 
 
 2f 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Twills,drills,satinettes, bleached, coloured, 1 
 and in pieces - - - j 
 
 
 (from 
 (to 
 
 8 
 
 from 
 
 9^ 
 
 » 
 
 1 4 
 
 to 
 
 1 5i% 
 
 Carpets, counterpanes, and blankets 
 
 „ 
 
 ( from 
 (to 
 
 11 
 1 4 
 
 from 
 to 
 
 n& 
 
 1 5^ 
 
 Cotton velvets - 
 
 Jl 
 
 
 8$ 
 
 
 
 9^ 
 
 Haberdashery - 
 
 II 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 2 0-5- 
 
 Bobbinets, plain - 
 
 II 
 
 
 2 8 
 
 
 
 1 11? 
 
 ,, figured - 
 
 • I 
 
 
 117 
 
 
 
 2 HxV 
 
 Linen Yarn { J£ cned " I I 
 
 IS 
 
 
 4 6 
 6 9 
 
 
 
 
 Jl 
 
 Linen Manufactures : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ unbleached, as hessians per 100 lbs. 
 
 
 11 2} 
 
 12 
 
 „ „ sailcloth - per lb. 
 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 5| 
 
 ,, m duck 
 
 n 
 
 
 8| 
 
 
 
 9^ 
 
 „ bleached, as linen cloth 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 Hf 
 
 » n lawn 
 
 _ 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 4| 
 
 1 9f 
 
 „ Irish linen 
 
 
 
 2 8 
 
 
 
 Towelling, unbleached 
 
 „ 
 
 
 1 4 
 
 
 
 lit 
 
 „ bleached - 
 
 „ 
 
 
 2 8 
 
 
 
 Lace and gauze - 
 
 ii 
 
 
 16 2 
 
 
 
 4 6 
 
TAR 
 
 294 
 
 TAE 
 
 Portugal — continued. 
 Articles. 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1853. 
 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Woollen Manufactures: 
 
 
 
 
 Carpets - 
 
 - per lb. 
 
 19 
 
 2 Oi 
 
 Damasks - 
 
 >» 
 
 ( from 14 
 (to 2 8 
 
 j lOf 
 
 Shawls and handkerchiefs: 
 
 
 
 
 Merino of any colour 
 
 • , 
 
 10 9 
 
 9 
 
 Plain cashmere with printed border - „ 
 
 2 8 
 
 I \ } l " 
 
 Any others 
 
 
 5 5 
 
 5 10| 
 
 Metals : 
 
 
 
 
 Iron, bar and pig 
 
 per 100 lbs. 
 
 1 5 
 
 4& 
 
 „ Sheet 
 
 N 
 
 1 0£ 
 
 6& 
 
 „ Hoops 
 
 
 1 0J 
 
 G T % 
 
 „ Chains, anchors, &c. 
 
 
 2 1 
 
 1 9^ 
 
 „ Wire 
 
 
 o 5 n 
 
 6 9 
 
 Steel, unwrought 
 
 ** »» 
 
 2 1 
 
 8| 
 
 Hardware : 
 
 
 
 
 Tools of all kinds 
 
 »J 
 
 (from 11 3| 
 (to 1 2 5| 
 14 1 3 
 
 j 13 6 
 6 15 
 
 Scissors 
 
 _ 
 
 Cutlery : 
 
 
 
 
 Knives, <fec, with wooden handles 
 
 
 2 16 3 
 
 2 14 
 
 Ditto bone handles 
 
 
 5 12 6 
 
 3 7 6 
 
 Ditto ivory handles 
 
 n 
 
 13 10 0\ 
 
 4 1 
 
 Colonial Produce : 
 
 
 
 
 Sugar, raw 
 
 - 
 
 8 4 
 
 18 6 
 
 Cocoa - 
 
 _ 
 
 5 5A 
 11 2j 
 
 4 6 
 
 Coffee without shell 
 
 . 
 
 15 9 
 
 „ with shell 
 
 i» 
 
 8 10| 
 
 12 7^ 
 
 Rum - 
 
 per 3| galls. 
 
 1 2 5 
 
 9 
 
 Portugal — Cape Verde Islands— {Import Duties.) 
 
 Articles. 
 
 New Duty. 
 
 Old Duty. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Goats, Horses, 
 
 
 
 Mules, Swine, and Camels — lbs. avd. 
 
 Free 
 
 Not given 
 
 Hogs' Lard, Mutton, Beef, Pork (fresh 
 
 
 
 and salt), Bacon, foreign - 32-384 
 
 648 
 
 5 5 
 
 Portuguese productions, and in na- 
 
 
 
 tional vessels - — 
 
 Free 
 
 _ 
 
 Indian Corn Flour (from and after 1st 
 
 
 
 Jan. 1860) - barrel 
 
 10-8 
 
 *"" 
 
 Spain. 
 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 
 
 
 1846. . 
 
 1853. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ a. d. 
 
 Linen Manufactures of all kinds and qualities (ex- 
 
 (from 5 1 10 
 (to 45 17 73 
 
 from 4 9 4 
 
 cept lace) - - per 101 lbs. 
 
 to 31 5 10 
 
 Thread lace of all kinds : plain 
 
 2 7£ 
 
 1 7 
 
 figured 
 
 specific 
 
 ad valorem 
 
 Woollen Manufactures of ) „„„ n . QCn „,,„„„ _«a 
 all kinds and qualities \ P er ° 860 S( * uarc y ard 
 
 ( from 6^ 
 (to 16 8 
 
 from 8 A 
 to 3 4 
 
 Cotton Manufactures of all kinds, including lace 
 
 per lb. 
 
 | Prohibited 
 
 ( from 1 5| 
 (to 11 8$ 
 
 Cotton Yarn - - „ 
 
 Prohibited 
 
 ( from 1 1 
 (to 2 If 
 
 Silk Manufactures of all kinds, including ) 
 
 blonde, lace, and ribbons - - ) " 
 
 ( from 4 9 
 (to 1 18 10 
 
 from 6 11 
 
 to 2 10 8j 
 
TAE 
 
 295 
 
 TAR 
 
 Spain — continued. 
 Articles. 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1853. 
 
 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ t. d. 
 
 Iron in pigs - 
 
 • 
 
 per 101 lbs. 
 
 18 
 
 2 1A 
 
 ,, in bars 
 
 . 
 
 ■ »» 
 
 12 6 
 
 10 84 
 
 Machinery: Steam-engines 
 
 - 
 
 
 free 
 
 3 per cent, ad vaL 
 duty imposed. 
 
 „ Other 
 
 • 
 
 - 
 
 .specific 
 
 ad valorem. 
 
 Cutlery: Knives and forks 
 
 - 
 
 per doz. pair 
 
 ( from 10 
 I to 18 
 
 from 74 
 to 2 
 
 Copper, raw, in bars - 
 
 - 
 
 - per lb. 
 
 3? 
 
 14 
 
 „ in sheets 
 
 - 
 
 „ 
 
 1 3± 
 10 b\ 
 
 6| 
 
 Glass, plain - 
 
 . 
 
 per 25 lbs. 
 
 8 111 
 
 Glassware 
 
 - 
 
 „ 
 
 9 
 
 7 6 
 
 Leather Manufactures ; Harness 
 
 n 
 
 Prohibited 
 
 40 per cent. advaL 
 
 Wool, raw 
 
 - 
 
 per 101 lbs. 
 
 ditto 
 
 1 15 10 
 
 Su?ar, refined 
 
 - 
 
 per 25 lbs. 
 
 10 4 
 
 8 6f 
 5£ 
 
 Coal 
 
 - 
 
 per 101 lbs. 
 
 7J 
 
 Fish ; Salted Codfish from European 
 
 and 
 
 
 
 American Fisheries 
 
 - 
 
 ■ i» 
 
 6 8 
 
 8 11| 
 
 Coffee 
 
 - 
 
 
 12 6 
 
 1 6 9J 
 
 Rum 
 
 ■ 
 
 _ 
 
 ad valorem 
 
 specific. 
 
 Beer in bottles 
 
 ■ 
 
 per 25 lbs. 
 
 10 10 
 
 3 14 
 3 1| 
 
 „ in casks 
 
 ■ 
 
 " " 
 
 5 
 
 Sardinia. 
 
 - per lb. 
 
 Linen Manufactures: 
 Less than six threads : 
 
 Unbleached 
 
 Bleached 
 Less than nine threads : 
 
 Unbleached - 
 
 Bleached - 
 
 Mixed with cotton or wool twilled or in 
 any other way wrought : 
 
 Unbleached - 
 
 Bleached or mixed with white 
 
 Coloured or dyed - 
 
 Printed - 
 
 Embroidered in cotton, linen, or wool 
 Thread lace, 1st quality 
 
 ,, 2d quality - 
 Cotton Manufactures : 
 Stuffs of cotton also mixed with linen or 
 wool, plain, twilled, or in any 
 way wrought : 
 
 Unbleached - • - 
 
 Bleached - 
 
 Coloured or dyed - 
 
 Printed ... - 
 
 Embroidered with linen, cotton, or wool 
 
 Bobbinet 
 
 "Woollen Yarn, raw 
 ,, „ dyed 
 
 Woollen Manufactures ; Covers and carpets 
 
 Cloth of wool, or hair of all colours dressed, 
 
 or not, mixed with linen or cotton, 
 plain or figured 
 Metals : 
 
 Iron rails for railways - - per cwt. 
 
 „ anchors - - - „ 
 
 ,, wire - •■ - „ 
 
 
 (from 
 [to 
 (from 
 (to 
 
 8£ 
 
 lof 
 
 1 Of 
 1 8 
 1 94 
 7 2 
 5 84 
 
 3 6| 
 
 14 
 8 
 8 
 
 ?f 
 
 4| 
 
 5A 
 6| 
 8£ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lOf 
 ( Plain or figured, 
 exceeding 15 frs. 
 in value 
 < 2 10* 
 
 under 1 5 frs. in 
 value 
 1 3f 
 2| 
 31 
 
 4± 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
TAE 
 
 296 
 
 TAE 
 
 Sardinia— continued. 
 Articles. 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1853. 
 
 Metals— con tinued. 
 
 
 £ *. d. 
 
 £ 8. d. 
 
 Iron carriage springs 
 
 - per cwt. 
 
 1 4 
 
 12 
 
 „ rods and agricultural implements 
 
 » 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 „ machinery, such as weaver's cards, &c „ 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Copper in cakes 
 
 u 
 
 3 2£ 
 
 1 7| 
 3 2J 
 
 „ sheets 
 
 „ 
 
 6 4f 
 
 „ wrought - 
 
 n 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 Sugar, refined 
 
 „ 
 
 18 9 
 
 10 
 
 Fish, codfish 
 
 H 
 
 4 
 
 1 7* 
 
 „ pilchards 
 
 ,, 
 
 3 2A. 
 
 1 a 
 
 Leather Wares : 
 
 
 
 
 Harness {ornamented - 
 
 »» 
 
 2 10 
 5 
 
 1 10 
 
 2 4 
 
 Glass Mirrors, not framed 
 
 ■ ,. 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 Sheet - 
 
 ,, 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 Wrought, of all kinds 
 
 „ 
 
 7 21 
 
 6 
 
 Earthenware and Porcelain 
 
 „ 
 
 1 74. 
 
 1 24. 
 
 Stoneware {™re"d 
 
 »1 
 
 4 91 
 8 
 
 3 24 
 4 9| 
 
 *-—■ iSo'urci : 
 
 " » 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 12 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Cotton Yarn and Thread, unbleached per 1 10* lbs. 
 
 3 
 
 1 8 
 
 „ „ bleached or dyed 
 
 n 
 
 3 
 
 2 11 
 
 Cotton Manufactures - 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 8 
 
 Linen Yarn and Thread 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 U 
 
 Linen Manufactures: 
 
 
 
 
 Ticking and cloth (having less than 40 
 
 
 
 
 warp threads to the inch), unbleached 
 
 
 
 
 and undyed - 
 
 „ 
 
 3 
 
 1 8 
 
 Cloth or tape, bleached, dyed, or printed 
 
 »5 
 
 3 
 
 6 8 
 
 Wool, raw or combed - 
 
 
 IS 
 
 3 
 
 Woollen Yarn, raw, not dyed 
 
 „ 
 
 3 
 
 1 8 
 
 „ „ dyed or bleached 
 
 H 
 
 3 
 
 2 11 
 
 Woollen Manufactures, all kinds 
 
 „ 
 
 3 
 
 6 8 
 
 Silk Manufactures - 
 
 „ 
 
 3 
 
 12 6 
 
 Iron, pig and bar - 
 
 „ 
 
 U 
 
 3 
 
 Steel, unwrought - 
 
 )» 
 
 1 
 ll 
 
 7£ 
 
 „ plates and wire 
 
 
 2 11 
 
 Hardwares: Unwrought, cast; plates, 
 
 
 
 
 stoves, wheels, <fcc. 
 
 t) 
 
 o o U 
 
 74 
 
 Cutlery of every description 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 8 
 
 Copper or Brass Goods, cast 
 
 »> 
 
 3 
 
 6 8 
 
 „ raw - 
 
 
 14 
 
 71 
 7| 
 
 Tin in blocks - 
 
 • 
 
 l| 
 
 Lead in pipes or rolled, &c. 
 
 M 
 
 l| 
 
 1 3 
 
 Glass bottles, common 
 
 M 
 
 l] 
 
 1 3 
 
 „ window, not coloured 
 
 „ 
 
 3 
 
 2 11 
 
 „ wares, fine; crystal wares, cast or 
 
 
 
 
 polished, and coloured glass 
 
 t> 
 
 3 
 
 6 8 
 
 Leather Manufactures, fine : 
 
 
 
 
 „ saddlery, harness, boots, shoes, 
 
 
 
 
 gloves, &c. 
 
 „ 
 
 3 
 
 12 6 
 
 „ „ coarse - 
 
 n 
 
 3 
 
 6 8 
 
 Machinery, all sorts - 
 
 i> 
 
 3 
 
 1 8 
 
 Sugar of every description 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 11 
 
 Salt, kitchen - 
 
 „ 
 
 Free 
 
 14 
 
 Coals - per 
 
 collar 
 
 Free 
 
 14 
 
 Fish, all sorts - - perllOilbs. 
 
 14 
 
 2 11 
 
 Beer in bottles - 
 
 N 
 
 1} 
 
 12 6 
 
 ,, in casks - 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 74 
 
 Earthenware and Porcelain 
 
 t 
 
 3 
 
 6 8 
 
 „ common crockery 
 
 1f 
 
 1| 
 
 1 3 
 
 Coffee and Cocoa - 
 
 tt 
 
 3 
 
 1 3 
 
 Rum, in casks - 
 
 ., 
 
 3 
 
 2 11 
 
 „ in bottles - 
 
 " 
 
 3 
 
 12 6 
 
TAE 
 
 297 
 
 Austria. 
 
 TAE 
 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 
 
 1846. 
 
 1853. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Cotton Yarn, unbleached, undyed, and un- 
 
 
 
 twisted - - per 110^ lbs. 
 
 18 2 
 
 14 
 
 „ dyed - - „ 
 
 1 16 4 
 
 1 10 
 
 Cotton Manufactures : 
 
 
 
 Fine bobbinet - - per 1^ lb. 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 Embroidered - - „ 
 
 1 10 
 
 5 
 
 Linen Yarn, unbleached - per 110^ lbs. 
 
 4 6 
 
 5 
 
 „ „ dyed and bleached - „ 
 
 18 2 
 
 1 5 
 
 „ thread - - „ 
 
 2 5 5 
 
 2 
 
 Linen Manufactures: 
 
 
 
 „ coarse, as packing canvas, sacks, &c. „ 
 
 4 11 8 
 
 15 
 
 „ lawns, cambrics, <fcc. - „ 
 
 66 
 
 10 
 
 Wool, raw - - - „ 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Woollen Yarn, undyed - „ 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 „ dyed - - „ 
 
 15 
 
 1 5 
 
 Woollen Manufactures, fine, as casimeres, 
 
 
 
 merinoes, plush, <fcc ,, 
 
 20 3 4 
 
 10 
 
 Silk Manufactures - - per 1^ lb. 
 
 1 
 
 f from 5 
 (to 12 
 
 Iron, raw - - per 10a^ lbs. 
 
 8 4£ 
 
 1 6 
 
 „ bars - - - „ 
 
 12 O 
 
 5 
 
 Lead, raw - - - ,, 
 
 12 7* 
 
 5 
 
 Tin, raw - - - „ 
 
 8 4 
 
 1 6 
 
 Hardwares and Cutlery 
 
 
 
 All cast, hammered, and wrought work, ") 
 
 ) from 14 
 Jto 6 
 
 10 
 
 also household wares, and agricul- > „ 
 
 tural implements, <fec - ) 
 
 Fire-arms, razors, penknives, surgical 
 
 
 
 instruments, <fec. &c. „ 
 
 6 8 4 
 
 2 10 
 
 Glass, in plates, &c. - - „ 
 
 13 4 
 
 5 
 
 Leather, varnished, polished, <fcc. - „ 
 
 2 5 5 
 
 1 10 
 
 „ manufactures, gloves - „ 
 
 9 1 8 
 
 10 
 
 „ shoemakers' and saddlers' work „ 
 
 4 10 10 
 
 5 
 
 Sugar, refined - - „ 
 
 1 16 
 
 1 8 
 
 Coals - - - - » 
 
 OJjy 
 
 free 
 
 Fish, Herrings - - ,, 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 Beer and Ale, in bottles or jars - „ 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 Coffee, raw - - - - per cwt. 
 
 1 2 9 
 
 1 
 
 Cocoa, raw - - - ,, 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 Rum and Arrack - - „ 
 
 1 6 8 
 
 15 
 
 
 Austria — {Import Duties.) — Oct. 1859. 
 
 
 Articles. 
 
 New Duty. 
 
 Old Duty. 
 
 Servian Pigs - 
 
 - each 
 
 £ s. d. 
 16 
 
 £ *. d. 
 4 
 
 Turret. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 1846. 1853. 
 
 Cotton Manufactures : 
 Calicoes, or domestic grey per oke, or 2| lbs. 
 Cambrics, plain and white, 5/4 and 6/4 wide, 
 12 yards, or per piece - 
 „ 8/4 wide, 24 yards, or per piece 
 „ figured stripes and spots, 12 yards, or 
 
 per piece - 
 „ twilled, grey, 24 yards, or per piece - 
 
 £ «. d. 
 
 1-309 
 
 1-782 
 4636 
 
 1-818 
 3273 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 0-745 
 
 1-336 
 2364 
 
 1200 
 1-309 
 
TAR 
 
 298 
 
 TAE 
 
 Turkey — continued. 
 Articles. 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1853. 
 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Velveteens. 30 yards, or per piece 
 
 
 
 8 510 
 
 4-620 
 
 Handkerchiefs - per doz. J 
 
 from 
 to 
 
 1-310 
 1-910 
 
 from 0-473 
 to 0-809 
 
 Lappet shawls - - „ 
 
 Ad valorem. 
 
 Specific. 
 
 Nankeens, plain and striped - per yard 
 
 
 
 0-112 
 
 055 
 
 Muslins (Sevaspoor) 4/4, 20 yards = piece 
 
 
 
 1-819 
 
 909 
 
 H/9 
 
 
 
 2455 
 
 1-418 
 
 Calicoes, printed one or two 
 
 
 
 
 colours - 28 „ „ 
 
 
 
 3-200 
 
 1-573 
 
 „ three to six colours ,, „ „ 
 
 
 
 5 182 
 
 2-145 
 
 Muslins, printed - 24 „ „ 
 
 
 
 6-546 
 
 2 218 
 
 Shirtings and Maddapollams, 
 
 
 
 
 dyed, 36 inches - 24 „ „ 
 
 
 
 3600 
 
 2491 
 
 Stockings - per doz. 
 
 
 
 6-546 
 
 3400 
 
 Cotton Yarn grey and white - - per oke 
 
 
 
 1 146 
 
 0600 
 
 „ dyed - - „ 
 
 
 
 1-637 
 
 0945 
 
 Woollen and Worsted Goods : 
 
 
 
 
 Blankets - each 
 
 
 
 3-273 
 
 2091 
 
 Carpets - - per pike = f yard 
 
 
 
 1-200 
 
 0-500 
 
 Shalee 28 yards, per piece 
 
 1 
 
 7-637 
 
 10473 
 
 Iron, in bars - - per 125 lbs. 
 
 
 
 3637 
 
 2618 
 
 Lead, in pigs „ 
 
 
 
 7-273 
 
 6-018 
 
 „ sheet „ 
 
 
 
 7-455 
 
 6 818 
 
 Tin, in bars „ 
 
 3 
 
 0364 
 
 2 4800 
 
 „ in plates - - per 2 boxes 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 1 9 
 
 Wire, Iron and Brass, fine - per 125 lbs. 
 
 1 
 
 4364 
 
 1 1091 
 
 „ „ thick - „ 
 
 10764 
 
 7600 
 
 Sugar, refined, in loaves - „ 
 
 1 
 
 7-637 
 
 1 1618 
 
 „ „ crushed • „ 
 
 1 
 
 3-037 
 
 11-255 
 
 Coals „ 
 
 
 
 0582 
 
 0-363 
 
 Beer, in bottles - per doz. 
 
 
 
 2 619 
 
 2-C91 
 
 Coffee, West India - per oke 
 
 
 
 0-419 
 
 0-262 
 
 Codfish - - per 125 lbs. 
 
 
 
 6-546 
 
 3 927 
 
 Rum - per gallon 
 
 
 
 728 
 
 0-529 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1853, 
 
 Commencing on 
 the 1st of October. 
 
 Cotton Yarn - per lb. 
 Cotton Manufactures ; socks for adults per doz. pairs 
 „ „ children ,, 
 ,, sheetings, of 30 or less threads per yard 
 „ „ of more than 30 threads „ 
 „ muslins, white and coloured, fine - „ 
 „ „ printed - „ 
 Wool, raw - - - per 101 lbs. 
 Woollen Yarn - per lb. 
 Woollen Manufactures: 
 Broadcloth, one yard wide, fine - per yard 
 Casimere, one yard wide - „ 
 Woollen stuffs.'plain, white, and coloured, 
 
 one yard wide - „ 
 Linen Yarn - per 101 lbs. 
 Linen Manufactures ; Plain cloth, not over 
 
 36 threads, one yard wide - per yard 
 Silk Manufactures ; Blondes and laces - per lb. 
 Silk for embroidery - - - ,, 
 Iron, in pigs - - per 101 lbs. 
 
 „ bar - - - „ 
 Steel - - - - „ 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Prohibited 
 6 
 3 2-40 
 
 Prohibited 
 7-20 
 5-77 
 5-77 
 16 
 2 480 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 7-20 
 16 
 
 3-36 
 2 8 
 8 
 6 
 12 
 8 
 
 £ s. d. 
 7-20 
 2 
 1 240 
 2-40 
 2-88 
 384 
 2-88 
 10 
 1 480 
 
 2 4-80 
 1 720 
 
 3-60 
 9 7-20 
 
 2-40 
 
 1 12 
 
 4 9-60 
 4 
 6 
 6 
 
TAE 
 
 299 
 
 TAE 
 
 Mexico — con tinned. 
 
 
 Rate of Duty. 
 
 
 1853, 
 
 Articles. 
 
 
 1846. 
 
 Commencing on 
 the 1st of October. 
 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Glasswares - 
 
 per 101 lbs. 
 
 14 
 
 1 12 
 
 Glass for windows 
 
 _ 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 Leather Manufactures : 
 
 
 
 
 Gloves, short 
 
 per doz pair 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Codfish, &c salted 
 
 per 101 lbs. 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 Ale in Dottles 
 
 - 
 
 1 12 
 
 14 
 
 Earthenware 
 
 - 
 
 Prohibited 
 
 16 
 
 Cocoa - 
 
 „ 
 
 1 12 
 
 1 4 
 
 Rum - 
 
 " " 
 
 3 12 
 
 2 8 
 
 "Wurtemburg — ( Export Duties.) 
 
 Prohibition to export Cattle, Horses, Oats, and Gunpowder beyond the ) Date of Alteration, 
 western frontiers of the Zollverein removed - - -) 28th July, 1859. 
 
 Tuscany — (Export Duties.) 
 
 -5th Sept. 1859 
 
 
 Articles. 
 
 New Duty. 
 
 Old Duty. 
 
 Alabaster : 
 
 Rough, hewn, and chiselled - 75 lbs. avd. 
 
 Works of art therein - — 
 Vegetables (not tariffed) - — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 04 
 0-4 
 0-80 
 
 £ s. d. 
 2 
 8 
 2 
 
 Hatti (Port-au-Prixce) — (Export Duties.) — 17th June, 1859. 
 
 Coffee 
 
 7 
 
 the 5th part in 
 kind 
 
 Brazil — (Import Duties).— 30th Sept. 1859. 
 
 Sweet Wines : 
 
 Malmsey, Muscatel, &c. 
 Wines not denominated - 
 
 2353 qts. 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 4-2 
 54 
 
 Brazil— (Export Duties}. — 30th Sept. 1859. 
 
 Monopoly of exportation and sale of Brazilian ) 
 Dye-wood abolished, and Export Duty imposed ) 
 
 On Cotton, Coffee, Sugar, Hides, and all other Pro- 
 duce, exported at the Port of Ceara - 
 
 Ad val. 15 percent 
 AdvaL 10 per cent. 
 
 ( Monopoly of ex- 
 ( portation 
 
 12 per cent. 
 
 Argentine Republic — (Import Duties.) — 29th Aug. 1859. 
 
 All goods imported 
 
 20 per cent, ad vaL 12 per cent, ad val. 
 
 Chili — (Import Duties.} 
 
 Fire \rrns, Side Arms. Gunpowder, and other warlike stores, prohibited ) no . . ... ,. 
 
 to import without special license - - - - > o?J «o ♦ fJ-o ' 
 
 Powder for Mines may be imported at the port of Valparaiso only - ) MT(X oept - 1&aa - 
 
 Chili — (Export Duties.)— 30th May, 1859. 
 
 Of Copper smelted by Chilian coal 
 
 - J 4 per cent ad val. 
 
 Free 
 
TAS 
 
 300 
 
 TAS 
 
 TASMANIA. Since the abolition of transportation, the name of Tasmania 
 has been given to the colony of Van Diemen's Land. According to the census 
 taken on 31st March, 1857, the population was ascertained to number 81,492 
 persons. On the 1st January, 1859, it was estimated to be 84,420. The increase 
 in the last decennial period is very small, but is accounted for by the fact that iu 
 the three years succeeding the gold discovery in Victoria in November, 1851, no 
 less than 45,884 persons, principally men, left Tasmania for the uncertain em- 
 ployment of gold digging. The revenue of the Colony in 1858 was £391,706, 
 and in 1859 (including a balance brought on from previous years of £34,167) 
 £312,047. The expenditure was in 1858, £357,538, and in 1859, £307,109. 
 
 Wool is largely exported to Great Britain, the annual quantity varies from 
 400,000 to 500,000 pounds, worth from £400,000 to £500,000 a year in the Lon- 
 don market. The number of sheep in Tasmania is about 1,600,000. The annual 
 clip is therefore from 2 to 2| pounds from each sheep. There are more than 
 30,000 pigs in the Colony, 80,000 cattle and 21,563 horses. On the 1st January, 
 1859, there were 150,000 acres of land under cultivation, 100,000 of which 
 was with grain. Nearly two million acres of land are rented from the Crown by 
 sheep and cattle holders for depasturing their flocks and herds, the average rental 
 being over one pound for every hundred acres, paid yearly in advance. 
 
 The total imports into the Colony in 1859 were in value £1,164,526 (Hobart 
 Town £662,397 and Launceston £502,129), and the total exports £1,085,905 
 (Hobart Town £554,547 and Launceston £531,558.) The following are the 
 figures for the last five years:— Exports: 1855, £1,428,629; 1856, £1,207,802 ; 
 1857, £1,354,655; 1858, £1,151,609; 1859, £1,085,905. Imports: 1855, 
 £1,559,797; 1856, £1,442,106; 1857, £1,271,087; 1858, £1,398,612; 1859, 
 £1,164,526. 
 
 The Amount of Customs' Revenue and Poet Charges collected at the Ports 
 of Hobart Town and Launceston, respectively, have been:— 
 
 Years. 
 
 Port of Hobart. 
 
 Launcegton. 
 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 £ 
 109,891 
 83,908 
 82,475 
 84,229 
 74,879 
 
 £ 
 57,879 
 55,359 
 58,330 
 67,822 
 65,384 
 
 A Return showing the Quantity and Value of "Wool and Train Oil 
 exported from Tasmania, from the Year 1848 to 1857 inclusive. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Train Oil. 
 
 
 Bales. 
 
 £ 
 
 Tuns. 
 
 £ 
 
 1848 
 
 13,433 
 
 195,143 
 
 1015 
 
 47,309 
 
 1849 
 
 17,581 
 
 202,334 
 
 822£ 
 
 36,830 
 
 1850 
 
 19,517 
 
 248,869 
 
 9214 
 
 49,547 
 
 1851 
 
 19,279 
 
 249,953 
 
 928 
 
 49,022 
 
 1852 
 
 15,414 
 
 245,201 
 
 632 
 
 36,776 
 
 1853 
 
 19,524 
 
 326,096 
 
 339 
 
 30,106 
 
 1854 
 
 19,774 
 
 325,384 
 
 225 
 
 27,423 
 
 1855 
 
 18,939 
 
 378,822 
 
 585 
 
 46,165 
 
 1856 
 
 19,513 
 
 319,961 
 
 877 
 
 54,280 
 45,136 
 
 1857 
 
 23,757 
 
 393,646 
 
 570 
 
TAS 301 TEA 
 
 Rates of 
 The following is the Tariff of the Colony: — Duty. 
 
 t. d. 
 Brandy and all other spirits, cordials, and strong waters, excepting nun, per gallon 12 
 Rum, ditto . . . . . 10 
 
 And so on in proportion -with respect to spirits, cordials, and strong waters in 
 bottle, for any greater or less quantity than a gallon, not being less than one- 
 eighth part of a gallon. 
 Wines, in wood, per gallon . . . . .20 
 
 Ditto in bottle, per dozen reputed quarts . . .60 
 
 Ditto, ditto, per dozen reputed pints . . . .30 
 
 And so on in proportion for any greater or less quantity than a dozen reputed 
 quart or pint bottles. 
 Tobacco, per pound . . . • : 2 6 
 
 Ditto, soaked, for sheep-dressing, ditto . . . .03 
 
 Cigars, ditto . . . • • .30 
 
 Snuff, ditto . . . . .03 
 
 Tea, ditto . . . ; . .03 
 
 Coffee, ditto . . . . . • l£ 
 
 Refined sugars,— that is to say, loaf and crushed sugars, and sugar candy, per cwt 6 
 All other sugars and molasses, ditto . • .30 
 
 And so on in proportion for any greater or less quantity than a hundred weight, 
 not being less than a quarter of a hundred weight 
 Dried fruits, per pound . . . .01 
 
 Hops, ditto ... .02 
 
 Malt, per bushel . .10 
 
 Walt liquors in wood, per gallon . 3 
 
 Ditto in bottle, per dozen reputed quarts . • .16 
 
 Ditto, ditto, per dozen reputed pints . . • .09 
 
 And so on in proportion for any greater or less quantity than one dozen reputed 
 quarts or pints. 
 
 TEA. The consumption of tea has enormously increased of late years. In 
 1836, as mentioned at page 646, a consumption of 49,000,000 lbs. in the United 
 Kingdom was considered extraordinary, but in 1860, the consumption reached 
 86,200,000 lbs., having gone on steadiiy increasing, as the following figures will 
 show: — 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1842 - 37,355,911 
 
 1843 - 40,293,393 
 
 1844 - 41,363,770 
 
 1845 - 44,193,433 
 
 1846 - 46,740,344 
 
 1847 - 46.314,821 
 
 1848 - 48,734.789 
 
 1849 - 50,021,576 
 
 1850 - 51,172,302 
 
 1851 - 53,949,059 
 
 The export of tea from the single port of Shanghai in China, in the year end- 
 ing June, 1860, was 53,463,770 lbs., being an increase of 14,031,778 lbs" over the 
 previous year's exports. The duty on tea was reduced on the 1st June, 1853, to 
 1* \0d per lb.; for the 6th April, 1857, to 1* 5d per lb. The revenue derived 
 from the tea duty now reaches nearly £5,500,000. 
 
 It is not probable that the consumption of tea in the United States, where it 
 pays no duty, and is a cheap article as compared with other countries, is much 
 affected in ordinary years by price. It will therefore approximate very near the 
 truth to apportion this aggregate consumption according to population. In 1850, 
 with a populution of 23,200,000, the consumption of tea was 27,858,482 lbs.; in 
 1859, with a population of 30,400,000, the consumption was 36,504,218 lbs. The 
 consumption of tea in France is very limited. The mean annual consumption in 
 the years 1848 to 1852, was but 387,844 lbs., and in 1853 to 1857, 417,344 lbs. 
 The consumption of coffee, on the contrary, reaches 53,000,000 lbs. besides an im- 
 mense quantity of chicory. In Holland "about 3,000,000 lbs. of tea are used, in 
 North Germany, 2,000,000, and in Russia, 14,000,000 lbs. 
 
 Paraguay Tea. A large trade in this tea, obtained from the leaves and 
 twigs of several species of Ilex, is carried on in some of the South American 
 States. The exports from Paraguay average about 25,000 cwts. per annum, of 
 the vi.lue of 20s to 305 per cwt. Brazil exports of this tea to the value of £500,000 
 annually, and the quantity imported into Chili averages 35.000 cwt. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1S52 
 
 54,713,034 
 
 1853 
 
 58,834,087 
 
 1854 
 
 61,953,041 
 
 1855 
 
 63,429,286 
 
 1856 
 
 63,278,812 
 
 1857 
 
 69,132,101 
 
 1858 
 
 73,195,685 
 
 1859 
 
 76,362,008 
 
 1860 
 
 86,200,000 
 
TEA 
 
 302 
 
 TEX 
 
 An Account showing the Quantity of Tea annually 
 sdmption in the United Kingdom, with the average 
 of Duty collected thereon, specifying the Quantity 
 Amount of Duty thereon, the Quantity entered in 
 don, and the Amount of Duty thereon, and severally 
 age of Import and Per-centage of Duty collected 
 1859 inclusive. 
 
 entered for Home Con- 
 and aggregate Amount 
 entered in London, the 
 Ports other than Lon- 
 , the relative Per-cent- 
 , from the Year 1848 to 
 
 
 Tea entered 
 
 Duty 
 
 Average 
 
 Avernge 
 
 Tea 
 
 entered for 
 
 Duty 
 
 Years, 
 
 Consump- 
 
 received. 
 
 rate of duty 
 
 price per lb. 
 
 Home Con- 
 
 received 
 
 
 
 per lb. 
 
 in Bond. 
 
 sumption in 
 
 thereon. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 London. 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 £ 
 
 *. d, 
 
 s. d. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 £ 
 
 1848 
 
 48,734,789 
 
 5,329,992 
 
 2 2£ 
 
 1 0| 
 
 27,241,060 
 
 2,979,491 
 
 1849 
 
 50,021,576 
 
 5,471,422 
 
 2 2$ 
 
 1 1 
 
 27,926,528 
 
 3,054,464 
 
 1850 
 
 51,172,302 
 
 5,596,961 
 
 2 2± 
 
 1 3J 
 
 28,838,958 
 
 3,154,261 
 
 1851 
 
 53,949,059 
 
 5,900,625 
 
 2 24 
 
 1 2* 
 
 30,774,089 
 
 3,365,916 
 
 1852 
 
 54,713,031 
 
 5,984,172 
 
 2 2£ 
 
 1 0* 
 
 31,240,612 
 
 3,416,942 
 
 1853 
 
 58,834,087 
 
 5,683,791 
 
 1 114 
 
 1 8i 
 
 31,732,305 
 
 3,074,067 
 
 1854 
 
 61,953,041 
 
 4,780,149 
 
 1 64 
 
 1 8] 
 
 33,235,356 
 
 2,561,892 
 
 1S55 
 
 63,429,286 
 
 5,310,275 
 
 1 8 
 
 1 3 
 
 35,193,972 
 
 2,932,831 
 
 1856 • 
 
 63,278,212 
 
 5,536,626 
 
 1 9 
 
 1 2f 
 
 35,658,309 
 
 3,120,102 
 
 1857 
 
 69,159,843 
 
 5,060,044 
 
 1 5*. 
 
 1 5^ 
 
 37,900,773 
 
 2,763,598 
 
 1858 
 
 73,217,484 
 
 5,186,170 
 
 1 5 
 
 1 4f 
 
 41,253,009 
 
 2,922,110 
 
 1859 
 
 76,362,008 
 
 5,408,924 
 
 1 5 
 
 1 6f 
 
 44,338,075 
 
 3,140,538 
 
 
 Tea entered 
 
 
 Per-centage 
 
 Per-centage 
 
 Per-centage 
 
 Per-centage 
 
 
 for Home 
 
 Duty 
 
 of Import 
 
 of Imports 
 
 of Dutv 
 
 of Duty 
 
 Years. 
 
 Consump- 
 
 received 
 
 Port of 
 
 into other 
 
 collected in 
 
 collected in 
 
 
 tion in 
 
 thereon. 
 
 London. 
 
 Ports. 
 
 Port of 
 
 other Ports. 
 
 
 other Ports. 
 
 
 
 
 London. 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 £ 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1848 
 
 21,493,729 
 
 2,350,501 
 
 70.39 
 
 29.61 
 
 55.9 
 
 44.1 
 
 1849 
 
 22,095,048 
 
 2,416,958 
 
 76.95 
 
 23.05 
 
 55.82 
 
 44.18 
 
 1850 
 
 22,334,344 
 
 2,442,700 
 
 74.15 
 
 25.85 
 
 56.36 
 
 43.64 
 
 1851 
 
 23,174,970 
 
 2,534,709 
 
 72.93 
 
 27.07 
 
 57.04 
 
 42.96 
 
 1852 
 
 23,472,422 
 
 2,567,230 
 
 77.29 
 
 22.71 
 
 57.1 
 
 42.9 
 
 1853 
 
 27,101,782 
 
 2,609,724 
 
 73.81 
 
 26.19 
 
 54.08 
 
 45.92 
 
 1854 
 
 28,717,685 
 
 2,218,257 
 
 832 
 
 16.8 
 
 53.6 
 
 46.4 
 
 1855 
 
 28,235,314 
 
 2,377,444 
 
 83.7 
 
 16.3 
 
 55.23 
 
 44.77 
 
 1856 
 
 27,619,903 
 
 2,416,524 
 
 82.59 
 
 17.41 
 
 56.35 
 
 43.65 
 
 1857 
 
 31,259,070 
 
 2,296,450 
 
 84.79 
 
 15.21 
 
 54.62 
 
 45.38 
 
 1858 
 
 31,964,475 
 
 2,264,060 
 
 90.28 
 
 9.72 
 
 56.34 
 
 43.66 
 
 1859 
 
 32,023,933 
 
 2,268,386 
 
 91.39 
 
 8.61 
 
 58.06 
 
 41.94 
 
 TEAK. In 1833 we only imported 34 loads of teak from places within the 
 limits of the East India Company's territories, and 13,624 loads from other quar- 
 ters. In 1843 the Indian shipments had advanced to 5475 loads, and in 1849 
 to 17,460 loads out of a total import of 27,702 loads. In 1859 the total imports 
 were 29,659 loads, of which 24,096 loads came from India, 4673 loads from 
 Sierra Leone, and 890 loads from other quarters. The so-called African teak 
 is the produce of Oldfieldia Africana. It is every year becoming more scarce, 
 and has to be brought from a long distance in the interior. In 1841 we received 
 13,127 loads from Western Africa, but in 1859 the imports were under 5000 
 loads. 
 
 TERRA JAPONICA. This is a trade-name for gambier, an astringent 
 tanning substance : the imports and prices for the last thirteen years, will be 
 found at pages 194, 195. 
 
 TEXAS. The area of this State is 274,356 square miles. Population in 
 1850, 212,592, of which 154,034 were whites. Austin is the capital. The esti- 
 mated quantity of vacant public lands is about one hundred millions of acres. 
 The value of the exports in the year ending June 30, 1858, was about £500,000, 
 and of the imports only £22,620. Texas was admitted into the American Union 
 in 1845. 
 
TIM 
 
 303 
 
 TOB 
 
 TDrBER. In 1851 were imported over one million loads of sawn or split 
 timber, and about the same quantity of unsawn timber. It is impossible to make 
 a comparison of the entire progress of timber-consumption, owing to the absence 
 of data for estimating home production, the various forms in which it is entered, 
 and the subdivision of dimensions, &c. But as the total consumption of squared 
 timber in 1801 was but 161,869 loads ; in 1831, 546,078 loads ; in 1851, 
 1,061,477 loads; and in 1859 about the same amount, we can perceive how 
 immense has been the increase during the present century. 
 
 The total quantity of wood and timber imported into the United Kingdom in 
 1859 consisted of the following: — 
 
 Ship-building woods 
 
 Squared timber 
 
 Sawn or split timber 
 
 Stares 
 
 Firewood 
 
 Lathwood 
 
 Spare or poles 
 
 Dye-woods 
 
 Hard woods 
 
 7,163 loads. 
 
 1,141,959 loads. 
 
 1,472,6^7 loads. 
 
 115,616 loads. 
 
 27,440 fathoms. 
 
 14,482 fathoms. 
 
 5,637 great hundreds. 
 49,249 tons. 
 10,861 tons. 
 
 The aggregate value of these woods was £9,893,225, besides mahogany and teak 
 separately noticed, the computed value of which was £702,799. The duties on 
 timber have been, on squared-timber from British possessions, Is per load since 
 10th October, 1842 ; on foreign timber, Is 6d per load since 15th April, 1851; 
 deals and battens. 2s Id British, and 10s foreign, from the same dates. Lath, 
 1* per fathom British, and 12s foreign. All ship-building, dye-woods and hard- 
 woods, free since 1845. 
 
 TIN. The total quantity of tin-ore raised in Cornwall and Devonshire in 1858 
 was 10,618 tons, the average value of which was about £64 per ton. This black 
 tin or tin-ore produces on the average 65 per cent of metallic, or white tin as it 
 is called. The quantity of this metal of British produce brought into the market 
 is about 7000 tons annually, worth about £824,000. Our annual imports of tin, 
 chiefly from the eastern countries, amounts to 2800 tons. Of this foreign tin there 
 is exported about 350 tons, of British tin 2800 tons. About 600 tons of foreign 
 tin-ore and regulus are also imported yearly. The article tinned plates is 
 shipped yearly to the value of £1,500,000, besides tin and pewter wares to the 
 extent of £30,000 to £40,000. 
 
 TOBACCO. In order to show the progress of the tobacco trade in a series 
 of years, I direct attention to the following official returns : — 
 
 TOBACCO STATISTICS. 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 Quantity 
 Imported. 
 
 Retained for home 
 consumption. 
 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 5 Manufactured 
 f Unmanufactured 
 $ Manufactured 
 l Unmanufactured 
 ( Manufactured 
 ( Unmanufactured 
 ( Manufactured 
 I Unmanufactured 
 ( Manufactured 
 I Unmanufactured 
 ( Manufactured 
 ( Unmanufactured 
 ( Manufactured 
 ( Unmanufactured 
 ( Manufactured 
 ( Unmanufactured 
 ( Manufactured 
 ( Unmanufactured 
 { Manufactured 
 ( Unmanufactured 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1,557,518 
 35,166,358 
 
 2,331,862 
 31,049,654 
 
 2.948,515 
 33,185,035 
 
 4,312.037 
 29,348,568 
 
 2.710,063 
 32 492,851 
 
 2 651.514 
 36,820.846 
 
 1,855,104 
 44,788,130 
 
 1,699.177 
 42,04*. -35 
 
 2,573.925 
 49,643,780 
 
 2,064,6S6 
 4S,606,579 
 
 lbs. 
 
 196,446 
 27,387.960 
 
 209,337 
 27,705,687 
 
 199,711 
 28,218.857 
 
 216,127 
 29,318,563 
 
 205,910 
 30,198,975 
 
 2 18. .5*3 
 30,274,001 
 
 249.237 
 32,329.731 
 
 152,880 
 32,604,033 
 
 259,939 
 33,850,911 
 
 297,976 
 34,192,075 
 
TOB 
 
 304 
 
 TUN 
 
 The progress of the export trade since 1852 may be thus traced: — 
 
 EXPORTS OF TOBACCO. 
 
 
 Manufactured. 
 
 Unmanufactured. 
 
 Tears. 
 
 Manufactured. 
 
 Unmanufactured. 
 
 ea 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1852 
 
 1,808,596 
 
 6,574,954 
 
 1856 
 
 1,542,381 
 
 10,507,219 
 
 1853 
 
 2,107,893 
 
 9,195,576 
 
 1857 
 
 930,827 
 
 10,663,979 
 
 1854 
 
 2,440,257 
 
 11,318,594 
 
 1858 
 
 1,245,263 
 
 9,25S,973 
 
 1855 
 
 2,114,121 
 
 8,719,884 
 
 1859 
 
 1,555,345 
 
 11,171,384 
 
 These statistics prove that the trade is liable to severe fluctuations, and that 
 the gains or losses of those immediately interested in it must be of an extensive 
 character. This point, however, is an individual, and not a national question ; 
 but, viewing it in the latter light, we may reasonably ask — would it be wise to 
 abolish duties upon a single article of luxury which yield an amount equal to 
 an annual income tax of fivepence in the pound, in order that we may have an 
 additional number of confirmed consumers of tobacco at a lower cost to them- 
 selves? The amount of revenue from tobacco must seem enormous, when we 
 draw attention to the annexed returns, showing the net produce in a series of 
 years : — 
 
 1850 
 1851 
 
 1852 
 1853 
 
 1854 
 
 NETT DUTY ON TOBACCO. 
 
 1855 
 1856 
 
 £3,683,208 
 4,466,499 
 4,542,571 
 4,728,642 
 4,773,555 
 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 £4,821,600 
 5,019,682 
 5,103,528 
 5,212,604 
 5,552,347 
 
 The duty on tobacco is still 3s Id and a fraction per pound. 
 
 TREATIES OF COMMERCE. With the following countries we have 
 treaties of reciprocity, containing " most favoured nation" clauses, and clauses 
 providing that British ships shall receive national treatment unconditionally: — 
 Bolivia, Buenos Ayres, Chili, Honduras, Johanna, Mecklenburg- Schwerin, 
 Mecklenburgh-Strelitz, Mexico, Morocco, New Granada, Oldenburgh, the 
 Roman States, and Venezuela. With the following countries we have treaties 
 of a similar kind, but in which the most favoured nation clause is conditional: 
 Austria, Costa Rica, Dominica, Equator, Guatemala, Hanover, Liberia, Para- 
 guay, Russia, Sardinia, the Sandwich Islands, and Uruguay. With Abyssinia 
 we have a treaty of reciprocity with a most favoured nation clause; with 
 Belgium one with a national treatment clause ; with Borneo a simple treaty, 
 not of reciprocity, containing a most favoured nation clause, and one pro- 
 viding that British ships do not pay more than a dollar per ton ; with 
 China, Japan, and Persia a simple treaty, containing most favoured nation 
 clauses ; with Denmark a reciprocity treaty providing for national treatment; 
 with France, a treaty of reciprocity, dated January, 1826, with a most favoured 
 nation clause, and provision for national treatment in direct trade and in ballast; 
 with Frankfort, Greece, Prussia, and Tuscany, reciprocity treaties providing for 
 national treatment; and with Muscat, a simple treaty with a most favoured 
 nation clause, and provision that sums not exceeding 5 per cent, on imports 
 shall cover tonnage dues. With the Netherlands we have treaties of recipro- 
 city, placing us conditionally on the footing of the most favoured nation, and 
 providing for national treatment. With Peru we have a reciprocity treaty, with 
 a conditional most favoured clause, and provision for national treatment on 
 vessels over 200 tons ; with Portugal and Sicily a similar treaty, providing for 
 national treatment in direct trade and ballast. With Siam we have a simple 
 treaty, with a most favoured clause, which provides that British shipping shall 
 be exempt. Finally, with Switzerland and Turkey we have reciprocity treaties 
 with a most favoured nation clause. 
 
 TRIPOLI. The number of vessels that entered at Tripoli, in 1857, was 151 
 of 16,007 tons, bringing cargoes valued at XI 10,800, of the vessels 27 of 2424 
 tons were British. 
 
 TUNIS. The number of vessels that entered at the Port of Golitta, (Tunis) 
 
TUB 
 
 305 
 
 TUE 
 
 in 1854, wos 547, of 63,398 tons, bringing merchandize of the value of £326,463; 
 of these 68 ships and 17,071 tons -were British. 
 
 TURMERIC. The imports of this root are now large, amounting in the three 
 years ending with 1859, to 2200 tons, worth about £15. 10* per ton. 
 
 TURPENTINE. The foreign imports of this oleo-resin, chiefly received 
 from the United States, seem to be on the decline. The imports in the last fifteen 
 years have ranged from 13,500 tons to 24,000 tons, per annum. In 1840, the 
 imports were 381,502 cwts.; in 1850, 437,121 cwts.; and in 1859,256,663 cwts. 
 
 TURKEY. According to the census taken in 1844, the population of the 
 Turkish Empire was in Europe 15,500,000; in Asia, 16,050,000; in Africa, 
 3,800,000. Total, 35,350,000. Our exports to Turkey Proper average about 
 £4,000,000, and our imports therefrom £2,730,000. 
 
 Finances. The public debt of the Ottoman Empire in 1854, including the 
 floating debt and paper money, stood at about £9,000,000, since then the Russian 
 war and other expenses have further disorganized the finances — and there hai 
 been a great accumulation of debt. In 1854 a loan of £5,000,000 at 6 per cent 
 was announced, but only £3,000,000 issued. In August, 1855, a 4 per cent loan 
 for £5,000,000 was concluded under the guarantee of England and France to 
 afford the Government pecuniary assistance in its struggle against Russia. In 
 December, 1856, another loan was raised of £12,000,000 at 6 per cent, of which 
 five millions were applied to the necessities of the State, three millions fbr the 
 Sultan, and four millions for redeeming the paper money, and to equalize and 
 render uniform the depreciated silver and copper coin. In May 1858, a loan for 
 £5,000,000 was contracted locally at 7 percent, and new State obligations issued 
 for £4,250,000 at 6 per cent. In October, 1858, another loan of £5,000,000 was 
 brought out, and in the close of 1860 a further loan of about £16,000,000 was 
 sought in France and partially obtained. 
 
 The ordinary revenue of Turkey is about £6,732,000, besides £427,350 tri- 
 bute from the dependent provinces. The expenditure and official peculation are 
 great; but the resources of the country are considerable, and if duly developed, 
 will, with peace, extended trade, and improved internal means of communication, 
 do much towards benefiting the country. 
 
 Ports. Constantinople. The vessels that entered at Constantinople in 1856 
 were 17,868, measuring 3,750,000 tons. 
 
 The following is a Tabular Report of the Shipping Statistics of the 
 Port of Constantinople for the year 1859: — 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Arrivals. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Depar- 
 tures. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Total of 
 Ships. 
 
 Total of 
 Tons. 
 
 /Turkey 
 
 4,845 
 
 559,862 
 
 4,389 
 
 497,012 
 
 9,234 
 
 1,056,874 
 
 « on I Walhichia 
 
 420 
 
 39,095 
 
 437 
 
 43,502 
 
 857 
 
 82,597 
 
 ¥ £ { Moldavia 
 
 170 
 
 16,060 
 
 164 
 
 15,131 
 
 334 
 
 31,191 
 
 = t, I Servia 
 ^ ' Samoa 
 
 41 
 
 9,808 
 
 44 
 
 5,548 
 
 85 
 
 13,356 
 
 216 
 
 20,090 
 
 217 
 
 19,795 
 
 433 
 
 39,885 
 
 America - 
 
 26 
 
 9,201 
 
 26 
 
 9,201 
 
 52 
 
 18,402 
 
 England - 
 
 1,563 
 
 460,166 
 
 1,612 
 
 474,915 
 
 3,175 
 
 9^5,081 
 
 Austria 
 
 96-5 
 
 349,236 
 
 953 
 
 354.292 
 
 1,948 
 
 703,522 
 
 Belgium 
 
 10 
 
 3,9i>7 
 
 10 
 
 3,997 
 
 20 
 
 7,294 
 
 Bremen 
 
 8 
 
 1,933 
 
 8 
 
 1,933 
 
 16 
 
 3,866 
 
 Denmark - 
 
 31 
 
 5,579 
 
 31 
 
 5,579 
 
 62 
 
 11,158 
 
 Spain 
 
 2 
 
 1,030 
 
 2 
 
 1,030 
 
 4 
 
 2,060 
 
 France 
 
 113 
 
 24,357 
 
 113 
 
 21,357 
 
 226 
 
 48,714 
 
 Greece 
 
 3,3o4 
 
 557,703 
 
 3,376 
 
 558,703 
 
 6,730 
 
 1,110,406 
 
 Holland - 
 
 136 
 
 20,973 
 
 133 
 
 20,569 
 
 269 
 
 41.542 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 
 467 
 
 80,065 
 
 452 
 
 77,593 
 
 919 
 
 157,558 
 
 Lubeck 
 
 1 
 
 91 
 
 1 
 
 91 
 
 2 
 
 182 
 
 Mecklenburg 
 
 110 
 
 12,152 
 
 115 
 
 11,012 
 
 234 
 
 23,964 
 
 Naples 
 
 351 
 
 106,851 
 
 364 
 
 102,502 
 
 715 
 
 208,753 
 
 Prussia 
 
 109 
 
 24,618 
 
 112 
 
 25,947 
 
 221 
 
 50,565 
 
 Russia 
 
 406 
 
 165,896 
 
 417 
 
 167,970 
 
 823 
 
 333,766 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 337 
 
 87,216 
 
 332 
 
 85,8C8 
 
 670 
 
 173,680 
 
 Totals - 
 
 13,691 
 
 2,553,270 
 
 13,338 
 
 2,607,247 
 
 27,029 
 
 5,060,526 
 
TUB 30G UNI 
 
 The value of the imports into the port of Smyrna is about £2,600,000, and 
 of the exports nearly the same. 
 
 In 1856, 1772 vessels, of 442,253 tons, arrived at Smyrna. At Samsoon, 
 the imports in the same year were, in British steamers, £318,651; exports, 
 £202,167. The imports at Rhodes by British steamers in 1857 were £129,774, 
 and the exports to the value of £95,697. At Alexandretta, in Syria, the vessels 
 which entered in 1856 were 196 ships, and 66,557 tons, of which 41 ships, and 
 13,659 tons, were British. At the Moldavian port of Galatz, on the Danube, 
 in 1852, 628 vessels cleared, of 104,189 tons, of which 165, and 28,545 tons 
 were British. Their cargoes were principally grain, comprising 187,555 quarters 
 of wheat, 96,900 quarters of rye, and 329,279 quarters of maize. The value of 
 the imports at Galatz in 1855 were £624,880, and of the exports £1,174,360. 
 
 At the port of Ibraila, 1128 ships, registering 195,418 tons, cleared in 1852, 
 taking cargoes comprising 343,584 qrs. of wheat, 80,278 qrs. of barley, and 
 725,259 qrs. of maize. Of the ships, 174, of 33,775 tons, were British. The 
 value of the imports at Ibraila in 1855 were £152,120, and of the exports 
 £ 1,523,720. The declared value of British exports to Wallachia and Moldavia 
 averaged £150,000, and to Smyrna and Palestine £700,000. 
 
 TUSCANY. The Grand Duke Leopold having quitted the Duchy in April, 
 1860, owing to a popular movement, a provisional Government was formed, and 
 the Duchy annexed to Sardinia. The population in August, 1859, was 1,806,940. 
 The city of Florence had 114,081 inhabitants. 
 
 The revenue is about £1,500,000. The public debt in 1856 stood at 
 £4,162,442. The imports in 1855 were of the value of £3,006,564, and the 
 exports of £2,323,238. The number of vessels that entered the port of Leghorn 
 *n 1856 were 4667, of these 227, and 59,593 tons, were British. The British 
 trade with Tuscany is exports to the value of about £1,000,000, and of imports 
 £600,000. The number of vessels belonging to the State in 1858 comprised 
 959, measuring 59,023 tons, of which 184 vessels, and 38,499 tons, were square- 
 rigged, and the rest lateen-rigged. 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND niELAND. 
 Under the articles Balance of Trade, Colonies, Commerce, Exports, 
 Revenue and Expenditure, and other special heads, all the departments of 
 British industry, production and finance, have been noticed, it will therefore 
 suffice to introduce here statistics of population, &c. and later returns than were 
 accessible when previous sheets were sent to press. 
 
 The population of the divisions of the Kingdom may be stated as follows:— 
 
 Census of 1851. Estimated 1859. 
 England and Wales - » 17,927,609 19,853,610 
 
 Scotland and British Isles - 3,031,868 3,139,860 
 
 Ireland - 6,552,386 6,020,423 
 
 Army and Navy afloat - - 162,490 
 
 27,674,353 29,013,893 
 
 The population of the principal towns of the Kingdom, according to the 
 census of 1851, was as follows: London, 2,362,236 (now assumed to be 3,000,000); 
 Liverpool, 375,955; Manchester, with Salford, 401,321; Birmingham, 232,841; 
 Leeds, 172,270; Bristol, 137,328; Sheffield, 135,310; Glasgow, 329,097; Edin- 
 burgh, 160,302; Dublin, 258,361; Belfast, 100,300. 
 
 The large decrease in the population of Ireland is to be ascribed to emigration. 
 The number of electors registered in England and Wales in 1859, borough and 
 county, was 968,892; in Scotland, 105,1 30; in Ireland, 200,242. Total, 1,274,264. 
 The number of inhabited houses in 1851 was, in England and Wales, 3,278,039; 
 Scotland,366,650; Ireland, 1,047,735; United Kingdom, 4,692,424. The number 
 of members returned to the House of Commons is now 654. The amount of pro- 
 perty assessed to the property and income tax in the United Kingdom in 1857, 
 under the three principal schedules, was nearly £267,000,000. The gross esti- 
 mated rental of property assessed to the poor rate in England and YY ales was 
 £86,077,676, the rateable value as assessed being £71,840,271. The estimated 
 rental for other parts of the kingdom has not been ascertained. 
 
UNI 
 
 307 
 
 UNI 
 
 ScHEDVLES. 
 
 England 
 
 and 
 Wales. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Amount of Property Assessed to Property and 
 Income Tax in 1857 under Schedule A 
 
 B - 
 D - 
 
 £ 
 
 103,496,253 
 41,186,404 
 73,511,927 
 
 £ 
 
 12,582,749 
 5,932,156 
 14,109,149 
 
 £ 
 
 11,915,286 
 2,582,538 
 4,577,874 
 
 Customs Duty collected at the principal Ports in 
 
 1859. 
 
 England. 
 
 £ 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 £ 
 
 London 
 
 12,740,241 
 
 Glasgow - 
 
 813,090 
 
 Liverpool - 
 
 3,661,662 
 
 Greenock - 
 
 808,454 
 
 Bristol 
 
 1,283,549 
 
 Leith 
 
 512,872 
 
 Hull 
 
 297,406 
 
 Aberdeen - 
 
 97,251 
 
 Newcastle - 
 
 279,890 
 
 Port Glasgow 
 
 70,362 
 
 Plymouth - 
 
 234,796 
 
 Dundee 
 
 66,251 
 
 Manchester 
 
 189,817 
 
 Grangemouth 
 
 27,469 
 
 Folkestone 
 
 177,980 
 
 Montrose - 
 
 25,045 
 
 Exeter 
 
 102,154 
 
 Perth 
 
 18,537 
 
 Sunderland 
 
 99,115 
 
 
 
 Stockton - 
 
 80,299 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 
 Gloucester 
 
 79,960 
 
 Dublin 
 
 1,053,510 
 
 Chester 
 
 72,623 
 
 Belfast 
 
 375.975 
 
 Preston 
 
 69,182 
 
 Cork 
 
 205,327 
 
 Whitehaven 
 
 68,780 
 
 Limerick - 
 
 173,466 
 
 Shields 
 
 56,336 
 
 Londonderry 
 
 128,183 
 
 Grimsby - 
 
 47,800 
 
 Waterford 
 
 85,697 
 
 Portsmouth 
 
 38,257 
 
 Newry 
 
 31,780 
 
 Yarmouth 
 
 35,357 
 
 Dundalk - 
 
 30,575 
 
 Hartlepool 
 
 33,666 
 
 Galway 
 
 29,784 
 
 Newhaven - 
 
 30,657 
 
 Sligo 
 
 24,141 
 
 The following table, taken in connection with that given nnder Shipping at 
 pages 266 and 271, furnishes the latest particulars respecting the statistics of the 
 British colonies and possessions. 
 
 Population, Revenue, Debt, and External Commerce of the British 
 Colonies and Possessions beyond the seas. 
 
 British Colonies and 
 Possessions. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 Debt. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Total Ex- 
 ports and 
 Imports. 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 EuropeanPossessions, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Heligoland 
 
 2,800 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 not asce 
 
 rtained 
 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 17,750 
 
 31,653 
 
 none 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Malta and Gozo 
 
 140,951 
 
 142,383 
 
 none* 
 
 2,195,114 
 
 1,528,994 
 
 3,724.108 
 
 Ionian Isles - 
 
 229,736 
 
 201,276 
 
 300,000 
 
 1,323,808 
 
 972,474 
 
 2,296,282 
 
 Asiatic Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 India - 
 
 185,903.277 
 
 31,706,776 
 
 97,851,807 
 
 11,093,065 
 
 28,278,474 
 
 59,371,539 
 
 Ceylon - 
 
 1,759.528 
 
 651,961 
 
 none 
 
 3,444,889 
 
 2,328,791 
 
 5,773,680 
 
 Hong Kong - 
 
 
 62.476 
 
 none 
 
 not asce 
 
 rtained 
 
 
 Labuan - 
 
 1,163 
 
 8,788 
 
 none 
 
 16,097 
 
 5,069 
 
 21,166 
 
 Straits Settlements - 
 
 252,000 
 
 not known 
 
 none 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 African Colonies. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mauritius and Sey- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 chelles 
 
 240,000 
 
 553.167 
 
 none 
 
 2,785,353 
 
 2,209,070 
 
 4,994,429 
 
 Cape Colony - 
 
 
 494.989 
 
 366,711 
 
 2,495,341 
 
 1,798,179 
 
 4,293,520 
 
 Natal - 
 
 121,0<;8 
 
 50,905 
 
 165,000 
 
 184,549 
 
 82,497 
 
 267,046 
 
 British Kaffraria - 
 
 unknown 
 
 — 
 
 — - 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 St. Helena 
 
 5,490 
 
 19,530 
 
 none 
 
 100,119 
 
 27,972 
 
 128,091 
 
 Settlements on West 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coast 
 
 Carried forward - 
 
 195,357 
 
 53,663 
 
 none 
 
 330,955 
 
 606,945 
 
 987,900 
 
 189,216,719 
 
 33,980,567 
 
 99,185,518 
 
 52,019,290 
 
 44,838,471 
 
 96,857,761 
 
UNI 
 
 308 
 
 UNI 
 
 British Colonies and 
 
 Possessions. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 Debt. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Total Ex- 
 ports and 
 Imports. 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Brought forward - 
 
 189,216,719 
 
 33,980,567 
 
 99,185,518 
 
 52,019,290 
 
 44,838,471 
 
 96,857,761 
 
 Australasia. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 New South Wales & 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Queen's Land - 
 
 342,062 
 
 1,540,550 
 
 2.500,000 
 
 6,059,366 
 
 4,186,277 
 
 10,245,643 
 
 Victoria - 
 
 504,519 
 
 3,257,724 
 
 6,250,000 
 
 15,108,249 
 
 13,989 209 
 
 29,097,458 
 
 South Australia 
 
 118,665 
 
 601,500 
 
 300,000 
 
 1,769,352 
 
 1,512,185 
 
 3,281,547 
 
 Western Australia - 
 
 14,776 
 
 52,804 
 
 none 
 
 144,932 
 
 78,649 
 
 223,581 
 
 Tasmania 
 
 84,080 
 
 599,524 
 
 345.2G0 
 
 1,328.612 
 
 1,151,609 
 
 2,480,221 
 
 New Zealand - 
 
 114,867 
 
 341,655 
 
 500,000 
 
 1,141,273 
 
 458,023 
 
 1,599,296 
 
 American Colonies. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 British Columbia - 
 
 6,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 pone 
 
 177,219 
 
 168,000 
 
 345,219 
 
 Vancouver 
 
 18,000 
 
 not known 
 
 none 
 
 not asce 
 
 rtained 
 
 
 Labrador 
 
 5,0C0 
 
 none 
 
 none 
 
 „ 
 
 ' 
 
 
 Canada - 
 
 2,571,437 
 
 1,985,457 
 
 11,661,010 
 
 6.542,669 
 
 5,281,337 
 
 11,824,006 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 193,800 
 
 106,963 
 
 226,025 
 
 1,162,771 
 
 810,779 
 
 1.973,550 
 
 Nova Scotia - 
 
 276,117 
 
 300,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 1,936,176 
 
 1,393,566 
 
 3,329,742 
 
 Prince Edward 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Island 
 
 71,496 
 
 22,195 
 
 none 
 
 186,229 
 
 153,071 
 
 339,300 
 
 Newfoundland 
 
 122,638 
 
 141, 12S 
 
 182,500 
 
 1,172,862 
 
 1,318,836 
 
 2,491,098 
 
 Bermudas 
 
 10,982 
 
 15,803 
 
 none 
 
 141,203 
 
 27,210 
 
 168,413 
 
 West Indies. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bahamas 
 
 27,619 
 
 33,136 
 5,953 
 
 none 
 
 190,523 
 
 92,156 
 
 282,679 
 
 Turks Island - 
 
 3,250 
 
 none 
 
 33,418 
 
 29,274 
 
 62,692 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 377,433 
 
 216,483 
 
 837,880 
 
 1,058,654 
 
 1,179,014 
 
 2,237,668 
 
 Virgin Islands 
 
 6,053 
 
 1,389 
 
 none 
 
 5,077 
 
 10,253 
 
 15,330 
 
 St. Kitts - 
 
 20,741 
 
 23,356 
 
 none 
 
 161,317 
 
 187,901 
 
 349,218 
 
 Nevis - 
 
 9,571 
 
 6,433 
 
 none 
 
 36,721 
 
 45,623 
 
 82,344 
 
 Antigua and Mont- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 serrat 
 
 42,451 
 
 43,658 
 
 45,000 
 
 284,179 
 
 342,670 
 
 626,849 
 
 Dominica 
 
 25,230 
 
 13,529 
 
 8,000 
 
 64,543 
 
 84,906 
 
 149,449 
 
 St. Lucia 
 
 26,050 
 
 13,191 
 
 15,000 
 
 102,036 
 
 94 659 
 
 196,695 
 
 St Vincent - 
 
 30,128 
 
 20,874 
 
 none 
 
 160,948 
 
 181,934 
 
 342,882 
 
 Barbados 
 
 135,939 
 
 96,915 
 
 none 
 
 1,325,118 
 
 1,468,450 
 
 2,793,568 
 
 Grenada m 
 
 32,671 
 
 17,660 
 
 7,000 
 
 103,165 
 
 185,613 
 
 288,778 
 
 Tobago - 
 
 14,378 
 
 9,654 
 
 none 
 
 62,137 
 
 72.401 
 
 134,538 
 
 Trinidad - 
 
 68,600 
 
 145,391 
 
 166,073 
 
 825,969 
 
 785,863 
 
 1,611,832 
 
 Honduras 
 
 29,000 
 
 27,848 
 
 none 
 
 207,908 
 
 380,378 
 
 588,286 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 127,695 
 
 273,295 
 
 250,000 
 
 886,016 
 
 1,331,371 
 
 2,217,387 
 
 Falkland Isles - 
 
 Total - - 
 
 621 
 
 7,741 
 
 none 
 
 11,300 
 
 11,800 
 
 23,100 
 
 194,648,588 
 
 43,952,376 
 
 122,679,266 
 
 94,409.232 
 
 31,851,488 
 
 176,260,730 
 
 UNITED STATES. The total population, according to the decennial census 
 of 1860, numbered 31,374,856, classified as follows : — 
 
 Free population of the 33 States - 27,112,000 
 
 Slaves in the States - - 3,878,000 
 
 Population in the Territories, including Kansas - 384,856 
 
 Census of 1850 
 
 Increase in 10 years 
 Increase per annum 
 Per centage of increase in the decade 
 
 Eight States contain more than 1,000,000 inhabitants each. 
 
 New York 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Of these eight States only the fifth and last are slaveholding. During the 
 ten years Illinois has overtaken the four States last on the list. In other 
 
 Total 31,374,856 
 
 " 
 
 23,191,074 
 
 _ 
 
 8,183,782 
 
 - 
 
 818,378 
 
 - 
 
 35 
 
 ntants each 
 
 These are 
 
 I860. 
 
 1850. 
 
 3,827,000 
 
 3,097,324 
 
 2,913,441 
 
 2,811,786 
 
 2,283.982 
 
 1,980,329 
 
 1,789,496 
 
 851,470 
 
 1,658,190 
 
 1,421,661 
 
 1,347,000 
 
 9S8,416 
 
 1,331,499 
 
 924,514 
 
 1,075,977 
 
 906,185 
 
TIjST 309 UNI 
 
 respects their relative positions are unchanged since 1850. Virginia, which in 
 the census of 1790 occupied the first place, has gradually sunk to the fifth. The 
 growth in population of three other north-western States is remarkable : — 
 
 I860. 1850. 
 
 Michigan .... 749,969 397,654 
 
 Wisconsin - 777,771 3o5,39l 
 
 Iowa .... 776,435 102,214 
 
 The cities containing a population of more than 40,000 number 21. 
 The area of the Free Labour States is 859,000 square miles ; of the Slave 
 States, 959,580 ; and of the territories in which the question of Free or Slave 
 Labour is undetermined, 1,363,730 : giving a total area for the United States of 
 3,182,310 square miles. 
 
 The real and personal property in the Free States is valued at 4,102,172,108 dollars. 
 Do. in the Slave States, including slaves . . . 2,936,081,731 dollars. 
 
 Do. in the Slave States, not including slaves . . 1,336,090,737 dollars. 
 
 The value of the slaves is computed for the whole slave-population at 500 
 dollars per head. The total number of persons holding slaves is 347,525. 
 
 The revenue of the Republic in 1858 amounted to 70,273,870 dollars, or 
 £14,640,388 ; and the expenditure to 81,585,668 dollars, or £16,997,014. 
 Customs yielded 41,789,621 dollars ; sale of lands, 3,513,716 dollars; and "mis- 
 cellaneous" items the large sum of 24,970,533 dollars. The items of expenditure 
 were: — Civil list, 7,059,197 dollars; foreign intercourse, 1,391,408 dollars; In- 
 terior Department, 6,051,923 dollars; War Department, 25,485,384 dollars; 
 Naval Department, 13,976,000 dollars; and Public Debt, 9,684,538 dollars. 
 The Public Debt itself stood in 1858 at 44,910,778 dollars, or £9,356,412. The 
 total registered and enrolled sailing tonnage of the United States was 4,320,417, 
 and the steam tonnage 729,390 ; 1225 vessels, of 242,287 tons, were built in that 
 year ; 4,395,642 tons of American shipping entered ports of the States, and 
 4,490,033 tons cleared out thence. The foreign tonnage exceeded 2,200,000 tons. 
 The imports of the States in 1858 (exclusive of coin and bullion) were valued at 
 £54,862,220, and its exports at £56,669,015. The value of the domestic 
 produee exported figures for 251,351,033 dollars, out of the total, 272,011,274 
 dollars. The bullion„imported was £4,015,520, and that exported £10,965,239. 
 The imports from Great Britain figure for 127,589,552 dollars, and the exports 
 thereto for 204,049,595 dollars. The imports from France figure for 35,536,643 
 dollars, and the exports thereto for 33,663,793 dollars. Spain stands next ; the 
 imports thence stand at 37,729,527 dollars, and the exports thereto at 25,210,961 
 dollars. The exports of domestic produce from the States included in 1858 : — 
 8,283,812 lbs. of tallow, 3,082,117 lbs. of butter, 8,098,527 lbs. of cheese, 
 20,954,374 lbs. of ham and bacon, 33,022,286 lbs. of lard, 8,926,196 bushels 
 of wheat, 3,512,169 barrels of flour, 4,766,145 bushels of Indian corn, 
 (cotton mentioned below), 5,410,225 lbs. of brown sugar, 3,784,557 lbs. of 
 candles, 4,738,981 lbs. of soap, 2,778,414 lbs. of gunpowder, 3,714,576 lbs. of 
 nails, 2,505,367 lbs. of leather, 1,790,895 lbs. of refined sugar, 1,000,997 gallons 
 of grain spirits, and 3,508,071 gallons of molasses spirits, 11,247,819 lbs. of 
 tobacco and snuff, and 2,457,255 gallons of " spirits " (oil ?) of turpentine. The 
 value of the cotton exported was 131,386,661 dollars, and the price per lb. 
 (average) 11.70 cents. Great Britain in 1858 took 780,952,389 lbs. of cotton, 
 and France 178,789,761 lbs. 56,491,655 pieces of money, value 61,357,088 
 dollars, were coined at the Mint of the United States in 1858. There are several 
 gold coins, called double-eagles, eagles, half-eagles, quarter-eagles, and dollars. 
 The silver coins are chiefly dollars and fractions of dollars, dimes, half-dimes, 
 three-cent pieces, and " fire-bars." There were, in 1858, 1422 banks and branches 
 in the Union, with a paid-up capital of 394,622,799 dollars. Their circulation 
 was 155,208,344 dollars, and the amount of their deposits 185,932,049 dollars. 
 The aggregate of immediate liabilities was 392,310,268 dollars, and that of 
 immediate means 170,293,511 dollars. In 1856 there were 25,565 post-offices, 
 with a revenue of 7,620,822 dollars, and an expenditure of 10,405,286 dollars. 
 
 The exports of the principal staples of the United States in 1858 were 
 as follows:— Cotton, 1,118,624,012 lbs., rice, 64,015 tierces, value 1,870,578 
 
UNI 
 
 310 
 
 UNI 
 
 dollars; tobacco, 127,670 hhds. value 17,009,767 dollars; snuff and manufactured 
 tobacco, value 2,410,224 dollars; bread-stuffs and provisions, value 50,683,235 
 dollars. The following shows the aggregate value of the imports and exports 
 for the five years ending July 1860. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 1860 
 
 326,964,918 dollars. 
 362,949,144 „ 
 324,644,421 „ 
 356,789,462 „ 
 400,122,296 „ 
 
 Imports. 
 
 314,639,942 dollars. 
 360,890.141 „ 
 262,613,150 „ 
 388,768,130 „ 
 362,163,941 „ 
 
 For 5 years - 1,771,470,241 „ 1,659,075,304 „ 
 
 Excess of exports over imports 112,394,937 dollars. 
 
 Value of Imports from and Exports to Foreign Countries in 1858. 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 95,730,658 
 
 168,095,848 
 
 British Colonies and Possessions 
 
 31,887,396 
 
 35,953,747 
 
 France - 
 
 35,291,521 
 
 32,741,917 
 
 Hanse Towns 
 
 14,164,486 
 
 13,212,621 
 
 Cuba - 
 
 27,214,846 
 
 14,433,191 
 
 All other parts of the world 
 
 134,579,228 
 
 92,752,138 
 
 Tonnage of the United States, the 30th June, 1855. 
 
 The registered vessels employed in the foreign trade 
 
 The enrolled vessels employed in the coasting trade . 2,491,108 
 
 The licensed vessels under twenty tons employed in the coasting 
 
 trade . . . . . .52,147 
 
 Tons. 
 2,535,136 
 
 The enrolled vessels employed in the cod fishery . t 102,927 
 
 The enrolled vessels employed in the mackerel fishery . 21,624 
 
 The enrolled vessels employed in the whale fishery . . 71 
 
 The licensed vessels under twenty tons employed in the cod fishery 8,987 
 
 2,543,255 
 
 — 133,609 
 
 Total , 
 
 The registered tonnage employed in the whale fishery . . . 
 
 The registered tonnage employed other than in the whale fishery ; 
 
 Total ... 
 
 The aggregate amount of the tonnage of the United States on the 30th 
 June, 1855 . . • . . . 
 
 Whereof, 
 Permanent registered tonnage • . , 1,957,796 
 
 Temporary registered tonnage 577,430 
 
 5,212,000 
 
 186,778 
 2,348,358 
 
 Total registered tonnaga I • 
 
 Permanent enrolled tonnage . 2,602,499 
 
 Temporary enrolled tonnage . . 13,231 
 
 Total enrolled tonnage .... 
 Licensed tonnage under twenty tons employed in the cod fishery . 8,987 
 Total licensed tonnage under twenty tons . . — 
 
 Total ..... 
 
 Of the enrolled and licensed tonnage there were employed on the 
 Coasting trade ...... 
 
 Cod fishery ....... 
 
 Mackerel fishery ..... . 
 
 Whale fishery . » • . . 
 
 Total . I 
 
 5,212,000 
 
 2,535,226 
 
 2,615,730 
 61,044 
 
 5,212,000 
 
 2,491,108 
 
 102,927 
 
 . 21,624 
 
 70 
 
 2,615,730 
 
vm 
 
 311 
 
 UNI 
 
 Of the registered tonnage, amounting, as above stated, to 2,535,136, there were em- 
 ployed in steam navigation .... 115,045 
 
 Of the enrolled tonnage, amounting, as above stated, to 2,615,730, there were 
 
 employed in steam navigation ..... 655,239 
 
 Total steam tonnage .... 770,284 
 
 The total tonnage seems rather to have decreased than increased. In 1858 
 the aggregate tonnage was 5,049,807 tons, of which 2,361,595 tons was em- 
 ployed in the coasting trade. 
 
 Population of the Eighteen Free States, according to the latest accounts, 
 and their Debt as returned on the 1st January, 1859. 
 
 
 Population. 
 
 Debt— Dollars. 
 
 California 
 
 507,067 
 
 4,043,486 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 370,792 
 
 65,000 
 
 Illinois 
 
 1,789,496 
 
 11,138,454 
 
 Indiana 
 
 1,847,000 
 
 9,241,529 
 
 Iowa 
 
 776,435 
 
 128,010 
 
 Maine 
 
 583,169 
 
 1,034,277 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 1,331,499 
 
 6,313,456 
 
 Michigan 
 
 749,969 
 
 2,3*7,630 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 150,042 
 
 250,000 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 317,976 
 
 none 
 
 New York 
 
 3,827,000 
 
 32,441,944 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 489,555 
 
 95,000 
 
 Ohio 
 
 2,283,982 
 
 17,131,219 
 
 Oregon 
 
 43,000 
 
 none 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 2,913,441 
 
 39,268,111 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 147,545 
 
 386,311 
 
 "Vermont 
 
 314,120 
 
 none 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 777,771 
 
 100,000 
 
 The population of the Territories a few years ago was as follows : — Utah, 
 11,380; New Mexico, 61,547; Washington, 10,000; Kansas, 75,000; Nebraska, 
 10,716; Arizona, 10,000; Dacotah, 8000; Jefferson and Nevada, not stated. 
 Kansas was in 1861 admitted into the Union as a Free State. 
 
 According to the census of 1860, the details of which are not yet published, 
 the aggregate population of these Territories was 384,856. 
 
 Population and Debt of the Fifteen Slave States. 
 
 States. 
 
 Population. 
 
 D^bt— Dollars. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 841.704 
 
 5,098,000 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 331,213 
 
 2,981,133 
 
 Delaware 
 
 91,532 
 
 none 
 
 Florida 
 
 110 823 
 
 158 000 
 
 Georgia 
 
 1,075,977 
 
 3,354,750 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 982,405 
 
 5,479,244 
 
 Louisiana - 
 
 646,971 
 
 10,701,642 
 
 Maryland 
 
 583,034 
 
 14,854,204 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 606,526 
 
 7,271,707 
 
 Missouri 
 
 682,044 
 
 19,038,000 
 
 North Carolina «. 
 
 869,039 
 
 7,181,923 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 668,507 
 
 6,192,743 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 1,002,717 
 
 16,643,607 
 
 Texas 
 
 212,592 
 
 none 
 
 Virginia 
 
 1,658,190 
 
 33,005.159 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 51,687 
 
 none 
 
 In the year ending June 30, 1859, the value of the exports of the six principal 
 Southern States, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, and 
 
UNI 
 
 312 
 
 uisri 
 
 Texas was 171,184,205 dollars, or seven times as large as the exports of the six 
 New England States. 
 
 Progress of the Exports and Imports of the United States for Eighteen 
 Years. 
 
 Value in Dollars. 
 
 
 Export?, 
 American Produce. 
 
 Total Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 1842 
 
 92 969,995 
 
 104,691,534 
 
 100,162,087 
 
 1843 
 
 *77,'793,783 
 
 84,346,480* 
 
 64,753.799* 
 
 1844 
 
 99,715,179 
 
 111,200,046 
 
 108,435,035 
 
 1845 
 
 99,299,776 
 
 114,646,606 
 
 117,254,564 
 
 1846 
 
 102,141,893 
 
 113,488,516 
 
 121.691,797 
 
 1847 
 
 150,637,464 
 
 158,648,622 
 
 146,545,638 
 
 1848 
 
 132,904,121 
 
 154,032 131 
 
 154,998,928 
 
 1849 
 
 132,666,955 
 
 145,755,820 
 
 147,857,439 
 
 1850 
 
 136,946,912 
 
 151,898,720 
 
 178,138,318 
 
 1851 
 
 196,6S9,718 
 
 218,388,011 
 
 216,224,932 
 
 1852 
 
 192,368,984 
 
 209,658,366 
 
 212,945,442 
 
 1853 
 
 213,417.697 
 
 230,976,157 
 
 267,978,647 
 
 1854 
 
 252,047,806 
 
 278,241,064 
 
 304.562,381 
 
 1855 
 
 246,708,553 
 
 275,150,846 
 
 261,468,520 
 
 1856 
 
 310,586,330 
 
 326,964,908 
 
 314,639,942 
 
 1857 
 
 338,985,065 
 
 362,960,682 
 
 360,890,141 
 
 1858 
 
 293,758,279 
 
 324,644,421 
 
 282,613,150 
 
 1859 ■ 
 
 ~"~ 
 
 356,789.462 
 
 338,768,130 
 
 Only nine months of 1843. 
 
 The Progress in Population and Commerce of the Principal Ports will be 
 seen from the following details :— 
 
 Boston. The population of this city, which in 1850 was 136,881, was re- 
 turned in 1860 at 177,902. The great increase of ocean traffic by the Cunard 
 steamers, and the Indian trade, have greatly improved the commerce of the port. 
 In 1840-41 there were exported from Calcutta to the United States, in 21 small 
 ships, about 1700 tons of goods, of which the first cost and freight did not 
 exceed 1,250,000 dollars, while in the year 1856 there arrived in the United 
 States from Calcutta 93 ships, many of them upwards of 2000 tons burden, 
 bringing 132,635 tons of goods, of which the freight alone, at a fair average rate 
 of 14 dollars per ton, was 1,850,000 dollars, and the first cost in Calcutta 75 
 dollars per ton, would make an aggregate of more than 10,000,000 dollars. 
 Shipbuilding and the prosecution of the fisheries are much carried on from 
 Boston. In 1850 the foreign arrivals at Boston numbered 3000 vessels, the im- 
 ports were valued at 30,000,000 dollars; the exports at 9,400,000 dollars, and 
 the real and personal estate of the city at 180,000,000 dollars. In 1856, the 
 total value of the exports from Boston was £5,378,622, of which £2,932,551 
 were shipped in foreign vessels. The value of the imports in the same year 
 was £8,602,980, of which more than one-third was from Great Britain. 
 
 New York. The population of the city of New York increased between 1850 
 and 1860 from 515,647 souls to 814,277. The appended statistics present the 
 latest returns of the shipping trade of the port. 
 
 The number of American vessels entered during 1859 was 2586, and the 
 amount of tonnage 1,302,024,— whilst during the same period 1319 foreign 
 vessels entered, with a tonnage of 597,826. The following table shows the 
 comparative entries of American and foreign ships at this port during ten 
 years :— 
 
UNI 313 UNI 
 
 Tonnage entered at New York from Foreign Ports. 
 
 
 Arrivals. 
 
 American 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Total 
 
 1850 - 
 
 Tonnage 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 3313 
 
 807,580 
 
 441,756 
 
 1,249,336 
 
 1851 - 
 
 3840 
 
 1,144,585 
 
 479,556 
 
 1,624,051 
 
 1852 - 
 
 3837 
 
 1,231 651 
 
 478,037 
 
 1,709,988 
 
 1853 - 
 
 4079 
 
 1.321.674 
 
 491,580 
 
 1,813,254 
 
 1854 - 
 
 4047 
 
 1,422.282 
 
 477,034 
 
 1,919.416 
 
 1855 - 
 
 3391 
 
 1,340.257 
 
 220,000 
 
 1,562.257 
 
 1856 - 
 
 386 1 
 
 1,684,596 
 
 386,262 
 
 2,070,858 
 
 1857 - 
 
 3851 
 
 1,478,579 
 
 492,425 
 
 1,971,004 
 
 1858 - 
 
 3421 
 
 1,200,043 
 
 433,828 
 
 1,693>7 1 
 
 1859 - 
 
 3905 
 
 1,302,024 
 
 597,826 
 
 l.S99,850 
 
 In comparing the tonnage of 1859 with an average of the nine previous year?, 
 we find the increase in the tonnage of American entries to be only 4£ per cent, 
 whilst the increase of foreign is in the ratio of 38 per cent. The number of 
 vessels cleared at New York during 1859 was 3253, including 981,619 of Ameri- 
 can tonnage, and 602,569 of foreign. The following is a comparative statement 
 of the total American and foreign vessels cleared at New York for foreign ports 
 from the year 1852 to 1859 inclusive : — 
 
 No. of Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 3035 
 
 1,355,818 
 
 3469 
 
 1,521,286 
 
 3278 
 
 1,528.104 
 
 3025 
 
 1,426,201 
 
 3364 
 
 1,709,738 
 
 2947 
 
 1,622.707 
 
 2851 
 
 1,380,295 
 
 3253 
 
 1,584,188 
 
 1852 
 1853 
 1854 
 1855 
 1856 
 1857 
 1858 
 1859 
 
 The returns for the coasting trade show a larger amount of tonnage entered 
 in 1859 than during any previous year excepting 1855, when the amount entered 
 was 614,045 tons against 572,232 tons in 1859. The coastwise clearances, how- 
 ever, are the largest of any period. 
 
 We append the following summary of the official returns of the domestic 
 trade during the last ten years : — 
 
 
 Entered Coastwise. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No. of Vessels. 
 
 Cleared Coastwise. 
 
 1850 
 
 No. of Vessels. 
 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 192S 
 
 489,395 
 
 4719 
 
 1,020,070 
 
 1851 
 
 1768 
 
 455.542 
 
 4803 
 
 1,214.942 
 
 1852 
 
 1766 
 
 497,S40 
 
 4680 
 
 1,173.762 
 
 1853 
 
 1733 
 
 507,531 
 
 4789 
 
 1.310,097 
 
 1854 
 
 1880 
 
 543,452 
 
 4779 
 
 1.499,969 
 
 1855 
 
 1966 
 
 614,045 
 
 4563 
 
 1.378,S88 
 
 1856 
 
 1669 
 
 539,461 
 
 4696 
 
 1,-1>2.310 
 
 1857 
 
 1569 
 
 503,679 
 
 4182 
 
 1.-125,810 
 
 1858 
 
 1559 
 
 499,138 
 
 4381 
 
 1,640,473 
 
 1859 
 
 1838 
 
 572,232 
 
 4698 
 
 1,726,993 
 
 This return must necessarily be imperfect, owing to the incompleteness of the 
 system by which it has been obtained. 
 
 The law passed by Congress for ensuring a systematic return of the coasting 
 trade, remains comparatively a dead letter-^ it is to be trusted, however, that for 
 the interests of commerce, the proper authorities will enforce its strict execution. 
 
UNI 314 TJRT7 
 
 Philadelphia. The population of this city which in 1850 was 408,762, is now 
 568,034. There are in this State 1300 miles of canal. Its coal production has 
 been greatly on the increase. 
 
 Baltimore. The present population of this city is 214,037. The amount of 
 the tonnage of the port in 1850 was 76,022 ; vessels of 500 or 600 tons can lie at 
 the wharves near Fell's Point, and those of 200 tons can go up to the town in the 
 inner harbours. The commerce is great, for which it enjoys peculiar facilities. 
 
 Cliarleston. The population of this city in 1860 was" 40,194; showing a 
 decline of about 3000 souls since the last decennial census. The commerce of 
 Charleston is extensive. 
 
 Savannah. The population of this city is about 30,000. It has a good 
 harbour. Vessels drawing only 14 feet of water can come up to the city 
 wharves, but larger vessels lie at Fathom Hole, 3 miles below. Many steamers 
 of a large size navigate the river. 
 
 Mobile. The population is about 30,000. The value of the cargoes cleared 
 in British ships from this port (chiefly cotton) averages from £1,500,000 to 
 £2,000,000. The British imports are small, only reaching £90,000. In 1856, 
 
 84 British vessels of an average tonnage of over 1000 tons entered Mobile, and 
 
 85 cleared. American vessels import goods to about £166,000, and take away 
 produce worth £2,000,000 to £3,000,000. Cotton, sawed timber, and naval 
 stores are the chief exports. 
 
 New Orleans. The population of this city has increased from 116,375 
 souls in 1850 to 170,766 in 1860. The clearances from the port during the year 
 ending October 1857 were 2185 vessels, measuring 1,117,409 tons. The value 
 of the produce received at the port, from the interior, was £33,000,000. The 
 total value of the foreign imports in the year ending December 1857 was 
 £5,288,068, and of the exports, £23,957,044 sterling. 
 
 The corporation have farmed out to contractors the right to collect dues from 
 ships, vessels and steam boats, called levee or wharfage dues, as follows : — 
 20 cents per ton for every vessel of 1000 tons and under, and for any excess 
 of tonnage 15 cents per ton ; thus, a vessel of 500 tons pays 100 dollars, while 
 one of 1200 tons pays 230 dollars. On all steam ships navigating the Gulf 
 of Mexico the rate is 1 5 cents per ton. These dues are higher than in any other 
 city in the United States, and when the heavy expense of pilotage and towage 
 from the bar is included, are extremely onerous and oppressive to the shipping 
 interest. The pilotage charged, which is exacted whether the ship takes a pilot 
 or not, is 3£ dollars per each foot of water the vessel draws, so that a vessel 
 drawing 18 feet pays 63 dollars or £13. 2s 6d. The towage of a vessel from the 
 bar to the city, of 500 tons, is 370 dollars ; of 1000 tons, 643 dollars ; of 1500 
 tons, 950 dollars ; and for every 25 tons additional, 25 dollars more. The tow- 
 age from the city to the bar is on an average about one-half less than the rate 
 for towing vessels from sea. Besides these dues there are harbour masters and 
 port warden's fees, the former of 3 cents per ton, and the latter 5 dollars per 
 vessel, whether called upon to inspect vessels or not. The Board of Health is 
 also authorized by an Act of the Legislature to charge a fee of 20 dollars for 
 eveiy ship, barque or sea-going steamer entering the river, and the sum of 150 
 dollars for all other vessels. 
 
 URUGUAY. The area of this republic now embraces a territory of 102,900 
 square miles, and a population of 177,300 souls, spread over the following de- 
 partments : — 
 
 Departments. Population. 
 
 Montevideo . , , 43,520 
 
 Guadeloupe . ( • . .13,000 
 
 San Jose ..... 12,500 
 
 Colonia del Sacramento . « . 10,320 
 
 Soriano . . . , , 13,200 
 
 Paysandu, Salto, Tacuarembo • , , 34,560 
 
 Cavro Largo . , * , 10,100 
 
 Maldonado and Minas . • • ,21,900 
 
 Florida . . , , ; 9,400 
 
 Between Ii and Rio Negro . a , 8,200 
 
 Total 177,300 
 
UEU 315 VAN 
 
 The value of the exports from Monte Video was in 1856, £906,197 j in 1857, 
 £1,830,269; and in 1858, £1,152,892. They consisted in 1858 chiefly of the 
 following: — 184,389 quintals of salted beef, 10,338 tons of bone and bone ash, 
 1 ,459,000 shin bones, 82,720 arrobas (of 25 lbs.) of flour, 76,290 arrobas of grease, 
 40,570 quintals of horse and cow hair, 457,879 ox hides, 136,303 horse hides, 
 389,700 horns, 1254 dozen of sheep skins, 86,266 arrobas of tallow, 121,592 
 arrobas of wool, 42,720 fanegas of wheat, and 142 mules. 
 
 The value of the exports from Monte Video to Great Britain and her colonies 
 in 1857 was £551,791. The entries of vessels at Monte Video have risen from 
 518 and 107,586 tons in 1852, to 936 and 186,699 tons in 1858. The entries 
 show that 84 British vessels of 23,221 tons were employed in the direct and 
 indirect trade at the port of Monte Video in 1858. 
 
 Since the end of the siege of Monte Video in 1851, land has increased in value 
 about 75 per cent., and is in great demand. The number of cattle then existing 
 in the Republic was considered to be from 1,500,000 to 1,800,000, and to be 
 worth on an average 35* each. In 1857 they were calculated at 4,000,000, and 
 worth 70* each. Great attention has lately been paid to the rearing of sheep, 
 for which the country is well adapted, and large numbers were imported during 
 1856 and 1857 from Buenos Ayres, it being considered that the pasturage is 
 better than in that province, and the land drier and yet better watered, and not 
 so subject to droughts. There can be no doubt that the produce of wool will 
 soon be much increased. 
 
 USURY. By the 17 and 18 Vict. c. 90, all the statutes in England, Scot- 
 land, and Ireland, about twenty in number, relating to usury, were repealed. 
 
 VALONIA. The imports of this tanning substance are now very large. 
 Under the article Leather, in the Supplement, some details as to imports and 
 range of prices have been given. The Board of Trade returns show that the 
 aggregate imports for 1859 reached 27,579 tons, of the computed real value of 
 £397,054. The Turkish valonia being estimated at £14. 11$ 5d, and the 
 other kinds at £11. per ton. 
 
 VANCOUVER. A British Colony on the North-West Coast of America, 
 containing 11,570 square miles, and including the island of that name, and the 
 small surrounding islands in the Gulf of Georgia Channel and Atlantic side. 
 The chief town is Victoria, on the south-western extremity. This island was 
 formerly leased to the Hudson's Bay Company, but resumed by the Crown in 
 1857. The possession of this island to Great Britain is of vast importance 
 politically and commercially. There is not a safe harbour, nor a spot adapted 
 for a commercial port, between San Francisco and this island. Humboldt Bay 
 is capacious, and vessels can lie with tolerable safety when once in, but it is 
 inaccessible in heavy weather, and is difficult of exit. 
 
 Vancouver island* is situated between lat. 48° 2° and 51° N. and long. 123° and 
 128° W. Length, N.W. to S.E. 300 miles; greatest breadth, 75 miles. There 
 are said to be 15,000 or 16,000 Indians on the island. The surface is moun- 
 tainous and richly wooded. On its west coast are Nootka Sound and many 
 other harbours. The island is intersected by high mountain ranges, but it has 
 notwithstanding a considerable extent of level and undulating land susceptible 
 of cultivation. The growth of timber is most luxuriant. Pine, spruce, white 
 and red oak, ash, cedar, maple, etc., are found in the utmost profusion — the 
 cedar and pine attaining to an immense size. It is said that the humidity of 
 this climate will prevent this island from ever becoming a wool-growing country, 
 but though it may not produce fine, it would produce coarse wool, and there can 
 be no doubt of its being well fitted, from the luxuriance of its pastures, for the 
 growth and rearing of cattle. There are some very fine pure Southdowns. 
 Other breeds — hybrids of Southdowns, merinos, and other stock — are also in 
 good condition and fair size. Black cattle do well also. The breed is a mix- 
 ture of English and American, which makes very good beef. The horses are 
 little Indian breeds, and some crosses with American stock, all very clean 
 limbed, sound, active, hardy and full of endurance and high spirit. The bays, 
 rivers, and adjacent seas swarm with salmon, sturgeon, herrings, seals, sea-otters, 
 
VAN 316 VEN 
 
 and tortoises , and they are also resorted to by whales. The harbours of the island 
 are, consequently, well fitted for carrying on an extensive and profitable fishery, 
 and also well suited to ship building. The mineral riches have been very im- 
 perfectly explored. Enough, however, is known to establish the fact that 
 immense beds of coal are to be met with in the N.E. parts. In various localities 
 the beds have been found cropping out on the surface, and large supplies have 
 been found with but little difficulty and little expense. 
 
 The seat of Government is at Victoria, a regularly laid out town, containing 
 about 2000 inhabitants. The harbour of Victoria is small, with a depth of only 
 about eight feet water, but at the town of Esquimault, three miles N. W., there 
 is a most commodious harbour. 
 
 VAN DIEMEN'S LAND, see Tasmania. 
 
 VANILLA. The imports of this aromatic pod into the United Kingdom in 
 the four years ending 1859, averaged 5000 lbs. per annum, but the supply and 
 price fluctuate considerably. There is a large consumption on the Continent, 
 and the United States use about 5000 lbs. per annum. The cultivation is now 
 successfully carried on in Bourbon and Mauritius. 
 
 VEGETABLE WAX. Large quantities of solid vegetable oils are now 
 received from various countries, under the names of vegetable wax and vegetable 
 tallow. The principal of those known are the Carnauba wax imported from 
 Brazil, which is the produce of Copemicia cerifera ; myrtleberry wax, the 
 produce of some species of Myrica in South Africa and North America, the 
 Japan vegetable wax obtained from the fruit of Rhus succedaneum ; the Borneo 
 vegetable tallow; several of the Bassia butters and other kinds. 
 
 In 1857, 746 cwts. of vegetable wax, valued at £3170 was imported; in 1858, 
 2081 cwts. of the value of £8823., and in 1859, 31,547 cwts. of the value of 
 £110,406. Since the opening of trade with Japan large quantities of vegetable 
 wax have come forward from that country. 
 
 VENEZUELA. The population of this little Eepublic, according to the 
 latest returns was 1,564,433, and of the capital, Caraccas, 50,000. The area is 
 stated to be 426,712 square miles. The foreign debt of Venezuela in 1859, 
 including arrears of dividends, was £4,198,225. The State has also a home 
 debt amounting to about £5,000,000, part of which represents the value of the 
 slaves which were emancipated, their owners having been paid in bonds. The 
 value of the imports of the republic in 1856 was £1,119,426, and of the exports 
 £1,327,220. The Customs duties received £381,299. 
 
 La Guayra. The official value of the imports at this the principal port, in 
 1857, amounted to £671,253, of which £112,612 was from Great Britain. The 
 value of the exports was £595,600, of which but £21,470 went to Great 
 Britain. The principal exports from La Guayra in 1857, were cocoa, 4,309,007 
 lbs. ; coffee, 16,030,567 lbs.; cotton, 345,438 lbs. ; hides, 67,080 in number; 
 indigo, 88,785 lbs., and tobacco, 413,290 lbs. 
 
 Bolivar. At this port on the Orinoco the value of the imports in 1857 was 
 £126,236, and of the exports, £116,847. Nearly all the merchants here are 
 Germans, and a large amount of trade is carried on with the Hanse Towns of 
 Bremen and Hamburgh. British vessels are employed in carrying cattle to the 
 West India Islands. The amount of the direct trade with Venezuela is small. 
 The imports have been declining of lateyearsfrom £47,000 in 1855 to £21,000 
 in 1859. The value of British manufactures has fluctuated but little, averaging 
 about £320,000 per annum. 
 
 The following figures show ihe extent of the shipping trade at each port : — 
 Bolivar and other ports on the Orinoco, in 1857, 179 vessels, 17,694 tons; of 
 these 61 vessels of 4900 tons were engaged in the direct trade with the United 
 Kingdom. At Puerto Cabello in 1857,135 vessels of 29,969 tons, and with 
 £246,737 in cargo entered, of which 21 vessels of 5386 tons, and with £93,273 
 in cargo were from Great Britain. At La Guayra, 230 vessels of 37,913 tons, 
 and cargoes valued at £671,253 entered, of which 15 vessels and 3615 tons were 
 British. The United States and European countries carry on the largest trade. 
 
VIC 317 VIC 
 
 VICTORIA. The rapid strides made by this colony in wealth and popula- 
 tion are mainly due to the gold discoveries of 1851. In 1850 it was detached 
 from New South Wales, of which it was previously a portion, and constituted an 
 independent colony under the title of Victoria. In 1855 it received a repre- 
 sentative constitution. In 1846 Melbourne, the capital, was only an embryo 
 town, with a population of 10,954, now it is a well-arranged municipality, with 
 a population of 125,000. The yield of gold in Victoria between 1851 and 1859 
 is estimated at more than 25,000,000 ounces, worth about £100,000,000. 
 
 See the articles Bullion and Gold. 
 
 In 1835 the first settlement was made in Victoria, whence, up to 1851, the 
 population went on increasing gradually until it reached 77,345 souls in a period 
 of 16 years; but from that date to 1860, it jumped, it may be said, to 530,000 
 souls. The revenue, which in 1851 was only £316,532, derivadfrom all sources, 
 was £3,308,589 in 1857; of which latter sum, £1,595,283 was derived from re- 
 ceipts at the Custom House, inclusive of gold export duty. The expenditure in 
 1851 was £409,498, consequently in excess of receipts by nearly £100,000; but 
 increased population required greatly increased expenditure, and unavoidable 
 outlays for roads, bridges, and other public works, and the expenditure in 1859 
 was £3,662,540. The number of vessels employed in carrying on the export 
 and import trade of the colony has increased 208 per cent, since 1851, when 
 there were 710 ships entered inwards at the Custom House at Melbourne, but 
 2190 in 1857; the tonnage has advanced between the same dates 438 per cent, 
 from 128,959 to 694,564 tons; and the hands employed 349 per cent., from 7735 
 to 34,777 men. The exports in 1851 were declared at the value of £1,422,909, 
 but at £15,079,512 in 1857. The imports in 1851 gave a total value of 
 £1,056,439, but in 1857 they were returned at £17,256,209, the greater propor- 
 tion of which were from the mother country. In reference to public works, 
 the statistics show that in 1851 there was not a single mile of macadamised 
 road made beyond the towns of Melbourne and Geelong; but at the close of 
 1857 there were 470 miles of road formed, 270 of which were macadamised; 
 300 bridges erected, and many miles of viaducts constructed, at a cost altogether 
 of £4,821,848; and without reference to outlays to a considerable extent by 
 district road boards. Two lines of railway have been constructed by private 
 companies. The first from Melbourne to Hobson's Bay, with a branch to St. 
 Kilda, at a cost of £365,240, inclusive of rolling stock, on which the profits are 
 about 19 per cent, and after deducting expenses and adding to the reserve fund, 
 leave 14 per cent, per annum to the shareholders. The other line is that of 
 Geelong and Melbourne, 42 miles, constructed at a cost of £590,576. Two 
 trunk fines are to be constructed by the Government. Of communications by 
 electric agency, no less than 701 miles have been established in the colony, at a 
 cost of £70,000. There are 22 stations, at the annual expense of £18,000. 
 The total extent of land under culture in 1859 was 297,056 acres. In 1851 
 there were only six banks, and now there are 54, the paid-up capital of which 
 is £5,423,694. 
 
 The numbers of live stock in the colony in March, 1 859, were 68,323 horses, 
 699,330 cattle, and 5,578,413 sheep. The imports of flour in 1858 amounted 
 to 26,276 tons, valued at £524,529. In 1857 the exports of wool amounted to 
 17,176,920 lbs., valued at £1,334,642, and in 1858 to 21,515,658 lbs., valued at 
 £1,678,290. 
 
 The value of the imports into the colony in 1858 was 15,108,249, and of the 
 exports £13,989,209, of which £10,107,836 was gold. The direct trade with 
 the United Kingdom has been as follows: — 
 
 
 
 
 Imports from. 
 
 Exports to. 
 
 18,55 
 
 - 
 
 m 
 
 £ 1,798, 7C0 
 
 £3,245,783 
 
 1856 
 
 • 
 
 m 
 
 2,033,654 
 
 6,517,745 
 
 1857 
 
 • 
 
 - 
 
 2,472,479 
 
 7,511,110 
 
 1S5S 
 
 • 
 
 - 
 
 2,110,277 
 
 6,030,344 
 
 1859 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 2,427,820 
 
 7,176,448 
 
 1860 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 5,378,083 
 
 The imports 
 
 are 
 
 exclusive of gold. 
 
 
 
VIN 
 
 318 
 
 WAX 
 
 VINEGAR. The home manufacture of vinegar was estimated a few years 
 ago at only 2,000,000 gallons, besides 1,250,000 gallons of acetic and pyrolig- 
 neous acids. This would however be a low estimate, seeing that the production 
 when charged with duty twenty years ago, was 3,000,000 gallons. We imported 
 in 1859, 64,436 gallons of foreign vinegar, chiefly from France. Vinegar manu- 
 facturers pay a license duty of £5. 5*. The number of vinegar makers in the 
 United Kingdom in 1859 was 66, namely 58 in England and Wales, 7 in Scot- 
 land, and 1 in Ireland. In 1849 the number was only 58. 
 
 WATCH. According to the census returns of 1851, there were in London, 
 including every dealer who professed and called himself a watchmaker, about 
 4,800 persons in the trade. The manufacture is divided into a great many 
 separate branches. Thus, according to the Post-office Directory, there are the 
 following persons engaged : — 862 watch makers, 53 watch case makers, 32 watch 
 secret springers, 37 watch escapement makers, besides 250 other workmen. 
 This was quite exclusive of the workmen, including only those who had business 
 residences and worked on their own account. 
 
 The number of gold and silver watch cases assayed and marked at the Assay 
 Office of the Goldsmith's Company, is by far the chief proportion of the whole 
 made. The cases are marked, but are not subject to duty ; they weigh on the 
 average about one ounce. The first column of the appended table shows the 
 number for London in each of the years (ending 30th April), and this, if subtracted 
 from the total, will give the number marked at the other Assay offices in, 
 Birmingham and Chester. 
 
 
 Gold Watch Cases. 
 
 Silver Watch Cases. 
 
 London. 
 
 Total. 
 
 London. 
 
 Total 
 
 1848 
 
 14,257 
 
 16,339 
 
 73,071 
 
 120,017 
 
 1*49 
 
 15.167 
 
 17,237 
 
 63,079 
 
 108,538 
 
 1850 
 
 16,877 
 
 19,835 
 
 62,076 
 
 107,096 
 
 1851 
 
 18,6i9 
 
 24,334 
 
 64.709 
 
 117,045 
 
 1852 
 
 20,101 
 
 27,197 
 
 66,561 
 
 117,196 
 
 1853 
 
 21,533 
 
 28,463 
 
 78,139 
 
 127,922 
 
 1854 
 
 23,561 
 
 33,119 
 
 83,466 
 
 132,617 
 
 1855 
 
 20,817 
 
 28,512 
 
 90,062 
 
 138,393 
 
 1856 
 
 22,931 
 
 34,454 
 
 96,261 
 
 145,156 
 
 1857 
 
 26,796 
 
 40,703 
 
 106,860 
 
 155,339 
 
 1858 
 
 24,870 
 
 — 
 
 83,614 
 
 M 
 
 1859 
 
 24,556 
 
 — 
 
 78,416 
 
 — 
 
 18G0 
 
 26,966 
 
 — 
 
 90,320 
 
 ~ 
 
 In 1852 and 1853 the enormous demand for expensive watches in Australia 
 was one of the peculiarities of the export trade. Clerkenwell could not produce 
 them fast enough. 
 
 At present the watch trade of the world is principally in the hands of the 
 Swiss. Besides the enormous number of watches manufactured in Geneva, not 
 less than 1,500,000 are annually made in the neighbourhood of Neufchatel 
 alone, while, according to the Goldsmiths' Hall returns, the number annually 
 manufactured in England does not exceed 196,000, not enough for the use of 
 the people here. In addition to whatever number were smuggled into the 
 country, duty was paid in 1853 on 42,486 watches; in 1854, on 79,209; in 1855, 
 on 90,670 ; in 1856, on 84,881 ; in 1857, on 79,991 ; in 1858, on 88,710 ; and 
 in 1859, on 105,817. 
 
 WAX. The commerce in beeswax is more extensive than is generally sup- 
 posed, although it has been interfered with to some extent of late years by the 
 stearines and solid vegetable oils, which come into use for many purposes for 
 which beeswax was formerly employed. The quantity of wax produced in this 
 country it is impossible to estimate precisely, but Sir Richard Phillips, in his 
 Dictionary of Arts, assumed the number of bees in Great Britain and Ireland as 
 sufficient to produce upwards of 1300 tons of wax annually, besides 5000 tons of 
 honey. The imports of wax bleached and unbleached were, in 1858, 11,643 
 
WES 
 
 319 
 
 WES 
 
 cwts., of which 3284 were re-exported; and in 1859, 10,762 cwts., of which 
 3045 cwts. were exported. The bleached wax, 1839 cwts., was worth £10. 10* 
 per cwt. ; the unbleached, £8. 7s per cwt. The bulk of the beeswax received 
 comes from Morocco, Western Africa, and British India. — See Vegetable Wax 
 
 WESTERN AUSTRALIA. This isolated Australian colony, as compared 
 with the other settlements, has made very slow progress. In 1850 it was with 
 the consent of the colonists made a penal" settlement, and since that period 5250 
 men have been transported there. The population in 1857 was 13,601 souls. 
 The revenue averages £45,000. 117 vessels of 59,822 tons entered the colony. 
 The value of the imports averages £100,000, and the exports in 1857 were to 
 the value of £60,000. 18,000 acres of land were under crop, of which 11,000 
 were under wheat. The live-stock numbered 7214 horses, 26,297 cattle, and 
 198,386 sheep. There were 8 copper-mines worked, and 4 lead mines, the ore 
 from which was valued at £18,000. The wool shipped in 1857 was valued at 
 £36,000, and the timber at £12,000. 
 
 WEST INDIES (BRITISH). The progress of most of the West India 
 colonies has been materially interfered with by the deficiency of labour, the 
 emancipated negro not caring to give continuous labour. Hence British Guiana, 
 Trinidad, Jamaica, and other colonies, have imported Indian and Chinese la- 
 bourers. Barbados and some other densely populated colonies have not, however, 
 suffered from any deficiency of labour. There are a few local banks in Jamaica 
 and British Guiana, but the Colonial Bank of London conducts the principal 
 exchange operations with the West Indies. This institution, with a paid-up 
 capital of £500,000, has lately greatly improved its position, and paid larger 
 dividends. The latest population returns for the West India colonies will be 
 found under the article United Kingdom at page 307 of this Supplement. 
 
 The following table shows the total quantities of the leading articles exported 
 in 1851 from the different islands ; to which, for the sake of comparison, we 
 have added the quantities brought from British Guiana, in continuation of the 
 table at page 666. 
 
 1851. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Rum. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Jamaica 
 
 485.744 
 
 1,660,884 
 
 5,594,335 
 
 Barbados 
 
 600,000 
 
 1,700 
 
 
 St. Vincent - 
 
 160,000 
 
 219,330 
 
 1,272 
 
 St Lucia 
 
 67,502 
 
 45,058 
 
 18,620 
 
 Grenada 
 
 120,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 19,781 
 
 Tobago 
 
 59,000 
 
 123.000 
 
 423 
 
 Trinidad 
 
 400,000 
 
 42,120 
 
 78,686 
 
 Antigua 
 
 265,000 
 
 16,296 
 
 193 
 
 St. Kitts 
 
 6,000 
 
 63 942 
 
 
 Dominica 
 
 62,168 
 
 30,927 
 
 792 
 
 Nevis 
 
 24,000 
 
 18,030 
 
 
 Montserrat - 
 
 12,234 
 
 4,788 
 
 
 Tortola 
 
 3,000 
 
 6,866 
 
 
 British Guiana - 
 Total 
 
 784,310 
 
 1,339,212 
 
 17,538 
 
 3,043,958 
 
 3,942,013 
 
 5,731,640 
 
 The value of the exports of British produce and manufactures to our West 
 India colonies and British Guiana averages £1,250,000 per annum; and 
 the imports £5,500,000 to £6,500,000. The articles imported from the British 
 West India Islands in 1859 comprised the following: 125,535 lbs. of aloes, 
 16,210 cwts. of arrow-root, 4,211,185 lbs. of cocoa. 2,571,549 lbs. of coffee, 
 1452 cwts. of cotton, 1662 tons of fustic, 8614 tons of logwood, and 125 tons of 
 mahogany; 4811 cwts. of ginger, 2471 cwts. of hides, 1,084,082 cocoa-nuts, 
 15,280 cwts. of pimento from Jamaica, 4,522 lbs. of sarsaparilla, 2,891,772 
 gallons of rum, 207,450 lbs. of sponge from the Bahamas, 2,331,035 cwts. of 
 sugar, 206,879 cwts. of molasses, 194,500 lbs. of tamarinds, 4888 lbs. of tortoise- 
 shell. 
 
WES 
 
 320 
 
 WES 
 
 Imports of Staple Products into the United Kingdom from the British 
 West India Islands and British Guiana in 1859. 
 
 1859. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Rum. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Galls. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Jamaica - 
 
 * » 
 
 428,926 
 
 1,615,564 
 
 2,339,913 
 
 8,064 
 
 Barbados - 
 
 ■ t 
 
 591,371 
 
 74,479 
 
 45 
 
 16,352 
 
 St. Vincent 
 
 •» ■ 
 
 124,475 
 
 202,641 
 
 — 
 
 41,440 
 
 St. Lucia - 
 
 m 
 
 82,647 
 
 8,086 
 
 910 
 
 — 
 
 Grenada - 
 
 m 
 
 94,069 
 
 193,283 
 
 213 
 
 63,168 
 
 Tobago 
 
 m 
 
 58,501 
 
 185,041 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Trinidad - 
 
 m 
 
 538,152 
 
 255.702 
 
 49,335 
 
 29,008 
 
 Antigua - 
 
 - 
 
 196,701 
 
 120,059 
 
 76 
 
 
 St. Kitts - 
 
 m m 
 
 116,663 
 
 133,211 
 
 161 
 
 4,592 
 
 Dominica - 
 
 - 
 
 62,550 
 
 83,360 
 
 1,229 
 
 
 Nevis 
 
 » 
 
 33 419 
 
 19,308 
 
 
 
 Montserrat 
 
 • - 
 
 3,376 
 
 1,188 
 
 
 
 Tortola - 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 179,667 
 
 
 Bahamas - 
 
 . - 
 
 191 
 
 
 
 
 
 Demerara 
 
 - 
 
 730,700 
 
 2,972,592 
 
 919 
 
 429,632 
 
 Berbice - 
 
 • 
 
 59,964 
 
 49,510 
 
 841 
 
 
 Total 
 
 3,127,705 
 
 5,913,874 
 
 2,573,309 
 
 592,256 
 
 WEST INDIA ISLANDS (FOREIGN). Several of these islands have 
 been already noticed in separate articles, such as the Spanish colonies of Cuba 
 and Porto Kico. 
 
 French Colonies. Guadaloupe. The extent of this island and its depen- 
 dencies is about 138,000 hectares. The population in 1858 was 131,567 souls. 
 The value of the importations in 1856 was 23,671,375 francs, and of the exports 
 15,147,176 francs. In that year 21,600,000 kilogrammes of sugar and 886,281 
 litres of rum were shipped to France. The total value of the produce received 
 from the island was 20,000,000 francs. The exports in 1860 were 57,600 hhds. 
 of sugar, 51,432 litres of molasses, 1,272,062 litres of rum and tafia, 248,718 kilos 
 of coffee, 20,977 kilos of cotton, 59,138 kilos of cocoa, 482,095 of logwood, and 
 132,600 kilos of annotta. 
 
 Martinique. The population is 136,460 inhabitants, area 98,782 hectares. 
 The aggregate value of the external commerce in 1856 was 44,000,000 francs, 
 of which 20,000,000 was exports. The shipments of sugar to France were 
 26,636,123 kilogrammes, and of rum 2,781,627 litres, 444,546 kilos of cocoa, 
 and 10,260 kilos of coffee, besides hides, and small quantities of indigo, annotta, 
 dyewoods, and cigars. The actual value of the colonial imports to France is 
 stated at nearly 28,000,000 francs. The exports from Martinique in 1860 were 
 65,909 hogsheads of sugar, 72,176 litres of molasses, 4,942,745 litres of rum and 
 tafia, 54,848 of coffee, 223,226 of cocoa, 191,036 of cassia bark, and 218,118 of 
 logwood. 
 
 The commerce of French Guiana, imports and exports, is only to the value 
 of 8,000,000 francs. 
 
 Dutch Colonies. The value of the imports into Holland from Curacoa 
 and its dependencies in 1857 was 375,771 florins, and of the exports thereto 
 414,966 florins. The revenue was 257,039 florins, and the expenditure 646,735 
 florins. The external trade of Surinam with Holland is to the value of 5,750,000 
 florins. The revenue of the colony 1,000,000 florins, and the expenditure 
 1,400,000 florins. Our imports thence are only to the value of £7000 or £8000. 
 
 Danish Colonies. The population of St. Croix in 1855 was 22,862, of St. 
 Thomas 12,360, and of St. John 1715. The computed net value of the imports 
 into the United Kingdom from these islands in 1859 was £124,822. 
 
 The value of the exports of British produce and manufactures in 1859, was 
 to the — 
 
 Danish West Indies - - £652,252 
 
 Dutch West Indies and Guiana - 40,344 
 
 French West Indies and Guiana - 4,895 
 
 Spanish West Indies - 1,675,596 
 
 £2,373,087 
 
WHA 321 WHA 
 
 WHALE. The average number of whales killed yearly by British vessels 
 in the Northern fisheries from 1815 to 1834 was 1024; from "l 835 to 1843, 135; 
 from 1844 to 1848, 157, and from 1S49 to 1858, 110. The total number of 
 whales killed in those 43 years must have been nearly 24,000. At least 20 or 
 30 whales are also killed yearly in the shore fisheries, in the West Indies, Aus- 
 tralia, New Zealand, &c. Computing from the quantity of oil imported, the 
 Americans must have killed, between 1841 and 1856, 51,000 whale-. 
 
 We have gradually given up our whale fisheries to the Americans; for while 
 thirty or forty years ago we employed between 200 and 300 ships in that trade, 
 the outfit now scarcely amounts to fifty in the year. This abstraction may be 
 attributed to several causes. Firstly, the old cruising grounds in Baffin's Bay 
 and the East Coast of Greenland are pretty well exhausted ; secondly, the sea- 
 sons have been lately very severe and unfavourable for prosecuting the enter- 
 prise; and thirdly, there has been a more active demand for tonnage for all the 
 purposes of transport and the carrying trade. The wages of seamen and all the 
 necessary expenses attending the outfit of ships, have also greatly increased. 
 
 Hull formerly took the lead in whaling. In 1830, of 91 vessels fitted out 
 in British ports, 33 of 11,000 tons hailed from Hull, 13 from Peterhead, 10 
 from Aberdeen, and 9 from Dundee. The number of Hull ships engaged 
 in the Northern whale fishery in 1852 was 14, employing 616 men; the total 
 take was 600£ tons of oil, and 30 tons of bone. The value of the two, estima- 
 ting the oil at the average price of £30 per ton, and of bone at £200 would be 
 £24,015. 
 
 It appears that during the period between 1772 and 1859 Hull had benefited to 
 the extent of nearly 74, millions by the whaling trade, and that upwards of 2000 
 ships had been at different times sent out. Yet of all enterprises, none can be 
 conceived more venturous or fluctuating. The greatest variations have been 
 experienced. In 1818 and 1819, 64 ships were despatched to the fisheries; in 
 1837 and for several years afterwards, but 1. In 1834, out of 8 ships sent out, 
 6 were lost ; in 1818, when 64 ships were sent, only 1 was lost. In 1S20, the 
 value of the produce was £319,000; in 1837, £150. In like manner has the 
 value of bone and oil fluctuated. The price of the former was as high as £55 
 per ton in 1815 ; in 1806 it was £20. The price of bone has varied even more 
 remarkably. At one time the Dutch were paid by us as much as £700 per ton 
 for it. From 1763 to 1780 it was worth about £ 500 per ton; in 1804 and 1805, 
 it was only worth about £25 per ton, at which it barely paid for cleaning. 
 Even in later years the fluctuation has been more remarkable. £225 was the 
 current figure in 1853, £240 in 1854, £265 in 1855, £300 in 1856, £420 in 
 1857, £550 in 1858, and £410 in 1859. And yet, notwithstanding all the 
 hazards of the voyage, the variable chances of success, and the fluctuation of 
 markets, the annual produce of the fishery for 80 years has been £85,000 a 
 year, and the average result of each voyage somewhere about £3500. 
 
 Peterhead has latterly taken the first place in the outfit for the Northern whale 
 fishery, sending away annually about 29 ships. Peterhead received in 71 years 
 46,267 tuns of oil, the value of which and the whalebone was £2,323,380. The 
 average of the last ten years produced £62,338 per annum. 
 
 The following Table gives the Total produce of the Fishixgs and the 
 approximate Value of the produce for ten years, 1849-58. The produce 
 of the Seal Fishery has been noticed under that heading. 
 
WIIA. 
 
 322 
 
 WIIA 
 
 
 No. of Whales 
 
 
 Cwfs. 
 
 Total 
 
 Place. 
 
 taken. 
 
 Tuns of Oil. 
 
 of Bone. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Peterhead 
 
 238 
 
 12,161 
 
 3209 
 
 € 
 
 623,380 
 
 Fraserburgh - 
 
 11 
 
 1,101 
 
 40 
 
 59,060 
 
 Banff - 
 
 — 
 
 57 
 
 — 
 
 3,520 
 
 Aberdeen 
 
 197 
 
 1,921 
 
 2228 
 
 110,014 
 
 Dundee - 
 
 270 
 
 2,710 
 
 3733 
 
 143,868 
 
 Kirkaldy ... 
 
 160 
 
 1,511 
 
 1878 
 
 82,832 
 
 Bo'ness - 
 
 33 
 
 470 
 
 568 
 
 21,708 
 
 Hull - - - 
 
 199 
 
 3,705 
 
 2799 
 
 194,642 
 
 1108 
 
 23,636 
 
 14,455 
 
 1,239,024 
 
 American Whale Fishery. 
 
 In 1855 the number of vessels engaged in the whale fishery that entered the 
 port of New Bedford was 104, and the value of the oil and bone imported was 
 £1,250,000. In 1846 there were 678 American ships and barques, 35 brigs, 
 and 22 schooners, in all 233,189 aggregate tonnage, employed in the whale 
 fishery, chiefly in the South Seas and North Pacific. Going back seven years, 
 we find that the number of vessels was nearly 670; on the 1st of Januaiy, 1861, 
 it was only 514, showing a decrease, as compared with the previous year, of 55 
 vessels, with an aggregate of 18,803 tons. Three-fifths of these whaling ships are 
 engaged in the North Pacific, which is the most profitable cruising ground. The 
 remaining two-fifths are scattered over the North and South Atlantic, South 
 Pacific and Indian Oceans. As late as 1800, 200 barrels of oil was considered a 
 high average for each vessel for the season's catch, but then the cruising grounds 
 were mostly in the North and South Atlantic. The average take for the North 
 Pacific fleet, for several years past, has been about 1000 barrels for each ship. 
 
 A Polar whale yields, on an average, about 120 barrels of oil, each 36 gallons. 
 
 In 1850 the imports into the United States were nearly 93,000 barrels of 
 sperm oil, 201,000 barrels of whale oil, and about 3,000,000 lbs. of bone. The 
 whole imports for 1859 were as follows : — Sperm, 9,141 tuns ; whale, 19,041 
 tuns; bone, 1,923,850 lbs. From this it appears that there was an excess 
 over the year 1858 — in sperm of 946 tuns ; whale, 819 tuns ; and in bone, 
 383,250 lbs. The exports of oil and bone were : — Sperm, 5,221 tuns ; whale, 
 818 tuns; and bone, 1,707,929 lbs. This shows that the export of sperm oil in 
 1859 largely exceeded that of 1858, while the export of whale oil was light. 
 As regards prices, the average of whale oil was, in 1858, 2s 3d ; and in 1859, 
 2s 0\d per gallon. During the same periods the prices in this country were 
 respectively 2s 9d and 2s 5d per gallon. In America sperm oil, in 1858, was 
 5s 5d ; and in 1859, 5s 8c? per gallon, against 7s to 8s in this country. There is 
 a steady and increasing demand for sperm oil, both in America and Europe, 
 and it is calculated that the price will go on increasing. 
 
 The imports of sperm oil in 1860 amounted to 73,708 brls.; of whale oil, 
 140,005 brls.; and of whalebone, 1,337,650 lbs , against imports in 1859 of 
 sperm oil, 91,400 brls.; whale oil, 190,421 brls.; and of whalebone, 1,923,850 
 lbs. The average prices in America during 1860 were for sperm oil 1*41| 
 cents; whale oil, 49 £ cents per gallon; whalebone, northern, 801 cents, and 
 South Sea, 73f cents per lb. The exports of oil and bone for the year 1860 
 were, sperm oil, 32,792 brls.; whale oil, 13,097 brls.; and of whalebone, 
 911,226 lbs., showing a falling off in the export of sperm from 1859, 19,415 
 brls., and in whalebone, 796,703 lbs., and an excess in whale oil of 4,828 brls. 
 
 The American whale trade of the Indian Ocean gives employment to about 
 3000 sailors, and that of Holland, France, and other countries to between 300 
 and 400. The usual size of a whaling vessel is from 500 to 600 tons, and the 
 average complement of men to each about 44. The number of American ves- 
 sels constantly engaged in the trade, within the limits of the Indian Ocean, is 
 estimated at about 45; the general number of those belonging to other countries 
 
WHA 323 WIN 
 
 at about 6. There are particular localities noted as good fishing-grounds — such 
 as the vicinity of the coast of Bali, the coast of the Soloo Islands, the west coast 
 of Borneo, Java Head, Exmouth Gulf, on the Northern Australian coast, and in 
 fact the whole sea lying between the north coast of Australia and the islands of 
 the Indian Archipelago, and the whole west coast of Australia, as far down as 
 Cape Leuwin. The whales caught at Bali, Soloo, Borneo, and Java Head, are 
 of the cachalot or sperm kind; those caught in the sea to the north of Australia, 
 of various kinds — the cachalot, right whale and humpback; those caught on the 
 west coast are also of various kinds. 
 
 WINE. There has been, for a series of years, a remarkable failure of the 
 grape in the principal wine producing countries of the world. In Madeira the 
 failure has been so general that the culture is almost abandoned. Many of the 
 vines have died, and others have been cut down, and the vineyards have been 
 planted with other crops. 
 
 In Italy the grape failed for three successive years. Little Italian wine 
 is exported, but in the scarcity of meat, which the poorer classes seldom taste, 
 the light wine of the country is a necessary stimulant, and the failure acts with 
 double force. The cultivators have no return for their labour, and the peasants 
 are deprived of an article of diet which, in that country and in their circum- 
 stances, is necessary to their health. 
 
 In France the important wines are the Bordeaux (claret), Burgundy, and 
 Champagne. Since 1848, when claret and Burgundy were fine, and Cham- 
 pagne second rate, nearly every year has been a failure as to quality or quan- 
 tity, and some years of both. In 1849 the crops were fine in Burgundy, 
 second rate at Bordeaux, and quite inferior in Champagne. In 1850 the quality 
 was inferior; the best crop was in Burgundy. In 1851 the Bordeaux wines 
 were of good quality, but the " oidium" began to reduce the quantity to a great 
 extent. In Burgundy and Champagne there was no " oidium," but the wines 
 were bad, green, and lacking body. The rains came inopportunely, when the 
 grapes were formed, and a failure of the fruit ensued. In 1853 the crops were 
 bad in all the districts; the best in Burgundy. In 1854 the Bordeaux and 
 Burgundy wines were very fine ; the Champagne not so good ; but the quantity 
 was so small that it is no exaggeration to say that there was not an average of 
 one-twentieth of a crop in all the districts. " In 1855 the grape promised well 
 early in the sea-on, but the crop was ruined by rain coming just at the time of 
 the "formation of the fruit. The crops in general were quite inferior in quality 
 to those of the previous years, and were little greater in quantity. From that 
 year dates the decrease of the disease in France and the improvement of the 
 wine harvests. The wine lands of France are stated at 2,200,000 hectares, 
 producing on an average 45,000,000 hectolitres. The average quantity of wine 
 drunk in France under one form or other is about a hectolitre per head, that is, 
 a hundred times more than in England. The exports of wine from France have 
 been as follows: — 
 
 
 
 Hectolitres. 
 
 
 Hectolitres. 
 
 1818 
 
 . 
 
 1,534,239 
 
 1853 
 
 1,956,184 
 
 1849 
 
 - 
 
 1,852,546 
 
 1 54 
 
 1,315,161 
 
 1850 
 
 - 
 
 1,884,450 
 
 1855 
 
 - 1,194,901 
 
 1851 
 
 - 
 
 2,252,159 
 
 1856 
 
 1,249,845 
 
 1852 
 
 - 
 
 2,419,604 
 
 1857 
 
 1,098,102 
 
 The chief wine growing districts of France are Provence, Languedoc, Rous- 
 sillon, Auvergne, Bourgogne, Saintonge, and Champagne, the rich valleys ol 
 the Gard, Herault, Garonne, Dordogne, the Lone and the Rhone, and the 
 neighbouring departments as far as the Pyrenees, the Haute Pyrenees, and the 
 Pyrenees Orientales. 
 
 The quantity of wine shipped from Lisbon declined from 27,448 pipes in 1853 
 to 1 1 ,752 in 1S56. From Madeira also the exports of wine show a startling de- 
 crease, having dropped from 6690 pipes in 1852 to 1891 in 1856. 
 
 Notwithstanding some yearly fluctuations, since 1843, the average annual im- 
 port of wine into the United Kingdom was very uniform, at a little over 
 8 million gallons until 1860, when it increased 50 per cent. The quantity taken 
 for consumption has been 
 
WIN 321 "WIN 
 
 1845 - - 6,786,131 gallons | 1855 - - 6,296,439 gallons 
 1850 - - 6,437,222 „ | 18G0 - - 7,358,192 „ 
 
 The consumption or wine had more steadily increased in 1859 than in former 
 years, having reached 7,262,965 gallons, contributed by the following countries : — 
 we add the figures for 1850 and 1860 by way of comparison. 
 
 1850. 1859. I860. 
 
 Spain - 2,469.038 2,876,554 2,975,769 
 
 Portugal --. 2,814,979 2,020,561 1,776,138 
 
 Cape of Good Hope - 246,132 781,581 420,556 
 
 France ... 340,748 695,913 1,125,599 
 
 Marsala - 425,053 224,409 205,084 
 
 Madeira - 70,363 29,566 28,912 
 
 Other countries - - 70,909 634,462 820,104 
 
 Total gallons - - 6,437,222 7,263,046 7,358,192 
 
 The quantity consumed in this countiy in 1860, together with 2,275,307 gallons 
 exported, gives a gross total of 9,633,499 gallons, against an importation of 
 12,483,362 gallons. The aggregate stock in the London Docks alone is usually 
 equal to a year's consumption, allowing too for a fair expectation of increased 
 consumption at the new duties. 
 
 From these statistics some peculiar facts are elicited, showing in what a 
 small degree the consumption of wines has increased in this country in propor- 
 tion to the increase of population and wealth, and that on an average only 14 
 persons in every 1000 drink their three dozen of wine annually, or what is 
 equivalent to a glass of wine per diem. 
 
 The fashion of wine-drinking has also altered; for Spanish sherry, which now 
 is the most in use, was almost unknown in the early part of this century, when 
 red wines were mostly drunk ; whereas now two-thirds of what is used is white 
 wines. The total exports of sherry wine from Cadiz to all the markets of the 
 world were in 1856, 54,610 butts ; in 1857, 50,707; in 1858, 28,729; in 1859, 
 45,916; and in 1860, 50,000. The consumption of this wine in the United 
 Kingdom is on the average 26,000 butts annually. The reduction of the duty 
 in 1860 to 3« per gallon increased the quantity about ten per cent, and with a 
 further reduction in 1861 to 2s 5d, the consumption will no doubt increase. 
 
 The rates of duty now levied are Is per gallon on all wines imported in casks, 
 containing less than 18 per cent, of spirit; Is 9d per gallon if less than 26 per 
 cent, of spirit; 2s 5d if less than 40 per cent, of spirit; and 2s lid if less than 
 45 per cent, of spirit; and 2s 5d per gallon on all wines imported in bottles. 
 
 The following are the results of experiments, upon a large scale, recently 
 made, to ascertain the strength of various wines, and which may be relied on, 
 viz.: — 
 
 Ports varying from 36 to 41 per cent., the average being 38 gallons of Spirit in every 
 
 100 gallons of wine. 
 
 Sherries „ 32 to 40 „ „ 36 „ „ 
 
 Marsalas „ 29 to 34 „ „ 32 „ „ 
 
 Cape Wines..,. „ 30 to 33 „ „ 32 „ „ 
 
 Hocks „ 13 to 21 „ „ 17 „ „ 
 
 French (Clarets) „ 13 to 18 „ „ 15 „ „ 
 
 Ditto (Burgundies) „ 21 to 24 „ „ 22 „ „ 
 
 And these show that the stronger the -wine the more it has hitherto been 
 appreciated in this country ; but it remains to be seen, by the introduction of 
 lighter wines at a duty proportionate to the extent of spirit they contain (which 
 is the only component part of wine that was ever liable to duty), whether great 
 changes will not speedily take place in the use of wines. 
 
 It is thought by some that at no very distant period the stronger wines most 
 in use will, now that the public are no longer kept in the dark as to their alco- 
 holic power, take the position that liqueurs do at present, and be drank only as 
 stimulants and restoratives, and these days of moderation and advancement 
 would seem to favour that opinion. Many instances arc quoted of our ancestors 
 taking their bottle or more of wine daily, when it was certainly stronger than 
 now ; if so, it was at a fearful expense to good constitutions, and those days have 
 happily died away. In the selection of wines more study should be made of 
 their use, whether for stimulating or digestive purposes, or for enjoyment. 
 
WIN 325 WOO 
 
 In England (observe Messrs. Gilbey and Co., from whose trade report we 
 quote) strange contradictions exist on this point, for the stronger wines arc 
 mostly taken at or immediately after dinner to assist digestion, as it is supposed, 
 whereas they are calculated to have just the reverse effect. 
 
 If the flavour of the stronger wines be preferred at meals, their digestive 
 powers would be increased by dilution in water to three times the quantity, at 
 the time of drinking; thus used, at the present rates of duty, the beverage would 
 be cheaper than beer, of about the same strength, and far more refreshing and 
 wholesome ; the economical portion of the public will soon become alive to this 
 fact. 
 
 It will not be surprising to find in a few years that from this cause alone wines 
 will in a great measure take the place of beer. 
 
 Some call beer our national beverage, and think it can never have a competi- 
 tor, but so many changes come about in less than ageneration, that it may not 
 be held in such appreciation in years to come ; who could have supposed that 
 tea, which was first imported solely for the wealthy, and which can scarcely be 
 said to be pleasant to the taste as the Chinese drink it, should have found its 
 way into the poorest cottage? that tobacco, which requires an education by those 
 who use it before it can be appreciated, should form such an important item in 
 the Exchequer, or that bitter ale, which at first use is antagonistic to the 
 palate, should be such an universal favourite ? 
 
 It cannot be denied that beer, well made, and which has perfected all its fer- 
 mentations, is wholesome and pleasant ; but much of that now used is often not 
 more than three weeks old, and has to perfect its fermentation after having been 
 consumed; nothing we take is more difficult of digestion, and it is absolute mad- 
 ness for persons of sedentary and inactive habits to persist in its use. It is said 
 that our labouring population thrive on it ; it is their labour they thrive on, and 
 most of us would thrive on hard work where we sink comparatively by inactivity. 
 
 The introduction of light cheap wines at a low duty must therefore in time 
 prove a boon, being both wholesome, refreshing, and an assistance to digestion. 
 
 It is a popular mistake to consider them colder than beer, and as erroneous to 
 call them acid ; nothing is more wholesome than the vinous tartar we taste in 
 light wines. Most travellers state that the cheap light wines of the countries 
 they visit invariably agree with their constitutions, and what is there in our 
 climate that can make the difference ? 
 
 WOOL. Wool stands next to cotton in importance of the various raw mate- 
 rials employed in our home manufactures. The demand for wool is increasing 
 very rapidly in all countries, and the production is at present insufficient to meet 
 this demand. In England, notwithstanding our large imports and home pro- 
 duction, economisingexpedients have been resorted to on an enlarged scale. 
 The use of cotton in woollen and worsted fabrics has been vastly augmented, 
 and the manufacture of rag wool (which consists of old worn out woollens, torn 
 or ground up) has been developed into quite an important branch of business, 
 under the name of shoddy or mungo. This is utilized to the extent of 45,000,000 
 lbs. annually (equal to about a third of our yearly importations of colonial and 
 foreign wools) for the purpose of mixing with or adulterating wool in its manu- 
 facture. 
 
 And yet with all these enormous aids, the prices of wool when not checked 
 by adverse extraneous influence, ever gravitate to an extreme range, such in 
 fact as effectually to limit the consumption. The home production of wool is 
 estimated at fully 200.000,000 lbs. and the imports of foreign and colonial have 
 now reached the large amount of 148,000,000 lbs., although about 31,000,000 of 
 this was re-exported in 1860. 
 
 All the British colonies have made immense strides in their production of 
 wool, although the demand for food now keeps down the increase of sheep in 
 Australia where the population has been rapidly increasing. In 1845 the Aus- 
 tralian colonies sent to the United Kingdom" alone 24,177,315 lbs.; in 1855, 
 49,142,306 lbs.; and in 1859, 59,165,939 lbs. The Afric an colonies now pro- 
 dace about 25,000,000 lbs. of wool. 
 
woo 
 
 326 
 
 WOO 
 
 The wool of the alpaca imported from Peru, which is of various colours, 
 white, grey, brown and black, has long been in demand at high prices for 
 its silky texture and applicability for various purposes in articles of ladies' 
 clothing. The imports fluctuate considerably, owing to revolutionary disturb- 
 ances and difficulties of transport to the coast for shipment. It varies in price 
 from 2s to 3* per lb. Including llama wool the imports have averaged in the 
 last five years 2,600,000 lbs. per annum. 
 
 The sources of supply of wool to the United Kingdom have been as follows, 
 in bales: — 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1850. 
 
 1855. 
 
 1860. 
 
 Gennany - 
 
 Australia - 
 
 Cape »«.:• 
 
 Spanish - 
 
 Portugal -•'-.« 
 
 Peruvian and Alpaca 
 
 East India and China 
 
 Russian - 
 
 Mediterranean Ports 
 
 Buenos Ayres 
 
 Sundries - 
 
 Goat's wool 
 
 Total bales - 
 
 30,491 
 138,679 
 
 19,879 
 2,105 
 7,361 
 
 39,731 
 9,701 
 9,758 
 
 13,432 
 3,841 
 3,041 
 
 13,139 
 
 12,710 
 
 163,182 
 
 38,272 
 
 213 
 
 4,522 
 42,070 
 43,167 
 
 1,006 
 12,066 
 
 6,338 
 
 5,986 
 14,154 
 
 14,600 
 184,000 
 56,356 
 
 4,183 
 24,503 
 09,075 
 62,651 
 21,445 
 18,162 
 
 5,058 
 15,650 
 11,897 
 
 291,161 
 
 343,686 
 
 487,580 
 
 The aggregate imports and exports of foreign and colonial wool, sheep, lamb 
 and alpaca, have been as follows: — 
 
 Imports. Exports, 
 lbs. lbs. 
 
 1845 - 76,813,855 2,662,353 
 
 1850 . 74.326,778 14,388,674 
 
 1855 - 99,300,446 29,453,466 
 
 1860 - 148,396,577 30,661,867 
 
 WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE. The woollen manufacture engages up- 
 wards of £33,000,000 of British capital, the woollen and worsted trades forming 
 more than a fourth part of our textile manufactures. 
 
 Relatively to the other great staple manufacture (cotton), the total value of 
 the woollen manufactures stands at about one-half, the cotton manufactures 
 being valued by competent Manchester authorities at about £60,000,000 sterling 
 per annum. Regarding, however, the value of each manufacture in proportion 
 as that value arises from the use of British labour and capital, the difference is 
 not so great. In the cotton manufacture £20,000,000 are paid for the raw 
 material, produced in a great measure in foreign countries, leaving £40,000,000 
 as the wages and profits of British industry applied to its fabrication. The 
 woollen manufacture includes about £21,000,000 paid for British and Colonial 
 raw material, and £12,000,000 paid for wages and profits of British manufac- 
 turing industry. 
 
 £ 
 
 Home produce of wool in 1860 estimated at 12,000,000 
 
 Imports of foreign and colonial 9,000,000 
 
 „ of foreign woollen manufactures 1,000,000 
 
 Exports of British „ „ . T 16,000,000 
 
 The value of all kinds of woollens, worsteds, worsted hosiery, and woollen 
 and worsted yarn exported from Great Britain in 1830, was i'4,728,666 ; in 
 1840, £5,327,855 ; in 1850, £10,040,332 ; and in 1860, £16,007,257. 
 
 The progress of our manufacturing art in the woollen and worsted trades has 
 (speaking generally) doubled the production of wool in Great Britain in propor- 
 tion to population. 
 
 The United Kingdom itself produces a larger amount of wool than any other 
 country in the world ; and yet it may truly be said that sheep are kept in this 
 country not so much for their wool as for the meat their carcases furnish, and 
 
TVOO 327 WOO 
 
 for the great benefit they confer on agriculture. They have indeed been aptly 
 designated " the sheet anchor of British agriculture," so indispensable are they 
 to the scientific farmer of the present day. But in improving the carcass of 
 these valuable animals great care has also been bestowed upon their wool- 
 producing capabilities, in order to preserve and increase as much as possible the 
 quantity and quality of that important article. 
 
 The wools of this country are, therefore, abundant in quantity, and of good, 
 strong, and very useful qualities, although not of such fine description as the 
 Saxony, Spanish, and other merinos. 
 
 Other countries of Europe likewise produce very large quantities of wool, 
 which are, however, chiefly used up by themselves for their own consumption 
 and trade. The exports of English wool, both in the raw state and in the first 
 stage of consumption, namely yarn, are great, and rapidly increasing. The 
 advance generally in our woollen trade exports is shown by the following state- 
 ment : — 
 
 1844. 1858. 
 
 Woollen cloths of all kinds, coatings, <fcc. pieces . 372,506 . 565,709 
 
 Mixed stuff, flannels, &c pieces . 26,937,340 . 76.584,532 
 
 Worsted stuffs . ... pieces . 2,492,062 . 2,349,908 
 
 Woollen and worsted yarn . . cwts. . 73,853 . 214,909 
 
 In 1844, Mr. McCulloch made a rough estimate that the value of woollen and 
 worsted goods, made in the United Kingdom, averaged about £24,000,000 ; 
 that two-fifths of that sum were paid in wages, and that about 550,000 persons 
 were directly employed in it. In 1851 the quantity of wool used was 325 million 
 pounds ; the value of the manufacture £30,000,000 sterling; and the persons 
 directly or indirectly dependent on the manufacture were computed at one 
 million and a half. But it is admitted that the data for forming such estimates 
 are insufficient. 
 
 According to the estimates of Mr. Baines (made a few years ago), which are 
 by no means overrated, it would appear that the following was then about the 
 annual value of the woollen manufacture of the kingdom, separate from the 
 worsted manufacture. 
 
 The raw material used consisted of 76,000,000 lbs. of foreign and colonial wool, 
 valued at £4,7 17,492 ; 80,000,000 lbs. of British wool at Is 3d per lb. £5,000,000; 
 30,000,000 lbs. of shoddy, or soft materials, such as stockings, flannels, &c. torn 
 up to be re-worked, at 2\d per lb., and 15,000,000 lbs. of mungo,the shreds and 
 rags of woollen cloth, at 4fd per lb., together £609,370. Cotton and other 
 warps used in the union and mixed cloths, £206,537; dve stuffs, oil and soap, 
 £1,500,000; wages, £150,000 ; work people at 125 6c? per week, £4,875,000 ; 
 rent, wear and tear of machinery, repairs, coal, interest on capital, and profit 20 
 percent, on above £3,381,680*; which gives a total of £20,290,079 for the 
 woollen manufacture. 
 
 The worsted manufacture consumed 80,000,000 lbs. of British wool, and 
 15,000,000 lbs. of foreign and colonial wool, and employed 125,000 hands, making 
 in all, 275,000 operatives engaged on wool. 
 
 The total number of persons directly dependent upon these trades may be set 
 down at 837,500 (including the workmen); there being a larger number of de- 
 pendent workers in auxiliary trades than in connexion with any other manu- 
 facture. These details will serve in some degree to point out the real magnitude 
 and value of the woollen manufactures, which have hitherto been most imperfectly 
 known. 
 
 We know the amount of manufactured goods exported, but we have no guide 
 to the precise amount consumed by our own large and well conditioned popu- 
 lation in these islands. This some of our most experienced merchants estimate 
 to be three-fourths of the whole manufacture. 
 
 The value of the British woollen manufactures exported has been as follows : 
 
 Manufactures. Yarn. 
 
 1845 . £7,693,117 .... £l,06e,925 
 
 1850 .... 8,588,690 .... 1,451,642 
 
 1855 .... 7,718,374 .... 2,02<;,<>95 
 
 1860 . 12,163,861 . 3,843,396 
 
WEE 32S ZOL 
 
 WRECKS. During the 15 years ending* with 1857 there were wrecked, 
 burnt or missing, 8,998 British sailing vessels and 175 steam vessels, giving a 
 total of 9,173 vessels, or an average of 61 1 ships per annum. In 1857 there were 
 37,014 British registered vessels, of which 662 were lost, or at the rate of 1-78 
 per cent. The total number of wrecks and casualties reported since 1852 have 
 been as follows : — 
 
 Lives lost. Lives lost 
 
 1852 
 
 1015 
 
 920 
 
 1856 
 
 1153 
 
 . 521 
 
 1853 
 
 832 
 
 689 
 
 1857 
 
 1143 
 
 532 
 
 1854 
 
 987 
 
 . 1549 
 
 1858 
 
 1170 
 
 340 
 
 1855 
 
 1141 
 
 469 
 
 1859 
 
 1416 
 
 . 1645 
 
 What a frightful catalogue does this aggregate loss of life and ships present. 
 It is remarkable that the great decrease in the number of lives lost in 1855 and 
 1856 is concurrent with the changes effected by the Merchant Shipping Act, 
 1854 ; 1859 was an exceptional year, from the extreme boisterous nature of the 
 weather. 
 
 YARN. There is a considerable export of cotton, linen and worsted yarn 
 and twist, to different countries which work it up. Under the head of Cotton 
 Manufactures we have given the quantity and value of the twist and yarn 
 exported in decennial periods since 1840. Under the article Linen, the weight 
 and value of linen-yarn exported from 1841 to 1859 are stated ; and under the 
 head of Woollen Manufactures above will be found the exports of woollen 
 and worsted-yarn. 
 
 ZANZIBAR. This country is a very considerable market for the supply of 
 ivory, copal, and cloves. Cotton and sugar grow to perfection in the islands of 
 Zanzibar and Pemba. Rice of a good quality is also cultivated, but ever since the 
 introduction of cloves into the island it has been much neglected, so that it is 
 now imported to the value of £38,000 annually. The slave-trade is carried on 
 extensively in Zanzibar, the number imported into the island in 1859 amounting 
 to 19,000. A tax of one dollar per head was levied by the Sultan upon each 
 slave landed, which has lately been doubled. There arc are about 6000 British 
 Indian subjects residing in his dominions. The value of the imports in 1 859 w as 
 £908,911, and of the exports £755,666, making an aggregate foreign trade of 
 £1,664,577. 
 
 Zanzibar is now the chief market in the world for the supply of ivory, copal, 
 and cloves. In 1859 the export of ivory amounted to 488,600 lbs., value 
 £146,666; of copal-resin to 875,875 lbs., value £37,166; and of cloves to 
 4,860,100 lbs. value £55,666. This trade is all the growth of a few years, and 
 were the slave-trade on the mainland abolished a great quantity ->f cotton, sugar, 
 gums, &c. might be exported. Within the last few years they have commenced 
 to grow sesamum on the mainland. In 1859 8,388,360 lbs. of sesamum were 
 exported from here, and 8,016,000 lbs. of cowries, value £51,444, to the west coast. 
 
 The whole of this island is of exceeding fertility ; sugar-cane, cotton, cloves, 
 nutmegs, pepper, coffee, rice, holcus or sorghum, &c., grow in the greatest profu- 
 sion. The cassava, or manioc, which forms the chief food of the slaves and poorer 
 classes, yields three or four crops a year without any trouble. 
 
 ZEALAND (NEW.) There are now seven sepai-ate provinces on these 
 islands— Auckland, New Plymouth, Wellington, Hawke's Bay, Nelson, Canter- 
 bury, and Otago. The European population in 1858 numbered 59,328, besides 
 military and the aboriginal population is rather less than this. The revenue 
 of the colony in 1858 was £341,655, and there is a debt for an imperial loan 
 contracted of £500,000. There are 189 vessels, registering 6852 tons, owned 
 in the colony. The value of the imports in 1858 was £1,141,273. The live- 
 stock numbered 1,523,324 sheep, 137,204 cattle, and 14,912 horses. The land 
 under culture comprised 141,007 acres, of which 13,709 were under wheat, 3017 
 in barley, 12,496 in oats, and 5574 in potatoes. The principal articles of export 
 are agricultural produce, grain, potatoes, wool, timber, and kauri resin. 
 
 ZOLLVEREIN — See Prusso-German Customs' Union. 
 
 THE END, 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
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