SOUTH AMERICA ram^AS'B'i-:^ <\^i OCSB LIBRARY ^ FORWARD MISSION STUDY COURSES EDITED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE YOUNG people's MISSIONARY MOVEMENT OF THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA SOUTH AMERICA: ITS MISSIONARY PROBLEMS Leaders' general helps to accompany each t«xt-book in the Forv.ard Mission Study Courses and special denominational helps may be obtained by corresponding with the secretary of your mission board or socltty. The Christ of the Andes SOUTH AMERICA: ITS MISSIONARY PROBLEMS By BISHOP THOMAS B. NEELY CINCINNATI: JENNINGS & GRAHAM NEW YORK: EATON & MAINS "*> Copyright, 1909, by Young People's Missionary Movement of the United States and Canada CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE Preface ix I The South American Continent 1 II The Early Inhabitants 41 III Making of the Republics 79 IV Social and Political Life 119 V The Religions 153 VI Protestant ^lissionary Occupation — ^Notable Events and Types of Work 187 Vn The Problem and Its Solution 229 VIII TheOutlook 261 APPENDIXES A Bibliography 292 B Statistics of Protestant Missions in South America 297 Index 299 ILLUSTRATIONS The Christ of the Andes Frontispiece Statistical Map Page 6 Coffee Farm, Brazil. Drying Coffee, Brazil . " 7 Natural Resources " 15 Sheep-raising in the Andes " 19 Railway Map " 24 The Culebra Cut, Panama Canal " 27 Physical Map " 34 Map Showing Original Location of the Indian Races or Stocks " 44 Masonry of the Incas, Laid without Tools or Mortar. Typical Incas of To-day. " 47 Settlement Map " 82 Monument to San Martin, Buenos Aires . . " 103 Interior of a Wealthy Gentleman's Home, Guaya.quil. Exterior of a Wealthy Gentleman's Home, Guayaquil " 123 Roman Catholic Cathedral, Montevideo. Church of the Sepulcher, Pernambuco, Brazil " 169 Objects of Worship among Roman Catholics " 173 Virgin of Lujan " 177 vii yjii Illustrations Protefltant Churc*h Leaders and BusinesB Men, Brazil. Missionaries and Native Preachers, Chile Pa^e 207 Baptist College and Seminary, Rio de Ja- neiro. Methodist College, Juiz de Fora, Brazil " 213 Typical Bible Colporteur " 217 Instituto Ingles, Santiago. Santiago Col- lege, Santiago " 223 Once an Inquisition Building, now Prop- erty of Southern Baptist Convention, Bahia, Brazil. Methodist School, Ri- herrao Preto, Brazil " 255 Avenida de Mayo, Buenos Aires. Plaza de Mayo, Buenos Aires " 267 Office La Prensa, Buenos Aires, the Great- est Spanish Daily Newspaper in the World " 269 Baptist Church, Pernambuco, Brazil. Pres- byterian Church, Curitiba, Brazil .... " 275 Methodist Church, with Site for Hall of Congress in the Foreground, the Church of the Jesuits in the Right Background, Montevideo " 279 Colored Map of South America End PREFACE Until very recently, South America has been a practi- cally unknown continent to the vast majority of the people, even of educated and reading people, in North America and in Europe. In the average school, even of a high class, little has been taught and less has been learned about this great southern section of the Western Hemisphere, notwith- standing the fact that it is most interesting in itself and has a most interesting history. Through commercial travelers, members of the consular corps, and higher representatives of governments, the occasional literary tourist, and especially through mis- sionaries, at last attention has been attracted and considerable information has been imparted concerning this continent. The attempt of the French companies, and even their failure, to cut a canal from the waters of the Atlantic to the waters of the Pacific called attention to the Isthmus of Panama, but the construction of the canal by the United States government has turned the gaze of the whole world, not only toward the Isthmian Canal Zone, but also, toward the whole continent of South America. More and more the world must think of South Amer- ica. The nations must take South America into their calculations. Business men, manufacturers, importers and exporters, producers and consumers, must and will give more thought to this continent. The man of science ix X Preface and the general student will seek familiarity with it. The tourist, looking for new scenes, will voyage to and journey through this southern continent for its long and lofty mountain ranges, its immense rivers, its almost boundless plains, and its growing cities and varied countries. Most of all, the Christian world should become profoundly interested in South America. Some years of residence in that land and a number of tours around and through the continent have given the writer a deep interest in its countries and their people, and a strong sympathy in their progress. One outcome of his experience is this book, which has been written in view of a special purpose on the part of those who have invited its production. The style of the work has been determined by this particular plan. It seeks to give information, both comprehensive and detailed and also suggestive, as to the different countries and their inhabitants. At the same time it reveals religious condi- tions and discusses the work and possibilities of Protes- tant missions in that land. It is hoped that the book may excite interest on the part of the readers and others in the uplift and advance- ment of the people of South America. Thomas B. Neely. New York City, June 15, 1909. THE SOUTH AMERICAN CONTINENT Naturally in this material age we see the chief evi- dence of progress in commercial expansion. In Brazil we see that in ten years her foreign commerce has grown from $235,000,000 to $494,000,000; in this same period she has spent millions upon millions in improving her rivers and harbors, in building railways, in making her municipalities, especially the capital, Eio de Janeiro, cities of notable attractiveness. Argentina's foreign trade has grown in the last ten years from $193,000,000 to $583,000,000 — an astonishing growth for a nation of only six millions of people. That republic is gridironed with a splendid railway system, Buenos Aires, the capital, possessing a population of 1,200,000. Chile's foreign commerce has grown in the same period from $100,000,- 000 to $210,000,000, and we find her extending her railway systems and preparing herself for a most im- portant position among the nations of South America. The foreign trade of Peru has grown from $25,000,000 to $50,000,000 in the last decade, and this republic is experiencing a new life that augurs well for the future. Similar facts might be mentioned with regard to Uruguay, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Colombia. If the situation is not quite so favorable in Venezuela and Paraguay, it is only a question of time when they will show a like record. — John Barrett It is undeniable that Argentina can give lodgment to 100,000,000 people and can furnish nourishment at a remarkably cheap rate, for as many more, when her whole area is utilized. — Albert Bale The immigration statistics of South America for 1908 show sixty-seven per cent, as large a number of foreigners coming to South America as passed through all our Atlantic ports. — Homer C. Stunts THE SOUTH AJVIERICAN CONTINENT SOMETIMES South America is spoken of as Location T- . and a country. It is not a country but a con- Boundaries tinent made up of many countries. It lies rather to the southeast than directly south of the United States. This may easily be ob- served by glancing at a map showing the Western Hemisphere. Santiago in Chile is actually farther east than New York City. South America has on its east side the Atlantic Ocean, into which it juts far out toward Africa. To the north are the Atlantic and its extension known as the Caribbean Sea. Northwestward and westward are Central America and the wide Pacific. To the south, where the At- lantic and Pacific Oceans meet, its southern point projects toward the Antarctic Ocean. South America extends from about 13 degrees north of the equator to 56 degrees south lati- tude, a total of about 69 degrees, and hence 3 4 South America the greater part of South America is south of the equator. Peculiar The configuration of South America is peculiar. It is shaped like a leg of mutton or Uke an ir- regular triangle standing on its apex, its greatest breadth from east to west is 3,500 miles, and its greatest length from north to south is about 4,600 miles. Vast Size The vastness of this southern continent is very impressive and, when the facts and figures are given, to most persons they are quite surprising. The size of the continent, as com- pared with North America, shows that there is little difference. North America contains 8,559,000^ square miles, while South America has 7,598,000. This shows some difference in figures but when it is remembered that North America has a very considerable frigid region, while South America has very little, it will be concluded that for productive purposes. South America is practically as large as North America. Less than one per cent, of South America is insular. ^ Statistics as far as possible are based upon figures in publications of the International Bureau of American Re- publics. Where these are not available, other standard authorities are used. The South American Continent 5 We get a more definite idea of the immense Compara- size of this continent when we glance at the Panama dimensions of the countries covering the con- tinent and, particularly, when we select special countries and compare them with others with which we are more familiar. Let us take them as nearly as possible in order of size, and begin with the little Republic of Panama, which many laughed at on the ground that it was too small to be an independent repubhc. But a little study shows that Panama is larger than two Switzerlands, and hardly anybody thinks of Switzerland as too small to be a repub- lic and have a government of its own. Switzer- land has 15,976 square miles, while the Republic of Panama has 33,000 square miles. So Panama is larger than four states the size of New Jersey or Massachusetts, and exceeds Ireland by 1,400 square miles. Uruguay with its 72,210 square miles is a Uruguay and little larger than Scotland, Ireland, and Wales ^^^S^ay together, and it is over 3,000 square miles larger than the six New England states with Delaware added. Paraguay, away up in the interior, has 98,000 square miles, or nearly ten South America thousand more than are in England, Scot- land, and Wales joined together. Panarrie t. .British Guiana 33.00 360.54Z : ,.-<2^ \ 9 0,2 7 7 \ 306.959 Indians. 7.-^63 5^ Vl b-2.9H.00O .-^X 7 5,465 Ecuador iie.OOOf' SColombia- I 444,960 /4,000,000 ^.-,.15 0,000 300.000 / >T>^rench Guiana 'n '""*"; ■•. \n 30.5 00 1.400,4 000 "^""'"•--.-. ^— V /^l^ 1957 000.. .; •^"-V--^^^^?^"""'''^^^^^^'"^'*^^ PeVru ^"' 695N733 ;-.. ^^P^ Brazil ^^ 4,500 \ooo \-" ... / 3.Z92.99I ; 2.627 699(e5t\ X 19.9 10.646 / V/i r-'x 1,295,796 y Bolivia^ / 605 400 *: / •226 7.955/ / \92 0,854.; J Chile4 ' ' •'"•--CPaTa^^uay / > / X 98;-000 ^A''-^ ) ; ;636,'000 r 30762 C 3.4 99,09/2 t..5,Q:poQ 1 \ 1 V' S^' 72 , 2 1 O \.\S5.QA0i 772.l2 8^esU 6.I0Q361 / STATISTICALMAP y> First fi6,ure for each country / gives area in square miles y^Ai Second figure, population *^:^ Third • Indians ^"""^^d Ecuador has 116,000 square miles which Chile makes it larger than two states the size of Illmoi&. Chile's 307,620 square miles, almost Coffee Farm, Brazil Drying Coffee, Bbazil Th0 South American Continent 7. bring it to the size of British Columbia, with its 310,191 square miles. Venezuela, with an area of 364,000 square Venezuela, miles is a country great in extent. Colombia, g^i?^ ^ estimated to have 444,980 square miles, with a Peru coast-line of about 1,300 miles, is in two senses next to Venezuela, in proximity and in extent. It is larger than France, Spain, and Portugal. Bolivia is credited with an area of 605,400 square miles, and is larger by 15,000 square miles than Ontario, Quebec, and New Bruns- wick. Peru is large enough for a great empire, having 695,733 square miles. Argentina has a territory embracing 1,135,840 Argentina square miles, being larger than the United States east of the Mississippi River, or as large as the Turkish empire in Europe and Asia. It is nearly as large as twenty-five Pennsylvanias or twenty-four New Yorks. We will get an idea as to its length, if we take a fine as long as Argentina, and, starting at the southern tip of Florida, run it northward. It will run through Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and all the states to the north, and then through Canada, and away up into northern Labrador. Coming to Brazil, we have a country so large Brazil 8 South America that some may be surprised and, perhaps be ready to question the statements. Never- theless they are facts. Brazil contains 3,292;991 square miles. That is to say, Brazil, a single country in South America is larger than the entire United States from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico and from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. In other words, Brazil is larger than the whole United States leaving out Alaska and the insular possessions. Not including Alaska, the United States contains 3,025,500 square miles. From North to South Brazil measures 2,600 miles, and from east to west at its widest part it measures 2,500 miles, and its coast-line on the Atlantic ex- tends 3,700 miles. Possible The average population in Belgium in 1900 Population ^^^g ^gQ ^^ ^^^ g^^^^^ ^^.jg^ j^ 3^^^.^ ^^ populated in the same proportion as Belgium is per square mile, Brazil would have a popula- tion of 1,939,571,699. That is to say, Brazil, a single country in South America, could hold and support the entire population of the world, and hundreds of millions more, the estimate of the earth's population at the beginning of the twentieth century being 1,600,000,000. The South American Continent 9 South America is a great continent with ^lountaia everything on a grand scale. For example ^^®^ its mountains are great. The Andean range, near the west coast is about 4,400 miles long. In the southern part, there is a single range. From northern Argentina and through the central part there are two ranges, or rather, a double range, while in the extreme north it forks into three branches. The Andes are the highest mountains of the Western Hemisphere, many peaks being over 20,000 feet above the level of the sea. The highest mountain is Aconcagua, in Argen- Special tina, close to the Chilean line. It is roughly -^^^^^^^ estimated as over 23,000 feet above the sea- level, and there Ls now no dispute that it is the highest moimtain in the Andes, and the loftiest in the entire Western Hemisphere. Many of these peaks are volcanoes. Some are extinct, or supposedly so, some are quiescent but suspicious, while some are active all the time. Lower ranges of mountains are found on the eastern side of the continent, especially along the eastern coast of Brazil. South America is a continent wiih. great and Plains fertile plains. The greatest are those between 10 South America the Andes on the west and the mountains in eastern Brazil and the Atlantic coast, and they extend almost the entire length of the continent. In the north, they are called llanos, which is Spanish for plains. Then come the selvas of the Amazon and the campos of Brazil, the word campos being Portuguese for plains. In southern Brazil there is the Matto Grosso, which means ''great woods." Farther south in western Paraguay, the southern border of eastern Bolivia, and northeastern Argentina, is the region of the Gran Chaco, which name means ''great hunt." Plata g^iji farther south are the pampas of Argentina Pampas and Uruguay, or, as they are sometimes called, the plains or pampas of the Plata. They are somewhat like the prairies of the middle parts of the United States. Generally speaking they are destitute of timber. The soil is a fine alluvium, full of the right chemical elements and admirably adapted to agriculture, wherever the rainfall is sufficient. In the north there are rich grasses but farther south are the dry plains with their stunted and poor plant life. Rivers— South America is a continent of great rivers, the greatest in the Western Hemisphere. Near- The South American Continent 11 ly all the great rivers are on the eastern side and flow from the Andean region to the Atlantic. The Orinoco in the north is 1,450 miles long. Adding its tributaries it has a very long stretch of navigable waters. The Rio de la Plata, or the Silver River, as La Plata it is called, runs in a southerly or southeasterly direction. The name La Plata is now limited to the wide watenv^ay, beginning where the Parana and the Uruguay meet and flow into it on their way to the sea, but the real La Plata is a river system, made up of a number of large rivers Hke the Uruguay, the Parana, the Paraguay, the Bermejo, and the Pilcomayo, and other rivers whose waters touch Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina. This system drains a great area and the Rio de la Plata discharges more water into the sea than the Mississippi. Sea vessels can go up 1,200 or 1,300 miles above Buenos Aires, and smaller vessels can go into the interior 2,360 miles. The greatest of all American rivers is the Amazon Amazon, El Rio de las Amazonas, the River of the Amazons, so named it is believed because Orellana in 1541 told that along its shores he 12 South America had seen Amazonas, or women warriors. The remarkable length of this great river will be suggested by the fact that a United States gunboat steamed up from its mouth nearly 2,400 miles, to the city of Iquitos, in eastern Peru. Smaller steamers can go up the head- waters within 325 miles of Lima, which is on the other side of the Andes. It has 27,000 miles of na\dgable waters, or, including all the affluents, some calculate about double that number of miles. Though not the longest river in the world, the basin of the Amazon is the largest, and the quantity of water it con- veys is the greatest. It drains one million square miles more than the Mississippi, and its maximum discharge is two and a half times the maximum discharge of the Mississippi. The Amazon, Orinoco, and La Plata systems drain an area of 3,686,400 square miles. Climate The vastness of South America is only equaled by its variety. With such mountains, such plains, and such rivers there must be a varied topography. With three fourths of the continent lying between the tropics and the other fourth in the temperate zone, there must be great variety of climate. There are the The South American Continent 13 tropical, semitropical, temperate, and a little of the frigid at the southern tip of the continent and on the summits of the mountains. Climates, however, are not determined by latitude alone, but also by elevation, by winds, and by ocean currents. Thus along the Cordilleras are tracts of table-land where a temperate climate is enjoyed. The city of Quito, almost directly under the equator, but with an elevation of about two miles above sea-level, has a delight- fully temperate climate. So there may be various climates, from Effect of tropical to temperate, and even to frigid, on ^nd Currents the same line of latitude, and within a short dis- tance of each other. On the coast of Ecuador, at Guayaquil, one will find extreme tropical heat, but from this he can journey up to Quito where he will find a temperate climate, and thence he can go higher in the mountains and find ice and snow. So the cold current and the cool winds that come up from the Antarctic re- gions greatly modify the climate along the west coast of Chile. The topography of South Amer- ica naturally throws the largest and longest rivers on the east side, and the winds that blow west- ward charged with moisture from the Atlantic Products 14 South America strike the eastern side of the Andes and con- dense into snow and rain from which these mighty streams are fed. Natural The economic possibilities of South America cannot be overestimated. The gigantic river systems, the great area of land surface, the varieties of climate, all impress us so as to raise the greatest expectations as to the pro- ductiveness of the soil, while the mountains, the plains, and even the river beds suggest that beneath the surface may be many hidden treasures of incalculable value. Mineral One naturally thinks first of mineral resources. They exist everywhere. Let us take a glance at them. Gold is found in every country in South America. It is found in Panama. The Guianas, the supposed region of the Eldorado sought by the early discoverers, are still rich in gold. Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Uruguay, and Argentina have gold, and even down in Tierra del Fuego gold is found. Silver is found in abundance. The silver mines of Potosi, Bolivia, have been worked for centuries. They are said to have produced over one billion five hundred million dollars' worth of silver, and yet they are far from being exhausted. Rich Resources The South American Continent 16 as Bolivia is in gold and silver, she is still richer in tin, and the value of the tin exported pearls Asphalt ''"^foffee Chocolate Cotton; Tnl l^^i'^ "" /Stock COL-jDilver '..Rubber OMBIA/Salt Iron '.. ; J: Emeralds ...' ; ECUAyT"-- Stock ^" '•'-' DOR^COcoa —-'..•; ^ Ivory nuts XNEZUELA 'Panama hits .Rubber,—'"' ,PetTol{euTn kCoal \" J^^RITISHGUIANA vSug,a.YV->.^TCH GUIANA :Gold.;Coco;a^FRENCHGUlANA DiamoB'.ds.,-' -•""'Timber^ Bananas >_^ Rubber Brazil-nuts Cotton ^ „ , -, . . Tobacco PERU\coppCT\Coc5a; BRAZIL Sugar *^ IveTlRubber":.,. Cocoa Coffee': A Manganese ,,j." ; (^ Gold Iron, ^ Diamonds p.obalt Nit>ratsL^--L. >5^^ y^rAa mate, coalV" ■•""••.Stockq^;. Coffe( ■Gold ," Silver ..Oran§'«s ■-.Tobd'CCO IS Cotw'^'^°"' ^ Grapes -^^'yU RUG UAY Cerea.15 Cattle Whelat; Sheep ;heep> Sheepciii ARGENTINA NATURAL RESOURCES is much greater than her exports of gold and silver combined. Copper of the finest quality is found in great quantities in many of the 16 South America countries, as are iroii; lead, bismuth, antimony, and other metals. Gems Diamonds are found in Brazil. So are topazes and other precious stones. Emeralds may still be found in Colombia, and pearls are taken from the northern waters. Nitrates Even out of the waste places comes wealth. The desert on the west coast of South America, which was regarded as worthless, has been found to contain that which is more valuable than gold and silver. Though a desert, it produces that which will make the desert blossom as a rose. Here is found an immeasura- ble supply of nitrates which are used as fer- tilizers and for other purposes. The export duties alone have brought the government of Chile, in twenty-four years, the immense sum of $280,000,000 gold. Coal Coal is being found in many sections, e ro eum ^^^ large quantities are mined on the Asphalt coast of Chile. Petroleum has been dis- covered on the coast of Peru, in various parts of Argentina, and is believed to exist in other places. Asphalt is obtained in vast quantities on the island of Trinidad and in Venezuela. The South American Continent 17 The mineral resources of South America are Forest immense and may not be overestimated, but the continent is far richer in the actual and possible productions of the forest and the field. South America has magnificent forests with varieties of wood that are merely useful and others that are beautiful. Among them are mahogany, rosewood, and log^vood. There is the hard quebracho, which may be used for railroad ties, or it may be ground up and from it may be obtained a product for tanning pur- poses. The vast forests are practically inex- haustible and to these forests the world must look for its supplies. The exuberance of vegetable productions Vegetables is astonishing. There are fruits large and ^° ^^ ^ small, and of almost every kind. It is the home country of the batata or sweet potato. Europe is indebted to Peru for potatoes and various plant products. The medicinal plants are invaluable. A Medicinal South American root furnishes ipecacuanha. ^^^^^ From the cinchona tree comes quinin. From the coca comes cocain. In 1907, Brazil exported cocoa to the amount of $10,000,000. Ecuador exported $6,311,655, and other coun- 18 South America tries added largely to these sums. Brazil's production of cocoa in 1907 was over 60,000,000 pounds. Rubber In various sections of South America there are innumerable rubber trees. In Peru, in 1907, 15,000,000 worth of rubber was produced; Bolivia exported $5,300,000 worth, and Brazil exported rubber to the value of $70,000,000. Coffee Coffee was introduced into South America, and has become one of the most important productions of the continent. It is raised in several countries, but the great coffee producer is Brazil, which is said to raise three fourths of the coffee used in the whole world. It is reported that in 1907 Brazil exported $142,000,000 worth of coffee. Soil Rice, sugar, arrowroot, agave, and other dC* ^^\ P^^^^s which have been brought to South America in the last four centuries also flourish. Wheat, maize, oats, and flax are now among the greatest products. Wheat, The yield of wheat in Argentina, the greatest Maize, ' ^ ^ Linseed wheat country m the southern contment, was, in 1907-8, 4,920,000 tons. Of the total wheat crop, in 1906-7, 1,300,000 tons were retained for home consumption and seed, so that 2,900,000 Copyright by Underwood & Underwood Sheep-eaising in the Andes The South American Continent 19 tons were available for export. In 1905, Argentina exported 2,868,281 tons of wheat, and in 1906, 2,247,998 tons. Argentina is now a source of wheat supply to which the whole world turns. In 1905, Argentina exported 2,222,289 tons of maize, 654,792 tons of Unseed, and 144,760 metric tons of flour. On the plains there are grasses, including Grasses alfalfa, with which to feed the cattle, and *^ Argentina is sending meat to the peoples in other lands. On the pampas are millions of cattle, great flocks of sheep, and vast herds of horses. In 1907, Argentina had 25,844,800 cattle, 77,580,500 sheep, 5,462,170 horses, 545,870 mules and donkeys, and 2,845,700 swine. This is only one countr}^ Across the great Cattle TT 11. J J Products river is Uruguay, also a heavy producer, and . ^ both these countries are exporting large quan- tities of jerked beef and chilled meats of various kinds. Naturally there is also a large exportation of hides and wool. It is to be noted that Liebig's beef extracts are prepared at Fray Bentos on the Uruguay River. This is an inadequate presentation of the Grounds of economic possibilities of South America. With -^^^^^^^^ this extensive list of actual and possible pro- ment 20 South America ducts the economic possibilities cannot be overestimated. In the possible commercial development the continent itself will play an important part. Its very formation will aid in its exploitation. Accessible By the principal rivers the interior is accessible Amazon ^^^^ ^P ^^ ^^® Andes, the backbone of the continent. Large vessels can ascend the Amazon and its tributaries. By the Amazon the shipments can be made to and from eastern Peru and northern Bolivia. With a little more extension of the railroads, it may in- deed be found speedier and more advantage- ous to send the products of the region west of the high Andes, which are intended for Europe or even the eastern part of the United States, over the mountain passes and along the Amazon than to ship them by way of the Pacific Ocean. The railroads are coming down from Bohvia and will come down from Peru, and so the trade on the Amazon will connect with railroads in Peru and Bolivia. AProyi- j^ certainly seems providential that, in that Waterway ^I'opical interior with its rank vegetation, where for an indefinite period it will be exceed- ingly difficult if not impossible to construct The South American Continent 21 railroads, nature has constructed a great waterway that extends almost the entire width of the continent, and branches off in all direc- tions, and so penetrates a great part of the tropical section of the continent. Again, the great interior is accessible by Regions the extensive La Plata system, so that by its Y^y^^Q^g, waters Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Brazil, Plata and eastern Bolivia may be reached. The Amazon and La Plata systems come very close together. A steamer may go from Rio de Janeiro northward, enter the Amazon, and go up a tributary coming from the south. An- other steamer may sail from Rio and, going south, enter the Rio de la Plata and steaming on to the north, reach a point within a com- paratively few miles of the vessel that sailed up the waters of the Amazon. Some day a canal will be cut connecting the Connection La Plata system with the Amazon and it will systems be possible for a vessel to make the circuit either way. Several years ago when there was a tremendous flood in the La Plata region, small islands with tigers, snakes, and other wild animals were floated down to Buenos Aires and Montevideo and the Atlantic, and an 32 South America explanation given was that the high waters of the Amazon system had overflowed into the La Plata system. Certainly they come close together and the divide betv/een them is very slight. Railways The great plains, on the other hand, lend in ns "t^^i^selves to railway construction, which has already greatly aided in the development of certain sections of South America. That they reach a great extent of country may be seen from the map showing the railroads in Argentina and the other countries touching the La Plata. Already Argentina is literally gridironed. Over the pampas they run in all directions though not everywhere, and in such long straight lines as can hardly be found in any other land. Mountain Greater difficulties are found in the mountain ^i^T^^ regions on the west coast. The mountains make the difficulties, but the distance between the mountains and the sea is short. So there are lines running from ports on the Pacific back up into the interior. There are few longitudinal lines, because of the character of the region between the mountains and the ocean, as the mountain ridges run down to The South American Continent 23 the coast. There are, however, some valleys opening up to railroad construction as, for example, those from Valparaiso to Santiago and from Santiago down to southern Chile which have been occupied by a railroad. In spite of the difficulties on the west coast, much has been accomplished. Railroads have been run from the coast up into the Andean high- lands. The oldest road was constructed by an Two American, William Wheelwright. He ran it g^^^J^g from the coast of Chile back to Copiapo. An- other Am.erican, Henry Meiggs, built the won- derful railroad from Callao and Lima up to Oroya in the high Andes. The road from Mollendo on the Peruvian Roads coast runs up to Bolivia. So from Antofagasta, j . the old Bolivian port, but now held by Chile, a road runs up to Oruro in Bolivia. A new railroad running from Guayaquil on the coast of Ecuador up to Quito, the capital, has been completed. This will mean that what has been a journey of days will be reduced to fifteen hours. Ecuador is projecting another railroad from Projected another point on the Pacific coast to Quito, 24 South America and still another to run over to the headwaters of the Amazon near the Brazilian boundary. RAILWAY MAP Principal Lines, i-ih-. Total Mileage, 30,000 This will tap the rubber-producing district. Peru has contracted for a railroad from Oroya to the Ucayali River, a tributary of the Amazon, The South American Continent 25 and for another line from the Ucayali down to the coast. Chile is constructing a new line from Arica on the coast up to La Paz in Bolivia, and the Santiago line is being extended to the south. The great project of tunneling the Andes is Trans- being rapidly prosecuted. The transandine ^^^^ j railroad on the west side has been completed up to Juncal. The road on the east side is well up to the Uspallata Pass, and soon it will be possible to go from Buenos Aires to Santiago and Valparaiso, or from these Chilean cities to Buenos Aires without change of cars. The whole is to be completed by June, 1910, and it will be the first transcontinental rail- road from the Atlantic waters to the Pacific coast in South America. The intercontinental or Pan-American Rail- Inter- road is much more than a mere dream. The p^.^. possibility of riding from the extreme of North America to the extreme of South America is rapidly changing from a possibility into a probability. Argentina has built a road to the very Present border of Bolivia and the latter Republic has |rctions^'^^ just finished a road from La Paz to Oruro and 26 South America will extend it farther south to meet the road from Argentina. That will enable one to go from La Paz to Buenos Aires and on to Bahia Blanca and farther after a while. It will also enable the traveler to connect with the trans- andine railway and go over to Valparaiso or down into southern Chile. Other Forms The countries are being well supplied with ommun- ^^}^^^ ^^^ telegraph Hues, and are getting their own steamship lines. A Great ^\ these things make for the development ^^ment ^^ ^^^ great resources of South America. The Assured facilities for transportation will bring forth and distribute the various products. The economic possibilities are so vast that they cannot be calculated. It means a wonderful develop- ment and a great commerce, and South America is open to the whole world. Panama The greatest work for communication in Canal South America is the construction of the ship- canal across the Isthmus of Panama. It is the greatest piece of engineering of the kind the world has ever known. The construction of the great Suez Canal was child's play as compared with this gigantic undertaking. It means the cutting down or through a mountain The South American Continent 27 and the control of a mighty river as well as the digging of a channel and the building of massive masonry and huge dams such as the world has never seen. According to the present plan it means the creation of two large lakes with a water-level eighty-five feet above the sea, and Hfting the world's greatest vessels from the sea-level up to the lake-level, carrying them across the mountain, then over another lake, and safely depositing them in the ocean on the other side of the Isthmus. If the operation should ultimately result in a sea-level canal, it would mean the cutting down of a mountain to its very roots, the controlling of a fitful and violent river that frequently rises thirty feet in a day, as well as the digging of a channel in the low lands and protecting the canal where it enters the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. When completed it will widely modify the commerce of the world, and particularly v/ill it affect South America and hasten its already rapid development. One of the wonderful phenomena of South Growth of Cities America is the growth of its cities, as, for example Valparaiso, Sao Paulo in Brazil, and Rio de Janeiro. But, most wonderful of all, is the 28 South America city of Buenos Aires, in Argentina. Many will be surprised to learn that the populous United States can present only three cities larger than Buenos Aires, namely, New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia. It is larger than any city in Italy, in Spain, or in Portugal, being the second largest Latin city in the world, coming next to Paris in population. To-day Buenos Aires is a city of about a milhon and a quarter inhabitants, and the majority are not Spaniards nor Spanish South Americans, but Italians by birth or descent . It is a great cosmopolitan city. While the cities are thus growing, the rural sec- tions still are sparsely settled. Thus it happens that Buenos Aires contains about twenty per cent, of the entire population of Argentina. As there are other considerable cities in that Re- public, it will be seen that the rural population is relatively small. Immigration The tide of immigration is steadily increasing its volume. Increase of In 1895, the population of Argentina was Population 3 954 911^ jn 1905, it reached 5,678,197, but in 1907 it had gone up to 6,100,361. The popuJation of Brazil in 1900 was 17,371,069, but in 1907 it became 19,910,646. In view The South American Continent 29 of such increases, the population of South America may now be estimated at about fifty milHons, and, at this rate, it will not be very long before there will be one hundred millions in South America. The immigrants represent many lands. If Nationalities we take the immigration for one year at a single ^P^®^^^^'^^ port in South America and analyze the list, it will give an idea of the variety of people who are pouring into that continent. Thus, take the immigrants who arrived in Argentina from foreign countries, and from Montevideo, where immigrants land to cross the Rio de la Plata to Buenos Aires. In 1907, the total number of im- migrants was 329,122, and the number was divided among different nationalities as follows: ItaUans, 90,282; Spaniards, 82,606; Russians, 9,530; Turks, 7,436; French, 4,125; Austrians, 3,439; Germans, 2,322; English, 1,659; Hun- garians, 1,220; Portuguese, 1,118; Argentinians, 1,016; Greeks, 500; Swiss, 486; Brazilians, 482; Montenegrins, 450; Bulgarians, 442; Danish, 378; North Americans, 393; Roumanians, 223; Belgians, 209; Moroccans, 180; Dutch, 178; and other nationalities in lesser numbers. 80 South America European For a long time Europe has been seeking new Interests outlets for its surplus population, new markets for its commerce, new opportunities for the investment of capital, new sources for the supply of food and raw material. The con- tinent of South America m^eets all these needs. There is good reason to believe that more than one European power would be glad for an excuse to divide up its territory under spheres of influence, as has been done in Africa. Continent South America is largely an unoccupied Unocaipkd continent, but immigration, including many agriculturists, is pouring in, and the fact that there is so much room will further stimulate the flow of immigration. Some, indeed, believe that the average density of population in South America must be greater ultimately than that of any of the other grand di\dsions of the earth. Able to While immigration is relieving the congestion v/orld Needs ^^ population in other lands, there will be reUef in other directions. Because of its im- mense territory and inexhaustible resources, South America will come to the aid of the older and more exhausted countries. It has been sending its guano, and now it is shipping immense quantities of its nitrates to give The South American Continent 31 fertility to the world's worn-out fields. Not only so but more, it has become the feeder of the world with its meat and its produce from the fields. Argentina has become a great cereal, and cattle country, so that its output affects the markets of the world. Brazil is furnishing three fourths of the world's coffee, and other South American countries are shipping various supplies for other lands. The possibility of a great commerce between Coming South America and other parts of the world g^ ^j^ is very plain. Benjamin Kidd, in his Control Commerce of the Tropics, shows how the commerce of the future will tend to flow less from east to west, between nations with the same clim^ate, and more from north to south, between the nations of the Temperate Zone and those of the Tropics. South America produces and will continue to produce what other portions of the earth need. Other parts of the world produce what South America needs. The nations with the best ships and the best-managed shipping lines will get the carrying-trade. The natural resources of South America are Economic illimitable and the economic possibilities are incalculable. Probably South America is richer 32 South America in natural resources than North America. Land and water communications will soon give access to every part of the continent. Com- mercially it is the coming continent. Multiply- ing lines of steamers are going and coming from great European countries. Foreign *'The foreign commerce of South America is approximating S1,000,000,000. Of this amount relatively $600,000,000 is exports and $400,- 000,000 imports. The ratio of the West Coast to the entire continent is about twenty- five per cent. ; that is, on the basis of $1,000,000,- 000 it will have $250,000,000 foreign commerce. The United States is in this total trade to the amount of $175,000,000. In one year its exports were $53,000,000 and its imports $140,000,000. The disproportionate balance was caused largely by the coffee and rubber imports from Brazil. But on the West Coast the balance is in its favor. "^ Foreign Foreign capital is entering South America. ''While the statisticians vary widely in their estimates, it is reasonable to conclude, from an examination of the leading ones, that Great Britain has $2,000,000,000 in South American ^Pepper, Panama to Patagonia, 370. Capital The South American Continent 33 investments, of which $300,000,000 to $350,000- 000 may be assigned the West Coast; Ger- many has from $475,000,000 to $500,000,000, with possibly $150,000,000 in the Pacific comitries; and France, with about the same amount, has West Coast investments reaching $100,000,000, her Chilean holdings amounting to $42,000,000/'^ Very many have known little about South ^^'^1 America. Even in thought it has been neglected. ^^ ^^ "' Doubtless there is some reason for this. Why has it been neglected in act and in thought? As far as the United States and Canada are concerned it may be said that these countries had much unoccupied land to develop, and not being crowded like other lands were not com- pelled to send their sons and daughters to a new continent to make a living and to establish nev/ homes. The very location of South America has had Partly a something to do with this neglect in thought and , o4o action on the part of some. South America is to the south of the great temperate belt in which dwell the most active nations of the world, and the movement has been from east to west, ^Pepper, Panama to Patagonia, 367, 368. 34 South America with, although to a less extent, from west to east within that Temperate Zone. Even the tom"ist yields to the same trend and travels largely along the same general line, and thinks he has seen the whole world, though South America, lying to the south and off the main line of travel, has never been in sight. Also a Again, lack of interest grows out of lack of Knowled e ^^o^^^^ge. People have known little about South America and, hence, have thought little about that continent. Now the time has come when knowledge of South America is at hand, and, with this knowledge, interest should begin to grow. The people of North America should be specially interested in South America, because of the greatness of the continent itself, because of its enlarged and rapid development in recent years, and, because of its marvelous possibilities in the very near future. Our Nearest The people of North America should be in- Continental ^Qj.gg|;g^ because it is their associate continent Neighbor . , . , , t • i — their nearest contmental neighbor, it is much nearer than Europe or Asia, or Africa. Panama is less than a week by slow steamer from New York and nearer from New Orleans. They should be interested because this next-door SOUTH AMERICA-T The South American Continent 35 continent will be capable of exerting a great in- fluence upon them for weal or wo. They should be interested because this neighbor may need their good offices and because it is a duty to help a neighboring continent. They must think of South America, because Claims other people are thinking of it. Others are xhought^ thinking of it for business gain. Others are tliinking of it as a place of residence. Others are thinking of making it their adopted country and they are going to it, and identifying them- selves with its interests. Therefore, for every legitimate reason we must think of South America; we must be interested in South America; we must do what we can for South America. Great Britain and Germany should show Interest of great interest in South America, because of Britain and their commercial relations v/ith that continent. Germany South America for centuries has been practi- Call for cally out of sight from most of the nations in the ^^^^^\ ^"^ •^ ° Religious North Temperate Zone. It has been a neglected Service continent commercially, politically, and in- tellectually, but the worst thing about this neglect is that South America has been neglected morally and religiously. We m^ust share with 36 South America the people of South America our best ideals in commercial, political, and social life, and most of all, in education, morals, and religion. There is no excuse for withholding from them the opportunity to know and accept the things that have been the source of greatest blessing to us. SUGGESTIONS FOE USING THE QUESTIONS Most of these questions are thought questions. That is, they require for their answers some original thinking. This form of question has been chosen for insertion in the text-book (1) because questions which constitute a mere memory test of the facts of the text can easily be constructed by any leader or member who makes an outline of the principal facts, and (2) because mere memory questions, although they have their uses, yield far less than thought questions either in mental de- velopment or in permanent impression. In some cases complete answers will be found in the text-book; usually statements that will serve as a basis for inference; but a few questions appeal solely to the general knowledge and common sense of the student. The greatest sources of inspiration and growth will be, not what the text-book adds to the student, but what the student adds to the text-book; the former is only a means to the latter. In using these questions for private study, let the student gather all that can be found in the text-book on the subject, and then do some original thinking. Let him not be discouraged if unable to reach satisfactory conclusions. Discussion in the session may bring further light. The list may offer suggestions to the leader for prob- lems and subquestions to be used in the session. The length of the session, the maturity of the class, and the taste of the leader will all influence the selection that will be made. In many cases the greatest value of these questions will be to suggest others that will be better. Those marked * m-ay be used for discussion. The South American Continent 37 There has been no attempt to follow the order of the paragraphs in the text-book more than in a general way. QUESTIONS ON CHAPTEE I Aim: To Show why South America as a Coxtixent HAS A Special Claim upox olti Ixterest t. Look up the areas and estimated population of f the five great continents, and compare the rela- / tive density of population. ' - jJx!^' iMJllS 2' Which of these continents has m^ and which '^"'^' '^Z)^ least territory that is nearly or quite uninhabit- ]^ ' •3*i\ a^? lO.. 3.* What does all this indicate as to the probable future of the world's immigration? 4. From what continents will the tide of emigra- tion come? 5. To what continents will the tide of immigra- tion flow? 6. What parts of the world are best fitted to support increased numbers of the white race? 7. Compare the area and population of Massa- chusetts with that of Ecuador, of Illinois with that of Argentina, of Ontario with that of Venezuela, of the states east of the Mississippi with that of Brazil. 8. Which states of the Union and provinces of the Dominion most nearly equal in density of popu- lation the Republics of South America? 9. Why will the comm.erce of the future tend to flow north and south instead of along lines of the same latitude? 10. What effect will this have upon the commerce of South America? 11. How does South America rank among the con- tinents as a field for the investment of capital? 12. What products demanded by modern civilization can she supply in abundance? 13. Mention what you consider the five greatest economic aspects of South America. 14. How does the waterway system of South America compare with that of North America? 38 South America 15. Wliy has South America been comparatively so inconspicuous in the past? 16.* What changing conditions in the rest of the world will push her into future prominence? 17. Try to estimate what the commerce of the United States would be if it were as poorly supplied with railroads as South America. 18. Try to estimate what the commerce of South America will be when she is as well supplied with railroads as the United States. 19. What will be the effect of the Panama Canal on South American commerce? 20. What special reasons have we who live in North America for being interested in the welfare of South America? 21. To what estent are we meeting these obliga- tions ? 22. At what stage of a country's growth can the spirit of national life be most easily influenced? 23.* Sum up the special claims that South America as a continent has upon our interest. EEFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY CHAPTER I I. Resources and Commerce.^ Barrett, ''Latin America as a Field for United States Capital and Enterprise," Bankers' Magazine, June, '08. Clark, The Continent of Opportunity, XIX, XXIII, XXVIII. Hale, The South Americans, 310-318. Freeman, ''American Trade Opportunities and Handicaps in South America," Engineering Magazine, Sept., '07. "Our Trade Relations in South America," North American, March, '07. Pepper, Panama to Patagonia, VIII, XI, XIV, XVII. 'Also see the Statesman's Year-Book for commercial statistics. The Bulletin of the "International Bureau of American Republics" and the "Monthly Consular Trade Reports" should also be con- sulted for the most recent information on South America. The South American Continent 39 Scott, Chile, XVII. Tulloch, ''German Trade in South America,'' Nineteenth Century, July, '06, IT. General Conditions. Clark, The Continent of Opportunity, II. Hale, The South Americans, XIX. Ogden, ''Ignorance about South America," Nation, Feb. 22, '06. Pepper, Panama to Patagonia, IX. Protestant Missions in South America, I. Boot, "South America an Awakened Continent," National Geographic Magazine, Jan., '07. III. The Panama Canal. Clark, The Continent of Opportunity, IV. Pepper, Panama to Patagonia, I. IV. Immigration. Freeman, ' ' Effect of Immigration to South America on North American Trade," World To-Day, Oct., '07. ■ THE EARLY INHABITANTS 41 The Incas developed a religion whose elaborate and rigid ritual, -which regulated every act of their lives, finds its best parallel among the Hebrews. Each family had its household god; each sect worshiped an imaginary ancestor; the whole nation adored the sun as the progeni- tor of the reigning family, and the monarch's person was revered as divine. So profound was the religious feeling of this people that they finally rose to the conception of a supreme deity — a creator of the universe. His temple filled one side of the great square at Cuzco. — Thomas C. Dawson To Brazil must be added the interior regions of Spanish South America; of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, the plains of Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Patagonia; the mountains of Chile and the colder regions in the far south; making a total pagan population estimated at from four to five million. — Hubert W. Brown It is a shame that the Indians mostly all over South America have been so ill-treated that they wish to be left alone in the midst of their needless woods. — Henry Van Leesten Certainly many of the vices and immoralities of the coast cities and towns have been introduced among these tribes along with the efforts at catechizing and civilizing them. Be this as it may, it is a fact that the greater part of these people know nothing of the true God and his Son Jesus Christ as revealed in the Holy Scriptures. They never use the word Father in con- nection with their deities, but always Mother — Mother of the living, Mother of vegetable life, Mother of re- production, and thus the Mariolatry of Borne, Mother of God, found an easy introduction. They seem to have no conception of Satan; their gods may be displeased and consequently punish them. There are evidences that they believe in immortality. — Hugh C. Tucker 42 n THE EARLY INHABITANTS T T /"HEN Columbus and other early dis- Views of ^ ^ coverers came to the new lands on the }^^^ and Other western side of the Atlantic Ocean, they thought Discoverers they had reached the eastern part of India. Columbus beHeved it and, during a fever on his last voyage, he cried out to himself: ''Why dost thou falter in thy trust in God? He gave thee India!" and in this faith he died. As they thought they had found India, they called the aboriginal inhabitants Indians. The aborigines of South America were of the Aboriginal same general type and were akin to the early ^^^^ inhabitants of North America, though the historic connection cannot be clearly traced. As to numbers, there were probably more Indians in the southern continent than in the northern. In South America the aborigines were found in all sections, and, at least in a 43 44 South America general way, seemed to occupy the entire territory. MAP SHOWING ORIGINAL LOCATION or THE INDIAN RACES OR STOCKS )ne:cas or k/TAGONIANS [>SYAHGAN15 OR TlERRADELFUEGIANS Many Variations These early inhabitants, while showing marked similarities, nevertheless revealed de- The Early Inhabitants 45 cided differences in different localities. There were distinct tribes and nations with variations resulting largely from habit, from training, and from accidental, as well as persistent circum- stances. They presented a wide range of savagery and civiUzation, and many forms of government and political, social, military, and industrial organization. In different localities the aborigines have Sub-^ different names, and subdivisions of great families have their specific designations. There were the Caribs in the north and the Names of northeast. In Dutch Guiana was the Arawak tribe. In Brazil were the Tupi Indians, forming a very important race. In Paraguay were the Guarani. In Argentine were the Tehuelches, or Pampa Indians. Across the Andes, in Chile were the Aucas, Araucas, or Araucanians. In Peru were the Quichuas, and in BoHvia the Aymaras, who were combined into the Quichua-Aymara. The Incas were related to these tribes or nations. Over the mountains in northern Bolivia and eastern Peru were the Anti or Antis, from whom is said to have come the name of the great mountain range,the Andes. In Ecuador were the Caras, and in southern 46 South America Colombia were the Chibchas. These are the names of some of the chief divisions among the aborigines. Character- They varied in shade and color, the more general tints being copper, cinnamon brown, and olive yellow, and they differed in their degree of civilization and of barbarism. Incan The Indians on the highlands of the Andes Civilization ^^^ ^^ ^j^g western slope of this great range of mountains had a comparatively high degree of civilization. That of the Incas is conceded to be the highest. They had a strong government of a paternal character. They had mastered and applied the art of irrigation and used fer- tilizers. They cultivated corn, potatoes, and cotton. They domesticated the llama, and employed it as a beast of burden; while they raised the alpaca for its wool, which they wove into cloth, shawls, and their ponchos or blankets. They manufactured bronze and wrought in gold and silver, of which they made beautiful ornaments and utensils of many kinds. They erected immense buildings, and used stones of such remarkable size that the modern engineer wonders how they managed to lift them into place. t^v, ,L L\.k^.:f.tmi^Mi^: The Early Inhabitants 47 Who were the Incas and whence came they? Origin They had their tradition as to their origin. f^^°*^l°? •^ ° to Tradition They called themselves the children of the sun and regarded Manco Capac as the head of their race. Manco Capac was the name of the first of an unbroken line of sovereigns down to about the middle of the sixteenth century. He claimed, or the people claimed for him, descent from the sun-god. According to the ancient tradition, Manco Lake Capac was the survivor of four brothers, p^^.^. children of the sun, who came forth from the Center apertures of the daw^n, which the very literal mind may infer meant the eastern Andes, but common tradition says the Incas started on the island of Titicaca and the neighboring island of Coate, the islands of the sun and moon in Lake Titicaca. Manco Capac, with his sister-wife, commissioned by the sun, started thence on an errand of beneficence to bring under government, and to instruct in religion, in agriculture, and the arts, the savage tribes that occupied the country. Manco Capac carried a golden rod, and he The Capital, was directed to travel northward until he j^^^ted reached a spot where the rod would sink into 48 South America the ground; and there he was to fix the seat of his empire. Obeying the command he slowly traveled until he reached a point where the golden rod disappeared. Here; in further com- pliance with his directions he located his seat of government and here was built the ''city of the sun," the capital of the great empire of the Incas. This city was called CuzcO; a Quichua word which means navel; and it was so named because it was regarded as the center of the Incan empire. Such is the tradition. Extansion of The Incas are supposed to have been the * ^E ^^r dominant tribe of the Quichuas, whose power grew until they gained control of the Aymaras and other peoples, and their rule was felt far and wide. They constructed great roadways which gave them easy and safe communication with the different and extending sections of the empire. Road- Between Cuzco and the valley of Yucay ^ there are numerous remains oi an ancient road; some portions of which are quite perfect. It is described as having a width of from ten to twelve feet; raised slightly in the center, paved with stoneS; while the outer edge has larger stones sunk firmly into the ground. In The Early Inhabitants 49 the face of the mountain zigzags are cut, and retaining walls which were constructed cen- turies ago, are said to be as firm as when first built. These roads were valuable in peace and also Growth and in war. Over them armies marched either i^^^ p^^^^ for the preservation of order or to defeat a foe. So much of the human element was in the high Incan civilization that the rulers and their people became familiar with the art of war. The Incas knew what it was to wage an ag- gressive war against neighboring tribes, and ultimately to carr}^ on a destructive internecine warfare between two great sections of the empire. Gradually the empire grew so strong that it brought under its sway nearly all the aboriginal tribes of the high Andes and the western slopes, and extended as far south as the River Maipo, a short distance below where the city of Santiago now stands. Eastward beyond the Cordilleras the Incas Transandine attempted little but to defend themselves from unconouered the assaults of the ferocious Chunchos and other savages on the eastern slopes of the Andes and along the headwaters of the rivers that run into the Amazon. On that side the 50 South America heights were crowned with towers and every strategic point was occupied by strong defen- sive works. Social and The social and industrial organization of the ^p"L^ Incan empire was very remarkable. There was no private or individual property in land. The land was allotted from time to time to the heads of families, and to the males suitable labor was assigned. The produce was divided between the government, the priesthood, and the communes. The mountainsides were ter- raced, and the bare rocks were covered with soil carried there in baskets. A thorough system of irrigation was successfully applied, and notwithstanding the destruction by man and the elements, ''modern Peru still lives upon the half-ruined fragments of the mighty works of the Incas. " Government This paternal government was also theocratic ^Theocratic ^^^ ^^^ ruling Inca was the recipient of the greatest possible respect and homage. The best was kept for the Inca and the deity, and though the common people dwelt in huts made of sun-dried bricks or of reeds, the emperor and the gods dwelt in palaces of stone. TheChibchas To the north, in southern Colombia, dwelt The Early Inhabitants 51 a people called the Chibchas, who have been regarded as next to the Incas in the matter of organized government and general civilization. The Chibchas were skilled weavers, dyers, General and potters. They erected stone shrines to ^^^^ their gods and also carved their effigies in stone. They had paved highways and over the river gorges they constructed light but durable suspension bridges. They used weights and measures and they have been credited with a currency in the form of gold disks. They were skilled in the working of precious metals which they wrought into ornaments of various designs. They Hved in houses and erected splendid temples. They carried agriculture to a high degree of thoroughness and success. Their government was absolute, crime was severely punished, and the priests wielded great power, but their military organization was not efficient. Altogether among the aborigines, the Chibchas were a remarkable people. In the southern part of Chile and across the The mountains in Argentina, as already stated, were ^^^^^^^^^ the Araucanians, a people without the high culture of the Incas or the Chibchas, but nevertheless a powerful people. Their govern- 52 South America ment was simple, but, for their kind of life, sufficient. They formed a confederacy and had their grand council composed of the head chiefs who in the council discussed, deliberated, and decided public affairs belonging to the confederacy. They were a brave people and for many centuries preserved their independence against Incan and European attacks. It is said that they never were conquered. The Caras North of Peru, in what is now called Ecuador, there also appeared a relatively high civiliza- tion. Tradition declares that about the seventh century of the Christian era, a people who called themselves the Caras invaded the seaboard of central Ecuador. They w^ere warlike and had a civilization superior to that of the people of that region. They had a military and tribal organization, and brought with them a religion to which they were fanatically devoted. Grad- ually the Caras forced their way up the slopes of the Cordilleras and for three hundred years they were engaged in extending their power over the valley of Quito and the adjoining territory. By the end of the fourteenth cen- tury the Cara kingdom controlled the Andean plateau from the first degree of north latitude The Early Inhabitants 53 to the sixth degree south, and to the coast. The ruler was called the Shiri, and Hualcopo, the fourteenth Shiri ascended the throne of Quito in 1430. The plateau of the high Andes may be taken Barbarous Tribes as the line dividing the civilized and the uncivil- p,,^^ ^^ ^^^ ized Indians. When one passed over the Andes ridge and dowTi the eastern slopes, he found himself among a barbarous and warlike people. Indeed, it was about as much as the Incas could do to defend themselves against these wild savages. That was one reason why the Incan empire did not establish itself on the slopes of the mountains and in the lowlands to the east of the great range. In all that immense stretch from the Andes to the Atlantic, there was not a single people who had passed beyond the fully organized tribal state. On the eastern side was barbarism, with head-hunting and cannibal- ism and the brutal treatment of women and children. All the aborigines in South America did not Lingoa speak the same tongue, and in different local- ities the linguistic differences were strongly marked. It is interesting to note that the Jesuits, by taking as a basis one of the Tupi 54 South America forms, developed what is called the lingoa geral, which is Portuguese for general language, and so made a language that could be u-iider- stood by various tribes. Thus the lingoa geral became the common medium of commun- ication in Brazil and adjacent territory. Religious The early inhabitants of South America w^ys^ms ^^^^^^ exceedingly religious, but they greatly differed in the simplicity or the elaborateness of their systems. All were pagans. All wor- shiped idols made by human hands. In ad- dition many w^re sun-worshipers and wor- shipers of the m.oon. Naturally, as would be expected, the highest type of worship and the most elaborate forms of religion were found among the Incas, who possessed the highest civihzation. With them the chief visible ob- ject of worship was the sun, but the m.oon had a conspicuous place. Religious With the Incas, gold represented the sun, and ^, \^ silver the moon. As has been said: ^'The the Incas worship of the sun was the most characteristic feature ' of their religious system. Gold — Hhe tears wept by the sun' — was sacred to the Lord of day; silver, by reason of its v/hiter luster, was consecrated to the moon, which The Early Inhabitants 5o rules the night with paler radiance. '^ They had their many gods. Each household had its god; each clan worshiped an ancestor, real or imaginary, and the monarch himself was revered as divine, while all adored the sun as the progenitor of the reigning family. Prescott, in The Conquest of Peru, gives an Prescott's extended and exceedingly vivid picture of - ^ ^^^ ^ the Incan religious services and their religious ReUglon economy. Speaking of the belief in the Supreme Being which was entertained by different peoples in the Andean highlands, he says: ''It was, above all, the case with the Peruvians, who claimed a divine origin for the founders of their empire, whose laws all rested on a divine sanction, and whose domestic institutions and foreign wars were alike directed to pre- serve and propagate their faith. Religion was the basis of their polity, the very condition, as it were, of their social existence. The government of the Incas, in its essential principles, was theocracy." Still we are not to infer that there is such a distinct concep- tion and recognition of the Supreme Being as v/e find in the teachings of the Christian system. 50 South A VI erica Leading They had the idea of a resurrection and of a future state. They acknowledged a supreme creator and ruler whom they adored under the names of Pachacamac and Viracocha. The former word signifies: ''He who sustains or gives life to the universe." The latter word is said to mean "foam of the sea." Some- times the name of the chief deity is expressed by Pachacamac and Viracocha combined. The Sun ''The deity whose worship they especially inculcated/' says Prescott, ''and w^hich they never failed to establish wherever their banners were known to penetrate^ was the Sun. It was he who, in a particular manner presided over the destinies of man; gave light and w^armth to the nations, and life to the vegetable world: w^hom they reverenced as the father of their djmasty, the founder of their empire; and whose temple rose in every city, and almost every village throughout the land, while his altars smoked wdth burnt-offerings — a form of sacri- fice peculiar to the Peruvians among the civilized nations of the New World. Ccher Deities *' Besides the Sun, the Incas acknowledged various objects of worship in some way or other connected with this principal deity. The Early Inhabitants 57 Such was the Moon, his sister- wife; the stars, revered as part of their heavenly train — though the fairest of them, Venus, known to the Peruvians by the name of Chase a, or 'the youth with the long and curling locks,' w^as adored as the page of the Sun, whom he attends so closely in his rising and in his setting. They dedicated temples also to the Thunder and Lightning, in whom they recognized the Sun's dread minister, and to the Rainbow, whom they worshiped as an emanation of their glorious deity." Of the chief Inca temple, Prescott gives Temple at this description: "But the most renowned "^^^ of the Peruvian temples, the pride of the capital, and the wonder of the empire was at Cuzco, where, under the munificence of successive sovereigns, it had become so enriched that it received the name of Coricancha, 'The Place of Gold. ' It consisted of a principal building and several chapels and inferior edifices, covering a large extent of ground in the heart of the city, and completely encompassed by a wall, which, with the edifices, was all constructed of stone. The work was so finely executed that a Spaniard who saw it in its glory assures us he could call Used 58 South America to mind only two edifices in Spain which, for their workmanship, were at all to be compared with it. Yet this substantial and, in some respects, magnificent structure, was thatched with straw! Profusion ''The interior of the temple was most worthy of admiration. It was hterally a mine of gold. On the v/estern wail was emblazoned a rep- resentation of the deity consisting of a human countenance looking forth from amidst in- numerable rays of light, which emanated from it in every direction, in the same manner as the sun is often personified with us. The figure w^as engraved on a massive plate of gold of enormous dimensions, thickly powdered with emeralds and precious stones. It was so situated in front of the great eastern portal that the rays of the morning sun fell directly upon it at its rising, fighting up the whole apartment with an effulgence that seemed more than natural, and which was reflected back from the golden ornaments with which the walls and ceiling were everywhere incrusted. Gold, in the figura- tive language of the people, was 'the tears wept by the sun, ' and every part of the temple glowed with burnished plates and studs of the precious The Early Inhabitants 59 metal. The cornices which surrounded the walls of the sanctuary were of the same costly material; and a broad belt or frieze of gold, let into the stone-work, encompassed the whole exterior of the edifice. '^ With the elaborate service connected with Contrast such a magnificent temple, there was a sacerdotal ^^ continent order at the head of which was the great High Priest or as the natives called him, the Villac Vmu. This picture of the Incan religion, how- ever, was not a true picture of religion through- out the major part of South America. Away from this narrow strip of comparative civiliza- tion we find the wild aborigines with their coarse paganism and rude worship. They were cannibals in many sections, and their rehg- ious ideas conformed to the crudeness of their general lives. The Incan empire gradually extended its The sway but its final conquests were soon to be overthrown followed by its own destruction. To the north were the Chancas, a people who occupied the northern two thirds of the central plateau of Peru. The Incan army moved against this people, and Yupanqui, a brother of Urco, the reigning Inca, attacked and defeated the 60 South America Chancas in the heights above the city of Cuzco. As a result of his victorious career^ he became emperor, instead of Urco, and assumed the title of Rachaciitec, or "Reformer of the World/' The Caras The aggressions of Tupac Yupanqui suddenly and Quito checked the Cara expansion in the vicinity of Entered Quito. The Inca advance was followed up by Huaina Capac, the son of Yupanqui. In 1475 Huaina Capac entered upon a war which ended in his triumphal entry into Quito. There he married the daughter of the Shiri, or monarch of Quito, and by the Shiri's daughter there was born to him a son who was named Atahuallpa. Atahuailpa Huaina Capac, the Inca, died in Quito in Northern 1^25, but he bequeathed the northern kingdom, Territory containing Quito, to Atahuallpa, who had a moral and even a legal claim as a descendant of the Shiri's daughter. Peru, with the southern provinces, fell to Huascar, Huaina Capac's son by an Inca princess. Huascar j^ ^as understood that, while Atahuallpa matched governed in Quito, Huascar was to be para- mount in the whole empire. Huascar, however, was unwilling to acquiesce in what he regarded as a virtual di\dsion of the empire. The The Early Inhabitants 61 result was war, and the rugged soldiers of Quito, who doubtless had benefited by Incan training, overmatched the southern army. The northern army having proved itself the Arrival of superior, Atahuallpa started for Cajamarca, P^'^ ^ the first great town on the plateau south of Ecuador, and while nearing Cajamarca he heard of the approach of some two hundred white strangers who had landed on the coast of Peru in the northwestern section called Tumbez. It was on the plaza of Cajamarca, in Novem- Pizarro ber, 1532, that there occurred the famous meet- ^g^th of ing of the Inca Atahuallpa with Francisco Atahuallpa Pizarro, and in the same square, in August, 1533, that, at the hands of Spaniards, Atahuallpa was strangled to death. Soon after Pizarro was made a Marquis of Spain and the priest, Valverde, who had taken such a prominent part in the assassinations, received his reward by being made Bishop of Cuzco. It was tragic, pathetic, and revolting, but it was simply a foretaste of the pathetic, tragic, and revolting treatment the aborigines received in the cen- turies following, from the so-called Christian Spaniards and Portuguese who invaded the continent. 62 South America Centuries This is not the place to tell the romantic : Dishonor and Crime IS .onor g^Q„y q£ ^YiQ g^j,jy discoveries and the entrance of the Spanish and the Portuguese into South America, but it is the place to point out, though briefi}'', the effect of their coming upon the early inhabitants of the continent. They found an innocent and unsuspecting people and proved themselves greater barbarians than the un- civilized Indians. The story at the beginning and through long generations is one of ill treatment of the original owners of the country. The invaders robbed them of their land, as well as their gold and silver. They utterly destroyed countless thousands; and those they permitted to live were oppressed and enslaved. Cruelty and enslavement went together. Feudal The system of encomiendas, introduced by oyste^ an Qqj^j^i^^s g^g gg^^jy ^g 1499^ as an arrangement for developing the resources of the country, became a terrible form of slavery. By this system the best parts of the country were divided into estates, and the Spaniards who took them treated the Indians as tenants from whom tribute was due and forced labor was required. So the Spaniards became great feudal lords who compelled the Indians to till The Early Inhabitants 68 the ground or impressed them for work in the mines. In 1573 the impressment for the Potosi Impress- mines in BoH\da secured eleven thousand 2^^^^.°^ tne Mines laborers, but in 1673 only sixteen hundred could be found. Some encomiendas, which originally contained a thousand adults, were reduced within a century to one hundred. When Indians were ordered to the mines to work they parted from their wives, their children, and friends as men who vrere going to their execution. The destruction of life was frightful. The Destruction Incan empire in its prosperous days numbered it is calculated some twenty millions, and even in 1575 the Peru\dan Indians numbered eight millions. In two centuries, it is believed, the population of Peru alone had fallen to less than a million and a half, and that of the whole empire to not more than four millions. The repartimiento crushed the aborigines in Forced another way. It was a privilege granted origi- rl^^'f^ ^ nally to the corregidors, or governors of districts, empowering them to furnish articles at a fair price to the Indians. This privilege, though supposed to be regulated by law, degenerated 64 South America into a compulsory and oppressive exaction. Worthless articles were forced upon the Indians at exorbitant prices and they were compelled to buy things for which they had no possible use. Thus men without beards were forced to buy razors, and people who retained their eyesight unimpaired to a very advanced age were compelled to purchase spectacles. First There were certain radical results of the ^^^^R^ce ^^^i^S ^^ ^^^ Spaniards and Portuguese. The Blendings Europeans who came in the early days were merely adventurers who came in search of gold or some other form of portable wealth. Their womankind did not come with them. In a little while many of these adventurers mixed with the natives and settling down founded new families by forming alliances with the aboriginal inhabitants of the continent. So there resulted a modification of the aboriginal stock and a corresponding modification of the European stock that had come to South America. In the north, the west, and the south came the Spaniards and there was left a strain of Spanish blood. In the middle east came the people from Portugal and there appeared a Portuguese strain. In other words there resulted two new The Early Inhabitants 65 types of people, the blend of the Spaniard with the Indian, and the blend of the Portuguese with the Indian, so that instead of three races, the Indian, the Spanish, and the Portuguese, there were five, the Spaniard, the Portuguese, the Indian, and the Spaniard-Indian and the Portuguese-Indian. Then the Spanish priest. Las Casas, pitying African the Indians who had been made slaves and who t 7 ! a Introduced had been harshly treated, sympathized with them in their sufferings and regretted their steadily diminishing numbers. Looking for a practical measure that would give them relief, he suggested the idea of bringing negroes from Africa to do the hard and heavy work, and so lighten the burdens and lessen the tasks of the Indians. If that meant relief for the Indian, it meant slavery for the black man. It was intended as an abolition of slavery in the case of the Indian, but it meant additional slavery for the African. As a matter of fact, it did not bring much, if any, relief to the Indian, for he still toiled and suffered under his heartless taskmasters. But the negroes brought from Africa were at Further once enslaved and scattered throughout great Blends 66 South America sections of South America. The introduction of great numbers of negroes added a sixth race to the population of the continent. It did more, for the Indians and negroes blended and this blend meant a seventh race, so that by this time the continent had seven races where originally there had been only one — ^the Indian. Bewildering Then there were crosses between these Mixtures j^jg^^^^ ^j^j between blends and original or European stock until it has become difficult to describe the various mixtures. The natives and long-time residents of the continent have reduced the classifications to quite a system, but a newcomer requires considerable time to master the category and to be accurate in his discriminations. Chief Area Bahia on the eastern coast of Brazil was the of iiip Neero S^^^^ P^^'^ ^^ entry for the negro, so that the black skin is still very prominent in that section. The negro is prominent not only in eastern and northern Brazil but also in other warm countries in the north and east, but not so much so in Uruguay, Argentina, and Chile. On the other hand the Indian and the Indian strain is strong in all the countries. The Early Inhabitants 67 There are pure Spanish and pure Portuguese Mian or famihes, but the majority of the people of ^j.q^q^_ South America at the present time are Indian nates or of the mixed races. Starting with the Spaniards and the Portu- Question of guese in the minority at the beginning, the question arises as to whether the present population in the country generally is not much more Indian than Portuguese or Spanish. Of course in the great cities and in country sections where Europeans have in recent years been pouring in in gi'eat numbers this pro- portion or disproportion would not appear. South America has been spoken of as a Latin ^oy ^^^ ^ America, but, according to blood, it has always ^^g^ca been something else than Latin, and it is a question whether the South America of the first half of the nineteenth centm-y v/as really a Latin Am-erica. It may be claimed that other blood has always been in the majority and it would not be easy to prove that it is not so now. When we study the question of races in StiU Other South America we should not forget that there have been considerable importations of races that are neither Indian, European, nor African. 68 South America A Chinese The Chinese, of course, have shown themselves '^"^ here and there, and the traveler who journeys through Peru is likely to be impressed by the recurring features which elsewhere are called Chinese. That is simply what they are, but blended with the Indian or half-breed and, possibly, other stock. That is a result of bringing Chinese coolies in great numbers to Peru somewhat earlier than the middle of the nineteenth century and later. Racial When one goes into the Guianas he finds a . ^ mixture of many races. Of course in Dutch Guianas Guiana he will find the Dutch element, in French Guiana there will be the French element, and in British Guiana there is the English element. But there are other races. In the Guianas there are Indians and negroes and their blends, and large numbers of East Indians. Some When we add the Chinese and the real j^pgg Indians from India to the other races in South America, it must seem to be less and less a Latin America, and when the Japanese begin to come in larger numbers, as they prob- ably will, the non-Latin condition will be in- tensified. The present condition of the aborigines should The Early Inhabitants 69 occupy our attention. The Indian, in spite Indians of terrible destruction, has not been killed off; svr^I neither has he utterly disappeared before the Spanish and Portuguese or other Europeans. The Indian has blended with the Spanish and the Portuguese, and with a blood-bond he binds to him the descendants of the invaders, so that it may be truly said that he has conquered the conquerors, for people with Indian blood in their veins still form the largest proportion of the population. Thus it may often happen that the Senor with the Spanish name to whom you have just been introduced is as much or more Indian than Spaniard, and the same is tme of the Senhor in Brazil, w^here in the individual the Indian is as strong as or stronger than the Portuguese. The Spaniard, and the Portuguese likewise. Constitute made the Indian a hewer of wood and a drawer p^p^f^Q of water, and, where the Spanish and Portuguese dominate, he has generally remained the same to this day, excepting where he has absorbed the European. In that case he may have lifted himself a degree or two socially. Indians, or those of Indian stock, constitute the labor- ing population. 70 South America Sullen and The Indians descended from those who were g . .. subdued by the early conquistadors are a crushed and cowed people, frequently reveahng a sullen but broken spirit, and an inherited memory from the days of the first appearance of the European from Spain and Portugal. In Bolivia the descendants of the proud Incas will hardly look at the passing white man but cast their gaze toward the ground, but there is a lurking hate for the race that oppressed their forefathers and which continues to oppress them. Ecuador One, describing the Indians of Ecuador, ■^ ^^^ says: ''When on a journey they generally take a slow trot, which they can keep up for hours without tiring, even with a hundred pounds on their backs. They never laugh nor sing, have no sports, no songs, no tales; but are sullen, morose, stupid, and submissive to all sorts of cruelty and oppression." This is the result of conquest and centm'ies of oppression. Peonage In many sections the Indian is an actual slave, and there exists on a great scale what other countries have learned from the Spanish to call peonage. In other words, they are kept in practical slavery by keeping them in The Early Inhabitants 71 debt. Among the ignorant people the survival, or memory, of ancient laws and usages has tended to the same result. Many of the tribes are savage and degraded Some to an appalling degree. For example, in the caiSbaT^'' Gran Chaco of Paraguay and northern Argentina Tribes the Indians are wild, poor, and degenerate. Many of the savage tribes are cannibals. On one side of a river in Brazil may be an outpost of Portuguese ci^/ilization while on the other side are cannibal Indians. On the other hand, ''It is, however, right to ^^^^ say that although for the most part living ^jjoj-icrmes in a state of nature, many of the Amazonian natives were, and still are, amongst the noblest and most intelligent of all wild tribes," and, doubtless, the same may be said of other abo- rigines in this southern continent. The pure Indian is still mainly a pagan, but Mainly even in him, are traces of the law originally ^^^of written by the Creator in the human heart. Pure BiocJ and his moral code recognizes many funda- mental principles of right and wrong. He has some idea of the Suprem-e Being though he believes in other deities. He has his idol and a crude conception of worship. 72 South America Social Blended with the black, the Indian has j^^ , made a new race, mainly of the serving class. Indian Races Blended with the Spaniard or the Portuguese, he has been somewhat elevated in a social sense, but, by the pure-blooded descendants of conquistadors, or by those of supposedly pure blood, is still regarded as an inferior. Large Pagan The number of the pagan Indians is not ®^ small, and the extent of territory they occupy is very great. It is affirmed for example that the Indians have undisputed possession of four fifths of Brazil, and their number has been variously estimated from 600,000 to 2,000,000. An accepted authority. Dr. Conto Magalhses, estimates the number at about one million. Thus in Brazil alone is a pagan territory equal in size to two thirds of Europe, though, of course, all in Brazil are not pagans. Traits, Speaking of these savage aborigines, the ^Relisious ^^^' H. C. Tucker, of Rio de Janeiro, says: Views ''Many of them have been very warlike, fero- cious, vengeful, and bloodthirsty. Some of them were known to be cannibals and ate their enemies with great ceremony; some even made war for the purpose of obtaining human food, while others are said to have eaten their The Early Inhabitants 73 relatives and friends as a mark of honor and distinguished consideration. The most general- ly prevailing religious belief among them is that there are three great or chief gods: the Sun, god of the animal kingdom ; the Moon, god of the vegetable kingdom; and Ruda, the god of love, or of all reproduction. Besides, they seem to have a multitude of subordinate and inferior gods for various pm*poses." Senor F. de Castello reports that, ''In the Castello's heart of South America the majority of the Estimate inhabitants are pure Indians, and a very large percentage still use the Quichua, Guarani, and Aymara language. In the extreme south there are also large numbers of unreclaimed Indians without anything Spanish about them. . . . Nearly 7,000,000 of people in South America still adhere, more or less openly to the super- stitions and the fetishisms of their ancestors, having never submitted to any Christian ordi- nance; while perhaps double that number live altogether beyond the reach of Christian influence, even if we take the word 'Chi'istian' in its widest meaning." The Rev. W. B. Gmbb, a missionary in the Many Tribal ■r» r^ r>^ i . mn Divisions and Paraguayan Gran Chaco, says that The Languages 74 South America tropical part of that continent is the greatest unexplored region at present known on the earth. It contains, as far as we know, 300 distinct Indian nations, speaking 300 distinct languages and numbering some milhonS; all in the darkest heathenism/' Early Wnen we behold the Indians, generally in Conquerors ^ t_ u • i i i .• poverty, barbarism, and degradation, or per- verted and dominated by gi^oss superstition, we see how little of good was brought by the early Spaniards and Portuguese. If they had come, not as reckless adventurers and cruel conquerors, but as true Christians, how different now would be the condition of the aborigines in South America! Natural Before the conquest the aborigines had demonstrated their natm^al capability. That the Incas and other races could attain a high ci^dHzation without external aid shows what they might have become, had the Spaniards and the Portuguese brought true Christianity and a genuine Christian civilization and had practised the precepts of Jesus. The WUd As it was, the Spaniard and the Portuguese ShowSjVhw checked their progress, destroyed their civiliza- Morality ticn, and, by their corrupting touch, degraded The Early Inhabitants 75 them. Even at this day it is said in South America that the wild Indian is more moral than the Indian who has come mider the control of the early Spanish and Portuguese influence and the rule of the Roman Church of South America. If the aboriginal inhabitants demonstrated Hope the ability for self-government and capacity ca^dt^l - for civihzation which they did before the so- Progress called Christians came, there still must be in the race elements of progress that will assert themselves when the repression and perversion which came with the conquerors are removed and favoring conditions are created. Their capability in the past shows their large possi- bilities for the future. The white race that crushed and degraded them owes a heavy debt to the Indians of South America, and it is the duty of the white race to come to the rescue and lift up the Indians and those whose aborigi- nal blood has been corrupted by the immoral European. Professed Christians of the Roman type re- Genuine duced the Indian and checked his advance- "^^^^^^ should ment and now genuine Christians should lift uplift him up and give him a new chance. 76 South America Early The early Spanish and Portuguese wronged "^^RSht^d ^^^ Indian, and their descendants have not righted the wrong. The Roman Church did not save him at the beginning, and never since has been sufficient to restore and trans- form him. Pure Gospel If the Indian had been given the true gospel SuDolied ^^^ Christian treatment, his advance would have been assured. Now real Christians owe it to the South American Indian to send him the pure gospel. Then he will have the good that naturally comes with and grows out of the gospel. Evangelical Evangelical Christians outside South America must send the Christian missionary with the life- giving, liberty-making, and uplifting truth. They must help right the wrong. Then the transformation of the Indian and the mixed races will manifest itself, but no force other than the pure gospel will bring this to pass. Missions Essential The Early Inhabitants 77 QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER II Am : To Show that the Past of the Aborigines op South America was Worthy of a Better Present and Future 1. What are the principal facts that impress you / most in the material development of Inea civili- y zation ? y2. What are the principal points that impress you in its social development? 3. What, in its religious development? 4. How do all these things compare with the civilization of the aborigines of the United States and Canada? 5. How do they compare with the civilization of our early German ancestors? 6. Why was the civilization of the Andes higher than that of the Amazon valley? 7.* What do you think would have been the possi- bilities of Inca civilization, if it had been al- lowed to assimilate the best of Christianity in European civilization? 8, Can you find any justification for the attack by Pizarro ? 9, How did the treatment of the natives compare with that by the settlers in North America? 10. Can you think of any cases in history of decline comparable with that which the South American Indians suffered at the hands of the Spaniards? 11.* What is the proper attitude for the advanced races to take in dealing ^ith those that are backward? 12.* What is the debt of the white man to the Indian ? 13. State what you consider the debt which the present white inhabitants of South America owe to the Indian. 14. Does their unwillingness to discharge this obliga- tion involve us in any way? 15.* In what ways are we better able to undertake this work than the Roman Catholics of South America ? 16. If you were an enlightened Indian in South America, to whom would you look for the evangelization of your people? 78 South America 17. Would you be glad to have the Protestants ov North America turn over the responsibility to South American Eoman Catholics? 18.* In view of all the circumstances, locate the re- sponsibility for the evangelization of the Indians of South America. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY CHAPTER II I. Inca Civilization. Clark, The Continent of Opportunity, VIII. DaTvson, South American Republics, Vol. II, I. Guinness, Peru, Part I, III, IV. Protestant Missions in South America, 143-148. Reville, The Native Religions of Mexico and Peru, IV. Prescott, The Conquest of Peru, Book 1, 1, II, IV. II. Religion of Aborigines. Brown, Latin America, Lecture I. Ecumenical Missionary Conference (New York), Vol I, 480-482. Prescott, The Conquest of Peru, Book I, III. Reville, The Native Religions of Mexico and Peru, V, VI. MAKING OF THE REPUBLICS 79 From the earliest times to the beginning of the nineteenth century, Spain had only exploited her colonies ; her rulers knew nothing of them, except that those who did not die there came home rich after some years of government clerkship. Misrule and revolt were as famil- iar in the New Spain as they were in the Old — and then the separation came. — Albert Hale Great Britain bequeathed to her North American colonies, liberty of conscience and action; education of the people, pure Christian family life, morality, woman elevated and respected; a deep-rooted religious sense and a strong conviction of individual responsibility; happi- ness and prosperity. The heritage which Spain and Portugal left their South American colonies under papal rule, was priestly tyranny and corruption, ignorance of the masses and illegitimacy; defective morality, superstition, bigotry or open unbelief; external forms of religion degenerated into downright idolatry; chronic revolutions and bank- ruptcy. — Brazilian Journal Nevertheless the Spanish occupation brought many incontestable benefits to South America. To say nothing of the civilized system of jurisprudence, the letters and the religion which have made the peoples of the continent members of the great western European family, the introduction of new and valuable animals, grains, and fruits raised the level of average well-being among the surviving inhabitants. Horses, asses, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, chickens, pigeons, wheat, barley, oats, rice, olives, grapes, oranges, sugar-cane, apples, peaches and related fruits, and even the banana and the cocoa palm were introduced by the Spaniards. — Thomas C. Dawson 80 Ill MAKING OF THE REPUBLICS T X 7HEN American discovery had just begun, Proposed ^^ Pope Alexander VI, a Spaniard by birth, Demafcat'on decided that the new lands, discovered or to be discovered, should be divided between the monarchs of Spain and Portugal, and directed that a meridian to be known as 'Hhe line of demarcation" should be drawn one hundred leagues west of the Azores, and that all heathen lands to the east of that line should belong to Portugal and that all to the west of the line should belong to Spain. This papal bull was issued on the 3rd of May, 1493. At this time South America had not been Discovery of tbe discovered, for it was not until his third voyage continent in 1498, that, on the 31st of July, Columbus discovered the island of Trinidad, saw the mainland near the mouth of the Orinoco, and skirted the northern coast in a westerly direction. 81 82 South America Line of The possibility of a disadvantage in the ycmarcation , - , . . y ^ i i Changed location of the imaginary line, however, led 3RITI5H GUIANA DUTCH GUIANA FRENCH GUIANA WT¥ SET TLEMENTMAP DC Area settled up to 1630 am " - 1630-1770 mm " " I77O-I9C0 — Boundary of present populated area Portugal to desire another arrangement. The result of this was a convention between Spain Making of the Ke publics 88 and Portugal, called the Convention of Torde- sillas, which was held in 1494, in which the line of demarcation was shifted to three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape Verde islands. This proved a great gain for Portugal, as any ^-esuJts one may see by a glance at a good map of that p^riitTrvn section of the world. This papal partition brought the Portuguese into the eastern part of South America, and the Spaniards into the west, north, and south. It was also regarded as determining that the new^ lands did not belong to Spain or to Portugal but that they were the personal property of the monarch of Spain on the one hand and of the monarch of Portugal on the other. Into the eastern part of the continent went ^^^i^^ry and Portuguese government, and into all the rest con^u^t'" went the Spanish. At first the government was largely military, but side by side with the military was the ecclesiastical. On the heels of the military conquest came the ecclesiastical conquest, and after a while the priest was more powerful than the soldier, and the Roman hierarchy overshadowed both soldier and civilian. 84 South America ^ Crown The new lands were regarded as crown lands, FcnrTof ^^^ ^^^ monarch governed more or less directly. Government In Spain the King established the Council of the Indies, which was so called because the Americas were supposed at that time to be parts of India. Subject to the King, this Council had general supervision. Then the King ruled very directly through viceroys and executives of lower rank appointed by himself or through the Council. The viceroy was the representative of the King. Then there were captaincies, and the division into provinces. Forms of government brought from Spain were estabhshed. For the municipality there was the Cahildo, or local Council, and in great centers was the Audiencia, which was a court of appeal and inspection. Viceroyal For a long time there was only one viceroy Territories £^j. v^p^nish South America. He had his seat in Lima, the capital city of Peru. At a later period other viceroys were appointed, but it was not until 1776 that the viceroyalty at Buenos Aires was created. Royal and Both Spain and Portugal carried into South Feudal ^^\j3^gj.jpg^ \]^q feudal system and both Indians Despotism and others suffered from the crushing despotism Making of the BepiibUcs 85 of the lords of the soil. As the years went on the despotism of the King and certain favored classes became more and more severe. The population was made up of several Classes classes, and all felt the harshness of the yoke H^rsh^Ruie excepting a favored few. The African slave bore his burden with less friction than some of the others. The Indian toiled sullenly but suffered keenly. The mixed races with Spanish blood inherited the spirit of independence which belonged to the Spaniard as an individual. Still another class gradually resented the treat- ment they received. They were the pure- blooded descendants of Spaniards but born in South America. They were called the Creoles. Their brethren and cousins born in Spain con- stituted a privileged class and looked down on the Creoles as inferiors, though they knew they were of the same blood, but that fiery blood would yet assert itself in an effort to free itself from the vigorous domination of people of the same race. Indeed, the spirit of independence manifested Early itself in armed resistance from very early days. ^^*^^^ ^^ •^ ^ ^ Resistance Almost at the beginning of colonial develop- ment there were such assertions. The colonists 86 South America in Paraguay had practical independence from 1535 to 1560. Early in the eighteenth century the Creoles in Potosi raised the cry of ''Liberty.'' In 1730, two thousand of mixed blood arose in upper Peru and by an armed protest secured some rights. In 1765, the Creoles of Quito arose in arms against taxes which had been levied upon them. In 1780, the Indians in Peru, under Tupac- Amaru, a descendant of the Incas, arose against their Spanish oppressors but failed in their valiant attempt. Showed These outbreaks, however, were not of a ^^^^ . very definite political character and were not connected movements, but they proved the existence of very general discontent, and the reasons for dissatisfaction with Spanish rule grew with every new generation. The treat- ment of South America and the South Americans was repressive and naturally provoked resent- ment. The commercial restrictions particular- ly w^ere calculated to prevent the development of the colonies. Direct Direct commercial communication across the F^Mden ^^^^^^^^ ^^^m and to Buenos Aires was positive- ly forbidden. As a consequence the people of Buenos Aires could not buy directly from Making of the Republics 87 Spain nor directly export to Spain, mucli less were they permitted to trade with any other European country. Buenos Aires and every other section south of the region of Panama had to look to Lima for supplies. Imports from Spain had first to go to the Indirect Isthmus of Panama. Landing on the Atlantic pregcnbed side, they were then transported by mules across the Isthmian trail to the Pacific Ocean, where the goods were placed on coasting- vessels that sailed to Callao in Peru. At that point the cargo was disembarked and taken to Lima. Thence it was carried up the moun- tains, through the Andean passes, along the high plateau, down the sides of the mountains, and ax^ross the pampas of Argentina to the city of Buenos Aires. It is easily seen that the great expense of these long and roundabout shipments added immensely to the natural cost of the goods. The colonies were forbidden to conduct Monopolistic direct trade between themselves, they were ^'^^ not permitted to buy outside of Spain, and even dealings with the Spani^ had to be limited to the purchase of things that came through monopolies that were protected by the Spanish 88 South America government. Any possible industry in the colonies that might compete with any product of Spain was prohibited. Exorbitant The people in the southern and Atlantic '' r" M colonies of South America, if they purchased Industries imported goods by way of Lima, had to pay five or six hundred per cent, above the original cost of the wares. This of course tended to the impoverishment of the people. At the same time such a system made the exportation of Argentine products quite impossible. Hides, hair, wool, and agricultural products could not stand the cost of such a circuitous and lengthy transport over land and over two oceans. Practically, nothing could pay the exportation but precious metals and valuable medicines, so effort had to be confined to producing gold and silver for export while greatly needed industries were strangled in their birth. Smuggling One need not be surprised to learn that under such conditions Buenos Aires became a com- munity of smugglers. English and Dutch ships came cautiously into her waters and landed cargoes of needed goods and in return took pay in hides and in dollars of South American silver bearing a Spanish stamp. Making of the Republics 89 All this was not calculated to develop the Bonds of spirit of loyalty to the mother country. It t°^^ ,- strained the relations and helped to break the bond that bound the Spanish colonies to Spain. These commercial restrictions and the limita- tion of the rights and privileges of the South American people, even those of pure Spanish blood, ultimately brought about the disruption of the relations that had existed between the Spaniard and the South American. In addition there were other forces at work. Roman The domination of the Roman hierarchy had ^^1^^ ^.i much to do with the oppression and distress of oppression the people. Then, from the early days, the inquisition had been doing its terrible work and strengthening the foreign power. The restraints developed resentment, the resent- ment grew into resistance, and resistance became revolution. In spite of the isolated position of the southern Influence of continent and Spanish prohibitions, ideas of ^^^ political liberty had percolated through the French colonies. The news of the success of the war Revolutions of the Revolution in the English colonies of North America and the recognized independence of the United States of America gave the first 90 South America strong hope of independence to the Spanish colonies in South America. Then came the French Revolution, in 1789, which strengthened this hope. Growing Educated Creoles who had been in Europe or Freedom ^^ ^^^ United States communicated with their friends in South America, and there were spread the ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity, and of self-government among the common people. Antonio Narino translated into Spanish, printed in secret, and circulated throughout New Granada The Rights of Man. As a result he was banished to Africa, but the rights of man were winning their wa}^ The desire for freedom was ready to reveal itself in action. Opportunity, leaders, and organization alone were needed, and the opportunity was at hand. Napoleon In 1808, Napoleon made his power felt in ^ P^^ Spain and the divided royal family of that country abdicated in his favor, whereupon Napoleon put his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the throne of Spain. Since the monarchy was the only constitutional link between Spain and America, this act of Napoleon's had far- reaching consequences. Making of the Republics 91 In the South American colonies two feehngs South 1 ^ 1 1 • f ir America's were at work. One was the desire for self- Opportunity government; the other was sympathy with, if not loyalty to, the one whom they believed was the legitimate king of Spain. They were opposed to the old monarch, Charles IV, but friendly to Ferdinand VII, whom the French had made a prisoner. This was South America's opportunity, for while Spanish armies were in South America, Spain could do little or nothing to strengthen them. Soon revolutionary efforts began. In the First city of Chuquisaca, in upper Peru, the Creoles t,^^"?^ deposed the constituted authorities and started an independent government in 1809. In July, of 1809, the city of La Paz followed the ex- ample set by its sister city and formed a junta composed exclusively of persons of Spanish blood who had been born in South America. Troops, however, were sent from the viceroyal- ty of Peru and the viceroyalty of La Plata and these uprisings were suppressed. The next year, 1810, the general revolution General reall}^ began, and in wideiy separated places ggg^ ^ juntas of government were organized, with the i8io assertion that the sovereignty was represented 92 South Amenca by the people and that they would govern in the name of the monarch. Action m Thus, on the 19th of April, 1810, the g ^^' local council at Caracas arrested the Captain- Akes, General and the Audiencia Real, and a pro- Bogota, and visional junta was formed under the title of Santiago the ''Junta Established for the Preservation of the Rights of His Majesty, the King Ferdi- nand VII.'' On the 25th of May, 1810, in the city of Buenos Aires, a great mass of armed men appeared in the main plaza before the building occupied by the Cabildo, formed a Creole junta, and compelled the viceroy to retire. This junta was recognized by the Cabildo and by it was proclaimed to be the supreme authority. All this w^as done in the name of Ferdinand VII., King of Castile and Leon, but the people did it, and the people took the government into their own hands. On the 20th of July, 1810, the revolution began in Bogota; and, on the 18th of September, 1^10, a revolutionary junta was formed in Santiago, Chile. By a These practically simultaneous uprisings, in j^ , ^ places very remote from each other, are all the more remarkable when it is remembered that Making of the Republics 93 there were no cables, no telegraphs, no modern postal systems, and no means of rapid com- munication in that vast continent. Before the close of the year the revolution All Spanish was general throughout Spanish South America, ^^gj^j,^ Ostensibly the people in many places acted in Affected the interest of Ferdinand VII. With some this was probably sincere, while with others it may have been a mere pretext to pacify the loyalists, but, whatever the motive was, the real purpose and actual outcome was the independence of the Spanish Americans in South America. The actual revolution in South America First began in the north, and from the north came the first liberator, as the South Americans called him. This remarkable man who first attempted the independence of the northern section of the continent was Francisco Miranda. Miranda was born in Caracas, in 1756. He Preparation was of a Spanish family which possessed great wealth and was very prominent among the colonial nobility. He was sent to Europe to complete his education. When in Paris he met the Marquis de Lafayette, who had been in the United States of America aidinir the Americans 04 South America who were fighting for their independence. Miranda, who at that time was about twenty- two years of age, promptly enlisted, and going to America, was given a position on the staff of General George Washington. Inspired by the illustrious example of Washington, Miranda determined to attempt the liberation of his own country. The time, however, was not yet ripe. Experiences Returning to Europe he had many and varied experiences. Personally attractive, he pos- sessed many winning qualities, for he was an educated man with a variety of accomplish- ments, being not only a soldier, but also a poet, a wit, and a musician. It is no wonder, there- fore, that finding his way to St. Petersburg, he became a favorite of Catherine the Great. The French Revolution called forth his sym- pathies. He offered his services to the Repub- licans and became a general of division. Appeal to As early as 1791 Miranda published a letter* of X ^ J to the people of the United States, in which States and r r ^ Great he attacked the colonial system of Spain and Britain declared that the colonies "were free by natural right received from the Creator." He also at- tempted to secure the moral and material sup- port of Great Britain. Failing to secure the direct Making of the Republics 95 help of the United States and of Great Britain, he then ventured to open the war himself. In 1803 he went to the United States, and Direct aided by two American citizens, Colonel Smith j^J^F^a and Mr. Ogden, he fitted out an expedition of about two hundred volunteers, a number of whom had been his comrades in the American army during the revolution. In 1800 he sailed for South America and landed on the coast of Venezuela. Getting a foothold, he issued a proclamation, but the people did not respond, and he was overcome. Some of his men were shot, some were imprisoned, and his own Hfe was spared only through the intercession of his family and influential friends. Again he returned to England, and in Work in London rendered valuable service to the cause of South American liberty, by establishing a society called the "Gran Reunion Americana." It was a secret society a^d each manber was sworn to promote the transformation of the Spanish colonies of South America into in- dependent governments, and, among the mem- bers were Narino of New Granada-, Montu- far and Rocafuerte of Quito, Alvear of Argen- ^Earlier name for Colombia. 96 South America tina, and others who later became famous in the hberation of the colonies in South America. Returns After his early failures he returned from with Bolivar ^^^^^^^ ^j^jg ^j^^ ^j^j^ Bolivar. Miranda and Bolivar fought side by side and together won some important victories. Successful As we have seen, the revolution began in Steps in Q^j,ac3^g oj^ ^^i^ ig^j^ ^f ^ j-jj ig^Q. Qn the Venezuela ^ ' 2nd of March, 1811, the Congress opened its sessions in Caracas, and on the 5th of July, 1811, the Congress declared the Republic of Venezuela free and independent of Spain. The original Declaration of Independence of Vene- zuela still exists in the handwriting of Francisco Miranda. In it the signers declare that Spain was ''always deaf to the cries of justice on our part." On the 21st of December, 1811, the Congress sanctioned a constitution similar to that of the United States of America. Reverse p^\\ this seemed most promising. Miranda Earthquake ^^^ made Dictator, but in that very year (1812) both the Congress and the Republic were des- troyed. This was due largely to a terrible earthquake which leveled the city of Caracas to the ground. The clergy, who generally were royalists, took advantage of this catas- Making of the Republics 97 trophe, pointing out that it occurred on Holy- Thursday, exactly a year after the Declaration of Independence, and asserting that it was an act of Providence in which God expressed his displeasure and that he had convulsed the land to crush both the rebels and the rebellion. Then, unable to maintain an army in the field, Miranda concluded a peace on the 29th of July, 1812, and surrendered the ruined city, capitulat- ing on condition that he should be deported to the United States. This condition was not honored. He jour- ^-ij^nda's neyed toward the sea and fell into the hands of spain an opposition faction of the revolutionists. By them he was subjected to a sort of trial and delivered to the Spaniards and even Bolivar voted for his death as a traitor, and Monteverde, the Spanish commander, gave Bolivar a pass- port "in recompense for his services to the king in the imprisonment of Miranda." By the Spaniards Miranda was sent to Spain where he was imprisoned, and at last, in 1816, he died in the dungeons of the Inquisition of Cadiz, Spain, and, as one has said, he was ''buried in the mud banks, over which the waters of the Mediterranean ebb and flow in front of the 98 South America city." Thus perished the man who was the soul of the initial period of the great South American Revolution. Bolivar Miranda died, but the spirit of revolution ecomes ^^-jj g^pyjyg^j Another and a much younger man was to come to the front as the great northern liberator. This was Simon Bolivar, who had been a member of Miranda's society in London and had been associated with Miranda in the rising of 1810 in Venezuela. Like Miranda, Bolivar was born in Venezuela and in the same city of Caracas. A Young Bolivar w^as born in 1783, so that he was ^ about twenty-seven years younger than Miranda, and himself only about twenty-seven years old when he helped with others to start the revolu- tion at Caracas in 1810. Early Life Left an orphan at three years of age, he fell an raining j^^-^, ^^ some of the largest estates in his native country. At home, under the care of a tutor, he obtained the elements of a liberal education, but at the age of sixteen he w^as sent to Europe to pursue his studies. During his residence abroad he traveled extensively in England, France, and Italy, and while in Paris witnessed some of the closing scenes of the French Revolu- Making of the Republics 99 tion. In 1809 he went back to Venezuela by way of the United States, where he had an opportunity to study the workings of a free government, and as a result he determined to make his own country free. Back again in London he came in contact with Miranda and joined his secret societ3^ In that South Amer- ican Reunion he learned both the principles and plans of revolution, and when he returned to his native country that year it was to Vv^ork and fight along with Miranda for the independence of Venezuela and of all South America. So Bolivar was at the outbreak in 1810, and ^'^^ from the revolutionary junta received a colonel's ^^ ^ commission. When the independent govern- ment collapsed in 1812, he fled to the island of Curacao, but, hearing of revolutionary move- ments in New Granada, he went to that country and, receiving a commission from the independent government of Cartagena, he at once vigor- ously attacked the Spanish. In the meantime the revolution had been progressing in the south, the revolution in Buenos Aires having begun almost at the same time as that in Caracas. In the early period of war in Argentina, San Martin General Manuel Belgrano proved to be a most P?*"^^^ 100 South America valuable leader of the patriots, and in 1812 he won a most memorable victory over the Spaniards near Tucuman and by it saved the Argentine revolution. At this juncture there came to the front the most remarkable soldier of the South. His name was Jose San Martin. Soldierly San Martin, as he is commonly called, was ^uucation 1^^^^^ .^^ 1778, in Argentina. His mother was a Creole and his father a Spanish military ofhcer. When he was eight years of age, the father took the whole family to Spain. In that country Jose received his education, his professional education being conducted in the best military schools that Spain possessed. At an early age he entered the Spanish army and served in the many wars in which Spain was engaged after the Revolution in France, and so distinguished himself that he rose to the rank of lieutenant-colonel. Becomes a In the meantime he had accepted liberal 1 eraior • j^^^g ^^^ j^^^^j become a member of Miranda's secret society and was pledged to the work of transforming Spain's South American colon- ies into independent governments. The very next year after his promotion to the position of lieutenant-colonel in the army of Spain, San Making of the Republics 101 Martin resigned his commission that he might return to his native land and aid in her effort to secure independence. There had been many fluctuations in the struggle between the patriots and the Spaniards in the different parts of Spanish South America. When San Martin landed at Buenos Aires in March, 1812, it seemed not improbable that the Revolution of 1810 would utterly fail. As one historian puts it: "Bolivia and Crisis in the TT 1 J. xu J.' • • Movement fgi Uruguay were lost; the reaction was gaimng j , ground in Venezuela; Chile was menaced by dence an army from Lima and shortly fell back into Spanish hands; Peru was steady for the old system. Only in Argentina and New Granada were the fires of insurrection still burning, and between them intervened Peru, the stronghold of Spanish power in South America — a citadel impregnable behind mountains, deserts, and the ocean." As a matter of fact the Republic of Vene- A Force zuela was destroyed in July of that very year, p"*^^^ ^ It was a dark outlook, but the man to save the day had come. He was now thirty-four years of age, an experienced soldier and an efficient officer. Eight days after his arrival manders a Result 102 South America San Martin was confirmed in his rank as lieu- tenant-colonel. He quickly took in the situa- tion and proceeded to organize and drill some good regiments in Buenos Aires. He saw the importance of quality and thorough preparation. He selected only youth of the finest physical and the best moral character. These he drilled and trained and subjected to the severest discipline, steadily eliminating those who did not measure up to his high and rigid standard. Many Com- Out of this severe system and out of this select corps came generals and other officers for the armies and battles that followed, his famous regiment of mounted grenadiers producing nineteen generals and more than two hundred officers of lower rank. In 1814 San Martin was given the chief command of the army of the north which was intended to act in upper Peru and against the viceroy of Lima. Peru the San Martin perceived the importance of Spanish destroying the Spanish power in Peru if South Power America was to be free, but he saw the many difficulties in the vray of reaching Lima through the mountains and high altitudes of upper Peru. If he could cross the Andes and defeat the Spanish forces in ChilCj then he might enter Making of the Republics 103 P^yu by the sea. He decided upon this course of action and asked for and received the appoint- ment as governor of the Province of Cuyo, which was in the extreme west of Argentina and right under the shadow of the Andes Moun- tains. Making Mendoza his headquarters, he gath- Argentine ered, drilled, and supplied an army of invasion ^^^ " which was to be an army of liberation. The Established revolution of Buenos Aires, or The Umted Provinces of the Rio de la Plata, continued without a break from the 25th of May, 1810. While practically independent of Spain, never- theless it was not until the 9th of July, 1816., at Tucuman, that the provinces formally de- clared their independence, and hence, so to speak, Argentina celebrates two independence days. Three days before this formal declaration of San Martin's independence, the revolution in Venezuela fr^f . Victories failed and Bolivar had fled from his country. Argentina and the United Provinces of the Plata stood alone, and Argentina was to be the leader in the hberation of South America. San Martin was now ready to move. In January, 1817, he began his advance and, dividing his 104 South America forces, crossed the Cordilleras. Outmaneuver- ing and defeating the Spaniards, he united his forces and, in February, 1817, won the import- ant battle of Chacabuco. In April, 1818, he gained a decisive victory at Maipo, to the south of Santiago. Bolivar's Jn the northern part of the continent Bolivar the^orth ^^^ gotten a foothold again and was pushing forward. In 1819 he undertook the capture of the capital of New Granada. Scaling the Andes he descended to the vicinity of Bogota, and in August of that year won a great victory over the Spanish army at Boyaca. After this battle Bolivar united Venezuela and New Gran- ada into one republic which he called Colombia. Invasion of With the Spanish power broken in Chile, ®^" it was now possible for San Martin to attempt an entrance into Peru. A fleet under Lord Cochrane, an Englishman, was fitted out and, in August, 1820, San Martin with his Argentine and Chilean troops sailed from Valparaiso. In less than a month his army had landed at Pisco, Peru. Peruvian In- Sending General Arenales with an army to dependence ^^^j^^ ^ circuit through the eastern highlands. Proclaimed ^ i • i i • San Martin reembarked and landea with his Making of the Republics 105 army north of Callao where he could com- mand the city of Lima, and, later, Arenales re- joined him. On the 6th of July, 1821, General Jose de La Serna, the viceroy, fled from Lima, and, three days later, a division of San Martin's army entered the city. The citizens soon de- cided in favor of independence, and, on the 28th of July; 1821, the independence of Peru was publicly proclaimed. Just about one month prior to this, Bolivar GuayaquU gained his crowning victory on the plain of Liij^rty Carabobo. In the meantime, in 1820, the people of Guayaquil sought their liberty and formed the state of Guayaquil. Bolivar sent his ablest general, Sucre, to aid them, and he reached Guayaquil in the month of May, 1821. The time had arrived when the patriots of Union of the north under Bolivar and the patriots of the south under San Martin could help each other and, joining forces, could complete the indepen- dence of Spanish South America. Sucre needed aid and San Martin sent him a Sucre portion of his army, and Sucre, aided bj^ the ^^^' reenforcements sent by San Martin, won a great Victorious victory in May, 1822, on the heights overlooking the city of Quito. 106 South America Meeting of Bolivar had marched from southern Colombia f ^^!^ and reached the frontiers of Quito in March, San Martin ^ 1822. San Martin sailed to Ecuador to meet him. In Guayaquil on the 25th of July, 1822, the victor of the north and the victor of the south met for the first time. The conversations between the two liberators were in private but their import was serious. The two men had two policies. San Martin believed in the independence and self-government of each country, while Bolivar wanted to combine all the countries under one government, and it was evident that he wished to be the head. It was equally plain that Bolivar would not willingly endure a superior or an equal in military operations, but it was necessary to unite the northern and southern armies in order to utterly crush the Spanish power in upper Peru. San Martin's To avoid a personal clash and to give unity and success to the final campaign, San Martin determined to obliterate himself. Quickly re- turning to Lima, he went before the first constituent Congress of Peru, which convened in September, 1822, and yielded his authority. The Congress voted him the title, ''Founder of Self -exile Making of the Republics 107 the Liberty of Peru," and he, without an- nouncement, sailed that night from the harbor of Callao. A Uttle later he sailed from Buenos Aires for Europe. Self-exiled he lived in poverty. The work of liberation was almost over, but Closing strong Spanish armies remained in the high- ®^®°^^° lands of upper Peru. Bolivar was near and San Martin had left his veteran Argentines and Chileans with their experienced officers to aid the Peruvian patriots. There was hard fight- ing in southern Peru, and the royalist, Canterac, with an army of 9,000 men, taking advantage of the withdrawal of the republic's troops, rushed down from the mountains and captured the city of Lima. Bolivar sent General Sucre with 3,000 men, and he occupied Callao. On the 6th of August, 1823, Bolivar's Last ^ forces met the royalists under Canterac on the ,,. ®®P1^ •^ Victones plain of Junin. Not a shot was fired, but there was a battle of saber and lance, and the royalists were driven from the field. Then followed the battle of Ayacucho, fought on the 9th of December, 1824, where General Sucre won a great \dctory over La Sema, the viceroy, and Canterac, and ended the war, 108 South America and all the Spanish colonies in South America had gained their independence. Spanish The most notable result of the war for in- epu .ncs (jgpgj2(jgnce was the creation of a series of new republics out of the Spanish colonies. Bolivar's idea of one government for all South America was not realized, but San Martin's theory of self-govermnent prevailed. Adjust- The boundaries of the republics were already Territorv ^^^^^Y ^'^^^ defined by the old divisions of the Spanish colonial days. Some modifications, how- ever, were made. Bolivar combined Venezuela, New Granada, and Ecuador into the Republic of Colombia, which fell apart before his death, in 1830, but New Granada perpetuated the name Colombia. Peru retained its old boundary lines, but Bolivar, taking upper Peru as a separate republic, named it Bolivia after himself. The old viceroyalty of Buenos Aires, or the Rio de la Plata, passed from the United Provinces to the three republics, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay. For a time Uruguay was associated with Argentina, but its river separa- tion made it the Banda Oriental or eastern bank of the river, and after varied experiences it became the independent Republic of Uruguay. Making of the Republics 109 Chile continued as the old Cliile, but was ChUean now a self-governing nation. In later days Chile extended her grasp northward by taking territory from Peru and Bolivia. Patagonia was partitioned between Argentina and Chile, and the name Patagonia disappeared from the map. In 1840, Panama revolted from Colombia Panama the and maintained its independence until 1842. <^ .^^ Still later the Province of Panama withdrew Republic again from Colombia and proclaimed a Republic on the 3rd of November, 1903. So to-day there are ten Spanish-speaking republics in South America. In Portuguese South America the develop- Early ment has been of a somewhat different character, q^^^^^^^ and, though the outcome has been similar, the process has not been so violent. Brazil, in the early days suffered from the acts of the government of Portugal very much as the Spanish colonies did from Spain. The country was exploited for the benefit of the king and the few he favored. Commercial monopolies granted by the crown limited trade and restricted industrial development. Traffic was forbidden be- tween the northern and the southern provinces. 110 South America Portuguese In 1807, the French occupied Portugal and ..^^f the royal family fled to Brazil. Once there, Brazil John VI introduced a more liberal com- mercial policy, and the colony was raised to coordinate rank with the mother country. In 1821, King John VI returned to Lisbon, leaving his second son, Dom Pedro, as regent. Separation Then began a movement on the part of the Portugal S^3,zilians for separation from Portugal, and this was favored more or less openly by the prince regent, w^hereupon King John sent him peremptory orders to return to Portugal, but the regent refused. Emigre In 1822 the independence of Brazil was RepubUc d^^la^'^ ^^<^ "^^6 regent, Dom Pedro I, was proclaimed Emperor of Brazil. The emperor, in various ways, became so unpopular that he found it advisable to abdicate in favor of his son, who at that time was a child six years of age. His legal majority was de- clared in 1841, and that year he was crowned emperor under the title of Dom Pedro II. The emperor was an intelligent man, a lover of learning, and a humane ruler, but republican ideas became so strong that on the 15th of Making of the Republics 111 November, 1889, a Republic was declared and the royal family was exiled. So all South America was free from foreign Liberation domination, with the exception of British, ^ovement _ \ ^ ' Completed French, and Dutch Guiana, and excepting the Guianas, each country was a republic with a written constitution modeled on the Constitution of the United States of America. Since the introduction of republican forms Republican of government in South America, there has been ^ ^^^ ^^ ° a marked development along all lines, par- Established ticuJarly those of a political, social, and re- ligious character. There is a stronger love for democratic institutions and republican principles in government even than was shown during the exciting times of the great revolution; for at that time, because of the uncertainties then existing among the people, some of the strongest leaders against the Spanish despotism were bold to suggest the introduction of a monarchical form of government. The very attempt at self-government, though Benefits of Contact not always of the highest order, is gradually with other training the people and securing greater stabili- ®°^ ®® ty. Increased contact with other parts of the 112 South America world; through commerce, travel, and literature, is also aiding greatly in the mental, social, and political development of the people of the various countries of South America. The influx of immigrants from lands where they were familiar with free and enlightened governments has contributed to the betterment of South America politically, socially, and in every other way. Educational The increased intelligence which has come and oa -tj^j-ouffh multiplied schools and improved school Improvement ° ... ... systems is showing its influence in all directions. Freedom of thought, speech, and action steadily grows; and this, tending to increased freedom under law, gives liberty and sound government an assurance of permanence. Social changes are taking place in the betterment of the masses of the people through better ideas of existence, better sanitation, and better control of physical disorders, and particularly, of febrile diseases, all of which tend to greater comfort among the people, and, with other things, are promo- tive of physical content. Modifying In addition there are religious factors that r. ^ t^* ? exert a great influence. On the one hand is Protestant- ^ ism the Roman ecclesiasticism, which, believing in Making of the RejJublics 113 the temporal power of the Church, naturally desires to control politics. But on the other hand there is the spirit and fact of Protestantism, which, while it does not seek political control, nevertheless checks or modifies the Roman power, not by material nor political methods, but by putting into the minds of the people better and more liberal thought. When the South American countries are Recent compared with what they were before they velopment became republics, it must be conceded that in recent years there has been a great improve- ment and that development has been relatively rapid. But there is much yet to be desired. In- Sympathy of herited conditions continue to exist and retard states and the progress of the South American republics. "Monroe Their struggles call for sympathy and their condition calls for help. The British colonies in North America started the war of the Revolu- tion against Great Britain with infinitely less provocation than had the people in Spanish South America. The South Americans suffered more severely and longer than the British colonies that became the United States of America. The United States showed sym- Doctrine 114? South America path}^ and was the first nation to recognize the independence of these southern repubhcs and in the early part of the nineteenth century promulgated the ''Monroe Doctrine" in defense of the young republics of South America. Need of The yoke of Spain was thrown off, but these Ofh republics in all their subsequent years have Bonds been weighted down by the inheritance of evil from the earlier centuries and held down by the repressing and retarding influences of a medieval ecclesiasticism. After such heroic struggles as they have made they deserve the best fruits of political liberty, but they never can en- joy these fruits until they are freed from the remaining bonds that have held and hurt so long. Moral and Political independence is not enough. Some- Emanci- "^^^^S niore is needed than self-government and pation the citizen's ballot. There must be something moral and spiritual. Back of national life is individual life, for the nation is made up of individuals, and what the individuals are the nation is. Back of morality is rehgion, and religion determines moral conduct. Ultimately, error in religion is mainly the cause of all other errors and of their resulting evils. Making of the Republics 115 Among leaders in South American indepen- Call for dence have been men of high ideals, but leaders chrS°° ^~ and people need the force of the loftiest moral and religious thought. They must have help, but especially religious help. Nothing will aid South America like the pure and simple rehgion of Jesus. It makes for freedom ; for where the spirit of Christ is there is liberty. The spirit of Christ recognizes the rights of men, and so tends to political improvement and the general uplift and comfort of the people. True political Hberty must have associated with it spiritual hberty. Only that can make the most out of free government in the state. That is what the South American republics need, and we should send them the true religion of Christ. QUESTIONS ON CHAPTEE III Aim: To Appreciate the South American Struggle FOR IxDEPEXDENCE AND PROGRESS 1. What -^yas the relative power of England and Spain at the time of the Eef ormation ? 2. What has been the relative growth of the two nations in power and enlightenment since? 3.* Trace the effect of this on the colonies founded by England and Spain respectively. 4. What would you expect from colonies founded under the care of Philip II of Spain? 5. What was the attitude of the Spanish govern- ment toward the early colonist? 116 South America 6. Compare the influences received by North Amer- ica from England, and by South America from Spain during the 17th and 18th centuries. 7. From what sources did the South Americans derive their principal ideals of independence? 8. In which continent had the colonists the greater provocation to revolt? 9. Which colonists made the greater sacrifices for independence? 10. In what way is South America indebted to Napoleon for political independence? 11. Which of the South American leaders do you think most resembles George Washington? Give reasons for your opinion. 12.* State some of the advantages which the English colonists had over the Spanish as to personal preparation for self-government. 13. Which continent has been in contact with the more progressive i)art of Europe during the last century ? 14. Which continent has attracted the better quality of immigration? 15.* What advantages has an English-speaking over a Spanish-speaking nation? 16. What relative results would you expect to-day from the previous advantages enjoyed by the North American and South American Kepublics? 17.* To what extent do you think that Protestantism has been responsible for the progress of North America as compared with that of South America? 18.* What political benefits would result from the introduction of Protestantism into South Amer- REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY CHAPTER III I. History of Tiepiiblics. Hale, The South Americans, IV, VIII, XII, XVI. XL Struggle for Liberty. Brown, Latin America, Lecture III. Dawson, South American Republics, Vol. I, 97-115, 206, 220. Making of the Republics 117 Eliot, Chile, IX-XIIT. Guinness, Peru, VIII. Speer, Missions and Modern History, 183-225. III. Liberators. Butterworth, South America, (Miranda) IT. Butterworth, South America, (Bolivar) IV. Prescott, Conquest of Peru (Pizarro) Book III, Chs. Ill, IV, V. V y , SOCIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE n9 The percentage of school attendance based on the population is as follows: Argentina 10, Uruguay 7, Chile 3.70, Paraguay, 3.50, Peru 2.36, Brazil 2, Bolivia 2. The percentage of illiteracy in Brazil is 84, and in Argentina, including the splendid modern city of Buenos Aires, it is 50. Argentina has a symmetrically developed system of education. This is modeled on that of the United States, and was introduced by Sarmiento, who was the President of the Republic from 1868 to 1874. Education is under the control of the state, which maintains primary and secondary schools, normal schools, and provincial and national universities, with faculties of law, medicine, and engineering, as well as a college of agriculture and a military and naval school. — Marrion Wilcox Knowing of the corrupt lives of the priests, it is hardly necessary to say that the most unspeakable corruption is prevalent everywhere in all classes of society, and in the low lands, *'the hot country," where it is practically all out-door life, with windows and doors and yards always wide open, there is no attempt to con- ceal immorality. Right in line Avith this is the universal desecration of the Sabbath, the one day of every week given over to social life; balls, dinners, bull and cock fights, debauchery in its lowest forms, the drawing of the lottery weekly, political and carnival parades, and other desecrations. — Walter Scott Lee But the hopeful and cheering thing to remember is that all the republics, with two or three exceptions, are fronting in the right direction. Their faces are toward the sunrise and not the sunset. They are leaving anarchy, petty squabbling, and misrule, behind, and are advancing toward a stable, responsible government, based more and more upon the will of the people. True republicanism is growing stronger with every decade, except in the northern countries of Venezuela and Colombia, and possibly Ecuador. Monarchy has abso- lutely no chance of imposing its chains on South America again. — Francis E. ClarTc 120 IV SOCIAL AND POLITICAL LIFE THE expression ^'social life" is exceedingly Broad Idea of "Social comprehensive. It touches the develop- j^ „ ment of the individual, it is closely related to the family with its subdivisions and modes of activity, it forms also a leading factor in the general life of the local community, and it extends into the broader organism of the municipality and even of the nation. The present social life in South America is. Worthy of for practical and philosophical reasons, worthy ^ of careful study, because the social life is apt to reveal the real nature of a people as it re- flects their moral, intellectual, and religious ideas. It is the outer expression of the inner thought and conviction, or, it may be, lack of conviction. In primitive times South America had the Primitive social life of the savage aborigines and that of 121 122 South America the more cultured aboriginal peoples, such as the Incas in Peru and the Chibchas in southern Colombia. Then, between the extremes, were gradations, relatively similar to those found among different classes in other lands. Heartless Then came the Spanish and Portuguese uropean ^^jyej^turers, who not only broke down the imorahties ^ -^ Introduced political independence of the various aboriginal peoples, but also broke down their social customs and standards, interfered with their family life and introduced bold and heartless European immoralities. Notwithstanding the multitude of material crosses and the myriads of sacerdotes or priests, there came in a license and looseness that meant a lowering of the moral and social life of the primitive people. Later In the course of the centuries there has been Modi^ca- ^^^ modification of the early conditions, tions Military lawlessness gradually gave way to more settled conditions, the gross immoralities and other excesses became more restrained and less offensive in their openness, though the evil taint was not totally eradicated. Present Conditions that exist in the present time must ^i^^T^^e ^^^ occupy our attention, and, first, the in- dividual may be considered. What may be Social and Political Life 123 said by way of criticism or otherwise must not be understood as including everybody in South America, but as referring to individuals and classes in a general way, and, so, when we speak of conditions, w^e are not to be understood as speaking of universal but of general conditions. The typical South American is certainly as hard to picture as the typical American, Canadian, EngHshman, German, Frenchman, or Russian. Really it is harder to draw the picture of the average South American because he is more of a composite m.an. Yet while individuals show marked difference, there should be and probably is a type. At least one is developing. The common representation of the South Polished American is that he is a polished gentleman, ^°^^^® with elegant manners and a most marked politeness in speech. All this is true of many individuals to be met with almost everywhere, but it would be far from accurate to regard this as universal. Dignity of bearing is of course found among Courtly or the old and cultured families. The old Spanish g^^^^ grandee and the Portuguese of high rank is sure to have the manners of the courtier, and this manner has been stamped on many with Differences in Manners 124 South America whom they have come in contact. The Cas- tihan manner, however, belongs chiefly to the educated or cultured, and in a much less degree to those who have imitated their example or acquired a polish from the contact of frequent association. Class In South America class distinctions and class differences in manners must be noticed and conceded. If one takes the Castilian grandee as the type he expects to meet at every turn in South America, he will have many surprises and sometimes be w^ofully disappointed. Cul- tured people everywhere are expected to have good manners, but all are not cultured. Many Furthermore, the Castilian type does not Strains ^^^^^^ ^ ^^^ people in South America. Indeed, the Castilian is in a small minority, and even the average Spaniard represents only a minority of the population. The overwhelming Indian stock of the early days has not entirely lost its proportion, and representatives of many races have found their way to the southern continent and their blood has been mingling in the common blend. In consequence. South America is neither Spanish nor Portuguese, though their blood flows with some degree of force. Social and Political Life 125 Then it is one thing whether you meet the On or Off individual when on his good behavior — on ^^^' ° parade dress-parade, so to speak — or when he is not compelled to observe the etiquette of some social function. Thus the man who, at some public function, might most graciously bow and insist on your taking precedence, might, in the scramble for a seat in a street-car, elbow a lady to one side, tumultuously rush for a place, and leave the lady out on the sidewalk, if she is not pushed into the gutter, without a chance to ride on a car where the number of passengers is hmited by the law. The typical South American is a lover of Love of pleasure and fond of display and, if he has the anT^play means, is lavish in expenditure. Among the rich there is a fondness for dress, for horses and carriages, for the opera and theater, and for sports generally. The same spirit is widely spread throughout all classes, but there are cruel contrasts between wealth and poverty and the pleasures of the rich and the poor. Individual morality is much lower on the Relatively average than that which prevails in the United , Tf r^ States, Canada, or Great Britain. As to general and particular morals, the standard 126 South America is far below the highest and below the standard one expects in all Christian countries. As to veracity, the people on the average are less truthful. A promise is deemed a light thing that may be broken or kept according to the whim of its maker. As business rests on general reliability and depends largely on the degree of faith that can be put in the vv^ord of the dealer or customer, in statement or promise, this lack of veracity must tend to business dishonesty and injuriously affect society in general. Lack of Back of the conduct and the characteristics of the people generally is a lack of conscience, or of conscientiousness. They too generally fail to put conscience in what they think and do. This generally defective conscience shows itself very often in a characteristic deceitfulness in deahngs with each other, and accompanying the deceitfulness is a suspicious secretness, which leads one to infer that they distrust each other. Intemper- Intemperance pervades all classes of society, and a great variety of intoxicating beverages are used. The Indians and the mixed races use a drink called chicha and chew coca leaves. ance Social and Political Life 127 The latter destroj'-s the sense of taste and, when much used, vitiates the entire man. Among the people of the European stock, as well as others, the strongest intoxicants are extensively used, and Argentina is reported to rank as the third nation in the world in the use of absinthe. In South American towns and cities the drinking saloon seems to be at almost every comer and in the center of every block. It is sometimes said that there is little if Use of . , . . J . , . Wine no any intemperance m wme-producmg countries. Barrier but that is not true in South America, for wine is produced and drunkenness is very prevalent. Further, the people do not limit themselves to the weaker wines but, in addition, use the most powerful intoxicants. The relations between the sexes are not Sexual regarded and protected as is the case in the P^^^ United States or Canada, and sexual purity is not so generally maintained. In the upper ranks woman is treated with great courtesy in social life, and there is a certain degree of respect for appearances, so as to avoid violating the external proprieties and shocking public sensibilities. Nevertheless, that the grossest forms of immorality abound is a matter of com- Langtiage and Action 128 South America mon repute and often there is little care to dis- guise the vileness. Indecent Men and women, not only of the lowest classes, but also of higher classes, use vile language in conversation and even in the home circle. Even on the most public and frequented streets in great cities that boast of their ad- vancement there is outrageous vulgarity and brazen indecency. Young men, well-dressed and even educated, stand at the corners and block the sidewalks of the most fashionable streets so that ladies can scarcely push their way through, and, when they attempt to pass through, they are immodestly jostled and insulted by vile and vicious remarks. In less frequented streets the indecencies are un- mentionable, so that it is not safe for a young girl or a grown woman to go out without a male escort, especially at night. Even in the daytime no schoolgirl or young woman of the better class goes out alone. Prevalence Such things suggest a vast amount of secret vice. Indecency in language and in action on the public street is pretty conclusive proof of gross sin in private and very positive proof of an exceedingly low standard as to social of the "Social Evil Social and Political Life 129 purity. That what is commonly called the "social evil" exists in most aggravated forms goes without saying. As one who is well- informed as to South American life has said: '^Prostitution is glaring and wide-spread, especially in towns and cities." That there are good homes and pure famihes Tendency to is admitted. Human nature, with the natural jj^^ affections, could hardly get so bad as that there would be none. Doubtless there are many such, but the low standard of morality must and does result in a low home life which is almost typical. The Rev. Hubert W. Brown declares: ''While Concubinage husbands love their wives and provide for them, it is commonly reported, and seldom or never denied, that one or more mistresses may be added, if only they are kept decently out of sight. Not actions, but appearances, are the test. To concubinage of this kind all eyes are discreetly closed, save for an occasional repri- mand in the newspapers."* As to the matter of comfort, the South Ameri- The Home can home is immeasurably inferior to the aver- q^^iq^^^^ age home in the United States or Canada. Discipline ^Latin America, 266. 130 South America The home lacks a wholesome happiness such as is generally found in these countries. The disregard of the simplest laws of sanitation in- vites disease and death. Altogether, for the men, out of doors is more inviting than indoors. There is little literature in the home and the little that is generally read is usually very bad. Unfortunately the large majority of the people cannot read or enjoy good literature if they had it. To all these things must be added the vulgar language of many parents and the proverbial disobedience of children. The effect of all this upon the children, the parents, and the community may easily be imagined. For- tunately this picture does not represent all the families in the land, but there is little of genuine home life as it is understood by the Americans, the English, and the Germans. Loose Then it is quite common for unmarried ^^^^ couples to live together as though they were married. Thus one, writing about Colombia, has said: '^The marriage laws and the state of morals induced by the nearly universal dis- regard of the same are the greatest hindrance to the evangelization of Colombia. There can be no really binding marriage covenant except Social and Political Life 131 it be celebrated by a priest of Rome, who usually demands a fee beyond the power of the masses to pay. Even civil contracts are made null and void on certain easy conditions. As a consequence, polygamy, without the sanction of even Moslem law, is more common than in Moslem lands. "^ Illegitimacy of birth, which is so conamon. Illegitimacy further reveals the wide-spread immorahty of South American countries. The percentage of illegitimate births is exceedingly high, some- times thirty or fifty, or a greater per cent. In Ecuador it is seventy-five per cent. In Vene- zuela more than one half the children are illegitimate. The Rev. H. C. Tucker, of Rio de Janeiro, Abandoned writing in 1900, says of Brazil: ''The ofiicial ^^""^^ statistics show that in the year 1890, there were living 2,603,489 persons, or more than one- sixth of the entire population of the country, who were born out of wedlock. Certain Catho- He hospitals have an opening in the wall next the street with a wheel arrangement where, under the cover of night, these illegitimate and abandoned babes may be deposited, and thus ^Historical Sketch of Presbyterian Missions, 267, 268. Social Ideals Needed 132 South America be taken in and cared for. The census referred to shows that 12,265 then hving had been deposited in these wheels and so brought up."^ Our Best In these matters the United States of America is not perfect, but in the United States the moral standard is infinitely higher and the average moral and social conditions are im- measurably superior to the average in South American countries, and such is the case in Protestant countries everywhere. The contrast is easily seen. The question is not. Can the evil in South America be paralleled in North America? but. Is South America in need of our best social ideals? Protestant missions will take her only these. Why Why, then, is this great difference in the Different , ^ • i vr o moral and social liie? Base Char- First, the impress left by the general character Comers ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ European adventurers who came to South America from Spain and Portugal. Generally speaking, they were unprincipled, coarse, brutal, bloodthirsty, and sensual. Many of them were criminals. They left their stamp on the continent and the people have received this inheritance. ^Protestant Missions in South America, 69. Social and Political Life 133 Second, the influence of the less cultured Low Racial Indians and the various race blends. uences Third, the influence of the Roman ecclesiasti- Ro^ian cism, which has utterly misrepresented the pure ticism religion of Jesus, and, therefore, perverted the thoughts of the people. With their frauds of miracle-working images of the Virgin and their religion of compromise with paganism, the teachers of Romanism have made the people, of South America Hke it in spirit and in social life. Fourth, the influence of the inquisition. Effect of the which made the people secretive and deceitful, ^^^^^^o^ When every man distrusted his neighbor and was fearful lest the man he was talking to would denounce him to the inquisitors so that, for some trivial expression, he might be burned as a heretic, it was natural that his distrust would make him extremely cautious, and that the excess of caution would lead him to dis- semble. His child w^ould catch the same spirit, and this, repeated through generations and centuries, would fix in the people distrust and deceit, and suspicion and lack of candor would become characteristic of the race. Fifth, the lack of proper education, a lack I'ackcf that has continued through centuries. Even 134 South America with all that has been done in the last forty years, the percentage of illiteracy is still very great. In Peru only about twenty per cent, of the children of school age go to the primary schools. In Brazil, eighty-four per cent, of the entire population are illiterate, and even in Argentina, which leads all the other countries in education, only about forty-five per cent, of the children of school age are to be found in the schools of the land. This ignorance accounts for many of the evil conditions in South America. Priestly Sixth, the influence of the general character or reputation of many in the priesthood has much to do in accounting for the low morals and general lack of conscience among the masses of South America. That there are and have been good priests need not be disputed, but that the general impression in South America is not favorable to them as a class is well known. Shocking stories have been told of the im- moral lives of many of the priests. Of course it may be retorted that there might be moral lapses on the part of indi\ddual ecclesiastics in any Church. But such instances are very exceptional, and are not tolerated in reputa- ble Protestant Churches. Immorality Social and Political Life 135 On the other hand, in South America it is Depravities a matter of common report that immoralities (^^a^^J are exceedingly common among the priests, and, though the facts are said to be well known, it is asserted that too frequently nothing is done to imfrock the guilty man, but, on the contrary, such men seem to retain the respect and protection of the ecclesiastical author- ities. We do not declare that these allegations Persistent are true, but merely note that such affirmations ®^^ ^°°^ are made in many places and have been common and persistent for many years. That these things can be so long a matter of common repute certainly raises serious questions. Senor F. de Castello, an agent of the British Castello»s and Foreign Bible Society, writes of South Am- erica as under ''the control of a most profligate priesthood, whose main business seems to be that shameful traffic in souls for which they have attained world-wide notoriety, and by which the gospel of Christ has become a by- word. " The Rev. H. C. Tucker, of Rio de Janeiro, Tucker's Declsxci t^ 01 also declares that, "the priests have been so un- faithful to their vows of celibacy and so im- 136 South America moral, and the men generally so profligate, as to fill societ}^ with infidelity and suspicion."^ Wide-spread Such things are heard throughout South re ence ^j^^gj.j(.g^^ 2iiid they are believed by men who were Reports raised in the Roman Church and who still are counted by it, and also by many who still are attached to that body. Papal It is reported and said to be a matter of record ^^^ that even popes have been shocked by most re- liable testimony from Roman Catholic sources concerning the general priesthood of that Church in South America. Pope Leo, in his en- cychcal letter of 1897 to the Roman Catholic clergy of Chile, said: ''In every diocese ecclesi- astics break all bounds and deliver themselves up to manifold forms of sensuality, and no voice is lifted up imperiously to summon pastors to their duties. The clerical press casts aside all sense of decency and loyalty in its attacks on those who differ, and lacks controlHng authority to bring it to its proper use. There is assassin- ation and calumny, the civil laws are defied, bread is denied the enemies of the Church, and there is no one to interpose. . . . ''It is sad to reflect that prelates, priests ' Protestant Missions in South America, 69. Social and Political Life 137 and other clergy are never found doing service Scathing among the poor; they are never in the hospital of^cSl^n° or lazar house; never in the orphan asylum or Clergy hospice, in the dwellings of the afflicted or dis- tressed, or engaged in works of beneficence, aiding primary instruction, or found in refuges or pri- sons As a rule they are ever absent where human misery exists, unless paid as chaplains or a fee is given. On the other hand, you (the clergy) are always to be found in the houses of the rich, or wherever gluttony may be indulged in, wherever the choicest wines may be freely obtained." How could a land be truly Christ- ianized by a priesthood of that character? The example of an indolent, mercenary, and corrupt priesthood is utterly demoralizing.* What accounts for the contrast furnished by Puritanism the United States and Canada? The Spanish Bi^ieby adventurer brought lax views as to morality; Contrast the Puritan brought most rigid concep- tions. The Spanish adventurer brought the visible cross, the formal service, the priest, the inquisition, and the decrees of the pope; the Anglo-Saxon brought the open Bible ^No such general charges have been made against the Roman Catholic clergy in countries of North America where there is a strong Protestant environment. 138 South America and accepted its teachings as his standard. The Spaniard brought the rehgion of Rome; the Protestant settlers of North America brought the simple rehgion of Jesus. These things accoimt for the differences. Signs of Fortunately we are not compelled to close ^ment ^^^^ section with a hopeless note, for there are signs of improvement. Higher ideals begin to influence the people, and the moral standard is beginning to rise and a better life to manifest it- self. The ideas of true Christianity are begin- ning to be accepted as the proper ideals of the people, and the Bible is beginning to create the right practical hfe. Rays of hght are being re- flected, but the dawn has not fully come. There is hope of a coming better day. Political AMien we come to consider political life in Life e ecte gQ^^]^ America, we must remember that naturally General ' ... Character many of the characteristics of the individual of the People ^nd social life wiA express themselves in politics. The same men come into politics who have formed part of the social life, and they bring the same mental and moral defects. If there is ignor- ance and lack of conscience in the one, they will be brought into the other. If men are suspic- ious and deceitful in the one, they will be in the Social and Political Life 189 other. In other words, the poKtics of a people will be to a large extent a reflection of the gen- eral moral, intellectual, and social life of the people. Space will not permit a very detailed state- Brief Detaller ment as to the political Hfe in South America. '^^^^ The common idea is that political government Sham in the southern continent means the appearance ^*^°°^ of a popular election which is a fraud, and this Revolutions in a very little time is followed by a bloody revo- lution which overturns the government which was put in power through the sham election. We should remember that revolutions are not ^^^^ _ as frequent as they were formerly. We should ^^^^ ^^ remember that the Constitutions of the South Laws, American republics are generally good docu- ^^*P<^°^ ^ ^ , T 7 \ r. . Execution ments and are modeled on the Constitu- tion of the United States of America. So, gen- erally speaking, the laws are good. The trouble is that the good laws are not well executed. The form of government is fairly good, but it is not always fully and fairly worked. The theory is nearly right, but sometimes the practise is not equal to the theory. The fault is with the officials and the people rather than with the constitutional law. 140 South America Parties and Party government exists but not in as perfect a Their Methods ^^ form as in Great Britain, Canada, and the United States. Usually there are two main parties who, with more or less accuracy, may be desig- nated as liberals and conservatives, but frequent- ly this means merely a personal leader and a per- sonal following. Elections are duly announced and ordinarily the party in power controls the election machinery. Sometimes the result is conceded before the election takes place. When one side succeeds in making a popular pro- paganda or the greatest demonstration, or when it has the control of the political machinery or the backing of the military, it is said the other side will not throw its strength into the ballots, but will refrain from voting and allow the election to go by default. Occasions That, however, may not be the end, for the tionarv other side, the apparent minority, will wait its Efforts time and watch for an opportunity to surprise the party in power by suddenly springing a re- volution. It will wait until the government makes a mistake, or for any reason becomes un- popular, or until those who are working up the revolution have managed to win over some officers in the armv, or have secretlv secured the Social and Political Life 141 support, of a number who are willing to take up arras against the government, should that be deemed necessary. Then, when the right mo- ment comes, they will spring their surprise, and the government, being taken unawares, may be compelled to give up power, or, if the govern- ment is strong and ready, it may mean a civil war of long or short duration. In the matter of elections, the United States The Ballot and Canada are not perfect, by any means, nev- Dg^isive in ertheless their method is decidedly better than United that often resorted to in South American coun- ^^*®^^ ^^^ Canada tries. In these countries governmental matters are submitted to the arbitrament of the ballot, while the warlike revolution of South America is a submission of the questions to the arbitra- ment of the sword. Why, is there such a difference in the political Reasons for ' n the Difference methods of the two contments? First, in South America it is an inheritance Early from early days. The conquistadors conquered ^^ ^^ by the sword, and through the centuries the Sword people of one generation have followed the example of their predecessors. Physical force settled questions as they arose. The present has its explanation in the past. 142 South America Churchiy Second, there have frequently been the in- ntngues ^J,;g^gg ^f ^j^g secret government of a poHtical Church, which claims to be superior to the state and to have the right to control the state, and the effects of this form of hidden despotism have unfitted the people for open and confident self-government. Long- Third, there is the mutual suspicion that SuspU^ion t^i'o^g^ ^^^ generations has led the people to dis- trust each other and to secretly scheme to secure an advantage over others. A people under a despotism and a merciless inquisition naturally develop such characteristics, and the fault is not so much in the people as in the forces that have molded them. A Difference In North America and South America an- cient ideas have had their influence. To some extent the difference is due to a difference in the beginnings. Representa- The people of the United States and Canada ' m^nt and ^^^^^ ^^^ a training in the idea and fact of a gov- Monarcliicsd ernment by the people through their represent- Despotism Q^j-j^gg 'pj^g colonies prior to the formation of the present foim of government were familiar with a representative government. The early colonists brought the representative idea from Social and Political Life 148 England, as England got it from the ancient Anglo-Saxons. The founders of the South American governments had no such centuries of training, but their political inheritance was from the despotisms of Spain and Portugal. Among the people of the United States and Respecter Canada there has been an inherited respect for ^^^ j^^ law. They have been trained to respect the law^ the officers of the law, and the whole machinery of government. This has not been the inherit- ance of the South Americans. When we judge South America we should Right and have regard to these and other differences in po- Ir„ ?. "^' o ^ ness or litical history and inheritance. The United Physical States and Canada began with the idea of the ^^* sacredness of law; South America began with the idea of lawlessness. The North American built on right and righteousness. The South American built on might. Moral right is exalted in the one; physical might in the other. The early settlers of what is now the United Devotion to States of America came for freedom, a protected conscience home, and an unshackled conscience; the early or to European in South America came for adventure ^^®®*^ ^.^ ^ . Superstition and his motive was greed and gold, and there Patriotism or Mere 144 South America came with him an ecclesiastical power that re- strained the liberties of the people and enchained their conscience. Political and religious liberty go together, and, where there is not religious freedom, there cannot be political liberty. North America has preserved connection with the most progressive section of Europe, and the best quality of emigrants from Europe have come to North rather than to South America. Stable After the people of the United States revolted, they set up a government that has never been Attachment overthrown. Their central government has to a Monarch j^ggj^ representative and has commanded re- spect. In Spain and Portugal there had been free municipalities, but the only tie between the South American colonies and the central authority was personal attachment to the monarch. When these became republics, such personal allegiance to the government was dissolved. Appeal to In the United States, at the basis of every ne cnp- ^ thins; was the Bible. The American tures and ^ & Conscience colonist brought the open Bible, which stimu- or to Church \q^q^ individual conscience, to which he appealed, Authority rr 7 under God himself, as the source of authority. The same thing is true of the Briton in the Social and Political Life 145 Dominion of Canada; while the South American had no open Bible, and hence the authorita- tive appeal was different. As a Brazilian journal well puts it: "Great North Britain bequeathed to her N orth A merican j^^j^^^ colonies liberty of conscience and action ; of Principles education of the people; pure Christian family life; morality; woman elevated and respected; a deep-rooted religious sense and a strong conviction of individual responsibility; happi- ness and prosperity. ''The heritage which Spain and Portugal South left their South American colonies under papal ^ " ^^ rule, was, priestly tyranny and cormption; False Ideas ignorance of the masses and illegitimacy; defective morality; superstition: bigotry or open unbelief; external forms of religion de- generated into downright idolatry; chronic revolutions and bankruptcy.''^ Give South America the ideas of freedom and Rig^t Ideas government that have come dovrn from the formjjer" Anglo-Saxon, give her a similar idea of the Republics supremacy of conscience and righteousness, give her the open Bible, give her a little ex- perience in representative government, and the * Quoted in Clark, The Continent of Opportunity, 307, 308. 146 South America South American republics will be true sisters of the great Republic in North America. Influence of South Americans themselves are beginning to open ID e ^^^ ^j^^ ^^^^ reasons for the differences, and one Recognized of the most distinguished leaders of Argentina has publicly declared that the superiority of the United States is due to the influence of an open Bible, an influence which South America has lacked. General General Mitre, one of the ablest statesmen View ^^ Argentina and also President of the republic, gives this explanation of the difference between the repubUcan Jiistory of the United States of America and the independent nations of South America: A List of ''The great extent of the country, the want ^^ '^^ of moral cohesion, the admixture of races, the general corruption of manners, the absence of an ideal, the lack of political and industrial activity, and the profound ignorance of the masses, all contributed to produce a state of semibarbarism by the side of a weakly civilization and vitiated the entire social organism. From this embrj^o was to spring a new republican world, the product of the germs latent within it. ''North America, more fortunate, was colon- Social and Political Life 147 ized by a nation which had practical notions Better of hberty, and by a race better prepared for jr^!I^^ ^ self-government. The process commenced a America century later. The colonists easily adapted themselves to a climate similar to that of the mother country, and founded there a home to which they were bound by free institutions. . . . '^^fter the planters of Virginia and Mar}- Work of land, came the Pilgrim Fathers of New England, t p^ ^ ' ° o ^ Fatnsrs and who, fleeing from persecution in Europe, sought Quakers liberty of conscience in the New World. Authors of the great revolution, they were imbued with the republican spirit and with the democratic spirit of Switzerland and of the Netherlands, in which latter countr}^ they had seen their ideal of the ruler of a free people in the austere person of William of Orange, the antitype of Washington. In accordance wdth these ideas, they established at once a form of popular government hitherto unknown, based upon just laws. Finally came the Quakers, who pro- claimed freedom of the intellect as an innate and inalienable right, and drew up their con- stitution on the basis of democratic equality, absolute and universal, in this anticipating the most advanced of the modern era. Under . 14^8 South America William Penn they established the representa- tive colony of Pennsylvania, the nucleus and the type of the great republic of the United States. Such was the genesis of democratic liberty, destined to become universal/'^ l^ew As South Americans come to perceive the Y^m Biin^ things that insure, and the things that prevent Stability a stable and wholesome civil government, they will gradually correct political abuses. Reform by the creation of right sentiment and by casting and counting a full ballot will replace attempted reform by revolution. Al- ready revolutions are diminishing in frequency and in duration, and it is harder by violence to overturn the duly constituted government. Pity and Nevertheless, though the present native * t / f population is a victim of the past and of present Blame education and environment, these facts and explanations do not make the condition any better. The people deserve pity more than blame, but they need help to change the con- ditions, to give them a new environment, and to infuse transforming forces. An Elevating The great difference between them and the people of Great Britain and the United States ^ The Emancipation of South America, 9, 10. Program Social and Political Life 149 is in fundamental principles, and they must receive the fundamental principles that make for a sound political and a wholesome social Hfe. Give them the same ideas as to the relation of individual to indi\ddual and of in- dividual to government, and conceptions of the right of the individual, the right of the com_munity, the sacredness of law, and the necessity of government for the welfare of all, and these ideas and conceptions will elevate their practise and result in good and perma- nent government. Back of political life is the moral life of the Moral Life citizen. Make the indi^ddual what he should be Religion and the nation will become what it should be. Morality must pervade the nation, but there can be no sustained morality without a basis of sound religion. Back of the moral life is religion, and that moral life will depend upon the purity or impurity, the truth or falsity, of the religion. The golden rule and the two great com- mandments are the basis of a sound social and political life. The best ideals and achievements of Protest- The antism are needed by South America for her andAchieve- social and political development. Give the ^^^^^ 150 South America Spanish, the Portuguese, the aborigines, and the mixed races the same Bibhcal and Protestant principles, and, as they accept and conform thereto, there will result the same conception and actualization that is found among other peoples who have been favored with and blessed by these vital, purifying, and ennobling prin- ciples. QUESTIONS ON CHAPTEE IV Aim: To Eealize the Need of South American Society for our Best Protestant Ideals 1. HoTV would you contrast tlie motives that led to the settlement of North and South America re- spectively ? 2. What class of men would be in each case at- tracted by these motives? 3. What do you think would have been the contrast in home life in Massachusetts and Peru in the early days? 4. What would you infer as to the character of South American home life from the great number of mixed breeds? 5. What sort of training would there be in such homes f 6. What sort of priests do you think would have taken part without protest in the early South American conquests? 7. Why was the inquisition a failure in raising social standards? 8. What conditions in South America have been unfavorable to education as comi^ared with those of North America? 9. Do you thiijk that any pope could make such charges against the Eoman Catholic clergy of North America as Leo XIII made against the priests of Chile? Social and Political Life 151 10. What would you expect of South American so- ciety, if only a fair percentage of these charges wer& true? 11. What would be your attitude toward a Church that tolerated such priests as Pope Leo de- scribed f 12. How can you account for the difference in standards of the Eoman Catholic priests in the two continents? 13. With all these conditions in mind do you con- sider it likely that the statements of the chapter in regard to social conditions are overdrawn? 14. Try to estimate the relative need for Christian effort in the two continents. 15. What would be your feeling toward your chief magistrate if you knew that he had secured his position by force or fraud? 16. How would this feeling affect your ideals of citizenship ? 17. Sum up the advantages that the colonists of North America possessed over those of South America as to ideals of government. 18. What can North America do to help South America to attain these ideals? Make a number of practical suggestions. oi practical suggestions. ^ m \19. What part has the Protestant Church in North (j^C-^t/UO^.,.,^ America to take in this work? f^ ^ ^ /^ \ EEFERENCES FOR FURTHEE STUDY CHAPTER IV I. Government of Republics. Hale, The South Americans, IV, VIII, XIII, XVII. II. Folitical Conditions. Clark, The Continent of Opportunity, XXII, XXXVII. Protestant Missions in South America, 132, 133. III. Social Conditions. Guinness, Peru, XIV. Hale, The South Americans, VI, X, XIV, XVIII. Pepper, Panama to Patagonia, XVI. 152 South America IV, EclucaUon. Clark, The Continent of Opportunity, XXXVI. ' ' Higher Education in Latin America, ' ' Bulletin of Bureau of American Eepublics, Aug., ^08. * * What the People Eead in South America, ' ' Review of Reviews (N. Y.), Jan., "06, March, '0(3. Wilcox, ' ' International Cooperation in South Ameri- can Education," The Student World, Jan., '09 THE RELIGIONS 153 Millions in Brazil look upon the Virgin Mary as their Savior. To them Christ is practically numbered among the saints, and will do nothing except as his mother directs. A book widely circulated throughout northern Brazil says that Mary, when still a mere child went bodily to heaven and begged God to send Christ, through her, into the world. Further on it says that Mary went again to heaven to plead for sinners; and at the close Mary's will is given, disposing of the whole world, and God, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, the Trinity, act as the three witnesses to the will. How many good Christians at home think Brazil is a Christian country! —TV. C. Porter The superstition and idolatry are hard for a North American to understand. They are hinted at by an inscription which I copied from the pedestal of a statue of Christ on the cross in the city of Santiago, which, translated, reads as follows: ''By permission of the Archbishop of Santiago an indulgence of eighty days, which may be applied to the dead, will be granted to any one who vdll say an Ave Maria or the creed before this statue of the crucified Christ." Who will say that Protestant schools and churches are not needed in such a country, where the highest ecclesiasti- cal authority grants indulgences to any dead scoundrel whose friends will say a *'Hail Mary" before a stone image of Mary's Son, whose authoritative word concern- ing salvation was, ''He that believeth on the Son hath everlasting Hfe"? — Francis E. Clarlc. Like priest like people. The immorality of the priests is doubtless one reason for the looseness of the family tie in all parts of South America. While divorces are not allowed for any cause, separations and illegal alliances are very easy and very common. Every large city has public orphan asylums where babies are thrust in and no questions asked. In fact, every convenience is arranged to prevent the recognition of the parents. — Francis E. Clarlc 164 THE RELIGIONS COUTH America is frequently spoken of Ordinary .*^ ... \TiattT as a Christian country, whereas it is View a continent with various rehgions. Again it is commoniy called a Roman CathoUc country, as though nearly everybody embraced the Roman faith and conformed to the practises of the body that calls itself the Roman Church. It is true that the Roman hierarchy has for Roman centuries dominated a large part of South Doj^jjiant America ecclesiastically and even politically, and is now by far the most potent ecclesiastical body in the land, but it is far from true that it represents the universal rehgion of the continent. When the first European adventurers came Abcriginal to South America they found that the aborigines had their own religion, or, to speak more ac- curately, their rehgions. At the present day, notwithstanding the lapse of the centuries and 155 156 South America the many commotions and radical changes among the various peoples of the continent, aboriginal religion still survives and even pre- Incan paganism still persists. Extent of To show the extent of paganism, the Rev. agamsm j^-^^^ Ewbank, a missionary in South America, says: "If you start away at the north and go right down to the south of the continent, you can travel in heathen lands, among people who do not know who God is. The whole of that Southern continent, except the fringes around the edge, should be colored heathen.'^ A Portion of Perhaps we should except a portion of Argentina an ^j.o;gj^^ij-^g^ where multitudes of Indians were Exception ° destroyed and where the immigrant has entered, but even in this section Mr. Ewbank's statement may stand, though not with the same emphasis as in other places. First in The first religion of South America was "^c^ paganism, and one of its great continuing Factor religions still is aboriginal paganism, for millions of the descendants of those pagan ancestors still preserve the aboriginal heathenism. MiUionsof Such Indians are idolaters with a very low ^ ^ ^^^ type of paganism and they number millions, variously estimated from four or five to seven The Religions 157 millions; and yet some persons talk of South America as ^^a Christian country/' as though the continent had been quite thoroughly Christianized, and object to sending missionaries to South America because they would con- tribute their money to missions in heathen lands. A large portion of South America remains in Part a pagan, a larger portion has a modified paganism, -^^^ ^^ and we are compelled, therefore, to rate pagan- ism as one of the extensive religions in South America, and just so far to regard South America as a heathen land. The second religion of South America, in Romamsm order of time, is Romanism, thus called because its head center is in the ancient imperial city of Rome, on the Tiber, where sits its absolute ruler called the pope, and where centuries ago it incorporated into itself much of the imperial- ism of the old Roman empire. This religion was introduced into South Amer- Peculiar ica toward the close of the fifteenth centuiy, '^^'^^^'"^ and in the early part of the sixteenth. The special kind of Romanism that came should be noted, for, as contrasted with some modern manifestations of external Romanism, it had what may be deemed peculiarities. 1^8 Seuth Amerua Medieval First, it was medieval Romanism, the Roman- ism of the middle ages, or, as some may prefer, the ''dark ages." Intensely Second, it was the Romanism most intensely Protestant apposed to Protestantism and the new intel- lectual and individual freedom which it re- presented. Peninsular Third, it was medieval Romanism of the Spanish and Portuguese type, developed in the isolated peninsula of Spain and Portugal. This was of the most bigoted and unrelenting type. So the Romanism that came to South America was not only Roman but Spanish and Portuguese Romanism. Using the Fourth, it was a militant Romanism, that ^°^ did not depend entirely upon the sword of the Spirit but was willing to use carnal weapons to accomplish its purpose. Priests Ac- At the beginning of the conquest of South ^^^Sers ^^^™^y priest and soldier marched together, and one was about as sanguinary as the other, as is illustrated by the case of Pizarro's priest, Valverde, who helped to bring about the slaughter of the Inca, Atahuallpa, and his innocent and faithful followers. In such in- !5tances the representatives of the Church of The Religiom 159 Rome were in cooperation with unprincipled adventurers and aiding them as they wronged an unsuspecting people. Fifth, it was the Church of the cruel inquisition, Employing ■''lis a Church that would not tolerate free inquiry, Jriq^jisit^on but, for a slight variation in the expression of an opinion, would burn a person at the stake, and did destroy vast numbers because they thought, or were suspected of thinking, different- ly from the deliverances of the Roman authority. Lecky observes : ''That the Church of Rome Estimates of shed more innocent blood than any other in- stitution that has ever existed among man- kind, will be questioned by no Protestant who has a complete knowledge of history. . . . Llorente, who had free access to the archives of the Spanish Inquisition, assures us that by that tribunal alone more than 31,000 persons were burned, and more than 290,000 condemned to punishments less severe than death." Ferdinand wanted money and Isabella desired Objects unity among the Spanish peoples, and both were pej-inand willing to accomplish their objects through the and Isabella aid of the most merciless machinery of the most bigoted bigotr}^ They therefore obtained from the pope a bull for the reestablishment of the 160 South America inquisition in Castile and its reorganization in Aragon. Thence it was carried to South Ameri- ca. Ferdinand might wring money from those suspected of heresy, and Isabella might unify the Spanish, but, with the incorporation of the inquisition at the very beginning of the great Spanish empire, they inserted a force that some day would disrupt that empire. A Bad Form This was the kind of a Church which Europeans yitroduced into the newly discovered continent of South America. It was a Roman Church, a medieval Church, a Spanish and Portuguese medieval Roman Church, and an inquisitorial Roman Church, bringing the faults and errors of Spain and Portugal of that day, in addition to those of Rome. To say the least, it was a bad form of religion, and a bad start for the new religion w^hich called itself Christian. An Isolated Sixth, it was to be an isolated Roman Church. AYith all the faults and errors it brought, it was to be separated, and that for a long time, from the possible development of the Church in Europe, from the world's progress, and from the touch of reformed and advancing thought. Resultant Imagine such a Church from a darkened land, Deterioration -xi. i i. • • • j x x- 4. With such a begmnmg m a new and vast continent, The Religions 161 absolutely left to itself for three centuries and more. ^Vhat could be expected from such an organization without any competing Church and, practically, without any check? The natural tendency was toward deterioration. So it became a Roman Church injuriously modified by such isolation and, through this and other causes, greatly deteriorated. What resulted? The results are what might laxity have been anticipated. Carelessness and un- faithfulness followed. On the part of many of the priests, there was indolence, greed, and corruption, and on the part of the entire ec- clesiasticism great laxity. As the author of Latin America, the Rev. Dreadful^ Hubert W. Brown, asks: ''What shall we say of iQ^jictment the lives of priests and monks? They were cor- rupted by the acquisition of wealth and power. They ceased to be missionaries, and, shut up in their monasteries, led idle, luxurious, and often immoral lives. The religious orders, helpful in the first century, became, by the third, a positive hindrance to progress ; while the priests carried 'their love for the family to paternity,' as one foreign ecclesiastic caustically remarked. " So the Roman Church in South America 162 South America Hopeless settled down into what seemed to be a hopeless ^^ " spiritual decay and left the masses in a helpless ignorance as to spiritual things. It failed to become what it ought to have been, and failed to do what it ought to have done. When we say this we refer to the Roman body as an organization, not denying that there were any good individuals or that any good work was done. Opportunity The Roman Church in South America has been a sad failure. It had before it a great opportunity. For centuries it had the entire field without a competitor. It has failed to develop a spiritual Christianity to give the people freedom, either political or religious, to enlighten and make the people intelligent, or greatly to better their social condition. A Paganizing Seventh, as will be seen, this isolated Roman- ^^^^^ ism was actually affected and modified by its contact with Indian paganism. Early Romanism made vigorous attempts to Rom- ttempts to g^j^2e the aborigines in South America. The Romanize ° the Natives early Spanish and Portuguese adventurers brought Yvith them the cross, the priest, and the religion of Rome, and great efforts were made to induce or compel the natives to accept the imported religion. The Religions 16B There was a sort of missionary enthusiasm A Sort of 1 , .,1 ,1 • -x r J Enthusiasm mmgied with the spirit of mercenary adven- ture, which is hard to harmonize with the im- moral, bloodthirsty, and destructive conquerors, but there seemed to be an earnest endeavor to extend the papal domain and to bring the heathen into subjection to the great ruler called the pope, whose government was considered to be supreme over all other human governments. By papal decree and episcopal exhortation the adventurers were fired with a certain degree of enthusiasm for the conversion of the Ameri- can pagans. Popes issued bulls in favor of the conversion Papal Bulls of the aborigines. Thus Alexander VI, wlio ^ygj-^^n undertook to divide the new lands between Spain and Portugal, enjoined the sending out of missionaries who should seek to convert the natives. So it became a rule to take priests on the various expeditions, even Pizarro being required when he sailed for Peru to take priests or monks on every vessel. Even when the Indians had been most cruelly Enslaving oppressed by the conquerors, another pope, ^^^y^)^^^^ namely, Paul III, issued, in 1537, a bull which dealared that, ''the said Indians and all other 164 South America peoples who hereafter shall be brought to the notice of the Catholics, although they may be without the faith of Jesus Christ, in nowise are they to be deprived of their liberty and of the control of their goods, in nowise are they to be made slaves. . . We also determine and declare that the said Indians and other similar peoples are to be called to the faith of Jesus Christ by preaching and by the example of a good and holy life." Provisions Unfortunately the terms of these bulls were ^^_5wful ^^^ generally or strictly regarded. The Destruction goods of the Indians were taken and they were of Life j.g(^^(>g(^ to a condition of slavery. How they were parceled out and compelled to serve their cruel conquerors needs no detailed recital at this point, yet we may pause long enough to read the summary one has given of the slaughter in a single section of the continent. Says one writer: ''The present population of the three states which were wholly or in part included in the Inca empire — namely, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia — does not exceed 8,000,000. It would be safe to estimate the population under the Inca rule at about double that number, or perhaps somewhere between 10,000,000 and The Religions 165 12,000,000, notwithstanding Las Casas, the good but not very accurate bishop of Chiapa, tells us that, in the province of Peru alone, the Spaniards killed about 40,000,000 of people." Another has said that, from about 8,000,000, the Indian population of Peru had fallen within two centuries to less than a milhon and a half. Probably none of these statements are exact, General but they all go to prove that the destruction °^^^^^^^ of life among the aborigines was appalling. That Las Casas, a Roman cleric, who lived in those early times, put the figures so high, shows that the slaughter was enormous. All these things make it evident that the Prescott's words in pontifical edicts were not respected by ^'^^^'■ the pope's followers in the new continent, and that there was much to justify Prescott in saying that ''the Castilian, too proud for hypocrisy, committed more cruelties in the name of religion than were ever practised by the pagan idolater or the fanatical Moslem." Romanism used various methods to secure Conversion the conversion of the aborigines. The first ^ f r ''^ method used was that of force. There was the determination to compel the Indian to come into the Roman fold even if it was necessarv 166 S&igik Amerua to resort to the extremest violence. There was a coercion that appealed to the spirit of self-preservation, and the conquered native found that he might save his life, or be less harshly treated, if he conformed to the religion of the conqueror. Baptism A Mexican writer says: ''The conquered ^tectfon Americans, who feared everything, and rightly, from the hardness of the conquerors, came to the conclusion that conversion and baptism were the most powerful shield behind which to protect themselves from further cruelties. They therefore entered the towns en masse, asking the missionary to baptize them, and in search of the precious guaranties of Hberty and life." The same conditions existed in South America, and Indian hum.an nature pressed by the point of the sword and driven by the lash was coerced in the same way. A Twofold The first thing was compulsory submission i^^iission ^^ ^j^^ conqueror who came with horses and firearms, and the second was compulsory sub- mission to the Eoman Church and its forms, and this body did not hesitate to employ physical force to compel the mind to bend to its will. So, in their desperation, the aborigines The Eeligions 167 yielded in order to secure some measure of protection for themselves and their families. Then the priests had power to inflict severe Punishments physical punishment and could use the Indians p^^ in enforced labor. Records exist showing that harsh measures were resorted to in order to compel the natives to observe the forms of the Church. Thus Indians have been beaten so that the rods were broken on their backs. Montufar, referring to the treatment American Indians received from the Franciscans, says that the ''Indians had them in such great fear, by reason of the great punishments v/hich they inflicted, that some of them dare not speak or complain." Then the laws were severe, as, for example, a Severe Laws law that required Indians to travel thirty-six ^l^^^^^g miles to attend services at the monasteries, a manifest cruelty to women with small children to care for and carry, and to those who were feeble or not in good health. So in a general way attendance upon services was compelled and absentees were punished. In consequence, the Indians feared to disobey. Another form of coercion was the taking ad- ^^ing vantage of venerated customs that had long been customs cherished by the aborigines. For example, as a Lever 168 South America the Indians were fond of wearing their hair long, and long hair was much prized as an ornament and an honor, while a shorn head was viewed as a mark of dishonor. So taking advantage of this feeling on the part of the natives, Philip II decreed that only Christian Indians should be permitted to wear long hair. Another coercive decree was the edict that only Christian children could inherit the property of their parents. Roman Such facts enable us to understand how a xi'^oT" ^oman missionary, writing in 1529 from Mexico, could say: ''The Indians are docile and of good disposition and incUned to receive the faith, but force and interest determine them to it more than sweetness and affection." Substitution Then there was the method of substitution. of ^man -j-^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^j^^ ^^ ^^^ which the Indian associated Objects with his old religion there was substituted something related to the Roman religion. Thus the Roman church building was put in place of the pagan temples. Cuzco After Father Valverde, who had so much to do re^lac^ with the execution of the Inca, Atahuallpa, and Temple the slaughter of his faithful followers, had been of the Sun ^lade bishop, he at once began the erection of Roman Catholic Cathedral, Montevideo H, • Chuech of the Sepulcher, Pernambuco, Brazil The Religions 169 a cathedral in Cuzco facing the principal square and in the place of the Inca's Temple of the Sun. Of this cathedral; Prescott says: ''Its walls Prescott's were constructed of the ancient stones; the parallel altar was raised on the spot where shone the bright image of the Peruvian deity; and the cloisters of the Indian temple were trodden by the friars of St. Dominic. To make the meta- morphosis more complete, the house of the Virgins of the Sun was replaced by a Roman Catholic nunnery." It has been noted incidentally that the church Churches as edifices erected in the Spanish settlements ^^^^ WTre larger and stronger than those intended for the Indians. While there were various reasons for this, it will also be seen that in an emergency these large structures could be used as forts for defense. Another substitution was in the material Iniagesin Place o^ objects of worship. For the idols of the ab- j^^^^ origines were substituted the unages of the Virgin Mary and the Roman saints and other images familiar to the Romanist. The Indians gave up their old idols but they went on with their image-worship. Image-worship is idola- 170 South America try, whether in India, Africa, or anj^where else, and the worship of Roman images is essentially idolatry as much as the worship of any other kind of images. Romanism substi- tuted for one set of idols another set. So the Indians who were idolaters continued to be idolaters, only the new idols had other names and, possibly, were a little better looking. Other Then the Church of Rome compromised with Reminders ^^^"^^^^i^ism by accepting and incorporating into Observed South American Romanism things connected with the customs and religion of the aborigines. Even at this day travelers notice old Indian peculiarities embalmed or rather living in the Roman system. A Noted Mr. W. E. Curtis, in 1899, wrote of what he Report ^^^ ^ -^^ ^^^' Bolivia, and, among other matters, gave a description of an Indian celebra- tion of La Asuncion de la Virgen — the ascent of the Virgin to heaven. He says that after the mass in the church, the Indians congregated in the public plaza, and ''began the dances and other ceremonies which have been inherited from the da5's of the Incas, and are said to be of serious significance ; like the ghost dances of the Sioux, the com dance of the Navajos, the snake The Religions 171 dance of the Crows, and other similar rites practised by the red men of North America." Professor Bandelier is quoted as saying that Fantastic and "every action had a hidden meaning. The Deteriorating dress was fantastic; the gesticulation wild; and all got drunk on native liquor — and this in honor of the virgin." In the same way Humboldt saw, in Me:5CicO; Indians, ''marked and adorned with tinkling bells, perform savage dances around the altar while a monk of St» Francis elevated the host." These and other compromises with Indian paganism made it easier to win the Indian, because it made the new religion so much like that which the Indian had known, but it had a deteriorating in- fluence upon that which had been brought by the Church of Rome. The method of instruction by educating and Indoctrin- indoctrinating the children was logical and q^^ effective, and insured a strong corps of sup- porters in ten or twenty years. That some of this effort for the conversion In Part a of the aborigines was genuine may be conceded, EffortTL but that some of it was an effort of cold ec- part an clesiasticism endeavoring to enlarge its posses- ^^emal sions and increase its power must be evident, 172 South America and that some of it was through the force of superstitious sentiment and the impulse of fanatical bigotry must be quite as plain. That it was largely an external formality rather than a heart conversion that followed among the Indians must under the circumstances seem generally certain. Secret In the very nature of things, few if any of toThS ^^^ so-called conversions could be genuine. Eeathen The conversions w^ere not voluntary but enforced ; Faiths gQ^ since the Indians were compelled to conform publicly to the new religion because of violence or self-interest, many of the converts cherished their own old religion, and, hiding their idols in caves or mountain fastnesses or other secure places, they continued in secret to worship their heathen gods. Continued In 1560, Las Casas indignantly wrote that Td \ idol's than five hundred guacas or idols were found in the city of Cuzco and its suburbs, and that they were adored by the inhabitants, notwithstanding the presence in the city of a bishop, a cathedral church, four convents of monks, and a great number of priests and lay Christians since 1531. So it is apparent that about a generation of ,1 «l^^^l^ W^. ^ ^^^^■^^^ >^RH^P The Religions 173 Romish activity had not thoroughly converted Tendency that community. Of many descendants of ^^^^ the aborigines of that day the statements still hold good, for, down to the present day they have not become genuine Christians, even where they make a profession of Christianity and observe the forms of the Church of Rome as it is in South America. Mendieta, a Roman CathoHc historian, ex- Outward pressed the truth when he said that *'the con- ^ onmty course of Indians to the Church was more an act of outward conformity at the command of their principals, in order to deceive them, than a voluntary movement on the part of the people stirred to seek the remedy needed by their souls, and to renounce the adoration and wor- ship of idols." The Franciscan monks generally accompanied Attitude of the early expeditions, but they, '^with a few t/^^*^^^ notable exceptions, took no special interest in Jesuits the evangelization of the aborigines," and the Indians feared them because of the severity of the punishments they inflicted. The Domini- cans did better for the Indians and made some effort to protect them, especially was this so in the case of Las Casas, who has been styled 174 South Amenca 'Hhe heroic protector of the Indians." The Jesuits did some good up to a certain point. They gathered many of the aborigines into settlements where they taught them a Httle, made them work, and dominated them, but they did not build up strong individual character nor train the community so that it could care for itself after the oversight and control of the Jesuits had been taken away. Then the com- munities fell to pieces and many of the Indians went back into a wild state. How the As a matter of f act ^ South American Romanism urcn i^^g j^^^ made genuine Christians out of the pagan Short Indians. A Church that presents a salvation by works rather than by faith; that makes the external form more emphatic than the inner spiritual life; that presents image- worship rather than the worship of the Divine One alone "in spirit and in truth;" that makes Mary and her worship as conspicuous as or more con- spicuous than the worship of God and his Divine Son Jesus Christ; that makes penance more prominent than repentance; that makes the impression that a sinner or his friends can, by money payments for masses and prayers, shorten his stay in purgatory; that actually or The EfUgi&ns 17l> practically closes the Bible to the people — that Church cannot be a true Christian Church, and such a Church is not calculated to trans- form pagans into true gospel Christians. This however, does not mean that there are A Bad no good persons who are Roman CathoHcs. ^^ ^^ There are many good persons in the Roman individuals Church. As for that matter there have been and are good people among the heathen, but that does not prove that heathenism is good. Neither do some good Roman Catholics prove South American Romanism to be good. In both instances the indi\dduais are good in spite of the system, and in both cases they conform, according to their light, to the divine law God has written in every human heart and im- pressed on every conscience. There are good people who are Roman Catholics, but the system called Romanism is not good but baxl, especially in South America. ^Vhat has Romanism done for South America? Unprogres- It brought a perverted form of the Christian j^^Qig^^^ rehgion. Since it has been in South America it has misrepresented Christianity. What has Romanism not done for that Southern continent? It has not established the true standard of 176 South America morals among the people. It has not elevated the people intellectually as it should have done. It has not stood for liberty of conscience and religious freedom. It has not promoted pro- gress. It has not done the work of a true Church of Christ. It has been an intolerant organization. It has done the things it should not have done and left undone the things it should have done. It has failed, notwithstand- ing the undisputed opportunity of the centuries. A Perversion One familiar with Romanism in South Chri t' nitv -^^^^i^a has said: ^^It is amazing to hear men who have access to the Word of God and the facts of history and of the actual state of the world attempt to apologize for or even defend Romanism. Romanism is not Christi- anity .... There is not an essential truth which is not distorted, covered up, neutrahzed, poisoned, and completely nullified by the doc- trines of the Romish system.'^ Required Impure or indolent priests do not encourage Imnrobabi ^^^ ^^ think that the Roman Church can ever through by itself give South America the uplift it needs. Romanism Corruptions do not purify. So the superstitions of South American Romanism stand in the way of an intelligent and spiritual religion. Thio Virgin of Lujan The Religions 177 Romanism has given the aborigines a new set of superstitions and spread silly superstitions among the different races all over the land. Thus the country has been filled with stories of false miracles, the worship of images, and particularly the worship of the Virgin Mary. In all directions there are images of the Story of the Virgin with asserted miraculous power. One ^u^^^ of the most noted is at Lujan, a town in Ar- gentina not far from Buenos Aires. The narrative tells that years ago a man in the northern part of Argentina wanted to secure an image of the Virgin Mary. One was pro- cured and placed in a wagon which started from the city of Buenos Aires. One night those who had charge of the image stopped on the pampas. The next morning they proposed to continue their journey, and the horses were attached to the wagon, but notwithstanding all the effort they could put forth, the horses could not move the wagon. Additional horses were attached, but they were unable to drag it. Then one of the party suggested that it was a miracle, and that the Virgin wished to stay there. The image was taken out of the wagon, and then the horses drew the vehicle J78 South America with perfect ease, The image was left to be cared for at a house near by, and one morning the image was missed from its place and, a search being made, it was found in a field some distance av/ay. This, it was maintained, was another miracle, and that the image had gone to this point to indicate that the Virgin wished a church to be built there in her honor. Cathedral This was done, and now there is being com- Superstition P^^^'^^ ^ cathedral that will cost perhaps millions of dollars, all because of superstitious absurdi- ties about a little doll-baby which is asserted to have wrought impossible miracles, and thousands upon thousands make journeys to see and worship and make their offerings to the Virgin of Lujan. Churches '^It caunot be said that the overwhelming ^^^'^Men ^^J^^'i^y Q^ ^^^ people of South America are Ptoznan Catholics. Most of the people, to be sure, are baptized, and buried, by a priest, but those are the only occasions when many have any use for him. The churches are full of wo- men and empty of men, I have been in chui'ches where I have seen hundreds of women worshipers, and when I, a heretic in their estimation, was the only man within its walls. The Religions 170 "The unbelief of the men or then- utter in- Their difference to spiritual things is the greatest intngerencc peril of South America, and if Protestantism —Protestant can do an3i;hing to avert this peril and stem Contrast this tide of indifferentism, it is in dut}^ bound to do it. That the Protestant churches do reach the men is evident to the most casual observer. Their predominance is as striking in the meet- ings of the Protestants as the preponderance of the women in the Catholic churches."^ Some outward and visible signs indicate Shorter changed inner conditions. Thus the religious processions on the public streets, once very long, are becoming shorter every year, and they are not treated with the profound reverence they used to receive. Even men can allow the host to be carried by without lifting their hats^ and do this without risking their lives. So there is not the old reverence for the priests, and the natives will refer to them as "black crows.'' Intelligent men have revolted from the demands of superstition and have lost faith both in the priest and the Chmxh of Rome. Unfortunately many have gone to the extreme of losing faith in the Christian religion and in 1 Clark, The Continent of Opportunity, 315, 316. 180 South America God, because they have been taught that the Church of Rome was the only Church. As- suming that was the only Church, when they recoiled from it, they found themselves without any Church. Reflex One of the most remarkable results is the effect of Protestant missions upon the Roman Roman Catholic Church. Wherever a mission is planted Church g^j^j attains some strength, it is noted that the Roman Church and its priests become more circumspect. So Romanism, at least in the externals, is being modified by the presence of Protestantism, just as Romanism in Great Britain, the United States, and Canada is re- strained by its Protestant environment. So, through contact and familiarity with evangelical Protestants, many individual Roman Catholics are learning that Protestants are not so bad as they used to think and the priests had repre- sented. Governments Even governments have been compelled to j^Qj.g take cognizance of the existence of Protestantism, Liberal and have respect for its numerical growth as well as for its beneficial work. As a result they have intervened for their protection, and Protestant soldiers, at least in one republic, The Religions 181 have been excused from compliance with Romish fonns and usages. Liberal-minded statesmen have acknowledged the value of this new force. One said, "WTiat my country needs is Protestantism." A scholar who was nominated for the rector- University ship of a national university was opposed by ^ f, extreme Roman Catholics who charged that Words he was a Protestant. To this he publicly rephed: "I am not a Protestant, but I believe Protestantism is good for my country. I notice that it does not interfere with family affairs, it does not meddle with inheritances; and it does not mix in politics." Romanism has been weighed in the balances Romanism and found wanting. It is a rehgion in South ^^^^.^ America, but it is not the religion for South America. Neither Romanism nor paganism can save that continent. Both have failed. Some other rehgion must take their place. Besides aboriginal paganism and Romanism, Presence of there are various other religions in South Amer- _, ^^^ ° Paganism ica. It may surprise some, but it ought not to surprise any one who knows the history of the races in South America, to learn that in South America there is African paganism. 182 South America This, indeed, is what might be expected when heathen Africans were brought into the country in such great numbers and scattered here and there over the land. Example in Especially would this be the case where these Guiana ^^S^'^^^ wandered away from the European settlements. Thus the runaway slaves who fled into the wilderness of Dutch Guiana, now called the ''bush negroes," restored the barbar- ism and idolatry of Africa, and to this day have their idols, their pagan beliefs and practises. Others in The Rev. H. C. Tucker, writing of the negroes ^^ of Brazil, says: "While it is true that the mass of the blacks have become nominally Roman Catholics, or rather baptized pagans, yet many still follow the superstitions and fetishism of their African ancestors." Chinese and fhe Chinese are in South America, and it is ]^ctors ^^ ^^ expected that many, indeed, the most of them, bring the heathenism of their native land. The Japanese are there in small numbers, but more are coming. Already contracts have been made for the introduction of thousands into Brazil, and it is said that the Japanese are planning to enter the west coast of South America. The Religions im It will surprise some to learn that the religions ^^* Indian Faiths and of East India are represented in this continent, ^he Greek In British Guiana, for example, there are over Church 100,000 East Indians, and there are thousands in Dutch Guiana. Most of them are Hindus but many of them are Mohammedans. The Greek Church is found in South America, though it has not very great numbers, but it will be- come stronger, for the Russian immigration is increasing. The most important of the religions in South Protestant- America, other than the Roman, is the Pro- ^^ ^^^' testant Christian religion, v\^liich is devoted to the gospel and is truly cathohc. South America, consequently, is not a con- Largely tinent of a single religion. Though Christianity „^^^ ^\ is there, it is not a truly and thoroughly Christian — a Mission continent. On the contrary it is largely filled ^^^^^ with errors as to gospel Christianity, and is largely pagan or semipagan. South America is, therefore, a legitimate mission field — a proper field for Protestant Christian missions. South America is a continent that on many grounds appeals for missionary effort. Should we have missions in pagan lands? then we should go to Sou^Ii America, for in that 184 South America A Combina- land there is a startling proportion of paganism. tiono a s gj^Q^jj ^jQ send missionaries to the people of for Mission ^ ^ Service Asia? then we should send missionaries to South America, for large numbers of Asiatics are there. Should we go to Africa? then we should go to South America^ for the negro is there. Should we establish missions for Mohammedans? then w^e should enter South America, for the Moham- medan is in that continent. Should we give the true gospel to those who do not possess it? then we should send missionaries to South America, for in that vast continent there are many millions who are without the pure gospel and have been misled by a distorted and perverted substitute for Christianity v\^hich is but a counterfeit and is not Christian excepting in name. Any reason that can be advanced for true gospel missions anywhere applies just as well to South America. New Relig- Aboriginal paganism is totally inadequate ^°'i,^ Tb^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ remorahzing the people, and Supplied Romanism, though it has had the opportunity of the centuries, has utterly failed. A new religious force is absolutely needed, and this must be supplied by Protestantism. The Religions 185 QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER V Aim: To Show that the Religious Situation in South America Calls for Protestant Mission- ary Work 1. How many pagans would we have in the United States, if there were as large a percentage here as in South America? 2. What would you conclude as to the Christian Church that had left so great a problem un- solved so long? 3. In view of the past, do you think that the present forces in South America can be trusted to evangelize the present generation of pagan Indians ? 4. What was the condition of the Roman Catholic Church in Europe at the time of the colonizing of South America? 5. What was its attitude toward Protestantism? 6. How did the Roman Catholicism of Spain and Portugal compare with that of other parts of Europe ? 7. What has been the course of development of Spain and Portugal since the 16th century as compared with that of the rest of Europe? 8.* What opportunities for progress has the Roman Catholicism of South America had in comparison with that of North America? 9. To what extent do you think one who has seen Roman Catholicism only in North America can appreciate its condition in South America? 10.* What differences of ideal as to evangelization arise from the very nature of Roman Catholicism and Protestantism? 11. How do you think the Roman Catholic mission- aries justified to themselves the methods which they employed? 12.* To what extent do you think that paternalism is justified in missions to savage peoples? 1.3. What are its principal dangers? 14. What do you think would be the effect of such a religion on educated men? 15. In what ways does the Church suft'er when edu- cated men drift apart from it? 186 South America 16. In what ways do the men suffer who drift away from the Church? 17.* In what ways would a strong Protestant com- munity be a benefit to South America? 18. Sum up all the arguments for Protestant mis- sions in South America. EEFEBENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY^ CHAPTER V 'Roman Catliolicism} Brown, Latin America, Lecture II. Guinness, Peru, XVII, XXII-XXVI, XXXI. Protestant Missions in South America, 94-99, 133- 136. Ray, Through Five Republics on Horseback, V. •Further references will be found in the denominational mission- ary periodicals. PROTESTANT MISSIONARY OCCUPATION -NOTABLE EW.NTS AND TYPES OF WORK 187 In the Kepublic of Colombia, having an area of about 550,000 square miles, only one Board is at work, and that is our own, though the British and Foreign Bible Society have one native colporteur stationed at Barran- quilla. In this vast territory we have only two centers of work; one in the south, the interior of the country, at Bogota, the capital; the other in the extreme norih, on the coast, at Barranquilla, at present the most important seaport of the country. — Walter Scott Lee There are, it is estimated, about 5,000,000 Indians in South America, 3,000,000 of them Quichua-speaking. For many of them the Catholic Church is doing nothing at all. And for many of the other peoples — it does next to nothing. If it furnishes them with occasional worship and confessional, it yet leaves them utterly ignorant, providing no adequate schools nor literature nor vital inspiration. Even where it displays itself most, the w^ork of enlightenment and purification, without which nations cannot live, is not done. Protestant schools are crowded everywhere, and might be multiplied indefinitely and be in large measure or entirely self-supporting. If the Eoman Church were doing what needs to be done, there would be no such educational demand as to-day aj^peals to every Protestant mission. — Bohert E. Speer Any one who followed the colporteur on his by-path journeys across Brazil knows that it is not always con- tempt or bigotry which perpetuates ignorance, but that quite as often the native never before had opportunity to find out truth for himself. Any one who has fol- lowed the daily round of the true missionary among the rich or poor, cultured or unlettered, aristocrat or peasant, and has seen the eagerness wdth which progressive Christianity is received, knows that the Brazilian has plenty of grace in him. Our Church envoys are teaching cleanliness as well as religion, chastity as well as good manners, industry as well as /genuflection, physical as w^ell as spiritual uplifting; all this in the name of America. One of the most powerful agents in making familiar to Brazil the ambitions of our country is the American missionary, and a large proportion of the newer educa- tion offered to Brazilians comes from religious sources. — Albert Hale 18S VI PROTESTANT MISSIONARY OCCUPATION— NOTABLE EVENTS AND TYPES OF V\^ORK SUBSEQUENT to the appearance of Rom- First ^ anism in South America, Protestantism ?^ ^ '^^ ' of Protest- undertook to enter the same continent. We are antism surprised when we recall that the veiy first appearance of Protestantism was only a little more than half a century after the Spaniards and Portuguese sighted the shores of South America. South America in the early days never had Slight an adequate opportunity to accept the influence of Protestantism. ^Vhile Protestant missions appeared early, they were either soon expelled by force or were restricted in their scope to those who had come from Protestant countries. It was only about twenty years after Pizarro From founded the city of Lima in Peru, and only ^^^ 189 19Q South America about twenty years after the first founding of Buenos Aires, that Protestantism first came to South America, in 1555, and, it may seem strange, came from France. Huguenots The French Protestants, commonly called the Huguenots, having many difficulties in their native land, naturally turned their thoughts toward the recently discovered lands beyond the Atlantic, with the hope that somewhere in those remote regions they might find a resting- place where there would be no interference with their rehgious principles. Villegagnon ^ Frenchman, named Nicolas Durand, Seigneur de Villegagnon, vice-admiral of Brittany, gave the thought a tangible form. He proposed to form a colony and to raise the Huguenot flag in South America. This proposition he presented to the great Admiral Coligny and interested him so that Coligny directed the movement with the hope that his persecuted brother Protestants, the Huguenots, might find a refuge in the new country, peacefully grow into the proportions of a Protestant commonwealth, and, at the same time, convert thft South American Indians. With the power- ful aid of this Protestant leader, an expedition Protestant Mudonary Occupation 191 was fitted out. Admira^l Villegagi:ion had pre- viously made a voyage to the coast of Brazil and planned to establish a colony in the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. For that point the expedition sailed in the Coligny or summer of 1555, and, after a voyage of four j^^^'^^^ months, entered the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. There the colony landed on a small island in the bay. This island Villegagnon cailed Coligny, In later years, however, the name was changed and it now bears the name of Villegagnon, Villegagnon settled his colony on the island and called the land, '^La France Antarctique. " A second expedition was fitted out, Calvin A Second and the Geneva clergy taking an active interest. With over three hundred persons in the second expedition, Calvin sent two ministers and fourteen students. This was about fifty-two years before the founding of Jamestown, in Virginia, and not far from seventy years before the Puritans settled in New England. Villegagnon proved to be a peculiar character. Instability He constituted himself both chief magistrate ^^ Tyranny and high priest. He was severe in his treat- ment of the colonists and barbarous in his dealings with the aborigines. While he became 192 South America a dictator in matters of religion, he was un- stable in his own theological opinions, and finally shifted to the Roman view and denounced his Huguenot settlers as heretics worthy of the stake, and actually did put some of the more outspoken leaders to death. Intolerable His tyranny and intolerance were so great that the French colonists found their condition more intolerable even than it had been in France. Under the stress some fled to the shore where the Portuguese forced them to accept the Roman faith, while others escaped to French vessels in the bay. Disastrous At this very time ten thousand Frenchmen of ^ ^'^^^ waiting for the earhest opportunity to join Enterprise the colonists in Brazil, but their coming was prevented by the treachery of Villegagnon who returned to France, as Hkewise did most of the settlers. Then, in 1567, the Portuguese, instigated by the Jesuits, captured the French forts and destroyed the Huguenot colony. Duetto '^^^^ perished the first attempt to plant a Trsachery Protestant colony in South America. Had it not been for the treacherous Villegagnon, Protestantism would have had an early foot- hold on that continent and would have spread Protestant Missionary Occupatio7i 193 with the developing country. As it was, Romanism, under the dominating Jesuits, was left in undisputed possession. As Southey remarks: ''Never was a war in Southey's which so little exertion had been made, and so little force employed on either side, attended by consequences so important. The French Court was too busy in burning and massacring Huguenots to think of Brazil. " France lost an opportunity as also did Pro- An Irrcpara- testantism, but by these losses South America, and especially Brazil, lost infinitely more. With a strong Protestantism at that early day the history of the Brazilians and the South Ameri- can people would have been far different and immeasurably better. A few of the survivors of this Jesuitical Fate of massacre fled into the \\dldemess of Brazil. One of those who thus escaped was Jean de Boileau, a man of education and ability. With two companions, he began missionaiy work among the Indians. Unfortunately, his opera- tions attracted the attention of the Portuguese who were settled some 200 miles to the south- ward of the place where he was located. Then the Jesuits, fearing the influence of '^t? 194! South America Boileau, had him captured and sent to Bahia, where he v/as imprisoned eight years, when, after the expulsion of the French, he was brought to Rio de Janeiro to be executed. Here the Jesuit, Jose de Anchieta, whom the Brazil- ians revere as a saint, took a prominent part in the actual execution. Fearing the heretic, whom he claimed to have converted, might deny the Roman faith at the last hour, Anchieta tied the knot around Boileau's neck, showing the executioner how ^Ho despatch a heretic as quickly as possible." Such were the tender mercies of Jesuit saints! The Dutch In the first quarter of the seventeenth century, the Dutch undertook to establish them- selves in the northeastern part of Brazil. About the end of this quarter the Dutch West India Company determined to invade Brazil, and one motive pleaded in support of their project was that in this way ''a pure religion would thus be introduced into America. " At Bahia In the beginning of 1624, the Dutch captured Pemamb^o ^^^^^' ^^^ ^^^^ ^'^ followed by the issuance of proclamations which promised "free enjoy- ment of religion to all who would submit." This at least was a Protestant proclamation Protestant Missionary Occupation 195 of religious liberty, a thing which did not exist where Romajiism dominated in South America, and, indeed, in any Roman Catholic country. The Dutch extended their borders and took Pernambuco and other ports on the coast of Brazil and occupied the adjacent territory, and Pernambuco became the stronghold of theDutch. In the population were Jews, negroes, and Efforts other classes, and it is noted that the Dutch j^^^^^^ ^^ missionaries ''labored to teach them a Cal- Others vinistic instead of a Popish creed." Some of the Dutch ministers "worked with great success among the Indians and succeeded in civilizing and converting them. The Dutch clergy also published a few religious books in Portuguese and a catechism in an Indian language. On the other hand it is declared that deep True depravity characterized the conduct of many g ^f ^.^°^^^ of the Dutch colonists toward the Indians and Lacking the negroes. Such colonists were not possessed of the missionary spirit, but were controlled by avarice and ambition. Strictly speaking, the ministers of the Reformed Church of Holland, brought out by the Dutch settlers, did little beyond undertaking the spiritual care of the Dutch colonists. Infiuence Eradicated 19(3 South America Foothold The Dutch West India Company failed to ^^ ^ appreciate "the great possibihties of this Dutch occupation, and recalled Maurice of Nassau before he could carry out his plans and firmly consolidate his work. Then the Portuguese made attempts to recapture the territory, and, after a struggle of thirty years, the Dutch control was destroyed and this part of Brazil fell into the hands of the Portuguese in the year 1654. Protestant Practically little or nothing resulting from the work of these thirty years remained after the Portuguese drove out the Dutch. As one writer puts it: ''In those days Portugal was wont to make thorough work with heresy and heretics, and no vestige of these thirty years of missionary work remains." Thus, the Portuguese destroyed Dutch Protestantism in Brazil, as in the previous century they destroyed that of the French. The The Moravians began work in British Guiana Moravians -^ yj^^^ ^^^ .^ yj^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ missionary operations in Dutch Guiana. The labors of the Moravians w^hich were begun in 1735, in what is now British Guiana, were carried on until the end of the century, and now are repre- sented at three stations. Their operations were in Guiana Protestant Missionary Occupation 197 mainly among the Dutch settlers and their negro slaves. The aborigines were almost entirely neglected. Indeed, the missionaries were forbidden to permit the Indians to assemble about their settlements. It is stated that, ''If any Indians were converted and abandoned their wandering forest life, it meant additional ex- pense for the missionaries, who were commanded to clothe them and pay their personal tax, while the poor convert was frightened by the threat that he was now liable for service in the army." Indians from the Orinoco visited the Moravian settlements in 1750, but, it is said, the nomadic habits of the Indians and the opposition of the colonial authorities made such contact of little permanent value. Nevertheless, the Moravians did som^ething Giitner and among the aborigines in Dutch Guiana. Their Indian missions began in September, 1738, when John Giittner and Christopher Dahne landed at New Amsterdam, at the mouth of the river Berbice, which then was Dutch, though now British. They proceeded about seventy miles inland and commenced a mission among the Arawaks, and, by 1748, forty-one Indians had been baptized. 198 South America British In British Guiana the Church of England, ^^Gui^ through the Church Missionary Society, began work for the Indians, and Bemaud and Youd accomphshed something among the aborigines of the Essequibo and Potaro rivers, but the Church Missionary Society gave up its work in 1856. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts began, in 1835, to evangelize the negroes in British Guiana. Little Up to this time there was little, if any, of m^^ what to-day is known as foreign mission work. Work Up to this point it was the colonial idea that dominated, as is seen for example in the French and Dutch colonies which have been mentioned. The religious work was largely or entirely among the people in the colony. In other words, within the colony the work had a home mission character. The care of the people within the boundaries of the colony was the thought. It was the colony caring for itself. Individual There are certain movements by individuals Movements j^ gouth America which should be kept in mind by the student of evangehcal missions in that continent. Heary To mo^t students of missions it will be t ^^^^ surprise to learn that Henr}^ Martyn, the cele* Protestant Missionary Occupation 199 brated missionary to India, had some association with the work of enlightenment in SoutJi America. Mr. Martyn went into the service of the East India Company in 1805 and died in Tocat, Asia Minor, in 1812, but on his way to the East he touched the coast of Brazil and re- mained a short time in Bahia. Here he observed the conditions and commented: 'Crosses there are in abundance, but when shall the doctrines of the cross be held up?" While in Bahia, Mr. Martyn endeavored to ^ Favorable present these doctrines. He held conversations in Latin with the priests and friars, and wnth the Vulgate in his hand he taught these curious but unenlightened friars of the Roman Church the real meaning of the gospel of the Christ, and endeavored to win them to the true faith and practise of the genuine religion of Jesus. The bearing, the learning, and the earnestness of the man made a favorable impression and, it is said, he gained alike the love of the wealthy planter and of the poor slave. Referring to this visit, Fletcher and Kidder, Prayer not in their Brazil and tJie Brazilians, ask: "Have Henry Martyn's prayers been forgotten before the Lord of hosts? We love to regard the 200 South America petitions of the early Huguenots at Rio de Janeiro, those of the faithful missionaries of the Reformed Church of Holland at Pernambuco, and the prayers of Henry Martyn at Bahia, as not lost, but as having already descended and still to descend in rich blessings upon Brazil." James Among these individual movements should be l'^^^^S^^^i classed the semimissionary work of Mr. James Schools Thomson, an Englishman, who went to South America as an agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society, for the purpose of establishing schools according to what was known as the Lancasterian system of education projected by a Mr. Lancaster, of England. Many jjjg effort to start Lancasterian schools gave him an opportunity to sell Bibles, and therefore he acted as agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society, and he sold hundreds of copies of the New Testament and the entire Bible. A Work The fact that he was engaged in an education- .^' al "d ^ niovement gave him a standing with govern- Biblical ments that could not have been attained had he been a mere missionary, and he was most favorably received by the civil authorities in various countries. In the Lancasterian schools the reading book which was used contained Protestant Missionary Occupation 201 selections from the sacred Scriptures, and the pupils who were learning to read in these schools were, at the same time, learning some- thing of the Bible. Mr. Thomson was conse- quently doing a peculiar work which was both educational and Bibhcal, and this in countries where the Roman Church dominated. This, however, was in the revolutionary period. ^ the Matters were fairly settled in Argentina and arv Period" had been for some years, but the Argentine General, San Martin was fighting the Spaniards in Chile and Peru, and Bolivar was engaged in the north, and, before Mr. Thomson had left South America, came down into Peru and upper Peru, after San Martin had opened the way by his own self-abnegation. In 1820, Mr. Thomson formed a school on Success in the Lancasterian system in the city of Buenos ^ ^^^^ Aires, wdth one hundred pupils. Later the schools of this system multiplied until, it is re- ported, there were in Buenos Aires, one hundred schools with five thousand students. In Chile, Lancasterian schools were established, and O'Higgins, then the ruler of the country, in- dorsed them, as follows: ''The object of this institution is to extend in every direction 2^2 South America throughout Chile, the benefits of education; to promote the instruction of all classes, and es- pecially the poor." The few existing news- papers also favored the movement. In Peru In Peru, the work was aided by San Martin, who was at that time in the country. In Lima, a convent was devoted to one of these schools, and it is recorded that ''the order for the friars to vacate was given on Saturday, on Monday they began to remove, and on Tuesday the keys were delivered up." Even in that ancient Roman stronghold Bibles were now sold "a short distance from the place where used to sit the dreadful inquisition." In Ecuador In Ecuador, Mr. Thomson freely sold Bibles and New Testaments. Five friars in Guayaquil bought New Testaments, one taking thirteen copies. The governor of Guaranda purchased a copy and advised his friends to do the same. In the convent of Latanga, with the permission of the prior, a stall for the sale of Bibles and New Testaments was established and one hundred and four copies were sold, while in Quito, the Marquis of San Jose, himself a Roman Catholic, permitted their sale in his own hous$. In Bogota, the capital of Colombia, a Bible Protestant Missionary Occupation 203 Society was organized, of which society/ the in Colombia, secretary of state became president, and the ^^^^^^ueia, -^ ^ ' and Uruguay minister of finance, the vice-president. Even BoUvar favored the effort to establish Lancas- terian schools, and transformed the '^Ocopa college of Spanish friars into a school and ordered the establishment of these schools in every provincial capital to supply trained teachers for the towns and hamlets." Mr. Lancaster gave $20,000 to make the school movement a success in Venezuela, and himself directed the movement in Caracas. The move- ment spread into Montevideo where a hberal Roman Catholic clergyman became its leader. Nearly everywhere there was promise of a Promise of new intellectual life. As Mr. Thomson re- |^^^^^^^ marked: ''The pubhc voice is decidedly in Moral Life favor of universal education. . . . This feel- ing prevails among the clergy and the laity, the governors and the governed." As a re- sult of the reading lessons, the pupils were said "to be acquiring a taste for the perusal of the Scriptures" and beginning "to be virtuous, charitable, tolerant, and free," and, so, Roca- fuerte, a prominent patriot of that period, declared: "This moral education will promote 204 South America the cause of religious toleration and will effect the regeneration which our new political system requires." Bible Bible agencies wxre established in Buenos Efitbr^hS ^i^^'*^' Santiago, Valparaiso, Lima, Guayaquil, and Quito, and the Bible secured a comparative- ly wide circulation. The very eagerness to buy Bibles reveals the fact that the clergy and laity, and all classes were generally unacquainted with the Bible. It was a novel book and the chance to get it was an attraction. All, how- ever, did not approve the movement. For example, the Bishop of Popayan even at that time, openly opposed these efforts to spread the Bible. A Favored Nevertheless, the period of the revolution ^* and the years just after the independence of the South American Republics presented a most favorable opportunity for the introduction of Protestant truth — we may say the most favora- ble opportunity. Opportunity The revolution had produced a general Improved— ^.wakening, intellectual as well as political, and Reaction there was a break between the papacy and the Followed patriots. Indeed, the pope had excommuni- cated those who took part in the revolution Protestant Missionary Occupation 205 against Spain. Unfortunately, the opportunity was not promptly embraced. Later, the influ- ence of the Roman hierarchy strengthened and a powerful reaction followed. Other indi\ddual Protestants made tours in Tours of South America during the nineteenth century, g^j^^ Among them were the Rev. John C. Brigham and the Rev. Theophilus Parvin, who sailed in July, 1823, on a three months' voyage to Buenos Aires. Their purpose was to study the condi- tions and see what could be done to promote the cause of Christ. Mr Parvin opened a school in Buenos Aires, where he soon had all the pupils he could care for. In this school he made the New Testament one of the text- books. Bibles were circulated and Sunday- school and preaching ser^dces were started. After a year of such work in Argentina, Mr. Brigham crossed the Andes and visited the principal cities of Chile, Peru, and Ecuador, and observed that, though many priests favored independence, the higher clergy remained at- tached to Spain. In 1825, after he had made his tour of the A Waiting continent, Mr. Brigham reported that, ''al- ° ^^^ though there are many individuals in South 2O0 South America America who have noble and expanded views on all subjects, men v/ho are up with the spirit of the age, still there is in that field a putrid mass of superstition, on which the sun of liberty must shine still longer before we can safely enter in and labor. We must wait patiently a little longer till the Ruler of nations, who has wrought such wonders in these countries during the last ten years, shall open still wider the v/ay and bid us go forward." Time to Mr. Brigham was right as to the conditions, ^''^p. ° but wrong as to the nature of the opportunity. The Ruler of nations had already opened the way, the people were needy and some of them were ready, and, though the difficulties w^ere many; the time to enter had come. Operations Up to this point, none of these operations Wholl No^n- ^^^^'^y strictly speaking, be called foreign Missionary mission movements, as the phrase is commonly understood at the present time. Some of them, however, have had decided value as pioneer and preliminary operations. Beginnings The first purely missionary work in Spanish Mission^ ^^^ Portuguese South America was undertaken Work by the Methodist Episcopal Church. The General Conference of this Church as early as Pkotestant Chuech Leaders and Business Men, Brazil Missionaries and Native Preachers, Chile Protestant Missionary Occupation 307 1832 recommended its bishops and its Mission- ary Society to establish missions in South America. In 1835, under the authority of this Church, the Rev. Fountain E. Pitts went to Rio de Janeiro and Buenos Aires to see what could be done in the southern continent. In each of these cities he gathered a congregation and, returning to the United States, recommended that the Church establish missions in both of the cities. Immediate action was taken, and the next F""st year, 1836, the Rev. Justin Spaulding was ap- ^^^^^g pointed missionary to Rio de Janeiro, and the Rev. John Dempster missionary to Buenos Aires, and they went to their posts the same year. This was the beginning on the eastern side of South America. The Rev. John F. Thomson was the first of the Methodist Episco- pal missionaries to preach in Spanish to the natives. This work began in 1867. On the west coast, in 1878, the Rev. WiUiam William Taylor, afterward Bishop Taylor, of Africa, ^g^^j^^ inaugurated mission work. When he became ment of the missionary Bishop for Africa, the supervision West Coast of this work was taken by what was called a Building and Transit Fund Society, the work 208 South America being ca^rried on as self-supporting on the field, with the exception of transportation expenses and the expense of buildings and equipment. After a few years, the Building and Transit Fund Society offered to turn the entire work, with all the property, over to the Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1894, the General Committee accepted the proffer and recommended the Board of Managers to receive and administer, which was done in 1897. A Wide The Methodist Episcopal Church has missions in Panama, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and at Para and along the Amazon, and altogether has the most extensive work of any of the American denominations in South America. Adjustments In 1842, because of special stress, the Methodist Episcopal Church suspended its work in Brazil, and, in 1876, the work was taken up by the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. In 1883, the Rev. J. H. Nelson, in conjunction with the Rev. WilHam Taylor, started missionary work at Para and along the Amazon, which work the Methodist Episcopal Church still retains. Field Cov- ered in Brazil Protestant Missionary Occupation 209 The American and Foreign Christian Union, Interdenom- a non-denominational society, supported by ^^^^^^ various Protestants in the United States of America, began evangehcal work on the west coast about 1850. Its missions wxre generally, if not entirely, among English-speaking people, and in the ports where such persons were found in the greatest numbers. The Rev. David Trumbull, an American, started from, the United States in 1845 under the appointment of the Foreign Evangelical Society, and in January, 1846, preached his first sermon in Valparaiso harbor, on board the Mississippi, the vessel which had brought him from the United States. Mr. Trumbull for many years rendered most efficient service under the above Union. The Rev. J. A. Swaney, a Methodist Episcopal minister, also did interdenominational work on the west coast in the early days. The first Presbyterian mission in South Northern ^ America under the Presbyterian Church in the Mission^"^" U. S. A. was started in 1853 in Buenos Aires, but was abandoned in 1859. The oldest existing mission of that Board was begun in 1856, in the United States of Colombia and in the city of Bogota. Its work in Rio de Janeiro 210 South America was begun by the Rev. Ashbel Green Simonton in 1859, Sao Paulo, in southern Brazil, was occupied as its second center in 1863. Later Steps In 1873, the American and Foreign Christian Union turned over its work in Chile to the northern Presbj^erian Board and the work of the Presbj^erian Church on the west coast dates from that year. Southern The Presbyterian Church in the U. S. began e^ytenan j^^ggj^j^ work in southern Brazil in 1869. Success There are now in Brazil several presbyteries and a synod, and the work has greatly prospered. Scotch The Scotch Presbyterian Church has work ^ ^^ ^^ various points in South America for English- speaking people and especially for those from Scotland, or of Scotch lineage. Dr.Kalley's The work of Dr. Robert R. Kalley, of Scot^ Operations j^^^ should not be forgotten. When driven from the island of Madeira by persecution he decided to go to Rio de Janeiro where he ar- rived in the month of May, 1855. Here he found some of his Madeira converts who like himself had been driven thither by Romish persecution. He was of the Free Church of Scotland, but acted independently in his mission- ary operations. A strong church still stands Protestant Missionary Gccupation 211 as evidence of his success. He also brought about the organization of a non-denominational committee in Scotland called ''Help for Brazil." This committee supports several missionaries with their wives and several single women who work in the city and state of Rio de Janeiro, in Pernambuco, in Minas-Geraes, and in Espirito Santo. One of the most remarkable instances of one Captain man being the means of starting a society ^ ^^^ to support missions in South America is the case of Captain Allan Gardiner, R. N. Captain Gardiner had been a captain in l? 'J^^ ^^ South America were better than it is, Pro- Punncation ^ testant Missions engaged in founding Protes- tant Churches would be needed to do for the Catholic Church just what the Protestant Church does for it in the United States .... The Protestant Churches will not absorb the Catholic Church. They will in a measure purify it."^ Service The third duty is to meet, greet, and evan- Incominff S^^i^^ "^^^ incoming immigrants before they Immigrants are controlled by the conditions and Roman environments of South America. Susceptible Hundreds of thousands of im^migrants are j^ °^^^ entering every year. About two hundred thousand have been coming annually to Buenos Aires alone. In the year 1907, there came from foreign countries and from Montevideo 329,122 into Argentina. So they have been entering other countries. Most of these are Roman Catholics, but not a few are Protestants, and these Roman Catholic immigrants, having brok- en away from the priest at home and finding ^Speer, Missions a,id Modern History, Vol. I, 223. The Problem and Its Solution 241 themselves in a new land, do not take on control as easily in the new country. In the period of transition or readjustment they are more susceptible to pure gospel influences than the South American native. Many of the immigrants are Italians, who are Italians Oti^n to familiar with the rupture between the Itahan r^^^^ government and the Vatican, and whose sympathies are with the government in this contest between the civil government and the papacy. Many of them are from northern Italy where they have had some measure of contact with democratic Switzerland and re- publican France. Such immigrants come with ideas of liberty and with views somewhat different from the ordinary Spanish or Portuguese stock in South America. Having severed the old ecclesiastical bonds, Maybe they are more open to approach, and especially p °° f while they still feel themselves strangers in a Action new land. The time to evangelize them is when they are in this condition, before they consolidate ^^^th the old Romanized population and before the local priest gets his firmest grip. It is easier to reach such people as they come and before the land is filled. In a generation 242 South America this new comparatively unoccupied continent will largely be peopled. Now is the time to reach, to teach, and to make them genuinely Christian. Mixed The fourth line of work is to reach the mixed R ched ^^^^^f especially those with Spanish and Portu- guese, and those with mixed Indian and negro blood. In many places Romanism has come in touch with them and left its mark, but most of them, especially in the interior have little conception of Christ or true Christianity. Caristianiz- The fifth duty is to reach and Christianize ^^ ^ the pagan and semi pagan Indians and other Orientals non-European peoples. The great mass of the pure Indians remain untouched by the Christian religion and they are as pagan as the heathen in Asia or Africa. Seeking to The sixth duty is to reach and evangelize ^^i^ Doubt ^^^ P^^P^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^^' ^^^^^ intelligent and educated men have reacted from Romanism. It is the recoil from superstition. What they have seen and heard has caused them to lose faith in the priest and in the Roman Church, and, having been taught that there w^as no other Church, and knowing no other religion, they have broken away from all religion. This is The Problem and Its Solution 243 especially true of professors and students in the universities. Many of them have become in- fidels or bald atheists. Such persons of educa- tion and intelligence should be saved, as should many who are on their way to agnosticism or to atheism. The presence of a reputable Protestantism will attract their attention and tend to influence their opinions. Direct ef- forts, judiciously made, may bring them to the better knowledge of Christ. In general we must reach and evangelize all Aiming to classes of society, the highest as well as the ^^g^g lowest. Said Jesus: ''The poor have the gospel preached unto them," and so it should be always. The mission must seek the poor, but it should help the middle classes, and reach the upper and particularly the intelligent classes. The upper classes need the gospel and the poor and illiterate need the aid of the so-called upper classes. Individuals of the upper and intelligent ranks of society give tone to the mission and secure it added respect, while they may help to guide the plainer and less informed classes. We must also spread intelligence and uplift Purpose of the people generally, morally, socially, in- ^^t^Jjunent" tellectually, and even politically, but elevate and Uplift 244 South America them politically without ourselves engaging in politics. The Protestant missionary should not meddle with the party politics of the country, but he can benefit the people politically by in- creasing their intelligence and by spreading the principles of righteousness, ^l^^^any That there are difficulties in the way of a solu- in the Wav ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ problem may well be imagined. The people are held by the grip of the centuries and the habit of the generations is hard to over- come. They are held by the power of venerable prejudices against Protestants and Protes- tantism. They have been taught that Protes- tantism was of the devil and that Protestants are in alliance with his satanic majesty. Romish There is the social influence of Romish circles T- ^ ^^^^ in all grades of society which must be counted on as antagonistic, though its opposition may not be as coarse as other kinds of opposition. To become a Protestant convert means social ostracism, even from members of the family. Power of the There is the im^mense ecclesiastical and political power of the Roman hierarchy and the power of an enriched and strongly entrenched Roman Church with its millions of members. There are the new and varied methods of Romanism, The Problem and Its Solution 245 more subtle and sometimes quite as effective as the more open and brutal methods of other times. In a certain town where a Protestant mission was started, the priest aroused the people to violently drive the preacher out of the town, and it was well understood that the violence would result in the preacher's death; but the preacher, was brave and succeeded in ralljdng influential persons to his defense so that the danger was safely passed. Later the bishop removed that priest and sent a Jesuit who moved quietly among the people and in- jured the congregations much more than had the other priest by his open and violent methods. Social corruption and low moral standards ^^^ are strong barriers, as is the indifference to standards religion on the part of certain classes. Another obstacle is a race prejudice which Race is sometimes invoked by the opposition. To ^•'^ ^^® the suspicion which is the result of continuous conditions through the centuries and to some extent the effect of training, there is added the fear that the foreign missionary may have some ulterior motive in the interest of the nation from which he comes. In other years more than now this prejudice was aroused against 246 South America America and Americans. At the present mo- ment, however, a better feehng prevails. Few Among the difficulties which every one may j^ g , ^ easily recognize is the comparative numerical the Problem weakness of Protestants, the paucity of true Christian workers, the inadequate equipment of the missions, and the lack of money from the homeland. In the face of all these difficulties it may be asked: Can this problem be solved? We answer that, though the solution is difficult, nevertheless it is not hopeless. Types of Recall the several types of Protestant effort ^ ^ in South America. Part of First, there was the introduction of Protes- ^s^iT"^ tantism as a part of a colonization scheme, as, for example, in the case of the French and the Dutch. Work of Second, there was the work of state Churches ^ , ® looking after their own flocks, as in the case of and the Reformed Church of Holland and the Church Chaplains ^^f England. The latter for a long time has had chaplaincies for this purpose, generally in ports where Britons were engaged in commerce. Caring for Third, there was the care of citizens of foreign ^p ^ countries by religious bodies of the homeland. The Scotch Presbyterians had done some work The Problem and Its Solution 247 of this character. These were efforts of Euro- peans, primarily, and almost entirely, for per- sons of European stock and particularly their own. Fourth, there was the attempt to reach and Aiming to give religious care to the miscellaneous foreigners ^celian- who professed to be Protestant, and to preach ecus to them in their own home tongue. This type Foreigners of work went beyond denominational lines and was missionary work. Fifth, there was the effort to reach the natives Effort to of the so-called Latin stock in their vernacular, jj^tives such as the Spanish and Portuguese languages, of Latin This was the first form of strictly foreign mission ^^°^^ work. Sixth, there was an effort to carry the gospel Gospel for to the aborigines, and the races of mixed blood. ^.^^ R^es This was purely missionary also. Thus there have been six distinct forms of Six Prelimin- Protestant work in South America. Some of ^-^q^^ them were temporary and some may be re- ThePerman- garded as experimental. Now the permanent entForm work is to be done. The Church of Christ faces the problem as it is in the present period. How is it to be solved? The solution is not to be brought about by 248 South America Discarded physical force or arms, or by a Protestant * invasion in imitation of the Spanish conquest. Neither is it to be by pohtical power; for the Protestant mission in South America does not, and must not aim at any governmental aggres- sion or territorial absorption. The Solution, The solution will come through the vital d th P^w^^ ^^ ^^^ gospel, the conquering powder of Spirit Christian truth, and the accompanying power of the divine Spirit. The weapon is 'Hhe sword of the Spirit." Christian Christianity has always triumphed over the Tnimip gYQoXe^i odds. At the beginning, wdth the Difficulties world against it, it won its way. It entered pagan Europe and conquered. To-day it is conquering in many parts of the world. Great as are the difficulties in South America, the gospel has overcome as great and even greater difficulties, and it can and will triumph in South America as well. Path of The solution is through the Protestant mission — the mission wisely planted, judiciously con- ducted, and strongly sustained. Duty of The problem cannot be solved by South America ^^^^^a alone. The Roman Church will not and cannot do the work, the masses trained by The Problem and Its Solution 249 the Roman Church cannot, and the Protestants in South America are too few to perform the extensive work that is needed. The Protestant nations of the world must sustain missions in South America and the greatest responsibihty naturally and providentially rests upon the Protestants of the United States and of Canada. The other people of the world look upon South America as within the sphere of the moral and religious influence of North America. Because of proximity, opportunity, and ability, it is the duty of the Christian people of the North to do the greatest work in solving this problem in the sister continent. There must be the missionary to start the EvangeUstic work by gathering the congregation, preaching the Word, guiding the converts, organizing the Church, instructing the members, and training workers. The kind of preaching is important. It Kind of should be strong and unmistakable, but not -^^^l^^^ offensive or insulting. There must be a re- gard for the people and a recognition of the circumstances under which they have been taught and trained. Error is to be overcome, but this may be done by preaching the truth 290 South America in its purity, so that the people will see the contrast between the truth and the errors they have been taught. Sometimes there may be necessity for an open controversy and even public debate with a champion of false teach- ings, but when this is necessary great judgment must be exercised by the missionary. Type of To have the right kind of preaching, there must be the right kind of preachers. No man should be sent to South America, who has not the right qualifications for the field. It is a mistake to imagine that the preacher who is a failure at home will do for the South American mission field. There, a high type of man is needed. He should have a fair education and training. He should have a positive, personal religious experience. It will be well if already he has had some practise in the management of a church. He should have real ability as a speaker, for the Latins like oratorical ability with culture and elegance. He should be a man of action and of promptness that will never be overcome by the manana habit. Some knowledge of the language of the country ac- ^The habit when things are to be done, of sajring, manana, (to-morrow). The Problem and Its Solution 251 quired before he leaves home will be invaluable and will save much time and trouble when he reaches his field. How to get such men is one of the subordinate and yet vitally important problems. Next in importance is the development of a Native native ministry. A certain proportion of mis- ^ sionaries from the homeland are necessary to introduce the gospel and to train the members and workerS; but the Church never can become a Church of the country unless it raises up preachers from the people of the country. The native preacher must be carefully picked Careful cut and just as carefully trained. He will ^ ^jrylnv have the example of the missionary, but he must have a fair education and some theological instruction. Where shall he get it? Ordinarily it is not wise to send native preachers to Europe or America to receive either a general or a theological education, because residence in the foreign land takes them out of touch with their own country and they are likely to find it difficult to conform to the conditions of their own people. If one needs evidence of this, all he has to do is to recall how many from mission fields have come to this land for an education 252 South America and never have gone back to preach in their native land. Theological For this reason, and also because it is ini- ^^"^* possible to send all, it is necessary to establish and maintain theological seminaries at different points in South America. Sometimes a portion of a high-grade school can be utihzed for thi;^ purpose, but, if it is possible, it is better to have a separate building. It may be observed that in a mission field it is not necessary to have as many specialists and to carry certain studies to the same extent as in the highest-grade semin- aries in America or Europe. The needed thing is to give the students sufficient knowledge to do their work among the kind of people to whom they are to minister. Church A very imperative requisite for the permanent ^^^ occupation of the countries in South America is the church building. Missions usually begin in very humble places, a small hired room for example, but Roman Catholics are trained to look for an ecclesiastical structure, and they find it hard to regard a store-room as a church. A church building, therefore, has more attraction for them. Furthermore, the people of a com- munity are apt to regard the congregation in The Problem and Its Solution 253 the little room as a temporary sojourner and the missionary as a temporary expedient, but when the mission buys land and erects a church building thereon, the people realize that it has come to stay and is a permanent part of the community, and, so it commands their respect and becomes more attractive. Another agency to solve the problem is the Day-Scbools day-school or boarding-school that will give schools ^^' a secular education under Protestant aus- pices. People will send their children to mission Influence of schools who would not let them go to a Protes- tant Church service. In all these mission schools there should be as much missionary work as possible. There may not be many posi- tive conversions among the students, but even if the pupils do not become Protestants, they are quite sure to form a very different opinion of Protestants and Protestantism from w^hat their fathers and forefathers had. They will at least become liberal Roman Catholics, and the school that does nothing more than that is a factor for freedom and enlightenment. But the mission school should accomplish much more than that. It should teach pure Christianity, t5^ South America and be a means for maldng and developing true Christians. A True An important aid in mission work is a re- Literatm-e ^^S^^^^ literature in the language of the people. Besides the tract and paper there should be Christian books to be sold at a very moderate price. There should be the mission library with its loan section for free circulation. The missionary should have his doctrinal and other books for loaning and in some instances for giv- ing away. A good book used with tact in this way may accomplish much good. Such a book presented to a judge or an official in the local or general government may disarm pre- judice and convince him that the mission has no motive but the welfare of the people. A Mission As soon as possible the mission should have its own press with which to supply local needs and make the mission independent of other local pubhshers. Properly managed it will economize time and money and promote ef- ficiency. The cost of these publications seldom can be covered in a mission field, for usually the people are too poor and the buyers are too few. Because of these facts, the press and the litera- ture should be considered by the home Church OxCE A-N Inquisition Building, now Property of Southern Baptist Convention, Bahia, Brazil Methodist School, Riberbao Pbeto, Brazil The Problem and Its Solution 255 in making special and regular appropriation*. A special fund for the publication of needed literature would be of immense service. The orphanage, the medical mission, and Other other humanitarian agencies also, can in their ^^^^°P ° ' Agencies way, greatly aid the ordinary mission work and help solve the general problem. One of the problems of the mission itself is Self- the matter of self-support. Very seldom can ^^^° this be expected at the beginning, and where there are certain continuous conditions it should not be expected for some time. It is desirable, however, that, after a reasonable period, a mission ought to support or nearly support itself, so that a part or all of the direct mis- sionary appropriation to that particular point can be withdrawn and applied to some new or more needy place. This is one way to expand the work. It is also the way to develop a self-reliant Church. Much can be done in the way of developing A Matter of self-support. It is largely a matter of education "^^°^ and training. Unfortunately at the beginning in many places a faulty policy was adopted. In order to make a contrast with the financial exactions of the Roman Church the Protestant 256 South America missionaries asked no money at all, and the result has been that some of the converts have been so badly trained as to imagine that one of the peculiarities of Protestantism was that it did not need nor expect financial contributions. At the beginning, of course, there should be no pressure for money, but people whose contri- butions have built great churches and paid for the costly services of the Roman Church can pay something toward their own religious services. Many instances could be cited which show that the spirit of self-sacrifice can be drawn out and the people can be taught to give. Too much should not be expected at once but the training process should go on. The possibilities are very great. In one section of South America we have known one division of the field to contribute as much as $48,000 (gold), in a single year, though in that section there were only a few charges that were entirely self-supporting. In a church in another section many of the members give one tenth of their income no matter how much or how little it may be. These instances show what may be done by judicious training. The people can be shown that there is a wide distinction Tlie Problem and Its Solution 257 between the financial demands of Romanism and the free offerings of Protestantism. One of the greatest problems is to impress Strong the home Church with the importance of South ^°^^' ^J^^ America as a mission field and to induce the Church in the homeland to furnish sufficient supplies and to energetically prosecute mission work in that continent. This means the sending of many men and the More Men contribution of much money. South America ^ "^^^-^ has never received appropriations in proportion to its needs. Other continents have received many times more than this vast and neighboring conti- nent, notwithstanding the fact that heathen and semiheathen conditions are quite as bad in South America as they are anywhere else in the world. The problem is to get the Church to send a Conditions sufficient number of missionaries and a sufficient ^ access amount of money to strongly sustain the missions now in that continent and to expand the work as the opportunity opens. The home Church must be made to reahze the A Sense cl importance and the magnitude of the work, ^ offb-' and it must be made to feel an interest in the Work moral and religious welfare of the people in South America. 258 South America QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER Vn Aim: To Eealizb the Geeat Numbee or Impoetant Problems Awaiting Solution X. If you settled in South America for business purposes and found no Protestant Church within reach, what do you think you -would do? 2* What do you think would be the effect on your Christian life? 3. How would the temptation to drift away from all Church influences compare with the tempta- tion of business men in this country? 4. Do you think that a man becoming a Roman Catholic under such circumstances would likely do so from conviction? 5. What would you do for the education of your children, if there was no Protestant school within reach? 6. Does Roman Catholicism leave its communicants in North America without church and school privileges ? 7. Do you think it is to be commended or blamed for this? 8. What is your conclusion as to our duty toward the Protestant settlers in South America? 9. Sum up what you know of Roman Catholicism in South America. 10. How does it seem to compare with the Roman Catholicism in North America? 11. Do you consider its priesthood as a whole quali- fied to represent Christianity? 12.* Do you think that society can be truly Chris- tianized without a free use of the Bible? 13. What would you infer as to opportunities for mental enlightenment from the welcome given to Protestant education? 14. What would you infer as to spiritual enlighten- ment from the superstitions about images? 15.* How do the religious needs of South America seem to you to compare with those of North America? 16. Is the aim of missionary work in South America primarily to make people Protestants, or to make them earnest and intelligent Christians? The Problem and Its Solution 259 17. If you knew of a Protestant town where condi- tions were as bad as they are in Roman Catholic South America would you advocate sending Christian workers there? 18. Would you advise Italian peasants, only nominal Roman Catholics, to emigrate to North or to South America? 19. In which continent do you think they would have the best chance for coming under good religious influences? 20. "What is our duty toward those who go to South America? 21. Sum up the arguments for missions to the Indians of South America. 22. What would you recommend to a South American friend who had become agnostic? 23. To whom would you send him for counsel and sympathy? 24. What is the importance of winning the student class of a country to an earnest Christian faith? 25.* Sum up the present obstacles to an adequate Christianization of South America. 26. Why is it so important to secure native preachers? 27.* What effect will the erection of handsome church buildings have upon self-support? 28. Is a school an absolute failure that yields no actual conversions? 29.* Arrange the problems of missionary work in South America in what seems to you the order of their importance. EEFEEENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY CHAPTER VII Froblems. Brown, Latin America, Lecture V. Guinness, Peru, XXXIV, XXXV. Tucker, The Bible in Brazil, 60, 103, 143, 150, 211, 219, 257. THE OUTLOOK 261 In all material matters, as well as in matters more spiritual, in her mines and manufactures, in her forests and fisheries, in her commerce and agriculture, in her schools and churches, in her politics and business. South America is to-day preeminently the CONTINENT OF OPPORTUNITY. — Francis E. Clarh Buenos Aires is one of the most cosmopolitan cities of the world, both as regards population and the press. There are ne"v\spapers printed in almost every language of the globe. Probably the only Syrian newspaper in America, The Assudk, is issued in this city. — John Barrett In the first place, you have no complexity of language. All South America speaks the Spanish language, with the exception of Brazil, which speaks the beautiful language of Portugal. And when you have acquired these two remarkable tongues, a man who goes to these countries can in one year's time be able to preach the gospel of Jesus Christ to the people. When you have acquired those romantic and splendid languages, you have at once the key with which to reach the people. You have no complexity therefore in language. You have the ad- vantage of situation. The population of South America is yet meager, and it is gathered along the coast, easy of access, ready to be dealt with in cities where you v^ill be welcomed, and where the opportunities to preach the gospel are freely given. The third thing I wanted to say about this field is that the only opposition offered, the only thing that you have to overcome — because you may at once put out of consideration the few heathen tribes that are in the in- terior of the country — the only thing that is to be fought against is a corrupted Eomanism that is already self- condemned. ^-James W. Morris 303 T vin THE OUTLOOK HE past has been reviewed, present The Out- conditions have been considered, and now we look into the future and ask; What is the outlook? First, What is the outlook for South America ^^r the Con- ., ,-^ tinent Itself itself? We behold the great southern continent, with ProbabiUties its eleven republics and its three European colonies, and ask: AVhat are the probabilities for this vast continent? What will it be in itself, and for itself, and what is it destined to be among the other continents of the earth? As to its material outlook, the possibilities Material are beyond the guess of the strongest imagina- tion. Neither reason nor science can fully estimate the possibilities or the certainties. South America's natural resources are varied and extensive. They are practically inex- 263 264 South America haustible and the probabilities are that South America is richer in natural resources than North America. In the very nature of things, there must be a great and incalculable develop- ment of these natural resources — agricultural, mineral, animal, in field and forest, in mountain and plain, in stream and in sea. Already the development is going on with great rapidity. Mines are being opened and operated, and the soil is being cultivated as never before. New enterprises are being projected and old enter- prises are having greater prosperity. Towns are growing and cities are being enlarged and beautified. Ever}d:hing shows that within twenty-five years the material development will be immense. Immense It is the coming continent, and a coming continent with a great future. One of her poets has said there is, '^A future for Latin America, immense as her mountains and her seas, brilliant as her skies and her resplendent stars." Agassiz believed, that ''the future center of civilization of the world would be in the Amazon valley.'^ Commercial This material development and internal Intercourse transportation necessitates and implies a foreign The Outlook 265 commerce. Other nations want the products, and the people of South America desire the production of other lands. All the commercial nations of Europe are rushing their fast steam- ers to the coasts and up the rivers of South America, in excited competition to secure the largest possible proportion of these products. The wonderful Panama canal will revolution- Effect of ize the world's commerce and be particularly ^^^^ valuable to South America. With the opening of the canal will come a new and brighter day for South America and especially on the west coast. The canal will bring New York 4,000 miles nearer Valparaiso and 8,600 miles nearer Guayaquil. It will reduce the distance from Liverpool to Valparaiso 2,000 miles, and shorten the route from Hamburg to Callao 3,000 miles. South American countries are also helping Railway and themselves by spreading their railroads and ^^^)^^^ multiplying their steamers both for river and for ocean traffic. Peru is now having built fast steamers that v/ill cut in half the present time from Panama to Callao, that is to say, from ten to five daj^s; while Chile is reducing the time between Callao and Valparaiso in the same way from ten days to five days. 266 South America Better Ports Port improvements are being carried on in various places. Not long ago large ships could not come within miles of the city of Buenos Aires, but now they can sail up to the great docks at the very edge of the city. At Mont- evideo a great sea-wall is being constructed and many millions of dollars are being expended on miles of docks at Rio de Janeiro. On the west coast similar improvements are projected, as, for example, a dock system is proposed for Valparaiso at a cost of $20,000,000 gold. Population What is the outlook as to the population of ospec s gQ^^i^ America? Factors to be We have considered the aborigines and other inhabitants of the South American continent, with their blends and some of their character- istics. Will the present conditions continue or will they be modified? What will be revealed in the future and in the very near future? Increase of There is now a rapidly growing population. Population ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ place, there is a large natural growth of what may now be called the indigenous population, in which we may include the various peoples who came into South America at and since the close of the fifteenth century. But there is another and mjre remarkable AvENiDA DE Mayo, Buenos Aires Plaza de Mayo, Buexos Aires The Outlook 267 growth of population by recent immigration, Enlarged and immigration which is now entering the ^'^'^^ various countries. Knowledge of the resources and possibilities of South America has been spreading, and this knowledge has impelled persons in many lands and of different races and tongues to emigrate to its shores, and, in- stead of diminishing with the lapse of years, the attraction has steadily increased. With the natural increase and the steady stream of immigration the numerical development of the population has become exceedingly remarkable. It is going up by leaps and bounds. The types of immigrants are worthy of Many study. For years the Italians have been in the gp^^ds lead, but now the modern Spaniard is becoming a close second. The character of the population of South America is being considerably modified. It is now a conglomerate, but the inflow of many peoples means a new composite population in the main greatly superior to the mixed population of the previous four centuries. It means the re-Europeanization of South A Process of America. The early invasion by Europeans g^iz^on" was not strong enough to overcome the Indian type. In the blend the aborigine more than 268 South America held an equal place. When the negro came from Africa the European percentage became still smaller. But now the incoming tide of Europeans is so increased that the European stock must become much stronger, while the tendency to settle in colonies is likely to pre- serve the peculiar race characteristics. This re-Europeanization means a new type of South American, with the Caucasian element dominant. The American is contributing to this change, but numerically not to the same extent as the British, the German, and other European peoples. Altogether this means the making of a new South America. Sanitary The outlook for health conditions is more "^^^I^ encouraging. The masses have not been regard- ed as a cleanly people, but they show signs of improvement in this respect. Sanitary regu- lations are becoming stricter as the laws of health are better understood. Cities are in- troducing underground drainage, and the people are beginning to take thought for their physical surroundings. It has been demonstrated that even tropical sections can be sanitated and that the disease-bearing mosquito and the bubonic-bearing; rat can be exterminated. What ment Office of La Presna, Buenos Aires, the Greatest Spanish Daily Newspaper in the World The Outlook 2G9 the Americans have done in the city and Isthmus of Panama proves that. All this means that life is becoming safer, and this greater security will more strongly attract people from other lands and reduce the death- rate. The intellectual outlook for South America Intellectual is steadily improving. Though there still is appalling illiteracy, nevertheless intelligence is increasing. There is a multipHcation of school facilities and an improvement in educa- tional systems, and Protestant missionaries have had very much to do in bringing about these improvements. Foreign teachers, including many Americans, have been introduced, and native teachers have been educated in Europe or America, in many instances their govern- ments paying their expenses for a number of years, that they might receive pedagogical training and bring back the best and most modern ideas and incorporate them in the school sj^stems of their own countries. The people of South America generally are Literary far from being a reading people and much of ^^^^^ the little literature that is read is not of a lofty character, but there is improvement even in 270 South America this particular. South America has always had some highly educated people, but now the number is increasing, and the literary standard among the people is rising. The newspapers are becoming more numerous, and though many of them are not to be compared with the average paper in Europe or America, nevertheless in many instances they exercise a liberalizing influence, and some of them, like El Merciirio of Chile, and La Nacion and La Prensa of Buenos Aires, will compare favorably with the best English or American dailies. Political The political outlook has in it much of ogress gQcouragement. Perfection has not been at- tained. Indeed, some of the countries are far from it, but conditions are more settled, and there is increasing stability of governm.ent, though the inherited spirit of revolution now and then stirs itself. Argentina, for example, once torn by internecine struggles, has now a fairly well-settled government and has not had any extended revolution for a number of years. In February, of 1905, a revolution was at- tempted but it asserted itself only about a night and a day and was easily suppressed. That means, not merely that the government The Outlook 271' was strong, but also that the people are no longer easily induced to take part in such uprisings. The people and the politicians are learning Growth of from experience, and the nations of South America are learning from closer and longer contact with other nations. Then there is a spread of free ideas, the liberals and pro- gressives are becoming stronger, the Roman Church does not exercise quite the same political domination, and the people are beginning to master the art of self-government. In this connection it should be remembered American that the political ideals of South America are not Latin nor European but American. When the South American republics were formed they did not follow the governmental plans of Spain or Portugal, but imitated the American system, copying the Constitution of the United States of America and endeavoring to work according to its form of government. So their political ideal is not Latin but Anglo-Saxon. Their imitation is not absolutely exact, but, though they do not strictly live up to their ideals, yet they have the ideals and are stretching up toward them, and the outlook is more hopeful than ever before. 272 South America A Place South America is growing in political impor- °Worid ^^^^^- South American nations are taking Powers their place among the older peoples of the world. They now sit side by side w^lth the world powers at the Hague Conference, their statesmen present international ^^ doctrines," and their representatives discuss and vote upon inter- national questions. International So the place of the South American nations rganiza- -^^ ^j^^ Pan-American Congress and their as- tions ° sociation in the Bureau of American Republics at Washington show that South America is surely taking her place in world affairs and is destined to have an increasing importance as a world force. Moral The outlook as to morals is not so bright, but ''^. f^ it is not utterly discouraging. After centuries of secretiveness, false pretense, and im_morality, due largely to the bad start given by the early Spanish and Portuguese adventurers, and fostered and permitted to continue for centuries by a corrupt and a corrupting ecclesiasticism, it can hardly be expected that the mass of the people will be transformed in a moment, or even after the lapse of a few years; but, though the average morality is low, a moral sentiment The Outlook 273 is forming and strengthening and the moral standard is rising. The rehgious outlook for South America is Religious more encouraging than ever before. Here it „" ° ° ° Encouraging may be necessary to remind ourselves that vSouth America is a continent, not of one, but of many religions. At this very time paganism is strongly represented under aboriginal, Hindu, Cliinese, and African forms. Then the semi- paganism with some admixture of Romish forms is to be found in all directions. There is Romanism, some other forms of behef, and a little leaven of earnest Protestantism. The strongest ecclesiastical body is the Roman Church of Rome, but the Roman Catholic ^f ^^^^^^^ ' Showing Church has a changed outlook. It is still Change strong, but its power is not quite so overwhelm- ing as it was in former generations. The Roman Catholic Church is Hkely to con- Exercises tinue a mighty force for a long time, but it is j^^^ ^ not Hkely to exercise the same despotic power Control over mind and conscience that it has exerted throughout the last four centuries. It still is felt in politics, and yet men who are not devout Romanists but are opponents of the Roman hierarchv can secure elections to the 274 South America highest places in the republics. The Roman Church however can change its methods and is likely to do so. For the failing method of open opposition and violence, it can substitute a more insidious method that may prove very effective though not all-powerful. General What then is the outlook for the evangelizar Favorable ^^^^ ^^ South America? Unhesitatingly we answer that the outlook is favorable. We also reply that if Protestant missions are properly manned and sufficiently supported there can be speedy success. Undeniable Some have said that Protestant missions cannot succeed in South America; but this is not true, for they have succeeded, and the proof is in the permanent results to be found in many places. Som^e have said, ''You cannot get Roman Catholics converted, and if you do you cannot keep them so.'' Like the other assertions this is not true, for they get converted, stay converted, and die converted. More than that, their children and grand-children remain in the Protestant Church. As to conversion, they stand the tests quite as well as the average •onverts in more favored lands. Large churches in Valparaiso, in Rio de Results Baptist Church. Perxambuco. Brazil TF mm PRESBYTEEIAri ChUECH, CUEITIBA, BBAZIL The Outlook 275 Janeiro, in Buenos Aires, in Montevideo, and Churches in other places, disprove these assertions, g^tions -'* Churches with over five hundred members are regarded as strong churches in Protestant countries, and Protestant churches with as many native communicants can be found in South America. Congregations of from eight hundred to a thousand are considered large in Protestant lands, and such congregations can be found in connection v/ith Protestant missions in that so-called Roman Catholic continent. Some may say that the work has gone on Relatively slowly, but all things are relative, and what pj-o^l-ess may be called slow in the United States or in Great Britain is relatively rapid in South America. In view of the small number of missionaries Recent and the small amount of money at command the of increase results may be regarded as quite rapid, and especially in view of the many things that have been against Protestant missions in South America. The laws and the governments, the hosts of watchful priests, a powerful ecclesiastical organization, the training of the centuries, popu- lar prejudices, and social influences were all against the Protestant movement, for con- 276 South America version meant the breaking of family ties and social ostracism. Yet, in spite of all these forms of opposition Protestantism has secured a foothold.- Ten years ago there were only 60,000 adherents and communicants; but to-day they number over 130,000. The Rev. W. A. Waddell writes from Brazil, ''our membership rolls are doubling every four years. "^ A Late When we come to consider the success of ' F bl Pi*o^6stant missions in South America, we must Support remember, first, that true Christian missions in that continent are comparatively recent, and, second, that they have been feebly supported. Other continents have received immense sums of money, while South America has received ccmiparatively few missionaries, and, com- paratively speaking, little money. Several The explanation is found in the failure of siderations ^'^'O'^sstants throughout the world to realize the situation as it has been and as it actually is at the present time. There has been, for example, the notion that South America is ''a Christian country," when, as a matter of fact, it is not a country but a continent, where in sections there is as rank paganism as in ^The Assembly Herald, June, 1908. The Outlook 277 any other part of the world and a large portion of the rest is really semipaganism. There has been an incorrect idea that ''nothing can be accom- plished," when the facts show that much has been accomplished. There has been the sug- gestion that the Church ''had better put the money where it can get better results." But where is that? Considering the slight attention^ the insufficient support, and the many and pecul- iar difficulties, the results are relatively as good as, if not better than in other mission fields. Even leaving out the difficulties, the proportionate results will stand well in comparison, while in some of the other mission fields the progress at the beginning was as slow as, or slower than, in South America. If the assertion that the work in that continent has been slow were a fact, then the logic would be tnat mere should be done to aid and push the work. The missions in some other countries have V/ithout had the advantage of protection from govern- °^®^" ments regarded as Protestant. For example, the work in India is protected by Great Britain, and the work in the Spanish Islands like Porto Rico and the Philippines is sheltered by the United States, and the natives of these countries 278 South America know that it will not be to their disadvantage to favor what the supreme government favors. In South America, excepting in British and Dutch Guiana, there has been no such favoring government and the missions have had to work under unfriendly powers, and yet they have succeeded. The Real Surely the souls of the South American peoples yues on ^^^ ^g valuable as the souls of other people, and it is not too much to say that a man of European stock should count as much as an African or an Asiatic. If the preference is for a dark skin, many shades of black, red, yellow, and blended tints can be found in South America. If it is a question of picturesque dress, the wearers of the poncho or the manta have their claims for consideration. If it is a question of a human life and a human soul, then the South American has a claim equal to that of any other and needs which call just as loudly and persistently as any other. The Change If one asks what Protestantism has done in South America, let him consider what South America was before Protestantism entered, and then consider what South America has become since Protestant missions carried the pure gospel m m '^ in P pel The Outlook 279 to the peoples of that land. Then Romanism had absolute sv/ay, excepting among the wild pagans of the interior and the people generally were ignorant, superstitious, immoral, and un- thrifty. Now a radical change is going on, improvement is showing itself in every direction, and prosperity is bringing added comfort to the people. If one asks w^hat Protestantism has accom- Some Results plished in South America, these are some of the answers that may be made: It is there and it has gotten a foothold. Less Impressive than fifty years ago it had only secured a foot- -y^^^ ^ hold, but now it is in nearly every important city and has occupied most of the strategic points. It is in every capital, in many smaller towns, and is spreading throughout the rural regions. It has not only a foothold, but it is entrenched, and to-day more strongly than ever before. It has shed rays of gospel light. It has started a spiritual flame that spreads, warms, and illumines. It has in actual life exemplified the simple and pure religion of the real Jesus. It has shown the people that there is more than one ecclesiastical organization in the world. It has shov/n that there is a Christian 280 South A^n erica religion that is not Roman. It has placed the simplicity of the true gospel in contrast with dead, though spectacular, medieval forms. It has helped to hold European, American, and other foreign Protestants residing in South America true to the faith of their fathers. Entering It has more workers than ever before. It is Life^of the ^^^^ aggressive, and is pushing out from more Countries centers. It has won a degree of respect from the people and from the governments. It has gathered congregations and built church edifices. It is gaining more converts than ever before and gaining them more rapidly. What is more, it is gaining converts through its native converts. It has established schools and has done a great educational work. It has in- troduced a new intellectual influence which has promoted liberality and progress. It has de- veloped a native ministry and has become a Church of the native peoples — a Church of the country wherever it may be. It has become a recognized part of the hfe of the people. It has become an abiding influence, and is con- stantly creating a sentiment in favor of righteousness and true Christianity, and so Protestantism is now an influence and a Tlie Outlook 281 force that is felt in South American life and thought. It has helped to dissipate misapprehensions Contributing as to the aims of America and other foreign international countries, and so has helped to bring together Fellowship the hearts of various nations, and to give greater firmness to the fraternal bonds that bind them in international fellowship. When it is remembered what Protestantism Much Done has had to meet, we begin to get an idea of the u^avorable importance and greatness of these achieve- Conditions ments, and at the same time perceive the more promising possibilities. If Protestant missions have accomplished so much under imfavorable circumstances, how much greater success there may be with the greater numbers, more securely established positions, and greater opportunities? The future, however, will not be perfectly smooth sailing at all times. Storms may arise, and head winds may retard; but winds subside, storms cease, and there is a harbor ahead. The opposition of the Roman Catholic Church Helpful will continue, but this opposition is not so open j^^ nor so formidable. Persecutions are decreasing Place in number and diminishing in violence. The people are becoming more enlightened and Freedom Being V/on 282 South America public sentiment is becoming more liberal. The laws are steadily becoming more liberal, and even when the letter of the old law is against the Protestants, public opinion has found a way to construe the law so as to grant them toleration and protection. Marriage laws have been modified and national constitutions have been changed so as to grant religious freedom. Religious The latest instance of such a change in con- stitution appears in the case of Bolivia. This inland republic inherited the bigotry of ancient Pern of which it once was a part. The old constitution of Bolivia recognized, the religion Catolica Apostolica Romana (the Roman Apos- tolic Catholic religion), and prohibe todo otro culto publico, that is to say, prohibited all other pubhc worship. In 1905 the Congress voted to amend the constitution so as to strike out the prohibitory clause and to insert in its place, permitiendo la libertad de culto, which means permitting hberty of worship. Before it could become a law, it had to be reenacted the next year; and, on the 24th day of August, 1906, the Bolivian House of Deputies unanimously adopted the amendment, '^ permitting the public exercise of every other religious worship," and The Outlook 288 the Senate readopted the amendment with only two votes in the negative. Three days later it was promulgated as a law, and according to the amended constitution complete religious liberty reigns in the Bolivian republic. Even in Peru, which still has the constitutional pro- hibition, the spirit of religious freedom is strong- ly asserting itself, and with prudence it is possible for Protestants to hold religious services for the public. Thus by constitutional pro- vision, legislative enactment, government in- terpretation, or the strength of public senti- ment, there is practical religious liberty in al- most every country of South America. As an evidence of the confidence that govern- A Protestant ments have in the work of foreign missionaries, Dr. F. M. Harrington, of the Methodist Episco- pal Church, was ''invited by the Bohvian government to take charge of public instruction in the Oruro district, one of the most important sections of Bolivia, and it voted him a sub- vention of S36,000 for his work.''^ Liberal statesmen who were not Protestants Aid to have recognized Protestantism as an aid in gj^^g^^ their movements, not that Protestant missions Olark, The Continent of Opportunity, 302. 284 South America are political, for they are not, but because they are in opposition to Romanism the gr«at foe of liberal progress. Testimony Thus the Hon. Matias Romero, in his M ^co ^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ United States, says: "I thought that one of the best ways to diminish the evils of the political domination and abuses of the clergy in Mexico was to favor the estabhshment of other sects which would come in some measure into competition with the Catholic clergy, and thus cause it to refrain from excesses of which it had been guilty before." Worth of On the same theory, the Hon. Ignacio p ^ Mariscal held ''that it was the tendency of all the religious organizations to become insolent and despotic when they grow strong, and that what the Roman Church needed was a rival or rivals." These are the views of many South American liberals who personally are not identified with Protestantism. Protest of Direct and indirect aid has been given the p ®^^ Protestant movement by the liberal newspapers. The indirect aid in creating and sustaining liberal sentiment has been very valuable. Some- times the aid has been very direct, as, for ex- ample, in one republic where the liberty and The Outlook 285 life of a Protestant preacher were in danger, the liberal papers of the capital city uttered their protest and demanded government pro- tection for the preacher, and it was given. At this time there are many encouragements for Protestant missions in South America. Conditions have changed and are changing Present for the better. Protestantism has now the q^^S^' advantage of hundreds of churches, with tens of thousands of members, and many more adherents who are in sympathy with the movement. It has many schools that teach and mold the younger generation and influence the parents. In addition, the native members are becoming more self-reliant and self-support- ing, and the native preachers are making the populace feel that Protestantism is not a foreign propaganda but that it is something that belongs to themselves. The hardest battles have been fought and the Crucial crucial victories have been won, and there opens j^^^^ ^^^^^ a better opportunity than ever before. If Won Protestantism has accomplished so much, when the difficulties were immensely greater and everything seemed against it, how much more may it accomphsh when it has secured such a 285 South America firm footing and so many influences are now in its favor? Neglect Difficulties are in the way, and one is created ^^"^* by the friends of missions. That is the fact that Cease -^ the Churches in Protestant countries are prone to overlook South America and allow it to be neg- lected. This must be overcome and that speedily. If the earnest Christians in Protestant lands will give a fair proportion of their attention to South America, give a fair proportion of their money to South America, and send an adequate number of competent workers to South America, the results in the next ten years will compare favorably with those in any other land. Now is the time to pour in the money and the men. A larger amount of money now will save a larger amount hereafter. Sustain the work strongly now, and in a few years it will sustain itself in many places. Now is the time to enter, occupy, and expand. Interests of On account of the ]\Ionroe Doctrine the United United States has more at stake than any other States and Canada nation. Whatever South America is will more and more affect the United States. If the South American republics have not the right moral tone and have unreliable conditions, The Outlook 287 the United States will have trouble and expense. In proof we need but cite Venezuela, San DomingO; and Panama. Canada has a special interest in the uplift of the people because of the commercial and colonial interests of Great Britain. A great Protestant issue is involved, and the An American Protestant peoples of the world should take j^^^ notice and take part. The Protestants of Great Britain, Germany, Holland, and Scandinavia, should contribute their share, but the chief duty rests upon the Protestant Christians of North America. They of all others must seek to make South America what it should be. It is an American question. South America is an America. It is our nearest continent and because of proximity the greatest obligation rests on the people of North America. Furthermore, the United States is in South America. What is more, the United States has become a South American power. It is on the Isthmian Canal Zone. It is true it is only a strip ten miles wide and about forty-seven miles long, but it is territory in South America. There the flag of the United States flies, there are American officers^ American soldiers, and American courts. 288 South America The United States is in South America and has become a South American power, and the people of the United States cannot avoid the responsi- bility, and should not evade the duty, of help- ing the people of the great neighbor continent to the south. A Broad The field is a broad one. The continent is KeW comparatively unoccupied, but rapidly filling up. The older races can be reached and the new people must be met promptly as they enter and before they settle down in the ways of Roman South America. Open There is an open door and a wonderful op- Opportimity P^rt unity. ''Now is the accepted time." In a religious sense, ''Let us go up at once, and possess it; for we are well able to overcome it." CaU of the With all these facts before us we can under- ^tiMaSt s^^^^ w^y "^^^ editor of the Congregationalist said in his paper, in 1906: "We would not divert a missionary dollar that is needed in China or Japan or Africa from those lands, but we believe that it is the part of Christian strategy, when events bring into prominence a great and neglect- ed land, teeming with a population not much smaller than that of Anglo-Saxon America and increasingly intimate with us because of tighten- The Outlook 289 ing political and business ties, to see and seize an opportunity for advancing the kingdom of God/' So a prominent official of the American Best Use Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, DQUars which has had no missions in South America, speaking in a similar strain, recently said: '^If we had a special gift of a million dollars, I should be tempted to recommend its use in the South American field — either through starting a mission of our own, or through perhaps the better method of subsidizing the good but far too meager work which our Presbyterian and Methodist brethern are carrying on there." A few years ago a treaty of peace was made The Andean between Chile and Argentina. In commemor- ation of this event it was agreed to erect a monument in the form of a figure of Christ who was the Prince of Peace. In harmony with this agreement a majestic bronze image of the Christ was cast. It was to be placed up in the high Andes on the boundary line between the two repubUcs, and so it is called 'The Christ of the Andes.'' But how should the figure be placed? It Facing a would not do to have the back turned tovvard ^®^ ^^^^ 290 South America Chile, for the hardy Chilean would resent that. Neither would it do to turn the back toward Argentina, for the proud Argentine, would not tolerate that. So it was decided to have the figure face along the direction of the boundary line, but would it be to the North or to the South? To face southward would be to have it look toward the South Pole and the icy waters of the Antarctic. That was not the region of hope. Summons to go it was placed to face in a northerly direct- MovemSt ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^ ^^^ traveler ascends to the summit of the pass over the Andes he be- holds the majestic figure of "The Christ of the Andes," with the cross in one hand while the other is uplifted in blessing, and the eyes look northward. It seems to look northward to the United States of America and to the Dominion of Canada. It is the symbolized ap- peal of South America to the peoples of the north. It is the symbol of the appeal of the real Christ. The people of the north and particularly of North America should respond and help South America and help now. The Outlook 291 QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER VIII Aim: To Realize our Present Responsibility for South America 1.* Give several reasons why the general develop- ment of South America will be more rapid from this time on than ever before. 2. What difficulties has South America had to con- tend with as to the transportation of her products? 3. In what various ways are these being removed? 4. What sections will be most benefited by the Panama Canal, and to what extent? 5. What parts of the world are now seeking an outlet for population? 6. What attractions does South America offer to an emigrant? 7.* How do the facilities of South America compare with those of Anglo-Saxon America for assimi- lating Immigrants? 8. What will be the result in South America if the moral and religious forces are ,not greatly strengthened ? 9.* What would you suggest as the very best way for dealing with the immigration problem of South America? 10. In what ways is the increasing intelligence in South America an encouragement to Protestant missions? 11. What are the dangers for a country in which intellectual and political growth moves faster than religious growth? 12. Would you vote for a law in the United States or Canada to prohibit all other than Protestant public worship? 13. How much more harmful would a law be to prohibit all other than Roman Catholic worship of the South American type? 14. What is the duty of Protestantism toward a nation that has repealed such a law? 15. What is the value of a strong minority to a religion with political aspirations? 16. What are your convictions in regard to the re- lation of the United States to the Monrot Doctrine f 292 South America 17.* In what religious obligation does this involve the Christians of the United States? 18." Make an appeal for Protestant missions to Soiitli America based on the need. 19,* Make such an appeal based on the success alreadv achieved. 20.* Make such an appeal based on the prospects. REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY CHAPTER VIII I. The Future of South America. Barrett, ' * South America the Land of To-Morrow, ' ' Munsey's Magazine, June, '07. Clark, The Continent of Opportunity, II, XL. Pepper, ''South America Fifty Years Hence," National Geographic Magazine, Aug., '06. Scott, Chile, XXIII. II. The Monroe Doctrine. Butterworth, South America, XVL Hale, The South Americans, XX. Pepper, Panama to Patagonia, XXII. Von Sternberg, "The Phantom Peril of German Emigration and Settlement in South America, North American, May, '06. APPENDIX A BIBLIOGRAPHY No attempt has been made in this list to arran^je an exhaustive bibliography on South America. The books noted below are among the best and most recent that have been published relating to the contents of the text- book. For convenience they have been arranged alpha- betically according to authors. Brown, Hubert W. Latin America. Illustrated. 1901. Fleming H. Revell Co., New York. $1.20, net. A carefully prepared account of the history and conditions among the Pag-ans, Papists, Patriots, and Protestants of Latin America. Appendix A 293 Butterworth, Hezekiah. South America and Panama. Illustrated. 1904. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York. $1.00, net. A popular illustrated history of the strug-gle for liberty in South America, with a chapter on Panama. Carpenter, Frank G. South America. Illustrated. 1900. Saalfield Publishing Company, Akron, Ohio, $3.00. A treatment of the social, industrial, and political conditions of South America. Child, Theodore. The Spanish American Republics. Illustrated. 1891. Harper & Brothers, New York. $3.50. The account of a tour from Buenos Aires to Men- doza, across the Andes, through Chile, Peru, Argentina, and Paraguay. Clark, Francis E. The Continent of Opportunity. Illus- trated. 1907. Fleming H. Revell Co., New York. $1.50, net. Observations on a tour through South America, by the President of the United Society of Christian En- deavor. The book is written m an entertaining manner and from the Christian view-point. Critehfield, George W. American Supremacy, 2 Vols. 1908. Brentano's, New York. $6.00, net. The rise and progress of the Latin American re- publics and their relation to the United States under the Monroe Doctrine. Curtis, William Elroy. Between the Andes and the Ocean. Illustrated. 1900. Herbert S. Stone & Co., Chicago. $2.50. An interesting account of a journey through Pana- ma, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Chile, Dawson, Thomas C. South American Republics, 2 Vols. Illustrated. 1904. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. $2.70. The most readable history of the republics of South .\merica. Enoek, C. Reginald. Peru. Illustrated. 1907. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. $3.00. An account of the history and development, natural features, products, commerce, and present conditions in Peru. Ford, Isaac N. Tropical America, Illustrated. 1903. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. 60 cents. The account of a journey in the Latin countries south of the United States, including some of the is- lands. 294 South America Grubb, W. Barbrooke. Among the Indians of the Para- guayan Chico. Illustrated. 1904. South Ameri- can Missionary Society, London, Is 6d. A vivid description of the environment, habits, and character, and the language of tlae Chico Indians, and missionarj' work among them. Guinness, Geraldine. Peru: Its Story, People, and Re- ligion. Illustrated. 1909. Fleming H. Eevell Co., New York. $2.50, net. A history of Peru and its religious condition, written from a missionary view-point. Hale, Albert. The South Americans. Illustrated. 1907. Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis, Ind. $2.50, net. The story of the South American republics, their characteristics, progress, and tendencies, with special reference to the commercial relations with the United States. Keane, A. H. Central and South America, Vol. I. Illustrated. 1901. J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadel- phia, Pa. $4.50. Volume I deals with the ten republics of South America, and is largely geographical and ethnological. Lee, John. Religious Liberty in South America. 1907. Eaton & Mains, New York. $1.25, net. A brief statement of the movement for religious liberty in Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia. Moses, Bernard. South America on the Eve of Emancipa- tion. 1908. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. $1.50, net. An account of the struggle of the southern Spanish colonies during the fifty years before the emancipation. Neely, Thomas B. South Am.erica: A Mission Field. 1906. Eaton & Mains, New York. 35 cents, net. A brief sketch of the country, people, religions, and missions in South America. Newell, Mrs. For Christ and Cuzco. 1907. Regions Beyond Missionary Union, London. 50 cents, net. The biography of W. H. Newell, a missionary to Peru. Nicholas, Francis C. The Power Supreme. Illustrated. 1908. R. E. Lee Company, Boston. $1.50. A novel setting forth the power of the Roman Catholic Church in South America. Pepper, C. M. Panama to Patagonia. Illustrated. 1906. A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago. $2.50. A splendid treatment of the economic resources and possibilities of Panama and the west coast countries of South America. Appendix A 295 Prescott, William H. History of the Conquest of Peru, 2 Vols. Illustrated. 1847. T. Y. Crowell & Co., New York. $1.25. A preliminary view of the civilization of the Incas, and the history of the conquest of Peru. Protestant Missions in South America. 1900, Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions, New York. 50 cents. A brief volume treating of missions in detail in the continent. Eay, G. Whitfield. Through Five Eepublics on Horse- back. Illustrated. 1903. Hurley & Watkins, Brantford, Ontario. An account of the travels of a missionary and ex- plorer through Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Euhl, Arthur. The Other Americans. Illustrated. 1908. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. $2.00, net. A description of the countries, the cities, and es- pecially the people of South America. Scott-Elliott, G. F. Chile. Illustrated. 1907. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. $3.00. An account of the history and development, natural features, products, commerce, and present conditions in Chile. Scruggs, William L. Colombian and Venezuelan Ee- publics. Illustrated. 1908. Little, Brown & Co., New York. $1.75, net. A description of Colombia and Venezuela, with a chapter on the Panama Canal and notes on Central and South America. Tucker, Hugh C. The Bible in Brazil. Illustrated. 1902. Fleming H. Eevell Co., New York. $1.25, net. Chiefly a narative of colporteur experiences in Bra- zil. Gives glimpses of the country and people, but empnasizes mainly the difficulties of presenting the Bible and the triumphs of the gospel. Vincent, Frank. Around and About South America. Illustrated. 1908. D. Appleton & Co., New York. $5.00. Notes and sketches on travel. Young, Eobert. From Cape Horn to Panama. Illus- trated. 1900. South American Missionary Society. London. 2s lOd. A narrative of mi*!sionary enterprl=!e among the neglected races in the Southern Hemisphere. APPENDIX B. STATISTICS OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS IN SOUTH AMERICA These statistics have been compiled by direct correspondence with Mission Boards. a It If 2 si- ■^ a i|i Foreign Missioi Including Phys J ABIES e 1 z Stations Iconstit'Jenct EDUCATIONAL MEDICAL NAMES OF S0CIETIE8 American Societies 1 Is OS 1 Is PS i K ■i f 1^ is III .2 III .11 3 t.'a ■i. 3 If fai III 1 1 Higher Institutions Students in im 1. if j2s£ s III |l K(5 Ctct. Ill 190/ 1908 1908 1908 1908 1907 1908 1908 1907 1907 1907 1S64 1835 1836 1S,59 1874 1889 1869 1891 1897 1881 1884 1891 3 3 27 22 18 5 12 "2 26 3 11 6 4 5 1 "8' "8 42 2 333 112 154 16 30 3 American Seamen's Friend Society 3 29 23 17 5 10 6 2 25 2 11 "ig" 13 22 5 5 20 18 11 12 13 5 2 14 3 15 5 70 39 23 22 20 Board of Foreign Missions, Methodist Episcopal Church 9,763 2,906 5,614 1,036 2,701 10,530 "■477 29 26 1 2 2,105 '915 8 21 ] 1,849 2 1,020 7 ' 430 148 "86 24 14 10,374 .... 1 Board of Foreign Missions, Presbyterian Church in U.S. A 295 3,318 1,018 368 1 Board of Missions of the M. E. Church, South Domestic and For. Miss. So. Protestant Episcopal Ch. in U.S. A 2 3 Foreign Department, International Committee of Y.M.C.A 2i6' 22 40 20 6,153 224 2,200 20 18,000 2 72 18 125 Foreign Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention. . . . 2 60 22 30 15 15 500 375 1 35 2,650 550 2,217 Foreign Miss. Committee, Presbyterian Church in Canada 2 113 2 1908 1908 1908 1908 1908 1908 1908 1908 1908 1907 1881 1840 1893' 1S94 1835 1895 1844 1815 3 4 6 "21" 83 9 15 50 869 "20" 5 8 131 15 94 552 425 15,000 3 4 102 5 100 882 6,274 5 8 502 100 404 21,319 Woman's Foreign Missionary Society, M.E. Church, South' Total, 15 American Societies 6 41 150 3,600 135 "2 35 27 139 17 31,042 44,027 5 1 British Societies Brethren's Missions British and Foreign Bible Society "Help for Brazil," or Brazil Mission is 5 17 2 8 6 10 20 700 600 3 5 120 6 7 Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts.. . . South American Evangelical Mission 552 300 ' 6,336 7,343 2,825 17,371 20,796 20,669 io' 19 31 62 93 96^ i52' 14 12 26 • 4 49 40 57 5 ■'24' 6 96 9 140 415 438 9 18 11 69 22 39 4 2 65 24 15 39 2 ■44' 59 31 1 32 ■ 5,628 5,748 3,297 10 3,307 4 ■'64 81 17 South American Missionary Society Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society 4.856' 4,856 1,229 1 422 ::,::: 1 "i' Total, 8 British Societies ^ "^^^ ,,. . International Societies Mis.sion der Brudergemeine 1907 1908 1738 1890 1 10 The Salvation Army 7,343 20,669 1 10 Grand Total, 25 Societies 247 213 245 luH 1447 239 656 46,273 85.492 193 15,329 42 '3,610' 61 li 28.826 '.. ..1 1 6 1 1 'Refused to give statistics - Male an'1 female ordained and unordained INDEX INDEX Aboriginal religions in South America, 54, 56, 57, 59, 155 Aborigines of South America, see Indians Aconcagua, mountain of Ar- gentina, 9 Adventists, 214 Adventurers from Spain and Portugal, 122, 143, ideas entertained by, 163; im- press left, 132; Puritan colonists in contrast, 137 African paganism in South America, 181 Agassiz, quoted, 264 Alexander, Rev. George, quoted, 238 Alfalfa, 19 Alfonso, Bishop, quoted, 230 AJvear, liberator, 96 Amazon, mission points, 208, 213; River, 11, 12, 24; system, 21, 22 American and Foreign Chris- tian Union work, 209, 210 American Bible Society, 215; Agents, 217 American Board of Com- missioners for Foreign Mis- sions, 289 Analysis of South American outlook, 263-274 Anchieta, Jos6 de, 194 Ancient roadways, 48 Andes Moimtains, 9 Anglican work, 213, 214 Antarctic winds, 18 Anti, or Antis, the, 45 Antofagasta, 23 Araucanians, the, 45, 51, 212 Arawaks, the, 45, 197 Arenales, General, 104 Argentina, 2, 21, 100-103; cattle and crops, 19; com- mercial development, 2; comparative area, 7; in- crease of population, 28; independence, 103; races in, 66, wheat crops, 18, 19; work by Protestants, 201, 205-209,213, 214-220, 222 Arica, 25 Asiatics in South Americsi, 182, 184 Asphalt, 16 Atahuallpa, 60, 61; referred to, 158, 168 Australian Missionary So- ciety, 214 Ayacucho, battle of, 107 Aymaras, the, 45 Azores, the, 81 B Bagby, Rev. W. B,, 213 Bahia, boarding school fop girls at, 213; Boileau im- prisoned in, 194; captured by the Dutch, 194; Hemy Martyn in, 199; strong oe™ gro blend, 66 301 302 Index Bahia Blanca, 26 Brazil and the Brazilians, Bandelier, Professor, quoted quoted, 199 on Indian dancing, 171 Brazilian journal, quoted, 80, Baptism a protection to the 145 natives, 166 Brigham, Rev. John C, Barber, Rev. W. T. A., quoted, 205 quoted, 239 British and Foreign Bible Barranquilla, 188 Society, 135, 188, 200 Barrett, John, quoted, 2, 262 British Guiana, 111; work by Beef extracts, Liebig's, 19 Protestants, 196-198 Belgium and Brazil, relative Brown, Rev. Hubert C, populations of, 8 quoted, 42, 129, 161 Belgrano, Manuel, 99 Buenos Aires, 21, 25; Creole Bible, agencies for circulation, junta in, 92 ; growth, popu- 204, 215-219; influence of lation, 2, 28; smuggling 88; the open, 137, 144-146; in- trade restrictions and rev- troduced in schools, 200- olution, 86, 87, 99, 101- 203, 205; societies, 215 103. 107, 108; work of mis- Bogota, 105, 188, 209; Bible sions, 201, 204, 205, 207, Society in, 202, 203 209, 212, 213, 218, 220, Boileau, Jean de, 193, 194 222, 275 Bolivar, Simon, 96-98, 103- Building and Transit Fund 105; meets San Martin, Society, 207, 208 106,201,203 Bolivia, ^ Canadian Baptist C work in, 213; comparative Cable lines, 26 area, 7; sports of metals, Cadiz, Spain, 97 15; mineral deposits, 14; Callao, 28, 105, 107 work by Protestants, 208, Calvin, John, interested in 213, 216-219 South America, 191 Bonaparte, Joseph, 90 Campos, the, 10 Boundaries of new republics, Canada, 7, 125, 127, 129, 140- 1G8 145. 224; missionary in- Boyaca, battle of, 104 terest in South America, Brazil, commercial develop- 225, 287, 290 ment, 2, 17, 18, 21; com- Canadian Baptist work in parative area, 8; Dutch Bolivia, 213 West Indies Company in, Canadian Church Missionary 194, 196; illegitimacy in, Association, 212 131; independence Cannibal tribes, 71, 72 achieved, 110; made a re- Canterac, defeated by Boli- public, 111; negroes of, var, 107 182; pagan Indians in, 72; Cape Verde Islands, 83 work by Protestants, 191- Capital invested in South 196, 199, 200, 207-214, 220 America, 32, 33 Index 303 Caracas destroyed by earth- quake, 96 Caras, the, 45, 52 Caribs, the, 45 Cartagena, New Granada, 99 Castello, F. de la, quoted, 73, 135 Castilian ty^pe, 123, 124 Central America, 3 Cereals, growth of, 18 Chacabuco, battle of, 104 Charles lY, 91 Chancas, the, 59, 60 Chibchas, the, 46, 51 Children, pagan, taught by Rome, 171 Chile, comparative area, 6, 7 ; French investments, 33; independence, 102-104, 109; mineral resources, 14- 16; mission work, 208, 210, 212; railroads, 23, 26; schools by ProtestantS;201, 202, 222, 223 Chinese in South America, 68, 182, 184 Christ, see Jesus Christ Christian and Missionary Al- liance, 214 Chunchos, the, 49 Chuquisaca, 91 Church Missionary Society, work of, 198 Church of England, 246 Church, temporal power of, 112 Circulation of Bibles, see Bible _ Civilization, high degree of Indian, 46, 50, 52 Clark, F. E., quoted, 145, 154, 178, 224, 262, 283 Climates of South America, 13, 14 Coal and coal mines, 16 Coca tree and cocain, 17 Cochrane, Lord, 104 Cocoa, 17. 18 Coffee, 18 CoUgnv, Admiral, 190, 191 Colomoia, Bible movement in, 202-204; Chibcha In- dians in, 50, 51; compara- tive area, 7; emeralds and pearls, 16; loss of Panama, 109; steps to independence, 104, 108; work of Prot- estants, 209 Colonization, Duteh, 68, 194- 196; French, 68, 190-194; Portuguese and Spanish, 81-84; some recent immi- grations, 28-30, 67, 68 Colporteur work, 188, 215- 219 Columbus, 62, 81 Commercial outlook, 31, 32; early restrictions, 86-89 Compulsory conversion, 165- 168, 172; results, 174 Conditions at present, 122; political outlook, 139 Congregationalist,The, quoted, 288 Conquest of Peru, quoted, 55, 56 Conquests, by the Incas, 59, 60; by the Spanish, 61-63 Conquistadors, 70 Conscience lacking, 126, 129 Constitutions of South Amer- ican repubHcs. modeled on that of United States, 96, 99, 111, 139 Continent of Opportunity , The, quoted, 145, 154, 178, 224, 262, 283 Control of the Tropics, re- ferred to, 31 Convention of Tordesillas, 83 804 Index Conversion of the Indians, Protestant efforts for, 193, 195-198, 211, 212; Roman Catholic efforts for, 165- 175 Copiapo, 23 Copper, 15 Cordilleras, the, 49 Corregidors, 63 Council of the Indians, 84 Courtly manners and culture of higher classes, 123, 124 Creoles, the, 85 Crown lands, government of, 83, 84 Culture of aboriginal peoples, 122 Curacao, Island of, 99 Curtis, W. E., quoted, 170 Cuzco, cathedral of, 169; leg- end of, 47, 48; Valverde, Bishop of, 61 Dahne, Christopher, 197 Dancing by Indians at re- ligious feasts, 170, 171 Dawson, Thomas C, quoted, 42,80 Demarcation between Span- ish and Portuguese re- gions, line of, 81-83 Dempster, Rev. John, 207 Despotism, harsh rule, and armed resistance, 85, 86 Discoverers, 43 Distrust, "mutual, produced by inquisition, 126, 133, 142 DcHn Pedro I and II, 110 Dominicans and the Indians, 173 Dress-parade in manners, 125 Dutch in South America, 68, 194-197 Dutch Guiana, 182; Protes« tant work, 196, 197 Earthquake destroys Cara- cas, 96 East Indians in South Amer- ica, 182 Ecclesiastical conquest, 83; Roman hierarchy, 89 Economic outlook, 31, 32, 263-265 Ecuador, Bible work in, 202, 204; Cara Indians in, 52; comparative area, 6; man- ner of Indians in, 70; steps to independence, 106, 108; work of Protestants, 208, 213, 214 Education lacking, 133, 134 Educational mission work, 200-205, 213, 222-224, 252-254 Elder, Robert, quoted, 230 Emancipation of South AmeT" ica, The, quoted, 148 EncomiendaSf system of, 62, 63 Encouragements noted, 285 English in South America, 29,68 Error in religion, results of, 114 European, interest in South America, 30, 267 Evangelistic work, 206-215, 219-221, 249-252 Every, Bishop, 212 Ewbank, Rev. Alan, quoted, 157 Exportation, of cocoa, 17; coffee, 18; metals, 15; nitrates, 16; rubber, 18; trade restrictions, 88 Index SOS Famfly arrangements of early adventurers, 64 Fenn, Dr., 213 Ferdinand VII, 91, 92, 93 Ferdinand and Isabella, 159 Feudal system carried into South America, 84; classes affected by, 85 Fletcher and Kidder, quoted, 199 Foreign Evangelical Society, 209 Foreign mission and colony work, 198 Forest wealth, 17, 18 Forts, early Roman Catholic church edifices as, 169 "Founder of the Liberty^ of Peru," San Martin's title, 106 Foundling hospitals, 131 Franciscans and the Indians, 167 Fray Bentos, 19 Free Church of Scotland, 210 Freedom of religion, 237 French Guiana, 111 French in South America, 68 ; Protestant colony, 190-194 Fruit products, 17 Fuegian mission, 212 Gardiner, Captain Allan, R. N., 211 Gems, 16 Geneva, clergy's interest in French Protestant colony, 191 Germany and South Amer- ica, 33, 35 God as the source of author- ity, 144 Gold deposits, 14, 15 Goodfellow, Dr. William, 236 Government of the Incas, 50 Governments chiefly republi- can in form. Ill Gran Chaco, the, 10, 212 ^'Gran Reunion AmericaTW," 95, 98, 100 Grasses on the plains, 19 Great Britain and South America, 32, 35, 287 Greek Church adherents in South America, 183 Grubb, Rev. W. B., quoted, 73 Guano, 30 Guaranis, the, 45 Guayaquil, 23, 202; Bible agency in, 204; formed a state, 105; meeting-place of Pohvar and San Martin, 106 Guianas, the, 68, 111 Giittner, John, 197 H Hale, Albert, quoted, 2, 80, 188 Hanson, Karl, 218 Harrington, Dr. F. M., 283 Heathenism in South Amer- ica, 73, 156, 157 Help for Brazil committee, 211 Hindus in South America, 183 Historical Sketch of Presby- terian Missions, quoted, 130 Home field to be enlisted, 257, 286, 287 Hopeful outlook, 138, 145, 146, 148, 262-290 Huguenot colony, 191, 192 Humanitarian agencies, 255 306 Index Humboldt, Alexander von, quoted, 171 Ideals of South America, 271 Illegitimacjr, 131 Images for idols, 169 Immigration, 28, 29, 240; character and conditions, 241, 267; nationahties, 29, 230 Impositions on natives, 64 Inca temple at Cuzco, 57, 58; serv^ice in the, 59 Incas, the, 45; arts known to, 46, 50; government by, 50, 55; rule of, 49; traditional origin, 47: worship among, 54; their proud descend- ants, 70 Independence of South American countries, 85, 86, 89, 92; attained, 93, 108 Indians, 42-78, 231; esti- mated number, 42,188; linguistic differences, 53; map of racial locations, 44 ; noble qualities, 71; op- pressed by Spain, 62, 63, 70; original location of races, 44; persistence as a racial element, 69, 124; race blending, 64; religious system, 54, 59; Roman- izing efforts for, 162-175; work of Protestants for, 190, 193, 195, 197, 198, 211, 212, 242, 247 Inquisition, the, 89 ; effect of, 133, 137, 142; in Cadiz, 97; in Castile and Aragon, 160; replaced, 202; statistics, 159 Interest in South America, reasons for 33, 34, 35, 286- 290 International Bureau of American Republics, 4 Intoxicants, use of, 126 Invasion of continent by Christians, 61 Ipecacuanha, 17 Isthmian trail for imports from Spain, 87; smuggling, Jamestown colony's predeces- sor, 191 Japanese prospective coming to South America, 182, 184 Jesuit, help, 192-194; wis- dom, 53 Jesuits and the Indians, 174 Jesus Christ, 135, 154, 164, 174, 199, 205, 242, 243; statue of, 289, 290 John VI of Portugal, 110 Julio Maria, referred to, 239 Juncal, 25 Junta estabhshed, 92, 99 K Kalley, Dr. Robert R., 210 Kidd, Benjamin, referred to, 31 Kinsolving, Bishop L. L., 212 Lafayette, Marquis de, 93 "La France Antarctique," Calvin's interest in, 191 La Paz, 25, 91; the Virgin honored in, 170 Lancasterian schools, 200- 202; results of, 203 Language, a general, for In- dians. 54; as a missionary question, 247 Las Casas, Bishop of Chiapa, 165, 172, 173 Latin America, 67 Index 307 Latin America, quoted, 129, 161 Law and lawlessness, 143 Laws, more liberal, 282 Lecky, quoted, on Church of Rome, 159 Lee, Walter Scott, quoted, 120, 188 Liberty, true, 115 Liebig's extracts prepared at Fray Bentos, Uruguay, 19 Lima, 23, 84, 105-107, 202, 204 Literary work, 200-205, 221, 222, 254, 255 Long hair a mark of distinc- tion among Indians, 168 Lujan, Argentina, image and church at, 177, 178 M Madeira converts in Rio de Janeiro, 210 Maipo River, 49 Manaos, 213 Manco Capac, 47 Maps, natural resources, 15; railways, 24 ; settlement, 82; South American In- dian racial locations, 44; statistical, of area and population, 6 Marino, Antonio, 90, 95 Mariscal, Hon. I g n a c i o, quoted, 284 Marriage customs, 130 Martyn, Henry, in Bahia, 199 Matto G rosso, the, 10 Maurice of Nassau, 196 Medical work, 255 Meiggs, Henry, 23 Mendieta quoted, 173 Mendoza, 103 Methodist Episcopal Church missions in South America, 207,208 Methodist Episcopal Church, South, in South America, 208 Methods of Protestant mis- sionary operation, 214, 220 Methods of Romanism, 244, 245 Mexican writer quoted on compulsory' conversion, 1 66, 168 Mexico and the United States y quoted, 284 Military conquest, 83 Mihie, Rev. Andrew M., 217 Mineral resources, 14-17 Mines worked by enforced Indian labor, 63 Miranda, a liberator, 93; dictator, 96; dies in Spain, 97 Misconception of conditions, 276, 277 Missionaiy occupation of South Ameiica by Pro- testants, 188-259; early general movements, 190- 206; later regular modem missions, 206-225 Missions and Modern His- tory, quoted, 188, 236-238 Mississippi, the, service on the ship, 209 Mitre, General, quoted, 146, 147 Mohammedans in South America, 184 MoUendo, 23 Mongiardino, Jos^, 216 Monroe Doctrine, 113, 286 Monteverde, Spanish com- mander, 97 I\Ionte\-ideo, 29, 203, 220, 275 Montuf ar, liberator, 95; quoted, 167 308 Index Morals, based on religion, 149; in Protestant coun- tries, 132, 137; standard of, in South America, 125, 127 Moravian work, 196; among the Arawaks, 197 More liberal laws, 282 Morris, James W., quoted, 262 Morris, Kev. WiUiam C, 212 N Natural resources, 14-20, 263, 264; map, 15 Negroes in South America, 65, 66; "bush" negroes in Dutch Guiana, 182 Nelson, Rev. J. H., 208 Newspapers, help from, 284 Nitrates, wealth in, 16 North and South America, 34; contrasted, 147 Obstacles to Protestant suc- cess, 244-246, 281 Occasions of revolution, 140 O'Higgins favors Lancaste- rian schools, 201 Open Door, The, quoted, 237 Orellana's account, 12 Organization of Incan em- pire, 50 Orientals in Latin America, 68 Orinoco River, 11, 81 Oroya, 23 Oruro. 23, 25 Outlook, the, 261-292; eco- nomic and social, 262, 266- 269; intellectual, 269, 270; material, 262-266; moral, 272, 273; political, 270- 272; religious, 273-290 Pagan Indians, area and numbers, 72, 74; devoted to their rehgion, 54^ 71; fetishism and superstition, 73 Paganism in South America, 273, 276; incorporated into Romanism, 168, 169, 170, 171 Pampa Indians, 45 Pampas, the, 10 Panama, Canal, 26, 27, 265; Isthmus of, 26, 87 Panama, RepubUc of, 5, 34; comparative area, 5; gold found in. 14 ; steps to inde- pendence, 109; work by Protestants, 208, 214 Pan-American railroad, 25 Papal bulls, and conversion of the aborigines, 163, 164; on "Une of demarcation," 81-83 Paraguay, 2, 21; comparative area, 5; steps to independ- ence, 86, 108; work of Protestants, 208, 212 Parana River, 11 Party government in North America, and in South America, 140-142 Parvin, Rev. Theophilus, 205 Patagonia, 109 Penn, William, referred to, 148 Penzotti, Francisco, 217; quoted, 218 Peonage, 70 Pemambuco, 195, 220 Peru, 12, 42, 87; area, 7; Chinese blend, 68; com- mercial development, 2, 18: Indians of, 45-63; natural products, 14-18; railroads, Index 30S 20, 23-26; steps to inde- pendence, 91, 101-108; ter- ritory lost to Chile, 109; work by Protestants, 202, 204, 205, 207, 208, 214, 217, 222 Petroleum, 16 Philippines, the, 277 Pilcomayo River, 11 Pilgrim Fathers and Quakers, 147 Pitts, Rev. Fountain E., 207 Pizarro, Francisco, CI; founds Lima, 189 Plains of South America, 9; cattle on, 19; Spanish name for, 10 PljTnouth Brethren in South America, 213 Politics, of a people, 138, 139; South American, 139, 140; North American, 141 Pond, Mrs. T. S., quoted, 230 Popayan, bishop of, and the Bible, 204 Pope, Alexander VI, 81, 163; Leo XIII, on the South American priesthood, 136 Population, 6. 29: estimated Indian, 6, 42, 188; possible for Argentina, 2 ; for Brazil, 8; recent increase in Ar- gentina and Brazil, 28 Port, improvements, 266; mission work, 219 Porter, W. C, quoted, 154 Porto Rico, 277 Portuguese in South Amer- ica, 62, 109, 192, 196 Potosi, 14, 63 Prairies and pampas com- pared, 10 Prayer not lost, 199 Preaching, 249; native minis- tiy, 251 ; training, 252 Presbyterian Church, North- ern, in South America, 209, 210, 222,223; Presbyterian Church, Southern, 210, 222 Prescott, W. H., quoted on Castilian craelties, 165; on Cuzco cathedral, 169; re- ferred to, bb, 56 Priesthood, allegations against the, 134-137 Principles inherited, 145 Printing-press in mission work, 254 Problem, the, 231 ; how to be solved, 248; not hopeless, 246; outlook, 274; results, 275 Progress not rapid, 275 Protestant Episcopal Church in South America, 212 Protestant moral standard, 132, 134; effect on Roman- ism, 137, 180, 181; ideals and achievements, 149 Protestantism, chief duty of to South America, 287 enters South America, 190 needed there, 183, 184^ reaches the men, 179; re- sults, 279 Publishing plant in Rio de Janeiro, 213 Pure Spanish and Portuguese blood, 67 Puritanism, 137; influence in politics, 142, 143 Q Quichuas, the, 45; use of the language, 188 Quinin, 17 Quito, 13, 60, 105, 106, 204 R Race blendings, 64-68, 124, 133, 267 310 Index Railways, 2, 22-26; map, 24 Rainfall on the pampas, 10 Razors and spectacles sold to the Indians, 64 Reasons for missions to Ro- man Catholics in South America, 235-237 Recoil from superstition, 242 Reformed Church of Holland, 195, 246 Regions Beyond Missionary Union, 214 Religion and the moral life, 149 Rehgions of South America. 153-186; aboriginal or pa- gan, 156, 157; peculiar type of Romanism, 157-181; Protestantism, 183, 184; various other faiths, 181- 183 Religious liberty promised, 194; South and North America contrasted, 146, 147 Repartimiento, the, 63 Representative government, in North America, 144; training for, 142, 147 Results of the conquest, 74, 75 Reverence for priests waning, 179 Revolutionary ideas, 89 ; movement begun, 91; sup- pressed, 91, 101; trium- phant. 104-111 Revolution, 96, 98, 99, 101; success in Argentina, 103 Rights of Man, The, in New Granada, 90 Rio de Janeiro, 2, 27, 72, 194, 207, 209, 210, 212, 220 Rio de la Plata River, 11 Rivers of South America, 10- 12, 20-22 Rocafuerte, liberator, 95; quoted, 203 Roman Cathohc Church, 273 ; clergy and the Bible, 218; ecclesiasticism, 112, 133, 134, 137, 144; the hierarchy in South America, 83, 155; influence, 75, 233, 234, 235, 244; opposition to simple gospel, 281 Romanism in South America, 155, 157-161, 165, 237; results, 175, 176, 181 Romero, Hon. M a t i a s, quoted, 284 Rubber production, 18 Salvation Army work, 214 San Martin, Jose, 100, 102- 104, 107, 201, 202 Santiago, 3, 23, 25, 59, 204, 219, 220, 222, 223 Sao Paulo, 27, 213, 220 Sarmiento, General, 236 Schools, Protestant, 213, 222, 263 Scotch Presbyterian Church in South America, 210, 246 Seamen'sFriend Societies, 219 Self-government, 111, 114, 115 Sema, General Jose de la, 105, 107 Settlement map, 82 Silly superstitions taught, 177 Silver mines, 14 Silver River, 1 1 Simonton, Rev. A s h b e 1 Green, 210 Skilled workers, 51 Slavery, Indian and negro, 62, 63, 65, 66 Index 311 ''Social eva," the, 129 Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 198 South America, area, 4; boundaries ana shape, 3, 4; claims on other countries, 35; commerce and trans- portation, 2, 18-27, 31-33; duties of Protestants to, 225, 232, 235, 240, 242, 289, 290; immigration, 2, 28-30; inexhaustible re- sources, 14-19, 30, 31; loca- tion, 3, 33; neglected conti- nent, 33, 34; outlook, 263- 276; poUtical hfe, 138-150; population, 6, 29; possible service to older countries, 30; reKgions, 155-184; Ro- man Catholic influence, 174-180, 231-234, 237- 240; social hfe, 121-138; work of Protestants, 196- 224 South American ^Missionary Society, 212 Southern Baptist Convention work, 213 Southey, quoted, on the in- difference of France to BrazH, 193 Spain and the higher clergy, 205 Spaniards in South America, 62,83 Spaulding, Rev. Justin, 207 Speer, Robert E, quoted, 188, 236-238 Statesman's Year-Book, re- ferred to, 38 Statistical map, 6 Statistics, A c o n c a g u a's height, 9; area of conti- nent, 4; area of countries. 5-8; Argentina's foreign commerce, 2; Brazil's for- eign commerce, 2; Buenos Aires' population^ 2, 28; foreign capital mvested, 32, 33; foreign commerce, 32; illegitimacy, 131; illiter- acy, 134; immigrants, see Immigraiion; Inca popula- tion, 63; Indians slaugh- tered and now hving, 164, 165, 188; inquisition vic- tims, 159; mission statis- tics, see Appendix B; population, see Population; products, 16-19; Protes- tant missionaries, 224 Status of mixed races, 72 Sterhng, Bishop, 212 Stock-raising, 19 Stuntz, Homer C, quoted, 2 Sucre, General, 105, 107 Suez Canal, 26 Swaney, Rev. J. A,, 209 Switzerland and Panama compared, 5 Sword or ballot dominating in government, 141 Table-land tracts, 13 Taylor, Rev. WilHam, 207, 208 Tehuelches, the, 45 Telegraph lines, 26 Theocratic government, a, 50, 55 Thomson, James, 200, 201 Thomson, Rev. John F., 207 Tierra del Fu^o, 14 Titicaca, Lake and Island, 47 Topography of South Amer- ica, 12 Trinidad, 16, 81 Trumbull, Rev. David, 209 sn Index Tucker, Hugh C, quoted, 42, 72, 131, 182 Tucuman, 100, 103 Tunneling the Andes, 25 Tupi form for lingua geral, 54 Types of missionary effort in South America, 246, 247 Typical South American, 123, 125; home Ufe, 129, 130 U Ucayah* River, 24 United States, 7, 8, 28; in- fluence for independence and republican institutions, 89, 90, 93-96, 99, 111, 139- 143, 148; interest in South America, 32, 286, 287; together with Canada maintain a high moral standard and an open Bi- ble, 132, 137, 144-150 Uruguay, 21 ; cattle products, 19; comparative area, 5; races prominent in, 66; republic formed, 108; work of Protestants, 208, 214 Uspallata Pass, 25 Valparaiso, 23, 25, 27, 204 Valverde, Bishop of Cuzco, 61, 158, 168 Van Leesten, Henry, quoted, 42 Venezuela, 2; area, 7; birth- place of Miranda and Boli- var, 93, 98; steps to independence, 92-104, 108; work of Protestants, 203, 213, 214 Veracity lacking, 126 Villegagnon, Admiral, 190, 191; treachery, 192 Volcanic peaks in Andean range, 9 W Washington, George, referred to, 147 Waterways of South Amer- ica, 20, 21 West coast difficulties, 22, 23; work, 207, 209 Wheat yield of Argentina, 18 Wheelwright, Wilham, 23 White race's debt to the Indian, 75, 76 Wilcox, Marrion, quoted, 120 WiUiam of Orange, referred to, 147 Women, compose most of worshipers in the churches, 178; status and treatment of, 127, 128 Wood, Rev. Thomas B., 237 World-wide issue, the, 287 Young Men's Christian Asso- ciation, 219, 220 Young Women's Christian Association, 220 Yucay, Valley of, 48 Forward Mission Study Courses " Anywhere, provided it he forward." — David Living- stone." Prepared under the direction of the YOUNG PEOPLE'S MISSIONARY MOVEMENT OF THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA Editorial CoamiTTEE: T. H. P. Sailer, Chairman, A. E. Armstrong, T. B. Ray, H. B. Grose, S. Earl Tay- lor, J, E. McAfee, C. R. Watson, John W. Wood, L. B. Wolf. The forward mission study courses are an outgrowth of a conference of leaders in young people's mission work, held in New York City, December, 1901. To meet the need that was manifested at that conference for mission study text-books suitable for young people, two of the delegates, Professor Amos R. Wells, of the United Society of Christian Endeavor, and Mr. S. Earl Taylor, Chairman of the General Alissionary Committee of tlie Epworth League, projected the Forward Mission Study Courses. These courses have been officially adopted by the Young People's Missionary Movement, and are now under the immediate direction of the Editorial Committee of the Movement. The books of the Movement are now being used by more than forty home and foreign mission boards and societies of the United States and Canada. The aim is to publish a series of text-books covering the various home and foreign mission fields and written by leading authorities. The entire series when completed will comprise perhaps as many as forty text-books. The following text-books having a sale of nearly 600,000 have been published: 1. The Price of Africa. (Biographical.) By S. Earl Taylor. 2. Into All the World. A general survey of missions. By Amos R. Wells. 3. Princely Men in the Heavenly Kingdom. (Bio- graphical.) By Harlan P. Beach. 4. Sunrise in the Sunrise Kingdom. A study of Japan. By John H. De Forest. 5. Heroes of the Cross in America. Home Missions. (Biographical.) By Don O. Shelton. 6. Daybreak in the Dark Continent. A study of Af- rica. By Wilson S. Naylor. 7. The Christian Conquest of India. A study of India. By James M. Thoburn. 8. Aliens or Americans? A study of Immigration. By Howard B. Grose. 9. The Uplift of China. A study of China. By Arthur H. Smith. 10. The Challenge of the City. A study of the City. By Josiah Strong. 11. The Why and How of Foreign Missions. A study of the relation of the home Church to the foreign missionary enterprise. By Arthur J. Brown. 12. The Moslem World. A study of the Moham- medan World. By Samuel M. Zwemer. 13. The Frontier. A study of the New West. By Ward Piatt. 14. South America: Its Missionary Problems. A study of South America. By Thomas B. Neely. 15. The Upward Path : The Evolution of a Race. A study of the Negro. By Mary Helm. 16. Korea in Transition. A study of Korea. By James S. Gale. In addition to these courses, the following have been published especially for use among younger persons: 1. Uganda's White Man of Work. The story of Alex- ander Mackay of Africa. By Sophia Lyon Fahs. 2. Servants of the King. A series of eleven sketches of famous home and foreign missionaries. By Robert E. Speer. 3. Under Marching Orders. The Story of Mary Por- ter Gamewell of China. By Ethel Daniels Hubbard. These books are published by mutual arrangement among the home and foreign mission boards, to whom all orders should be addressed. They are bound uni- formly and are sold at 50 cents, in cloth, and 35 cents, in paper; postage, 8 cents extra. UXSB LIBRARY .;„:,;:- -'3RARy fac ^ 000 605 299 ™