1 
 
 ifornia 
 
 mal 
 
 ty
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 AT LOS ANGELES
 
 'LETTER' 
 
 ON 
 
 THE UNITED PROVINCES 
 
 OF 
 
 >out& America, 
 
 ADDRESSED TO THE 
 
 HON. HENRY CLAY, 
 
 SPEAKER OE THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES OF THE 17. STATES. 
 
 BY 
 
 DO& VICENTE PAZOS. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE SPANISH 
 
 BY 
 
 PLATT II. CROSBY, ESQ. 
 NEW-YORK: 
 
 PRINTED BY J. SEYMOUR, 49 JOHN-STREET. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 BY J. MILLER, BOW-STREET, COVENT GARDRN". 
 
 1SI9. 
 
 7614 6 650S6
 
 Bi 
 
 Foiilhtrn District of Nen-lotk, it. 
 
 >E it remembered, thai on the twenty-fourth day of March, in the 43d year of the 
 Independence of the United States of America, PLATT H CROSBY, of the said Dis- 
 trict, hath deposited in thin office the title of a Book, the right whereof he rliirw a? Pro- 
 prietor, in the. words following, to wit: 
 " LetttH on the United Provinces of South America, addressed to the Hon Henry Clay, 
 Speaker of the House of Representative of the United States, by Don Vicente VmC%, 
 translated from the Spanish, hy Piatt H. Crosby. Esq." 
 In conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United State', entitled '* An Act for 
 the encouragement of.Learning, by securing the copies of Maps. Charts, and Books to the 
 authors an-J proprietors of such copies, during the lime therein mentioned :" And also 
 to an Act. entitled " An Act, supplementary to an Act, entitled an Act for the encou- 
 ragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Book< to the authors 
 and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending the 
 benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engra\ing, and etching historic*, md other prints." 
 
 JAMES DUJi. 
 Clerk (if the Southern District of If em- York
 
 
 ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 Don Vicente Pazos, the author of the following 
 Letters, is a native of Upper Peru : much there- 
 fore, of what he describes, is the familiar recollec- 
 tions of his childhood, or the results of his maturer 
 knowledge, and of personal observation. 
 
 In his rapid sketch of the revolution of the Unit- 
 ed Provinces of South America, there are many 
 scenes in which he has borne a part, either as an 
 actor or sufferer, and which are therefore too 
 deeply imprinted on his memory to be easily for- 
 gotten ; for the rest, for every fact which is not 
 already history, he relies upon authentic informa- 
 tion, and public documents. 
 
 I learn from him, that he >vas induced to address 
 these letters to the Hon. Henry Clay, from senti- 
 ments of private friendship, of respect for his pub- 
 lic character as the chief of the popular and re- 
 presentative branch of the government of the Unit- 
 ed States, and because he was the first to raise 
 his voice in our national Legislature in favour of 
 South American Independence. 
 
 The Map of the United Provinces of South 
 America, which accompanies this volume, was de- 
 lineated by the ingenious Mr. E. W. Bridges, City 
 Surveyor, and engraved by those distinguished 
 artists, Messrs. Maverick and Durand. It is com- 
 piled from the most recent and approved maps
 
 iv ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 and charts of South America, whose errors, where 
 they have been discovered, have been carefully 
 corrected, and whose omissions have been suppli- 
 ed from the author's topographical knowledge of 
 the country. 
 
 For the manner in which this work has been 
 translated, I am answerable ; it hns not been ac- 
 complished without much labour, nor without the 
 waste of many hours, taken from business or relaxa- 
 tion; in the progress of which I have been cheer- 
 ed, by the reflection that I was aiding to dissemi- 
 nate among my fellow-citizens, the knowledge of 
 a country, the most interesting, perhaps, of any 
 on the globe, but which, like the Herculaneum of 
 antiquity, has been buried for centuries beneath 
 the accumulated lavas of oppression, ignorance 
 and superstition. 
 
 The following pages point out to the enterpris- 
 ing a boundless scope for the employment of in- 
 dustry, and the display of talent ; to commercial 
 men, new objects and channels of trade ; to the 
 friend of man, a noble field for the exercise of 
 benevolence; to the friend of God, a splendid the- 
 atre for the labours of the Missionary ; a region 
 where the fountain of living waters has never 
 gushed, nor the tree of life taken root. 
 
 I flatter myself that whoever shall peruse this 
 volume, will lay it down with the conviction, that 
 his time has been employed, neither unpleasantly 
 nor un profitably. 
 
 PLATT H. CROSBY. 
 
 New-York, March 20, 1819.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 THE struggles which the Patriots of South 
 America are making to establish their inde- 
 pendence, have attracted the attention, and 
 deeply interested the sympathies, of the world. 
 Until very lately, the abundant resources of 
 this country, and its unparalleled salubrity of 
 climate, have been regarded, without being en- 
 tirely disbelieved, as the fables of romance, 
 rather than realities. Few had any interest 
 in the truth, and fewer still had the disposi- 
 tion to investigate it. Investigation would in- 
 deed have been unprofitable, and at all events 
 laborious, and without the prospect of future 
 advantage ; and the fairest portion of the 
 globe, the most inviting to the adventurer, and 
 the man of science ; the most auspicious to the 
 developement of genius, and the prosecution 
 of industry ; has been known only through the 
 muddy channels of information which the 
 worst of governments, and of religions, have 
 from time to time thrown open to the world. 
 
 b
 
 vl PREFACE. 
 
 A happier star seems to have risen upon this 
 oppressed country, to preside over its desti- 
 nies, and to conduct the people in their march 
 towards moral greatness ; to attain which, no- 
 thing but the incarceration of the mind could 
 have repressed their ardour, or stilled their 
 aspirations. The glorious work of political 
 and religious emancipation is going on simul- 
 taneously with the removal of ignorance, ap- 
 athy, and prejudice, obstacles formidable in- 
 deed, but which the spirit of independence 
 will finally overcome. The termination of the 
 contest now waging, in Peru especially, may 
 be anticipated at an early day ; its triumph- 
 ant issue is so clearly foreseen, that anxiety 
 is barely kept awake, and hope not permitted 
 to slumber. The strong arm of power cannot 
 subdue the energies of a high-minded people, 
 when roused in the cause of their indepen- 
 dence, and directed to the overthrow of an 
 odious and humiliating domination. Defeat 
 may damp the ardour of resistance, and smo- 
 ther the flame which it cannot extinguish ; 
 but passions, which have long been restrained, 
 will sooner or later burst their barriers, and 
 bear down every thing in their fury. 
 
 The independence of the whole of the Unit- 
 ed Provinces, except those of Upper Peru, 
 has been so long established, and the ability
 
 PREFACE. vil 
 
 and determination of the people to maintain 
 it, have been so fully displayed, that incredu- 
 lity is hushed, and doubt has vanished away. 
 They exercise all the rights of sovereignty, 
 and possess all its advantages, with the excep- 
 tion of their recognition by other nations. 
 This policy of the European governments, 
 however it may have originated, has been pur- 
 sued by the United States ; with what wisdom 
 will not here be made the subject of inquiry, 
 as it would lead into the mazes of politics, 
 further than is either prudent or desirable, and 
 it is a subject of all others, perhaps, upon 
 which the writer would be heard with the least 
 complacency. Without exposing himself to 
 the hazards which overhang that troubled 
 ocean, he may be indulged in a few remarks. 
 The present embarrassed, it might be said dis- 
 tracted, state of commerce in Europe and the 
 United States, affords strong grounds for be- 
 lieving, that former sources of trade are in a 
 degree becoming exhausted ; and in a state of 
 profound peace, like the present, when na- 
 tions are permitted to pursue their interests 
 and policy undisturbed, competition alone will 
 bear heavily upon commercial profits. In 
 such a state of things, some nations must 
 change their habits and policy, or search out 
 new channels, and pursue new objects of
 
 viii PkEFACE. 
 
 trade. But it is no easy thing to convert the 
 whole commercial capital of a nation into ag- 
 ricultural and manufacturing channels, or, in- 
 deed, to make any other general appropria- 
 tion of it ; and it is no ordinary transforma- 
 tion, to change the character, and the habits 
 of thinking and acting, of a large and wealthy 
 portion of the inhabitants of a country. The 
 pursuit of new objects of trade, whenever they 
 can be discovered, is the easiest and safest way 
 to counteract commercial torpor, and re-ani- 
 mate declining trade. New branches of trade, 
 besides benefitting the world at large, have 
 invariably stimulated the enterprise, and 
 quickened the industry of those countries 
 which have embraced them. Viewed in these 
 lights, the emancipation of South America is 
 of the first importance to the commercial 
 world, but particularly to Great Britain and 
 the United States*' 
 
 The Banda Oriental, Entre Rios, and Par- 
 aguay ; all that portion of the United Pro- 
 vinces, situated on the east of the river La 
 Plata, with the exception of the city of Monte- 
 Video, are in the hands of the Patriots. This 
 place in its turn must yield before the arms of 
 that brave and indefatigable commander, 
 General Artigas ; and when that event shall 
 happen, which cannot be long delayed, the
 
 PREFACE. ft 
 
 whole of the trade of the La Plata, and its 
 numberless tributary streams, will be opened 
 to the world. 
 
 The independence of Chili has been for 
 some time established, and the Spanish autho- 
 rities are now subverted in every part of that 
 country. The prospects of that brave people 
 are far brighter than were those which ani- 
 mated the hopes, and strengthened the zeal 
 of their Atlantic neighbours. Buenos Ayres 
 had to contend single-handed ; Chili was not 
 only encouraged by her example, but aided 
 by her troops, who were disciplined, and 
 inured to the fatigues and privations of war. 
 Chili is better protected from hostile attack, 
 and may, with greater certainty, calculate 
 upon maintaining her present stand. 
 
 Peru possesses, in common with Chili, ma- 
 ny advantages over Buenos Ayres. It is at 
 present subjected to the Spanish government, 
 but the day cannot be far distant, when, aided 
 by the victorious arms of Buenos Ayres and 
 Chili, it will achieve its independence. The 
 resources of this country are so abundant, that 
 a long continued war there, would be produc- 
 tive of no other waste than that of human 
 blood. 
 
 The power of Spain in South America. 
 totters to its foundation; and, as it grows more
 
 I PREFACE. 
 
 feeble, the number and the zeal of its enemies 
 will increase. The Spanish cabinet is aware 
 of the situation of the revolted Provinces, and 
 that an important crisis is at hand. The Unit- 
 ed Provinces are pledged, before the world, 
 to make peace with Spain, if she will acknow- 
 ledge their independence. Commissioners 
 have been sent to Europe to open negotia- 
 tions upon this subject, and it has even been 
 proposed to the Spanish court, through the 
 interposition of Great Britain, to receive one 
 of the royal family as Sovereign of South 
 America. This act of humanity, to stop the 
 effusion of blood, was treated with contempt 
 by the court of Madrid, and even regarded as 
 a " high insult to his Catholic Majesty," who. 
 instead of acceding to a proposition so mag- 
 nanimous on the part of the colonies, and so 
 beneficial to himself, has drawn his sword to 
 maintain his imaginary sovereignty, as King 
 of the Indies ; a title which can only be com- 
 pared to that of King of Jerusalem, and 
 u which hangs as loose about him, as a giant's 
 robe upon a dwarfish thief." 
 
 What now remains for the colonies to do, 
 in order to ensure their own safety, and pre- 
 serve those sacred rights, which the God of 
 nature has implanted in every breast? What, 
 but to conquer peace with the sword; to carry
 
 PREFACE. xi 
 
 the war to the last extremity, regardless of 
 the blood and treasure it may cost, until not 
 a vestige of the Spanish government shall re- 
 main. Of the absurdity of the efforts of ty- 
 rants to keep a nation of brave men in perpe- 
 tual slavery, it is unnecessary to speak; and 
 equally absurd is it, to suppose that men who 
 have unsheathed their swords against their 
 Sovereign, will return, after ten years of revo- 
 lution and bloody war, to the abject condition 
 of colonies. Every day strengthens and em- 
 boldens the patriots, and brings tidings of their 
 progressive success. Their resentment against 
 their oppressors burns stronger and stronger 
 as they approach, in imagination, the object of 
 their desires ; and the Spanish monarchy will 
 probably never be so weak as at the present 
 time, both in the old world, and in the new. 
 It stands like a blasted oak upon the barren 
 heath, whose branches are dropping off, one 
 after another, and whose decayed and sapless 
 trunk will be prostrated to the dust, by the 
 first rude blast of popular fury.
 
 LETTERS, a 
 
 FART I. 
 
 LETTER I. 
 
 TO THE HONOURABLE HENRY CLAY, Sic. Sic 
 Sir, 
 
 A HE Republic of the United Provinces of South 
 America comprehends, with some exceptions, the 
 same territory as the Vice-Royalty of Rio de 
 la Plata, which was established in 1778. It ex- 
 tends from the 16th to the 45th degree of south 
 latitude ; from the left margin of the Lake Titica- 
 ca, which lies between the two Cordilleras of Pe- 
 ru, on the north, to the coast of Patagonia, on the 
 south. It is bounded on the west by the vice-roy- 
 alty of Peru, the Pacific Ocean, from which it is 
 separated by the coast of Atacama at the 23d de- 
 gree of south latitude, and from Chili by the 
 mountains of the Andes ; and on the east and 
 north, by the Atlantic Ocean, the dominions of 
 Brazil, the establishments of the missions of Para- 
 guay, Chiquitos, and the independent Indians of 
 
 R
 
 JO 
 
 the river Amazon and its borders: The whole 
 forming an extent of territory which stretches 
 through twenty-nine degrees of latitude, embra- 
 cing almost every variety of climate, productions, 
 and people ; and rising towards the west into an 
 elevated soil and lofty mountains, whose bases ex- 
 tend into immense plains, which terminate on the 
 Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 This region is divided principally into Upper 
 Peru and Rio de la Plata, properly so called, 
 which commences at the foot of the mountains at 
 Jujui, under the tropic of Capricorn ; the former 
 comprehending the Provinces of Potosi, Charcas 
 or La Plata, Cochabamba, La Paz, Santa Cruz de 
 la Sierra or Puno, Moxos, and Chiquitos ; and the 
 latter, Buenos Ayres, Banda Oriental, Entre Rios, 
 Corrientes, Paraguay, Cordova, Mendoza or Cuyo. 
 Salta, and Tucuman. 
 
 The Provinces of Banda Oriental, Corrientes, 
 Entre Rios, and Paraguay, which lie on the east 
 and north of the river La Plata, are not included 
 in the Union, and of these, together with the other 
 provinces of Rio de la Plata, I shall speak more 
 particularly in a subsequent part of these letters. 
 
 Before entering upon the moral and physical 
 history of this country, it may be interesting briefly 
 to notice the political convulsions which have 
 taken place there, and the spirit which prevailed 
 among the people previous to 1810, the era of the 
 present revolution. 
 
 The cruelties inflicted by the Spanish govern- 
 ment upon the people of South America, whenever
 
 11 
 
 they have manifested a spirit of independence and 
 reform in the administration, afford the clearest 
 evidence that there has always existed in their 
 hearts an unextinguishable love of liberty and po- 
 litical independence. At different epochs in their 
 history, although buried in ignorance, and for the 
 most part tranquil under the pressure of despotism, 
 there have been exhibited those violent convul- 
 sions, which, while they redoubled the vigilance 
 of the Spanish government, at the same time gave 
 warning, that sooner or later an explosion would 
 burst forth and spread desolation and death among 
 the tyrants of South America. 
 
 The history of this people contains facts, which, 
 notwithstanding they are involved in some obscu- 
 rity, teach us the important and interesting truth, 
 that mankind are ever disposed to meliorate their 
 condition, and that tyranny has for ever strove to 
 stifle the voice of reason, which, pervading all ages 
 and climes with firm though tardy steps, will finally 
 establish her throne on its ruins. It is an historical 
 fact, that in the year 1725, in a remote and distant 
 corner of the civilized world, and in the colony of 
 a government as despotic perhaps as any that ever 
 existed in Europe, the true and fundamental prin- 
 ciples of free government were understood and 
 publicly proclaimed ; 1 mean in Paraguay. In this 
 secluded part of South America, which had no 
 communication with any of the free and enlighten- 
 ed nations of the world, a government was esta- 
 blished, which was founded upon a representation 
 of the people, and recognized as the basis of its
 
 12 
 
 institutions, the republican principle, that all power 
 emanates from the people. A phenomenon in poli- 
 tics this, which has escaped the knowledge of 
 historians and philosophers, but which has happily 
 come to light in our own times, in spite of the efforts 
 of tyranny to conceal it. 
 
 The Province of Paraguay, by reason of its local 
 situation, the establishments of the Jesuits within 
 its territory, and the turbulence of which they 
 were the cause ; the suspicious, crafty, and inde- 
 pendent genius of the natives forms a separate 
 and distinct branch of the history of Rio de la 
 Plata, and I shall notice it no further at present 
 than it has an immediate connexion with my sub- 
 ject. 
 
 The principal historian of this country, Charle- 
 voix, was a Jesuit, and consequently partial to that 
 religious order which was composed of his com- 
 panions and brothers. He was inspired with all 
 that intolerant and exclusive spirit which so 
 strongly characterized that sect ; and it is there- 
 fore natural enough that he should present in hig 
 history an unfavourable picture of the enemies of 
 the Jesuits, and represent them as the enemies of 
 the public tranquillity, and as rebels. It is not 
 therefore surprising that Antequera should appear 
 in his history as unworthy of the rank which he 
 held in public opinion in South America ; nor that 
 he should express himself with so much bitterness 
 against Antequera and the Comuneros, or repre- 
 sentatives of Paraguay, if we consider that he 
 wrote at a period when there was nobody to con-
 
 13 
 
 tradict or expose him, and under the powerful 
 protection of the Spanish court, which would have 
 punished with the greatest severity, all who dared 
 to justify their conduct: but it certainly is sur- 
 prising that Dean Funes, who wrote nearly a cen- 
 tury after Charlevoix, in an age of light and liber- 
 ty, should follow, without criticism and with so 
 much apparent servility, every thing which he 
 found in the writings of this Jesuit. This circum- 
 stance can only be attributed to that veneration 
 which he no doubt retains in his old age for the 
 Jesuits, in whose college at Cordova he was edu- 
 cated, and to those monkish habits and predilec- 
 tions which he there acquired, a melancholy 
 proof, indeed, of the force of habit upon the in- 
 dependence and integrity of the human mind ! 
 
 To avoid the errors of these writers, it is ne- 
 cessary, in relating the history of Antequera, and of 
 the revolution of which he was the leader, to refer 
 to public transactions at Lima, and to authentic 
 documents in the possession of his connexions 
 there, upon whom the Spanish government, as a 
 recompense in some measure for the injustice 
 done to their illustrious relative, has conferred 
 honourable employments, and besides, ordered 
 the expenses of the prosecution of Antequera to 
 be refunded to them out of the estates of the 
 Viceroy Castlefuerte, under whose administration 
 he was put to death. (1) 
 
 Don Jose Antequera was a native of Lima, knight 
 of Alcantara, and Attorney-General or Protector 
 of the Indians in the Audience of Charcas. He
 
 14 
 
 was one of those extraordinary men, who, like 
 Franklin, become illustrious, not so much by the 
 cultivated embellishments of education, as the 
 force of native talent; he possessed a noble soul, 
 and was enthusiastically devoted to the liberty 
 and happiness of mankind. 
 
 The Jesuits in Paraguay, at the period of which 
 I speak, had erected there an extraordinary spe- 
 cies of government, without a parallel in history ; 
 keeping in continual commotion the whole pro- 
 vince, insomuch that it was found necessary to 
 send there a minister of integrity and approved 
 talent, commissioned from the Audience of Char- 
 cas, to watch the movements of these men, who, 
 under the cloak of their monkish superstition, had 
 transformed themselves into sovereigns. Ante- 
 quera was dispatched as this commissioner, and 
 he found the Jesuits already holding in subjection 
 a great population, masters of their wealth and 
 industry, and busily engaged in hastening on a 
 plan of universal domination ; and that the small 
 part of the inhabitants which resisted, was but a 
 feeble check upon the ambition of these monks. 
 He saw that the disturbances existing between 
 the magistrates and the corporate bodies of the 
 country, were the result of their policy, and that, 
 in order to quiet these disturbances, it was ne- 
 cessary to put an end at once to the alarming 
 evil. 
 
 The Jesuits, who were perhaps the most intelli- 
 gent body of men in all the Spanish dominions, 
 and perfectly conversant with the policy of the
 
 15 
 
 Spanish cabinet, saw in Antequera a terrible 
 enemy, and that it was necessary to destroy him. 
 All the artifices of intrigue and cunning which 
 their refined and practised ingenuity could sug- 
 gest, were put in motion and exerted with the 
 utmost adroitness to conduct Antequera to the 
 scaffold, where he soon expiated with his life his 
 desire of reforming these rapacious monks. 
 
 These disciples of Loyola, being possessed of the 
 confessionals, and by this means of the most secret 
 thoughts of the people, and availing themselves of 
 their pretended divine authority, it is easy to 
 conceive that nothing could be concealed from 
 them, and that no scheme could be projected 
 among the people which they could not turn to 
 their advantage. And here 1 cannot but remark 
 that a system of religion which obliges its profes- 
 sors to act as self-accusers, and to regard the doc- 
 trines and counsels of their priests as oracles of 
 Heaven, is, without doubt, the most potent engine 
 of despotism which has ever been devised. This 
 moral power, superior in itself to the armies of 
 kings, was of unimaginable force when wielded by 
 the Jesuits. Their interior discipline, the auste- 
 rity of their habits in the midst of a corrupt and 
 profligate priesthood, the sanctity of their manners 
 and their learning, all conspired to give them great 
 consideration among the people, who committed 
 to them not only the keeping of their consciences, 
 but the education of their children, the direction 
 of all their private and domestic business, their 
 testimentary dispositions, matrimonial contracts,
 
 16 
 
 &c. The indefatigable perseverance with which 
 they pursued their schemes, is undoubtedly wor- 
 thy of commendation ; they omitted nothing which 
 could tend to instruct them in a knowledge of the 
 character of the people of South America, while 
 they practised every winning art to captivate the 
 hearts of the neophytes ; and what ought to have 
 been a work of sublime charity, was in their hands 
 converted to the purposes of gain as they ap- 
 propriated to themselves the labour of these un- 
 happy men, and treated them as their slaves. 
 
 From the period of the Spanish conquest, and 
 even now, since the present revolution, the most 
 serious difficulty in the way of civilizing the In- 
 dians of this country, has arisen from ignorance of 
 their languages. This difficulty, which is indeed 
 considerable where there are no writers nor inter- 
 preters of a language, was completely surmounted 
 by the ingenuity of the Jesuits, who composed 
 dictionaries and grammars of the native languages 
 of Peru and Rio de la Plata. 
 
 The Jesuits permitted none but themselves to 
 hold any intercourse with the Indians, or even to 
 enter their villages ; and the corps of militia and 
 regulars composed of the Indians, who are good 
 soldiers, were under the immediate command of 
 the friars, who always accompanied them in their 
 wars. 
 
 Antequera saw that the influence of the Jesuits 
 was too powerful for him to attempt a reform ; 
 that their power and political connexions were 
 established and arranged in such a manner that
 
 the Spanish government itself, which afterwards 
 found it necessary to expel them from its domi- 
 nions, was at this time the supporter of this soci- 
 ety, whose object was the universal subjugation 
 of all South America. These military Priests, who 
 held under their control in their villages, troops 
 well disciplined and regulated, by their superior 
 sagacity and skill, and who in one week could 
 have marshalled 60,000 men in the field, could 
 have made an easy conquest of Peru, if not, in- 
 deed, of the whole of South America; and had 
 not their ambitious projects been thwarted by 
 their expulsion from the country, we should at 
 this hour behold existing there a monkish monar- 
 chy or republic, as novel in the world as it would 
 have been destructive to the peace and happiness 
 of mankind. This supposition will not seem im- 
 probable, if we consider the means which were 
 in their hands, the ambition inherent in the hu- 
 man heart, their immense wealth, disciplined 
 troops, munitious of war, manufactures, aud all 
 the talents suited to military command, and 
 to the direction of public affairs. (2) Even at 
 this time there exist in the villages of the Mis- 
 sions and Chiquitos, manufactories of fine linen 
 and cabinet work, and specimens of sculpture 
 and painting executed in a beautiful manner; 
 in short, these Jesuits were masters of immense 
 possessions, of splendid houses, magnificent tem- 
 ples, and altars adorned with the most rich and 
 sumptuous stuffs, which were fabricated by the 
 Indians of Juli and the Missions, and with the 
 
 G
 
 18 
 
 same taste and beauty as the workmanship of the 
 first rate mechanics of Europe. 
 
 The art of printing, too, that inestimable in- 
 vention, to which mankind are so much indebted 
 for their grand progress in civilization and liberty, 
 and which will make perpetual that mass of know- 
 ledge which has been accumulated through the 
 lapse of ages, which was prohibited in all the 
 Spanish provinces, under the severest penalties, 
 Was introduced by these monks into their esta- 
 blishments, and preserved by them for their own 
 private use. 
 
 Those who are born and educated in countries 
 where printing is like any other mechanic art, 
 can have no idea of the sensations which a Span- 
 ish colonist feels at the first sight of a printing- 
 press. For myself, although educated in the prin- 
 cipal college of Peru, I never beheld a printing- 
 press uuiil my arrival at Buenos Ayres, about nine 
 years ago. Animated with the view of the admi- 
 rable invention, I fancied I beheld in those mute 
 characters, the types, the fountain of that light, 
 which ere long would burst forth and dissipate 
 the clouds of despotism which darkened the hori- 
 zon of my beloved country. It is worthy of re- 
 mark, that at the breaking out of the present re- 
 volution in 1810, Iron Lima to Monte Video, for 
 an extent of more than 1000 leagues, including 
 Peru, Chili, and Rio de la Plata, countries filled 
 with cities, villages, universities, colleges, schools, 
 tribunals of justice, and men of wealth and sci- 
 ence, there was but one miserable old printing-
 
 19 
 
 press, and this formerly belonged to the Jesuits of 
 Cordova! 
 
 The Jesuits well knew the utility of the press, 
 and surmounted every difficulty in order to pro- 
 vide themselves with it, and there are now to be 
 found in the imperial library at Paris, dictionaries 
 and grammars of the languages of Peru and the 
 Missions, which were printed at Cordova and at 
 Juli, a village near La Paz. In those grammars 
 may be seen the formation of the general langua- 
 ges of Peru, called Quechua and Aymara, which 
 follow the construction of the Greek and Latin 
 languages, having similar declensions and termi- 
 nations, and which are sufficiently copious for a 
 people partially civilized. (3)
 
 2U 
 
 LETTER II. 
 
 It has been shown that the Province of Para- 
 guay was divided into factions of the people and 
 the Jesuits, and that the latter had clearly the su- 
 periority. In this state of things, Antequera saw 
 that the only way to check the usurpations of the 
 monks, was to unite with the people, who un- 
 doubtedly possessed the right to form their own 
 municipal laws, and to live independent of the 
 Jesuits. He found a ready disposition in the inha- 
 bitants to second him in his plans ; he instructed 
 them in the natural rights of a people whose rulers 
 have become corrupt and profligate, and that, un- 
 der such circumstances, they had a right to choose 
 their own rulers ; and thereupon the people pro- 
 ceeded to establish a representative government. 
 This bold measure alarmed the Spanish chiefs ; 
 and the Viceroy of Lima, notwithstanding he was 
 a friar, manifested all the indignation of a Casti- 
 lian. He instantly assembled his troops to chas- 
 tise the rebels. The Jesuits sent their troops to co- 
 operate with those of the Viceroy. The Comuneros, 
 or representatives of the people, with Antequera 
 at their head, took up arms to defend their rights, 
 and several bloody battles were fought, which 
 were attended with various success; but at length 
 the royal troops were victorious. Antequera be- 
 ing defeated, retired to Cordova, where he Mas 
 arrested, and from whence he was conveyed to 
 Lima and imprisoned, with his companions, D.
 
 21 
 
 Ramon Lianas, D. Juan de Mena, and Mompo. 
 The imprisonment of these persons, who were re- 
 garded as the leaders of the revolution, did not 
 quiet the disturbances in Paraguay, but the spirit 
 of independence spread there with renewed vi- 
 gour. Beroa, the governor of that province, ap- 
 pointed by the Viceroy, was deposed as being an 
 accomplice of Antequera, to whom the success of 
 the revolution in Paraguay was attributed, al- 
 though he was at that time imprisoned in Lima, a 
 distance of 800 leagues. 
 
 Nearly five years had elapsed since Antequera 
 was imprisoned in Lima, where his transcendent 
 talents, his eloquence, the inherent consideration 
 of his rank and birth, and the integrity of his 
 morals, drew around him hosts of friends, in- v 
 somuch, that it was generally believed at Lima, 
 that he would finally be set at liberty. And 
 notwithstanding this long delay was dangerous to 
 the Spanish government, still the force of public 
 opinion in favour of Antequera operated as a 
 check upon their proceedings against him, until 
 the escape of Mompo from prison hastened the 
 conclusion of the trial, and the execution of the 
 sentence. 
 
 This Mompo, who was a man of a daring and 
 enterprising spirit, escaping from prison in Lima, 
 of a sudden presented himself in Paraguay, where, 
 obtaining a situation in the municipality, he had 
 an opportunity to diffuse his idefis of liberty 
 among the people, and of which he availed him- 
 self with great success. The news of these pro- 
 ceedings of Mompo exceedingly alarmed th
 
 22 
 
 Spanish government, and it was deemed expedi- 
 ent to put Antequera and his companions to death, 
 notwithstanding the difficulties which might arise 
 from the execution of a man and his adherents, who 
 were the favourites of the whole population of Lima. 
 The viceroy, Castelfuerte, who was a bold and faith- 
 ful servant of his king, ordered, that the 5th of 
 July, 1731, should be appointed for the public 
 execution of Antequera, and that it should take 
 place with all the preparation and ceremony 
 customary on the execution of Spanish noble- 
 men. 
 
 Never was Lima seen in. so great consterna- 
 tion. Multitudes of people thronged the streets, 
 running in every direction to save their beloved 
 Antequera, and when he was brought forth to be led 
 to execution, the air rang with the cries of 'pardon' 
 from the people. Then the Viceroy, seeing that 
 the sentence would not be executed, mounted his 
 horse, and ordered his troops to fire upon the 
 crowds who were rushing to rescue the prisoner. 
 Antequera was thus shot down by the soldiery in 
 the street, and at the same time great numbers of 
 the populace, who were crowding around him. 
 Thus ended the sad catastrophe, and although the 
 vigilence of the viceroy could quiet the agitation of 
 the populace, it could not quench the fire of inde- 
 pendence which had been lighted up in Paraguay, 
 where the news of this transaction inflamed the 
 passions of the people the more, and the Comune- 
 ros canonized those illustrious victims as the 
 * Martyrs of Liberty ;" and here I cannot pass
 
 23 
 
 over in silence the superiority of character dis- 
 played by the daughter of Don Juan de Mena. 
 This young lady in the morning heard of the death 
 of her father, and far from showing the sensibility 
 common to her sex, immediately adorning herself 
 in the gayest apparel, presented herself to the 
 public, saying, " that it would be degrading to her 
 to show any symptom of sorrow or affliction on 
 hearing of her father's death, because it was glo- 
 rious for him to die, when he was sacrificed in the 
 cause of the liberty of his country." Such was 
 the language which was used at that time in a re- 
 mote corner of South America, at a distance from 
 the civilized nations of Europe, by a people unac- 
 quainted with the writings of those illustrious men 
 whose labours are the experience of centuries. 
 
 After the revolution of Paraguay, we hear of no 
 other political commotion, until the rebellion of 
 Tupac Amaru, in Cuzco, the ancient metropolis of 
 the Incas, in the years 1700, 81. While excry step 
 of the Spaniards in America has been marked with 
 blood, the city of Cuzco has been undoubtedly the 
 principal theatre where have been acted the deep- 
 est tragedies of their cruelty and injustice. In this 
 devoted city, Pizarro and his bloody banditti, in 
 the most cruel and treacherous manner, murdered 
 the unfortunate Atahualpa, a monarch most belov- 
 ed by his people, in return for the hospitality 
 and wealth which he had showered upon them, 
 and thus destroyed the only government then ex- 
 isting in the world, which was founded upon the 
 will, and consulted the happiness of the people in its
 
 24 
 
 administrations (4). There, the most magnificent 
 monuments, which were a proof of the power and 
 resources of those who erected them, and of the 
 ingenuity of the artists, were delivered to plun- 
 der and desolation by those stupid and brutal 
 conquerors, who were as deaf to the voice of 
 reason as of humanity. There, at last, in our own 
 times, was put to death in a most barbarous man- 
 ner, Jose Gabriel Tupac Amaru, illustrious by his 
 descent from the Inca Sayri Tupac, but more il- 
 lustrious, because he was the first who rose up to 
 deliver jPeru from the calamities inflicted by the 
 Spanish despotism. This valiant leader was 
 drawn in quarters by horses ; he died like a hero, 
 leaving to posterity an example which will never 
 be forgotten. Tortured by Areche in order to 
 force him to disclose the names of his accompli- 
 ces, he answered " Two only are my accompli- 
 ces, myself, and you, who interrogate me ; you, in 
 continuing your robberies upon the people, and 
 I, in endeavouring to prevent you." A short sen- 
 tence, which defines the nature of the Spanish 
 government. This answer, inspired by the deep 
 feelings caused by the injustice of the Spanish 
 government, was punished by cutting out his 
 tongue, drawing his body asunder by horses, and 
 burning to ashes the mutilated fragments ! Seve- 
 ral others, among whom were the wife and chil- 
 dren of Tupac Amaru, were put to death in the 
 most shocking and brutal manner. Suffice it to 
 say, that in that revolution, one third at least of 
 the whole population of Peru perished by the
 
 25 
 
 hand of violence, and there were to be seen on 
 the plains of Cica-Cica, and Calamarca, which 1 
 passed over about twenty years after, for an ex- 
 tent of fourteen leagues, numberless heaps of 
 bones of the miserable beings who had fallen 
 there by the sword ; and there still remained to 
 be seen, at the cross roads, and in the most pub- 
 lic places throughout the country, the heads of the 
 leaders of that rebellion suspended on gibbets (4). 
 
 We have seen how prodigally the blood of 
 the natives of this country has been shed to sustain 
 a government which was odious to them : it now 
 only remains to show that the Spanish government 
 has pursued an uniform and constant plan to punish 
 their insurgent colonists in South America. The 
 same cruelties practised by the Spaniards at the 
 time of the conquest, were repeated three centu- 
 ries afterwards. The murder of Tupac Amaru, 
 of his family and associates, in the years 1780, 81, 
 in Cuzco, La Paz, Verenguela, and Penas; that 
 of Ubalde and his eight companions also in Cuzco 
 in 1806; of the two Llanzas, Sagarnagas, &c. in 
 La Paz in 1809, are testimonials of the cruel and 
 unrelenting spirit of the Spanish government ; and 
 that the wounds inflicted by their barbarous policy 
 can never be healed, nor the disposition of the 
 inhabitants conciliated. 
 
 The disorders and corruption of the reigns of 
 Charles 111 and IV, have produced in South Ameri- 
 ca results equally unhappy, and deplorable. 
 
 Ubalde was a native of Arica, the Asesor or 
 chief lawyer of the presidency of Cuzco, and a man 
 
 1)
 
 20 
 
 of acknowledged talents and independent charac- 
 ter, who could not accommodate himself to that un- 
 equal and unjust system of government which mark- 
 ed the reign of Charles IV, and more particularly 
 during the administration of the Prince of Peace. 
 His influence in the government of his country, forc- 
 ed upon him the conviction that it was impossible to 
 produce any political reformation which would be 
 either stable or salutary; and in conjunction with 
 the principal men throughout Upper Peru, and in- 
 cluding Cuzco and Arequipa, he projected a revo- 
 lution, the object of which was to produce the entire 
 overthrow of the Spanish government in that part 
 of South America ; and all the means necessary 
 for the accomplishment of the project, were pro- 
 vided, so that the thing might take place at one 
 time throughout the whole country ; by seizing at 
 once all the different branches of the public ad- 
 ministration, and establishing a central representa- 
 tive government of the people, which might awaken 
 them to a sense of their rights. This project was 
 defeated by the perfidy of a wretch who basely 
 betrayed the cause of his country, and put the 
 Spanish government in possession of the secret, in 
 hopes of reward. The name of this man was 
 Lechuga, which ought to be handed down to the 
 execration of posterity. The mode of discovering 
 the plot is worthy of mention : This Lechuga 
 requested one of the principal judges of the Au- 
 dience of Cuzco to come to his house with a No- 
 tary, on a particular day, and that he would feiga 
 sickness and send for Ubalde, and that the judge
 
 27 
 
 should hear the plan of the conspiracy from 
 Ubalde's own lips ; the thing happened in the 
 manner he projected. Ubalde, in consequence 
 of the indisposition, as he supposed, of Lechuga, 
 went to visit him, who said that his indisposi- 
 tion proceeded from his devotion to the cause of 
 the revolution, and his anxiety of mind, and fears 
 of the danger of ultimate failure on account of the 
 extent of the power and resources of the Spanish 
 government ; that he was fearful the scheme would 
 have the same melancholy issue as that of Tupac 
 Amaru and his companions in the same city, whose 
 names were only remembered with infamy, and 
 whose blood still reddened the scaffolds upon 
 which it was shed ; these melancholy reflections 
 had made so deep an impression on his mind, 
 that he had resolved to have nothing more to 
 do with a project so fruitful of difficulties and 
 dangers. Ubalde replied, that the undertak- 
 ing would no doubt meet with very great op- 
 position, but that he had provided against every 
 casualty within the limits of human foresight; that 
 the leaders in every city were wealthy and influen- 
 tial men ; that the natives would immediately unite 
 with them all over the country, as soon as the lead- 
 ers set them a proper example, and more especially 
 would the confidence of the people increase when 
 they should discover that the first act of the revolu- 
 tion would be to give them a share and part in the 
 government; that, as the revolution would be effect- 
 ed by one simultaneous effort throughout the whole 
 country, and by those already holding situations in
 
 28 
 
 "the government, the opposition of the Spanish au 
 thorities would necessarily be feeble, and that, even 
 supposing it should be strong, there could certain- 
 ly be no apprehension of ultimate failure, as the re- 
 volutionists were possessed of all the means ne- 
 cessary to make war to advantage ; were masters of 
 all the public and private treasures of the coun- 
 try, the munitions of war, military posts, &c. and 
 would, of course,- be able in a short time to or- 
 ganise and put in motion a regular and formida- 
 ble military force ; and that, although at present 
 they might stand in need of military commanders, 
 the Spaniards were certainly not in a better situa- 
 tion ; that the revolutionists possessed greater fa- 
 cilities for acquiring the means of carrying on 
 war by opening their ports to foreigners, and 
 inviting all nations to unite with them in libe- 
 rating their country from oppression, and to par- 
 ticipate in the riches of the soil and in their 
 commerce; that the North Americans and the 
 English who frequent the Pacific Ocean, would 
 introduce their merchandise into the country in 
 spite of the vigilance of the Viceroy, and that find- 
 ing a good market and hospitable treatment among 
 them, they would supply them with every article 
 of use or necessity. 
 
 The judge heard with alarm this disclosure 
 of a conspiracy, the object of which was to 
 overthrow the Spanish government in South 
 America. He directed the notary to take down 
 the substance of that conversation. In cases 
 of treason under the Spanish law, this summary 

 
 2ft 
 
 information is sufficient to subject the party impli- 
 cated to capital punishment. Ubalde and his eight 
 companions were in a short time sentenced to death, 
 and upwards of one hundred of the principal citi- 
 zens of Cuzco were banished to Africa, the Phi- 
 lippines, and the Peninsula, and thrown into pri- 
 son there, where they perished. 
 
 Ubalde, whose execution I witnessed, was hung 
 in August, 1805. He died with the serenity of a 
 philosopher, without denying his principles, or 
 the causes which led him to engage in the revo- 
 lution ; but on the contrary, while seated on the 
 scaffold, he said, " that his death could not stop 
 the progress of a cause which had been so long 
 preparing by the corruption of the government; 
 that the independence of South America was not 
 far distant, and that, although he was going to the 
 grave without the satisfaction of seeing that glo- 
 rious day, yet his mind was brightened with the 
 hope, that his friends who survived him would 
 enrol his name among the martyred heroes of hia 
 country ; that Providence had decreed that a 
 period should be put to the sufferings of the peo- 
 ple of South America, the extent and magnitude 
 of which he well knew from the situations which 
 he had held in the public administration; that, 
 although he should soon cease to be, and should 
 leave behind him a wife and children exposed to 
 the ignominy and disgrace which always attach to 
 a rebel family, he felt a consolation in the reflec- 
 tion that he should die in the same place where
 
 30 
 
 the most illustrious Americans had died before 
 him." This address, pronounced by a man like 
 Ubalde, so beloved as he was in Cuzco, drew 
 tears from every eye, and a universal cry from 
 the people accompanied the last groan of that 
 unhappy American.
 
 31 
 
 LETTER III. 
 
 Events proved that Ubalde knew the real state 
 of the country, as five years did not pass away 
 after his execution, before a new revolution broke 
 out in La Paz, which may be considered the pre- 
 cursor of that which exploded in the capital (Bue- 
 nos Ayres) in 1810; a city which first effectually 
 broke the colonial chains upon the heads of her op- 
 pressors, and established the foundations of poli- 
 tical independence in the South. 
 
 The political events which transpired at Bay- 
 onne in May, 1808, created in the inhabitants of 
 La Paz a new excitement to arouse them from 
 their lethargy. It was in vain to pretend that the 
 population of this country, possessing immense 
 resources, which they well knew how to appre- 
 ciate, would remain in the same apathy which the 
 people of South America manifested when Philip 
 V. disputed the crown of Spain. Independent and 
 warlike in their character, they beheld a great 
 monarchy, celebrated for three centuries for its 
 riches, power, and the extent of its dominions, dis- 
 solved in a moment ; and it was on the 25th of 
 March, 1809, that they deposed the Spanish au- 
 thorities in the country, held meetings of the peo- 
 ple, erected a government under the name of Junta 
 Tuitiva, and published a manifesto to the world, 
 in which they asserted the right of governing 
 themselves in the same manner as Spain did b) 
 her Juntas: and more especially, as at fhaf tirr.r
 
 32 
 
 insidious recommendations of the pretensions of 
 the Princess Charlotte of Brazil were sent into the 
 country, in order to persuade the people to re- 
 ceive her in the character of Protectress. 
 
 The people of La Paz organised all the depart- 
 ments of the public administration, and raised an 
 army to oppose the Spanish authorities, who at 
 the same time rose up to destroy the unhappy 
 city. La Paz not only separated itself from the 
 government of the mother country, but Monte Vi- 
 deo also ; and both established a Junta, but their 
 fate has been very different. The leaders of the 
 revolution in Monte Video were European Span- 
 iards, and this was sufficient to ensure the appro- 
 bation and countenance of the Spanish govern- 
 ment ; while on the contrary, the leaders of La 
 Paz were natives, and therefore were marked as 
 traitors, and devoted to destruction. An armed 
 force was despatched by Cisneros, Viceroy of 
 Buenos Ayres, under the command of Marshal 
 Nieto, which was to form a junction with other 
 troops which were despatched by the Viceroy of 
 Lima, and commanded by Goyeneche. This as- 
 sassin of his country for he was a native of Peru 
 had the glory, if it may be called such, of entering 
 La Paz before the arrival of Nieto. r \ he unhappy 
 city, after a stout resistance, was taken by storm, 
 and for several days the savage barbarity of the 
 conquerors se'nt to the scaffold, without discrimi- 
 nation and without trial, great numbers of the 
 principal inhabitants, to appease the vindictive 
 wrath of the monster Goyeneche. After the first
 
 33 
 
 flush of victory was over, it was deemed proper to 
 give some formality to the bloody business. The 
 opinion of Cisneros was consulted upon the fate of 
 those who were not yet executed, and then it was 
 that this Viceroy imbrued his hands in the blood 
 of men to whom their country owed a crown. The 
 last punishment was decreed against all who re- 
 mained in prison, and it was only the establish- 
 ment of the new government at Buenos Ayres that 
 saved their lives, and among the rest that of a dis- 
 tinguished priest, whose pardon the Viceroy grant- 
 ed after he had been deposed, and which was * 
 brought to La Paz by a courier just in time to 
 prevent the execution of the sentence. By the 
 same accidental circumstance, great numbers im- 
 plicated in the revolution were set at liberty, who 
 were near Buenos Ayres in chains, to be trans- 
 ported to the dungeons of the Philippines, the Mal- 
 vinas, and the Peninsula. 
 
 La Paz became like a desert after such desola- 
 tion, and the few of the miserable inhabitants who 
 remained alive, inspired by that stubborn valour 
 which adversity strengthened but could not sub- 
 due, fled to the forests of Yrupana, whither they 
 were instantly pursued by a strong division 
 of the royal troops, and fell in battle, or expired 
 by famine, in preference to surrendering to their 
 enemies. The names of Lanzas and Rodriguez, 
 the leaders of that revolution, will remain em- 
 balmed in the hearts of their compatriots, and find 
 a conspicuous place in the history of their country. 
 It is such facts as these which force upon us the 
 
 E
 
 34 
 
 conviction that the independence of this country is 
 inevitable, whatever may be the success of the 
 war that is now waging. 
 
 The transactions at Bayonne in 1808, already 
 mentioned, produced events, such as have not 
 frequently been presented in the history of the 
 world. The immediate connexion between Spain 
 and her colonies being dissolved by a political 
 orphanage, into which she was thrown in conse- 
 quence of the sudden dissolution of her monarchy, 
 the destiny of sixteen millions of people could not 
 long remain subject to the control of those men 
 who had constituted themselves the sovereigns of 
 South America. 
 
 Upon the arrival of the first news of these 
 events, the people began to employ their thoughts 
 about their future political situation, and Buenos 
 Ayres, which, by reason of her recent military 
 success against the British, was placed in a 
 different situation from the other Provinces of 
 South America," saw that the time had come to 
 burst the bonds which united her to the mother 
 country. The same sentiment manifested itself 
 throughout the whole country ; no one doubted 
 of the subjugation of Spain by Napoleon, news to 
 that effect arriving almost every day. At this 
 time it was that secret meetings of the people be- 
 gan to be held in La Paz, Charcas, Potosi, Cocha- 
 bamba, and Buenos Ayres, and in those secret 
 clubs was discussed the mode of forming a new 
 government. The leaders in La Paz were the 
 two Lanzas and Rodrigues ; in Charcas, the two
 
 35 
 
 Sudanes and the Indian canon, Manco Capac ; in 
 Salta, Moldez ; in Cochabamba, Arenales ; and in 
 Buenos Ayres, Castelli, Belgrano, Chiclana, Viey- 
 tes, Pena, Beruti, Donado, Yrigoyen, Thompson, 
 &c. These bold men felt the impulse of liberty 
 irresistible in their hearts, and fearlessly exposed 
 their lives and fortunes in the glorious cause. The 
 leaders in La Paz and Charcas, broke asunder 
 impatiently the shackles of the ancient dominion, 
 and became the victims of Spanish wrath ; they 
 aroused the Viceroy Cisneros to greater activity, 
 who, not finding himself secure in his government 
 a single moment, established a political inquisi- 
 tion more severe than that of Torquemada. Yet 
 these sons of the South, animated with that daunt- 
 less valour which the love of liberty inspires, un- 
 appalled by the horrid punishments which had 
 been inflicted at La Paz, had boldness enough to 
 provoke the relentless vengeance of a powerful 
 Viceroy. 
 
 Castelli, a lawyer of reputation in Buenos Ayres, 
 made his country-house the rendezvous for the 
 secret meetings of the revolutionists. There they 
 met, eluding the vigilance of the governmental 
 spies. They look care to gain to their interests 
 the soldiery in Buenos Ayres, who were at that 
 time 4000 strong. Of these, 1000 were the regi- 
 ment Patricios, from the city, under the command 
 of Colonel Saavedra; another regiment, Jlrribanos 
 or highlanders, commanded by Colonel Ocampo; 
 and the cavalry, composed of Creoles, under the 
 command of Rodriguez. These were by far the
 
 36 
 
 best troops, and took part with the revolutionists. 
 Those who remained attached to the interests of 
 the Viceroy, were the regiment del Fixo, the dra- 
 goons, and the other European corps. 
 
 Already had the revolutionists conciliated the 
 good wishes of the citizens, and were waiting a 
 favourable opportunity to strike a decisive blow, 
 when an English vessel from Gibraltar arrived at 
 Monte Video, bringing the information of the dis- 
 solution of the Junta central in Spain, and the 
 passage of the French troops through the pass of 
 Sierra Morena. The Viceroy immediately issued 
 a proclamation, announcing the disastrous state 
 of Spain, and thereupon the revolutionists com- 
 pelled the cabildo or municipality to ask permis- 
 sion of the Viceroy to call a public meeting of the 
 citizens, {Cabildo Abiertoj) and accordingly that 
 body, which was composed of five Americans and 
 a man named Leyba, of distinguished abilities 
 and probity, on the 20th of May addressed the 
 following note to the Viceroy : 
 
 " Most excellent Sir, 
 
 " The people being informed of the unhappy 
 events of the Peninsula, by the printed paper pub- 
 lished by the order of your Excellency, and ani- 
 mated by that innate loyalty to their sovereign, 
 and by those patriotic sentiments which have 
 ever distinguished them ; anxious about their fu- 
 ture situation, and desirous of that which will 
 best promote their felicity, and with the unaltera- 
 ble object of preserving entire the country under
 
 37 
 
 the government of Senor Don Fernando VII, are 
 plunged into great disquietude, which, if not 
 speedily removed, will be the cause of lasting 
 commotions. This Cabildo, watchful over the 
 prosperity of the people, and greatly interested 
 in their union, order, and tranquillity, lay these 
 facts before your Excellency, and, to prevent the 
 disasters of a popular convulsion, desire to obtain 
 of your Excellency free permission to convoke, 
 by means of tickets, the principal citizens, and 
 that in a public congress the will of the people 
 may be expressed, and that they may determine 
 upon the measures most proper to prevent all 
 misfortune and secure our future destiny. 
 
 " Your Excellency will please, on the day of the 
 Congress, to post double guards at all the avenues 
 leading to the public Square, to prevent any tu- 
 mult, and to permit those only to enter who have 
 tickets. 
 
 " God preserve your Excellency, &c." 
 
 The Viceroy, perceiving that his power was un- 
 dermined, and that he could not prevent the 
 meeting, allowed it with the best grace he could. 
 In this public assembly, in which were present 
 all who held employments under the Spanish go- 
 vernment, in order to neutralize as much as pos- 
 sible the influence of the Creoles, the question for 
 discussion was, Whether, after the dissolution of 
 the Junta central, the authority of the Viceroy 
 ceased, and consequently, whether the people 
 could proceed to protect their own rights and 

 
 38 
 
 those of king Ferdinand. , After a warm debate, 
 which continued through the day, in which Cas- 
 telli with his popular eloquence confounded the 
 Europeans who mingled in the debate, and con- 
 vinced them that they could not contend with the 
 orators of the people, who, besides the superiority 
 of their talents, were supported by a body of 
 armed citizens, called Manolos, who were posted 
 at a short distance from the public Square, to see 
 that no harm befel the friends of the people. At 
 length a majority of the assembly decreed that 
 the authority of the Viceroy was at an end, and 
 that it should be resumed by the Cabildo, which 
 immediately proceeded to appoint a Junta guber- 
 nativa, leaving the Viceroy, however, President of 
 the Junta. Scarcely were the people made ac- 
 quainted with the establishment of the new go- 
 vernment, than a new disturbance broke out, 
 and a memorial was addressed to the Cabildo, 
 stating, that it was not the will of the people that 
 the Viceroy should hold any place in the new go- 
 vernment. A new Junta of nine persons was 
 thereupon established, in the name of Ferdinand 
 VII, whose members were Saavedra, Azcuenaga, 
 Alberti, Matheu, Larrea, Castelli, Belgrano, Paso, 
 and Moreno. 
 
 This mode of deposing the supreme authority 
 of the country, by a popular meeting, and of 
 which the history of the colonies scarcely pre- 
 sents any examples, was not novel in Buenos 
 Ayres ; for in the year 1 307, they deposed the 
 Viceroy, Sobremonte, on account of his incapa-
 
 39 
 
 city, and his negligence in the defence of the coun- 
 try against the attack of 1500 English troops un- 
 der General Berresford. The Spaniards them- 
 selves aided in deposing him, and the measure 
 was even approved in the court of Madrid, which 
 ought to have known that they were sanctioning a 
 dangerous precedent, which the people at a future 
 day would be likely to repeat. 
 
 This new government was established on the 
 25th May, 1810, and covered with mourning all 
 the European Spaniards, who saw that the mea- 
 sure would put an end to the Spanish domination 
 in South America, and that, although at present 
 the name of Ferdinand VII still presented itself, 
 it could no longer captivate the hearts of the 
 Americans, and that it was preserved only as a 
 political manoeuvre to remove difficulties, and by 
 its influence to give greater vivacity to that spirit 
 of independence which pervaded every breast. 
 
 This new political explosion, which resounded 
 throughout all that hemisphere, struck alarm into 
 the hearts of the Spanish authorities, who redou- 
 bled their efforts to stifle in the embers a fire 
 which threatened such extensive devastation. 
 The Ex-Viceroy, Cisneros, issued circulars to 
 the governors of the provinces, exciting them 
 to kindle a civil war. The Viceroy of Lima, 
 Abascal, aroused himself from his repose, and 
 flew to arms: Nieto, the President of Char- 
 cas; Sans, the Governor of Potosi; Velasco, 
 of Paraguay ; Concha, of Cordova, and Orellana // 
 the Bishop; Liniers, the Ex-Viceroy of Buenos
 
 40 
 
 Ayrcs ; Allende, Moreno, the officers of the Marine 
 of Monte Video : finally, all who were in the ser- 
 vice of the Spanish government, took up arms, not 
 so much in the cause of the king, and to protect 
 his rights, (whose restoration no one believed pro- 
 bable,) as to maintain their own power, and to de- 
 stroy, in the very beginning, a subversive govern- 
 ment, whose members, without money, influence, 
 or political connexions, and confined to the city of 
 Buenos Ayres, could not exist for any length of 
 time. Such were the hopes that were cherished ; 
 and it really would have appeared a most rash en- 
 terprise, had it not been the result of previous suc- 
 cesses, and been supported by the general will, 
 which gives to a popular government all the force 
 and vigour necessary to the achievement of great 
 undertakings. 
 
 A division of less than 1000 men, called auxi- 
 liaries, under the command of Ocampo, proceed- 
 ed to Peru, and swept before it the clouds of ene- 
 mies which hung over that country, menacing de- 
 struction to the patriots. 
 
 Concha, Liniers,, Orellana the Bishop, and 
 others, raised an army in Cordova, and put them- 
 selves at its head ; but they were soon deserted 
 by their troops, apprehended, and shot, all but 
 the Bishop, whose religious character saved his 
 life. The execution of these distinguished men. 
 and particularly of the unhappy Liniers, who a 
 short time before had led to the field of glory 
 against the English, the same troops who were 
 now the instruments of his death, was a matter* of
 
 41 
 
 the greatest astonishment to the Spanish chiefs, 
 and proved to them that the men who had con- 
 tended in arms against Whitelocke and Berres- 
 ford for the rights of the mother country, were 
 now resolved to contend for their own. The 
 auxiliary division, as it advanced its positions, 
 augmented its numbers ; it was received in every 
 town through whictf'it passed with the loudest 
 acclamations of joy. 
 
 The royal army of Peru, under Sanz, Nieto, and 
 Cordova, was fortified at Suypacha, which was con- 
 sidered a very advantageous position ; there the 
 patriots under JBalcarce gave them battle, and 
 completely routed them, and again, afterwards, 
 at Tupiza. The fate of the royalist chiefs here 
 was the same as that of the others at Cordova; 
 they were likewise shot. The President Nieto 
 harassed the garrison at Charcas in the most op- 
 pressive and vexatious manner,condemning all who 
 spoke in favour of the patriots to hard labour in 
 the mines, and to the most degrading employments. 
 This man came to America in company with the 
 Viceroy Cisneros, after the battle of Rio Seco, in 
 Spain, and he manifested in all his conduct, that 
 he was only actuated by that spirit of licentious- 
 ness, covetousness, and meanness, in which he 
 had spent his life. 
 
 It is a custom with the Peruvians to make pre- 
 sents to their chiefs on their arrival in the coun- 
 try to assume their commands, and on their de- 
 parture ; they made Nieto a sumptuous present 
 of several pieces of gold of great value; never 
 
 F
 
 having been master of so much treasure before, 
 he received them in a phrenzy of joy, and forget- 
 ing the dignity of his rank and all sense of pro- 
 priety, he broke into the following exclamations, 
 kneeling before the gold, " God of Peru ! uni- 
 versal consolation of mankind! in search of thee, 
 men come from the most distant lands, traversing 
 the ocean, and braving the greatest dangers ; my 
 heart is dissolved in pleasure in possessing thee !" 
 at the same time kissing the pieces and pressing 
 them to his bosom. The persons present beheld 
 with astonishment and disgust the conduct of this 
 old man, who in less than a year in his govern- 
 ment, accumulated by his rapacity more than 
 $100,000. Not so, Sanz, the governor ofPotosi; 
 he was as noble-minded and generous as the other 
 was mean and rapacious.
 
 43 
 
 LETTER IV. 
 
 The Patriots being now in possession of the 
 fountain of riches and the best Provinces in the 
 Union, and victorious over the Royalists, had their 
 head-quarters at Laxa, six leagues north west of 
 the city of La Paz, in the Province of La Paz, the 
 most distant from Buenos Ayres. Their line ex- 
 tended along the left bank of the river Desagua- 
 dero, occupying the villages of Guaqui, Yorayco- 
 ragua, and Machaca. Their army consisted of 
 6,000 men, under Balcarce, commander in chief, 
 Viamonte, Dias Veles, and Rivero. The royal 
 army was between 5 and 6000 strong, under the 
 command of Goyeneche, at Desaguadero. 
 
 A succession of rapid triumphs intoxicated the 
 Patriots, who continued to hope for the happiest 
 events; and on the 25th of May, 1811, they cele- 
 brated the anniversary of the revolution, on the 
 magnificent ruins of the Palace of the Inca, Mayta 
 Capac, at Tiaguenaco, (lat. 17 5' South,) singing 
 hymns to' their country and to liberty. 
 
 The glorious events just recounted, united with 
 the revolution of Caraccas in April, 1810; ofChili, 
 in September of the same year, and Banda Ori- 
 ental ; and the circulation of newspapers through 
 the country, which then first began to be printed, 
 sent the fire of the revolution into the heart of 
 Peru, made the government at Lima tremble, and 
 compelled it to permit the Cabildo to open nego- 
 tiations with Castelli. who had accompanied the
 
 44 
 
 auxiliary army as the representative of the govern- 
 ment of Buenos Ayres. 
 
 From these negotiations resulted an armistice 
 of forty days, in order that time might be afforded 
 to consult the government of Buenos Ayres. This 
 interval was well improved by the enemy, while 
 the Patriots, slumbering over their brilliant pros- 
 pects, relaxed their military discipline, neglected 
 the points of defence, and gave the enemy an op- 
 portunity of attacking them to great advantage ; 
 and thus, of giving courage to their timid troops, 
 who, according to the remark of Goyeneche to 
 Sanz, " were men but not soldiers." 
 
 A circumstance which was indeed the principal 
 cause of the misfortunes which followed, ought not 
 to be overlooked. The auxiliaries of Buenos Ayres 
 were more expert troops than the Peruvians, and 
 were possessed of more vivacity of genius ; theirwars 
 with the English had given them a martial air and 
 spirit, and their commerce, their intercourse with 
 foreigners, and other circumstances, had rendered 
 them more liberal in their opinions, and particu- 
 larly in matters of religious worship; and they 
 consequently regarded with little respect the 
 modes of worship practised by the Peruvians., 
 which consist chiefly in external forms and super- 
 stitious ceremonies. This difference of character 
 being observed by Goyeneche, he found it a 
 powerful resort in accomplishing his purposes : 
 he persuaded the Peruvians that the Buenos 
 Ayreans had come into their country to destroy 
 their religion ; that for their neglect of the cere-
 
 45 
 
 monies of the Church, they ought to be ranked 
 among the enemies of God and the King ; and at 
 the same time he solemnly proclaimed throughout 
 his army the Virgin del Carmen, the commander 
 in chief, and himself, as her Lieutenant. This 
 language, reiterated by the chaplains of the differ- 
 ent corps, who were fanatic priests, produced the 
 same effects on the minds of the miserable and 
 ignorant soldiery, as have always been caused 
 by religious fanaticism. These weak minded men, 
 who were mostly Indians of Cuzco, and Mestizos, 
 the most degraded portion of the population of 
 South America, divesting themselves of the fear 
 with which they had previously viewed the mili- 
 tary superiority of the Auxiliaries, went to battle 
 with the same enthusiasm as the crusaders under 
 Peter the Hermit. Goyeneche not waiting the 
 termination of the armistice, and taking advantage 
 of these fortunate circumstances in his favour, at- 
 tacked the auxiliaries on the morning of the 20th 
 July, 1811, and so completely routed them, that 
 they all abandoned themselves to flight, leaving on 
 the field all their artillery and baggage ; and the 
 representative, Castelli, did not stop in his flight, 
 until he reached Macha, 100 leagues distant ; 
 where he published an account of these disasters. 
 Since this unfortunate battle, the Patriots have 
 never recovered their western frontier. 
 
 1 stated in the beginning that Paraguay differed 
 from the other Provinces of South America in the 
 character of its inhabitants. This character is 
 peculiar, and has lonjy been observed. This Pro-
 
 4i5 
 
 vince, like Monte Video, has never joined the 
 Union. In vain did Buenos Ayres send emissaries 
 into it to inform the people of the new order of 
 things. It was at length deemed necessary l>y the 
 government to send there a military expedition 
 to put the people in possession of their rights, 
 and to separate them from the control of the 
 Spanish governor Velasco, who at the same time 
 assembled all his force to decide the controversy. 
 General Belgrano was the chief of the expedition; 
 he penetrated into the country as far as the river 
 Tacuari, (1 1 leagues from the capital, Assump- 
 cion.) where he met the army of Paraguay under 
 the command of Yedros, by whom he was defeat- 
 ed. He afterwards craftily opened negotiations 
 with Yedros, and effected his retreat without mo- 
 lestation. 
 
 The Paraguayans did not need the aid of the 
 Buenos Ayreans to establish their independ- 
 ence. They deposed their governor, Velasco, 
 and established a government of their own, distinct 
 from that of the union, to which they have never 
 united themselves, notwithstanding the solicita- 
 tions of the government of Buenos Ayres. Their 
 last governor was Francia, who rules over them 
 according to their peculiar manners and customs, 
 and his own, practical knowledge of the country,
 
 47 
 
 LETTER V. 
 
 I now return to Buenos Ayres, where the spirit 
 of discord broke out afresh, as soon as the appre- 
 hension of danger was removed. For more than 
 six months had the prospect been truly flattering 
 to the patriots, and so rapid had been the suc- 
 cession of happy events, that it was confidently 
 believed by all, that the standard of liberty would 
 soon be erected in the capital of Peru, and the 
 whole country delivered from its oppressors, from 
 the isthmus of Panama to Cape Horn. But inter- 
 nal dissentions and the lust of power interrupted 
 the progress of a cause which involved the felici- 
 ty of millions of souls. 
 
 At the time of the formation of the Junta guber- 
 nativa, it was ordered that an officer, similar to 
 the Viceroy, should be substituted in his place, 
 who was called the President, and to whom all 
 the ceremonies and honours belonging to the su- 
 preme authority of the country were paid. As 
 the people saw in the President the whole ap- 
 pearance of the supreme chief, they naturally re- 
 garded him as the only person in the government. 
 This idea caused inconveniences which operated 
 to the prejudice of the republican system of go- 
 vernment which they wished to establish. The 
 Junta discovered at a late period these inconve- 
 niences, and resolved to abolish the honours paid 
 to the President, decreeing, that no individual 
 member of the government should receive any
 
 48 
 
 marks of distinction, except when they were all 
 assembled, or on days of ceremony. 
 
 As the citizens of the United States are accus- 
 tomed to see their supreme chief treated as an 
 ordinary gentleman, without any particular marks 
 of distinction or ceremony, it may not be unin- 
 teresting to state what were the honours which 
 were paid to the President of the Junta. His 
 dwelling, which was provided by the government, 
 was called his palace ; a sentinel with a loaded 
 musket was posted at every avenue leading to it; 
 in the antichamber were two aids-de-camp, wear- 
 ing a peculiar uniform ; whenever he rode out, it 
 was in a carriage drawn by six horses, accom- 
 panied by an escort of dragoons, sometimes to 
 the number of 12, and sometimes 60. He was 
 always saluted by the troops as commander in 
 chief, and in the church peculiar honours were 
 paid to him. These ceremonies, which were 
 considered as anti-republican, were all abolished 
 at the period above alluded to. The succeeding 
 members of the government lived like private 
 citizens in their own houses, until the administra- 
 tion of the Director Posadas, who revived all the 
 former ceremonies, and created as attendants 
 upon his person, several young officers under the 
 name of Pages. He wore on his shoulder a blue 
 band similar to that worn by Louis XV1I1. The 
 same ceremonies have been continued to Uie ad- 
 ministration of the present supreme Director, 
 Pueyrredon, who adopts them all, and who has
 
 49 
 
 a particular seat appropriated to him at the thea- 
 tre, where the people rise at his entrance. ' 
 
 The first President was Saavedra, the colonel 
 of a regiment. He was much gratified with these 
 puhlic ceremonies, and was not a little displeased 
 at their being abolished. Pie resolved to avenge 
 himself upon the man whom he believed to be the 
 author of the measure, and the secretary, Moreio, 
 was the victim of his resentment. Moreno was a 
 young lawyer of Buenos Ayres, possessing the 
 genuine feelings of a republican, and who consi- 
 dered these imposing ceremonies as incompatible 
 with the nature of the new government. He had 
 acquired an ascendancy in the government by the 
 superiority of his talents, and the firmness of his 
 character, and to him, in a great measure, may the 
 rapid progress of the revolution be attributed. 
 Buenos Ayres remembers with sorrow the untime- 
 ly death of this young man, who, by his extensive 
 knowledge, the brilliancy of his writings, and the 
 purity of his morals, was an ornament to American 
 literature, and an honour to his country. 
 
 Saavedra, in order the better to check the influ- 
 ence of Moreno, plotted with the deputies of the 
 people from the interior, to procure their incor- 
 poration into the Junta. 
 
 It is easy to see that an executive body, compos- 
 ed o"nine members, was already too numerous to 
 proceed with much expedition in their measures ; 
 and the addition of thirteen more would necessa- 
 rily augment the inconvenience, particularly in 
 those troublesome times. But when vengeance, 
 
 G
 
 50 
 
 or private interest predominates, reason is silent; 
 and Saavedra succeeded in his project, by the 
 votes of the deputies, in a congress composed 
 of them and the Junta, which was held for the 
 purpose on the 18th of December, 1810. On 
 this occasion Moreno said, " that he considered 
 the incorporation of the deputies in the Junta 
 as hostile to the rights of the people, and the 
 general welfare of the state ; that the deputies 
 were called to establish a national congress, and 
 until the meeting of the congress they could not 
 exercise any power as representatives ; that their 
 character was irreconcileable with the idea of 
 their being members of a provisional government ; 
 and that the circular calling them together to 
 take part in the government, was an improvident 
 measure, which experience would prove to be 
 impracticable." 
 
 The result was as Moreno predicted. The 
 administration of the deputies was most miserable 
 and disgraceful, and brought the enemy to the 
 very gates of the capital. The Portuguese under 
 Souza made a descent upon the eastern part of 
 their territory ; a squadron of their ships was 
 captured by the marine of Monte Video ; the 
 siege of that city was not prosecuted with any 
 effect, and Buenos Ayres itself was bombarded 
 by a squadron under the command of Michelena, 
 which was dispatched by the Viceroy Elio, who 
 was at Monte Video. 
 
 At this time commenced the first proscription 
 of the citizens, and their imprisonment without 
 
 k
 
 5.1 
 
 trial. At length the deputies, finding themselves 
 incapable of managing the government, were con- 
 templating the resignation of their authority, when 
 in October, 1811, the Cabildo deposed them for 
 their incapacity, at the request of the people, 
 and erected another government in three per- 
 sons, who were Sarratea, Chiclana, and Passo. 
 The administration of these persons revived the 
 hopes of all, and put an end to the arbitrary pro- 
 scriptions of the former administration ; made 
 peace with Elio ; re-established the fundamental 
 principles of civil society, by restoring to the peo- 
 ple their rights, and forming a provisional statute 
 which regulated the departments of the govern- 
 ment; decreed the liberty of the press, and a 
 mode of trial in cases of libel similar to that by 
 jury; organized the array, gave a systematic di- 
 rection to the military force ; appointed a general 
 staff, and raised a corps of dragoons not inferior 
 to any in the world ; encouraged the freedom of 
 writing and speaking upon political subjects; in- 
 vited foreigners to settle in the country; made 
 books free of duty, and also every thing relating to 
 science and the arts, implements of husbandry, 
 instruments for mining, and all kinds of machin- 
 ery used in manufacturing the raw materials of 
 the country, and augmented the public revenue, 
 by the confiscated property of Spaniards, amount- 
 ing to $1,386,887. This government began to 
 open negotiations with the envoy of Great Britain, 
 at that time in Brazil, (Lord Strangford,) and with 
 the Portuguese government, which sent a minis-
 
 St 
 
 ter, (Don Juan Rademaker,) to Buenos Ayres, with 
 whom a treaty was concluded in June, 1812, and 
 general Souza- retired from before Monte V ideo, 
 which place he had invested, at the request of its 
 chiefs, with the combined armies of the east and 
 west. This government raised the second army 
 of Peru, which was put under the command of 
 Belgrano, and which checked the operations of 
 the royalists under general Tristan, who had ad- 
 vanced to Tucuman, where Belgrano, on the 24th 
 September, 1 8 1 2, gave him battle, fighting 3000 men 
 with only 1 600, ami defeated him; and thus was dis- 
 solved the combination of the marine of Monte Vi- 
 deo and the royalists. The inhabitants of Tucuman, 
 who on this day, for the first time,beheld an engage- 
 ment, fought with great bravery. Oh this occasion, 
 Belgrano, imitating the example of Goyeneche, 
 put himself under the holy protection of the vir- 
 gin Mercedes, whose annual festival takes place 
 on that day. Tristan being defeated, retired to 
 Salta, where he fortified himself; thither Belgra- 
 no pursued him, and on the 20th February fol- 
 lowing, attacked him in his most formidable po- 
 sitions, and after a combat of three hours and a 
 half, killed and took prisoners the whole army. 
 This victory compelled Goyeneche to retire from 
 Potosi, and the revolution spread like fire through- 
 out all Peru. But a generosity, which it is diffi- 
 cult to account for, operated to produce the most 
 unhappy effects. Belgrano set at liberty, on parole 
 of honour, all his prisoners, who forgetting their 
 pledge, took up arms again, and meeting Bel- 
 
 J
 
 53 
 
 grano at Vilcapugio and Ayoma, on the north oi 
 Potosi, defeated him in both places. These un- 
 fortunate actions produced the same unhappy 
 consequences, as the defeat at Guaqui, the loss 
 of Peru.
 
 al 
 
 LETTER VI. 
 
 The provisional statute required a meeting of 
 the Assembly every six months, principally for the 
 purpose of electing a member of the government, 
 in the place of the one whose term had expired, 
 as one member went out of office every six months. 
 The first meeting was dissolved by an arbitrary 
 order of the government ; the second, by a mili- 
 tary mob. In this assembly, which was held in 
 October, 1812, Medrano was elected in the place 
 of Sarratea, who was at that time commander in 
 chief of the army besieging Monte Video. This 
 election was disagreeable to several persons, par- 
 ticularly to the faction of Alvear, who was the 
 leader of the military mob. This mob, with Al- 
 rear at their head, assembled in the public 
 Square, and demanded, in the name of the peo- 
 / pie, a new election, "swearing before the Most 
 High, that they would never leave the place until 
 their wish was gratified." A fine mode this of 
 deliberating upon political matters ! The Ca6ildo, 
 to whom the people apply in all times of emer- 
 gency, dissolved the government and formed ano- 
 ther agreeably to the wishes of the mob. The 
 members were Pena, Jonte, and Passo. 
 
 Pueyrredon, who had been a member of the 
 last administration, which was dissolved, did 
 nothing but throw it into confusion. He was 
 expelled from his situation with the greatest 
 scorn, and fled from the city. He afterwards
 
 i>a 
 
 addressed from his retreat a submissive memorial 
 to the Cabildo, endeavouring to exculpate himself, 
 and praying permission to return. This me- 
 morial was disregarded, and the new government 
 banished him to St. Luis in the interior, where, re- 
 penting of his pusillanimity, he begged forgiveness 
 of Alvear, who generously forgave him, and more- 
 over conferred honours upon him. 
 
 This military mob sorely wounded the rights of 
 the people and the cause of liberty, and diminish- 
 ed their respect and consideration in the eyes of 
 foreign nations. This circumstance, which was 
 known to the faction, hastened the meeting of the 
 congress, which took place on the 31st January, 
 1813, under the name of the constituent assembly, 
 and which was clothed with more power than the 
 former assembly. In this body were several mem- 
 bers distinguished for their talents, their liberality 
 of sentiment, and their patriotism ; and who pos- 
 sessed a thorough and intimate knowledge of the 
 true interests of their country. In their debates 
 the practical points of government were dis- 
 cussed with intelligence, and these were the first 
 essays of legislation in Spanish America. Their 
 measures are actually producing great benefits to 
 the country. Among them was the protection 
 granted to foreigners who reside in the country, 
 authorizing them to become proprietors of mines, 
 to form companies to work them, &c. without being 
 vexed for their religious opinions, and giving them 
 permission to leave the country when they please; 
 making free of duties nil implements of husbandry,
 
 56 
 
 books, and printing presses ; the abolition of 
 lavery, and the progressive manumission of the 
 existing slaves ; the abolishing the Inquisition, and 
 directing that no person under forty years of age 
 could be a professed monk, a measure adopted to 
 discourage celibacy; the establishment of public- 
 schools and mathematical academies; the division 
 of the powers of the government into the three 
 branches of the executive, legislative, and judicial, 
 and the concentration of the executive power in 
 one person, called the Supreme Director. This 
 Assembly undoubtedly gave more regularity to 
 the public administration and energy to the go- 
 vernment, which proceeded with prosperous steps 
 in all its measures, while it consulted the cause of 
 liberty, and the true interests of the people. 
 
 During the administration of Posadas, who \va^ 
 the first Director, the important place of Monte 
 Video was taken by the military and naval force 
 of Buenos Ayres, under Alvear and Brown, in the 
 month of June, 1814. Posadas was a weak man, 
 and altogether incompetent to his station, and 
 from this circumstance resulted many evils to the 
 country. One of his measures was the sending 
 Garcia to Rio Janeiro to betray his country to the 
 Portuguese. He lighted the torch of civil war against 
 Artigas, the chief of the Orientals, for whose head 
 he offered $4000; irritated the feelings of the 
 people in all the interior Provinces, and finally 
 renounced his place in order that his nephew 
 Alvear should succeed him. This young man. 
 full of ambition and imprudence, threw the country
 
 57 
 
 into confusion, and covered it with sorrow ; he used 
 the assembly as an instrument in his hands to 
 promote his private views; destroyed the moral 
 unity of the people and the army ; and went to 
 war with Artigas, who met him with his troops at 
 Santa Fe. This scandalous abuse of power pro- 
 voked the people to such an extent, that they took 
 up arms and taught him to know, that if force was 
 the only basis of his power, it would soon be the 
 instrument of his destruction ; and such was the 
 result. His own troops deserted him ; his princi- 
 pal officers made a merit of their treachery 
 to him, particularly Alvares, who, while march- 
 ing with the van-guard of his division against Ar- 
 tigas, arrested the chief of his division, Viana, 
 and transformed himself into a friend of the people, 
 and a defender of their rights. 
 
 Alvear was deposed, and sent out of the coun- 
 try in disgrace ; and peace being restored with Ar- 
 tigas, he retired to his former positions. 
 
 Rondeau, general of the army of Peru, refused 
 obedience to Alvear, but recognized the authority 
 of Buenos Ayres ; he was appointed Supreme Di- 
 rector, but being with the army in Peru, Alvares 
 was appointed Director ad interim. Rondeau 
 passed into Peru with his army with great success, 
 until near Cochabamba, whither he was pursued 
 by the royalist general Pezuela, an officer of merit, 
 and in the battle of Sipe Sipe in November, 1315^ 
 in which both chiefs displayed great military 
 skill, and the troops distinguished bravery, Ron- 
 
 H
 
 50 
 
 deau was defeated, fortune again deciding in fa- 
 vour of Pezuela, and leaving the royalists maslt r 
 of i J eru the third time. 
 
 Subsequently to this unhappy period, which 
 terminated in April, 1815, the people, having been 
 outraged and oppressed by a military government, 
 when they had overthrown it, immediately passed 
 to the extreme of liberty, that idol of mankind. Not 
 having been able heretofore to check the usurpations 
 of the executive power, they now formed a new sta- 
 tute called the' Estatuto provisional, which, by its prin- 
 ciples, was a code of anarchy. Then was esta- 
 blished the Jimta of Observation, as it was call- 
 ed, whose duty, like that of the Roman con- 
 suls in times of public danger, was to see that 
 no harm befel the republic. The Cabildo be- 
 came military commanders of a regular force, in 
 order to prevent the usurpations and arbitrary 
 exercise of the executive power. A public pa- 
 per was also established, under the name of the 
 Censor, to censure, if necessary, the public con- 
 duct of the government ; and at the same time 
 was confirmed the liberty of the press. These 
 restrictions upon the executive power, while they 
 manifest inexperience in the practical science of 
 government, are unequivocal testimonies of their 
 knowledge of the value of civil liberty; and if 
 they now wander about like the blind, without a 
 guide to direct them, and to keep them within 
 proper limits, nevertheless, under happier auspi- 
 ces and better times, they will be able to esta- 
 blish and maintain that political balance which
 
 59 
 
 ought to exist between the people and the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 In compliance with the provisions of this sta- 
 tute, a meeting of the general Congress took place 
 on the 25th March, 181 6, at Tucuman, 400 leagues 
 from Buenos Ay res, and on the 9th July, inde- 
 pendence was solemnly declared there, at a time 
 when the Portuguese menaced the invasion of the 
 territory. From that city, in the following year, 
 the sitting of the Congress was transferred to 
 Buenos Ayres. This body formed a provisional 
 constitution, which was very defective, and with 
 but little liberality of principle. 
 
 The administration of Alvares, as Director ad 
 interim, was very short, and nothing remarkable 
 occurred during its continuance, except the arm- 
 ing the privateers. To Alvares, succeeded Bal- 
 carce, who was soon deposed like the former, for 
 not showing proper vigilance at the approach of 
 the Portuguese, as was alleged ; and a commis- 
 sion gubernativa was named, composed of Yrigo- 
 yen and Escalada, until the arrival of Don Juan 
 Martin Pueyrredon, who was elected supreme 
 Director by the Congress at Tucuman, in the sum- 
 mer of 18)6.
 
 GO 
 
 LETTER VII. 
 
 The re-conquest of Chili, by the Spaniards in 
 October, 1814, was a serious blow to the liberties 
 of the provinces. By the loss of Peru and Chili, 
 Buenos Ayres was left without any internal com- 
 merce or pecuniary resources, and was menaced 
 every moment by invasion on both sides, and was 
 also deprived of Monte Video, by the Portuguese, 
 which was a vital part of her territorial riches. 
 The consideration of such imminent dangers re- 
 doubled the alacrity of the people ; no murmurs 
 against the heavy contributions were heard, and 
 augmenting their courage in proportion to their 
 disasters and disgrace, they resolved on the con- 
 quest of Chili. 
 
 Don Jose de San Martin, who was at Tucuman. 
 repaired to Mendoza, of which he was governor, 
 to check the enemy, with a small division, which 
 insensibly increased to 4000 men. It was under 
 the directorship of Pueyrredon, that the army of 
 the Andes, under San Martin, commenced its ope- 
 rations. This fine army, in the best state of dis- 
 cipline, crossed the Andes and the hills of Cha- 
 cabuco, and began its career of glory on the 12th 
 February, 1816. It attacked and defeated the 
 royalists under Marco, the President of Chili, tak- 
 ing 600 prisoners, and afterwards Marco himself, 
 at Valparaiso. This battle again opened to the 
 patriots the fine country of Chili, and after taking 
 posesssion of the capital. Santiago, they finished
 
 61 
 
 the great work of the revolution on the banks of 
 the Maypu, on the 5th April, 1818, in which glo- 
 rious battie the royalist army, of 5300 veterans 
 under Osorio, was completely annihilated ; 2009 
 men were left dead on the field, and the remain- 
 der taken prisoners, with all their artillery, bag- 
 gage, &c. Honour and gratitude to the heroes of 
 Maypu ! Their memory will be eternal, like the 
 independence which has been sealed with their 
 blood. These triumphs will undoubtedly produce 
 the absolute emancipation of South America, and 
 ere long will the flag of liberty float upon the ca- 
 pital of Peru, and the fountain of her riches be 
 opened to the knowledge and enterprise of the 
 whole civilized world. 
 
 The administration of the actual Director, mark- 
 ed with so glorious an epoch as the conquest of 
 Chili, is eclipsed by a dastardly submission to the 
 Portuguese, who are suffered to remain masters 
 of Monte Video, and all the littoral side. This 
 city is the key of Rio de la Plata, and of all the 
 commerce of the interior, and the usurpation and 
 establishment of a foreign prince in that quarter, 
 must be considered as dangerous to the integrity, 
 liberty, and security of the republic, whose foreign 
 trade is absolutely precarious without the pos- 
 session of these points.
 
 62 
 
 LETTER VIE 
 
 We left Peru after the battle of Guaqui, in 
 which the remnant of the patriot army was forced 
 to retire to Salta. 
 
 The Spaniards re-conquered the country, hut 
 not the hearts of the people. They had begun to 
 taste the seductive sweets of liberty, which, pro- 
 mising enjoyments they had never experienced, 
 made them eager in its pursuit. Peru, which had 
 heretofore been regarded as a country destined 
 only to supply Europeans with the precious 
 metals, was then converted into a field of blood : 
 her noblest sons butchered without remorse on 
 the field of battle and on the scaffold, her cities 
 desolated, villages destroyed by fire, vineyards 
 rooted up, and mines deserted, and her noblest 
 families driven into exile and beggary. 
 
 Goyeneche, after establishing his head quarters 
 at Potosi, sent his second in command, Tristan, to 
 Tucuman and to Salta, where he was defeated by 
 Belgrano, as I have already stated. In the 
 mean time, Goyeneche did not remain tranquil 
 at Potosi, as a general insurrection among the 
 Indians again broke out in the district of La. 
 Paz, who laid siege to the city, and the brave 
 patriot Arce reconquered Cochabamba. Goye- 
 neche, not alarmed at these events, marched 
 to Cochabamba, with his best troops, defeated 
 Arce, and drew near to the city, when Antesana, 
 the President of the Junta, proposed to implore
 
 63 
 
 the clemency of the conqueror; a measure which 
 was reprobated by the people, who were opposed 
 to every sort of submission ; preferring to it all 
 the horrors of war. 
 
 This heroic people, greatly inferior in numbers 
 and discipline, and having scarcely one hundred 
 muskets, fought with the most stubborn valour, 
 though irregularly, and the women intermingled 
 in the combat promiscuously with the men. 
 Goyeneche at length forced his way into the 
 city over the dead bodies of the slain, and con- 
 signed the devoted place to the lawless plunder 
 of the soldiery, and to all the horrors of Spanish 
 ferocity. The unhappy Antesana, who had con- 
 cealed himself in a convent, was dragged forth 
 and beheaded, and his head stuck upon a pike 
 and paraded through the streets. 
 
 At the time these things were happening in 
 Cochabamba, a new insurrection broke out in the 
 Provinces of Chayanta and Paria, near Polosi. 
 Thither Goyeneche sent one Emas, a Catalan, a 
 wretch who laid waste with fire and sword more 
 than sixty villages, and when he became weary 
 with his murderous and desolating career, he in- 
 dulged himself in the horrid and brutal sport of 
 cutting off the ears of the Patriots to mark them. 
 Goyeneche returned to Potosi, glutted with 
 the blood of his slaughtered countrymen. He 
 retired from thence to Oruro, after the vic- 
 tory of Salta in February, 1813, and thus re- 
 lieved the afflictions of Potosi, and the south- 
 ern Provinces of Upper Peru. Oruro is situ-
 
 64 
 
 ated in the north of Upper Peru, (17 58' South 
 latitude,) and is the best military position in that 
 quarter; having a direct and well made road to 
 Lima, from which place Pezuela came with troops 
 and arms to relieve Goyeneche. 
 
 Pezuela, who was an officer of distinguished mili- 
 tary talents, gave a skilful direction to his move- 
 ments, and in the actions of Vilcapugio and Ayo- 
 ma, destroyed the patriot army under Belgrano. 
 In these actions, the patriots again lost Peru, and 
 Pezuela became master of the country, even to 
 Salta and Jujui. 
 
 The fugitive Cochabambians united again at Valle 
 Grande, and with an intrepidity which was inspir- 
 ed by despair, charged upon a division of 1000 
 men and cut them to pieces; and uniting with 
 Warnes, who put himself at the head of the Santa 
 Crucians, re-conquered their country. This suc- 
 cess re-animated the hopes of the patriots, and in- 
 surrections among the people again became gene- 
 ral. Warnes proceeded to Chiquitos, where he also 
 finally defeated the royalists. General Camargo 
 took possession of the province of Chayante, and 
 maintained there with great spirit and success a 
 partizan warfare. Padilla, a patriot leader, fixed 
 his head-quarters at Yamparaes, where he defeat- 
 ed Tacon. The Indians of Pilima took up arms 
 in the common cause of their country, to put down 
 the odious domination of the Spaniards. 
 
 While these events were happening in Upper 
 Peru, the fire of the revolution again burst forth 
 in the lower Provinces. Pinelo, Munecas, a priest.
 
 65 
 
 the two Angulos, and Pomakagua, (an Indian,) 
 were the principal leaders. The two first were 
 victorious at La Paz, but at the same time suffer- 
 ed the greatest disasters from an infernal conspi- 
 racy. The European Spaniards poisoned all the 
 springs of water in La Paz, and undermined and 
 blew up a barrack of the patriots, killing 300 men. 
 Those who escaped this destruction were fired 
 with vengeance, and cut the throat of every Spa- 
 niard in the city. 
 
 Pezuela hastened to La Paz, when the pa- 
 triots withdrew to Desaguedero ; there he attack- 
 ed and defeated them, by reason of the superiori- 
 ty of his force. \ 
 
 The Indian Pomakagua directed his course to 
 Arequipa. He bravely fought his way into the 
 city, defeated the enemy, and took prisoners the 
 commander in chief Picoaga, the governor Mos- 
 corso, and Lavalle, and sent them to Cuzco to be 
 put to death. The defeat of Pinelo and Munecas, 
 already mentioned, obliged them to retire to Cuz- 
 co, which Ramires and Pezuela had just evacuat- 
 ed to repair to Arequipa, in pursuit of Pomaka- 
 gua. Ramires, after repeating there the same tra- 
 gic scenes which had been recently acted at La 
 Paz, attacked Pomakagua near the river Ayavire, 
 in which battle this noble Indian exhibited prodi- 
 gies of valour, but the inferiority of his force made 
 him the victim of his enemy. He was taken pri- 
 soner, and sent to Cuzco, where he was execut- 
 ed, together with the Angulos and Pinelo. Hii 
 
 I
 
 Gt> 
 
 head was fastened on a pike, and Sent to Siquani, 
 distant 25 leagues from CuzCo. 
 
 Of these leaders, the most conspicuous was Po- 
 makagua. He was an Indian of Peruvian nobility, 
 the Senor of the town of Chincero, near Cuzco. 
 In the rebellion of Tupac Amaru, in 1780, he took 
 part with the king of Spain ; and for his services 
 at this period, the title of Brigadier General in the 
 regular army was conferred upon him, besides all 
 the dignities, privileges, and crosses, of the Spa- 
 nish court, and he was confirmed in the Seignory 
 of his town. This Peruvian, like all others of his 
 race, was bred without the advantages of educa- 
 tion ; he could with difficulty speak the Spanish 
 language, but he possessed strong and manly 
 sense, nobleness of mind, and that generosity of 
 character, which is supposed to be peculiar to dis- 
 tinguish^ d birth. When he heard of the revolu- 
 tion at Buenos Ayres, he put himself at the head 
 of his warriors, who were all Indians armed with 
 slings, spears, and war-clubs, (not then under- 
 standing the use of fire-arms,) and repaired to 
 Oruro, as the auxiliary of Goyeneche. Soon, how- 
 ever, he began to think about the object and pur- 
 pose of the war. He inquired what were the 
 wishes of the Buenos Ayreans, as he could not 
 read the newspapers which had then just began 
 to be published. He was prevented by the Spa- 
 nish Chiefs from obtaining correct information; 
 but a patriot spy found means to make him ac- 
 quainted with the events which had taken place 
 at Buenos Ayres : whereupon he immediately de-
 
 67 
 
 clared for the patriots, and told his warriors they 
 had been deceived. He returned to his native 
 town, where, assembling his people, he formed an 
 alliance with the patriots, and bravely fought for 
 the liberty of his country, to which he consecrat- 
 ed the remainder of his days.
 
 68 
 
 LETTER IX. 
 
 The convulsions of the interior of Peru, together 
 with the insurrections of the Pacific coast, in the 
 Province of Arica, headed by Penaranda and 
 Reyes, gave an opportunity to General Rondeau 
 to advance to Peru ; first opening the way by the 
 battles of Mochare and Puesto Grande. He took 
 post at Potosi, on the left of the enemy, who were 
 at Oruro. 
 
 He made preparations to give battle with great 
 advantage, taking possession of Cochabamba 
 which supplied him with provisions, and whose 
 inhabitants had awaited his arrival with eager 
 impatience. Rondeau's plan of operations was 
 excellent, and displayed his great military capaci- 
 ty. In order to maintain a safe passage to Cocha- 
 bamba, he dispatched a division under Rodriguez, 
 to check the enemy's van-guard which was at 
 Veuta e Media, distant 5 leagues from Oruro. 
 
 Rodriguez was repulsed, and Pezuela, knowing 
 the importance of Cochabamba, made forced 
 marches upon Rondeau, and before the latter 
 CMild take possession of the town, obliged him to 
 fight the battle of Sipe-Sipe which I have al- 
 ready mentioned. This victory, which reflected 
 honour on the military capacity of Pezuela, was 
 blackened by the butchery which was executed 
 by his order upon the Cochabambians, who were 
 waiting the arrival of the Patriots with triumphal 
 arches, as they considered the victory in their
 
 69 
 
 hands, Rondeau having at one period of the en- 
 gagement outflanked the enemy's left wing, nearly 
 routed the right, and made a severe impression on 
 the center by his artillery. The result was, that 
 Cochabamba was sacked by the soldiery a second 
 time. Rondeau retired to Tupiza, where he fixed 
 his head quarters. 
 
 The government of Buenos Ayres had sent to 
 his succour additional numbers of troops and arms, 
 but they did not arrive in time for the battle. 
 Rondeau, in consequence of this defeat, was re- 
 moved from command, and returned to Buenos 
 Ayres ; and Belgrano succeeded him, who esta- 
 blished his head quarters at Tucuman. 
 
 Pezuela was now elevated to the Viceroyalty 
 of Peru, and displayed the energy of his charac- 
 ter, and the resources of his talents, by carrying 
 on active operations in Chili and Peru at the same 
 time ; the latter of which was occupied to the nar- 
 row pass of Volcan, near Jujui. 
 
 Serna succeeded Pezuela in the command of 
 the royal army, but with talents much inferior to 
 his. He entered Jujui with an army of 2000 men ; 
 but was so closely pressed by Guemes and his 
 guerrillas, that after suffering the greatest depri- 
 vations and losses fom famine and the sword, he 
 was obliged to retire, and abandon his hopes of 
 conquest. From this period, for two years, we 
 hear of little more than partial skirmishes in differ- 
 ent parts of the country, which were attended with 
 various success. 
 
 The operations of the army of the Andes in
 
 70 
 
 Chili, pre\ erited the patriots from carrying cm the 
 war with the same vigour in Peru ; but the situa- 
 tion of the royalists at present in South America, 
 and of the Spanish monarchy, admonish us that 
 there will soon be an end put to the general devas- 
 tation. 
 
 From the foregoing brief detail, it clearly ap- 
 pears that the people of Peru have not merely 
 shown a disposition for independence, but have 
 well nigh sacrificed themselves in the cause. In 
 every battle in which they have been engaged they 
 have fought with desperation ; wherever the pa- 
 triot army appeared they were greeted by the 
 people with joy; the cruelties inflicted by the 
 Spaniards added fuel to the flame, and the royal 
 troops every where met with the most determined 
 hostility. But how has it happened that such fa- 
 vourable dispositions on the part of the people for 
 independence, have not been sufficient to put down 
 the Spanish authorities ? What are the causes still 
 existing to impede a people possessing such abun- 
 dant resources, in their endeavours to establish 
 their political independence? Wherefore have 
 the armies of the patriots, instead of gaining ad- 
 vantages over the royalists, and expelling them 
 from the country, been on the contrary more fre- 
 quently defeated ? 
 
 The solution of these queries will be found in 
 the civil and political character of the inhabitants 
 of this country, upon which I am now about to 
 enter.
 
 71 
 
 LETTER X. 
 
 Upper Peru, as comprehended in the United 
 Provinces of Rio de la Plata, is better considered 
 under its civil division, known as the district or au- 
 dience of Charcas. The city of Charcas, La Plata, 
 or Chuquisaca, was founded by Pedro Araures, 
 one of the Captains of Pizarro in 1538. In the 
 district, which is near 900 miles long, extending 
 from the Lake Titicaca to Jujui, there are compre- 
 hended twenty-one lesser Provinces, as they are 
 called ; which are, Chicas, Pacages, Omazuegos, 
 Apolobamba, Larecaga, Cica-Cica, Chulumani, 
 Oruro, Paria, Caraugas, Porco, Chayante, Pilaya, 
 Punabamba, Tomina, Atacama, Lipez, Yampa- 
 raes, Misque, Tarija, Chiquitos ; and these are in- 
 cluded in the seven governments or intendencies 
 following Potosi, Charcas or La Plata, Cocha- 
 bamba, La-Paz, Santa Cruz de la Sierra or Puno, 
 Moxos and Chiquitos. These lesser provinces 
 are governed by sub-delegates, who are subordi- 
 nate to the governors or intcndants who reside 
 in the cities. 
 
 The population of the district of Charcas or 
 Upper Peru, amounts to 1,740,000 souls, including 
 Indians. The Indians alone amount to 1,155,000. 
 This population consists of Indians, creolrs. 
 Mestizos, Cholos, European Spaniards, negroes 
 and mulattos: and! shall speak of them all in their 
 order.
 
 72 
 
 The Indians of Peru, its first inhabitants, are 
 very different from savage tribes. In the ancient 
 days of the Peruvian Monarchs, they were accus- 
 tomed to live under equal laws and a mild and pa- 
 ternal government. Their morality was so pure 
 and simple, that it was comprehended in the three 
 following principles, Amma Sua, Jimma Kclya, 
 Jlmma Loolya, indian phrases, meaning, no thieves, 
 no sluggards, no liars. 
 
 After their conquest by the Spaniards, they 
 continued in their own villages, under the go- 
 vernment of a Cura Doctineros, a Cazique, and an 
 Alcalde. They were reduced to a perpetual mi- 
 nority, and sunk to the lowest state of degradation. 
 All who have written concerning them, have given 
 a very unfavourable idea of their character. They 
 have been represented as destitute of every ho- 
 nourable sentiment, of ordinary intellectual ca- 
 pacity, and even of the common physical strength 
 of man. The reason of this appears to be, that 
 all the travellers in that country have been Eu- 
 ropeans, who were utterly ignorant of their lan- 
 guages, who never resided among them, never 
 held any intercourse or communication with them ; 
 and of course, possessed no facilities for gaining 
 their confidence, by which alone, can be learned 
 the peculiarities of national character and the 
 resources and capacity of the human mind. 
 
 Robertson and Count Carly, approximated the 
 nearest to the true character of the Indians; but 
 their knowledge being principally founded upon 
 speculation, must of necessity be very imperfect
 
 73 
 
 and defective. Ulloa, justly reputed the best tra- 
 veller in South America, falls into many errors, 
 which may be attributed to the circumstances 
 above mentioned, his ignorance of their lan- 
 guage, his short stay among them as governor of 
 Huancavelica, and to the incorrect information 
 which he received from his countrymen, the Spa- 
 niards. Neither the u Viagero Universal," nor the 
 " Mercurio Peruano," works published under the 
 direction of the Spanish government, can be relied 
 upon as giving correct information in relation to the 
 Indian character; although the editors of the lat- 
 ter, which is published in Lima, are natives of the 
 country, well-informed upon the subject, and men 
 of distinguished intelligence. Among all the wri- 
 ters who have treated of the Indians, none have 
 spoken of their attainments in the abstract sci- 
 ences. To this subject I shall devote some at- 
 tention when 1 come to speak of the city of 
 Cuzco. 
 
 The Peruvian Indians are generally of mid- 
 dle stature, and well proportioned ; their ge- 
 neral complexion is a copper colour, although 
 in the wanner regions, they arc as fair as the 
 people of the south of Europe. They have 
 long black hair, which they wear loose on 
 their shoulders, when attending upon religious 
 exercises; they have no beards; they possess 
 great muscular strength, which is owing to their 
 temperate mode of life and constant exercise ; 
 all the heavy work of the country being perform- 
 ed by them without the aid of machinery. They 
 
 K
 
 74 
 
 will carry on their shoulders 150 lbs. weight of 
 every kind of heavy articles, after the fashion of 
 the Israelites. The magnificent monuments of 
 antiquity in Cuzco, which are built of stones, 
 some measuring from 10 to 15 yards in length, 
 and which were brought from great distances, are 
 the work of the Indians, and proofs of their great 
 muscular strength; and the grand temples and 
 structures of modern times, which are built of 
 granite, were erected by them without the use of 
 machinery. The high roads, causeways, aque- 
 ducts, bridges, paintings, sculpture, &c. &c. are the 
 work of their hands. Their food is of the most 
 innocent and simple kind ; it consists of potatoes, 
 milk, maize, quinoa, a fine grain, chunu, or dried 
 potatoes, barley, pepper, and vegetables, dressed 
 with salt, which they use in abundance. They 
 eat a little beef. They use freely a bitter herb 
 they call Coca, which they chew, as the people of 
 this country do tobacco, and it seems as indis- 
 pensable to their comfort. They rise in the morn- 
 ing before the break of day, the year round, and 
 go into the field to their daily work; some to tend 
 cattle, and others to cultivate the ground. They 
 sleep on the floor of their cabins, without beds. 
 They dress in a short woollen frock and short 
 breeches or drawers, which are manufactured in 
 their own families ; they wear sandals similar to 
 those worn by the Romans ; their head dress is a 
 woollen cap, and over it a bonnet, with a broad 
 brim to protect them from the sun. 
 
 The dress of the women is a long woollen frock,
 
 frequently extremely fine, and of every variety of 
 colour to gratify female caprice ; this is fastened 
 round the waist with an ornamented girdle, and 
 over it they wear a square piece of cloth, or shawl, 
 which is fastened on the bosom by a silver pin, 
 called toupo, from 4 to 5 inches in length, flatten- 
 ed at the head, and sometimes studded with gems. 
 The girls wear their dress higher than the mar- 
 ried women. The Catholic rosaries and the cross 
 are always appendages to their dress. They, for 
 the most part, live out of the great towns, fearing 
 all white men who do not speak their language, 
 and who, too often, defraud and oppress them. 
 The Indian is mild and patient in his disposition, 
 and suffers every vexation without complaint; re- 
 tired in his cabin, he finds himself happy when at 
 a distance from the Spaniards. 
 
 Their houses are constructed to suit the climate, of 
 a conic figure, with one door, and without windows ; 
 they are built of unbaked brick. Their beasts of 
 burden are the Llama and the Ass. The Llama is 
 a slow montioned animal, well suited to the genius 
 of the Indian In travelling, the Indian slowly fol- 
 lows the steps of his Llama, making his day's 
 journey of about three leagues. The male and 
 female Indians, as they travel along the roads, are 
 constantly employed in some work of industry, 
 making cords or sewing. They are never idle. 
 
 The Indians possess great skill in agriculture, 
 and particularly in irrigation. In some districts, 
 water is conveyed in aqueducts of stone, with 
 great facility, for a distance of twenty mi Jo.
 
 76 
 
 They are not subject to diseases like the Euro- 
 pean Spaniards ; an Indian of thirty is called a 
 boy; they are never afflicted with the tooth-ache, 
 and never wear spectacles. They possess a pecu- 
 liar talent at following the track of their own do- 
 mestic animals. If a Llama escapes from its 
 flock, its owner will pursue it, distinguishing its 
 footsteps from those of every other animal of the 
 same species, for any distance : they are very fond 
 of dogs, and keep great numbers >a single Indian 
 sometimes forty. They are remarkable for their 
 fidelity to their masters, and preserve with great 
 care every thing entrusted to them ; they never 
 steal, are good husbands and fathers, know no 
 dissolution of the marriage bonds, never forget 
 an act of kindness, and are naturally generous 
 and hospitable. But let me ask, how does it hap- 
 pen that a race of men possessing such excellent 
 qualities, have never aroused themselves from the 
 miserable degradation into which they are sunk? 
 The solution of this query is presented to us in 
 the fact, that man without liberty, property, or 
 security, is a mere machine, and, of all creatures, 
 the most wretched. To these miserable beings 
 the Spanish government has been worse than a 
 pestilence; it has stopped their progress in civil- 
 ization, and kept them in a state of the most stu- 
 pid ignorance, and if they are not slaves by law,, 
 they suffer all the evils of the negroes of Africa.
 
 77 
 
 LETTER X. 
 
 All Peru is divided into curacies or parishes ; 
 those included within the United Provinces are 
 nearly 400 in number. Every parish contains a 
 small town, of from 4 to 10,000 souls, de confession, 
 or adults. 
 
 Among them there are a (ew Spaniards or Cre- 
 oles, who possess large plantations. In the capital 
 towns the Creoles are more numerous. Each town 
 or parish is governed by a catholic curate, a 
 casique, and an alcalde. The first is a spiritual 
 chief, whose business is to teach the Roman catho- 
 lic religion, and who is under the jurisdiction of 
 the bishop of the diocess; the second is collector 
 of the poll, or capitation tax, which is levied upon 
 all male Indians between 18 and 50 years of age, 
 and amounts to $7, and sometimes $14 to each 
 Indian, per annum, and is collected every six months. 
 The third is a judicial officer. The two last are 
 subject to the sub-delegates, who are the chiefs of 
 the lesser Provinces. These officers have great 
 numbers of young Indians in their service, who are 
 named after the particular kind of service in which 
 they are employed ; such as Pongo, Mitani, 
 Mulani, &c. Pongo meaning those who take care 
 of cooking utensils, spoons, &c. Jllnlatii, those who 
 tend the mules. Besides these servants, they have 
 others who are employed as letter-carriers, under 
 the name of Chasquis, or Canaris, meaning rapid 
 travellers, and they will indeed travel with won-
 
 78 
 
 deri'ul rapidity. They fasten their letters to their 
 body with straps, provide themselves with a bag 
 of coca, some dried beef, corn, pepper, and a dol- 
 lar in cash, and set forward, and finish their journey 
 in the allotted time, in spite of every obstacle. I 
 have frequently known them travel 50 leagues in 
 four days. Their routes are always direct across 
 the country, and they will traverse up and down 
 the lofty mountains of the Andes with the same 
 rapidity as on the plains. There are some towns 
 whose inhabitants are distinguished for this 
 trait; particularly Charasajnj and Consaaata on 
 the north of La Paz, . near the Amazon, in 
 the Province of Larecaja. These pedestrians 
 cross with most astonishing rapidity the great 
 deserts of the country. The whole population 
 of these districts are remarkable for their ac- 
 tivity and enterprise. They are botanists, phar- 
 maceutists, and physicians, and possess in a won- 
 derful degree all the accomplishments of quacks. 
 They know from practical observation the medici- 
 nal qualities of the various plants, roots, gums, 
 aromatic resins, and other drugs which are found 
 in great abundance on the mountains and Cordil- 
 leras of that region. After collecting together a 
 quantity of these drugs, they start in companies of 
 from six to eight for the most remote parts of the 
 country, and cross the continent from one extreme 
 to the other, visiting in their route Lima, Quito, 
 Buenos Ayres, and all the principal cities of the 
 country. They always travel on foot, with their 
 boxes of drugs on their shoulders, fastened witjh
 
 79 
 
 Straps around their breasts, together with their 
 provisions. They are often absent from their 
 homes from 10 to 14 months, and return loaded 
 with the products of every clime. 
 
 In Buenos Ayres these travelling doctors are 
 called Yune-gain-ious, and in Peru Kal-ya-wy-a$, In- 
 dian names denoting the countries from which they 
 procure their drugs*.. 
 
 As the Peruvian Indians can neither read nor 
 write, and have never been in situations to deve- 
 lope their mental capacity, we can only estimate 
 their character in this respect by an intimate com- 
 munication with them. The faculties of the mind, 
 like those of the body, require to be exercised, 
 that the extent of their capacity may be known. 
 The European Spaniards cannot form a correct 
 judgment of their character, being utterly Ignorant 
 of their customs and their language. The Peru- 
 vian grammars, which I have before spoken of, 
 were composed by German Jesuits. The Span- 
 iards look upon the Indians as being scarcely ra- 
 tional, and they thoroughly despise them. They 
 do not know, nor can they appreciate, the vigour 
 of their phrases, nor the peculiar softness and 
 sweetness of their expressions. Some philanthro- 
 pic Curas and Creoles, born and bred among them, 
 when they have been able to gain their confidence 
 so as to understand their sentiments and feelings, 
 have declared that they found in them a spirit noble 
 and elevated, and capable of great achievements. 
 
 * The English orthography has been adopted by (he Translator in writing 
 lh Peruvian words used ?n these Letters.
 
 I will here present a specimen of their familiar 
 conversation, which can with difficulty be trans- 
 lated from the native language on account of it* 
 peculiarly soft idiom. 
 
 " You are my countryman,'' said an Indian to 
 his Creole master " 1 saw you born, on my shoul- 
 ders have I borne you through all your infancy." 
 (It is the custom in Peru for servants to carry their 
 master's children upon their shoulders) " Your 
 language I taught you, I labour for you, my hands 
 have grown hard in building your houses, cultivat- 
 ing your fields, and tending your flocks, without 
 any object but your benefit. You see my clothes, 
 which are the manufacture of my wife ; the coca 
 which you give me, is the greatest gift I receive 
 from you. Tell me why the men of your com- 
 plexion treat us so ill ? Those Chapetones pooka 
 Jcoonfcas, alw r ays order us about with great severity, 
 they make us travel with their beasts of burden, 
 they beat us with whips, and goad us with spurs 
 when we do not keep pace with the trot of their 
 horses. Indio, Alzado, Tupac Amaru ! these are 
 the names they give us, they cover us with igno- 
 miny and contempt. Do they imagine we have no 
 sense of shame ? The Tata Curas tell us that there 
 is one God who created all mankind, and that all 
 are redeemed by his blood. Why then is there 
 so great a difference between us ? Is it because 
 the God who created us, does not think that we 
 are his creatures ? I observe besides, that all who 
 govern you and us come from Spain, and that you 
 stand very much in fear of them. Tell me, have
 
 81 
 
 you not learned in the books, the mode of govern- 
 ing ? I think there are among you some learned 
 men who can enlighten our dark understandings. 
 I never heard those foreign adventurers speak 
 kindly to us, and so far as I can judge, they want 
 you to explain to them the will of the King. Tell 
 me, why does not that King make you our govern- 
 ors ? How does he believe that he can govern us 
 by men who cannot understand any thing we say ? 
 I think it would be more natural to make govern- 
 ors of you, who have the same dress as the Span- 
 iards, and speak the same language. This shows 
 fear of you." 
 
 This is a specimen of the feelings of the Peru- 
 vian Indian towards the Creoles, his countrymen, 
 whom he serves with the greatest fidelity and kind- 
 ness. All the domestic service in the Peruvian 
 families, is performed by the young male and fe- 
 male Indians, who very readily acquire great ex- 
 pertness in their business. Their honesty is ex- 
 emplary, and although in every house there are 
 exposed many gold and silver pieces of furniture 
 in common use, they are never known to pilfer any 
 thing. Money is delivered to them by their mas- 
 ters uncounted, so great is the confidence in their 
 honesty ; and they never defraud them. An Indian 
 is not allowed to trade to an amount of $50 with- 
 out the intervention of his chief, nor undertake 
 any considerable business without his permis- 
 sion. This perpetual inferiority keeps them in 
 the lowest state of degradation and misery ; and 
 
 L
 
 82 
 
 with peculiar propriety may they exclaim in the 
 la iguage of the Prophet, " Our inheritance is 
 turned to strangers ; our houses to aliens ; we 
 are orphans and fatherless, our mothers are as 
 widows ; we have drunken our water for money, 
 our wood is sold unto us."
 
 83 
 
 LETTER XL 
 
 Among the evils suffered by the Indians, and 
 which has been a source of much unhappiness to 
 them, as well as to all South America, is the 
 Roman Catholic religion, which was introduced 
 among them by the Spaniards. This religion, in 
 countries where it predominates or is connected 
 with the government, is widely different from the 
 same religion as it appears in the United States 
 of North America. Instead of being employed as 
 all religions ought to be, in directing the morals, 
 purifying the heart, and restraining the vices of 
 the people, it is so prostituted in Spanish coun- 
 tries, that it has become nothing but a mass of 
 superstitious ceremonies, and the instrument of 
 avarice and oppression. 
 
 And in every country, where there is an exclu- 
 sive religion which is connected with the govern- 
 ment, no matter what it is, it will necessarily be 
 intolerant, and become a most tremendous cala- 
 mity to the people. And it may be questioned, 
 whether in any community the purity of morals 
 can be preserved, without difference of religious 
 sentiment, and those useful checks and ba- 
 lances which the emulation of sectarians is cal- 
 culated to produce, in adding animation and 
 strength to public virtue. If the reformation of 
 Luther, to which is attributable in a great de- 
 gree the progress of light and liberty in the world, 
 is not a complete proof of tjhis truth, the practical
 
 84 
 
 lesson afforded by .the United States, leaves n 
 donbt that religious liberty and the rivalship of 
 different sects, is the best means of maintaining in 
 their purity the morals of the people. 
 
 Unhappily for South America, the most intole- 
 rant of all religions fell to her lot, which made 
 penal every attempt to investigate its character, 
 and consequently the hand of reform could never 
 be applied. An exposition of this religion in 
 South America would fill a volume. I shall only 
 speak of it in that point of view in which it is 
 connected with the government, and as it exists 
 in Peru. 
 
 The religion is taught to the Indians by the 
 Curas doctrineros, or Parrocos, who are appointed 
 in the first instance by the Diocesan, and after- 
 wards confirmed in their appointment by the Vice 
 Patron Real, who is either the Viceroy or President 
 of the District. 
 
 The Cura doctrinero receives a salary from the 
 royal treasury, called synodo, and besides, other 
 emoluments, or obvenciones. The office of a Cura is a 
 dignity in the Church. It is also very lucrative, 
 as each one has not less than $4000 annually. 
 To this office, and to that of canon, Creoles are 
 generally appointed. The bishops, who are three 
 in number, in Peru, including the Archbishop, and 
 four in Rio de la Plata, are generally Europeans. 
 They have annual incomes of from 40 to 60,000 
 dollars, varying according to the amount of tithes. 
 These ecclesiastics, before obtaining their offi- 
 ces, are required to take an oath to preserve
 
 83 
 
 these dominions under the Castilian crown, anil 
 consequently their first care is to impress up- 
 on the minds of the people a blind obedience to 
 the king, who is called the 4 Lord's anointed,' and 
 Vice God in the worlds The Bishops, who are 
 learned men, are generally employed in writing 
 homilies for the church for the same object, and the 
 late Archbishop of Charcas, San Alberto, a man 
 of great disinterestedness and charity, and of ex- 
 traordinary eloquence, employed the power of his 
 pen in composing a Royal Catechism for the use of 
 his diocess, in which he exerted himself to the ex- 
 tent of his abilities, to inculcate the doctrine of 
 passive obedience ; and certainly the Brachmans of 
 India could not exceed him in their efforts to es- 
 tablish this slavish doctrine. This catechism has 
 been re-published in Rome, and received the ap- 
 probation of his Sanctity the Pope, who ordered 
 it to be translated into Italian. This was one of 
 the best of the Peruvian Bishops: as for the 
 others, they have generally been men of infamous 
 characters. * 
 
 The instruction which is given to the Indians by 
 the Curas, is to teach them the prayers of the Ro- 
 man Church which are said before mass, and to 
 attend mass on the Sabbath. On this day they 
 preach to them one quarter of an hour some ab- 
 stract doctrine, which the Indians cannot under- 
 stand. They urge them particularly, when sick, 
 to call in the confessor, and also to send their chil- 
 dren to be baptized : the first, not to lose the 
 profits of the burial ; and the second, to ascertain
 
 86 
 
 the number of children that are born, of which 
 an exact account is kept, in order to know the 
 amount of the poll tax. The census is taken eve- 
 ry five years, and, for the reason above mentioned, 
 it may be regarded as accurate. This motive of 
 avarice is the reason why the Indians are persuad- 
 ed to marry young. 
 
 The Sabbath is a great market day, when the 
 people transact all their business with the Indians, 
 who come from a great distance to attend mass. 
 At the same time, justice is administered to them, 
 and the poll tax collected. 
 
 Among the Curas are many Europeans and oth- 
 ers, who do not understand the Peruvian lan- 
 guage, and who procure their parishes by the re- 
 commendation of the Viceroy, or some Spanish 
 chief. Although the canon law requires that the 
 parish priests shall understand the language, and 
 reason certainly demands the same thing, still his 
 Majesty dispenses with that knowledge in the qua- 
 lifications of the Curas, a nd there a re therefore 
 preachers and hearers who cannot understand 
 each other ! It is sufficient for the Cura, if his 
 hearers understand these words, Obvencion kollkata 
 appamooukeechoo ? " Have you brought the mo- 
 ney of the obvencionesT'' The obvenciones are one 
 of the modes of obtaining money, which is prac- 
 tised under the Roman religion. They include 
 benedictions, masses, festivities of Christ, of the Vir- 
 gin, and the Saints, processions, marriages, fune- 
 rals, and souls in purgatory. The Curas and friars 
 inculcate, with the most ardent zeal, the doing of
 
 87 
 
 good works here, in order to be happy hereafter.- 
 These good works consist in the festivities before 
 mentioned, and saying masses. Every mass costs 
 two dollars ; if chaunted, the price is double. At 
 Buenos Ayres it is but one dollar. There is a 
 royal tariff, (jSrencel de Derechos^) which regulates 
 the rates of these religious exercises. 
 
 The Indians, although ignorant of the princi- 
 ples of this religion, join in these festivities with 
 great alacrity. They principally consist in masses 
 chaunted with music, before the patron saint. 
 The chaunters and musicians are Indians, who 
 perform their parts with much skill, being excel- 
 lent musicians, and chaunting Latin from memory 
 without understanding a word. At the time of 
 mass, the Indian stands before the altar, covered 
 with an old cloth belonging to the Virgin or the 
 saint, holding a flag in his hand ; and at the end 
 of the ceremony, the priest, covering the Indian's 
 head with his mantle, says over him the beginning 
 of the Evangelist of St. John " In principio, &c." 
 This ceremony brings the Cura from 25 to 100 
 dollars, according to the dignity of the saints, and 
 the solemnity of the mass. In these festivities 
 there is sometimes dancing in the public streets 
 before the processions, in honour of the saint. Of 
 this I shall speak hereafter. They have also pri- 
 vate balls in their cabins, which are kept up with 
 great festivity, hilarity, and zeal, the Indian be- 
 lieving that he is performing an acceptable ser- 
 vice to his God. On these festive occasions they 
 sometimes become intoxicated with brand v. which
 
 88 
 
 they use at no other time. The usual drink of 
 the Indian is Chicha, a fermented beverage resem- 
 bling beer, which is made from Indian corn and 
 quinoa. In the province of J^uzgg. the use of this 
 liquor is as general as that of porter in England, 
 and it has been the common drink of the Indians 
 since the times of the Incas ; it was then called 
 Akkaa. 
 
 Besides the festivities in honour of the saints in 
 heaven, there are others for souls in purgatory. 
 The second of November in every year is the day 
 appointed by the Romish Church for that festivi- 
 ty. On that day. hundreds of monks and priests 
 inundate all the cities, villages, towns, and coun- 
 try chapels, in search of responsos, which are " Pa- 
 ter nosters," said to liberate souls from purgatory. 
 This service, which occupies but a moment, costs 
 six pence, and although the price is so trifling, it 
 is a source of large income to the priests, as the 
 people universally order responsos for their de- 
 ceased relatives and friends. It is indeed a cheap 
 service to produce such wonderful benefits as li- 
 berating souls from the terrible torments of pur- 
 
 igatory! 
 
 On this day also, sumptuous dinners for the 
 whole people are served up in great profusion in 
 the churches, " in commemoratione omnium fidelium 
 dcfunctorum" 
 
 In this fair, the king has a part in the sale of 
 
 ('XwZ^with which he is plentifully supplied by his 
 Holiness the " Vicar of Christ." These bulls are 
 billets or drafts of pardon, not only for the sins of
 
 89 
 
 the living, but of the dead. Such, for instance, is 
 the bula de difuntos, or bull for the dead, which is 
 paid for according to the rank and wealth of the 
 deceased. The living have the bulls de cruzada y 
 de iacticinios, de carne, and de composition. The 
 first, which had its origin in the crusades, is to 
 gain the graces and indigencies of the Church, 
 the meaning of which I never understood; the 
 second, to eat cheese, eggs, and milk, in Lent; 
 and the thirds to retain every thing obtained by 
 theft or fraud. The Indians pay the first contri- 
 butions without reluctance, nay even of their own 
 accord, but the bulls are collected by force. It 
 is different with the Spaniards, who receive the 
 bulls with alacrity, considering them an acquisi- 
 tion of great value. The Indians, who are in this 
 respect the wisest, cannot conceive that a piece 
 of paper will be of any use to them in the other 
 world. This fair of bulls, which is a branch of 
 public revenue, has in latter times, fallen into 
 contempt in Buenos Ayres, and has been abolish- 
 ed, and the people of that city, who ten years ago 
 believed in their efficacy, now laugh at the 
 imposture. General Artigas returned to the 
 commissioner de cruzadcu, at Buenos Ayres, their 
 bulls, saying, " 11 is people wanted arms, not 
 bulls!" 
 
 In the dances which are customary on those 
 festivities, the Indians are dressed to imitate ani- 
 mals, such as apes, horses, lions, &c. and gi- 
 ants, in the Indian language " Taraska" which 
 
 M
 
 
 
 afe statues or figures of the dimensions of a 
 monster; these, are sometimes 5 or 6 yards in 
 height. Within this monster, some stout Indian 
 enters, and dances to music of bells and tambou- 
 rines. Others, in companies of 15 or 20, and a like 
 number of girls, with the seecoo, a wind instru- 
 ment composed of many pipes, similar to those 
 of the Pandean Bands, will play upon the tam- 
 bourine, blow the seecoo, and dance all at the 
 same time : the girls singing catches and dancing 
 figures like contra-dances : and dressed with a 
 profusion of fine silks and ribbons, of the most 
 striking colours, with bits of looking glasses in their 
 hair, fine feathers, beads, &c. and the men with 
 large feathers in their hats. The noise of all this 
 dancing, of the musical instruments, and of the 
 ringing of the large church bells, is excessive, and 
 in this way they go before the Saint in the proces- 
 sion. 
 
 In Cuzco, where the Indians are richer, and 
 preserve many of the customs of their ancient no- 
 bility, these dances are more grand, and they wear 
 in their dresses many massy pieces of silver, and 
 precious stones. 
 
 The Indians have also their dramas, or theatri- 
 cal representations, written in metre, with much 
 purity and eloquence, in their own language. The 
 subject of these pieces always alludes to the con- 
 quest, and the triumphs of the christians over the 
 heathen. They contain the supplications of A.ta- 
 hualpa for his life, from Pizarro, which are so
 
 91 
 
 pathetic that the Indians never witness the exhibi- 
 tion without shedding tears. 
 
 On the eve of the festivities, which is called ves- 
 pers, there is an universal illumination, and the 
 Indians sally forth mounted on horses or mules, 
 bearing torches in their hands, to the public 
 square, to witness the fire works, which are exhi- 
 bited in great splendour. The art of Piroctenia, 
 or making these fire works, is understood in great 
 perfection among the Peruvians. There are seve- 
 ral towns in which no other branch of industry is 
 carried on. The fires are made with all the va- 
 riety of colours known in Europe, and the fire 
 works of Vauxhall in London, and of Tivoli in 
 Paris, are not superior to those in Peru. The use 
 of rockets is very general upon these festivities, 
 and the mode of preparing them is well under- 
 stood. 
 
 From their religious festivities I now pass to 
 their funerals. The tax levied upon these solem- 
 nities is most painful to the Indians, and the 
 most barbarous avarice is displayed in its exac- 
 tion. The sum which the Indian is obliged to 
 pay is in proportion to his wealth, varying from 
 $5 to % 100. His property is narrowly investigated, 
 and the violence of oppression unites to aggra- 
 vate the afflictions of a man who has lost a father, 
 a brother, or a wife. I have seen the poor In- 
 dian weep till his heart was well nigh broke at 
 the levying of this unjust contribution. But the 
 European Curas, whose hearts are harder than 
 the gold they covet, turn a deaf ear to the wail-
 
 92 
 
 ing of the widow, whose children are taken irom 
 her, to pay this tax. A religion so abused and 
 transformed into a systematic mode of thieving 
 and robbery, is a calamity more dreadful than a 
 pestilence. Who can believe that the religion of 
 Jesus Christ, which is founded on the most sub- 
 lime charity, should have been converted into an 
 engine of such horrible oppression ? 
 
 The Spaniards and white inhabitants of the 
 cities and towns, ridicule the simplicity of the 
 Indians, regretting their gross superstition, and the 
 many frauds which are practised upon them ; but 
 these same persons are not less superstitious than 
 the Indian they ridicule, for they perform the 
 same acts from different motives ; from the haugh- 
 tiness of their characters, and the ostentation of 
 their riches. 
 
 The days of public solemnity under the Roman 
 Catholic religion, are those of Corpus Chris ti, the 
 Holy Thursday, and of the titular saint of every city, 
 days which are appointed by royal authority. For 
 celebrating the day of the Corpus Christi, there 
 are erected sumptuous altars, triumphal arches, 
 and the streets through which the host passes, 
 are covered with fine carpets, and strewed with 
 flowers. The altars are very high, and built in a 
 canic form, the upper part is covered with splen- 
 did looking-glasses from Germany, artificial flow- 
 ers made of paper and silk, and beautiful fea- 
 thers. The lower part is surrounded with steps 
 leading to the table of the sacrament ; and 
 which are filled with saints and angels dressed in
 
 St3 
 
 the richest silks and laces, and profusely decorat- 
 ed with jewels ; the whole disposed with great 
 symmetry and taste, and by artists who are edu- 
 cated to the business. Every thing rich and rare 
 is employed to beautify these altars and trium- 
 phal arches, which display the most gorgeous 
 spectacle to the eve ,- and at the same time exhi- 
 bit the immense riches of the couutry. 
 
 On the eve of this festivity, the altars and tri- 
 umphal arches are hung with blazing chandeliers 
 of great beauty and value, and the streets are 
 crowded with people to gaze upon them. The 
 cities where these exhibitions are the most pom*- 
 pous, are Cuzco, La Paz, and Potosi. In Cuzco 
 the weather is so fine, that the lights are always 
 suspended in the open air. The altars are esti- 
 mated at $700,000 each, and are erected by the 
 annual contributions of the people, the ladies 
 lending their richest jewels to decorate them. 
 The king also has his altar, but it is the poor- 
 est. Before the procession the titular saints 
 of every church are carried, which are from twelve 
 to twenty-five in number in every city. These 
 saints are all of the ordinary size of the human 
 figure, except St. Christopher, who, as the legends 
 tell us, was a giant ; and who is generally made 
 about twelve feet high. They are all richly 
 dressed and covered with gold and silver; they 
 are placed on pedestals of massy silver, each 
 weighing 1000 oz. at least; and which is borne on 
 the shoulders of from 40 to 00 Indians. In the
 
 94 
 
 midst of the saints are carried the Virgins of Car- 
 men, Mercedes, and Rosario, which attract much 
 public devotion. The first is under the care of 
 the Carmelite nuns; the two others, of the Domin- 
 ican and Mcrcedarian friars, of whom there are 
 legions in Peru. 
 
 It will not be foreign to my purpose to show 
 how this wealth is accumulated. The founda- 
 tion of the monastic institutions of this coun- 
 try, is the work of piety, as it is called, of rich 
 men, who bequeath their property to this ob- 
 ject for the good of their souls. This property 
 is made productive, being vested in houses and 
 lands, yielding a rent which amounts to 5 per 
 cent. Another principal source of wealth to these 
 institutions, are the bestowing of alms and the 
 indigencies of the Pope. 
 
 The nuns are entirely dead to the world, and 
 no person can see them after their initiation, 
 which takes place at the age of eleven. All their 
 worldly consolation is to augment their riches, 
 which are enjoyed in common, and employed 
 only to improve and extend their establishments. 
 Every nun, upon entering a convent, is required 
 to bring with her as her dower, $4000, which is 
 put into the common fund; and besides, they are 
 obliged to provide a contingent fund to defray 
 their extraordinary expenses. These dowers, 
 by being rendered productive, have necessarily 
 greatly augmented their property. This wealth 
 is employed in various ways, in rebuilding 
 churches, forming gold and silver utensils for the
 
 95 
 
 uses of religion, and making altars, which are of 
 pure silver. The body of the patron saint or 
 virgin is ornamented with diamonds and pearls, 
 collected from all parts of the world, and so pro- 
 fusely, that the body is literally covered all over 
 with them, and on the head is a crown of gold, 
 studded with brilliants and pearls of the highest 
 value. There are also two or three sets of this 
 jewelry for the saint, for changes on particular 
 occasions. These jewels, when once consecrated 
 to these holy purposes, can never be converted to 
 any other use ; and for this reason their accumu- 
 lation is so great, that it is sufficient to maintain 
 armies, or defray the expenditures of a nation. 
 Such, however, has been the superstition on the 
 side both of the patriots and the royalists, during 
 the present revolution, that no part of the proper- 
 ty of the churches has been touched. 
 
 On a visit which I made to the nunnery of Con- 
 cihidas in La Paz, I was shown two boxes of four 
 feet and a half long, and two feet broad, filled 
 with doubloons. Indeed the cash and bullion 
 which are buried in those nunneries, is incalcu- 
 lable. 
 
 Besides all the abovementioned sources of 
 wealth, every nun has her own peculiar trade, and 
 fabricates the most neat and beautiful works in silks 
 and laces that can be made by the hands of wo- 
 men ; these articles command a ready sale among- 
 this luxurious people, and the proceeds are appro- 
 priated to increase the common fund.
 
 96 
 
 As property is not a necessary qualification for 
 the profession of a monk or friar, it is generally 
 embraced by the lower classes of society. In 
 their monastic institutions every thing is provid- 
 ed for their support, and being the masters of 
 money, they become infamous in their conduct. 
 Jn their contests for the high places of the 
 Church, they conduct in the most scandalous 
 manner, sometimes resorting to the sword to set- 
 tle their disputes, and it not unfrequently happens 
 that the soldiery are ordered out to quell their 
 bloody affrays. 
 
 The immense wealth acquired in the modes I 
 have mentioned, is squandered by the monks in 
 the most disgraceful manner, in every kind of de- 
 bauchery and gross sensuality. Yet, notwith- 
 standing this profusion of the monks, the church- 
 es are full of riches. The jewels and decora- 
 tions of each of the virgins of Mercedes and Rosa- 
 rio, are estimated to be worth $200,000 at least, 
 all which are the donations of believers. I have 
 this estimate from their major domos, or keepers, 
 and have no doubt it is correct. This mass 
 of riches is exhibited in all its gorgeous array, 
 on the public days before mentioned, when these 
 celestial personages go to make their court to 
 God. 
 
 These exhibitions are of great solemnity in 
 Buenos Ayres, and the other cities of Rio de la 
 Plata, but not of the same splendid character as 
 those in the cities of Peru. Their monastic insti- 
 tutions are poor ; 'the monks have less influence
 
 97 
 
 and less property. The churches are poor also, 
 and their sacred utensils are rarely made of gold 
 and silver, and if we except the cathedral in Buenos 
 Ayres, which is a magnificent edifice, there are no 
 churches in that country to be compared with 
 those in the cities of Peru. 
 
 The description of the Indians of Upper Peru 
 is equally applicable to those of Lower Peru, as 
 they all have the same language, customs, religion, 
 and government. It is only to be added that the 
 Peruvian Indians are prohibited the use of fire 
 arms, which prohibition has been rigidly enforced 
 since the rebellion of Tupac Amaru. 
 
 The Indians, not being familiar with the use of 
 arms, are very much afraid of them, as they are 
 described to have been at the time of the con- 
 quest. At the beginning of the present revolution, 
 they would fall to the ground on the discharge of 
 cannon. This occurred" in the army of Goyeneche, 
 and made him fearful of his success, but this fear 
 has gradually worn away, and they have now be- 
 come expert in the use of the musket, and excel- 
 lent soldiers. They will march great distances 
 with uncommon expedition; they go to battle with 
 coolness, and receive an attack without losing 
 their position ; and if they cannot stand a charge 
 of bayonet like regular disciplined troops, they 
 will receive with firmness the fire of musketry. 
 It is observed that they are never defeated ex- 
 cept with the bayonet. They are not expert 
 horsemen )ike the Buenos Ayreans, and of course 
 their cavalry is indifferent. 
 
 N
 
 98 
 
 It is a fact, that in the present revolution, when- 
 ever the patriots have been defeated, it has been 
 done by the troops of the country. The royal 
 troops of Monte Video commanded by excellent 
 officers, have been defeated by the patriots, in 
 the last action in Chili, the majority of the royal 
 troops were Europeans, and they wero vanquished. 
 
 So it is, that these timid Indians of Peru, who 
 are ignorant of the technical words of military 
 command, are converted into the best troops, pos- 
 sessing serenity of soul, and that sobriety and 
 temperance so necessary in the character of sol- 
 diers. If they are now ignorant of their rights, 
 and the native dignity of their character, and are 
 made blind instruments in the hands of their ty- 
 rants; at some future day, when the light of know- 
 ledge shall break in upon them, they will burst 
 asunder the bonds which now shackle them, and. 
 learning their rights, they will be able to protect 
 them. The Spanish government are now afford- 
 ing precisely the very means which will eventuate 
 in the final overthrow of their domination in South 
 America. J3y protracting the present revolution, 
 they are teaching the art of war to their colonists, 
 as Napoleon did to the potentates of Europe, 
 making them accomplished soldiers, inuring them 
 to the dangers, privations, and fatigues of war ; 
 and the same soldiers who now march with victo- 
 rious arms to Lima, to Salta, to Tucuman, will 
 ere long extend their glorious triumphs through 
 the isthmus of Panama, planting the standard of 
 liberty on the towers of Mexico and Gautimala,
 
 99 
 
 Much better would it have been for the Spanish 
 government to have acknowledged the indepen- 
 dence of Rio de la Plata, which was proposed to 
 them in 1815, in order to have preserved the re- 
 mainder of their colonies, than to teach the use of 
 fire arms, and the science of war, to men in whose 
 breasts ambition and the love of military glory 
 had never been kindled ; but which, having been 
 kindled, will never be extinguished.
 
 100 
 
 LETTER XII. 
 
 The Creoles, or Spanish Americans, are divided 
 into two classes ; the first are nobles, who are 
 descended from the conquerors ; the second, are 
 descended from the officers of the government 
 and private adventurers who have come to the 
 country since the conquest. Among the former 
 are Counts, Marquises, Mayorasgos or Barons, and 
 Knights of different military orders, and these of 
 course hold the first rank in society. They are 
 all possessed of independent fortunes, which they 
 inherit from their ancestors. The education of 
 both classes is generally superior to that of their 
 fathers, but the education of the nobles is very ir- 
 regular. These nobles are not numerous in Rio 
 de la Plata, but the contrary is the fact in Low 
 Peru ; in Lima a great part of the population is 
 composed of this class. The oldest sons succeed 
 to the title and estate, and the younger sons are 
 Curas and canons, filling the various stations in 
 the army and the church. For these stations more 
 learning is requisite, and they are generally much 
 better educated than their older brothers. The 
 sons of this class ordinarily pursue the profession 
 of their fathers ; they are lawyers, clergymen, 
 Mineros, or proprietors of mines, and owners of 
 Haciendas, or large plantations and establishments 
 for cultivating Coca and making wine, brandy, &c. 
 and on which there are several Indian families 
 attached to the soil, and to the personal service 
 of the landlord.
 
 101 
 
 There are commonly from 50 to 200 of these 
 families on one Hacienda, who subsist from the 
 soil by their own labour, and who are obliged to 
 work for their landlord whenever he requires their 
 service. The young Indians of these families are 
 their domestic servants. A Hacienda of Coca in 
 La Paz is worth from 60 to $70,000 ; these estates 
 produce immense incomes to their proprietors. 
 The Creoles are also owners of fine country seats, 
 to which they are very much attached, and which 
 are provided with every convenience for the ac- 
 commodation of a luxurious master. 
 
 The profession of the Law is considered the 
 most honourable, and is the most lucrative. The 
 lawyers of Peru amass large fortunes in a few 
 years' practice, and the profession is a stepping 
 stone to public office. The Clergy in this country 
 sometimes practice the law, the study of the ec- 
 clesiastical law forming a part of their education, 
 and both lawyers and clergymen are well acquaint- 
 ed with the profession. The lawyers display great 
 ability in drafting memorials or pleadings, and 
 eloquence in speaking before the judicial tribu- 
 nals. The want of printing deprives the world 
 of their speeches, some of which are in no wise 
 inferior to those of the most celebrated lawyers 
 of France. In their writing and speaking they 
 adopt the French manner, as they are better ac- 
 quainted with the literature of that country. 
 
 The Curas, as I have before stated, have large 
 incomes, and consequently live in the most splen- 
 did manner, and it is easy to conceive that youns:
 
 102 
 
 men of fortune, of the first rank and consideration 
 in the community, will readily fall into all manner 
 of immoderate pleasures and dissipation, more es- 
 pecially as they are condemned to perpetual 
 celibacy. This barbarous law, which, warring 
 against the law of nature, plunges all who are 
 subject to its operation into the most shameful 
 disorders, is a fruitful source of vice and im- 
 morality among the people. This law of celiba- 
 cy, which -was dictated by the wickedness and 
 corrupt ambition of the Roman court, is the cause 
 of many calamities to Catholic countries; yet so 
 blind are the people of South America in their 
 prejudices, that although they well know its inju- 
 rious operation, they cherish it, with its host of 
 abominations ! South America will for ever remain 
 ignorant and enslaved, so long as the freedom of 
 religious opinion is restrained, and the institutions *> 
 of the friars, and the law of clerical celibacy sup- 
 ported. At Buenos Ayres, the abolition of this 
 law has been attempted, and it was demonstrated 
 that the Pope was only Bishop of Rome, and could 
 not interfere with the internal economy of the 
 church, which possessed the right of electing its 
 own pastors. But the clergy of Buenos Ayres, 
 who are well aware of these truths, and who in 
 their hearts laugh at the canon laws, have not 
 had sufficient resolution to effect a reformation. 
 At La Paz, on the contrary, at the time of the first 
 revolution, the Churches took the first step of 
 electing their own bishops, grounding the mea- 
 sure upon the primitive doctrines of the Church.
 
 103 
 
 As this revolution was unfortunate in its issue, the 
 measure failed ; but it teaches us that the people 
 began to think of the abolition of these establish- 
 ments, which are so much opposed to civil liber- 
 ty and the happiness of the human race. 
 
 The Creoles are possessed of an independent 
 spirit ; and they hate and despise the Spaniards : 
 they form by far the most enlightened portion of 
 the community. Their master passions are the 
 love of knowledge, and a luxurious and sple ndid 
 mode of life, and they spare no pains to furnish 
 themselves with books, sumptuous furniture, and 
 articles of luxury. And therefore, there are car- 
 ried to Peru the most splendid furniture of every 
 kind, from the first-rate workshops of France, Eng- 
 land, Germany, and Italy. Gold and sirver are em- 
 ployed profusely in fitting out the trappings of their 
 horse equipage, and in furnishing their houses ; the 
 vessels in the most common use, of the kitchen 
 and bed-chamber, being made of silver. Their 
 houses contain a drawing-room and dining-room, 
 furnished with clocks, chandeliers, looking-glas- 
 ses, &c. of which they are very fond, and a room 
 for a library. The drawing-rooms of the no- 
 bility are covered with velvet, embroidered 
 with gold ; they have tables of solid silver, and 
 I heir window curtains, which are of velvet, are 
 fringed with gold lace. Their tables are covered 
 with a great profusion of dishes, cooked after the 
 French and Spanish mode. They eat abundance 
 of sweetmeats, made from the fine fruits of the 
 country. At the tables of the nobility there are
 
 104 
 
 always a great number of guests, called M commm- 
 saHs." This mode of life, which is owing to the 
 generous and hospitable character of the Creoles, 
 who are born to independent fortunes, often de- 
 generates into wasteful prodigality and dissipa- 
 tion. They are inveterate gamblers, winning 
 and losing a moderate fortune in a single night. 
 In the interior cities, where there are no thea- 
 tres or public places of amusement, at which 
 the wealthy and the idle can resort to kill time, 
 they fly to the card table to rid themselves of 
 ennui, that tormenting foe to the children of for- 
 tune in the South. Cards are the usual instru- 
 ments of this vicious sport, which has always been 
 encouraged by the Spanish government, as they 
 enjoyed the monopoly of their sale. 
 
 The ladies of Peru dress in a very splendid 
 manner, wearing the most fine cambrics and laces 
 of Flanders, and other rich stuffs of Europe ; their 
 wardrobes are filled with these costly articles. 
 They are profuse in the use of perfumery, which 
 is manufactured in great delicacy and perfec- 
 tion by the nuns. But what principally attracts 
 their attention is jewelry. The European la- 
 dies when they arrive here, present a singular 
 contrast to the ladies of the country. The Peru- 
 vian ladies cover themselves with jewels ; every 
 lady generally wears two thousand dollars worth, 
 at least, such as rings, pearl necklaces, combs 
 studded with brilliants, finger rings of gold and 
 brilliants, and rosaries of pearls and diamonds. 
 This renders the difference very striking, and the
 
 105 
 
 Peruvians call the European ladies, " Chapetona 
 latonada" copper women. 
 
 The same difference is observable between the 
 ladies of Buenos Ayres and Peru. The men of 
 fortune of Buenos Ayres are generally merchants, 
 who cannot indulge their wives and daughters in 
 such extravagant luxury. There, property is 
 more equally distributed among the people ; and 
 there i s more civilization and refinemen t among 
 them, which have resulted from their foreign 
 commerce, and their intercourse with strangers; 
 the ladies are more graceful, possess greater vi- 
 vacity of manners, character, and genius. There 
 is the same difference in their modes of dress. 
 The ladies of Buenos Ayres dress after, the Span- 
 ish fashion, covering their heads with shawls, al- 
 though since their commerce with the English, 
 they begin to wear bonnets, and adopt the Lon- 
 don and Parisian modes. In Peru, although 
 they dress generally after the Buenos Ayrean 
 fashion, still the peculiar dress of the country is 
 preserved. This is a kind of hooped and full 
 pleated petticoat, trimmed with gold and silver, 
 beautiful laces, and festoons of flowers and rib- 
 bons. A petticoat contains about twelve yards of 
 cloth, and is called faldellin. They wear small 
 silk shawls and hats : it is a very expensive mode 
 of dress. And besides this, they have other dress- 
 es peculiar to the church, to which they go 
 almost every day. These are of black velvet, or 
 other stuff of that colour, trimmed with gold and 
 silver also, and fashioned to suit the solemnity of 
 
 O
 
 706 
 
 the day; they do not wear hats, but large lace or 
 silk shawls on their heads. The ladies of Peru 
 expend a great deal of money on their dress, and 
 are under the necessity of providing many ward- 
 robes to contain their numerous suits of ap- 
 parel. 
 
 In Rio de la Plata there are three colleges, two 
 at Cordova, and the other in Buenos Ayres, where 
 there are at present two more building. There 
 is also an university in Cordova, in which are 
 taught Latin? Philosophy, Rhetoric, Theology, and 
 at present Mathematics. All these branches are 
 taught in the most irregular manner. The theolo- 
 gy is nothing more than that science in name ; it 
 consists wholly in the study of the papish divines. 
 In Peru, there are three universities, one at Cuz- 
 co, another at Cbarcas, and the third in Lima. 
 There are also seminaries, as they are called, in 
 which particular branches are taught, such as the- 
 ology, philosophy, and sacred rhetoric, as the educa- 
 tion is for the church. The sacred oratory is of the 
 most brilliant kind, as eloquence is much esteem- 
 ed. On all the festivities of the saints there is a ser- 
 mon preached, the price of which is from 50 to $100. 
 This is a piece of rhetoric formed after the best 
 French models, which are much studied. It is 
 not uncommon to hear in the churches of Peru 
 specimens of pulpit eloquence equal to the splen- 
 did effusions of Massillon and Bossuet. An elo- 
 quent preacher attracts much attention, and the
 
 107 
 
 palm of eloquence is contended for among the 
 clergy with great zeal. 
 
 There is an academy of lawyers at Charcas, 
 where two years attendance is requisite for ad- 
 mission to the bar. To this school, young men 
 from Buenos Ayres, and every part of the country, 
 repair to study the civil law, and to procure cer- 
 tificates that they are masters of their profession. 
 The city of Charcas is a seat of learning, like 
 Oxford in England. In it there are an university, 
 two colleges, an academy, and the audience, or 
 supreme tribunal of justice, in which all the causes 
 arising within the district are tried, and it is con- 
 sequently filled with students and lawyers : there 
 are at least 500 of the latter residing in the city. 
 This place can boast of some gentlemen of dis- 
 tinguished literary attainments, who are well ac- 
 quainted with foreign books, which are procured 
 there, notwithstanding all the prohibitions of the In- 
 quisition, but which are sold at very high prices. 
 Among the professional men, there are canons 
 enjoying from 5 to $10,000 annual income, and 
 lawyers, who earn a great deal of money. These 
 persons are well acquainted with French litera- 
 ture, reading and admiring Voltaire like the citi- 
 zens of Paris. Salinas and Terrazas, two clergy- 
 men, are distinguished for their literature. 
 
 At Lima, where the population and wealth 
 are greater, and the latter more equally di- 
 vided, there is likewise more intelligence, and there 
 is also a school of medicine in very good order. 
 Unanue, very well known in Europe by his lite-
 
 108 
 
 rary and medical productions, is a resident of this 
 city. In Peru medicine is but little understood, 
 and there are a great many quacks. At Buenos 
 Ayres also, I believe the professors of medicine 
 are not above mediocrity. But the revolution has 
 given a new impulse to every branch of learning, 
 and there are now established academies, in which 
 are taught mathematics, languages, and drawing ; 
 and it is natural to conclude, that the progress of 
 all useful knowledge will be rapid among this 
 people, when they shall enjoy the advantages of a 
 flourishing foreign commerce.
 
 109 
 
 LETTER XIII. 
 
 The Mestizos are descendants of whites and In- 
 dians, and form the third class of the population 
 of Peru. They are generally possessed of moder- 
 ate fortunes ; they carry on the internal commerce 
 of the country, and are the superintendants of the 
 great possessions of the men of wealth. Their 
 education is generally limited to reading and writ- 
 ing, although they have a thirst for knowledge, and 
 are anxious to obtain a liberal education. They 
 are distinguished for the vivacity of their intellect, 
 and those few who are well educated, are superi- 
 or to all the other classes. They are more attach- 
 ed to the Creoles than to the Europeans, and differ 
 very little from them ; and although their education 
 is irregular, they supply the deficiency by the 
 quickness of their parts. Their dress is very simi- 
 lar to that of the Creoles or Spaniards. 
 
 Of this class, have been the leaders of the revo- 
 lution in Peru, the Angulos, and Penaranda, who 
 evinced talents and courage, but were unfortunate 
 on account of the little influence which they pos- 
 sessed among their countrymen. 
 
 The Cholos are the descendants of Mestizos and 
 the indians. They have little or no education, 
 and can scarcely speak the Spanish language. 
 Their complexion is darker than either of the pre- 
 ceding classes, and more agreeable and expres- 
 sive; with small but piercing black eyes, and 
 small beard. Their dress is a short sailor-jacket
 
 no 
 
 or round about, and breeches, without stockings ; 
 and with a square piece of cloth like a shawl, 
 worn over the shoulders, crossed on the breast, 
 and one end thrown over the left shoulder. 
 
 The women dress after the fashion of the Creole 
 ladies, in fine coloured woollens, instead of silks, 
 without bonnets, covering their heads with shawls. 
 The different ranks of society in this country may 
 always be known by their dress. The Cholo wo- 
 men are the chamber maids and nurses of the 
 wealthy Creoles and Spaniards. The men are 
 generally the mechanics of the country, and very 
 apt and expert in tbeir business. They are won- 
 derful imitators of every thing they see, and fabri- 
 cate the coarse cloths of woollen, cotton, and flax 
 of the country, understanding the art of dying, and 
 of making gold and silver leaf, which are articles 
 of great profit and demand. They are miners, 
 and are equally skilful in this as in every other 
 department of industry. At Potosi the miners 
 are called Kaachas, of whom I shall speak when I 
 treat of Potosi and the mines. They carry on their 
 work without any proper tools, using old and bro- 
 ken scissors, knives, &c. But the genius of this 
 class is principally displayed in sculpture and 
 painting. In these arts they have executed some 
 specimens not at all inferior to the productions 
 of the Italian masters. I would not hazard this 
 assertion, not being either a professor or an ama- 
 teur, if I did not find the same opinion supported 
 by two celebrated European authorities : the au- 
 thor of an " Account of the European settlements in
 
 Ill 
 
 America'" a work attributed to the pen of the cele- 
 brated Burke, and Mons. Fresier, who travelled 
 in South America. For myself I can say, that if 
 the perfection of painting and sculpture consists 
 in truth of representation, and those are the best 
 which copy nature the closest, and present to the 
 eye the most striking images, I can not hesitate to 
 declare that 1 have seen some specimens of sculp- 
 ture and painting atCuzco and Potosi, not inferior 
 to any I saw in the Museo de Napoleon in the Louvre 
 at Paris, or in any of the numerous collections 
 which 1 visited in London. In particular I will 
 refer to an equestrian statue of Santiago in Cuzco, 
 which was the work of a Cholo named Coosee- 
 Coosee. The statue represents St. James on horse- 
 back, with a drawn sword killing Indians. The 
 Spaniards say that St. James appeared in Cuzco 
 to kill Indians, as he did in Spain to kill Moors ; 
 and the first thing shown to a stranger on visiting 
 this city, is the street through which this apostle 
 rode into town. This statue is certainly most 
 beautifully executed : indeed it is impossible that 
 any thing of the kind can surpass it. The horse is 
 in every respect as beautiful as the Venetian 
 horses which I saw on the gate of the Thuilleries 
 in Paris, which are inferior to none in the world ; 
 the noble animal is represented as rearing and 
 plunging forward, with his veins swollen with 
 blood, his nostrils distended, and an Indian 
 resisting and sustaining him upon his right arm : 
 it is so natural and so fine, that its beauty and 
 effect cannot be described.
 
 112 
 
 To these talents, the Cholos unite great courage, 
 hardihood of character, and the immoderate love 
 of pleasure. They make the finest soldiers, mani- 
 festing great activity of body, and serenity of soul 
 in battle. They are fond of music; the guitar 
 is their favourite instrument, and they indulge 
 themselves in frequent serenades at night in the 
 streets. 
 
 The Cholos are very fond of gymnastic exer- 
 cises, and bull-baiting. They have great strength 
 and agility of body, and delight in fighting wild 
 beasts. In the year 1801, there arrived in Lima 
 a company of equestrian performers ; of whom 
 the principal was a Swede, formerly of Astley's 
 theatre, of London ; his arrival was announced 
 in Peru as a most wonderful phenomenon ; the 
 people could not believe how horses could be 
 taught to perform on a theatre, and some shrewdly 
 suspected that the devil had an agency in the 
 thing. It is common for the ignorant to attribute 
 every thing which they cannot understand to 
 some supernatural power, as the stupid monks 
 of St. Germain looked upon the puppet shows 
 of Charles V. which he exhibited to them in his 
 retirement there, as the work of some demon. 
 
 It was necessary for the equestrians to obtain 
 the express permission of the king, to proceed 
 into the interior, to exhibit their performances. 
 They at length arrived at Cuzco, and their first 
 performance astonished every body, when the 
 young Cholos began to imitate them, and in a very 
 short time they could perform all the feats of the
 
 113 
 
 equestrians, who were obliged to abandon their 
 exhibitions, as all the streets were filled with per- 
 formers. 
 
 The Cholos display the same serenity and ac- 
 tivity in the bull feasts of the country as in war. 
 Bull-baiting is a common diversion in Peru, as 
 in all the Spanish dominions, and the Cholos par- 
 ticularly delight in it, taking an active part in the 
 performance. At Buenos Ayres and Lima there 
 are regular built theatres or circusses for the ex- 
 hibition. Unhappily for the city of Buenos Ayres, 
 the revolution has not yet been able to extinguish 
 this barbarous and demoralizing diversion, which 
 was introduced into the country among all their 
 other customs, by the Spaniards, although at pre- 
 sent the exhibitions are attended only by the low 
 people. The place of performance is circular, 
 constructed after the manner of the Roman am- 
 phitheatres. Indeed, this is a Roman diversion, 
 and it may be remarked, that no modern nation 
 has so carefully preserved the customs of ancienj 
 Rome as the Spaniards, for upon them Christian- 
 ity does not seem to have made much impression. 
 
 The performances open by a fierce bull ap- 
 pearing in the arena. The rst athleter receives 
 the furious beast on horseback, with a pike of 
 three yards in length, with which he stabs him in 
 the head and neck to irritate him to greater fury; 
 the beast foaming at the mouth, and bellowing in 
 a most frightful manner. Afterwards, seven or 
 eight men enter on foot, with small sticks loaded 
 with rockets, which are discharged at the bull. A 
 
 P
 
 114 
 
 quarter of an hour is thus spent in horrid combat, 
 when a man enters with a large sword to dispatch 
 the half dead animal. In these sports men and 
 horses are not unfrequently slain. Sometimes the 
 Cholos mount astride of the bull, and goad him 
 with spears, at the same time playing upon the 
 guitar, and they will steadily and firmly maintain 
 their position as well as if mounted on horseback, 
 notwithstanding the furious and desperate plunges 
 of the tormented animal. 
 
 What would not such men as these, if properly 
 instructed, be able to accomplish ! In the present 
 revolutionary war, the Cholos have always been 
 found in the patriot ranks, fighting for the liberties 
 of their country. 
 
 At Cuzco, it is customary for the Alcaldes, on 
 their election, to treat the people with some 
 public diversion at their own expense, during the 
 three days before Lent, which is called the Car- 
 nival. These diversions consist principally in 
 Bull-baiting. The bulls are dressed in the most 
 gaudy manner, and one is always covered with 
 dollars, which are strung on cords and hung 
 around the body of the animal. To this diver- 
 sion succeed sumptuous entertainments and 
 splendid balls. The cost of these diversions is 
 at least % 1 0,000 to each Alcalde. This is the only of- 
 fice to which Creoles are eligible, and it is much 
 sought for.
 
 115 
 
 LETTER XIV. 
 
 The European Spaniards come next in order. 
 At the beginning of the present revolution, the 
 number of this class in Buenos Ayres was about 
 3000, which was one twentieth of the whole popu- 
 lation of the city. In Peru there are probably 
 between 7 and 8000, but it is impossible to tell 
 the precise number, as no census is ever taken. 
 
 Of these, many come out as officers under the 
 government; others as private adventurers, who 
 accumulate large fortunes by a rigid economy, 
 and often by intermarriage with the daughters of 
 the wealthy merchants and planters of the coun- 
 try. The most stupid and ignorant Spaniard is 
 preferred to the Creoles, who are called lazy and 
 gamblers. They hold exclusively all the lucra- 
 tive offices, and enjoy the favour and protection 
 of the government, and monopolize all the foreign 
 commerce ; they are continually in contention 
 with the Creoles, and they mutually hate and des- 
 pise each other. They are warmly and stub- 
 bornly attached to their native country, and in 
 the present revolution they have frequently burst 
 asunder the bonds of natural affection and conju- 
 gal love ; fathers separating from their sons, and 
 husbands from their wives. All their education 
 consists in reading, writing, and the elements of 
 arithmetic ; and their religion is a blind and bi- 
 gotted devotion to Popery. 
 
 The Negroes are comparatively an insignificant
 
 116 
 
 portion of the population of Peru. They are prin- 
 cipally slaves, and are owned more from ostenta- 
 tion than use. They follow their masters and 
 mistresses in rich dresses to church, and to pub- 
 lic amusements. They are not so much an arti- 
 cle of commerce in the interior of Peru, as in 
 Buenos Ayres, Lima, and Moqueguea ; but when 
 once introduced into a family, they regularly de- 
 scend from father to son. On the Pacific coast, 
 from Arica to Lima, slaves are numerous, and on 
 the sugar plantations, in the breweries, and manu- 
 factories, they are treated with great severity ; to 
 send a negro to Moqueguea, is, in his imagination, 
 to send him to the infernal regions. 
 
 The Mulattoes are not numerous ; they are ge- 
 nerally free, and of bad character. They are 
 much addicted to thieving; are sycophantic in 
 their manners, and very submissive and obse- 
 quious to the whites. Their occupation is gene- 
 rally in the fields and mines. The prisons of the 
 country are very commonly tenanted by these 
 persons, while an Indian is rarely seen in them. 
 In Lima and on the coast of Peru, the mulattoes 
 differ from those of the interior, being better edu- 
 cated, and possessed of considerable property. 
 
 The enumeration of casts which I have given, 
 will be found to differ from that of the celebrated 
 Humboldt, as we treat of different provinces of 
 the country. The population of Buenos Ayres, of 
 Mexico, and Peru, is very dissimilar.
 
 117 
 
 Thus was Peru situated at the breaking out of 
 the revolution in Buenos Ayres, which dissolved 
 the ties of moral union that held together the 
 heterogeneous and discordant elements, of which 
 the population of that country was composed, and 
 each class was left to follow the bent of its own 
 inclinations. The hostilities of men so different- 
 ly situated, have necessarily been violent and 
 bloody, and have plunged this unhappy country 
 into the horrors of civil war. The first steps of 
 the revolution, as rapid as they were grand and 
 imposing, paralyzed the energies of the Spanish 
 authorities, until tht^ memorable battle of Guaqui 
 occurred, to re-animate their hopes. The aristo- 
 crats, the nobility, the Bishops and high clergy, the 
 officers of government and Spaniards, ranged them- 
 selves on the side of the King ; while the inferior 
 classes clung with avidity to the cause of the coun- 
 try. The revolution destroyed at once the colo- 
 nial system, and invited to the enjoyment of equal 
 rights and the privileges of freemen, the degraded 
 classes, inspiring them with enthusiasm and vi- 
 gour, and animating them in the glorious pursuit 
 of liberty. The Indians, likewise, who found them- 
 selves elevated to a sphere of which they had 
 heretofore no conception, were filled with astonish- 
 ment at the new order of things, the nature of 
 which they could not comprehend ; and, as might 
 naturally bo^, expected, when the full tide of liber- 
 ty poured suddenly among that ignorant, biggotted 
 and half-civilized people, they were thrown into 
 confusion, and, although the proper medium would
 
 118 
 
 undoubtedly have been to have introduced them 
 to the gradual enjoyment of the rights of freemen, 
 yet it was deemed just to admit them at once to 
 participate in the sovereignty, and to invite them 
 to the celebration of a national congress. To 
 this new impulse, which pervaded every breast, 
 were united the revolutionary spirit of the public 
 papers, the writings of the philosophers and states- 
 men of Europe, which were translated into the 
 Spanish language, and which caused that mental 
 intoxication so natural to us all on the first peru- 
 sal of new and pleasing truths. 
 
 The Cochabambians and Tarijinos, who are 
 principally Mestizos and Cholos, abandoned their 
 fertile fields and happy homes for the hardships 
 and hazards of war, becoming valiant soldiers and 
 firm patriots ; and in proportion to the checks of 
 adversity which they experienced, was their vi- 
 gour redoubled. The people of La Paz, of Ari- 
 quipa, of Arica, of Guamanga, and Cuzco, were 
 not indifferent to the voice of liberty, but suffer- 
 ed adversity equally severe, and generally, wher- 
 ever the Mestizos and Cholos were most numer- 
 ous, there did the arms of the King suffer the 
 greatest reverses. 
 
 The enemies of the revolution, who were of the 
 superior classes, although less numerous, possessed 
 a powerful influence, which proceeded from many 
 considerations. They saw the fabric of their wealth 
 and power undermined, and they consequently took 
 part with the Spanish government. To their physic- 
 al force they added the moral power of wealth, offi-
 
 119 
 
 cial station, and distinction in the church. In par- 
 ticular, have the high clergy and the monks, whom 
 the people are accustomed to regard with reve- 
 rence, and to listen to with submissive awe, been 
 active agents in obstructing the progress of the 
 revolution, persuading the people that the system 
 of independence which they wished to establish 
 was contrary to the laws of God. The bishops 
 also, who are princes in fortune and power, to 
 whom the people kneel as to divinities, have been 
 the deadliest foes of the revolution : the bishops 
 of Cordova andSalta were found in conspiracy with 
 the Spaniards, and the bishop of La Paz, Santa, a 
 man of the most depraved morals, who can only be 
 compared to the monsters of Rome in the 10th and 
 11th centuries, took the command of a battery 
 against the patriots at Yrupana, and afterwards 
 excommunicated all whom he did not kill. 
 
 These superior classes beheld in the revolution 
 the loss of their princely fortunes, and trembled 
 while they saw a population which had slumbered 
 in ignorance so long, starting at once into the 
 light of liberty and knowledge ; and that intellec- 
 tual cultivation was spreading rapidly % among 
 them : that they began to visit foreign nations, to 
 learn their institutions ; to open their ports to 
 commercial strangers ; to instruct their youth in 
 the education of freemen ; and that a new genera- 
 tion was rising up superior to the past : and in 
 short, that a radical change was taking place in 
 the habits, religion, language, and necessities of 
 the people. It was therefore natural that these per-
 
 120 
 
 sons should oppose the revolution, and they did so, 
 with that firmness and spirit to which the mo- 
 narchy of Spain in other times owed its splendid 
 conquests. 
 
 The present situation of South America induces 
 us to believe, that whatever may be the end of the 
 present revolution, a new order of things will arise 
 in that interesting country, which will constitute 
 as glorious an epoch in the industry and commerce 
 of the world as the discovery of America, or the 
 independence of the United States. 
 
 The subjugation of these Provinces, which is 
 now meditated by King Ferdinand, is utterly 
 hopeless, and more especially since the European 
 powers have proclaimed their neutrality and be- 
 sides, the recent successes in Venezuela demon- 
 strate, that Spaniards and Americans can never 
 be united. 
 
 It now only remains to consider what will be 
 the situation of the people of South America after 
 they have triumphed over their enemies, and 
 whether they will be able to establish a free go- 
 vernment. The people who are colonists of 
 Spain or Portugal, must always have many more 
 and greater difficulties to encounter in their at- 
 tempts to meliorate their political situation, than 
 those of any other nation, [n Europe, after so 
 many bloody struggles, England alone enjoys a 
 free government, and on the continent of Ameri- 
 ca, Heaven has conferred the precious boon only 
 upon the United States, once the colonies of Eng- 
 land. But the liberties of England have been the
 
 121 
 
 slow progressive growth of centuries; that nation 
 to which humanity and civilization are so much 
 indebted ; whose language, institutions, and laws, 
 have been diffused in Europe, Asia, and America, 
 and which claim a greater debt of gratitude from 
 the world, than the splendid monuments of Gre- 
 cian and Roman genius. 
 
 In order to form a correct judgment upon the 
 future situation of South America, we must con- 
 sider, that at the beginning of the revolution, the 
 people were not sufficiently enlightened to ap- 
 preciate the blessings of liberty, or to become 
 citizens of a free government ; and, in order the 
 better to judge of their capacity for liberty and 
 their prospects for independence, it must be re- 
 collected, that in the United States, as well as in 
 France and England, the modes of education are 
 more multiplied, and brought within the reach of, 
 all classes ; that newspapers are widely diffused 
 and the people are easily and universally instructed 
 in political science; while, on the contrary, in 
 South America, the process of public education is 
 slow and tedious. 
 
 When all these difficulties shall be removed by 
 the introduction of commerce, and a free intercourse 
 with the people of other countries, then only will 
 their intellectual and physical faculties be develop- 
 ed. Of their progress during the present revolution, 
 I must say, that it has been so rapid in nine years, 
 that those only can form a just idea of it, who have, 
 like me, followed its progressive steps during that 
 period. Ten years, ago they were ignorant of the re- 
 
 Q
 
 122 
 
 preservative system of government, of the liberty 
 of conscience, and of the press ; now they are fami- 
 liar with all three, and with every other principle of 
 the social science. These are certain proofs that the 
 countries which heretofore were the habitations 
 of superstition and ignorance, are beginning to 
 be enlightened : and it is flattering to me to 
 add, that in Chili and Buenos Ayres, where the 
 art of printing has begun to extend itself, the peo- 
 ple have already begun to adopt the republican 
 institutions of the United States. 
 
 From the foregoing facts, there arise many 
 questions, interesting to the political and com- 
 mercial world, and worthy of the consideration 
 of statesmen and political economists. The most 
 important and obvious will be, whether, after 
 Rio de la Plata, Upper and Low Peru, Chili, San- 
 ta Fe, and Caraccas, shall have achieved their in- 
 dependence, they shall establish governments, 
 distinct and independent of each other, or alto- 
 gether form a great confederacy, or consolidated 
 government. The geographical position of Upper 
 and Lower Peru, shows that their commerce is 
 more direct and easy by the Pacific Ocean and Dari- 
 en, than by the river La Plata. The population of 
 Peru is greater than that of Rio de la Plata, its 
 productions more rich and abundant, and better 
 adapted for commercial exchanges, and the in- 
 crease of the number of consumers, the importa- 
 tion of foreign goods, the free navigation of the 
 Amazon to the centre of Peru, and to the foot of 
 the Cordilleras oi the eastern Andes, which was
 
 123 
 
 interdicted by the laws of Spain and Portugal 
 from mutual jealousy, will be the necessary con- 
 sequences of the independence of this country. 
 Baron de Humboldt has remarked upon the great 
 benefits which would result to Peru, if the King of 
 Spain would oblige Portugal to open the naviga- 
 tion of this noble river, which waters the most 
 fertile regions of the globe, clothed in perpetual 
 verdure, and blooming with fruits and flowers ; 
 which, like the fabled Pactolus, flows over golden 
 sands, and through groves of cinnamon and spices ; 
 taking its rise among the auriferous mountains of 
 Peru, and pouring its ocean of waters into the 
 Atlantic under the line ; communicating imme- 
 diately with the Provinces of Moxos and Chiquitos, 
 which are inhabited by an active and industrious 
 population, and filled with towns and manufac- 
 turing villages. 
 
 On the other side of the mountains, where the 
 fertile and extensive plains of Rio de la Plata and 
 Banda Oriental expand themselves ; where the 
 mode of living is so easy, and the productions of 
 the soil so abundant ; the facilities through the 
 many rivers of the country for an active commerce 
 so great, and where the single Provinces of Tucu- 
 man and Salta might support a population of 
 6,000,000 ; a powerful empire may hereafter arise 
 to take a commanding station among the nations 
 of the world. 
 
 I cannot conjecture what will be the future po- 
 litical situation of these great countries, as they 
 are every day presenting a different aspect. But
 
 124 
 
 the history of the United States teaehes the con- 
 soling truth, that civil and religious liberty has 
 transformed her trackless forests, which were once 
 the habitation of savages and wild beasts at a 
 time when Peru and Mexico were mighty empires, 
 with cities and monuments equal to those of Ro- 
 man grandeur, and with laws more or less just 
 and equitable into the garden of the world, 
 where cities have sprung up ; manufactures, arts, 
 sciences, and commerce flourish ; and a system of 
 legislation established, which Solon and Lycurgus 
 never imagined ; which is not found in the writings 
 of Plato or Aristotle, nor in the speculations of 
 the philosophers of antiquity, nor in the splendid 
 theories of the moderns ; to which the United 
 States owe that gigantic march of civilization and 
 arts, which they are now making from the shores 
 of the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean. 
 
 This example shows, that the people of South 
 America, when mingling with the industrious of 
 other countries, and learning the useful exercise 
 of their talents, and the employment of their power- 
 ful energies, and banishing for ever that religious 
 intolerance, which is their calamitous inheritance 
 from the Spaniards, will follow the enlightened 
 institutions of their brethren in the north.
 
 125 
 
 PART II. 
 
 LETTER I. 
 
 Sir, 
 
 It will be recollected that I have described 
 Upper Peru as comprehending seven Provinces 
 or intendencies; to wit, Potosi, Charcas or La 
 Plata, Cochabamba, La Paz, Santa Cruz de la 
 Sierra or Puno, Moxos and Chiquitos. 1 shall 
 now proceed to present a geographical view of 
 each of these Provinces in their order, with a par- 
 ticular account of their climate, soil, productions, 
 and other physical properties. 
 
 The region which extends from Jujui to Oruro, 
 from 17 52', to 22, south latitude, comprises the 
 most mountainous, and irregular tract of the coun- 
 try ; ascending gradually on every side to Potosi, 
 which is the loftiest part. Here the two noble 
 rivers of Amazon and La Plata take their rise with- 
 in about seventy miles of each other, in lat. 1? 
 30' S. and which discharge themselves into the 
 Atlantic Ocean ; the former under the Equator and 
 the latter, at the 35th degree of south latitude, at 
 a distance of nearly 2,500 miles from each other. 
 This whole tract is cold, rude, naked and moun- 
 tainous; it is the metallic region of the country;
 
 126 
 
 and is the source of a number of small rivers, of 
 which those rising on the west of the mountains 
 run into the Pacific, and those on the east, into 
 the rivers La Plata and Amazon, and ultimately 
 into the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 From Oruro, to the Cordillera of Vilcanota or 
 Santa Rosa, where is the great wall built by the 
 Incas to divide the departments of Colla-Suyo and 
 Tavantin-Suyo, there is a beautiful valley of 100 
 leagues in extent, called Collao, and the waters 
 which descend from the Cordilleras, and meander 
 through this valley, form the great Lake Titicaca, 
 situated in its center. There are two Cordilleras 
 of the Andes which extend through this country 
 from north to south, which are called the eastern 
 and the western ; the eastern is the loftiest, and its 
 summits are covered with perpetual snow, while the 
 western Cordillera exhibits less snow, and is more 
 low, broken, and irregular, and therefore the com- 
 munication between the intervening valleys and the 
 Pacific Ocean, is not interrupted. The contrary is 
 the fact with respect to the Cordilleras ofChili, which 
 are impassable during several months of the year. 
 Both Cordilleras are full of gold and silver ores, 
 but it is on the eastern Cordillera only where 
 the hvaderos or pure washed gold is found. The 
 geographical position or latitude of this region 
 has but little influence upon its productions, the 
 fertility of its soil or the temperature of its cli- 
 mate ; for, from the union of a variety of physical 
 phenomena, such as the height of the Cordilleras 
 and their being covered with perpetual snow,
 
 127 
 
 their enormous masses, the extent of the plains, 
 the declivities of the mountains, which present a 
 broad aspect towards the east, it possesses a cli- 
 mate of almost every variety of temperature, and 
 a soil, suited to the productions of Europe and 
 Asia; of wheat and barley, wine and oil, cotton, 
 indigo, sugar and spices ; on the plains, which are 
 clothed in perpetual verdure, there graze vast 
 herds of cattle, horses and mules : in the middle 
 regions of the mountains, which are covered with 
 pines and oaks, &c. are found, a great variety of 
 beautiful birds, among which are the parrot, ru- 
 isanor, &c. and in the loftier regions, which are 
 bare, the ostrich ; besides vast quantities of sheep, 
 such as the Vicunas, Alpachas, Llamas, Guanacos, 
 Chinchillas ; some of which, particularly the two 
 first, yield a wool of singular fineness. Besides 
 all these things which are produced in this com- 
 paratively small district, there are also found vast 
 quantities of ores of gold and silver, and of metals 
 of every kind. 
 
 OP P0T0SI. 
 
 This Intendency is bounded on the north by La 
 Paz, on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the 
 south by Salta, and on the east by Charcas or 
 La Plata. It is the most southern Province of 
 Upper Peru, bordering on Rio de la Plata, and is 
 divided into eight lesser provinces or sub-delega- 
 tions, which are Atacama, Carangas, Lipez, 
 Porco, Pilaya or Cinty, Tarija, GlfayunJu, and 
 Paria.
 
 128 
 
 Atacama borders on the Pacific ocean, and has 
 Arica or Low Peru on the north, and Chili, or the 
 deserts of the same name, on the south, which are 
 sixty leagues in extent. 
 
 The high part of this Province is cold, and its 
 productions are such as are peculiar to cold cli- 
 mates : such as farinaceous grains and roots. In 
 the lower part, is the port of Cobija, (lat. 22*. 
 39'. S.) which is very much frequented by fishermen 
 and coasting craft. Its trade consists principally 
 in fish, of which there are two kinds that are 
 caught in great abundance the congreo and tollo 
 the latter similar to the codfish. This Province 
 contains nine small towns, or villages, the chief of 
 which is San Francisco de Atacama. The popu- 
 lation is about 30,000 souls. It contains a moun- 
 tain called Concho, which is celebrated for its 
 copper mines ; and here is a manufactory of cop- 
 per hammers for the miners of Potosi. There are 
 also ores of silver ; and large masses of this metal 
 in its pure state have been found here. There 
 are also mines of cobalt ; and jasper, talc, alum, 
 and a variety of beautiful crystals, are found in 
 abundance. By the river Loxa, the people of the 
 interior of this Province carry on a trade with 
 the coast of Peru. 
 
 Carangas is a considerable province ; its chief 
 town is Tarapacha, which is large, and inhabited 
 by a great number of Spaniards and Creoles, on 
 account of the celebrated silver mines of Aullagas, 
 which are within this Province. This Province.
 
 129 
 
 like the others which lie on the Pacific Ocean, has 
 a mild and temperate climate. 
 
 Lipez, whose chief town is of the same name, 
 has a cold climate, as it is situated on the Cordil- 
 leras. It is about sixty leagues west of the city of 
 Potosi. In this Province are produced an abun- 
 dance of horned cattle, sheep and goats : it is 
 a fine grazing district. It has also rich mines 
 of gold and silver. Here is the famous mine of the 
 silver table, where the metal has been cut off with 
 a chisel. 
 
 On the south and south-east of Potosi, lies the 
 Province ofChichas, whose chief town is Tupiza. 
 Through this Province runs the great post road 
 from Buenos Ayres to Potosi. It is the largest 
 province of Potosi, extending from north to south 
 144 miles, and from east to west 300 miles to the 
 river San Juan in Tarija, by which it is separated 
 from that Province. The Province of Chichas is 
 situated one half on the mountains, which is cold, 
 and the other half in the temperate and beautiful 
 valleys of Tarija. The mountainous part is full of 
 mines of gold and silver; but principally of gold, 
 of which the richest is the mine of Suyapacha, 
 celebrated for the defeat of the royalists during 
 the present revolution. Its chief town is Tupiza, 
 which has a population of 5 or 6000 whites. In 
 this town are the workshops or laboratories of 
 the miners, for extracting the metals and refining 
 them. During the present revolution, there have 
 been produced here annually between 30 and 
 35,000 lbs. of gold and silver. The products of 
 
 R
 
 130 
 
 the mines of Charoma, Estarca, and Cerrilos, are 
 of a very superior quality. 
 
 The farmers of this Province rear vast numbers 
 of asses and goats, of which the former is a great 
 article of commerce ; and at Yavi in this Province 
 are situated the large estates of the Marquis of 
 Toxo. 
 
 The road leading from Buenos Ayres, which 
 divides this Province from that of Tarija, is full 
 of quartz, which contains gold, copper, lead, and 
 iron, and at the small town of Mojoz there has 
 been discovered a stratum of magnetic iron ore, 
 full of particles of gold, which is picked up after 
 the heavy rains. 
 
 On leaving these cold regions, and travelling 
 three hundred miles to the east and north-east of 
 Potosi, after crossing a ridge of small mountains, 
 w r e descend into the beautiful and fertile valleys 
 of Tarija. There are four of these valleys, and 
 within them are situated two lakes of salt water. 
 It is difficult to describe the salubrity of the cli- 
 mate, the fertility of the soil, and the abundance 
 of the rivulets and streams which water these val- 
 leys. This Province is bounded by the deserted 
 villages of Pilaya on the north and west, by Jujui 
 on the south, and by countries inhabited by savage 
 Indians on the east. The chief town, which is of 
 the same name, is situated delightfully on the 
 banks of the river Tarija, lat. 2130'S. ; its streets 
 cross each other at right angles ; its inhabitants are 
 composed of all the different casts of the country, 
 and amount to about 10,000 souls. It has two rich
 
 131 
 
 convents, and sends a deputy to the general con- 
 gress at Buenos Ayres. Its soil is humid and warm, 
 well adapted to grazing, and produces oil and wine 
 in great abundance ; cotton of the finest quality, and 
 flax, grow here spontaneously in the forests and 
 fields. 
 
 Besides the richness of the soil, this province 
 contains mines, which were formerly very produc- 
 tive, as that of Choco, which yielded gold ore,* 
 that afforded from 50 to 60 per cent, of the metal. 
 Among the gold mines, that of Chiloco is the rich- 
 est. The inhabitants of this Province are famous 
 carriers, and remarkable for their physical strength. 
 But notwithstanding the great fertility of this 
 Province, it is sterile, when compared with the 
 neighbouring country inhabited by the Chiregua- 
 nos Indians. 
 
 Passing up the valleys of Tarija, we next arrive 
 at the Province of Cinty or Pilaya, which en- 
 joys a climate not inferior to any on the globe. 
 It produces abundance of fine wheat, grapes, 
 roots, &c. Of the grapes, are made wine and 
 brandy, and if not of a superior quality, it is only 
 owing to the unskilfulness of the manufactur- 
 er. The population of the chief town, of the 
 same name, is 12,000, and of the whole Province 
 62,000. The rivers Toropalca, and Suypacha, 
 which rise in the Cordilleras of Lipez, flow through 
 these valleys, forming the great river of San Juan, 
 which divides the two Provinces of Pilaya, and 
 Tarija. This river, which is destined at no dis- 
 tant period to become the channel of a great
 
 132 
 
 commerce, runs north until it unites with the river 
 of Cinty, then winds westward until it meets the 
 Pilcomajo; then through the Indian countries, 
 until it meets the Guadalquivir, which comes from 
 the northern Cordilleras ; then unites with the 
 river Conception, and runs through the country of 
 Chayhuaya, until it meets the river Salinas ; then 
 through the country* of Gran-Chaco, where it 
 'meets the river Bci a tt C % from the norths which wds 
 navigated in 1791 by Cornejo, a citizen of Sal^a/* oe- 
 low on the west, it meets the river Pescado, and 
 runs to the valley of Senta and New Oran, a town 
 built byPizarro, the last President of Charcas, to en- 
 courage the navigation of the river; here it unites 
 with the river Senta, and below is the river Santa 
 Cruz, and all this part is navigable ; afterwards it 
 unites with the river of Salta and Jujui, where it 
 takes the name of Rio Grande, and under this name 
 runs to Paraguay, and there again takes the name of 
 the Bermejo, and then running eastwardly twenty 
 four leagues, to the city of Corrientes : it here finally 
 assumes the name of La Plata, and running a south 
 eastwardly direction, empties itself into the Atlan- 
 tic Ocean. This river is navigable at least 1,300 
 miles, and within 300 miles of Potosi. The head of 
 navigation is what is called the Pass of the In- 
 dians, forty leagues from the famous Indian town 
 of Omaguaca, from which there is a good road to 
 Potosi. 
 
 These rivers are full of fish of almost every 
 kind, which constitute the principal food of 
 the Indians of their borders, which abound with
 
 133 
 
 forest and fruit trees, such as orange, peach, ap^ 
 pie, &c. 
 
 I have heen thus minute in my description of 
 these rivers, as they may hereafter become the 
 channel of an extensive commerce into the interi- 
 or of Peru, and because this small Province of 
 Tarija possesses a climate of such various tem- 
 perature, that an inhabitant of Norway and of 
 Italy, may find a climate like his own, suited to 
 his constitution and habits. 
 
 On the north and east of Potosi, are situated 
 the Provinces of Paria and Porco. The chief 
 town of the former is Toledo, which was found- 
 ed by the Viceroy of that name. This country 
 is also cold. In the Cordillera of Condo-Condo, 
 are mines of gold and silver. In this Pro- 
 vince the river Desaguadero, which is an outlet of 
 the great Lake Titicaca, is lost in the ground, 
 the wool of this Province, and of which there is 
 abundance, is equal to that of Segovia in Spain ; 
 the sheep are uncommonly large, and the mutton 
 is very fat and of fine flavour. The best sheep 
 sell for half a dollar each. The cheese, which 
 is made of sheep's milk, is superior to the finest 
 cheese of Europe, all the varieties of which I be- 
 lieve I have tasted ; it is known as the cheese of 
 Paria. 
 
 PORCO. 
 
 This Province extends 120 miles from north 
 to south, and 180 miles from east to west. 
 Its chief town is Puna, situated at the bottom of 
 the mountain of the same name, where the Incas
 
 134 
 
 procured immense quantities oi' silver, and even 
 now, these mines are worked with great profit. 
 Here the Spaniards are numerous, and they are 
 generally engaged in mining. In this Province 
 also, are mines of rock salt, in the town of Yocalla, 
 from whence are produced vast quantities, which 
 are used in the various processes of extracting the 
 metals from their ores. 
 
 In the center of this Province is situated the 
 city of Potosi, lat. 19 30' S. being 1650 miles dis- 
 tant from Buenos Ayres; 1215 miles from Lima; 
 and 300 miles from the Pacific coast. The city 
 is built at the bottom of the celebrated mountain 
 of the same name, which is so famous for 
 the immense riches which it has been continu- 
 ally pouring forth for three centuries. From 
 whatever side you approach this mountain, you 
 will be struck with its singular appearance. Its 
 figure is conic, and it is covered with green, red, 
 yellow, and blue spots, which give it a very cu- 
 rious appearance ; it resembles no other moun- 
 tain in the world ; it is entirely bare, without any 
 trees or shrubs. By its side there is a smaller 
 mountain, called Huayna Potosi, while the prin- 
 cipal mountain is called Hatun Potosi, meaning 
 father and son. In the night, when the mouths of 
 the mines are lighted up, the beautiful and striking 
 appearance of this mountain can scarcely be ima- 
 gined, much less described. 
 
 The city of Potosi is nearly three leagues in 
 circumference ; it is divided into the. city proper, 
 and Yn%enios, where are situated the laboratories
 
 135 
 
 of the miners, and which are separated by a small 
 river called, the River of the Lakes, over which 
 there is a stone bridge. The city and the Yngc- 
 nios are nearly a mile apart. The streets of the 
 city are narrow and irregular, and paved with 
 round stones, with side walks. On the north of 
 the city there is an extensive promenade, with 
 fountains of water, but no trees or shrubs, and 
 but a very little verdure, which is a small species 
 of barley. The houses are uniformly of one story, 
 built of stone and brick, with balconies of wood, 
 and without chimneys. Each house has a yard, 
 and sometimes three, in the rear, and in almost 
 every yard there are fountains of water, which 
 are lined with stone, and often very beautiful. 
 The houses contain, generally, a drawing room, 
 dining room, bed rooms, &c. and each servant has 
 his separate apartment. The houses of the 
 wealthy, who are numerous here, are splendidly 
 furnished. At the time I visited this city, in 1808, 
 there was a church rebuilding in the public 
 square, which was not interrupted during the 
 revolution, both Belgrano and Goyeneche giving 
 orders that the work should go on. There are 
 in the city three monasteries, five convents, and 
 nineteen parochial churches. The churches of 
 the monks and nuns are richly ornamented with 
 silver. Every altar has its front of solid silver, 
 and there are five altars in every church ; also 
 four chandeliers of at least two yards in height, 
 with corresponding branches, all of silver. The
 
 13(5 
 
 other churches are not so rich, but their uten- 
 sils are always of silver. The Archbishopric 
 of Charcas contains 180 churches, which are 
 more or less furnished with silver ornaments ; those 
 churches near the mines are the richest, such as 
 those of Puna, Chayanta, Popo, Tupiza, &c. 
 
 On the north side of the public square is situ- 
 ated the Mint, which is a grand edifice of free 
 stone, of a quadrangular figure, two stories high, 
 and nearly 450 feet square, including three pits 
 or yards, together with offices for the governors 
 and workmen, and apartments for the extensive 
 machinery. Its corridors are of ivory, made 
 at Biscay ; the machinery for coining is very 
 complicated, which was also brought from Spain, 
 although the artists of the country do all the 
 repairs, and are skilful engravers. The ma- 
 chinery is all worked by mules. The coining 
 of this mint is superior to that of Lima, or 
 Santiago. 
 
 According to official statements published in 
 the " Mercurio Peruano," there were coined in 
 the mint of Potosi, from 1790 to 94, both inclusive, 
 the sum of $27,967,566, which makes an average 
 of $5,593,513 for each year. According to the 
 accounts of Humboldt, there were coined in the 
 year 1790, 83,942,592, and the proportion of gold 
 -awl silver was as 1 to 200. It is generally under- 
 stood at Potosi, that the common yearly average 
 is about $4,000,000. There is also a Bank in this 
 city, called the Bank of St. Charles, which is es- 
 tablished for the purpose of buying gold and sil-
 
 137| 
 
 ver bullion for the mint, at fixed prices; this es- 
 tablishment belongs, like the mint, to ihe govern- 
 ment. The price of pure ingots of silver is $1 an 
 ounce*, and of manufactured silver or plate 87 J 
 cents; the price of gold is from % 12 to $16 an 
 ounce, varying according to its carats. These 
 prices are always the same ; the only difference 
 is in the quality of the metal. The government 
 enjoys the profit in these purchases. 
 
 There are six houses of public entertainment, 
 or hotels, and a great number of tippling shops, 
 in the city. There is a market-house of two hun- 
 dred yards in length, which is supplied with every 
 kind of production from all parts of the country ; 
 with fruits from the neighbouring vallies, such as 
 chirimoyas, peaches, oranges, pine apples, &c. 
 with meat and vegetables of various kinds. Fish, 
 however, is extremely scarce and dear. The fish 
 called Dorado, is highly esteemed, and commands 
 a great price. It is reported in Potosi, that some 
 years ago, a clerk of some . rich man of that city, 
 was sent to market to purchase one of these fish, 
 and that he found the clerk of some other man of 
 wealth, bargaining for a fine one; that the clerks 
 got into a strife to see which would out-bid the 
 other; that finally one offered $5000, and took 
 the fish; and the story adds, that the master of the 
 
 * The intrinsic value of pure silver, Ly the ounce in the 
 United States, is $1,29 of silver of standard fineness, & 1,1 5. 
 (Jold of 2'2 carats is worth $17,77 ; of 24 carats, or pure gold, 
 $19,39. These are the mint prices; the prices of commerce 
 are now much higher. 
 
 s
 
 JJ3 
 
 clerk who was out-done, was so incensed that he 
 turned him out of his service. 
 
 Generally speaking, the markets of Potosi are as 
 abundantly supplied (the article offish excepted,) 
 as those of New-York or Philadelphia. When 1 
 was there, I did not find the prices so extravagant 
 as has generally been reported by travellers. 
 Baron de_ Humboldt observes, that provisions 
 are very dear in Potosi, without recollecting 
 that the neighbouring countries are extremely 
 fertile. The expenses of living are certainly 
 much higher in Potosi than in any other city 
 of Upper Peru ; but are very low when com- 
 pared to the cities of North America. The 
 price of wheat flour is about $1.25 per 100 lbs. 
 and a fine sheep sells for less than $]. The roads 
 leading into the city present a curious spectacle 
 in the morning, of many thousand Llamas, asses, 
 arid mules, loaded with the produce of the coun- 
 try, for the market. The roads are irregular and 
 broken, particularly to Condorapacheta, distant 
 twenty-five leagues from the city, but by no means 
 dangerous. The large timbers used for wheel 
 axles in the mills, are brought from Tucuman on 
 carriages. The road of Despoblado, which crosses 
 the table land of the Cordilleras between Salta 
 and Oruro, is more even and smooth, and on this 
 road about 80,000 mules, in troops of from 4 to 
 5000, are driven annually to Lima to be sold. 
 
 The.climate of Potosi is very cold; and, for the 
 distance of twelve miles around the city, there are
 
 l39 
 
 no trees or shrubbery of any kind, and nothing 
 vegetates except a species of green moss. In the 
 months of May and June the mornings are ex- 
 tremely cold, as these are winter months in this 
 climate ; but the nights are remarkably serene, and 
 mild, and the sky is very beautiful. It is not 
 so cold but that flowers are kept in rooms without 
 fires, during the severest weather. 
 
 The houses are without chimnies and fires, and 
 the apartments are kept warm by being closed 
 during the cold season, and plentifully covered 
 with Alpacha skins, and by burning perfumery in 
 them. On entering a house, a visiter is always 
 presented with a silver chafing-dish of perfumery 
 burning ; this is always the first salutation. 
 
 There are frequent snow storms here, but the 
 snow never remains on the ground longer than 
 twenty hours ; the cattle are never housed. 
 
 On the hills above the town there are about 
 thirty artificial lakes, for supplying the city with 
 water, and turning the mills of the miners. It is 
 a remarkable fact, that notwithstanding their great 
 elevation, these lakes are never frozen over, al- 
 though there is much frost in their neighbourhood 
 on the mountains It frequently happens that 
 these supplies of water fail, for want of rains, and 
 then the mills are stopped, and the operations of 
 the miners in extracting the metals suspended. 
 
 The population of the city of Potosi, according 
 to the calculations of Canete, who was Assesor- 
 general of that Intendency, and had a perfect 
 knowledge of all the country, amounted, in 1808,
 
 140 
 
 to 40,000 ; and this statement 1 believe to be cor- 
 rect for that period. Mons. Fresier, who travelled 
 in that country in 1714, says the population then 
 was 70,000, and that the Spaniards were to the 
 Indians as 1 to 6 ; that there were nineteen pa- 
 rishes ; now there are but sixteen. Wilcocke, in 
 his history of Buenos Ayres, states, that in 1807 
 the population was 70,000, and that including all 
 those employed in the various processes of mining, 
 it would amount to 100,000; but Alcedo, who 
 wrote thirty years ago, says the number of inhabi- 
 tants then was only 25,000. 
 
 The rebellion of Tupac Amaru wasted the 
 population of this city, and greatly checked its 
 progress, but it has rapidly augmented during the 
 last twenty-five years. The official statements 
 published by the government of Buenos Ayres, givn 
 the population of the Province or Intendency as 
 amounting to 112,000, without including Indians. 
 
 This city is the focus of all the commerce be- 
 tween Buenos Ayres- and the interior Provinces, 
 and is a place of great business. The jQzogucros*, 
 or proprietors of mines, receive liberal advances 
 from the government to enable them to carry on 
 their works ; these advances are $25,000 for every 
 Yngenio, or amalgamation work, which each 
 Jizoguero shall establish, and some have two or 
 three. This money is lent on the condition that 
 
 * In Mexico, the Jlzogutros, according to Humboldt, are 
 miners, or those who are employed in the amalgamation of 
 metals. In Peru, these persons are called Beneficiadores,
 
 141 
 
 the government receive one shilling on every 
 ounce of silver produced by the Azoguero. This 
 class of men, whose capital is thus liberally 
 augmented, have greatly increased the business, 
 and added to the embellishments f the city. 
 They live in the most profuse and princely style : 
 it is not uncommon for them to possess gold 
 plate : such as plates, goblets, spoons, forks, &c. 
 They employ great numbers of clerks, and have 
 numerous attendants. 
 
 This city is much frequented by strangers 
 from different parts of the country ; it is a 
 place of great gayety and dissipation. There 
 are no 'theatres, and the principal amusement 
 for all classes is gambling ; and faro-banks and 
 billiard tables are scattered all over the city. 
 The city is immensely rich in gold and silver ; 
 money is within the reach of every body, and 
 very abundant, as may be supposed, when more 
 than % 10,000 are coined every day, the year 
 round. The Azogueros are extremely profuse 
 in their expenditures, squandering their enormous 
 wealth with the same liberal hand with which it 
 is poured into their lap. As the source of their 
 wealth is in their inexhaustible mines, and if 
 poor to-day, they may be rich to-morrow, 
 their habits become essentially different from 
 those of the merchant or manufacturer, whose 
 profits depend upon calculation and economy. 
 
 The manufactures of this city are in a wretch- 
 ed state, being confined principally to the making 
 of leather, hats, and tools from imported steel,
 
 142 
 
 which is sold at an enormous price. The leather 
 is made from goat-skins, which are of superior 
 quality and very abundant here. Gold leaf is also 
 manufactured in great quantities. This arti- 
 cle is much Used in the Churches, and the candles 
 even are gilded before they are lighted ; and in 
 the private houses of the rich, the leaves of the 
 flowers which they have in great abundance in 
 their drawing rooms, are aften gilded with gold 
 leaf. There are no carriages in this city, and 
 when the ladies take the air, it is on the backs of 
 horses or mules, or in sedan chairs, which are 
 very common. There are persons here whose 
 profession it is to teach the mules and horses to 
 travel with an easy gait, for the ladies. There 
 is another mode of travelling which is curi- 
 ous : a chair is fixed on poles which are laid 
 across the backs of two mules, and in which two 
 or three persons frequently ride. The Countess 
 of Casa Real, a few years ago, attempted to intro- 
 duce coaches into, the city, but the first time her 
 carriage was drove into the street, it was fairly ran 
 away with by the mules, and dashed to pieces 
 against a Church. This city is situated on the 
 side of the lower part of the mountain, in the 
 valley at the foot of it, and is altogether too steep 
 and irregular to admit of wheel carriages. 
 
 In the other part of the town, called Yngenios, 
 which lies north west of the city, in the valley, are 
 the mills or amalgamation works of the miners. The 
 population of this part consists of Indians, Kaachas 
 or Cholo miners, and other workmen, and amounts
 
 143 
 
 to about 6000 souls. The Indians of the Mita, 
 which is a kind of annual conscription, by which 
 the Indians of several Provinces in Upper and 
 Lower Peru are obliged to work in the mines, 
 present a most miserable and shocking appear- 
 ance ; they are employed in the hardest labour 
 of the mines, such as stamping the ores, raising 
 them from the mines, and attending to the tritura- 
 tion, which is done by the mills, and by which they 
 are continually exposed to inhale the deleterious 
 powders of the minerals. The price of their la- 
 bour is 50 cents per day, and although experience 
 shows that their labour is not useful as they are 
 unfit for mining, and those mines are invariably 
 worked the best in which the Indians of the Mita 
 are not employed, yet the infamous avarice of the 
 Mineros, dooms them to these noxious employ- 
 ments. Ulloa had the wickedness to say that the 
 labour of these Indians is not severe ; and the 
 dictionary of the Spanish Academy, ashamed of 
 giving a correct definition of the Mita, has con- 
 cealed the truth. (5) The poor Indians are 
 obliged to sleep in the open, cold air, on the bare 
 ground, and from their exposure, the noxious in- 
 halation of the mineral dust, and the hardships 
 of their servitude, at least one third of every con- 
 scription die. 
 
 The Kaachas are, from practice, well acquaint- 
 ed with the business of mining, as it is carried on 
 in Peru. Their numbers at Potosi, are between 
 4 and 6000. Their wages are from 1 to $2 a day. 
 according to their skilfulnes. The benefisciado-
 
 144 
 
 ro, have $6 a day for superintending the works. 
 The Kaachas are very fond of spiritous liquors, 
 drinking at once, almost their daily wages. It is 
 not their wages which induces them to labour, 
 but a custom in the mines, which is this ; the 
 mines are worked from Monday noon to Saturday 
 noon, on accouut of the proprietors; but from 
 Saturday noon to Monday noon, including Sunday, 
 the miners work on their own account. This is 
 an ancient and inveterate custom, and cannot be 
 changed. It frequently happens that the miners 
 discover new veins, and sometimes take the ore 
 of their employers, which was left by them at the 
 end of their week's work, and extract the 
 metal after their own fashion, and in the most 
 rude manner. The quantity of silver obtained in 
 this way, never has been calculated ; and there- 
 fore all estimates of the quantity of the precious 
 metals produced by the mines of South America, 
 which have been made by travellers, must be er- 
 roneous. M: Torres, has justly applied this re- 
 mark to the statements of the Baron de Humboldt, 
 and adds, as a further reason for the inaccuracy 
 of these statements, that they are taken from the 
 registers of mints and custom houses, and that it 
 is the interest of the miners and merchants to 
 save, as much as they can, the high duties which 
 are imposed upon the precious metals. 
 
 There are in Potosi, 120 mills or amalgamation 
 works, although they are not all employed ; each 
 one has a large pit or yard enclosed, and various 
 offices for the superintendants and workmen, and
 
 1*5 
 
 stables for the mules. These mills resemble a 
 common French plaster mill ; the wheel is about 
 25 or 30 feet in diameter, and is so constructed as 
 to lift up and down an iron or copper hammer, 
 weighing 200 pounds ; by which the ores are re- 
 duced to a fine powder. The timbers for the ax- 
 les of these wheels are very long and strong, and 
 each one costs about $800; the great price is 
 owing to the distance which they are brought, 
 and the badness of the roads through which they 
 are carried on rudely constructed carriages. The 
 mills are attended each by two or three Indians, 
 whose faces are muffled in order to prevent t^he 
 inhalation of the mineral dust. 
 
 The process of separating the metals from their 
 ores, which I witnessed in Potosi, is very well de- 
 scribed by VVilcocke, and it is as follows: the 
 ores are first reduced to a fine powder or flower 
 by the hammers, which I have described ; some- 
 times, in order to render them more friable, they 
 are previously roasted, in an oven or furnace. 
 The powder is sifted through fine iron or copper 
 sieves which are large, and handled by four of 
 five Indians; the fine powder is taken away for 
 amalgamation, and the coarse is returned to the 
 mill. The ore is sometimes pulverized dry, and some- 
 times with water; if dry, it is afterwards wet, and 
 well kneaded with the feet for a considerable time, 
 which is done by the Indians. The mud is then laid 
 upon a floor in square parcels of a foot thick, each 
 containing about 2500 weight, and these masses are 
 called cuerpoa or bodies. On these heaps about 
 
 T
 
 146 
 
 200 pounds of common salt are thrown, which is 
 moulded and incorporated with the metallic 
 mud for two or three days. After this, the pro- 
 portion of mercury which is judged proper, is 
 added to the mass. The quantity of mercury 
 used depends upon the supposed richness of the 
 ore. They generally allow from four and an half to 
 six pounds of mercury to one pound of silver. 
 The masses are now stirred eight or ten times a 
 day in order to promote the chemical action, and 
 to accelerate the amalgamation of the mercury 
 and silver ; and for this purpose, lime is also fre- 
 quently added, and sometimes lead or tin ore. In 
 cold weather this process of amalgamation goes 
 on slowly, so that they are often obliged to stir the 
 mass, during a month or six weeks. When the sil- 
 ver is supposed to be all collected, the mass is 
 carried to the Tinas del Lavadero, or vats, made 
 of stone or wood, and lined with leather, into 
 which a current of water is directed, to wash off 
 the earth. There are commonly three vats through 
 which the mineral is passed, and the same process 
 is performed in each. When the water runs off 
 clear, the amalgam is found at the bottom of 
 the vats. This is put into a woollen bag, and hung 
 up for the quicksilver to drain out; it is then 
 beat with flat pieces of wood, and pressed by a 
 weight laid upon it ; when as much of the quick- 
 silver as can be got out by this means, is expelled, 
 they put the paste or residuum into a mould of 
 wood, made in the form of a pyramid, at the bottom 
 of which is a copper plate full of holes ; after it
 
 147 
 
 has become hard, the mould is taken off and the 
 mass with its copper bottom is placed over a 
 vessel of water, and is covered with an earthen 
 cap or reversed crucible, on which ignited char- 
 coal is placed in order to evaporate the quick- 
 silver, some part of which is collected by the cap 
 with which the mass is covered, and is saved* 
 After the evaporation, there remains a lump of 
 grains of silver, which require to be fused before 
 they become united into a mass; they are then 
 cast into ingots, which are stamped. The ingots 
 are cast in a pyramidal form when destined for the 
 mint; if intended for private use, they are mould- 
 ed into a variety of fancy figures according to in- 
 dividual taste, and are frequently employed to 
 ornament the houses of the proprietors of the 
 mines. In these tedious and rude processes 
 of amalgamation, it is calculated that one third 
 at least of the silver is lost, and twice the 
 time and expense incurred, which would be ne- 
 cessary, in a more enlightened mode, to com- 
 plete the operation. Of the mercury, it is im- 
 possible to say how much is wasted, but according 
 to Humboldt, the Azogueros of Mexico, by whom 
 metallurgy is much better understood, lose in 
 general from eleven to fourteen ounces of mercury 
 for every eight ounces of silver. The benefici- 
 adores of Potosi, are by far the most skilful of all 
 Upper Peru. In the other provinces, instead of 
 triturating wheels, they use grindstones to pulverise 
 the ores, and every other operation is equally 
 rude and slovenly. The mode 1 have described,
 
 148 
 
 is the only one practised in Potosi, in extracting 
 the metals from their ores, and the chemical prin- 
 ciples upon which the various processes depend, 
 are probably not at all understood by those who 
 have practised them for many years. 
 
 The mountain of Potosi, which contains the 
 far-famed silver mines, is 6000 varas (16,250 feet,) 
 above the level of the sea, according to Luis 
 Goudin, of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, re- 
 ferred to by Alcedo,in his " Dictionario GeograficO 
 de America :" and its height above the neighbour- 
 ing plain, according to Baron de Humboldt, is 
 1624 varas (4397 feet). From these data we may 
 fix the elevation of the city of Potosi to be about 
 11,000 feet above the level of the sea; an eleva- 
 tion nearly twice as great as the white hills of 
 New-H ampshire. 
 
 At a point distant 1492 feet from the summit of 
 the mountain, its circumference has been calcu- 
 lated at upwards of four miles ; and at another 
 point 980 feet lower, at upwards of eight miles. 
 Alcedo states the circumference of the mountain 
 at its base to be three miles, while Wilcocke says 
 it is eighteen miles. I should not myself judge 
 it to be more than nine ; I have never walk- 
 ed around it, but I have frequently ascended 
 to its summit; the walk generally occupied an 
 hour. The view from the top of this lofty 
 mountain is the most grand and picturesque 
 in the world, of valleys, and lakes, and moun- 
 tains ; this is the loftiest point of the Cor- 
 dilleras in that quarter, and 1 believe there are
 
 149 
 
 but few peaks that are higher in all Upper Peru. 
 But the sublimit)" and beauty of the surrounding 
 scenery did not so much interest my feelings as 
 the celebrated mountain under my feet, which has 
 poured forth for so many years its lavas of silver 
 upon the world ; to animate enterprise and re- 
 ward industry ; to pamper the luxurious, and 
 minister to the comforts of the sober and virtuous ; 
 to disseminate knowledge and religion, and to 
 spread the desolations of the sword marshalling 
 armies in the field, and pointing the thunder of 
 navies on the ocean ; filling cities with monuments 
 of taste and art, and overwhelming them with 
 ruin ; founding mighty empires, and levelling 
 them in the dust : inciting, in short, to 'virtue 
 and to crime, and being the source of much 
 .good, and the " root of all evil," in the world. 
 
 This mine was discovered so late as the year 
 1545, by an Indian named Hualpa, and accident- 
 ally : as he was pursuing his goats up the moun- 
 tain, he laid hold of a bush, whose roots gave 
 way, and laid bare beneath it a mass of pure 
 silver. In that country, however, the people say 
 the first discoverer was not Hualpa, but Potocchi, 
 Potossi, or Potocsi, from whom the mountain takes 
 it name. The first man who commenced working 
 the mine was Thomas Villaroel, a Spaniard. 
 These mines produced, from the year of discove- 
 ry to 1761, the sum of % 929,000,000, which have 
 paid duties; and to our days, the enormous 
 amount of $ 1 ,043,083,733. From the rude mode 
 of working the mines, and the ignorance of the
 
 150 
 
 miners, the exterior part only of the mountain has 
 been worked, and the quantity has decreased so 
 little in so many years, that the silver extracted 
 from these mines has only diminished in the 
 proportion of 4 to 1. It has been ascertained, 
 from experience, that the richest mines are the 
 deepest ; and this is the general fact with respect 
 to the table silver mine, and all the other mines of 
 Peru ; and the deepest mines are, of course, the 
 most exposed to inundations from the water. 
 The richest veins of Potosi have been inundated, 
 and in consequence abandoned, and so has been 
 the mine of Lipes, with whose owner I am well 
 acquainted. When this mine was first discovered, 
 he informed me that he cut the silver out with 
 chisels, but the water soon flowed in, and obliged 
 him to abandon it. In his prosperity, he would 
 lose at the gambling-table thousands of dollars in 
 one night, but when 1 knew him he was supported 
 by the charity of his friends. 
 
 In order to draw oflfthe water from the mines of 
 Potosi, there was a subterranean gallery dug, un- 
 der the direction of Weber, a German geometri- 
 cian, who came to the country in the expedition 
 of the Baron de Nordenflycht, sent by the Spanish 
 government. The geometrician received his sala- 
 ry of % 4,000 a year, but his work did not answer 
 the purpose, and it was only carried on by him 
 from motives of private speculation. This gallery 
 at its mouth is large enough to admit a man on 
 horseback: it is ornamented with masonry of stone 
 at its entrance, with an inscription of the time of
 
 151 
 
 its commencement, &c. It extends into the moun- 
 tain horizontally, diminishing in its size, for the 
 distance of 1^ or 2 miles. Its sides are lined and its 
 roof arched the whole way with stone. It is really 
 of no sort of use, except as a place to confine cul- 
 prits in ; and here were sent the troops of Charcas 
 who expressed themselves in favour of the patriots, 
 by the President Nieto. The work was begun in 
 1779, and was still continued at the time I visited 
 the mountain, in 1 808. It is a monument of enor- 
 mous expenditure, and of the most consummate 
 folly. 
 
 Afterwards, another scheme to drain off the 
 water was projected, which was approved of by 
 the Spanish court; and by a royal decree of 
 the 23d June, 1780, the colonial government was 
 ordered to take measures to obtain accurate in- 
 formation upon the subject, and to employ some 
 skilful person to take charge of the work. Don 
 Rubin de Celis, a lieutenant in the navy, was sent 
 to Potosi as a fit person to undertake the project. 
 It was to be a gallery so dug as to intersect the prin- 
 cipal veins of metal, and the shafts which had been 
 sunk for the purpose of light and ventilation. He 
 made all the necessary calculations of the direc- 
 tion and dimensions of the gallery, and its proba- 
 ble expense, which was estimated at the different 
 sums of J 1,000,000 and of $ 250,000, according 
 to the mode in which the work should be exe- 
 cuted. This project was never carried into effect ; 
 and the richest veins of Potosi are still inundated 
 with water.
 
 152 
 
 The road to the mines lies on the north side of 
 the mountain, as do also the mines. It ascends in 
 a zig-zag direction ; it is very wide, but is rude, 
 uneven, and stony. On this road there are con- 
 stantly employed at least 20,000 asses, in carrying 
 the ores from the mines to the amalgamation 
 works. The ore is conveyed in bags made of 
 skins, on the backs of the animals, no carriages of 
 any kind being employed. There are a great 
 many mines open on the mountain; the shafts are 
 of various sizes and depths, sometimes perpendicu- 
 lar, and sometimes horizontal, pursuing the course 
 of the metallic vein. They are extremely incom- 
 modious to the workmen. In some parts there are 
 spacious chambers excavated, where the ore has 
 been taken out, the roofs of which are supported 
 by huge pieces of timber. The ore is obtained 
 without difficulty by the rude pickaxes and other 
 iron and steel instruments of the miners. It is rais- 
 ed to the mouth of the mine, when the shaft is 
 perpendicular, by ropes, which are pulled by the 
 Indians, and when the course of the shaft is oblique 
 or horizontal, it is carried on the backs of the In- 
 dians, in bags of skin. To afford him light in his 
 dark retreat, the miner has a tallow candle, stuck 
 in his button hole or collar. The convenience or 
 comfort of the miners is never consulted, and when 
 they come down from the mountain on Saturdays, 
 they present a most hideous picture of fdth. They 
 collect m throngs at the tippling houses in the city, 
 spending their week's wages in brandy and chicha, 
 and they keep the town in an uproar, with the mn-
 
 153 
 
 sic of their guitars and flutes, and their drunken 
 brawls. In no other city of Peru do the miners 
 present so miserable an appearance as in Potosi, 
 for here only is the mita in force. 
 
 The ores from which the metals are extracted 
 are of various natures, consistencies, and colours ; 
 some of which are white and grey, mixed with red- 
 dish spots, called plata blanca, or white silver. When 
 this ore is broken, it exhibits grains of pure silver. 
 Some ores are entirely black, exhibiting no silver, 
 and these are called negrillos ; some black mixed 
 with lead, called plomo ronco, or coarse lead, in 
 which silver appears when it is scratched with a 
 hard instrument ; this is generally the richest. I 
 have seen specimens of this ore which when broken 
 exhibited pure silver in lumps. There is another 
 species which, if rubbed against any hard sub- 
 stance, becomes red, and is therefore called rosi- 
 cler, resembling a rose ; it is harder than any 
 of the other sorts, and is very rich. There is 
 another species which is brilliant like talc, and is 
 called paco ; there is also an ore which is green, 
 called cobrisso, or copperish, and which is the 
 most common ore ; the others are rare. There 
 are a great variety of silver ores in this mountain, 
 the principal of which 1 have here given in the 
 vulgar names of the miners, and at the same time 
 have described their external characters, as they 
 appear to the eye. These varieties are not so 
 general in the other mines. (6.) 
 
 The ores of Potosi yield the metal in various 
 proportions : soon after the discovery of the mines, 
 
 U
 
 154 
 
 the average was from G4 (o 72 ounces per quintal, 
 (lOOpounds). Since the commencement of the 1 8th 
 century, the metals have produced only from 24 to 
 32 ounces per caxon of 5000 pounds, or from -,Vo 
 to T Vir per quintal . Baron de Humboldt, who 
 makes these statements, also says, that from ] 574 
 (29 years after the discovery) to 1789, the mean 
 riches of the minerals have diminished in the 
 proportion of 170 to 1 ; while, as 1 have before 
 stated, the quantity of silver extracted from the 
 mines has only diminished in the proportion of 
 4 to 1 ; and if they are not the richest in the world, 
 they rank immediately after the mines of Gua- 
 uaxuato, the most celebrated in Mexico.
 
 \5ij 
 
 LETTER II. 
 
 CHARCAS OR LA PLATA. 
 
 This Intendency is bounded on the north by 
 Cochabamba, on the west and south by Potosi, 
 and on the east by Santa Cruz de la Sierra, or Pu- 
 110. It is divided into four lesser provinces or sub- 
 delegations, to wit, Tomina, Punabamba, Yampa- 
 raes, and Chayanta. The population of the in- 
 tendency is 112,000, without including Indians. 
 The province of Tomina borders on the east on 
 the country of the Chiriguanos Indians, and lies 
 south of the city of Charcas, the capital of the in- 
 tendency. Its climate is warm ; it has some vine- 
 yards and sugar plantations, and rears fine cattle 
 and sheep. In this province is the beautiful plain 
 of Tarapaya, which is a delightful region. 
 
 Punabamba is bounded by Tomina on the 
 north, by Potosi on the south, and on the east and 
 south-east it borders on a country inhabited by sa- 
 vage Indians, and on the west and north-west it is 
 bounded by the province of Yamparaes. It ex- 
 tends 72 miles from east to west, and 42 from north 
 to south. It lies south-east of the city of Charcas. 
 This provinoc is full of cultivated farms; it has no 
 mines that have been discovered. Its population 
 is about .0000. 
 
 The province of Yamparaes contains sixteen 
 towns or villages, and its chief town is San Sebas- 
 tian. It is a small province, and mountainous. Its 
 productions are wheat, barley, fruits, &c. for the
 
 15t> 
 
 markets of Potosi and Charcas. It is situated a 
 little south-east of the city of Charcas, the capital 
 of the intendency. This province is watered by 
 the rivers Pilcomayo and Cachimayo, which flow 
 into the river La Plata, and which are celebrated 
 for the abundance and excellence of their fish. 
 The river Pilcomayo has a fine meandering course 
 through this province, and its banks are clothed 
 with verdure, and covered with forest trees. 
 
 Chayanta is bounded by Cochabamba on the 
 north, by Oruro on the north-west, by Yamparaes 
 on the south-east, and by Santa Cruz de la Sierra 
 on the east. Its extent from north to south is 132 
 miles, and from cast to west 108 miles. It contains 
 27 towns, and has a population of 30,000. In the 
 mountains there are mines of gold and silver which 
 have been worked. It contains some forests, and 
 is principally an agricultural district. 
 
 The city of Charcas, the capital of the Inten- 
 dency, is situated in thenorth-east part of it, and lies 
 partly in the province of Yamparaes, and partly in 
 that of Chayanta. It is distant 75 miles from Po- 
 tosi, in a north-easterly direction, in latitude 19 
 South. This city, as I have stated, Mas founded 
 by one of Pizarro's captains, in the year 1538, and 
 on the ruins of the ancient Indian town of Chu- 
 quisaca*, by which name, as well as that of La 
 Plata, or the city of silver, it is sometimes call- 
 ed. The population of this city is 15,000, of whom 
 
 * The Indian name, in the Quechua language, was Choque- 
 Chaka, or bridge of gold. The Indians passed through this 
 town, over the Pilcomayo, tp the celebrated mines of Porco.
 
 157 
 
 5000 are Spaniards and Creoles, and the remain- 
 der Mestizos, Indians, and Negroes. 
 
 The city stands in a plain, surrounded on every 
 side by several small hills. Its climate is very 
 fine, and its atmosphere serene; except in the 
 rainy season, when there are sometimes thunder- 
 storms. The streets cross each other at right an- 
 gles, are very wide, well paved, and altogether 
 the city is very neat. In the city there is a pro- 
 menade, ornamented with colonnades and obe- 
 lisks, in the centre of which is an artificial foun- 
 tain of water. The houses are regularly of one 
 story, with balconies of wood, and with spa- 
 cious gardens in the rear. This city is the see of 
 an Archbishop, who has an annual income of 
 $60,000 and upwards. The Cathedral is a very 
 magnificent edifice ; the gate is of copper, which 
 was cast by a Cholo, and is very massy, and much 
 ornamented. There are few churches in the 
 world which are larger than this, and 1 imagine, 
 fewer that can compare with it in the richness of 
 its ornaments. Its pulpit is of solid silver, as also 
 the smaller pulpits, from which the epistle and the 
 mass are chaunted ; its altars and huge chande- 
 liers are also of solid silver. The palace of the 
 archbishop is a splendid building, with grand 
 saloons and spacious gardens with fountains of 
 water ; and it is furnished in a princely style. 
 There are also in this city five convents, three 
 nunneries, an university, two colleges, and an 
 academy of lawyers. In the university and 
 colleges there are about 500 students, who come
 
 lo8 
 
 lrom all parts of the country. The price of tuition 
 is $120 per annum to each student. I have already 
 stated the branches which are taught in these col- 
 leges; the study of mathematics and the natural 
 sciences were prohibited by the Spanish govern- 
 ment. In order to obtain admission into the law 
 academy, it is necessary to have taken the de- 
 gree of Doctor or Bachelor of Civil Laws in the 
 university, which is obtained by undergoing a 
 satisfactory examination in Justinian's Institutes, 
 and which costs from 6 to $800. 
 
 In the academy is taught the practice of the 
 courts, and the regular course is two years; the 
 candidate then is strictly examined before the 
 judges, and if qualified, is admitted to the bar. 
 This city is the seat of the Audience, or supreme 
 court of justice, whose jurisdiction extends over 
 the whole of Upper Peru. There are five judges, 
 including the chief justice, who is called regenie, 
 and the others oidores from the Latin auditor ; and 
 an attorney-general, who is called fiscal. There- 
 gente has $9000 salary, and the others $4000 each. 
 These judges are called the ministers of the king; 
 they all come from Spain, and are very pompous 
 personages. They are clothed with great power, 
 and generally display the consciousness of it, in 
 the haughtiness of their demeanour. A few years 
 since a lady of Charcas left a sum of money in her 
 will to be appropriated in soliciting the King of 
 Spain to appoint the Deity an oidor of Charcas. 
 The idea was perhaps impious, but it shows with 
 what feelings these persons are regarded by the 
 people, and the disgust which their manners excite.
 
 159 
 
 ORURO. 
 
 This city is governed by a municipality inde- 
 pendent of the provinces, and is not properly in- 
 cluded in any of them. It is situated 17 58' south 
 latitude, being 132 miles south-west of the city of 
 La Paz, 171 miles north-west of the city of Potosi, 
 and 150 miles west of the city of Cochabamba. It 
 is admirably situated for a flourishing inland com- 
 merce ; being 170 miles east of the port of ArLca 
 on the Pacific Ocean ; and the post road from Bue- 
 nos Ayres to Lima, and the road of Despoblado, 
 from Salta over the table land of the Cordilleras, 
 pass through it On the east of the city, a dis- 
 tance of about six miles, is the river Desaguedero, 
 which connects the two lakes of Titicaca and Pa- 
 ria. The city stands near the Cordillera of the 
 coast, or western Cordillera, which is here much 
 broken, and a good mule road passes over it to 
 Arica. The town is built at the foot of the mine- 
 ral mountain of the same name. Its figure is a 
 crescent; it is well laid out, and its houses are 
 regularly of one story, it has 5 convents. Its 
 markets are well supplied, and with fresh fish 
 from the ocean. The population is about 15,000 ; 
 its climate is cold, and it is much exposed to the 
 winds which blow from the Cordillera. The cattle 
 and sheep of the neighbouring districts are very 
 fine, ind particularly the latter. Although the 
 mines ire generally poor, yet that of Popo (distant 
 from the city 18 miles) previous to the revolution;
 
 loo 
 
 yielded annually 60,000 lb. of silver. There is a 
 manufactory here of bridle bits, which is pretty ex- 
 tensive; the price of iron of which they are made 
 is enormous, being sometimes $80 for 100 pounds. 
 There is also a manufactory of copper ware, and 
 a famous powder manufactory, which is supplied 
 with salt petre from the neighbourhood, which af- 
 fords it in great abuhdance. 
 
 This city is the center of commerce for all the 
 provinces, and during the revolutionary war it has 
 constantly been occupied as the principal military 
 position of Upper Peru. From it to Lima there is 
 a good road, the country being almost" a perfect 
 level to Vilcanota, a distance of nearly 400 miles, 
 and from that place to Lima, although the country 
 is more rugged, a fine carriage road by the coast 
 might easily be made ; but the. Spaniards, who are 
 here the lords of the soil, from the sluggishness of 
 their genius, and their entire destitution of public 
 spirit, have neglected it ; indeed, they have always 
 conducted in this country, as if they considered 
 themselves mere sojourners in it, and that the 
 period was always near, when it would be wrested 
 from them. There is not a single work of public 
 improvement performed by them, to be found ; no 
 public roads, no bridges, no establishments of 
 commerce, nor improvements of navigation. In 
 this fine country, where nature is never idle, and 
 where the choicest productions of the globe grow 
 almost spontaneously, the hand of the Spaniard 
 has never been employed, except in torturing the 
 bowels of the earth for gold, to satiate the lust of
 
 161 
 
 his avarice, or in oppressing the natives of the 
 country, to gratify his pride of power. 
 
 Oruro was formerly inhabited by wealthy mi- 
 ners, but in the revolution of Tupac Amaru, it suf- 
 fered severely. 1 particularly refer to the bro- 
 thers, Rodrigues, natives of the country, who being 
 accused by the Spaniards of being implicated in 
 that rebellion, were arrested, their property con- 
 fiscated, and themselves sent to Buenos Ayres, 
 and thrown into a dungeon; and without be- 
 ing proved guilty of any offence, or even brought 
 to trial, they suffered a confinement of twenty 
 years, ancf until their death. These men possessed 
 immense riches ; on their arrest by Segurola, the 
 governor of La Paz, there were found in their 
 houses greaf quantities of silver, and their store 
 rooms were full of ingots. This wealth, the value 
 of which can hardly be estimated, was plundered 
 from them in the most barbarous manner, and that 
 wretch, Segurola, on his death-bed, being tor- 
 mented by his guilty conscience, declared who 
 were his accomplices in the infamous transaction. 
 This mode of robbing the wealthy Creoles has not 
 been uncommon in this country. I now know 
 men residing in La Paz who have been made rich 
 by this species of plunder; and it is well known 
 that the discoverer of the mine of Laicacota was 
 thrown into prison, and finally put to death by the 
 Spaniards, whom he had generously admitted to 
 participate in the riches of his mine. 
 
 X
 
 162 
 LETTER Hi' 
 
 COCHABAMBA. 
 
 This Intendency is bounded on the north by 
 Moxos and La Paz ; on the west by La Paz and 
 Charcas ; on the soutli by Charcas ; and on the 
 east by Santa Cruz de la Sierra, and Chiquitos. 
 These are the general boundaries, but its parti- 
 cular limits are well described by the celebrated 
 Prussian naturalist Haenke. (7.) 
 
 The territory of Cochabamba forms an oblong 
 tract of land, extending from east to west 520 
 miles, and from north to south 92 miles. 
 
 There is no province in the two Americas which 
 nature has denned with such determinate and 
 lasting boundaries as that of Cochabamba. The 
 Rio Grande, a noble river, separates it from the 
 districts of Chayanta, Yamparaes, and Charcas on 
 the south ; a chain of mountains situated in the 
 interior, and whose summits reach the clouds, 
 constitute a formidable barrier on the north, and 
 separate it from the mountains of the Andes. 
 The industry of man has with gentle advances, 
 extended the territory of this province, and con- 
 verted what appeared impenetrable forests, into 
 the most beautiful and productive regions of the 
 earth. The Rio Grande and the chain of moun- 
 tains before mentioned, incline a little to the north 
 of direct east lines, but their courses are always 
 parallel. On the west this Intendency is bound- 
 ed by that immense chain of mountains, which are
 
 163 
 
 sometimes called the Cordilleras of the coast; 
 and on the east, it extends to those vast unbroken 
 plains which reach almost to the Atlantic ocean. 
 On carefully considering the geographical fea- 
 tures of this territory, it is found to slope off gra- 
 dually from the highest elevations on the west 
 into those unexplored and interminable plains on 
 the east, where the empire of the native inhabit- 
 ants, the Indians and wild beasts, has never been 
 disputed. This declivity forms an inclined plane, 
 whose elevated part is the highest point of the 
 Cordilleras, and whose base reposes upon the 
 lowest level of the continent. It is to this singu- 
 lar and happy position, that Cochabamba owes its 
 fertility, and, that in so very small a portion of the 
 globe, every variety of soil and climate in the 
 world is found. On the summits of the Cordille- 
 ras, an eternal winter reigns, where the inhabi- 
 tants of the remotest regions of Siberia and Kam- 
 schatka, may encounter a climate as unfriendly as 
 their own. 
 
 The interior or lower part of the Cordilleras 
 contains immense quantities of metals, and the de- 
 clivities of the mountains and the plains beneath* 
 abound in every kind of mineral, saline, and vege- 
 table production. The lakes of the country are 
 inexhaustible fountains of common salt, which is 
 dissolved in the rainy season, and crystallized in 
 the dry; which process is rapidly carried on in a 
 country of such great elevation. In these parts of 
 the country are found plains covered with mineral 
 alkali, (carbonate of soda.) sal admirabile, (sul-
 
 164 
 
 phate of soda,) and magnesia vitriolada, (sulphate 
 of magnesia). Descending from these mountains, 
 upon the scattered rocks are found vitriol and 
 alum, which are called cachina and millo, whose 
 masses are decomposed by the powerful hand of 
 time. 
 
 Upon the tops of the mountains, which are co- 
 vered with snow, where the atmosphere is too 
 rare for the respiration of ordinary animals, are 
 found the different species of the Peruvian Camel, 
 the Guanaco, the Llama, the Al pacha, and the Vi- 
 cuna : and the wool of the latter is esteemed the 
 finest in the world. Notwithstanding the extreme 
 barrenness of this Cordillera, and its great eleva- 
 tion, nature with a bountiful hand, and as if intend- 
 ing that every part of this most favoured and inter- 
 esting province should minister to the comforts 
 and necessities of man, has spread over its preci- 
 pices and highest peaks, a multitude of healing 
 herbs, whose medicinal virtues have placed them 
 in the highest rank in the materia medica. These 
 are yareta, gentian, and every species of valerian. De- 
 scending the Cordilleras to the neighbouring val- 
 leys, and the profound ravines, there is experienc- 
 ed, within a very limited extent, the influence of a 
 climate extremely sweet and benignant, and which 
 is at the medium temperature of the whole globe. 
 It is here that nature has established a just equili- 
 brium between the gradations of heat and cold, 
 and which, in proportion to its elevation, and its 
 particular formation, has tempered the intense 
 heat of the torrid zone with the frosts of the arctic
 
 165 
 
 circle. The mild and cheering temperature 
 which in Europe prevails only in the spring, is 
 here perpetual, and the variations of the thermo- 
 meter between the heat of the rainy seasons and 
 the cold of the dry, are so small as scarcely to be 
 perceptible. This province produces in equal 
 abundance maize, barley, wheat, vines, the olive, 
 and all the fruits of the ancient continent. In the 
 narrow defiles, watered by the rapid rivers of the 
 Cordilleras, the refraction of the solar rays aug- 
 ments the heat, and the sides are covered with 
 trees, whose numbers increase' in proportion to 
 their distance from the summits of the mountains. 
 The mountains of the Andes, which are nearest to 
 the elevated peaks of the Cordillera of the inte- 
 rior, have other modifications of soil and tempera- 
 ture, which are peculiar to Upper Peru. Trees 
 and plants innumerable cover the soil with prodi- 
 gious abundance, and fill the atmosphere with a 
 salubrity and fragrance beyond any other region 
 in the world. In this place, properly speaking, 
 the temperature of the torrid zone commences. 
 The fecundity of nature is here displayed in all 
 its richness and beauty ; all the animals, and ve- 
 getables of e/ery variety and class, attract here 
 the curiosity of the philosopher ; and their number 
 and beauty transcend the powers of imagination. 
 A considerable but uniform degree of heat, and 
 a constant but agreeable moisture in the atmos- 
 phere, produce an equanimity of temper and of 
 feeling, to which the people of variable climates 
 are strangers, and which cannot be sufficiently ap-
 
 16(5 
 
 predated. This fertile soil produces the palm, 
 the pine, or anana, the banana, so various in its 
 species, cotton, Peruvian bark, and cocoa. 
 
 The union of the streams which take their rise 
 in this chain of mountains, forms the immense ri- 
 ver of the Amazons, and at the foot of the smallest 
 chain commence those vast plains extending to- 
 wards the east, whose limits have never been ex- 
 plored. 
 
 Such are the varieties of soil and^climate in the 
 province of Cochabamba, and from which its fer- 
 tility and the multitude of its productions may 
 easily be imagined. In this little work, the re- 
 sult of long and painful excursions, 1 have endea- 
 voured to display, with all the order and method 
 of which 1 am capable, the most interesting of its 
 productions ; they are worthy in all respects of 
 the attention of the government, which in time 
 will reap the greatest advantages, if it will patro- 
 nise the exploration of it, since its productions are 
 the most important materials the elements and 
 foundation of manufactures and the arts, and of 
 all the objects of industry. The above are the 
 observations, in substance, of Mons. Haenke. 
 
 The word Cochabamba, in the Quechua dia- 
 lect, means rich grass, and the territory is aptly 
 named. This intendency contains no provinces, 
 and has no tributary Indians. Its population is 
 about 115,000. 
 
 In descending from the cold and lofty plains of 
 Oruro, the green verdure begins to appear when 
 you enter the vale of Arque, where is experienced
 
 167 
 
 an atmosphere which is loaded with fragrance ; 
 and in passing through this valley you meet witfh 
 a cluster of cottages and flour mills, embosomed 
 among the most beautiful fruit and forest trees. 
 At a distance of thirty miles from Arque stands the 
 city of Oropesa, or Cochabamba, (S. lat. 18 31'.) 
 the capital of the intendency. It is situated in a 
 beautiful plain near the river Sacabo. The roads 
 leading into the city are planted with lofty forest 
 trees, resembling the finest avenues of Versailles. 
 The city is square, and the streets, which are spa- 
 cious, cross each, other at right angles. It con- 
 tains five convents and two nunneries ; the former 
 have extensive gardens, which are well cultiva- 
 ted, and the fruit orchards abound with fine fruit. 
 The population of the city is about 25,000. 
 
 The inhabitants of this intendency consist prin- 
 cipally of Mestizos and Cholos, and they are stri- 
 kingly different from the population of the other 
 provinces, being fairer and taller, and generally 
 better made. The fairness of their complexion is 
 certainly a phenomenon, the cause of which I can- 
 not explain. They are industrious farmers, skil- 
 ful mechanics, and possessed of superior intelli- 
 gence to their neighbours ; and during the bloody 
 scenes of the present revolution, they nave distin- 
 guished themselves as intrepid soldiers. 
 
 The eastern section of the intendency is called 
 Valle Grande, which is a most productive district. 
 The inhabitants are almost all fanners, who 
 raise great quantities of wheat, which is sent to 
 the markets of La Paz and Potosi, and the other
 
 168 
 
 :old countries; and cotton also is cultivated in 
 great abundance, which is declared to be of 
 a very superior quality. They cultivate flax also 
 in great quantities, but make no other use of it, 
 except to extract the oil from the seed. This oil 
 is a great article of consumption in the churches, 
 being used to supply the lamps, which in those holy 
 places are kept constantly burning. The farmers 
 of this intendency rear a breed of horses equal in 
 beauty and strength to the famous Chilian horses, 
 and also vast numbers of asses. The products of 
 this country are carried to marjtet on the backs 
 of asses; they have no other means of transporta- 
 tion, carriages being entirely unknown. Great 
 numbers of asses are employed in this business; 
 they are loaded with huge panniers or baskets, 
 into which the goods are put, and they are then 
 turned loose in the street, and driven along in 
 caravans of 2 or 300. In this way are carried to 
 La Paz, a distance of 240 miles, in great abun- 
 dance, fowls, turkeys, bread, pastry, sweetmeats, 
 and even eggs. 
 
 After the farmers, the next principal class of the 
 population are manufacturers. Of the cotton, 
 there were manufactured into cloth, in the city of 
 Oropesa, in 1799, 1,500,000 lbs. which was all 
 consumed in the country, and which sells at the 
 rate of from 4 to 10 shillings per yard. Since that 
 year, the quantity has considerably increased, and 
 in the late European wars Cochabamba and Cuz- 
 co supplied the whole country with manufac- 
 tured goods. There are manufactories of glass
 
 169 
 
 bottles on the Rio Grande, and of earthen ware, 
 which are rude and coarse indeed, but which are 
 carried on to a considerable extent. They have 
 also manufactories of glue, and they are acquaint- 
 ed with the art of dyeing. During the revolution, 
 they supplied themselves with muskets of their 
 own ' manufacture, made from a composition of 
 copper and lead. They have some machinery, 
 but all of their own invention. 
 
 There is but one mine here, which is that of 
 Choque-camata, or bed of gold, which was formerly 
 rich, but has been abandoned. 
 
 The people of this country rarely ride ; indeed 
 they are so much accustomed to walking, that it 
 is reported of one, who having mounted an ass, 
 and undertaking to count the number of his drove, 
 forgot to reckon that on which he was seated, and 
 supposed he had lost one. 
 
 The fruits of Cochabamba arid Urubamba in 
 Cuzco, are certainly the finest in the world. Of 
 peaches they have 10 or 12 different species; 
 some so delicate, that they will not bear transpor- 
 tation ; they are like a syrrup in the mouth, and 
 possess a deliciousness of flavour, which 1 shall 
 not attempt to describe. Sweet and sour oranges, 
 wild and cultivated, are found throughout the 
 whole country, on the east of the Cordilleras, 
 from Cochabamba to Lima; also, pine apples, 
 bananas, lemons, pears, apples, plums, figs, grapes, 
 olives, and in short, all the fruits of the old and 
 new continent. Oranges are produced all the 
 year round, the same tree exhibiting at the same 
 
 Y
 
 170 
 
 time, flowers and ripe fruit. There are also great 
 varieties of fruits peculiar to the country ; chiri- 
 moyas, which are exquisitely delicious, bananas, 
 granadillas, pacays, &c. The trees which bear the 
 chirimoya, are of the size of the apple tree, and 
 the blossoms are wonderfully fragrant. 
 
 Besides the fruits of this district, there are in- 
 numerable flowering shrubs, which perfume the 
 atmosphere ; and great varieties of garden stuffs, 
 kitchen vegetables, &c. 
 
 I shall be more minute in my description of the 
 productions of this and the other provinces, after 
 1 have concluded my geographical survey of the 
 country.
 
 171 
 LETTER IV. 
 
 LA PAZ. 
 
 This lntendency is bounded on the north by 
 the country of the Amazons, and the intend ency 
 of Cuzco in Low Peru ; on the west by those of 
 Puno, or Chuciuto, and Arequipa; on the south 
 by Potosi and Charcas, and on the east by Co- 
 chabamba and Moxos. Its population is about 
 110,000, without including Indians. The west- 
 ern section of this intendency is an extensive 
 plain, bordering on the eastern shore of the great 
 lake Titicaca. The climate is cold, on account of 
 its proximity to the Cordilleras, and its produc- 
 tions are principally potatoes and barley. The east- 
 ern part includes the eastern Cordillera, and its de- 
 clivities, together with those fertile plains which 
 extend towards Moxos and Cochabamba. Of this 
 Cordillera, the highest peaks are those of Anco- 
 ma, or hoary head, in the north, and Ilimani in the 
 south, distant about 100 miles from each other. 
 The figure of Ilimani is pyramidal, resembling 
 in many points the famous peak of Chimborazo, 
 and it probably belongs to the same chain of 
 mountains. Its top, in the dry season, is visible 
 a distance of 150 miles: in the rainy season it 
 is enveloped in clouds. The appearance of these 
 mountains is wonderfully grand, and particularly 
 when seen in the night time from the city of La 
 Paz, situated in the valleys below, at a distance 
 f thirty miles. You behold a lofty barrier
 
 172 
 
 of mountains, stretching from north to south, 
 with almost an uniform elevation, as far as the eye 
 can reach, with summits crowned with perpetual 
 snows the whole extent, except at the pass of Chu- 
 lumani; and the sublimity of the view is softened 
 into beauty, when you contrast their hoary sum- 
 mits with the green verdure of the forests on their 
 eastern declivities, and the fertile valleys at their 
 base. 
 
 The two points of Ilimani and Ancoma on the 
 east, form the source of the river Beni, one of the 
 branches of the Amazon 5 on the west their wa- 
 ters run into the lake Titicaca. 
 
 This intendency is divided into six lesser pro- 
 vinces or sub-delegations, to wit, Cica-Cica, Pa- 
 cages, Omazuegos, Larecaja, Apolobamba, and 
 Chulumani. Of these provinces the three first are 
 situated on the west, and are cold and unproduc- 
 tive, but abundant in metals. 
 
 The province of Cica-Cica has its chief town of 
 the same name. It is bounded on the west by the 
 coast of Arica, and extends 75 miles from north 
 to south, and 120 miles from east to west. Its 
 population is about 25,000. This province is laid 
 down erroneously in all the maps. There are here 
 rich silver mines, and in the village of Ayoayo 
 there is a salt spring, from which are produced 
 vast quantities of salt, and of the finest quality. 
 
 The provine of Pacages lies north-west of Cica- 
 Cica; its chief town is Caquiavire. Its extent 
 from east to west is 168 miles, and from north to 
 south 120 miles. It is separated from the coast of
 
 173 
 
 Arica by the western Cordillera* There are in 
 this province 70 mines of silver which are work- 
 ed; there is also a mine of emeralds. In the vil- 
 lage of Berenguela there is a quarry of fine alabas- 
 ter, which is beautifully transparent. It is fre- 
 quently used for window lights, and particularly in 
 the churches ; and splendid jet d' eaux were con- 
 structed of it by the Jesuits of La Paz ; and the 
 upright pipes are so transparent as to exhibit the 
 water as it ascends through them. Talc is also 
 found here in abundance. 
 
 In the village of Tiaguanaco are situated the 
 ruins of a palace of the Incas, which are now little 
 more than huge stones piled one upon another. 
 
 The province of Omazuegos is bounded by La- 
 recaja on the north-west, by Chucuito on the 
 west, by Pacages on the south, and by the Cordil- 
 lera on the east. It extends 120 miles from north 
 to south, and from 48 to 60 miles from east to west ; 
 the chief town is Hachacache, 54 miles north-west 
 of La Paz. Near this place is a famous wall of 
 stone, which extends from the top of the Cordillera 
 to the shore of the lake Titicaca, a distance of 
 about 30 miles; commencing at theverge of the 
 snows on the mountain, and losing itself in the 
 lake. It was, no doubt, a work of the Incas ; but 
 its object has never been explained. Its height 
 at present is uniformly about four feet ; it has suf- 
 fered very little injury from time. About 8 miles 
 south of this wall are situated a cluster of Indian 
 cottages, which must have been erected also in 
 the times of the Incas. They are construct- 
 ed of stones, neatly fitted together, and the
 
 171 
 
 doors, or entrances, are observed to be remarka- 
 bly small. There are some buildings among them 
 which are higher than the rest ; perhaps 40 feet 
 high, and which resemble towers. These are not 
 built of stone, but of a kind of cement, the compo- 
 sition of which is not known, and upon which the 
 operations of the elements have made no impres- 
 sion. They are round, without doors, and are sup- 
 posed to have been tombs. These monuments of the 
 Incas are as indistructible as those of the ancient 
 Romans, and are constructed after their fashion. 
 
 In this province is situated the village of Capa- 
 cavana, which is a consecrated place ; where the 
 devout Catholics, even from Lima and Salta, resort 
 to pay their worship to the virgin Copacavana. 
 The church is fine, and constructed of stone, ac- 
 cording to the regular rules of architecture. The 
 riches of the church it is impossible to calculate. 
 It has a chandelier of silver, with 365 branches, 
 one for every day in the year. The virgin is 
 placed on a wheel, which turns round to present 
 her divine countenance to every part of the 
 church. She is covered with diamonds, pearls, 
 and precious stones, and every sort of rich jew- 
 elry, which is accumulated by the donations of 
 the devotees. All this wealth is shamefully dis- 
 sipated by the monks of St. Augustine, who have 
 the custody of the virgin, and who have a convent 
 in the place. This situation is much sought for by 
 the ecclesiastics all over the country, as it affords 
 them a fine opportunity for thieving. 
 
 In this province there arc several mines of sil-
 
 175 
 
 ver ; also of quicksilver, in a mountain called Co- 
 abilque, near the Estancia de Carbiza. This 
 mine, when it was first opened, afforded great 
 quantities of quicksilver, but it awakened the nar- 
 row jealousy of the vice-royalty of Lima, within 
 which it was then included, and the working of it 
 was prohibited, in order that the government 
 might enjoy the monopoly of the mine of Huanca- 
 velica. In Spanish America the court of Madrid 
 reserves to itself the exclusive right of selling mer- 
 cury to the miners, and the quantity of silver pro- 
 duced depends very much upon the quantity and 
 price of this article. In several other parts of this 
 province, in Pucurani and Guarina, quicksilver has 
 been found. The bottom of the mountains in this 
 province is full of silver mines, but one only is 
 worked. 
 
 The great lake Titicaca is situated on the west 
 of this province. It lies 30 miles west of the city 
 of La Paz, and the intervening country is a level 
 plain. This lake is about 240 miles in circumfer- 
 ence ; its medium width is about 30 miles, and its 
 principal direction is north-west and south-east. 
 It contains several beautiful islands, which are fer- 
 tile, producing corn, barley, potatoes, &c. 
 
 The north part of the lake is mild and tempe- 
 rate, and Orurillo, and other villages, on the north- 
 ern extremity exhibit some lofty trees, and consi- 
 derable vegetation. The shores of the lake are 
 fertile, except in the immediate vicinity of the 
 Cordilleras, where the climate is cold, and the soil 
 comparatively unproductive. The temperature
 
 176 
 
 depends altogether upon the proximity of the snowy 
 mountains. On leaving the base of the mountains, 
 you find a sensible increase of heat, in travelling 
 even three .miles. The borders of the lake are 
 beautifully picturesque, and covered with villages 
 and cultivated fields. 
 
 This lake abounds with fine fish, particularly 
 the Bogelia, and on its shores and islands are 
 found great numbers of water fowl of various 
 species. 
 
 Nature has pointed out this great body of water 
 as the channel of an extensive commerce among 
 the interior Provinces, and between them and the 
 ocean, but it has been neglected. From the west- 
 ern shores of this lake to Arequipa it is 75 miles, 
 and from that city to the ocean 60 miles; makii g 
 the whole distance to the ocean 135 miles; and 
 although there is nothing but a mule road at pre- 
 sent, it might easily be made into a good carriage 
 road, as the Cordillera here is much broken. The 
 mode of transportation is altogether on the backs 
 of mules : these animals attain an extraordinary 
 size on the coast, and they will carry 400 weight 
 each, travelling unshod over the rough roads, with 
 great expedition, and without stopping to feed, for 
 a distance of 36 miles. 
 
 At present the lake is not at all navigated, ex- 
 cept by the Indians in their canoes for the pur- 
 poses of fishing. On the south, it has, as 1 have 
 before stated, the outlet of the river Desaguadero, 
 which empties into the lake of Paria, within 130 
 miles of Potosi. The lake Titicaca and this river.
 
 177 
 
 together, afford navigable waters for a distance 
 of 262 miles, and they lie directly in the route 
 from Buenos Ayres, by Potosi, to Lima and the 
 Pacific ocean ; and at the distance of 40 miles up 
 the river from Paria, stands the city of Oruro, the 
 center of the inland commerce of the Provinces. 
 
 The Province of Larecaja is situated north of 
 the city of La Paz. It extends from east to west 
 354 miles, and from north to south 90 miles. This 
 Province begins atAncoma, the north peak of the 
 Cordilleras, and extends north to the Province of 
 Carabaya in Low Peru. It is very irregular and 
 mountainous, full of impetuous rivers which form 
 the source of the river Beni, one of the principal 
 branches of the Amazon. Its chief town is Zo- 
 rata, situated at the bottom of the Cordilleras, 
 and which contains 10 or 12,000 white inhabitants, 
 who are principally engaged in working the gold 
 mines of the Province. The whole Province con- 
 tains 32 small towns or villages ; .the climate is 
 varied, according to the elevation of the moun- 
 tains, but is generally temperate ; the rivers are 
 uncommonly rapid and boisterous in their course, 
 and full of cataracts. The ridges of the moun- 
 tains as you go north from Ancoma, are full of mines 
 of gold, and in the villages of Ananea and Yani 
 there are rich mines which are worked. It is a 
 remarkable fact in the geological history of this 
 territory, that the gold mines commence at Ancoma 
 (lat. 15 S.) and only occur as you travel north 
 and east; while towards the south is situated the 
 region of silver. The peak of Ancoma, like the 
 
 Z
 
 170 
 
 equator, divides this metallic region into two 
 hemispheres, that of gold on the north and silver 
 on the south. 
 
 The gold in the mines is found embedded in 
 white and blue quartz, and frequently combined 
 with other metals. It is frequently found united 
 with silver, and the miners do not understand the 
 mode of separating them. The price of this gold 
 is less than that obtained by the washings, and com* 
 monly varies from 12 to $14 per ounce. 
 
 The mode of separating the gold is very similar 
 to that employed at Potosi, in extracting the silver 
 from its ores; but the operation is much more 
 rude and slovenly. The ores are in the first place 
 broken into small pieces, and then ground to a 
 powder, which is mixed with quicksilver until it 
 forms an amalgam, and the quicksilver is then eva- 
 porated, leaving the metal, which is cast into 
 ingots. 
 
 In this province, and the neighbouring province 
 of Carabaya, in Low Peru, are the famous rivers 
 where the pure washed gold is found, and of which 
 I shall particularly speak. 
 
 In crossing the Cordilleras to the east, at the 
 distance of 36 miles from Ancoma, you meet with 
 the source of the river Tipuani, which afterwards 
 takes the name of Beni. This river pours down 
 from the Cordilleras like a torrent, and flows 
 with an impetuous and roaring current the dis- 
 tance of 120 miles, through the narrow defiles 
 of the mountains, in a northwardly direction,
 
 179 
 
 to the village of Tipuani. In descending from 
 the Cordilleras the distance of 20 miles, you 
 enter a region where trees and vegetation begin to 
 appear; and as you proceed northward you find a 
 country covered with thick forests, wild barley, 
 bananas, sugar canes, and all the various produc- 
 tions of the Amazons ; with birds of every variety 
 of plumage, and innumerable monkeys. The roads 
 here are extremely rough, and impassable except 
 on foot, or on the backs of mules. 
 
 On the banks of the river Tipuani are found 
 abundance of gold in the most extraordinary man- 
 ner, and in wonderful purity, it being 23^ carats, 1 J 
 carat finer than the standard of the United States 
 coin. The gold is commonly found in little grains 
 of the size of barley corns, but sometimes in large 
 lumps. The miner sinks a large shaft, close by the 
 edge of the river, and until he meets with a pan 
 of slate, which is called Penna ; the water is then 
 taken out by the Indians with buckets, one stand- 
 ing above another. This is a most tedious and 
 expensive operation, and frequently occupies two 
 or three months of the dry season. The Indians re- 
 ceive for this service six shillings ad ay, and there are 
 frequently 200 employed in one mine. After the wa- 
 teris thrownout, galleries are dug in different direc- 
 tions, according to the course of the metal ; and 
 in these the gold is found, mixed with a hard blue 
 clay, which is all taken out together. The gold is 
 found everywhere on the banks of the river; I 
 have frequently seen the experiment tried, and 
 never knew it fail. This gold and clay together
 
 180 
 
 are put into a canal constructed with slate, and 
 whose bottom is an inclined plane, into which a 
 current of water is introduced, which washes away 
 the clay and earthy particles, and leaves the 
 heaviest particles of the gold behind, which are 
 collected and put into sacks, and carried to La 
 Paz, where they are cast into plates or ingots of 
 4 lbs. each, and which are worth % 1,000. The 
 light grains are washed away by the water, and 
 are afterwards picked up by the poor people, who 
 sometimes employ quicksilver for the purpose. 
 The workmen employed in the mines depend 
 more upon their opportunities for thieving than 
 upon their regular wages as a compensation for 
 their services. They bave a dexterous mode of 
 throwing bits of gold into their mouths as they 
 pick them up, in which way they collect a good 
 deal of gold, in spite of the vigilance of the 
 overseers, of whom there is one appointed over 
 every 50 workmen. 
 
 When the banks of the river are very high, ca- 
 nals are dug to drain off the water, and rocks are 
 sometimes found upon the surface of the ground, 
 which are removed by blasting with powder, and 
 which is a very expensive operation. 
 
 Provisions in Tipuani are very dear, being 
 brought a distance of 2 or 300 miles ; there is no 
 agricultural industry carried on here, although the 
 country is the most fertde in the world. Brandy 
 is much drank; it is an article of prime necessity 
 among the miners, and is sold at a very high price. 
 
 Jn conducting these lavaderos or washings, eve-
 
 181 
 
 ry operation is carried on in the most expensive, 
 rude, and slovenly manner, and machinery is en- 
 tirely unknown. The expenses of working amine 
 are frequently $14,000 in three months, and when 
 we add to this the quantities of gold which are 
 pilfered by the workmen, it is evident that the 
 mines could never be worked with profit unless 
 the product was very large. According to the 
 official reports of the Balanzario at La Paz, where 
 the gold is registered, the annual product from 
 this river is 35,200 ounces ; this does not include 
 the quantity appropriated to private ornaments, 
 nor that which is not registered by the proprie- 
 tors, or which is pilfered by the workmen. In the 
 neighbouring province of Carabaya, in which the 
 river is of the same character, and the gold of the 
 same carats, the amount which has been register- 
 ed, according to Alcedo, is $33,000,000. This 
 gold is never sold for less than $16 an ounce. 
 
 These mines were worked in the times of the 
 Incas, who appear to have been well acquainted 
 with the richest mines in the country There are 
 frequently found near these mines, tools of copper 
 and tin, which belonged to them. Their routes 
 from the mines were straight across the moun- 
 tains to their capital. 
 
 The miners here, like all others, have their al- 
 ternations of wealth and poverty. They are fre- 
 quently extremely rich. There were, a few years 
 since, two Portuguese, named Suares, who opened 
 a mine which yielded them vast quantities of gold. 
 They had many boxes filled with this precious
 
 182 
 
 metal stored away in their houses. They fell in 
 the revolution of Tupac Amaru, and all their gold 
 was dissipated ; but after the troubles were over, 
 the Indians returned to their sons $60,000 a piece, 
 which had been saved. 
 
 The gold is conveyed from Tipuani in sacks of 
 skin, which are carried to La Paz on the backs of 
 Indians, and with perfect security from robbery, 
 through the thick forests ; the usual load for an 
 Indian carrier is 5 arobas, (125 lbs.) 
 
 The rivers Challana, Suches, and Vilaque, 
 which rise in the same chain of mountains, unite 
 at Tipuani, and form the great river Beni. 
 There are also lavaderos, or gold washings, on 
 these rivers, where the metal is found in abun- 
 dance. 
 
 The town of Tipuani is situated on the northern 
 extremity of this province, and here the river, as 
 it assumes the name of Beni, loses its rapid course, 
 and flows with a smooth and even current towards 
 the east. Here the river is more than a mile wide, 
 with sufficient depth of water to float vessels of 
 considerable burthen. The Indians come to this 
 town in their canoes, carrying 20 or 30 Indians, 
 from the country of Moxos, and the establishments 
 of the Missions, three or four hundred miles down 
 the river. There is no doubt that from the town 
 of Tipuani, the river of Beni, and the Amazon, 
 with which it unites, are navigable to the Atlantic 
 Ocean. In the revolution of Tupac Amaru, Es- 
 trada, a citizen of Zorata, fled from the country, 
 and went down this river in a canoe to Reyes, a vil-
 
 183 
 
 lage of reduced Indians, where he got on board of a 
 a Portuguese vessel, and went to Spain, carrying 
 with him immense treasures. 
 
 At Tipuani the country becomes level, and 
 stretches off towards the north and east, into ex- 
 panded plains covered with forests, and exhibiting 
 gentle undulations of hills clothed in luxuriant ve- 
 getation. From the top of the mountain of Silla, 
 near Tipuani, the view is entirely open towards the 
 north and east. I do not imagine that a finer 
 country can be presented to the human eye ; and 
 when we consider that in the neighbourhood are 
 mines of gold, the richness of which has never 
 been explored ; that here are groves of costly 
 woods, and forests of the finest timber trees, with 
 a soil of great fertility, and capable of producing 
 all the various productions of the east, not except- 
 ing the cinnamon and spices of the Indian Isles, 
 and that all these things are seated at the head, 
 and on the borders of waters navigable to the At- 
 lantic Ocean, we must be satisfied that the bright- 
 est visions of fancy can scarcely portray the fu- 
 ture riches of this favoured country ; its impor- 
 tance to the commerce of the United States ; the 
 changes which will be wrought by its indepen- 
 dence in the political economy of nations ; in 
 short, the floods of wealth which will roll down 
 the broad bosom of the Amazon and its tributary 
 streams, to enrich the world I 
 
 The Indians who resort to Tipuani are those of 
 Reyes, Mapiri, and Lecos, villages recently re- 
 duced by the friars of St. Augustine. These peo-
 
 J81 
 
 pie are much fairer than the other natives of this 
 country, are neat in their apparel, and clean- 
 ly in their persons, using frequent ablutions. They 
 have manufactories of curious fabrics made of 
 the bark of a tree common in the country, proba- 
 bly the paper mulberry. The bark is pound- 
 ed fine, dissolved in water, and sized with some 
 resins of the country, and is then made into a 
 fabric resembling coarse paper, and which is 
 made in a similar manner. This fabric is used 
 for the various purposes of clothing. They also 
 manufacture a stuff of the wild cotton, which 
 is produced in abundance in their forests. Ano- 
 ther kind is made of the plumage of beautiful 
 birds, interwoven with twine. They also make a 
 species of tapestry, not unlike the hangings of the 
 parliament house of Great Britain, and in which is 
 wove the figures of men and animals. Also combs 
 of curious workmanship, of a kind of wood called 
 chonta, which resembles ebony. Their skill in 
 archery is truly surprising. 1 have seen them 
 play with an orange, tossing it into the air, and 
 hitting it with their arrows, and keeping it from 
 the ground, for an hour together. They will 
 hit a bird on the wing at a considerable distance, 
 and with unerring certainty. Their arrows are 
 tipped with the chonta wood, and in war are poi- 
 sonedi These Indians are very fond of iron in- 
 struments, and will barter their beautiful fabrics 
 for tools of any kind. Their character is gener- 
 ally mild and peaceable ; they are entirely under 
 the subjection of their Friars. In the north part
 
 185 
 
 ef this province are situated the villages of Consa- 
 ta and Charasani, inhabited by the famous pedes* 
 trians, of whom I have before spoken. 
 
 The province of Apolobamba is situated north 
 of that of Larecaja, following the range of the Cor- 
 dilleras. It is 240 miles from north to south, and 
 120 miles from east to west. This province is ex- 
 tremely rude and mountainous on the west; on 
 the east it slopes off into extensive plains to the 
 river Tuychi. Its population amounts to 30,000, 
 and consists principally of civilized Indians. 
 There are a few Spaniards and Creoles, who are 
 proprietors of large plantations. It contains eight 
 small towns or villages, and its chief town is St. An- 
 tonio de Aten. The north-eastern part of this 
 province borders on the country of the Amazons. 
 
 In this province there is an extensive cultivation 
 of cocoa, which is equal to that, of Sochonosco in 
 Mexico, which is esteemed the best in the world. 
 It is an article of great consumption among the 
 people of this country; its price is $1 a pound. 
 Rice, cotton, wax, &c. are produced in abundance. 
 
 The province of Chulumani is situated east of 
 the city of La Paz. It extends 150 miles from 
 north to south, and 90 miles from east to west. It 
 contains twenty small towns. Its chief town is 
 Coroyco, situated on the east of the Cordillera. 
 In this province are the haciendas, or plantations 
 of coca, by which the whole country is supplied 
 with this article. It is the tobacco of the Indians, 
 used universally by them, but never by the whites. 
 It is the leaf of a small tree, which is chew- 
 
 2 A
 
 186 
 
 ed. They are plucked in May and November, and 
 sometimes three times a year, dried in the sun, then 
 tied up in bundles of 22 lbs. each, pressed, steeped 
 ed in lye, and sent into the market for use. A bun- 
 dle is worth from 8 to Si 2. Its sales amount at 
 least to $ 4,000,000 annually at La Paz, and it con- 
 stitutes a great branch of the trade of this city. 
 Its taste is bitter; it is warming to the stomach, 
 and a sudorifick to those who are not accus- 
 tomed to it. It is an article of the first neces- 
 sity to the Indian ; he cannot labour without it, 
 and prefers it to his food. Coffee is produced, 
 here, which is occasionally drank, but not so 
 abundantly as chocolate, which is the universal 
 morning beverage of the country. There are 
 some vineyards here, but not very extensive. This 
 province being almost exclusively devoted to coca, 
 the provisions are brought from the neighbouring 
 countries. 
 
 The city of La Paz, the capital of the Intenden- 
 cy, is situated in latitude 16 30' south, 180 miles 
 cast of the Pacific coast. It was founded by the 
 licentiate Gasca, after the battle of Guarina, at 
 the period of the conquest. It stands on the 
 site of an ancient Indian village, called in the 
 Aymara dialect, Choka-Yapoo, meaning/arm of po- 
 tatoes, and not of gold, as some historians have as- 
 serted. The Aymara language was only spoken 
 in this section of the country, an ignorance of 
 which fact has led the celebrated Humboldt into 
 an error when he says, " That from the plain 
 of Tiahuanaco, situated between the cities of
 
 187 
 
 Cuzco and La Paz, descended numerous and pow- 
 erful tribes, who carried their arms, language, and 
 arts even to the northern hemisphere." And be- 
 sides, the most fertile countries are not in the 
 north, but in the south: to wit, Cochabamba, Tu- 
 cuman, and Chili. 
 
 This city is sometimes known in that country 
 under the name of Chookeago. It is situated in a 
 hollow, considerably below the elevation of the 
 plains which extend from the Cordilleras to the lake. 
 You approach the town by a gradual descent of 
 three miles, and the whole city stands before you, 
 appearing one red,' the roofs of the houses being 
 covered with red tile. The city is divided by the 
 river Chookeago, which, rising in the Cordilleras, 
 takes a southerly direction, bending round the 
 base of llimani, and then runs north, until it 
 unites with the Tipuani. In the city there 
 are four stone bridges across the river. The 
 streets are rectangular, paved, and of convenient 
 width. The dwelling-houses are principally built 
 of stone, of two and three stories high ; and ma- 
 ny of them exhibit much taste and elegance in 
 their structure. In the public Square, there are 
 some splendid edifices, and in the centre of the 
 Square stands a fountain of water constructed of 
 transparent alabaster ; and indeed there are foun- 
 tains at the corners of almost every street. There 
 are five convents, three nunneries, and five paro- 
 chial churches, and these convents and nunne- 
 ries are extremely rich. In the nunnery of Con- 
 cebidas, there is a figure of the sun, for exhi-
 
 188 
 
 biting the Host, made of gold and diamonds, 
 and standing on a pedestal of solid gold of a 
 yard and a half high. The rays of the sun are 
 gold studded with brilliants. The Cathedral 
 is full of silver; the front of the altar even to the 
 roof, is covered with this precious metal. The 
 cups of the sacrament are of pure gold. The 
 bells of the Church are large; for ringing them at 
 funerals, a duty is paid, which is $100 when the 
 great bell of the Cathedral is tolled. 
 
 The literary institutions consist of one poor 
 college ; but what I must not omit for it is cre- 
 ditable to the humanity- and intelligence of the ci- 
 tizens is an alms-house, where the poor are en- 
 tertained. In traversing the streets, you as rarefy 
 meet a beggar as in the city of New- York. This 
 is the only institution of the kind to be found in 
 South America. 
 
 The climate of La Paz is cold, although it is 
 mild at a little distance from the city, as you recede 
 from the Cordilleras. The city stands at the base 
 of the lofty peak of Ilimani, which almost overlooks 
 it, and whose snowy summit and verdant sides ex- 
 hibit a fine view. This mountain seems obnox- 
 ious to thunder storms, which are frequent on its 
 aerial top, and which at times greatly enhance its 
 native sublimity. The plains surrounding the city 
 are clothed in perpetual verdure, and are very 
 fertile, supplying the city with potatoes, barley 
 and vegetables. The markets of this city are 
 reckoned the best in Upper Peru : the supply of 
 fresh fish from the lake and the ocean, is constant
 
 189 
 
 and abundant : fruits are plenty at all seasons of 
 the year: wines and brandies are supplied in 
 abundance from the Pacific coast, sugar from Cuz- 
 co, and wheat from Cochabamba. At a distance 
 of 20 or 30 miles below the city, on the banks of 
 the river, are some flourishing vineyards, produc- 
 ing red and white grapes, from which considerable 
 quantities of wine are made. There is a great 
 scarcity of fuel here; that which is used is char- 
 coal, and not unfrequently the excrement of ani- 
 mals. It was one mile from this city that a mass 
 of pure gold was found by an Indian as he was 
 bathing in the river, which was valued at $11,^69. 
 It was purchased by the Viceroy Castelfuerte, and 
 sent as a present to his sovereign. 
 
 The population of this city is about 40,000. In 
 the rebellion of Tupac Amaru it suffered severely, 
 but having recovered its ancient prosperity, its si- 
 tuation was such as I have described it in 1808. 
 It was in this city that the fire of the revolution 
 first burst forth, and here it has burned the bright- 
 est. Inhabited by a brave and high spirited peo- 
 ple, many possessing splendid fortunes, and some 
 of noble blood, it has been the scene of the most 
 fearful and desperate struggles for independence. 
 The hurricane of war, atone period, swept its po- 
 pulation into the desert, where they fell either by 
 famine or the sword. At another time, their wells 
 of water were poisoned by infernal conspirators, 
 and a barrack of patriot soldiers was treache- 
 rously blown up, and 300 men perished. It was 
 this devoted town that the monster, Goyeneche,
 
 190 
 
 converted into a human slaughter-house, butcher- 
 ing the miserable inhabitants with his own hands. 
 Unhappy city of my birth ! the period of thy suf- 
 ferings is hastening to a close ; already the thunder 
 of war is dying away in the distance ; brighter days 
 begin to dawn upon thee, and soon shall thy de- 
 serted streets resound with the enlivening hum of 
 business ; and from the ashes of thy slaughtered 
 heroes, there shall arise a people to emulate their 
 virtues, and to restore to thee more than all thy 
 ancient splendour I
 
 191 
 LETTER V. 
 
 SANTA CRUZ DE LA SIERRA, OR PUNO. 
 
 This Intendency is bounded on the North by 
 Chiquitos and Moxos ; on the West by Charcas and 
 Cochabamba; on the South by the Chiriguanos 
 and other tribes of Indians, and on the East by 
 Chiquitos. The population is 100,000. It is di- 
 vided into two departments, Misque and Santa 
 Cruz, from which the Intendency takes its name. 
 
 The department of Misque is bounded by the 
 Cordilleras on the North, by Cochabamba on the 
 West, by Charcas on the South- West and South, 
 and by Santa Cruz on the East. Its climate is 
 warm. The chief town, which is of the same 
 name, stands in a fine valley of eight leagues in 
 circumference, and its population amounts to 
 1 2000. This is an extremely fertile province, pro- 
 ducing in great abundance, corn, sugar, grapes, 
 bees-wax, and honey. Within this province is si- 
 tuated the Lake of Xaraes, which is of considera- 
 ble magnitude, and well stored with fish. Misque 
 in former times was a town of some importance, 
 but it has latterly fallen into decay : there being 
 no mines in its neighbourhood, many of its inha- 
 bitants have removed to other places. 
 
 The province of Santa Cruz is situated east of 
 Misque. The Chief town, which is of the same 
 name, and is the capital of the Intendency, was 
 founded by Chaves, one of the companions of Pi-
 
 192 
 
 zarro in 1560, in latitude 18 4' South, but was af- 
 terwards, in 1575, removed to its present position 
 in latitude 17 49'44"South, and 62 24' West lon- 
 gitude from Paris', at the foot of a small range of 
 mountains on the North of the Intendency. Some 
 of the inhabitants of the former town did not ac- 
 company the others in the removal, but construct- 
 ed a barque, in which they sailed down the river 
 Mamore, and thence into the Amazon, and finally 
 arrived at Cadiz. 
 
 The productions of this province are the "same 
 as those of Misque, but the culture of them has 
 been neglected. There are no mines in the pro- 
 vince. 
 
 IHOXOS AND CH1QUIT05. 
 
 These provinces, which were established by 
 the Jesuits, have been, since their expulsion, sub- 
 jected to a military government. Moxos was con- 
 quered from savage tribes by the Incas, and made 
 part of their great empire. It extends from North 
 to South 360 miles, and nearly the same distance 
 from East to West. It is bounded by the country 
 of the Amazons on the North, by Cochabamba 
 and La Paz on the West, by Chiquitos on the 
 South, and on the East by the dominions of Bra- 
 zil. This province is watered by three rivers, 
 Beni, Mamore, and Santa Cruz, which take their 
 rise in the eastern- Cordillera, and flow into the 
 Amazon.
 
 193 
 
 There are in this province 15 villages, which 
 are situated on the banks of the above mentioned 
 rivers, and are regularly laid out. The houses are 
 of wood. The population of the province is 
 22,000. 
 
 Chiquitos is separated from Moxos, on the North 
 by the mountains of Tapacares ; on the West it is 
 bounded by Santa Cruz de la Sierra, on the North 
 by the forests of Zamucas, and on the East by sa- 
 vage Indians. It contains 10 villages, and has a 
 population of about 20,000. 
 
 The two provinces of Moxos and Chiquitos ex- 
 tend from 14 to 20 South latitude, embracing a 
 fine and fertile tract of country. In the province 
 of Chiquitos there is a beautiful valley of 120 miles 
 in extent. In almost every village, there are 
 churches of regular architecture, richly decorated, 
 and what is particularly worthy of mention, are 
 the choirs of musical instruments in every church, 
 such as organs, harps, violins, and which are 
 played with admirable skill by the Indians, who 
 are carefully taught sacred music by the friars. 
 
 In these Indian villages or missions, there are 
 manufactories of superior cotton fabrics, such as 
 calicoes, diapers, and a stuffresembling merseilles. 
 The Indians are excellent cabinet-makers, making 
 beautiful furniture out of the fine woods which are 
 abundant in the country. They cultivate cocoa 
 and coffee; make great quantities of white and 
 yellow wax, which is an article of great demand 
 for the churches. The king and the priests have 
 all the profits of their industry: the government 
 
 2 B
 
 194 
 
 has a factory in the country, where all the manu- 
 factured goods and the products of the soil are 
 collected, and from whence they are sent to Char- 
 cas and other markets to be sold. 
 
 The climate of these provinces is like that of 
 the East Indies, with half-yearly alternations of 
 rainy and dry weather, and the productions are 
 similar. Cinnamon is produced in abundance 
 and when cultivated, is not inferior to that of Cey- 
 lon. The forests are full of balsamic, resinous, 
 and odoriferous trees. Here are found Peruvian 
 bark, vainilla, ginger, gum copal, and all sorts of 
 resins and healing balsams. The forests of these 
 provinces, and all that is called Montana real, are 
 the finest botanic gardens in the world. Birds are 
 found of almost every variety, and of the most 
 beautiful plumage : there being no unkind winter 
 here to destroy them, or drive them into warmer 
 latitudes There are some beasts of prey, and 
 snakes which are poisonous. The rivers and lakes 
 abound with fish. Honey is collected in great 
 quantities in the forests; and in the north part 
 of Moxos, there is found the silk worm, but it is 
 not cultivated ; the mulberry, upon which it feeds> 
 is a common tree of the country. 
 
 In short, throughout the whole range of these 
 provinces, there is found all the variety of animal 
 and vegetable productions, which are peculiar to 
 the torrid zone in any region of the globe. In- 
 deed, it is a sufficient eulogium upon the climate 
 and the soil of these provinces, that they were se-
 
 195 
 
 lected r by the Jesuits for the establishment of their 
 missions. 
 
 The Indians who inhabit this country, are fairer 
 in complexion and better made than those of any 
 other province. By nature they are a noble race 
 of men ; but they have been prostrated by the 
 united influence of the government and the church. 
 They are subjected to odious servitude, and they 
 have no other reward but their bare subsistence. 
 Whatever they are taught is only with a view to 
 enlarge their capacity to minister to the comforts 
 and luxuries of their selfish and crafty oppressors. 
 They are carefully kept ignorant of the Spanish 
 language, of reading and writing, in order that 
 their subjugation may be complete and perpetual. 
 
 ARICA AND MOQUEGUA. 
 
 Although the provinces I have described are all 
 that are included in Upper Peru, I deem it proper 
 to bestow some attention upon the adjacent Pacific 
 coast, and the ports which it comprises, as they 
 hold an important commercial relation with the 
 interior provinces. The vast chain of mountains 
 extending through this country, from Cape Horn 
 to North America, is here called the western Cor- 
 dillera of the Andes, and forms a barrier which 
 divides what is called La Sierra, or the cold and 
 lofty regions, from the temperate, or the coast. 
 Along the Pacific coast, for an extent of 500 
 leagues from the deserts of Atacama towards the 
 north, it never rains, nor is there any thunder or
 
 196 
 
 lightning. This singular phenomenon has establish- 
 ed here a perpetual spring. A gentle mist or dew 
 falls from May to September, to moisten and fer- 
 tilize the earth, and water, for the uses of the in- 
 habitants and their cattle, and for the purposes of 
 irrigation, is abundantly supplied at all times from 
 the Cordilleras. This tract of country along the 
 coast, which is in Width not more than 6() miles 
 at any point, produces wheat, wine, oil, sugar, In- 
 dian corn, agi or Guinea pepper, and cotton. The 
 principal productions are wine and oil; there are 
 many vineyards and plantations of olives. Cotton 
 is produced all the year round, the tree bearing 
 both flowers and fruit at the same time; the an- 
 nual yield here of the cotton tree is at least dou- 
 ble that of the interior provinces, or of Asia, where 
 one half the year there are constant rains, and the 
 cotton is also much whiter from the same circum- 
 stance. 
 
 The principal ports of this coast, adjacent or 
 nearest to the interior provinces of Upper Peru, 
 are Pisco, in lat. 13 45' S. long. 76 west from 
 Greenwich; Camana, Mollendo, Quilca, lat. 16 
 l^ S. ; llo, 17 36' S. this is a fine port, with good 
 anchorage ; Arica, lat. 1 8 8 20' S. ; Iquique, lat. 20 
 7' S. From this port to that of Arica, the inter- 
 vening coast is high and clear. The port of 
 Iquique is very commodious, affording good an- 
 chorage in a bay of about 6 miles long, with from 
 8 to 16 fathoms, and a fine sandy bottom. There 
 is a small Island in front of the town, and the usual 
 place of anchorage is to the leeward of that, be-
 
 197 
 
 tween two small rocks which appear above the 
 water. Cobija, a port in the province of Ataca- 
 ma, in Upper Peru, is situated in lat. 22 39' S. It 
 is to these ports that the products of Arequipa, 
 Cuzco, La Paz, Cochabamba, Potosi, and all the 
 towns between the two Cordilleras, are carried. 
 And in these ports, the English, during the late 
 continental war, carried on a great traffic, in 
 spite of the prohibitions of the Spanish laws. 
 
 I have already remarked that the metallic re- 
 gions of this country are near the coast. The 
 provinces of Arica and Moquegua are included in 
 the intendency of Arequipa, in Low Peru, and ex- 
 tend 246 miles from north to south, and 48 miles 
 from east to west. In this tract are situated the 
 vallies of Moquegua, Locumba, and Tacna. 
 
 There are 52 villages in these provinces: the 
 chief towns are Arica and Moquegua ; the popu- 
 lation is about 32,000, of whom there are 2821 
 negro slaves, and 1872 free negroes the remain- 
 der are whites, Indians, and mulattoes. 
 
 Arica was formerly a considerable town, but it 
 has declined ; it contains at present about 3000 in- 
 habitants. The houses are low, with flat roofs, 
 which are mostly covered with mats. The prin- 
 cipal production of this province is agi, or Guinea 
 pepper, whose annual produce amounts to about 
 600,000 dollars. 
 
 The city of Moquegua is situated in the interi- 
 or, about 50 miles east of the port of Ilo, in a val- 
 ley extending from the coast, and further inland.
 
 198 
 
 It contains about 12,000 inhabitants." In its neigh- 
 bourhood are produced annually about 400,000 
 gallons of wine, besides considerable quantities of 
 oil. 4 The Count of Alastaya resides here, who 
 is a great proprietor of vineyards. The val- 
 leys of Locumba and Tacna also produce an 
 equal abundance of wine. The wine is principal- 
 ly consumed in the country, and great quantities 
 of it are manufactured into brandy, which is much 
 drank. 
 
 There are produced here two varieties of wine, 
 white and red, and of different qualities. The red 
 wine, when kept in the cellars of the convents or 
 of private gentlemen, for any considerable time, 
 becomes of a fine quality, and is esteemed by con- 
 noisseurs equal to the wines of Spain. The price of 
 these wines in La Paz, is 8 or 9 dollars for two 
 arrobas (50 lbs ) ; it being sold by weight. The 
 price of brandy is less. The mode of transporting 
 these liquors into the interior is curious ; it is car- 
 ried in goat-skins, called odres, on the backs of 
 mules. The skins are taken from the goats in the 
 most barbarous manner : the animal is suspended 
 alive by his horns the skin is then loosened around 
 the neck, and stripped off! The skin is afterwards 
 dried, and partially tanned, then tarred on the out- 
 side, when it becomes fit to receive the liquor. 
 Each odre will commonly hold from 20 to 30 gal- 
 lons. The wine is preserved in the vaults of the 
 churches, in large vats, or reservoirs, lined with 
 clay, and which will contain many hogsheads : it is
 
 199 
 
 kept in this way thirty and forty years and longer ; 
 wooden casks are unused, and almost unknown. 
 
 The agi or Guinea pepper is an article in great 
 demand, it is eaten by all classes of people. The 
 price is from 4 to $5 for one aroba (25lbs.) The 
 price of cotton is 10 or 12 shillings for an aroba. 
 These are the prices at La Paz ; they are much 
 lower where the articles are produced, the ex- 
 penses of transportation being very great. They 
 are carried to market on the backs of mules and 
 asses. These animals are bred in Tucuman and 
 are brought here young; they are fed on a spe- 
 cies of tall grass, called alfa-alfa, which is very 
 abundant, and upon which they fatten very fast, 
 attaining to extraordinary strength and size. A 
 considerable portion of the population of these 
 provinces are muleteers. 
 
 The cochineal is found in its native state alon 
 the coast; this insect feeds upon the fruit of a 
 small tree, called nopal or hygopal (indian fig tree,) 
 and which is designated by some Botanists under 
 the name of cactus opuntia maxima, and by Linnaeus 
 under that of cactus coccinellifer. The indians use 
 this insect in dyeing the wool of the Llama and 
 Alpacha, and which do not lose their brilliant 
 and glossy appearance. The use of the cochineal 
 as a dye-stuff, was known in the times of the In- 
 cas ; there are fabrics and paintings at Cuzco. 
 made in ancient times, which exhibit the same 
 red colours, as are now produced by the cochi- 
 neal. The Spaniards have entirely neglected its 
 cultivation here, although the climate, them be-
 
 200 
 
 ing no rains, is much more favourable for its suc- 
 cessful production than in Mexico, where, during 
 the rainy season, the insects are obliged to be 
 housed, or removed into districts, in which the 
 rains occur at a different season of the year. 
 
 In the valleys of Tackna, situated a few leagues 
 inland from the port of Iquique, there are many 
 vineyards, and there is also a rude manufactory of 
 glass. The vineyards and olive plantations in 
 these provinces, are manured by a kind of yellow 
 earth, called huano, which is supposed to be the 
 excrement of sea birds. It is procured from two 
 small islands, one situated near Arica, and the 
 other in the bay of Iquique, which are inhab- 
 ited by indians and negroes. This earth is so fer- 
 tilizing, that it is supposed to enrich the soil at 
 least one hundred fold. 
 
 At a distance of about six miles from Iquique, 
 are situated the silver mines of Huantajaya, 
 which are surrounded with beds of rock salt. 
 These mines furnish annually from 45 to 52,000 lbs. 
 of silver. In 1758 and '89 there were found in the 
 mines belonging to the family of Colonel Loaysa, 
 situated here, two lumps of massive silver, one 
 weighing 200 and the other 800 lbs. There are 
 also found in the mountains of Pico, in the neigh- 
 bourhood, mines of silver and copper, and the lat- 
 ter in abundance. 
 
 Among the inhabitants of the coast, there are a 
 great number of free negroes and mulattoes who 
 are educated, and possess independent fortunes. 
 The" mulattoes are particularly distinguished for
 
 201 
 
 their vivacity and volubility. They are fond of 
 learning, and boast of their noble blood and cha- 
 racter. They have obtained from the king let- 
 ters patent, conferring upon them the dignity and 
 title of " Don," as they esteem it ; and which, if 
 omitted by any one in addressing them, he is 
 immediately reminded of it by his Donship. 
 They are excluded from the professions of law 
 and the church; they therefore generally apply 
 themselves to physic, which they practice with 
 more quackery than skill. They are frequently to 
 be met with in the interior cities of Peru, boasting 
 of their dignity and their knowledge. They are 
 cowards in war, and prefer talking to fighting; 
 they cannot endure cold, nor the hardships of a 
 campaign. In the rebellion of Tupac Amaru, two 
 or three regiments of this caste, in crossing the 
 cold mountains from Lima on their march to Cuz- 
 co, were attacked by indians early in the morning, 
 and being benumbed by the cold, they were una- 
 ble to use their muskets. They sent in a flag of 
 truce to ask an armistice until the sun had risen, 
 which was refused, and they were totally defeated. 
 
 2C
 
 202 
 
 LETTER VI. 
 
 i shall conclude my sketch of Upper Peru, 
 by some additional remarks upon the mines, the 
 climate, soil, productions, and commerce of that 
 interesting country. 
 
 The mines of gold and silver, occurring within 
 15 and 23" south latitude, are situated at the fol- 
 lowing places : 
 
 GOLD WASHINGS. 
 
 Tipuani, Carabaya, Challana, Vilaque, and 
 Chuquiaguillo. 
 
 GOLD MINES. 
 
 Yani, Ananea, Consata, Araca, Rinconada, Chi- 
 loco, Condo-Condo, Choque-camata, Pica, Cica- 
 Cica, and Azangaro. 
 
 SILVER MINES. 
 
 Potosi, Lipez, Porco, Huantajaya, Aullagas, 
 Caylloma, Charoma, Estarca, Lampa, Cerillos, 
 Oruro, Popo, Chancani, Puno, Laycacota, Pica, 
 Verenguela, Kinsachata, Huyana-Potosi, Chuqui- 
 aguillo, Carangas, and Pichegua. 
 
 There are mines of quicksilver at Pucarani and 
 Guarina; and platina is found at Morocollo, in 
 Low Peru. 
 
 The quantity of the precious metals extracted 
 from these several mines, it is impossible accu-
 
 203 
 
 rately to estimate : it has been stated at about 
 $ 14,000,000 annually. There are probably 
 $6,000,000 coined annually at Potosi and Lima, 
 and which may be one third of the whole quanti- 
 ty of metal produced. M. Torres states, that the 
 quantity of coin and bullion exported annually 
 from Peru, amounts to $ 8,240,000. 
 
 It may not be uninteresting here to bestow some 
 remarks upon the influence of these metals upon 
 national wealth and industry in Peru, and more es- 
 pecially, as some political writers of Europe main- 
 tain that the precious im tils, far from being a use- 
 ful production to South America, are the fruitful 
 source of evils to that country ; that its true in- 
 terests would be to abandon its mines of gold and 
 silver, and devote itself to agriculture and com- 
 merce ; and that the working of mines of iron and 
 copper, which they describe as things of intrinsic 
 value, would be of greater utility. The celebrated 
 Humboldt, to whom the scientific world owe so 
 many discoveries, and the South Americans, a rich 
 tribute of gratitude for opening to the world the 
 wonderful resources of their country, has ad- 
 vanced these sentiments, and urged them upon 
 the people of South America with no little zeal. 
 I deem them, however they may be support- 
 ed by weight of authority, to be clearly falla- 
 cious. 
 
 The precious metals, from remote antiquity to 
 the present time, have been used by all civilized 
 nations as the token or representative of wealth.
 
 204 
 
 the measure of value, and the instrument as well 
 as an article of exchange. And their value con- 
 sists not in their being in themselves objects of 
 consumption, or articles of absolute necessity to 
 the existence of man, but because all nations have, 
 by common consent, agreed to recognise them as 
 the universal standard and measure of property or 
 things of value. This convention of nations ere- 
 ates a demand for them, and demand is undoubtedly 
 the ultimate and only permanent regulator of the ex- 
 changeable value of all commodities. Some political 
 economists, like the learned Adam Smith, do in- 
 deed assert that, " labour is alone the ultimate and 
 real standard by which the value of all commodities 
 can-be estimated." Labour, no doubt, is one of 
 the sources of value or wealth, but it ought not to 
 be confounded with productions which are in 
 themselves valuable. There is certainly too much 
 laborious trifling in the world, to admit of the cor- 
 rectness of the proposition that 4 labour is the on- 
 ly and ultimate standard of value.' But to prove 
 this proposition to be false, we need only to refer 
 to the celebrated writer last mentioned, where he 
 says, " that the money price of labour is regulated 
 by the demand for labour." So it seems that la- 
 bour itself, which has just been called the ultimate 
 standard of value, is still regulated, even in the opi- 
 nion of Dr. Smith, by something else, which is 
 demand. Labour is not, therefore, the last stand- 
 ard ; but in order to arrive at that, we must pro- 
 ceed one step further, to wit, to demand. It is
 
 205 
 
 demand then, after all, that regulates the value of 
 things. According to the vulgar axiom, and 
 there is frequently much truth in the sayings of 
 the vulgar, which are emphatically the concen- 
 trated wisdom of ages, " a thing is worth what 
 it will fetch." Again, Humboldt says, that " true 
 wealth consists in the abundance of objects of con- 
 sumption in that of things, and not in the sign by 
 which they are represented." This is another fal- 
 lacy, which is also supported by the high authori- 
 ty of Adam Smith ; indeed, it is no doubt taken 
 from his book, for he says that " real riches are 
 in proportion to the quantity of consumable goods 
 which any one may possess, or have money to pur- 
 chase." Why the wealth of this individual does 
 not consist in his money as much as in the quantity 
 of goods which his money will purchase, and why 
 those goods must be consumable, or objects of con- 
 sumption, I am at a loss to discover. According 
 to my views of this subject, ifealth consists in abun- 
 dance of exchangeable,or demandable commodities. If this 
 is true, and also that demand regulates value, it is 
 clear that gold and silver are articles of real value 
 and component parts of wealth. There are cer- 
 tainly no articles known in society or commerce 
 that are in greater demand than the precious me- 
 tals that men will endure so many hardships, or 
 brave so many dangers to obtain. The illustrious 
 Locke, who thought upon this subject with the 
 same correctness that he did upon every other of 
 which he treated, " considered gold and silver as
 
 206 
 
 the most substantial part of the moveable wealth 
 of nations." 
 
 There is also another palpable error in this 
 proposition of Humboldt ; he says that " gold and 
 silver are only the sign by which things are repre- 
 sented." To measure value, is not the only office 
 of the precious metals in effecting exchanges ; 
 as a yard, for instance, is the measure of length. 
 A given quantity of these metals is considered of 
 equal value with the things exchanged ; if I pay 
 $2 for a bushel of wheat, the seller esteems the 
 cash at least of equal value to the wheat. The 
 precious metals then, have an intrinsic value in- 
 dependent of the legal one which they possess as 
 money. 
 
 If the precious metals are only signs of value, 
 then are Bank notes, or paper promises, equally 
 as good a circulating medium ; a proposition, 
 which I apprehend few politicians of the United 
 States will seriously. maintain at the present time, 
 but which has been confidently asserted, and has 
 no doubt aided in no small degree in introducing 
 into this country the paper money system, which 
 is now producing so many evils. 
 
 That a demand for the precious metals will al- 
 ways exist, there can be little doubt, from their 
 utility, beauty, and scarcity, according to Dr. Smith, 
 but more than all, from the circumstance that they 
 have been adopted by all civilized nations as a 
 circulating medium as a thing to exchange for 
 every thing else. As long as luxuries, conven-
 
 207 
 
 iences, nay, even necessaries, are in demand, so 
 long will gold and silver, which alone can procure 
 them all, be in demand also unless, indeed, some- 
 thing else is substituted in their stead as money, a 
 thing not likely to happen. Being the money of 
 the world, the precious metals have become a 
 real and substantial necessary of life to all classes 
 of society : to the prince, to enable him to carry 
 on the operations of his government; and to the 
 private individual, to procure for him the neces- 
 saries and comforts of life. If not the immediate 
 objects of consumption, they are the necessary 
 agents by which those objects are procured. In 
 the actual state of civilized life, they are objects 
 of the first utility and necessity, as much so as the 
 fire which warms you, or dresses your food. Be- 
 sides, the precious metals are not only the instru- 
 ment of commerce, but the inciting cause, the ani- 
 mating reward of all the industry and labour in 
 the world. Man will not labour for mere conve- 
 niences : it is the hope of obtaining something be- 
 yond this, of surplus wealth, that stimulates him to 
 overcome the inertiae of his nature, and to submit 
 to the irksomeness of painful toil. The savage, 
 who knows not the use of gold and silver, who is 
 unacquainted with either conveniences or luxu- 
 ries, takes his scanty repast, just enough to satisfy 
 the cravings of hunger, then wraps his blanket 
 around him, and sleeps till hunger again returns 
 to arouse and impel him to the chase : he is the 
 rich man of the political economists : none have
 
 208 
 
 the necessaries of life in so great abundance as 
 he. Dr. Smith says that " every man is rich ac- 
 cording to the degree in which he can enjoy the 
 necessaries of life." Then are we all rich, for 
 which of us does not enjoy the necessaries of life ? 
 and the rich are found in alms houses and hospi- 
 tals as well as in splendid palaces. 
 
 The precious metals are not an artificial pro- 
 duction like manufactures, which presuppose 
 agriculture, but they are the natural produc- 
 tions of the soil of Peru and Mexico, which 
 demand labour like any other production, like 
 the wheat, tobacco, and cotton of the United 
 States, with this only difference, that they do not 
 require seed or cultivation like the latter, but 
 grow spontaneously in the earth. The value 
 arising from that true test, the demand of gold 
 and silver, induces the working of the mines, but 
 as they cannot be worked without the articles of 
 living being supplied to the workmen, it follows 
 that the working of mines encourages agriculture, 
 and enriches the agriculturist, whcf sells his sur- 
 plus produce to the rich miners who want it; and 
 hence the fact, that in Peru, the greatest markets 
 are those in the vicinity of the mines. The mines 
 in some measure supply the want of commerce, 
 to this country, which has always been prohibited 
 by the government. We behold populous and 
 wealthy cities rising up in the interior of the 
 country, in inhospitable climates, and on a barren 
 soil, in the vicinity of gold and silver mines.
 
 209 
 
 What would have been the situation of Peru, no 
 matter how fine the climate, or how productive 
 the soil, if it had no mines, or they had never 
 been worked ! 
 
 It may happen that the precious metals may be 
 *ent into the world in great abundance, as was 
 the case on the discovery of America, and the 
 demand decreasing, they may decrease in value. 
 If this should occur, it will operate in favour of 
 the agriculturist of Peru, or of that country where 
 the increase begins, as by obtaining more metal 
 for his produce, he will be able to purchase greater 
 quantities of conveniences and luxuries; many 
 things which before he could not obtain, will be 
 within his reach, and the sphere of his comforts 
 and enjoyments Will be enlarged ; having more 
 money, he will be able to command a greater 
 amount of the labour, or of the products of the 
 labour, of other nations. This is too obvious to 
 require illustration ;* and by increasing the quantity 
 of the precious metals in Peru, the amount of its 
 national wealth will be increased. 
 
 It is preposterous* to pretend that it will be 
 impolitic for Peru to work its mines, the rich pro- 
 ducts of which are as much its natural productions 
 as Peruvian bark or Cochineal, and by which 
 foreign commerce will be most powerfully attract- 
 ed to its shores : and it is to an extended inter- 
 course with foreign nations that this country must 
 look for advancement in knowledge, industry, 
 arts, and civil and religious liberty. 
 
 2 D
 
 210 
 
 In Europe it may indeed be true that agriculture 
 is the only fountain of its prosperity, because it 
 furnishes the raw materials for manufactures which 
 are the sources of its wealth ; and I know not but 
 the notions of political economy which I have been 
 combatting may be applicable to that country, but 
 the situation and interests of the new world are 
 widely different. In South America, the mines 
 are at present the only encouragement of agricul- 
 ture and industry; in those parts which are the 
 most distant from the mines, although the most 
 fertile, the inhabitants afe less wealthy; easily 
 supplying themselves with the necessaries of life, 
 here their industry ceases, and they are compara- 
 tively idle and indolent. But the people who 
 dwell in the neighbourhood of the mines, become 
 rich from selling the surplus produce of their soil, 
 for the gold and silver of the miners, and they are 
 enabled to enjoy, if not more of the mere neces- 
 saries, certainly more of the comforts and luxuries 
 of life. Thus it is that the prosperity of agricul- 
 ture'in Peru keeps pace with the progressive aug- 
 mentation of surplus wealth, or of gold and silver. 
 And here I cannot but remark the absurdity of 
 the idea of Dr. Smith, that the " mines of a coun- 
 try have no connexion with its industry." 
 
 The miners in Peru and Mexico are the patrons 
 and supporters of the luxurious arts, like the 
 Princes of Europe. In the city of Mexico, which 
 is full of wealthy miners, there are monuments of 
 the arts, equal in magnificence to those of any 
 city in the world ; and if Peru does not exhibit
 
 211 
 
 the same grandeur, it is because that country has 
 been more oppressed and ill governed than Mexico; 
 and it is a fact that its governors, from the period 
 of the conquest to the present day, have been the 
 most ignorant of any in Spanish America*. 
 
 Although the miners dwell in the most unfavour- 
 able climates, and on the most barren soil, still 
 they rear habitations there, and build flourishing 
 towns and populous cities ; and even after the 
 mines are exhausted and abandoned, the colony 
 remains, the hardy inhabitant having become at- 
 tached to the soil, no matter how rude it is^ which 
 gave him birth. After prosperity has departed, 
 and subsistence itself become precarious, we find 
 him clinging to the barren rock, and withering 
 there, rather than be torn away. It is in vain to 
 remind him how bleak the sky, how Karren the 
 soil, how tempestuous the climate we find him 
 rebuilding his weather-beaten cottage on the 
 broken rock which the lightning, had riven, or on 
 the sand which the torrents had not entirely swept 
 away, obstinately refusing to quit his native soil. 
 In the neighbourhood of Potosi, Lipez, and Aulla- 
 gas, we find a people dwelling on the verge of 
 eternal snows, surrounded by the tenants of those 
 inhospitable regions, the Vicunas and Guanacos, 
 in small romantic cottages on the summits of the 
 mountains; subsisting cheerfully on the milk of 
 their goats and frozen potatoes, regardless of the 
 
 * Pizarro could neither read nor write, and his successors 
 have been generally in the same predicament.
 
 2lU 
 
 tempest howling without, and of their lofty and 
 exposed position. 
 
 Who can doubt that the fine and fertile valleys 
 of Peru, "where the flowers ever blossom, the 
 beams ever shine," will be populated, whenever 
 the government shall secure to the citizen his 
 rights, and shall encourage the emigration of enter- 
 prising foreigners ? 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 In the progress of the preceding letters, I have 
 spoken of the climate of particular districts of 
 Upper Peru $ I will now endeavour to present a 
 general view of the climate of the whole country. 
 
 From the pass of Volcan, in the south, which is 
 near the (ropic, to the Cordillera of Vilcanota in 
 the north*, situated at 1 4 30' south lat. the tract of 
 country between the eastern, and western Cordil- 
 lera, is generally windy and cold, although some 
 temperate and fruitful valleys intervene. This 
 mountainous and rugged tract is called La Sierra ; 
 it is rich in metallic wealth, and in addition to the 
 precious metals and quicksilver, there are mines 
 of copper, tin, lead, and iron, in great abundance, 
 and which are all worked except those of iron and 
 quicksilver. The product of copper, tin, and lead, 
 is abundant ; these metals are used in the opera- 
 tions of mining, and the two former are exported 
 in considerable quantities. 
 
 In this region there are frequent storms of rain 
 and hail, and on the mountains, snow; thunder- 
 storms are also frequent. The year is divided
 
 213 
 
 into only two seasons, the wet and the dry ; the 
 former commencing in November and continuing 
 to April, and the latter, or dry season, the remain- 
 der of the year; during this period there are no 
 rains, and this is the winter of this climate, there 
 being frequently frosts of considerable severity* 
 and the ground being frozen so as to prevent cul- 
 tivation. In the rainy months, potatoes, quinoa, 
 oka, and other roots and grains, peculiar to the 
 country, are cultivated, even on the table hinds, 
 and the declivities of the Cordilleras. The coldest 
 weather which occurs in May and June, resembles 
 the months of October and November in the north- 
 ern states of North America ; but fires are never 
 lighted to warm apartments, the same kind of , 
 dress is worn the year round, and cattle are never 
 housed. The lofty regions are bare of trees ; the 
 table lands only exhibit a little stunted shrubbery, 
 and a species of wiry grass, or rush, called Heechoo, 
 which grows where nothing else will vegetate, and 
 upon which the Vicunas and Guanacos feed. 
 This rush is used by the Indians for roofing their 
 cottages, and they make mats and ropes of the 
 same substance. There is now a bridge over the 
 river Desaguedero, on the main route from Lima 
 to Buenos Ayres, the lengthwise, or string pieces 
 of which consist of ropes of the size of cables 
 made of this grass, resting upon the water, upon 
 which canoes are placed crosswise, and over 
 these are strewed great quantities of flags, collect- 
 ed from the shores of the river and the lake. This 
 bridge is repaired every year; it is said to have
 
 214 
 
 existed alter the same fashion, from th*e times of 
 the Incas. 
 
 la the valleys and ravines of this tract of coun- 
 try, the climate is temperate and the soil fertile ; 
 and, from their sheltered situation, vegetation 
 is never interrupted by frost ; they are profusely 
 watered by the torrents which roll down the moun- 
 tains, and are well adapted to the production 
 of luxuriant crops. 
 
 On the eastern sides of the eastern Cordillera, 
 the climate is uniformly warm ; the seasons are 
 divided in the same manner as in the former tract, 
 the rainy season commencing in November and 
 continuing to April. There are here no frost or 
 snow, and all the varieties of the climate consist 
 in the graduations of heat, and in humidity and 
 dryness. It is this part of Peru which possesses 
 the finest climate ; the Province of Cochabamba 
 is situated within this region, and here is Tipuani, 
 celebrated for its gold, and for being seated at the 
 head of the navigation of the Amazon. . 
 
 On the west of the western Cordillera, or 
 that of the coast, it never rains; the moisture 
 of the earth is supplied from the torrents which 
 descend from the mountains, and from the dews 
 of Heaven. There is in this region some chilly 
 weather; but the extremes of heat and cold are 
 inconsiderable ; there are here no thunder storms, 
 but earthquakes are not unfrequent. .There 
 are some volcanic mountains in the range of the 
 western Cordillera, but their fires seem to have 
 expired; they have emitted no flames for many
 
 215 
 
 years. At the base of a mountain near the valley 
 of Locumba, there are hot springs, impregnated 
 with sulphur. This region along the coast, pos- 
 sesses a mild and genial temperature ; its soil is 
 suited to the cultivation of all the tropical fruits, 
 and its valleys are celebrated for producing the 
 finest grapes. 
 
 The healthfulness of the climate of Peru, is much 
 and deservedly extolled ; in some of the ports of 
 the Pacific coast, the fever and ague prevails, but 
 acute diseases are almost entirely unknown. The 
 Indians, who live a temperate life, attain very 
 generally to an advanced age. Peru has been 
 called the country of old men. 
 
 SOIL AND PRODUCTIONS. 
 
 1 ' now proceed to speak more minutely of the 
 mineral, vegetable, and animal, productions of this 
 country. 
 
 Mineral Substances. 
 
 Alum, (three kinds,) epsom salts, glauber salts, 
 nitre, or salt petre, soda, native verdigris, orpi- 
 ment of Peru, salt, blue vitriol, vitriolated tartar, 
 magnesia. 
 
 Native Alum. There are three kinds of na- 
 tive alum found in this country, and which are 
 called cachina blanca, or white cachina, millo, and 
 colqnenillo, or yellow cachina. Here nature offers 
 this substance ready formed to your hands, and in 
 the greatest purity : while in Europe it can only 
 be obtained by tedious and expensive processes-
 
 216 
 
 The cachina blanca, is found abundantly on the 
 frontiers of La Paz, embedded in masses of slate 
 or argillaceous schistos. The millo is found plen- 
 tifully in the deep defiles on both sides of the 
 Cordilleras. It appears upon the slate or schistos 
 rocks in the dry season, in a state of efflorescence, 
 forming a crust of pure alum, which nature has per- 
 fectly combined, and made ready for the use of the 
 manufacturer in his most delicate operations. Al- 
 though found amorphous, it may easily be crystal- 
 lized by the most ordinary chemical processes. 
 
 The third species, Colquenillo, is found in great 
 abundance, in beds on the borders of the Pro- 
 vinces of Porco and Chayanta, and combined 
 with sulphate of copper. Its matrix is schistos ; 
 its colour as it appears in nature, is diversified 
 with shades of white and yellow. This sort is 
 particularly prized by manufacturers on account 
 of its excess of sulphuric acid. 
 
 Green Vitriol. (Sulphate of iron). This substance 
 is found in the greatest abundance, in the town of 
 Tarapacha, in the Province of Carangas. It is 
 found in its native state in the dry season. 
 
 Epsom Salts. (Sulphate of magnesia). These 
 salts are found in great quantities in their native 
 state in masses of slate, and sometimes united 
 with millo, particularly on the eastern sides and 
 summits of the Cordilleras, and in the ravines 
 formed by the rivers Pilcomayo and Cachimayo. 
 
 Glauber Salts. (Sulphate of soda). This sub- 
 stance is found in the dry season along the road
 
 217 
 
 from Cuzco to Potosi and Jujui. It is found in 
 the shape of a crust, efflorescing from the earth, 
 and a person may collect great quantities in a 
 short time ; an Indian will collect 150 lbs. in a day, 
 with the copper vessel in which he keeps his 
 Chicha. 
 
 Pure Nitre. The vast abundance in which this 
 valuable substance is found in Peru is truly as- 
 tonishing. It occurs in- its native pure state ; 
 and is fit for commerce without the aid of any 
 chemical process. It abounds on the tops and 
 6ides of the hills; and besides, there are many 
 plants which yield it abundantly by lixiviation. 
 
 Native Soda. This salt is found in great plenty 
 and purity throughout the whole country; in the 
 plains bordering on the lake Titicaca, in Paria 
 and Oruro, and in the valleys of Cochabamba. 
 This is an important article of commerce; in 
 Europe it is produced from the combustion of sea 
 plants, but in Peru it is found in its native state. 
 
 Native Verdigris (Sub-acetate of Copper.) This 
 mineral substance is found in the copper mines of 
 Carangas, Lipez, Atacama, and other Provinces. 
 The price here is from 2 to $3 for 25 lbs ; while 
 the artificial verdigris sells for $1 a pound. 
 
 Orpimcnt of Peru (a Sulphuret of Jlrsemc.) A 
 species of yellow paint, much esteemed, consisting 
 of arsenic combined with sulphur; it is found in 
 the different mines of the Cordillera of the coast, 
 and in the Province of Carangas. This is an im- 
 
 2 E
 
 218 
 
 portant article in dyeing, and from it the arsenic of 
 commerce may be easily obtained. 
 
 Common Salt. This country contains immense 
 deposites of this salt. The ravines in the dry 
 season exhibit immense quantities of it crystallized 
 in a high state of purity ; and it is also found in 
 large veins in the rocks, and of the same excellent 
 quality. There are inexhaustible mines of it in the 
 settlement of Yocalla, near Potosi, from which 
 the miners of that place are supplied ; and also 
 in the Province of Yamparaes and other places. 
 
 All the foregoing substances are produced ready 
 formed to your hand, without the aid of art ; indeed 
 Peru, from its position under a tropical sun, its long 
 rains and continued droughts, seems a vast labo- 
 ratory, where that great chemist, nature, carries 
 on her operations on the grandest^cale, and leaves 
 little for man to do. 
 
 Blue Vitriol (Sulphate of Copper.) This substance 
 is found in its native state, but in very small quan- 
 tities ; but by combining sulphur and copper, 
 which are abundant all over Peru, it may easily 
 be produced. 
 
 Vitriolated Tartar (Sulphate of Potash.) This 
 substance may be obtained by a very coarse che- 
 mical process in this country. 
 
 Magnesia. Is easily obtained by decomposing 
 Epsom salts, which yield about 40 per cent, of 
 white magnesia.
 
 219 
 
 Vegetable Substances. 
 
 I. Medicinal. Gum Arabic, camphor, hamahama, 
 tanitani, arnica of the Andes, guachanca, quin- 
 quina, jalap, rhubarb, sarsaparilla ; gums copal, 
 storax, tragacanth, myrrh, guaicum and benzoin, 
 frankincense, balsams of copaiva, Peru, and tolu, 
 gentian, aloes, cullen, (proralen grandulosa,) 
 calaguala', {prolipodium canceolatum) chancha- 
 lagua, (a species of gentian,) vira-vira (graphalum 
 vira-vira,) chamico, azarguero, ipecachuana, cin- 
 namon, and 'a variety of bitumens and resins. 
 
 Gum Arabic. This substance is produced from 
 the most common trees of the country, but nobody 
 takes the trouble to collect it. The trees which 
 yield it are of the same species with those from 
 which it is obtained in Egypt and Arabia. 
 
 Camphor. I know not that the real hums cam- 
 phora grows in the forests of Peru, but there are 
 many trees of this country which are impregnated 
 with this substance, and from which it may be 
 abundantly obtained by sublimation. These trees 
 occur in the ravines of the eastern Cor3illera ; and 
 at Arque in Cochabamba the odour of camphor 
 may be perceived at a great distance. 
 
 Hamahama. A species of valerian, which is 
 found abundantly in the Cordilleras ; there is also 
 another species, Valeriana catacata, which is found 
 on the summits of those mountains. 
 
 Quinquina, {Cinchona, Peruvian bark.} There 
 are several kinds of this bark produced in Peru,
 
 22* 
 
 but the principal are the pale, the yellow, and the 
 red. This important article in the Materia Medica, 
 is found only in Peru. The trees from which it is 
 taken, are found in the eastern borders of La Paz, 
 and in all the Provinces of the eastern Cordillera ; 
 they are slender and straight, rarely exceeding 
 ten feet in height, and are about the size of a 
 man's leg. They never occur in clusters, but are 
 thinly scattered throughout the forests ; they are 
 cut down by the Indians, and the bark is peeled off 
 The bark is collected principally by the Indians. 
 
 Cinnamon. This valuable substance is abun- 
 dant in the regions east of the Cordilleras, in the 
 neighbourhood of Tipuani, on the borders of the 
 sources of the Amazon, and in the Provinces of 
 Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Moxos, and Chiquitos. 
 In its uncultivated state, the only way in which 
 it occurs here, it is equal to the oriental cinnamon, 
 except that it may be somewhat thicker. It is not 
 made an article of commerce in Peru. 
 
 II. Economical. Tar, yellow wood of Santa 
 Cruz, churisiqui, molle and tola, chapi, rocou, or 
 Brazil wood, airampo, indigo, cocoa, coca, tobac- 
 co, coffee, cotton, potatoe, banana, oka, quinoa, agi, 
 agave, vainilla, alspice, wax, chonta, mahogany, 
 lucma, ginger, olives, grapes, palms, tamarinds. 
 
 Many of these substances are dye stuffs, such 
 as the yellow wood of Santa Cruz, chapi, and airampo, 
 the former for dyeing yellow, and the two latter, 
 red. 
 
 Lucma and chonta are fine woods used in cabinet 
 work. The lucma yields a delicious fruit, and the
 
 221 
 
 ehonta is equal in Colour, in fineness of texture, and 
 solidity, to ebony. It is impossible for me to enu- 
 merate the many fine woods which abound in the 
 extensive forests of this country, for they have 
 never been explored by civilized man. The lower 
 declivities of the Cordilleras are heavily timbered, 
 but it is in the forests extending from Cochabamba 
 and Tipuani, east and north, that the trees of the 
 largest size are found, and some of which, I should 
 imagine, are well adapted to ship-building. The 
 pine and cedar are common trees of the country. 
 Odoriferous and flowering shrubs are abundant. 
 These forests are a mine of botanical riches, but 
 such is the non-chalance of the Spaniards, that 
 they have never been explored, except by the 
 Indians, in pursuit of coca, or game. 
 
 Airampo. Is a species of the cactus upon which 
 the cochineal feeds. It is a prickly shrub produc- 
 ing red berries. 
 
 Indigo. This valuable substance is found in 
 great abundance in La Paz, in Cochabamba, and 
 Santa Cruz de la Sierra, but it has never been 
 cultivated. 
 
 Cocoa. This is found in Moxos, in Apolobamba, 
 at the foot of the last chain of mountains in de- 
 scending the eastern Cordillera. 
 
 Coca. This substance is the tobacco of the 
 Indians, and resembles th'e betel of the East; its 
 botanical name is ei-ythroxiglum Peruvianum. 
 
 Tobacco. Is cultivated in several parts of the 
 country, but under royal authority. Its general 
 cultivation was interdicted by the Spanish laws.
 
 222 
 
 Cotton. The Provinces on the east of the east- 
 ern Cordillera, are the most favourable countries 
 in the world for the production of this valuable 
 substance ; particularly Cochabaraba, in the val- 
 leys extending from Arque to Valle Grande. 
 
 Potatoe (papa in the Quechua language, and 
 choke in the Aymara^) This important vegetable 
 is a native of America, and is believed to be an in- 
 digenous production of Peru. There are produced 
 in this country several kinds of potatoe ; one a 
 long kind, of which chunu is made. This substance 
 is made by first freezing the potatoes, then pound- 
 ing them, and drying them in the sun. It is es- 
 teemed a delicate food, and can be preserved 
 many years. There is another potatoe which is 
 yellow, like the yolk of an egg, and of fine flavour. 
 There is another kind, which is pi a pink colour, 
 and is also excellent food. 
 
 Banana. To this fruit some politicians have 
 attributed the indolence of the Spanish colonists, 
 and have even suggested that its cultivation ought 
 to be prohibited. It is easily cultivated ; its yield, 
 on a given quantity of ground, is estimated to be 
 to that of potatoes as 44 to 1 ; and besides it is 
 extremely nutritious. It is cultivated in the east- 
 ern Cordillera. 
 
 Oka (oxalis tuber osa.) A sweet root, growing 
 in the cold and barren soils, and an important 
 article of human food in Peru. 
 
 Quinoa (Peruvian rice.) An important grain 
 as an article of food, and of it and indian corn 
 is made chicha, the beer of the Indians.
 
 223 
 
 Agi (Guinea pepper.) Called by the Indians 
 oochoo, and by botanists capsicum baccatum ; its 
 pods are one quarter of a yard in length; it is 
 produced abundantly on the coast. 
 
 Agave. This substance, so valuable in Mexico, 
 is not at all cultivated in Peru. In Mexico, a fer- 
 mented and much esteemed liquor resembling 
 cider, is made of its juice. Its cultivation is 
 very profitable. It is found in the cold and 
 lofty regions of the Cordilleras. 
 
 Animal Substances. 
 
 Sal ammoniac, wool, cochineal, furs, plumage. 
 
 Sal ammoniac. This substance is ranked among 
 animal substances on account of its being most 
 commonly procured from animal matter. The 
 Indians dwelling on the summits of the Andes, ad- 
 mit their domestic animals, the Llama and Alpacha, 
 into their cabins, where they are fed and housed ; 
 and from the scarcity of fuel in those sterile re- 
 gions, they burn the excrement of these ani- 
 mals. From the ashes of this substance thou- 
 sands of quintals of sal ammoniac may easily be 
 made, as these animals feed upon a grass strongly 
 impregnated with salt, and which also constitutes 
 a part of the fuel of the Indians. 
 
 Wool. Sheep are dispersed in great numbers 
 all over the Cordilleras ; and they contribute by 
 their fleeces, milk, and flesh, to the comforts of 
 the Indians who inhabit those inhospitable re- 
 gions. 
 
 There are four distinct species of sheep peculiar
 
 224 
 
 to this country ; the Llama, the Alpacha, or Paco, the 
 Guanacof and the Vicuna. Buffon has inaccurately 
 described the Guanaco as being the wild Llama, 
 and the Vicuna as the wild Alpacha; he is equally 
 incorrect when he says that the Alpacha is a beast 
 of burden of the Indians. I was born in the coun- 
 try of the Alpacha, and know the contrary to be 
 the fact; the Alpacha is a slender and feeble 
 animal. 
 
 The Llama and Alpacha are domestic animals. 
 The Llama is about the size of a stag ; of different 
 colours, white, brown, and black. This animal 
 is sometimes called the American Camel, but the 
 points of resemblance are not very numerous or 
 striking. The Llama chews the cud like the 
 common sheep; its flesh is excellent food: I have 
 often tasted it, and esteem it equal to mutton. 
 Its wool is long and coarse, and of that of the 
 wild Llama .the Indians make their clothing. It is 
 the common beast of burden of the Indians ; its 
 usual load is five arobas, (125 lbs.); it is slow mo- 
 tioned, having a lofty and majestic gait, accompa- 
 nied with a droning noise as it marches along, and' 
 carrying its head high in the air : in temper, it is 
 mild,docile, and would no doubt be patient under 
 injuries, if they were ever inflicted ; but the In- 
 dians never treat this noble animal with cruelty. 
 It was the beast of burden of the Peruvians, in 
 the times of the Incas. 
 
 Alpacha. This animal is smaller than the Llama. 
 Its colour is white, black, and sometimes spotted.
 
 225 
 
 Its flesh, I believe is never eaten ; its wool is very 
 fine and valuable. 
 
 Guanaco. This animal is still smaller than the 
 Alpacha ; its colour is usually a pale red, resem- 
 bling a rose dried in the sun ; its belly and legs 
 are white ; its wool is fine and valuable. This 
 animal is wild ; I never saw one domesticated ; 
 it frequents the most rude and inaccessible parts 
 of the Cordilleras, and is extremely fleet of foot. 
 
 The Vicuna is of the same size as the Guanaco ; 
 it is somewhat taller than the common English 
 sheep, but with a smaller body. Its colour is 
 ordinarily brown, with white belly and legs. This 
 animal is more vigorous in the elevated regions of 
 the Cordilleras than in low and temperate situa- 
 tions ; and the difference in the wool in the two 
 situations is very perceptible : that in the higher 
 parts being much the finest. 
 
 The Vicunas inhabit the rudest and wildest 
 parts of the Cordilleras, where the severity of 
 the climate and the continual snows drive off 
 every other animal, except the Guanaco. THey 
 are found in abundance throughout the whole- 
 range of the Cordilleras, from the borders of 
 Chili far to the north. In passing along the east- 
 ern Cordillera, in the neighbourhood of Choque- 
 Camata, in Cochabamba, and towards the borders 
 of Chili, you frequently see droves of many hun- 
 dreds of these animals like flocks of sheep. They 
 are extremely fleet-footed and are caught with 
 difficulty in the chase, but their wonderful timidity 
 
 2 F
 
 226 
 
 furnishes an easy mode of taking them. The In- 
 dian hunters, by a mode with which they are ac- 
 quainted, collect them together in a place sur- 
 rounded with pickets fixed in the ground, upon the 
 tops of which bits of cloth are fastened, which being 
 shaken by the wind, so terrify the timid Vicunas 
 that they make no effort to escape, and are easily 
 caught. They are never sheared, and every fleece 
 costs the life of one of these valuable animals. 
 They are sometimes hunted with dogs and guns 
 like deer. They are easily domesticated, and be- 
 come as tame and as familiar with man as a dog. 
 They are frequently to be found in the Indian 
 cabin, and sometimes in the houses of the rich in 
 the interior cities. 
 
 The wool of the Alpacha is of an excellent 
 quality, but that of the Vicuna is perhaps the 
 finest in the world. It is thick and bushy, ex- 
 tremely fine, soft and silky to the touch ; and 
 possesses an extraordinary gloss and lustre ; it is 
 more like silk than ordinary wool, and it does not 
 lose its glossiness by being dyed. In this animal 
 is found the bezoar stone, which is considered equal 
 to the oriental. 
 
 Cochineal, (called Maekno by the Indians.) This 
 insect, which occurs in its native state in abun- 
 dance in Peru, is not cultivated there, but its im- 
 portance, if it were cultivated, may be estimated 
 from the fact that its annual exportation from 
 Mexico, in years of peace, amounts to nearly two 
 and a half millions of dollars. Its price at Vera
 
 227 
 
 Cruz is about $3 a pound,- in New- York, at the 
 present time, it is from 6 to $8. 
 
 This valuable product is suffered to grow, and 
 to perish, without exciting the attention of the 
 incurious Spaniard. 
 
 Fur. The fur of the Chinchilla is not inferior to 
 that of the martin. It is already exported to 
 Europe in considerable quantities. The Chinchilla 
 is a little animal, about the size of a cat ; it is 
 found in Lipez, and generally on the Cordilleras ; 
 its flesh is often eaten, and esteemed a delicacy. 
 
 The furs also of the Zorillo, and the Bullin, an 
 amphibious animal, are very valuable. The skins 
 of the American Tiger are collected in consider- 
 able quantities by the Indians. 
 
 Plumage. Ostrich feathers are collected by the. 
 Indians. The ostrich is found on the bleak and 
 barren regions of the Cordilleras in considerable 
 abundance. 
 
 But the most remarkable bird of South America 
 is the Condor, which is between three and four 
 feet in height, and whose wings are at least fourteen 
 feet from end to end. These mammoth birds are 
 domesticated ; their colour is a dark brown, with 
 a white collar around their necks. At the bull 
 feasts they are often turned into the arena to fight 
 with the bulls ; they are of remarkable strength, 
 and will run and fly with amazing swiftness. 
 
 There are between 40 and 50 species of parrots 
 in this country, some of which are very large and 
 beautiful.
 
 228 
 
 In the preceding remarks upon the productions 
 of Upper Peru, it has not been my object to write 
 the natural history of that country, but to notice 
 such of its products as may hereafter become im- 
 portant articles of foreign commerce. I will now 
 point out others, which more particularly concern 
 the domestic economy of the country. 
 
 Wheat. This valuable grain is produced in 
 great abundance in Cochabamba, in the Province 
 of Larecaja in La Paz, and in the Intendencies of 
 Arequipa and Cuzco. At Cuzco it is so abundant 
 that the price of 8 loaves of bread weighing 18oz. 
 each, and of the first quality, is sixpence ; and that 
 of the second quality is a halfpenny a loaf, of the 
 same weight. 
 
 The Intendency of Cuzco is extremely fertile, 
 and furnishes the cold districts of Peru with great 
 quantities of wheat and maize. Judge Bland, late 
 United States' commissioner to South America, 
 in his excellent report on Chili, has certainly been 
 misinformed when he says, " none of the tropical 
 regions of America, either on the Atlantic or Pa- 
 cific ocean, produce wheat, or indeed any bread 
 stuff, in sufficient abundance for the inhabitants" 
 and again, " from Acapulco to Cobija, (the coun- 
 try) is entirely dependant upon Chili for bread." 
 The present high price of wheat at Lima ($25 
 a bushel,) and along the Pacific coast, is owing 
 to several accidental causes : to the revolution, 
 which has so busily engaged the Cochabambians 
 and the people of Cuzco that they have had no 
 leisure to attend to the cultivation of their fields ;
 
 229 
 
 * and to the great expense of transportation, in 
 consequence of the scarcity of mules. The supply 
 of these animals, from Tucuman, has been entirely 
 suspended during the present war. I am confident 
 that Cuzco and Cochabamba can alone supply all 
 Peru with wheat. 
 
 The mean produce of wheat in Peru, compared 
 to that of other countries, is truly astonishiric; It 
 is computed by Humboldt that the produce of 
 wheat in the plains of Caxamarca in Low Peru, is 
 from 18 to 20 for 1, while that of France is from 
 5 to 6 for 1, and that of Kentucky, Tennessee, 
 and Louisiana, is 4 for 1. From these data, we 
 may estimate the average produce of wheat in 
 Caxamarca, to be from 60 to 70 bushels an acre. 
 
 Maize (Indian corn.) A native production of 
 America, like the potatoe. It is produced in 
 amazing abundance in Cuzco, and yields from 1 
 to 200 fold. Several varieties are cultivated, one 
 whose kernel is an inch long. The stalks usually 
 attain the height of from 8 to 10 feet, and they 
 contain almost as much sugar as the sugar-cane ; 
 a syrup, resembling molasses, is frequently ex- 
 tracted from them. 
 
 Rice. Is produced in considerable abundance 
 in the eastern Provinces. 
 
 Sugar. The sugar cane is cultivated in Cuzco. 
 Arequipa, Larecaja, and Santa Cruz de la Sierra. 
 The sugar of Cuzco is esteemed the best, although 
 ihe climate of Arequipa, on account of the ab- 
 sence of rain, seems most favourable to its suc- 
 cessful culture.
 
 1230 
 
 Horned cattle Are scarce and dear in Peru, 
 compared to Tucuman and some other provinces 
 of Rio de la Plata, and are of small size. The 
 farmers use oxen altogether in cultivating their 
 fields. In the warm and temperate regions, cows 
 supply the inhabitants with milk, while in the cold, 
 sheep's milk is wholly used, and of which butter 
 and cheese are made. I have already borne tes- 
 timony to the excellence of the cheese of Paria, 
 which is made of the milk of sheep. These ani- 
 mals (common sheep) are in great numbers in this 
 country ; the fields are almost covered with them. 
 Their wool is an important article of internal com- 
 merce. 
 
 Fruit. It is unnecessary, and indeed, it would 
 be impossible for me to enumerate all the varie- 
 ties of fruits to be found in this country; they are 
 produced, both native and exotic, in the greatest 
 profusion and perfection. The gardens of the 
 convents in Cuzco can only be compared to the 
 fairy scenes of Eastern romance, or the visions of 
 poetic fancy. Among the exotics we may reckon 
 almost all the fruits of Europe ; of grapes they had 
 a great variety of their own, or which were intro- 
 duced by the Spaniards after the conquest ; and 
 in addition to these, M. Bonpland, the celebrated 
 companion of Humboldt, brought to Buenos Ayres 
 a few years since, thirteen varieties of grapes from 
 the vineyards of France, together with some fruit 
 trees and valuable plants, many of which have, no 
 doubt, already found their way to the gardens of
 
 231 
 
 Cuzco and Cochabamba. Of olives, great quantities 
 are cultivated in Arequipa ; they are of unusual 
 size, and the oil which is made from them is ex- 
 cellent, and very cheap throughout all Peru. 
 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 The commerce of Peru has heretofore been 
 wholly confined to Spain. The Spanish merchant 
 introduced his goods through two channels, Lima 
 and Buenos Ay res, which were caAledpuertos may ores 
 incontradistinction to thepucrtosmenores, such as Ari- 
 ca, Ilo, &c. which could not trade directly with the 
 mother country. The Philippine Islands also car- 
 ried on a trade with Lima, and had a factory, or 
 mercantile company there, called Gremios, with 
 branches in the interior towns. The commodities 
 of the East introduced in this way into Peru, have 
 been estimated to amount annually to $ 270,230, 
 which were exchanged for gold and silver to the 
 amount of $ 2,780,000. The European goods im- 
 ported, are exchanged for gold and silver, and be- 
 sides, for copper, Peruvian bark, Alpacha and Vi- 
 cuna wool, chinchilla skins, and some other trifling 
 articles. 
 
 The consumers of foreign commodities in Peru, 
 have been only Spaniards and Creoles, including 
 a few mestizos and mulattos, which altogether may 
 be one fourth of the whole population. The cho- 
 los, negroes, and indians, almost entirely use arti- 
 cles of domestic manufacture. In the intendency 
 of Cuzco, there arc large manufactories of baize,
 
 2M 
 
 the lulling and dressing of cloths being prohibited 
 by the King. Notwithstanding which prohibition, 
 during the late continental war in Europe, fine 
 woollen fabricks were made at these manufacto- 
 ries. Blankets of a fine quality are manufactured, 
 and in the intendency of Puno, indian cloths and 
 carpets are made, which supply the coast. The 
 wool for these manufactories, is supplied from that 
 region of country called La Sierra, situated between 
 the Cordilleras. The principal cotton manufac- 
 tories are in Cochabamba and some parts of La 
 Paz. 
 
 The interior commerce between Upper and 
 Low Peru, has been calculated at % 6,693,533, an- 
 nually. The amount of foreign goods introduced 
 through Buenos Ayres into Peru is estimated, by 
 the Secretary Moreno, to have been, before the 
 revolution, % 1 8,000,000, annually ; and the amount 
 introduced into all America, according to M. Tor- 
 res, is % 100,000,000. But the foreign commerce 
 heretofore carried on with South America, affords 
 no certain data from which we may calculate what, 
 will be the future commerce of that country. The 
 merchants of Cadiz, who monopolized the colo- 
 nial trade of Spain, did not proceed upon any re- 
 gular commercial system, except that of buying 
 cheap of the colonies, and selling dear to them, 
 and they were only the agents of foreign mer- 
 chants ; the same routine was followed year after 
 year for nearly three centuries ; no new branches 
 of trade were opened, but an universal languor
 
 233 
 
 pervaded all their operations. Besides, the col- 
 onies were subjected to the united influence 
 of the worst of governments, and of a reli- 
 gion which has been a blast upon every country 
 where it has predominated. Until within a few 
 years, the colonies were not permitted to trade 
 with each other; they were placed in the position 
 of belligerents, and their ports in that of besieged 
 or blockaded towns ; and even the mother country 
 herself could not carrv on a free trade with them. 
 At first, Seville monopolized the whole commerce 
 of South America, and it was afterwards slowly 
 and gradually extended to Cadiz and the other 
 porls, but it was for ever subjected to odious re- 
 strictions. To enforce them, the penal code of 
 Spain was exhausted ; and to the pains of death 
 and confiscation of property, were added the fear- 
 ful anathemas of the Church. It was not until the 
 year 1778, in the administration of Galvez, that the 
 free commerce- of South America was granted to 
 the merchants of Spain, but its manufactures were 
 still shackled by the laws*. 
 
 From the few lights which are shed upon the 
 commerce of Peru, it is impossible to judge of the 
 present extent of the market, the quantity of goods 
 demanded, or the number of consumers. A feeble 
 
 * In a royal order of the 6th December, 1784, a ter a recital that the wool 
 of the Vicuna had been used in the manufacture of hats at Lima, which was 
 contrary to law, and to the great prejudice of the manufactures of the mo- 
 ther country, it was ordered that all the Vicuna wool should be bought up 
 on account of government, and sent to Spain. This order is referred to by 
 Dean Funes in his History of Buenos Ayres, to show that Humboldt is mis- 
 taken in the assertion that the king of Spain never issued any order to pro- 
 hibit or di?coura manufactures in the colonic*. 
 
 2 G
 
 231 
 
 light is indeed derived from the example of Bue- 
 nos Ayres, and the wealth and population of Peru. 
 The country of Low Peru, which extends from 
 Tumbez, in lat. 3 30' S. to the Cordillera of Vil- 
 canota, in lat. 1 4 30' S. embraces a large extent of 
 territory, including eight intendencies, eight po- 
 pulous cities, and 1460 small towns or villages. 
 The capital, Lima, contained, according to an ac- 
 curate census taken in 1798, 52,627 inhabitants, 
 without including tributary indians, or the neigh- 
 bouring villages*. The city of Cuzco, the ancient 
 metropolis of the Incas, situated in the interior, is 
 nearly equal to Lima in population, and but little 
 inferior to it in wealth. The whole population of 
 Peru has been variously estimated at from 
 1 ,700,000 to 3,000,000. The inhabitants along the 
 coast consist chiefly of whites and mulattoes, who 
 generally speak the Spanish language, and are 
 possessed of property, while those of La Sierra are 
 mostly tributary indians. Wealth is here more e- 
 qually divided than in Mexico ; the mines are rich- 
 er, and are at present, I imagine, better worked. 
 Steam engines have been recently introduced atLi- 
 ma, and chymistry and mineralogy are beginning 
 to be well understood. When this country shall 
 have gained its freedom, the indians, mestizos, and 
 cholos, who altogether are very numerous, will be 
 
 * In the year 1682, when the Duke de la Palata, the Viceroy, made his en- 
 try into Lima, three whole streets were paved with ingots of solid silver, 
 each weighing 200 marks, and being from 12 to 15 inches in length ; 
 the whole being estimated at 54,000,000 dollars. In 1700, there were 400 
 carriages in this city.
 
 235 
 
 added to the consumers of foreign commodities, 
 and will of course greatly increase the demand. 
 
 Although I have not been able to ascertain the 
 precise amount of foreign goods imported into Bue- 
 nos Ayres since the revolution, yet I am confident 
 it has been very great ; and the beneficial influ- 
 ence of commerce upon civilization and industry, 
 has been amply demonstrated in its happy effects 
 upon the people of Buenos Ayres and the interior 
 provinces. Anterior to the ordinance of the King 
 opening the ports of the La Plata, the interior pro- 
 vinces were in extreme want; wheat perished in 
 the fields ; the flesh of bullocks was left to putrify 
 on the earth, or to be devoured by wild dogs and 
 vultures; the people, wrapped in their ponchos, 
 with their butcher-knives and catch-ropes, the 
 only implements of their industry, presented the 
 most miserable picture of wretchedness and sloth; 
 abounding in commodities of the first necessity to 
 the subsistence of man, having a plentiful surplus, 
 sufficient to have purchased for them every convex 
 nience and luxury of life, yet being far distant from 
 a place of demand, and their ports shut up, 
 those otherwise valuable articles were of no 
 use to them, and perished on their hands. But 
 when the revolution broke out, the English, 
 with their characteristic enterprise, poured their 
 goods into Buenos Ayres, and they were sold 
 at low prices, and were thus thrown within the 
 reach of all classes; the farmers of the interior 
 exchanged their hides, beef and wheat, which they 
 did not want, for the conveniences and luxuries of 
 Europe ; they procured commodities which before
 
 236 
 
 they had never imagined; and along with their 
 merchandise, the English introduced their cus- 
 toms, their improvements in the arts, and in the 
 comforts of life. 
 
 From the re-conquest of Chili, in October 1817, 
 to July 1818, there arrived in the ports of that 
 country, twenty-four American vessels, whose car- 
 goes were estimated at $1,387,000; twenty English 
 vessels, whose cargoes amounted to $1,835,000; 
 two Russian, one Swedish, and one French ; the 
 whole, according to the Report of Judge Bland, 
 amounting to $4,000,000. In this short period, a 
 greater number of foreign vessels arrived in Chili, 
 than in fifty years before ; and the people of this 
 country, like their brethren of Buenos Ayres, must 
 have experienced many important benefits from 
 this foreign commerce. 
 
 The preceding facts load to several important 
 and interesting considerations. 
 
 1st. The countries of Upper and Lower Peru, 
 alike in population, habits, interests, and produc- 
 tions, and bordering upon each other, will hereaf- 
 ter probably carry on their foreign commerce, ei- 
 ther by Cape Horn, or the isthmus of Darien. On 
 their long and safe coast, foreign ships will find 
 commodious harbours, where the merchants of 
 every clime can carry their merchandise, and ex- 
 change it for those valuable productions which I 
 have noticed in the preceding letters. But there 
 are other channels of commercial communication 
 which may be opened with this country, which, in 
 the language of Humboldt, is destined to' change 
 the commercial face of nations. 1 have already
 
 237 
 
 spoken of the navigation of the Amazon. This 
 magnificent river rises in Peru, and after running a 
 northwardly and eastwardly direction a distance 
 of between three and four thousand miles, empties 
 into the Atlantic ocean, just below the West Indies. 
 The whole of this distance, from the foot of the An- 
 des to the ocean, this river is navigable, and the 
 navigation may be performed in thirty days ; and, 
 although its current in the rainy season may pre- 
 vent the easy ascent of vessels, it will afford, like 
 the Mississippi, a noble channel for steam-boat 
 navigation. 
 
 And here I cannot pass over the splendid and 
 much talked of project, of cutting a canal across 
 the isthmus of Darien, to connect the Atlantic and 
 Pacific oceans. The continent, at the narrowest 
 point, the isthmus of Tehuantepec, is forty-five 
 leagues wide. There are here two rivers, the Rio 
 Huasacualco and the Chimalapa, the former emp- 
 tying into the gulf of Mexico, and the latter into 
 the Pacific ocean. Humboldt states that the Rio 
 Huasacualco forms in reality, a commercial com- 
 munication between the two oceans ; and that, dur- 
 ing the late war with the English, the indigo of 
 Gautimala came by the way of this isthmus to Vera 
 Cruz, and thence to Europe. 
 
 The Lake Nicaragua has been considered as 
 affording the most convenient point of canal com- 
 munication This river communicates on the east, 
 by the river San Juan, with the sea of Antilles. 
 Here a canal would be cut across the isthmus 
 which separates the Lake Nicaragua from the gulf
 
 238 
 
 of Papagayo, on the Pacific coast. It is asserted 
 by Humboldt, that the ground here appears very 
 little elevated; and Dampier says expressly that 
 it is a little hilly, but generally low and level. 
 
 There is another point where a water communi- 
 cation might be effected, by means of the river 
 Chagre, which empties into the sea of Antilles. 
 This river is navigable to Cruces, where it is one 
 hundred and thirty feet in width, and it may be as- 
 cended, in four or five days, to this place, from 
 whence to Panama it is only five small leagues, ac- 
 cording to Humboldt. Between these two points 
 the Cordillera stretches north j from the summit of 
 which, it is said that both oceans can be seen at 
 the same time. Upon an assertion of Wafer, that 
 the hills, forming the central chain of this Cordil- 
 lera, are separated from one another by valleys, 
 which allow free course for the passage of rivers, 
 Humboldt remarks, that if this is true, we might 
 believe in the possibility of a canal from Cruces 
 to Panama, of which the navigation would only be 
 interrupted by a few locks. 
 
 It is astonishing, that, although the project of a 
 canal across the isthmus of Darien has occupied 
 every mind for more than three centuries, no sur- 
 vey of the ground has ever been made ; the practi- 
 cability of such a canal, however, can no more be 
 doubted, than the immeasurable mass of benefits 
 which would result from it to the commercial 
 world. I do not hesitate to say, that a communi- 
 cation of navigable waters across that narrow isth- 
 mus which connects the two Americas, would pro-
 
 239 
 
 duce as momentous changes upon the commerce 
 and the wealth of the world, as the discovery of 
 the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope. 
 Like that, it would change the course of naviga- 
 tion to the East, and Peru and Mexico would be 
 intervening points in that new route, with the en- 
 terprise and industry of Europe and the United 
 States on the one hand, and the rich products of 
 Asia on the other, and eager to exchange their 
 gold and silver for the manufactured goods of the 
 former, and the silks and spices of the latter. Next 
 to Peru and Mexico, the United States are more 
 interested in this splendid project than any other 
 nation, on account of their proximity to South Ame- 
 rica, their commerce with the East Indies, the pre- 
 cious metals of Peru and Mexico, the furs of Noot- 
 ka Sound, and their establishment at Columbia ri- 
 ver, on the Pacific ocean. 
 
 2d. At least five millions of new consumers of fo- 
 reign goods will be created at once, whenever the 
 colonial system shall be destroyed. And whether 
 the much abused people of this country shall be- 
 come warriors or agriculturists: whether there 
 shall arise a Caesar, or a Washington, to foster their 
 infant liberties, or bury them in the dust; or some 
 descendant of the Incas, inspired with the genius 
 of Maneo Capac, shall arise to break their iron 
 yoke, and to collect together, in their ancient me- 
 tropolis, the wandering and wretched remnant of 
 the children of the Sun; whatever may be the fu- 
 ture fortunes of the Peruvians, it is certain that the 
 empire of commerce will be extended, and the en-
 
 240 
 
 terprise and industry of the whole world attracted 
 to their shores. And those Peruvian warriors, 
 who are now fighting the battles of their country 
 on the plains of Rio de la Plata, in Chili, and on 
 the ocean, and mingling with those who are in close 
 communication with enlightened Europeans, will 
 return, like the soldiers of the Cross, to their na- 
 tive country, laden with the spoil, if not of con- 
 quest, of civilization and arts. 
 
 Upper and Low Peru will, in all probability, 
 return to their primitive political situation, and be 
 united under the same government ; and prompted 
 by that spirit of rivalship, which is inherent in na- 
 tions, as well as in individuals, and by the most ob- 
 vious dictates of policy, they will eagerly throw 
 open their numerous ports to foreign commerce, in 
 order to keep pace with the rapid advance of their 
 sister states, Buenos Ayres and Chili, in national 
 prosperity ; and with their precious metals, they 
 will purchase, directly of foreign merchants, every 
 thing they want, without waiting for a yard of cloth 
 to reach them by travelling hundreds of miles 
 across the Pampas of Buenos Ayres. And their 
 harbours being more commodious than those of 
 Chili, and their climate finer, greater attractions 
 w ill be presented to foreign merchants, to invite 
 them to their ports. 
 
 The prospect which is opening to the commer- 
 cial enterprise of the United States, is of the most 
 interesting character. From the proximity of the 
 United States to Peru, they will be able to carry
 
 241 
 
 on their trade with that country with far greater fa- 
 cilities than any of the nations of Europe. They 
 will be able to procure from Peru all the specie 
 which they may want, either to supply the place of 
 Bank paper, as a circulating medium, or to sustain 
 its shattered credit ; and to carry on, upon a more 
 profitable and extended scale, their commerce with 
 the East. JJl may surprise those who are unac- 
 quainted with the extent of that commerce, to learn, 
 that at least three millions of dollars are annually 
 shipped to China, for the single article of tea ; and 
 that, from J uly 1 8 1 7, to April 1 8 1 8, five millions, se- 
 ven hundred thousand Spanish dollars arrived in 
 the port of Canton, in American vessels. 
 
 The precious metals can be obtained in Peru, 
 for several commodities, which I am informed, can 
 be exported cheaper from the United States than 
 from any other nation: such as coarse cottons, 
 ships, leather, furniture, hats, castings, nails, car- 
 riages, and some other articles. Peru is not now, 
 and will not soon become, a manufacturing coun- 
 try ; its population is too thin, and it has other more 
 abundant sources of wealth. The trade to be car- 
 ried on with that country, therefore, will be princi- 
 pally in manufactured goods, which command high 
 prices.* If the United States shall participate in 
 this trade, their manufactures will thereby be en- 
 couraged; an object, no doubt, of great impor- 
 
 * The price of iron in times of peace, has been eighty and ninety dollars 
 for 100 lbs. and that of steel, one hundred and thirty-five dollars for 100 lbs. ; 
 common writing paper, twelve dollars a ream; broad cloths from fifteen to 
 twenty dollars a yard ; velvet from six to eight; bayetas, a fine stuff like 
 llminel, from two dollars and fifty cents to five dollars a yard ; boots twenty- 
 five dollars n pair ; levantine silks five and six dollars a vard. 
 
 2 H
 
 242 
 
 lance to their prosperity, and which some of their 
 best citizens have much at heart. And if manu- 
 factures are ever extensively and prosperously es- 
 tablished in the United States, it will be owing to 
 foreign, not domestic demand tor manufactured 
 goods; without such demand, they will never flou- 
 rish, no matter how powerful the patronage, how 
 lavish the bounties, or how heavy tne, impositions 
 upon foreign goods. But aside from considera- 
 tions of mercantile gain, or the encouragement of 
 manufactures, the people of the United States have 
 a powerful interest in establishing a close con-* 
 nexion with their sister Republics in the south ; 
 the welfare of both parties calls loudly for such an 
 alliance : and more especially since the crowned 
 heads of Europe have made common cause for the 
 stability of their thrones, and have formed their 
 memorable league of legitimacy. It is here in the 
 two Americas that the people, strong in their prin- 
 ciples, and rich in resources, and displaying hu- 
 manity and justice, constancy and courage, should 
 erect a formidable barrier against the encroach- 
 ments of European tyranny; it is here, that the 
 proud waves of despotism should be stayed; and 
 Jiere, should be buried for ever in the grave of ob- 
 livion, that calamitous maxim which has been can- 
 onized for ages in Europe, that Kings rule by the 
 Grace of Gnd. 
 
 But in America, there has been erected a mon- 
 archy whose sovereign, too powerless to remain 
 in Europe, was forced to flee across the Atlantic, 
 and to seek for safety, and for refuge in his remote
 
 243 
 
 colonies ; and no sooner did he set foot upon the 
 shores of America, than, fired with that insatiate 
 lust of conquest, which has drenched Europe with 
 blood, and hung the world, in mourning, he direct- 
 ed his arms against an infant people, still strug- 
 gling in the iron grasp of their oppressors, in or- 
 der to fasten upon them' the chains from which he 
 had just escaped. This delirium of domination, 
 which has directed all the steps of King John of 
 the Brazils, has led him to desolate the fairest 
 portion of the globe ; but he has been taught, amid 
 the thunder of cannon, and the groans of the dy- 
 ing, that the time has gone by, when men, who are 
 resolved to be free, can be subdued, or monnrchs 
 can rule by the sword ; and those naked and igno- 
 rant men, who have been opposed on the plains 
 of Monte Video, to soldiers inured to war, in con- 
 tending against the armies of Napoleon, have 
 shown to the world, that they prefer the horrors 
 of war to the calm of despotism, and death to sla- 
 very. 
 
 The names of the gallant chiefs, who have so 
 heroically conducted to the camp of glory, an un- 
 disciplined and inexperienced multitude, to resist 
 the eucroachments of foreign tyrants, will be trans- 
 mitted with honour to posterity ; and the history 
 of the revolution, when it unfolds its black pages, 
 inscribed with the names of the European tyrants, 
 who have traversed the ocean, to deluge with the 
 blood of her sons, the innocent soil of America, 
 will at the same time exhibit in its most brilliant 
 and splendid pages, the names of General Rivero,
 
 244 
 
 and Don Jose Artigas, that extraordinary man, 
 whom nature has so prodigally gifted with genius, 
 and who has so gloriously sustained himself and his 
 country, amid the convulsions of intestine war, and 
 the conflicting passions of the human heart ; who 
 has been the stable rock of the ocean, against 
 which the billows of the ambition of the Brazilian 
 cabinet have beat in vain, and whose important ser- 
 vices for his country must command the gratitude 
 of his compatriots, and the admiration of the world. 
 The fame of the Orientals and their gallant 
 Chiefs will be eternal, like the flow of their noble 
 river, and fresh as the verdure of its shores. 
 
 fc
 
 NOTES. 
 
 NOTE 1. PAGE 13. 
 
 ANTEQUERA. 
 
 The history of Antequera, contained in the writings of Char- 
 levoix, has been implicitly followed by Wilcoke in his " History 
 of Buenos Ayres." This work is principally a compilation from 
 Ulloa, the " Viagero Universal," the " Dictionario Geograhco" 
 of Alcedo, and from Helms ; it contains many valuable facts in- 
 termingled with numerous errors. My information in relation 
 to Antequera, has been derived from documents in the possession 
 of Calyo y Antequera, and Pereyra Castro, two canons of Cuz- 
 co, relatives of Antequera, whose offices were conferred upon 
 them by the King of Spain, in consequence, as it is stated in 
 their Patents, of the injuries sustained by the family of Ante- 
 quera, in his punishment, and the seizure and confiscation of his 
 estates. 
 
 The trial of Antequera first commenced at Madrid, and was 
 afterwards transferred to Lima ; it lasted several years, and enor- 
 mous sums of money were expended in its prosecution. A copy 
 of the proceedings of this trial is preserved at Cuzco, by Gar- 
 cia, an officer in the Cathedral there, and also Castro, a literary 
 man of that country, in his " Memoirs," has preserved a history 
 of these transactions. 
 
 It is not at all surprising to those who are acquainted with the 
 policy of the Spanish Government, that so little of this revolu- 
 tion is known to the world, as it was even prohibited by law to 
 speak upon the subject. " Que no se hable mas de esto," was 
 the imperative mandate of the King, and wo be to him who dar- 
 ed to infringe it.
 
 216 
 
 NOTE 2. PAGE 17. 
 THE JESUITS. 
 
 The following' curious notice of the Jesuits of Paraguay in the 
 year 1700, is extracted from " Frezier's Voyage to the South 
 Sea." 
 
 " Every parish is obliged to maintain a number of disciplined 
 troops, by regiments of horse and foot, in proportion to its 
 strength. Each regiment consists of six companies of fifty men 
 each, a colonel, six captains, six lieutenants, and a general offi- 
 cer, who exercises them every Sunday after vespers. The officers, 
 who are brought up from father to son, are very expert in disci- 
 plining them. It is upon no other occasion that the parishes 
 have a communication, but only to form an army, which the se- 
 nior general officer commands, under the direction of a Jesuit 
 who is Generalissimo. The arms of these indians are fuzees, 
 swords, bayonets, and slings, with which they throw stones of 
 five pounds weight, and they are very dexterous at that weapon. 
 The Missions together can assemble 60,000 men in eight days 
 time. The indians have nothing of their own ; the Jesuits have 
 all, and those poor people who have a right to be free, having 
 voluntarily subjected themselves, are treated like slaves. And 
 in short 300,000 families and more, work for forty Jesuits, and 
 own and obey none but them. One circumstance which makes 
 good this assertion, is that when the Governor of Buenos Ayres 
 received orders to lay siege to St. Gabriel, in which a detach- 
 ment of 4,000 Indian horse assisted, with a Jesuit at their head, 
 the Governor commanded their Colonel to make an attack at four 
 o'clock in the morning, but the indians refused to obey because 
 they had not the Jesuit's order, who being sent for, arrived, under 
 whom they ranged themselves and executed the order from his 
 mouth." 
 
 Since the expulsion of the Jesuits from this country in 1773, 
 the Indians of the missions have gradually relapsed into their 
 original barbarism ; a pretty convincing proof that the Jesuits 
 did not proceed upon fundamental principles of improvement, in 
 their institutions. The fact is, the policy of the Jesuits was ut- 
 terly selfish ; they never had in view the permanent or the tem-
 
 247 
 
 porary good of the Indians, any further than they could make 
 them subservient to their own purposes and interests. These 
 assertions can never be contradicted, when it is known that the 
 Jesuits never taught them the Spanish language, nor even to 
 write their own language, which the Jesuits themselves well un- 
 derstood. 
 
 NOTE 3. PAGE 19. 
 
 In Pinkerton's Geography, edited by Dr. Barton of Philadel- 
 phia, is given a specimen of the Quechua language, and it is 
 said that it has the same formation as the Greek language, and 
 that it is declined by altering the terminations, and that it has also 
 modes and conjugations. It is also stated that it is deficient in the 
 following letters ; b, d, f, g, r, x, z. Dr. Barton gives a specimen 
 of the language taken from a Grammar printed at Lima in 1614, 
 but I fear the notion of this deficiency is derived from ignorance 
 of the pronunciation of the language, or from defects in the 
 grammar. A native of Peru, I am well acquainted with this 
 language, and can mention many instances in which these letters 
 are used. The r, for instance, is found in roona men, 
 roomee stone, ruka hollow 5 there is a similar word in the 
 Hebrew language, but with a different meaning ; the letter b oc- 
 curs in the word bela blood, z in weekza stomach, x iu 
 soxta seven. The use of these several letters depends upon 
 the pronunciation of the language, which those who have exclud- 
 ed them from the language, could not have understood. 
 
 The Quechua language contains more vowels than consonants, 
 which renders it particularly soft and sweet ; and I have seen 
 very beautiful compositions written in this language by Peru- 
 vian Priests. 
 
 1 will here present a short specimen of this language, to shew 
 its peculiar sweetness. It is an effort of a Peruvian Priest to 
 express the superlative excellence of the character of the Virgin 
 Mary. 
 
 f-t/ea, soo-mak-nooste-alya, kancha-rene, inte-tapas, 
 k> >i is, koil-yu-koona-tapas.--My sweet mother, beautiful 
 young Princt >s, you are u* brilliant as the sun, moon and stars.
 
 218 
 
 This language is sufficiently copious for the Indians, in their 
 present state of civilization, and even contains words to express 
 abstract ideas. And here I cannot but express my surprise when 
 I read in the history of the learned Dr. Robertson, that the 
 " Peruvians had not indeed made such progress in observation 
 or inquiry as to have attained just conceptions of the Deity ; 
 nor was there in their language any proper name or appellation 
 of the Supreme Power, which intimated that they had formed 
 any idea of him as Creator and Governor of the world." This 
 error undoubtedly arose from this learned Historian's not under- 
 standing the meaning of the word Pachacamak. What word 
 more proper to express the idea of the Supreme Being than this, 
 which is the same as "God" in English, " Deus" in Latin, 
 " eoff" in Greek. 
 
 Pacha means the Universe, or the globe which we inhabit, and 
 Camak, Creator and Preserver. 
 
 It was this unfortunate error which undoubtedly led the Spa- 
 niards to destroy the Temple of the Peruvians, dedicated to 
 Pachacamak. And here I cannot but remark how different 
 from the conduct of the Spanish Priests, was that of St. Paul, at 
 Athens, on beholding a Temple dedicated to the " Unknown 
 God;" " Whom ye ignorantly worship," said he to the Athe- 
 nians, "him declare I unto you." The Spaniards destroy- 
 ed with fire and sword the religion of the Incas, because it 
 was unlike their own, or because they were ignorant of its prin- 
 ciples, as if religion was not a universal sentiment of mankind, 
 and an innate principle of the human heart; and indeed if reli- 
 gion is an attribute of the Deity, if it softens the heart, if it 
 unites in the bonds of brotherhood, men of different characters 
 and climes ; if, in short, it is the great tie of humanity, and is 
 chiefly manifested in extended charities, in love to God and 
 man, I would ask, where is the people who have exercised this 
 sublime virtue, in a higher degree than the Peruvians ? They 
 worshipped the Sun, not because they believed it to be God, but 
 because they felt its kindly influence upon the natural objects 
 around them, and upon themselves, and their worship was the 
 effusion of their grateful hearts. They were kind to the poor.
 
 249 
 
 the widow and the oi-phan ; the care of these unfortunates was a 
 part of their religion, and was enjoined by their laws. There 
 were officers in every village, appointed for this object, and there 
 are now to be seen in the country, the ruins of store-houses and 
 public granaries, which were devoted to the support of the in- 
 digent. 
 
 It is a singular fact, that against two nations, the Peruvians 
 and the Moors, both the most charitable people in the world, the 
 Spanish Christians have waged the most calamitous warfare, and 
 shed oceans of their blood. " They, (the Moors in Spain,) 
 says Mr. Noah, in his interesting Travels in Europe and Africa, 
 " had virtues of the highest order ; no nation on earth, even unto 
 this day, took such delight in the exercise of charity as the 
 Moors. They distributed to the poor, bread, money, and part 
 of their agricultural and commercial products ; built hospitals for 
 the sick, and carefully protected and nourished the stranger." 
 "What just motive," says the virtuous Las Casas, " could the 
 Spanish government have in declaring war against the Indians, 
 who had never done them a wrong, or injustice in any manner ? 
 The Spaniards have discovered the secret of entirely depopulat- 
 ing countries filled with inhabitants ; they have massacred them, 
 in order to seize upon their gold and silver ; they have caused 
 others to perish, by making them toil to excess, or by obliging 
 them to carry heavy loads for one and two hundred leagues : so 
 that for the sake of riches, they sacrificed the lievesof the Indi- 
 ans." 
 
 When I have been walking amoug the ruins of their ancient 
 castles, their solemn temples, their high roads, their aqueducts, 
 which have withstood the mouldering hand of time, and the 
 warring of the elements, I have asked myself, where are those 
 powerful monarchs who patronized, those ingenious artists who 
 erected these magnificent works ; where those splendid gardens, 
 in which plants and animals of the natural size made of solid gold 
 and silver were exhibited; where their astronomical observatories ; 
 where their mild and equal laws, their paternal government, their 
 institutions of charity and religion ? I am answered by* the 
 whole world, they have all perished by the hand of violence 
 and superstition! 
 
 2 1
 
 230 
 
 NOTE 4. PAGE 24. 
 
 The observation to which this note refers may startle those 
 who have considered Peru a barbarous country at the period of 
 the conquest. If such, however, will carry back their recollec- 
 tions of the history of Europe to the period under consideration, 
 rhev will find that despotism never marched over the liberties of 
 mankind with strides more fearful and tremendous. The period, 
 indeed, presents us with a constellation of greatness unrivalled 
 in the annals of the world ; but it presents us also with the ex- 
 tremes of superstition, bigotry, violence and oppression, traits 
 which are too often the characteristics of the brightest and no- 
 blest endowments of the mind. The brilliancy of the era ought 
 not to dazzle us so far as to blind us to the miseries which over- 
 spread the whole of what was then called the civilized world. 
 The expedition of Pizarro to the Pacific Coast of South Ameri- 
 ca, was during the reign of Charles V, who was Sovereign of 
 Austria, Germany, Prussia, Holland, the Netherlands, Spain, 
 aud some of the Italian States ; Francis I. governed France ; 
 Henry VIII. England ; Solyman II. Turkey ; Leo X. was Pope. 
 A list of contemporaneous sovereigns, such as these, is " confir- 
 mation strong," of the truth of the position, and the most skep- 
 tical will not be disposed to travel further. Another considera- 
 tion still more strongly enforces the idea of the tyranny of the 
 limes. It was during the reign of Charles V. that the Reforma- 
 tion was effected, an event so glorious and beneficial to the Chris- 
 tian world, and within about ten years after his abdication, the 
 Low Countries rebelled, and gained their independence. Revo- 
 lutions are generally the result of actual, or at least, fancied op- 
 pression ; and in regard to the reality of the oppression, both in 
 Church and State, under Leo X. and Charles V. there cannot, I 
 imagine, be a question raised. 
 
 It is not contended that the government of the Incas was free 
 from evils. The Peruvians were essentially free ; they exercised 
 the right of self-government, and lived under rulers of their 
 choice, and the history of Peru, even as related by the Spaniards.
 
 251 
 
 records no feature of systematic oppression, or of wanton en- 
 croachment, by the Incas, on the rights of the people. 
 
 In confirmation of the above opinions, and in contradiction to 
 some assertions of Dr. Robertson, contained in his History of 
 America, the following extract from Count Carly's Let. 
 Amer. is submitted to the reader. 
 
 " It was a fundamental maxim of the sovereigns of Peru, to 
 oblige their subjects to be happy. This was the only empire in 
 which this glorious object was attained. The Incas knew well, 
 that man is governed by opinion more easily than by force. In 
 the hands of a discreet ruler, the government of opinion, is a 
 source of blessings, but it is a terrible engine when wielded by 
 the ignorant ; hence the danger and difficulty of opposing error. 
 For this reasou the first care of the Incas was, to impress upon 
 the people who submitted themselves to their authority, that there 
 was one Supreme Being, the Creator and Preserver of the Uni- 
 verse, and that the Sun was the source of physical good, the 
 cause of the fecundity of the earth, and of the growth of all pro- 
 ductions, both animal and vegetable. These people being per- 
 suaded by Manco Capac and Ocllo his queen, that their existence 
 was derived from the Sun, the same idea was transmitted to their 
 posterity; and the Peruvians believed generally that their sovereigns 
 were descended directly from these children of the Sun. The 
 laws of the Incas, being directed solely to the well-being of indi- 
 viduals and of society at large, it is natural that they should 
 have been regarded by these people as beings emanating from 
 Divinity, and they persuaded themselves that the infraction of 
 these laws would be punished both in this world and that to 
 come, which was also unceasingly inculcated by the chief men 
 of the empire. The worship of the Peruvians, as established by 
 the Incas, was innocent and pure, the spirit of which led them to 
 abolish human sacrifices. The first maxim that was impressed 
 upon them, was that great maxim of reason, Look upon all men 
 as brethren, and never do that to another, ivhich one would not 
 wish to have done to himself.'"
 
 252 
 
 NOTES. PAGE 25. 
 
 TUPAC-AMARU. 
 
 The revolution of Tupac-Amaru, which was briefly noticed in 
 the body of this work, has been misrepresented by historians, 
 and great injustice has been done to the memory of that illus- 
 trious leader. Baron de Humboldt is incorrect in his biographi- 
 cal notice of Tupac- Amaru, having listened to the vulgar tales of 
 the Spaniards, which he heard at Lima, in relation to his charac- 
 ter. He speaks of him thus, " Jose Gabriel Condorcanqui, known 
 by the name of the Inca Tupac-Amaru, appeared at the head of an 
 Indian army before the walls of Cuzco. He was the son of the 
 Cacique of Tongasuca, a village of the Province of Tinta, or ra- 
 ther the son of the Cacique's wife ; for it is certain that the pre- 
 tended Inca was a Meztizo, and that his true father was a monk ;" 
 and he imputes his conduct to private resentment for disappoint- 
 ed ambition, and to a sentiment of vengeance." 
 
 Dean Funes, in his " History of Buenos Ayres," has correctly 
 related the story of this revolution, the first part of which he has 
 taken from a sketch drawn up by Mr. Sea and myself, and pub- 
 lished in London, in 1815. 
 
 The principal cause of this revolution, was the oppressive oper- 
 ation of a law authorizing the Spanish magistrates to distribute 
 among the people, foreign goods at fixed prices, and which they 
 were obliged to pay for, whether they wanted them or not. This 
 was called the repartimientos. It was oppressive beyond mea- 
 sure, to the Indians ; goods of no use to them, were forced upon 
 them, even camhrick needles, spectacles, and playing cards. 
 It was this unheard-of species of oppression, among many other 
 acts of tyranny, enumerated in the masterly letter of Tupac- Am- 
 aru addressed to Areche, and which has been published, which 
 aroused the principal inhabitants of Peru in 1780, to the at- 
 tempt to put down the Spanish government in that country. 
 The project was conceived by several of the noblest citizens of 
 Cuzco, whose leader was Moscoso, then Bishop of Cuzco, a native 
 of Arequipa, and of one of the most noble families of Peru, and
 
 253 
 
 who has since been Archbishop of Granada, in Spain. Tupac 
 Amaru was the person who was selected to carry this project into 
 execution, and he was promised the zealous co-operation of the 
 principal inhabitants of Cuzco ; upon which assurance he relied 
 with the unsuspecting confidence of a soldier. The first step 
 which he took, was to seize upon the Governor of his province, 
 Arriaga ; and finding from his papers, that he had distributed 
 am6ng the people, three times the amount of goods which the 
 law allowed, accused him of robbing the people and the King, 
 and he was executed in the name of the King, as a public rob- 
 ber. This took place in November 1780, and instantly all Peru 
 was in arms. A bloody battle was fought on the plains of San- 
 garara, near Cuzco, in which the Spaniards were all cut off, and 
 the victorious leader, with his brows bound with the imperial fil- 
 let of the Incas, marched upon Cuzco, to re-establish their em- 
 pire in their ancient metropolis. He laid siege to the city, and 
 called upon the projectors of the revolution to aid him now in its 
 final accomplishment. They hesitated for a few days, and all 
 was lost. Tupac-Amaru, conscious that his fate was sealed, ad- 
 dressed to them a letter, upbraiding them for their bad faith and 
 their cowardice, and telling them that he should be destroyed. 
 He thereupon retired to his former positions. Now the work of 
 blood commenced in earnest, and notwithstanding the orders of 
 Tupac- Amaru to put to death only Spaniards, and to spare the 
 Creoles, the half civilized Indians killed indiscriminately all 
 white men, and it was this unfortunate circumstance which was 
 finally the ruin of the cause. The revolution now spread all over 
 Peru, and lasted nearly two years ; it was one of the most san- 
 guinary contests that history records. In vain did Tupac- Amaru 
 and his friends endeavour to stop the violence of the people ; 
 they had kindled a tire which they had not power to extinguish, 
 and regrettiug it when too late, made overtures of peace, which 
 were rejected with disdain. At length Tupac-Amaru fell into 
 the hands of the Spaniards, and they inflicted upon him a pun- 
 ishment which is a stain upon their national character; like 
 blood-thirsty and ferocious tygers, they tore him limb from limb ! 
 The present revolution has done justice to the memory of this 
 youthful hero : had he been successful, he would have been hail-
 
 2M 
 
 cd as the .saviour of his country ; and although his first act was 
 marked with severity, and fortune smiled not on him, let his 
 name he rescued from the foul and unmanly aspersions of his in- 
 terested and malignant foes. 
 
 I have stated that a third of the whole population of Peru, per- 
 ished hy the hand of violence in this revolution. The slaughter 
 among the Indians was immense. They were ignorant of military 
 discipline, had hut a few fire-arms, and were principally armed 
 with slings. The royal army from Buenos Ayres, Tucuman, and 
 Cochabamba, consisted of regular troops. The Buenos Ayreans 
 were armed and equipped like European soldiers ; the Tucumans 
 composed the cavalry, and were armed with butcher knives and 
 ropes, from twenty-five to thirty yards long, which they use in 
 catching wild cattle. The arms of the Cochabambians, were 
 short clubs loaded with lead, to which a rope of two or three 
 yards in length was fastened, and which were used like slings, 
 and were very deadly weapons. The Indians were scattered all 
 over the plains, in no regular order or ranks, and were nothing 
 more than an undisciplined and unarmed mob. The mode of 
 attacking them was as follows ; the Tucuman horsemen first 
 rode among the Indians, and threw them down with their 
 ropes, and the Cochabambians followed with their clubs and 
 dispatched them ; it was in this way that the plains of Cica- 
 Cica and Calamarca were covered with the bodies of the slain, 
 and are even to this day whitened with human bones. 
 
 NOTE G. PAGE 143. 
 
 MITA. 
 
 The mita was an annual conscription of the Indians to work 
 in the mines of privileged individuals at Potosi, and for the king 
 in the quicksilver mines of Huancavelica. The Indians were 
 collected from a distance of three hundred leagues around Poto- 
 si, even from the neighbourhood of Cuzco, and were obliged to 
 defray their own expenses in travelling ; after arriving at the 
 mines, they received half a dollar a day for their labour, and 
 were obliged to work night and day. The Governor of Puno, 
 Don Jose Gonzales, a very worthy man, now in Spain, put a stop
 
 255 
 
 to these cruel conscriptions in his Province, well knowing their 
 injustice, although contrary to the orders of the Viceroy. The 
 Dictionary of the Spanish Academy, in defining the word mita, 
 says, " es un repartimiento que se hace por sorteo en los pueblos 
 de indios para sacar el numero correspondiente de vecinos que 
 deben emplearse en los trabajos publicos." It is the division 
 which is made by lot in the villages of the Indians , in order to 
 take the corresponding number of the inhabitants which ought 
 to be employed in the public icorks." 
 
 A person, ignorant of the truth, on reading this definition, 
 might imagine that these public works were of common utility ; 
 such as roads, bridges, &c. which are often made by the labour 
 of the whole community ; but, this was not the fact : for it was 
 for the rich miners of Potosi, that these poor Indians came so 
 far to work, and digging the mines, were the public ivories in 
 which the Academy say they ought to be employed. I take 
 pleasure in having an opportunity to expose this fraud of the 
 learned Academy upon the world. It exhibits, in bold relief, 
 the colonial policy of the Spanish government, from whose poi- 
 sonous influence, even the sacred haunts of science, were not ex- 
 empt. 
 
 NOTE 7. PAGE 153. 
 MINES. 
 
 The mines of gold, silver, copper and lead, are the property 
 of individuals ; the quicksilver mine of Huancavelica was work- 
 ed on the account of the King, who monopolizes the sale of that 
 metal. All the questions in relation to mining are determined 
 according to a particular code of laws, called Ordenanzas de mi- 
 nus, which were framed by the viceroy Toledo. This was the 
 monster who put to death the lnca Sayri Tupac at Vilcabamba, a- 
 gainst the express orders of Philip II. for which, on his return 
 to Spain, he was severely censured, and finally died in disgrace. 
 In this code is pointed out every thing relating to the discovery 
 of mines, the manner of ncquirin? property in them, and all dis-
 
 256 
 
 putes growing out of the subject. When a person discovers a 
 mine, he makes application to the political chief of the territory 
 for an exclusive grant, which he obtains, on exhibiting a piece 
 of the ore from the mine. The officer, after ascertaining that 
 the mine has never been worked, grants the discoverer posses- 
 sion, and free permission to work the mine, and allowing him 
 the privilege of opening three different shafts. After this privilege 
 allowed to the discoverer, any person may ask and obtain per- 
 mission to open other shafts, provided they do not interfere with 
 those previously granted. The discoverers are generally mes- 
 tizos or Indians, who, for trifling sums, sell their rights to the 
 wealthy Spaniards or Creoles. The same code requires that the 
 mines be constantly worked, or held in possession ; when a mine 
 is abandoned for a year, it is considered as derelict, and anj per- 
 son may take possession of it. To prevent this forfeiture for 
 non-user, however, it is sufficient if one person is kept in pos- 
 session. When mines are discovered on private property, the 
 proprietor is obliged to allow them to be worked, or to sell. 
 These laws have a tendency to encourage mining ; they are ju- 
 diciously framed, and are perhaps the best part of the colonial 
 policy of Spain. The remedies are prompt, and their provisions 
 will meet almost every possible case. Previous to the revolu- 
 tion, no foreigner could be proprietor of a mine, but now the 
 Congress of the United Provinces has placed foreigners on the 
 same footing as natives in this respect. 
 
 NOTE 8. PAGE 162. 
 
 i 
 
 TADEO HAEJYKE. 
 
 This gentleman, a member of the Academy of Sciences of 
 Prague and Vienna, visited America in the mineralogical expe- 
 dition of the Baron de Nordenjiytch, in the quality of natural- 
 ist to his Catholic Majesty. In the year 1792 he accompanied 
 the celebrated navigator Malaspina, in his expedition to ex- 
 plore the Pacific Ocean. He has visited all Asia, the principal 
 countries of Europe, the United States, Mexico, Peru and Chili, 
 and after having seen all these countries, he finally fixed his
 
 257 
 
 residence in the Province of Cochabamba, preferring it to all, 
 the other regions of the globe which he had visited. He is a 
 philosopher, and his time has been employed in exploring the 
 country, and studying every department of its history. He 
 has made an extensive collection of all its productions. In 
 the year 1810, when the auxiliary army of Buenos Ayres oc- 
 cupied Upper Peru, M. Castelli found this philosopher there, 
 and that he had composed a large work upon the natural 
 history of the country. Castelli immediately took measures 
 to have types founded at Potosi, in order to print the work, 
 but the sudden defeat of the Patriots put an end to the 
 project. Don Manuel Sarratea, distinguished for his 
 talents, and his devotion to the cause of his country, and 
 his love of science, (and to whose worth I take great pleasure 
 in bearing this public testimony, and whose friendship I am 
 proud to enjoy,) when he was in the administration at Buenos 
 Ayres, made every exertion to coramuuicate with Haenke, in 
 order to procure his manuscript to publish it in London, but 
 without effect, as Cochabamba, during almost the whole of the 
 revolution, has been occupied by royal troops. It is to be hoped 
 that, upon the success of the Patriots, the publication of this 
 work, so interestiug to the world, will not be delayed. 
 
 To Mr. Sarratea is owed the introduction of many plants and 
 valuable productions into Buenos Ayres ; and particularly, the 
 emigration of the celebrated M. Bonpland to South America, 
 who carried with him his herbarium, and many precious exotics 
 to enrich the country. M. Bonpland upon communicating with 
 Haenke, will immediately publish the natural history of the 
 country, and a work of much interest may be expected from the 
 united efforts of these learned men. 
 
 From Mr. Haenke's communications to the government of 
 Buenos Ayres ui 1799, and several articles published from time 
 to time, in the public journals of that city, I have derived many 
 facts, of which I have availed myself, in my account of the na- 
 tural productions of Upper Peru. 
 
 2 K
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 LETTER I. 
 
 The United Provinces of South America, their names and boundaries ; 
 Upper Peru,itsintendencies ; Paraguay, free government there in 1725; 
 Charlevoix ; Comuneros ; Dean Funes ; Don Jose Antequera ; The 
 Jesuits, their influence ; the Missions; Manufactories; Art of Print- 
 ing ; The Quechua and Aymara Languages, Page 19. 
 
 LETTER II. 
 
 War between Antequera and the Jesuits ; Antequera's defeat, his impri- 
 sonment and trial; the escape of Mompo from prison ; Castelfuerte ; 
 Execution of Antequera ; Tupac-Amaru ; the revolution of 1780 in Peru ; 
 torture and horrible death of Tupac- Amaru ; immense slaughter among 
 the Peruvians, (vide note 5. \ Ubalde, some account of him, his project 
 of a revolution, the manner of its discovery ; Lechuga, his treachery,- 
 conversation between him and Ubalde ; Ubalde' ecution, his address 
 to the people of Cuzco, Page 30. 
 
 LETTER III. 
 
 Revolution in La Paz and Buenos Ayres ; events at Bayonne in 1808, 
 spirit in the colonies, beginning of the revolution, 25th March, 1809, 
 history of the revolution, Page 42. 
 
 LETTER IV. 
 
 Revolution of the United Provinces continued through Letters 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 
 to Page 70. 
 
 LETTER X. 
 
 Upper Peru, its dimensions, Intendencies and Provinces, population, 
 how divided ; the Indians,-their manners and customs,-character, dress, 
 page 77; number of parishes, their government, travelling doctors, 
 conversation of an Indian, his leelings,-honesty,-degradation, Page 82. 
 
 LETTER XI. 
 
 Roman Catholic Religion,-how taught, its evils, Bishops,~the Curas,-their 
 salaries, and ignorance ; the Sabbath ; mass, religious tariff, Indian 
 character,-ceremony of mass,~dancing, Balls-Festivities of the Saints,- 
 Responsos, Bulls,-Masquerades,-Musick, Indian Dramas, Fire-works, 
 Funerals,-Tax upon them,-Religious Festivities of the Spaniards, Al- 
 tars and Triumphal Arches,-their richness,-wealth of Convents,-Nuns, 
 their wealth,-Monks,-their sensuality ;-riches of the churches ; Indians 
 prohibited the use of fire-arms,-their military character ; bad policy of 
 Spain, Page 99. 
 
 LETTER XII. 
 
 Creoles, two classes,-education,-wealth ; Law,-Clergy, celibacy, their 
 immorality ,-luxury of Creole nobility,-sumptuous furniture, immoderate 
 gaming ;-the Ladies of Peru,-their dress, -manners ;-Colleges,-pulpit elo- 
 quence,-Law Academy, Medicine, Page 108. 
 
 LETTER XIII. 
 
 Mestizos, their character ; the Cholos ; their character, dress, Choi* 
 Women, their dress -.-ingenuity of Cholos; Mechanics, miners, skill 
 in sculpture and painting, anecdote of a specimen of sculpture at Cuzco, 
 Statue of St. James, its beauty ; their courage, their love of music and 
 pieasure,-bull-baiting, their patriotism, Alcaldes bulls covered with 
 dollars, Page 114. 
 
 LETTER XIV. 
 
 Spaniards, number, officers of government, wealthy marriages, their 
 great fortunesj-^jbeir education, attachment to Spain ; the Negroes :-the 
 Mulattoes, tEeir bad character; remarks on the state of the country at 
 the commencement of the revolution, Page 124. 
 
 PART II. LETTER I. 
 
 Atacama; Port of Cobija, fishery, mines ; Carangas; silver mines of 
 AuUagas ;-clifnate ;~Lipez,-grazing ;-silver table mine ;--Cbichas,--gQld
 
 CONTENTS. 259 
 
 mia silver mines ; Tarija,--its beautiful valleys, soil ; gold mines of Chi- 
 loco ; Cinty,--fine climate, grapes ;~Source of the La Plata, its tribu- 
 tary streams,~the distance it is navigable, fish ; Paria,--wool, cheese ; 
 Porco,~salt mines ; City of Potosi, the mountain, its singular appear- 
 ance, description of the city, its rich churches, the mint, annual 
 amount of metal coined ; Bank, price of silver ; hotels, tippling shops, 
 markets, fruit, fish, expenses of living, roads, climate, steril- 
 ity of the soil, houses, artificial lakes, population ; Azogueros, very 
 rich, richness of the city, luxuries of the miners, manufactories; 
 Yngenios ; Mita ; Ulloa ; Kaachas ; amalgamation works, process 
 of extracting metals, page 145 ; mountain of Potosi, quantity ol sil- 
 ver produced, projects of draining the mines, varieties of metal, 
 its richness. Page 154. 
 
 LETTER II. 
 
 harcas, boundaries, Provinces ; City of Charcas, page 156, its po- 
 pulation, climate, houses,-churches, richness,--silver pulpit, palaces, 
 colleges, price of tuition, Law academy, Courts, salaries ol Judges, 
 Oruro, page 159 ; convents, population, mines, mauufactovies,-com- 
 mercial situation, sluggishness of the Spaniards, robbery of its citizens 
 by the government, Page 162. 
 
 LETTER III. 
 
 Cochabamba, boundaries, description of the territory by M. Haenke, 
 situation, climate, productions ; Vale of Acque, mills ; City of Oro- 
 pesa, inhabitants; Valle Grande, its great fertility, farmers, horses 
 and cattle, products, manufacturers, cloth, glass bottles,' fruits of 
 Cochabamba, Page 170. 
 
 LETTER IV. 
 
 La Paz, -boundaries, geographical situation, climate ; Cordilleras ; 
 Peaks of Ilimani and Ancoma ; Cica Cica, silver, salt ; Pacages, - 
 alabaster ; Jet d'eaux, ruins of Palace of Incas ; Omazuegos, -ancient 
 walls, Indian cottages ; Virgin of Copacavana, silver chandelier,- 
 riches of the virgin ; quicksilver ; Lake Titicaca, page 175, its naviga- 
 tion, fish; Laracaja,-Zorata, gold mines,-mode of obtaining gold, 
 lavaderos, or gold washings, page 178; river Tipuani, its rapid course, 
 gold on its banks, manner of obtaining it, expenses, profits, miners ; 
 town of Tipuani, situation, beautiful country, prod uctions, parrots, 
 monkeys ; source of the Amazon, navigation r -Indians, manufactories, 
 archery ; Apolobamba, cocoa ; Chulumani, coca, its cultivation, 
 coffee ; City of La Paz, page 186, ancient name, error of Humboldt, 
 its situation, appearance, public square, buildings, streets,- convents, 
 richness, literary institutions, alms house, climate ; Ilimani, vine- 
 yards, population, character of the people, Page 190. 
 
 LETTER V. 
 
 janta Cruz de la Sierra, boundaries, departments; Misque, climate,-- 
 soil, productions ; Santa Cruz ; river Mamore, its navigation ; Moxos 
 and Chiquitos, boundaries, villages, population, extent, missions, 
 churches, their rich decorations, manufactories, mercantile factory, 
 climate, forests, drugs and spices, Indians ;-Arica and Moquegua,-situ- 
 ation,-climate,-ports,-their harbours ; City of Moquegua,-wines,-sacks, 
 pepper, mules,-cochineal ; Valley of Tackna,-silver mines, mulat- 
 toes, Page 201. 
 
 LETTER VI. 
 
 Sold and silver mines,-quicksilver,-quantity of the precious metals annually 
 extracted, their influence upon national industry, climate of Upper Peru, 
 particular account of it, page 212, soil and productions, page 215,-- 
 mineral substances, vegetable substances, page 219, animal substances, 
 page 223 ;-- Llama ; Alpacha ; Guanaco ; Vicuna, Cochineal, fur, 
 plumage, wheat, sugar, cattle, fruit, commerce, page 231, to the endi
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 Page 71, line 12, for "Caraugas" read Carangas. 
 
 .. 78, line 12, for " Charasain" and " Consonata" read C/utrasani, and 
 
 Consata. 
 ._ 89, line 10, after the word " third" read to eat flesh in Lent; and the 
 
 fourth. 
 94, line 20, "eleven" read sixteen. 
 
 125, line 18, for " 17" read 19. 
 
 127, line 29. for "Chayanta" read Chichas. 
 
 132, lino 2, for "westward" read eastward. 
 
 Same page, line 9, for " Bcrmejo" read Paraguay, and after "north" 
 
 read The licrmejo. 
 
 Same page, line 10, after " Salta" read risesi 
 
 136, line 28, for " and" read to. 
 
 * 197, line 28, for "600,000" read 60,000. 
 
 7614 6
 
 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below 
 
 jAN 2 5 1932 
 
 MAY 1 ? 19 
 FE&jL 
 
 APH 2 8 193|, 
 IJUY 2 4 T93$ 
 
 |JAN 2 9 193* 
 JAN 3 1935 
 
 * A93* 
 
 MAY 7 193S 
 JAN 2 7 1936 
 
 SWAY 14 193& 
 
 FormL-9-10m-2,'31 
 
 NOV 2 2 1943 
 
 'MAY 4 1955 
 ?R p I3ir mov 151957 
 
 f * n* .i)ecA 1957' 
 
 MAI li 
 
 tea 
 
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 38. 
 
 00 URL 
 
 NOV 16 19: 
 
 >ft 2 a 1940 A FEB 27 1970 
 
 APR 131970 
 
 J* 8 
 
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 rire'r? 1942 
 
 RPR 8 43 
 
 MAR 3 1 1? 
 
 JUN 2 4 IS 
 OCT 3 
 
 : DEC 19 1380. 
 
 KEC'O LDURC 
 
 
 fcfriMJW
 
 LOS ANUtiLES 
 LIBRARY