THROUGH THE LABORATORY 
 SCHOOL
 
 .
 
 STATE NOKMAL SCHOOL 
 
 LOS ANGELES. CALU*>K1A' 
 
 UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA 
 
 AT 
 
 LOS ANGbLES 
 LIBRARY
 
 HYBRID CARNATION. 
 
 A SCOTT. FEVALE PARENT C. HYBRID B. MCGOWAN, MALE PARENT.
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 Through the Laboratory 
 and School Garden. 
 
 A MANUAL AND TEXT-BOOK OF ELE- 
 MENTARY AGRICULTURE 
 FOR SCHOOLS. 
 
 2, S 6 9 V 
 
 C. R. JACKSON 
 
 Introducer of Practical Agriculture and School Gardening into tht State 
 Normal School, Kirks-ville, Mo, 
 
 MRS. L. S. DAUGHERTY 
 
 Assistant in Zoo/ogy, State Normal School, Kirkpvillc t Mo. 
 
 " Give men their gold, and knaves their power, 
 
 Let fortune's bubbles rise and fall, 
 
 Who plows a field, or trains a flower, 
 
 Or plants a tree is more than all; 
 
 For he who blesses, most is blessed, 
 
 And God and man will own his worth 
 
 Who seeks to leave as his bequest 
 An added beauty to the earth." 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 
 
 1913
 
 Copyright, 1905, 1908 
 
 By 
 ORANGE JUDD COMPANY. 
 
 [Printed in U. S. A.;
 
 54R5 
 
 J )3o. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 FROM the growth and drift of public sentiment 
 it is evident that education in Agriculture will 
 soon be offered in all good elementary schools 
 of our country. This, from the nature of the 
 case, seems unavoidable, because such instruc- 
 tion is essential both for utility and for culture. 
 It is an essential utility, because it is the only 
 means of furnishing adequate conceptions of 
 the one fundamental occupation of mankind 
 upon which all other occupations depend. 
 
 For the masses it is an essential basis of true 
 culture and refinement, as illustrated in its ear- 
 liest fruitage, which is the adornment of homes 
 through improved lawns, shade-trees, walks, 
 driveways, gardens, flowers, etc., thereby open- 
 ing the avenues to consciousness and revealing 
 in the most pleasing way the beauty world all 
 around us. 
 
 This volume is unique. It is not the product 
 of its authors' imaginations. No one designed 
 it to exploit a theory or a person. It is an out- 
 line of work done done by ordinary people 
 under ordinary conditions. 
 
 The Agricultural Laboratory and the School 
 Garden of the Kirksville Normal School have
 
 yi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 grown from very small beginnings. They are 
 now the objects of keen interest in many parts 
 of the United States. Their purpose at all 
 times has been to prepare teachers to give prac- 
 tical and definite agricultural instruction in 
 public schools of all kinds. 
 
 JOHN R. KIRK.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 THE preparation of this book was undertaken, 
 primarily, that the classes in Agriculture of the 
 State Normal School of Kirksville, Missouri, 
 might have in one book the directions for all 
 laboratory experiments and exercises, and such 
 information as would enable them to under- 
 stand the results of these experiments. 
 
 We believe that the book will meet the needs 
 of most schools where Agriculture is taught or 
 should be taught. 
 
 It has been deemed necessary to embody in 
 the text such facts and principles of Geology 
 and Botany as are absolutely essential to the 
 understanding of agricultural principles and 
 processes. 
 
 The work is intended to cover one year's 
 time, but any part of it may be omitted if 
 the necessary materials cannot be obtained. 
 The time to be spent upon each phase of the 
 work must be determined by the class, the 
 materials accessible, and the teacher. 
 
 It is neither pedagogical nor scientific to tell 
 a student what he can find out for himself. It 
 takes away both the incentive and the necessity 
 for experimental work to foretell the result.
 
 viii PREFACE. 
 
 Our aim has been to present actual experimental 
 work in every phase of the subject possible, and 
 to state the directions for such work so that the 
 student can perform it independently of the 
 teacher, and to state them in such a way that 
 the results will not be suggested by these direc- 
 tions. One must perform the experiment to 
 ascertain the result. 
 
 Any energetic teacher can, by carefully going 
 over the work in advance, working out the ex- 
 periments himself and reading the references, be 
 able to do creditable class work if he is willing 
 to " dig," but it is useless for any one else to 
 undertake to be an agriculturist or to teach 
 agriculture. 
 
 Every available source has been drawn upon 
 for the material used in this book, but the plan 
 of presenting it is original, as well as most of 
 the experiments and exercises, and many practi- 
 cal ideas gained from experience in teaching. 
 
 We wish to express our grateful appreciation 
 to all those who have so kindly helped us by 
 reviewing the manuscript or by loaning us illus- 
 trations. 
 
 The following persons from the United States 
 Department of Agriculture at Washington have 
 been very helpful: The manuscript was examined 
 by B. T. Galloway, Chief of the Division of 
 Plant Industry ; W. J. Spillman, Agrostologist ; 
 A. F. Woods, Pathologist and Physiologist ;
 
 PREFACE. ix 
 
 and M. B. Waite, Assistant Pathologist. The 
 chapters on " Propagation," " Improvement," 
 and " Pruning " were read by L. C. Corbett, 
 Horticulturist, and the one on " Enemies of 
 Plants " by the Entomologist, Mr. Wilcox. 
 " Ornamentation of School and Home 
 Grounds " was read by Mr. Crosby. The chap- 
 ter on " Enemies of Plants " was also read by 
 H. Garman, State Entomologist of Kentucky. 
 The first half of the book was examined also by 
 Professor Mumford, Acting Director of Missouri 
 Experiment Station, and by W. T. Carrington, 
 State Superintendent of Schools. The second 
 half was examined by J. C. Whitten, Horticul- 
 turist, Missouri Experiment Station. The first 
 chapter was criticised by C. F. Marbut, Assist- 
 ant Professor of Geology, University of Missouri. 
 
 The second half of the manuscript was ex- 
 amined by Dr. L. S. Daugherty, of the State 
 Normal School, Kirksville, Missouri. The entire 
 manuscript was submitted to H. J. Waters, Su- 
 perintendent of Agriculture, World's Fair, St. 
 Louis, Missouri. The chapter on Milk and Its 
 Care was written by C. H. Eckels, of the Mis- 
 souri State University. 
 
 We are indebted to the following persons 
 and Experiment Stations for illustrations : Ex- 
 periment Stations of Minnesota, West Virginia, 
 Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Kansas, Mis- 
 souri, Ithaca, New York, New Jersey, Texas,
 
 X PREFACE. 
 
 and that of Hampton Institute (Va.) ; to the 
 United States Department of Agriculture ; the 
 United States Geological Survey ; Ladies Home 
 Journal; Orange Judd Co.; Waugh's "Land- 
 scape Gardening" ; D. C. Heath & Co. ; Leg- 
 gett & Brother; The Deming Co., and others 
 mentioned with the figures. 
 
 THE AUTHORS. 
 
 KlRKSVILLE, MO., 1905. 
 
 To the earlier edition has been added a chap- 
 ter on " Farm Animals" by E. A. Trowbridge, 
 of the Missouri Experiment Station. Several 
 figures have been inserted and additional text 
 has been written on the School Garden. A 
 number of changes and additions have been 
 made in other chapters. The whole book has 
 been gone over critically and parts which have 
 proved impracticable or doubtful have been 
 omitted. 
 
 THE AUTHORS. 
 
 JULY IST, 1900%
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 I. NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS .... 3 
 II. CLASSIFICATION AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 
 
 OF SOILS 43 
 
 III. SOIL MOISTURE AND PREPARATION OF THE 
 
 SOIL 59 
 
 IV. THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS .... 77 
 V. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS 109 
 
 VI. PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 131 
 
 VII. ROTATION OF CROPS 153 
 
 VIII. MILK AND ITS CARE 163 
 
 IX. PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 201 
 
 X. IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS 245 
 
 XL PRUNING OF PLANTS 271 
 
 XII. ENEMIES OF PLANTS 289 
 
 XIII. ORNAMENTATION OF SCHOOL AND HOME 
 
 GROUNDS 349 
 
 XIV. FARM ANIMALS 393 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES : 
 
 Weeds 437 
 
 Forest Trees of America 437 
 
 AGRICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS : 
 
 Publications of United States Department of 
 
 Agriculture 438 
 
 Publications of State Experiment Stations . 438 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS 439 
 
 PUBLISHING HOUSES 441 
 
 GLOSSARY 442 
 
 INDEX 445 
 
 xi
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Red and White Carnations with Hybrid Produced by 
 
 Crossing Frontispiece. 
 
 Wind-blown Sand-drifts 8 
 
 Planting. Beach Grass to Hold the Sand at Cape Cod, Mass. 8 
 
 Apparatus for Experiment i , . . 10 
 
 Deposition of Material Upon Slacking of Stream ... 16 
 
 Shales "Creeping" Under the Action of Frost .... 20 
 
 Formation of Glaciers 21 
 
 Action of Glacier Drifts 23 
 
 Mechanical Action of Rain . . . . N 26 
 
 Roots of Forest Trees Opening a Rocky Subsoil ... 29 
 
 Vegetation Protecting the Soil 30 
 
 How the Farm is Retained 37 
 
 View of an Irrigating Ditch When Made 39 
 
 View of the Same Ditch Ten Years Later 39 
 
 Fifth Grade Children Collecting Different Kinds of Soil 47 
 
 Temperature Curves of a Humous Soil 50 
 
 Apparatus for Experiment 5 52 
 
 Apparatus for Experiment 6 53 
 
 Apparatus for Experiment 7 54 
 
 Apparatus for Experiment 9 61 
 
 Apparatus for Experiment 13 67 
 
 A Good Plow 69 
 
 A Plank Harrow /o 
 
 A Rolling Cutter Harrow 70 
 
 A Spring-toothed Harrow 71 
 
 A Coulter-toothed Harrow 71 
 
 To Show the Effect of Deep and Shallow Plowing . . 73 
 
 Showing Effect of Nitrate 80 
 
 Tubercles on Velvet Bean Produced by Inoculation . . 83 
 
 A Covered Barn-yard 103 
 
 Comparison of Vetch Plants 1 1 1 
 
 Roots of Yellow Soy-bean 112 
 
 Alfalfa Plant 115 
 
 The Cow-pea 1-4 
 
 The Soy-bean .1-5 
 
 xii
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. xiii 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Round Silo, Missouri Agricultural College Farm . . . 149 
 
 Wheat Grown After Cow-peas 155 
 
 Pure and Impure Milk Highly Magnified 165 
 
 Pasteurizing Apparatus 167 
 
 A Guernsey Cow Charmante of the Gron 14442 . . . 172 
 
 A Jersey Cow Imp. Jersey Venture 122508 172 
 
 An Ayrshire Cow Viola Drurnttiond 174 
 
 A Holstein Cow 174 
 
 Glassware for Babcock Tester 178 
 
 Hand-power Babcock Tester 179 
 
 Cooley Creamer 185 
 
 A Modern Hand-power Cream Separator 187 
 
 Barrel Chuftt . 191 
 
 Farm Dairy Butter-worker 195 
 
 Students Molding and Wrapping Butter 197 
 
 Catalpa Tree 203 
 
 Seedlings of Indian Corn 210 
 
 Red Fir (elevation, 9,000 feet) 213 
 
 Red Fir (elevation, 4,700 feet) 213 
 
 Rooted Tips of a Seedling Raspberry Caiie 218 
 
 Leaf Cutting Whole Leaf . 219 
 
 Leaf Cutting Part of Leaf 221 
 
 Leaf Cutting of Sansevieria zeylanica 221 
 
 Tip Cutting of a Chrysanthemum 222 
 
 Cutting of Heliotrope 222 
 
 Cutting of Oleander Rooting in Water 223 
 
 Stem Cutting of Umbrella-plant Rooting in Water . . . 223 
 
 Removing a Plant from a Pot 224 
 
 The Plant Removed from the Pot 224 
 
 Children Potting Plants 226 
 
 Twig of White Elm 227 
 
 Position of Hard-wood Cutting in Soil 228 
 
 Rooted Grape Cutting 228 
 
 Grape Cutting 229 
 
 Cutting of Blackberry Root 229 
 
 The Way to Remove a Bud 230 
 
 One-year-old Peach Seedlings .......... 231 
 
 Stages in Budding 232 
 
 One-year-old Piece-root Graft 233 
 
 Steps in Root-grafting 234 
 
 Dormant Apple Twig 235
 
 xiv ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PACE. 
 
 Steps in Stem-grafting 236 
 
 Mound Layering 239 
 
 Variation in Grains of Corn 246 
 
 Improvement of Corn by Selection 251 
 
 Plant Rosettes 255 
 
 Potato Plant 257 
 
 Modification of Cosmos by Pruning 258 
 
 The Parts of a Flower 262 
 
 Orange Bud and Blossoms 263 
 
 Orange Flower 264 
 
 Nearly Mature Hybrid Orange 264 
 
 Cosmos Flowers 266 
 
 Diagram Showing Method of Selecting and Improving Seed 267 
 Diagrammatic Cross-Section of a Basswood Stem Two 
 
 Years Old 273 
 
 Improper and Proper Pruning 273 
 
 Grass Growing in Cavity Result of Improper Pruning . 275 
 
 Same Tree After Cavity Has Been Repaired 275 
 
 The Way to Remove a Large Limb 276 
 
 Where to Cut the New Growth 277 
 
 Apple-tree Headed Low 280 
 
 Trees Growing Close Together for Timber 281 
 
 Norway Maple 283 
 
 Net for Collecting Insects 291 
 
 Cyanide Bottle 292 
 
 Breeding-jar for Rearing Insects 292 
 
 Collecting Insects 294 
 
 A Bucket Spray 304 
 
 The Bordeaux Nozzle 305 
 
 Hand Spray 305 
 
 Meadow-lark 308 
 
 House Wren 309 
 
 Four Common Seed-eating Birds 311 
 
 Four Common Weeds, the Seeds of which are Eaten by Birds 313 
 
 Weed Seeds Commonly Eaten by Birds 314 
 
 "Look out!" 316 
 
 Anatis ij-ptitictata, Say 318 
 
 Ladybug and Larvae Preying Upon Scale Insects Infest- 
 ing a Pear 319 
 
 Epilachna corrupta 319 
 
 Chrysopa Species 320
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. xv 
 
 PACE. 
 
 Ichneumon-fly Depositing an Egg within Cocoon . . . 321 
 
 Ants Milking Plant-lice 325 
 
 American Tent-caterpillar 326 
 
 Baltimore Oriole Attacking the Nest of the American 
 
 Tent-caterpillar 327 
 
 Forest Tent-cocoons in Apple Leaves 328 
 
 Forest Tent-caterpillars Feeding Upon Elm Leaves . . 329 
 
 Codling-moth 330 
 
 Round-headed Apple-borer 333 
 
 Sapcrda Candida, Fab 334 
 
 Brown Rot 337 
 
 Black Rot 338 
 
 Grapes from Vineyard Affected with Black Rot .... 339 
 
 An Apple Attacked by Bitter-rot Fungus 340 
 
 Apple Scab 341 
 
 Agricultural Class, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. 348 
 
 A Country School-yard Bare and Unattractive .... 350 
 
 The Same School-yard Improved by Plantings of Shrubbery 350 
 
 Fifth Grade Children Planting Their Garden 354 
 
 Fourth Grade Children Caring for the Lawn Around the 
 
 School Garden 355 
 
 School Gardening Agricultural Students 358 
 
 Roman Hyacinths 360 
 
 Chinese Sacred Lily 361 
 
 Geometrical Designs 365 
 
 Natural Style 369 
 
 Trees Showing Kinds of Texture 371 
 
 American Elm 374 
 
 Ash 374 
 
 A Cool and Inviting Retreat 376 
 
 Ferns and Phlox 377 
 
 Mass of Shrubbery 378 
 
 Dogwood in Flower 38; 
 
 Pansies 383 
 
 Shall the Children Pluck Flowers or Rattle Tin Cans in 
 
 the Back Yard? 384 
 
 Back-yard Screen 385 
 
 A Bouquet of Sweet Peas 386 
 
 A Small Lake, with Well-selected Plantings 388 
 
 "Artist Montrose" 405 
 
 Hackney Stallion "Sir Humphrey" 408
 
 xvi ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Percheron Stallion "Pink" 411 
 
 Pure-bred Aberdeen Angus Steer "Andy" 414 
 
 "University Daizie" 417 
 
 Red-polled Hull "Bounce" 420 
 
 Southdown Wether 421 
 
 Ratnbouillet Ram 422 
 
 Champion Poland China Barrow 427 
 
 Large Yorkshire Boar, "Holy well Royalty II." .... 429 
 
 Single-comb White Leghorn Cock 433 
 
 Barred Plymouth Rock Hen 433 
 
 Buff Cochin Cock 434 
 
 Light Bruhmus 434
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 THROUGH THE LABORATORY 
 AND SCHOOL GARDEN. 
 
 2 3" 6 <? ^ 
 
 OUTLINE OF CHAPTER I. 
 
 NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 
 
 .4. SOURCES OF ENERGY. 
 I. The Earth's Energy. 
 II. The Sun's Energy. 
 
 ,5. FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION. 
 
 I. The Atmosphere. 
 
 1. // Regulates the Temperature. 
 
 2. Movements of the Atmosphere. 
 
 3. Chemical Action, EXPERIMENT i. 
 
 4. Alternations of Heat and Cold. 
 
 II. Water. 
 
 1. Chemical action. 
 
 2. Mechanical Action. Disintegrating, transporting, 
 
 assorting. EXPERIMENT 2. 
 
 (1) RIVERS. EXPERIMENT 3. 
 
 (2) UNDERGROUND STREAMS. 
 
 (3) LANDSLIDES. 
 
 (4) LAKES. 
 
 (5) THE OCEAN. 
 
 (6) FROST.
 
 2 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 (7) ICK. 
 
 (8) SNOWSLIDES. 
 
 (9) GLACIERS. 
 (10) ICEBERGS. 
 
 3. Field Exercise No. i. 
 
 III. Organic Life. 
 
 1. Plant Life. 
 
 (1) MECHANICAL OR PHYSICAL EFFECTS 
 
 (2) CHEMICAL EFFECTS. 
 
 (3) VEGETABLE ACCUMULATIONS. 
 
 2. Animal Life. 
 
 (1) DISINTEGRATION. 
 
 (2) ANIMAL ACCUMULATIONS. 
 
 Calcareous Deposits. 
 Siliceous Deposits. 
 Phosphatic Deposits. 
 
 3. Environmental Changes. 
 
 4. Field Exercise No. 2,
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 
 
 SOIL is derived, primarily, from rock * in the 
 broadest sense of the term. The cycle of tear- 
 ing down in one place and building up in an- 
 other has been constantly going on for ages, 
 and is still going on to-day. It is to this cycle 
 of changes, discussed in the following pages, 
 that we owe the presence of the loose surface 
 material of the earth (some places a few hun- 
 dred feet in depth, and in some places entirely 
 wanting) which makes it possible for plants and 
 animals to live, and which loose material forms 
 the basis of all soil. 
 
 A. SOURCES OF ENERGY. 
 
 The matter which constitutes the earth and 
 atmosphere, though it cannot be destroyed, is 
 constantly changing its form, under the action 
 of existing forces. The sources of all these 
 forces, or of our supply of energy, are the earth 
 and the sun. 
 
 I. The Earth's Energy. 
 
 The earth's energy is from within, and some 
 of its manifestations are the upheavals and dis- 
 ruptions of the crust, and, greatest of all, the 
 
 *"Any substance constituting a portion of the earth's crust 
 ... is called a rock." Leconte's Commend of Geology, p. 178. 
 
 3
 
 4 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 force of gravity, without which nothing could 
 remain upon the surface of the earth, owing to 
 the centrifugal force caused by the rotation of 
 the earth. 
 
 Other forms of energy are the molecular^ 
 forces of cohesion^ and adhesion, ; and the 
 atomic force of chemical affinity, all of which 
 exist within the substances themselves, and act 
 at insensible distances. 
 
 II. The Sun's Energy. 
 
 The great source from which we derive, either 
 directly or indirectly, most of our energy is the 
 sun. " The circulation of winds and waters, 
 the changes of temperature, and the activities 
 of living beings all depend upon the sun's 
 energy," without which there could be upon 
 the surface of the earth no motion and no life. 
 
 The sun's energy comes to us, it is believed., 
 by means of waves in the ether of space. Some 
 of these waves produce the various colors, or are 
 what we might call light waves ; others are not 
 perceptible to the human eye, but are heat 
 waves ; still others are especially productive of 
 chemical changes, as is manifested in photog- 
 raphy. 
 
 When the sunshine falls upon the soil a por- 
 tion of it is absorbed, and the molecular motion 
 
 t Terms thus marked (double dagger) throughout the book are 
 found in the Glossary. 
 * Scott's Geology^ p. 29.
 
 NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 5 
 
 within the soil is increased, producing a certain 
 amount of heat. This heat, when transmitted 
 to the air, causes it to expand and thus become 
 lighter, when the cooler and heavier air rushes 
 in from the sides, forces it upward, and wind re- 
 sults ; if transmitted to the water, the increase 
 of the molecular motion of the water overcomes 
 the force of cohesion, and evaporation ensues. 
 
 As the vapor rises it gradually becomes cooled 
 and condensed, and clouds composed of minute 
 particles of water* are formed; these minute 
 particles of water, after further cooling and 
 condensing, are united by cohesion into drops, 
 and are drawn back to the earth by the force 
 of gravity, in the form of rain, snow, or hail. 
 These few examples may serve to show how the 
 sun's energy is transformed into a multitude of 
 activities. 
 
 B. FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION. 
 I. The Atmosphere. 
 
 i. It Regulates the Temperature. On winter 
 nights the lower layer of air especially if laden 
 with dust and moisture acts as a blanket in 
 checking radiation of heat from the earth's 
 surface. But, in the intense heat of summer, 
 this lower layer of air would, through radiation 
 
 * " Clouds formed at temperature above 32 consist of minute 
 spherical drops of water 1-4000 to i-iooo of an inch in diameter; 
 those formed below 32 consist of minute ice spicules which in- 
 crease in size and become snow." Davis' Meteorology, pp. 159, 160.
 
 6 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 of heat from the earth, become unbearable for 
 all living beings were it not for its currents, 
 caused by the expansion of the heated air which 
 renders it lighter and causes it to rise, while the 
 cooler air above, being heavier, descends by the 
 force of gravity.* 
 
 2. Movements of tJie Atmosphere. It is to 
 these movements due, primarily, to the coun- 
 teraction of the sun's energy by the force of 
 gravity that we owe the formation of clouds 
 and the condensation of their moisture ; the dis- 
 tribution of gases to act upon the rock surface, 
 or to be consumed by living beings; the circu- 
 lation of air in the soil, so essential to plant life; 
 the transportation of plant food and of seeds ; 
 and the maintenance of the relative composition 
 of the whole atmosphere. It is through these 
 movements that the air travels to the sea and 
 back again, bringing moisture for the thirsty 
 life. 
 
 The winds play an important part in the for- 
 mation of soil : () in the disintegration of 
 rocks, by pelting them with sand or rain, thus 
 mechanically wearing them away by friction ; 
 (<$) by keeping them bare, so that they are ex- 
 posed to other atmospheric forces ; (V) by stir- 
 
 * " Professor Langley, after a long and careful experiment 
 at the base and summit of Mount Whitney, California, concludes 
 that had our earth no atmosphere its surface temperature under 
 the equator at noon would be 328 F." The Soil, King, p. 13.
 
 NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 7 
 
 ring up the ocean into waves and billows, which 
 beat upon the rocks, carrying with them sand 
 and pebbles, which grind each other into powder. 
 
 On the sandy beach of the ocean and of the 
 great lakes, and in the great sandy plains, or 
 wherever the sand is loose and unprotected by 
 vegetation, the wind becomes a potent factor 
 (Figs. 1-2). Along the shore of Lake Michigan 
 sand-dunes are destroying forests, and often 
 when the forests have been cut off, fertile farms 
 are covered by these great accumulations of 
 wind-blown sand. In conjunction with sand, 
 the wind builds or destroys islands. The loess 
 in China is a deposit of wind-blown soil. 
 
 In the desert of Sahara and in our great 
 western plains great blinding storms of dust 
 and sand occur. The sand, too heavy to be lifted 
 more than a few feet high, is rolled along and 
 drifted in wave-like mounds, which change their 
 shape and position with the changes in the direc- 
 tion of the wind just as the snow-drifts are 
 formed in waves and the particles are sucked 
 up into the whirling air, and redepositecl in a 
 new place by the force of gravity as the motion 
 subsides. One of our "blizzards" is a good il- 
 lustration of a sand-storm, only the substance 
 transported by the wind is snow instead of dust 
 and sand. 
 
 3. Chemical Action. Another phase of atmos- 
 pheric work is that of chemical action. Dry air
 
 FIG. I. WIND-BLOWN SAND-DRIFTS. 
 
 FIG. 2. PLANTING BEACH GRASS TO HOLD THE SAND AT 
 CAI'K COD, MASS.
 
 NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 9 
 
 has little chemical effect, but moist air is very 
 active. The oxygen, which is now known to 
 combine with nearly every other element, seeks 
 to unite with the minerals of the exposed rocks.* 
 Iron, which in some form is contained by most 
 rocks, unites readily with oxygen in the presence 
 of moisture, forming rust, which stains, softens, 
 and ultimately causes the disintegration of the 
 rock. 
 
 Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), though present in a 
 comparatively small quantity, is a powerful 
 agent both in moist air and in rain-water. It 
 acts upon the rocks, especially upon limestone, 
 causing them to crumble away or to be entirely 
 dissolved. 
 
 EXPERIMENT i. Before beginning to perform any experi- 
 ment in this book, read over the entire directions for it, get 
 necessary apparatus ready, and know what you are going to 
 do and why you are going to do it. Record your observations 
 at the time they are made, not after leaving the laboratory. 
 
 Throughout this book, wherever the word "note" is 
 used, it means to observe and record your observations or 
 explanations. 
 
 (a) Break pieces of limestone, marble, or clam-shells 
 into tiny bits, and place a small quantity in a wide- 
 mouthed bottle. 
 
 (&) Pour in small successive portions of dilute hydro- 
 chloric acid (HC1). Note what takes place as the acid 
 comes in contact with the stones or shells. Both the 
 hydrochloric acid and the calcium carbonate of the 
 stones or shells are decomposed, and calcium chloride 
 
 * Gilbert and Brigham, Physical Geography, p. 78.
 
 10 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 (CaClJ, water (H a O),and the gas carbon dioxide (CO,) 
 are formed. 
 
 (<) Now pass some of this gas, or carbon dioxide, from 
 the bottle into the solution of clear lime-water (Fig. 3). 
 
 (f/) To prepare lime-water, dissolve common lime in 
 pure water, let stand until clear, and carefully pour off 
 the liquid, or pass it through a filter-paper. \ What 
 takes place when the carbon dioxide passes into the 
 lime water ? Allow the gas to continue to pass, and 
 note the result. 
 
 (e) Boil the liquid, and again note result. 
 
 (/) Write up this experiment, stating the materials 
 used, observations made, and what the experiment 
 teaches, together with any further remarks or conclu- 
 sions you may make concerning each step. 
 
 When the carbon dioxide was first passed into 
 the lime-water, a precipitate of calcium carbon- 
 ate (CaCCX), or limestone, 
 was formed. 
 
 It continued to pass 
 until there was no more 
 calcium hydroxide, or lime- 
 water, Ca(OH),, to com- 
 bine with it, when the 
 carbon dioxide united with 
 the water (H,O) to form 
 carbonic acid (H 2 CO,). 
 This acid at once acted 
 
 upon the precipitate of calcium carbonate, form- 
 ing a soluble bicarbonate of calcium, H 2 Ca 
 (CO 3 ) 2 , which is dissolved, and the liquid be- 
 comes clear. The boiling drives out part of 
 
 FIG. 3. APPARATUS FOR 
 EXPERIMENT I.
 
 NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 11 
 
 the carbon dioxide, and the calcium carbonate 
 is again precipitated. 
 
 Other substances of the air which bear impor- 
 tant relations to agriculture are nitrogen and its 
 compounds, ammonia, nitrous and nitric acids, 
 and ozone. 
 
 4. Alternations of Heat and Cold. In dry, 
 hot countries, rocks become excessively heated 
 during the day and rapidly cooled at night. As 
 the outer layer cools it contracts upon the hot 
 and expanded interior, which tends to produce 
 snapping and crumbling of the brittle min- 
 erals. 
 
 Thus we see the work of the atmosphere is 
 constant ; it is universal ; it is not, however, 
 uniform.* Both the rapidity and the extent of 
 disintegration are dependent upon the differ- 
 ences of climate in various latitudes and alti- 
 tudes, the differences in the rock substances 
 themselves, the differences of seasons and of 
 the amount of precipitation, and upon the pres- 
 ence or lack of protection from vegetation or 
 soil. 
 
 * The composition of the air varies greatly in different locali- 
 ties, or under different conditions in the same localities; but, 
 under ordinary conditions, its constituents in a given volume are, 
 approximately : oxygen, 20.6 per cent.; nitrogen, 77.18 per cent. ; 
 water vapor, 1.4 percent.; carbon dioxide, .04 per cent. ; argon, 
 .78 per cent. The water vapor and carbon dioxide are the most 
 variable. And there is present a variable quantity of ammonia, 
 nitrous and nitric acids a very small fraction of i per cent, alto- 
 gether.
 
 12 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 II. Water. 
 
 Among the factors of soil formation none is 
 greater than that of water in its various phases 
 as, rain, rill, river, lake, and sea ; frost, ice, 
 avalanche, and glacier. 
 
 i. CJiemical Action. In many of its forms 
 water exerts a violent and stupendous force, 
 but there is a silent and subtle force whose re- 
 sults are often overlooked. It is the oreat sol- 
 
 o 
 
 vent power of water. It absorbs both oxygen 
 and carbon dioxide from the air, and these give 
 it great chemical power in dissolving, or de- 
 composing, rock substances.* The simplest 
 effects are the uniting of oxygen and of water 
 with the minerals composing the rocks. But 
 as the rain sinks into the ground it is provided 
 with new weapons through the absorption of 
 the humic acids and, possibly, of alkaline sub- 
 stances. For this reason, many rocks disinte- 
 grate more rapidly under ground than they do 
 when exposed to the atmosphere. 
 
 Calcium carbonate, or limestone, is the sub- 
 stance dissolved or decomposed in the greatest 
 quantity ; but magnesium carbonate (MgCO 3 ), 
 organic matter, silica (SiO 2 ), and many other 
 substances are held in solution by clear river 
 water. (See " Field Exercise No. i," Part 2.) 
 
 * " Perfectly pure water has very little effect, but perfectly 
 pure water does not exist in nature." Scott's Geology,
 
 NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 13 
 
 The amount of these dissolved materials 
 though far less than that produced by mechan- 
 ical action is astonishing. That carried into 
 the Gulf of Mexico by the Mississippi River an- 
 nually reaches over 112,000,000 tons not all 
 derived from the river-bed, but taken up by the 
 water from the time it falls in rain till it reaches 
 the sea, whether it flows through the river and 
 its branches, or whether it comes from springs 
 or other underground sources. 
 
 2. Mechanical A ction, The mechanical action 
 of water is threefold, (i) It disintegrates. (2) 
 It transports. (3) It assorts. 
 
 The mechanical action of rain is due to the 
 friction produced by the drops in striking the 
 rocks, and by the abrasion of solid particles as 
 they are carried to lower levels. It forms into 
 little rills and gullies, washing out and carrying 
 with it as it goes all the loose material which it 
 can hold in suspension (Fig. 8). The amount 
 thus obtained depends partly upon the solubil- 
 ity of the rock over which it flows (though 
 even a granite would be slightly dissolved by 
 ordinary rain-water), and partly upon the vio- 
 lence of the precipitation, and the volume and 
 velocity of the stream. 
 
 The velocity is affected by several influences, 
 but the greatest of them is the constant, never- 
 failing action of gravity. Hence, the steeper 
 the descent the greater the velocity. The
 
 14 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 power is supplied by the volume and velocity of 
 the stream, but the work of abrasion is per- 
 formed, for the most part, by the sand, pebbles, 
 and rock fragments as they are rolled along. 
 They cut down into the river-bed, wearing it 
 deeper; they polish each other into rounded or 
 flattened shapes, or grind each other into pow- 
 der in their mad rush to the sea. 
 
 The transporting power of running water 
 varies as the sixth power of its velocity, so that 
 if its velocity be doubled it can carry sixty-four 
 times as much solid matter as before. Thus it 
 is that a slight increase in the velocity will 
 greatly increase the load of a stream if the ma- 
 terials are obtainable, while the slightest de- 
 crease in the velocity will cause a part of the 
 load to be deposited. These river deposits are 
 commonly in sheets or bars, but when the river 
 suddenly enters a plain at the foot of a steep 
 slope an alluvial fan is formed by the deposition 
 of the sediment. 
 
 According to the calculations of the United 
 States government made many years ago, the 
 Mississippi River transports to the gulf every 
 year enough solid substance to make a column 
 one mile square and 268 feet high 200,000,000 
 tons. 
 
 The student can find no better example of 
 the carrying power of water than that of the 
 roadside rills and gullies after a heavy rain.
 
 NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 15 
 
 EXPERIMENT 2. (a) Weigh a glass fruit jar, and col- 
 lect in it the clouded or muddy water from a gullj or 
 stream, after a rain and allow it to stand until clear. 
 
 (b) Weigh again; then carefully pour off the water, 
 and weigh the sediment remaining in the jar. 
 
 (c) Calculate the per cent, of sediment. 
 
 (i) RIVERS. When rivers overflow their 
 banks the water loses its velocity, and a layer 
 of sediment is deposited on either side of the 
 stream. In the great rivers these flood-plains 
 are broad fertile tracts of land very valuable for 
 agriculture. Those of the Mississippi are many 
 miles in width, but have to be protected by 
 levees from the overflowing of the river. 
 
 Where the river empties into the quiet waters 
 of a lake or sea the velocity is checked and the 
 stream deposits its load. As the stream slack- 
 ens the heavier particles are dropped first, and 
 so on, until in the quiet waters only the finest 
 silt is carried. Hence it is that, on lake or sea- 
 shore, we find the coarser materials thrown down 
 first, and farther out the finer sands (Fig. 4). 
 There is usually a pause after such deposition 
 is made until a fresh supply of sediment is ob- 
 tained. This allows the surface to assume a 
 somewhat different arrangement. This surface 
 forms the plane of contact for the next layer, 
 and is called the "stratification plane." 
 
 EXPERIMENT 3. The assorting power of water may be 
 illustrated by (a) placing a mixture of rock material of
 
 1C 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 various sizes pebbles, sand, clay, and vegetable mould 
 in a candy-jar, and nearly filling the jar with water. 
 
 (b) Now thoroughly stir the mixture, and allow it to 
 stand until the water clarifies. 
 
 (c) Observe the arrangement of the sediment. Where 
 are the largest pebbles found ? Where the finest clay ? 
 
 Of course the change here will be gradual, and 
 
 FIG. 4 DEPOSITION OF MATERIAL UPON SLACKING OF STREAM 
 
 the layers will not be so distinct, as there was 
 no time for the formation of the stratification^ 
 plane between the depositions of different kinds 
 of sediment. 
 
 (2) UNDERGROUND STREAMS. Part of the 
 water after a rain sinks into the ground. The 
 natural breaks in the rock serve as channels 
 which it may enlarge if the rock be soluble.
 
 NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 17 
 
 These underground streams perform various 
 kinds of work, such as weakening rocks, dissolv- 
 ing minerals, carving channels, rising in springs 
 or in artesian wells, bringing mineral matter to 
 the surface, and forming caves and making 
 peculiar deposits in them. 
 
 (3) LANDSLIDES are caused by the undermin- 
 ing of masses of rock and soil by water, which 
 produces a slippery surface of bed-rock, and 
 makes it easy for gravity to move an enormous 
 quantity of soil or rock down the declivity. 
 
 (4) LAKES differ from oceans in being (usu- 
 ally) above the sea-level ; in size ; and in the 
 freshness of their waters, provided they have an 
 outlet. Their chief movements are waves pro- 
 duced by winds. These waves often erode the 
 shore. They carry with them and distribute 
 over the bottom of the lake the sediment 
 brought by the rivers, thus making stratified 
 rock. 
 
 (5) THE OCEAN, with its waves, tides, and cur- 
 rents, which constantly beat upon the shore, 
 plays an important role in this great drama. As 
 we have seen, the material transported by the 
 rivers may form deltas and bars, or be widely 
 distributed, according to the strength of the 
 tides and the power of the currents along the 
 shore. 
 
 More than one-half of the rocks have been 
 laid down in the sea and then raised above it.
 
 ]8 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 These deposits were not made out in the open 
 sea, but near the shore in shallow water. Their 
 thickness is accounted for by the theory that 
 the ocean bottom was sinking gradually, and 
 fresh deposits were made above the preceding 
 ones. 
 
 In the open sea are found the deposits of 
 very fine particles carried out by the rivers on 
 the continental slopes from the one hundred 
 fathom line to the oceanic abysses and they 
 are known under the indefinite term of "mud." 
 There are also volcanic deposits and great accu- 
 tmilations of organic remains. Every animal in 
 the sea which has a shell or hard skeleton helps 
 to make these deposits, but by far the greater 
 part of them is made up of the shells of minute 
 organisms* which live near the surface. The 
 diatom ooze is composed of the siliceous re- 
 mains of microscopic plants. 
 
 (6) FROST. Frozen water has done a great 
 share of the work in this process of mantling 
 the earth with loose material. Some rocks are 
 more porous than others, though those appar- 
 ently solid will, upon examination, be found to 
 be crossed by joints which divide them into 
 blocks. These are filled with minute crevices 
 and pores, through which the water percolates 
 even to the very center. Water, upon passing 
 
 * Jordan and Kellogg's Animal Life, p. 18. Scott's Geology, \ 
 
 pp. 176-180.
 
 NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 19 
 
 into a solid state, expands about one-eleventh of 
 its original bulk. This expansion exerts an ir- 
 resistible force, as is seen in the bursting of 
 iron pipes, the cracking of the rocks into blocks, 
 or shattering them into fragments, thus increas- 
 ing their exposed surfaces many-fold, and ex- 
 posing them to the action of other forces. 
 
 EXERCISE i. Let the student calculate the area of 
 the exposed surface of a cubic foot of rock (a) before, 
 and (b) after it has been broken up into cubic inches. 
 (c) Compare a and b. 
 
 Another effect of the freezing of rock is to 
 cause the fragments to " rise slightly at right 
 angles to the inclined surface, and each thawing 
 produces the reverse movement " * under the 
 influence of gravity. Consequently, they slowly 
 "creep" down the declivity (Fig. 5). 
 
 (7) ICE. The ice of a stream expands with 
 great force, pushing against the bank. It holds 
 in its mighty grasp all loose stones, boulders, 
 and trees along the banks, and when it breaks 
 up transports them to great distances. 
 
 If the student has an opportunity, let him 
 watch the breaking up the ice in a river, or even 
 in a smaller stream, and see with what wonder- 
 ful force the great blocks of ice with their bur- 
 dens are crushing each other to pieces in the 
 fury of a spring torrent. Iron bridges are of ten 
 swept away by the enormous pressure. 
 
 * Scott's Geology, p. 82.
 
 20 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 (8) SNOWSLIUES. On the mountain sides 
 great masses of snow which have accumulated 
 through the winter become loosened by water, 
 as in the case of the landslide, and are drawn 
 down the slope with great momentum, carrying 
 
 FIG. 5. SHALES "CREEPING" UNDER THE ACTION OF 
 FROST. (U. S. G. S.) 
 
 boulders, vegetation, everything within their 
 path, and literally scraping the solid rock bare. 
 (9) GLACIERS. It is now well established that 
 in both North America and Europe glaciers, 
 or great sheets of moving ice, existed in com-
 
 =- == 
 
 FIG. 6. FORMATION OF GLACIERS. (u. S. G. S.) 
 
 21
 
 22 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 paratively recent geological times; indeed, they 
 are found to-day, though in 'much less size and 
 number than formerly. 
 
 The causes of the climatic changes which led 
 to the formation and again to the disappearance 
 of the glaciers are unknown. At the time of 
 the great expansion these ice sheets covered 
 nearly all of North America down to 40 north 
 latitude. 
 
 Wherever, in high latititudes or altitudes, 
 more snow falls in winter than melts in summer, 
 glaciers are formed (Fig. 6). These glaciers 
 carry with them (i) upon their surfaces, (2) 
 frozen in their interior, and (3) pushed along 
 in front or beneath them, great quantities 
 of rock of all degrees of coarseness, from the 
 gigantic boulders weighing tons to the finest 
 clay. Rocks over which they pass are striated 
 and polished (Fig. 7), and both these and the 
 materials carried may be ground into clay by 
 the enormous pressure of the slowly moving 
 mass. The drift, or this deposit, is distributed 
 over vast tracts, and is stratified or unstratified. 
 The stratified drift is deposited by the water of 
 glacial streams, while the unstratified is simply 
 dropped by the melting ice. 
 
 At the present time there are great tracts of 
 glacial ice : (a) the Alpine, occupying narrow 
 mountain valleys, as those of the Alps; (6) the 
 Piedmont glacier, like the Malaspina, of Alaska
 
 FIG. 7. ACTION OF GLACIER DRIFTS. (U. S. G. S.)
 
 24 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 lakes of ice formed by the union of many val- 
 ley glaciers which occupies an area of thirty by 
 seventy miles, and which is covered along its 
 southern border with morainic soil and great 
 forests ; and (<:) continental glaciers, covering 
 vast tracts, comprising hundreds of thousands of 
 miles, like those in Greenland and the antarctic 
 land. 
 
 (10) ICEBERGS. When glaciers enter the sea 
 fragments are broken off by the tide some of 
 them hundreds of feet in depth and more than 
 a mile in diameter and float thousands of miles 
 before they melt and deposit immense quantities 
 of rock. 
 
 It is evident, then, that the disintegration and 
 transportation of the loose material of the earth's 
 surface by the various forms of water vary 
 greatly under varying conditions. 
 
 The chemical action is more rapid in warm, 
 moist countries where vegetation is abundant, 
 while the great variations of heat and cold in 
 the temperate regions, and the powerful frosts 
 in the arctic, render mechanical action more po- 
 tent and swift. 
 
 Again, this work differs in its usefulness to the 
 agriculturist. Sometimes a mantle of loose, 
 workable material is deposited where a short 
 time before the solid rock reached the surface, 
 or great quantities ot organic matter may be 
 deposited which decay and enrich hitherto un-
 
 NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 25 
 
 productive soil. On the other hand, the hills, 
 if unprotected by forest (Fig. 8), may be liter- 
 ally washed away by rain and gully, rivulet and 
 stream, until fertile farms are transformed into 
 sandy wastes. 
 
 Field Exercise No. i.* 
 
 PART i. Work of Atmosphere. (a) Note any rocks 
 worn away by the friction of rain or sand through the 
 action of wind. Note any rocks kept exposed to other 
 atmospheric agencies through the action of wind ; note 
 any wind-blown soil; any wind-blown water; vapor. 
 
 () Note any evidences of chemical action; oxidation, 
 hydration, action of carbon dioxide; " rotten rock." 
 Draw a diagram showing successive stages of disinte- 
 gration from solid rock to soil. (This diagram is to 
 represent such a section actually observed in the day's 
 excursion.) 
 
 (c] Note effects of changes of temperature that is, 
 alternations of heat and cold upon rocks. 
 
 PART 2. Work of Water. (a) Note evidences of its 
 solvent power. Fill a small bottle witli clear water from 
 a spring or brook, and when you return to the labora- 
 tory evaporate a few drops of it to dryness on a piece 
 of glass or in a test-tube, and see if there is any residue; 
 explain. 
 
 () Disintegrating Power of Water. Note evidences 
 
 * This outline is meant to be only suggestive of what may be 
 actually seen in a field trip along almost any stream in the 
 north Mississippi valley. Many of the points mentioned will ap- 
 ply to any locality of the United States; some will not. Neither 
 will this outline include all that will be found in any excursion. 
 The student will simply omit any points mentioned which he does 
 not actually find, and insert under the proper headings any others 
 found.
 
 NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 27 
 
 of the washing out of loose material, and of the cutting 
 power of water; of the abrasion performed by gravel, 
 pebbles, and stones. 
 
 (c) Transportation Power of Water. Why is one 
 stream clear and another muddy? Note any sand or 
 soil dropped by water. 
 
 ( d) Note evidences of assorting power of water. 
 Draw a section of the bank of a stream, showing strati- 
 fication. 
 
 (e) Note evidences of underground streams, of land- 
 slides, and describe and explain. 
 
 (/) Frozen Water. Note work of frost, ice, glacier, 
 and snowslides. 
 
 III. Organic Life. 
 
 Everywhere myriads of living forms abound 
 in the air, in the water, on the land, and in 
 the soil. However, there must have been a 
 time when life did not exist upon the earth. It 
 must have begun in a very humble manner, be- 
 cause the early conditions were such that com- 
 plex organisms could not exist. 
 
 It is believed by both geologists and embry- 
 ologists that from these simple beings have 
 evolved in succession, through vast ages of 
 time, all the higher and more complicated 
 forms. 
 
 With the advent of life arose a new and 
 mighty potency in the work of soil formation, 
 and this force becomes the greater as life be- 
 comes more varied and complex. 
 
 i. Plant Life. The fact that plants have
 
 28 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 been from very early geological times, and still 
 are, a powerful, though silent, factor in the pro- 
 cesses of rock disintegration and soil formation 
 is too often overlooked or underestimated. 
 
 (i) MECHANICAL OR PHYSICAL EFFECTS. 
 Generally, wherever rock has been acted upon 
 by the processes of weathering, vegetation 
 creeps in. It may be some .very low form, as 
 fungus, moss, or lichen, but it sends its tiny 
 root-like extensions into the crevices of the rock 
 and forces apart its particles. 
 
 In the higher forms of vegetation, where the 
 roots are strong and woody, this becomes an 
 important feature (Fig. 9). Huge boulders are 
 burst asunder by the root-pressure of some giant 
 tree; through innumerable rocky crevices larger 
 or smaller root systems are finding their way, 
 opening up the solid rock, and rendering it sus- 
 ceptible to other disintegrating forces (Fig. 9). 
 In this same way myriads of grass roots and 
 roots of herbs and forest trees are pulverizing 
 the solid material of the soil. 
 
 While plants absorb water from the soil, at 
 the same time, where vegetation is at all dense, 
 they shield the earth's surface from the direct 
 rays of the sun so effectively as to retard evapo- 
 ration. This retained moisture exerts a solvent 
 power upon the rock substances. 
 
 Grasses, or other plants having thick, matted 
 roots, prove a great protection from the median-
 
 NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 
 
 ical removal of the soil (Fig. 10) by heavy rains 
 or wind. Dense forests serve as windbreaks, and 
 soil blown by the wind is lodged and prevented 
 from further transportation by the trees. These 
 
 FIG. 9. ROOTS OF FOREST TREES OPENING A ROCKY SUBSOIL. 
 
 forests, with their masses of roots and decayed 
 leaves, also serve as a blanket in protecting from 
 extremes of heat and cold. 
 
 Masses of seaweed act as barriers to the surf, 
 and the aerial roots of mangrove trees along
 
 30 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 tropical coasts break the force of the waves, 
 so that they cannot wash away the mud and 
 sand. 
 
 (2) CHEMICAL EFFECTS. The roots of living 
 plants, from their acid secretion, effect a chem- 
 ical action upon the insoluble substances with 
 
 FIG. 10. VEGETATION PROTECTING THE SOIL. 
 
 which they come in contact, rendering them sol- 
 uble, and absorbing into themselves large quan- 
 tities of certain compounds as plant food, thus 
 depriving the soil of this material. That this 
 acid secretion actually corrodes or dissolves rock 
 material was proven by Sachs through actual 
 experiment, which any one may also prove for 
 himself. By the decomposition of vegetation 
 humic acids are formed, which have the power
 
 NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 31 
 
 of dissolving many minerals not soluble in rain- 
 water. 
 
 Since plants can derive their food from much 
 simpler elements than can animals, many scien- 
 tists believe that the first forms of life were 
 those of a very low type of vegetation. The 
 only organisms which could exist upon a bare 
 rock must be those which could subsist upon a 
 purely mineral food obtained from the rock 
 itself, and from the water and gases of the at- 
 mosphere. It has been discovered that even the 
 denuded rocks of very high mountains are cov- 
 ered by a layer of organic matter, evidently 
 formed by microscopic vegetation. These micro- 
 organisms have even been discovered at con- 
 siderable distance in the interior of these rocks. 
 They begin the formation of humus, and make 
 it possible for other low forms of plant life to 
 creep in, which, in turn, help to prepare the soil 
 for the sustenance of chlorophyll-bearing, or 
 green, plants. 
 
 Bacteria. The micro-organisms which are 
 of most importance to agriculture are the bac- 
 teria which (i) oxidize nitrogenous substances, 
 thereby forming nitric acid, and (2) those which 
 reduce nitric acid to ammonia or to free ni- 
 trogen. 
 
 In the processes of nitrification, ammonia is 
 one of the first products formed from ferment- 
 ing organic matter by one species of bacteria.
 
 32 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The ammonia (NH 3 ) is oxidized to nitrous acid 
 (HNO 2 ) by another species; this in turn is 
 changed into nitric acid (HNO 3 ) by still another 
 species. In a similar manner the opposite pro- 
 cess of dcnitriji cation goes on. First, the nitric 
 acid is reduced to nitrous acid, this to ammonia, 
 and then to free nitrogen, each step being per- 
 formed, respectively, by a distinct species of 
 bacteria. 
 
 Both of these processes may take place in the 
 soil, their extent depending largely upon the 
 oxygen supply. In a well-aerated soil nitrifica- 
 tion takes place, while in an undrained, poorly 
 ventilated soil denitrification occurs. 
 
 It has been proven by modern science that 
 the nitrifying organism of the soil is able to sub- 
 sist in a purely mineral environment. Now 
 certain bacteria, or soil ferments, are found in 
 great numbers about plant rootlets in fact, liv- 
 ing in mutual relationship with them. It is, 
 therefore, thought probable that the action of 
 bacteria has an effect upon the mineral particles 
 of the soil which renders them solvent and pre- 
 pares them for absorption by plants as food.* 
 (Year-book, 1895.) 
 
 Although these bacteria can subsist upon 
 
 * The value of leguminous plants for worn out or poor soils 
 has long been realized, but not until 1888, when Helriegel pub- 
 lished the results of his investigations, was the real source of 
 their fertilizing power known.
 
 NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 33 
 
 minerals, they are far more flourishing in the 
 presence of decaying organic matter. Indeed, 
 their action is believed 1 to hasten the decompo- 
 sition of organic material. So it is that the 
 plant, by its own decomposition, is through 
 these agencies made to contribute to the forma- 
 tion of humus, which is an essential part of true 
 soil. 
 
 (3) VEGETABLE ACCUMULATIONS OR DEPOSITS. 
 Not only living plants exert an influence 
 upon the soil, but when they, die their remains 
 form, though very slowly to be sure, accumula- 
 tions of vegetable matter. 
 
 (#) True soil. Vegetable accumulation is 
 most important as well as most conspicuous as 
 a mantle of true soil, formed from the decayed 
 vegetation in the forests or grass - covered 
 prairies. 
 
 ($) Wherever vegetation slowly undergoes 
 decomposition under water carbonaceous accu- 
 mulations are formed. The further decompo- 
 sition proceeds the greater the per cent, of car- 
 bon ; thus results peat, lignite, bituminous, or 
 anthracite coal, according to the stage of de- 
 composition reached. 
 
 (V) In fresh-water lakes and ponds, as well as 
 in the sea, the siliceous cases of microscopic 
 plants known as diatoms form considerable ac- 
 cumulations. 
 
 i. Animal Life. Animals have a twofold
 
 34 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 geological effect: (i) that of disintegration, and 
 (2) that of accumulation. 
 
 (i) DISINTEGRATION. In the sea even the 
 hardest rocks are made to crumble by marine 
 animals boring into them. In like manner 
 many animals burrow and bore through the soil. 
 
 The prairie dog of the western United States 
 digs a deep burrow in the earth, and casts up 
 a mound at its entrance. There are whole vil- 
 lages of these mounds, which in some localities 
 cover many acres. Muskrats, crayfish, moles, 
 woodchucks, and gophers in countless numbers 
 are performing similar operations. 
 
 Ants, especially in tropical countries, bring 
 up sand grains from their underground tunnels, 
 and form multitudes of ant-hills sometimes afoot 
 or more in hight. Myriads of other insects, 
 or their larvae, pulverize the soil particles or 
 enrich them with their excreta and decayed 
 bodies. 
 
 But the most important of these animal 
 agencies in stirring up, pulverizing, mixing, and 
 ventilating 1 the soil is that of the common earth- 
 
 o 
 
 worm. Darwin, in his investigations upon the 
 earthworm, estimated that in many parts of 
 England "more than ten tons of earth annually 
 pass through their bodies and is brought to the 
 surface on each acre of land." In this way the 
 whole superficial bed of soil would pass through 
 their bodies in a few years, 'I he specific action
 
 NATURE AND FORMATION OF SOILS. 35 
 
 of earthworms has both a mechanical and a 
 chemical effect. The burrows may extend sev- 
 eral feet under ground, and are connected with 
 each other by underground tunnels, so that the 
 soil is thoroughly exposed to the chemical action 
 of gases and acids of the air and water. The 
 muscular gizzard grinds the stony particles swal- 
 lowed by the worm, making them finer and 
 more succeptible to the humic acids, the gener- 
 ation of which is probably hastened during the 
 digestion of the vegetable mould and half- 
 decayed leaves, upon which the worm feeds. 
 
 (2) ANIMAL ACCUMULATIONS. Calcareous 
 Deposits. " The sea is constantly receiving 
 from the land materials in solution, the most 
 important of which are the carbonate and sul- 
 phate of lime. Many classes of marine animals 
 extract the calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) from the 
 sea-water and form it into hard parts, either as 
 external shells and tests or as internal skeletons. 
 There is also good reason to believe that some, 
 at least, of these organisms are able to convert 
 the sulphate into the carbonate." In shallow 
 seas, where the conditions of warmth and food- 
 supply are favorable, animal accumulations are 
 developed on a large scale. The most impor- 
 tant of these accumulations are those of the 
 corals,* echinoderms, and mollusks, 
 
 * Scott's Geology, pp. 165-170,
 
 36 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Many immense limestone beds were accu- 
 mulated from the shells of mollusks and the 
 skeletons, or calcareous plates, of starfishes, sea- 
 urchins, crinoids, and all sorts of lime-secreting 
 animals. The forameniferal oozes formed from 
 the calcareous shells of microscopic, unicellular 
 animals of the deep sea have a vast geograph- 
 ical extent.* 
 
 Siliceous Deposits. The Radiolaria are a 
 group of microscopic animals which make sili- 
 ceous secretions instead of calcareous ones. 
 
 Phosphate Deposits. These are terrestial for- 
 mations derived principally from guano, which 
 is composed of the excrement, bones, and re- 
 mains of birds (or in caves, bats). They are 
 found in rainless regions, like Peru and its 
 islands. When the guano is deposited over 
 limestone it gradually changes the limestone 
 from a carbonate to a phosphate of lime. 
 
 3. Environmental Changes. Beavers build 
 dams across streams, and sometimes flood many 
 acres of lowland. By felling trees they inter- 
 rupt the drainage, thus forming marshes favor- 
 ing the formation of peat beds. 
 
 Man also may change natural conditions, 
 either purposely or incidentally, by planting or 
 destroying trees, thus causing the protection 
 (Fig. 11) or denudation of hillside slopes; by 
 
 Jordan and Kellogg's Animal Life, p. 18.
 
 38 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 plowing and harrowing, thereby exposing the 
 soil to the action of the wind and rain ; by bor- 
 ing wells, and excavating mines and quarries ; 
 by controlling or directing the water of rivers 
 and streams, and by irrigating dry or desert 
 regions (Fig. 12), thus changing the natural 
 environment very greatly if not altogether 
 
 4. Field Exercise No. 2. A Study of Organic^ife as a 
 Factor in Soil Formation. 
 
 PART i. Mechanical Action. (a) Note the disinte- 
 grating processes of plant life. Pull off the moss, or 
 lichens, growing upon a solid rock, and see how far be- 
 neath the surface the root-like extensions have crept. 
 Measure and calculate the length of some great root- 
 system which is exposed along the bank of a stream, or 
 find rocks burst asunder by root action ; note examples 
 of retarded evaporation. 
 
 (b) Note the protection of soil by plants. 
 
 (c) Note vegetable accumulations. In the woods, 
 notice the formation of humus from the decayed leaves, 
 twigs, and bark, and contrast the soil with that in the 
 meadows, roads, and lawns. Account for these varia- 
 tions, and discuss all factors concerned, as sunlight, air 
 currents, depth of feeding roots, and kinds of material 
 obtained by them at the different strata. What is the 
 relative value of the soil from each place ? T v ake a sam- 
 ple of each of these soils back to the laboratory, and try 
 to grow a plant of the same kind and size in each soil, 
 and record and compare your results. 
 
 PART 2. Work of Disintegrating and Pulverizing the 
 Soil. (a) Describe the work of as many different kinds 
 of animals as it is possible to find in your trip ; dig up 
 a block of soil containing the burrows of earthworms,
 
 FIG. 12. VIEW OF AN IRRIGATING DITCH WHEN MADE. 
 
 FIG. J3- VIEW OF SAME DITCH TEN YEARS LATER.
 
 40 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 and make a drawing of both vertical and horizontal, or 
 connecting, channels. 
 
 (b) Note any environmental changes made by man or 
 other animals, or by plants. 
 
 (f) Note any fossils, or animal accumulations. 
 
 (d] Remarks and conclusions. (It is to be understood 
 that any observation made under any of the foregoing 
 heads is to be written up in its place, whether it is men- 
 tioned in this outline or not.) 
 
 [References after Chapter III.]
 
 OUTLINE OF CHAPTER II. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS. 
 
 A. KINDS AS TO DEPOSITION. 
 
 I. Sedentary, or Residual, Soils. 
 
 II. Transported Soils. 
 
 1. Drift. 
 
 (1) BOULDER CLAY, OR TILL. 
 
 (2) STRATIFIED DRIFT. 
 
 2. Alluvial Soils. 
 
 . KINDS OF SOIL AS TO DERIVATION. 
 I. Sandy, or Siliceous, Soils. 
 
 II. Clayey, or Argillaceous, Soils. 
 
 III. Limy, or Calcareous, Soils. 
 
 IV. Humous Soils. 
 
 C. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS 4, 5, 6, 7.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS. 
 
 A. KINDS AS TO DEPOSITION. 
 I. Sedentary, or Residual, Soils. 
 
 These are formed where they lie by the weath- 
 ering of the rocks which underlie them. They 
 consist of those parts of the decayed rock which 
 are not easily dissolved and carried away by 
 rains. 
 
 These soils vary in depth. In certain local- 
 ities the soil is only about seven feet thick, and 
 poor in soluble compounds, such as lime. "In 
 some parts of our Southern States the felspathic 
 rocks are often found thoroughly disintegrated 
 to the depths of 50 to 100 feet." * 
 
 The nature of residual soils depends upon 
 the kind of bed-rock underlying them and the 
 weathering. " Thus, limestones make the rich 
 Blue-grass Region of Kentucky, and sandstones 
 make the poorer part of the State." f 
 
 True soil, usually darker in color on account of 
 the vegetable mould which it contains, and of the 
 "oxidation and hydration of its minerals," forms 
 the surface layer. Below it is the subsoil, which 
 is often divided into layers, and which some- 
 
 * Scott's Geology, p. 77. 
 
 \ Gilbert and Brigham, Physical Geology, p. 87. 
 
 43
 
 44 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 times contains great masses of the parent rock 
 which have not been decomposed. By grada- 
 tions the subsoil shades into rotton rock, and 
 from this into solid rock. 
 
 II. Transported Soils. 
 
 The soils upon vast areas of the United 
 States have not been formed from the rock 
 formation which underlies them, but they have 
 been transported thither over long- distances 
 by ice, or water, or wind (Chapter I.). 
 
 1. Drift. Soils deposited by ice are called 
 "drift," and may be distinguished by the pres- 
 ence of boulders. These soils usually consist of a 
 variety of minerals brought together from differ- 
 ent rock formations through the action of 
 glaciers. Drift soils cover great areas in the 
 United States north of the 39th parallel. 
 
 (1) BOULDER CLAY, OR TILL, is the unstratified 
 material which covers the greater part of gla- 
 ciated areas. It is composed partly of preglacial 
 soils and stones pushed before the glaciers, and 
 partly of finely pulverized rock gathered from 
 the bed-rock by the grinding and scraping or 
 the. glacier itself. 
 
 o 
 
 (2) STRATIFIED DRIFT is also found where it 
 has been deposited by the water of glacial 
 streams. 
 
 2. Alluvial Soils are those which have been 
 transported by streams of water (Chapter I.). 
 These are usually stratified, often differing
 
 CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF SOILS. 45 
 
 in the kind of rock material as well as in its 
 state of disintegration. " The soils of the cen- 
 tral valley of California have mainly come down 
 from the Sierras by the wash of the rivers. The 
 soils of Louisiana have been brought from the 
 Rocky Mountains, from the great plains, from 
 the prairies, and from the plateaus and moun- 
 tains of the Appalachian region. They have 
 been transferred by the Mississippi and its 
 branches. The earthy mantle of Connecticut 
 and Rhode Island is in part composed of rock 
 flour and stones brought from Massachusetts 
 and the northern New England States. The 
 Connecticut and other rivers have done some of 
 this work, but much more is due to the great 
 glacier moving south over that region." 
 
 B. KINDS OF SOIL AS TO DERIVATION. 
 
 As has been said, the basis of soils is disin- 
 tegrated rock. Hence, the physical and chem- 
 ical properties of soils depend upon the geolog- 
 ical formation of the mass of rock from which it 
 is derived. 
 
 If a deposit of quartz (SiO 2 ), which it is esti- 
 mated composes one-half of the rocks of the 
 earth, has been slowly disintegrated it will result 
 in hard, distinct grains of sand, since quartz dis- 
 integrates with difficulty. 
 
 Gilbert and Brigham, Physical Geology, p. 87.
 
 46 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 I. Sand. 
 
 Sand is " light and open " that is, easy to 
 work. It absorbs very little moisture from the 
 air. It has little power of chemically holding 
 plant-food. Sandy soils are usually poor in 
 phosphoric acid and potash, two important plant- 
 foods. 
 
 II. Clay. 
 
 If a feldspar which consists of silica, alu- 
 mina, and one or more of the alkalies, potash, 
 soda, or lime -has been disintegrated, clay will 
 result. The term "clay," however, is very 
 loosely applied to almost any kind of finely pul- 
 verized rock, or mud. 
 
 Clay soils are hard to work; they absorb mois- 
 ture from the air readily. They contain, chem- 
 ically, much plant-food, being often rich in 
 potash and poor in lime and phosphoric acid. 
 
 Shale is a rock consisting of very thin layers. 
 Its composition varies greatly, sometimes grad- 
 ing into limestone or finely grained sandstone. 
 ,*hales form mud or clay. 
 
 III. Calcareous Soils. 
 
 Some soils are largely composed of carbon- 
 ate of lime from the disintegration of limestone, 
 which is a soft rock and one easily dissolved. 
 Soils containing a large per cent, of limestone 
 are called calcareous soils. Lime makes clay 
 soils more easily worked and sandy soils more
 
 48 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 compact. It hastens the decay of vegetable 
 matter. Limy soils are poor in potash and often 
 rich in phosphates (see " Lime," p. 95). 
 
 IV. Humous Soils. 
 
 The decaying organic matter in soils is com' 
 posed of compounds of nitrogen, hydrogen, 
 oxygen, and carbon, and is called " humus." 
 Soils containing a large per cent, of this or- 
 ganic matter are designated as " humous 
 soils." Humus gives a dark brown or black- 
 ish color to the soil. Leaf mould very largely 
 consists of humus. Either a sandy or a clay 
 soil is improved by humus, not only on ac- 
 count of the additional plant-food, such as car- 
 bon dioxide, ammonia, and water, which is fur- 
 nished by its ultimate decomposition, but more 
 especially on account of the improvement of 
 the physical condition of the soil. 
 
 Humus absorbs and retains moisture, and thus 
 improves a sandy soil. It improves a clay soil 
 by making it less compact and better aerated. 
 It improves the physical condition of worn-out 
 soils. 4 
 
 Humous soils are often rich in nitrogen and 
 poor in mineral plant-food. A soil formed from 
 the addition of humus to a sand, clay, or calcare- 
 ous loam is called a clay or argillaceous loam, 
 or calcareous loam, according to the kind of soil 
 which forms the basis.
 
 CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF SOIL 49 
 
 C. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 4. PART i. (a) Collect a quantity of 
 dry sand, and one of dry clay, and one of dry garden 
 loam, and one of dry humus. Keep these in a.dry place 
 in separate boxes, for use in the following experiments. 
 
 () Get four small, similar-sized boxes, and fill each 
 box with one of these soils. 
 
 (f) Weigh each one separately. Which is heaviest? 
 Which lightest ? 
 
 (d) How many cubic inches of soil in each box ? 
 What part of a cubic foot ? How many square feet in 
 an acre ? How much would an acre of soil to the depth 
 of one foot weigh if each cubic foot weighed the same 
 as a cubic foot of your sample of garden soil ? 
 
 (e) If this acre produced a crop of twenty-five bushels 
 of wheat and 2,500 pounds of straw, how many pounds * 
 has this crop taken from one acre of soil ? This may 
 seem a very small amount to be taken from the soil, but 
 it must be borne in mind that some soils contain a very 
 small per cent., or fraction of a per cent., of some of the 
 very essential plant-foods (as, potash, phosphoric acid, or 
 nitrates), while plants vary in their demands for these 
 different foods. So it is that certain essential plant- 
 foods, as nitrogen, may be nearly exhausted from a given 
 soil by repeatedly growing certain plants which make 
 large demands of that particular element from the soil, 
 and yet the same soil may be abundantly able to sustain 
 other plants which demand less of that element from 
 the soil f 
 
 PART 2. (a) Place these four boxes (Part i, b] of soils 
 in a cool, dry place. With them place three similar 
 
 * At least 95 per cent, of the material composing the plant is 
 obtained from the air and water, and but 5 per cent, from the 
 soil. 
 
 f See " Leguminous Plants" and " Fertilizers."
 
 13 
 
 boxes, each containing one of these soils, sand, clay, 
 loam and humus, which has been thoroughly saturated 
 with water. 
 
 () Put a thermometer with the bulb at the depth of two 
 
 inches in each of 
 these eight boxes, 
 and allow them to 
 stand until the fol- 
 lowing morning ; 
 then record the 
 temperature of 
 each. 
 
 (c) Place all the 
 boxes where they 
 will be equally ex- 
 posed to bright 
 sunlight, and note 
 the temperature of 
 each soil every two 
 hours from 8 A.M. 
 to 4 P.M., taking 
 care to note wheth- 
 er the sun is under 
 a cloud at the time 
 of each observa- 
 tion. 
 
 (a) Upon a piece 
 of co-ordinate 
 paper indicate the 
 temperature curve 
 
 of each of these soils dry, and that of each of these soils 
 wet, similar to that indicated for a humous soil in 
 Fig. 15. In these curves (Fig. 15) the space between 
 each two horizontal lines represents one degree, while 
 that between each two vertical lines represents two 
 hours. 
 
 \ 
 
 KIG. 15. TEMPERATURE CURVES OF A 
 HUMOUS SOIL.
 
 CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF SOILS 51 
 
 Let the temperature curve of the loam be indicated by 
 an unbroken line , that of sand by a broken line 
 
 , and that of clay by a dotted line , and that 
 
 of humus by a line and then a dot 
 
 Compare. Give a reason for the differences in tem- 
 perature between these soils. 
 
 (e) On the next bright day again saturate one box of 
 each of these soils, and place the dry and wet soils in 
 the bright sunlight. At noon record the temperature of 
 each, and remove all to the shade indoors. 
 
 (f) Note the temperature at 2 P.M. and 4 P.M. Which 
 soil, dry, retains the greatest amount of heat ? Which 
 soil, wet, retains the greatest amount of heat? 
 
 (g) What conclusion of practical value do you draw 
 from your results? Could you improve the condition of 
 any or all of these soils with regard to the absorption 
 and retention of heat? How? 
 
 PART 3. (#) Thoroughly moisten these soils and try 
 to mold a handful of each kind (sand, clay, loam, humus) 
 into some desired form. 
 
 (<) Which soil has the greatest power of holding its 
 particles together ? Which the least ? Which soil' 
 will be most liable to puddle ? Which most apt tc 
 bake ? 
 
 (f) Mix each of these soils with one-fifth its bulk of 
 lime, and repeat (a). 
 
 (d] Mix each with one-third sand, and repeat (a}. 
 
 (e) Mix each with one-third humus, and repeat (0). 
 Of course, one could not apply sand, lime, or humus 
 
 in quite such large proportions in the open field, but it 
 could be done for house plants, and in smaller propor- 
 tions in gardens and fields. Which of these soils would 
 be improved for working by (<r)? (d)l (e)J 
 
 EXPERIMENT 5. (a) Procure three pieces of tubing of 
 equal lengths and diameters from two to two and one- 
 half feet long, and one-half inch or more in diameter.
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 (/) Firmly tie over the bottom of each tube a square 
 of cheese-cloth. (Fig. 16.) 
 
 (c) Weigh each tube separately, and then record :he 
 weights. 
 
 (d) Fill the tubes three-fourths full of dried sand, clay, 
 humus, and loam respectively. 
 
 (e) Carefully weigh each tube with its contents, and 
 record the. weights. 
 
 (/) Now fill each tube with water which has been 
 leached from stable compost, taking care to record the 
 exact time when the water first comes in contact with the 
 soil. 
 
 (g) Support or suspend these tubes in an upright po- 
 sition (Fig. 1 6), and allow the water from each tube 
 to drip into a separate vessel. Observe and record the 
 time required for the water to begin to drip from each 
 tube. Keep 
 each tube filled 
 with the leach- 
 ed water until 
 the soil is satur- 
 ated. Through 
 which tube did 
 the water pass 
 most rapidly.? / 
 This passage of 
 water down- 
 ward through . 
 the soil is call- >\ J 
 ed percola- 
 tion. 
 
 (//) Compare the color and the odor of the water per- 
 colated. Through which of these soils will soluble 
 plant-food most readily leach ? Which soil will absorb 
 the most plant-food from the water which percolates 
 through it ? 
 
 CTH,\\ 
 
 t APPARATUS FOR EXPERIMENT 5.
 
 CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF SOIL. 53 
 
 (/) Allow the liquid to drip for half an hour, and com- 
 pare the water which now percolates through with that 
 first percolated. Is it safe to depend upon the soil to act 
 as a filter in purifying the water of wells from organic 
 matter ? 
 
 (j) Very carefully pour off all the water remaining in 
 the tubes, and weigh each tube with its contents, record 
 the weights, and compare with those of (e). Which soil 
 retained the greatest amount of water ? 
 
 EXPERIMENT 6. (a) Procure a set of capillary tubes 
 (Fig. 17) four or five tubes varying in diameter from 
 a hair tube to one one-fourth inch in diameter. 
 
 ($) Half fill a beaker, or tumbler, 
 with water colored with red ink. 
 
 (r) In a piece of pasteboard punch 
 several holes corresponding in size 
 and number to the tubes used; thrust 
 the tubes through the holes to 
 three-fourths the distance, below, of 
 the height of the beaker. Now cover 
 the beaker with this pasteboard, 
 allowing the tubes to extend down 
 into the colored liquid (Fig. 17). 
 (d] Note the height to which the 
 
 Capillary rise of liquid not liquid rises, ill each tube. Ill wllich 
 
 shown. highest ? 
 
 The wall of the tube attracts the film of water 
 next to it, and tends to spread it out over the 
 surface of the tube, overcoming the resistance 
 of the surface tension of the liquid itself. Notice 
 that the surface of the liquid both inside and 
 outside of the tubes assumes a concave shape, 
 on account of the creeping up of the liquid next 
 to the wall, caused by the attraction between 
 
 FIG, 17. APPARATUS 
 FOR EXPERIMENT 6.
 
 54 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 FIG. 18. APPARATUS FOR EXPERIMENT 7. 
 
 the solid and liquid substances. (See any good 
 physics for capillary action). 
 
 The pores in an open, or gravelly, soil act as 
 the larger tubes, while the smaller pores of a
 
 CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF SOILS. 55 
 
 less open or more finely pulverized soil act as 
 the fine tubes in conveying moisture. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 7. (a) Take four glass tubes one-half 
 inch or more in diameter and four feet in length * 
 (Fig. 18). Over the bottom of each of these tubes firmly 
 tie a square of cheese-cloth. 
 
 (^) Thoroughly pulverize the dried clay and loam. 
 Firmly and evenly fill each tube with the sand, clay, loam, 
 and humus respectively. Stand them in a pan of water 
 with a layer of gravel in the bottom, and record the 
 time of so doing. Keep the pan well filled with water. 
 
 (<r) At intervals from one to three hours during the 
 first day or two note the height of the water in each 
 tube. After the second day, once a day will be often 
 enough to make observations. 
 
 (dj Continue the observations and records until the 
 water no longer rises in any tube. 
 
 (<?) In which tube did the water rise most rapidly? 
 In which to the greatest height? This power of drawing 
 water upward through the soil is called capillarity. 
 
 EXERCISE 2. From the data obtained in performing 
 these experiments, write up the physical properties of each 
 of these four kinds of soil. Your description of each 
 soil should cover the following points: Color, weight of 
 a cubic foot, light or heavy to work, power to absorb 
 heat, power to retain heat, power of holding soil particles 
 together, porosity, power to absorb and retain water, 
 capillarity, and any remarks. 
 
 [References after Chapter III.] 
 
 * Straight lamp-chimneys may be substituted for the long glass 
 tubing. It is more economical, and will give satisfactory results,
 
 OUTLINE OF CHAPTER III. 
 
 SOIL MOISTURE AND PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 
 
 ^.-SOIL MOISTURE. 
 
 I. Kinds of Moisture. 
 
 1. Ground Water. 
 
 2. Capillary Water 
 
 3. Hygroscopic Water. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 8 
 
 II. Relation to Plants. 
 
 1. Dissolves Plant-food. 
 
 2. Conveys Plant-food. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 9. 
 
 3. Constitutes Plant-food. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 10. 
 
 4. Tends to Regulate Temperature. 
 
 HI. Field Exercise No. 3. 
 
 B. PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 
 
 I. Drainage. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS 11 AND 12. 
 
 II. Irrigation. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 13. 
 
 III. Preparation of Seed-bed. 
 
 1. Plowing. 
 
 2. Surface Tillage. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 14. 
 
 C. REFERENCES. 
 
 57
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SOIL MOISTURE AND PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 
 
 A. SOIL MOISTURE. 
 
 It is evident from the foregoing experiments 
 that the particles of soil and, therefore, of the 
 spaces between them, vary in size. When the 
 soil is dry most of the spaces are filled with air, 
 but when the soil becomes wet the air is driven 
 out by the water. 
 
 I. Kinds of Moisture. 
 
 1. Ground Water. The water which perco- 
 lates through the soil under the influence of 
 gravity until it reaches an impervious layer of 
 hard-pan, or rock, is called the free or ground 
 water of the soil. Above the hard-pan, or rock, 
 is a layer varying in thickness of saturated, 
 or water-soaked, soil. It is from this free water 
 that the supply is obtained for springs and wells. 
 In dry weather it is drawn upon by capillary 
 action to furnish the moisture for vegetation, 
 but if this free water is allowed to stand too 
 near the surface of the soil it is injurious to 
 most plants. In soils of close texture it be- 
 comes necessary to remove the surplus water by 
 drainage. 
 
 2. Capillary Water is that which is held in 
 the spaces between the soil particles by capillary 
 
 59
 
 60 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 attraction, or the overcoming of the influence 
 of gravity by the adhesion between the water 
 and the solid particles, and is of direct use to 
 plants. 
 
 3. Hygroscopic Moisture. Each particle of 
 soil is surrounded by a film of moisture, or hy- 
 groscopic water. It is held so firmly that even 
 roadside dust contains this film. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 8. Fill a test-tube one-third full of 
 dry roadside dust; heat it gradually to a high temper- 
 ature. Allow it to cool, and see if any moisture con- 
 denses upon the tube. 
 
 II. Relation to Plants. 
 
 1. Dissolves Plant-food. This surface film of 
 water, through the carbonic and humic acids 
 which it contains (Chapter I.), acts directly 
 upon the plant-foods locked up in the soil, dis- 
 solving the mineral substances and giving them 
 up to the surrounding capillary water. 
 
 2. Conveys Plant-food. As has been seen, 
 solids have an attraction for liquids. It is also 
 true that denser or thicker liquids have an at- 
 traction for thinner ones; so it is, as the mois- 
 ture is evaporated from the leaves and green 
 bark of plants, leaving behind the solid sub- 
 stances, the fluid in the plant becomes denser 
 than the soil water, and there is thus established, 
 through the cell wall of the plant, a flow of the 
 thinner liquid, or soil water, toward the denser 
 protoplasm of the cells. This process is called
 
 SOIL MOISTURE AND PREPARATION OF SOIL. 61 
 
 osmosis. Thus the soil water not only dissolves 
 the plant-food, but through capillary action and 
 osmosis actually carries this food to the plant. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 9. (a) Take any single-stemmed grow- 
 ing plant, place the roots in 
 a wide-mouthed bottle half 
 full of water. 
 
 () Make the bottle air-tight 
 (to avoid the evaporation of 
 the water) by splitting a cork 
 into halves, hollowing out the 
 center, and fitting them about 
 the stem of the plant ; now 
 fill any crevice about the 
 stem, or in the top of the cork, 
 with melted paraffin.* Invert 
 the bottle to see if any watei 
 escapes ; if so, the cork is not 
 fitted air-tight, and melted 
 paraffin must be applied 
 where it leaks. 
 
 (^) When the bottle is air- 
 tight weigh it, and record 
 date and weight. The follow- 
 ing day place it where the 
 plant will be exposed to direct 
 sunlight, and weigh every day 
 or two for two or three weeks. 
 How much water has the plant 
 used ? Of what use to the 
 plant was the water? 
 
 Hellriegel, through his experiments, found 
 
 IQ. APPARATUS FOR 
 EXPERIMENT 9. 
 
 * Paraffin melts at a low temperature, and will not injure the 
 plant if carefully applied,
 
 62 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 that the amounts of water evaporated from 
 the soil and given to the air almost wholly 
 through the plant were : by barley and red 
 clover, 310 pounds of water to one pound of dry 
 matter produced; oats, 376 pounds; peas, 273 
 pounds ; and buckwheat, 363 pounds to one 
 pound of dry matter. Plants differ in their de- 
 mands for water, hence some kinds of plants are 
 found upon dry soils and others upon wet soils. 
 
 3. Constitutes Plant-food. Water itself con- 
 stitutes an important plant food. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 10. (a) Secure some green but well- 
 grown plant (roots and all), as clover, corn, or cow-peas; 
 carefully remove the soil from the roots. 
 
 (^) Weigh the plant accurately, and record the 
 weights. 
 
 (c] Hang the plant in a warm, dry place for two or 
 three weeks, or until perfectly dry. 
 
 (</) Weigh again, and record weights. What per cent, 
 of the plant was water ? What per cent, dry matter ? 
 
 4. Tends to Regulate Temperature. - - The 
 water which percolates through the soil from 
 spring rains is warmer than the soil and tends 
 to raise the temperature, while that from sum- 
 mer rains is cooler than the soil and tends to 
 lower the temperature. 
 
 III. Field Exercise No. 3. 
 
 (a) Let the student look for different kinds of soil as, 
 dry, sandy soil, and wet soil in the vicinity. 
 
 () Note (observe and list) the kinds of wild or culti- 
 vated plants growing upon each kind of soil. Do some 
 plants thrive in one soil which are not found in others?
 
 SOIL MOISTURE AND PREPARATION OF SOIL. 63 
 
 (<:) If a farm contain certain areas of each of these 
 kinds of soil, what use can the farmer make of this sug- 
 gestion of Nature ? Are any of the same kinds of plants 
 found upon all of these soils? If so, compare their con- 
 ditions. 
 
 (d} Can you give reasons for these conditions? In 
 which soils can the air enter freely ? Which with more 
 difficulty? Which gives the best support in time of 
 storms ? Will each soil require the same treatment ? 
 
 Experiments 9 and 10 show how essential soil 
 moisture is to plants. Water and air not only 
 furnish 95 per cent, of the food of plants, but 
 the remaining 5 per cent, cannot be obtained 
 from the soil except through the agency of air 
 and water. Heat and light are also important 
 factors in plant growth. It has been shown that 
 soils vary in the power to admit air, and in the 
 power to absorb and retain heat, and that the 
 condition with regard to soil moisture affects 
 these variations. The farmer can, by proper 
 methods of drainage and tillage, greatly modify 
 or regulate these factors of plant growth water, 
 air, and heat in the soil. It is evident that dif- 
 ferent soils require different methods, and that 
 the same soil requires different treatment for 
 different plants. Tillage does not add plant- 
 food to the soil, but it does render food already 
 in the soil available to the plant. 
 
 B. PRLPARATION OF THE SOIL. 
 
 The first thing for a farmer to do, and then to 
 continue doing, is to study his soils, taking into
 
 64 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 consideration the climate. The next thing to 
 do is to consider what crops are best adapted to 
 the different soils, remembering that both the 
 immediate crops and the condition of the soil 
 for future crops are to be regarded. Thus fol- 
 lows the consideration of the treatment of each 
 kind of soil for the crop selected or the prepara- 
 tion and tillage of the soil. 
 
 I. Drainage. 
 
 EXPERIMENT n. (a) Take two eight-inch flower-pots 
 and label them i and 2, respectively. In No. i pour a 
 sufficient amount of melted paraffin in the bottom to 
 plug up the hole, so that no air may pass in, and no 
 water pass out through the bottom of the pot. In the 
 bottom of No. 2 place a layer about an inch in depth of 
 stones or pieces of broken pottery. 
 
 (&) Nearly fill each pot with a mixture of three-fourths 
 good soil, thoroughly pulverized, and one-fourth sand. 
 
 (r) Place in each pot a young, healthy plant of the 
 same size and kind. 
 
 (d) Now carefully sprinkle each with water until the 
 soil is saturated. 
 
 (r) After a day or two put these pots in a sunny win- 
 dow. 
 
 (f) In each place a thermometer, with the bulb at a 
 depth of two inches 
 
 (g) Every two or three days note the temperature, and 
 the condition of the soil and of the plants in each pot. 
 In which pot does the water percolate through the soil 
 the more rapidly? If each of these conditions of soil 
 moisture was found in separate fields, which field would 
 be more apt to be flooded in time of heavy rains? In 
 which could air penetrate the more readily ? In which 
 would the temperature be higher ?
 
 SOIL MOISTURE AND PREPARATION OF SOIL. 65 
 
 (fi) At regular intervals say, every two or three days 
 apply equal quantities of water to each of these pots. 
 
 (/') In about five or six weeks remove the soil plant and 
 all (see "Propagation of Plants") and note the depths 
 to which the roots have penetrated. In which have they 
 gone the deeper, the drained or undrained soil ? If these 
 conditions of soil moisture existed in the open field in 
 early spring, and were followed by a drought, how 
 would these root systems compare in aiding the plant 
 to withstand it ? In nature, when these root systems 
 die, how would they compare in affecting the porosity 
 of the soil ? How would such soils affect the nitrogen- 
 fixing bacteria (Chapter I.) ? How would the work of 
 earth-worms, grubs, and other burrowing animals com- 
 pare in these two soils? 
 
 Soils having a loose and open subsoil are nat- 
 urally underdrained, and do not need to be arti- 
 ficially drained. Soils of fine texture, or those 
 having a clay or hard subsoil, do not allow the 
 free water to percolate through them, and it 
 stands very near the surface, unless artificially 
 drained. It is not as the water passes down 
 through the soil that it is carried away by drains, 
 but as it rises again in saturating the soil above 
 the impervious layer of hard-pan or bed-rock. 
 The deeper the drain the greater the area drain- 
 ed, hence the wider apart the drains may be. 
 
 EXPERIMNT 12. (a) Procure a keg, or barrel, which 
 does not leak, and in its side bore two or three holes, one 
 above the other, about twelve inches apart, the first hole 
 being six inches from the bottom. 
 
 (fr) Nearly fill this keg, or barrel, with soil. Shake it 
 down firmly.
 
 66 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 (() Gradually pour water into the center of the keg 
 where the soil should be, perhaps, a little lower until it 
 runs out of some one of the holes. 
 
 According to your result, which would carry off the 
 water first a shallow or a deep drain ? 
 
 In shallow drains there is danger that the tile 
 may be injured by frost. The depth to which 
 a drain should be laid depends upon the char- 
 acter of the soil; the more compact soil requires 
 more numerous and shallower drains. Three or 
 four feet deep and one hundred feet apart are 
 sufficient for ordinary farm crops. " The carry- 
 ing capacity of tile varies with the square of the 
 diameter." In every drain the tile should in- 
 crease in size as the quantity of water increases. 
 Tile varying from three to six inches, with 
 larger size for mains, are generally used. 
 
 Since tile-drains admit more or less atmos- 
 pheric air, as the temperature and pressure 
 of the atmosphere rise and fall, the circula- 
 tion of the air is produced below the roots of 
 plants as well as above them. 
 
 II. Irrigation. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 13. (a) Procure a box about three feet 
 long, one and one-half wide, and one foot deep. 
 
 (l>) In the center of one side, near the bottom, bore a 
 hole, and fit into it a cork (Fig. 20). 
 
 (c) Nearly fill the box with dry, pulverized soil, and 
 shake it down well. 
 
 (</) Now make a shallow trench in the soil, across the 
 
 * Soils and Crops, Morrow and Hunt, p. 66,
 
 SOIL MOISTURE AND PREPARATION OF SOIL. 07 
 
 center of the box, and slowly pour water into it, until the 
 soil at the bottom of the box is moist, as determined by 
 removing the cork, and thrusting a rod, or straw, into 
 the hole. 
 
 (e) Now, beginning at each side of the trench, remove 
 a layer of the soil three inches in depth, noting carefully 
 just how far the water has extended from the trench by 
 lateral capillary action. 
 
 iflE'l'l" LUJ-L'Ji^iiKiLUi 
 
 FIG. 20. APPARATUS FOR EXI'KRIMKNT 13. 
 
 (/) Remove another layer of soil three inches in 
 depth, and note the lateral extension of the water at this 
 depth. 
 
 (g) Remove a third layer three inches in depth, and 
 note again. Compare the lateral extension of the water 
 at each of these depths with that of the other two. 
 
 It is upon this principle of lateral capillary 
 action that irrigation is based. 
 
 III. Preparation of the Seed-bed. 
 
 i. Plowing is done before planting (i) to de- 
 stroy weeds by completely covering them ; (2) 
 to bring plant-food to the surface ; (3) to pul- 
 verize and aerate the soil ; and (4) to allow the
 
 68 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 water to percolate through the soil instead of 
 running off of the surface. Plowing should 
 never be done when the soil is wet enough to 
 puddle.* 
 
 A soil which is loose and open, or one having 
 a sandy subsoil, does not require such deep 
 plowing as a more compact soil. If the soil is 
 wet and not underdrained, plowing may only 
 increase the supply of ground water. If it is 
 desired to deepen a soil, it is best to plow a little 
 deeper each time, so that the portion of subsoil 
 brought to the surface will not be sufficient to 
 materially injure the character of the soil for the 
 immediate crop. A small amount can be more 
 readily acted upon by the weathering agencies 
 than a greater amount can be. 
 
 Plowing at different depths prevents the 
 formation of a hard-pan by the tramping of the 
 horses at the same depth in successive plow- 
 ings. On the other hand, if the soil is very 
 porous, it may be prevented from leaching by 
 plowing at the same depth to form this hard- 
 pan, thus keeping the free, or ground water, 
 within the reach of plants. If deep-feeding 
 plants as, alfalfa, clover, or vetch are to oc- 
 cupy the land, it should be deeply plowed, and 
 thoroughly pulverized. 
 
 In early spring shallow plowing is usually 
 preferable, as the deeper soil is not so warm 
 
 *See " Propagation."
 
 SOIL MOISTURE AND PREPARATION OF SOIL. 69 
 
 r 
 
 FIG. 21. A GOOD PLOW. 
 
 Parts of a Plow. a. The standard, or stock, to which many 
 parts are attached. b. The beam, by which the plow is drawn. 
 f. Handles. d. Clevis. By placing the ring in the upper holes of 
 the clevis, the plow is made to run deep; by placing the ring in 
 the lower holes, the plow is made to run shallow; by moving the 
 clevis to the right, the plow is made to cut a wider furrow. e. 
 The share, which cuts the bottom of the furrow slice. f. The 
 mouldboard, which turns and breaks the furrow slice. //. The 
 coulter which, when fastened to the beam, just in front of mould- 
 board, cuts the furrow slice from the land, and in disk-form is 
 useful in turning under weeds. i. The jointer, which skims stub- 
 ble and grass from the soil, and throws them into the bottom of 
 the furrow to be completely covered, and helps to pulverize the 
 soil. j. The truck, or wheel, attached to the end of the beam 
 which steadies the plow and lightens the draft. 
 
 nor so dry as that near the surface. For winter 
 wheat, if the ground has been plowed in the 
 spring, it will require only shallow plowing, or, 
 if an open soil, disking may be sufficient. 
 
 If plowing is for the purpose of drying and 
 warming the land in the early spring the fur- 
 row slices should not be turned down flat, but 
 allowed to incline at an angle to allow the air
 
 70 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 and heat to enter. The same plan is beneficial 
 if the plowing is clone in the fall, as the rains 
 
 FIG. 22. A PLANK HARROW. 
 
 will percolate through the soil instead of run- 
 ning off of the surface. 
 
 2. Surface Tillage. Plowing should be fol- 
 lowed by surface-working tools, to pulverize the 
 
 FIG. 23. A ROLLING CPTTF.R HARROW 
 
 the ground and to prepare an earth mulch. 
 The first surface tillage to follow the plowing 
 should be done before the ground becomes too 
 hard and dry with a heavy, coarse tool to crush
 
 SOIL MOISTURE AND PREPARATION OF SOIL. 71 
 
 the clods, as a drag, or planker, or rolling cut 
 ter harrow (Fig. 23), or spring-toothed harrow 
 
 t- 
 
 FIG. 24. A STRING-TOOTHED HARROW. 
 
 (Fig. 24). The seed-bed may be completed by 
 a fine-toothed, lighter harrow, or a cottlter 
 harrow (Fig. 25), which "cuts, turns, and pul- 
 verizes " the soil. 
 
 FIG. 25. A COULTER-TOOTHED HARROV/. 
 
 The roller is not used so much as formerly, 
 since it leaves the soil in such a condition that 
 capillary water may rise to the surface. Plank-
 
 72 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ers* (Fig. 22) are usually better than rollers, 
 since they grind the clods instead of pushing 
 them down into the soil, and make a smooth sur- 
 face for seed-bed. Rolling after planting may 
 aid the germination of the seeds in dry weather, 
 as it brings the moisture within their reach; 
 especially is it beneficial in the case of fine 
 seeds. Rolling compacts the soil (hence it 
 benefits a light, open soil), but should not be 
 practiced upon a heavy or ivet soil. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 14. (#) Take four gallon-cans, or paint 
 buckets, label them i, 2. 3, 4. Make several holes in 
 the bottom of each, and put a layer of coarse stones, or 
 pieces of broken pottery, in the bottom. 
 
 (l>) Fill cans i, 2, and 3 to within one-fourth inch of 
 the top with mellow soil, and can 4 to within three inches 
 of the top. Firm the soil well in each can. 
 
 (f) Stand all of them in water until the surface soil 
 becomes moistened. How does the surface become 
 moist? In field conditions, how would this supply of 
 moisture be obtained ? 
 
 (</) Take them out of the water and allow them to 
 stand until the surface is dry enough to work. Leave 
 No. i as it is, and carefully pulverize and loosen the 
 soil in No. 2 to the depth of two inches, and that in 
 No. 3 to a depth of three inches, and cover No. 4 with 
 a three -inch mulch of sawdust or straw. 
 
 (e) Weigh each can separately, and record the weights. 
 
 (/) Place all under similar conditions if possible, in 
 an open window, or where the air will pass over them 
 freely. 
 
 * Fertility of the Soil, Roberts, p. 103, and Principles of Agri- 
 culture-, Hailey, p. 75.
 
 SOIL MOISTURE AND PREPARATION OF SOIL. 73 
 
 (g) Allow them to stand until the surface of the soil 
 in can No. i is dry. Weigh again, and compare with (^). 
 
 (//) Carefully dig down into the soil of each can, and 
 measure the distance from the surface to a layer of 
 moist soil. Compare these distances In which can 
 would the conditions be better adapted to surface-feeding 
 plants? In which to deep-feeding plants? How does 
 the water escape ? Out of which can has it escaped 
 most slowly? Most rapidly? Why? In which can the 
 air most freely enter the soil ? In outdoor soils of these 
 three conditions, which would now allow the water to 
 pass into it least freely ? Which of these soils represent 
 a rolled soil? Which a loosely tilled soil ? How would 
 a rain affect each of these soils ? Why is it necessary to 
 till the soil about growing plants as soon as possible 
 after a rain ? What is the condition of soil in the field 
 in early spring? How 
 does early spring plow- 
 ing affect the evapora- 
 tion of soil moisture ? 
 
 (/) Compare these 
 mulches, and record 
 your own conclusions 
 upon the teachings of 
 this experiment. 
 
 Tillage for surface- 
 feeding roots may be 
 deep when the plants 
 are quite young, but 
 when they have made 
 considerable growth plowing must necessarily 
 be shallow to avoid destroying the roots (Fig. 
 26), which sometimes reach from row to row. 
 
 Cultivation should not be repeated until the 
 
 FIG. 26. TO SHOW THE EFFECT OF 
 
 DEEP AND SHALLOW PLOWING.
 
 74 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 soil is reduced to too fine a dust, for it is apt 
 to puddle when it rains, and exclude the air. 
 Tillage also keeps down the weeds, which would 
 rob the soil of plant-food and exclude heat and 
 light. 
 
 C. REFERENCES FOR CHAPTERS I., II., AND III. 
 
 " Systems of Farm Management in the United States." Year- 
 book, 1902. 
 
 "The Movement and Retention of Water in Soils." 
 
 "Some Interesting Soil Problems." Year-book. iS<.,j. 
 
 " Origin, Value, and Reclamation of Alkali Lands." Year- 
 book, 1895. 
 
 " Reasons for Cultivating the Soil." Year-book, 1895. 
 
 " Irrigation for the Garden and Greenhouse." Year-book, 
 1895. 
 
 "Soil Investigations in the United States." Year-book, 1899. 
 
 "Some Important Soil Formations." Bulletin 5, 1896, Division 
 of Agricultural Soils, United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 "Soil Solutions." Bulletin 17, Division of Soils, United States 
 Department of Agriculture. 
 
 " Instruction in Agronomy at Some Agricultural Colleges." 
 Bulletin 127, Office of Experiment Station, United States Depart- 
 ment. 
 
 " Bulletin 41, 1893," Minnesota Agricultural Experiment 
 Station. 
 
 " The Soil." King. 1900. 10. 
 
 " Soils and Crops." Morrow & Hunt. 1902. 4. 
 
 " Manual of Geology." Dana. 1895. 
 
 " Physical Geography." Gilbert & Brigham. 1902. I. 
 
 " An Introduction to Geology." Scott. 1897. 10. 
 
 " Geology." Brigham. i.
 
 OUTLINE OF CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 
 
 A. USES OF THE SOIL TO PLANTS. 
 I. It Serves as a Foothold. 
 II. It Affords Plant-food. 
 
 III. It Acts as a Storehouse for Water. 
 
 IV. It Retains and Regulates the Heat. 
 
 V. It Serves as a Habitation for Soil Bacteria 
 
 A CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 
 
 I. Chemical Analysis of Plants- 
 
 II. Sources of Plant-food. 
 
 1. Air-derived Elements. 
 
 (1) CARBON. 
 
 (2) OXYGEN. 
 
 (3) HYDROGEN. 
 
 (4) NITROGEN. 
 
 2. Soil-derived Elements, 
 
 (1) PHOSPHORUS. 
 
 (2) POTASSIUM. 
 
 C.-FERTILITY OF THE SOIL. 
 I. Chemical Analysis of Soils. 
 
 II. Vegetation Experiments. 
 
 III. Fertilization of the Soil. 
 
 i. Commercial Fertilizers. 
 
 (1) NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS. 
 
 (2) PHOSPHOROUS COMPOUNDS.
 
 76 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 (3) POTASSIUM COMPOUNDS. 
 
 (4) TABLE OF FERTILIZING MATERIALS. 
 
 (5) LIME. EXERCISE 4. 
 2. Stable Compost. 
 
 (1) VALUE IN FURNISHING PLANT-FOOD. 
 
 (2) SHAMEFUL WASTE. 
 
 (3) EFFECTS UPON THE SOIL. 
 
 (4) PROTECTION AND APPLICATION OF THE COM- 
 
 POST. 
 
 D. REFERENCES.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 
 
 A. USES OF THE SOIL TO PLANTS. 
 
 I. The Soil Serves as a Foothold. 
 
 The roots penetrate the soil and brace the 
 plants against the wind, and hold them erect so 
 that they more readily obtain air and light. 
 The necessity for this support is made greater 
 by the elongation of the stem in the struggle for 
 light. 
 
 II. It Affords Important Food Elements. 
 
 Although but 5 per cent, of the food supply of 
 plants is obtained from the soil, it does not fol- 
 low that this 5 per cent, may be omitted. On 
 the contrary, many of the soil-furnished ele- 
 ments are absolutely necessary to the life and 
 development of plants. 
 
 III. The Soil Acts as a Storehouse for Water, 
 
 so that the plant may draw upon its supply con- 
 tinuously, or much more nearly so than if it de- 
 pended only upon the moisture obtained from 
 the air and from that obtained for immediate 
 use from rains. This soil water is invaluable 
 both as a food and as a solvent for other con- 
 stituents of plant-food, since plants can only 
 take up substances which are soluble in the soil 
 
 77
 
 78 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 water (which usually contains organic acids), or 
 which may be rendered soluble by the acid reac- 
 tion of the roots. 
 
 IV. It Tends to Retain and Regulate the Heat 
 of the sun, and transform it into energy which 
 plants can use. 
 
 V. It Serves as a Habitation for Soil Bacteria, 
 
 which transforms the unavailable free nitrogen of 
 the air into nitrates available for the use of plants. 
 
 ^.CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. 
 
 I. Chemical Analysis of Plants. 
 
 Many analyses of the tissues of different 
 plants have been made (though by no means of 
 all plants), and through these analyses it has 
 been ascertained that one plant may contain 
 certain compounds or particular combinations 
 of these elements which do not exist in some 
 other plants. These analyses show that all 
 plants are essentially made up of fourteen ele- 
 ments, or about that number. 
 
 II. Sources of Plant-food. 
 
 Four of these elements carbon, oxygen, hy- 
 drogen, and nitrogen are obtained directly or 
 indirectly from the air, while the soil must sup- 
 ply the remaining ten elements : iron, calcium, 
 silicon, chlorine, sulphur, phosphorus, potas- 
 sium, sodium, magnesium, and manganese. The 
 food elements obtained from the soil are the
 
 THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 79 
 
 more numerous, but they form a very s'mall per 
 cent, of the quantity of plant tissues (not over 
 four or five per cent, altogether), while the ele- 
 ments obtained indirectly or directly from the 
 air form 95 per cent, or more of the quantity, 
 i. Air-derived Elements. 
 
 (1) CARBON. Nearly half of the solid mate- 
 rial of plants is carbon. It is found in the oils, 
 starch, sugar, and albuminoids. \ The leaves take 
 in carbon dioxide from the air and decompose 
 it (in the light) into its elements, carbon and 
 oxygen, building up other compounds with the 
 carbon and giving off the greater part of the 
 oxygen. 
 
 (2) OXYGEN too may be directly taken from 
 the air by leaves, buds, and flowers, or by the 
 roots. It is also taken in in large quantities in 
 the water absorbed. Oxygen forms a part of 
 nearly all the compounds found in plants. 
 
 (3) HYDROGEN, in combination with oxygen 
 forming water, is an important element in 
 plants. There is no other compound so abun- 
 dant in plants as that of water, and none whose 
 function is more important, since it holds in so- 
 lution other elements, or compounds, of plant- 
 foods, and acts as a medium for transporting 
 them to every tissue and cell of the plant. 
 
 (4) NITROGEN is an essential element in all the 
 green and woody parts of plants in fact, of all 
 the protoplasm, or living substance, of the plant.
 
 80 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Insufficient available nitrogen. Sufficient available nitrogen. 
 
 FIG. 27. SHOWING EFFECT OF NITRATE. 
 
 It promotes vegetative growth rather than fruit- 
 fulness. The presence of sufficient nitrogen 
 available* to the plant unless counteracted by 
 some phosphate is manifested by the vigor 
 and deep green color of the leaf, with possibly 
 retarded flowers and fruit, while the lack of 
 available nitrogen is shown by scanty and pale 
 foliage. The quantity available greatly affects 
 
 * Am Habit plant-food id in such form that the plants can and 
 will use it.
 
 THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 81 
 
 the amount of nitrogen stored up in the plant, 
 and thus the access or lack of available nitrogen 
 largely modifies the nutritive value of the plant 
 as food for animals. 
 
 Four-fifths of the atmosphere is composed of 
 this element so important to plant life, but most 
 plants can be supplied root and branch with an 
 abundance of nitrogen gas and yet starve for 
 the want of nitrogen ; for no green plants can 
 take in free nitrogen. It must be combined 
 with other elements in such a manner as to 
 form compounds soluble in the soil water, so 
 that it may be taken up by the roots.* The 
 nitrates and ammonium salts are such com- 
 pounds. There are certain kinds of plants 
 which are intimately connected with particular 
 forms of bacteria. This relation f is mutually 
 beneficial. The bacteria work upon the roots 
 of the plants, forming nodules (Fig. 28), and 
 in turn convert the free nitrogen of the air in 
 the soil into soluble nitrates for the use of the 
 plant hosts, fl 
 
 Since most plants do not have access to the 
 exhaustless supply of nitrogen afforded by the 
 air, and there is only a small per cent, of avail- 
 able nitrogen in ordinary soil, and since nitrogen 
 
 * ' ' Some plants absorb through their leaves a very small per cent. 
 f ammonia directly from the air." Year-book, United States 
 Department of Agriculture, 1901. 
 
 f Symbiosis. 
 
 I See "Leguminous Plants."
 
 82 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 is so essential to plant growth, it must be sup- 
 plied in some other way. This phase of the 
 subject will be further discussed under " Fertil- 
 izers." 
 
 All of the food elements obtained from the 
 air, except nitrogen, are directly available from 
 that source, so need no further mention. 
 
 2. Soil-derived Elements. 
 
 Of the ten elements obtained from the soil, 
 all except phosphorus, potassium, and lime are 
 present in sufficient quantities, and in such form 
 as to supply the needs of plants, except in 
 special cases. 
 
 (i) PHOSPHORUS. It has been proven by re- 
 peated experiments that phosphorus in the form 
 of phosphates * is essential to the healthy de- 
 velopment of plants. Growth cannot take place 
 without the presence, of phosphorus in the 
 nucleus of the cells. It helps in the assimila- 
 tion of other food, induces seed-formation and 
 the maturity of the plant, and assists in trans- 
 ferring the albuminoids to the seed. 
 
 The presence of phosphorus in an available 
 form, if uncounteracted, is manifested by early 
 maturity and plump, well-filled seeds. Ordinary 
 soils are in time impoverished of the natural 
 supply of available phosphates unless a portion 
 
 " It has been well established that the salts of phosphoric 
 acid OK phosphates are the only source from which phosphorus 
 of plants can be derived." Bulletin 94, Maryland Agricultural 
 Experiment Station.
 
 FIG. 28. TUBERCLES ON VELVET 13EAN PRODUCED BY INOCULATION. 
 
 83
 
 84 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 of that taken up by repeated crops, particularly 
 of grain, is in some way returned to the soil. 
 This plant-food (phosphate) also will be further 
 discussed under "Fertilizers." 
 
 (2) POTASSIUM. Pure potassium is a silvery 
 white metal, but it does not exist in nature un- 
 combined with other elements. Potassium com- 
 pounds are important ingredients in the forma- 
 tion of starch in the leaves and the transference 
 of starch to the fruit. Since starch is so impor- 
 tant in the formation of wood, it follows that 
 the salts of potassium are essential to the devel- 
 opment of the firm, woody tissue of the stems. 
 Potassium forms the base of the acids of fruits 
 and over half the ash of fruits. It is particularly 
 necessary to fruit and root crops. It is also 
 found in the juices of plants which are somewhat 
 acid, where it neutralizes a part of such acids 
 as, citric, tartaric, and oxalic by forming the 
 salts of these acids. Potassium forms a large 
 per cent, of the wood of fruit-trees. 
 
 C FERTILITY OF THE SOIL. 
 
 A fertile soil "contains all the material req- 
 uisite for the nutrition of plants in the required 
 quantity and in the proper form." That is, all 
 the materials for the nutrition of plants not de- 
 rived from the air are contained in a fertile 
 soil. 
 
 One must know whether the food elements
 
 THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 85 
 
 of the desired crop are present in the soil. This 
 question can be answered by chemical analyses 
 of plants and of soils. 
 
 I. Chemical Analysis of Soils. 
 
 If the required elements for a certain crop 
 are not present in the soil they must be sup- 
 plied by a fertilizer, or some other crop sown. 
 
 But if chemical analysis does show the neces- 
 sary elements to be present, it does not satis- 
 factorily answer the question as to whether that 
 food is available for the use of the plant ; that 
 is, whether conditions are such that the plant 
 can and will use this food. 
 
 As has already been shown, the chemical 
 composition of the rock from which the soil 
 is obtained, the texture, drainage, temperature, 
 tillage, ventilation, and water content of the 
 soil which determine the delicate and little- 
 understood life processes of the plant all are 
 factors in the productiveness of the soil. 
 
 There are so many conditions, then, that enter 
 into the productiveness of the soil which chem- 
 ical analysis cannot take into account that it is 
 generally of little practical use to the farmer. 
 
 II. Vegetation Experiments. 
 
 These are of much value in determining just 
 what fertilizer is needed, but they require time. 
 If, however, the farmer will do as the United 
 States Department of Agriculture advises,
 
 86 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 "make his farm an experiment station," he can 
 solve these problems from year to year without 
 much loss of time and land, and with great 
 profit. 
 
 The food elements most apt to be lacking in 
 ordinary soils are nitrogen, phosphorus, and 
 potassium. The appearance of the plants (see 
 page 80) often indicates their specific needs. 
 But one may find out more definitely by apply- 
 ing one kind of fertilizer as, sulphate of potash 
 to one plot of a field, and another kind of fer- 
 tilizer as, sodium nitrate or superphosphate of 
 lime to another plot, and a complete fertilizer, 
 or mixture of the three (see page 94), upon a 
 third plot, and comparing results carefully with 
 those of a plot to which no fertilizer has been 
 added. The next year the whole field may be 
 treated with the particular fertilizer which the 
 results of these experiments show is needed. If 
 otherconditionsare right a heavy yield may be ex- 
 pected. These experiments may show the need of 
 one or of all three of the fertilizers nitrate, phos- 
 phate, or potash ; or it may be that none of them 
 increase the yield, when one must look to other 
 conditions of soil, or plant, to solve the difficulty. 
 
 III. Fertilization of the Soil. 
 
 i . Commercial Fertilizers. 
 (i) NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS. The nitro- 
 genous compounds used as commercial fertilizers
 
 THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 87 
 
 are obtained from animal, mineral, and vegetable 
 sources, but the source of fertilizers has nothing 
 whatever to do with their value as such. The 
 value depends upon the form in which a fer- 
 tilizer contains the particular plant-food desired. 
 The nitrogen, if wanted for the immediate use 
 of the plant, is best in the form of a nitrate, 
 since it is soluble, and may be better distributed 
 through the soil to the feeding roots, and is 
 readily taken up by them. 
 
 Ammonia is the next nitrogeneous plant-food 
 in order as regards availability. Some plants 
 can use ammonium salts, which are soluble in 
 water, and thus are easily distributed through- 
 out the soil to the roots. As a rule, however, 
 the salts of ammonia are changed into nitrates 
 (see " Nitrifying Bacteria "), which is done very 
 rapidly in the soil before being used by plants. 
 
 Animal or vegetable products cannot furnish 
 available nitrogen to plants until decomposition 
 takes place; hence the more rapid the decay of 
 an organic fertilizer the more readily available 
 is its nitrogen, since it must first be converted 
 into ammonia and then into nitrates. (See 
 "Nitrifying Bacteria.") 
 
 Among the fertilizers of animal origin, which 
 are largely used on account of their rapid decay 
 and comparative inexpensiveness, are : dried 
 blood, dried meat and fish, -hoof-meal, and guano. 
 Others as, wool, hair, and leather decay more
 
 88 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 slowly, and hence the nitrogen is very slowly 
 available. 
 
 One of the best vegetable nitrogenous fertil- 
 izers is cottonseed-meal. It is largely used in 
 the South, but its usefulness as a food for cattle 
 makes it too expensive, in many cases, for a fer- 
 tilizer. Castor pomace, obtained as a waste 
 product in extracting the oil from the castor 
 bean, is of no value as a food, and decays 
 rapidly in the soil, hence makes a useful and in- 
 expensive fertilizer, though it contains only 
 about one-half as great a per cent, of nitrogen 
 as chemically pure sodium nitrate. 
 
 Mineral Sources. -Soluble nitrate is com- 
 monly obtained as nitrate of soda, or "Chile 
 saltpeter," which is found in deposits in the rain- 
 less regions of the Peruvian coast. It contains 
 a large per cent, of common salt, but when 
 purified, as prepared for commerce, it is 95 
 per cent., or more, pure sodium nitrate 
 (NaNO 3 ), and about 15 or 16 per cent, of this is 
 nitrogen. 
 
 Sulphate of ammonia, (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 , is formed 
 from coal as waste material in the manufacture 
 of gas and coke, also from the dry distillation 
 of animal bone in the making of bone-black. 
 It generally contains about 20 per cent, of 
 nitrogen, making it the richest in nitrogen of 
 any of the commercial fertilizers. It is quick 
 to act, and is readily distributed in the soil, and,
 
 THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 89 
 
 considering its concentrated form, is compara- 
 tively inexpensive. 
 
 (2) PHOSPHOROUS COMPOUNDS. The com- 
 pounds of phosphorus with lime, magnesia, iron, 
 and alumina are widely distributed in the soils, 
 but they are insoluble in water, and hence are 
 so slowly available as to be insufficient to fur- 
 nish the necessary supply for repeated crops. 
 
 Phosphate of lime is the compound used most 
 in the manufacture of commercial fertilizers. 
 The mineral or rock calcium phosphate, or ani- 
 mal phosphates as, bone-black and bone-ash, or 
 animal bone is treated with sulphuric acid 
 (H 2 SO 4 ), in order to render the insoluble tri- 
 calcium phosphate, Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 , soluble. The sol- 
 uble phosphate made from the bone-black or 
 bone ash is best, because more of the phosphate 
 may be converted into a soluble form. It makes 
 a fine, dry, easily handled fertilizer. The insol- 
 uble, or tri-calcium phosphate, is treated with 
 sulphuric acid, and a large per cent, of it is 
 rendered soluble by two parts of the lime 
 uniting with the sulphuric acid to form gypsum 
 (2CaSO 4 ). This mixture of gypsum * and the 
 soluble phosphate (mono-calcium phosphate) is 
 sold as a fertilizer under the name of super- 
 phosphate of lime. It is probable also that 
 some of the tri-calcium phosphate loses only 
 one part of the lime and becomes di-calciurn 
 
 * Remsen's Inorganic Chemistry, p. 328.
 
 90 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 phosphate, which is not soluble in pure water, 
 but is soluble in the acid soil waters and the 
 acids exuded by the rootlets, and is, therefore, 
 available to plants. So that the mono-calcium 
 and di-calcium phosphates contained in a com- 
 mercial fertilizer together are called the " avail- 
 able phosphoric acid" (see Table). Mono-cal- 
 cium phosphate is immediately available to 
 plants, and will give quick returns ; but that 
 which remains in the soil changes to the di-cal- 
 cium, or reverted form, which is precipitated as 
 a fine powder, and is easily dissolved through 
 the acid reaction of the roots. 
 
 The supply for manufacturing these fertilizers 
 comes largely from South Carolina, which has, 
 perhaps, the richest deposits of rock phosphates 
 in the world. Other valuable deposits are found 
 in Florida, consisting not only of phosphates of 
 lime, but also of phosphates of iron and alumina. 
 Still others are found in Tennessee, Pennsyl- 
 vania, and Virginia. 
 
 Bone-black is obtained by heating animal 
 bones in the absence of air, when the gases and 
 oily matters are driven off, and charred bone or 
 bone charcoal is left. This is used for refining 
 sugar ; when it is of no further use for this pur- 
 pose it is sold as a fertilizer. In this form, 
 however, it is slowly soluble, and of little prac- 
 tical value. When bone-black is treated with 
 sulphuric acid a much greater per cent, of sol-
 
 THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 91 
 
 uble phosphate is found than when the mineral, 
 or rock phosphate, is thus treated. In this form 
 it is called "dissolved bone-black," and is a val- 
 uable fertilizer. 
 
 Other commercial fertilizers containing phos- 
 phorus, with their comparative values, are given 
 in the table. 
 
 (3) POTASSIUM COMPOUNDS. The potassium 
 in the soil is largely in the form of insoluble sili- 
 cates. The potassium salts of mineral origin 
 used as commercial fertilizers are nearly all ob- 
 tained from German mines; those most common 
 are the sulphate, muriate, and kainit a mixture 
 of several salts, as sodium, potassium, and mag- 
 nesium sulphates and muriates. All of these 
 are available for the use of the plant, since they 
 are soluble in water. Pure potassium sulphate 
 contains about 54 per cent, of potassium oxide, 
 but the composition of the commercial article 
 varies, some grades containing not more than 
 30 per cent. The muriate of potassium (KC1) 
 of commerce contains about 52 per cent, of 
 potassium. 
 
 Ashes resulting from burning wood, cotton- 
 seed hulls, and tobacco stems contain from 5 
 to 30 per cent, of potassium carbonate. The 
 amount of potassium carbonate (K 2 CO 3 ) in ashes 
 depends upon the kind and quality of the wood, 
 the intensity of the heat in burning, and their 
 protection from moisture. Ashes also contain
 
 92 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 from i to 4 per cent, of phosphates, and from 
 30 to 40 per cent, of calcium carbonate. Good 
 wood ashes not only furnish available plant-food, 
 but improve the physical condition of the soil. 
 Coal ashes are of no use as a fertilizer. 
 
 (4) TABLE I. 
 
 SHOWING THE COMPOSITION OF SOME OF THE 
 
 PRINCIPAL COMMERCIAL FERTILIZING MATERIALS.* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <; j- 
 
 
 
 
 
 v 
 
 CONSTITUENT. 
 
 I 
 
 'I^-T 
 
 It's 
 
 ||;~ 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 B > 
 
 NT 
 
 ^r 
 
 * 
 
 s 
 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 i. Supplying Nitrogen. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nitrate of soda 
 
 15.5-16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sulphate of ammonia . . 
 
 19.0-20.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dried blood (high grade) . 
 
 12.0-14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dried blood (low grade) . 
 
 IO.O-II 
 
 
 
 3.05 
 
 
 
 Castor pomace 
 
 5.0-6 
 
 
 
 1.0-1.5 
 
 . 1-1.5 . 
 
 
 2. Supplying Phosphoric 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Acid. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bone-black superphos- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 phate (dissolved bone- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 black) 
 
 
 15-17 
 
 I- 2 
 
 17-18 
 
 
 
 
 2 5- 4.5 
 
 S- 8 
 
 15-17 
 
 20-25 
 
 
 
 
 1.5- 2.5 
 
 6- 9 
 
 16-20 
 
 2229 
 
 
 
 Dissolved bone 
 
 2.0- 3 
 
 13-15 
 
 2- 3 
 
 15-17 
 
 
 
 3. Supplying Potash 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 45-48 
 
 Sulphate of potash (high 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 48-52 
 
 .5-1.5 
 
 Kainit . ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 12-12.5 
 
 30-32 
 
 Wood ashes (unleached) . 
 
 
 
 
 1-2 
 
 2-8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I-I.5 
 
 1-2 
 
 
 
 2.0- 3 
 
 
 
 3-5 
 
 5-8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The above table shows the comparative 
 values of the most important commercial fertil- 
 izers as food for plants. The amount of these 
 
 * Adapted from Year-book, 1902, p. 571.
 
 THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 93 
 
 fertilizers required varies upon different soils 
 and for different plants.* 
 
 The smallest amounts of direct fertilizers to 
 the acre, which will give satisfactory returns, are 
 10 pounds of nitrogen, 15 pounds of available 
 phosphoric acid, and 20 pounds of potash. By 
 comparison with the above table the amount of 
 the commercial fertilizer required may be ob- 
 tained. 
 
 EXERCISE 3. How much nitrate of soda will be needed 
 for an acre if 10 pounds of nitrogen be required? (See 
 Table I.) 
 
 How much sulphate of ammonia? 
 
 How much dried blood (high grade)? 
 
 How many pounds of tobacco stems? 
 
 How many pounds of phosphoric acid and of potash 
 in tobacco stems which burnishes 10 pounds of nitrogen? 
 
 How many pounds of bone-black superphosphate will 
 it take to furnish 15 pounds of available phosphoric acid? 
 How many pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid will 
 this bone-black contain ? 
 
 How many pounds of sulphate of potash will it take 
 to furnish 20 pounds of potash? How much kainit ? 
 How much (unleached) wood ashes? How much phos- 
 phoric acid contained in the wood ashes ? 
 
 For indoor plants, again, the amount of the 
 fertilizer must be governed by the kind of soil 
 and species of plant, for what is a "balanced 
 ration " J for one kind of plant is not for another. 
 
 *" It is unsafe to use chemical fertilizers or liquid manures in 
 full strength on a heavy soil, which is not provided with suffi- 
 cient fibrous material." Year-book, 1902, p. 558.
 
 94 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The following estimate* may be helpful, but 
 practical experience is the only safe guide as to 
 which plant-food and how much is needed : 
 Nitrate of soda, 6 to 10 ounces, in 50 gallons of 
 water to 100 square feetjf sulphate, or muriate, 
 of potash, 8 to 12 ounces in 50 gallons of water 
 to 100 square feet, or wood ashes, 5 pounds to 
 100 square feet; calcium superphosphate, i 
 pound in 50 gallons of water to 100 square 
 feet. Whichever fertilizer is needed should be 
 used every ten days, or two weeks, in watering 
 the plants. 
 
 For mixed, or so-called "complete fertilizer," 
 Voorhees || recommends one-fourth pound of 
 nitrate of soda, one pound acid phosphate, and 
 one-half pound of muriate of potash for 100 
 square feet. But some think this a little too 
 much. (See also "Plant Improvement.") 
 
 The kind of fertilizer, as to its slow or rapid 
 availability, to be used depends upon whether 
 the object desired is to slightly enrich the soil 
 for a period of years or to increase the yield of 
 the immediate crop. 
 
 The time of application would depend upon 
 the kind of fertilizer and the object of its use. 
 
 * This estimate was given for roses in the Year-book, 1902, and 
 is meant only as an example. 
 
 f " After the second or third application, a dressing of lime 
 5 Ibs. to 100 square feet may follow." Year-book, 1902, p. 557. 
 
 K Fertilizers, by Voorhees, p. 327.
 
 THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 95 
 
 If wanted for the immediate use of the plant, it 
 must necessarily be soluble, and, consequently, 
 should not be applied in the fall but in the 
 spring, when the crop is ready to use it, else it 
 will be leached away and lost. If the more 
 slowly available ones are used, they should be 
 applied in the fall. 
 
 How Applied. Fertilizers must be evenly 
 and thoroughly distributed in the soil. For this 
 reason it is well to mix concentrated fertilizers 
 with dust, ashes, or sand. They may then be 
 scattered broadcast, and plowed or harrowed in, 
 or drilled in. Those which are readily soluble 
 may be simply distributed over the surface, as 
 the rains will carry them into the soil. 
 
 WJien should commercial fertilisers be used? 
 Not until all home resources are exJiausted 
 should a farmer buy fertilizers. Proper prepara- 
 ation of the soil by drainage and tillage, attention 
 to rotation of crops, taking care that legumi- 
 nous plants constitute at least one crop in four, 
 so that particular elements will not be exhausted 
 by continuous drain upon them, will do much 
 toward keeping up the yield afforded by the 
 soil. But this is not enough ; all must not be 
 taken out and nothing put in. However, if all 
 waste products on the farm are utilized, there 
 will be little need of expending much money for 
 commercial fertilizers. 
 
 (5) LIME. Plants need lime. It tends to
 
 96 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 make them more compact; and aids in the pro- 
 duction of grain or fruit. Especially is it helpful 
 to leguminous plants, grains, and grasses ; but 
 it is of much less value to corn, and may be 
 even injurious to potatoes, blackberries, redtop, 
 and millet. Lime neutralizes part of the acid 
 in plants forming salts, as the calcium oxalate 
 of beet leaves ; but its most important action is 
 that of an indirect fertilizer. It benefits the 
 soil as to its physical condition, tending to make 
 clayey soils more porous and light, and sandy 
 soils more compact. 
 
 Lime changes the chemical constituents of 
 the soil. It is in this action that it brings an 
 increased yield to the immediate crop ; for by 
 chemical action upon organic matter, hastening 
 its decomposition, and upon the insoluble potas- 
 sium and phosphorus compounds in the soil, it 
 renders them available to the plant. While this 
 would tend to produce heavier crops, the con- 
 tinued use of lime, or gypsum, would help to 
 exhaust the soil of its natural plant-food by the 
 increased drain made upon it through the greater 
 yield. 
 
 Lime neutralizes the acidity of the soil. 
 Through root-action of some plants, or through 
 the formation of acids by the decomposition of 
 organic matter and consequent formation of 
 humous and humic acids, or through the exces- 
 sive use of fertilizers, or by leaching, the soil
 
 THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 97 
 
 may become so strongly acid in its character as 
 to be unfavorable or unproductive to certain 
 valuable species of plants. This condition may 
 exist not only on swampy or peaty soils, but 
 also upon well-drained soils. Soil may be easily 
 tested for acid by thoroughly moistening it and 
 placing in it a strip of blue litmus paper. If the 
 color of the litmus paper is changed to red the 
 acid of the soil is too strong for plant growth, 
 and the addition of lime will prove beneficial. 
 
 Another way in which the need of lime in a 
 soil in shown is by the plants which it will nat- 
 urally produce. Plants known to be character- 
 istic of acid soils are : bird's-foot violet ( Viola 
 pedata), wild or beard grass {Andropogon scopa- 
 rius), wood-rush {Luzula campestris}, and, as 
 soon as the soil is cultivated, the common sorrel 
 {Rumex acetosella], while those plants which are 
 unable to make any satisfactory growth upon 
 such soils are the red clover, lettuce, beets, tim- 
 othy, and spinach.* 
 
 EXERCISE 4. (a) Collect small samples of soil from 
 various places where the vegetation might lead one to 
 suspect the presence of acid soil. 
 
 (b) These samples of soil should be taken from about 
 two to four inches below the surface, and each sample 
 carefully labeled as to exact location from which it was 
 obtained. 
 
 (c) These samples should be taken to the laboratory, 
 
 * Roberts' Fertility of the Soil, p ?:?,
 
 98 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 and tested for acid w'th blue litmus paper. If need be, 
 leave the litmus paper covered in the soil over night. 
 
 (d] If any soils turn the litmus paper red. the class 
 should visit that particular place, or places, where the 
 acid soils were found, and study the vegetation, making 
 a list of the plants found growing there, and examine 
 the conditions, to discover, if possible, the cause of the 
 acidity. Is the drainage good ? The ventilation ? Is 
 the place densely shaded ? What is the texture of the 
 soil * Is it a humous, loamy, clayey, or sandy soil ? 
 Could the conditions be improved ? How ? 
 
 (e) Collect a sufficient quantity to fill several small 
 pots with this soil, and try to grow some plant which is 
 averse to acid soil as, clover, lettuce, or timothy. To 
 one pot add lime in small but definite quantities, thor- 
 oughly mix, and let stand for a few days. Test again 
 with litmus; if still acid, add lime until the litmus is no 
 longer affected, and then try to grow the same kind of a 
 plant as in the pot of acid soil, starting them both at 
 the same time and keeping them under similar condi- 
 tions. 
 
 (/) Compare the growth made by the two plants, and 
 record your observations and conclusions. 
 
 Not only does lime sometimes prove benefi- 
 cial to plant growth, but it is also beneficial to 
 the development of the nitrifying bacteria of the 
 soil, which for some reason thrive best in a 
 mildly alkaline soil (see " Clover Sick Soil.") 
 Lime and wood ashes aid nitrification by fur- 
 nishing calcium and potassium to unite with the 
 nitric acid formed by the bacteria. Lime is also 
 helpful in keeping in check certain injurious in- 
 sects and fungi, though the potato scab (a fun-
 
 THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 99 
 
 gous growth) seems to develop more rapidly 
 when this crop is preceded by liming. 
 
 One form of calcium the sulphate, called 
 land plaster or gypsum fixes ammonia, while 
 lime drives it off. Hence this is exceedingly 
 useful for sprinkling in the trenches of stables, 
 or upon the surface of compost heaps, to prevent 
 the escape of the ammonia. For use in connec- 
 tion with manure, no other form but the sulphate 
 (gypsum) should be used. It is also best for an 
 indirect fertilizer that is, for rendering the 
 present but unavailable plant-food available. 
 
 For neutralizing acids, calcium oxide (CaO), 
 or quicklime, is the best form to use. It must 
 be slaked a short time before using. It may be 
 placed in heaps and water sprinkled over it, and 
 then covered with soil for a few days. It should 
 be free from lumps, spread or drilled evenly, 
 and harrowed in at once. This form is also a 
 cheap and very good indirect fertilizer. 
 
 Another method of indirect fertilizing is by 
 the judicious use of cover crops (see " Legumin- 
 ous Plants" and " Rotation of Crops"). Plant 
 roots not only make mineral plant-foods more 
 easily available, but prevent them from being 
 leached out by the winter rains and snows. 
 
 2. Stable Compost. 
 
 As has been said, green manuring is expensive, 
 since the crop may be fed to stock, and if the 
 stable compost is properly cared for and returned
 
 100 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 to the soil a large per cent, of the important 
 food elements taken up from the soil by the 
 plants will be restored to the soil. For it must 
 be remembered that this compost not only con- 
 tains the indigestible food elements, but also the 
 broken-down or worn out animal tissues. 
 
 (i) VALUE IN FURNISHING PLANT-FOOD. 
 The amount and kind of the elements of plant- 
 food found in stable compost depend upon the 
 kind of food * fed to stock, and the age and 
 kind of stock to which it is fed, and the care 
 taken of the compost. Mature animals (except 
 milch cows) return, sooner or later, nearly all of 
 the fertilizing f elements of the food in the 
 waste discharged, while only one-half or two- 
 thirds is returned by young and rapidly growing 
 animals. Fattening cattle return from 85 to 90 
 per cent. 
 
 Roberts estimates the commercial value of 
 the fertilizing materials found in the compost of 
 different farm animals as varying from $2.43 to 
 $4.25 per ton, rating the nitrogen contained at 
 15 cents, phosphoric acid at 7^ cents, and potash 
 at 42 cents per pound. He also states that in 
 many cases the " computed value of the waste 
 is nearly one-half the cost of the food " ; but 
 adds, " this value can seldom be realized when 
 
 * See Table, p. 134. 
 
 f Henry's Feeds and Feeding, p. 270.
 
 THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 101 
 
 the compost is applied to the land."* However, 
 if the real value reaches one-half of the com- 
 puted value it is of too great value to be thrown 
 away. 
 
 (2) SHAMEFUL WASTE. The way in which 
 this valuable fertilizer is allowed to stand ex- 
 posed to the weather, allowing by far the most 
 valuable elements of plant-food to be leached 
 out and drained away down the hillside, only to 
 pollute the water accessible to the stock or to 
 contaminate the air, and to serve as a breeding- 
 place for flies and disease germs, is shameful 
 waste if not criminal carelessness. 
 
 Many farmers allow this fertilizer to be 
 hauled away to increase the yield of the crops 
 of a more thrifty neighbor, or even burn it to 
 get it out of the way. And this in the face of 
 the fact that there is no more vital problem in 
 the world to-day than that of maintaining or 
 improving the fertility of the soil. As popula- 
 tion increases this question assumes momentous 
 importance. Already in the " old world " it is 
 found that the soil is not able to supply a sub- 
 sistence for the population. All the food, cloth- 
 ing, and shelter for all animals, including man, 
 must come directly or indirectly from the soil. 
 When this soil is exhausted through the care- 
 lessness of man, where will this same man 
 appease his hunger or obtain a sustenance? 
 
 * Roberts' Fertility of the Land, p. 143.
 
 102 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 (3) EFFECTS UPON THE SOIL. Stable compost 
 not only enriches the soil by supplying plant- 
 food (being especially rich in nitrogenous com- 
 pounds), but it very materially improves the 
 physical condition of the soil. It changes the 
 potash, phosphate, and lime present in the soil 
 into more readily available forms, and favors 
 the development of the nitrifying bacteria. The 
 effects of stable compost are more lasting than 
 those of any other fertilizer on account of its 
 uniting with the elements of the soil to form 
 humates, which are changed to available forms 
 by the nitrifying bacteria. The liquid in stable 
 compost contains valuable plant-food in a sol- 
 uble form; hence, free use of bedding should be 
 made to absorb and retain these liquids. A 
 mixture of dried muckj and marlj (when easily 
 obtained) makes a good absorbent, and will prove 
 beneficial to a sandy soil. Gypsum is valuable 
 in fixing the ammonia contained in these liquids, 
 and should be sprinkled in the trenches or over 
 the compost heaps for this purpose. 
 
 (4) PROTECTION AND APPLICATION OF THE 
 COMPOST. Covered barn-yards (Fig. 29) pre- 
 vent the loss of the compost by scattering and 
 leaching,* at the same time affording warmer 
 quarters for the stock in winter and cooler in 
 summer. 
 
 * Roberts' Fertility of the Soil,
 
 THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 
 
 103 
 
 Some successful farmers advocate the re- 
 moval of the compost from the stable directly 
 to the field. Others place it in covered heaps, 
 or bins, and sprinkle with gypsum. Fresh com- 
 post acts injuriously with some crops.* 
 
 Fairly well-rotted manure may be harrowed 
 
 FIG. 29. A COVERED BARN-YARD. 
 
 in in the fall or late summer, but if sufficiently 
 rotted to be available, it may be applied in the 
 spring. 
 
 Plants may be overfed as well as underfed, 
 
 Year-book, 1901, p. 171.
 
 104 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 so frequent, light applications are better than 
 heavy ones at long intervals.* 
 
 It would be well to occasionally add to every 
 ton of compost applied to the soil from fifty to 
 one hundred pounds of superphosphate, and 
 twenty-five to fifty pounds of sulphate of potash 
 (high grade), or sufficient wood ashes to supply 
 the same amount of potash (see Table I.). 
 
 For potted plants, or in soil used for vegetables 
 or flowers, the water leached from stable com- 
 post and diluted may be used (see page 256) in 
 watering the plants to supply the fertilizer. 
 
 One ton of stable compost in good condition 
 contains about ten pounds of nitrogen, five 
 pounds of phosphoric acid, and ten pounds of 
 potassium. 
 
 ^.REFERENCES. 
 
 "The Fertility of the Land." Roberts. 1900. 10. 
 
 "Fertilizers." Voorhees. 1900. 10. 
 
 "Phosphates." Bulletin 94, Maryland Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Station. 
 
 " Field Experiments with Nitrate of Soda." Bulletin 164, New 
 Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 " System of Farm Management." Year-book, 1901. 
 
 "Relation of Nutrition to the Health of Plants." Year-book, 
 1901. 
 
 * " We may take it as a general rule that plants with leathery 
 leaves, with 'hard and narrow leaves, and with hard wood, re- 
 quire more dilute solutions than those with large, soft, and ex- 
 panded leaves. During the period of leaf formation all plants 
 can do with the greatest amount of nutritive matter." Year- 
 book, 1901, p. 172.
 
 THE SOIL AS RELATED TO PLANTS. 105 
 
 "Soils." Bulletin 41, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment 
 Station. 
 
 " Chemistry of Plants, Plant Foods, and Soils." Bulletin 94, 
 New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 " Fertilizers for Special Crops." Year-book, 1902. 
 
 " Commercial Fertilizers." Bulletin 99, Vermont Agricultural 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 " Potash and Its Function in Agriculture." Year-book, 1896. 
 
 "Soil Ferments Important in Agriculture." Year-book ; 1895. 
 ' Humus in Its Relation to Soil Fertility." Year-book, 1895.
 
 OUTLINE OF CHAPTER V. 
 
 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 
 
 ^.LEGUMINOUS PLANTS AS NITROGEN 
 GATHERERS. 
 
 I. Nitrogen -fixing Bacteria. 
 II. Inoculation o! the Soil. 
 III. Other Conditions. 
 
 ^.LEGUMINOUS PLANTS AS SOIL RENO- 
 VATORS. 
 
 I. As Deep Feeders. 
 
 1. Mechanical Action. 
 
 2. Chemical Action. 
 
 II. For Green Manuring. 
 
 C. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS AS FOOD. 
 
 I. High per cent, of Digestible Crude Protein. 
 II. Table of Comparisons. 
 III. Not Lacking in Carbohydrates. 
 
 Z?. SPECIFIC CASES. 
 
 I. Red Clover. 
 II. Crimson Clover. 
 
 III. Alfalfa. 
 
 IV. Cow-peas. 
 V. Soy-beans. 
 
 . REFERENCES. 
 
 107
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 
 
 From the foregoing chapters the student 
 should have an understanding of the fact that 
 the food of plants must contain certain ele- 
 ments, and that these food elements must be 
 obtained from the air or as soluble material 
 from the soil, so that they can be absorbed by 
 the roots. 
 
 One of the most important elements is nitro- 
 gen (see Chapter IV.). It is found in the pro- 
 toplasm of every plant cell. The nitrogenous 
 compounds in the plant, taken as a whole, are 
 called crude protein. No plant can live without 
 a supply of nitrogenous food. 
 
 Now if this nitrogen is to be obtained from 
 the soil, and since the plant requires so great a 
 proportion of it, it will be easily seen that the 
 supply in ordinary soils would in time be ex- 
 hausted unless some means were taken to 
 replenish it. This is usually done by the appli- 
 cation of a fertilizer some salt of nitrogen, 
 which is the most expensive of fertilizers. 
 
 109
 
 110 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ^.LEGUMINOUS PLANTS AS NITROGEN 
 GATHERERS. 
 
 I. Nitrogen -fixing Bacteria. 
 
 In recent years it has been discovered (see 
 foot-note, p. 32) that certain plants, through 
 their intimate relation with other low plant 
 forms, bacteria, are able to obtain nitrogen from 
 the inexhaustible supply of the air. The exact 
 relation existing between these soil bacteria and 
 the roots of leguminous plants is not fully under- 
 stood. But it has been proven by many experi- 
 ments that wherever the bacteria which work 
 upon a particular species of plant are present 
 which is shown by the nodules upon the roots 
 (Fig. 31) the plant is able to make a luxu- 
 riant growth without the addition of nitrogen- 
 ous fertilizers, providing, of course, that other 
 necessary conditions are present. 
 
 II. Inoculation of the Soil. 
 
 It sometimes happens that the particular spe- 
 cies of bacteria which works upon a certain 
 species of leguminous plant is not present in 
 the soil. In this case the plant vetch, for ex- 
 ample has no nodules upon its roots (Fig. 
 30), is weak and sickly, and a profitable crop 
 cannot be obtained unless heavy applications of 
 nitrogenous fertilizers are made, which would 
 entail considerable expense, or the soil of this 
 field be inoculated with the bacteria which work
 
 FIG. 30. COMPARISON OF VETCH PLANTS. 
 Grown upon inoculated and uninoculated soil.
 
 1 12 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 upon this vetch. This inoculation may be done 
 by a light application of the soil in which these 
 bacteria are known to be. Their presence is 
 indicated by the luxuriant growth of the vetch 
 
 FIG. 31. ROOTS OK YELLOW SOY-BEAN. 
 
 Grown at the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station in 1896, on land inocu- 
 lated with an extract containing the tubercle-forming bacteria. 
 
 and the presence of nodules on its roots (see 
 Fig. 30). If any considerable area is to be in- 
 oculated, this method of inoculation is too ex- 
 pensive to be practical, as it requires from 500 
 to 1,000 pounds of soil to an acre. 
 
 Recently, through investigations in the labo-
 
 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 113 
 
 ratory of Plant Physiology, the Department of 
 Agriculture at Washington has shown that "the 
 bacteria, when grown upon nitrogen-free media, 
 will retain their high activity if they are care- 
 fully dried out and then revived in a liquid 
 medium at the end of varying lengths of time. 
 By using some absorbent which will soak up 
 millions of the tubercle-forming organisms, and 
 then by allowing these cultures to become dry, 
 the bacteria can be sent to any part of the 
 United States or the world, and yet arrive in 
 perfect condition. Of course, it is necessary to 
 revive the dry germs by immersion in water, 
 and, with the addition of certain nutrient salts, 
 the original number of bacteria is greatly in- 
 creased if allowed to stand for a short time. 
 Frequently twenty-four hours are sufficient to 
 cause the water in a pail to turn milky white 
 with the number of organisms formed in that 
 time. Thus, by sending out a dry culture sim- 
 ilar to a yeast cake, and no larger in size, the 
 original number of nitrogen-fixing bacteria may 
 be multiplied sufficiently to inoculate at least an 
 acre of land. The amount of material thus ob- 
 tained is limited only by the quantity of the 
 nutrient water solution used in increasing the 
 germs. It is evident, therefore, that the cost of 
 inoculating the land is very small." The dry cul- 
 tures may be obtained from the United States 
 Department of Agriculture without cost.
 
 114 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 "The way in which the liquid culture may be 
 introduced into the soil varies somewhat with 
 the character of the seed to be used and the 
 area of the field to be treated. With large seed 
 it is often more convenient to simply soak them 
 in the fluid, or moisten them with it, and then, 
 after they are sufficiently dry, to sow them in 
 the ordinary way. In other cases it is frequently 
 more feasible to introduce the liquid culture 
 directly into the soil. This may be done by 
 spraying, or perhaps a simpler method is to mix 
 the culture thoroughly with a wagon-load of 
 earth, and then to distribute and harrow this in, 
 just as a fertilizer would be handled."* 
 
 III. Other Conditions. 
 
 It may be possible that some condition of the 
 soil prevents the healthy growth of the species 
 of bacteria. They require an abundant supply 
 of air (see "Tillage") and plenty of moisture, 
 though this should not be present in sufficient 
 quantities to prevent the free circulation of the 
 air. They will not thrive in an acid soil; hence, 
 if difficulty is found in growing leguminous 
 crops, it would be well to give the soil a light 
 application of lime if it is not known to already 
 contain it. 
 
 * Year-book, United States Department of Agriculture, 1902, 
 p. 341-
 
 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 
 
 115 
 
 B. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS AS 
 SOIL RENOVATORS. 
 
 I. As Deep Feeders. 
 
 Leguminous plants also have 
 the advantage of being deep 
 feeders ; hence, they require a 
 subsoil which they can pene- 
 trate, and alfalfa, in particular, 
 cannot be successfully grown if 
 the soil is underlaid with rock 
 or hard-pan. 
 
 The roots of these plants 
 thus improve the soil in two 
 ways : 
 
 1. By Mechanical Action they 
 loosen the subsoil, making it 
 more easily penetrated by water, 
 and by subsequently formed 
 roots; and, 
 
 2. Chemically, by bringing 
 up from below quantities of the 
 salts of phosphorus and potas- 
 sium, as well as obtaining, 
 through the bacteria, a rich 
 supply of nitrogen from the air. 
 Large amounts of these ele- 
 ments, by the decay of these 
 roots and the stubble, are pre- 
 pared for the use of subsequent 
 crops of surface-feeding plants. 
 
 FIG. 32. 
 
 ALFALFA PLANT. 
 L/ong root-system.
 
 116 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 II. For Green Manuring, 
 
 or plowing under for fertilizing, the leguminous 
 plants, such as the red, white, or the crimson 
 clover, cow-peas, and soy-beans, are of more 
 value than other crops, since they are compara- 
 tively rich in phosphorus and potash, and fur- 
 nish a supply of nitrogenous compounds, the 
 nitrogen of which is obtained, through their re- 
 lation with certain bacteria, from the air, thus 
 not impoverishing the soil. Green manuring 
 with leguminous plants, while very effective, can 
 hardly be afforded, except for the purpose of 
 building up worn-out, or poor, soil, since legu- 
 minous hay is so valuable as feed (Chapter I.). 
 At the same time more than half of the fertiliz- 
 ing elements may be given back to the soil in 
 stable manure if rightly cared for and applied. 
 
 C. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS AS FOOD. 
 
 I. Digestible Crude Protein 
 
 is absolutely essential to the upbuilding of the 
 tissues of the animal body in repairing broken- 
 down tissues. It has been proven by repeated 
 experiments that a ration which contains a large 
 per cent, of digestible crude protein gives the 
 best results for the least money in the produc- 
 tion of milk, and in contributing to a vigorous 
 and healthful growth of the young. It has been 
 ascertained by analysis, as shown by the follow- 
 ing table of comparisons, that the per cent, of
 
 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 
 
 117 
 
 protein contained in the hay of leguminous 
 plants is more than double that in the same 
 weight of the hay of grasses. 
 
 II. TABLE OF COMPARISONS.* 
 
 DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS. 
 
 NAME OF FEED. 
 
 1 
 
 DIGESTIBLE NUTRI- 
 ENTS IN 100 POUNDS. 
 
 FERTILIZING CONSTIT- 
 UENTS IN 1,000 POUNDS. 
 
 .8 
 
 ! 
 
 if 
 
 3| 
 
 1 
 I 
 
 III 
 
 1 
 
 Hay 
 Timothy 
 
 Lbs. 
 86.8 
 91.1 
 
 78.8 
 84.7 
 
 90.4 
 91.6 
 893 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 2.8 
 
 48 
 4.8 
 6.8 
 ii 5 
 10.5 
 
 11. 
 
 10.8 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 43-4 
 46.9 
 37-3 
 35-8 
 42.2 
 34-9 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 4 
 .0 
 
 2.O 
 
 7 
 5 
 
 .2 
 .2 
 .1 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 12.6 
 
 ii. 5 
 ii. 9 
 
 20.7 
 
 27-5 
 20.5 
 21.9 
 19-5 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 I'o 
 4.0 
 3-8 
 5-2 
 4.0 
 5-i 
 
 5-2 
 
 Lbs. 
 9.0 
 
 10.2 
 
 15 7 
 
 22. 
 
 18.1 
 
 13-1 
 16.8 
 
 14.7 
 
 Redtop 
 
 Kentucky blue-grass 
 Red clover, medium. 
 White clover .... 
 Crimson clover . . 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Cow-pea 
 
 
 When it is considered that the majority of 
 leguminous plants yield two or more crops an- 
 nually, it will be seen that they supply from two 
 to four times as much protein per acre as the 
 grasses. Of the nitrogen contained in this pro- 
 tein, it should again be emphasized that a large 
 proportion of it is obtained from the air, through 
 the relation of these plants with the bacteria, 
 and thus the soil is not deprived of its supply 
 of nitrogen, as is the case with other forage 
 plants ; hence, no expensive nitrogenous fertili- 
 zer will be required to replenish the soil of fields 
 sown with leguminous crops. 
 
 * Adapted from Henry's Feeds and Feeding.
 
 118 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 HI. Not Lacking in Carbohydrates. 
 
 It will also be seen from the table that the 
 leguminous hay only lacks about 5 per cent, of 
 being as rich in the heat-producing elements, 
 carbohydrates and ether extract, as the hay of 
 grasses. On the other hand, it will require in 
 most cases no supplementary nitrogenous food 
 in the form of expensive meals as wheat shorts, 
 gluten meal, and cottonseed-meal, as does the 
 hay of grasses. 
 
 Leguminous plants are valuable, then, in that 
 (i) they do not exhaust the soil of its nitrogen, 
 but may be made (through their relation with 
 the bacteria) to add to the soil's supply of 
 nitrogen from that of the air; (2) they are deep 
 feeders, and bring up from below and deposit 
 near the surface other kinds of plant-food; (3) 
 they make a more economical food than grasses; 
 (4) that the manure from such crops makes a 
 better fertilizer than that obtained by feeding 
 the hay of grasses. 
 
 D. SPECIFIC CASES. 
 
 I. Red Clover ( Trifoliitm pratense} 
 need only be mentioned, as it is already well 
 known and its value recognized. It is widely 
 grown in the Northern and Eastern States, but 
 is not generally grown so successfully in the 
 South and West as other legumes. It is best to 
 cut it when not more than 20 per cent, of the
 
 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 119 
 
 blossoms are turning brown, since not only is 
 the yield heavier at this time (as the leaves, 
 which are the best part of the hay drop off when 
 it is riper), but its nutritive value is greatest. 
 
 Clover hay is excellent roughage for sheep, 
 cows, and growing stock. The dust detracts 
 from its value as roughage for horses, but a 
 limited amount may be fed to them in connec- 
 tion with other rough food. 
 
 II. Crimson Clover {Trifolium incarnatum) , 
 though not so valuable for hay as red clover 
 since it is an annual and makes but one crop- 
 is excellent for green manuring, winter soil 
 mulching, and soiling cutting green and supply- 
 ing to the stock in barns and yards. 
 
 It is better adapted to the Southern States, 
 as the fall sowing will not stand the severe win- 
 ters of the North, nor the drouth of the western 
 plains, though fine crops have sometimes been 
 obtained outside the Southern States. 
 
 It may be sown in spring or early summer, 
 when it matures in late summer or autumn. 
 This crop makes a good fall pasture, after which 
 it may be plowed under, or if not having been 
 allowed to produce seed and it survives the 
 winter, it may be used for green food, soiling, 
 or as green manuring in the spring. It is, how- 
 ever, commonly sown in late summer or early 
 fall; where the winters are mild it serves excel- 
 lently as a winter soil mulch.
 
 120 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 In the spring it may be used as green manur- 
 ing for corn or cotton fields, or for soiling or 
 spring pastures, or it may be allowed to grow 
 for hay ; but it must be cut before it is in full 
 bloom, for when the blossoms are fully ripe the 
 bristly hairs and the calyx are liable to form 
 balls in the stomach or intestines of horses or 
 cattle, which cause their death. 
 
 HI. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa). 
 
 Alfalfa cannot be grown on all soils. It is a 
 deep feeder, the roots penetrating the ground 
 to a depth of from eight to twenty-five feet 
 (Fig. 32), and cases have been reported where, in 
 loose sandy soils, alfalfa roots have been found 
 at a depth of from fifty to sixty feet. 
 
 It must have a subsoil which its roots can 
 penetrate. The soil must be well drained and 
 well ventilated, so that the nitrogen-fixing 
 organisms (bacteria) which work upon its roots 
 may be well supplied with nitrogen from the 
 air. It thrives best in a soil rich in lime, potash, 
 magnesium, and phosphorus lime being the 
 most essential. 
 
 The soil must be thoroughly prepared. A 
 field should be selected which is free from the 
 seeds of weeds, and plowed thoroughly and 
 deeply. If no subsoil plow is to be had, "the best 
 substitute is two turning plows, the one follow- 
 ing in the furrow made by the other." The Soil 
 must then be thoroughly pulverized and made
 
 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 121 
 
 smooth. This prepares the ground, for from 
 four to forty years, for three to five crops per 
 year, so the work may well be done with care. 
 
 As soon as there is no more danger of frost 
 in the spring the alfalfa seed which has been 
 screened to allow, if present, the fine seeds of 
 its worst enemy, the dodder, to pass through 
 (see " Purity of Seeds," Chapter IX) should be 
 drilled in thickly (20 to 25 pounds to the acre) 
 to keep down the weeds. The field may be en- 
 riched occasionally with fertilizers containing 
 lime, potash, and phosphoric acid, but no nitro- 
 genous fertilizer will be needed. 
 
 The stable compost, when feeding alfalfa, 
 makes an excellent fertilizer for surface-feeding 
 crops, as the grasses and grains. 
 
 The weeds should be carefully kept down by 
 reseeding the spots where the stand is poor, 
 and by frequent mowing, if need be, until the 
 alfalfa has reached the third year of its growth, 
 when the root system will have become strongly 
 developed and a good stand may be expected. 
 
 Of all the leguminous plants, alfalfa seems to 
 have the greatest number of points in its favor. 
 It enriches the soil by bringing up from great 
 depths plant-food, and depositing it in its tis- 
 sues near and upon the surface. It, in connec- 
 tion with the infesting bacteria, gets its supply 
 of nitrogen from the air, and stores up large 
 quantities of nitrogenous compounds in its tis-
 
 122 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 sues. It makes excellent pasture for horses and 
 hogs ; however, it will not bear too close feed- 
 ing, as it does not sprout from the stem but 
 from the roots, and the "vitality of the root 
 may be impaired if the young stems are grazed 
 as fast as they appear." Alfalfa is not a good 
 green food for cattle and sheep, as it causes 
 them to bloat, though it is believed by some 
 that if a supply of dry roughage is put where 
 they can get it while feeding on alfalfa and 
 clover pasture, that stock will not suffer from 
 bloating.* Soiling (see " Principles of Feed- 
 ing") also may be practiced with alfalfa. There 
 is no farm crop of greater value as hay. Alfalfa 
 hay is richer in digestible nutrients than red 
 clover hay, and from three to five, or as many 
 as seven, cuttings may be made from an alfalfa 
 field annually. It should be cut for hay when 
 it first begins to bloom. Alfalfa hay should be 
 handled as little as possible to get it into the 
 stack or barn, as the leaves, which are the best 
 part of the hay, drop off when dry. The hay 
 should be sheltered from rains. The second 
 crop of alfalfa (in Colorado and similar localities 
 the first is used) should be cut for seed, as the 
 blossoms ripen more uniformly, and this crop 
 seeds better probably because there are a 
 greater number of insects to fertilize the flowers. 
 
 Henry's Feeds and Feeding, p. 2OI*
 
 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 123 
 
 Since alfalfa hay is exceedingly rich it must 
 be supplemented by foods containing the car- 
 bohydrates as, corn fodder, straw, or silage. 
 Alfalfa is adapted to a wide range of latitude. 
 It has been successfully grown as far north as 
 Central New York, Michigan, and Montana, 
 and as far south as California, Louisiana, and 
 Florida, and it stands the drouth of the western 
 plains better than any other forage crop. 
 
 IV. Cow-peas ( Vigna catjang} . 
 
 There are numerous varieties of cow-peas, 
 from the "bush-pea" to the prostrate runners, 
 with many gradations between them. Their 
 season of growth varies from a few weeks to 
 several months (see "Variation Induced by En- 
 vironmental Changes Climatic''). 
 
 Cow-peas will grow on soil which is too poor 
 to support clover, and they are excellent soil- 
 renewers when plowed under green, and far less 
 expensive than commercial fertilizers for worn- 
 out or barren soil. This crop is best adapted 
 to the South, as it, like that of other beans, is 
 very sensitive to frost. Certain varieties, how- 
 ever, have been grown as far north as Wiscon- 
 sin also in the New England States, as soiling 
 crops. 
 
 Much of the failure in the North has been 
 caused by planting when the ground was too 
 cold or wet. From the table it will be seen 
 that the hay of cow-peas yields a greater per
 
 124 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 FIG. 33. THE COW-PEA. 
 
 cent, of dry matter than that of red clover. It 
 is also much richer in the digestible protein. 
 In the Gulf States a yield of from four to six 
 tons per acre is common. The South Carolina 
 Station reported, in 1889, a yield of 3.6 tons to 
 the acre. Its analysis showed that it furnished
 
 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 125 
 
 twice the amount of digestible nutrients as that 
 of one acre of oats yielding forty bushels, and 
 
 FIG. 34. THE SOY-BEAN. 
 
 40 per cent, more than that produced by an acre 
 of corn yielding thirty bushels. 
 
 When cow-peas are grown to enrich the soil 
 the hay may be fed to stock and the manure 
 returned to the field, or the vines may be plowed 
 under in the fall, and the field sown in oats, rye,
 
 126 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 or vetch, to prevent the leaching out of valuable 
 fertilizing- materials by the rains. 
 
 The seeds make a valuable concentrated food, 
 but since, as yet, there is no means of thresh- 
 ing them satisfactorily unless gathered by hand, 
 it is quite expensive. 
 
 V. The Soy-bean (Glycine hispida) 
 (Fig. 34) is largely grown in the South, but can 
 be grown wherever Indian corn can be grown 
 successfully. It feeds heavily upon potash, and 
 requires fertilizing with lime, potash, and phos- 
 phorus if the soil is poor in these materials. It 
 should not be planted until the ground is warm. 
 It grows rapidly, and generally requires little 
 cultivation. 
 
 The hay is rich in protein. It should be cut 
 at the time of, or soon after, blooming. The 
 seed yields from twenty-five to forty bushels per 
 acre. The beans are rich in protein and oil, 
 hence they make a desirable concentrated food 
 to be fed in connection with roughage. 
 
 EXERCISE 5. (a) Collect specimens of various legu- 
 minous plants, taking great care to procure the root 
 systems intact. 
 
 (/>) Look for tubercles or nodules on the roots. Where 
 found ? 
 
 (r) Note the relative size of nodules upon different 
 kinds of plants, and upon the same kind of plants 
 grown in different soils. 
 
 (</) Do you find any legumes which have no nodules? 
 If so, test the soil in which they were grown for acid.
 
 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 127 
 
 If any acid is present, what would you advise ? If no 
 acid is present, what ? 
 
 REFERENCES. 
 
 " Bacteria and the Nitrogen Problem." Year-book, United 
 States Department of Agriculture, 1902. 
 
 "Canadian Field-peas." Year-book, 1895. 
 
 "The Relation of Chemistry to the Progress of Agriculture." 
 Year-book, 1899. 
 
 "Cow-peas." Year-book, 1896. 
 
 "Leguminous Plants." Farmers' Bulletin, No. 16. United 
 States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 " Beans, Peas, and Other Legumes as Food." Farmers' Bulle- 
 tin, No. 121, United States Department of Agriculture, 1900. 
 
 " Alfalfa, or Lucern." Farmers' Bulletin, No. 31, United 
 States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 " Cow-peas." Farmers' Bulletin, No. 89, United States De- 
 partment of Agriculture. 
 
 " Forage Crops." Bulletin, No. 66, Texas Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Station. 
 
 " The Soy-bean as a Forage Crop." Farmers' Bulletin, No. 
 58, United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 " Forage Crops." Bulletin, No. 59, Texas Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Station. 
 
 " Soil Bacteria in Their Relation to Agriculture." Bulletin 
 No. 40, Agricultural Experiment Station, Delaware. 
 
 " The Soy-bean." Bulletin, No. 92, Agricultural Experiment 
 Station, Rhode Island. 
 
 "Crimson Clover." Bulletin, No. 44, Virginia Agricultural 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 "Cowpeas." Bulletin No. 73. Missouri Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Station.
 
 OUTLINE OF CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 
 ^.OBJECT OF FEEDING. 
 
 B.- KINDS OF FOOD. 
 I. Nitrogenous Foods. 
 II. Carbonaceous Poods. 
 HI. Other Clements. 
 
 C. COMPARISON OF NITROGENOUS AND 
 CARBONACEOUS FOODS. 
 
 I. Protein. 
 II. Carbohydrates. 
 
 III. Ether Extract. 
 
 1. Heat Value. 
 
 2. Calculating the Heat-producing Material in Corn. 
 
 D. FEEDING TABLES. 
 
 I. Analysis of Feeding Stuffs. 
 
 1. Amount of Nutrients. 
 
 2. Per Cent, of Digestibility. 
 
 II. Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards. 
 
 1. A Balanced Ration. 
 
 2. How the Standards were Obtained. 
 
 3. Standards Used Only as a Basis. 
 
 4. Nutritive Ratio. Exercise 6. 
 
 5. Compounding Rations, 
 
 129
 
 13 Q AGRICULTURE. 
 
 . FEEDING STUFFS. 
 
 I. Payability. 
 
 II. Kinds. 
 
 1 . Concentrates. 
 
 2. Roughage. 
 
 (1) DRY FORAGE. 
 
 (2) GREEN FORAGE. 
 
 (a) Pasture. 
 (l>) Soiling. 
 (c) Silage.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 
 
 " The mind of the master fattens his cattle." 
 
 .4. OBJECT OF FEEDING. 
 
 Farm crops are grown for the profit there is 
 in them to the farmer. Farm animals are fed 
 to increase this profit. 
 
 Anything grown on the farm which will help 
 to form a suitable food for stock should be fed 
 and the waste returned to the soil, so that the 
 largest profit may be obtained with the smallest 
 loss to the soil. The profit obtained from feed- 
 ing farm animals may be manifested in one of 
 three forms of work done : (i) increase of Mesh, 
 by growth or fattening; (2) production of milk, 
 wool, etc., or (3) labor performed. 
 
 The amount of digestible food, then, must 
 exceed the supply necessary for the demands of 
 the body by the amount sufficient to promote 
 the work exacted of the animal ; otherwise the 
 work is done at the expense of the body, and 
 the overworked and underfed animal becomes 
 poor and weak, because it has drawn upon the 
 tissues of the body (flesh consumption) to sup- 
 ply the energy for work. In the food of ani- 
 mals, as in that of plants, it is necessary to con- 
 sider only a few kinds. 
 
 131
 
 132 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 B. KINDS OF FOOD. 
 
 I. Nitrogenous Foods. 
 
 Those supplying nitrogenous compounds, or 
 protein, which are used in the formation of tis- 
 sues as, muscle, bone, hair, horn, and also of 
 blood and milk must be furnished to promote 
 the growth of the growing animal. 
 
 II. Carbonaceous Foods. 
 
 Those as, starch and sugar which supply the 
 carbohydrates and fats are necessary to produce 
 the heat and energy of the body. If there is 
 an excess of this kind of food over that required 
 in producing heat and energy it is stored in the 
 body as fat, and may be drawn upon at any time 
 when the food does not contain sufficient heat- 
 producing elements. 
 
 III. Other Elements. 
 
 There are other elements necessary to a com- 
 plete food, but they are always contained in suf- 
 ficient quantity in all foods which supply the 
 necessary protein, carbohydrates, and fats, so do 
 not need to be taken into consideration in the 
 selection of foods. 
 
 C. COMPARISON OF NITROGENOUS AND 
 CARBONACEOUS FOODS. 
 
 I. Protein. 
 
 When the carbohydrates are lacking, heat and 
 energy can be produced by the protein of the 
 food, or even by the tissues, by flesh consump-
 
 PRINCIPLES FOR FEEDING. 133 
 
 tion; but if protein is lacking in the food, neither 
 the carbohydrates nor any other constituent can 
 take its place. It must be borne in mind that 
 the protein is by far the most expensive, and 
 that it is at an actual loss to the stockman that 
 protein-furnishing food is allowed to take the 
 place of the cheaper carbohydrates in supplying 
 the heat and energy of the animals fed espe- 
 cially since the maintenance of heat and energy 
 requires the greater portion of the food. 
 
 II. Carbohydrates. 
 
 It has been found by actual experiments that 
 when carbohydrates are fed in connection with 
 protein that the protein consumption is lessened; 
 hence, not only is the breaking down of the 
 tissues of the body prevented, but more of the 
 protein of the food is left for the formation of 
 flesh, bone, and other tissues. 
 
 III. Ether Extract. 
 
 The fats perform the same function in the 
 body as do the carbohydrates. Ether extracts 
 are the substances obtained from a " water free " 
 food by ether. Though the terms "ether ex- 
 tract" and "fats" are not strictly interchange- 
 able, they are very often so used. 
 
 i. Heat Value. It has been estimated that 
 one pound of ether extract will produce 2.4 times 
 as much heat as one pound of carbohydrates.
 
 134 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 TABLE III.* 
 
 AVERAGE DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN 
 
 AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS. 
 
 NAME OF FEED. 
 
 Dry Matter in 
 100 Pounds. 
 
 DIGESTIBLE NUTRI- 
 ENTS IN IOO POUNDS. 
 
 FERTILIZING CONSTIT- 
 UENTS IN 1,000 POUNDS. 
 
 R 
 
 '5 
 
 1 
 
 4 Q 
 || 
 
 It 
 5" 
 
 b 
 *. 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 iN 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 Concentrates. 
 Corn, all analyses . 
 Sweet Corn 
 
 Lbs. 
 89.1 
 91.2 
 
 89.3 
 84.9 
 91.8 
 89.5 
 87.7 
 88.2 
 88.4 
 90.7 
 89.0 
 
 Lbs. 
 7-9 
 8.8 
 0.4 
 4.4 
 25.8 
 
 IO.2 
 12.3 
 12.2 
 
 9-9 
 
 11.9 
 9.2 
 
 Lbs. 
 66.7 
 63.7 
 52.5 
 60 o 
 
 43-3 
 69.2 
 
 37-i 
 SO.o 
 67.6 
 45-1 
 47-3 
 52.1 
 
 Lbs. 
 4-3 
 7.0 
 o.3 
 
 2-9 
 II. O 
 
 % 
 
 3-8 
 II 
 1.6 
 4.2 
 5.9 
 
 Lbs. 
 18.2 
 18.6 
 5-0 
 14.1 
 50.3 
 23.6 
 
 Lbs. 
 7.0 
 
 Lbs. 
 4.0 
 
 Corn Cob 
 Corn and cob meal . 
 Gluten meal .... 
 Wheat 
 
 0.6 
 5-7 
 3-3 
 7-9 
 
 6.0 
 4-7 
 0.5 
 5-0 
 
 Winter wheat bran . 
 Wheat shorts .... 
 
 Rye 
 
 28.2 
 17.6 
 18.4 
 
 2O.6 
 
 13-5 
 
 8.2 
 12.6 
 8.2 
 
 5-9 
 5-4 
 8.1 
 6.2 
 
 
 Oats 
 
 Oatmeal 
 
 Oat feed or shorts. . 
 Buckwheat . . . . 
 
 92-3 
 87.4 
 88.9 
 
 9i!s 
 
 92.5 
 
 89.2 
 
 85.2 
 
 20.7 
 57-8 
 59-5 
 34-9 
 38.4 
 34-7 
 
 12.0 
 
 7-7 
 
 21. 1 
 
 7-8 
 
 89 
 37-2 
 
 1 2. 1 
 29.6 
 
 18-3 
 
 I.O 
 
 2-5 
 
 i-7 
 3-0 
 
 1.2 
 2.1 
 
 46.9 
 49.2 
 33-5 
 57-1 
 45-0 
 16.9 
 20. 8 
 22.3 
 54-2 
 
 11.6 
 
 34-6 
 32.4 
 19.8 
 19.1 
 
 21.2 
 
 2.8 
 
 1.8 
 
 5.5 
 
 2.7 
 
 3-2 
 12.2 
 29.0 
 14.4 
 I.I 
 
 0.4 
 
 1.2 
 
 -7 
 0.8 
 0.6 
 0.6 
 
 17.2 
 
 14.4 
 
 9-1 
 4-4 
 
 5-3 
 
 2.1 
 
 Buckwheat shorts. . 
 Kaffir corn 
 
 
 
 
 Millet 
 
 20.4 
 
 67.9 
 
 22. S 
 
 53- 
 
 33-3 
 
 4.1 
 17.6 
 10.4 
 
 8-5 
 28.8 
 
 12.2 
 
 18.7 
 
 3-6 
 
 3 
 
 19.0 
 
 Cottonseed-meal . . 
 Sunflower seed . . . 
 Soja (soy) bean . . . 
 Cow-peas 
 
 Roughage. 
 Fodder corn, green . 
 Fodder corn, field. . 
 Corn stover, field . . 
 Kentucky blue-grass 
 Timothy, dif. stages 
 Redtop, in bloom . . 
 Hungarian grass . . 
 Hay. 
 Timothy. 
 
 i-5 
 5-4 
 
 2-9 
 
 3-3 
 8.9 
 14.0 
 
 4.8 
 
 2.6 
 
 7.6 
 
 28.9 
 
 S6.8 
 91.1 
 78.8 
 92.3 
 87.1 
 88.7 
 
 90.4 
 
 92.9 
 90.8 
 
 29.2 
 
 '91 
 28.2 
 16.4 
 24.9 
 
 84.7 
 
 9-3 
 90.4 
 91.6 
 
 89.3 
 89.9 
 
 2.O 
 2.8 
 
 4.8 
 4.8 
 4-5 
 5-9 
 10.8 
 
 0.4 
 0.6 
 
 1.2 
 
 2.9 
 2.4 
 
 39 
 1.8 
 3.2 
 
 68 
 'I 5 
 105 
 
 I I.O 
 
 10.8 
 23 
 
 16.0 
 
 43-4 
 46.9 
 37-3 
 51-7 
 40.9 
 
 38.7 
 
 36.3 
 
 40 6 
 
 38 6 
 
 14.8 
 9-i 
 12.7 
 
 8.7 
 
 I I.O 
 
 35-8 
 
 42.2 
 34-9 
 39-6 
 38.6 
 40.0 
 
 04 
 
 1.4 
 I.O 
 2.0 
 
 1-3 
 
 1.2 
 
 i-5 
 
 0.4 
 0.4 
 
 O.S 
 
 0.7 
 0.5 
 
 o-5 
 
 C.2 
 0-5 
 
 1.7 
 
 '5 
 
 1.2 
 1.2 
 I.I 
 I.O 
 
 3-9 
 
 2.6 
 
 i-5 
 i-9 
 
 2.0 
 
 4-1 
 
 23.2 
 
 5-9 
 4.6 
 
 6.2 
 
 5-3 
 
 4 3 
 
 7-2 
 2-7 
 
 2.9 
 
 20.7 
 
 27-5 
 20.5 
 21.9 
 
 iq.5 
 
 '7-5 
 
 1.6 
 
 5-3 
 
 36 
 4.0 
 
 3-5 
 2.7 
 6.7 
 
 1.2 
 
 2.S 
 2.0 
 
 1.3 
 
 i-3 
 
 1-3 
 
 I.O 
 
 i 5 
 3-8 
 
 5-2 
 
 4.0 
 5- 1 
 5-2 
 4- 
 
 5-5 
 9.0 
 
 IO.2 
 15-7 
 13 
 
 15.5 
 
 10. S 
 
 5-1 
 
 7-9 
 12.4 
 
 4.6 
 4-9 
 5-6 
 3-i 
 53 
 
 22.O 
 
 18.1 
 
 I3-I 
 
 16.8 
 
 14.7 
 13-2 
 
 Redtop 
 
 Kentucky blue-grass 
 Hungarian-grass . . 
 
 Soja-bean hay. . . . 
 Straw. 
 Wheat 
 
 Rye . . 
 
 Oat 
 
 fresh Legumes. 
 Red clover, dif.stages 
 Crimson clover . . . 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Cow-peas 
 
 Soja-bean 
 
 Legume hay and strati 
 Red clover, medium. 
 White clover .... 
 Crimson clover . . . 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Cow-peas . . 
 
 Soja-bean
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 
 
 135 
 
 TABLE IV.* 
 
 FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS. 
 
 THK ANIMAL. 
 
 PER DAY PER I,OOO POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT. 
 
 Dry 
 
 Mat- 
 
 DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS. 
 
 Protein. 
 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates. 
 
 Ether Nutritive 
 Extract, ratio : i to 
 
 1. Fattening Cattle. Lbs. Lbs. 
 
 First period 30 2.5 
 
 Second period 30 30 
 
 Third period 26 
 
 2. Growing Cattle. 
 Dairy Breeds. 
 
 Age in Av. live wt. 
 months, per head, Ibs. 
 
 2- 3 .... 150 .... 23 4.0 
 
 6-12 .... 5OO .... 27 2.0 
 
 18-24 .... (JOG .... 26 1.5 
 
 3. Growing Cattle. 
 * B. Beef Breeds. 
 
 2- 3 .... 160 .... 23 4.2 
 
 6-12 .... 550 .... 25 2.5 
 
 18-24 .... 950 .... 24 
 
 4. Milch Cows, when 
 
 yielding daily : 
 
 1 1. o pounds of milk . . . 25 1.6 
 
 16. 6 pounds of milk . . . 27 2.0 
 
 27.5 pounds of milk ... 32 3.3 
 
 5. Horses. 
 
 work 20 1.5 
 
 Medium work 24 2.0 
 
 Heavy work 26 2.5 
 
 6. Sheep. 
 
 Coarse wool 20 1.2 
 
 Fine wool 23 1.5 
 
 7. Fattening Sheep. 
 
 First period 30 3.0 
 
 Second period 28 3.5 
 
 8. Fattening Swine. 
 
 First period 36 4.5 
 
 Second period 32 4.0 
 
 Third period 25 2.7 
 
 9. Growing, Fattening 
 
 Swine. 
 
 Age in Av. live wt. 
 months, per head, Ibs. 
 
 3 .... 50 .... 44 7.6 
 
 5- 6 .... 150 .... 33 I 4.3 
 9-12 .... 300 .... 26 3.0 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 15.0 
 14.5 
 15-0 
 
 13.0 
 J2-5 
 
 12. 
 
 13.0 
 13.2 
 12.0 
 
 IO.O 
 II. O 
 13.0 
 
 9-5 
 
 II. O 
 
 13-3 
 10-5 
 
 12. 
 
 15.0 
 14.5 
 
 25.0 
 24.O 
 
 18.0 
 
 28.0 
 22.3 
 18.3 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 0.7 
 0.7 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.4 
 0.6 
 0.8 
 
 o-5 
 0.6 
 
 0-5 
 0.4 
 
 i.o 
 0.6 
 
 6.5 
 5-4 
 6.2 
 
 4-5 
 6.8 
 8-5 
 
 4.2 
 6.0 
 
 67 
 6.0 
 
 4-5 
 
 7.0 
 6.2 
 6.0 
 
 8.5 
 
 5-4 
 4-5 
 
 5-9 
 6-3 
 
 4.0 
 
 5-5 
 
 6.4 
 
 * These tables are adapted from Henry's feeds and Feeding.
 
 136 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 2. Calculating the Heat-producing Material 
 in Corn. In the table the ether extract in corn 
 (all analyses) is given as 4.3 ; multiplying by 2.4, 
 the product is 10.32 pounds. The carbohy- 
 drates are given as 66.71 pounds. Adding the 
 heat value of the ether extract (10.32 pounds) 
 to the carbohydrates given, the sum is 77.02 
 pounds, the total heat-producing material in 100 
 pounds of corn. 
 
 I. Analysis of Feeding Stuffs. 
 
 1. The amount of carbohydrates, of ether ex- 
 tract, and of protein in a given food has been 
 ascertained by repeated analyses. These 
 amounts vary in different samples of the same 
 kind of food, but the average results of a large 
 number of analyses are used as a basis for the 
 tables. 
 
 2. Per cent, of Digestibility. But the amount 
 of nutrients contained in a food is not enough 
 to know. One must know what per cent, of it 
 is available that is, what per cent, of it the ani- 
 mal in a given condition is able to digest and 
 assimilate. Many experiments* have been and 
 are being made to find out the percent, of these 
 nutrients actually digested. Some of the results 
 are given in table III. 
 
 II. Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards. 
 
 i. A Balanced Ration. Not only is it essen- 
 tial to know the amount of digestible protein, 
 
 * Henry's Feeds and Feeding, pp. 26, 27.
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 137 
 
 carbohydrates, and ether extract, but it is im- 
 portant to know the proportion of each of these 
 two kinds (tissue-forming and heat-producing) 
 of digestible nutrients in the feed required to 
 produce the best results in different animals un- 
 der various conditions of development or re- 
 quirements of work. Such a food, or combina- 
 tion of foods, for each day is called " a balanced 
 ration." 
 
 2. How the Standards were Obtained. Many 
 feeding trials have been made for the purpose 
 of ascertaining the ratio which should exist be- 
 tween the two kinds heat and energy produ- 
 cing and tissue-forming nutrients. 
 
 The feeding standards originally prepared by 
 Dr. Emil v. Wolff and modified by Dr. C. L. 
 Lehmann hence, called the Wolff-Lehmann 
 feeding standards are the results of such trials, 
 and while these standards (see Table IV.) are 
 not to be considered absolute, they are based 
 upon actual results obtained by repeated trials 
 of various combinations of these nutrients. 
 " The standards are arranged to meet the re- 
 quirements of farm animals under normal con- 
 ditions." 
 
 3. TJiese Standards are Used Only as a Basis. 
 This table, while giving the actual amounts 
 digested by the animals which were fed, is only 
 approximately true for other animals under sim- 
 ilar conditions, for the amount digested depends
 
 138 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 not alone upon the food, but upon the breed, 
 individuality, and condition of the animal fed. 
 
 These standards are excellent as a basis for 
 feeding and for comparison. No stockman 
 should omit the results of his own experience 
 if he has kept an accurate record of feeds and 
 their results as an element in deciding upon a 
 suitable ration for different animals at different 
 stages of development or different requirements 
 of work. 
 
 4. Nutritive Ratio. The ratio between the 
 protein and the heat-producing elements (car- 
 bohydrates and ether extracts) for any kind of 
 food, or combination of foods, is called the nu- 
 tritive ratio. For example, in the daily food 
 required 20 pounds dry matter for a horse 
 doing light work, the amount of digestible pro- 
 tein is 1.5 pounds; carbohydrates, 9.5 pounds; 
 ether extract, .4 pounds. Multiplying the num- 
 ber of pounds of ether extract, .4, by 2.4, or its 
 heat value, the result is .96 pounds ; this, plus 
 the carbohydrates, 9.5 pounds, is equal to 10.46 
 pounds. Dividing the 10.46 pounds of heat- 
 producing elements by the number of pounds of 
 protein, 1.5, the result is /:; therefore, the nu- 
 tritive ratio of this food is 1:7. 
 
 EXERCISE 6. (a) What is the nutritive ratio of a food 
 containing .7 pounds of protein, 8 pounds of carbohy- 
 drates, and .1 pound ether extract? 
 
 (b) If the nutritive ratio of a food is 1:7.7, a "d the
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 139 
 
 ether extract .3, and the carbohydrates 10., how much 
 protein does it contain ? 
 
 (c] If the nutritive ratio of a food is i: 5.2, the protein 
 2.8, and the ether extract .8, how much carbohydrate 
 does it contain ? 
 
 4. Wide and Narrow Ratios. When the 
 amount of carbohydrate and ether extract is 
 large in proportion to the amount of protein, 
 the ratio is called wide. For example, the nu- 
 tritive ratio of corn stover is i : 20, and that of 
 oat straw 1:33.7. Both of these would be called 
 wide ratios. When the amount of heat-produ- 
 cing elements is small in proportion to the 
 amount of protein, the ratio is said to be nar- 
 row, as in oil meal, where it is i: 1.7. 
 
 In Indian corn the ratio is 1:9.8, and is called 
 medium. As is shown by the table, a medium 
 ratio most often gives the best result, growing 
 and heavily worked animals (as young cattle, 
 1:4.5, an d heavily worked horses, 1:6) requir- 
 ing a narrower ration that is, containing a 
 greater proportion of protein to carbohydrates 
 than the mature animal, or animal, or those 
 doing light work (as, 18:24 months old dairy 
 cattle, 1:8.5, a d a horse doing light work, 1:7). 
 This is due to the fact that protein is needed in 
 the growing and working animal for the up- 
 building of tissues. 
 
 It will be noticed that there is no wide nutri- 
 tive ratio given in the table, as in that case the
 
 140 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 protein of the food would not be sufficient to 
 maintain the tissues of the body. Neither is 
 there given an extremely narrow ratio, for that 
 would necessitate the consumption of protein 
 for the production of heat and energy. When 
 a food containing a medium nutritive ratio is fed 
 there are sufficient carbohydrates to supply the 
 heat and energy, and protein enough to main- 
 tain the body, and either to build up additional 
 tissues in growth or flesh, or to be used in the 
 production of milk. 
 
 5. Compounding Rations. It is not often that 
 any one kind of food will supply the desired 
 ratio of nutrients, so it is necessary to combine 
 several kinds in such proportions as to give that 
 ratio in the combined food. For example, if 
 timothy hay (the nutritive ratio of which is 
 i : 16.7) forms the rough food, a balanced ration 
 can only be obtained by combining with it some 
 highly concentrated food as, cottonseed-meal, 
 whose nutritive ratio is 1:1.2; while if hay 
 from clover, cow-peas, or alfalfa, is used, corn 
 and oats will be sufficient, if used in proper pro- 
 portions, to form a balanced ration. 
 
 EXERCISE 7. Finding, or estimating, a ration for 1,000 
 pounds of live weight according to the standard in the 
 table. 
 
 Problem : To determine the ration for ahorse weigh- 
 ing 1,000 pounds and doing light work. According to 
 the table, the following standard is required: dry mat-
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 141 
 
 ter, 20 pounds; protein, 1.5; carbohydrates, 9.5 pounds; 
 ether extract, 0.4 pounds, and the nutritive ratio, i: 7. 
 
 All that is necessary is to find such a combination of 
 foods as will make a nutritive ratio of 1:7 and furnish 
 approximately 20 pounds of dry matter. For a trial 
 ration, assume 15 poundsof red clover hay and 10 pounds 
 of oats. 
 
 First Trial. Required to find the number of pounds 
 of dry matter, protein, carbohydrates, and ether extract, 
 respectively, in 15 pounds of clover hay and 10 pounds 
 of oats. 
 
 (a) In 100 pounds of clover hay there are, according 
 to the table, 84.7 pounds of dry matter, 6.8 pounds of 
 protein, 35 8 pounds of carbohydrates, and 1.7 pounds 
 of ether extract. 
 
 Then in 15 pounds of clover hay there are: 
 
 iSXioo- = 12. 7 of dry matter; 
 
 15 x -^- = 1.02 pounds of protein; 
 
 I 5 x i" 5-37 pounds of carbohydrates; and 
 
 15 x -^ = .25 pounds of ether extract. 
 
 (b~) In 100 pounds of oats there are, according to the 
 table, 89 pounds of dry matter, 9.2 pounds of protein, 
 47.3 pounds of carbohydrates, and 4.2 pounds of ether 
 extract. 
 
 Then in 10 pounds of oats there are: 
 
 10X1^ = 8.9 pounds of dry matter; 
 iox-^-= .92 pounds of protein; 
 10 x 4o,T = 4-73 pounds of carbohydrates; and 
 iox-j^- = 4-2 pounds of ether extract. 
 
 Adding the amounts of these different substances con- 
 tained in;
 
 142 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 
 Dry 
 
 Mat'tei: 
 
 Piol, -in. 
 
 Carbohy- 
 drates. 
 
 Elhtr 
 Extract, 
 
 Clover, 15 Ibs 
 Oats, 10 Ibs 
 
 12.7 
 8.9 
 
 1. 02 
 .92 
 
 5-37 
 4 73 
 
 25 
 .42 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 6 
 
 
 IO. 10 
 
 67 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The nutritive ratio, then, is i to the quotient obtained 
 by dividing the sum of 10. 10 + (2.4 x .67)= 11.708 by 
 1.94 = 6. Therefore, the nutritive ratio is i : 6. 
 
 Comparing this with the standard, we find 
 that the ratio is that given for a horse doing 
 Jieavy work, while the nutritive ratio given for a 
 horse doing light work is given as i : 7. A horse 
 at light work requires less protein than one do- 
 ing heavy work ; hence, this ratio is too narrow. 
 Then, as another trial, let five pounds of oat 
 straw be substituted for five pounds of the clover 
 hay. 
 
 Second Trial. Required to find the number of pounds 
 of dry matter, protein, carbohydrates, and ether extract, 
 respectively, in 10 pounds of clover hay and 5 pounds of 
 oat straw. 
 
 (a] In 100 pounds of clover hay there are, according 
 to the table, 84.7 pounds of dry matter, 6.8 pounds of 
 protein, 35.8 pounds of carbohydrates, and 1.7 pounds of 
 ether extract. 
 
 Then in 10 pounds of clover hay there are: 
 
 10 x ^,,i- = 8.47 pounds of dry matter; 
 
 ioX ,', K r = -68 pounds of protein; 
 
 10 x "^ 3.58 pounds of carbohydrates; and 
 
 iox-' w j- .17 pounds of ether extract.
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 
 
 143 
 
 () In 100 pounds of oat straw there are, according 
 to the table, 90.8 pounds of dry matter, 1.2 pounds of 
 protein, 38.6 pounds of carbohydrates, 0.8 pounds of 
 ether extract. 
 
 Then in 5 pounds of oat straw there are: 
 
 5 X-'ynr = 4-54 pounds of dry matter; 
 
 5 x-y;ir = -6 pounds of protein; 
 
 5 x ~W~ = I -93 P oun ds of carbohydrates; and 
 
 5 x ~ = .04 pounds of ether extract. 
 
 Adding the amounts of these different substances con- 
 tained in: 
 
 
 Dry 
 
 Matter. 
 
 Pro! fin. 
 
 Carbohy- 
 drates. 
 
 Ether 
 Extract. 
 
 Clover 10 Ihs 
 
 8.47 
 
 .68 
 
 3.58 
 
 1 7 
 
 Oats, 10 Ibs 
 
 8.9 
 
 .92 
 
 4-73 
 
 .42 
 
 
 4-54 
 
 .06 
 
 i 93 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The sum is 
 
 21.91 
 
 1.66 
 
 10.24 
 
 .63 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The nutritive ratio is 1:7. 
 
 Comparing this second trial ration with that 
 of the standard, we find that the nutritive ratio 
 is that given for a horse doing light work. 
 
 EXERCISE 8. (i) For fattening cattle, compound a 
 ration having a nutritive ratio of 1:5.4 containing two 
 different kinds of roughage and one concentrate. 
 
 (2) For a milch cow, compound a ration consisting of 
 red clover, hay, corn silage, oat straw, and wheat bran, 
 and having a nutritive ratio of 1:7, and approximating 
 25 pounds of dry matter. 
 
 (3) For cattle, compound a maintenance ration hav- 
 ing a nutritive ratio of 1:10, and approximating 18 
 pounds of dry matter.
 
 144 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 (4) (a) Let each student compute the nutritive ratio 
 of a ration with which he is actually feeding, or knows 
 is being fed, to a cow or a horse. 
 
 (b) Does the condition of the animal justify the con- 
 tinuance of this ration ? Why ? 
 
 (r) How does this nutritive ratio compare with that of 
 the standard given for an animal under similar condi- 
 tions. 
 
 (d) If this ratio is too wide or too narrow, is it on ac- 
 count of the kinds of food, or on account of the propor- 
 tion of the different kinds of food ? Modify this ration 
 so that the nutritive ratio will agree with that of the 
 standard. 
 
 ^.FEEDING STUFFS. 
 
 Wherever it is possible, the food fed to the 
 stock should be grown on the farm and not 
 bought. 
 
 In deciding upon a ration for a given animal, 
 the stockman should know two things: (i) 
 what the animal needs ; (2) what the food 
 contains. Then he can determine what foods 
 will supply the demands of the animal in ques- 
 tion. 
 
 I. Payability 
 
 of foods is of no little importance, for if from 
 any reason the animal does not relish the food, 
 enough will not be eaten to produce any gain. 
 Animals tire of the same food used continuous- 
 ly, just as man does; hence an occasional change 
 in the food is a good plan, but this should be 
 done in such a manner as not to materially 
 change the nutritive ratio.
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 145 
 
 II. Kinds. 
 
 1. Concentrate. A food which contains a 
 minimum amount of crude fiber and water in 
 proportion to the nutrients is called a concen- 
 trate. 
 
 2. Roughage. A food which contains a large 
 amount of crude fiber or of water in proportion 
 to its nutritive elements is called roughage, 
 coarse food, or forage. 
 
 The element of bulk must be taken into con- 
 sideration in determining a ration, especially for 
 a ruminant. If a food is too concentrated, a 
 sufficient amount of digestible nutrients do not 
 distend the digestive organs, and the juices of 
 the stomach and intestines cannot work upon 
 the food effectively. If the food is too bulky, 
 enough cannot be eaten to supply the proper 
 nutrients, or too much energy is consumed in 
 the eating of it. About two-thirds of the dry 
 matter in the ration for ruminants should be 
 coarse food and one-third concentrated food ; 
 for work-horses, the food should be about half 
 and half of each. 
 
 As will be seen from the tables, the concen- 
 trates contain a much greater per cent, of pro- 
 tein than the coarse foods do. Those having 
 the greatest proportion of protein (see table) 
 are cottonseed-meal, soy-bean, buckwheat shorts, 
 and cow-peas. 
 
 There are two kinds of roughage : (i) dry
 
 146 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 forage as, hay, fodders, etc. and (2) green 
 forage as, pasture, soiling crops, and silage. 
 
 (2) GREEN FORAGE. (a) Pasture. Animals 
 on pasture seem to be in their natural environ- 
 ment and need very little concentrated food 
 compared with those of the same grade fed upon 
 dry forage. Green food contains a much less 
 per cent, of digestible nutrients on account of 
 the large per cent, of water, and hence it is 
 necessary to eat a greater quantity, and an ani- 
 mal in pasture expends much energy in walking 
 over the pasture to secure the food and in mas- 
 ticating the extra quantity. For this reason the 
 method of feeding called " soiling " is advocated 
 by many experiment stations. 
 
 (<$) Soiling is the feeding of forage crops 
 green to stock confined in covered barn-yards. 
 Experiments conducted at various stations prove 
 that a greater number of animals can be fed 
 from the same number of acres than can be fed 
 by pasturing. 
 
 At the Wisconsin experiment station it was 
 found that one acre of a soiling crop equaled 
 two and a half acres of good blue-grass pas- 
 ture for feeding dairy cows. A dairy cow 
 requires from 60 to 100 pounds of green forage 
 daily. 
 
 It is objected that the practice of soiling in- 
 volves extra work. But green forage need only 
 be gathered twice a week if thinly spread upon
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING. 147 
 
 the floor of the barn, and most crops can be cut 
 with the mower; so, after all, it will not require 
 much time. Especially should this plan of feed- 
 ing supplement the pasture by supplying some 
 green forage as, rye early in the spring, and 
 soy-beans when the pasture becomes short and 
 dry in midsummer (see " Rotation of Crops," 
 Course /). 
 
 It is at this latter period that the heat is so 
 oppressive and the flies so troublesome, and if 
 the stock can be housed in a darkened but well- 
 ventilated place in the daytime, and turned into 
 the pasture at night, much greater comfort to 
 the animal and a gain in milk or flesh will re- 
 sult. 
 
 There is another economical problem which 
 the covered barn-yard (see Fig. 29) solves. It 
 is that of saving the waste, that it may be re- 
 turned to the soil as a fertilizer (see " Fertiliz- 
 ers "). Not only is the soil benefited by the 
 fertilizing material returned to it, but soiling 
 crops are very useful in helping to form the 
 courses in rotation (see Courses 5 and 7), which 
 are most beneficial to the soil and most profit- 
 able to the farmer. 
 
 (<:) vSilage. There is a time of year in the 
 greater portion of this country when neither 
 pasturing nor soiling is possible. Science has 
 again come to the aid of the stockman, and 
 found a way to provide green food in winter.
 
 148 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 It is by preserving green forage in a silo* (see 
 Fig. 35), on the same principle that green fruits 
 are preserved for winter use by canning that 
 is, by excluding the air. 
 
 The advantages of silage are stated as fol- 
 lows by Professor H. J. Waters, Director of 
 the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station : 
 
 "(a) Green and succulent food is thereby 
 provided for the winter months. 
 
 "(<$) The green plant is more palatable, the 
 coarser parts of the stalk being much more com- 
 pletely consumed when made into silage. 
 
 "(V) A large quantity of material may be 
 stored in a comparatively small space. 
 
 "(</) The harvesting is done during the pleas- 
 ant weather in the early fall, and the drudgery 
 of handling dry stover in winter is obviated. f 
 
 "(*) It is cheaper, on the whole, than to be 
 :t the expense of husking and grinding the ears 
 ind cutting and shredding the stover. It does 
 :iot appear to affect the digestibility of the ma- 
 terial either favorably or unfavorably." 
 
 If the silage is not all used during the winter 
 months, it can be fed when needed in the sum- 
 mer to take the place of soiling crops. 
 
 * For full discussion of silo and silage, send for a book on 
 silage, by F. W. Woll, Silver Manufacturing Co., Salem, Ohio. 
 
 f Since the forage used for silage is put into the silo as soon 
 as cut, there is no occasion for loss by unfavorable weather, as 
 is so often the case with hay.
 
 FIG. 35. ROUND SILO. (MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE FARM.) 
 Diameter, 18 feet; hight, 30 feet; capacity, 150 tons. Cost, $175.00. 
 
 149
 
 150 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Corn and clover are most often used in mak- 
 ing silage. Silage is recommended not only as 
 an excellent food for the dairy cow and for 
 sheep, but it forms a good substitute for oats as 
 a food for fattening cattle. It should constitute 
 from two-thirds to three-fourths of the rough- 
 age for cows; alfalfa, clover, or cow-peas consti- 
 tuting the remainder of the coarse food. 
 
 F. REFERENCES. 
 
 "Feeds and Feeding." Henry. Published by the author. 
 Madison, Wisconsin. 
 
 " The Fertility of the Land." Roberts. 10. 
 
 "Feeding the Dairy Cow." Bulletin 58, Missouri Agricul- 
 tural Experiment Station. 
 
 ''Stock Feeding." Bulletin 67, South Carolina Agricultural 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 "Feeding Stuffs." Bulletin 107. Virginia Agricultural Ex- 
 periment Station. 
 
 "Feeding Stuffs." Bulletin 12, West Virginia Agricultural 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 "Concentrated Feeding Stuffs." Bulletin 165, New Jersey 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 " Stock Feeding." Bulletin 67. 
 
 " Feeding of Animals." Jordan. 10.
 
 OUTLINE OF CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 ,4. INFLUENCE OF ROTATION UPON PLANT- 
 
 FOOD. 
 
 I. Preserves Food Supply. 
 
 1. Prevents Exhaustion. 
 
 2. Prevents Loss by Exposure 
 
 II. Increases Food Supply. 
 
 1. Renders Plant- food Available. 
 
 2. J3 rings Up Plant- food from the Subsoil. 
 
 3. Facilitates Fertilizing. 
 
 B. ROTATION AS AFFECTING THE ENEMIES 
 OF PLANTS. 
 
 I. Eradicates Weeds. 
 II. Exterminates Insect Pests. 
 
 C. PROFIT IN ROTATION. 
 
 D. SELECTING THE COURSE IN ROTATION, 
 I. What Can Be Successfully Grown ? 
 II. What Can Be Successfully Used or Sold? 
 
 . BETTER DISTRIBUTION OF LABOR. 
 
 F. SUGGESTED COURSES IN ROTATION. 
 
 G. TABLE OF SOILING CROPS. 
 
 H. CATCH, OR COVER, CROPS. 
 
 /.KEEPING ACCURATE ACCOUNTS. 
 
 EXERCISE 9. 
 
 /.REFERENCES. 
 
 151
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 Many of the problems that confront the 
 farmer of the present day might have been 
 avoided had Rotation of Crops been more often 
 practiced by our fathers. The productiveness 
 of the soil cannot continue for any considerable 
 length of time unless rotation, or change of 
 crops, is practiced, or fertilizers heavily applied. 
 
 .4. INFLUENCE OF ROTATION UPON PLANT- 
 FOOD. 
 
 I. Preserves Food Supply. 
 
 i. Prevents Exhaustion. Different plants re- 
 quire different proportions of the various foods. 
 If the same crop as, wheat or cotton is grown 
 continuously for a number of years, the soil in 
 that field may become so deficient in certain 
 elements essential to that particular crop as to 
 very materially lessen the yield ; while if some 
 other crop, as clover, be sown, the yield may be 
 very heavy, and hence the crop may be more 
 profitable, even at a lower price. Crops should 
 be so selected that different plant-foods or, at 
 least, different proportions of the plant-foods 
 will be demanded from the soil each year. 
 
 153
 
 154 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 2. Prevents Loss by Exposure. The mate- 
 rials from the soil are not only taken up by the 
 plants, but continuous free and open cultivation 
 exposes the humus of the soil to the sun and to 
 the oxygen of the air, and more of its nitrogen 
 is made soluble than can be taken up by the 
 plants; hence, it is washed out and carried away 
 by the rains (Fig. 8). (See under "Cover 
 Crops," p. 159.) 
 
 II. Increases Food Supply. 
 
 1. Renders Plant-food Available. Repetition 
 of certain kinds of crops as, timothy or blue- 
 grass tends to use up the food faster than it is 
 rendered available, while change of crops and 
 consequent cultivation hastens the breaking up 
 of the chemical compounds in the soil, and thus 
 renders plant-food available. 
 
 2. Brings Up Plant- food from the Subsoil. 
 The food supply may be further increased by 
 rotating clover, or any legume (all of which 
 have deep-feeding roots), with a crop of corn, or 
 wheat (Fig. 36), which has surface-feeding 
 roots. In this way the deep-feeding roots bring 
 up food elements from the subsoil, and when 
 these roots decay these food materials are ac- 
 cessible to the surface-feeding plants. 
 
 3. Facilitates Fertilizing. Rotation not only 
 prevents the exhaustion of the fertility of the 
 soil, but may be useful in making artificial fer-
 
 156 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 tilizing successful. For example, if stable com- 
 post be applied immediately preceding crops of 
 small grain as, wheat or oats it may injure the 
 crop by tending to produce straw rather than 
 grain ; while if it be applied before corn is 
 planted, it will result in an increased yield of 
 corn, and a better condition of the soil for sub- 
 sequent crops (see Fig. 27, "Showing Effect of 
 Nitrate," p. 80). 
 
 B. ROTATION AS AFFECTING THE ENEMIES 
 OF PLANTS. 
 
 I. Eradicates Weeds. 
 
 Short rotations with wheat and clover tend 
 to eradicate weeds. If a field becomes overrun 
 with certain weeds as, the broad-leafed plan- 
 tains they may be eradicated in a few years by 
 short rotations of winter wheat, or rye, with 
 clover. The clover should be sown upon the 
 wheat early in the spring. The wheat will not 
 be damaged by the weeds, as they do not seed 
 before it is cut, while the same will be true of 
 the clover the following year. The clover stub- 
 ble should be plowed at once to avoid the seed- 
 ing of the weeds. 
 
 It would then be well to thoroughly prepare 
 the soil and put it in turnips, or some hoed crop, 
 until time to sow the fall wheat, when the 
 ground may be prepared by harrowing.
 
 ROTATION OF CROPS. 157 
 
 Certain kinds of weeds are found in certain 
 kinds of crops; then, if the field is weedy, this 
 particular crop should not be grown until these 
 weeds are killed out. 
 
 II. Exterminates Insect Pests. 
 
 Again, certain crops are more apt to be in- 
 fested with particular insect pests (see " Enemies 
 of Plants"), or fungous (parasitic) plants. If it 
 is known that such enemies have even a start 
 upon a certain field, that crop should not be 
 grown upon it the following year, nor until the 
 pest, whatever it may be, is eradicated. Co- 
 operation of neighbors can greatly facilitate this 
 work. 
 
 C. PROFIT IN ROTATION. 
 
 If there is one crop which can be grown upon 
 a field that is more profitable than another crop, 
 it is the first one to be considered in the system 
 of rotation. This crop, however, should not be 
 repeatedly grown, but such a rotation should be 
 chosen as will best fit the ground for the largest 
 yield of the best-paying crop. 
 
 D SELECTING THE COURSE IN ROTATION. 
 
 I. What Can Be Successfully Grown? 
 
 This will depend upon the kind of soil, the 
 climate, and the seasons. The poorer the soil 
 the shorter the course, and the richer the soil 
 the longer the course of rotation may be.
 
 158 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 II. What Can Be Successfully Used or Sold? 
 
 This is another question to be considered in 
 selecting the course in rotation. The answer 
 to this question will depend upon the farmer's 
 facilities for keeping and feeding certain kinds 
 of stock, or upon the location as regards markets 
 for farm crops. 
 
 . BETTER DISTRIBUTION OF LABOR. 
 Rotation of farm crops not only makes better 
 farms, but it makes better men. In the great 
 grain districts the work requires many men for 
 a short time, and is much less to be desired than 
 to have several successive crops, which distribute 
 the labor throughout the year and enable it to 
 be done by a less number of men, thus making 
 homes and true civilization possible.* A few 
 courses in rotation are suggested below. 
 
 F. SUGGESTED COURSES IN ROTATION. 
 
 1. Clover, corn, oats, and wheat. 
 
 2. Clover, corn, potatoes, and wheat. 
 
 3. Clover, corn, and wheat. 
 
 4. Clover and timothy, mixed, two years, corn, 
 wheat, and cow-peas. 
 
 5. Cow-peas or clover, cotton, and wheat. 
 
 6. Peanuts, cotton, and wheat. 
 
 7. For soiling crops : Rye, soy-beans, winter 
 wheat, and clover. 
 
 Roberts' 'I'hc Fertility of tlie Land, p. 369.
 
 ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 159 
 
 G. TABLE V. 
 
 SOILING CROPS.* 
 
 CROPS. 
 
 Seed per Acre. 
 
 Time of 
 Seeding. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Tinif of Cutting. 
 
 Rye 
 
 2 bushels 
 
 Sept. 10-15 
 
 Yz acre 
 
 May 20 -May 30 
 
 Wheat .... 
 
 2 bushels 
 
 Sept. 10-15 
 
 Yz acre 
 
 June i-June 15 
 
 Red clover .... 
 
 20 Ibs. 
 
 July is-Aug. i 
 
 Yz acre 
 
 June is-June 25 
 
 
 i Yz bu. red top 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 Grass and clover . 
 
 -, y bu. timothy 
 
 V September 
 
 % acre 
 
 June is-June 30 
 
 
 ( 10 Ibs. r. clover 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 Vetch and oats . . 
 
 j 3 bu. oats 
 ) 50 Ibs. vetch 
 
 > April 20 
 
 Yz acre 
 
 June 25-Jly 10 
 
 Vetch and oats . . 
 
 50 Ibs. vetch 
 
 April 30 
 
 Yi acre 
 
 July lo-July 20 
 
 Peas and oats . . 
 
 J \y 2 bu. Canada 
 ) \% bu. oats . . 
 
 j- April 20 
 
 % acre 
 
 June 25-July 10 
 
 Peas and oats . . 
 
 i 1% bu. Canada 
 1 i^ bu. oats 
 
 j- April 30 
 
 % acre 
 
 July 10 
 
 Barnyard millet . 
 
 i peck 
 
 May 10 
 
 'A acre 
 
 July 25-Aug. 10 
 
 Barnyard millet . 
 
 i peck 
 
 May 25 
 
 1 A acre 
 
 Aug. lo-Aug. 20 
 
 Soja bean 
 
 18 quarts 
 
 May 20 
 
 Y$ acre 
 
 Aug. 25-Sept. 15 
 
 Corn . . 
 
 
 May 20 
 
 % acre 
 
 Aug. 25-Sept. 10 
 
 Corn . . . 
 
 
 May 30 
 
 Y$ acre 
 
 Sept. lo-Sept. 20 
 
 Hungarian .... 
 
 i bushel 
 
 July "i 5 
 
 % acre 
 
 Sept. 2o-Sept. 30 
 
 Barley and peas . . 
 
 ( \Yi bu. peas 
 ) \Yz bu. barley 
 
 j- Aug. 5 
 
 i acre 
 
 Oct. i-Oct. 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The above table of plants used for soiling 
 may be helpful in selecting short crops in a 
 rotation. 
 
 J?. CATCH, OR COVER, CROPS. 
 
 Catch, or cover crops as, crimson clover, cow- 
 peas, rye, Kaffir-corn, teosinte, and vetch may 
 often be grown in the time intervening between 
 the principal crops of the year with very little 
 labor and often with much profit. A field which 
 is used in short rotations loses no more of its fer- 
 tility than one which lies idle aud loses its sub- 
 stance by exposure to the weather, or gives it up 
 to weeds. 
 
 Henry's Feeds and Feeding, p. 233.
 
 160 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 /.KEEPING ACCURATE ACCOUNTS. 
 
 This is as essential on the farm as in the bank 
 or store ; for the farmer should know just what 
 his profit is, and what crops pay best. This can 
 be known only by keeping account of all work 
 done and money expended in putting in and in 
 harvesting the crop, and in the feeding or mar- 
 keting of it. 
 
 EXERCISE 9. (a) Each student should carefully pre- 
 pare an original plan for a course in rotation upon a 
 poor soil, and another upon a fertile soil, in his own 
 vicinity. 
 
 () Give directions for the preparation of the soil as 
 regards fertilization and tillage. 
 
 (c) Give directions and reasons for the disposition of 
 each of these various crops. Is it to be fed, or sold ? 
 If fed, in what condition green or dry? To what ani- 
 mals ? 
 
 (a) Make an estimate of the probable cost of seed and 
 work, and of the value of the crop ; if sold; if fed ; and 
 calculate the gain. 
 
 (e) Read and discuss in class each plan, with reasons. 
 Be able to defend every point taken. 
 
 /.REFERENCES. 
 
 " Practices in Crop Rotation." Year-book, 1902. 
 
 " The Fertility of the Land." Roberts. 10. 
 
 " Fertilizers." Voorhees. 1900. 10. 
 
 " First Principles of Agriculture." Voorhees. 10. 
 
 " The Science of Agriculture." Lloyd. 9. 
 
 " Soils and Crops of the Farm." Morrow & Hunt. 1902. 4.
 
 OUTLINE OF CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MILK AND ITS CARE. 
 
 C. H. ECKLES, 
 
 Dairy Husbandry, Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station.. 
 
 A. MILK/ 
 I. Secretion. 
 II. Care ot Milk. 
 
 1. Sources of Abnormal Odors. 
 
 (i) CERTAIN FOODS. 
 (Y) THE AIR. 
 (3) BACTERIA. 
 
 2. Keeping Bacteria Out of Milk. 
 
 3. Preventing Growth of Bacteria. 
 
 (1) Low TEMPERATURE. 
 
 (2) PASTEURIZATION. 
 
 i 1 !!. Composition. 
 
 1. Butter Fat. 
 
 2. Casein and Albumen. 
 
 (1) CASEIN. 
 
 (2) ALBUMEN. 
 
 3. Milk Sugar. 
 
 4. Ash. 
 
 IV. Colo.. 
 V. Variation in Quantity and Quality 
 
 1. Breed of Animals. 
 
 2. Individuality. 
 
 3 Period of Lactation. 
 
 4. Feed. 
 
 5. External Conditions. 
 
 6. First and Last Milk Drawn. 
 
 7. Intervals between Milkings. 
 
 161
 
 162 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 VI. The Babcock Test. 
 
 1. The Need of a Test for Butter Fat. 
 
 2. The Babcock Method. 
 
 (1) TEST-BOTTLES. 
 
 (2) PIPETTE. 
 
 (3) ACID MEASURE. 
 
 (4) CENTRIFUGAL MACHINE. 
 
 (5) SAMPLING MILK. 
 
 (6) MAKING THE TEST. 
 
 (7) READING THE TEST. 
 
 (8) TESTING SKIM-MILK AND BUTTERMILK, 
 
 (9) TESTING CREAM. 
 
 Weigh Out Cream for Testing. 
 
 B.~ CREAM. 
 I. Separation of Cream. 
 
 1. By Gravity. 
 
 (1) SHALLOW PANS. 
 
 (2) DEEP SETTING. 
 
 (3) DILUTION. 
 
 2. By Centrifugal Force. 
 II. Ripening Cream. 
 
 C. BUTTER. 
 I. Coloring. 
 II. Kinds of Churns. 
 
 III. Churning. 
 
 1. Temperature. 
 
 2. Other Factors Affecting Time of Churning 
 
 3. When to Stop Churning. 
 
 IV. Washing Butter. 
 V. Salting. 
 
 VI. Working. 
 
 VII. Composition of Butter. 
 VIII. Overrun. 
 IX. Packing and Marketing. 
 
 Z>. REFERENCES.
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MILK AND ITS CARE. 
 
 C. H. ECKLES, 
 Dairy Husbandry, Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, 
 
 A. MILK. 
 
 I. Secretion of Milk. 
 
 Milk is a fluid secreted by the mammary 
 glands of all animals that suckle their young. 
 It contains all the elements of nutrition neces- 
 sary for the nourishment of the young animal 
 in a palatable and easily digested form. 
 
 The material forming milk is all taken from 
 the blood, but changed in nature by the secret- 
 ing cells so that no constituent of milk, except 
 water, is found in the blood in the same form. 
 
 In the wild state the cow only gave milk 
 enough to nourish the calf until it could subsist 
 on other food. Under domestication of the 
 cow the secretion of the milk has been greatly 
 increased by careful selection and liberal feeding. 
 
 II. Care of Milk. 
 
 The conditions under which milk is handled 
 are of the greatest importance, whether it be 
 used as food or manufactured into butter or 
 cheese. 
 
 i. Sources of Abnormal Gdors. Milk begins 
 to decompose and possesses abnormal odors
 
 164 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 and tastes after standing for some time, and 
 occasionally these are present when it is milked. 
 There are three common sources of these ob- 
 jectionable tastes and odors in milk. 
 
 (1) CERTAIN FOODS. When food eaten by 
 cows contains any strong volatile substance, 
 this will be carried through the circulation of 
 the cow and into the milk. For example, when 
 a cow eats onions, turnips, or even some strong 
 weeds, the characteristic odor and taste may be 
 recognized in the milk. These odors may be 
 mostly driven off by heating the milk. Ordi- 
 narily very little trouble is experienced from 
 this source, as the common feeds have no notice- 
 able effect on the flavor of the milk. 
 
 (2) THE AIR. Any odors, even if not very 
 pronounced, may be readily absorbed from the 
 air by milk or butter. Milk exposed to the air 
 of an ill-kept barn, or a musty cellar, often ab- 
 sorbs odors that make it very objectionable for 
 food. 
 
 (3) BACTERIA. The most common cause of 
 objectionable tastes and odors of milk is the 
 action of various bacteria. Bacteria of many 
 kinds are found in milk, and various kinds of 
 fermentation result from their action. In addi- 
 tion to common souring, milk may be decom- 
 posed, giving off bad odors, may become ropy, 
 or bitter, or even have an abnormal color due 
 to the action of bacteria.
 
 MILK AND ITS CARE. 
 
 165 
 
 o o ^PV o 
 
 ' ,0 
 ^U ~ o 
 
 fl ~ f^^* f O . U 
 
 o0 
 
 o 
 
 0- u o ( 
 
 Yj<Po .'6 o ftO O 
 O o o W 
 
 3 0o' O O 
 
 V:a$.o0o, 
 
 O O Q X- 
 
 o oo O ^o o 
 
 Most of the 
 bacteria found in 
 milk are perfectly 
 harmless, a 1 - 
 though at times 
 those causing 
 diseases, such as 
 typhoid fever, 
 diphtheria, and 
 tuberculosis, may 
 get into the milk. 
 It is impossible 
 to keep all bac- 
 teria out of milk, 
 but a great deal 
 can be done to- 
 ward keeping 
 them out, and 
 keeping those 
 that do get in 
 from growing 
 
 (Fig- 37)- 
 
 2. Keeping B ac- 
 
 LCTia UlltOJ Itl'llK. FIG . 2J. PURE AND IMPURE MILK 
 
 This process HIGHLY MAGNIFIED. 
 
 i i A, pure milk; B, after standing in a warm room 
 
 nidj/ f or a f ew hours in a dirty dish, showing, be- 
 
 UD ill One WOrd sides the fat globules, many forms of 
 
 bacteria. 
 
 cleanliness. 
 
 The bacteria (Fig. 37) get -into milk with 
 dust particles from many sources, but the most
 
 IGfi AGRICULTURE. 
 
 common and the worst contamination usually 
 takes place in the barn. Very often the stable 
 is not kept clean, the body of the cow becomes 
 soiled, and, during milking, dust particles from 
 the hair become loosened and drop into the 
 milk-pail. The milker may wear dirty clothes, 
 and the air of the barn may be full of dust, or 
 the milk-vessels may not be perfectly clean. 
 
 The number of bacteria in the milk can be 
 greatly reduced by observing the utmost clean- 
 liness in every particular, especially about the 
 barn, during milking, and by cleansing the uten- 
 sils thoroughly. All milk-vessels should first be 
 rinsed out with cold water, as hot water coagu- 
 lates the albumen and makes it stick to the ves- 
 sels. After this rinsing, they should be thor- 
 oughly scalded and sunned to kill any bacteria 
 present. 
 
 3. Preventing Growth of Bacteria. Next in 
 importance to keeping bacteria out of milk is 
 preventing those that do get in from growing 
 rapidly. 
 
 (i) Low TEMPERATURE is the chief factor to 
 be relied upon. If it is desired to keep milk 
 sweet for some time, it should be cooled at once 
 after milking to 50 F., or lower if possible. If 
 this is done, and this temperature maintained, 
 milk will remain sweet several days, while if it 
 is allowed to femain warm it will sour within 
 twenty-four hours.
 
 MILK AND ITS CARE. 
 
 167 
 
 FIG. 38. PASTEURIZING APPARATUS. 
 
 (2) PASTEURIZATION. Another method of 
 preventing the growth of bacteria in milk is 
 that of Pas- 
 t eurizatio n 
 (Fig. 38). This 
 consists in 
 heating milk 
 to about i 60 
 F. for twenty 
 minutes, then 
 rapidly cool- 
 ing to 50 F. 
 This kills 
 about 99 per 
 cent, of the bacteria, and the keeping quality of 
 the milk is very much improved. 
 III. Composition of Milk. 
 
 The milk of all mammals contains practically 
 the same constituents, but varies greatly in the 
 proportion of each. The average composition 
 of cow's milk in America is as follows : Water, 
 87.5 per cent.; fat, 3.6 per cent.; casein, 2.9 per 
 cent.; albumen, .5 per cent.; milk sugar, 4.75 
 per cent.; ash, or mineral, .75 per cent. 
 
 i. Butter Fat. The butter fat is commer- 
 cially the most valuable part of milk. It varies 
 in amount more than any other constituent of 
 milk except water. Wide variations from the 
 average composition are constantly found. Fat 
 seldom is less than 2.5 per cent., or more than
 
 168 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 7 per cent. Butter fat is found in milk in the 
 form of minute drops of oil, called globules. 
 These globules vary in size from -g-cnnr to To-tanr 
 of an inch in diameter (see A, Fig. 37). The 
 number present in even a small amount of milk 
 is beyond comprehension. This fat is made up 
 of a mixture of ten or more distinct oils, the 
 more important of which are stearin, palmatin, 
 olein, and butyrin. The first two mentioned 
 melt at a temperature above 140 F., while olein 
 is liquid at 32 F\ The hardness of a certain 
 lot of butter depends upon the proportion of 
 these oils present. Green food, such as grass, 
 increases the proportion of olein, and accounts 
 for the soft condition usually observed in butter 
 made during the summer months. 
 
 Butyrin is the characteristic fat of butter, and 
 is found only in butter fat. The chemical dif- 
 ference between butter and oleomargarine is 
 largely the absence of butyrin in the latter. 
 
 The size of the fat globules (Fig. 37) in milk 
 varies with the breed of the cow, the feed, and 
 with the individual animal. It is of some im- 
 portance on account of the relation it bears to 
 the separation of cream and to churning. Large 
 fat globules separate from the milk and form 
 cream more quickly than do small ones, and 
 with somewhat less loss of butter fat in the 
 skim-milk. Cream composed of large fat glo- 
 bules churns more rapidly.
 
 MILK AND ITS CARE. 169 
 
 2. Casein and Albumen. These constituents 
 vary less in quantity than does butter fat. They 
 are very similar in composition, and serve the 
 same purposes as food, but differ widely in ap- 
 pearance. They differ from other parts of milk 
 by containing sulphur, nitrogen, and phos- 
 phorus. 
 
 (1) CASEIN. This constituent of milk may be 
 seen as the curd which forms when milk sours. 
 It is present in milk in a very finely divided con- 
 dition in combination with lime. When milk 
 sours, the acid unites with the lime, and the 
 casein then becomes insoluble, and appears as 
 the common curd of sour milk. 
 
 When milk is used for butter-making, the 
 most of the casein remains in the skim-milk, 
 some goes into the buttermilk, and a small 
 amount into the butter, making upon the aver- 
 age i per cent, of the latter. 
 
 Casein is an important part of cheese, com- 
 posing approximately one-third of common 
 cheese. 
 
 (2) ALBUMEN. This substance, as found in 
 milk, is practically the same as the white of an 
 egg. It differs from casein in being entirely in 
 solution, making about .5 per cent. When milk is 
 heated to i6oF., or above, the albumen is coag- 
 ulated, and is seen as a tough scum on the sur- 
 face. 
 
 When milk is used for butter-makinp*. the
 
 170 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 most of the albumen remains with the skim-milk 
 and buttermilk. In cheese-making albumen re- 
 mains in the whey, and is not incorporated into 
 the cheese. The very disagreeable odors char- 
 acteristic of decomposing milk are largely pro- 
 duced from albumen. 
 
 j. Milk Sugar. This sugar, known by the 
 chemist as lactose, has the same composition as 
 common cane sugar (C, 2 H 22 O II H 2 O), and is 
 found only in milk. It appears, when separated, 
 as a fine white powder, with a mild, sweet taste. 
 Milk sugar is a common commercial article, be- 
 ing usually secured from whey as a by-product 
 of cheese-making. When milk is used for butter- 
 making almost all the sugar remains with the 
 skim-milk and buttermilk, while in cheese-mak- 
 ing it remains in the whey. Its chief impor- 
 tance in butter or cheese making is its relation 
 to the souring of milk or milk products, which 
 is due to the decomposition of the sugar through 
 the action of minute forms of plant life called 
 bacteria. By this act of decomposition, lactic 
 acid is produced from the sugar, and this gives 
 the common sour taste and causes the precipita- 
 tion of the casein, as seen in soured milk. 
 
 4. Ash. This is the portion that would re- 
 main if milk were burned. It consists of a mix- 
 ture of several elements, the most important 
 being lime, iron, potash, magnesium, sulphur, 
 and phosphorus. These mineral matters are all
 
 MILK AND ITS CARE. 171 
 
 in combination with the casein and albumen, 
 and make up about .7 per cent, of average milk. 
 
 IV. Color. 
 
 The normal white color of milk is mostly due 
 to the casein. The yellow shade observed in 
 varying degrees is due to a specific coloring 
 matter called lactochrome, which is combined 
 with the butter fat, and gives butter the natural 
 yellow color. The amount of this coloring mat- 
 ter varies greatly, being affected the most by 
 the feed of the cow, but also by breed and in- 
 dividuality of the cow. Green feeds, as grasses, 
 give the highest color, while dry feeds, as hay 
 and grain, the least color. The Guernsey and 
 Jersey breeds produce the highest colored milk 
 and butter; the Holstein and Ayrshire the 
 lightest colored. The yellow color of milk is 
 often taken as an index of its richness, but this 
 cannot be relied upon, and is of little value as a 
 means of judging the quality of milk. 
 
 V. Variation in Quantity and Quality. 
 
 i. Breed. Certain breeds of cows are charac- 
 terized by producing rich milk, and others by pro- 
 ducing unusually large quantities. The breeds 
 that produce rich milk produce a less quantity, 
 on the average, than do those producing the 
 poorer quality. In order of richness, the com- 
 mon breeds stand as follows : Jersey, Guernsey, 
 Short Horn, Red Poll, Ayrshire, Holstein. The 
 Holstein breed stands considerably ahead in
 
 FIG. 39. A GUERNSEY COW CHARMANTE OF THE GRON 14+ 
 
 ADV. R. NO. 74. 
 Test, 11,874.76 pounds milk; 676 pounds fat. Florhnm Farms, New Jert 
 
 FK;. 40. A JERSEY row IMP. JERSEY VENTURE 122508. 
 
 A. j. c. c. ScS;, ;. H. B. K. s. 
 
 Lone T.-ee Herd, Greenshnrg. Ind.
 
 MILK AND ITS CARE. 173 
 
 amount of milk, followed by the Ayrshire, Guern- 
 sey, and Jersey. 
 
 2. Individuality. The difference between in- 
 dividual animals in the same breed is greater 
 than the average difference between breeds, 
 both as to quality and quantity of milk pro- 
 duced. This factor should be given first con- 
 sideration in estimating the value of an animal 
 for dairy purposes. 
 
 3. Period of Lactation. By period of lacta- 
 tion is meant one complete milking period, 
 usually from nine months to one year. A cow, 
 as a rule, produces the most milk per day within 
 a month after the calf is born, and gradually de- 
 creases in amount until the secretion ceases. 
 The lowest per cent, of butter fat usually is 
 found at the time of greatest production, and 
 increases somewhat as the flow of milk de- 
 creases. 
 
 4. Feed. The kind and amount of feed have 
 great influence on the quantity of milk pro- 
 duced, but have no effect on the per cent, of 
 butter fat, although it is believed otherwise by 
 many dairymen. The richness of a cow's milk 
 is as natural to her as is the color of her hair, 
 and is affected about as little by change of 
 feed. 
 
 5. External Conditions. Many other things 
 affect the quality and the amount of milk se- 
 creted as, treatment by milker, change of
 
 FIG. 41. AN AYRSHIRE COW VIOLA DRUMMOND. 
 
 ic.ooo pounds of milk in 365 days ; test, 3.9 per cent. fat. Riverside Stock 
 
 Farm, Woodville, N. Y. 
 
 FIG. 42. A HOLSTEIN COW. 
 Owned by M. E. Moore, Cameron, Mo. 
 174
 
 MILK AND ITS CARE. 175 
 
 weather, sudden fright, milking at irregular in- 
 tervals, and sickness. 
 
 6. First and Last Milk Drawn. The first 
 milk drawn from the udder at any milking is 
 much poorer in quality than the last. The first 
 often tests as low as i to 1.5 per cent, fat, and 
 the last 8 to 9 per cent. fat. 
 
 7. Intervals between Milkings. When the in- 
 tervals between milkings are equal in length, 
 the morning and night milk is usually about the 
 same in quantity and quality. When the inter- 
 vals are not equal, the larger amount, but the 
 lower per cent, fat, follows the longer interval. 
 
 VI. The Babcock Test. 
 
 i . Need of a Test for Butter Fat. -Milk varies 
 greatly in richness. The writer once tested the 
 milk of a herd of cows each day for a year. The 
 milk of one cow averaged 2.7 per cent, butter 
 fat ; that of another, 7 per cent. The variation 
 in milk from different herds, although less ex- 
 treme than the case mentioned, is found to be 
 very marked ; hence, to do justice to all, milk is 
 now bought or sold at wholesale, as a rule, by 
 the test. 
 
 The creamery or cheese factory pays a cer- 
 tain price for each pound of butter fat as ascer- 
 tained by the test, and not for the gallon or 
 hundredweight of milk. This does away with 
 all temptation to milk adulteration by watering 
 or skimming when selling by the test. Milk
 
 17G AGRICULTURE. 
 
 sold at retail in cities is required in most places, 
 either by state or city law, to contain not less 
 than a certain per cent, of butter fat usually 3 
 or 3.25 per cent. 
 
 Problem. A owned a cow giving milk which averaged 
 2.7 per cent, butter fat. B owned a cow giving milk 
 averaging 7 per cent, butter fat. 
 
 C bought one gallon (8.4 pounds) of milk of A daily, 
 from March ist to September ist, at 6 cents a quart. 
 
 D bought milk of B for the same time, buying the 
 same amount daily, at the same price per quart. If 
 butter fat was worth 25 cents per pound at the cream- 
 ery, how much did D gain by buying milk of B instead 
 of A for the six months named ? Did he pay more or 
 less than the milk would have sold for by the test, sup- 
 posing that a gallon of the milk weighed 8.4 pounds ? 
 How much ? 
 
 Another and possibly the greatest value of 
 the test is as a means of enabling the farmer 
 to judge which cows are profitable and which 
 are not. The writer once fed two Jersey cows 
 standing side by side the same kind of feed and 
 practically the same amount to each. During 
 the year one produced 145 pounds of butter, 
 the other 428 pounds. 
 
 The farmer should take into account not the 
 per cent, of butter fat alone, but the amount of 
 milk and the test together. The following is 
 the record of two cows in the same herd : 
 
 Pounds Pounds Prr cent. 
 
 Milk Butter Butter Fat 
 
 No. i I2,in 538 3.81 
 
 No. 2 6,523 532 7.00
 
 MILK AND ITS CARE. 17? 
 
 In this case it will be observed that the rich- 
 ness of the milk alone is not a fair means of 
 judging the value of the two cows, neither is the 
 amount of milk alone. 
 
 2. The Babcock Method. The method gen- 
 erally used for finding the amount of butter fat 
 in milk and its products is known as the Bab- 
 cock test, and has done more to revolutionize 
 the dairy industry than any other invention ex- 
 cept the centrifugal cream separator. This 
 method was invented by Dr. Babcock, of the 
 Wisconsin Experiment Station, in 1890. It is an 
 accurate, rapid method for finding the per cent, 
 of butter fat in milk, cream, skim-milk, butter- 
 milk, whey, or cheese. In this system sulphuric 
 acid is used to dissolve the solids other than fat 
 in milk, and the fat is then separated by centri- 
 fugal force, and measured on a graduated scale. 
 The apparatus includes the following (Fig. 43) : 
 test-bottles, 17.6 centimeter pipette, acid meas- 
 ure, sulphuric acid, and a centrifugal machine 
 (Fig. 44). 
 
 (i) TEST-BOTTLES. -- The test-bottles are 
 made of strong glass, to withstand sudden 
 changes of temperature. On the neck is a 
 scale graduated from o to 10. Each whole di- 
 vision represents i per cent., and is subdivided 
 into five divisions, each one reading .2 percent. 
 By estimating between divisions, the reading of 
 the test may be made to . i per cent.
 
 178 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 FIG. 43. GLASSWARE FOR BABCOCK TESTER. 
 
 a Measuring pipette, b Milk-testing bottle, r Cream-testing bottle. 
 d Acid measure. 
 
 (2) PIPETTE. The basis of the test is 18 
 grams of milk. Asa matter of convenience, the 
 amount is measured and not weighed. It is 
 found that a pipette holding 17.6 cubic centi- 
 meters to the mark delivers 18 grams of milk. 
 The pipette is filled by suction of the lips, and
 
 MILK AND ITS CARE. 
 
 179 
 
 the top of the pipette closed with the fore- 
 finger. 
 
 (3) ACID MEASURE. This holds 17.5 cubic 
 centimeters, and is usually made in the form of 
 a cylinder with a base. 
 
 The acid used is that known as commercial 
 sulphuric acid, having a specific gravity of 1.81 
 to 1.83. If the 
 acid be a little 
 weak the fact will 
 be known by 
 white sediment 
 appearing under 
 the fat column, 
 and this may be 
 remedied by 
 
 USinga little more VIG 44 _ HAND-POWER BABCOCK TESTER. 
 acid in another This style is made especially for farm use. 
 
 test. If the acid 
 
 be too strong it will be indicated by the 
 column of the fat being blackened and having 
 black sediment below. This can be remedied 
 by using somewhat less acid. Acid very much 
 stronger or weaker than the standard does not 
 give satisfactory results. 
 
 (4) CENTRIFUGAL MACHINE. Many forms of 
 machines are made, varying in capacity from two 
 to forty test-bottles. The smaller (Fig. 44) 
 are made for use in small dairies, and run by 
 hand ; the larger ones are used in factory work,
 
 180 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 and are run by steam-power. The bottles 
 should always be arranged so that the machine 
 will be balanced before running it. 
 
 The speed at which these machines are to be 
 run depends upon the size of the revolving 
 wheel, but the rim should, as a rule, move from 
 60 to 70 feet per second. 
 
 (5) SAMPLING MILK. In testing milk the 
 greatest care is necessary to get a fair sample 
 of the lot to be tested. The entire amount 
 should be poured from one vessel to another 
 several times if possible, or, if this cannot be 
 done, it should be stirred thoroughly from top 
 to bottom. Many errors are made by not secur- 
 ing the correct average sample. 
 
 (6) MAKING THE TEST. (a) Mix the milk thoroughly, 
 and measure sample into test-bottle, (b) Add measure 
 of acid by pouring carefully down side of bottle held at 
 slight angle from perpendicular.* (r) Mix thoroughly 
 by shaking with a rotary motion until the liquid be- 
 comes an even chocolate brown color. (</) Run in a 
 centrifugal machine five minutes at correct speed, (e) 
 Stop and fill to base of neck with hot water or distilled 
 water, 150 F. or above. (/) Whirl 3 minutes, then fill 
 with hot water to 7 or 9 per cent. mark. . (g) Whirl 2 
 minutes and make reading. 
 
 (7) READING THE TEST. Care must be taken 
 to keep the contents of the test-bottle hot and 
 the fat entirely liquid. It is at times necessary 
 
 * Care should be taken not to allow the acid to come in contact 
 with the fingers or clothing.
 
 MILK AND ITS CARE. 181 
 
 to place the bottle in hot water between whirl- 
 ings before making the reading. The reading 
 of the fat column is taken from the extreme top 
 to the extreme bottom. 
 
 (8) TESTING SKIM-MILK AND BUTTERMILK. 
 -The operator of a butter or cheese factory 
 
 should keep close watch on the losses of butter 
 fat in the skim-milk and buttermilk by making 
 frequent tests. For testing these products 
 exactly the same method is used as described 
 for testing milk, except a special kind of bottle, 
 having two necks, is used, which allows finer 
 readings to be made. Each small division on 
 these bottles reads .05 of i per cent., and by 
 estimating readings can be made to .01 of i per 
 cent. 
 
 (9) TESTING CREAM. It is far more difficult 
 to make an accurate test of butter fat in cream 
 than in milk. Cream varies greatly in amount 
 of butter fat present, ranging from 12 or 15 per 
 cent, to 60 per cent, of butter fat. As the milk 
 test-bottle only reads to 10 per cent., it is neces- 
 sary to have a special testing-bottle for cream 
 where much testing is to be done. 
 
 Cream can be tested in ordinary milk test' 
 bottles by adding two measures of water to one 
 of cream, then testing the mixture in the same 
 manner as for milk, multiplying the reading by 
 three. When the common cream test-bottles 
 are at hand which read to 30 per cent., the 17.6
 
 182 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 milk pipette may be used and the testing carried 
 out the same as with milk, except only about 
 three-fourths the usual amount of acid is used. 
 
 If the cream has more than 30 per cent, of 
 fat it cannot be read on the scale on the bottle. 
 U nder these circumstances one measure of cream 
 and one of water may be mixed together, and a 
 test made of the mixture, doubling the readings. 
 
 Weigh Out Cream for Testing. The fore- 
 going methods of testing cream are accurate 
 enough for some purposes, but when cream is 
 bought and sold by the per cent, of butter fat 
 the amount of cream taken as a sample for test- 
 ing should be weighed out and not measured. 
 The measuring of cream introduces several 
 errors which cannot be discussed in detail here, 
 but all tend to make the result of the test too 
 small. The chief error affecting accuracy of 
 measuring cream is the difference in specific 
 gravity of cream and milk. The i 7.6 c. c. pipette 
 delivers 18 grams of milk, but as cream is lighter 
 than milk, does not deliver 18 grams of cream. 
 
 To avoid all these errors, small balancers are 
 used, and 18 grams of cream weighed out into 
 the test-bottle. 
 
 . CREAM. 
 
 I. Separation of Cream. 
 
 Cream is that portion of milk into which most 
 of the fat globules have been gathered. It has 
 the same constituents as milk, but in a different
 
 MILK AND ITS CARE. 183 
 
 proportion, due to the large amount of fat 
 present. 
 
 Cream is separated from milk for food pur- 
 poses, and as a matter of convenience and econ- 
 omy in making butter. Butter can be made, 
 and is made in some countries, by churning 
 milk. Cream may contain from 12 to 60 per 
 cent, of butter fat. Cream as sold at retail 
 usually has from 1 8 to 20 per cent., and a very 
 rich cream has from 35 to 45 per cent, of fat. 
 The apparent thickness of cream is not a reli- 
 able means of judging its real quality. Cream 
 is separated from milk by taking advantage of 
 the difference in specific gravity between the 
 fat globules and the remainder of the milk. 
 We have two general systems of separating 
 cream. Both take advantage of the difference 
 in specific gravity already mentioned. 
 
 i. By Gravity. If milk be allowed to remain 
 undisturbed in a vessel of any kind, the fat glob- 
 ules, being slightly lighter than the other con- 
 stituents, gradually rise to the top. This is the 
 oldest and, until recent years, the only method 
 of separation in use. 
 
 There are two methods of gravity creaming 
 in common use : shallow pans, and deep setting. 
 
 (i) SHALLOW PANS. Although the oldest 
 
 and least effective in every way, this is still the 
 
 most common method used in many localities. 
 
 " As generally used, the milk is placed in shallow
 
 184 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 pans or crocks, kept at a rather low tempera 
 ture, as in a cellar, until the cream has risen. It 
 is then skimmed off with a flat skimmer. 
 
 The conditions most favorable for this system 
 is a layer of milk not over four inches deep and 
 cooled rapidly to a temperature of about 60 F., 
 and allowed to stand 36 hours before skimming. 
 This separation of the cream is not very com- 
 plete by this method, and in this respect it ranks 
 lowest of all systems used. On an average, 
 about one-fourth of the butter fat is lost in the 
 skim-milk when using the shallow pans. The 
 quality of cream for butter-making purpose is 
 also the poorest. On account of the large sur- 
 face exposed to the air during the rising of the 
 cream, any obnoxious odors of the atmosphere 
 are readily absorbed, and this exposure also 
 makes conditions favorable for the formation of 
 strong, undesirable tastes in the cream and but- 
 ter. Cream from this system is in condition 
 for food purposes only when skimmed off much 
 sooner than would be done when used for butter- 
 making. 
 
 (2) DEEP SETTING. The deep-setting system 
 consists in placing the milk in cans about twenty 
 inches deep and six inches in diameter (Fig. 45), 
 set in water which should be kept at 40 F., or 
 below, for twelve to twenty-four hours. At the 
 end of this time skimming is done by using a 
 conical dipper, or drawing off first the skim-
 
 186 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 milk and then the cream from a faucet in the 
 bottom of the can (Fig. 45). This system is 
 in general use in some localities, and with 
 general satisfaction. The deep setting ranks, 
 both in thoroughness of separation and quality 
 of cream for food and butter-making, next to 
 the centrifugal separator. Under proper con- 
 ditions, by its use 80 to 90 per cent, of the 
 butter fat should be secured in the cream. The 
 cream from this system is rather low in but- 
 ter fat, as a rule testing from 18 to 20 per 
 cent. fat. 
 
 (3) DILUTION. Within recent years an old 
 plan of diluting milk with cold water has been 
 revived, and devices for using this method have 
 been sold very extensively in many places under 
 the name of "water separators," "aquatic sep- 
 arators," etc. The general plan is to add cold 
 water equal in volume to the milk. Instead of 
 ranking with the cream separator, in whose name 
 they are wrongfully given, they rank with the 
 shallow pan in thoroughness of separation. As 
 a rule, from 20 to 50 per cent, of the butter fat 
 is lost in the skim-milk. The diluted condition 
 of the skim-milk is another disadvantage. The 
 quality of the cream is better than that of the 
 shallow pan, and it is more convenient. 
 
 2. By Centrifugal Force. The centrifugal 
 separator (Fig. 46) has revolutionized the dairy 
 industry within recent years. The first centri-
 
 MILK AND ITS CARE. 
 
 187 
 
 fugal separators were put in practical use in 
 Europe about 1879, but were not in general use 
 until ten years later. 
 
 At present they are considered indispensable 
 
 FIG 1 
 
 FIG. 3 
 
 BOWL OPEN 
 
 FIG. 46. A MODERN HAND-POWER CREAM SEPARATOR. 
 
 This separator has a capacity of 450 pounds of milk per hour. The bowl on the 
 right generates the centrifugal force by revolving rapidly. 
 
 to the successful dairyman. In the separator 
 the centrifugal force generated by a rapidly re- 
 volving bowl takes the place of gravity and acts 
 with a force very much greater. The milk flows 
 into the revolving bowl (Fig. 46) in a continu-
 
 188 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ous stream, while the cream flows from one 
 opening and the skim-milk from another. 
 
 As the milk flows into the revolving bowl, it 
 is acted upon by centrifugal force, and flies to 
 the outside wall of the bowl. The skim-milk, 
 being heavier than the cream, is forced outward 
 with greater force, and seeks the outside of the 
 bowl, forcing the lighter cream toward the cen- 
 ter. Near the outer edge of the bowl are open- 
 ings of small tubes, into which the skim-milk 
 flows and through them passes out of the bowl. 
 Near the center of the bowl is the opening of a 
 small tube, which carries out a constant stream 
 of cream. 
 
 A number of conditions affect the thorough- 
 ness of separation with a centrifugal separator, 
 especially the speed of machine, the tempera- 
 ture of milk, and the rate of inflow of milk. 
 The most favorable temperature for separating 
 milk is from 85 to 100 F. When the temper- 
 ature falls much below 80, the loss of butter 
 fat with the skim-milk begins to increase. Some 
 types of separators are much more sensitive to 
 low temperature than are others. 
 
 The proportion of the milk taken out as 
 cream can be changed in most separators with- 
 out changing the thoroughness of separation 
 by slightly turning what is called the cream 
 screw. By this means most separators may be 
 adjusted to separate from 10 to 50 per cent, of
 
 MILK AND ITS CARE. 189 
 
 butter fat. The centrifugal separator should 
 remove about 98 per cent, of the butter fat in 
 the form of cream. The cream from the sepa- 
 rator, being removed while the milk is sweet, is 
 in the best condition for food or for butter- 
 making purposes. Separators vary in capacity 
 from 150 to 4,000 pounds of milk per hour. 
 
 PROBLEM. A farmer feeds to hogs 5 gallons (42.5 
 pounds) of skim-milk daily from June ist to December 
 ist. What will be his loss, supposing that butter aver- 
 aged 18 cents per pound, and he sells his hogs for $5.00 
 per hundred pounds, if he separated his cream by the 
 gravity process 
 
 (a) With shallow pans ? 
 
 (&) With cans 20 inches deep? 
 
 (c) If he used the centrifugal separator? 
 
 ((}} By which method of separation would he lose 
 most, and how much more than by each of the other 
 two methods ? 
 
 II. Ripening Cream. 
 
 It is a well-known fact that milk which is al- 
 lowed to stand in a warm place for a few hours 
 begins to sour and finally coagulates. This is a 
 process of fermentation, and is due to the 
 growth of an immense number of living organ- 
 isms called bacteria. These bacteria are not in 
 the milk when it leaves the animal body, but 
 gain access from many sources, such as unclean 
 utensils and dust from the air. 
 
 The souring fermentation is undesirable in 
 milk to be used for food, but is a necessary part
 
 190 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 of making the best butter. The consumers of 
 butter prefer that it have the peculiar taste 
 which is characteristic of butter made from 
 soured or fermented cream. Butter churned 
 from sweet cream is insipid in flavor and is not 
 desired by many; furthermore, it does not keep 
 as well as that from soured cream. For these 
 reasons cream is allowed to sour before being 
 churned into butter. This condition is usually 
 brought about within twenty-four hours or less 
 by leaving the cream moderately warm, usually 
 from 60 to 70. The most approved method 
 is to add what is called a starter, to cause the 
 desired kind of souring to begin. This may be 
 likened to the use of yeast in bread-making. 
 When the proper condition of sourness is 
 reached the cream is ready for churning. This 
 stage is detected by taste and appearance, or in 
 factory work by an accurate test. The condition 
 may be described as a mild, sour taste, and a 
 somewhat thickened or granular appearance of 
 the cream. 
 
 C, BUTTER. 
 
 I. Coloring Butter. 
 
 The natural color produced, when cows are 
 on fresh grass, is the standard butter color. 
 This shade should be maintained throughout 
 the year, and this requires the use of artificial 
 coloring part of the time. Coloring made for 
 this purpose is a common article in the markets.
 
 MILK AND ITS CARE. 191 
 
 The best coloring used in butter is made from 
 annotto, a vegetable product, and is entirely 
 harmless. There can be no objection to color- 
 ing butter, as it deceives no one and pleases the 
 eye of the consumer. Butter without artificial 
 coloring is almost unsalable in most markets 
 during the winter months. The coloring-matter 
 is added to the cream before churning. The 
 coloring-matter is dissolved in an oil which unites 
 with the fat of the butter and does not color the 
 buttermilk. 
 
 II. Kinds of Churns. 
 
 A large number of churns have been invented, 
 but none is better suited for the small dairy than 
 the common barrel churn 
 (Fig. 47). Churns with 
 dashes, or other means of 
 agitating the cream violently, 
 are objectionable, on account 
 of loss in churning and effect 
 upon the quality of butter. 
 
 Within recent years a new 
 type of churn, called " com- 
 
 1 1 1 , I I) FIG. 47. BARREL CHURN. 
 
 bmed churn and worker, Adapted for farm use . 
 has been put on the market. 
 
 These churns are now used almost exclusively 
 in large butter factories, and in many dairies. 
 As the name indicates, this machine churns 
 the cream, and later works the butter in the 
 same apparatus,
 
 192 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 HI. Churning. 
 
 Churning is the gathering together of the fat 
 globules into a mass called butter. This may 
 be accomplished by any kind of agitation violent 
 enough to cause the fat globules to come together 
 with some force. 
 
 i. Effect of Temperature. One of the most 
 important factors to be considered in connection 
 with churning is the temperature. Temperature 
 controls, to a large extent, the time of churning, 
 the loss of butter in the buttermilk, and that 
 important quality of the butter called the grain. 
 The higher the temperature of the cream the 
 softer the butter fat becomes, and the more 
 readily it unites, shortening the time of churn- 
 ing. The temperature should be so regulated 
 that the time required for churning will be be- 
 tween one-half hour. and one hour. No definite 
 temperature can be given as applicable to all 
 cases, as it must vary somewhat with the thick- 
 ness of the cream, season of the year, and period 
 of lactation. The best rule is to churn at as low 
 a temperature as it is possible to have the butter 
 form within the desired time. Butter factories, as 
 a rule, churn cream from 50 to 54 F. in summer 
 and from 54 to 58 in winter. (Smaller dairies 
 usually churn at somewhat higher temperature.) 
 
 The greatest improvement that could be made 
 at a small expense in the method of butter- 
 making on the average farm would be the use
 
 MILK AND ITS CARE. 193 
 
 of a thermometer, and a proper control of the 
 churning temperature. Butter churned too 
 warm lacks firm texture, and is said to be "weak 
 bodied " and softens easily in a warm tempera- 
 ture. Churning at too low a temperature re- 
 sults in unnecessarily lengthening the time of 
 churning, with no advantage gained in the con- 
 dition of the butter. 
 
 2. Other Factors Affecting Time of Churn- 
 ing. The per cent, of butter fat has an impor- 
 tant bearing upon the time of churning. A 
 cream with a low per cent, of butter fat churns 
 more slowly than does a richer cream, and re- 
 quires a higher temperature. Cream from cows 
 that have been giving milk a long time churns 
 harder than cream from fresh cows, and requires 
 a somewhat higher churning temperature, as the 
 butter fat of the former is harder, the globules 
 smaller, and the milk more viscid or sticky, mak- 
 ing it more difficult for the fat globules to ad- 
 here together. 
 
 Cream from cows producing large fat glo- 
 bules churns a trifle easier than does that from 
 those producing small ones, and maybe churned 
 at a lower temperature. 
 
 Cream produced from dry feed churns more 
 slowly than that produced from green feed, and 
 should be churned at a higher temperature, on 
 account of the hardness of the fat and more vis- 
 cid condition of the milk.
 
 194 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 3. When to Stop Churning. Churning should 
 be stopped when the butter granules are about 
 the size of large grains of wheat. Churning 
 until the butter is gathered into a mass, as is 
 often done, makes the removal of the butter- 
 milk impossible, resulting in poor keeping qual- 
 ity and injured grain of the butter. 
 
 IV. Washing Butter. 
 
 When churning is completed and the butter- 
 milk removed, the next thing to be done is to 
 wash the butter. For this purpose clean, cold 
 water, at a temperature somewhat colder than 
 that at which the cream was churned, is used. 
 About two-thirds as much water as there was 
 cream is added to the butter, and the churn re- 
 volved slowly for six or eight turns. It is then 
 stopped and the cold water drawn off. The ob- 
 ject of washing is to remove the buttermilk from 
 the butter. 
 
 V. Salting. 
 
 Butter is salted as a matter of taste. The 
 amount of salt used may vary somewhat, but, 
 as a rule, it is from three-quarters to seven- 
 eighths of an ounce to each pound of butter. 
 The salt used should be of the best quality, and 
 made especially for this purpose. The act of 
 mixing the salt with the butter is known as 
 working the butter.
 
 MILK AND ITS CARE. 
 
 195 
 
 VI. Working Butter. 
 
 The objects of working are to expel a portion 
 of the water, to mix thoroughly the salt with the 
 butter, and to get the butter into compact, mar- 
 ketable form (Fig. 48). 
 
 The combined churn and worker runs the 
 butter between slowly 
 revolving rollers, and 
 is used almost exclu- 
 sively in large butter 
 factories. The work- 
 ing is continued until 
 the salt is evenly dis- 
 tributed and the grain 
 of the butter shows 
 the right stage has 
 been reached. At this stage the granules of 
 butter almost lose their identity and string out 
 slightly when the butter is broken, instead of 
 breaking straight across. Overworking butter 
 spoils its grain, and insufficient working results 
 in uneven or streaked color of the butter, 
 known as mottling. The latter is a very common 
 and a very objectionable fault in butter. 
 
 VII. Composition of Butter. 
 
 The average composition of butter is about as 
 follows : Fat, 85 per cent.; casein, i per cent.; 
 salt, 2.5 per cent.; water, 11.5 per cent. 
 
 The composition varies considerably, espe- 
 cially the fat and water. Butter of good quality 
 
 FIG. 48. FARM DAIRY BUTTER- 
 WORKER. 
 One of the best for farm use.
 
 196 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 seldom contains less than 80 per cent, of fat or 
 more than 15 per cent, of water. 
 
 VIII. Overrun. 
 
 The term "overrun" is used to express the 
 excess of butter made over the amount of butter 
 fat contained in the cream or milk. The Bab- 
 cock test shows the amount of pure butter fat. 
 When this is made into butter, water, salt, and 
 casein are present, in addition to the fat. Under 
 the best conditions of handling, the butter should 
 exceed the butter fat about one-sixth, but may 
 vary greatly. The common method of estimat- 
 ing the yield of butter from the Babcock test is 
 to find the total number of pounds of butter fat, 
 and add one-sixth of its weight. This is the 
 plan used by experiment stations and dairymen 
 keeping records of the production of individual 
 cows. 
 
 IX. Packing and Marketing. 
 
 After the butter is thoroughly worked, it is 
 next packed in form for market. The style of 
 package will vary with the market for which the 
 product is intended. 
 
 When large quantities are to be shipped some 
 distance, various sized tubs (holding from ten to 
 sixty pounds) are used. These tubs are made 
 of ash or spruce, and the sides are lined before 
 use with a piece of parchment paper, a circle of 
 the same being placed in the bottom of the tub 
 and another on the top. For local sale, various
 
 198 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 packages are used as, different sizes of wooden 
 pails, glass or earthen jars, and paper boxes; 
 but the one most favored is the rectangular 
 pound print wrapped in parchment paper. 
 These are made rapidly by means of molds de- 
 signed for the purpose, and when once adjusted 
 print very accurate pounds (Fig. 49). 
 
 D.~ REFERENCES. 
 
 "Dairying at Home and Abroad." Year-book, 1902. 
 
 "Utilization of By-products of the Dairy." Year-book, 1897. 
 
 "Care of Dairy Utensils." Year-book, 1896. 
 
 " Care of MilK on the Farm." Farmers' Bulletin 63, United 
 States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 " Facts About Milk." Farmers' Bulletin 42, United States 
 Department of Agriculture. 
 
 " Feeding the Dairy Cow." Bulletin Missouri Agricultural 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 " Milk and Its Product." Wing. 1900. 10. 
 
 "Testing Milk and Its Products." Farrington & Woll. 1900. 
 Mendota Book Co., Madison, Wis. 
 
 " Dairy Bacteriology." Russell. 1899. Madison, Wis. 
 
 " Butter Making on the Farm." Farmers' Bulletin 57. 
 
 "Milk as Food." Farmers' Bulletin 74.
 
 OUTLINE OF CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 ^.PROPAGATION FROM SEEDS. 
 
 SEKDS AND SEEDLINGS. 
 
 1. The Seed-coat. 
 
 Strjtification. 
 
 5.1. The Testing of Seeds. 
 
 1. Importance of Seed-testing. 
 
 2. Purity. 
 
 3. Vitality. 
 
 Factors influencing vitality are : 
 
 (1) TIMK OF GATHERING. 
 
 (2) CONDITION OF PARENT PLANT. 
 
 (3) AGE 
 
 (4) METHOD OF PRESERVATION. 
 
 (II. Germination of Seeds. 
 
 A study of the conditions for germinalior 
 r. Temperature. 
 
 2. Moisture. 
 
 3. Air. 
 
 4. Qeotropism. 
 5- Light. 
 
 6. OtJier Conditions. 
 
 IV. Treatment of Fine Seeds. 
 
 V. Variation of Plants. 
 
 1. Causes of Variation. 
 
 (1) DIFFERENCE IN FOOD SUPPLY 
 
 (2) CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. 
 
 (3) SEXUAL REPRODUCTION. 
 
 2. Fixation of Variation. 
 
 (i) MEANS. 
 
 (a) Natural Selection. 
 
 (b) Artificial Selection. 
 
 199
 
 200 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 (2) TIME DEPKNDS UPON: 
 
 (a) Tendency of the Plant to Vary. 
 
 (b) Rate of Development. 
 
 ^.PROPAGATION FROM BUDS. 
 
 I. Cutting. 
 
 1. Green Wood Cuttings. 
 
 (1) LEAF CUTTINGS. 
 
 (2) STEM CUTTINGS. 
 
 2. Hard-wood Cuttings. 
 
 (1) STEM CUTTINGS. 
 
 (2) ROOT CUTTINGS. 
 
 II. Budding. 
 
 1. Spring Budding. 
 
 2. Late Summer or Early Fall Budding. 
 
 III. Grafting. 
 
 General principles of. 
 Subdivisions of. 
 
 1. With Reference to Position of the Scion Upon tht 
 
 Stock. 
 (i) ROOT-GRAFTING. 
 
 (a) Whole-root Grafting. 
 
 (b) Piece-root Grafting. 
 (a) STEM-GRAFTING. 
 
 (a) Top-grafting. 
 
 (b) Crown-grafting. 
 
 2. With Reference to Insertion of Scion Into the Stock. 
 
 (1) TONGUE OR WHIP GRAFT. 
 
 (2) CLEFT GRAFT. 
 
 IV. Layering. 
 
 i. Simple Layering. 
 2.. Mound Layering. 
 
 3. Pot Layering. 
 
 C. REFERENCES.
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 The basic principle of all horticultural opera- 
 tions is a thorough knowledge of tlie plant and 
 its environment. This necessitates a careful 
 study of the nature and conditions of the seed- 
 ling throughout its development from the em- 
 bryo to the adult plant. 
 
 ^.PROPAGATION FROM SEEDS. 
 
 SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS. 
 
 I. The Seed-coat. 
 
 Examine the outer covering of a number of dif- 
 erent seeds as, the corn, bean, squash, peach, 
 canna, and locust noting carefully the difference 
 in their textures. If these seeds be planted at 
 the same time and under the same conditions, 
 they will show equally as great variations in the 
 time which they require for germination. 
 
 In nature, the hard, tough seeds of many or- 
 chard and forest trees as, apple, peach, and 
 hickory are buried beneath the litter of the 
 orchard or forest, where they are subjected to 
 winter snows and changes of temperature until 
 their outer coverings are softened or cracked, so 
 that the embryonic plant may develop, while 
 the seeds of such species as the catalpa (Fig. 
 50), honey-locust, and Kentucky coffee-bean re-
 
 203 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 main on the trees all winter. This indicates 
 that a cold, moist ground would be disastrous to 
 them ; consequently, these seeds are shed in the 
 warm days of spring, the higher temperature 
 unsealing the waxy covering of the honey-locust, 
 and the spring winds widely disseminating the 
 delicately winged seeds of the catalpa. By fol- 
 lowing these hints of nature, man may perform 
 and regulate these processes almost at will. 
 
 Stratification is a very practical and simple 
 method of preparing many seeds having a hard 
 or tough outer covering for germination. By 
 this means the seeds are protected from mice, 
 chipmunks, squirrels, etc., and at the same time 
 given the conditions furnished by nature. 
 
 Directions for stratifying seeds: (<?) In October or 
 November take the seeds of cherry, apple, peach, plum, 
 hickory, and walnut, which have been collected during 
 the summer and autumn. 
 
 (b) Place, in a shallo\v box, a layer of sand, leaf- 
 mould, or even garden soil, then a layer of the seeds; in 
 this way alternate a layer of sand with one of seeds until 
 the box is full. 
 
 (c] Sink the box in the ground in some shady place, 
 and leave uncovered, exposed to the winter snows, rains, 
 and frosts until the following spring. 
 
 (</) When the weather permits, plant thickly in rows 
 in well-prepared soil. (See " Tillage.") 
 
 II. The Testing of Seeds. 
 
 i. T/ic Importance of Seed-testing prepara- 
 tory to planting, and the simple methods by 
 which it may be done, are not generally realized.
 
 FIG. 5O. CATAI.I'A TREE. 
 
 Showing seed pods intact in February.
 
 204 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Often many annoyances and disappointments 
 would be averted, and much time and labor 
 saved, if proper attention were given to the 
 quality of the seeds sown. Bad seeds not only 
 result in partial or total failure of the crop, but 
 may be the means of introducing noxious weeds 
 as, the plantains. A field is frequently sown 
 in bracted plantain when it was meant to be 
 sown in red clover. The principal points to be 
 considered in determining the quality of seeds 
 are purity and vitality. 
 
 2. Purify. Various impurities may exist, 
 either incidentally, or purposely, in commercial 
 seeds such as inert matter, or seeds of other 
 useful or injurious plants any of which would 
 make the seeds more expensive if not altogether 
 objectionable. Purity of seeds may be tested 
 by carefully examining with the eye or lens, if 
 necessary a fair sample of the seeds to be 
 planted. 
 
 3. Vitality of Seeds. In the testing of seeds 
 it is not safe to rely upon general appearances 
 
 such as form, color, and odor but the seeds 
 must be actually tested to be certain of their 
 vitality. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 15. (a) From each kind of seeds de- 
 sired, select at random a certain number, according to 
 the quantity to be planted. 
 
 (fi) If the seeds are large, it may be advantageous to 
 soak them a few hours.
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 205 
 
 (<:) Saturate several thicknesses of heavy blotting- 
 paper, and fit them into shallow flats or plates ; now 
 place the seeds directly upon this moist paper. (If very 
 fine seeds, put them upon squares of cheese-cloth spread 
 upon the paper.) Cover the flats with pieces of window- 
 glass, leaving crevices to admit air. Each day note 
 carefully, and remove the number of seeds which sprout. 
 
 (</) What per cent, of seeds was vital ? What does 
 the time required for sprouting indicate regarding their 
 vitality ? Could the same results be expected from out- 
 door conditions? Would a farmer be justified in plant- 
 ing the seeds from which these samples were taken ? 
 Does not this test warrant the revision of the old adage, 
 " Taste and try before you buy," to " Test and try be- 
 fore you buy," in this case ? 
 
 Factors influencing the vitality of seeds are : 
 (i) The time of gathering; (2) the condition 
 of the parent plant ; (3) the age of the seeds, 
 and (4) the method of their preservation. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 16. (a) Take seeds of several garden 
 or farm crops as, wheat, corn, beans, peas, radishes, let- 
 tuce, and apples which have been gathered at intervals 
 during the growing season, so that two stages (imma- 
 turity, maturity) in the development of the seeds may 
 be represented. 
 
 (ft) Note the date of gathering, the appearance of the 
 seeds, and the condition of the parent plant at each of 
 these stages. 
 
 (f) Plant those of each stage in a separate row and 
 label the rows. 
 
 (d] Observe, compare, and tabulate the time of appear- 
 ance of each seedling. 
 
 (e] From your results in this experiment, what effect 
 do you conclude the time of gathering has upon the vital-
 
 206 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ity of seeds ? Why ? What effect has the condition oj 
 the parent plant upon the vitality of the seeds? 
 
 (3) AGE OF SEEDS. For the success of the 
 following experiment time and patience are the 
 chief requisites. The work may be begun in 
 one class, and continued by each successive 
 class as long as any of the seeds show vitality, 
 or some student may elect this work through- 
 out his school course. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 17. (a] To make a careful and rather 
 exhaustive study of the effect of age upcn the vitality of 
 seeds, two or three hundred of each kind of farm and 
 garden seeds of the vicinity should be collected, each 
 kind placed in a large-mouthed bottle, and labeled as 
 to kind, date, and place of collection, and placed in a 
 case provided for that purpose, together with a blank- 
 book for a permanent record. 
 
 'fi) Test each kind of seed according to Experiment 
 15, discarding any which do not show strong vitality, 
 replacing them with new material as soon as possible, 
 and relabeling. 
 
 (c] Repeat this test each successive year as long as 
 any seeds show vitality. 
 
 (</) When any sample of seeds is no longer vital, dis- 
 card the seeds and replace them with freshly tested 
 ones, labeling as at first for the use of subsequent 
 classes. 
 
 (c] Carefully note each year the number of seeds of 
 each kind which germinate, and the time in hours re- 
 quired for their germination. 
 
 (/) What injuries may arise from retarded germina- 
 tion ? Place your data in the permanent record, ;md 
 compare with the data of previous years. This record
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 207 
 
 should eventually show the age at which the various 
 kinds of seeds may be profitably planted. 
 
 (4) TIIK METHOD OF PRESERVATION of seeds 
 is of importance. Seeds should be freed from 
 any pulpy material, carefu'Iy dried under mod- 
 erate temperature, labeled with name and date, 
 and stored in a cool, dry place which is abso- 
 lutely mouse-proof. 
 
 III. Germination of Seeds. 
 
 A study of the conditions necessary for the 
 germination of seeds. 
 
 1. Temperature. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 18. (a) Plant separate groups of similar, 
 uniform-sized seeds of any garden or farm crop in jars 
 or pots containing some moist pourous material as, 
 sawdust, sand, or moss. 
 
 (^) Place these jars in different parts of the building 
 which have decidedly different temperatures as, a north 
 window, a south window, near a register, and in a 
 basement. 
 
 (jc] Record the temperature at each of these places each 
 morning, noon, and night. 
 
 (it) Note the time of the appearance of each group of 
 seedlings, and determine the time required for germina- 
 tion. 
 
 (e] Record the data thus obtained in tabular form. 
 
 (/) Compare. What does the experiment teach ? 
 
 2. Moisture Soaking seeds: effect of upon germi- 
 nation. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 19. (a) Select a given number of seeds 
 of various kinds as, corn, wheat, beans, squash, and 
 tomato. 
 
 < Divide each kind into two lots. Plant one of these
 
 208 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 lots (each kind at the proper depth) in a box of sand; 
 the other lot place in a shallow dish of water, and soak 
 for ten or twelve hours; then plant these seeds in the 
 sand at the same depth and under the same conditions 
 as the first lot. 
 
 (c) Note and tabulate the time of the appearance of 
 the seedlings of the soaked and unsoaked seeds of each 
 kind. 
 
 (d) Was the time of germination of each kind short- 
 ened by the soaking ? Were any seeds damaged by 
 soaking? 
 
 EXPERIMENT 20. (a) Select seeds, as in the above ex- 
 periment. Soak one-half of each kind, as before. 
 
 (6) Now separate the soaked and the unsoaked seeds 
 each into three lots. 
 
 (c) Plant one lot of each (the soaked and unsoaked) 
 in dry soil, another in moist soil, and the third in wet 
 soil, other conditions being the same for each. 
 
 (d) Tabulate, and compare results. 
 
 (e) What does this experiment teach concerning the 
 condition of the soil with regard to moisture at the time 
 of planting seeds? 
 
 3 Air. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 21. (a) Fill a pot with moist sand or 
 mellow garden soil, and another pot with clay or loam 
 that has been wet and well stirred until about the con- 
 sistency of paste. Now plant in each pot several 
 beans, peas, or grains of corn, pressing them in and 
 carefully smoothing over the top. 
 
 (b] Place both pots under the same external con- 
 ditions. If the puddle clay or loam cracks, moisten it, 
 and again press the surface smooth. 
 
 (c] Observe and note results. What fills the inter- 
 stices in the jar of moist sand or soil ? What in the 
 puddled clay? Do the seeds in each pot germinate
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 209 
 
 equally well? Why? What condition is present in one 
 pot that is not in the other ? 
 
 4. Geotropism. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 22. (a] Plant in moist sand or sawdust 
 a number of squash seeds and grains of corn in various 
 positions some with either side down, some with either 
 edge down, and some with either end down. 
 
 () Label each group as to position in planting. 
 
 (c) After two or three days, examine to see if any of 
 the seeds have sprouted. 
 
 (d) If so, note carefully the direction of radicle and 
 of plumule.J Draw. 
 
 (e) Label according to position, and name all parts. 
 (/) Now plant again, with the position of the seed 
 
 reversed. Repeat daily (d], (e), and (/) for several days. 
 
 (g) Does the position of the seed when planted have 
 any effect upon the development of the embryo ? Ex- 
 plain. How do the results of your daily observations 
 compare with reference to the direction of growth of 
 radicle and plumule?* 
 
 EXPERIMENT 23. Stevens' " Introduction to Botany " 
 gives the following experiment in connection with geot- 
 ropism: " Remove the glass front and the hands from a 
 cheap alarm-clock. Provide a soft pine block about an 
 inch square, whittle one end to a taper, and drill a small 
 hole into it, so that it will slip through the opening of 
 the dial face and tightly over the hour-hand spindle. 
 Fasten a Petri dish to the outer face of the pine block 
 by a melted mixture of one-third beeswax and two- 
 thirds rosin, taking care to center the dish with the 
 hour-hand spindle. Pack moist pine sawdust into the 
 dish level with the surface, and press soaked grains of 
 corn into the sawdust, not very tightly, broad face down, 
 but do not cover them with sawdust. Put on the cover 
 
 * For parts of seed and seedling, see any good Botany.
 
 210 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 of the Petri dish and hold it hi position by means of 
 clips made of spring brass wire (Figs. 51, 52). (See 
 Stevens' " Botany," p. 25.) Wind the clock, and set it in 
 its normal position that is, with the hour-hand spindle 
 
 "Introduction to BoUny." Copyright, 1M)S, by D. Heath * 
 
 FIGS. 51 AND 52. SEEDLINGS OF INDIAN CORN 
 
 Grown in sawdust in a Petri dish 
 while revolving by clockwork one 
 revolution per hour. The axis of 
 revolution is horizontal, the plane of 
 the dish vertical. Gravity as a direct- 
 ive agent is eliminated, and roots and 
 shoots grow out in the direction in 
 which they happen to be pointed. 
 
 Grown in sawdust in a Petri dish 
 which was kept stationary in a ver- 
 tical position. Gravity is acting as a 
 directive agent, and the roots find and 
 take the downward and the shoots 
 the upward direction, irrespective of 
 the directions toward which they 
 were originally pointing. 
 
 horizontal. Prepare seeds in another dish in exactly 
 the same manner, but fasten it so that it will stand ver- 
 tically on its edge. 
 
 In the first experiment the directive effect of gravity 
 would be neutralized by the revolution of the dish, 
 while in the second gravity may exercise its usual influ- 
 ence on the direction taken by root and shoot. Compare 
 results as to direction of radicle and plumule.* 
 
 * Since the seeds are not covered by the sawdust, their progress 
 in germination may be observed at any time without interrupting 
 the experiment. The position occupied by the parts of the seed- 
 lings can easily be recorded for any period by tracing with ink 
 on the cover immediately over them.
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 211 
 
 5. Light. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 24. (a) Soak a number of different kinds 
 of seeds for a few hours and divide each kind into lots. 
 
 (b) Place each lot on a square of moist flannel laid 
 upon moist sand, and cover with a glass tumbler. 
 
 (c] Now cover one of these tumblers with a heavy 
 paper cone, the inside of which has been blackened by 
 simply holding it over a lighted lamp. 
 
 (</) Watch the seeds in the uncovered tumbler. As 
 soon as any growth is shown, remove the paper cone 
 from the other tumbler, and compare the growth made 
 in the dark with that made in the light for each kind of 
 seeds. 
 
 (e) Is light a necessary condition for germination ? 
 
 6. Other Conditions. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 25. (a) Soak for a few hours a number 
 of peas and Lima beans. Plant a definite number of 
 each kind of these soaked seeds at the same time in 
 moist sand at various depths, from one-half inch to four 
 inches, labeling as to depth. 
 
 (b) Note carefully the appearance of each kind of 
 seedlings planted at the various depths. 
 
 (c) Within a few days after the appearance of the first 
 seedlings, observe (i) the growth made by the peas 
 planted at the various depths, and compare; (2) that 
 made by the beans at the various depths; (3) the relative 
 growth made by the peas and beans. 
 
 (</) Does the depth of planting have any effect upon 
 the time of germination ? Upon the certainty of germina- 
 tion ? By what external conditions is the germination 
 influenced ? What relation does the development of the 
 seedlings themselves bear to the depth of planting? 
 
 IV- Treatment of Fine Seeds. 
 
 Where practicable, very small seeds should 
 be sown indoors and given special care.
 
 212 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Directions: For this purpose, use shallow boxes 
 about four inches in depth which have been soaked 
 in lime-water, or water containing a little formaldehyde, 
 or whitewashed. 
 
 (a) Fill these with a soil prepared by carefully mixing 
 equal parts of sand, leaf-mould, and garden loam. Well- 
 rotted manure may be substituted for leaf-mould, and 
 rotted sod, cut up fine and sifted, for leaf-mould and loam, 
 It is well to add to this a very small quantity of wood 
 ashes. Sow the seeds on the surface of the soil and press 
 them in. 
 
 (If) Apply moisture by very lightly sprinkling with a 
 small sprinkler or by hand. Cover with window-glass, 
 providing for the admission of air. 
 
 (c) As soon as true leaves are well formed, they may 
 be transplanted into inch pots, and repotted into larger- 
 sized pots as often as is necessary. Before planting in 
 the open ground the plants should be hardened in a 
 cold frame (see under " Cuttings "). 
 
 V. Variation of Plants. 
 
 Though the offspring of plants is like the 
 parent in kind, yet individual members of the 
 species are not exactly alike. Their differ- 
 ences are often scarcely perceptible; but if 
 various members of the same species in a given 
 locality be compared, shades of differences may 
 be seen. For example, the little spring beauty 
 ( Clatonia virginica ) shows much variation in 
 the number and size of its petals. Their color 
 also ranges from white to deep pink. The dog's- 
 tooth violet {ErytJironiuvi a/biduni) shows like 
 morphological differences. 
 
 Throughout nature these variations exist, the 
 offspring differing from its progenitor. Among
 
 214 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 the higher plants those species covering a wide 
 range show greater variation in their individual 
 members than species more restricted in their 
 distribution conditions which might be ex- 
 pected: the more diverse the" environment, the 
 more variable the individual. Thus, the luxu- 
 riantly growing plant at the base of a moun- 
 tain varies greatly from its dwarfed brother at 
 the summit (Figs. 53, 54). On the other hand, 
 the more variable the plant the more easily it 
 can adapt itself to varying conditions; hence, 
 the more widely it is distributed. 
 
 i. Causes of Variation. Variation is not the 
 result of chance, yet the detailed differences in 
 varieties of the same species can only be sug- 
 gested. 
 
 In every individual two factors are manifest: 
 the nature of the organism, and the nature of 
 the external conditions. Nevertheless, the same 
 conditions do not always produce the same re- 
 sults, for similar varieties may be "produced* 
 from the same species under external conditions 
 of life as different as can well be conceived, and, 
 on the other hand, dissimilar varieties may be 
 produced under apparently the same condi- 
 tions." Variation, then, may be due, for the 
 most part, to the innate tendency of the organ- 
 ism to vary, the causes of which are not fully 
 understood. However, some of the causes of 
 
 * Darwin's Origin of Species, p. 127.
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 215 
 
 variation among plants seem to be : (i) differ- 
 ence in food supply ; (2^) climatic conditions ; 
 (3) sexual reproduction. 
 
 None of these causes would be of any avail 
 were it not for the fact that selection preserves 
 and accumulates all variations which are benefi- 
 cial, and discards those which are detrimental to 
 the organism. 
 
 (1) DIFFERENCE IN FOOD SUPPLY. Every one 
 has noticed in different fields of grain, or even 
 in the same field, that in some portion the plants 
 were sickly and stunted, while in others they 
 were strong and well developed. One of the 
 many conditions which may cause this variation 
 (in development) is a difference in the supply 
 of proper food. 
 
 This lack of the necessary constituents for the 
 growth of this particular plant may be due to 
 the exhaustion of these elements by former 
 crops, or to the poorness or thinness of the soil. 
 (See Chapter VII.) 
 
 (2) CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. Variation in cli- 
 mate tends to modify the structure and habits 
 of plants, their fruitfulness, and the color and 
 flavor of their fruit. On approaching colder 
 climates plants become smaller and more thickly 
 set with leaves, as is illustrated by the same 
 species growing at the base and at the summit 
 of a mountain (Figs. 53, 54), as the spruce and 
 fir of the Rockies.
 
 216 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 (3) SEXUAL REPRODUCTION is probably the 
 most important of the causes of variation in 
 plants. This is exemplified by those lower forms 
 which usually reproduce asexually, since they 
 show very little variation in many generations. 
 On the contrary, among higher plants, where 
 reproduction is ordinarily sexual, the offspring 
 may vary greatly in one generation. (Thus, a 
 field planted in white or yellow corn may pro- 
 duce many variously colored ears.) Hundreds 
 of examples of both wild and cultivated plants 
 may be given. * 
 
 This variation is due, in a great measure, to 
 the fact that each organism is the product of 
 two separate elements the male and the female. 
 And each of these was itself a product of two 
 separate elements. In this way the whole an- 
 cestral line was developed. These characteristic 
 differences are the more marked when the male 
 and the female elements are derived from differ- 
 ent individuals ; for in the offspring is made 
 possible any of the characteristics, not only of 
 the immediate parents, but of the entire ances- 
 try of each. Thus, cross-fertilization becomes a 
 potent factor in producing variation. 
 
 2. Fixation of Variation. When variations 
 are beneficial to the plant in its present environ- 
 
 * ' ' No case is on record of a variable organism ceasing to var v 
 under cultivation. Our oddest cultivated plants, such as wheat, 
 still yield new varieties." Origin of Species^ Darwin, p. 6.
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 217 
 
 ment, Natural Selection preserves and accumu- 
 lates them ; when they are not beneficial, Natural 
 Selection discards them ; that is, the plant pos- 
 sessing these benejicial variations has a better 
 chance to survive and perpetuate the species, 
 while the plant whose variations are less bene- 
 ficial will probably perish ; hence, that variation 
 is not perpetuated. 
 
 Everywhere in nature the competent are pre- 
 served and the incompetent are discarded. In 
 other words, the power of an organism to vary 
 is the measure of its adaptability to environ- 
 ment. It is by the preservation, transmission, 
 and accumulation of these variations that new 
 varieties are formed among uncultivated plants. 
 Man takes advantage of this fact, and by artifi- 
 cial selection preserves those characteristics of 
 the plant which are beneficial to him, thus orig- 
 inating new varieties among cultivated plants. 
 
 It takes many generations for these varieties 
 to become fixed types. The time required for 
 the fixation of types, however, depends upon 
 several conditions, one of which is (i) the ten- 
 dency of the plant to vary. The more variable 
 the plant, the more difficult will be the fixation 
 of the type ; for, although it will be easier to 
 find individual plants having the desired char- 
 acteristics, on account of this variability there 
 will be less assurance that these characteristics 
 will be generally reproduced in the subsequent
 
 218 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 generations. Examples of this tendency to 
 vary are seen in the grape and the potato. 
 
 Another condition is (2) the time required for 
 the growth of a plant from the seed to the ma- 
 turity of its seed. Many species require but a 
 
 FIG. 55. ROOTED TIPS OK A SEEDLING RASPBERRY CANE. 
 
 They are of one season's growth, showing new plants formed and their root- 
 systems. (From Normal Garden.) 
 
 single season ; most trees require a number of 
 years to produce one generation. Four years 
 from seed to seed would be a short period for 
 apple, pear, and cherry, and some varieties re- 
 quire a much longer time. 
 
 Hence, it would be impracticable, if not im- 
 possible, in the lifetime of one man, to render
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 219 
 
 the desired characteristics of these plants per- 
 manent that is, by the selection and reproduc- 
 tion of the seedling". So in these cases the fac- 
 tor of sexual reproduction must be eliminated, 
 and thus the tendency of the plant to vary less- 
 
 FIG. 56. LEAF CUTTING WHOLE LEAF. 
 
 ened, if one would perpetuate the variety. This 
 is done by the propagation of plants from buds, 
 or asexual reproduction. 
 
 ^.PROPAGATION FROM BUDS. 
 
 Here, again, nature gives us examples among 
 the uncultivated plants. The wild strawberry 
 multiplies asexually by throwing out runners 
 which form roots and become new plants. The 
 raspberry bends its flexible branches until their 
 tips touch the moist earth ; soon they are cov- 
 ered by leaf-mould or soil, and new plants are 
 formed by sending out roots from these buried 
 tips.
 
 220 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Many other examples of asexual reproduction 
 may be found as, rootstocks, tubers, bulbs, etc. 
 
 Bud propagation may be carried on by four dif- 
 ferent processes : cutting, budding, grafting, and 
 layering, according to (i) the number of buds 
 used, (2) the condition of the material, and (3) 
 the season of the year in which the work is done, 
 as is shown by the following scheme : 
 
 
 CUTTING. 
 
 BUDDING. 
 
 GRAFTING. 
 
 LAYERING. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Buds. 
 
 One 
 to 
 several. 
 
 One. 
 
 Two 
 or 
 more. 
 
 One 
 to 
 several. 
 
 Time 
 of 
 year. 
 
 Throughout 
 the year, 
 except in hot 
 weati.er. 
 
 Early 
 and late 
 summer. 
 
 I.ast month 
 of winter, or 
 second month of 
 spring. 
 
 Spring 
 and 
 summer. 
 
 
 
 
 Scion, dormant. 
 
 
 of 
 material. 
 
 or 
 growing. 
 
 Growing. 
 
 ^ Dormant 
 Stock < or 
 ( Growing. 
 
 Growing. 
 
 I. Cutting. 
 
 This process consists in taking a leaf, a por- 
 tion of a stem, or of a root, and placing it in such 
 conditions that adventitious J roots are formed, 
 and thus it becomes a new plant. 
 
 i. Green Wood Cuttings are made from the 
 green parts of a growing plant. To secure the 
 best results, the cuttings should be taken from a 
 well-matured branch of a vigorous, healthy plant.
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 221 
 
 FIG. 57. LEAF CUTTING 
 PART OF LEAF. 
 
 FIG. 58. LEAF CUTTING OF 
 Sansevieria zeylanica. 
 
 (1) LEAF CUTTINGS (Fig. 56). There are 
 few plants which can be grown from leaves ; 
 among these are the Sansevieria zeylanica and 
 begonia. Fleshy leaves most readily respond 
 to this manner of propagation. The leaves may 
 be placed upon moist sand and pegged down at 
 the main veins, or the base of the leaf buried in 
 the sand. Roots are thrown out at the c^U ends 
 of the veins, and new plants are formed at 
 these points (Figs. 56, 57, 58). 
 
 (2) STEM CUTTINGS. Directions for propagating by 
 means of stem cuttings : (a) Cut thrifty shoots from 
 different species of plants as, geranium, coleus, agera- 
 tum, heliotrope, verbena, tomato, nasturtium, etc.
 
 222 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 (b) Divide each of these shoots into cuttings, having 
 at least two nodes each. In doing this begin with the 
 top of the shoot, taking off a portion having two or more 
 nodes, cutting through the stem immediately below the 
 lower node. Reduce the leaf surface one-half (to check 
 
 FIG. 59. TIP CUTTING OF A 
 CHRYSANTHEMUM. 
 
 FIG. 60. CUTTING OF 
 HELIOTROPE. 
 
 evaporation) by removing the entire leaves from the 
 lower portion, and, if need be, clipping some of the re- 
 maining leaves (Figs. 59, 60). One or more cuttings 
 may be made from the remainder of the shoot. These 
 are prepared like the tip cutting, with the exception thaf 
 about one-half inch of stem should be allowed to project 
 above the upper node. 
 
 (c) As soon as each cutting is finished, it should be 
 thrown into cold water. 
 
 (a] Fill the propagating-table * to the depth of four 
 
 * In absence of propagating-table, use a shallow box four or 
 five inches deep (Fig. 65).
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 223 
 
 or five inches with clean, coarse sand. (Other con- 
 ditions for starting cuttings should be the same as for 
 seed germination.) If the cuttings are made in sum 
 mer, the propagating-table will not require artificial 
 heat; otherwise bottom heat must be supplied. Ingreen- 
 
 FIG. 6l. CUTTING OF OLEANDER 
 ROOTING IN WATER 
 
 a Young shoots, r Roots. 
 
 FIG. 62. STEM CUTTING OF 
 
 UMBRELLA PLANT ROOT- 
 ING IN WATER. 
 
 houses, or buildings where the heat is sufficiently well 
 regulated, this may be supplied by steam-pipes. Where 
 this is not practicable, an excellent substitute may be 
 furnished by the use of fermenting stable compost. The 
 fresh compost should be mixed with a small proportion 
 of straw and leaves, moistened and packed in an ample 
 box, to the depth of about eighteen inches. Now spread 
 upon this mixture about five inches of sand. (The box 
 should be protected from direct sunlight and drafts.)
 
 I ...
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 225 
 
 (<?) Place a thermometer in the sand, and record the 
 temperature at various intervals for several days. It 
 will be evident that as the compost becomes heated the 
 temperature will be too high for the cuttings, and they 
 should not be put in until the temperature has fallen to 
 about 80. 
 
 (/) The cuttings should be well firmed in the sand to 
 about one-half of their length, and placed about an inch 
 apart in rows. After the cuttings are placed, brush the 
 hand across their tops, to see if they are sufficiently well 
 firmed. If so, none of them will be displaced. Label 
 each species of cuttings with name and date. 
 
 (g) The sand must be kept uniformly moist, not wet. 
 The cuttings may be carefully lifted out and examined 
 from time to time, to see if any have rooted. The time 
 required for each species to root should be recorded. 
 
 (ti) As soon as the roots are about an inch long, the 
 cuttings should be potted off into thumb-pots filled with 
 soil prepared, as directed for treatment of fine seeds 
 (page 21 2). These little pots should be sunk to one-third 
 of their depth in flats of moist sand. As soon as the 
 plant has grown until the pot is filled with roots, it should 
 be transferred to a size larger pot. 
 
 (/) To ascertain whether the pot is filled with roots 
 invert the pot, resting it upon the palm of the left hand, 
 allowing the plant to pass between the fingers, and 
 steadying the pot by placing the right hand upon the 
 bottom. Now gently tap the edge of the pot against a 
 box or table (Fig. 63) until the ball of soil drops into the 
 hand (Fig. 64). As the plant continues to grow, repot 
 in this manner as often as is necessary. 
 
 2. Hard Wood Cuttings. (i) STEM CUT- 
 TINGS are taken from dormant, mature wood of 
 the last season's growth. These may be secured 
 any time after the leaves have fallen. In local-
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 227 
 
 For 
 
 ities where the winter is severe, it is best to take 
 the cutting before cold weather. 
 
 Directions for making hard wood cuttings : 
 this purpose, select the most vigorous branches 
 of such plants as the gooseberry, currant, and 
 many varieties of the grape and flowering 
 shrubs, and cut off that portion which con- 
 sists of last year's growth (Fig. 66). 
 
 (b) Divide each of these stems into cuttings 
 of at least two. nodes. (If the internode is 
 short, as in the currant and gooseberry, sev- 
 eral nodes may be included in the cutting.) 
 
 .The stem should be cut off immediately below 
 the lower node and allowed to extend one- 
 fourth of an inch above the upper one (Fig. 
 69). 
 
 (c) These should be tied in bunches of 
 from twenty-five to fifty each, labeled, and 
 packed in boxes of green sawdust or moist 
 sand, and kept in a cool, damp place until 
 spring. 
 
 (d} The cuttings may 
 be started in a propagating- 
 box (see page 226) or hot- 
 bed as early as February 
 or March, and transferred wood buds. 
 
 b. Flower or fruit hud. 
 
 to the open ground as r . stipule scar. 
 soon as the weather per- rf - i<eafscar. 
 
 e. Growth of one 
 
 mits. Where this is not season. 
 
 practicable, they may re- / Two-year-old wood. 
 main packed in the sawdust 
 until favorable weather, 
 and placed at once in the 
 open ground, which has been prepared by deep plowing 
 and thorough pulverizing. 
 
 K1G. 66. TWIG OF WHITE ELM 
 (L'fmus Americana, I,.)
 
 228 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 (e) Plant them in an oblique position, leaving the up- 
 per node above the surface (Fig. 67), and two or three 
 inches apart in rows four feet apart. The soil should 
 be closely pressed about the base of the cuttings to pre- 
 vent their drying out. They 
 should be frequently culti- 
 vated throughout the grow- 
 ing season. 
 
 (/) Some of them may 
 have made sufficient growth 
 (Fig. 68) the first season to 
 justify their being transplant- 
 ed to the grounds where they 
 are to remain. 
 
 (2) ROOT CUTTINGS. All species of plants 
 which " sprout from the roots " may be propa- 
 gated by means of root cuttings In some 
 cases these cuttings are really portions of un- 
 derground stems as, horseradish, rhubarb, etc. 
 But cuttings from real roots have no buds, as 
 those of the blackberry and quince (Fig. 70). 
 
 FIG. 67. POSITION OF HARD- 
 WOOD CUTTING IN SOIL. 
 
 FIG. 68. ROOTED CP-ArF CUTTING.
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Directions for root-cuttings: (a) The roots 
 should be cut into pieces two or three inches 
 long. Most of them thrive best when started 
 with bottom heat. 
 
 (6) Plant horizontally, close together, and 
 entirely cover with two or three inches of 
 soil. 
 
 II. Budding.* 
 
 To propagate a plant by budding is 
 to take a mature bud from the plant 
 which one desires to perpetuate, and to 
 
 FIG. 70. CUTTING OK HI.ACKBERRY ROOT. 
 
 insert it in the bark of some allied 
 plant in which it develops. This must 
 be done when the bark will peel easily 
 and mature buds can be procured, the 
 time of which will depend entirely 
 upon the season. In general, there 
 
 * Suggestion to teacher : The work of budding 
 should be studied at the time of year when the 
 required conditions are present in nature. 
 
 If, however, the school is not in session at this 
 time, willow switches in which the growth has been 
 started by standing in water in a sunny window for 
 several weeks may be used as stocks, just to teach 
 the students how to perform the operations of bud- 
 ding.
 
 230 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 are two periods of the year in which budding 
 may be clone spring and early fall. 
 
 i. Spring budding. Directions for the work : (a) The 
 strongest twigs of last year's growth should be care- 
 fully selected from the healthiest, best developed tree of 
 the desired variety. These should be cut 
 while dormant, packed in small boxes of 
 green sawdust or moist sand, and kept 
 in a cool, damp place until the stockj is 
 in condition for inserting the buds. 
 
 (^) The stocks best suited for this 
 work are well-developed one-year-old 
 seedlings (Fig. 72). The stocks are pre- 
 pared for the bud by making two incis- 
 ions in the bark, one immediately above 
 and at right angles to the other, forming 
 a T-shaped cut (Fig. 73). These incis- 
 ions should be made on the north side 
 of the seedlings, away from the direct 
 rays of the sun and close to the ground. 
 (<:) Select mature wood-buds from 
 that portion of the budding-stick;]; which 
 is neither too old nor too young. Now 
 place the knife one-fourth inch below 
 the bud, cut through into the wood, and 
 pass the knife upward beneath the bud to a point one- 
 fourth inch above it. Remove the knife. Make a hori- 
 zontal incision ///.tf ////-<?// %/i the bark at this upper point 
 (Fig. 71). Now lift the edge of the bark, and carefully 
 peel it back with the thumb and finger, leaving the 
 wood attached to the budding-stick. Look on the under 
 side of the bud, to see if it is hollow. If so, discard it, for 
 the vascular bundles have been removed in preparing the 
 bud, and it is worthless, for there is nothing left which 
 will unite with the cambium layer of the stock (Fig. 73). 
 
 FIG. 71. THK WAY 
 TO REMOVE A BUI).
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 231 
 
 (</) Now turn back the edges of the bark in the T- 
 shaped incision of the stock and insert the bud, as in 
 Fig. 73, pushing it down until the top edge of the bark 
 
 FIG. 72. ONE-YEAR-OLD PEACH SEEDLINGS. 
 (From Normal School C.arden.) 
 
 is fitted in below the edge of the horizontal incision of 
 the stock. Wrap with moist raffia]; above and below 
 the bud, so as to bring the parts into close contact. 
 
 (e) As soon as the bud unites with the stock about 
 ten days the raffia should be cut, so as not to inter- 
 fere with the growth of the bud. At the same time, the 
 seedling should be cut back by removing the upper por
 
 232 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 tion an inch or two above the bud, so as to direct the 
 growth of the plant to the new bud. 
 
 2. In late summer or early fall budding the process is 
 the same as that of spring budding, except in this case 
 
 a 
 
 FIG. 73. STAGES IN BUDDING. 
 
 A. T-shaped incision. . Ready to receive the hud. C. The hud. 
 D, Inserting the bud. E. Inserted and wrapped. 
 
 the leaves are present, and should be removed as soon 
 as the scion is cut, leaving a portion of the petiole 
 intact. 
 
 III. Grafting. 
 
 Points which must not be overlooked to secure 
 a successful graft: (i) The cambium layer of 
 the scion must coincide with that of the stock 
 at least in one point, so that the sap may flow 
 uninterruptedly ; this will be the more certainly 
 effected if all the cuts and incisions be made 
 smoothly with a sharp knife. 
 
 (2) 'A moderate pressure must be provided, 
 so that union may take place.
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 (3) All exposed cut surfaces must be protected 
 from atmospheric agencies. 
 
 Grafting is divided with reference to the posi- 
 tion of the scion upon the stock 
 into (i) root-grafting, and (2) stem- 
 grafting. 
 
 (i) ROOT-GRAFTING. For this 
 purpose the roots of seedlings 
 most commonly, apples from one 
 to two years old should be used as 
 stocks. The work should be done 
 at least six or eight weeks before 
 the time of planting. 
 
 (a) In whole-root grafting, the 
 entire primary root is used, while 
 in (b] piece-root grafting, pieces of 
 the primary root, three or four 
 inches long, are used. Thus, one 
 primary root may furnish material 
 for two or three grafts. FIG. 74. ONE- 
 
 Grafting is divided, with refer- YEAR-OLD PIECE- 
 
 ... ROOT GRAFT. 
 
 ence to the method of insertion of The large mass of 
 
 the scion into the stock, into (i) 
 
 tongue or whip grafting, and (2) 
 
 cleft-grafting. The tongue or whip 
 
 graft is used for both piece and whole root 
 
 grafting. 
 
 Directions for root-grafting : (a) Hold the stock or 
 scion which is to be cut in the left hand, with the end 
 supported by the index finger. 
 
 
 roots formed from 
 the base of the 
 scion. (From Nor- 
 mal Garden.)
 
 234 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 (t>) Now make a diagonal cut through the base of the 
 scion or the top of the stock, as the case may be. While 
 still holding it in this position, beginning one-third of 
 the length from the outer end of this cut, make a verti- 
 cal slit about an inch long. 
 
 (c) When the stock and scion are each thus prepared, 
 
 FIG. 75. STEPS IN ROOT-GRAFTING. 
 
 carefully insert the tongue of the one into the slit of the 
 other in such a manner as to bring the cambium layer 
 of the stock into direct contact with that of the scion 
 (Fig. 75), and wrap closely with No. 18 knitting cotton 
 or moist raffia. 
 
 (d) Cut this wrapping into foot lengths, and, begin- 
 ning at one end of the grafted parts, pass the thread 
 several times around, allowing one end of the thread to 
 be helJ beneath this wrapping. Now pass the thread on 
 up to the other end of. the graft, and wrap again, this 
 time fastening the free end of the thread by slipping it 
 firmly between the projecting and the united parts of 
 the graft, as in Fig. 75. This grafted stock when com- 
 pleted should be about eight or ten inches long.
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 (e) The whole root-grafts are made in ex- 
 actly the same way, the whole primary root, 
 of course, being used as the stock. 
 
 (f) These grafted stocks should now be 
 tied in bundles and packed in green sawdust, 
 or moist sand, until the weather is suitable 
 for them to be planted in the open ground. 
 The ground should be prepared for them by 
 very deep plowing and thorough pulverizing. 
 
 (g) These root-grafts should be planted 
 about six inches apart in rows four feet apart. 
 Pains should be taken to press the soil closely 
 about the roots, allowing but one bud to re- 
 main above the surface. 
 
 As a rule, they should be allowed to grow 
 two years before being transplanted to the 
 orchard, during which time clean cultivation 
 should be given throughout the growing 
 seasons. 
 
 (2) STEM-GRAFTING. In stem-graft- 
 ing, old or otherwise undesirable trees 
 are used as stocks. 
 
 (#) Top-grafting. The method of 
 grafting used most often in this work 
 is the cleft-graft, on account of the 
 large size of the stocks to be grafted. 
 For good results, however, the branches 
 used as stocks should not be much over 
 one and one-half inches in diameter. 
 
 It would be too great a shock to FIG - 76. DOR- 
 
 ,_! 11 f ^1 1 1 MANT Al'PI.E 
 
 the tree to remove all of the old top 
 
 in one season; consequently, a por- 1,2, 3, 4 are scions 
 
 * which may be cut 
 
 tion of it should be grafted each a a V
 
 236 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 successive season, for three or four seasons, until 
 the entire old top has been replaced. 
 
 Directions for top-grafting : (a) Time. This work 
 should be done in the spring, just before, or about the 
 time, the buds open, or even later, provided the scions can 
 be kept dormant, as in root-grafting. 
 
 (If) The stock is prepared by making a smooth, hori- 
 
 KIG. 77. STEPS IN STEM-GRAFTING. 
 
 zontal cut through the stem. A vertical slit about an 
 inch and one-half in length is now made down through 
 the center (Fig. 77). 
 
 (c) The scion is prepared by making two diagonal 
 cuts across the lower end, one on the opposite side of 
 the stem from the other, so as to form a wedge-shaped 
 point (Fig. 77). 
 
 (d) Since it doubles the chances of growth, two scions 
 should be inserted in each cleft, inclining them at a slight
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 337 
 
 angle, so as to insure, at least at the point of intersec- 
 tion, the close contact of the cambium layers (Fig. 77). 
 
 (e) All exposed cut surfaces should be carefully waxed, t) 
 keep out air and moisture. 
 
 Grafting-wax is made by breaking into small pieces 
 two to two and one-half parts (by weight) beeswax and 
 four to five parts resin, and melting them together with 
 one part of tallow or linseed oil. The greater the pro- 
 portion of resin and beeswax, the harder the grafting- 
 wax will be. When this mixture is melted, pour it into 
 cold water. As soon as it is cooled enough to handle, 
 remove the wax from the water and pull like taffy until 
 it becomes light colored. It may be applied with the 
 fingers, if the hands have been carefully greased, or ap- 
 plied with a little stick while the wax is hot, if care be 
 taken not to injure the parts waxed. 
 
 (<$) Crown-grafting. This method is gener- 
 ally used for shrubs, grape-vines, etc. 
 
 Directions : In crown-grafting the stock is prepared 
 by cutting off the plant at the surface of the ground. 
 
 The process is the same as that of top-grafting, the 
 only difference being \\\z. position of the graft. 
 
 IV. Layering. 
 
 This method of asexual reproduction differs 
 from that of cutting, budding, and grafting, in 
 that the new plant is rooted while still attached 
 to the parent plant. This is not only the sim- 
 plest, but also the most certain, method of bud 
 propagation wherever practicable. In nature 
 familiar examples of layering are the black rasp- 
 berry (Fig. 55), strawberry, and dewberry. In 
 fact, very many plants will send out roots if 
 brought in contact with moist soil.
 
 238 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 1. Simple Layering. Directions for layering : (a) 
 This is ordinarily done by merely bending down any 
 one of the lower side shoots, placing it in a slight depres- 
 sion, pegging it down with a forked stick, and covering 
 it with a few inches of mellow soil. In a dry season 
 it will be necessary to moisten this soil, and mulch it 
 with dry earth or grass. 
 
 (b) Under favorable conditions roots will form at the 
 buried node, and a new plant may be secured by separat- 
 ing the rooted shoot from the old plant. If more than 
 one plant is desired, bury as many nodes as the old 
 plant will sustain. 
 
 2. Mound Layering. A very simple process 
 called mound layering" is practiced where a num- 
 ber of new plants are desired from a single 
 parent. 
 
 Directions for mound layering: (a] The parent plant 
 is cut off at or near the surface of the ground before 
 growth begins in the spring, and is called the " stool." 
 By the following spring many shoots will have been 
 produced. 
 
 () The stool and the base of the shoots are mounded 
 up with soil to the depth of several inches. Roots will 
 be formed at the underground nodes of these the same 
 summer (Fig. 78). 
 
 (c) In autumn, or the following spring, the newly 
 rooted shoots may be removed from the stool and trans- 
 planted as individual plants. 
 
 (d) The same stool may be repeatedly used, if well 
 cared for by thorough cultivation and liberal applica- 
 tions of stable compost. 
 
 Any low, stubby plants as, the gooseberry, or even the 
 quince may be advantageously propagated by mound 
 layering.
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 239 
 
 Wherever the process of layering cannot be 
 performed by bending the branch to meet the 
 soil, the soil, or a substitute, may be lifted up 
 to the branch. There are various devices used 
 in doing this. 
 
 3. Pot Layering. (i) The limb which has been par- 
 
 no. 78. MOUNU LAYERING. 
 
 tially girdled in order to check the backward flow of 
 sap is surrounded by some moist material as, sphagnum 
 moss, vegetable fiber, or soil. This should be held in 
 place by merely wrapping the moss or fiber closely 
 about the wounded portion of the stem. This wrapping 
 should form a ball about five or six inches in diameter, 
 so that it will not dry out too quickly. This may be 
 further protected by an additional covering of a heavy 
 paper cone. 
 
 (2] Instead of the moss or fiber, layering pots contain- 
 ing soil may be used. 
 
 (a) A simple form of layering pot may be con- 
 trived from a tomato-can by cutting a hole in the 
 bottom of the can slightly larger than the stem to 
 be inclosed ; then make a slit down one side of the
 
 240 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 can and half-way across the bottom to the hole in the 
 center. 
 
 () Carefully spring the can far enough apart to admit 
 the limb (which should be well wrapped with cloth just 
 where it is encircled by the bottom of the can, to keep it 
 from being cut), and adjust it so that the girdled portion 
 will be in about the center of the can. 
 
 (t) Wrap the can securely in both directions with 
 wire, and support it by attaching the wire to an upper 
 limb 
 
 (d) Now fill the can with moist soil, and see that it is 
 kept moist. 
 
 (e) When the soil is filled with roots cut off the stem 
 below the can, prune back the top, and transplant where 
 desired. 
 
 An ingenious teacher may contrive many simple de- 
 vices for layering by using such material as is at hand, 
 as, chalk-boxes, etc. 
 
 (3) Where several layers are to be obtained at one 
 time from a tall shrub or small tree, a long box of soil 
 may be supported by a post beneath the twigs to be 
 layered. These must be pegged down in the soil until 
 rooted. For any particularly desirable bud variation 
 (" sport") this plan is especially advantageous. 
 
 C. REFERENCES. 
 
 " Top Working Orchard Trees." Year-book, 1902. 
 
 "The Superior Value of Large Heavy Seed." Year-book, 
 1896. 
 
 "Testing Seeds at Home." Year-book, 1895. 
 
 " Seed Selling, Seed Growing, and Seed Testing." Year-book, 
 1899. 
 
 "The Propagation of Plants." Farmers' Bulletin 157, United 
 States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 " The Apple and How to Grow It." Farmers' Bulletin, 113. 
 
 " Plant Propagation." Circular No. 13, Missouri Agricultural 
 Experiment Station.
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 241 
 
 " Orchard Technique." Bulletins 98, 99, 100, and 101, Virginia 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 "The Apple Orchard." Bulletin 49, Missouri Agricultural 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 "Orchard Management." Bulletin 59 Illinois Agricultural 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 " The Principles of Plant Production." Circular No. 15, Mis- 
 souri Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 " Principles of Plant Culture." Goff, 1899. Published by the 
 Author, Madison, Wis. 
 
 " Principles of Agriculture." Bailey. 1900. 10. 
 
 "Garden-making." Bailey. 1898. 10. 
 
 "The American Fruit Culturist." Thomas. 1897. William 
 Wood & Co., N. Y. 
 
 " Propagation of Plants." Fuller. 1887. Orange Judd Co., 
 N. Y. 
 
 "New Creations in Plant Life." Ilarvvood. 10.
 
 OUTLINE OF CHAPTER X, 
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 
 
 Basis of : 
 
 1. Variation. 
 
 2. Heredity. 
 
 3. Selection. 
 
 A. IMPROVEMENT OF EXISTING TYPES. 
 
 I. Selection of Seeds. 
 
 1. Table of Standards. 
 
 2. A Study in the Selection of Seeds. 
 
 II. Isolation of Seedlings. 
 
 III. Given Normal Conditions. 
 
 IV. Selection Should Be Repeated. 
 V. Example of Type Improvement. 
 
 B. ORIGINATING NEW VARIETIES. 
 I. Determining the Ideal. 
 
 1. Definite Characteristics. 
 
 2. Characteristics Chosen Along the Natural Develop- 
 
 ment. 
 
 3. Characteristics Must Harmonize with Each Other. 
 
 (1) EARLINESS. 
 
 (2) SIZE. 
 
 (3) NUMBER. 
 
 4. One Leading Characteristic. 
 
 249
 
 244 ' AGRICULTURE. 
 
 II. Variation Furnishes the Starting-point. 
 
 1. Variation of Seedlings. 
 
 2. Variation may be induced by 
 
 (1) ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES. 
 
 (a) Change in Food-supply. 
 
 (b) Light Relations. 
 
 (c) Pruning. 
 
 (2) CROSS-FERTILIZATION. 
 
 (a) Limits of Crossing. 
 (b} Varying Results of Crossing 
 (c} Process of Cross-pollination 
 3 Bud Variation, 
 
 HI. Fixing the Type. 
 
 C REFERENCES,
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 
 
 " Those who improve plants are true benefactors." 
 
 GOFF. 
 
 Variation, heredity, and selection form the 
 basis of all plant improvement. 
 
 1. Variation. It is evident that the first re- 
 quisite toward the improvement of plants must 
 be the power to vary ; for were it not possible 
 for plants to vary, no change could take place. 
 It is these individual differences that make one 
 plant more desirable than another, and that/?/r- 
 nisJi the starting-point for the improvement of 
 the existing type, or for the origination of a new 
 variety, 
 
 2. Heredity. While variation furnishes the 
 starting-point, the desired characteristics would 
 be of no avail in plant improvement were it not 
 possible for them to be transmitted by heredity. 
 
 3. Selection. By continued selection through 
 a number of generations, the characteristics fur- 
 nished by variation are preserved and accumu- 
 lated through heredity. 
 
 ^.IMPROVEMENT OF EXISTING TYPES. 
 
 When the object desired is simply to improve 
 a given variety, individual plants can be found 
 
 245
 
 246 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 in any field or garden crop which are especially 
 good representatives of the existing type. 
 
 I. Selection of Seeds. 
 
 The very first thing to be done is to select 
 the most perfectly developed seeds from those 
 particular plants which most nearly conform to 
 the standard of perfection for that type. 
 
 Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. 
 
 FIG. 7Q. VARIATION IN GRAINS OF CORN. 
 
 No. i is best since the grains are full and plump at the tips next the cob, and 
 have large germs indicating strong vitality and feeding value. Nos. 2, 11, and 
 12 are the next best forms in order. Nos. 5, 6, and 7 are weak, with low feeding 
 value and small percentage of corn to cob. Since the grains p.re not uniform 
 in size, the planter will not drop the same number in each hill. These grains 
 were taken from ears that appeared to be good when examined from the 
 standpoint of the ear, and shows the importance of paying more attention to 
 the selection of grain from the seed ears of corn. 
 
 EXERCISE 10. A Study in Corn fudging. (a) Procure 
 a half-bushel of mixed or unimproved corn and ten or 
 twelve ears of an improved variety of corn. 
 
 (b] Judge and score the improved or standard variety 
 of corn according to the points and directions on the 
 score card. 
 
 (c) Judge and score the mixed corn. 
 
 (</) Select ten of the best ears of the mixed or unim-
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 
 
 SCORE CARD. 
 
 CORN. 
 
 SCALE OF POINTS 
 
 Perfect 
 
 Student's 
 Estimates 
 
 Corrected 
 
 
 I. Uniformity of Exhibit. Uniform in size, 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 2. Maturity and Market Condition. Ma- 
 ture and solid, free from decay or injury 
 3. Purity, a. Kernels freedom from mixture 
 
 10 
 5 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 5. Proportion of Length to Circumference. 
 
 
 
 
 
 6. Shape and Uniformity of Kernels. Wedge 
 shape and not pointed, length 1 1 /2 times 
 
 10 
 10 
 5 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 7. Character of Germs. Full, bright, 
 smooth, not shriveled, or discolored 
 8. Butts. Well-rounded, regular kernels, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9. Tips. Filled out with regular sized ker- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 11. Per Cent, of Corn to Ear. (84 per cent.) 
 per cent 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VARIETY MEASUREMENTS. 
 
 Length Circumference 
 
 Reid's Yellow Dent 10-10^2 7 54 -7 /^ 
 
 Learning io-ioJ/2 lYi-lYi. 
 
 St. Charles Yellow 10-11 7^-S 
 
 Boone County White 10-1 1 7/^-S 
 
 Farmers' Interest 10-1 1 714-7^4 
 
 St. Charles White 9-10 7'/J* 
 
 Silvermine 9-9/4 7'7/4 
 
 Gartner 8^-9^ 7'7?4 
 
 Student's Name 
 
 Date.
 
 248 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 HOW TO APPLY THE POINTS OF THE SCORE CARD. 
 
 Uniformity of Exhibit. (15) The ears of an exhibit should be uniform 
 in size, color and indentation. The 15 points allow 5 to be given for size, 
 5 to color, and 5 to indentation. Each ear may be cut as much as one- 
 half point under each of these heads. For each ear that is larger or 
 smaller than the prevailing type cut one-fourth to one-half point. For each 
 ear of different shade or color from the prevailing type cut one-fourth to 
 one-half point. For each ear that differs in indentation from prevailing 
 type cut one-fourth to one-half point. The sum of these cuts gives the 
 total cut of uniformity of exhibit. 
 
 Maturity and Market Condition. (10) Each ear should be solid and 
 free from injury or decayed spots. Each ear showing a marked degree of 
 looseness should be cut not to exceed one point. For ears less imperfect 
 in this respect a cut of one-fourth to three-fourths may be made. Ears 
 showing rotten spots or injuries should be cut one-fourth to one-half point 
 each. 
 
 Purity Kernels. (5) Kernels should be free from mixture with corn 
 of opposite color. Mixture in yellow corn is shown on caps of kernels in 
 white corn on the sides. For each mixed kernel in an ear cut one-fourth 
 point. 
 
 Purity Cobs. (5) Cobs should be of one color; in yellow corn, 
 red; and in white corn, white. (Except St. Charles White.) For each cob 
 of opposite color cut 2 points. For pink cobs cut one-fourth to one-half 
 point, according to shade. Two cobs of opposite color shall bar exhibit. 
 
 Shape of Ear. (10) Ears should be as nearly cylindrical as possible. 
 A cylindrical ear usually means a greater per cent of corn to cob and a 
 larger number of kernels of uniform size and shape for planting. Cut 
 one-fourth to one point for each ear that tapers too greatly. 
 
 Proportion of Length to Circumference. (10) The ratio of length to 
 circumference should be as 4 to 3, or the circumference measured at a 
 point one-third the distance from butt to tip should be three-fourths the 
 length of the ear. Cut one point for each ear markedly out of proportion. 
 
 Shape and Uniformity of Kernels. (10) The ideal kernel is slightly 
 wedge-shaped but not pointed, the length of which is approximately one 
 and one-half times as great as the width at the widest part. For each ear 
 showing kernels of poor shape, or kernels which are larger or smaller than 
 the prevailing type, cut one-fourth to one point. Should an ear have ker- 
 nels deficient in both uniformity and shape cut two points. 
 
 Character of Germ. (10) Germ should be full, smooth, bright, not 
 blistered, shriveled, or discolored. When broken it should show a fresh, brit- 
 tle, oily appearance. Cut not more than one point for each ear showing 
 inferior germs. 
 
 Butts. (5) An ideal butt on an ear of corn should be well-rounded 
 out, with deep, regular kernels, solidly and evenly compacted around a 
 clean cup-shaped cavity. Cut not to exceed one-half point for each de- 
 fective butt. 
 
 Tips. (5) The tip should be filled out to the end with deep kernels in 
 regular rows. The ideal tip is completely covered, but if kernels are deep 
 and regular to end of cob no cut need be made. Cut not to exceed one-half 
 point for each tip. 
 
 Space Between Rows. (5) Furrows between rows should be narrow 
 but not entirely closed. Cut not to exceed one-half point for each ear 
 seriously deficient in this respect. 
 
 Per Cent of Corn to Ear. (10) The per cent of corn to ear should 
 not be under 84. A high per cent of shelled corn is desirable, but too small 
 cobs do not favor a large yield of corn per acre. Cut not to exceed one 
 point for each ear markedly deficient in this respect, or where the sample 
 is shelled and weighed, cut one and one-half points for each per cent 
 which the sample averages below 84.
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 249 
 
 proved corn and compare them with the improved vari- 
 ety of corn. 
 
 How do they compare as to per cent, of corn? How 
 many of the best ears of your improved corn would it 
 take to make a bushel (56 pounds) of shelled corn ? 
 How many of the best ears of the mixed corn would it 
 take? Do you know which yields the more per stalk? 
 Which requires the more ground to grow a bushel of 
 shelled corn? Which requires the more seed to plant 
 the ground ? Which requires the more labor to produce 
 the bushel ? Which, then, is the more economical and 
 profitable kind to grow ? 
 
 II. Isolation of Seedlings. 
 
 The selected seeds should be planted in a place 
 where they will be isolated from other plants of 
 the same or of a different variety with which 
 they would readily mix, else they would be 
 contaminated by their neighbors ; for if they 
 were not isolated from other individuals of the 
 same variety, they would probably mix with in- 
 ferior ones, and the improvement would, there- 
 fore, be less. For this reason, also, it would be 
 well to weed out from the seedlings of the 
 selected seeds all inferior plants before the 
 pollen ripens. 
 
 If these selected seeds were planted near a 
 different variety, the two varieties might mix, 
 and the resulting offspring, in all probability, 
 would not conform to the type. 
 
 * It may seem to some that undue importance is placed upon 
 the details of this study. But comparatively few persons realize 
 the bearing of careful, intelligent selection upon the improve- 
 ment of the agricultural products of America.
 
 250 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 III. Given Normal Conditions. 
 
 The seedlings should be kept under normal 
 conditions, for any variation in the conditions 
 would have a tendency to induce variation in 
 the plant (see "Variation," p. 214). 
 
 IV. Selection Should Be Repeated 
 
 from generation to generation, so that these 
 type characteristics may be transmitted, accu- 
 mulated, and fixed ; thus will result the improve 
 ment of the type. 
 
 V. Example of Type Improvement. 
 
 As an example of the improvement of the 
 existing type may be given the Boone County 
 white corn improved by Mr. James Riley, of 
 Indiana. He took for his type a fine white sort, 
 selecting seed from the best-formed plants bear- 
 ing one or two well-formed ears. He con- 
 tinued this selection for a number of years. In 
 addition to this he went through the fields just 
 as the tassels were appearing and cut out all 
 imperfect and barren stalks. In this way the 
 type was improved, as is shown in Fig. 80. * 
 
 B. ORIGINATING NEW VARIETIES. 
 
 I. Determining the Ideal. 
 
 I. The first step in originating a new variety 
 is to determine definitely the characteristics 
 which one wishes to develop in the new plant. 
 
 * Let each student prepare a definite, original, feasible, plan 
 for the improvement of some promising existing type which 
 needs improving.
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 
 
 JIG. 8O. IMPROVEMENT OF CORN BY SELECTION. 
 
 Boone County white on left, and the original type from which it was developed 
 by selection on right. 
 
 2. These desired characteristics must be 
 chosen along" the line of the natural development 
 of the plant. In this way not only is the time 
 lessened in reaching the desired variety, but the 
 attainment of that variety is much more nearly 
 certain. 
 
 3. These characteristics must be in harmony 
 with each other. 
 
 (i) For example, if earliness is especially 
 desired, size must not be expected, as in the 
 earliest varieties for example, sweet corn the 
 size not only of the ears but of the whole plant 
 is much reduced.
 
 252 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 (2) If size is desired, time and number must 
 often be sacrificed. As Emerson says, " For 
 everything you have missed, you have gained 
 something else ; and for everything you gain, 
 you lose something." The Ponderosa tomato 
 is a good example of increased size at the ex- 
 pense of number. A single plant bears about a 
 dozen immense tomatoes. 
 
 (3) If number is to be increased, then size 
 must necessarily be diminished. Of this the 
 little preserving tomato affords a good example. 
 A single plant sometimes yields several hundred 
 tomatoes. 
 
 4. There should prevail one leading charac- 
 teristic. Continued selection should be made 
 with this predominating character in mind. If 
 high flavor is the one character most desired, 
 then all other characters must be made subor- 
 dinate. In case other desirable qualities are 
 found combined with high flavor in the same 
 plant, as is often the case, it would then be ad- 
 vantageous to breed from that plant. For ex- 
 ample, in breeding for high flavor in the straw- 
 berry, those plants should be chosen which 
 possess the highest flavor, other characters 
 being given secondary consideration ; but if 
 individual plants can be found which combine 
 both qualities, prolificacy and flavor, it would, of 
 course, be advisable to propagate from those 
 particular plants.
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 353 
 
 II. Variation Furnishes the Starting-point. 
 
 1. Variation of Seedlings. When the charac- 
 teristics of the desired variety have been defi- 
 nitely determined, then if one will diligently and 
 carefully search among his plants, he may find 
 
 owing to variation individuals which possess 
 these characters in a more marked degree than 
 do the others. But if such individuals are not 
 found, then 
 
 2. Variation maybe induced by (i) ENVIRON- 
 MENTAL CHANGES. 
 
 Important among these is () a change in 
 food-supply. Darwin says: "Of all the causes 
 which induce variability, excess of food, whether 
 or not changed in nature, is probably the most 
 powerful." 
 
 If heavy foliage and rank-growing plants rep- 
 resent the " ideal,'* they should be given a liberal 
 supply of nitrogeneous food (see " Effect of 
 Nitrogen," Chapter IV.) If dwarf size and 
 fruitfulness are the desired characters, then 
 foods containing potash and phosphorus should 
 be substituted. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 26. (a) To show variation induced by 
 change of food supply. Secure one-half bushel of pure 
 white sand, and sterilize^ it by thoroughly baking it in 
 a hot oven. 
 
 (<) The tomato, geranium, etc., are suitable plants for 
 this experiment. Select three small, similarly developed 
 plants grown from cuttings of the same stock (see page 
 220).
 
 254 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 (f) Pot these plants in similar-sized small pots, re- 
 potting as the sand in each pot becomes filled with roots 
 Place them under similar conditions as regards light 
 air, temperature, and water. Label the pots i, 2, and 3. 
 (</) Prepare stock solution No. i, containing the es- 
 sential elements of plant-food in approximately the 
 proper proportions, by thoroughly pulverizing and dis- 
 solving in 1,000 parts of water (say 1,000 c. c.} 15 parts 
 monocalcium phosphate, 20 parts potassium sulphate, 
 2 parts magnesium sulphate, 30 parts sodium nitrate, 
 and 2 parts sodium chloride adding a few drops of some 
 soluble iron compound. 
 
 Prepare stock solution No. 2 in every way like No. i, 
 except that you leave out the sodium nitrate. 
 
 Prepare stock solution No. 3 similar to No. i, except 
 that you leave out the potassium sulphate. (The mineral 
 matter will not entirely dissolve, so these solutions 
 should be well shaken before using.) 
 
 (e) When watering plant No. i, occasionally add a 
 definite amount of solution No. i. (The condition of the 
 plant must be the guide as to the time and amount of 
 this food-supply.) Begin with a small amount, and 
 gradually increase or diminish it. 
 
 At the same time add to the water used in watering 
 plant No. 2 the same amount from stock solution No. 2, 
 and to that used in watering plant No. 3 add the same 
 amount of stock solution No. 3. 
 
 (/) Measurements and observations should be taken 
 at stated times during several months upon the follow- 
 ing points: Number, size, and color of leaves of each of 
 these plants; hight and mean circumference of their 
 stems; number and size of branches; time of flowering; 
 number and character of blossoms; and in the tomato, 
 the number, size, and quality of fruits. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 27. If for any reason the above experi- 
 ment is not practicable, substitute (a) ordinary soil (no 1
 
 256 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 rich soil) for the sand; select the plants, and label the 
 pots as in above experiment. 
 
 () When watering the plant in pot No. 2, add a small 
 but definite amount of water leeched from wood ashes; 
 when watering the one in pot No. 3, add the same 
 amount of water leached from stable compost; when 
 watering pot No. i, add the same amount of each. As 
 above, the condition of the plants must determine the 
 time and amount of the food-supply. 
 
 (c) Make the same observations and comparisons as 
 in Experiment 26 (/). 
 
 ($) Light is another factor in inducing vari- 
 ation among plants. Light, in some degree, is 
 essential to the growth of all green plants. 
 Hence, all such plants strive to adapt themselves 
 with reference to their light relations (#) in 
 the arrangement of their leaves by the rosette 
 habit (Fig. 81), as in the plantain and dande- 
 lion; (^) in the manner of branching and leaf- 
 arrangement of trees; (V) in the elongation of 
 and direction of the stems, as in the trees and 
 vines of a dense forest; or ( <? r ) by turning to- 
 ward the light, as in the sunflower. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 28. The student should be required to 
 make actual observations and measurements of the 
 variations of plants for adaptation to light from those 
 plants of the same kind grown in the light and in the 
 dark or partial darkness. 
 
 EXPERIMENT 29.* Let him try to produce a voluble^ 
 stem by starting some erect plant as, the potato or 
 tomato in a darkened place, so arranged that light is 
 admitted only from one small opening (about three 
 inches square) at one side and above the plant. When it
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 
 
 25? 
 
 has made a growth of several inches, 
 place a round, straight stick in the pot 
 for its support, and bind it to it with a 
 soft string, leaving about two inches of 
 the top of the plant free. When this free 
 portion has bent directly toward the 
 light, gradually turn the pot so that as 
 the tip again turns toward the light the 
 stem will at the same time make a par- 
 tial revolution around the support. 
 (Fig. 82). 
 
 Continue turning the pot in this 
 manner throughout the growth of the 
 plant. As the plant develops, it would 
 be well to give it more light, but this 
 should always be obtained from a 
 northern exposure. 
 
 (c^) Variation Induced by 
 Pruning (Fig. 83). Not only is 
 the food-supply distributed to a 
 less number of branches, thereby 
 increasing the amount to each 
 branch, but the form of the en- 
 tire plant can be greatly modified 
 by pruning. 
 
 Buds or branches may be ac- 
 cidentally destroyed or intention- 
 ally removed. As an example of 
 variation induced by accident 
 may be given the origination of the Burpee 
 Bush Lima bean. 
 
 In 1883 " Mr. Palmer's entire crop of large 
 White Pole Limas was destroyed by cutworms," 
 
 FIG. 82. POTATO 
 PLANT. 
 
 Voluble stem pro- 
 duced by Experi- 
 ment 29.
 
 258 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 He found one little plant which had been cut 
 off about an inch above the ground, and had put 
 out a new growth. " It bore three pods, each 
 containing one seed." 1 These were 
 planted the next spring, resulting in 
 two dwarf plants. From these, by 
 continued selection, the Burpee 
 Bush Lima was de- 
 veloped. 
 
 Suggestion : If 
 the school does not 
 own a garden plot, 
 the teacher should 
 secure a vacant lot 
 by paying a small 
 rental, or, perhaps, 
 by sharing the 
 products. If this 
 is not possible, then 
 
 FIG. 83. MODIFICATIONS OK COSMOS 
 
 BY PRUNING. the work of pruning 
 
 and cross-pollina- 
 tion must be done by those members of the 
 class who can have access to private gardens, 
 and their results reported to the class. 
 
 If it is desired to secure a stout, bushy plant, 
 instead of a tall, single-stemmed one, let the 
 student take the chrysanthemum or cosmos for 
 example. 
 
 Bailey's Plant- Jireetfing, page
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS, 259 
 
 EXPERIMENT 30. (a) As soon as the terminal bud has 
 become quite distinct, it should be removed. 
 
 (/;) The development of lateral branches should be 
 carefully watched and their terminal buds removed. 
 
 (r) This should be continued at will, according to the 
 form of the plant desired (Fig. 83). 
 
 EXPERIMENT 31. If size of blossom or of fruit is de- 
 sired, all but a few of the flower buds should be removed, 
 allowing those which are most advantageously situated 
 in regard to light and food supply to remain. 
 
 The chrysanthemum or cosmos will afford good mate- 
 rial for this experiment with reference to size of 
 blossom, while the tomato will furnish excellent material 
 with regard to size of fruit. 
 
 The modifications of the plant and the bene- 
 fits to be derived from the various methods of 
 pruning 1 will be further discussed under the gen- 
 eral subject of pruning. 
 
 (2) Variation may be induced by CROSS-FER- 
 TILIZATION. It may be possible that no plant 
 can yet be found which combines the essential 
 characteristics of the " ideal." In that case it 
 would be advisable to select two plants, each of 
 which possesses one or more of these characters, 
 and to try to combine these in one plant by 
 means of cross-fertilization. 
 
 The Trophy tomato well illustrates the com- 
 bination in one plant of the desired characters 
 of two separate plants. In 1850, Dr. Hand, of 
 Baltimore County, Maryland, desired to unite 
 the large size and firm flesh of the compound, 
 much convoluted tomato with the smooth skin
 
 260 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 of the small, juicy Love Apple. By cross- 
 fertilization " he succeeded in putting the solid 
 mass of this compound growth into the smooth 
 skin of the Love Apple, and then, by careful 
 selection and cultivation year after year, in- 
 creased its size and solidity until it became a 
 mass of flesh interspersed with small seed cells." 
 
 Another good example is that of the varie- 
 gated hybrid carnation produced by crossing 
 the pink variety (Scott) with the white Mc- 
 Gowan (see colored plate). 
 
 (ft) Limits of Crossing. The two plants to 
 be crossed must be members of the same family 
 and of species, or varieties which are in some 
 way closely allied. But even among these it is 
 impossible to determine, without actual experi- 
 ment, just what plants will cross with each other. 
 
 This uncertainty of crossing among plants is 
 exemplified in the case of the pumpkin (Cucur- 
 bita pepd) and squash (Cucurbita maxima], 
 which are species of the same genus, yet will 
 not cross.* While with the strawberry and rasp- 
 berry, which belong to different genera, a cross 
 has been obtained. 
 
 (<$) Varying Results of Crossing. Even when 
 a fertile cross is obtained, it may not show the 
 desired characters in the first generation. f It 
 
 * Year-book, 1897, p. 389. 
 
 f " The first generation is constituted by plants grown from the 
 seeds produced by the cross-pollinated flowers." Year-book, 1897, 
 p. 392.
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 261 
 
 should be borne in mind that " the possibilities 
 are by no means exhausted, but it is quite pos- 
 sible that the descendants of these hybrids will 
 yield valuable sorts." 
 
 In many cases the cross, or its descendants, 
 may possess the desired characters of one 
 parent, while those desired from the other parent 
 may be entirely lacking. In that case "it would 
 be advisable to cross the offspring with that 
 parent * whose characteristics did not appear; 
 for, by so doing the tendency to transmit those 
 particular characters will be increased, for this 
 tendency is itself variable. "~|~ 
 
 At the same time, the individual plants of the 
 original cross should not be discarded for sev- 
 eral generations, for there is in the offspring a 
 slight atavistic^ tendency, or a tendency to re- 
 vert to the character of some remote ancestor; 
 hence, at any time an individual plant may 
 appear which presents the very characters 
 desired. 
 
 In no instance can the plant-improver afford 
 to neglect any condition or advantage which 
 will tend to induce the desired variation. 
 
 (c] Process of Cross-pollination. This con- 
 sists in the transference of pollen from a flower 
 of one plant selected to be crossed to the stigma 
 of a flower from the other plant selected. In 
 
 * Year-book, l8gg, p. 484. 
 ^Year-book, 1898, pp. 355-357-
 
 262 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 order to do this, it is simply necessary to under- 
 stand the nature and arrangement of the parts 
 of a flower (Fig. 84). 
 
 K 
 
 FIG. 84. THE PARTS OK A FLOWKR. 
 
 Parts of a Flower. A typical flower consists of four kinds 
 of organs (calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil), the parts of which 
 vary in form and number in the flowers of different species. 
 
 Starting from the oulside, the first whorl is the calyx (ex}, the 
 separate parts of which are the sepals, usually green. The 
 whorl just within the calyx is the corolla (<), composed of petals, 
 which are often bright colored. 
 
 Within the corolla are the stamens (s), consisting of filament, or 
 stalk, and anther, or pollen-sac. In the center of the flower is 
 the pistil (/>), a stalk-like organ, the upper portion of which is 
 somewhat rough and swollen, and is known as the stigma (s/). 
 The stamens and pistil are the only organs concerned in reprc- 
 duction, the others being merely accessory. 
 
 The organs concerned in fertilization are the 
 stamens (male organs) and the pistils (female 
 organs). In many plants both stamens and pis- 
 tils are borne on the same flower as, the bean 
 and pea ; in others they are borne on the same
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 263 
 
 plant but in separate flowers as, the corn and 
 cucumber ; while in still others they are pro- 
 duced on separate plants as, the ash and box 
 elder. 
 
 In case both stamens and pistils are borne on 
 the same flower, the anthers must be removed 
 
 a b c 
 
 Kid. 85. ORANGE BUI) AND 1H.OSSOMS. 
 a Orange bud. b Mature orange blossom. r An emasculated flower. 
 
 before the pollen is shed, to prevent self-fertili- 
 zation. To be sure of this, they should be re- 
 moved before the bud is fully opened (Fig. 85, 
 a), and in certain cases as, wheat, etc. in 
 even an earlier stage, since pollination takes 
 place before the bud opens. 
 
 Directions for cross-pollination: (a) The bud should be 
 carefully opened to expose the anthers (Fig. 85, b}, which 
 should be picked off (Fig. 85, c] with a pair of tweezers, or 
 cut off with a pair of tiny scissors. The best results will 
 be obtained by selecting two or three of the strongest 
 flowers of the cluster for emasculation, and removing 
 all others. 
 
 (b} The flower cluster thus treated should be at once 
 enclosed in a paper bag, the open end of which should 
 have been slightly moistened by quickly dipping it in
 
 264 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 water. Now the bag should be carefully tied around 
 the twig, below the flower cluster, so as to insure the 
 exclusion of insects and undesirable pollen (Fig 860). 
 
 (c) The bag should be removed from time to time 
 and the stigma examined with a hand-lens, to see if it is 
 ready to receive the pollen. This can usually be told 
 
 FIG. 86. 
 
 ORANGE FLOWKR 
 
 Knclosed in paper bag after 
 
 emasculation. 
 
 FIG. 866. NEARLY MATURE 
 
 HYBRID ORANGE 
 
 Knclosed in gauze bag to prevent 
 
 loss by dropping. 
 
 by the presence of a mucilaginous excretion, or by 
 the appearance of papillae upon the surface of the 
 stigma. 
 
 (;/) It should not be forgotten that the flowers from 
 the other plant selected to be crossed must likewise be 
 protected from insects and foreign pollen. This is done 
 by enclosing the entire floxver cluster in a paper bag be- 
 fore the bud opens. 
 
 (e) When the anthers begin to open, the pollen should 
 be collected, labeled, and kept until the stigma is ready 
 to be fertilized. Then the pollen is gently applied to the 
 stigma by means of a fine-pointed scalpel or even a pen 
 knife.
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 265 
 
 (/) When the stigma is pollinated, it should be re- 
 sacked and labeled. 
 
 (g) After the fruit is set, it might be well to replace 
 the paper sack with a gauze one (Fig. 866), which 
 should be allowed to remain until the fruit is ripe, thus 
 freely admitting air and light, yet affording protection 
 from insects and birds, and preventing its loss by falling 
 or being picked through mistake. 
 
 3. Bud Variation. It may be that a single 
 branch may show new and striking- characters 
 (Fig. 87), and possibly very desirable ones; for 
 example, the smooth skin of the nectarine is the 
 product of a bud variation of the peach, and the 
 mossy stem of the moss-rose is also a bud varia- 
 tion or so-called sport.* 
 
 It becomes necessary to perpetuate such varia- 
 tions by bud propagation, since the characters of 
 the plant as a whole are more likely to be re- 
 produced through the seed, even of that partic- 
 ular branch, than are the characters of a single 
 branch. f 
 
 III. Fixing the Type. 
 
 It must be remembered that thus far only a 
 starting-point for a variety has been obtained. 
 It yet remains "to fix" that variety that is, to 
 make it "come true" from seed. This requires 
 far more skill and patience than the work of 
 securing the desired variation in the first place. 
 
 "Selection is the force which augments, de- 
 
 Bailey's Plant Breeding, p. 161. f Year-book, 1898, 357.
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 FIG. 87. COSMOS FT.OWERS. 
 From same stem, showing variation. 
 
 velops, and fixes type." When a seedling 
 possesses desirable qualities, " it is almost in- 
 variably necessary to render these characters 
 hereditary by careful and continued selection 
 and in-and-inbreeding through several gen- 
 
 erations. 
 
 Year-book, 1897, p. 408.
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF PLANTS. 
 
 26? 
 
 While the tendency of the plant to vary is so 
 essential in furnishing the starting-point for a 
 new variety, it is also the most difficult factor 
 to overcome in making that variety approach a 
 fixed type ; for out of a number of seeds from 
 ihe plant having the desired characters, only one 
 
 IST YEAR 2oYtAR 3D YEAR 4THYEAR SrnYEAR 
 
 SEUCT PLANT (1 
 
 5 ACRES 
 
 K 
 
 GENERAL CROP 
 
 SELECT PLANT (1 
 
 SELECT PLflNTM 
 
 SCLECT PLANTf 1 
 
 FIG. 88. DIAGRAM SHOWING METHOD OF SELECTING AND 
 IMPROVING SEED. 
 
 may come true. In that case, seeds should be 
 used from that one plant only, and these planted 
 in an isolated place. Possibly the next genera- 
 tion may furnish several of the desired, plants, 
 and again seed must be selected only from 
 these. 
 
 IVitJi selection, isolation, and cultivation con- 
 tinued for many generations, one may hope to 
 obtain seeds the majority of which will come
 
 268 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 true. But the work of selecting the best seeds 
 from the most uniform and typical plants must 
 never be neglected, or the plants will in time 
 revert to degenerate types. 
 
 If inbreeding is not possible, the variety may 
 be perpetuated by bud propagation where prac- 
 ticable ; indeed, in many cases it is the possi- 
 bility of propagating by buds that makes the 
 crossing of plants profitable.* 
 
 C REFERENCES. 
 
 "Progress in Plant and Animal Breeding." Year-book, 1901. 
 United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 " Progress of Plant Breeding in the United States." Year- 
 book. 1899. 
 
 "Hybrids and Their Utilization in Plant Breeding," Year- 
 book, 1897. 
 
 " Influence of Environment in the Origination of Plant Varie- 
 ties." Year-book, 1896. 
 
 "Improvement of Corn by Seed Selection." Year-book, 1902. 
 
 "Pollination of Pomaceous Fruits." Year-book, 1898. 
 
 " Improvement of Plants by Selection." Year-book, 1898. 
 
 "The Improvement of Our Native Fruits." Year-book, 1896. 
 
 " Every Farm an Experiment Station." Year-book, 1897. 
 
 " Improvement of Corn by Seed Selection." Missouri Agri- 
 cultural Experiment Station. 
 
 "The A. B.C. of Corn Culture." P. G. Holden. n. 
 
 " Plant Breeding." Bailey, 1897. 10. 
 
 " Principles of Plant Culture." Goff, 1899. Published by 
 author. 
 
 "Self-Origination of Species and Cross-Fertilization." Dar- 
 w'n. 9. 
 
 Variations of Animals and Plants Under Domestication. 
 Darwin. 9. 
 
 " Origin of Cultivated Plants." De Candolle. i. 
 
 * Bailey's Plant-Breeding, p. 51.
 
 OUTLINE OF CHAPTER XL 
 
 PRUNING OF PLANTS. 
 
 General Principles. 
 
 1. Development of the Organism. 
 
 2. Purpose of the Plant to Itself. 
 
 3. Mutual Relation Between Root and Top. 
 
 A. HOW TO PRUNE 
 
 I. Nature of the Wound. 
 
 1. Function of the Cambium. 
 
 2. Effect of Improper Pruning. 
 
 II. Removal of Large Limbs. 
 
 III. Treatment of Wounds. 
 
 1. Pine Tar. 
 
 2. Grafting-wax. 
 
 3. Lead Paint. 
 
 IV. Pruning Back of Small Limbs. 
 
 1. Removal of Buds. 
 
 2. Removal of New Growth. 
 
 B. WHEN TO PRUNE. 
 
 I. Fall Pruning. 
 
 1. Advantages : 
 
 (1) CONSERVES FOOD. 
 
 (2) PREVENTS DISEASE. 
 
 2. Disadvantage : 
 
 NOT CONDUCIVE TO HEALING. 
 
 269
 
 270 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 II. Spring Pruning. 
 
 1. Advantage : 
 
 CONDUCIVE TO MEALING. 
 
 2. Disadvantage : 
 
 WASTE OF FOOD. 
 
 III. Summer Pruning. 
 
 (See A. IV, i.) 
 
 C. WHY TO PRUNE, 
 
 I. Pruning at Transplanting. 
 
 1 . Trees for Fruit. 
 
 2. Trees for Timber. 
 
 3. Trees for Shade. 
 
 II. Pruning to Induce Fruitfulness. 
 
 III. Pruning to Prevent Overbearing 
 
 IV. Pruning Hardy Shrubs. 
 
 >. REFERENCES:
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 PRUNING OF PLANTS. 
 
 I. General Principles. 
 
 Sound reasoning is the first requisite to suc- 
 cess in pruning. 
 
 1. It should be borne in mind that the first 
 work of importance in growing a plant is the 
 development of a strong, well-formed organism. 
 This development depends upon selection, 
 pruning, food supply, and other environmental 
 conditions. 
 
 2. The basic principle of all subsequent prun- 
 ing is the fact that the paramount purpose of 
 tJie plant (/<? itself^) is that of perpetuating the 
 species, and that it does this both asexually and 
 sexually. 
 
 Asexual reproduction is accomplished by the 
 formation of buds, which develop into branches. 
 These may or may not become separate plants. 
 
 Sexual reproduction is accomplished by the 
 formation of buds, which develop into flowers 
 and fruit, the seed of which give rise to separate 
 plants. One of these methods of reproduction 
 is apt to predominate, and hence the food 
 supply will be taken for its support at the ex- 
 pense of the other method. 
 
 271
 
 272 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Pruning is an important factor in regulating 
 and, in a measure, controlling these two adverse 
 tendencies of the plant to suit man's purposes. 
 
 3. Another point which must not be over- 
 looked is the ^mutual relation between root and 
 top. In the normally developed plant there is a 
 state of equilibrium between the leaf-system and 
 the root-system. As the top develops there 
 must be a corresponding development of roots 
 to supply the crude material to be converted 
 into food by the leaves, and in turn there must 
 be a corresponding growth of the leaf-system 
 if the root-system is to be enlarged in order to 
 convert the crude material into food for the 
 growth of new roots. Hence, when this equi- 
 librium is disturbed, either accidentally or on 
 purpose, the plant bends its energies to restore 
 it. Thus it is that pruning the roots checks 
 the growth of top, and pruning the top not only 
 checks the growth of roots, but gives increased 
 food supply to the remaining parts. 
 
 A. HOW TO PRUNE. 
 
 I. Nature of the Wound. 
 
 It will be seen from a careful study of a cross- 
 section of astern (Fig. 89), that in order for the 
 cut surface to heal it must be in direct commu- 
 nication with the cambium layer of the support- 
 ing stem. 
 
 i. Function of the Cambium. The process
 
 PRUNING OF PLANTS. 
 
 273 
 
 FIG. 89. DIAGRAMMATIC CROSS-SECTION OF A BASSWOOD STEM 
 
 TWO YEARS OLD. 
 p Pith, m Medullary rays, c Cambium, vb Vascular bundle. 
 
 of healing is carried on by the throwing out of 
 new tissue at the cut edge of the cambium, which 
 gradually rolls out from 
 the circumference to- 
 ward the center of the 
 wound (Fig. 90), where 
 in time it unites and 
 forms a continuous layer 
 of cambium, which gives 
 rise to both wood and 
 bark cells, as in any other 
 portion of the stem. 
 
 It is of tJie utmost im- 
 portance that in remov- 
 
 f KIG. QO. IMPROPER AND PROPER 
 
 ing the limb the cut PRUNING. 
 
 - - , ., , a Cannot heal, b Healing. 
 
 should be made in such 
 
 a manner as to bring all parts of its circumfer-
 
 274 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ence as near as possible to the supporting 
 stem. This is done by making the cut surface 
 parallel to it (Fig. 90) ; for in this case the cut 
 edge of the cambium still receives its food 
 supply from the supporting stem. 
 
 2. Effect of Improper Pruning. But if the 
 limb is cut off so as to leave a projecting stub, 
 healing cannot take place, since the prepared 
 food for the support of this branch was elab- 
 orated by its leaves and sent toward the trunk; 
 the supply having been removed, the cambium 
 layer of this stub cannot grow. As a result, not 
 only will the healing be prevented, but the cam- 
 bium and bark will die back, leaving an unsightly 
 stub of wood to rot down to the supporting 
 limb or trunk ; and when the stub drops out, 
 dust, water, and fungi, or other vegetation, will 
 collect in the cavity left (Fig. 91), and thus in- 
 troduce disease and decay into the heart of the 
 tree, weakening its structure and possibly de- 
 stroying it. 
 
 II. Removal of Large Limbs. 
 
 Should it become necessary to remove a large 
 limb, it would be advisable to saw it off about a 
 foot from the trunk of the tree, so there would 
 be less danger of splitting down the trunk by 
 the weight of the limb. This danger would be 
 further lessened by making two cuts the first 
 below the limb to about the center, the second 
 cut above the limb and just beyond the first cut,
 
 J Slc 
 
 \S B C 
 
 w 
 
 111
 
 276 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 as in Fig. 93. The remaining stub should now be 
 sawed off close to the trunk (see Fig. 90, 6). 
 
 III. Treatment of 
 Wounds. 
 
 Where the cut 
 surface is large, some 
 protective substance 
 should be applied to 
 the exposed tissue. 
 
 1. Pine Tar is sometimes 
 used as a dressing for these 
 wounds. It is regarded as an 
 excellent one. 
 
 2. Another dressing which 
 may be used upon any tree 
 without injury is Grafting-wax 
 (see Chapter IX., p. 237). 
 
 3. Lead Paint is doubtless the best dressing 
 for all kinds of trees, since it is not only durable, 
 but to some extent antiseptic, and comparatively 
 inexpensive. 
 
 IV. Pruning Back of Small Limbs. 
 
 i. Removal of Buds, The ideal method of 
 pruning, or that which would insure to the plant 
 the least waste of energy, is the pinching or 
 rubbing off of buds that would develop into 
 branches which would need to be pruned off. 
 
 This method of pruning is especially adapted 
 to the early or formative period of a plant's de- 
 velopment. If close attention be given to the 
 
 FIG. 93. THE WAY 
 
 TO REMOVE A 
 
 LARGE LIMB.
 
 PRUNING OF PLANTS. 27? 
 
 removal of buds the plant may be made to con- 
 form to any desired shape. 
 
 By the removal of the terminal bud the plant 
 may be made to put out lateral branches, and 
 thus become short and bushy (Fig. A 
 
 83), or by removing the lateral 
 branches it will throw the more 
 vigor into the central stem, causing 
 it to become long and slender. 
 
 2. Removal of New GrowtJi. In 
 large trees the above method is 
 impracticable. The best practical 
 method for such trees is to in- 
 spect them each year and remove 
 such branches, or portions of 
 branches, as growth may indicate. 
 
 In doing; this pruning- the branch 
 
 FIG. 94. WHERE 
 
 should be cut off just above a bud TO CUT THE 
 
 , . T-,. x , . NEW GROWTH. 
 
 (as in rig. 94), taking care not to 
 
 cut too close to the bud, as it would then dry 
 
 out. 
 
 ^._WHEN TO PRUNE. 
 
 If the purpose of pruning is merely to remove 
 dead or deceased branches, or the pinching off 
 of superflous or undesirable buds, the work may 
 be done at any time when it is necessary. 
 
 It is agreed by the best authorities that gen- 
 eral pruning should be done while the trees are 
 in a dormant state. There is, however, a dif-
 
 278 AGRICULTURE. . 
 
 ference of opinion among these authorities as to 
 whether this work should be done as soon as 
 the leaves are shed in the fall or before the 
 buds have begun to swell in the spring. 
 
 I. Fall Pruning. 
 
 1. TJic advantages of fall pruning are : (i) 
 that a greater amount of food would then be 
 distributed over a less number of branches ; for 
 by spring, owing to the slow dissemination of 
 food taking place through the winter months, 
 the nutriment would already have been distrib- 
 uted to all the branches of the tree, particularly 
 to their terminal portions, which would be re- 
 moved by spring pruning;"" (2) that immature 
 branches, which would probably be frozen and 
 tend to injure the tree, would thus be removed. 
 
 2. However, there is one decided disadvan- 
 tage in fall priming ; that is, that the wound 
 does not readily heal. This is due to the fact 
 that healing is affected by the growth of the 
 cambium layer, and as this is inactive in winter, 
 healing cannot take place at that time. Hence, 
 the exposed surface is liable to dry out or freeze, 
 thereby inducing decay of the wood and invit- 
 ing disease. 
 
 o 
 
 II. Spring Pruning. 
 
 i. The main advantage of spring pruning lies 
 in the fact that the wound readily heals, owing 
 to the active condition of the cambium layer. 
 
 * Authorities are not agreed upon this point.
 
 PRUNING OF PLANTS. 279 
 
 2. The chief disadvantage is the waste of 
 energy of the plant in the loss of the accumu- 
 lated food supply by the removal of the terminal 
 portions of the branches. 
 
 EXERCISE n. To study the effect of fall and spring 
 pruning, let the student remove several small branches 
 of as many different kinds of trees as are accessible, 
 carefully labeling each branch pruned with the student's 
 name and the date of pruning. 
 
 In the spring let them prune off as many more 
 branches from the same trees and label with date. 
 
 Just before school closes for the year critically exam- 
 ine all the branches pruned. Compare and tabulate 
 results. Was the result in each case due to the time of 
 pruning or to the position and nature of the cut ? 
 
 C. WHY TO PRUNE. 
 
 One should never remove a limb or even a 
 twig from a tree without knowing why. 
 I. Pruning at Transplanting. 
 
 The utmost care should be taken in lifting 
 plants for transplanting, but even then many of 
 the fine feeding roots will be broken off or 
 mutilated ; consequently, the equilibrium be- 
 tween root and leaf will have been destroyed. 
 
 To re-establish the equilibrium : first, all the 
 mutilated roots should be cut off, so that the 
 energy of the plant may not be wasted in trying 
 to restore these injured parts ; second, the leaf- 
 bearing surface should be reduced to correspond 
 to the loss of root-system. This principle holds 
 good in the transplanting of any plant.
 
 280 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The manner in which plants are pruned at 
 transplanting depends largely upon the purpose 
 
 ogiaphcil by J. Craitt, I'. S. Df(t. Agr. 
 
 FIG. 95. APPLE-TREE HEADED LOW. 
 
 for which the tree is grown. If grown tor fruit 
 the tree should be headed low (Fig. 95); that 
 is, the first limbs branching out from the trunk
 
 PRUNING OF PLANTS. 
 
 281 
 
 I'. S. Dept. Agr. 
 FIG. 96. TREES GROWN CLOSE TOGETHER FOR TIMBER. 
 
 should not be more than eighteen inches from 
 the ground. At the same time the lateral 
 branches should be pruned back so that the cen- 
 tral stem will lead. 
 
 The advantages of heading a tree low are: (i) 
 it makes a tree stronger and less liable to be
 
 282 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 blown over; (2) the trunk is thus protected 
 from the direct rays of the sun, thereby prevent- 
 ing sun-scald ; (3) that the tree's energy is con- 
 served by lessening the distance through which 
 the food is carried ; (4) that the fruit is easier 
 gathered. 
 
 The greatest objection in heading a tree low 
 is that it renders cultivation more difficult. 
 
 2. If a tree is grown for timber, a tall, straight 
 trunk should be encouraged by pruning off most 
 of the lateral branches and planting the trees 
 close together (Fig. 96), so that they will be 
 forced to grow upright to obtain the light. As 
 the trees develop, and room and food supply 
 become insufficient, some of them should be re- 
 moved. 
 
 3. Slow-growing shade-trees require very little 
 or no pruning, save the removal of diseased or 
 broken branches. But rapid-growing shade- 
 trees as, some of the maples should have a 
 portion of the last season's growth pruned back 
 each year, thus forming a compact head, making 
 the tree stronger, and obviating the necessity of 
 severe top-pruning, which renders the tree use- 
 less (for shade, at least) for one year, as well as 
 presenting a very unsightly appearance. 
 
 II. Pruning to Induce Fruitfulness. 
 
 As has been said, the paramount natural pur- 
 pose of a plant is that of reproduction. Every 
 plant has a certain amount of available food. In
 
 PRUNING OF PLANTS. 
 
 KIG. 97- NORWAY M-U'LK 
 
 (Acer plalanoides^ , 
 Horticultural Grounds, Missouri Experiment Station. 
 
 the early years of its development this food supply 
 should be directed to the upbuilding of a strong, 
 vigorous tree; but when the tree is mature, if 
 
 o 
 
 one system of reproduction predominates over 
 the other, it uses more than its share of this 
 available food and the other system is deprived 
 of its rightful portion, and thus its development 
 is checked. 
 
 Man may, by pruning or other means, equal- 
 ize the distribution of food. If vegetative
 
 284 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 growth or asexual reproduction is so far in the 
 ascendency as to prevent the development of 
 fruit, this growth should be checked. Slight 
 " heading-in induces fruitful ness by checking 
 growth and by encouraging the formation of 
 side spurs upon which fruit may be borne." 
 
 In extreme cases, where a tree has never 
 fruited, the growth may be checked by reducing 
 the food supply. This may be done by with- 
 holding fertilizers, or stopping cultivation and 
 seeding down in grass or clover for a few years, 
 or by judicious root pruning. 
 
 Root Pruning. Root pruning is attended by 
 considerable risk, as the equilibrium between 
 root-system and leaf-system is thus destroyed. 
 
 There is less danger of injury to the tree when 
 the work is done in spring, as evaporation is 
 less, and the conditions at this season of the 
 year are more favorable for the readjustment of 
 the growth. 
 
 Roots are sometimes pruned in summer, when 
 the wood and fruit buds are developing for the 
 next year; thus the formation of fruit buds would 
 be encouraged. But at this period of the year the 
 process is attended by a greater risk, as evapo- 
 ration is very great. 
 
 The work is done by making a circular ditch 
 around the tree at a distance from the trunk 
 corresponding to the tips of the branches. One 
 
 * Bailey's Principles tf Agriculture, p. 166.
 
 PRUNING OF PLANTS. 285 
 
 should be extremely cautious as to the extent of 
 the root surface removed, since the small, grow- 
 ing roots are the feeding roots upon which the 
 plant is dependent for nourishment. 
 
 III. Pruning to Prevent Overbearing. 
 
 If sexual reproduction or the development of 
 fruit predominates to such an extent as to be 
 detrimental to vegetative growth, it should be 
 checked by the removal of fruit buds, or a por- 
 tion of the fruit, or even of some of the fruit- 
 bearing branches. At the same time the 
 vegetative growth should be encouraged by 
 increasing the food supply through renewed 
 cultivation and the application of nitrogenous 
 fertilizers. 
 
 IV. Pruning Hardy Shrubs. 
 
 If the shrubs are grown for a hedge as, 
 the barberry (Berberis vulgaris), burning-bush 
 (Pyrus Japonica), or osage orange the new 
 growth should be sheared each year, forming a 
 compact head. 
 
 i. Early Flowering Shrubs, such as lilac, 
 syringa, weigelia, and many roses, which pro- 
 duce blossoms from buds developed the previous 
 summer, should be pruned after they have 
 bloomed. The terminal bud should be pinched 
 out of the new growth to induce lateral branches, 
 which will develop blossom buds for the next 
 year. Pruning these shrubs in early spring 
 would remove the blossom-bearing wood.
 
 286 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 2. Shrubs which produce their blossoms from 
 buds produced the same summer, such as the 
 althea, hydrangea, and button bush, should be 
 pruned in early spring to increase the blossom- 
 bearing wood. 
 
 To admit more freely the air and light, the old 
 branches and, if too thick, some of the entire flowering 
 stems should be cut out. This will tend to increase 
 the size of the blossoms, which may be further enlarged 
 by pinching out some of the flower buds. (See " Plant 
 Improvement.") 
 
 EXERCISE 12. An expedition should be made to an 
 orchard or grove, for the purpose of observing the actual 
 conditions of all phases of the work suggested in this 
 chapter. A written report should be required, touching 
 upon all the points of the outline, which are exemplified 
 by any plants seen during the trip, (a) Note upon a 
 mature plant the effect, upon its use and upon its 
 strength, produced by correct, incorrect, or no pruning 
 in its early stages of development. 
 
 () If in fruiting season, do you note any trees which 
 are overbearing? Any that are not bearing? Can you 
 see why ? How would you effect a change ? 
 
 (c) Note wounds that are healing. Describe and ex- 
 plain. Do you note any that have not healed ? Why? 
 Could this condition have been prevented ? Explain. 
 How will it affect the tree ? What treatment would you 
 
 advise ? 
 
 .AREFERENCES. 
 
 " Pruning and Training of Grapes." Year-book, 1896. United 
 States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 " Principles of Pruning and Care of Wounds in Woody Plants.' 
 Year-book, 1895. 
 
 " Pruning of Trees and Other Plants." Year-book, 1898. 
 
 " The Pruning Book." Bailey. 1899. 10. 
 
 " The American Fruit Culturist." Thomas. 1897.
 
 OUTLINE OF CHAPTER XII. 
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 
 
 ^.INJURIOUS INSECTS. 
 
 I. General Characters of Insects. 
 II. Metamorphosis. 
 HI. Apparatus Needed in Collecting ^rd Rearing 
 
 Insects. 
 
 1. Net. 
 
 2. Cyanide Bottle. 
 
 3. Breeding-jars. 
 
 IV. Field Trip. 
 
 V. Laboratory Studies. 
 
 i . Study of the Live Insect. 
 
 2. Grasshopper. 
 
 3. Nymph. 
 
 4. Butterfly, or Moth. 
 
 5. Caterpillar. 
 
 VI. Economic Classification of Insects. 
 
 1. Group I. With Biting Mouth-parts. 
 
 2. Group II. With Sucking Mouth-parts. 
 
 VII. Preventives. 
 
 1. Re moral of De'bris. 
 
 2. Change of Crops. 
 
 VIII. Insecticides. 
 
 1. Group I. Poisonous Insecticides. 
 
 2. Group II. Contact Insecticides. 
 
 287
 
 288 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 IX. Study on Spraying. 
 
 X. Natural Enemies. 
 
 1. The Birds. 
 
 2. Predaceous Insects. 
 
 (1) SPECIFIC EXAMPLES. 
 
 (2) REQUIRED EXERCISE. 
 
 XI, Specific Examples of Injurious Insects. 
 
 1. Plant-lice. 
 
 2. Rose -slug. 
 
 3. Tent-caterpillar. 
 
 4. Forest Tent-caterpillar. 
 
 5. Codling-moth. 
 
 6. The Borers. 
 
 (1) EXAMPLE: THE ROUND-HEADED APPLE-TREE 
 BORER. 
 
 (2) PREVENTIVES. 
 
 ^.INJURIOUS FUNGI. 
 
 I. Specific Examples. 
 
 1. Brown Rot. 
 
 2. Black Rot. 
 
 3. Bitter Rot. 
 
 4. Apple Scab. 
 
 II. Fungicides. 
 
 1. Bordeaux Mixture. Dust Bordeaux. 
 
 2. Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate. 
 
 C. REFERENCES.
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 
 
 In dealing with plants one of the most im- 
 portant problems which arises is how to meet 
 their enemies. In order to do this one must 
 know something of the nature and habits of 
 each particular species which he needs to con- 
 trol. Actual observation of them at work is the 
 best means of obtaining a knowledge of the 
 enemies of plants. But some good work on in- 
 sects and fungi (like those listed at the end of 
 the chapter) should be consulted, or if none of 
 these are at hand, one should write to one's own 
 State Entomologist for advice and literature. 
 
 These enemies may be divided into two great 
 classes: (i) animal forms, (2) plant forms. 
 Among animal forms the most important ene- 
 mies of plants are injurious insects. 
 
 ^.INJURIOUS INSECTS. 
 
 I. The General Characters of Insects 
 
 in the adult state are one pair of antennae; three 
 body divisions, head, thorax, and abdomen ; 
 three pairs of legs, and two pairs of wings. 
 
 289
 
 290 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 II. Metamorphosis, or Development, of Insects. 
 
 All insects develop from eggs, and all undergo 
 a more or less marked change in form during 
 their life-cycle.* 
 
 Many insects when they emerge irom the egg 
 are much like the adult form. These nymphs, 
 as they are called, have no wings. They feed 
 greedily, and as growth demands the hardened 
 skins split and are cast that is, the insects molt. 
 The wings, if wings are present in the adult 
 stage, develop as little pads, which grow larger 
 with each molt until the adult stage is reached, 
 when growth ceases. This method of develop- 
 ment is called incomplete metamorphosis, the 
 three stages of which are egg, nymph, and adult. 
 Common examples of this method of develop- 
 ment are grasshoppers, crickets, plant-lice, and 
 dragon-flies. 
 
 Many other insects, when they leave the egg, 
 differ markedly in form from that of the adult. 
 These caterpillars, grubs, maggots, etc., as the 
 case may be, are called the larva.-. In this larval 
 or second stage they feed, grow, and molt, but 
 do not change their form. When they are full 
 grown they stop eating, become restless, and 
 pass into the third stage of their development 
 (that of the pupa), some attaching themselves to 
 a stick or leaf, others spinning a cocoon, while 
 
 * Those insects belonging to the small order Tliysannrti un- 
 iergo no metamorphosis.
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 
 
 still others form a leathery case and bury them- 
 selves in the ground. Here they remain quiet 
 for a time, when the pupa-cases split open and 
 the adult forms emerge, lay their eggs, and thus 
 
 FIG. 98. NET FOR COLLECTING INSECTS. 
 
 their life-cycle is completed, and the life-cycle 
 of another generation is begun. 
 
 III. Apparatus Needed in Collecting and Rear- 
 ing Insects. 
 
 A few simple, inexpensive articles are all that is 
 necessary. Nets, cyanide bottles (Fig. 99), and a 
 few empty bottles will be needed in collecting. 
 
 i. The net may be made by bending a heavy 
 wire into a circle about a foot in diameter, turn- 
 ing the ends of the wire out, as shown in Fig. 
 98. For a handle an old broomstick may be 
 used. A hole should be made in the end by 
 burning it with a hot iron rod or boring it with 
 a small bit. Now fasten the ends of the wire 
 firmly into this hole with pegs or nails. Make 
 a cheese-cloth sack a yard long, round one cor-
 
 292 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ner off, and firmly sew the open end to the wire, 
 as in Fig. 98. 
 
 2. Cyanide Bottle for Killing Insects. Place 
 in a wide-mouthed bottle, which will hold about 
 a pint, a few small pieces of potassium cyanide. 
 This should be handled with great care, as it is 
 
 FIG. 99. CYAMDK UOTTLK. 
 
 FIG. IOO. BREEDING-JAR 
 FOR RKARING INSECTS. 
 
 extremely poisonous. Now cover the cyanide 
 with a layer of plaster of Paris. Thoroughly 
 moisten the plaster of Paris with water, pouring 
 it in slowly through a funnel to prevent the 
 sides of the bottle from being smeared. Let it 
 stand until the plaster of Paris sets. Remove 
 any surplus water, and allow the bottle to be- 
 come thoroughly dry before using. Tightly
 
 ENEMr^S OF PLANTS. 293 
 
 close the bottle with a cork thick enough to be 
 easily removed (Fig. 99). 
 
 3. Breeding-jars for rearing insects should be 
 prepared before the insects are collected. Place 
 about two inches of clean sand in the bottom of 
 glass fruit-jars ; moisten the sand, and provide 
 covers of cheese-cloth, or mosquito-netting, and 
 narrow rubber bands to keep them in place. 
 
 IV. Field Trip. 
 
 Equipped with net, cyanide bottle, and empty bottles 
 for the reception of live insects, the class should make 
 afield trip to study the habitat and the habits of insects, 
 and to collect their own material for laboratory work. 
 
 (#) Look in the grass and weeds, under leaves, stones 
 and boards, and on the bark of trees. Are some insects 
 harder to find than others ? Why ? Why do you find 
 certain kinds in one place rather than in another? Ob- 
 serve especially upon what plants and what part of the 
 plant each species is found feeding. Collect a portion 
 of this plant to place in the breeding-jar with this insect 
 when you get home. Notice how the plant has been 
 affected by the feeding of the insect. Are there any 
 holes in the leaves or stem ? How were they made ? In 
 what stage of the development of the insect was the 
 damage done ? (See " Water Forms," a and b.} 
 
 V. Laboratory Studies. 
 
 i. Study of the Live Insect. Keep each species of in- 
 sect in the breeding-jars supplied with fresh food, and 
 watch each through all the subsequent changes of devel- 
 opment. 
 
 (a] Make careful notes and drawings on each stage. 
 
 (ti) Does the insect eat the tissue or simply suck the 
 juices of its plant-food ? Hon> does it obtain its food in 
 each stage of development ?
 
 294 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 (f) Will any of the insects in the larval or adult form 
 eat other insects in any stage of development ? 
 
 WATER FORMS. If the students have access to a pond 
 or stream, it would be both interesting and instructive 
 
 FIG. 101. COLLECTING INSECTS. 
 
 to (a) collect forms which pass through some or all the 
 stages of development in the water. 
 
 () Take a quantity of the mud and water in which 
 these water forms are found, together with algae, or 
 other food, back to the laboratory, and place with the 
 different species in breeding-jars similar to that in Fig. 
 100. 
 
 (f) Observe all changes in their development, and make 
 rareful notes and drawings of er.ch stage. 
 
 (d) If there are a number of any one kind, it would
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 295 
 
 be well to preserve some of them in a solution of forma- 
 lin (made by mixing one part of formaldehyde, 40 per 
 cent., with 19 parts of water) for museum specimens. If 
 possible, have each stage of every species represented in 
 your collection of specimens. 
 
 2. The Grasshopper. Find the three body divisions 
 head, thorax, and abdomen. 
 
 THE HEAD. (i) Find the antenna; (slender feelers). 
 How many segments in each ? Draw. 
 
 (2) Find the compound eyes. Examine a portion of one 
 under the low power of the microscope. What is the 
 general shape of these parts, or facets, of the eye ? Draw 
 several of them. In what direction can the grasshopper 
 see ? 
 
 (3) How many ocelli, or simple eyes, do you find ? 
 
 (4) MOUTH-PARTS. (a) Find the labrum, or upper lip. 
 Lift and remove it. Draw. 
 
 (b) Note the mandibles, or true jaws, exposed by the 
 removal of the labrum. In what direction can you move 
 them ? Take out one. Draw. Does the grasshopper 
 obtain its food by biting or sucking ? 
 
 (c] Find the labium, or lower lip. Remove it. Draw. 
 Is it a single appendage or two united ? 
 
 (</) Look for the labial palpi attached to the labium. 
 How many segments in each palpus ? 
 
 (e) Find the maxilhc, just in front of the labium. These 
 each consist of three parts united at the base ; the outer 
 one, the maxillary palpus; the middle one, a spoon- 
 shaped piece, the galea ; the inner piece, the lacinia, 
 (maxilla proper). Draw. 
 
 (5) Take a fresh specimen and draw a front view of 
 the head, labeling all the parts.* 
 
 * Every question in the above outline should be answered by 
 actual observations upon the insects. It may be that the student 
 will be better able to answer some of these questions, after hav- 
 ing made the laboratory study of the live insect.
 
 29G AGRICULTURE. 
 
 THE THORAX. The segments of the thorax are the 
 prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax. (i) What append- 
 ages has each? Look on the mesothorax, just above 
 the legs, for a pair of spiracles or breathing pores. Do 
 you find another pair between mesothorax and meta- 
 thorax ? (2) Draw the thorax, and label the parts. 
 
 THE LEGS. (i) How do the first and second pair of 
 legs differ from the third pair in size, and in the direc- 
 tion in which they extend from the body ? Why ? 
 What modes of locomotion has the grasshopper ? 
 
 (2) Make a careful study of the hind legs, (a) Note 
 the coxa, a short segment attached to the body. Next to 
 it is the trochanter, another short segment. The femur 
 is the large segment following this, attached to which 
 is the slender tibia. With what is the latter armed ? 
 For what purpose? The terminal portion is the tasus 
 or foot. Is it segmented ? Note the hooks and pads. 
 
 (b) Make a drawing of the entire leg, and label each 
 part. 
 
 THE WINGS. (a] Note the wings on one side of the 
 body while folded, and their position with reference to 
 the body; with reference to each other. 
 
 (b) Spread them out and compare as to size, shape, 
 color, use, texture, and position. 
 
 (c) Make a careful drawing. 
 
 THE ABDOMEN. (i) How many abdominal segments 
 do you find ? Are the last three distinct ? 
 
 (2) (a) Look along the groove on each side of the 
 abdomen for spiracles. How many in each of these 
 segments ? In how many segments are they found ? 
 
 (l>) Catch a live grasshopper and watch it breathe. 
 Do the walls of the abdomen move ? What movements 
 have the spiracles ? Try to drown the grasshopper by 
 holding its head under water. Explain. 
 
 (3) Find the ear membrane on the side of the first 
 segment.
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 297 
 
 (4) (a) Examine the end of the abdomen. Is it blunt, 
 and do you find two appendages, the cerci, on the upper 
 side ? If so, the specimen is a male. If the end of the 
 abdomen is tapering and divided into four points parts 
 of the ovipositor the specimen is a female. 
 
 (l>) Draw the abdomen, showing all the parts. 
 
 Draw the entire grasshopper as seen from the side. 
 Now, before discarding the specimen, cut through the 
 mouth beyond the oesophagus into the crop, open it, and 
 examine its contents. See if you can find out what is 
 the grasshopper's food. 
 
 3. The Nymph, or Young Grasshopper. Do you find all 
 the parts mentioned in the study of the adult grass- 
 hopper present in your specimen ? (a] Compare the 
 parts with those of the adult. 
 
 (V} Draw a side view of the nymph. 
 
 4. The Butterfly, or Moth. Identify the three body 
 divisions, and locate the antennae, eyes, legs, wings, and 
 spiracles. Compare with those of the grasshopper. 
 
 MOUTH-PARTS. Make a careful study of the mouth- 
 parts, (i) Note the two short projections, the labial 
 palpi, in the front of the head. 
 
 (2) Uncoil the long tube between the palpi and ex- 
 amine it. The parts of the tube correspond to the 
 maxillae of the grasshopper. 
 
 (3) (a) Does the butterfly obtain its food by sucking 
 or biting? Are there other mouth-parts present? 
 
 (/>) Make a drawing of the mouth-parts present in their 
 natural position. 
 
 (c) Remove them, and draw. 
 
 5. Caterpillar. Make a careful examination of some 
 caterpillar, the larva of a moth or butterfly for ex- 
 ample, the tomato-worm. 
 
 (i) Do you find the general characters of the adult 
 insect three body divisions, one pair of antennae, and 
 three pairs of legs in the caterpillar?
 
 298 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 (2) Do you find eyes, spiracles, and mouth-parts? 
 How do they compare with those of the adult moth ? 
 (See mouth-parts of the butterfly.) 
 
 (3) Make drawings of the entire larva, showing all 
 parts. 
 
 (4) Remove the mouth-parts, and draw. Are they 
 adapted for biting or sucking? 
 
 VI. Economic Classification of Insects. 
 
 Insects are divided into two great groups ac- 
 cording to their mouth-parts, in order that one 
 may know what insecticides to apply in com- 
 bating them 
 
 Group I. This includes all insects in that 
 stage of their development in which their mouth 
 parts are formed for biting. These insects 
 actually bite off, chew, and swallow small por- 
 tions of the plant or other material upon which 
 they feed. Consequently, they would be killed 
 by poison placed upon the food and taken into 
 the stomach. Common examples of this group 
 are grasshoppers, beetles, and caterpillars. 
 
 Group //. This includes all insects in that 
 stage of their development in which their mouth- 
 parts are formed for sucking. These insects 
 obtain their food by thrusting the beak below 
 the surface of the plant or animal upon which 
 they feed and sucking its juices, but they do not 
 swallow any of its tissue; hence, poison placed 
 upon the surface of the plant-food would not be 
 taken into the stomach by the insects of this
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 299 
 
 group. Plant-lice, scale insects, mosquitoes, Hies, 
 etc., are examples of Group II. 
 
 The student should have already observed 
 that an insect, according to the form of its 
 mouth-parts, may in one stage of its develop- 
 ment belong to one of these groups, while in 
 another stage it belongs to the other as, the 
 tomato-worm, the larval stage of the sphinx- 
 moth, which belongs to Group I., while the 
 adult stage, the moth, belongs to Group II. 
 
 VII. Preventives. 
 
 A small amount of time and labor spent in 
 preventing insects from becoming established 
 on the farm is often of more value than a great 
 amount spent in trying to destroy them. 
 
 1. Removal of Debris. By the prompt re- 
 moval and burning of all dying or diseased 
 branches, trees, or plants, decayed fruits, and 
 general debris, many insects, as well as their 
 eggs, will be destroyed; while if such mate- 
 rial is allowed to remain, it will afford protection 
 for insects during their hibernating and breed- 
 ing seasons, thus promoting the development of 
 overwhelming numbers. 
 
 2. Change of Crops. If an insect pest makes 
 its appearance in a field of grain, one may pre- 
 vent its devastation the following year by plant- 
 ing the field in some other crop upon which the 
 insect does not feed. F^or example, the Hes- 
 sian fly may be observed in a field of wheat.
 
 300 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The following year the development of the 
 Hessian fly in this field may be prevented by 
 putting- in a crop upon which it does not feed- 
 as, corn or clover. 
 
 VIII. Insecticides. 
 
 In general, insecticides also are divided into 
 two groups. 
 
 Group I, Poisonous Insecticides, or those 
 that kill by being taken into the stomach of the 
 insect. The principal poison in this group of 
 insecticides is arsenic in some form. 
 
 Paris green is the most common, and if una- 
 dulterated is a very effective arsenical insecti- 
 cide. It is prepared as follows: 
 
 Paris green i pound 
 
 Quicklime i pound 
 
 Water 100-300 gallons 
 
 Mix thoroughly, and strain the mixture 
 through a gunny-sack or sieve. The purpose 
 of the lime is to render any free arsenic in the 
 Paris . green insoluble, since soluble arsenic 
 would poison the tissue of the plant. It must 
 be remembered that the particles of arsenic are 
 held in suspension and not in solution ; hence, 
 the mixture must be kept well stirred while 
 being applied. In spraying plants with tender 
 foliage as, the peach and plum the Paris green 
 mixture should be diluted. 
 
 Scheele's green differs from Paris green in
 
 fiNEMIES OF PLANTS. 301 
 
 that it does not contain acetic acid, and in the 
 per cent, of arsenic. It has the advantages of 
 being held longer in suspension, as it is a finer 
 powder, and of costing only about half as much. 
 Home preparation insures purer and better 
 arsenical spraying mixtures as, arsenite of soda 
 and arsenate of lead. 
 
 White arsenic i pound 
 
 Sal soda 4-5 pounds 
 
 Water 2 gallons 
 
 Mix the above ingredients and boil until clear 
 about fifteen minutes. Add enough water to 
 replace that which boiled away. This forms a 
 stock solution which should be placed in Mason 
 jars, labeled poison, and kept until needed. 
 This stock solution is used similarly to Paris 
 green. Since it is soluble in water, and hence 
 would damage the foliage, it is prepared for use 
 by mixing two quarts of the stock solution and 
 eight or ten pounds of freshly slaked lime with 
 one hundred gallons of water. 
 
 Arsenate of Lead.""'- -This insecticide has 
 several advantages over the others just men- 
 tioned: (i) it can be used in stronger solutions 
 and in larger quantities without injuiing tender 
 foliage, since it is absolutely insoluble in water ; 
 (2) it will remain longer in suspension ; (3) 
 
 * Commercial arsenate of lead sold under the name of dis- 
 parene, is said to be perfectly reliable. It comes in paste form, 
 and sticks on the foliage well.
 
 302 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 being white, it can be more readily seen on the 
 foliage, thus indicating what has and what has 
 not been sprayed. It is made as follows : 
 
 Arsenate of soda 4 ounces 
 
 Acetate of lead n ounces 
 
 Water 25-100 gallons 
 
 Glucose 2 quarts 
 
 Dissolve the acetate of lead in a wooden bucket 
 of warm water, and the arsenate of soda in 
 another bucket of warm water. When thor- 
 oughly dissolved, pour both into the quantity 
 of water to be used, according to the strength 
 of the poison desired, at the same time stirring 
 rapidly. If two quarts of glucose be added, the 
 spray will not be so easily washed off by rains. 
 
 In applying any of the arsenical mixtures, the 
 spraying should not be continued until the water 
 drips from the foliage, as the fine particles of 
 poison are carried away in the drops instead of 
 being left upon the leaf by evaporation after a 
 less quantity is used.* 
 
 Group II. Contact Insecticides, or those that 
 kill by contact with the body of the insect. 
 
 These may be effective in two ways, either by 
 
 *DusT STRAYS. White Hellebore the root of a plant, kills 
 both by contact and by poisoning. 
 
 It may be applied dry or in the liquid form. If used dry, it 
 may be easily applied by mixing it with three or four times its 
 weight of flour and dusting it over the plants when they are 
 moist with dew, from a little cheese-cloth sack or applied with a 
 hand dust-spray or bellows. 
 
 Paris Green may be used dry by mixing it with ten times its 
 weight of flour, and may be applied in the same way as the 
 Hellebore.
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 303 
 
 penetrating the breathing pores and suffocating 
 the insect or by corroding the body. 
 
 (i) Kerosene Emulsion. Of the contact in- 
 secticides, kerosene, emulsion is one almost 
 universally used by Agricultural Experiment 
 Stations. 
 
 The emulsion formula : 
 
 Soap l /t pound 
 
 Soft water i gallon 
 
 Kerosene 2 gallons 
 
 The best soap for this purpose is whale-oil 
 soap, though ordinary soft soap or hard soap 
 will answer. The soap should be shaved into 
 the water and thoroughly dissolved by heating. 
 When boiling hot, pour the solution into the 
 kerosene, away from the fire, and churn vigor- 
 ously about ten minutes by pumping the liquid 
 back and forth with a force-pump until it resem- 
 bles buttermilk. The emulsifying will increase 
 the bulk about one-third; hence, the emulsion 
 should not be prepared in too small a vessel. 
 
 If tightly sealed, this stock solution will keep 
 for some time. When wanted, dilute with ten 
 to twenty parts of water. If too strong, the 
 kerosene will injure tender foliage. Apply with 
 a spray-pump (Fig. 102) to the infested plants. 
 The emulsion must come in contact with the 
 body of the insect, so that the kerosene may 
 penetrate the breathing pores and suffocate the
 
 304 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 insect. The soap also tends to clog the breath- 
 ing pores. 
 
 (2) Tobacco in various forms is a useful in- 
 secticide. Its use is especially recommended 
 
 for house plants, 
 greenhouses, gardens, 
 and orchards. As a 
 spray, it is prepared 
 by steeping the stems 
 of refuse tobacco, and 
 using the tea in a di- 
 luted form. Nikoteen 
 as commercially pre- 
 pared is excellent for 
 house plants and 
 roses if applied in a 
 dilute form. 
 
 Tobacco dust or 
 stems is an excellent 
 preventive or remedy 
 
 when scattered about the floor under benches 
 in greenhouses. It is doubly useful when 
 scattered about on the surface of the soil around 
 plants, since it is rich in potash, and acts as a 
 fertilizer as well as an insecticide. 
 
 Tobacco Smudge. This is an especially good 
 remedy in the greenhouse, or in places where 
 the smoke can be confined. The smudge is 
 made by slowly burning moistened tobacco, 
 taking care that it does not burst into flame. 
 
 FIG. 102. A BUCKET SPRAY.
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 
 
 305 
 
 Care should be taken not to allow the plants 
 to be too long exposed to the strong fumes, 
 or the foliage will be damaged ; hence, it will be 
 necessary to repeat the smoking.* 
 
 Carbon bisulphide is especially adapted for 
 
 use in store- 
 houses, seed- 
 boxes, mu- 
 seum- cases, 
 etc., or as a 
 remedy for 
 underground 
 insects, such 
 as borers and 
 root-lice. 
 
 It is a color- 
 less, mobile, 
 and a very 
 volatileliquid. 
 It is not only very inflammable, but ex- 
 tremely poisonous ; therefore, great caution 
 should be taken in using this insecticide. 
 Under no condition should a lighted lamp, or a 
 
 FIG. IO3 (a). THE BORDEAUX NOZZLE. 
 
 FIG. 103 (/>) HAND SPRAY CONVENIENT SPRAY FOR LOW PLANTS. 
 
 * Thwie is nothing better for fumigating than " Nikoteen Aphis 
 Punk."
 
 306 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 cigar, or even a spark of fire, be brought near 
 the fumes. 
 
 For storehouses, bins, etc., place the liquid in 
 small, shallow dishes. These should be placed 
 near the top of the bin, since the fumes of car- 
 bon bisulphide are heavier than air. This bin 
 should be kept tightly closed for twenty-four to 
 forty-eight hours, and then well ventilated. 
 The amount of the liquid used should be in the 
 proportion of one pint to one thousand cubic 
 feet of space. For destroying root pests, small 
 vertical holes should be made in the soil around 
 the plant. Into each hole pour a teaspoonfulof 
 the carbon bisulphide and cover at once. Car- 
 bon bisulphide is also useful in protecting furs 
 and clothing, since it volatilizes and leaves- no 
 stain. The odor is so disagreeable and pene- 
 trating that the clothing must be well aired for 
 several days before wearing. 
 
 Of the contact insecticides that kill by cor- 
 roding the body of the insect, those most com- 
 monly used are lime, soap, and carbolic acid. 
 These are effective on soft-bodied insects, lime 
 being, perhaps, the most important. Lime is 
 useful both as a preventive and a remedy. It 
 may be applied dry as a dust or as a whitewash. 
 
 Some of the contact insecticides as, kerosene 
 emulsion and carbon bisulphide are equally ef- 
 fective upon biting and sucking insects, since 
 they kill by suffocation.
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. ;507 
 
 IX. Study on Spraying. 
 
 EXERCISE 13 (a) From the formulas given, compute 
 the amount of each material required to make one-half 
 gallon of some one arsenical spray as, Paris green and 
 one of the contact insecticides as, kerosene emulsion 
 and carefully prepare each. 
 
 (&) Spray some plants infested with caterpillars or 
 slugs as, the tomato-worm or the rose-slug, and other 
 plants infested with plant-lice with each of these insec- 
 ticides prepared, and watch results. 
 
 (c) To be absolutely sure of these results, place a por- 
 tion of the plants infested by each of -these insects ex- 
 perimented upon in each of two breeding-jars, placing 
 that portion sprayed with Paris green in one jar and 
 that sprayed with kerosene emulsion in the other. 
 Label each, and note the effect of each spray upon each 
 kind of insect. 
 
 (d) Did the Paris green affect all of them in the same 
 way? Examine the mouth-parts of each insect experi- 
 mented upon and explain the action of the poison. 
 
 (e) Did the kerosene affect all alike ? Explain. 
 
 X. Natural Enemies. 
 
 Among the natural enemies of insects are 
 birds, predaceous ^ insects, toads, spiders, etc. 
 Few persons realize the extent of the work 
 done by these natural enemies in exterminating 
 noxious insects. Particularly is this true of the 
 birds and predaceous insects. 
 
 i. T/ie Birds to which we so begrudge our 
 fruit and grain are more than compensating us 
 for this loss by keeping in check insects that 
 would otherwise increase with such rapidity as 
 to endanger the entire crop of orchard or field.
 
 308 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Of the birds of the open field the farmer has 
 no better friend than the meadow-lark. It is 
 unrivaled as a destroyer of injurious -insects. 
 
 The stomachs of two hundred and thirty- 
 eight meadow-larks, collected from twenty-four 
 different States, and in every month of the year, 
 
 
 FIG. 104. MEADOW-LARK (Saturttflla magna). 
 (United States Department of Agriculture.) 
 
 examined by the United States Division of En- 
 tomology, showed that 72 per cent, of the food 
 of these larks was insects, while only 27 per 
 cent, was vegetable matter. 
 
 The unassuming little house-wren is one of 
 the most useful birds in destroying insect pests. 
 
 Actual examination of the contents of the 
 stomachs of wrens by the Division of Entomol-
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 
 
 309 
 
 ogy at Washington shows that 98 per cent, of 
 the food of the wren consists of injurious in- 
 sects. 
 
 Many other birds of wide geographical distri- 
 bution are recognized as the farmer's friends; 
 
 TIC. 105. HOUSE WREN (Troglodytes a-'ilon). 
 (United States Department of Agriculture.) 
 
 among them are the robin, oriole (Fig. 117), 
 mockingbird, brown thrasher, chickadee, and 
 
 o 
 
 catbird. 
 
 But there is another class of birds which is 
 much persecuted because the farmer errone-
 
 310 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ously considers them his enemies. To this 
 class belong the crow, the blackbird, and many 
 species of hawks and owls.* Examination of 
 the stomach contents of many of these birds has 
 proven that they are more beneficial than harm- 
 ful, destroying many insects as well as injurious 
 rodents, such as mice and gophers. 
 
 Again, some birds eat more or less weed seed 
 throughout the year, even when insects are 
 abundant. But their work practically extends 
 from early autumn until late spring. During 
 cold weather most of the birds about the farm 
 feed extensively upon seeds. It is not uncom- 
 mon for a crow blackbird to eat from thirty to 
 forty seeds of smartweed or bindweed, or a 
 field-sparrow one hundred seeds of crab-grass, 
 at a single meal. In the stomach of a Nuttall's 
 sparrow were found three hundred seeds of 
 amaranth, and in that of another three hundred 
 seeds of lamb's-quarters ; a tree-sparrow had 
 consumed seven hundred seeds of pigeon-grass, 
 while a snowflake from Shrewsbury, Mass., 
 which had been breakfasting in a garden in 
 February, had picked up one thousand seeds of 
 pigweed. 
 
 Among the weeds which are troublesome in 
 fields, especially among hoed crops, may be 
 mentioned ragweed (Ambrosia artemisicefolia}, 
 several species of the genus Polygonum, includ- 
 
 * Year-book, 1897.
 
 FIG. IO6. FOUR COMMON S F.EU-EATIN'G BIRDS. 
 
 a Juiico. b White-throated Sparrow, c Fox-sparrow, d Tree-sparrow. 
 
 311
 
 31-2 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ing bindweed (/*. convolvulus}, smartweed (P. 
 lapat hi folium}, and knotvveed (P. aviculare), 
 pigweed (Amarantus rctroflcxtis and other spe- 
 cies), nut-grass and other sedges (Cyperacea), 
 crab-grass (Panicum sanguinale}, pigeon-grass 
 {Choetocloa viridis) and (C. glauca], lamb's-quar- 
 ters (Chenopodium album}, and chickweed (Al- 
 sine media). Every one of these weeds is an 
 annual, not living over the winter, and their 
 seeds constitute fully three-fourths of the food 
 of a score of native sparrows during the colder 
 half of the year. Prof. F. E. Beal, who has 
 carefully studied this subject in the upper Mis- 
 sissippi valley, " has examined the stomachs of 
 many tree-sparrows and found them entirely 
 filled with weed seed, and concluded that each 
 bird consumed at least a quarter of an ounce 
 daily Upon this basis, after making a fair 
 allowance of the number of birds to the square 
 mile, he calculated that in the State of Iowa 
 alone the tree sparrow annually destroys about 
 1,750,000 pounds, or about 875 tons, of weed 
 seed during its winter sojourn." 
 
 On a farm in Maryland " tree-sparrows, fox- 
 sparrows, whitethroats, song-sparrows, and snow- 
 birds fairly swarmed during December in the 
 briers of the ditches between the corn-fields. 
 They came into the open fields to feed upon 
 
 * Quoted from the Year-book, 1898: "Birds as Weed Destroy-
 
 From Year-book, 1898. 
 
 FIG. IO7. FOUR COMMON WEEDS, THE SEEDS OK WHICH ARE 
 EATEN HY BIRDS. 
 
 a Amaranth, b Crab-grass, c Ragweed, d Pigeon-grass. 
 
 313
 
 314 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 weed seed, and worked 
 hardest where the smart- 
 weed formed a tangle on 
 low ground. Later in the 
 season the place was care- 
 fully examined. In one 
 corn-field near a ditch the 
 smart weed formed a 
 thicket over three feet 
 high, and the ground 
 beneath was literally black 
 with seeds. Examination 
 showed that these seeds 
 had been cracked open and 
 the meat removed. In a 
 rectangular space of eight- 
 een square inches were 
 found i, 1 30 half seeds and 
 only two whole seeds. 
 Even as late as May 13 
 the birds were still feed- 
 ing on the seeds of these 
 and other weeds in the 
 fields."* A search was 
 made for seeds of various 
 weeds, but so thoroughly had the work been 
 done that only half a dozen seeds could be 
 found. The birds had taken practically all the 
 
 * Quoted from the Year-book, 1898: " Birds as Weed Destroy- 
 ers." 
 
 Year-book, 1898. 
 
 FIG. IO8. WEED SEEDS COM- 
 MONLY EATEN BY BIRDS. 
 
 a Bindweed, b I<amb's-quarters. 
 
 c Purslane, d Amaranth, e 
 
 .Spotted spurge. /-Ragweed, g 
 
 Pigeon-grass. // Dandelion.
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 315 
 
 seed that was not covered. The song-sparrow 
 and several others scratch up much buried seed. 
 No less than fifty different birds act as weed 
 destroyers, and the noxious plants which they 
 help to eradicate number more than threescore 
 species. Some, the blackbirds, the bobolink, 
 the dove, and the English sparrow, in spite of 
 their grain-eating proclivities, do much good by 
 consuming large quantities of weed seed. 
 Horned larks, cowbirds, shore-larks, and gros- 
 beaks also render considerable service, while the 
 meadow-lark is even more beneficial. The 
 " quail as an enemy of insect pests and destroyer 
 of weed seed has few equals on the farm. 
 Goldfinches destroy weeds not touched by other 
 birds, confining their attacks chiefly to one 
 group of plants (the Composite), many of the 
 members of which are serious pests. But the 
 birds which accomplish most as weed destroyers 
 are the score or more of native sparrows that 
 flock to the weed patches in early autumn and 
 remain until late spring. Because of their gre- 
 garious and terrestial habits, they are efficient 
 consumers of the seeds of ragweed, pigeon-grass, 
 crab-grass, bindweed, purslane, smartweed, and 
 pigweed (Fig. 106). In short, these birds are 
 little weeders whose work is seldom noted, but 
 always felt." '* 
 
 * Quoted from the Year-book, 1898 : " Birds as Weed Destroy- 
 ers."
 
 310 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 When one considers, then, that the greater 
 per cent, of the food of birds is composed of in- 
 sects, and that of the vegetable material they 
 consume a large per cent, is weed seed, and that 
 they obtain fully one-half of the grain they do 
 eat from the waste of the feed-yard and other 
 places, and this largely in the winter months, 
 
 FIG. ICQ. " LOOK OUT ! " 
 
 when insects are scarce, it will be realized that 
 tJic best and cheapest means of keeping insects in 
 check is the encouragement and protection of 
 birds. 
 
 It would be cheaper to allow the birds a 
 portion of the grain or fruit than to allow 
 the insects to take all, which would happen
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 317 
 
 in a few years if the birds were extermin- 
 ated.* 
 
 " What! would you rather see the incessant stir 
 Of insects in the windrows of the hay. 
 
 And hear the locust and the grasshopper 
 Their melancholy hurdy-gurdies play ? 
 
 Is this more pleasant to you than the whir 
 Of meado\v-lark, and her sweet roundelay, 
 
 Or twitter of little field-fares, as you take 
 
 Your nooning in the shade of bush and brake ? 
 
 "You call them thieves and pillagers; but know, 
 They are the winged wardens of your farms, 
 Who from the cornfields drive the insidious foe, 
 
 And from your harvests keep a hundred harms ; 
 Even the blackest of them all, the crow, 
 
 Renders good service as your man at arms, 
 Crushing the beetle in his coat of mail, 
 And crying havoc on the slug and snail." 
 
 The Birds of Killing-worth, LONGFELLOW. 
 
 2. Predaceous Insects. Predaceous insects, 
 or those that prey upon or eat other insects, are 
 also helpful to the farmer. 
 
 (i) SPECIFIC EXAMPLES. Among- the most 
 useful of these insects are several species of 
 laclybugs ( Coccinellida}. 
 
 Both the adult and larval forms feed upon 
 
 * It would be a profitable investment to plant out some Russian 
 mulberry-trees on purpose for the birds, or to grow in waste 
 places and corners such plants as hemp and sunflowers, allowing 
 them to stand throughout the winter as supplies for the birds 
 when food is scarce.
 
 318 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 plant-lice and scale insects. The ladybugs are 
 small, rather pretty, turtle-shaped beetles nearly 
 always bright colored (orange or red), with jet 
 black spots upon them, or black with white, red, 
 
 or yellow spots (Fig. 
 1 10). This bright color 
 is a warning to the birds 
 that these bugs are un- 
 pleasant to the taste ; 
 hence, they are seldom 
 eaten by the birds. The 
 larva is equally protect- 
 ed by its terrifying ap- 
 pearance, since it is cov- 
 ered with long or sharp 
 spines (Fig. 1 10 a). 
 
 The ladybugs are very 
 common, and are found upon plants infested 
 with plant-lice and scale insects (Fig. 1 1 1). The 
 fruit growers of California prevented the de- 
 struction of their orchards by importing a 
 species of ladybug from Australia to prey upon 
 these scale insects.* 
 
 But there are enemies in the camp : three 
 species of ladybugs are injurious to plants. 
 One species (Fig. 112), in both larval and adult 
 stages, devours the leaves, flowers, and green 
 pods of the bean. Another species feeds upon 
 
 Anatis l$-punctata, 
 Say. 
 
 (After Riley.) 
 
 * The United States Division of Entomology has imported a 
 Chinese ladybug to prey upon the San Jose scale.
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 
 
 319 
 
 FIG. III. LADYBUG AND I.ARVA PREYING UPON SCALE INSECTS 
 INFESTING A PEAR. 
 
 (After Howard and Marlatt, Division of Entomology, Department of Agri- 
 culture, Washington, D. C.) 
 
 squashes, melons, and cucumbers. This beetle 
 is yellowish in color with big' black spots, and is 
 slightly pubescent.^ The larva is also yellow 
 and covered with forked spines. 
 
 Lace-winged Fly. Another strong ally in 
 fighting our insect foes is the common lace 
 
 Year-book 1898. 
 
 FIG. 112. Epilachna corrnfta. 
 
 a I<arva. b Beetle, c Pupa, d Egg mass. All about three times 
 natural size.
 
 320 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 winged fly, or Aphis lion (Fig. 113, a). It is a 
 beautiful little creature, with brown antennse 
 and large, lustrous, golden eyes. Its body is of 
 
 FIG. 113. CHRYSOPA SPECIES. 
 (After Brehm.) 
 
 a pale green color, as are also its wings of deli- 
 cate lace. Its attractive appearance, however 
 alluring to the birds, is protected by a disagree- 
 able odor. The eggs, laid in clusters, each egg 
 upon a white, threadlike stalk, look like a 
 diminutive grove (Fig. ii3^")- This stalked
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 
 
 321 
 
 arrangement is to prevent their being eaten by 
 larvae, not only of other insects, but of those of 
 their own family, for they are veritable cannibals. 
 The larvae (Fig. 113,^) are as ugly as the adult is 
 beautiful. They are active, spindle-shaped little 
 fellows with crescent- 
 shaped mandible s, 
 which never seem to 
 tire of piercing to 
 death all insects they 
 can capture ; but they 
 are particularly de- 
 structive to plant-lice 
 (aphides), and for this 
 reason are often called 
 aphis lions. They 
 hold their prey be- 
 tween the tips of their FIG - "4. ICHNEUMON-FLY DK- 
 
 pnsiTiMfi AM vnn WITHITJ rnrrmivr. 
 
 mandibles, and suck 
 the juices through the 
 long tubes formed by a groove along the under 
 side of each mandible and the slender maxilla 
 which fits into it. When this larva reaches its 
 growth it rolls itself into a ball and spins a 
 cocoon of snowy white, from which it comes 
 forth through a circular lid (Fig. 113, y) a 
 wondrously changed creature the dainty lace- 
 winged fly. 
 
 Another group of our insect friends is the 
 parasitic Hymenoptera, such as the ichneumon* 
 
 POSITING AN EGG WITHIN COCOON. 
 (Slightly magnified.)
 
 322 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 flies,Chalcis Hies, and braconids. These generally 
 lay their eggs in or on the body of the larva of 
 other insects, but sometimes they deposit them 
 in the adult, the pupa (Fig. 1 14), or even the egg. 
 When th~ eggs hatch, the larva; feed upon the 
 substance of the host, thus destroying it, to- 
 gether with all of its posterity, which in a few 
 years might have been countless. 
 
 One e;enus of the ichneumon-flies which is 
 
 o 
 
 often mistaken for an enemy of plants is the 
 thalessa, a yellow or black (according to the 
 species) insect, with a long, slender, though 
 powerful, ovipositor, with which it pierces into 
 the wood of a tree. It will be found upon ex- 
 amination, however ; that the tree is infested 
 with borers (Fig. 122), and that what the ichneu- 
 mon really does is to deposit its eggs in the 
 nest of the borer, where the larva, when it 
 hatches, fixes itself to the body of the borer, liv- 
 ing upon its juices and gradually killing it. 
 
 The many species of Chalcis flies, as well as 
 the ichneumon, are parasitic upon a great num- 
 ber of different insects, one species feeding 
 upon the chrysalis of the cabbage-butterfly. * 
 
 (2) KXKRCISK 14. (a) As many kinds of these insects 
 as can be obtained should be placed in the breeding-jars 
 and watched through their development. 
 
 (/>) Experiment with the food of these insects in dif- 
 ferent stages of their development to ascertain in what 
 stage they are predaceous and what insects they will eat. 
 
 * The larvae of Syrphus-flies do much good by destroying scale 
 insects and aphides, in whose colonies they live.
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 303 
 
 (c) It will be interesting and instructive to place the 
 ]arva and the adult forms of the ladybug, and of the 
 lace-winged fly in the breeding-jars, and supply them 
 with portions of plants infested by aphides, and watch 
 what takes place. 
 
 (d) In which of these stages did your specimen of 
 ladybug devour the plant-lice ? How ? 
 
 (e) In which of these stages did your specimen of lace- 
 winged fly devour the plant-lice ? How ? 
 
 XI. Specific Examples of Injurious Insects. 
 
 i. Plant-lice are among the most familiar and 
 most annoying of the insects injurious to plants. 
 The family includes many species, all of which 
 are small, the largest measuring only one-fourth 
 inch in length. Most of those we see are wing- 
 less, but some of the common species have two 
 pairs of transparent wings. Our most common 
 species of plant-lice are green or black, but 
 others are red, brown, or yellow. The beak is 
 three-jointed. It is not coiled up like that of 
 the butterfly, but is attached to the head by a 
 hinge, and is bent up against the under side of 
 the body when the insect is not feeding. They 
 feed upon the buds, leaves, and tender growing 
 stems or roots of plants, and in such immense 
 numbers as to often do much damage. 
 
 EXERCISE 15. It will be easy to find colonies of these 
 plant-lice upon crysanthemums, cherry, or plum sprouts, 
 or even roadside weeds. 
 
 (</) Watch them closely, taking care not to dis- 
 turb them. What other insects do you see among 
 them ? Do you find two tiny tubes projecting from the
 
 324 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 terminal segment of the abdomen of the plant-louse ? 
 Is there a drop of honeydew on the tops of these tubes ? 
 What do you find ants doing with this honeydew ? If 
 no honeydew is present, observe the ants stroke these 
 plant-lice with their antennae. Do they then obtain the 
 honeydew (Fig. 115) ? This process is commonly spoken 
 of as the "ants milking their cows." Bees and wasps 
 also like this honeydew. 
 
 Ants care for the plant-lice in many ways, protecting 
 their eggs and carrying the lice to the roots, upon which 
 they feed. 
 
 (b) Do you find any enemies in the colony? 
 
 (c) Kerosene emulsion is, perhaps, the best remedy. 
 Why? 
 
 (</) Will the Paris green spray kill them ? Explain. 
 
 2. The Rose-slug (Monostegia roses] is a soft- 
 bodied larva, green above and yellowish below, 
 which eats the surface of the rose leaves, leaving 
 only the framework. When full grown the 
 larva buries in the ground. The adult is a tiny 
 black fly with dull-colored wings, and with the 
 first and second pair of legs grayish. There are 
 two broods a year (one in early summer and one 
 in late summer), the second brood pupating in 
 the ground over winter, and the adult emerg- 
 ing in the spring. Either Paris green or kero- 
 sene emulsion will form an effective remedy. 
 Why? 
 
 3. Tent-caterpillar. There are several 
 species of tent-caterpillars ; but only two, the 
 apple tent-caterpillar (Clisiocampa aincricana], 
 and the forest tent-caterpillar {Clisiocampa
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 325 
 
 disstria) are common in the United States east 
 of the Rockies. The adult form of the C. 
 americana is a rather small, rusty brown moth, 
 with oblique, pale yellow lines across the four 
 wings (Fig. 1 16). 
 
 The eggs are laid in summer in a circular 
 
 FIG. 115. ANTS MILKING I'l.ANT-I.ICK. 
 (After Figuir.) 
 
 band about a twig. This band of eggs (Fig. 
 1 1 6, c] is protected from the weather by a sticky 
 substance with which the parent moth coats 
 them over. The following spring, just before 
 leaf buds open, these tiny caterpillars come
 
 326 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Flo. Il6. AMERICAN TENT-CATKKIML- 
 I.AR (Clisiocampa aincricana). 1 * 
 
 forth to feed upon 
 the buds, and soon 
 the colony, for 
 they are social 
 beings, spins a 
 
 silken 
 
 j_ > > 
 " tent, 
 
 fork of 
 
 web, or 
 
 on the 
 
 a branch 
 
 (Fig. 1 1 6, a to />), 
 to which the cater- 
 pillars retire at 
 night and in cold 
 and stormy weath- 
 er. They grow 
 rapidly, and greed- 
 ily d evo u r the 
 leaves as they 
 come out, doing 
 much damage. 
 
 O 
 
 When the cat- 
 erpillars are grown 
 about two 
 long and 
 covered with hairy 
 They 
 
 e s 
 
 a and b Full-grown worms on the outside of 
 the tent, c Kgg-mass, with the gummy cover- 
 ing removed. (/-Cocoon, containing the chrys- 
 alis. Above all, the moth. 
 
 (After Riley.) 
 
 * Our Western species (Clisiocampa fragilis) 1 , 
 resembles the alx>ve so closely that the figure OTIS 
 serves equally well for it. 111*1 
 
 are black with a 
 
 white stripe down the median line, and with 
 short yellow lines and pale blue spots on each 
 side (Fig. 116, a and />). When they have 
 reached their growth they leave the tree, seek
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 
 
 327 
 
 shelter on the ground under boards, bark, etc., 
 and spin a silken cocoon (Fig. 116, tf), from 
 which, after a few weeks, the moth emerges. 
 
 The apple and wild cherry are the trees most 
 usually attacked by these caterpillars, but they 
 
 
 FIG. I!?. BALTIMORE ORIOLE ATTACKING THE NEST OF THE 
 
 AMERICAN TENT-CATEKI'ILI.AR. 
 
 have been found upon the peach, rose, and other 
 members of this family of plants, as well as upon 
 forest and shade trees. 
 
 Bacteria and parasitic ichneumon-flies, as well 
 as many birds, such as cuckoos, blue jays, crows,
 
 328 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 and orioles (Fig. 117), serve as natural checks 
 to these insects, but they are by no means 
 sufficient to prevent them from doing great 
 damage. 
 
 Every farmer should take prompt measures 
 to destroy them at their first appearance upon 
 
 his trees. This may 
 
 be done effectively 
 by spraying the foli- 
 age with arsenate of 
 lead, or Paris green, 
 or by collecting them 
 in their tents early in 
 the morning or late 
 in the evening. This 
 maybe done by thrust- 
 ing into the tent the 
 end of a long pole, 
 into which has been 
 driven two or three 
 nails, and turning the 
 pole round and round 
 so as to twist the web 
 about it. The cater- 
 pillars should then be burned or crushed. 
 
 4. The Forest Tent-caterpillar (C. disstria] 
 is very like the American tent-caterpillar in 
 appearance and habits. The markings upon the 
 wings of this moth are dark instead of light, while 
 in the caterpillar (Fig. 119) the median line is 
 
 FIT.. IlS. FOREST TENT-COCOONS 
 
 IN A1TI.K LEAVES.
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 329 
 
 marked with a row of white spots instead of a 
 continuous line of white, as in the americana. 
 In the colonies or masses which they form 
 
 FIG. 119. FOREST TENT-CATERPILLARS FEEDING UPON ELM LEAVES. 
 
 when not feeding there is a more or less dis- 
 tinct web underneath them, but it does not form 
 a complete covering above them, as in the 
 americana. They not only eat away consider-
 
 330 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 able portion of the leaf, but they cut it in two, 
 so that the end falls to the ground ; in this way 
 the damage is doubled (Fig. 119). To this is 
 also added the injury done to the foliage by 
 binding up the leaves (Fig. 118) for the attach- 
 ment and the protection of the cocoon. 
 
 FIG. I2O. CODLING-MOTH. 
 
 a Injured apple. b Place where egg is laid. 
 
 e I.arva. d Pupa, i Cocoon g, ./Moth. 
 
 h Head of larva. 
 
 (After Riley.) 
 
 They may be destroyed by spraying the foli- 
 age, at the first appearance of the caterpillar, 
 with arsenate of lead or Paris green. Both 
 the forest and the apple tent-caterpillars often 
 drop to the ground, and they may be prevented 
 from crawling back up the trunk by banding the 
 base of the tree, with a strip of cotton or of 
 "tanglefoot" fly-paper. This should be closely
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 331 
 
 applied to the trunk about a foot from the 
 ground, allowing the caterpillars to collect below 
 the band, when they may be removed and de- 
 stroyed, or sprayed copiously, and, if need be, 
 repeatedly, with kerosene emulsion. 
 
 5. The Codling-moth (Fig. 120). Comstock 
 says: "This is the best-known and probably 
 the most important insect enemy of the fruit 
 grower." The adult is a tiny gray moth (Fig. 
 120,^). Its front wings are sometimes tinged 
 with pink. These wings have a large brown 
 spot near the edge, crossed by metallic, bronzy 
 bands. 
 
 The eggs are laid each in the blossom end of 
 an apple, just as the petals are falling. In a few 
 days the larva hatches, feeds a little upon the 
 surface of the apple for a few hours or a day- 
 then eats its way into the center of the apple, 
 where we find it as "a. little white worm." 
 
 The larvae may be destroyed before they do 
 any damage by spraying the trees with Paris 
 green or arsenate of lead, just as the blossoms 
 fall, and before or at the time the larvae hatch. 
 At this time the fruit stands with blossom end 
 up, and the poison will reach the place where 
 the larva hatches. It is necessary to repeat this 
 spraying in a few days or a week, the time de- 
 pending upon whether it is dry or rainy weather. 
 A large percentage of the apples which drop pre- 
 maturely will be found to contain these larvae.
 
 332 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The larva remains in the apple only a short time 
 after it drops; then it crawls out (Fig. 120, e) 
 and seeks some secluded place as, under bark, 
 boards, etc.; hence, if the apples are removed and 
 burned, or fed to hogs at once, many of last year's 
 larvae will be destroyed, and thus the number 
 of adults left over for spring breeding greatly 
 lessened. 
 
 6. The Borers are another group of insect 
 pests which, owing to their habits and life his- 
 tory, must be combated in an altogether differ- 
 ent manner. 
 
 This group includes the many species of 
 borers. The remedies for many of these borers 
 are the same, but the time and methods of apply- 
 ing them depend upon the habit of the particu- 
 lar species in question. Each is a study in it- 
 self, and one must know something of the habits 
 and life history of each particular species which 
 he would successfully combat. On account of 
 limited space, but one example of borers can be 
 given. 
 
 (i) EXAMPLE. The Round-headed Apple- 
 tree Borer (Saperda Candida ). The presence 
 of these borers may be detected by the sickly 
 appearance of the tree and by the sawdust from 
 their gnawings, which is pushed out of their tiny 
 canals (Fig. 122). It takes nearly three years 
 for these insects to complete their life-cycle. 
 
 In June or July the eggs are laid singly at the
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 
 
 333 
 
 base of the trunk, under a loose scale of the 
 bark or in a little incision made by the mandibles. 
 In about two weeks the larva is hatched, and at 
 once begins to gnaw into the sapwood and inner 
 bark, where it remains for a year, making "disc- 
 shaped mines," in the lower part of which it 
 
 FIG. 121. ROUND-HEADED APPLE-BORER (Saperda Candida, Fab.). 
 (After Division of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture.) 
 
 spends the winter. The following summer it 
 again works in the sapwood, and in the third 
 season " cuts a cylindrical passage upward into 
 the solid wood " (Fig. 122). It afterward gnaws 
 out toward the bark, sometimes going on through 
 the tree.* "It changes to a pupa Q r ) near the 
 upper end of its burrow in May, and emerges as 
 a beetle in June." 
 
 (2) PREVENTIVES. Nature furnishes many 
 
 Comstock's Manual for t/m Study of Insects, p. 573.
 
 334 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 helpers in keeping boring insects in check- 
 such as woodpeckers, ichneumon-flies, Chalcis 
 flies, etc. In combating all kinds of borers an 
 ounce of prevention is, indeed, worth more than 
 a pound of cure. Prompt removal of all dead 
 or dying trees is a necessary measure. The 
 most effective preventive is to wrap the base of 
 
 FIG. 122. Saperda Candida, Fab. 
 
 a Puncture in which egg is laid, b Same in section, e Hole from which 
 
 beetle has emerged, f Same in section, g Pupa in its cell. 
 
 (After Riley.) 
 
 the tree trunk for about a foot and a half with 
 wire gauze netting, or, what is cheaper, wooden 
 wrappers obtained from box and basket fac- 
 tories. They should be pushed down into the 
 ground so that the beetle cannot get under to 
 lay its eggs, and the tops should be tightly filled 
 in with cotton batting to keep them out. The
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 335 
 
 wooden wrappers also protect the tree from sun- 
 scald and from rabbits. 
 
 A very effective remedy, which has been 
 tested and recommended by Prof. J. M. Sted- 
 man, State Entomologist for Missouri, is an 
 alkali wash made as follows : " Dissolve as 
 much common washing soda as possible in six 
 gallons of water ; then dissolve one gallon of or- 
 dinary soft soap in the above, and add one pint 
 of crude carbolic acicl and thoroughly mix ; 
 slake a quantity of lime in four gallons of water, 
 so that when it is added to the above the whole 
 will make a thick whitewash ; add this to the 
 above and mix thoroughly, and finally add one- 
 half pound of Paris green or one-fourth pound 
 of powdered white arsenic and mix it thoroughly 
 in the above." 
 
 This wash, of course, has no effect upon the 
 larva when it is inside of the bark, but it 
 prevents the insect from laying its eggs upon 
 the bark, or if'the egg is already present it kills 
 the larva before it enters the tree. As much 
 loose bark as can be taken away without injur- 
 ing the tree should be removed, and every crack 
 and crevice filled with the wash by rubbing 
 hard with the scrubbing-brush in applying it. 
 The wash should be applied early in June and 
 again early in July.
 
 336 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ^.INJURIOUS FUNGI. 
 
 The enemies of plants are not restricted to 
 animal forms, but many of them are low forms 
 of plants. Parasitic fungi, or low forms of 
 plants which do not have the power to live upon 
 unorganized food as green plants do, feed upon 
 the tissues of living or dead animals or plants, 
 and often do a great amount of damage. The 
 fungi, which feed upon living plants greatly 
 concern the agriculturist. Millions of dollars 
 are lost yearly by the damage caused by para- 
 sitic fungi. 
 
 The parts of the fungus are the mycelium 
 (the vegetative threads which ramify the tissues 
 of the host), and the minute spores, or repro- 
 ductive organs, the function of which is similar 
 to that of the seed of higher plants. 
 
 I. Specific Examples. 
 
 Space permits only the brief mention of a few 
 of the numerous fungi, but it is hoped that this 
 may be sufficient to give the student a slight 
 idea of their development and the method of 
 combating them. 
 
 i. Brown Rot (Monilia fructigena] (Fig. 123). 
 This is the familiar rot of the plum, peach, 
 and cherry, first appearing as a small dark spot 
 on the nearly ripe fruit. The ripe spores are 
 easily carried by the wind, and frequently 
 this rot destroys the entire crop. The rot 
 spreads fast if the weather is warm and moist.
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 337 
 
 Those fruits which touch each other are most 
 easily affected ; hence, the importance of thinning 
 the fruit. Another point to be remembered is 
 the fact that the fruits infested by these fungi 
 
 FIG. 123. HKOWN ROT (Manilla frucligena). 
 
 dry up and remain upon the tree, and thus carry 
 the spores over to the next year. These mum- 
 mified fruits (Fig. 123) should be destroyed or 
 fed to hogs. Frequent spraying with the diluted
 
 338 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Bordeaux * mixture (see page 341) will be an ef- 
 fective prevention if done in time. 
 
 2. Black Rot (Lcestadia bidwellii} of the 
 grape (Fig. 124) is a fungous growth which at- 
 tacks nearly or 
 quite grown grapes, 
 beginning as a dark 
 spot which spreads 
 over the whole 
 grape, making it a 
 purplish brown 
 color. The grape 
 then shrivels, turns 
 black, and is cov- 
 ered with very mi- 
 nute elevations. 
 
 Just before the 
 fruit ripens, or 
 earlier if the 
 weather is warm 
 and moist, this fun- 
 gous growth is apt 
 to appear, and prompt and frequent spraying 
 should be resorted to. Bordeaux mixture is 
 recommended for earlier spraying ; but it 
 stains the fruit, thus injuring its appearance, 
 when it begins to ripen. The ammoniacal copper 
 
 * " Since the leaves of the peach and plum are sensitive to this 
 spraying mixture, it should be used only in extreme cases." 
 WILCOX. 
 
 FIG. 124. BLACK ROT 
 
 (Lcesladia bidwcllii').
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 
 
 339 
 
 carbonate solution should then be substituted 
 for the Bordeaux mixture. Care must be taken 
 to burn the mummified fruits (Fig. 124). 
 
 3. The Bitter Rot of apples (Glceosporium 
 fructigenuni]. This is sometimes called the 
 
 Year-book, 1899. 
 
 FIG. 125. GRAPES FROM VINEYARD AFFECTED WITH BLACK ROT. 
 Sprayed and unsprayed. 
 
 ripe rot of apples, as it seldom affects the fruit 
 until half or nearly grown, and often effects it 
 even after it is stored."" It first appears as small 
 brown spots which enlarge, and sometimes two 
 or more unite, so that soon the whole fruit is 
 rotted. The fruits may drop off, but often re- 
 
 * Unless in cold storage.
 
 340 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 main upon the tree and dry up, thus protecting 
 the spores to start an extensive crop the suc- 
 ceeding year. 
 
 Every rotten apple, whether on the ground 
 or on the tree, should be destroyed, and all can- 
 ker spots on the branches or trunk cut out. 
 Spraying with the Bordeaux mixture should 
 be begun the middle of July, and repeated 
 
 KIG. 126. AN APPLE ATTACKED BY BITTER-ROT FUNGUS. 
 (After Alwood.) 
 
 twice a month or oftener. Substitute for 
 the Bordeaux mixture, as the apple reaches 
 its growth, the ammoniacal copper carbonate 
 solution. 
 
 4. Apple Scab (Fusicladium dentriticuni). 
 -This common and very injurious fungus at- 
 tacks both foliage and fruit. It is found on the 
 
 o 
 
 leaves as "sooty" spots. The leaves become 
 yellow and fall. It appears on the fruit as a
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 341 
 
 brownish scab, often distorting the shape. It 
 does the most damage just at the time of blos- 
 soming, and the forming apples drop off. It 
 may be largely prevented by spraying with Bor- 
 
 ne. 127. APPLE SCAB. 
 (After I,adernan ") 
 
 deaux mixture several times in the spring just 
 before the blossoms open, and afterward at 
 intervals of two weeks. 
 
 Let students spray an apple-tree for Apple Scab and 
 codling moth by combining Paris green (one-quarter 
 pound to 50 gallons of water) and Bordeaux mixture.* 
 
 II. Fungicides.f 
 
 (i) The best spray for general use as a fungi- 
 cide is, without doubt, the Bordeaux mixture. 
 
 FORMULA FOR LIQUID BORDEAUX. 
 
 Copper sulphate . . . 3 to 6 pounds 
 
 Quicklime 3 to 6 pounds 
 
 Water 50 gallons 
 
 *See Bulletin 114, Illinois Experiment Station. 
 
 f For Mildew on roses, etc., Flowers of Sulphur mixed with 
 one-third of its volume of Slaked Lime dusted on the foliage 
 is beneficial.
 
 342 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The amount of copper sulphate used depends 
 upon the strength of the mixture desired, three 
 pounds being sufficient for peach-trees in foliage, 
 and six pounds being harmless to dormant trees. 
 Dissolve the copper sulphate in an earthen jar 
 or wooden pail by suspending it in a sack so 
 that it will just touch the water. Hot or cold 
 water may be used. Slake the lime, and after 
 it is clone slaking add water enough to make a 
 thin paste ; strain, this through a gunny-sack 
 into a vessel containing twenty-five gallons of 
 water, and stir thoroughly. Mix together the 
 lime and copper sulphate solutions in equal 
 parts. 
 
 It is well to acid a little of one of the arsenical 
 sprays, since by so doing one may kill both 
 insects and fungi at the same time. It is better 
 to use the Bordeaux mixture when fresh. It 
 should be applied in dry weather, if possible. 
 
 Bordeaux solution containing free copper 
 sulphate is injurious to foliage and blossoms.* 
 It should always be tested with potassium ferro- 
 cyanide. f 
 
 Directions for testing : 
 
 () In a test tube or bottle make a Bordeaux solution 
 with an excess of lime and add a fe\v drops of potas- 
 sium ferrocyanide. Note change. 
 
 *See Bulletin 287, New York Experiment Station, 
 f Potassium ferrocyanide is very poisonous. Handle with 
 care. Label "Poison."
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 343 
 
 () Prepare a Bordeaux solution with an excess of cop- 
 per sulphate, and add a few drops of potassium ferro- 
 cyanide. Note change. 
 
 (f) Add potassium ferrocyanide to lime-water. See 
 p. 10 (d}. Note change. How does the result compare 
 with (a)l 
 
 (a) Add potassium ferrocyanide to a solution of cop- 
 per sulphate. Note change. Ho\v does the result com- 
 pare with ()? 
 
 Potassium ferrocyanide and copper sulphate 
 form a dark brown precipitate. If the Bor- 
 deaux solution shows a brownish color when 
 potassium ferrocyanide is added, what does it 
 indicate ? What would you do with the Bor- 
 deaux solution ? 
 
 2. The Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate Solu- 
 tion. When the fruit is almost ready for mar- 
 ket it is advisable to use the ammoniacal copper 
 carbonate solution, as the Bordeaux mixture 
 stains the fruit and mars its appearance. 
 
 Copper carbonate 5 ounces 
 
 Strong ammonia 3 pints 
 
 Water 50 gallons 
 
 Add enough water to the copper carbonate to 
 make a thin paste ; then pour into it the ammonia 
 and mix thoroughly ; then add the water. Use 
 instead of the Bordeaux mixture whenever it is 
 desired to avoid the stain made by the Bor- 
 deaux.
 
 344 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 C REFERENCES. 
 
 " Injurious Fruit Insects." Bulletin 23, Montana Agricultural 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 " Diseases of Cultivated Plants." Bulletin 121, Ohio Agri- 
 cultural Experiment Station. 
 
 " The Chinch Bug." Bulletin 51, Missouri Agricultural Ex- 
 periment Station. 
 
 "Spraying Apple-trees, with Special Reference to Apple Scab 
 Fungus." Bulletin 54, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 " Forest Tent-caterpillar." Bulletins 64, 75, New Hampshire 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 " Tent-caterpillar." Bulletin 38, New Hampshire Agricultural 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 " The Army-worm." Bulletin 39, New Hampshire Agricul- 
 tural Experiment Station. 
 
 " Insecticides and Fungicides.'' Bulletin 75, Oregon Agricul- 
 tural Experiment Station. 
 
 " The Canker-worm." Bulletin 44, New Hampshire Agricul- 
 tural Experiment Station, 
 
 " Paris Green for the Codling-moth." Bulletin 126, California 
 Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 " Fruit Diseases, and How to Treat Them." Bulletin 66, 
 West Vireinia Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 " Common Diseases and Insects Injurious to Fruits." Bulletin 
 170, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 
 
 "The Common Crow." Bulletin 6, United States Department 
 of Agriculture, Division of Entomology. 
 
 " The Relation of Sparrows to Agriculture." Bulletin 15, 
 United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Entomology. 
 
 " Peach Twig Borer." Farmers' Bulletin So, United States 
 Department of Agriculture. 
 
 " The Bitter Rot of Apples." Bulletin 44, Bureau of Plant 
 Industry, United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 " Fall Army-worm and Variegated Cutworm." Bulletin 29, 
 United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Entom- 
 ology. 
 
 " Progressive Economic Entomology." Year-book, 1899. 
 
 "The Blue Jay and Its Food." Year-book, 1896. 
 
 " Danger of Importing Insect Pests." Year-book, 1897. 
 
 "The Shade-tree Insect Problem in the Eastern United 
 States." Year-book, 1895.
 
 ENEMIES OF PLANTS. 345 
 
 " The Principal Insect Enemies of the Grape." Year-book, 
 1895. 
 
 " Four Common Birds of the Farm." Year-book, 1895. 
 
 "The Meadow-lark and Baltimore Oriole." Year-book, 1895. 
 
 ' Birds as Weed Destroyers." Year-book, 1898. 
 
 " Fungus Diseases of Forest Trees." Year-book, 1900. 
 
 " How Birds Affect the Orchard." Year-book, 1900. 
 
 "Useful Birds and Harmful Birds." Year-book. 1897. 
 
 "Audubon Societies in Relation to the Farmer." Year-book, 
 1902. 
 
 " Manual for the Study of Insects." Comstock. 2. 
 
 " Our Insect Friends and Foes." Craigin. 3. 
 
 " Fungi and Fungicides." Weed. 4. 
 
 " Bird Life." Chapman, i. 
 
 " Our Friends, the Birds." Parker. 5. 
 
 " Economic Entomology." Smith. 6. 
 
 " Insects Injurious to Fruits." Saunders. 6. 
 
 " Syrphus-flies." Bulletin No. 31, U. S. National Museum.
 
 OUTLINE OF CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 ORNAMENTATION OF SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS 
 
 .4. SCHOOL GARDENING. 
 
 I. School-grounds. 
 
 1 . Trees. 
 
 2. Shrubbery. 
 
 II. Experimental Garden. 
 
 1. Preparation. 
 
 (1) STUDY ON SOIL AND SEED. 
 
 (2) PREPARATION OF GROUND. 
 
 2. Plantings. 
 
 3. Group Gardens. 
 
 III. Window-garden. 
 
 B. LANDSCAPE-GARDENING. 
 
 I. Geometrical Style. 
 
 II. Natural Style. 
 
 C. REFERENCES. 
 
 34;
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 ORNAMENTATION OF SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 
 
 A. SCHOOL GARDENING. ' 
 
 I. School-grounds. 
 
 Tfyese present a difficult problem. A play- 
 ground must and will be had by the children. 
 Very often this is too small to spare a foot for 
 ornamental purposes, but nooks and corners 
 may be used. 
 
 1. Trees. If there is any possible way, let 
 there be a few large shade-trees. It would ren- 
 der the school-room more comfortable, as well 
 as more inviting, to have a tree so placed as to 
 shade the windows upon the south or west side. 
 Surely young trees can be planted on the edge 
 of the street along the school-ground, and prop- 
 erly protected until a good root-system is estab- 
 lished. 
 
 2. Shrubbery. Instead of a high board fence, 
 clumps of shrubbery may be used. They can 
 easily be arranged so as to form a screen, as 
 well as to make a pretty background for the 
 schoolhouse. 
 
 One excursion to the woods will be sufficient 
 to secure abundant material for the year. 
 Many of the pupils will gladly bring a flowering 
 
 34 9
 
 FIG. I2Q. A COUNTRY SCHOOL-YARD BARE AND UNATTRACTIVE. 
 
 
 FIT.. 130. TIIK SAMK SCHOOL-YARD IMPROVED BY PLANTINGS 
 
 OK SIIRI'BBKRY. 
 
 It \voiiUl look still better without the fence. (Bulletin, Cornell College 
 of Agriculture.) 
 
 350
 
 SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. IJ51. 
 
 shrub from the home grounds if the teacher 
 will only interest them in this work, and then 
 use taste in arranging the material when it is 
 brought. 
 
 II. Experimental Garden. 
 
 If the school-grounds are ample, a little ex- 
 perimental garden laid out in the back yard will 
 be well cared for by the children if enthusiasm 
 has been rightly instilled and controlled by the 
 teacher. 
 
 If the grounds are not large enough to admit 
 of this, the teacJicr is iirged to secure a vacant 
 lot for this experimental garden. No doubt it 
 can often be obtained for a small rental, or, per- 
 haps, for a share of the products. If agriculture 
 is to be studied, and it ought to be in some part 
 of the course of study in every school, then the 
 experimental garden becomes a necessity. 
 
 The school garden should have the hearty 
 support of the children concerned ; without this 
 it will be a failure. A child that has to be 
 forced to take up this work would far better be 
 excused for the first year, at least. There will 
 be time enough for him to repent when he sees 
 his playmates with fine flowers and vegetables 
 of their own. To gain the hearty support of 
 the children requires only an enthusiastic 
 teacher one who believes in his work, and has 
 a definite, organized course of procedure. 
 
 i. Preparation. (i) STUDY ON THE SOIL
 
 352 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 AND TPIE SEED. About a month or six weeks 
 prior to the work in the open ground, prepara- 
 tory lessons should be given on the soil and on 
 seed germination. These should include: (a) A 
 comparative study of the different types of soils 
 (sand, clay, humus, and loam), as to their color, 
 weight, porosity, size of particles, and power to 
 absorb and retain heat. (^) A study of the 
 seed and the conditions governing germination. 
 Some of the principal points to be considered in 
 these lessons are purity and vitality of seeds, 
 the seed-coat, depth of planting, time of sprout- 
 ing, and effect of light, air, moisture, and heat 
 on germination (see Chapter IX.). 
 
 Samples of all the different seeds to be 
 planted in the garden should be carefully ex- 
 amined and tested for purity and vitality, dis- 
 carding all those that are impure or are slow to 
 germinate. For early planting, seeds of such 
 plants as the tomato, cabbage, and pansy should 
 be started indoors. In every case the child 
 should work out these results for himself by 
 actual experiments or observations. If well 
 done, this work will form an excellent basis for 
 the work in the outdoor garden. 
 
 (2) PREPARATION OF GROUND. The soil for 
 this garden should be thoroughly prepared by 
 plowing and harrowing, independent of the 
 children's work. A certain space of ground 
 should be planned for and assigned to each
 
 SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 353 
 
 child. As a minimum this should be 4x lofeet, 
 with a path a foot and a half or two feet wide 
 on each side. The measuring should be done 
 by the children, but it will be necessary to 
 measure very accurately, in order that each 
 child may get his rightful share of the ground 
 and that this drill maybe practical. Care should 
 be taken not to tramp the ground any more than 
 is absolutely necessary. As the plats are laid 
 off, they should be marked with a stake at each 
 corner. The paths should be determined as 
 soon as possible, and the passing over the 
 groimds restricted to these. All paths should 
 be kept mulcJicd with grass or garden debris. 
 
 Each child should have full charge of his in- 
 dividual garden throughout the term, and be 
 responsible for the general condition of the 
 garden and path. 
 
 Great care must be exercised by the teacher, lest making the 
 garden should become the sole aim instead of the develop- 
 ment of tJie child. It must not be forgotten that the latter is 
 the paramount purpose of all school work. Hence, the 
 teacher should first require careful thought concerning 
 the prospective garden; then the individual tastes of the 
 children should be consulted in selecting and arranging 
 their own plantings. 
 
 Now, having decided how and where each 
 variety is to be planted, the ground should be 
 well pulverized and marked off by the children.
 
 354 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 If rows are used they should be from one to 
 three feet apart, according to the character of 
 the plantings. 
 
 2. Plantings for Individual Gardens. The 
 first planting may consist of radishes, lettuce, 
 
 FIG. 131. FIFTH-GRADE CHILDREN PLANTING THEIR GARDEN 
 
 and onions. These may occupy two-thirds of 
 the ground. The remaining portion should be 
 used for growing flowers ; some rather low 
 flowering plants are preferable, such as Cali- 
 fornia poppies, dwarf nasturtiums, verbenas, 
 phlox, and Ageratum. As the first planting of 
 vegetables is removed, a few tomato-plants.
 
 SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 355 
 
 cabbage-plants, potato hills, or some dwarf 
 beans may be put in. 
 
 The experimental garden makes possible many 
 lessons in nature. From the plants here grown 
 the child may gain an idea of the entire life his- 
 tory of them : seeds, roots, stems, leaves, flowers, 
 
 FIG. 132. FOURTH-GRADE CHILDREN CARING FOR THE LAWN 
 AROUND THE SCHOOL GARDEN. 
 
 and fruit may be studied. Ample opportunity 
 will be had for the study of " our friends, the 
 birds," and of our insect friends and foes. 
 
 The children should compare their gardens 
 with those of their neighbors, and be led to see 
 their mistakes, and, if possible, the reason for 
 them, so they may obtain better results next 
 time. Thus, while training the powers of ob- 
 servation and comparison (and deductive reason- 
 ing in the case of older students), the children
 
 356 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 will be also learning practical lessons in growing 
 plants to supply them with food or to adorn 
 their homes, thereby elevating their tastes and 
 enriching their lives. 
 
 3. Group Gardens. The local conditions in 
 the school will determine whether individual 
 gardens or group gardens are the more practi- 
 cable. If the children can have individual 
 gardens at home " x " then the group garden is the 
 more valuable for the school, since most 
 phases of the work can be better demonstrated 
 by having the children work together. 
 
 If the preparatory work (see i. Preparation. 
 pp. 353, 354), has been carefully done with the 
 children in the class-room, and the plans dis- 
 cussed concerning what, how and where to 
 plant, the children will be eager to carry their 
 plans into effect in the group garden. 
 
 CONCRETE EXAMPLES OF GROUP GARDENS. 
 
 (a] Primary Gardens. Late in the fall each 
 of the lower grades of the Practice School 
 planted one kind of bulbs. The first grade 
 chose the tulip ; the second grade, the poet's 
 narcissus ; the third grade, the crocus ; and the 
 fourth grade, the daffodil. In early spring they 
 
 *There should be frequent "experience meetings" with the 
 children concerning their home gardens. 
 
 If it can be arranged so that the class and teacher, or at least 
 the teacher, can visit some of the home gardens, it will add 
 to the interest of the work.
 
 SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 357 
 
 removed a part of the covering and watched 
 with delight the growth and blossoming of their 
 bulbs. As soon as the ground was ready in the 
 spring they planted pansies, sweet-peas, and 
 early vegetables, such as onions, radishes and 
 lettuce. As these early plants matured they 
 replaced them with later-growing varieties, thus 
 obtaining a succession of crops and learning the 
 importance of utilizing space. 
 
 (fr) Fifth Grade Garden. The fifth grade 
 children had a space 17^ x 70 feet for their 
 group garden. In it they planted rhubarb 
 plants, strawberry plants, and raspberry rooted- 
 tips. Many kinds of nuts were also planted. 
 These they had stratified in the early winter. 
 The opening of the box of stratified nuts was 
 like the opening of a Christmas box, the children 
 were so eager to see the sprouts of the different 
 nuts. After planting them in the garden they 
 anxiously watched for the seedlings to come up. 
 Apple grafts were also put out, each child's 
 trees being kept separate. Cabbage plants and 
 tomato plants which were grown by the children 
 indoors were set out. Some tomato plants 
 were trained to stakes, some supported on a 
 frame, and others left prostrate on the ground, 
 thus affording an opportunity for comparing the 
 relative values of these methods. Potatoes, 
 peas, sweet-corn and pop-corn were also given 
 space.
 
 358 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 FIG. 134. SCHOOL GARDENING AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS. 
 
 A portion of the ground was reserved for a 
 flower garden. In this they practiced some of 
 the elementary principles of landscape-garden- 
 ing. Plants were arranged for irregular masses.
 
 SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 359 
 
 The taller-growing plants, as cosmos, golden- 
 glow, and dahlias, were placed in the back- 
 ground ; in the middle ground, perennial phlox, 
 nasturtiums, and cannas ; and in the foreground, 
 California poppies and sweet alyssum were 
 planted. Throughout the entire scheme con- 
 sideration was given to the massing of colors 
 that would harmonize. Much of the material 
 for this work was obtained from the General 
 School Garden of the Normal School. 
 
 III. The Window-garden. 
 
 Window-boxes of growing plants will add to 
 the attractiveness of the school-room. The 
 difficulty lies in the danger of freezing the plants 
 in winter nights; but even if this cannot be pre- 
 vented, there are three months in the spring 
 and two or three in autumn when the plants 
 may be had, and much can be done in inter- 
 esting the pupils in this time. 
 
 The window-box should be made of inch lum- 
 ber, about seven inches deep and the width and 
 the length of the window-sill. A strip of oil- 
 cloth should be put upon the window-sill, and 
 the box supported by blocks or other means, so 
 that the air may pass freely beneath it, thus 
 preventing the decay of the window-sill or fac- 
 ing. It is important that the soil be well pre- 
 pared by thoroughly mixing decayed leaf-mould, 
 garden soil, and sand.
 
 360 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The plants must be studied carefully to find 
 out which love the sunshine and which the 
 shade, and which the partial shade, or, in other 
 words, which can be grown in the south and 
 
 FIG. 135. ROMAN HYACINTHS. 
 
 which in a north window, and which in an east 
 window. Try some of the same kinds in each 
 window and record your results. Try ferns of 
 various kinds, and begonias, umbrella-plants, 
 and Maderia-vines in the north window ; prim- 
 roses, cyclamen, and bulbs in an east window. 
 If they can be kept from freezing through
 
 SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 
 
 361 
 
 the winter, nothing will prove more satisfactory 
 than a box of bulbs.* Crocuses, hyacinths (Fig. 
 135), freesias, and narcissus will require little 
 attention and give 
 good results. The 
 Chinese sacred lily 
 (Fig. 1 36) is a large 
 and beautiful nar- 
 cissus, a large bulb 
 of which, if simply 
 placed upon sand 
 and pebbles in a 
 deep dish of water, 
 will bloom in a few 
 weeks, and con- 
 tinue to bloom for 
 some time. 
 
 FIG. 136. CHINESE SACRED LILY. 
 Hollv fern in front. 
 
 ^.LANDSCAPE-GARDENING. 
 
 Landscape-gardening is an art, just as truly 
 as the painting of pictures and the modeling of 
 sculpture ; and where means will permit, it is 
 just as essential to have an artist one whose 
 artistic tastes and ability to interpret Nature 
 
 * Bulbs for winter forcing may be put into pots of good loose 
 soil early in October, and stored in the cellar or in the ground 
 with a good cover of straw, soil, and compost, and allowed to 
 remain until about six weeks before the blossoms are desired. 
 Bring them, a few at a time, into partial light and later into full 
 light, and you may have a succession of blooms for weeks.
 
 362 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 give him the right to the title of " Landscape- 
 gardener " to design the grounds, choosing a 
 site for and suggesting the form of the house, 
 laying out the roads and walks, and planning 
 the planting of trees, shrubs, and flowers, so as 
 to make one harmonious picture, as it is to have 
 an architect to design the buildings and plan 
 the rooms for the convenience and comfort of 
 the occupants. 
 
 Few of us can afford the services of landscape- 
 gardeners, and fewer still are ourselves real art- 
 ists. What then ? Shall our homes be simply 
 shelters from the winter's wind and summer's 
 sun? Mere houses, where we eat and sleep and 
 exist? Or shall they be, so far as it lies in our 
 power to make them, abiding-places of comfort 
 and joy and beauty ; places where the eye of the 
 weary mother, as she glances up from her work, 
 may meet the restful view of shrub and tree and 
 sky, all blended into one delightful picture ; 
 where the passer-by may receive refreshing 
 glimpses of cooling shade and vistas of beauty 
 half-hidden by the trees or clumps of shrubbery, 
 or catch sight of the gay colors of summer flow- 
 ers or glorious tints of autumn leaves dwelling- 
 places which elevate and enrich our lives ? If 
 this latter condition is to be obtained, then the 
 finished landscape must first exist in the mind 
 i.e., be seen in the imagination of the designer, 
 just as the finished picture must be seen by the
 
 SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 363 
 
 painter before he touches his brush to the 
 canvas. 
 
 The Design. In the design the landscape- 
 garden must have unity some one dominating 
 purpose throughout the whole, though this 
 purpose need not be manifest to the observer. 
 
 The Grounds must be seen from various 
 standpoints ; they must be considered as viewed 
 both from within and without from the beauty 
 of their winter form and outline as well as of 
 their summer verdure. 
 
 In the site of the house and in the grouping 
 of accessory buildings convenience and comfort 
 must be first regarded, but not alone; for often 
 a beautiful and delightful location might have 
 been selected which would have been just as con- 
 venient and healthful as the dull or matter-of- 
 fact one which was selected, and which no 
 amount of time and money could ever make the 
 equal of the other. 
 
 Hence, it is of the utmost importance that a 
 careful study of the natural resources should be 
 made. There is no spot, whether among moun- 
 tains or at the seashore or on the rolling prai- 
 ries, which does not have its own original beauty. 
 There will always be something in the contour 
 of the land, in the plant growth, or in the gen- 
 eral outlook of the grounds, that will be worthy 
 of serious consideration. There may be massive 
 trees that are impressive by their size and age
 
 364 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 which man by one foolish act could destroy, 
 thus undoing what it has taken Nature years to 
 develop. " A tree is a precious inheritance from 
 the past, and should be transmitted to posterity 
 with as keen a sense of its artistic value as 
 though it were a famous picture or statue." 
 
 The plan must be specific, and it would be 
 well to make it on paper with pen and ink 
 planning not so much for the present appear- 
 ance as for the finished permanent picture ; no 
 tree, vine, or shrub of a permanent character 
 should ever be planted without this in mind. 
 
 Styles of Landscape-gardening. In making 
 the design there are two styles from which to 
 choose; only the skilled artist can combine the 
 two. 
 I. Geometrical Style. 
 
 In this method of landscape-gardening the 
 grounds are laid out in squares, circles, or other 
 geometrical designs (Fig. 137). The trees are 
 olantecl in straight rows, the shrubs trained to 
 regular patterns, and the walks and drives form 
 definite angles. 
 
 This style may be followed with pleasing 
 effect along public boulevards, around large 
 buildings (Fig. 137) with steeples and spires, and 
 particularly where the building is a large one 
 upon a small area. It heightens the outline of 
 
 * M. G. Van Rensselaer's Art Out -of -Doors.
 
 FIG. 137. GEOMETRICAL DESIGNS.
 
 366 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 the building and emphasizes its importance. 
 Many other places might be mentioned where 
 the formal style of gardening would be effective 
 and desirable. But over large estates, in rural 
 places and suburban homes, where the char- 
 acter of the surrounding landscape retains much 
 of its natural beauty, a formal system would be 
 entirely out of place. 
 
 II. Natural Style. 
 
 This is best liked by Americans for country 
 homes and schools, and is certainly the one best 
 adapted to them. Nature furnishes ample 
 material and many suggestions for the arrange- 
 ment of it. He who succeeds in preserving the 
 natural charms of a place, its spirit and senti- 
 ment, though he does not attain to the highest 
 perfection, is far in advance of the one whose 
 first attempt is to obliterate everything natural in 
 order that he may substitute some stilted and 
 artificial plan. 
 
 Though the landscape-artist has given due 
 respect to the natural surroundings, that is not 
 all there is for him to do. It is only a right 
 beginning. He has now the artificial features- 
 walks, drives, fences, etc. to blend and harmon- 
 ize in his landscape. These should be as few 
 as convenience will permit. " They should 
 neither be so straight as to lack beauty, nor so 
 meandering as to lack good sense." There 
 
 * M. G. Van Rensselacr's Art Out of Doors.
 
 SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 367 
 
 should be a legitimate reason for a curve in a 
 drive. Sometimes there will exist naturally a 
 small hill, a clump of bushes, or a tree that will 
 afford a sufficient reason for turning aside. 
 Otherwise one can. make the curve seem natural 
 by planting shrubs or a tree. Whatever be the 
 device, it should be something permanent and 
 real; something that could not be easily de- 
 stroyed or removed. A flower bed would not 
 be a real obstruction ; it would offer no resist- 
 ance to passing wheels. Not only would it 
 be unsuitable on account of its trivial, transi- 
 tory nature, but upon grounds large enough 
 to require a road, a flower bed would be en- 
 tirely out of place in the foreground. The same 
 principle holds true in the construction of paths 
 as in the construction of drives. Paths and 
 drives are for utility, not for beauty; then with 
 that aim they should be made. 
 
 A still more difficult problem than that of 
 \valks and drives must be met, and that is what 
 to plant and how to plant. This question ought 
 to be studied, for there are few places but what 
 could be improved by the judicious use of orna- 
 mental plants. Mrs. Van Rensselaer says: 
 " Two trees and six shrubs, a scrap of lawn, and 
 a dozen plants may form either a beautiful little 
 picture or a huddled disarray " of forms and 
 colors. Too often is found the "huddled dis- 
 array" instead of the beautiful picture.
 
 363 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The aim in placing the plantings should be 
 to so arrange them as to allow an uninterrupted 
 sweep to the line of vision wherever some pleas- 
 ing landscape lies beyond, and to hide from view 
 any buildings or objectionable objects. 
 
 The sky-line should neither be too much 
 broken nor too monotonous perhaps on one 
 side rising high above a mass of trees, with pos- 
 sibly a spire of poplar, while on the other side 
 it sinks to the surface of meadow or lake. 
 
 Lawns form the basis of natural grounds for 
 home or school. The center of the grounds in 
 front of the house should generally be devoted 
 to an open, unencumbered, well-kept lawn a 
 beautiful foundation for any grounds. " These 
 lawns may be kept clipped, or the grass may be 
 allowed to grow at its own sweet will ; but 
 clipped lawns have a distinct suggestion of arti- 
 ficiality, and the clipping should be confined to 
 the vicinity of buildings or other positions 
 where smooth surfaces and straight lines are 
 already in evidence (Fig. 137). The unmowed 
 lawn is suitable for larger pieces and for more 
 emphatically natural surroundings " (Fig- 
 
 138). 
 
 The plantings should be upon the boundaries, 
 near the building, and in the background. 
 " One would not want the furniture in the par- 
 lor to take up three-fourths of the room ; much 
 
 * Waugh's Landscape Gardening.
 
 370 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 less would one want the green carpet of the lawn 
 nearly covered with such furniture as trees and 
 flower beds." And one might emphatically add 
 much less such monstrosities as trellises, pattern 
 beds, rockeries, camp-kettles, vases, paint-buck- 
 ets, and sewer-tiles. A summer-house, too^ is 
 out of taste upon the front lawn. These would 
 mar the harmony of the whole surroundings. 
 
 The materials for plantings trees, vines, 
 shrubs, and flowers are countless in number 
 and of infinite variety. In the selection and 
 grouping of these, harmony of color, form, and 
 texture must not be forgotten. Yet the ele- 
 ment of variety must enter in, or the picture 
 will grow monotonous, however beautiful it 
 may be. 
 
 Trees. The most valuable plantings from 
 the standpoint of beauty and utility are the 
 shade-trees. Their artistic value is embodied 
 in the three qualities form, texture, and color. 
 
 The form of a tree is determined by its out- 
 line as described against the sky or other trees. 
 It may be eliptical, oval, pear-shaped, or of vari- 
 ous other outlines. Structure is another im- 
 portant factor in determining the form of a 
 tree. This relates to the manner of branching, 
 which may vary all the way from the drooping 
 habit of the "weeping" willow to the as- 
 piring branches of the poplar. Thus may be 
 
 * Waugh's Landscape Gardening.
 
 372 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 seen the inharmonious effect in massing to- 
 gether trees of these two extremes as, the 
 willow and the poplar. 
 
 The texture of a tree is determined largely by 
 the form and the density of its foliage (Fig. 1 39). 
 By comparing the leaves of the arbor-vitae and 
 those of the pine, the great trembling leaves of 
 the cottonwood with those of the weeping wil- 
 low, the catalpa and cedar, the extreme differ- 
 ence will be at once apparent. 
 
 The seasons bring a succession of charming 
 changes to trees. Spring brings only hints of 
 green ; summer brings the dense shadows ; 
 autumn brings the glorious colors ; but it is 
 left for winter, with its dull gray sky, to bring 
 out the true character or the individuality of 
 the tree its outline, manner of branching, and 
 the color of its bark. 
 
 In summer a tree " is shut in of its own 
 leaves and shadow ; but when winter, with icy 
 sword-blade, hacks away the last tatter of sum- 
 mer finery, and leaves the tree to stand naked 
 as an Indian warrior, then does it proclaim 
 itself."* 
 
 In the natural style of gardening, trees should 
 stand in irregular groups, or as individuals 
 standing alone, as if singled out on account of 
 unusual beauty of form, color, or structure (Figs. 
 140, 141). 
 
 * W. A. Quayle's In Goifs Ont-of-Dwrs.
 
 SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 373 
 
 The American beech makes a fine specimen 
 tree in rich soil. "In autumn there is a harvest 
 sunlight on the beech leaves very fair to see, but, 
 after all, the beech trunk is the tree's treasure." 
 
 The elm, ash, catalpa, chestnut, alder, mul- 
 berry, walnut, tulip-trees, maples, and oaks by 
 the score surely give ample material for choice 
 of trees to be used in groups or singly. 
 
 As street trees, none can excel the American 
 elm. "The elm-tree is always bewitching. In 
 summer, when you can tell this tree as far as 
 you can catch the contour across the fields by 
 the grace of its pose and its rhythmic swaying 
 of branches, as keeping time to music we do not 
 hear; ... in winter the tree has its winter array. 
 Flung on the snow or seen against the blue sky 
 or gray, it is as graceful as any tree that spreads 
 under the sky." * 
 
 The American sycamore, with its striking 
 color and texture of foliage, is one of our first 
 trees. It is grown on the capitol grounds at 
 Washington. 
 
 The sugar-maple is also an excellent street 
 tree ; in fact, it is beautiful in many places, 
 especially so in its autumn tints. 
 
 The linden may also be used to good advan- 
 tage as a street tree. 
 
 " The general effect of an evergreen forest is 
 that of somberness." In the North the use of 
 
 * W. A. Quayle's In God ' s Out-of-Doors, p. 52.
 
 r.> -L 
 
 .. : \ ',V
 
 SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 375 
 
 a few evergreen trees adds a pleasing variety, 
 especially in winter. 
 
 Shrubs may be used for a greater number 
 and variety of purposes than any other kind of 
 plants. When properly massed, they form ex- 
 cellent screens to hide unsightly buildings or 
 shut out some view which is less pleasing than 
 another. These masses of shrubbery do double 
 duty, for they not only act as a screen (Fig. 144), 
 but may, with the addition of a few trees, form 
 an excellent background for the whole picture. 
 
 As has been already suggested, groups of 
 sturdy-growing shrubs may be used in the curves 
 of walks and drives as substitutes for a more 
 natural obstacle to necessitate the turning aside. 
 These may give new charm to the landscape by 
 concealing some beautiful vista until the curve 
 has been passed, thus adding the elements of 
 surprise and discovery to the delight of the 
 beholder. 
 
 Masses of shrubbery may form little secluded 
 nooks or a quiet corner for a rustic seat, where 
 one may steal away with a book, or simply rest 
 in the cool and inviting retreat (Fig. 142), un- 
 consciously feasting the eye upon the beauty of 
 a far-away hill, a waving meadow, or, it may be, 
 upon an old-fashioned flower garden at one's 
 feet. 
 
 With the help of vines, irregular groups of 
 low-growing shrubs along the wall or within the
 
 376
 
 SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 377 
 
 angles serve to unite the buildings with the 
 grounds, and add to the harmony between them. 
 To take the place of low-growing shrubs 
 along the walls and in the angles of northern 
 exposures, nothing is more beautiful than ferns 
 
 FIG. 143. FERNS AND PHLOX. 
 
 with their feathery fronds (Fig. 143), which can 
 be used so effectively in house decorations. 
 
 When it becomes necessary to have a fence 
 or a hedge there are many shrubs adapted for 
 this purpose as, roses, barberries, japonicas, 
 bush honeysuckles, privets, arbor-vitaes, elder 
 bushes, sumachs, and a dozen others. If several 
 kinds of these shrubs are allowed to form a con- 
 tinuous yet irregular band, becoming broader
 
 SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 379 
 
 in one place and higher in another, and in 
 the background merging into a clump of tall 
 shrubs or small trees, the effect will be much 
 more natural than the closely sheared, stiff 
 hedge. 
 
 Where a number of varieties, species, or 
 genera of varying habits are brought together 
 in a group of shrubbery, the effect produced by 
 the shades of differences in form and color and 
 texture is usually more pleasing than that of a 
 group formed from any one kind alone. 
 
 For screens and masks, tall-growing, graceful 
 shrubs should be used for the background or the 
 center of the mass, and the outlines should 
 gradually lose themselves in the lower plantings 
 and green sward (Fig. 144). The plantings must 
 be dense enough to conceal the view and to 
 hide all trunks. Neither trees nor shrubs should 
 expose long, bare trunks, making them look as 
 though they were upon stilts. For this reason it 
 is better to plant thickly, and cut out some 
 shrubs when they need thinning. 
 
 In massing shrubbery, again the gardner needs 
 to know his plants. He should know those that 
 first put forth their leaves in spring, the time of 
 blooming, and the character of flowers and fruit. 
 In general, mass those shrubs with the darker, 
 restful colors in the background and those of 
 lighter shades in the foreground. Those forms 
 that blossom successively should be selected, for
 
 380 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 it is in this constant change that we have one of 
 the chief charms of the garden. 
 
 As to material, the common native shrubs are 
 really the best. Dogwoods (Fig. 145), elders, 
 crab-apples, Judas-trees, sumachs, buckberries > 
 snowberries, wild roses, greenbriers, honey- 
 suckles, currants, spice-bushes, and button- 
 bushes all are beautiful, each in its season. 
 
 Besides these native plants, there are scores 
 of beautiful and inexpensive ones to be had as, 
 the lilac, mock-orange, barberry, japonica, snow- 
 ball, spirea, deutzia, hydrangea, weigelia, and 
 many beautiful varieties of roses. 
 
 There are multitudes of hardy climbers and 
 annuals that may be used over porches, arbors, 
 and against the bare masonry of buildings. 
 For example, the climbing rose, honeysuckle, 
 wistaria, Virginia creeper, clematis, trumpet- 
 vine, wild grape, and hop-vine. Such annuals 
 as cypress, Madeira, cinnamon-vine, wild cu- 
 cumber, morning-glory, and moon-vine may 
 often be used to advantage. 
 
 Not all climbers will look well together, nor 
 be suited for all places. Each has a special 
 charm and beauty of its own, determined by its 
 habit of growth, and the character of its flowers 
 and foliage. Hardy climbers are more effective 
 in uniting the lawn and walls of the house than 
 annuals, which are present for a season and then 
 gone, leaving not only the junction of the soil
 
 FIG. 145. DOGWOOD l.N FLOWER. 
 
 381
 
 382 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 and walls bare, but the work to be done over 
 again the next year. 
 
 Flowers. While lawn, trees, and shrubs are 
 the main features of our plantings, the flowers 
 must not be forgotten. True, many flowers will 
 be had from month to month from the shrubs, 
 if they have been rightly chosen. But some 
 flowers must be grown, not so much for the sake 
 of the picture "as for their own sweet sake." 
 
 First, let flowers of the wild-wood be planted. 
 Let violets of all kinds, sweet-williams, blue- 
 bells, anemones, spring beauties, or dog's-tooth 
 violets peep out from shady recesses among the 
 grass and shrubbery. . 
 
 The old-fashioned flowers, such as phlox, 
 poppy, marigold, pink, petunia, verbena, and 
 portulacca, must not be forgotten. These are 
 appropriate for the flower garden proper, but 
 should not be scattered over the lawn to dis- 
 figure it. 
 
 " I have in mind a garden old, 
 
 Close to a little-known highway, 
 Where aster, pink, and marigold 
 
 Keep their long summer holiday. 
 'Mid dreams and visions manifold 
 I have in mind a garden old. 
 
 " The fragrance of old-fashioned flowers, 
 
 Where hollyhocks and daisies blow, 
 Floats on the wings of summer showers 
 
 Across the fields of long ago. 
 Lo! from the sweet, rose-ripened bowers, 
 The fragrance of old-fashioned flowers." 
 
 FRANK WALCOTT HUTT.
 
 SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 
 
 383 
 
 Asters, chrysanthemums, pansies (Fig. 146), 
 nasturtiums, and California poppies afford llow- 
 ers for cutting, but do not grow them in beds 
 outside of the flower garden. Rather let them 
 till irregular nooks at the edge of the shrubbery. 
 
 FIG. 140. PANSIES. 
 
 and shrub and flower will each enhance the 
 beauty of the other (Fig. 144). 
 
 Bulbs may be used in much the same manner 
 as other flowers, and the season of blossoms be 
 greatly advanced. The flowers from many 
 bulbs are of surpassing beauty as, the tulip, 
 jonquil, and the lily-of-the-valley. Two others 
 that are most pleasing when dotted here and 
 there over the lawn are those cheery little 
 harbingers of spring, the crocus and the urir
 
 384 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 assuming little snowdrop, the most welcome 
 of all. 
 
 Temporary Screens.^ If screens are needed 
 for a season, what could be more beautiful than 
 
 FIG. 7=48. SHALL THE CHILDREN PLUCK FLOWERS OR RATTLE 
 TIN CANS IN THE BACK YARD? 
 
 the tall sunflowers flanked by bashful golden- 
 rods, with their torches of shining gold? If 
 anything could be more beautiful, it is these 
 same plants, now robed in duller hue, casting
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 their outlines against the winter sky, and nod- 
 ding a welcome to the birds who come to par- 
 take of their bounties or blossoming again, 
 this time in snowy whiteness. 
 
 Hollyhocks, castor-beans, cosmos, dahlias, 
 chrysanthemums, and asters also make effective 
 
 FIG. 149. A BOUQUET OF SWEET TEAS. 
 
 back-yard screens (Fig. 147), as do also sweet 
 peas, morning-glories, moon-vines, wild cu- 
 cumbers, and Madeira-vines, if furnished with 
 a support. Here, as in other plantings, one, by 
 rightly choosing from among the myriads of 
 tall-growing plants or vines, may have an abun- 
 dance of flowers throughout the season. Among 
 annual climbers, sweet peas should be given the 
 preference, since they furnish an abundance of 
 fragrant flowers (Fig. 149) for decorating the
 
 SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 387 
 
 rooms and table from June to October, if the 
 flowers are picked regularly and the seed pods 
 not allowed to form. The vines should be 
 given a support as soon as the tendrils appear. 
 Wire netting makes a good and durable sup- 
 port for sweet peas. 
 
 Water. -If the possibilities of a place include 
 water in the form of rivulet, stream, or pond, 
 the owner is indeed fortunate. Running water 
 enlivens a landscape ; still water renders it 
 peaceful and quieting. 
 
 Along the wooded banks of the brook one 
 expects to find " tangles of vines and branches 
 and brakes." 
 
 The pond or small lake, itself a thing of 
 beauty, offers unusual opportunities for the skill 
 of the gardener. Ash and sycamore and willow 
 and alder are looked for along its banks, and 
 it is surely a disappointment if none of them 
 are mirrored in its silvery surface ; for the 
 reflections in the water (Fig. 150) are the best 
 part of the picture.* 
 
 A pond may simply look like a "cup set in 
 the ground," or form the most beautiful, and es- 
 sential part of the picture. A fringe of willows 
 may overhang its banks here and there. At 
 other points the grass and rushes should quench 
 
 * Before leaving the subjsct, the student should be required 
 to draw an original design for a geometrical style and one for the 
 natural style of landscape-gardening. These plans should be 
 carefully worked out in ink on good paper and discussed in class.
 
 388
 
 SCHOOL AND HOME GROUNDS. 389 
 
 their thirst in the water's brink, while " further 
 along the sedges and cattails may jut far out 
 into the still water," upon the surface of which 
 quietly rests the lily pads (Fig. 150). 
 
 C. REFERENCES. 
 
 " Plants as a Factor in Home Adornment." Year-book, United 
 States Department of Agriculture, 1902. 
 
 Cornell Nature-Study Quarterly, No. 2. 
 
 Part II., Fifteenth Annual Report, Agricultural Experiment 
 Station, Kingston, Rhode Island. 
 
 "Landscape Gardening." W. A. Waugh. 1902. 4. 
 
 "Art Out-of-Doors.'' Mrs. Van Rensselaer. Charles Scrib- 
 ner'sSons, N. Y. 1900. 
 
 " How to Plant the Home Grounds." S. Parsons, Jr. Double- 
 day & McClure Co., N. Y. 1899. 
 
 " In God's Out-of-Doors." Quayle. Jennings & Pye, Cincin- 
 nati.
 
 OUTLINE OF CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 
 
 E. A. TROWBRIDGE, 
 Animal Husbandry, University of Missouri. 
 
 ^.GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 
 
 I. Early History. 
 II. Improvement. 
 
 III. Heredity. 
 
 IV. Variation. 
 
 1. Atavism. 
 
 2. Ordinary Variation. 
 
 3. Extraordinary Variation. 
 
 V. Selection. 
 
 1. Natural Selection. 
 
 2. Artificial Selection. 
 
 VI. Functions of Animals Under Natural 
 
 Conditions. 
 
 VII. Changes Wrought by Man. 
 VIII. Relation of Form and Function. 
 
 /?. HORSES. 
 I. Light Horses. 
 
 T . Type. 
 2. Breeds. 
 
 II. Coach-Horses. 
 
 1 . Type. 
 
 2. Breeds. 
 
 HI. Draft-Horses. 
 
 1 . Type. 
 
 2. Breeds. 
 
 C CATTLE. 
 I. Beef-Cattle. 
 
 1. Type. 
 
 2. Breeds.
 
 392 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 II. Dairy-Cattle. 
 
 1 . Type. 
 
 2. reeds. 
 
 III. Dual-Purpose Cattle. 
 
 1. Type. 
 
 2. Breeds. 
 
 D SHEEP. 
 I. Mutton Form. 
 II. Wool Form. 
 
 (a) Fine Wool Sheep. 
 
 1. Type. 
 
 2. Breeds. 
 
 (b) Medium Wooled Sheep. 
 
 1. Type. 
 
 2. Breeds. 
 
 E. SWINE. 
 I. Lard Hogs. 
 
 1 . Type. 
 
 2. Breeds. 
 
 II. Bacon Hog's. 
 
 1. Type. 
 
 2. Breeds. 
 
 F. POULTRY. 
 I. Laying' Fowls. 
 
 1 . Type. 
 
 2. Breeds. 
 
 II. Meat Fowls. 
 
 1. Type. 
 
 2. Breeds. 
 
 HI. General-Purpose Fowls. 
 
 1. Type. 
 
 2. Breeds. 
 
 G. REFERENCES.
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 
 
 E. A. TROWBRIDCK. 
 
 Animal Husbandry, University of Missouri. 
 
 I. Early History. 
 
 The early history of domestic animals is as 
 much in obscurity as that of the human race. 
 Biblical references to some classes lead us to 
 believe that they were known at a very early 
 date. The findings of recent investigators 
 tend to prove the existence of prehistoric ani- 
 mals closely akin to some of our present 
 domestic animals, particularly the horse. These 
 prehistoric horses were very small and different 
 from the horse of to-day in having two or more 
 toes instead of the hoof, and their teeth were 
 much less developed. Their color was probably 
 more or less striped, resembling the zebra. 
 
 Just when our domestic animals were brought 
 into close relation with mankind is uncertain, 
 but it is a certainty that it was at a very early 
 date. They were first used for food and their 
 hide for clothing. Later, the horse and ox 
 were used as beasts of burden, and the horse 
 was of great aid in warfare. 
 
 393
 
 ;W4 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 II. Improvement. 
 
 As time went on people became more civi- 
 lized. Their habits, customs, ambitions and 
 demands changed. With this change in the 
 people themselves many changes in domestic 
 animals followed, as a natural consequence. It 
 was a general change in the direction of im- 
 provement, although this was not always the 
 case. 
 
 There are three natural laws which are great 
 factors in affecting animal form and character 
 
 > 
 
 in its reproduction, and make change possible. 
 They are 
 
 1. Heredity. 
 
 2. Variation. 
 
 3. Selection. 
 
 III. Heredity. 
 
 Ribot defines heredity as " that biological law 
 by which all living beings tend to repeat them- 
 selves in their descendants." This is the law 
 which makes possible the resemblance between 
 a parent and offspring, and is well expressed in 
 the common saying that " like produces like." 
 It is this principle upon which we depend 
 for the transmission of milk-producing quali- 
 ties in dairy cattle, speed in race-horses, etc., 
 and by which we are able to maintain a 
 standard of breed, characteristics or type in 
 animals.
 
 FARM ANIMALS. ;3<>5 
 
 IV. Variation 
 
 may be defined as the tendency in animals to 
 produce characters in the offspring which differ 
 from those of the parents. This law has given 
 rise to the common expression that " like does 
 not always produce like." At first sight these 
 two principles would appear antagonistic ; but 
 upon further study their difference may be 
 understood. 
 
 As the result of reproduction of animals of a 
 certain breed, we expect offspring which re- 
 semble the parents in general breed characters. 
 For example, it is natural to expect an Aberdeen 
 Angus cow to be the mother of a hornless calf, 
 black in color and of meat-producing confor- 
 mation ; and we will not expect her to be the 
 mother of a fawn-colored calf with horns and 
 capable of milk production at maturity rather 
 than beef production. Thus, within limits, 
 " like produces like." On the other hand, we 
 would not expect this calf to be exactly like its 
 mother in every respect, for who has ever seen 
 two animals or two people exactly alike ? The 
 calf might differ from its mother in size, spring 
 of ribs, thickness of loin, length of legs, depth 
 of bod)' and various other ways. Thus, we see 
 that like does not always produce like. Should 
 the calf differ from its mother in these minor 
 details, this variation would be called gradual or 
 ordinary variation. But should it possess some
 
 396 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 of the characteristics mentioned as unexpected 
 the difference would be called spontaneous or 
 extraordinary variation, and might result from 
 many different causes. 
 
 Animals that have been bred for a long time 
 with a certain type in view are more likely to 
 produce animals of that type than are those 
 animals that have come to this desired type by 
 differing greatly from their parents. Thus, one 
 of the values of pure-bred animals is their 
 ability to reproduce themselves with a greater 
 degree of accuracy than animals which have not 
 been bred pure. 
 
 1. Atavism. It sometimes happens that ani- 
 mals are born with one or more characteristics 
 which were not possessed by their parents or 
 grandparents, but which were possessed by 
 their ancestors many generations prior to their 
 existence. This inborn tendency of animals to 
 revert to their original type is called atavism, or 
 reversion. 
 
 2. Ordinary Variation, for the most part, is 
 caused by some of the many factors of environ- 
 ment. Among these factors are food, climate, 
 soil, exercise and general management. Food 
 is one of the most important among them. 
 Ample food supply is necessary to the maximum 
 growth of animals, yet overfeeding leads to 
 sterility and lack of vitality in offspring. A 
 striking example of the effect of nutrition upon
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 397 
 
 animals is the Shetland pony, a very miniature 
 horse in his original home, but gradually in- 
 creasing in size when taken to a country of 
 liberal food supply. As an illustration of the 
 effect of climate on animals, one may observe 
 the Galloway cattle of western Scotland. They 
 have developed a remarkably heavy coat of hair 
 because of the cold and stormy weather to 
 which they have been subjected. 
 
 Domesticated cattle receive their food with 
 very little exertion other than that of eating, 
 while the buffalo of the Western range has been 
 forced to cover considerable territory to find 
 sufficient food. This continuous exercise, along 
 with the severe weather endured, has brought 
 about the lack of thick fleshing quality and the 
 extraordinary constitution of the latter animals. 
 
 3. The causes of Spontaneous or Extraordi- 
 nary Variation are not well understood. It is 
 known, however, that this type of variation is 
 transmitted only very irregularly. Selection 
 may be divided into two classes ; namely, natural 
 selection and artificial selection, yet the latter 
 has certain limits put upon it by the former. 
 
 V. Selection. 
 
 By Natural Selection is meant the repro- 
 ducing of animals most capable of self-protec- 
 tion, of subsisting and again reproducing under 
 existing conditions. It is what has been called
 
 398 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 the natural law of the "survival of the fittest." 
 Among cattle those animals capable not only of 
 protecting themselves in battle, but of destroy- 
 ing the enemy, which might be weaker animals 
 of their kind or of a different kind, were the 
 survivors and remained to reproduce them- 
 selves. 
 
 Those individuals not able to withstand the 
 hardships of a severe climate either starved, 
 froze or were killed by their stronger brothers, 
 who fought with them to obtain the available 
 food. The buffalo, with heavy head, neck, 
 strong fore-quarters and muscular but light 
 hind-quarters, has this conformation ; because it 
 permits of greater strength and agility, he is 
 able to destroy his enemy and to move about 
 to obtain food. 
 
 Artificial Selection is the mating of animals 
 controlled and directed by men. By careful 
 study great breeders have developed our 
 modern breeds of live stock. They have 
 created types which were most efficient in 
 particular lines of production and, in fact, have 
 changed the form and function of many of our 
 domestic animals. 
 
 VI. Primary Functions of Animals. 
 
 It will thus be seen that the laws of nature 
 are at the very basis of all life. The first 
 function of animals is self-preservation. For
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 399 
 
 preservation, the ability to gather food and to 
 protect themselves against other animals and 
 the climate, is necessary. The second function 
 of animal life is that of reproduction, which is 
 dependent upon general strength and vigor. 
 Animals in their natural state have developed 
 temperament, conformation and qualities that 
 best fit them for the performance of these life 
 functions. 
 
 But under domestication great changes have 
 been wrought. Here to only a limited extent 
 may we say that animals exert themselves for 
 self-preservation. Their food, shelter and pro- 
 tection from other animals is supplied by man. 
 In domestic animals the process of reproduction 
 is largely directed by man, consequently they 
 have been relieved to some extent of the 
 primary functions of their existence. 
 
 VII. Changes Wrought by Man. 
 
 Man, however, expects remuneration for his 
 labor and his pains and seeks to obtain it in one 
 form or another. He not only lessens the 
 responsibility of domestic animals of their own 
 preservation and reproduction, but seeks by 
 proper nutrition, care and selection to develop 
 them to a high efficiency along a given line. 
 
 As an example of this development, one may 
 note the dairy-cow. Observation taught that 
 some animals produced more milk than others. 
 Basing the procedure upon the law of heredity,
 
 400 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 these high-producing animals were allowed to 
 reproduce themselves. Their ability to produce 
 milk was increased by proper care and feeding. 
 From each succeeding generation the best cows 
 were selected and allowed to reproduce, the 
 methods of feeding and caring for them were 
 improved, until we have the dairy-cow of to-day, 
 a veritable milk-producing machine. 
 
 Further illustrations of man's efforts to in- 
 crease the efficiency of domestic animals may 
 be observed in the trotting-horse, the lard hog, 
 the wool-producing sheep ; in fact, all classes of 
 domestic animals. 
 
 Thus, through these factors of food, care, 
 selection and general management, prompted 
 by man's necessities and his desires, the various 
 classes and breeds of live stock have been 
 developed. They have, however, been de- 
 veloped under vastly different conditions and in 
 widely separated locations. The development 
 of various classes in their respective locations 
 has been due to environment and the demands 
 of the people. The beef-cattle business on the 
 open range developed there because of the vast 
 amount of cheap and government lands which 
 might be pastured. The scarcity of help and 
 markets, and the vast amount of land and cattle 
 which must be under the supervision of one 
 man, forbade the pursuit of any but an exten- 
 sive business. Quite opposite are the conditions
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 401 
 
 surrounding our large cities. The vast popula- 
 tion creates a demand for milk. The high 
 price of land prohibits the owning of large 
 tracts by individuals, and the dairy business is 
 capable of enormous profit per acre. Hence 
 we see to-day the districts within reach of our 
 cities attentive to that branch of agriculture. 
 To make the dairy business profitable, high- 
 class dairy-cattle are necessary. 
 
 The draft-horse in the Northern United States 
 is the result of a demand for animals to do 
 heavy work in the timber, on the streets of the 
 cities, and in the large fields. The heavy soil 
 and bad roads in Virginia and Kentucky brought 
 about the development of the American saddle- 
 horse. Many other instances of similar char- 
 acter might be cited. 
 
 But without proper care all these improved 
 classes of animals tend to revert to their natural 
 conditions, under which they can protect and re- 
 produce themselves with the greatest certainty. 
 It is this retrogression that man guards against 
 by selection, care and management of his live 
 stock. 
 
 VIII. Relation of Form and Function. 
 
 It has been observed that animals possessing 
 great efficiency in some one direction have cer- 
 tain characteristics in common. This is true 
 whether they have been developed independ- 
 ently or in close touch with each other. As
 
 402 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 an example of this we have the draft-horse in 
 England, and the draft-horse in Europe, de- 
 veloped to a great extent independent of each 
 other, yet possessing many characteristics in 
 common. Some of those characteristics com- 
 mon to both are weight, temperament, size of 
 bone and general conformation. 
 
 These coincident cases found in all classes of 
 live stock have given rise to ideas regarding the 
 "relation of form and function." To just what 
 extent form and function are related is difficult 
 to discern. Factors such as temperament and 
 invisible characteristics have a great effect in 
 determining the efficiency of animals. But that 
 animal form and temperament are an index to 
 their function and efficiency, within limits, can 
 not be doubted. Examples of this may be ob- 
 served in all classes of live stock with which we 
 are concerned. From the following paragraphs 
 the relation of the various forms and tempera- 
 ments in the different classes of live stock to 
 their function and efficiency will be seen. 
 
 There are certain terms by which we refer to 
 characteristics which are common to all animals; 
 namely, quality, conformation, constitution, 
 temperament, capacity and early maturity, and 
 sex character. 
 
 i. Quality is an indefinable characteristic 
 which shows strength and ability for perform- 
 ance without coarseness, and is indicated in
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 403 
 
 animals by symmetrical development, clean-cut 
 features, strong, closely knit bone, well-defined 
 joints, pliable elastic skin of medium thickness 
 and fine hair, all of which go to make up an ap- 
 pearance of general refinement. 
 
 2. Conformation refers to the skeletal and 
 muscular structure and development of animals. 
 
 3. Constitution refers to the physical powers 
 of animals, their ability to withstand hardship 
 and disease. It also refers to their ability to 
 remain healthy and produce well on heavy 
 rations. It is indicated by a broad, deep chest, 
 a well-proportioned head, and a clean-cut 
 muzzle of medium size. A sleek coat of hair, 
 bright eyes, and alert temperament indicate 
 thrift and general good health. 
 
 4. Temperament is the characteristic of ani- 
 mals indicating nervous control and ability and 
 disposition to do work. It is indicated by clear 
 eye, graceful carriage, style and vigor in action. 
 Terms commonly applied to temperament are 
 lymphatic, nervous, sanguine and bilious. 
 
 5. Capacity is ability of animals to utilize 
 food for the production of milk, meat, wool, 
 speed or strength, as the case may be. It is 
 indicated by good appetite, depth and width of 
 barrel (well-developed digestive apparatus), and 
 disposition to utilize food. 
 
 6. Early Maturity is a term applied to the
 
 404 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 tendency of animals at the present time to 
 reach mature form and begin their life's work at 
 an early age. 
 
 7. Sex Character has reference to the femi- 
 nine features and the quiet disposition of 
 females ; the strength, aggressiveness and mas- 
 culinity of male animals. Animals which are 
 clearly lacking in sex character do not usually 
 prove valuable in a herd of live stock kept for 
 breeding purposes. 
 
 From the following discussion will be seen 
 the various classes of live stock, the division of 
 these classes into certain rather well-defined 
 types and a subdivision of these types into 
 breeds. The descriptions are those of the most 
 efficient animals which are recognized by au- 
 thorities on the various classes of stock. 
 
 ^.HORSES 
 
 are classified according to their uses to a great 
 extent. 
 
 Light Horses are those used for light driving, 
 road work and riding. 
 
 Coach-Horses are used for drawing fashion- 
 able turnouts and carrying fine harness. They 
 are also used as general-purpose horses. 
 
 Draft-Horses are used to perform heavy 
 work of any kind when strength and weight 
 are required.
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 
 
 405 
 
 I. Light Horses 
 
 weigh from 900 to 1,200 pounds ; stand from 15 
 to 1 6 hands high, the larger ones being pre- 
 
 FIG. 151. "ARTIST MONTROSE." 
 
 Sweepstake Saddle Stallion, at World's Fair, Chicago, 111., Sept. 6, 1893. 
 Ridden by Jeff Rridgford. 
 
 ferred. They are somewhat angular in con- 
 formation, with muscles of extreme length 
 rather than thickness. Symmetrical develop- 
 ment throughout is essential. The head should
 
 40(i AGRICULTURE. 
 
 be ofmedium size, carried well up, with a grace- 
 ful neck of medium length set on long sloping 
 shoulders. A short, strong back with long 
 rump and tail set high are desirable. The legs 
 should be set squarely under the body. The 
 skin and hair should be fine, the bones and 
 joints of good size and well defined, giving a 
 general appearance of quality and good breed- 
 ing. Constitution and lung capacity are indi- 
 cated by nostrils of medium size, by a well- 
 defined windpipe and a deep chest of medium 
 width. A temperament showing spirit and 
 vigor yet tractability is desirable. Without this 
 spirit, the high and vigorous action so essential 
 to a light horse is impossible. Both at the walk 
 and at the trot the gait should be regular, 
 straight and springy. These horses are re- 
 markable for their stamina and endurance. 
 
 BREEDS OF THIS CLASS. 
 
 1. Arabians, which are a very old breed; 
 native of western Asia and Africa. They are 
 particularly characterized by their intelligence 
 and endurance, and have had marked influence 
 on the horses of to-day through the English 
 Thoroughbred. 
 
 2. Thoroughbreds, which had their origin in 
 England and have long been used as race 
 ( running) horses. They have been of great 
 value in improving the quality and stamina of
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 407 
 
 some of the more modern breeds. In color 
 they are usually dark. 
 
 3. American Trotters, which are of American 
 origin and are represented by a preponderance 
 of blood in the native light horses of America. 
 They are usually dark in color, but vary greatly 
 in type. Quality and stamina are outstanding 
 attributes, since they are descended from the 
 Thoroughbred. 
 
 4. Morgans, a branch of the American Trot- 
 ters. 
 
 5. American Saddle-Horses, which are found 
 most numerous in Kentucky, Missouri and 
 Tennessee. This breed possesses extreme 
 style and quality and shows five gaits ; namely, 
 walk, trot, canter, rack, running walk or fox 
 trot or slow pace. The solid dark colors are 
 preferred in this breed. 
 
 II. Coach-Horses 
 
 are larger than those of the former class. 
 They range in weight from 1,15010 1,450 pounds, 
 and in height from 15.2 to 1 6 hands, the average 
 weight being about 1,250 pounds, and height 
 15.3 hands. They are similar to Light Horses 
 in skeletal structure, but are very smooth in 
 conformation, showing thicker muscles and 
 more symmetrical body curves. Their use is to 
 draw fine carriages and carry fine harness, 
 consequently style, action and quality are 
 essential. Extreme high action at knee and
 
 408 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 hock, with rather a short but straight and 
 elastic stride, is desirable. Speed is a secondary 
 consideration. The head and tail should be 
 carried high and every action should be that of 
 
 KIG. 152. HACKNEY STALLION " SIR HUMPHREY" (9889), 956. 
 
 O wned by Pabst Stock Farm, Oconomowoc, Wis. Winnerof ist Prize Hackney 
 
 Stallion and Championship, and ist Prize for Stallion of any breed for 
 
 getting harness horses at the International Show, I<ondon, Eng., 1907. 
 
 an aristocrat. The skin, hair and bone should 
 be of fine texture, showing ample quality. 
 The legs, joints and feet should be strong, well 
 placed and free from any unsoundness or 
 blemish. Vigor and high spirit should be in
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 409 
 
 evidence, but viciousness is not tolerable. This 
 class of horses are used for short drives about 
 cities where style and beauty are more sought 
 than endurance ; hence this characteristic is not 
 as marked as in the lighter horses. The solid 
 darker colors are preferable. 
 
 This class of horses is sometimes called 
 heavy harness horses because of the amount of 
 harness which they are forced to carry. They 
 are also said to come nearer answering the dual' 
 purpose idea than any other type of horse. 
 
 BREEDS OF THIS CLASS. 
 
 1. Hackneys, a breed native of England and 
 used in the early part of the nineteenth century 
 for hauling heavy stage-coaches in that country. 
 When railroads became common this work 
 ceased to exist and the Hackney was developed 
 toward the Coach-Horse standard. This breed 
 to-day is the height of perfection as heavy har- 
 ness-horses. 
 
 2. P^rench Coach-Horses, as the name indi- 
 cates, are native of France. They are commonly 
 termed " demi-sang " in their own country, 
 which means "half-blood," and originated from 
 the fact that they contain much English Thor- 
 oughbred blood as well as the blood of native 
 French stock. They are very satisfactory as 
 coach-horses. 
 
 3. German Coach-Horses, natives of Ger-
 
 410 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 many, and larger than either of the two breeds 
 mentioned above. They are particularly known 
 for their size, but are frequently lacking in finish 
 and action. 
 
 4. Cleveland Bays, natives of England and 
 much less popular now than in the middle of 
 the nineteenth century. 
 
 5. American Coach-Horses, a breed now in 
 the formative stage in America. They are be- 
 ing evolved from the most acceptable type of 
 American Trotters. 
 
 HI. Draft-Horses 
 
 should weigh from 1,600 to 2,200 pounds, and 
 stand from 15.3 to 16.3 hands high. Heavy 
 weight in draft-horses is much sought after, but 
 quality and symmetry are not sacrificed for it 
 to any great extent. The conformation of the 
 draft-horse should be broad and deep in body, 
 low and heavily muscled throughout. He should 
 have long sloping shoulders with short, broad 
 and thickly muscled back and loin. The rump 
 should be of medium length and well muscled, 
 with thighs and quarters deep and strong. A 
 good depth of barrel indicates good feeding 
 capacity. Constitution and lung capacity should 
 be evidenced by deep, broad and full chest. 
 The bone and joints of the legs should be of 
 good size and show quality. The feet should 
 be large, symmetrical and of firm texture.
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 
 
 411 
 
 Quality should be evident to produce perfection. 
 The work of the draft-horse is done in most part 
 at the walk, and this gait should be straight, 
 
 FIG. 153. PERCHERON STALLION " PINK," 24,756 (47, 5 13). 
 
 Owned by Dunham & Fletcher, Wayne, 111. Twice Champion at the Inter- 
 national L,ive Stock Show. 
 
 springy, well balanced and rapid. At the trot 
 the same features are desirable. An energetic, 
 yet docile disposition is essential. Great weight 
 and strength, coupled with quality, action and 
 symmetry, constitute perfection in this class.
 
 412 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 BREEDS OF DRAFT-HORSES. 
 
 1. Perckerons, a breed native of the district 
 of La Perche, in France. These horses are 
 more numerous in America than other draft 
 breeds. They are not as large as some breeds, 
 but possess endurance and wearing ability. 
 They are usually gray or black in color, with 
 very little "feather." * 
 
 2. Clydesdales, native of Scotland and very 
 popular in Northern United States and Canada. 
 They are of average size for draft-horses and 
 have particularly good action. Bay, black or 
 chestnut with white markings are the usual 
 colors. They possess some feather. 
 
 3. English Shires, native of England and 
 popular because of their great weight. They 
 are usually dark in color with some white mark- 
 ings. They possess considerable feather. 
 
 4. Belgians are a breed of horses native of 
 Belgium. These horses attain great weight and 
 are good feeders. They are usually bay, brown, 
 chestnut or roan in color, and possess very little 
 feather. 
 
 5. Suffolk Punch-Horses are natives of 
 England. They are of good size and possess 
 very little feather. Their color is always 
 chestnut. 
 
 * A growth of hair springing from the tendon back of the can- 
 non bones.
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 413 
 
 CATTLE. 
 
 These are divided into three classes ; namely, 
 beef cattle, dairy cattle and dual-purpose cattle. 
 
 Beef-Cattle are used for the production of 
 meat almost entirely. 
 
 Dairy-Cattle are kept for the milk which they 
 are capable of producing. 
 
 Dual-Purpose Cattle are used where both 
 beef and milk are desired, but neither as a 
 special product. To this class belongs the 
 great majority of cows in America. 
 
 I. Beef-Cattle 
 
 ordinarily attain greater weight than those of 
 any other class, ranging in weight from 1,400 to 
 2,500 pounds, varying according to breed and 
 sex. They should be broad, deep and of 
 medium length, short-legged and compact. The 
 top line (shoulders to tail-head) and under line 
 (brisket to twist) should be as nearly straight as 
 possible. The hair, skin, and bone should be 
 of good texture to show quality. A mellow, 
 elastic skin of medium thickness, underlaid by 
 firm, smooth and thick flesh, is termed good 
 "handling quality." The shoulders, ribs, back, 
 loin, rump and hind-quarters should all be 
 covered with smooth, firm and thick flesh. 
 Constitution is indicated by deep broad chest, 
 large muzzle, clear bright eye and general 
 thrifty appearance. A mild and contented
 
 414 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 disposition is desirable, but vicious and lazy 
 animals are intolerable. A deep broad barrel 
 is essential as an indication of feeding capacity. 
 Enough milk to raise a calf is necessary in this 
 class of cattle. Early maturity is a much 
 
 FIG. 154. PURE-BRED ABERDEEN ANGUS STEER "ANDY." 
 
 Owned by Minnesota Agricultural College. Three years a winner at the 
 International Live Stock Show. 
 
 sought characteristic in modern beef-cattle. It 
 is indicated by the compact form and the tend- 
 ency to fatten at an early age. 
 
 BREEDS OF BEEF-CATTLE. 
 
 I. Shorthorns, a breed which had its origin in 
 northeast England, but owing to its gr"eat range 
 of adaptability has become very widely scattered
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 415 
 
 and is particularly numerous in the United 
 States, Canada, Australia and South America. 
 They are one of the largest beef breeds. As 
 the name indicates, they have short horns, flesh- 
 colored muzzles and may be red, red and white, 
 white, or roan in color. 
 
 2. Here fords are natives of Herefordshire, 
 England. They have disseminated widely and, 
 owing to their hardiness, have been used on the 
 ranges in this and other countries in great num- 
 bers. They have rather large horns, flesh-colored 
 muzzles, and have for a color some shade of red 
 with white faces or heads and white along the 
 underline. 
 
 3. Aberdeen Angus Cattle are natives of north- 
 east Scotland. They have been popular at a 
 later date than the above-mentioned breeds, and 
 owe their popularity to their excellent killing 
 qualities. They are hornless, and black in color, 
 with possibly a bit of white on the underside of 
 the body. 
 
 4. Galloway Cattle have southwestern Scot- 
 land for their home. They have not been dis- 
 seminated as widely as the other breeds, but are 
 improving in beef quality and increasing in 
 popularity. They are hornless cattle, black in 
 color, with some white on the underside of the 
 body. They differ from the Aberdeen Angus 
 in not being as thick-fleshed, and in having a 
 longer coat of hair, which is wavy.
 
 416 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 5. Sussex Cattle are natives of Sussex, Eng- 
 land. They are solid red in color. 
 
 6. West Highland Cattle are natives of t the 
 uplands of Western Scotland. They vary in 
 color from yellow to red, black and brindle. 
 
 II. Dairy-Cattle 
 
 have come to be veritable milk-producing 
 machines. In milking condition they show little 
 superfluous flesh and a very angular form. They 
 should develop the triple-wedge conformation. 
 By this is meant that they should widen from 
 the withers to the shoulder joints, from the 
 withers backward and downward, and from chest 
 to abdomen, as viewed laterally. Quality is 
 paramount in dairy-cattle, and is shown by fine 
 skin, hair, bone and symmetrical development. 
 Active, alert, energetic, yet tractable disposition, 
 showing great nervous energy, with a propensity 
 to utilize food for dairy production, constitutes 
 dairy temperament. It is indicated by clear, in- 
 telligent eyes, energetic yet perfectly controlled 
 actions, and lack of superfluous flesh. Spinal 
 processes which are prominent and wide-spaced 
 indicate nerve force. Constitution is indicated 
 by depth and width of chest, medium-size, and 
 a healthy condition. The factors indicating 
 capacity are medium-size muzzle, deep and broad 
 barrel, and good appetite. The udder, which is 
 a very important consideration, should be broacl 
 and capacious, attached well up behind and well
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 
 
 417 
 
 forward on the abdomen. Teats should be of 
 medium size and squarely placed. The struc- 
 tural formation of the udder should be glandular, 
 
 FIG. 155. "UNIVERSITY DAIZIE." 168,596. A.J.C.C. 
 
 Owned by University of Missouri. Record of University Uaizie : 7 days, 
 
 2897 Ibs. milk; 7 days, 1499 Ibs. butter fat; i year, 9,998.4 Ibs. milk; 
 
 i year, 545.85 Ibs. butter fat. Average test, 5.46 per cent, butter fat. 
 
 without superfluous flesh. Tortuous and promi- 
 nent milk veins entering the abdomen well for- 
 
 <z> 
 
 ward indicate a large supply of blood to the 
 u elder. 
 
 BREEDS OF DAIRY-CATTLE. 
 
 i. Jerseys, which are natives of the island of 
 that name in the English Channel, have been 
 widely disseminated because of their popularity. 
 As a breed they incline to be small, but show 
 extreme quality. Typical Jerseys vary in color
 
 41 S AGRICULTURE. 
 
 from a light fawn to nearly black, possessing 
 small horns ancl a black muzzle encircled by a 
 creamy streak. This breed is famous for the 
 quality rather than the quantity of milk pro- 
 duced. 
 
 2. Holsteins are natives of Holland and have 
 attained a reputation for the large quantities of 
 milk which they produce. The percent of 
 butter fat in their milk does not average high. 
 They are large cattle, black and white in color, 
 with a black muzzle and medium-sized horns. 
 
 3. Dutch Belted Cattle, natives of Holland, 
 are similar to the Holsteins in many respects. 
 They are black with a white belt around the 
 body, hence the name. 
 
 4. Guernseys have the island of Guernsey, in 
 the English Channel, as their native home. 
 They are somewhat larger than the Jerseys, 
 produce a good quantity of milk with a percent 
 of butter fat above the average. Their color is 
 
 *^ 
 
 reddish or brownish fawn, with white markings 
 over the body. The muzzle is ilesh-colored 
 and the skin is creamy yellow. The horns are 
 medium in size. 
 
 5. AyrsJiires are natives of the county of 
 Ayr, in southwestern Scotland. They are 
 numerous in Canada and Northeastern United 
 States. In quantity of milk produced they are 
 somewhat above the average;, but the percent 
 of butter fat is mediocre. The approved colors
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 419 
 
 include brown or red flecked with white, or 
 white flecked with red or brown. A black 
 muzzle and upturning horns are typical. 
 
 6. French-Canadian Cattle are natives of the, 
 Province of Quebec, Canada, and solid black in 
 color. 
 
 /. Kerry Cattle are black or red in color, 
 having Ireland as their original home. 
 
 HI. Dual-Purpose Cattle, 
 
 owing to their double function, are spread 
 widely over America and include the great 
 majority of native cows. They produce both 
 milk and beef, but do not equal in either capacity 
 the cattle of special-purpose type. In form 
 they are a compromise, showing less flesh than 
 the beef breeds, yet more than the dairy breeds. 
 Quality and constitution are very essential. 
 The temperament should be such that they 
 carry very little superfluous flesh during the 
 milking period, but upon cessation of the flow 
 of milk they should fatten readily. Good 
 barrel capacity and appetite are required. 
 The udder in many cases lacks the capacity 
 found in the dairy breeds. 
 
 BREEDS OF DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE. 
 
 i. Red-Polled Cattle were first recognized as 
 a breed in Norfolk and Suffolk, England. 
 They are red in color and may have some white 
 about the udder. As the name indicates they
 
 420 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 are hornless, and owe their popularity in 
 England and America to their dual capacity. 
 
 2. Devon Cattle are natives of the county of 
 Devon, in southwestern England. The color 
 
 FlG. 156. RED-POLLED HULL "BOUNCE" 11,287. 
 
 Bred by J. W. Martin, Gotham, \Vis. Owned by H. S. Carman, Adeline, 111. 
 Senior Champion at Illinois State I-'air, 1906. 
 
 of this breed is light red, although some dark 
 ones are seen. A very little white on the udder 
 is admissible. The muzzle is flesh-colored and 
 the horns incline to be large and upturning. 
 
 3. Jlrown Swiss Cattle are natives of Switzer- 
 land, yet are used in America to some extent. 
 They are of medium size, brown or mouse 
 colored, with shades varying from dark brown 
 to gray. The muzzle is dark in color, encircled
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 421 
 
 by a creamy ring. The horns are of medium 
 
 size. 
 
 4. Milking Shorthorns are a branch of the 
 Shorthorn breed developed as milch cows. 
 
 FIG. 157. SOUTHDOWN WETHER. 
 
 Grand Champion Wether. International I,ive Stock Show, 1907. Shown by 
 Sir George Drummond, of Quebec. 
 
 They do not mature as early nor carry as much 
 flesh as clo those of the beef strain. 
 
 SHEEP. 
 I. Mutton Form. 
 
 The highest efficiency of mutton form is 
 represented by a sheep of low, blocky form, 
 broad, deep and of medium length, carrying 
 width of back from shoulders to tail-head.
 
 422 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The back should be straight and strong and the 
 underline well let down. A thick covering of 
 flesh should be present over the back, loin, 
 rump quarters, shoulders and ribs. Quality 
 should be evidenced by fine hair and wool, 
 
 FIG. 158. RAMHOUII.LET RAM. 
 
 mellow skin and bone of firm texture. Strength 
 should not be sacrificed for quality. A deep 
 broad chest and a clean-cut muzzle of medium 
 size, along with general vigorous and healthy 
 condition, are indications of constitution. Capa- 
 city to grow and fatten is indicated by well- 
 sprung ribs, deep but not pendent barrel, and
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 423 
 
 good appetite. With sheep, as with all other 
 classes of animals, ability to fatten and mature at 
 an early age is desirable. 
 
 II. Wool- Producing Form. 
 
 The wool-producing sheep have been developed 
 with very little attention given to mutton con- 
 formation. They are small and do not mature 
 so early as sheep of the mutton form. They 
 lack the smoothness of shoulders, the fullness 
 of ribs and covering of back, rump and quarters 
 which is present in the mutton sheep. They 
 are comparable to the dairy-cow in carrying 
 little flesh and possessing the wedge conforma- 
 tion. The legs are rather short, but often 
 crooked. Quality in the extreme is a much- 
 admired characteristic, and is indicated by fine 
 bone, skin and hair. The fine well-crimped 
 fleece also shows quality. They should possess 
 strong constitution, which is evidenced by deep 
 and broad chest and general health and vigor 
 of the animal. The weight of the fleece de- 
 pends to some extent upon the nutrition of the 
 animal, consequently a good barrel and appetite 
 are essential as indicative of capacity. What 
 may be termed the strictly wool-producing sheep 
 belong to the fine-wool class, and in order to 
 give more surface for growth of wool they have 
 a very wrinkled skin. The wrinkles are par- 
 ticularly numerous around the neck, in the 
 flanks and over the rump.
 
 424 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Since sheep were first used for wool produc- 
 tion, the breeds are more easily classified on 
 that basis than upon a basis of mutton produc- 
 tion. The kind of wool determines the class to 
 which the breed belongs. There are three 
 classes known as Fine Wool, Medium Wool 
 and Long WooL 
 
 BREEDS OF FINE-WOOL CLASS. 
 
 1. American Merinos are descendants of the 
 Spanish Merino, a breed native of Spain. These 
 sheep were early brought to America and im- 
 proved. They came to be called American 
 Merinos. This breed is very small, but yields 
 a heavy clip of wool, rams occasionally shearing 
 above thirty pounds. The wool is very fine and 
 contains considerable yolk.J The ra"ms carry 
 heavy spiral horns, but the ewes are hornless. 
 The face and ears are covered with white hair, 
 while wool covers the body to a great degree. 
 
 2. Delaine Merinos are a breed which origi- 
 nated from the American Merinos, and differ 
 from them only in that they possess more of a 
 mutton conformation, are less wrinkled and 
 shear somewhat less. The breed is composed 
 of several sub-breeds or types, the most impor- 
 tant of which are the National, Standard and 
 Dickinson. They are somewhat larger than the 
 American Merinos. 
 
 3. Rambonillets are natives of France, and 
 may be called the French improvement of the
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 425 
 
 old Spanish Merino. They are the best mutton 
 breed in the Fine-Wool class, and have less 
 wrinkles than the before-mentioned breeds, yet 
 shear very well. They are larger than the 
 Delaines, and have a fleece which is somewhat 
 coarser; otherwise these breeds differ very little. 
 
 BREEDS OF MEDIUM WOOL CLASS. 
 
 1. English Down Breeds are all natives of 
 some part of England. They all possess excel- 
 lent mutton form with a fair fleece. The fleece 
 is coarser than the fine wool, and does not con- 
 tain as much yolk. None of them possesses horns, 
 and the face and legs vary in color from grayish 
 brown to black, according to breed. They rank 
 in size as follows, the first being the largest: 
 Oxfords, Hampshires, Suffolks, Shropshires and 
 Southdowns. 
 
 2. Dorsets are natives of England and par- 
 ticularly famous as early lamb producers. They 
 yield fair fleece and carcass. Both males and 
 females possess horns, and the face and legs are 
 covered with white hair. 
 
 3. Cheviots have the border country between 
 England and Scotland as an original home. 
 They are very attractive sheep, being entirely 
 white, but not as a rule very thick-fleshed, shear 
 ing only an average clip. 
 
 4. Tunis Sheep are the breed often referred 
 to as the fat-tailed sheep, native of northern 
 Africa.
 
 426 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 BREEDS OF LONG-WOOL SHEEP. 
 
 1. Leicester s, natives of the county of Leices- 
 ter, in central England, are a large breed. They 
 possess good mutton form and shear a fleece of 
 medium weight. The wool is long but rather 
 coarse. The head and legs are covered with 
 soft white hair, and the wool ceases to grow just 
 back of the ears, forming a sort of collar. Black 
 spots in the hair on the head frequently occur. 
 This breed is hornless. 
 
 2. Lincoln has for its home the county of 
 Lincoln, England. It is among the largest of 
 the breeds of sheep possessing good mutton 
 conformation and shearing a fleece very similar 
 to the Leicester. The head and legs are covered 
 with white hair, except for a tuft of wool on the 
 forehead. It closely resembles the Leicester. 
 
 3. Cotswolds are also natives of England, the 
 southwestern part. They are very similar to 
 the Lincolns in size, form and fleece. The 
 head and legs are covered with hair, except for 
 a pronounced foretop which falls in tangles over 
 the face. Flecks of black are often seen on the 
 head of this breed. 
 
 HOGS 
 
 are divided according to the kind of meat which 
 they produce. 
 
 Lard Hogs are those yielding quantities of 
 meat which is excessively fat.
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 427 
 
 Bacon Hogs are those which when slaughtered 
 show a carcass of fat and lean well interlaid. 
 They are famous for their "side of bacon." 
 
 I. Lard Hogs 
 
 yield a higher percentage of carcass to live 
 weight than any other meat-producing animal. 
 
 FIG. 150. CHAMl'ION POLAND CHINA BARROW. 
 International 1906. Bred and exhibited by Iowa Agricultural College. 
 
 They vary in weight at maturity from 400 to 
 700 pounds. They possess short legs, a com- 
 pact form with medium depth, great width and 
 considerable length of body. The back is 
 broad and of even width, showing a slight 
 arch from shoulders to tail. The underline is 
 straight. A thick covering of flesh over all 
 parts of the body is essential. Fine hair, clean 
 bone and features, with a symmetrical develop- 
 ment throughout indicate quality. Deep, broad
 
 428 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 chest and a vigorous condition are evidences of 
 constitution. The temperament desired is quiet 
 and contented, not vicious. Good appetite and 
 barrel along- with this temperament may be 
 translated as ability to fatten. This ability to 
 fatten at an early age is particularly desirable in 
 lard hogs. 
 
 BREEDS OF LARD HOGS. 
 
 1. Poland Chinas, a breed first developed in 
 the Miami Valley of Ohio, but now widely dis- 
 seminated over the United States. They are 
 of the most extreme lard-hog type and show 
 much quality. Their color is black, with white 
 feet, tail and face. They have small ears, which 
 break one-third of the way from the tip toward 
 the head. 
 
 2. Berks/tires are natives of England and 
 were imported and bred in America in consider- 
 able numbers. They incline toward the bacon 
 type in some cases, yet possess great quality. 
 Their color is black with six white points feet, 
 tail and face. Their ears are erect and face 
 decidedly dished. 
 
 3. Duroc Jerseys, the outgrowth of the union 
 of two breeds of red hogs in New York and 
 New Jersey. They are a very vigorous type of 
 hogs and are being disseminated rapidly. The 
 ideal color of this breed is cherry red, but they 
 vary from light red to very dark, with some
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 420 
 
 black hair occasionally. Their ears break one- 
 third of the way from the tip to the head. 
 
 4. ChesterwhiteSi a breed native of Pennsyl- 
 vania. They possess good quality and lard-hog 
 conformation. The color of the hair is white, 
 while the skin shows occasionally a blue spot. 
 
 FIG. l6o. LARGE YORKSHIRE BOAR,"HOLYWELL ROYALTY II." 
 Bred and exhibited by Sanders Spencer, Holywell Manor, England. 
 
 Their ears are pendent, but should not be over- 
 size. 
 
 5. ChcsJiires, a white breed having its origin 
 in Jefferson County, New York. 
 
 6. Victorias, white in color, and natives of the 
 United States. 
 
 7. Essex Swine, natives of Essex County, 
 England; black in color. 
 
 8. Small Yorkshires, an English breed, white 
 in color and having a dished face.
 
 430 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 II. Bacon Hogs. 
 
 This class of hogs attains considerable weight 
 at maturity, but has not the propensity to fat- 
 ten which is found in the lard hogs. Smooth- 
 ness and well-mingled fat and lean are desirable 
 in bacon carcasses. The back is long, arched 
 and smooth. The underline is straight. The 
 shoulders, sides and hams are deep, firm and 
 smoothly fleshed. The legs and head are longer 
 than in the lard hogs. Fine hair, clean bone 
 and smoothness are evidences of quality. The 
 temperament is inclined to be alert, but should 
 not be vicious. The ability to rapidly make a 
 smooth carcass of fat and lean well interlaid is 
 the desired capacity. This type of hog is par- 
 ticularly rugged, has a deep, broad chest, and is 
 capable of caring for itself. 
 
 BREEDS OF BACON HOGS. 
 
 1. Tamworths, native of central England. 
 This breed possesses great length and depth of 
 side and ham. They are inclined to have rather 
 long legs and head, but are very hardy. Their 
 color is cherry red. The face is somewhat 
 dished, and the ears are large and incline for- 
 ward, but do not break. 
 
 2. Large Yorkshires^ an English breed, are 
 white in color. The face is dished and the ears 
 erect. In thickness of flesh they exceed the 
 Tamworths, but are no smoother.
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 431 
 
 3. Thiu Rinds, or Hampshires, are probably 
 native of Hampshire, England. They vary in 
 type, some inclining to be thick-fleshed, while 
 others show a strictly bacon type. Their color 
 is striking, being black with a white belt around 
 the body. The face is not dished, and the ears 
 incline forward, but do not break. 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 Chickens are divided into three classes; 
 namely, Laying Fowls, Meat Fowls and General- 
 Purpose Fowls, i 
 
 I. Laying' Fowls. 
 
 The chickens belonging to this class are 
 alert, bright arid active. They do not possess 
 the ability to produce meat to any great extent. 
 Their alert and active disposition is not con- 
 ducive to meat production. They may be 
 comparable to the dairy-cow, in that they are in 
 a sense a machine of production. 
 
 The breeds which belong to this class are : 
 
 Leghorns, supposed to have originally come 
 from the Mediterranean Coast. There are 
 several varieties; namely, the Buff, Brown, 
 Black and White Leghorns. They differ very 
 little except in color. 
 
 Minor cas are of Spanish ancestry. There 
 are different varieties of these, but all are egg- 
 producers rather than meat fowls.
 
 432 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 II. Meat Fowls. 
 
 This class of chickens are large and quiet. 
 They are the least prolific as egg-producers of 
 these classes, but their propensity to fatten is 
 very marked. 
 
 The breeds which belong to this class are the 
 Asiatic fowls. 
 
 BREEDS OF MEAT FOWLS. 
 
 T. BraJimas, including light and dark. 
 
 2. Langs hans of several varieties. 
 
 3. Cochins. 
 
 HI. General- Purpose Fowls. 
 
 This type of fowl produces both meat and 
 eggs in the average degree. It does not excel 
 in either phase of production. It is of medium 
 size, and may be called the "farmer's hen." 
 
 BREEDS FOR GENERAL PURPOSE. 
 
 1. Rocks, Barfed, Buff or White. 
 
 2. Wyandottes, White, Buff, Silver, Golden, 
 Black and Partridge. 
 
 3. Orpingtons. 
 
 Score Cards for the judging of any kind of 
 farm animals may be obtained from your State 
 Experiment Station. Send for them and try to 
 use them with the animals of some farmer.
 
 = is 
 
 c 
 
 433
 
 FARM ANIMALS. 435 
 
 . REFERENCES. 
 
 "Judging Live Stock." John A. Craig. 
 
 " Types and Breeds of Farm Animals." Charles S. Plumb. 
 
 " The Study of Breeds." Thomas Shaw. 
 
 " Animal Breeding." Thomas Shaw. 
 
 " Practical Sheep Farming." Joseph E. Wing. 
 
 "Conformation of Beef and Dairy Cattle." Farmer's Bulletin 
 No. 143. Washington. 
 
 "Standard Varieties of Chickens." Farmer's Bulletin No. 51. 
 
 "The Hen's Place on the Farm." Bulletin No. 150. Kansas 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 " Annual Reports of the Bureau of Animal Industry."' Wash- 
 ington, D. C. 
 
 "Year Books." Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
 D. C. 
 
 " Profitable Stock Feeding." H. R. Smith.
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES. 
 
 WEEDS. 
 
 REFERENCES FOR SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 
 
 " Weeds in Cities and Towns." Year-book, 1898. 
 
 " Migration of Weeds." Year-book, 1896. 
 
 " Noxious Weeds." Bulletin 39, Wisconsin Agricultural Ex- 
 periment Station. 
 
 " Russian Thistle." Bulletin 26, Iowa Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Station. 
 
 "Twelve of Idaho's Worst Weeds." Bulletin 14, Idaho Agri- 
 cultural Experiment Station. 
 
 " Noxious Weeds of Wisconsin." Bulletin 76, Wisconsin Agri- 
 cultural Experiment Station. 
 
 " Weeds and How to Kill Them." Farmers' Bulletin 28, 
 United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 FOREST TREES OF AMERICA. 
 
 " The Uses of Wood." Year-book, 1896. 
 
 " Tree Planting in Waste Places on the Farm." 
 
 " The Relation of Forests to Farms." Year-book, 1895. 
 
 " Tree Planting in the Western Plains." Year-book, 1895. 
 
 " Forestry for Farms." Farmers' Bulletin 67, United States 
 Department of Agriculture. 
 
 " The Testing of Road Materials." Farmers' Bulletin 79, 
 United States Department of Agriculture.
 
 AGRICULTURAL PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 Valuable literature upon agricultural subjects 
 may be obtained free or at a comparatively low 
 cost, directions for securing which are given 
 below: 
 
 PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES EDEPARTMENT 
 OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 1. Year-books. Very valuable. For general distribution. Apply 
 
 through Congressman of your district. 
 
 2. Farmers' Bulletins. Excellent. Address Secretary of Agri- 
 
 culture, Washington, D. C. 
 
 3. Monthly list of publications and " Experiment Station Record." 
 
 Address Director of Agricultural Experiment Stations; 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 PUBLICATIONS OF STATE EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 
 
 1. Bulletins issued by one's own State Experiment Station. Ad- 
 
 dress Director of Agricultural Experiment Station, and 
 have your address put on mailing list of yourown State for 
 publications. 
 
 2. Many valuable bulletins may often be obtained from other 
 
 State Experiment Stations by asking the Director of the 
 States for them. 
 
 3. On the following page is a list of State Experiment Stations in 
 
 the United States, taken from "Experiment Station Record" 
 of 1902. 
 
 438
 
 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT 
 STATIONS. 
 
 Alabama College Station: Auburn. Canebrake Station: Union- 
 town. Tuskegee Station: Tuskegee. 
 
 Alaska Sitka. 
 
 Arizona Tucson. 
 
 Arkansas Fayetteville. 
 
 California Berkeley. 
 
 Colorado Furt Collins. 
 
 Connecticut State Station: New Haven. Storrs Station: Starrs. 
 
 Delaware Newark. 
 
 Florida Lake City. 
 
 Georgia Experiment. 
 
 Hawaii Federal Station: Honolulu. Sugar Planters' Station: 
 Honolulu. 
 
 Idaho Moscow. 
 
 Illinois Urbana. 
 
 Indiana Lafayette. 
 
 Iowa Ames. 
 
 Kansa Manhattan. 
 
 Kentucky Lexington. 
 
 Louisiana State Station: Baton Rouge. Sugar Station: Audubon 
 Park. North Louisiana Station: Callioun. 
 
 Maine Orono. 
 
 Maryland College Park. 
 
 Massachusetts A in her st. 
 
 Michigan Agricu Itu ra I College. 
 
 Minnesota St. Anthony Park, St. Paul. 
 
 Mississippi Agricultural College. 
 
 Missouri College Station: Columbia. Fruit Station: Mountain 
 Grove. 
 
 Montana Bozeman. 
 
 Nebraska Lincoln. 
 
 Nevada Reno. 
 
 New Jersey New Brunswick. 
 
 New Hampshire Durham. 
 
 439
 
 4;o AGRICULTURE. 
 
 New Mexico Mesilla Park. 
 
 New York State Station: Geneva. Cornell Station: Ithacc. 
 
 North Dakota Agricultural Collet e. 
 
 North Carolina Raleigh. 
 
 Ohio Wooster. 
 
 Oklahoma Stillwater. 
 
 Oregon Corvallis. 
 
 Pennsylvania State College. 
 
 Porto Rico Rio Piedras. 
 
 Rhode Island Kingston. 
 
 South Carolina Clemson College, 
 
 South Dakota Brookings. 
 
 Tennessee Knoxville. 
 
 Texas College Station. 
 
 Utah Logan. 
 
 Vermont Burlington. 
 
 Virginia Blacksburg. 
 
 Washington Pullman. 
 
 West Virginia Morgantowv. f 
 
 Wisconsin Madison. 
 
 Wyoming Laramie^
 
 PUBLISHING HOUSES. 
 
 Address of publishing houses whose books 
 have been mentioned in the reference lists at 
 the end of the various chapters. 
 
 The number in the reference list corresponds 
 to the number given to the publishing house : 
 
 (1) D. Appleton & Co., New York. 
 
 (2) Comstock Publishing Co., Ithaca, N. Y. 
 
 (3) G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. 
 
 (4) Orange Judd Co., New York. 
 
 (5) J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia. 
 
 (6) A. Flanagan, Publisher, Chicago. 
 
 (7) Henry Holt & Co., Boston. 
 
 (8) The American Book Co., Chicago. 
 
 (9) A. L. Burt, New York. 
 
 (10) The Macmillan Co., New York. 
 
 (n) The Simmons Publishing Co., Springfield, O.
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Ab-ra'sion. The act of wearing or rubbing off. 
 
 Ad-he'sion. The attraction between unlike or distinct panicles 
 of matter. 
 
 Ad ven-ti tious. Out of the usual place. 
 
 Al-bu mi-noids. Organic compounds containing nitrogen. 
 
 At-a-vist-ic. The liability of any characteristic of any ancestor 
 to recur in subsequent generations. 
 
 A-tom'ic. Pertaining to atoms, the ultimate indivisible particles 
 of matter. 
 
 A-vail able food. Food which is in such a condition that the 
 plant can and will use it. 
 
 Bal'anced ra'tion. Food consisting of such proportions of vari- 
 ous elements that the least possible amount will be wasted. 
 
 Bar-rel. That part of an animal's body containing the abdominal 
 organs. 
 
 Bris-ket. The projection of flesh and bone just anterior to and 
 between the forelegs of cattle and sheep. 
 
 Bud'ding stick. A shoot of one season's growth. 
 
 Cal-ca're-ous. Composed of, or containing lime. 
 
 Cam'bi-um. The ring of thin-walled formative tissue between 
 the bark and wood in which growth takes place. 
 
 Car-bo-hy'drate. Foods containing carbon but no nitrogen; 
 they also contain oxygen and hydrogen in the same pro- 
 portion as they are found in water. 
 
 Cer'ci (pi. of cer'cus). The jointed antenniform appendages of 
 the posterior somites of certain insects. 
 
 Chem'ic-al af'fin'i-ty. Attraction which acts at insensible dis- 
 tances between atoms of unlike elements, forming com- 
 pounds. 
 
 Chlo'ro-phyll. Green granular matter formed by the leaves and 
 green stems of plants. 
 
 Chrys'a-lis. Quiescent state of butterflies and moths from which 
 the adult insect comes forth. 
 
 Co-he'sion. Attraction between like particles. 
 
 Com'post. Fertilizing mixture; stable compost means barn-yard 
 manure. 
 
 Cor-rod'ing. Eating away by degrees. 
 
 Dis-sem-i-na'tion. Scattering. 
 
 Dor'mant. Inactive, quiescent. 
 442
 
 GLOSSARY. 443 
 
 Dis in te-gra'tion. Crumbling to fragments. 
 
 E-mul'si-fy. To reduce an oily substance to a milky fluid, in 
 which the fat globules are in a very finely divided state. 
 
 En'to-mol'o-gy. The science which deals with the life history 
 and description of insects. 
 
 Er-ro'ne-ous-ly. By mistake; not rightly. 
 
 Ex'cre-ment. That which is discharged from the animal body 
 as useless. Ex-cre'ta. 
 
 Fil'ter=pa-per. A porous unsized paper that retains the sedi- 
 ment when liquids are passed through it. 
 
 Fun'gi-cide. A preparation which kills fungi. 
 
 Fun'gus (pi. fun'gi). A flowerless plant lacking chlorophyll 
 (green coloring-matter). 
 
 Green ma-nur'ing. Vegetation plowed under for fertilizing pur- 
 poses. 
 
 Hu'mic. Pertaining to or derived from vegetable mold. 
 
 Hu'mous, adj. Containing humus. 
 
 Humus, n. Decayed vegetable or animal matter. 
 
 Hy-dra'tion. Combining with water to form a hydrate, which is 
 usually a neutral salt. Slaked lime is a hydrate. 
 
 In-oc'u-late. To communicate bacteria germs by introducing 
 matter infected by them. 
 
 In-sec'ti-cide. A preparation to kill insects. 
 
 La'bel. To apply a label to, to mark with a name, etc. 
 
 Li'chen. Algx and fungi leading a life in partnership. 
 
 Marl. A mixed earthy substance consisting of carbonate of lime, 
 clay, and siliceous sand in variable proportions. 
 
 Me di-an. An ideal line dividing the body of an animal longi- 
 tudinally and symmetrically into right and left halves. 
 
 Mi'cro=or-gan-ism. Microscopic organism, here meaning bac- 
 teria. 
 
 Mo-lec'u-lar force. Attraction between molecules. 
 
 Muck. Decayed vegetable matter. 
 
 Nod'ule. Small rounded masses, knots, or prominences formed 
 on roots of leguminous plants by infesting bacteria. 
 
 Note. Used in connection with exercises and experiments, means 
 observe and record your observation. 
 
 Nox'ious. Injurious; destructive. 
 
 Ox'i-da'tion. Combining with oxygen to form an oxide. 
 
 Par'a-sit'ic. Living upon or in, or deriving its nourishment from 
 some other living being.
 
 444 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Plu'mule. The bud. or first shoot above the cotyledons, of a 
 young plantlet. 
 
 Pol'lin-a'tion. Conveying pollen from stamens to pistil. 
 
 Pre-cip'i-tate. A substance which, having been dissolved, is 
 again separated from the solution, and falls to the bottom 
 of the vessel. 
 
 Pre-da'ceous. Preying upon or devouring other insects. 
 
 Pu-bes'cent. Covered with very fine, short hairs. 
 
 Pu-pat-ing. Going into the pupa or inactive (usually) stage, from 
 which the adult insect emerges. 
 
 Rad'i-cle. The stem part of the embryo; the lower part, which 
 forms the root-system. 
 
 Raffia. A commercial product formed from several species of 
 the genus Rapphia. A strong fiber used for tying in 
 nursery work. 
 
 Res'i-due. That which remains after a part is taken; remainder; 
 dregs. 
 
 Sci'on. A shoot of one season's growth used in bud propagation. 
 
 Seg'ment. One of the parts into which any body naturally sep- 
 arates or is divided. 
 
 Sil'age. Green food preserved in a silo. 
 
 Si-li'ceo'JS. Containing silica. 
 
 Soil'ing. The system of feeding farm animals in a barn or en- 
 closure with fresh grass or green fodders as, corn, rye, 
 and oats. 
 
 Spot *.. One of the minute grains in flowerless plants which per- 
 forms the function of seed. 
 
 Ster'il-ize. To make unproductive; to destroy all spores or 
 germs so as to prevent the development of bacteria. 
 
 Stock. A seedling tree used in bud propagation. 
 
 Strat'i-fied. Divided into layers or strata. 
 
 Trac'ta-bility. That disposition in animals which makes them 
 subject to man's will; capable of being managed or con- 
 trolled. 
 
 U-ni-cel lu-lar. Consisting of but one cell. 
 
 Vol a-til-ize. To pass off in vapor. 
 
 Vol u-ble. Twining. 
 
 Yolk. The oily secretion in wool.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE PACE 
 
 Acid in soil 96 Bacteria in milk 164 
 
 test for 97 in soil 31, 78, 98, 102 
 
 Acid measure 179 nitrogen fixing . . 110, 117, 120 
 
 Albumen 169 tubercle forming 112 
 
 Alfalfa 115, 1 20 Baltimore oriole 327 
 
 as a food 122 Barnyards, Covered . 102, 103, 147 
 
 conditions for growing . . 120 Beavers 36 
 
 curing 122 Beech 373 
 
 Alkaline soil 98 Bitter rot 339 
 
 Alkali wash 335 Blackbird 310 
 
 Ammonia 87, 99 Black rot 338 
 
 Ammonia, Sulphate of ... 88 Bone-black 90 
 
 Ammoniacal copper carbonate . 338 Bordeaux mixture . . . 338, 340 
 
 340, 342 nozzle . . . 305 
 
 Analysis of feeding stuffs . . 136 test 342 
 
 Animals 33 Borers 322, 332 
 
 accumulations of 35 round-headed apple-tree . . 332 
 
 disintegration by 34 Boulder clay 44 
 
 characteristics of .... 403 Breeding-jar 253 
 
 domestic 394 Brown rot 336 
 
 early history 393 Budding 229 
 
 improvement in . . . . 394, 400 spring 230 
 
 use of 393 Buds, Removal of 276 
 
 Ants 34 Butter 190, 198 
 
 Apple scab 340 churning 192 
 
 Arabians 406 coloring 190 
 
 Argilaceous soils. Sec Clay. composition 195 
 
 Arsenate of lead 301 estimating yield 196 
 
 Ash in milk 170 grain of 194, 195 
 
 Ashes as fertilizers . . . 91, 98 keeping quality 194 
 
 Atavism 396 marketing 196 
 
 Atmosphere 5, i i molding and wrapping . . . 197 
 
 chemical action 7 mottling 195 
 
 composition 11 overrun 196 
 
 movements 6 packing 196 
 
 work of i i, 25 salting 194 
 
 washing 194 
 
 Babcock test 175 worker 195 
 
 Bacteria 112 working 195 
 
 conditions necessary for growth 114 Butter fat 167. 181, 183 
 
 cultures of 113 Butterfly 297
 
 446 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE PAGE 
 
 Buttermilk 181 Cow-peas 123, 124 
 
 Butyrin 168 as a food 125, 126 
 
 yield 123 
 
 ,, , . , . Cows 172, 174 
 
 Cambium, function 272 
 
 , . . . breeds . . . 171, 172, 173,414 
 
 dying back 274 
 
 , . .. food affecting milk . . . 164, 173 
 
 active and inactive .... 278 
 
 individuality of 173 
 
 capacity 403 
 
 ,. ... . period of lactation .... 173 
 
 Capillarity 55 ' 
 
 , Cream 182 
 
 Carbon 79 
 
 , . . ... ripening 180 
 
 bisulphide 305 
 
 separation 182 
 
 dioxide 9 
 
 ,, , . , . temperature 192 
 
 Carbohydrates 118, 133 
 
 . . , , testing 181 
 
 in leguminous plants . . . 118 
 
 . Creamer, Coolev 185 
 
 Casein 169 . ' 
 
 ,, Crossing, Limits of, and results 260 
 
 Castor pomace 88 
 
 . Cross-pollination 261 
 
 Catalpa tree 203 
 
 , Cross-section of stem .... 273 
 
 Catch crops 159 
 
 ... Crow 310 
 
 Caterpillar 297 
 
 ,, . Cuttings, Green wood .... 220 
 
 Cattle 413 
 
 ., , . hard wood 225 
 
 Aberdeen Angus 415 
 
 . , . leaf 221 
 
 Ayrshire 418 
 
 , , root 228 
 
 beef 413 
 
 , . stem 221 
 
 dairy 413, 416 . 
 
 Cyanide bottle 292 
 
 Devon 420 
 
 Gallowav 39 7 Darwin 34 
 
 Guenlsey 4 ' 8 Debris 299 
 
 1Ierefor<1 4 ' 5 Denitrification 32 
 
 J ersey 4 ' 7 Diatoms 18,33 
 
 Shorthorns 414,421 i. 
 
 H Disparcne 301 
 
 Sussex . . . . . . . . 416 ix 
 
 IJrainagc ... ..... 04 
 
 Centrifugal machine . . . 179, 187 i) r ;ft ->> 44 
 
 Chalcis flics ....... 3 " 
 
 Drives . . .367 
 
 Churning ....... 192, 194 
 
 Churns ......... '9i Earthworm ...... 34,35 
 
 Clav ........ 46,49,51 Klin ......... 373,374 
 
 Clover, as roughage .... i 19 Emasculation ....... 263 
 
 as green manuring . . . 119, 120 Energy, Sources of .... 3 
 
 crimson ......... 19 Environment, Changes of . . 36 
 
 re(1 ......... Il8 Ether extract ....... 133 
 
 Codling-moth ...... 330, 33 1 heat value in corn .... 136 
 
 Compounding rations .... 140 
 
 Concentrates . ...... 145 Feeding stuffs ..... 144 
 
 Conformation ...... 403 palatability ....... 144 
 
 Constitution ....... 403 Fertility of the soil . . . 84, 104 
 
 Corn ........ --46, 249 Fertilizers ........ 86 
 
 score card ....... 247 amount to be used . . . 93, 94 
 
 Boone County White . . -'50,251 commercial, Table of ... 92 
 
 Cosmos flowers ...... 266 when used ....... 95 
 
 Cottonseed-meal ...... 88 from animal sources . 87, 88
 
 INDEX. 447 
 
 PAGE PAGE 
 
 Fertilizers from mineral sources 88 Horses 404 
 
 from vegetable sources . . 88 coach . . . 404,407,409,410 
 
 kinds 94 draft 404, 410, 412 
 
 how applied 95 light 404, 405 
 
 time to apply 94 saddle 407 
 
 Flower parts 262 prehistoric 393 
 
 Food, Nitrogenous 132 Humus 33,38,48,51 
 
 carbonaceous 132 Hydrogen 79 
 
 Forage, Green 146 
 
 Frost 1 8 Ice 19 
 
 creeping action of . . . 19, 20 Icebergs 24 
 
 Fungi 336 Ice sheets 20 
 
 Fungicides 341 Ichneumon-fly 321 
 
 Insects 289 
 
 Gardening 349 bitin S 298 
 
 landscape 361,365 characters of 289 
 
 geometrical 364 metamorphosis of .... 290 
 
 natural 366,369 predaceous 317 
 
 school 349 sucking 298 
 
 window 359 water forms 2 94 
 
 Geotropism 209 Insecticides 300 
 
 Glaciers 20 contact 302 
 
 Grafting 232 poisonous 300 
 
 cleft 233 Insect net 291 
 
 crown 237 Irrigation 38, 66 
 
 piece-root 233 
 
 Kerosene emulsion 30 < 
 
 stem 235 
 
 to f -35 Lace-winged fly 319 
 
 whip 233 Ladybug 317 
 
 whole-root 233 Lakes 17 
 
 Grafting-wax 237,276 'Landslides 17 
 
 Grasshopper 295 Larva: 290 
 
 Gravity 4. 6, 13 Lawns 368 
 
 Guano 36 Layering 237 
 
 Gypsum 89,99,102,103 mound 238 
 
 l>ot 239 
 
 Harrows 70 simple 238 
 
 Hawk 310 Lead paint 276 
 
 Heading trees low 280 Leaf mould 48 
 
 Heredity in animals .... 394 Leguminous plants 107 
 
 in plants 245 as food 116 
 
 Hogs 426 chemical action 115 
 
 Berkshire 428 plants, for green manuring . 116 
 
 Chesterwhite 429 mechanical action . . . . 115 
 
 Duroc Jersey 428 Life 27 
 
 Hampshire 431 plant life. Sec Plants. 
 
 Poland China 428 animal life. Sec Animals. 
 
 Taniworth 430 Lime 46, 96 
 
 Yorkshire 429, 430 as an insecticide and fungicide 98
 
 448 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE PAGE 
 
 Lime effect upon soil .... 96 Owl 310 
 
 effect upon plants .... 96 Oxygen 9, 79 
 
 for neutralizing acids ... 99 
 
 Loam 48, 49, 50 1>aris Green 300 
 
 Paths 367 
 
 Meadow-lark 308 Perpetuating species . ... 271 
 
 Milk 161 Phosphate 48,82 
 
 albumen 169 deposits of 90 
 
 ash 170 of lime 89 
 
 bacteria in 164 Phosphorus 82 
 
 care 163 compounds of 89 
 
 casein 169 function of 82 
 
 color 171 in plants 82 
 
 composition 167 Pine tar 276 
 
 odors 163, 184 Pipette 178, 182 
 
 olein 1 68 Planker 71 
 
 Pasteurization 167 Plant-lice 299, 323, 325 
 
 pure and impure .... 165 Plants, chemical effects ... 30 
 
 quality and quantity . . . 171 deposits of 33 
 
 sampling 180 food of 78 
 
 secretion of 163 amount needed .... 94 
 
 sugar 170 from water 62, 79 
 
 temperature 166 mechanical effects .... 28 
 
 testing 175 protecting the soil . 28, 30, 36, 37 
 
 Moisture constitutes plant food repotting 224 
 
 62, 63 Plowing 67, 73 
 
 conveys plant food .... 60 Potash 48 
 
 dissolves plant food .... 60 Potassium 84, 91 
 
 regulates temperature ... 62 compounds of 91 
 
 Mosquitoes 299 Potting plants 226 
 
 Moss-rose 265 Poultry 431 
 
 Mulching 70 Brahmas 432 
 
 - T . Cochins 432 
 
 Nectarine 265 
 
 J^ancshans 432 
 
 Nitrate 87, 94 
 
 .... .. . Leghorns 431 
 
 Nitrification 31, 78 
 
 ,... Minorcas 431 
 
 Nitrogen 31, 48, 109 
 
 .. , . Orpingtons 432 
 
 available 87 
 
 , , , Kocks 432 
 
 compounds of 86 
 
 a . t Wyandottes 43-' 
 
 effect of 80 . . 
 
 , .. , i -i Prairie dog '34 
 
 exhaustion from the soil . . 109 
 
 , Principles of feeding . . . . 131 
 
 in plants 79 
 
 ... profit in 131 
 
 how obtained 81 . ... 
 
 . . .. o Propagation of plants . . . 201 
 
 Nutritive ratio 138 
 
 trom buds 219 
 
 wide and narrow .... 139 . 
 
 diagram of 220 
 
 Nymphs 290, 297 . 
 
 Protein i 16, 132 
 
 Ocean 17 Pruning .71,286 
 
 Oleomargarine 168 at transplanting 279 
 
 Orange flower 263 effect of improper . . 274, 275 
 
 Osmosis 61 fall 278
 
 INDEX. 449 
 
 PAGE PAGE 
 
 Pruning, general principles of 271 Sheep 42: 
 
 hardy shrubs 285 Cheviot 425 
 
 large limbs 274 Cotswold 426 
 
 root 284 Dorset 425 
 
 to induce fruitfulness . . . .-84 English Down 425 
 
 to prevent overbearing . . .-85 Leicester 426 
 
 shade-trees 282 Lincoln 426 
 
 spring 278 Merino ... .... 4.24 
 
 when to prune 277 Rambouillet 424 
 
 why to prune 279 Tunis , 425 
 
 Shrubs 349, 375 , 378 
 
 Quail 3i5 Silage 147 
 
 Quality 402 Skim-milk . . 181 
 
 Snowslides 20 
 
 Relation between root-system Soiling id.6 
 
 and leaf-system ..... 272 crops [ ] ' ' ' ' ] ] ' J59 
 
 Rivers J S Soils, acidity 97 
 
 KoUing ?i alkaline 98 
 
 Rose-slug 324 alluvial 44 
 
 Rotation of crops 153 chemical analysis .... 85 
 
 courses 111 157 classification and properties . 42 
 
 effect upon insects . . 157,299 clayey 46,49 
 
 effect upon soil 153 collecting 47 
 
 effect upon weeds . . . . 156 fertility 84 
 
 Roughage 145 foothold for plants .... 77 
 
 furnishes plant-food ... 77 
 
 Sand 7, 8, 46 inoculation of 110 
 
 Scale insects 299, 319 moisture and preparation of . 57 
 
 Scheele's green 300 physical properties .... 49 
 
 School grounds 349 pores of 54 
 
 Scion 233 sandy 46, 49 
 
 Seed-bed, preparation of ... 6 7 sedentary 43 
 
 Seedlings, peach 231 storehouse for water ... 77 
 
 isolation of 249 subsoil 43 
 
 variation of 253 temperature of 50 
 
 Seeds 201 transported 44 
 
 age of 206 Soy-bean i u, 125, 126 
 
 germination of ..... 207 Stable compost 99 
 
 preservation of ..... 207 Starch in wood 84 
 
 purity 204 Stock 233 
 
 seed coat 201 Sparrow 310, 312, 315 
 
 selection of 246 Spider 307 
 
 stratification 202 Sugar maple 373 
 
 testing 202 Sycamore 373 
 
 treatment of fine seeds . . 211 
 
 vitality 204 Temperament 403 
 
 Selection 245 Temperature, curve .... 50 
 
 artificial 398 regulated by soil .... 7 8 
 
 diagram of 267 regulated by rains .... 62 
 
 natural 297 Tent-caterpillar, American . . 324
 
 450 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE PAGE 
 
 Tent-caterpillar, forest ... 328 Vegetation experiments ... 85 
 
 Test bottles 177, 179 Vetch M0 
 
 Thoroughbreds 405 inoculation of 111 112 
 
 Till 44 
 
 Tillage, surface 70 Water '-'- S S 
 
 Timber, trees grown for . .-81, -82 assorting power ,6 
 
 Toad 307 ca "!" ar y 59 
 
 Tobacco 304 capillary rise of . . . . 53, 7, 
 
 dust chemical action of .... 12 
 
 Tobacco, tea 304 deposition by . . . 14, 15, 16, 18 
 
 smudge ! 304 disintegrating power . . 13,25 
 
 Tomato worm 299 frozen 18 
 
 Trees 351,370,372 ground 59 
 
 Trotters 407 hygroscopic 60 
 
 mechanical action of ... 13 
 
 Underground streams .... 16 percolation of ... 5.., 65, 70 
 
 transporting power of . . . 14 
 
 Variation 212, 245 Waves 17 
 
 bud 265 Weeds 312 
 
 causes of 214, 397 seed 314 
 
 fixation of 216 Winds 6 
 
 induced by cross fertilization 259 work of 6, 7 
 
 induced by light 256 Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Stand- 
 induced by pruning .... 257 ards 136 
 
 of animals 395 Wounds, treatment of ... 276 
 
 Varieties, new 250 Wren 308
 
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