imdl^l 
 
 uestic 
 
 
 RAILWAY 
 ATIONALIZATION 
 
 CLEMEM LDWARDS 
 
 WETHUEN
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 AT LOS ANGELES 
 
 THE GIFT OF 
 
 MAY TREAT MORRISON 
 
 IN MEMORY OF 
 
 ALEXANDER F MORRISON
 
 6^
 
 SOCIAL QUESTIONS OF TO-DAY 
 Edited by H. de B. Gibbins, D.Litt., M.A. 
 
 RAILWAY 
 NATIONALIZATION
 
 SOCIAL QUESTIONS OF TO-DAY 
 
 Edited by H. de B. GIBBINS, D.Litt., M.A. 
 
 Cro-aJii ^z'O. 2s. bd. 
 
 A series of volumes upon those topics of social, economic, and industrial 
 interest that are at the present moment foremost in the public mind. Each 
 volume of the series is written by an author who is an acknowledged 
 authority upon the subject with which he deals. 
 
 The following Volumes of the Series are ready: — 
 TRADE UNIONISM— NEW AND OLD. By G. Howell, Author of 
 
 ' The Conflicts of Capital and Labour.' Second Edition. 
 THE CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENT TO-DAY. By G. J. Holyoake, 
 
 Author of ' The History of Co-Operation.' Seco7id Edition. 
 MUTUAL THRIFT. By Rev. J- Frome Wilkinson, M.A., Author 
 
 of ' The Friendly Society Movement.' 
 
 PROBLEMS OF POVERTY: An Inquiry into the Industrial Conditions 
 of the Poor. By J. A. HoRSON, M.A. Third Edition. 
 
 THE COMMERCE OF NATIONS. By C. F. Bastaple, M.A., Pro- 
 fessor of Economics at Trinity College, Dublin. 
 
 THE ALIEN INVASION. By W. H. Wilkins, B.A., Secretary to 
 the Society for Preventing the Immigration of Destitute Aliens. 
 
 THE RURAL EXODUS. By P. Anderson Graham. 
 
 LAND NATIONALIZATION. By Harold Cox, B.A. 
 
 A SHORTER WORKING DAY. By H. de B. Gibbins, D.Litt., 
 M.A., and R. A. Hadfield, of the Hecla Works, Sheffield. 
 
 BACK TO THK LAND: An Inquiry into the Cure for Rural Depopula- 
 tion. By H. E. Moore. 
 
 TRUSTS, POOLS AND CORNERS: As affecting Commerce and 
 Industry. By J. Stephen Jeans, M.R.I., F.S.S. 
 
 THE FACTORY SYSTEM. By R. Cooke Taylor. 
 
 THE STATE AND ITS CHILDREN. By Gertrude Tuckwell. 
 
 W^OMEN'S WORK. By Lady Dilke, Miss Bulley, and Miss W^hitley. 
 
 MUNICIPALITIES AT WORK. The Municipal Policy of Six Great 
 Towns, and its Influence on their Social Welfare. By Frederick 
 Dolman. 
 
 SOCIALISM AND MODERN THOUGHT. By M. Kaufmann. 
 
 THE HOUSING OF THE WORKING CLASSES. By R. F. 
 Bowmaker. 
 
 MODERN CIVILIZATION IN SOME OF ITS ECONOMIC 
 ASPECTS. By W. Cunningham, D.D., Fellow of Trinity College, 
 Cambridge. 
 
 THE PROBLEM OF THE UNEMPLOYED. By J. A. Hobson, B.A., 
 Author of ' The Problems of Poverty.' 
 
 LIFE IN WEST LONDON. By Arthur Sherwell, M.A. Secoid 
 Edition.
 
 RAILWAY 
 NATIONALIZATION 
 
 • » J « 
 
 I3Y 
 
 CLEMENT EDWARDS 
 
 WITH A PREFACE BY 
 
 The Rt. Hon. SIR CHARLES W. DILKE, Bart., M.P 
 
 
 METHUEN AND CO. 
 
 36 ESSEX STREET, W.C. 
 
 LONDON 
 
 1898
 
 30l7 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 Ever since a date even earlier than that at which 
 Beiitham's editor, Sir John Bowring, called meetings to 
 ^ advocate the State Purchase of Railways, I have favoured 
 w the reform which Mr. Clement Edwards with much force 
 s urges, but have feared — so great is the power of the 
 Companies in Parliament — that we should be made to 
 z pay for it too high a price. 
 
 § The author of Raikvay Nationalization seems not only 
 i to have proved his theoretic case, but to have partly met 
 % my doubts or practical objections. Agreeing as I do 
 ^ with most of what he has written, except, indeed, as to 
 **: that growth of cities which we cannot prevent, and which 
 2 Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide, and Perth show to be no 
 unmixed evil, I am happy to do aught I can to help him 
 to readers, who, however, will be drawn to him by his 
 
 o 
 
 C 
 
 O subject and by his vigour, without this little prefatory 
 
 note. 
 
 Charles W. Dilke 
 
 4:S97'93
 
 AUTHOR'S NOTE 
 
 The following pages have been written with a definite object.. 
 Some few months ago my friend Mr. E. J. Kibblewhite, the 
 Editor of the Weekly Times and Ec/io, and I had a long 
 discussion upon what reform of genuine National importance 
 it would be possible to get the scattered elements of the 
 Progressive Party to unite for pressing to an immediate and 
 successful issue. We concluded that such a question must 
 appeal not only to the ordinary Liberal and Radical, but to the 
 non-partisan farmers, manufacturers, and traders on the one 
 side ; and to the Labour and Collectivist element on the other. 
 And to do this^ we felt that it must be a reform which, while 
 it appealed to the latter as a definite interpretation of the 
 principles for which they are so strenuously contending, would 
 appeal to the agricultural and commercial classes as a question 
 of supreme practical importance, and one which, while in- 
 volving great and far-reaching amelioration, possessed sufficient 
 circumstances peculiar to itself as not to be taken as involving 
 adhesion to the whole Collectivist theory. 
 
 With these conditions fixed in our minds, we naturally 
 turned to the Land Question as of prime intrinsic importance, 
 but we found that within the ranks of the Progressive Party 
 there were ardent advocates of several different methods of 
 land reform, each intent upon his own method, so that we were
 
 viii AUTHOR'S NOTE 
 
 reluctantly compelled to believe that until a good deal more 
 educational work has been done, the Land Question does not 
 offer the conditions necessary to the immediate success of 
 practically a single-plank campaign. AVe then turned to 
 Railway Nationalization, and after a careful analysis of all the 
 elements affected by the question, we were profoundly im- 
 pressed with its promising character. We found that more 
 than half-a-century ago an Act had been passed by Mr. 
 Gladstone providing for State-acquisition of the railways. We 
 found that such an orthodox economist as John Stuart Mill 
 was among its earnest advocates. We found great bodies 
 of scattered opinion favourable to it; and above all, great 
 masses of evidence showing that the present system is not 
 likely to provide those reductions in rates and fares which 
 are essential to our national well-being, and which are abso- 
 lutely necessary if we are to continue to compete successfully 
 with those European countries in the possession of State 
 railways. We therefore decided to feel opinion through 
 the columns of the Weekly Times and Echo, in a series of 
 articles under the title of '' The Next Thing to do." The 
 response was extraordinary. From every part of the United 
 Kingdom, and from every class of the community, letters 
 poured in by the hundred, enthusiastically endorsing the sug- 
 gestion. 
 
 It was, therefore, deemed desirable to present the articles 
 in a more permanent form, which I am enabled to do in the 
 following pages, by the kind consent of Mr. Kibblewhite, to 
 whom I am indebted for this and much other help and advice. 
 I have, however, made many important additions, and in 
 the discussion of the subject I have left out all partisan con- 
 siderations, and dealt with it entirely upon its merits. Here 
 and there it may perhaps seem to readers that I have used 
 language which implies reflection upon either the honesty or 
 the capacity of the present managements. Let it therefore be 
 said at once, that in the present railway directorates and staff
 
 AUTHOR'S NOTE ix 
 
 I frankly recognize a body of men ^Yho are conspicuous for 
 tiieir zeal, their efficiency, and their general "high tone." The 
 whole criticism of the following pages is aimed at the features 
 inherent in the existing system, and with a lively sense of the 
 enormous difficulties in the way of its undertakers. Indeed 
 it is chiefly because I regard the obstacles to greater efficiency, 
 and cheaper facilities, as inevitable concomitants of the system 
 of private monopolies, that I put forth the plea for State- 
 ownership. 
 
 In the work, I have to acknowledge the great kindness 
 shown me by Mr. Edwin Clements, the able Secretary of the 
 Mansion House Railway Rates Association, who has courte- 
 ously placed at my disposal a large mass of valuable 
 information. I am also indebted to INIr. W. H. Mead, Hon. 
 Secretary, and Mr. W. Wilson, Hon. Treasurer of the Railway 
 Nationalization League, for similar help ; to Mr. John Burns, 
 M.P., Mr. Arthur W. Hutton, Mr. G. G. Desmond of the 
 Middle Temple, Mr. Harold Spender, Mr. Edward Harford, 
 Mr. Andrew Clark, Mr. H. B. Holding, ]Mr. T. Nott, INIr. 
 G. W. Wharrier, and Mr. J. Murphy, for much information and 
 many helpful suggestions ; to my wife, who has rendered indis- 
 pensable aid, and to several other friends who have done much to 
 make lighter a task by no means easy in the midst of a busy life. 
 
 It need scarcely be said that what follows does not pretend 
 to the category of hterature, but only seeks to serve the adjunc- 
 tive purpose of a simple hand-book to a work-a-day movement. 
 It has therefore been thought better to use the exact words of 
 recognized authorities rather than to rehabilitate their opinions 
 in language of my own. Hence there are more quotations 
 than there would have been had my purpose been different. 
 
 C. E. 
 
 86, Sf. George s Az'enue, 
 London, N.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAP. PAGE 
 
 I. INTRODUCTION ... ... ... ... I 
 
 II. THE RISE OF STATE CONTROL ... ... 8 
 
 III. THE WASTES OF MANIFOLD OWNERSHIP ... 20 
 
 IV. THE BREAKDOWN OF COMPETITION ... ... 30 
 
 V. THE KILLING OF CANAL COMPETITION ... 43 
 
 VI. THE BITTER CRY OF THE TRADERS ... ... 52 
 
 VII. THE BLIGHT ON AGRICULTURE ... ... 68 
 
 VIII. THE PLAINT OF THE PASSENGERS ... ... 78 
 
 IX. workmen's TRAINS AND CROWDED CITIES ... 9 1 
 
 X. CONDITIONS OF RAILW.AY EMPLOYMENT ... I06 
 
 XI. THE WOES OF IRELAND ..= ... . . II 6 
 
 XII. IS PRIVATE OWNERSHIP HOPELESS? ... ... 1 27 
 
 XIII. STATE RAILWAYS IN PRACTICE — IN EUROPE ... 146 
 
 XIV. STATE RAILWAYS IN PRACTICE — IN AUSTRALIA 1 63 
 XV. THE ZONE SYSTEM AND REDUCED FARES ... I 73 
 
 XVI. SOME OBJECTIONS TO ST.\TE - OWNERSHIP CON- 
 SIDERED ... ... ... ... 1 86
 
 xii CONTENTS 
 
 CHAP. rAGE 
 
 XVII. THE FINANCIAL ASPECTS ... ... ... 201 
 
 XVIII. CONCLUSION ... ... ... ... 2o6 
 
 APPENDICES 
 
 A. CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT ON PRUSSIAN STATE 
 
 RAILWAYS ... ... ... ... 215 
 
 B. LIST OF LINES CONSTRUCTED PRIOR TO STATE 
 
 PURCHASE ACT OF 1 844 ... ... 2 20 
 
 INDEX ... ... ... ... ... 223
 
 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 State-ownership of railways in the United Kingdom was 
 settled in principle more than half a century ago. In 1844, 
 upon the introduction of Mr. Gladstone, an Act of Parliament 
 was passed definitely providing for the compulsory acquisition 
 of the railway system by the State at any time, in the discretion 
 of ParHament, after twenty-one years from that date. x\nd in 
 all subsequent railway legislation, the possible ultimate posses- 
 sion of the system by the State has been steadily kept in view, 
 by every new Railway Act being made subject to the measure 
 of 1844. So that there is no need to weary readers with a pre- 
 liminary discussion as to whether railway ownership and admin- 
 istration come within the proper sphere of State functions. 
 
 In different parts of the world at the present time there are 
 three clearly defined railway systems in operation. They are 
 (i) railways owned by the State and managed by the State for 
 the convenience of the community ; (2) owned by the State 
 and leased to Companies for private profit and management ; 
 and (3) privately owned and run for private profit and advan- 
 tage, but subject to a certain amount of State control. Great 
 Britain and the United States share the distinction of being the 
 only two countries where the dual system of private ownership 
 and State control is exclusively in operation. The amount of 
 State control here is considerably greater than across the 
 Atlantic. But it has been a haphazard growth of many years, 
 rather than the mature product of a carefully-thought-out policy. 
 
 B
 
 1 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 Indeed the whole theory underlying railway legislation has un- 
 dergone a complete and fundamental change since the Stockton 
 and Darlmgton Act was passed in 1823. This change, how- 
 ever, hasV-een gradual, :ap4 has been induced by the repeated 
 and revolutionary departures 61" the Railway Companies from the 
 origin?.! conception of their funclion. From being the mere 
 providers of an iion road, upon which, for a consideration, 
 anybody was permitted to haul or to carry, the Companies have 
 become the sole hauliers, and practically the sole carriers, col- 
 lectors, and delivery agents. Thus while under the original 
 order of things the public had the protection of competition to 
 prevent extortionate rates upon each system, now that the Com- 
 panies perform all the functions, they have no protection beyond 
 what they can get from Government interference, unless indeed 
 they and their customers are both upon the seaboard. In fact 
 the Railway Companies have possessed a power to levy taxes 
 probably more exacting and more effective than that enjoyed 
 by any crowned monarch of England. As John Stuart Mill 
 says — "The charge made for services which cannot be dispensed 
 with, is in substance quite as much compulsory taxation as if 
 imposed by law. . . . This applies to the case of a road, a canal, 
 or a railway. These are always in a great degree practical 
 monopohes, and a Government which concedes such monopoly 
 unreservedly to a private company does much the same thing 
 as if it allowed an individual or an association to levy any tax 
 they choose, for their benefit, on all the malt produced in the 
 country, or on all the cotton imported into it." ^ 
 
 The rates and charges which Railway Companies may legally 
 make for the different services have for many years been 
 theoretically limited by law. But as the legal maximum has 
 usually been put at a fanciful figure based on the old Carriers' 
 Acts, it has frequently served to intimidate customers into 
 passive obedience rather than to protect them from excessive 
 charges. It is true that under the most recent legislation the 
 Companies are not permitted to " jump up " rates from the 
 "actual" to their legal maximum, unless they can show the 
 Railway Commission that the proposed alteration is reasonable. 
 But this admirable provision is virtually a dead letter in 
 practice, for the cost and consequences of challenging the 
 1 Principles of Political Ecottomy (People's Ed. 1872), p. 581.
 
 INTRODUCTION 3 
 
 alleged reasonableness of a rate in face of all the elaborate 
 legal machinery and expert evidence which the associated 
 Companies have at their disposal, are prospects which cow the 
 boldest litigants, and from which even merchant princes not 
 unnaturally shrink. The payment of high rates per se is, how- 
 ever, by no means the greatest grievance which our farmers 
 and traders are called upon to bear. A matter that comes 
 home to them with greater force is the preferential treatment 
 which is extended to their foreign competitors. They are daily 
 presented with the spectacle of meat from America, dairy 
 produce from Denmark, fruit and vegetables from France, and 
 manufactured goods from Belgium and Germany being con- 
 veyed upon the English markets at a cost of carriage that is 
 often a half and not infrequently less than a third of what they 
 themselves are charged to get there. 
 
 Then turning to the travelling public, we find that they have 
 to pay fares enormously in excess of those charged on the 
 Continent — in some cases five and six times as much. And 
 though on some of the great northern lines they have little to 
 complain of in the matter of comfort, accommodation, and 
 speed, this happy state of things is by no means as general as 
 it might be. Especially does this apply to the third-class 
 passenger. Source of greatest profit though railway authori- 
 ties freely admit him to be, yet with some managements he is 
 apparently the subject of least regard. Open cushionless 
 carriages with dim yellow lights are still deemed good enough 
 for him on some of the southern systems ; and this is not the 
 worst. Many of the Companies running into London still 
 object to provide proper accommodation for workmen. Even 
 those Companies who make a point of catering for the "sons 
 of toil " do not consider that it is any scandal to have eighty 
 passengers crowded into carriages provided for fifty. 
 
 Nor can the conditions of employment which prevail among 
 the railway workers be deemed as nearly satisfactory. The 
 hours are still too long and the pay too scanty, while several 
 Companies have made themselves conspicuous by denying their 
 workmen the right to combine. 
 
 With these broad facts before us, we may ask whether the 
 community are likely to get the highest efficiency with the 
 lowest charges of which the railway system is capable under
 
 4 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 the present dual system ? I think not. It may be freely 
 admitted, that under private enterprise there is probably a 
 larger network of railways than would have been the case had 
 their construction and development been left from the beginning 
 to State initiative. But this must not be regarded as an 
 entirely unmixed advantage. In the belief that effective com- 
 petition was being secured by multiplied roads, when it had 
 been killed on the individual line, schemes have been 
 sanctioned by Parliament which would never have been 
 entertained had the results been clearly foreseen. As Robert 
 Stephenson told a Royal Commission, "where combination is 
 practicable competition is impracticable," and the effect of a 
 new railroad being built to compete with an old system, has 
 usually been to saddle the community with the burden of 
 paying interest upon two capitals where one was ample 
 for the traffic. Moreover, under the present system many 
 districts have been neglected and remained undeveloped, 
 because the prospect of an immediate return has not been 
 sufficiently apparent to tempt the investment of the necessary 
 capital. 
 
 The Railway Companies frankly admit that to-day there is 
 practically no competition between them either in rates or 
 fares. These are rigidly fixed by Associations of Managers, 
 and one Company cannot reduce without the consent of the 
 others. The Companies claim, however, that the public get 
 the benefit of an effective competition in facilities. No doubt 
 this is partially true in the matter of passenger accommodation 
 upon the northern-going expresses, but upon most other lines, 
 and almost entirely in respect of goods traffic, the phrase is 
 more euphonious than correct. In the case of goods traffic, 
 at least, competition in facilities means a multipHcation of 
 wastes for which the traders and the consumers have to pay. It 
 embraces the zealous regiments of canvassers who wait upon 
 customers, the erection of a large number of handsome ware- 
 houses in the same place which it can only be expected to 
 partially utilize, the provision of large surplus teams of horses 
 and drays by each Company "to meet emergencies," and the 
 running of three or four short half-filled trains from the same 
 place to the same place, at the same time, instead of one 
 heavy and fully-loaded train.
 
 INTRODUCTION 5 
 
 The leakages in this direction are simply enormous. But 
 you must add to them the expenses of the several hundred 
 directorates, with all their attendant paraphernalia ; the running 
 of many passenger trains but fractionally filled by several 
 Companies where one would suffice ; the movement of nearly 
 as many empty as full goods trains, so as to escape the 
 demurrage charged for remaining upon a neighbour's line more 
 than three days ; the huge expenses of promotion and litigation. 
 All this waste falls as an extra burden upon the customers in 
 higher rates and larger fares. 
 
 No doubt if the process of amalgamation among the Com- 
 panies were completed, many of these leakages would be 
 arrested. But such a remedy from the public standpoint 
 would be nearly as great as the disease. The present combina- 
 tions of railway interests are dangerous enough, but for the whole 
 of our 2i,oco miles of railway, with its half-million share- 
 holders, its ^900,000,000 capital, its revenue of ^90,000,000, 
 and its army of half-a-million workers, to be welded together 
 into one vast legally constituted corporation, subject to the 
 absolute dictatorship of a single Board, would indeed be to 
 fulfil the prophecy of Sir H. W. Tyler, the chief railway 
 inspector, that " if the State does not soon manage the rail- 
 ways, the railways will manage the State." ^ 
 
 It is quite obvious that the community cannot look for any 
 substantial redress of grievances — of maximum efficiency and 
 minimum charges — under the existing order of things. For 
 several years past the average rate of interest has been rather 
 less than 4 per cent, which is not deemed by present public 
 opinion as an excessive return on capital. And it may be 
 safely assumed, that neither would directors tolerate, nor would 
 the Railway Commission be likely to regard as "reasonable," 
 an attempt to reduce rates to a point which would cause an 
 immediate and sweeping reduction in this rate of interest ; and 
 a far-sighted policy of present reductions for future recoupment 
 by consequent increased traffic is one which is not likely to 
 emanate spontaneously from the directorates, who shrink in 
 alarm from doing anything which adversely affects the existing 
 market price of shares. This is the one single direction 
 
 "^ Journal of Royal Stalistical Society, 1S73 : clebate on State Purchase 
 of Railways.
 
 6 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 probably in which the scattered shareholders exercise an 
 effective control. 
 
 But in the national interests of agriculture, commerce, and 
 industry, a substantial alteration must be made. The increasing 
 pressure of foreign competition, and the gradual replacement 
 of British goods and produce in both the home and neutral 
 markets, with those of foreign make and growth, give emphasis 
 to the pressing need. Some people may hide their nervous- 
 ness by a copious indulgence in the optimism of selected 
 statistics on the one side, while on the other we shall always 
 have that active body of panic-stricken zealots who are pre- 
 pared to seek a remedy in the reversion of the Free Trade policy. 
 What we want is a calm and dispassionate facing of the facts. 
 And here it is of grave significance that the two European 
 countries — Germany and Belgium — who are most seriously 
 menacing us in the neutral markets, and even finding a con- 
 siderable lodgment in the home market, possess the two best 
 organized systems of State railways in the world, upon which 
 they carry goods at less than half and often a third of what 
 the English railways charge. That this is the entire cause of 
 their increasing ability to compete effectively with us no one 
 would for a moment seriously contend. It is, however, a great 
 factor — probably the greatest — and is fortunately for us one 
 capable of remedy. 
 
 But Germany and Belgium, while they are the two countries 
 where the system of State railways have been most completely 
 organized and developed, are not the only countries where 
 they have been successfully instituted. Far from it. Besides 
 being in operation in nearly the whole of Europe, they are in 
 use in India, in South Africa, and in our Australian Colonies, 
 where the experience is of special significance, for this reason. 
 The opponents of State ownership are constrained to admit 
 its great success in certain of the Continental countries, but 
 on the principle of — 
 
 "I du believe in Freedom's cause 
 Ez far away ez Payris is," 
 
 they attempt to discount it by attributing it to the greater 
 genius for State administration possessed by the Continental 
 than by the Anglo-Saxon races. Now the Australian and
 
 INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 Indian and South African systems are administered by Anglo- 
 Saxons, and with eminent success. 
 
 On the whole the experience of State-ownership of raihvays 
 when tried side by side with private ownership — and that is 
 the true basis of comparison — shows that charges for services 
 are much less, the management is more economical, and 
 there is a practical immunity from those grave ills and 
 anomalies under which we suffer in the United Kingdom.
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 THE RISE OF STATE CONTROL 
 
 The present power of control exercised by the State over the 
 railways of the United Kingdom is the outcome of seventy years' 
 legislation. With no general recognition of the possible develop- 
 ment of the railway system, and with the doctrine oi laisser faire 
 beginning to dominate the political mind, it is scarcely a 
 matter for surprise that Parliament left the young Railway 
 Companies almost free from legislative restrictions. It is true 
 that TKomas Gray, with keen prophetic vision, clearly foresaw 
 the extent of the locomotive revolution, and urged the 
 Government to at once take the reins of the "Iron Horse." ^ 
 But naturally, being a prophet, he was deemed mad, and his 
 advice, as is usual under such circumstances, was studiously 
 ignored.^ Nor can the assumption that competition, then 
 regarded as such an effective regulator of the ordinary 
 commercial relations, would prove an ample means of pro- 
 tection to the traders from the Railway Companies be deemed 
 as altogether unreasonable. Certainly in the Hght of the 
 Free Trade philosophy the character of the first railway schemes 
 warranted this conclusion. These were based upon the ex- 
 perience of functions performed by the canals and old iron 
 roads. In other words, the railway promoters proposed only to 
 provide a smooth permanent way, and to charge a toll for its 
 use to either private traders or to the already established firms 
 of carriers. The idea that they might become responsible 
 for hauling was doubtless latent, but that they would take upon 
 
 1 Observations on a General Iron Raihvay, l)y Thomas Gray. 1 821. 
 3 Our Iron Roads, by F. S. Williams, 1852, pp. 16—19. 
 
 8
 
 THE RISE OF STATE CONTROL 9 
 
 themselves the manifold duties of carriers was not even dreamt 
 of. And to this fundamental conception, of function being 
 limited to the mere provision of permanent roadway, must we 
 attribute the initial misfortune of handing over to private 
 individuals those means of transit which were destined not only 
 to supersede the ancient highway, but to become welded into 
 the most powerful monopoly this country has seen. Facts, 
 however, were ever more potent than theories, and circum- 
 stances quickly arose which compelled Parliament to initiate 
 that long and tedious process of piecemeal legislation, having 
 for its object the gradual correction of the initial error. 
 
 The first Iron-railway or Tram-road Act was passed in 1801, 
 authorizing the Surrey Iron Railway Company to construct a 
 railway or tram-road for the conveyance of goods and coal 
 between Wandsworth and Croydon. This was open to the 
 general use of traders and carriers. Horse power was the only 
 motive power used, and both horses and vehicles were supplied 
 by the persons using the railway. For this use of the way the 
 promoters were entitled to charge tolls, limited to a specific 
 maximum rate varying from 2d. per ton for manure, to 6^. for 
 certain classes of merchandise. This Act was followed by a 
 number of others, and in 182 1 the Stockton and Darlington 
 Railway Act was adopted, empowering the promoters to con- 
 struct a horse tramway merely. But during the course of con- 
 struction George Stephenson fully demonstrated the value of 
 the locomotive, and in 1823 application was successfully made 
 to Parliament for permission to use steam-engines — stationary 
 and locomotive. By this Act the Company were authorized to 
 charge a maximum mileage toll, "for every coach, chariot, 
 chaise, car, gig, landau, wagon, cart, or other carriage which 
 shall be drawn or used on the said railways or tram-roads for 
 the conveyance of passengers or small packages or parcels." 
 
 In the case of goods traffic, the practice of the Railway Com- 
 pany merely providing the road partially prevailed for several 
 years. Thus in 1838, fifteen years after the Stockton and 
 Darlington Company took powers for the use of the steam- 
 engines, we find that " engines belonging to different parties, 
 coach proprietors and others," were running upon the Liverpool 
 and Manchester line ; and so far was the highway system at that 
 time from being regarded as obsolete or impracticable, that a
 
 lo RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 Select Committee of the House of Commons recommended 
 that the right enjoyed by private persons of running their own 
 engines and trains upon any raihvay should be extended to the 
 Post-Office upon special terms. The Great Western Act of 
 1835 also provided — "That all persons shall have free liberty 
 to pass along and upon and to use and employ the said railway 
 with carriages properly constructed as by this Act directed, 
 upon payment only of such rates and tolls as shall be demanded 
 by this said Company, not exceeding the respective rates or tolls 
 by this Act authorized, and subject to the provision of this 
 Act, and to the rules and regulations which shall from time to 
 time be made by the said Company or by the said Directors, 
 by virtue of the powers to them respectively by this Act granted." ^ 
 
 But the notion of every man his own train-driver was one 
 that lent special force to the natural fear which the travelling 
 public had of patronizing the " fire-horse," as Fanny Kemble 
 called the locomotive. And as it was the passenger and coach 
 parcel that paid the Companies, so it was their requirements 
 that shaped the railway policy. Safety was the first need. So 
 it quickly became a matter of practice for the Companies to 
 provide haulage as well as the road, and passenger carriages 
 as well as haulage. And the necessity in many districts 
 combined with general economical advantages to secure the 
 almost universal adoption of the new system.^ 
 
 While, however, the road tolls had been limited to a maximum, 
 when the Companies provided the haulage power they were per- 
 mitted to charge a " locomotive toll " to be fixed at their own 
 discretion. wSo also when the Railway Companies were given a 
 discretionary power to "use and employ engines, and in carriages 
 or wagons drawn or propelled thereby to convey upon the said 
 railway all such passengers, cattle and other animals, goods, wares 
 and merchandise articles, matters and things, as shall be offered 
 to them for that purpose, "no specific restriction was at first placed 
 by Parliament upon the charges they should make for this service 
 of conveying. It was merely recited that they were subject to 
 the common law of carriers, by which their charges had to be 
 "reasonable" — which proved in practice as dangerously vague 
 as Wellington thought the terms of the "Holy Alliance." 
 
 ^ Railway Rates ajid Traffic^ by A. K. Butterworth, ch. i, 
 "^ Railway Rates, by W. A. Hunter, p. 7*
 
 THE RISE OF STATE CONTROL n 
 
 Soon after 1830 it was recognized how complete was the 
 power of monopoly possessed by each Railway Company upon 
 its own system. In some cases this power was only partially 
 utilized. Thus in 1839 there were three different systems in 
 
 operation ^ — . , , , 
 
 I The system by which the Company provided the permanent 
 way, haulage, and part of the rolling stock, but dealt only with 
 
 the carriers. . , , , 1 
 
 2. The system by which the Companies acted both as general 
 carriers themselves, and dealt with other carriers on their lines. 
 3 And the system by which the Companies were the sole 
 carriers, providing for collection and delivery and allowing no 
 general carriers on their lines. 
 
 The respective merits of these systems were made the subject 
 of Parliamentary inquiries in 1839-40. The carriers, who 
 submitted a great deal of evidence, urged that the Railway 
 Companies should be restricted by legislation to the hire of 
 rolling stock to the carriers and the hauling of trains, and that 
 they should be prohibited from dealing with the public direct. 
 The Committee of 1 839 hesitated to come to a definite decision, 
 but the Committee of the following year pronounced in favour 
 of the Railway Companies being permitted to perform all the 
 duties of general carriers, although, funnily enough, the report 
 states that "the investigation of this subject demonstrates 
 beyond all doubt that Parliament was anxious to prevent Rail- 
 way Companies from obtaining an exclusive control over the 
 conveyance of passengers and goods along their respective 
 lines," but, " powers were conceded to the Companies which 
 counteracted and rendered of no avail the evident purposes of 
 the Legislature." The alarm of the traders was great, and not 
 unreasonably. The competition between the carriers or 
 between the carriers and the Railway Companies over the same 
 railway was their only guarantee against extortion, for be it 
 remembered that, up to this time, haulage and carrying charges 
 were quite unlimited. But now each Company became a com- 
 plete monopolist within its own domain.'- 'I'hus, with the 
 safeguards of competition gone, new legislation was at once 
 found necessary to protect the traders. This was provided in 
 the Act of 1841, which defined not only the maximum road 
 ^ Railway Kates, by W. A. Hunter, p. 11. * Butterw.ulb.
 
 12 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 toll, but also a maximum toll for wagons. But these maxima, 
 as has been constantly the case since, were much more showy 
 than useful. Fixed at a fanciful figure, much beyond what the 
 traffic could bear, they rather served as a sword of Damocles 
 which the Companies held above the heads of their customers 
 to coerce them into peacefully accepting high actual rates, than 
 as a protection against extortion. 
 
 It is worthy of note at this point, that while Parliament 
 left the traders to the tender mercies of the common law, to 
 risk recovering either illegal or the surplus of unreasonable 
 charges, they provided arbitration for the settling of disputed 
 charges for the conveyance of mails, between the Post-Office 
 and the Railway Companies. 
 
 Important steps in extending the sphere of State control 
 were taken in 1840 and 1842, when the Railway Regulation 
 Acts were passed, conferring upon the Board of Trade certain 
 limited powers " for the due supervision of railways." 
 
 The great railway boom began in 1844, and at once served 
 to draw public attention to a form of competition hitherto Httle 
 thought of. The competition between carriers upon the same 
 line had been tried, and had practically collapsed. Now it was 
 generally believed that the Companies could be " brought to 
 their senses " by the construction of competing lines through 
 the districts where they were enjoying a monopoly. Over- 
 charged traders, with unabated faith in the sufficiency of the 
 law of supply and demand, saw salvation in the prospective 
 furious rivalry between two competing routes, even though this 
 pet law had belied its early promise within the scope of the 
 single railway system. Nor did the aggrieved traders lack 
 eloquent and powerful supporters. The promoters of the pro- 
 spective competing lines rallied to them with almost touching 
 earnestness — if indeed they did not supply them with the 
 formula of their contention. It is true that the heads of exist- 
 ing systems declared that it would be easy for the new and the 
 old Companies to coalesce in the future, when the only effect 
 would be that traders would have to provide interest upon two 
 capitals instead of one. It is equally true that one or two 
 recognized economists reiterated the same warning, clothed in 
 the learned phrases of their profound science. But the latter 
 were charitably smiled at, as well-intentioned but unpractical
 
 THE RISE OF STATE CONTROL 13 
 
 theorists, and the former were denounced as the subsidized 
 pleaders of a threatened interest. How entirely at fault the 
 traders were in the long run, and how fleeting and injurious 
 was their golden remedy, we shall see later on. In the mean- 
 time (1844) a Select Committee, presided over by Mr. Glad- 
 stone, and appointed to inquire into the whole field of railway 
 legislation, had definitely reported " that competition between 
 Railway Companies is likely to do more injury to them than 
 good to the public." But this declaration was not sufficient 
 to arrest the flow of " competing " schemes, nor to deter 
 Parliament from legalizing them with their indispensable 
 sanction. And duplicated lines from, through, and to the 
 same places appeared in many parts of the country. 
 
 Some of the other conclusions of this Committee were much 
 more respected, however, and at once bore valuable fruit. 
 Among these were — 
 
 (i) That the indefinite concessions made to the earlier Com- 
 panies had been unnecessary; (2) that fares and rates were too 
 high ; and (3) that with regard to new lines. Parliament ought 
 to reserve certain powers to be exercised after a given time. 
 These were all dealt with in a Bill introduced in the same year 
 by Mr. Gladstone, as President of the Board of Trade, and 
 Chairman of the Committee. After a somewhat stormy passage 
 the Bill was passed, and is now usually spoken of as the Cheap 
 Trains Act.^ It provided for — 
 
 1. The Parliamentary penny per mile fare in at least one 
 train a day. 
 
 2. The revision of maximum rates and charges, subject to 
 certain conditions. 
 
 3. Power being conferred upon the Board of Trade to 
 initiate proceedings against the Railway Companies for the 
 infringement of the law under certain circumstances. 
 
 4. A maximum rates clause under which the Companies, if 
 they carried and provided locomotive power as well as the road- 
 way, were compelled to charge less than the aggregate of the 
 separate tolls for the three services. 
 
 5. And provision for the future acquisition of the railways by 
 the State (see Chapter XVII). 
 
 In addition to this Act, the Report of the Committee also led 
 1 See Hansard for June 1S44.
 
 14 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 to the Consolidated Act of 1845, which embraced two new and 
 far-reaching provisions. The one made all special railway Acts 
 subject to general railway statutes, and the other attempted to 
 provide for equality of treatment. Here is the clause embody- 
 ing the first provisions : — 
 
 " Nothing in this Act contained shall exempt the Company or 
 the railway from the provisions of any general Act relating to 
 railways or the better or more impartial audit of the accounts of 
 Railway Companies now in force, or which may hereafter pass 
 during this or any future session of Parliament, or from any 
 future revision or alteration under the authority of Parliament 
 of the maximum rates of fares and charges, or of the rates for 
 small parcels authorized by this Act." ^ 
 
 This is the Equality Clause : — " And whereas it is expedient 
 that the Company should be enabled to vary the tolls upon the 
 railway so as to accommodate them to the circumstances of 
 the traffic, but that such power of varying should not be used 
 for the purpose of prejudicing or favouring particular parties, 
 or for the purpose of coUusively and unfairly creating a 
 monoply, either in the hands of the Company or of particular 
 parties, it shall be lawful, therefore, for the Company, subject 
 to the provisions and Hmitations herein and in the Special Act 
 contained, from time to time to alter or vary the tolls by the 
 Special Act authorized to be taken, either upon the whole or 
 upon any particular portion of the railway as they shall think 
 fit ; provided that all such tolls be at all times charged equally 
 to all persons, and after the same rate, whether per ton per 
 mile or otherwise, in respect of all persons and of all goods or 
 carriages of the same description, and conveyed or propelled 
 by a like carriage or engine passing only over the same portion 
 of the line of railway under the same circumstances ; and no 
 reduction or advance in any such tolls shall be made either 
 directly or indirectly in favour of or against any particular 
 Company or person travelling upon or using the railw^ay." ^ 
 
 The traders had not to wait long before they saw how futile 
 duplicated systems were as a protection against excessive 
 charges. A perfect plethora of amalgamation schemes ap- 
 peared in 1846. This led to another Select Committee to 
 inquire into the right principles of railway legislation. Among 
 1 Railway Consolidation Act, 1845. ^ Ibid.
 
 TH£ RISE OF STATE CONTROL 15 
 
 other things they delivered a severe attack upon the theory of 
 the maximum rate. They said one of the abuses of railway 
 management, from which the public have suffered most in this 
 country, is the fixing the fares and charges at too high a rate. 
 It is proper, no doubt, that maximum fares should be fixed in 
 all railway Acts ; but though they may be fixed with care, and 
 may sometimes approximate to fair rates at a given time, they 
 can never meet all future contingencies. The maximum rates 
 are, however, almost always extravagantly high. The most 
 perfect system in the abstract is that which regulates the fares 
 by such scales as will produce the utmost amount of con- 
 venience to individuals, and give the utmost possible develop- 
 ment to the trade of the country. 
 
 But while they did not pronounce in favour of prohibiting 
 amalgamations, they emphasized the necessity of each case 
 being exhaustively examined. They also strongly recommended 
 the establishment of a Government Department charged 
 with the supervision of railways and canals. So by an Act of 
 1846 the Railway Commission was constituted, consisting of 
 five persons. But a further measure, seeking to confer upon it 
 real powers, failing to pass into law in 1847, it suffered a some- 
 what chequered career until 185 1, when it was merged in the 
 Board of Trade. It thus continued until 1874, when it was 
 again separated, given definite powers, and has continued 
 since. 1 
 
 In 1850 Parliament gave formal sanction to working agree- 
 ments between "comi^eting" Railway Companies by an Act 
 legalizing the constitution of the Railway Clearing House, 
 which had been voluntarily established by the Companies three 
 years previously. The Act also conferred on the House, 
 governed by a Board of Railway Managers, the important 
 power of suing defaulting members. 
 
 1853 saw the dawn of a new epoch in the application of 
 the i)rinciplc of State control. *' Hitherto," as Mr. lUitterworlh 
 says," "with few exceptions Railway Companies had been left 
 free to conduct their business in the way that seemed best to 
 themselves, the efforts of the Legislature being for the most 
 part confined, in the first place, to insuring public safety, and 
 
 ^ lUittcrworth and Hunter. 
 
 ^ Raihvay Kates and Trajjic, p. 21.
 
 i6 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 in the second to preventing the abuse of the extensive powers 
 of the Companies, by placing a limit upon their charges, and 
 forbidding partiality. Further, those who had grievances against 
 Railway Companies were left to assert their rights by means of 
 the ordinary procedure before the ordinary tribunals. It is 
 true that, as we have seen, certain powers of supervision over 
 railways had been given to the Board of Trade ; their sanction 
 was necessary for the opening of each new line of railway; 
 their approval was essential to the validity of bye-laws, and in 
 cases where a Company had exceeded or abused their powers, 
 they were empowered to initiate legal proceedings for enforcing 
 compliance with the law. The general policy of the Legis- 
 lature, however, had been to refrain from interfering with the 
 practical working of the railway system." 
 
 In consequence of the anxiety prevailing among the traders 
 at the prospect of many large amalgamations of railways in 
 1852, another Special Committee was appointed to consider 
 "the principles which ought to guide the House in railway 
 legislation." The Committee reported in 1853 that a larger 
 meed of State interference was necessary, and declared that the 
 "Equality Clause" needed amendment, as the necessity for a 
 person complaining of inequality of charges, to show that 
 different transits were effected " under the same circumstances," 
 left the Companies a loophole for evading the duty of treating 
 all persons alike. The recommendations of the Committee 
 secured embodiment in the Railway and Canal Traffic Act, 
 1854, from which a somewhat lengthy quotation is necessary to 
 indicate its far-reaching character — 
 
 "Every Railway Company, Canal Company, and Railway 
 and Canal Company, shall according to their respective powers 
 afford all reasonable facilities for the receiving and forwarding 
 and delivering of traffic upon and from the several railways 
 and canals belonging to or worked by such Companies respect- 
 ively, and for the return of carriages, trucks, boats, and other 
 vehicles. 
 
 "And no such Company shall make or give any undue or 
 unreasonable preference or advantage to or in favour of any 
 particular person or Company, or any particular description of 
 traffic, in any respect whatsoever, nor shall any such Company 
 subject any particular person or Company, or any particular
 
 THE RISE OF STATE CONTROL 17 
 
 description of traffic, to any undue or unreasonable prejudice 
 or disadvantage in any respect whatsoever. 
 
 " And every Railway Company and Canal Company and Rail- 
 way and Canal Company having or working railways or canals 
 ■ y,_which form i)art of a continuous line of railway or canal, or 
 / railway and canal communication, or which have the terminus, 
 station, or wharf of the one near the terminus, station, or wharf 
 of the other, shall afford all due and reasonable facilities for 
 receiving and forwarding all the traffic arriving by one of such 
 railways or canals by the other without any unreasonable delay, 
 and without any such preference or advantage, or prejudice or 
 disadvantage, as aforesaid, and so that no obstruction may be 
 offered to the public desirous of using such railways or canals, 
 or railways and canals, as a continuous line of communication, 
 and so that all reasonable accommodation may by means of 
 the railways and canals of the several Companies be at all times 
 afforded to the public in that behalf." 
 
 In addition to the foregoing, the Act also specially provided 
 for the Court of Common Pleas being used for the trial of 
 complaints against the Railway Companies. 
 
 By an Act of 1868, the customers who had paid carriage 
 were given the right to demand an account in which the rates 
 for each of the several services were distinguished. 
 
 Another important step forward was taken in 1873. The 
 previous year had again witnessed a great epidemic of schemes 
 for railway amalgamations which had so alarmed the trading 
 public, that a Joint Committee was again appointed to inquire 
 into the question of railway legislation. The Regulation of 
 Railways Act of 1873 ^^^s the result. This Act did several 
 important things. It reconstituted the Railway Commission 
 upon the basis of combining railway experience with legal 
 knowledge ; imposed upon the Companies the duty of publish- 
 ing their rates in books to be kept at all stations, and gave the 
 Commission power to order the Companies to differentiate in 
 their accounts between the charges for conveyance and terminal 
 services ; empowered the Connnissioners to fix through rates 
 as between the different Companies ; gave authority to the 
 Commissioners to determine the "reasonableness" of any ter- 
 minal charge ; stipulated that the Railway Companies acquiring 
 canals should keep them in working order, and referred to the 
 
 c
 
 i8 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 Commissioners the power to sanction agreements by which 
 the Railway Companies acquired power over canal rates or 
 traffic. A further and important recommendation of the 
 Committee was ignored. This was that the Companies should 
 be compelled to adopt a new and uniform classification of 
 goods, and that this should be the classification of the Clearing 
 House. 
 
 The latitude allowed the Companies in the matter of terminal 
 charges had long caused a good deal of sore feeling, and in 
 1 88 1 a Select Committee was appointed to inquire into the 
 working of the Act of 1873, ^^'^^ i^^C) the general question of 
 rates and fares with special reference to the question of 
 terminals. As the work of this Committee will again have to 
 be dealt with later on, it will be sufficient to say that the result of 
 their deliberations did not find legislative expression until 1888, 
 when the Railway and Canal Traffic Act was passed. This Act 
 very considerably strengthened the power of State control. It 
 remodelled the Railway Commission, and gave it authority to 
 hold sittings in different parts of the United Kingdom. Its 
 jurisdiction was also very considerably extended. The most 
 important of its new powers are as follows — 
 
 I. — To enforce obligations imposed by special Acts. 
 {a) Relating to traffic facilities and undue preference. 
 (d) Requiring a Company to provide works for public 
 
 accommodation. 
 (c-) Imposing any obligation on a Company in favour or 
 the public or any individual. 
 11. — To enforce any statutory provisions relating to private 
 sidings. 
 
 III. — To decide any question involving the legality of any 
 charge sought to be made by a Company in relation to 
 merchandise traffic, and to enforce payment. 
 
 IV. — To compel two or more Companies to co-operate in 
 carrying out orders. 
 
 V. — To order traffic facilities and through rates, notwith- 
 standing any agreement between Companies, unless the agree- 
 ment has been confirmed by Parliament, or by the Board of 
 Trade, or by the Commissioners themselves ; and in the case 
 of through rates or tolls on canals, whether the agreement has 
 been confirmed by Parliament or not.
 
 THE RISE OF STATE CONTROL 
 
 19 
 
 VI. — To award damages either in addition to, or in sub- 
 stitution for, other relief, subject to certain restrictions. 
 
 VII. — Upon applications for through rates, to substitute for 
 the rate proposed any rate they deem just and reasonable.^ 
 
 It ordered a complete and compulsory revision, by all Rail- 
 way and Canal Companies, of their maximum rates, subject to 
 approval of the Board of Trade and of Rarliament. It also 
 gave formal sanction to terminal charges, but restricted them 
 within maximum limits. It made the law regarding the pub- 
 lication of rates and of "undue preference" more stringent, 
 and extended the rights of the traders in the matter of through 
 . rates. And finally it empowered the Board of Trade under 
 certain circumstances to act as mediators between aggrieved 
 traders and the Companies, to obviate, if possible, the need 
 of going before the Railway Commission or an ordinary Court 
 of Law. 
 
 By way of retaliation for reduction in certain maximum rates 
 made during the revision provided for in the Act of 1888, the 
 Companies made a wholesale increase in other rates. This led 
 to an Act in 1894, giving the Railway Commission power, upon 
 proof of their unreasonableness, to cause a return to the rates 
 in practice before the increase. But of this we shall have to 
 speak more fully. 
 
 In the meantime several alterations had been made in the 
 measure of State control affecting passengers. For their 
 safety the Companies had been compelled to adopt continuous 
 brakes, and the block and interlocking system, and the com- 
 munication cord. For their convenience smoking compart- 
 ments had been insisted upon, and the Companies were ordered 
 to make the locomotives consume their own smoke. To 
 protect their travellers from extortion the tickets have to show 
 the fare charged, and milestones by the way have to indicate 
 the distance travelled. And in 1884, Parliament called upon 
 the Companies to i)rovide workmen's trains, offering as an 
 inducement the abolition of the passenger duty upon all such 
 trains. 
 
 ' Railway and Canal Traffic Act, iSS3. Sec also BiUterwuilli, pp. 
 41-50.
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 THE WASTES OF MANIFOLD OWNERSHIP 
 
 The wastes of the present system, with its manifold owner- 
 ship and multiplied managements, are enormous. Though the 
 public do not get the advantage of a "healthy competition," 
 they and the shareholders suffer from all the costly dis- 
 advantages of elaborate competitive machinery. 
 
 One of the most serious sources of waste is the heavy Parlia- 
 mentary and legal expenses. In 1850 Mr. S. Laing, Chairman 
 of the Brighton and South Coast Railway Company, stated 
 that up to that year, this item alone had absorbed no less than 
 ^70,000,000.1 Writing again as recently as 1886, he declared 
 that for the previous ten years the Companies had spent 
 ;^5, 000,000, or a yearly average of half-a-million in the same 
 way. 2 We shall certainly be under the mark if we assume 
 a similar annual average since 1850. But taking it, we find 
 the huge sum of ^^93, 500,000 has been expended by the 
 Companies upon law and Parliamentary expenses since the 
 advent of the railway system. This entirely leaves out of 
 account the heavy expenses of traders and others in fighting 
 against the Railway Companies before the Railway Commission. 
 The Marquis of Tweeddale, Chairman of the North British 
 Railway Company, declared that the working agreement arrived 
 at with the Caledonian Company had effected to the former 
 Company alone a saving of ^40,000 in Parliamentary expenses 
 during the first half of the year 1892.^ What are called 
 
 ^ See also Report Select Committee^ i854- 
 
 2 "Our Railway System," by S, Laing, Fortnightly Review, April 1886. 
 ' National Railways, by J. Hole, p. 125. 
 
 20
 
 THE WASTES OF MANIFOLD OWNERSHIP 21 
 
 "legal expenses" are of course always going on, month in 
 and month out, under the present system, but the Parliamentary 
 expenses are chiefly wastes incidental to the preliminary stages 
 of schemes for either additional branches or new lines, and 
 arc involved in the promotion of, and oi)position to such 
 schemes. 
 
 Another grave source of waste during the initial stages of 
 promotion is the bribes, in the shape of exorbitant prices, given 
 to landlords for land, to buy off their opposition to proposed 
 railways. To this is partially due the fact that customers have 
 in England to pay interest upon capital at the rate of ^^45,000 
 a mile of railway as compared with ;:^i 5,000 a mile on the 
 Continent — doubtless a logical result of our anomalous land 
 system.^ Mr. Joseph Locke declared some years ago that 
 landlords had received from Railway Com]\anies ^£"80,000,000 
 more than a fair value for their land. He also pointed out 
 that the cost of land and Parliamentary expenses per mile for 
 several railways were as follows — 
 
 
 For Land. 
 
 Parliamentary Expenses. 
 
 London and South- Western 
 
 ... ;^4,000 
 
 £ 650 
 
 Great Western 
 
 6,300 
 
 1,000 
 
 London and Birmingham 
 
 6,300 
 
 650 
 
 London and Brighton 
 
 8,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 Many hundreds of miles of railways have been granted by 
 Parliament upon the assumption that they were provoking 
 effective competition with existing routes. Although the mis- 
 taken wisdom of this policy was clearly pointed out by Mr. 
 Gladstone's Committee - more than half a century ago, and 
 although its futility has been repeatedly demonstrated, there 
 is still a lingering belief in its etficacy as a means of defence 
 against extortion by the Companies, judging by one or two 
 new Railway Acts recently passed. Mr. S. Laing puts the case 
 exceedingly well in the article already cjuoted.^ After pointing 
 out how customers have to pay for all the wastes, he proceeds — ■ 
 "Still more so is this the case with regard to a second line 
 
 ^ Our Iron Ro(uis, p. 30, and Kailway Morals and Kaihvay Policy, by 
 Ilerhcrt Spencer. 
 ^ Select Com mi.' fee on /^ailzcays, 1S44. 
 ^ " Our Railway System," Fortnii^htly Reviczo, April 1 886.
 
 22 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 made to compete for traffic which one can carry. It is evident 
 that either twice as much must be got out of the public to pay 
 on two capitals as would have sufficed for one, or the public 
 must have to deal with two poor Companies instead of one 
 which was fairly prosperous." He illustrates his contention 
 by an apt allusion to his own Company. He declares that so 
 long as the Brighton and South Coast were alone in the field, 
 they paid fairly well, and their clients were comparatively 
 satisfied. But upon a competing line being promoted, the 
 traffic had to be divided between the two, with the result that 
 the Brighton suffered from a period of seven lean years. 
 "During these seven years," says Mr. Laing, "we did absolutely 
 nothing to improve accommodation, and were obliged to work 
 with old and inferior engines and carriages. Since we again 
 became prosperous, we have undertaken and almost completed 
 branch lines opening up new districts, at a cost of ;^2, 736,000, 
 none of which were productive in themselves, and which never 
 could have been made except by the Company. We have 
 spent ;£"i, 2 46,000 in improving and enlarging stations, plat- 
 forms, signals, sidings, and other works on the existing lines ; 
 and over ;£" 1,500,000 in completely renovating our rolling- 
 stock and fitting it with the Westinghouse brake and all other 
 modern appliances for safety. The number of train-miles run, 
 which is the measure of the accommodation afforded to the 
 public, has been increased from 5,309,878 in 1873 to 7,948,757 
 in 1883, and the number of passengers conveyed from 
 23,280,032 to 41,296,007, of whom 35,319,752 were third- 
 class passengers, in addition to the very large number of 
 annual and season tickets, which has increased by 70 per cent." 
 All of which, and much more, could have been secured without 
 the public being compelled to provide interest upon another 
 capital. Sir Alfred Hickman relates that when a deputation 
 waited upon the late Chairman of the London and North- 
 western Railway to complain of the exorbitant rates between 
 South Staffordshire and Liverpool, Sir Richard Moon did not 
 deny the soft impeachment, but assured them that it was their 
 own fault. " You have yourselves to blame. When we alone 
 served South Staffordshire, and were the only Company carrying 
 to Liverpool, our rates were 25 per cent, less than they are 
 now, when you have three Companies for which you have
 
 THE WASTES OF MANIFOLD OWXERSHir 23 
 
 to pay." ^ Nor is this a matter for the least surprise. The 
 sliarcholders of the different systems are not Hkely to forego 
 a return upon their capital, if the customers can possibly be 
 squeezed by coalition to provide it out of higher rates. And 
 the first article of their creed, "to charge what the traffic 
 will bear," is as elastic as it is convenient. 
 
 The 250-odd separate Loards of Directors, with their in- 
 cidental a[)pendages, are a luxurious sui)ernuity. In nine cases 
 out of ten the directors are as economically useless as they 
 are socially ornamental. Speaking some time ago, the well- 
 known railway solicitor, Mr. R. W. Perks, M.P., declared that — 
 '*As a rule, the average English railway director knew very 
 little about the details of his line. . . . Directors were chosen 
 because of their Parliamentary or territorial influence, and even 
 now some of the directorates of the English railways were 
 crowded with titled directors, who knew little of business life 
 and still less of the democratic requirements and rewards of 
 the present day." 
 
 Mr. Hole gives the following extract from a recent letter 
 in the Times, referring to a certain railway and its chairman 
 of directors — " With no general manager, non-existent heads 
 of departments, and a dummy Board of Directors, the railway 
 
 is practically Mr. , or, at least, that small portion of 
 
 Mr. which he is able to spare from his multifarious duties 
 
 elsewhere. A proof of the exigencies of these duties is that 
 he was frequently inaccessible to his officers for a month to- 
 gether, and would neither read reports nor answer letters." - 
 
 But probably the statement of the late Sir George Findlay 
 is the most elocjuent of the wastefulness of multiplied 
 directorates. Alluding to the Irish railways, he declared 
 that all the work done by the Irish directorates he could do 
 alone in four days a week, and take the other two for fishing 
 on the Shannon. 3 While however the duties of directors 
 are so nominal, their fees by no means come within that cate- 
 gory. Many of them get as much as the salar>' paid to the 
 Chief of the German State Railways. 
 
 A constant cause of serious leakage because of the bootless 
 
 1 State Purchase of Railways, by C. W.iring (1SS6), p. 61. 
 
 * National Raihvays. 
 
 ' See Report Select Committee on Irish Industty.
 
 24 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 nature of its work is the elaborate machinery jointly kept going 
 by the Companies to check each other. As a change from the 
 old order of things, when the notion of through services was 
 in a nebulous state indeed, the Clearing House is of course 
 an excellent example of the benefits of combination. But 
 with a single railway system and a unified management under 
 the State, its functions would be very largely superfluous. 
 No one suggests its entire abolition, but what is wanted is that 
 its splendid organization of admirably trained officials shall 
 be productively utilized upon essential work. It is doubtless 
 very magnificent, but scarcely sound economics, that loo 
 clerks should be kept hard at work in Department A to check 
 another loo in Department B, when the sole object of those 
 in Department B is to merely check those in Department A. 
 It really sounds very much like the story of that wonderful 
 colony where the residents derived their livelihood by taking 
 in each other's washing. The late Sir George Findlay tells 
 us that — " All over the country, at every junction of two railways, 
 the Clearing House has number-takers stationed, who record 
 the number and description of every vehicle that passes a 
 junction going from one line to another." ^ As Mr. A. J. \\^iiliams 
 says — ''The whole of its vast and complicated system 
 will become needless as soon as all the railways are vested 
 in the State : for there will be no longer conflicting claims to 
 
 decide, disputes to refer, or cross-accounts to settle Part 
 
 of the elaborate machinery of the Clearing House is devoted 
 to the settlement of the rolling-stock account between the 
 different Railway Companies. For this purpose the daily 
 history of each carriage, wagon, tarpaulin, that passes off its 
 
 own Hne on to a strange line has to be recorded There 
 
 is something painfully ludicrous in this imposing array of clerks 
 engaged in posting up the history of carriages and tarpaulins. 
 .... The necessity for keeping such records, the adjustment 
 of demurrage accounts at the clearing office, the inconvenience 
 and loss caused by the want of a constant supply of wagons, 
 would cease as soon as the ownership of the rolling-stock 
 became one." ^ 
 
 The interminable compUcations are another active cause of 
 
 ^ Tlie Working and Management of an English Railway {l^()2). 
 '^ Approp7-iatioji of the Railways by the State (1868).
 
 THE WASTES OF MANIFOLD OWNERSHIP 25 
 
 prcventiblc waste. The system seems to have been ingeniously 
 contrived as an endless maze to absorb the time and bewilder 
 the minds of the unfortunate customers. Every effort has 
 apparently been made to avoid simplicity. Thus it has been 
 authoritatively stated that there are no less than the incompre- 
 hensible number of 250,000,000 separate railway rates for goods 
 in existence. And Sir Bernhard Samuelson ^ tells us that the 
 German State Railway Management gets into a small book of 
 some 75 pages the whole of the rates upon its system, while 
 the London and North-Western Railway occupies 2000 huge 
 volumes with its own rates alone. 
 
 The same dizzy complications prevail with passenger fares.- 
 Where we have millions of separately printed tickets, under the 
 zone system in Austro-Hungary they have only hundreds, if not 
 scores. Certainly the moral and mental gains of the simplified 
 classification of rates and fares that would come with a single 
 State management would be nearly as great as the material 
 economy. 
 
 The prodigality of the present system shows up in a startling 
 light, in the multiplied sets of offices, goods warehouses, and the 
 general machinery for collecting and delivery in towns where 
 one with a larger staff would often be ample and equally con- 
 venient. A striking example of this is supplied by Messrs. 
 Waghorn and Stevens in the monumental report they prepared 
 for the Traders' Conference.^ The traffic of Liverpool is catered 
 for by six Railway Companies. Li pursuance of the " compe- 
 tition in facilities" (rates being the same), the Midland Railway 
 Company erected a great receiving-house in Victoria Street at 
 a cost of 35. per ton. " Each one of the other five Railway 
 Companies forthwith proceeded to incur outlay and expense of 
 35. or 4^. per ton in providing receiving offices, or in erecting 
 more commodious stations and warehouses, until at last they 
 have spent the enormous amount of which they complain (some 
 ^13,000,000). Out of the vast cost incurred, for every \J. 
 which the Companies have spent for the benefit of the trader 
 I id. has been spent unjiroductively." This point is also empha- 
 sized by Mr. Joseph Parsloe, who says — 
 
 ^ Ke/>ofi on Continental Goods Tarijfs^ made to Association of Chambers 
 of Commerce, 18S6. 
 
 ^ Sec Chapter XV. ^ p ^2.
 
 26 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 " Such a system surely involves an exhaustion of resources 
 which cannot fail to affect public interests. At a town where 
 there are two Companies each must of course provide a separate 
 and expensive staff of men, horses, and drays for collecting and 
 delivering goods, as well as a separate staff at the stations to 
 perform the necessary duties there. It is easy to see what a 
 vast amount of money might be saved, and how the work 
 would be expedited in each town were the system completely 
 centralized." ^ 
 
 Again, we must not forget the sheer waste involved in the 
 employment by each Company at handsome salaries of a skilful 
 regiment of experienced canvassers and advertisement agents, 
 whose sole function is to secure the traffic for their particular 
 line without being able to offer any lower rates as a special 
 advantage to prospective customers. Such labour is economic- 
 ally thrown away ; but being so highly skilled there would be 
 no difficulty under a proper system of utilizing it in directions 
 that are genuinely useful and productive. 
 
 Another continuous source of waste is in the running of 
 duplicated passenger trains from the same place to the same 
 place, at practically the same time, all only sparsely occupied. 
 Writing to the Ti?nes upon the glaring example of the South- 
 Eastern and the Chatham and Dover Companies, Mr. F. K. 
 Munton says — 
 
 " Having been obliged to go twice a week to Dover for 
 eighteen months at a stretch, I over and over again observed 
 the state of things there which showed that if the two Com- 
 panies would combine one joint train to some agreed point 
 near London, portions being taken thence to Cannon Street 
 and Holborn respectively, both Companies' dividends would be 
 appreciably increased. I contend that at least for six months 
 out of twelve two half-loaded express trains at the same hour 
 tearing through the country from Dover to Charing Cross and 
 Victoria (a mile or so apart from each other in London) is an 
 unparalleled waste of power, which two Companies peacefully 
 inchned should try to terminate." =^ 
 
 Even Mr. W. M. Acworth declares that — 
 " It has been mournfully acknowledged over and over again, 
 by railway men themselves, that the competition in express 
 1 Our Raihvays (1S78). ^ January 24, 1891.
 
 THE WASTES OF MANIFOLD OWXERSHII' 27 
 
 trains — say, between London and Manchester, or Manclicster 
 and Liverpool — is extravagant. A third of the number of 
 trains could carry the whole of the traffic, and even then give a 
 service sufficiently frequent to deprive the public of any right 
 to grumble." ^ 
 
 Lamenting the loss thus involved, the Secretary of the London 
 and North A\'e.stern Railway gave the following exami)le from his 
 own Company — " The number of passengers booked during two 
 days from Euston — which I believe may be taken as an average 
 — was 4,482, and for the accommodation of those passengers 
 there were sent away trains containing seats for 13,512 pas- 
 sengers. Then with regard to the up-traffic, on those two days 
 4,336 passengers arrived at Euston, and there were seats for 
 
 The wastes in connection with the goods traffic are even 
 greater. Under the present system, so jealous are the Com- 
 panies of preserving a monopoly within their own districts, that 
 goods trains and wagons have to return to the parent line within 
 three days of their dc])arture, whether empty or loaded, or suffer 
 a heavy demurrage. This demurrage is so fixed that it pays 
 the " parent " Company better to haul back empty than to wait 
 the chance of a return cargo. The result is that there are nearly 
 as many empty as full goods trains running. In addition to 
 this, there are still the wastes caused by hauling three shoit 
 trains, with only partially loaded wagons, from the same place 
 to the same jilace by different routes, where under a unified 
 system a single train would serve the purpose. The prevalence 
 of the "half-load " is much more general than is usually sus- 
 ])ected. Mr. Stewart, of the London and North-Western Com- 
 pany, has stated that — " The general managers will tell you that 
 very often a wagon is sent ofT with a quarter of a ton, which 
 is caj)able of carrying four or five tons ; I believe the general 
 average which is sent off in a wagon is not more than one and 
 a half to one and three-ciuarter tons." Mr. (iricrson, the late 
 manager of the (ireat Western, also admits that ICnglish mer- 
 chandise only average about two and a half to three tons per 
 truck,^ while Sir George I'^indlay ])uts the average at between 
 
 * Nineteenth dntury. 
 
 ^ Transactions of the Niitional Association for JVomotion oj S.\iai Sdencc, 
 1S6S, p. 595. •* ICn^Ush and /'oreij^-n Kiiilway /C,ttes.
 
 28 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 one and two tons for trucks that are constructed to carry five 
 tons at least.i Commenting upon this admission, Mr. Jeans,- 
 in his able work on railway economics, writes — "Mr. Grierson 
 has admitted that in England the ordinary goods truck is not 
 filled to the extent of more than one-half its carrying capacity — 
 that instead of carrying six or seven tons, it is usual to carry 
 only two and a half or three, and hence we find trains carrying 
 no more than 70 to 100 tons, when they might just as well 
 carry 250 or 300. Obviously if the rule were the other way, 
 the train-mile receipts, instead of being only 4^-. iQd. or 5^-., 
 should be double that figure, and as the cost of working 
 goods traffic decreases in an almost direct ratio with the weight 
 of the train, or rather of the live or paying load, the adoption 
 of fuller wagon-loads would give a much higher range of re- 
 ceipts in proportion to the ordinary working expenses." In 
 this respect the United Kingdom is worse off than either of 
 its chief competitors, as the following comparative table 
 shows- 
 
 Average train load United States ... 173 tons 
 
 ,, Germany 132 ,, 
 
 ,, France 121 ,, 
 
 ,, Belgium 96 ,, 
 
 ,, General average ... i3oi ,, 
 
 ,, United Kingdom ... 70 ,,^ 
 
 What do the wastes of the present system, with its manifold 
 ownership and divided management, amount to ? Only an 
 approximate figure can, of course, be given, in the present de- 
 fective state of railway statistics. The Secretary of the London 
 and North-Western Railway Company — and he would not be 
 likely to err on the side of exaggeration — estimated the loss at 
 20 per cent, of the working expenses.^ A similar estimate has 
 been made by the late Sir Edwin Chadwick, C.B., the eminent 
 engineer.^ Another railway authority. Captain Laws, manager 
 of the Lancashire and Yorkshire line, has placed the estimate 
 
 ^ The JManageiucnt of an English Railway. 
 
 ^ Kaihvay Problems. ^ Ibid. 
 
 ■* Transactions Social Science Association^ 1868. 
 
 ^ Journal Royal Statistical Society, 1873 (Railway Debate).
 
 THE WASTES OF MANIFOLD OWNERSHIP 29 
 
 at 24 per cent.^ Lut, to be on the safe side, let us take the lower 
 of these two and apj^ly it to the working expenses of 1S95. 
 These amounted to ^48,000,000, and 20 per cent, of that gives 
 us the enormous sum of practically ;^ 10,000,000 a year, as the 
 mere preventible wastes of the present system. 
 
 ^ Journal Royal Staiislical Society^ 1873 (Railway Debate).
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE BREAKDOWN OF COMPETITION 
 
 The competitive principle has practically ceased to operate 
 upon our railways. Superficial appearances might possibly 
 seem to indicate otherwise. There are still several hundred 
 Railway Companies, with their distinct organizations, their sep- 
 arate directorates, their duplicated services, and all the usual 
 concomitants of competition. But in reality our railways are 
 welded into a powerful monopoly. In fact, the present system 
 may be fittingly described as Monopoly in the guise of Com- 
 petition. It certainly combines all the wastes and disadvantages 
 of elaborate competitive machinery, with all the dangers and 
 disadvantages of private monopoly. It took a long time for 
 the country to learn this elementary lesson — nor have they 
 fully taken it to heart yet. The Select Committee of 1872 
 declared that — " Committees and Commissions carefully chosen 
 have for the last thirty years clung to one form of competition 
 or another ; it has nevertheless become more and more evident 
 that competition must fail to do for railways what it does for 
 ordinary trades, and no means have been devised by which 
 competition can be permanently maintained." 
 
 And further — "The predominant idea in the mind of the 
 public has been that competition, which is so powerful a 
 regulator in most commercial affairs, would also suffice to 
 regulate railways; whilst, nevertheless, by a slow and gradual 
 process of experiment, one form of competition after another 
 has been proved to be inadequate. . . . There is little real 
 competition between Railway Companies, and that little is dis- 
 appearing by degrees without any possibility of maintaining it." 
 
 30
 
 THE BREAKDOWN OF COMPETITION 31 
 
 Sir Rowland Hill — of Post-Office fame — was still more 
 emphatic as to the futility of looking for effective competition 
 between Railway Companies — " All expectation of benefit to 
 the public from competition on the respective lines has been 
 baffled by the mere force of circumstances." ^ 
 
 Even the chairman of the Brighton Company frankly admits 
 that " in the case of railways we must start with the fact that 
 they are, and always must be, monopolies." - While the late Sir 
 George Findlay shows that the Companies having learned 
 wisdom, monopoly is practically inevitable. He says — " In 
 days gone by, it cannot be denied that Railway Companies 
 incurred great losses and sacrificed a considerable portion of 
 their revenue by extreme competition amongst themselves, but 
 in this matter, as in many others, they have gained wisdom by 
 experience and profited by the uses of adversity." ^ 
 
 In the chapter upon " The Rise of State Control," it has 
 been seen that the individual Company killed the competition 
 upon its own system by itself becoming the carrier, and Ijy 
 making it practically impossible for traders to avail themselves 
 of their legal right to provide and haul their own trains, liut 
 to break down competition between themselves various 
 methods have been adopted. The chief of these are — 
 
 1. Amalgamation. 
 
 2. Subsidizing other Lines. 
 
 3. Pools. 
 
 4. Rate Conferences. 
 
 The process of amalgamation has been a characteristic 
 feature of railway development for at least half a century. 
 Practically the whole of our present great systems are mosaics, 
 so to speak, of small systems for which separate Parliamentary 
 sanction was originally obtained. Thus, for example, in 1S72 
 the North-Eastern (Company was an amalgamation of thirty- 
 seven previously distinct railways.^ And this is typical of 
 what has gone on throughout the country. Up to a point 
 this amalgamation of small Companies, even in i)rivate hands, is 
 much to be preferred upon grounds of efficiency to a large 
 
 * See Minority Report Dcz'oti shire Railway Commission, 1865-6. 
 2 Fortni.i:htly R,'vie-u, April 1 886. 
 
 " The Working; and Matiiij^emetit of an Em^lish Railuuiy, p. 265. 
 ^ Journal Royal Statistiecil Society , 1873 (Railway Debate).
 
 32 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 number of petty concerns, even in competition. And, regardless 
 of the public interest, amalgamation is a process that circum- 
 stances have made, and will continue to make, inevitable. The 
 late Mr. Biddulph Martin, President of the Royal Statistical 
 Society, said — " If, therefore, we fancy that the ' struggle for 
 life ' is as strong in Railway Companies as in those other soul- 
 less organizations whose developments have been studied with 
 so much interest, and look to the natural antipathy of two or 
 more competing lines to give us an excellent service of trains, 
 moderate tariff, and reasonable devotion to our weaknesses 
 and comforts, we are trusting to a slender reed ; the end is 
 always the same — amalgamation. The lion lies down with 
 the lamb, and both fleece the confiding public." ^ 
 
 In spite, however, of the repeated epidemics of amalgamation, 
 there are still some 450 distinct Companies, of which many 
 have their separate Board of Directors and contingent ex- 
 penses. But of these about 260 receive subsidies ^ from and 
 are worked by the half-dozen chief Companies. In this way 
 Mr. Parsloe states that two-thirds of the whole railway mileage 
 are controlled by six Companies. "^ Mr. Charles Waring has 
 put the case somewhat differently. He states that out of 
 6,000 railway stations in the United Kingdom, only at 1,500 
 do lines controlled by more than one Company meet.^ Mr. 
 Hole declares that *' about a dozen oligarchies control the 
 traffic of the country." Amalgamation is certainly much less 
 objectionable from the public point of view, as well as that of 
 the shareholders, than this policy of subsidy, to receive which 
 year by year is apparently the only raison d'etre of some 
 Boards of Directors. And from this standpoint there is 
 certainly something to be said for the report of a Select 
 Committee in 1846. Speaking of the alarm created in the 
 public mind by the great railway amalgamations then pending, 
 they agreed that there was some reason for such alarm, but 
 declared that amalgamation "enabled the Companies to con- 
 duct their operations with less expense to themselves, and 
 consequently with diminished charges to the public ; it con- 
 duces to better arrangements, and thereby increased safety 
 
 "^ Journal Royal Statistical Society, 1S73 (Railway Debate). 
 2 Railway Returns^ i895- ^ Our Railways. 
 
 ^ State Ptirchase of Railways.
 
 THE BREAKDOWN OF COMPETITION 33 
 
 to life and property. It enables Companies conjointly to pro- 
 vide increase of accommodation for the public at their terminal 
 stations which many of them could not separately afford." ^ 
 
 Of course when amalgamation takes place the public may 
 or may not derive any advantage, but under the process of 
 subsidy they are practically certain not to get much, for the 
 necessity of keeping up the expenses of dual ownerships and 
 partially divided managements, are pleaded as absolute bars 
 to any considerable reduction being made in rates and 
 charges. 
 
 As an indication of the extent to which the large Companies 
 control the small ones by means of subsidies, the case of the 
 Great Western is instructive. The following is a hst of the 
 Companies subsidized by it, with the amounts of the subsidies 
 in 1894 and 1895 — 
 
 Abbotsbury 
 
 Abingdon 
 
 Bala and Fcstiniog 
 
 lianbury and Cheltenham 
 
 r>irkenhead 
 
 Ijirmingham and Henley in Avdcn 
 
 Bridport ... 
 
 Buckfastleigh, Totnes and South Devon 
 
 Cornwall minerals 
 
 Corwen and Bala 
 
 Devon and Somerset ... 
 
 Didcot, Newbury and Southampton ... 
 
 Ely Valley 
 
 Forest of Dean Central 
 
 Halesowen 
 Hammersmith and City 
 
 Helston 
 
 Herefordshire and Gloucestershire Canal Co. 
 Kington and Eardisley... 
 Leominster and Kington 
 Llangollen and Corwen 
 Lostwithiel and Fowey 
 
 Dec. 
 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1S95 
 
 
 1S94 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 395 
 
 6 
 
 II 
 
 3S4 
 
 804 
 
 9 
 
 5 • 
 
 732 
 
 54S4 
 
 6 
 
 5 • 
 
 • 5367 
 
 5000 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 5000 
 
 24,749 
 
 II 
 
 2 . 
 
 • 24,750 
 
 317 
 
 15 
 
 9 • 
 
 293 
 
 2264 
 
 4 
 
 4 • 
 
 21S1 
 
 1979 
 
 9 
 
 9 • 
 
 ■ 1^73 
 
 9400 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 . 9400 
 
 2770 
 
 II 
 
 8 . 
 
 2719 
 
 9067 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 8640 
 
 4150 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 4150 
 
 2000 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 2000 
 
 92 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 123 
 
 215 
 
 
 
 4 • 
 
 218 
 
 5165 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 5160 
 
 1314 
 
 19 
 
 II 
 
 • 1304 
 
 2500 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 2500 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 784 
 
 3460 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 • 3460 
 
 3062 
 
 7 
 
 3 • 
 
 3022 
 
 167 
 
 17 
 
 5 ■ 
 
 
 Carried forward ;i^84,36i 10 10 ;^84,o6o 
 
 ^ Report Select Co/nifiittec on Raikvay Rcgidation, 1846. 
 
 D
 
 Dec. 
 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1895 
 
 
 1894 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 ./. 
 
 /, 
 
 84,361 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 84,060 
 
 1352 
 
 7 
 
 9 • 
 
 .. 1291 
 
 733 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 ■• 733 
 
 1353 
 
 19 
 
 6 . 
 
 1216 
 
 3451 
 
 19 
 
 3 • 
 
 •• 3452 
 
 472 
 
 15 
 
 . 
 
 473 
 
 4225 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 .. 4225 
 
 10,275 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 • ■ 10,275 
 
 3000 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 3000 
 
 1012 
 
 13 
 
 . 
 
 .. 738 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 .. 613 
 
 3195 
 
 17 
 
 5 • 
 
 .. 3056 
 
 750 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 750 
 
 1065 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 1065 
 
 3642 
 
 16 
 
 2 . 
 
 3000 
 
 20,351 
 
 I 
 
 10 . 
 
 • • 20,351 
 
 450 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 450 
 
 3300 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 • ■ 3300 
 
 1125 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 1125 
 
 1915 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 1915 
 
 34 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 Brought forward 
 
 Marlborough 
 
 Milford 
 
 Minehead 
 
 Nantvvich and Market Drayton 
 
 Princetown 
 
 Ross and Monmouth ... 
 
 Shrewsbury and Hereford, inchiding Tcnbury 
 ,, and Welshpool ... 
 
 Staines and West Drayton 
 
 Teign Valley 
 Vale of Llangollen 
 
 ValeofTowey 
 
 Victoria Station and Pimlico ... 
 Wenlock and Wenlock Extension 
 West Cornwall ... 
 West London ... 
 West Somerset ... 
 Weymouth and Portland 
 
 Wye Valley 
 
 ;^I46,633 o II ;{;i45>o88 
 
 Sometimes subsidies are even given by one large Company 
 to another to merely buy off opposition. Thus the London, 
 Brighton and South Coast Company pay the South-Eastern 
 a yearly subsidy of^24,5oo, not to use their running powers to 
 Eastbourne ! ^ 
 
 The wiser heads among the railway authorities have long 
 seen the advantage of " pooling " from the shareholders' point 
 of view. In urging the Companies to prevent dividends falling 
 a few years ago, the late Sir George Findlay said — " The 
 Companies, if they are wise, will achieve this object by some 
 kind of combination amongst themselves by which excessive 
 competition may be obviated, and two or more Companies 
 carrying between common points may be enabled to reduce 
 their train mileage, to curtail the running of unprofitable trains, 
 and a great deal of unnecessary expenditure, and to keep the 
 speed of the trains within reasonable limits, so as, without 
 lessening the accommodation offered to the public, to preserve 
 conditions under which the business of carrying passengers may 
 
 ^ "State Purchase of Railways," by C. Waring, Fortnightly Review^ 
 Tune 1 886.
 
 THE BREAKDOWN OF COMPETITION 35 
 
 again be conducted with a fair margin of profit to those whose 
 capital is engaged in it." ^ 
 
 And he thus describes the way in which railway pools are 
 worked - — " In addition to the system of agreeing the rates 
 between competing points, there is another plan which Railway 
 Companies sometimes adopt in order to avoid the losses arising 
 from competition, which is known as 'Percentage Division of 
 Traffic,' and which is carried out in the following manner. 
 Supposing that there is a certain traffic to be conveyed between 
 two towns or districts, and that there are two or more Railway 
 Companies, each having a route of its own by which it is 
 enabled to compete for the traffic. An agreement is come to 
 that the receipts derived from the whole of the traffic, carried 
 by all routes, shall be thrown into a common fund, and that 
 each Company shall be entitled to a certain percentage of the 
 whole — say, for example, 50 per cent, to the Company having 
 the best route, 30 per cent, to the second, and 20 per cent, to 
 the third. The percentages are usually adjusted on the basis 
 of past actual carryings, but in settling the terms of the agree- 
 ment due weight is accorded to any prospective advantages 
 which may entitle one Company to claim a larger projiortion 
 than it has carried in the past. As an agreed allowance is 
 fixed with due regard to the actual cost of the service, it will 
 be perceived that there is no very great inducement for any 
 Company to carry more than its share." Professor Hadley 
 declares that ** the agreements between rival routes have been 
 so permanent that they are sometimes no longer felt as a 
 restraint, so thoroughly has traffic adai)ted itself to their con- 
 ditions. This is the case with many jiooling arrangements. 
 The early history of English railway pools is obscure. 
 They first assumed importance some thirty years ago. The 
 London and North- Western seems to have taken the lead in 
 this |X)licy. Its great rival, the Midland, while maintaining 
 rates, has been less inclined to divide traffic. English rail- 
 roads have had great advantages over ours (American) in 
 enforcing these agreements. The courts have looked uix)n 
 them with less disfavour, and statesmen with much more 
 favour than has been the case in the United States. At 
 
 ' The ll^ori'ing and .Management 0/ an En ;'i'h S'-ii'-i nv, 
 * Ibid. p. 266.
 
 36 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 present they seem to be losing some of their importance ; not 
 because they are powerless, but, as already indicated, because 
 traffic has become so stable that they are less necessary than 
 they were." ^ 
 
 But the most far-reaching process by which competition has 
 been stamped out, is that of the Rates Conference. Where 
 Companies have not been prepared to sink their identity in 
 amalgamation, or to have their competition bought off with 
 subsidies, and where their conditions of traffic have not been 
 sufficiently uniform to permit of them "pooling," they have 
 readily resorted to the Rates Conferences to keep up charges 
 against the public by mutual agreement. Nor do the Companies 
 attempt to make the slightest secret about these conferences. 
 The late Sir George Findlay thus describes them — 
 
 ''A certain amount of healthy competition will always 
 exist ; but the Companies now mitigate its severity by agreeing 
 amongst themselves what the rates between competitive points 
 shall be by all routes. The competitive rates between most 
 places in Great Britain are, in the main, governed by two 
 Conferences. . . . 
 
 "The English and Scotch Traffic Rates Conference is composed 
 of representatives (who are usually the chief Goods Managers) 
 of all the Companies, both English and Scotch, who are inter- 
 ested in the carriage of goods between places in England and 
 places in Scotland by the various routes. 
 
 " These representatives meet once a month and deal with all 
 questions arising in connection with the making of new rates 
 or the alterations of existing rates for competitive places 
 between which more than one Company can carry. 
 
 *' The Normanton Conference, which was originally estab- 
 lished to control the rates for a certain district of Normanton, 
 where its meetings were formerly held, as a convenient centre, 
 has gradually so much extended its scope that it is now composed 
 of representatives of nearly every Company of any importance 
 in England, and governs almost the whole of the competitive 
 rates which are not dealt with by the English and Scotch 
 Conference. The cross-channel rates between England and 
 Ireland are controlled by an English and Irish Traffic Rates 
 Conference. Besides these three, there are some minor Con- 
 ^ Railroad Transportation, p. 159.
 
 THE nKEAKDOWN OF CO.MPETITIDN 37 
 
 ferences, which have been established in connection with the 
 traffic of particular districts but have not the importance of 
 those which have been already alluded to." ^ 
 
 A great deal of evidence was submitted by the traders to 
 the Select Committees on Rates in 188 1-2, showing how effective 
 were these Conferences in depriving the public of the advant- 
 ages of competition. ]>ut the admissions of IMr. Grierson, 
 Manager of the Great Western Railway, are sufficiently con- 
 clusive to obviate the need of quoting from the aggrieved 
 traders. The following is an extract from his evidence — 
 
 " Q. You say there is no competition on the part of Railway 
 Companies ? 
 
 " A. Thete is a competition of accommodation, but they do 
 not undercut one another in the rales. 
 
 *' Q. They form a ring ? 
 
 **.</. They arrange the rates. You will readily understand 
 that that must be so, it could not be otherwise. 
 
 " Q. It is not to the interest of the public, certainly, is it ? 
 
 "^. The public could not expect anything else. If you mean 
 that the Railway Company should carry at a loss, that certainly 
 would not be to the interest of the public. 
 
 " Q. I think you stated yesterday that the great evil that lay 
 at the root of all the trade at present, the coal and iron trade 
 especially, was the severe competition one with another, and 
 that the reduction of the railway rates would not materially 
 assist them ? 
 
 ^^ A. It is so with production. 
 
 *' Q. So that you have upon the one side a severe competition 
 among the traders, but ui)on the part of the Railway Companies 
 the traders have none whatever ? 
 
 " A. They have this competition. The Midland Railway will 
 do all they can to bring in coals from their districts ; the 
 Great Northern will do the same from theirs ; the London and 
 North-Western from theirs, and the Great Western from theirs. 
 
 " Q. I am (luite aware of that, but they will not alter the 
 rates. I believe they have an agent who goes to each c(»lliery 
 district, and they do all they can to get the trade on their 
 line, but that agent does not offer any reduction of rates to do 
 that? 
 
 ' The Workiu^i; and Mattagemeut of au Eui^lish K'lihvay, p. 2^5.
 
 38 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 "yi. The canvassers could not go to the coIHery proprietor 
 and say his Company would reduce the rates ; the rates had 
 been arranged beforehand." ^ 
 
 Practically free then from the regulating power of an active 
 competition, by what principles do the Companies fix their 
 rates ? The shortest answer would be, " By as much as they 
 can get." Such a crude reply would scarcely however give a 
 correct impression of the refined and scientific calculations to 
 which the managers resort to secure the uttermost possible 
 farthing. It would in fact only be the truth at the expense of 
 politeness. According to the late Sir George Findlay — 
 
 "The rates are governed by the nature and extent of the traffic, 
 the pressure of competition either by water, or by a rival route, 
 or by other land carriage ; but, above all, the Companies have 
 regard to the commercial value of the commodity, and the 
 rate it will bear, so as to admit of its being produced and sold 
 in a competing market with a fair margin of profit. The 
 Companies each do their best to meet the circumstances of 
 the trade, to develop the resources of their own particular 
 district, and to encourage the competition of markets, primarily, 
 no doubt, in their own interest, but nevertheless greatly to the 
 advantage of the community. ... So long as competition 
 does not exist, they are only discharging their duty to their 
 shareholders in obtaining what Parliament has sanctioned as a 
 fair rate of remuneration for the services they perform, but 
 when a rival is in the field, they are justified in concluding 
 that ' half a loaf is better than no bread at all ; ' although it 
 by no means follows that their previous charges were unfair or 
 excessive." ^ 
 
 Let us examine this extraordinary statement point by point, 
 and for the sake of simplicity let us take first the case where 
 a single railway has a complete monopoly. Here, says Sir 
 George, "the Companies are only discharging their duty to 
 their shareholders in charging what Parhament has sanctioned 
 as a fair rate of remuneration." " What Parliament has 
 sanctioned " is the legal maximum, not as a fair rate of re- 
 muneration under normal circumstances, but as a point beyond 
 which the Companies cannot go under the most abnormal 
 
 1 Railway Rates and Radical Rule, by J. B. Pope. 
 
 ^ The Working and Management of an English Railway,^. 264.
 
 THE BREAKDOWN OF COMPETITION 39 
 
 circumstances. The " maximum " is a survival from the old 
 law of carriers, and though in those days, when the cost of 
 transit was much greater than now, it might have approximated 
 to substantial fairness, it has long ceased to be other than a 
 legal anachronism. As we have seen in a previous chapter, 
 the Select Committee of 1846 declared that — *' It is proper no 
 doubt that maximum fares should be fixed in all Railway Acts, 
 but though they may be fixed with care and may sometimes 
 a]iproximatc to fair rates at a given time, they can never meet 
 all future contingencies. . . . The maximum rates are how- 
 ever almost always extravagantly high." It is not too much to 
 say that if the *' legal maximum rates " were universally put 
 into operation, certain English industries would be immediately 
 ruined. Professor Hadley says — '* Every careful student of the 
 question from Morrison, in 1836, down to the Committees of 
 1872 and 1882, has come to the conclusion that fixed maxima 
 are of next to no use in preventing extortion."^ And the Chair- 
 man of the Brighton and South Coast Railway, in admitting the 
 need for more effective State control, stated that as a security 
 against extortion the tarilT of maximum rates fixed by the Acts 
 of the Comjianies "is very nugatory, for all the special traffic, 
 comprising more than half the total tonnage, would be annihil- 
 ated by charging the maximum rates.'' - For Sir George Find- 
 lay, therefore, to contend that the Companies are merely 
 discharging a duty to their shareholders in charging what 
 Parliament has sanctioned, is to claim that on their behalf he 
 has a right to annihilate half the trade of the country. 
 
 Now let us take what Sir George Findlay euphoniously calls 
 *' competitive rates," but which he frankly admits are fixed by 
 combination. Here the Companies claim a discretion to fix 
 the rates according to their own sweet will. As Mr. J. 
 Buckingham Pope has well put it, they have power to pass all 
 the trade of the country through a sieve in which they claim the 
 right to regulate the size of the meshes. These rates they fix 
 according to — 
 
 1. The nature and extent of the traffic. 
 
 2. The pressure of comitelition — 
 
 (<i) i)y water. 
 
 ' Kailroad Trnusportnticfty y. 1 78. 
 2 Fortnightly Kniciv^ April 1SS6,
 
 40 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 (/>') By a rival railway route. 
 
 (c) Or by other land carriage. 
 
 3. (Above all) the commercial value of the commodity. 
 
 To really appreciate the dangers of the first claim that rates 
 shall be fixed by the Companies according "to the nature and 
 extent of the traffic/' we must note that " the Companies each 
 do their best ... to encourage the competition of markets." 
 It is certainly remarkable that a country which boasts of its Free- 
 trade policy, and puts up its hands in indignation at any pro- 
 posal for giving State bounties to " encourage the competition of 
 markets," should yet tolerate our railways, under Parliamentary 
 sanction, conferring "Bounties" whensoever and wheresoever 
 they feel inclined. As we shall see in later chapters, the effect 
 of this policy is the creation of gross preferences with great in- 
 jury not only to districts and trades, but to the nation as a 
 whole. To artificially promote long-distance traffic, they bring 
 districts that are remote into rivalry, by relatively low rates, and 
 keep them out of adjacent markets by rates that are high. 
 In other words, they give a bounty in one place and put an 
 exorbitant tax on in another. 
 
 But let us pursue the application of the principle a little further. 
 
 " According to the nature and extent of the traffic." If a 
 certain traffic in a district does not promise to be very large, 
 the Companies will kill it, by the dual policy of charging it high 
 rates and by spoiling any chance it might even then have by 
 flooding the markets, through cheaper rates, with a similar 
 commodity from elsewhere. Thus will the Companies spoil the 
 markets for Kentish fruit-growers by bringing French fruit at a 
 much less rate. And so on, as we shall see. 
 
 Next we are told that rates are fixed by the pressure of 
 competition — 
 
 (a) By water. 
 
 (d) By a rival railway route. 
 (c) By other land carriage. 
 
 Probably Sir George Findlay was speaking prophetically of 
 the Motor-car when he spoke of the competition by " other land 
 carriage," for certain it is that rates are not materially affected 
 to-day by anything'of this nature, unless it is in one or two districts 
 of Ireland. And as to rival railway routes, we have already 
 seen what that means, with the Rates Conferences. This leaves
 
 Tin: HREAKDOWN OF C(mPETITI()N 41 
 
 us with water carriage. Now we shall see in the next chapter that 
 practically the whole of the canal competition has been killed 
 by the Railway Companies. So that the only competition 
 which has to be considered is that of the sea. And even this 
 has been nullified to a large extent by the railways acquiring 
 the docks and harl^ours in many places, and by working 
 agreements with steamship companies. Still, after making all 
 allowance for this, there is a good deal of real competition 
 between the sea and the railways. Let us consider it then. 
 Sir George Findlay says that " where there is a rival, the Kail- 
 way Companies are justified in concluding that half a loaf is 
 better than no bread at all," by which he means that to get the 
 traffic they are justified in charging lower rates than where they 
 have a monopoly. Are they ? If so, then of course the pre- 
 ferential rates to foreign traders and producers are fully justi- 
 fied. But if not, then they are grossly unjust. The case has 
 been rightly stated by the Times. 
 
 "There arc no arguments within the range of human ingenu- 
 ity that will convince a Sussex hop-grower of the equity of an 
 arrangement by which foreign hops are brought from the other 
 side of the Channel for less than he has to pay to get them across 
 Surrey .... For nothing can shake the belief of the home 
 producer, and in our view nothing ought to shake it, in the 
 argument that if these low rates pay tlie Companies, he is 
 shamefully overcharged, while, if they do not pay, he is still 
 overcharged to cover tlie loss and brin^ up the average." 
 
 But the most preposterous of all claims by the Companies is 
 that they shall charge according to the commercial value of the 
 commodity, or, in the phrase most general, "what the traffic will 
 bear " — they being sole arbiters. The application of this 
 theory has probably been productive of more mischief to the 
 traders than any other of the many plausil)lc theories by which 
 the Com])anies regulate their relations with the juiblic. 
 
 Docs "what the traffic will bear" mean all that can be got 
 short of sending it away ? Presumably that is what is meant, 
 for Mr. (irierson says — " Producers pay what they find it worth 
 while to pay ; they pay no more." ^ That simply corners the 
 producer. It i)laces him in the position of having to decide 
 whether he will pay what may be an extortionate rale or cIosq 
 ' Sec his cvitlcncc, Select Committee, 188 1-?.
 
 42 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 his works and retire from business. It compels him to go on 
 at a loss or to stop. There is plenty of evidence, says Mr. 
 Waring, that producers in numbers have to make this selection, 
 and that they pay more than they can afford rather than give 
 up the struggle. 
 
 Even supposing that the Companies really did what Sir 
 George Findlay declares they do, that is, fix the rate of a com- 
 modity " so as to admit of its being produced and sold in a 
 competing market with a fair margin of p7'ofit^'' it may then be 
 asked by what manner of possible right have they to say what 
 shall or shall not be a trader's profit ? The claim is as astound- 
 ing as it is absurd.
 
 CMAPrER V 
 
 TMK KIMJNO or CANAI, COMI'KTITION 
 
 An intimate part of the case against the private railway rci^imc 
 is the effective manner in which the Companies have contrived 
 to kill the competition of the canals. In the lighter kinds of 
 traffic, in which quick transport is a primary consideration, the 
 railways had practically a monopoly from the beginning, super- 
 seding canal, coach, and carriers' cart as soon as they made 
 their advent, but in the transport of minerals, grain, timber, and 
 similar traffic where speed is not the first element, the less cost 
 of water transit gave the canals a natural advantage and made 
 them formidable competitors. 
 
 This difference in the cost between railway and water carriage 
 is very considerable. Mr. F. R. Conder, C.K., a recognized 
 canal authority, presented the Canal Committee of 1883 with 
 the following interesting comparison — 
 
 Average cost per mile in England and Wales — Canals, 
 ;«^3.35o; railways, ^46,000. 
 
 Cost of maintenance of works for equal volumes of traffic — 
 On canals, less than one-fourth that on railways. 
 
 Cost of conveyance of heavy material — By canals, less than 
 one-third thnn by railway. 
 
 Economy of transport by canal — 647 j)er cent, on working 
 expenditure.^ 
 
 Sir Arthur Cotton declared that goods can be conveyed by 
 water at one-tenth of the cost of conveyance by railway. - 
 
 ^ Report Select Committee cu Canals, 1SS3, .Apjicnilix. 
 
 "^ P.ipcr on I nlattii Navigation in tht United Kini^.iom, l)y Mr. IMwin 
 Clements, at Fourth International Congress on Inland Navigation (Man- 
 chester, 1890), p. 8. 
 
 43
 
 44 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 Under such circumstances, it is perhaps scarcely a matter for 
 surprise that far-seeing raihvay managers set about muzzling a 
 competition so dangerous to their own interests. And how 
 successful they have been in their efforts is attested by the fact 
 that out of a canal system of 3,800 miles they are masters of 
 more than a third. There is some difference of opinion as to 
 the exact mileage controlled by the railways. Mr. Conder 
 gives it as 17 17 miles,^ and Mr. Edwin Clements as 1387 
 miles.2 But according to the official returns there are eighty- 
 nine navigations, with a total length of 2,609 i^"iiles, in the hands 
 of independent authorities, and fifty-four, with a mileage of 1205 
 miles, in the hands of the Railway Companies.^ This disparity 
 is not without reason, for it proceeds from the difficulty of 
 clearly ascertaining whether in certain cases the canals are free, 
 or are subject to the control of the railways. But that the 
 official figures of railway canals are considerably below the 
 actual has been eff"ectually shown by Mr. Edwin Clements, who 
 points out that the Birmingham Navigation, 159 miles long, 
 although returned as an independent canal, is practically in the 
 hands of a Railway Company, the London and North-Western 
 guaranteeing it a dividend of 4 per cent, in perpetuity ; and the 
 Regent's Canal, eleven miles in length, returned also as inde- 
 pendent, is vested in the Regent's Canal, Dock, and Railway 
 Company. Again, the Louth Navigation, twelve miles long, 
 and returned as independent, was, according to special returns 
 made in 1883, leased to the Great Northern Railway Company.^ 
 
 But the mere mileage is after all a very inadequate indication 
 of the power possessed by the Railway Companies over the canal 
 navigation of the country, for they have not indiscriminately 
 acquired canals wheresoever and whensoever they were obtain- 
 able. They have had much more regard for economy and 
 diplomacy than that. As Mr. Conder states, they have obtained 
 their "1717 miles of canals so adroitly selected as to strangle 
 the whole of the inland water traffic."^ This view is amply 
 endorsed by Mr. Spence, who, in a striking paper which he pre- 
 sented to the Select Committee on Railway Rates, declares 
 that of the canals purchased by the railways or otherwise taken 
 
 ^ Report^ Fifth International Congress Inland Navigation {V^xx?,, 1892). 
 ^ Ibid. '■^ For 1889. •^ Fourth Navigation Congress. 
 
 ^ Evidence before Canal Committee, 1883.
 
 THE KILLIxMG OF CANAL COMPETITION 45 
 
 under their control most of tliem are so situated as to enable 
 the Companies effectually to control the through traffic. ^ 
 
 Nor have the methods by which the Railway Companies hav(i 
 secured Parliamentary sanction to their acquisition of canals 
 been altogether admirable. Mr. Conder says that they have 
 acquired them "by means of very questionable legality." Pro- 
 fessor Hadley also, as a perfectly impartial student of railway 
 economics, declares that " they have gotten possession of com- 
 peting canals, sometimes by methods whose legality was doubt- 
 ful." ^ Many of the canals were secured by the Railway Com- 
 panies in days when railway competition was at least an 
 actuality in many districts, and before, therefore, the alarm of 
 the traders had found definite expression in Parliament. But 
 even since legislation has been passed with the object of pre- 
 venting canals falling into the hands of railways, several cases 
 have arisen where actual ownership has been transferred to the 
 Companies, and still more instances where, by evading the 
 spirit of the law, power of control has been obtained. As an 
 example of the former, the following evidence of Sir Benjamin 
 Hingley, chairman of the South Staffordshire Iron-masters 
 Association, given before the Select Committee on Railway 
 Rates, sheds considerable light. The questions and answers 
 have reference to the amalgamation of the Shropshire Union 
 and Bridgewater Canals with the London and North-Western 
 Railway Company : — 
 
 *' Q. Upon what grounds did the Railway Companies obtain 
 those powers from Parliaiuent enabling them to absorb the 
 canals ? 
 
 "-A. The grounds publicly stated were, that it would promote 
 economy and enable tliem to carry at reduced rates. 
 
 " Q. How did they support that ? did they say they would be 
 able to work the undertaking more cheaply ? 
 
 " A. That they would be able to reduce the charges and j^ro- 
 mote economy and work more cheajily. 
 
 " Q. Would you say that that prophecy has been falsified in 
 the result ? 
 
 ''A. It has been altogether falsified as far as StafTordshire 
 is concerned. 
 
 " Q. Since the competition has disappeared, owing to this 
 ' Questions, pp. 472-6. - Kailrooii Trampoitation,
 
 46 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 amalgamation, have you been charged higher rates to and from 
 the MidLmd district ? 
 
 'M. Yes, the rates have been gradually advanced."^ 
 
 And a striking illustration of how the law has been evaded 
 was afforded on the same occasion by Mr. Spence,^ who stated 
 that— 
 
 " The history of the Bridgewater Company illustrates how 
 completely the spirit of sect. i6 of the Act of 1873, which makes 
 it illegal for Railway Companies to take over or in any way con- 
 trol the traffic of a canal, may be evaded by the railway interest. 
 The Company was formed by railway men at the time of the 
 passing of that Act, and with the direct object of overcoming 
 the difficulty it presented. Its capital was subscribed mainly 
 by shareholders of the Midland and Manchester, Sheffield, 
 and Lincolnshire Railway Companies. Its directors are all, or 
 nearly all of them, railway men ; and both in the management 
 of its tolls and its carrying department, it has throughout 
 exhibited all the worst features of the railway policy." 
 
 Mr. James Hole also asserts that a Railway Company in one 
 case got control of the whole water communication of a district 
 illegally and secretly, by buying the navigation in the names of 
 its officials.^ 
 
 It is not, however, the mere acquisition of canals by the Rail- 
 way Companies against which the public so loudly protest. It 
 is the policy pursued after acquisition. The case against the 
 Companies in this respect was clearly stated by the Select Com- 
 mittee of 1 881-2. They said — 
 
 " Serious complaints have been made by traders and Canal 
 Companies in respect to the working of canals owned by them, 
 or of which they control the navigation. Cases have been 
 adduced where Railway Companies, having acquired possession 
 or control of a canal, have ceased to work it, or allowed it to 
 fall into disrepair, or charged excessive tolls, especially in the 
 case of through rates, and that in consequence traffic is diverted 
 to the railways, where higher rates are exacted, to the injury of 
 traders and the public generally. Your Committee are of 
 opinion that these complaints are not unfounded. A Railway 
 Company owning or controlling a canal may think it profitable 
 
 1 Q. 5496-99- ' Q- 10,438. 
 
 •* National Railways^ p. 69.
 
 THE KILLING OF CANAL COMPETITION 47 
 
 to lose the revenue of the canal in the expectation of deriving 
 a greater revenue from the railway to which it is a competitor. 
 And where the canal forms part of a through competing route it 
 is obviously its interest, as a general rule, to discourage throui^h 
 traffic. Transportation can frequently be effected more cheaply 
 by canal navigation than by railway, particularly where the 
 traffic consists of heavy goods of little value, or where sjjeed is 
 not of importance. Your Committee arc therefore of opinion 
 that it is imi)olitic that Railway Companies should have the con- 
 trol, either directly or indirectly, of canal navigation ; and that 
 where canals are already under the control of Railway Com- 
 panies, Parliament should endeavour to insure their use to the 
 fullest possible extent." ^ 
 
 Nor did the Committee err on the side of severity, for there 
 is overwhelming evidence to show that the chief object the 
 Companies have in acquiring canals is to kill their com])etition. 
 Thus the Great Northern Railway have entered into an agreement 
 with the Witham Navigation for 999 years, under which they 
 pay ^10,545 a year for the tolls and charges to be fixed at so 
 prohibitive a rate that a yearly loss of ^755 is sustained. The 
 same Company also give a subsidy of ^9,570 a year to the 
 Channel of Fossdyke in return for an annual income of ^689!- 
 Again, although the major portion of the railway canals are so 
 situated that, under proper conditions, they should show a 
 larger traffic per mile than those belonging to independent 
 companies, as a matter of fact, they carried in 1880, according 
 to Alulhall, only 5,500 tons of merchandise per mile for every 
 10,600 conveyed by the independent navigations. -' Mr. E. J. 
 Lloyd, a leading canal authority, told the Committee of iSSi, 
 that the Great \Vestern Comj^any have j^ractically a million of 
 money invested in canals ; they own the Kcnnet and Avon, 
 the Stourbridge Extension, the Stratford-on-Avon, the Swansea, 
 the Monmouthshire Railway and Canal, the Kridgcwater and 
 Taunton, and the Grand Western Canals. With reference to 
 the Hereford and Gloucester, the Great Western Company pay 
 ^5000 a year for it ; it is a rent-charge in addition to the 
 
 ^ Report, p. 13. 
 
 * Paper by E. Clement, in Chamber of Comffune fountain October lO, 
 1892. 
 
 * Dictionary of Statist Us.
 
 48 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 capital. The total amount of capital invested in those canals 
 (excluding the Monmouthshire Railway and Canal, which is a 
 mixed amount and is not divisible) is ;£^6 33,036, and the total 
 amount, including the Monmouthshire Railway and Canal, is 
 ;£"!, 019,486, and the net revenue of the whole of that invested 
 capital last year was £2'j6, and the rent-charges payable in 
 addition were ;£"8,243, so that practically the Company lost 
 ^^7,966 by the working of the canals. From this, he declared 
 that the Company had spent the money upon the canals not to 
 utilize them for the public, but to shut them up and thus bring 
 the traffic upon the railways.^ 
 
 With the object of compelling traders to use their railways 
 instead of the canals, the Companies persistently pursue two 
 clearly defined policies. They either impose rates that are 
 practically prohibitive, or they allow the canals to fall into dis- 
 repair, even occasionally to the point of becoming derelict. 
 Speaking of the high rates before the Committee of 1881, Mr. 
 F. B. Grotrian, J. P., ex-President of the Hull Chamber of 
 Commerce, declared that upon the Railway Companies acquiring 
 several canals from Hull, they had immediately put up the 
 rates so as to send the traffic upon the railways. As an 
 example, he cited the case of the Don Navigation, acquired by 
 the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Company, who at 
 once put the dues up to such a rate, that they amounted to a 
 half of the freightage.'^ Sir Benjamin Hingley asserted that the 
 effect of Parliament allowing the Railway Companies to absorb 
 the canals, had been disastrous to the trade of South Stafford- 
 shire. The high rates had seriously imperilled the very exist- 
 ence of the finished iron trade, and he believed that there 
 were grave dangers of its coming to a stop if some alterations 
 were not made.^ Mr. Lloyd, General Manager of the Warwick 
 and Birmingham Canal Company, was equally emphatic. He 
 stated that the Railway Companies were charging exorbitantly 
 high rates upon their portion of the through canal system, so 
 as to compel the traffic to go all the way by rail. In fact, the 
 rates upon the same class of goods were as high, or even higher, 
 merely upon their portion of the canals, as for all services the 
 whole distance by railwa3^ In his opinion there was no doubt 
 that, unless a great reduction was made in the charges, the con- 
 1 Q. 10,118-22. 2 Q. 9,706-11. 3 Q. 5,521.
 
 THE KILLING OF CANAL COMPETITION 49 
 
 tinuance of competition from South Staffordshire to London by 
 canal would cease.^ So anxious were the railways to secure 
 this object, that if independent carriers set up, they either ran 
 them off the canals or bought them off. In fact, by their 
 coercive tactics they had compelled canal carriers to become 
 parties to their conferences for keeping up the rates.- 
 
 Mr. Spence also gave one or two striking examples of in- 
 creased rates upon railway-controlled canals. Whereas, some 
 years ago, when the canals between Manchester and Birming- 
 ham were free, he was enabled to forward alum by water, now 
 that the " intervening canals are under railway control, the tolls 
 have been so levelled up, that water-carriage competition has 
 been entirely destroyed. The carriage rates are precisely the 
 same as those by rail, so the canals, instead of getting justice, 
 are actually handicapped by their comparative slowness of 
 transit." 
 
 The Norlli-Eastern Railway Company exactly doubled the 
 rates upon the Market Weighton Canal, almost immediately 
 after becoming its possessors. In the case of the Huddcrsfield, 
 the London and North-Western Railway Company maintain 
 the maximum rate of dues allowed by their Act, although this 
 maximum, fixed upon the same principle as the legal maximum 
 of railway rates, is extravagant and practically prohibitive.^ 
 The same Company charge a third of the total through canal 
 rate from South Staffordshire to London, for a distance that is 
 not a thirteenth of the whole journey. In other words, the full 
 journey is 160 miles, and upon the JVumingham Canal which 
 they control, and which is only a short link of 12 miles, the 
 charge is 33 per cent, of the whole charge of transit."* 
 
 The cases of Railway Companies permitting their canals to 
 get into a state of disrei)air are equally instructive. Mr. Lloyd 
 stated that the southern portion of the Stratford-upon-Avon 
 (\anal, belonging to the Orcat Western Railway Company, had 
 been allowed to get into such a condition that a boat would 
 make very good i)rogrcss if it made about a mile and a ijuarter 
 to a mile and a half an hour, and a fully laden boat could only 
 get down it by rubbing through the mud at the bottom at a 
 
 1 Q. 10.160. - 0. To,2iS-2o. •■' Q. 10,438. 
 
 * Mr. L. Clements, in Chamber of Coinnu'rce Journal , October 10, 
 1892. 
 
 E
 
 50 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 very slow speed. There was also the Gloucester and Hereford 
 Canal belonging to the same Company. So defective and 
 choked up had the Company allowed it to become, that Mr. 
 Lloyd assured the Committee, a man had had to work exceed- 
 ingly hard for fifteen hours to merely get along twelve miles.^ 
 Mr. Spence also gives a number of instances of disrepair, in the 
 special paper he prepared for the Committee. One or two are 
 well worth quoting. 
 
 " The Bolton and Bury Canal held by the Lancashire and 
 Yorkshire has been allowed by this Company to get into a very 
 bad condition ; it is unsafe to navigate it at night, and is there- 
 fore closed nightly all the year round. The canal has been 
 closed for the last six or eight months. . . . The canal has 
 been allowed by the Company to be undermined at one point 
 by a neighbouring coUiery ; they had powers to prevent this, but 
 declined to avail themselves of them. It is scarcely necessary 
 to add that the great bulk of the traffic during these stoppages 
 is diverted from the canal to the rails of the Lancashire and 
 Yorkshire Company." 
 
 " The Sankey Canal, passing through the important manu- 
 facturing district of South Lancashire, lying between Widnes 
 and St. Helens, and owned since 1864 by the London and 
 North-Western Company, has its traffic dealt with by that 
 Committee in the following fashion : — By a provision in the Act 
 of transfer the Company were bound to prevent the silting up 
 of the channel connecting the canal with the river Mersey ; 
 but this requirement has been practically ignored; a sand-bar is 
 allowed to accumulate at the entrance to the canal, and in 
 consequence there is no exit for loaded vessels during neap 
 tides, that is, during a fortnight of every month. ... In con- 
 sequence of these various obstructions the traffic upon the 
 canal has of late years all but entirely disappeared." 
 
 " The Canals and Navigations under the control of the 
 North-Eastern Railway Company have been allowed to go 
 lamentably out of repair. I refer to such as the Derwent, the 
 Market Weighton, Pocklington, Driffield, and Leven Canals. 
 Both the condition of the locks and the want of dredging have 
 rendered them almost impassable, and then at such limited 
 draughts as would be unprofitable to work over, even were the 
 
 1 Q. 10,162.
 
 THE KILLING OF CANAL COMPETITION 51 
 
 dues not maintained at, I believe, the very maximum allowed 
 by their Acts." ^ 
 
 The Railway and Canal Act of 1888 professed to give the 
 traders a remedy against the Railway Companies, by enabling 
 them to take legal proceedings for putting an end to some of 
 the worst abuses, and by making canal rates and tolls subject 
 to revision by the Railway Commissioners. But, owing to its 
 cumbrous and mutilated character, this section of the Act has 
 remained practically a dead letter. In fact, as Mr. Spence 
 assured the Committee — "To fix a reasonable scale of railway 
 rates and one of canal tolls, and leave the canals in the hands 
 of the Railway Companies, would be no remedy for the evil, as 
 the Railway Companies, having only one profit on the canals as 
 toll collectors, against two on the railway as toll collectors and 
 carriers, would be certain to find it more profitable to divert 
 the traffic on to the latter ; and thus obstacles of all kinds 
 would again be thrown in the way of the canals." - 
 
 1 Q. 10,438. '^//nd.
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE BITTER CRY OF THE TRADERS 
 
 From every district between John O'Groat's and Land's End, 
 and from every industry and trade, from the getting of coal to 
 the selhng of pianos, come constant complaints against Raihvay 
 Companies charging rates that are excessive, preferential, and 
 unjust, and withholding facilities which the traders believe they 
 have a legal right to demand. Either there is substantial 
 ground for these complaints, or the present railway system is a 
 grossly maligned institution. But even under the first of these 
 alternatives there is no need to attribute to railway directorates 
 either an undue lack of patriotism, or motives uncovered by the 
 usual commercial code. They are elected and paid to serve 
 the interests of their shareholders, and if these are not coin- 
 cident with the interests of the public, then they can scarcely 
 be blamed for the antagonism. The shortcomings will have to 
 be looked for in the intrinsic character of the system. ^ This is 
 anticipating, however. We must first see what justification 
 there really is for the complaints of the traders. 
 
 Out of fifteen separate reports presented by the members of 
 the Commission on Trade Depression in 1886, fourteen of them, 
 while disagreeing on most things, are unanimous in citing high 
 and preferential railway rates as one chief cause of the 
 depression. Some do it mildly, and in the formal language of 
 officialism. Others manifest indignation in much more expres- 
 sive phrases. Said the Majority Report — " Among the causes 
 which are said to have aggravated the prevailing depression, 
 scarcely any have been so persistently put forward as the 
 difficulties connected with the transport of goods." 
 
 52
 
 THE BITTER CRY OF THE TRADERS 53 
 
 Upon which Sir Charles Mark Pahiier observed — " I think 
 the report of the majority of the Commissioners does not give 
 sufficient importance to the grievances of the traders at home in 
 regard to the policy and conduct of Railway Companies in this 
 country. I think the rates charged are in many cases so high 
 that they are prejudicial to our productive industries, a7id ??iore 
 especially as regards agricullu?'e. The carrying of foreign pro- 
 duce at lower rates than those charged on home produce must 
 seriously hurt all home industries." 
 
 And Lord Dunraven and Messrs. Neville Lubbock, Farrer 
 Ecroyd, and P. Albert Muntz, in their Minority Report, declared 
 that among the principal causes of depression is — " The 
 advantage given by our Railway Companies to foreign producers 
 by the conveyance of goods from the outports to the great 
 centres of distribution at lower rates than from the seats of 
 home production." 1 
 
 This Commission issued a circular to the Chambers of 
 Commerce asking for opinions upon the causes of depression 
 and suggestions for remedial measures. A large number of 
 the replies laid emphasis upon the injury done by railway 
 rates. The London Chamber of Commerce asked for an 
 immediate " Revision of railway rates and fares, especially the 
 through rates from foreign countries, which practically amount 
 to the creation of a heavy bounty (and that by the Railway 
 Companies) in favour of foreign producers, most detrimental to 
 British producers, and to the agricultural interests of the 
 country." - 
 
 The Birmingham Chamber urged — " Fresh legislation for the 
 regulation of railways and railway rates, making minimum 
 rates charged for foreign goods the maximum for home 
 goods, and including the emancipation of canals from the 
 control of the Railway Com|)anies." ^ 
 
 The North Staffordshire Chamber declared that the trade of 
 their district had been seriously affected by " the heavy charges 
 imposed on the transit of raw materials and goods to and from 
 the seaboard, as compared with their foreign comi)etitors.""* 
 
 The Sheffield Chamber asserted that their district, in its 
 foreign trade especially, was always sufiering severely from the 
 
 "^ Final Report of Coinmissioii on Trade Dcprcssiony 1886. 
 
 * Vol. n. p. 390. ^ Vol. I. p. 77. * Vol. I. p. 107.
 
 54 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 high railway rates, but particularly did they feel the pressure in 
 times of depression.^ The Newark Chamber also asserted that 
 the "inequalities and injustices" of the railway tariffs was a 
 grave cause of depression.- While the Wolverhampton Cham- 
 ber, after stating that " the most important circumstance affecting 
 the trade of this district is the unfair, unequal, and excessive 
 railway rates which are charged upon all its productions," very 
 strongly expressed the opinion, as the result of long and 
 deliberate thought, that no remedy short of State-ownership 
 was likely to prove an adequate remedy.^ 
 
 But to ap})reciate properly the grievances of the trading 
 public, it is necessary to look at the specific rates for the 
 different classes of merchandise. 
 
 Let us take the coal first. It is reported that when a proposal 
 was made that the old London and Birmingham Company should 
 carry coal, one of the directors indignantly exclaimed, "What ! 
 carry coal ? Why, they'll be asking us to carry dung next ! " 
 And certain it is, as Mr. Acworth tells us, that when coal trucks 
 first passed over this line (now the London and North- Western) 
 they were "sheeted" down that their contents might not be 
 suspected ; and at Weedon, where coal was transferred to the 
 railway from the barges of the Grand Junction Canal, there 
 stood for many years a high screen erected originally to conceal 
 the ignominious transaction from the gaze of the passing 
 traveller.-^ But the Companies have long made up for this sad 
 example of Use inajeste, and to-day recognize King Coal as the 
 twin-brother of King Midas. In fact, they are delighted, as 
 loyal courtiers should be, to allow him the truly royal pre- 
 rogative of providing them with a fourth of their income. 
 
 In 1892, according to the Mineral Statistics, prepared by the 
 Home Office, 181,000,000 tons of coal were raised in the United 
 Kingdom. Of this total, we find, if we apply Mr. Mulhall's 
 estimated proportion for 1889, that about 14,000,000 tons 
 were consumed for colliery purposes.^ This leaves 167,000,000 
 tons, and of this net total no less than 137,000,000 tons were 
 conveyed by the Railway Companies and by the Canal Naviga- 
 tions either actually or virtually controlled by them. That is to 
 say, that those interested in the coal trade had to trust to the 
 
 1 Vol. IL p. 4c6. - Vol. I. p. 106. '-^ Vol. I. p. 112. 
 
 * TJie Railways of England, \). 142. ^ Diciiona)y of Statistics.
 
 THE BITTER CRY OF THE TRADERS 5S 
 
 Railway Companies for the conveyance of about 80 \)cr cent, 
 of their net produce. What the amount of toll levied by the 
 Companies upon this coal was there are, unfortunately, no 
 means of ascertaining, as no separate figures are published. 
 All we can do is to see the total charge for all minerals, and 
 how this works out j)er ton, and in relation to estimated value. 
 In 1893 the minerals raised in the United Kingdom were 
 290,000,000 tons; im])orted, 6,000,000; total, 296,000,000. 
 The estimated value being ;^95, 000,000, giving an average 
 value of 6s. ^d. per ton. According to the returns of the 
 Railway Companies, 221,000,000 tons of minerals were con- 
 veyed by rail at a total charge of ^18,000,000, or a tonnage 
 rate of \s. yhd. — that is, a charge of 25 per cent, for railway 
 rates is made on the selling price of minerals. This amount 
 coincides with the evidence of Mr. J. S. Jeans (before the 
 Depression of Trade Commission) and Sir Alfred Hickman 
 (before the Railway Rates Committee), and derived from 
 entirely different means. This charge, then, of 25 per cent, is 
 the tribute rendered by the community to the Railway Com- 
 panies upon raw minerals alone. 
 
 But, when we remember that included in this are all the costly 
 minerals, the average rate per ton for coal, taking the short 
 as well as the long distances, will be very much more than 
 IS. 7i^.,and much more than 25 per cent, of the pit's-mouth price. 
 
 In reply to a circular from the Commission on Trade 
 Depression, the Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire, Leicestershire, 
 and Warwickshire Colliery Owners Association declared that 
 " the ruinous effect of the conduct of the Railway Companies 
 in excessive, preferential and capricious rates, and in acquiring, 
 and then practically closing, the i)rincii)al canals and waterways 
 of the country is not special to the coal trade, it afiects the iron 
 trade to a greater and more unjust extent than it does us. 
 But the iron trade being the chief Victor in the coal trade 
 prosperity, we suffer not only directly by the pressure of railway 
 monopoly, but indirectly by its calamitous effect on our best 
 customers." ^ And the Mining Association of Great Ikitain 
 stated — " The heavy trades of coal and iron arc also unduly 
 burdened by the high rates and tolls charged by the Railway 
 Companies of the kingdom ; the rates in question are much 
 > Vol. II. p. 419.
 
 56 
 
 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 higher than those charged in other countries, notably higher 
 than in the United States of America and the Continent oi 
 Europe, and in some instances {e.g. the rate to London) the 
 charges were raised in 1873 on the specific ground that coal and 
 iron were so dear. They have not been reduced, though, as 
 every one knows, the prices of iron have fallen to a figure before 
 unknown, and the prices of coal are lower, relatively to the cost 
 of production, than at any previous time. The Railway Com- 
 panies are slowly but surely killing the trade of this country by 
 their charges, and by the preference given to foreign competitors."^ 
 
 The best way to show the excessive character of our coal 
 rates is to compare them with those of our two chief European 
 competitors, Germany and Belgium, where State railways exist. 
 
 Table I. shows the comparative coal rates charged in this 
 country side by side with the charges for equal distances in the 
 two countries named, which was presented by the British Iron 
 Trades Association to the Commission on Trade Depression 
 in 1886 : 2— 
 
 Table L— Railway Charges from Ebbw Vale. 
 
 To 
 
 British, per 
 
 German, per 
 
 Belgian, per 
 
 
 ton. 
 
 ton. 
 
 ton. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 S. d. 
 
 S. d. 
 
 Talybont 
 
 3 
 
 I 7 
 
 I II 
 
 Talyllyn 
 
 3 4 
 
 I 10 
 
 2 I 
 
 Brecon 
 
 3 9 
 
 2 
 
 2 Tf 
 
 Netherton 
 
 5 II 
 
 4 4 
 
 3 II 
 
 Park Head 
 
 5 II 
 
 4 4 
 
 3 II 
 
 Woodhouse 
 
 6 II 
 
 7 II 
 
 5 3 
 
 Round Oak 
 
 6 I 
 
 4 8 
 
 4 I 
 
 Kings winford 
 
 6 I 
 
 4 8 
 
 4 I 
 
 Brettel-lane 
 
 6 
 
 4 8 
 
 4 I 
 
 Corbyn Hall 
 
 6 
 
 4 4 
 
 3 II 
 
 Stourbridge 
 
 6 
 
 4 8 
 
 4 I 
 
 Cradley 
 
 6 
 
 4 8 
 
 4 I 
 
 Lye 
 
 6 
 
 4 8 
 
 4 I 
 
 Worcester 
 
 6 
 
 3 II 
 
 3 9 
 
 Bushey 
 
 10 9 
 
 9 6 
 
 6 
 
 Berkhampstead 
 
 9 6 
 
 6 10 
 
 4 10 
 
 Dunstable 
 
 10 5 
 
 8 10 
 
 5 7 
 
 Bletchley 
 
 9 3 
 
 6 5 
 
 4 8 
 
 Banbury 
 
 8 9 
 
 5 II 
 
 4 6 
 
 Vol. II. p. 413. 
 
 ^ Final Report, Appendix G.
 
 THE BITTER CRY OF THE TRADERS 
 
 57 
 
 Table II. is extracted from an analysis prepared by Sir 
 Bernhard Samuelson for presentation to the Chambers of 
 Commerce a few years ago : ^ — 
 
 Taule H. 
 
 Lailway Charges from Bestwood. 
 
 To 
 
 British, per 
 ton per mile. 
 
 German, per 
 ton per mile. 
 
 Belgian, per 
 ton per mile. 
 
 Boston — 
 
 Home 
 
 Export 
 
 Lynn — 
 
 Home 
 
 Export 
 
 Sleaford 
 
 Grantham 
 
 London 
 
 d. 
 
 I-2I 
 0-63 
 
 079 
 050 
 1-50 
 
 i'5i 
 0-52 
 
 d. 
 0-69 
 
 0-59 
 2 
 
 077 
 089 
 0-52 
 
 d. 
 075 
 o"34 
 
 0-59 
 331 
 0-87 
 96 
 036 
 
 For the simple reason, however, that practically no coal is 
 imported into Great Britain, colliery proprietors are free from 
 a grievance that troubles almost every other class of trader and 
 manufacturer. This is the conveyance of foreign merchandise 
 by the English Railway Companies at rates that are much less 
 than those charged to home traders and producers. The 
 anomaly of the preferential rate is not only a source of con- 
 stant irritation and loss to individual traders, it constitutes a 
 grave national danger. In return for the privilege of monopoly 
 which the community have conferred upon the Companies, 
 one would think that British traders had a ])erfect right to 
 demand that they should be given the natural advantages of 
 their vicinity to the home markets. But they do not even 
 insist upon this. They do, however, claim to have an equality 
 of treatment with their foreign rivals over the British lines. 
 And in so far as it has expressed itself through the entire press 
 of the country, regardless of party, j)ublic opinion is unanimous 
 in supporting the traders' contention. 
 
 The Times has already been quoted (see p. 41). 
 
 The Standard speaks of "the iniquitous system of pre- 
 ferential rates." ^ 
 
 The Mornifig Post says — " As the Companies have been 
 
 ^ Report on J'oreii^n Goods Kafts. 
 2 No German port so near collieries. ^ ^L'lrch 15, 1SS7.
 
 S8 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 granted an immensely valuable monopoly, the public is within 
 its right in insisting that the privilege shall be used with due 
 regard to the general advantage of the country ; and it is idle 
 to pretend that it has been so used, when we see English 
 farmers and English fishermen, to quote two familiar examples, 
 shut out from English markets by the preferential rates which 
 the Companies grant to foreigners." ^ 
 
 The Daily Chronide declares that "foreign produce is 
 carried over English lines of railways at rates so much lower 
 than those charged for the conveyance of home produce, that 
 even when the cost of freight is added thereto, considerable 
 margin still remains, enabling the foreign competitors to 
 undersell the domestic producer in his own markets. This 
 practically means protection for the foreigner, for it is really 
 nothing more nor less than giving a bounty to the foreign 
 rival of the native producer." - 
 
 The Daily Telegraph asserts that " the high and unequal 
 inland charges of the Railway Companies, as compared with 
 their tariffs for foreign goods, act prejudicially to their fellow- 
 countrymen and native consumers." ^ 
 
 The Evening Standard says "it would be every bit as fair 
 for the Government to pay a direct bounty on imports as to 
 allow Railway Companies to pay it by means of preference 
 rates." ^ 
 
 The St. James's Gazette sees " no reason why the Companies 
 should be given unlimited power to enable foreign competitors 
 to undersell native producers." ^ 
 
 The BirmingJiam Daily Mail states that " the preferential 
 rates system, by which our patriotic Railway Companies do 
 their utmost to foster foreign at the expense of native industry 
 and enterprise .... bears most unfairly upon the home 
 trade of the country." ^ 
 
 The Leeds Mercury .... denies " that Railway Companies, 
 for the sake of obtaining traffic, have a right to break the law 
 against undue preference, and practically to give a bounty to 
 the foreigner to enable him to enter into unfair competition 
 with the home producer." ^ 
 
 1 March 3, 1887. 2 ^arch 15, 1887. 
 
 ^ January 17, 1887. ^ April 13, 18S7. ^ March 15, 1887. 
 
 ^ March 2, J887. '' March 18, 1887.
 
 THE BITTER CRY OF THE TRADERS 59 
 
 The Ne7vcastle C/uvnicie urges " farmers to ask that foreign 
 produce should be charged as much as home produce, for at 
 present scarcely a railway in the kingdom but carries imported 
 produce cheaper than honie produce, ton for ton." ^ 
 
 The Newcastle Daily [ounial "indignantly asks why a 
 Railway Company should be permitted practically to give a 
 bounty to importers of foreign cattle or corn at the expense of 
 the home producer." - 
 
 The Nottingham Guardian declares that "the stupid system 
 of the Companies in allowing preferential rates to foreign 
 merchandise has made it impossible to resist State inter- 
 ference." ^ 
 
 In accordance with their principle of charging what (they 
 think) the traffic will bear, the Companies have attempted to 
 justify the preferential rates upon the ground that it is necessary 
 to differentiate in favour of the foreigner to secure his traffic. 
 Parliament have, however, refused to recognize this claim as 
 legitimate, and by the Act of 1888 made a feeble effort to 
 prevent preference rates in future. But as every individual 
 case of alleged preference is left to be contested upon its own 
 merits, and as the aggrieved trader is compelled to show that 
 the circumstances under which the foreign goods are carried 
 are identical even to the most remote details, the system of 
 preferential rates has scarcely been ameliorated in the slightest 
 degree. Most of our trades suffer both from the system of 
 preferential rates, and from rates that are high in themselves. 
 
 This is conspicuously the case with the iron and steel 
 trades. The representative Delegation of the British Iron 
 Trade Association, which was recently sent to inquire into 
 the cause of the increasing competition of the Belgian and 
 German iron and steel industries with those of England, 
 report that — " Undoubtedly the greatest factor in favour of the 
 foreign producer is the much larger cost of carriage in this 
 country. . . . The Belgians can send their iron 100 miles 
 to Antwerp by rail, and thence by sea to London, for con- 
 siderably less than is charged by railway from Staffordshire to 
 London. . . . We are of opinion that if English manu- 
 facturers enjoyed the same railway rates and royalties as those 
 ^ March S, 1SS7. 2 yi^^^]^ ^g^ 1SS7. 
 
 •* March 4, 1SS7.
 
 6o 
 
 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 on the Continent, foreign competition could be defied in 
 neutral markets." 
 
 In support of their assertion they give the following striking 
 comparison — " One of the largest works in Germany, situated 
 more than 150 miles from a shipping port, could reach Antwerp 
 by railway for 3^ marks, or y. 6d. per ton of finished iron or 
 steel. Similar produce transported from works in the Midlands 
 to London or Liverpool, similar distances, are charged about 
 three times as much by the English Railway Companies. . . . 
 So far as Belgium is concerned, it may be sufficient to state 
 that the works of Couillet can transport their finished iron 
 and steel to Antwerp — a distance of 70 miles — for 35., or an 
 average of 0*51^. per ton per mile. As against this low export 
 rate, compare the following rates for export from Staffordshire : — 
 
 
 
 Parcels of 4 to 10 
 
 Parcels of 10 tons and 
 
 
 Distance. 
 
 tons. 
 
 upwards. 
 
 To 
 
 Rate 
 
 Rate 
 
 Rate R^„« 
 
 
 
 per ton. 
 
 per ton 
 per mile. 
 
 P-ton. /--. 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 S. d. 
 
 d. 
 
 S. d 
 
 d. 
 
 Bristol 
 
 94 
 
 8 4 
 
 I -06 
 
 8 4 
 
 I 06 
 
 Fleetwood 
 
 126 
 
 14 2 
 
 1-35 
 
 14 2 
 
 1-35 
 
 Gloucester 
 
 56i 
 
 6 8 
 
 I 415 
 
 6 8 : 1-415 
 
 Hull 
 
 134 
 
 14 4 
 
 1-283 
 
 12 6 I-II9 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 97h 
 
 10 
 
 1-230 
 
 10 I 1-230 
 
 London 
 
 115 
 
 15 
 
 1-502 
 
 12 6 1 1-327 
 
 The difference here ig most marked. It will be observed that, 
 if we take the cost of transport from the Staffordshire district 
 to London, an average distance of 113 miles, the ton-mile rate 
 for 4 to lo-ton parcels is 1-502^., or about three times the 
 average ton-mile rates of Belgium and Germany for export 
 trade."! 
 
 In an able report - which he prepared for the Commission 
 on Trade Depression, Mr. J. S. Jeans stated the average British 
 rates are for — 
 
 ^ Report of the Delegation organized by the British Iron Trade Association 
 (1896). 
 
 2 Final Report.
 
 THE BITTER CRY OF THE TRADERS 
 
 6i 
 
 
 Per cent 
 
 
 
 
 Iron ore 
 
 58 h 
 
 igher 
 
 than France. 
 
 
 ^7 
 
 
 
 Germany. 
 
 ,, 
 
 87 
 
 
 
 Luxemberg. 
 
 " 
 
 82 
 
 
 
 General average of 
 foreign countries. 
 
 Pig-iron, works to ports 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 France. 
 
 >> ) J »> 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 Germany. 
 
 J5 >> J> 
 
 102 
 
 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 Works to inland markets 
 
 68 
 
 
 
 France. 
 
 Finished iron and steel works to 
 
 
 
 
 
 ports 
 
 79 
 
 
 
 France. 
 
 >> 
 
 J > • • " • • • • • • 
 
 96 
 23 
 
 
 
 Germany. 
 Belgium. 
 
 To inland markets 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 France. 
 
 >j >> >> 
 
 115 
 
 
 
 Germany. 
 
 ») >> ?5 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 And as to the system of preferential rates in the iron trades, 
 the following table has been extracted by the Journal of the 
 Railway and Canal Traders^ from the Reports of the Select 
 Committee on Railway Rates and Fares, and the Commission 
 on Trade Depression : — 
 
 Sheet-Iron. 
 
 Antwerp to Birmingham 
 
 Birmingham to London 
 
 Nails. 
 Antwerp to Wolverhampton vid Harwicli 
 Wolverhampton to Harwich 
 Antwerp to Birmingham vid London 
 Birmingham to London 
 
 Bright Iron Wire. 
 Antwerp to Birmingham ... 
 Birmingham to London 
 
 Girders. 
 Antwerp to Birmingham via Grimsby 
 Birmingham to Grimsby 
 Antwerp to Sheffield 
 
 Sheffield to Grimsby 
 
 CorPER. 
 Tyne to Manchester 
 
 Iron Castings. 
 West Hartlepool to Leeds ... 
 Newcastle to Leeds... 
 
 Home, 
 per ton. 
 
 ■ S. d. 
 
 Foreign, 
 per ton. 
 
 S. d 
 
 
 16 8 
 
 15 
 
 
 I 4 
 iS 4 
 
 16 4 
 16 8 
 
 8 4 
 
 16 
 o 
 
 16 8 
 
 16 8 
 
 7 6
 
 62 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 The complaints of preferential rates are equally emphatic 
 in all branches of the textile trades. In giving evidence 
 before the Commission on Trade Depression, Mr. Samuel 
 Andrews, Secretary of the Oldham Master Cotton Spinners 
 Association, stated that he had gone into this question of rail- 
 way traffic a good deal, and it seemed to him that at the time 
 when the railways were formed, the cotton trade was looked 
 upon as a kind of El Dorado. They made cotton pay for 
 other commodities . . . and the consequence was that they 
 found that cotton is perhaps the most heavily weighted, or 
 more heavily weighted than any other commodity which is so 
 convenient to handle.^ 
 
 And this is an extract from the evidence of Sir J. C. Lee, 
 one of the largest cotton and general manufacturers in Lan- 
 cashire — 
 
 *' Have you given your attention at all to any questions con- 
 nected with the pressure of railway charges upon goods to 
 Manchester; that is to say, whether you find them add in any 
 way to the depression in trade ? — Yes, it costs us as much 
 money to take our alizarine from the banks of the Thames 
 to Manchester, as it costs us to bring it from Germany to 
 Manchester." 
 
 Again — " Do you consider such difference of rates as 
 you speak of, as between Germany and the banks of 
 the Thames, has operated in favour or promotion of the 
 sale of German goods in competition with your own ? — 
 Yes, undoubtedly ; they can land them here and bring them 
 right into our own market at a less rate in fact. . . . The 
 rate between London and Manchester for alizarine is 275. dd. 
 a ton. We asked the Railway Companies for a rate between 
 London and Church — it is about the same distance from 
 London as Manchester. Their reply was 60^-. per ton. The 
 rate for freight of alizarine from Mayenne (France) by rail to 
 Rotterdam (Holland), thence by steamer and rail to Glasgow, 
 is 50J-. per ton. The rate by rail to Glasgow is 50^. per ton ! 
 ... It costs us as much to take our alizarine from the banks 
 of the Thames to Manchester, as it costs us to bring it from 
 Germany to Manchester." ^ 
 
 In a return supplied by the North-Eastern Railway Company, 
 1 Q. 4380 et seq, 2 Q 8084 et seq.
 
 THE BITTER CRY OF THE TRADERS 63 
 
 to an order of the House of Commons on February ist, 1887, 
 this comparison of cotton rates is given: — 
 
 Cotton Manufactures and Yarn. 
 
 Home. Foreign. 
 
 London to Liverpool per ton ... 37^-. dd. 25^-. 
 
 West Hartlepool to Leeds ,, ,, ... 25.9. i6j. ^d. 
 
 Newcastle to ,, », »? ••• 30^- iS-J- ^d. 
 
 ,, ,, ,5 (Cotton yarns) 23^-. ^./. 12s. 6d. 
 
 The same return also showed that the rates for EngHsh and 
 foreign woollen manufactures and yarn were — 
 
 Home. Foreign. 
 
 Newcastle to Leeds (manufactures) per ton 30J-. iSs. ^d. 
 
 West Hartlepool to Leeds (yarn) ,, ,, 25^. 12s. 6d. 
 
 Newcastle to Leeds (yarn) ... ,, ,, 30^-. 12s. 6d. 
 
 Mr. (now Sir) H. Mitchell, the well-known Bradford woollen 
 merchant, told the Commission on Trade Depression that the 
 result of the rate of carriage is that the French goods can be 
 distributed from London at a lower rate than their own goods 
 can ... A Roubaix (France) manufacturer can send goods to 
 London at a lower rate than Bradford goods can be sent to 
 London. 1 And Mr. C. E. Bousfield, a Leeds woollen manu- 
 facturer, declared that it cost them more to bring their wool 
 from London to Yorkshire than it did to take the wool from 
 London to Roubaix. From London to the north of Wake- 
 field, in Yorkshire, the rate is 325-. 6d. per ton, whereas from 
 London to Roubaix it is 22s? 
 
 In the flax trade the same story of inequality prevails. Thus 
 it was shown before the Select Committee that the flax rates 
 were as follows — 
 
 Home. Foreign. 
 
 £ s. d. £ s. d. 
 
 Hull to Belfast f 2-ton ) ... o iS 4 
 
 Selby to Belfast Mots i i 6 8 
 
 Hull is 30 miles further than Selby, and the Hull flax is carried past 
 Selby. 
 
 1 Q. 3992-6. 2 Q^ 6328-6577.
 
 64 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 And while British linen is charged £i i^js. 6d. per ton from 
 Liverpool to London, foreign linen is only charged ^i 5^. od} 
 
 Preferential rates constitute a very serious bounty upon 
 foreign sugar. Mr. L. A. Martin, of Mincing Lane, writing to 
 the DaiVy Chronicle^ pointed out that whereas sugar from 
 Hamburg via Hull to Manchester is only 15^. 3^., English 
 sugar from Hull to Manchester is charged 155. \od. per ton. 
 Again, \.]\q JourJial of the Railway and Canal Traders shows that 
 while the charge for home-made sugar from London to Sher- 
 borne, which is only 118 miles, is 37^. dd. per ton, the charge 
 for foreign sugar from Paris to London via Havre and South- 
 ampton, a distance of 340 miles, is only 30^. per ton. 
 
 The glass trade is one that suffers severely from foreign 
 competition, and small wonder, for while British glass is charged 
 35^. per ton from London to Bristol, foreign is only charged 
 205., and while the charge for British glass from London to 
 Cardiff is 37^-. 6^., the rates for foreign are again only 205-., 
 or a little more than half as much ; while for plate glass the 
 respective rates are as follow — 
 
 Home. Foreign. 
 
 Brussels via Antwerp to Birmingham, via. Goole £ s. d. £ s. d 
 
 (130 land miles) 126 
 
 Birmingham to Wolverhampton {13 miles) ... i 2 6 
 
 ,, ,, London (113 miles) 184 
 
 „ ,, Liverpool (94 miles) 142 
 
 „ Hull (137 miles) i 5 o^ 
 
 Mr. Edwin Clements ^ has prepared the following compara- 
 tive table of home and foreign timber rates — 
 
 Timber. Home. Foreign. 
 
 £ s. d. £ s. d. 
 
 Cardiff to Stourbridge (104 miles) i I 8 o 10 10 
 
 Cardiff to Deepfield (113 miles) o 17 6 08 10 
 
 Gloucester to Wednesbury (57 miles) ... o 12 6 064 
 
 Hartlepool to Nuneaton (179 miles) ... i 10 o o 12 6 
 
 Newcastle to Nuneaton (202 miles) ... i 11 i o 14 2 
 
 In these cases the rates for home timber average over 100 
 per cent, more than for imported timber, though carried at the 
 same computed or measurement weight. 
 
 '^ Journal of Railway and Canal Traders Association, April 1S89. 
 
 2 Ibid. 
 
 ^ Report to Railway and Canal Traders Association, April 1887.
 
 Home. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 I 2 6 
 O 17 6 
 
 o IS o 
 
 O 12 6 
 
 THE BITTER CRY OF THE TRADERS 65 
 
 A memorial handed in to the Select Committee on 
 Railways (1882) by Mr. H. Gurney, on behalf of the 
 members of the Midland Counties Timber Merchants As- 
 sociation, representing a great part of the timber trade in 
 the counties of Warwick, Worcester, Northampton, Stafford, 
 Hereford, Shropshire, and many other places, complained 
 that " most of the principal towns are reached by the 
 ports at a trifle under or at one penny per ton per mile, 
 while to convey English timber to the same towns varies from 
 twopence-halfpenny to threepence per ton per mile." The fol- 
 lowing cases show the great preference given to the ports on 
 foreign timber. It amounts to nearly 50 per cent., both 
 classes being carried at the same weight — 
 
 Liverpool to Hereford 
 
 Hereford to Liverpool 
 
 Liverpool to Birmingham 
 Birmingham to Liverpool (97;^- miles) 
 
 The rate is specially high when the home wood is carried to 
 a Government Department — 
 
 Hereford to Woolwich (150 miles) 
 Presteign to Woolwich ( 1 70 miles) 
 Sunderland to Stoke-on-Trent (170 miles) 
 Cardiff to Stoke-on-Trent (160 miles) 
 
 Again, imported timber is delivered by water free of charge 
 within a radius of five miles. Home timber, on the other 
 hand, is universally charged 35. dd. a ton for delivery. Further, 
 home scantlings are charged at machine weight ; whereas sawn 
 deals are charged at 66 cubic feet to the ton, and foreign 
 scantlings at 40 cubic feet to the ton, the same rates being 
 charged in all cases. 
 
 Even foreign pianos are carried from Liverpool to London 
 for 255. per ton, while English are charged 705-., or nearly three 
 times as much. 
 
 And so too w^ith plated goods. While foreign silvered plate 
 
 Home. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 I 13 4 
 
 
 I 16 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 15
 
 66 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 from Antwerp to Birmingham via London is only charged 
 jQ\ 75-. 6^., the charge for home manufactured from Birming- 
 ham to London is ;^3, or more than twice as much.^ 
 
 The fishing industry is also severely handicapped by the 
 railway rates. During an interesting correspondence upon the 
 subject in the Daily CJironicle^ a Yarmouth resident stated 
 that the whole week's profit of one smack, captain and six 
 men, amounted to £^^ 4^. 2^., and gave the following result of 
 one deal, the consignment consisting of nine trunks of fish, 
 including seventeen pairs of good soles — 
 
 Total paid for the lot i 14 10 
 
 Expenses deducted ... ... ... 112 8 
 
 Balance for crew o 2 2 
 
 The expenses were made up as follow — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Hire of boxes... ... ... ... o 4 6 
 
 Commission and porterage ... ... o 5 2 
 
 Freight by rail i 3 o 
 
 I 12 8 
 
 And the following somewhat lengthy extract from an able 
 article in the Western Morning Neivs sheds a flood of light — 
 
 " Fish-dealers of the west, and also fishermen, are complaining 
 loudly of the exceedingly high, and in some instances prohibi- 
 tory rates of charges for the transmission of food over the 
 Great Western Railway system. This fact has been emphasized 
 during the last few weeks by the unusually large catches of 
 sprats and herrings which have been made at several of the 
 watering-places along the coast. It is almost incredible, but 
 it is absolutely true, that at Dawlish, Tcignmouth, and 
 Torquay, many tons of fish have either been thrown back 
 into the sea, or disposed of for manure, because, owing 
 to the high rates for carriage by rail, it is made unre- 
 munerative to the fish-dealers to send them to London and 
 other large centres of population at a distance. . . . Last week, 
 
 ^ Report to Railway and Canal Traders Association, April 1887.
 
 THE BITTER CRY OF THE TRADERS 67 
 
 owing to these high railway charges, four tons of sprats were 
 sold in the neighbourhood of Torquay to a landholder for 
 manure, at 14s. or 15^-. per ton. ... In proof of the asser- 
 tion that, according to the present rate of charges by the 
 Railway Company, it does not pay the fish-dealers to send the 
 sprats and herrings to the London and other markets, one 
 day last week a Torquay dealer bought 400 bushels of sprats 
 at 4d. per bushel, and after he had had them packed in five 
 barrels, and dispatched by rail to London, all the balance he 
 received, as profit from the transaction, was i^. 3^.^ At the 
 great fishing port of Wick, and along the coast of Aberdeen- 
 shire, the pressure is felt as severely as it is upon the coast of 
 Devonshire. It cost £4 to bring a ton of fish from Wick to 
 London, and £;^ i^s. od. from Stornoway to London, or three 
 times what it costs to bring a ton of meat all the way from 
 America via Liverpool to London." ^ 
 
 1 January 6, 1886. 
 '^ Journal of Railway and Canal Traders^ February 1SS6.
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE BLIGHT ON AGRICULTURE 
 
 The damaging effects of the present railway policy are 
 clearly traceable in the continued depression under which 
 British agriculture has languished. The first cause of this 
 depression is undoubtedly to be found in the flagrant anomalies 
 of our land system. But among the contributory causes high 
 and preferential railway rates will certainly rank as the most 
 potent. Mr. Balfour Browne, Q.C., in an interesting paper 
 which he presented to the London Chamber of Commerce on 
 February lo, 1897, even went to the extent of declaring that — 
 *' I am not exaggerating when I say that the agricultural 
 question, which has been attempted to be met very ineffectively 
 by a palliative Agricultural Rates Bill, is nothing else but a 
 question of railway rates." ^ 
 
 Our Legislature wisely abolished the restrictions which gave 
 British farmers an artificial monopoly in corn in the home 
 market, to the hurt of the community as a whole. And any 
 direct attempt to go back upon the policy of free trade would 
 certainly meet with ignominious defeat. Yet, it is scarcely too 
 much to say that what the country would sternly resist if 
 openly attempted, they have quietly permitted our Railway 
 Companies to do in a more insidious way. With an important 
 distinction, however. While the old import duties imposed by 
 the State created a monopoly in favour of the British farmer 
 in the home market, the modern preferential transport-tax 
 exacted by the Railway Companies frequently gives the foreign 
 producer a monopoly here, to the exclusion of our own farmers. 
 
 ^ London Chamber of Commerce, Pamphlet Series No, 22 (1897). 
 
 68
 
 THE BLIGHT ON AGRICULTURE 69 
 
 The preferential rates have, for example, often enabled French 
 fruit to find a ready sale upon the London market, when at the 
 same time the high home rates compelled English growers to 
 let theirs rot upon the ground. And a flourishing business in 
 American grain, cheese, and meat is frequently seen in 
 London at a time when, through the heavy railway rates, 
 Enghsh farmers do not find it worth their while to thresh their 
 ricks, to use their cheese presses, or to bring their cattle and 
 sheep upon the local fair. 
 
 Nor is it to the advantage of the consumer, in whose 
 interest the Companies often profess altruistically to act, 
 that such railway rates are charged as to stifle the home com- 
 petition. For, after all, in food the most important element 
 of competition from the public point of view is quality, and 
 certain it is that the nearer the English markets get to foreign 
 monopoly, the worse becomes the quality of food. This was 
 clearly shown in the huge system of food adulteration revealed 
 by a Select Committee of the House of Commons three years 
 ago. Belgian rabbits, "preserved" Flemish eggs, and Dutch 
 margarine are not purchased by our great industrial population 
 because they prefer them to our wild rabbits, to English eggs, 
 and to home-made butter, but simply because they are so much 
 cheaper. And this difference in cost is often chiefly a matter of 
 preferential railway rates. This contention is often met by 
 advocates of the Railway Companies with the statement that the 
 total cost of railway carriage is so small in relation to the price 
 of produce as not to make a material difference in its sale. But 
 they base their comparison upon the final retail price of the 
 article, in relation to which of course the railway rates seem 
 relatively small. But the cost of carriage is a first charge, and 
 has to be considered in relation to the primary price of sale 
 between the producer and the wholesale factor, and in relation 
 to that price it is often of sufficient importance to determine 
 whether a sale shall be effected or not. 
 
 The foreigner is treated preferentially by the Companies in 
 practically every kind of agricultural produce. The reports or 
 all the Royal Commissions and Select Committees on Railway 
 Rates, of the Commission on Trade Depression, and of the 
 Commissions on Agricultural Depression, are full of bitter 
 complaints from the British farmers. Before the Select
 
 70 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 committee of 1 88 1-2 witnesses stated that foreign hops are 
 conveyed from Boulogne via Folkestone to London at 17^. 6^. 
 per ton, while the charge from Ashford on the same line of 
 railway — and much nearer to London — is 35^., or just twice 
 the amount for about half the distance. Again, the beef of 
 American cattle slaughtered at the wharf in Glasgow is carried 
 to London for 455. per ton, while the rate for the meat of home 
 cattle conveyed under similar conditions is 77^. per ton. 
 English dead meat from Liverpool to London is 50^. per ton, 
 while American is 25^-., or just half the amount. 
 
 Another case was given of hops being charged 365. Zd. from 
 Sittingbourne to London, as against 255. for a similar distance 
 by rail plus a sea voyage from Flushing. Again, while the 
 charge for hops from Margate to London is ;^i 185. Zd. per 
 ton, the charge from London to Margate is only 195. 7^. per 
 ton. 
 
 The Secretary of the Royal Agricultural Society ^ said that 
 the South-Eastern Railway charge for the carriage of one ton 
 of hops from Staplehurst Station to London, a distance of 
 forty-one miles, 37^. 2d. On the other hand, they will carry one 
 ton from Boulogne, a distance of ninety-nine miles, into a 
 Borough warehouse, including freight, landing and delivery, 
 for 193-. 7^. 
 
 The London, Brighton and South Coast Railway charge 
 37^. 2d, per ton from Eridge to London, forty-eight miles, while 
 they will bring hops from Dieppe, including shipping freight 
 and rail, into a Borough warehouse for i "js. per ton. 
 
 The Chatham and Dover Company charge 34 j". 2d. per ton for 
 the carriage of hops from Sittingbourne to London, a distance 
 of forty-five miles, while they will bring one ton from Calais, 
 including all the extra expense and labour involved in shipping 
 freight, landing and delivery into a Borough warehouse, a 
 distance of ninety-eight miles, for 195. 7^. per ton. 
 
 Mr. Sankey, an official witness for the Central Chamber of 
 Agriculture, stated that — 
 
 " They (the rates on hops) have been raised continually from 
 
 time to time. In 1852 the charge was ij". Zd. per pocket from 
 
 Pluckley Station — that is, one station nearer to London than 
 
 Ashford ; it is now 3^. From Sandwich, in 187 1, it was 2s. 6d.j 
 
 ^ Appendix, p. 147.
 
 THE BLIGHT ON AGRICULTURE yi 
 
 and in 1876 the rate was raised to y. 3^. A shade over 
 thirty per cent, in the five years." 
 
 " Was any reason alleged by the Railway Company for that 
 rise ? — It did not go up that amount all at once ; it has been 
 put up 3^. a pocket at different times until it reached 3^-. 3^. 
 In 1872 and 1873, I beUeve that wages went up, and also coal 
 was very expensive. 
 
 " But you have not found that the Railway Companies have 
 reduced their rates since there has been a reduction in the 
 price of coal ? — Certainly not, as regards hops." 
 
 This means that when hops were seUing at about £6 per 
 pocket, the railway rates were is. Sd., whereas when they are 
 selling at ^1 10s., or a quarter as much, the rates are 35., or 
 nearly double. 
 
 The same witness gave an instance where, while the rates on 
 grain are ioj". lod. for sixty-three miles from Minster to 
 Snodland, they are only 5^-. for seventy-three miles from 
 Margate to Strood. He also gave this striking testimony to 
 the effect of railway rates — 
 
 "Some of the merchants who come on the Canterbury 
 market, which is the market where nearly all our corn is sent, 
 say, that at certain stations they invariably refused to make an 
 order for any corn, because the rates from those stations are so 
 much higher than from others." ^ 
 
 Mr. Rowlandson stated that the rates upon barley were — 
 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Home. 
 
 From West Hartlepoolto Mirfield 
 
 los. 2 tons 
 
 I Si-. 4d. 2 tons 
 
 EUand 
 
 los. lOil ,, 
 
 iSs. 4d. ,, 
 
 And before the Commission on Trade Depression,^ Mr. Druce, 
 one of the Agricultural Commissioners, declared that the 
 Worcestershire farmers are prevented from selling corn in the 
 Coventry market because of the exorbitant rates. ^ 
 
 Mr. J. Martin, a tenant farmer in the Isle of Ely, was 
 asked — '* Do you find that you have anything to complain of 
 regarding the charges upon railway traflic?" He replied — 
 "Decidedly. I ascertained from my own station that two-ton 
 lots of grain fo London are charged iis. 2d. per ton, while 
 
 1 Q. IZZ^^t scq. 2 Appendix, p. 21. ^ Q. ()i^o et seq.
 
 72 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 two-ton lots from London are charged gs. 2d., that is 2s. per ton 
 difference. . . . Then from Lynn, which is twenty-one miles 
 further from our place, the rate is 5^. 6d. per ton, whereas from 
 London to our station, which is seventy-eight miles, they 
 charge us gs. 2d. " ^ 
 
 Again, a Mincing Lane corn merchant, writing to the Daily 
 Chronicle, asserted that American flour can be sent from 
 America across the Atlantic, and 100 miles inland from 
 Liverpool, at the same charge as for sending English flour ten 
 miles. 
 
 Mr. J. W. Barclay, M.P., one of the members of the Rates 
 Committee, addressing a Traders Conference in the City, said — 
 " I may bring the result home to the minds of landlords and 
 farmers in this country by stating that the difference in rate 
 charged by the Railway Companies between foreign grain and 
 home grain is equal to a tax of 53-. per acre upon the land on 
 which the home grain is raised." ^ 
 
 The same thing prevails with cattle and meat. 
 
 Mr. Rowlandson, a farmer near Darlington, told the Com- 
 mission on Trade Depression that the rate from Newcastle to 
 London for home cattle in small wagons is ^^ \gs. 3^., and 
 for home sheep it is ^5 Zs.; for foreign cattle and sheep it is 
 ;^4. From Newcastle to Manchester it is ;^3 "]$. for home 
 cattle, and £^2 14^. for home sheep, while for foreign cattle and 
 sheep it is ^2 45. 3/^. Newcastle to Leeds, home cattle, the 
 rate is ^2 Zs. 6d. ; home sheep, ^£2 os. 3^. ; foreign cattle 
 ^i lis., and foreign sheep ^i 9^-. While the rate for hay from 
 Newcastle to Rothbury, about forty-one miles, is for home-grown 
 16s., and for foreign loj-. per ton, or sixty per cent, more for 
 English than foreign.^ 
 
 And Mr. Bell, Secretary of the Newcastle Farmers' Club, 
 giving evidence before the Select Committee, put the case of 
 meat thus — "I think these rates act very injuriously to the 
 agriculturist and to the producer of meat in England, because the 
 meat is placed upon the Liverpool market, and coming from 
 abroad competes with the English meat that is on the Liverpool 
 market. This meat in both cases is sent to the London 
 market, and therefore the importer has distinctly the advantage 
 of having a reduced rate, and the buyer can therefore give the 
 1 Q. 8915 et seq. 2 February 14, 1884. ^ Q. 9248 et seq.
 
 THE BLIGHT ON AGRICULTURE 73 
 
 foreigner so much more per cwt. than he can give the English 
 grower of home meat." ^ 
 
 The Secretary of the Royal Agricultural Society - presented 
 to the Select Committee these comparative tables of fruit and 
 vegetable rates — 
 
 CHATHAM AND DOVER COMPANY. 
 
 WALNUTS, APPLES, PLUMS, PEARS, ETC. 
 
 Flushing (Holland) to London 12^. 6./. per ton. 
 
 Queenborough (Kent) ,, ,, 255-. ,, ,, 
 
 GREAT WESTERN. 
 
 Penzance to London Potatoes 45^- per ton. 
 
 J, Broccoli 40J-. ,, ,, 
 
 Cherbourg ,',' ,', Potatoes 30s. ,, ,, 
 
 ,, Broccoli 35^. ,, ,, 
 
 " The estimated tonnage of Cornwall potatoes and broccoli 
 annually sent to London and the North is 30,000 tons, so that 
 about i;i 5,000 more is charged for carriage of home produce, 
 as against foreign, in Cornwall alone." -, -n -j c 
 
 A deputation of market gardeners waiting on the President of 
 the Board of Trade, in 1892, said that English apples from 
 Folkestone were charged 24s. id., while the same weight from 
 France were carried at 15^-. 8^.=^ 
 
 Mr. Sankey pointed out to the Select Committee that while 
 French potatoes can be sent from Boulogne (via Folkestone) to 
 London for 12^. 6d. per ton, the rate for English from Folke- 
 stone is iss. per ton.-^ 
 
 Mr. George Neve (Staplehurst) said that " the effect of this 
 preferential rate for foreign and high rate for English fruit is, in 
 the first place, to give the foreigner a bounty equivalent to los. 
 per ton, or something hke 30.?. per acre over the English 
 grower; and in the second place, by the high charge for the 
 carriage of English fruit, to cause a great deal to be left un- 
 picked in heavy cropping years which would be sent into the 
 market if the charges were moderate. Such being a direct loss 
 to the grower, the labourer who gathers it, and the consumer 
 
 1 <2. 10,550. 2 Appendix, p. 115. 
 
 3 National Railways, p. 333. ^ (?• 7334 ^^ -^'Y-
 
 74 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 who thereby loses a plentiful supply of cheap wholesome 
 fruit." 1 
 
 In the matter of dairy produce the story is the same. 
 
 Mr. Rigby, Secretary of the Cheshire Chamber of Agriculture, 
 told the Committee that while American cheese is sent from 
 Liverpool to London for 2 5>5". per ton, English is charged from 
 Wrexham or Beeston — twenty or thirty miles nearer — at the 
 rate of 42s. to 5^. per ton.- 
 
 Mr. J. Coleman, a Yorkshire farmer, was asked by the Com- 
 mission on Trade Depression if he thought the railway charges 
 pressed very hardly upon the carriage of produce, and replied — 
 " With regard to some items very much indeed, such as 
 manures. In some cases, I beUeve, they are not reduced at 
 all ; although prices have been reduced very much the carriage 
 has not been reduced. In Cheshire there is a most extraordi- 
 nary fact. When I was making my inquiry in Cheshire I 
 ascertained that the cost of conveying cheese by the London 
 and North-Western Railway from Chelford, or one of those 
 stations in mid-Cheshire, to London, was greater than the cost 
 of bringing it from New York right past the very station to 
 London ; the rate was actually less. Also, taking corn from 
 Newcastle to Derby and other inland towns, foreign corn was 
 conveyed at a very considerable less rate than English corn for 
 the same quantity." ^ 
 
 The Secretary of the Royal Agricultural Society ^ submitted 
 to the Select Committee this comparative table for English and 
 foreign butter — 
 
 English. 
 
 In Crocks March to London S6 miles 50jr. per ton or 5*58 per mile. 
 „ ,, Lynn ,, ,, 97 ,, 55^. ,, 6-8o ,, ,, 
 
 „ ,, Swaffham ,, „ 113 ,, 50^. „ 5-30 ,, ,, 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Rotterdam to London 186 miles 4'js. 6d. per ton or 3 '06 per mile. 
 Antwerp ,, ,, 206 ,, 4Ts. 6d. ,, ,, ,,276 ,, ,, 
 
 The Field'-^ has pointed out a series of even grosser anomalies. 
 The rates for imported butter, cheese, bacon, lard, and wool from 
 Southampton Dock to London, distance seventy-six miles, is ds. 
 
 ^ Appendix, p. 157. 2 ^. 7816 ^/ seq. ^ Q. 9090-3. 
 
 ^ Appendix, p. 124. ^ October 6, 1894.
 
 THE BLIGHT ON AGRICULTURE 75 
 
 per ton. From Botley, in the same county, and a similar dis- 
 tance, the rate for all these goods is igs. 2^., or 219 per cent, 
 more than for foreign stuff. The difference in rates between 
 Southampton Dock station (foreign) and the Southampton 
 Town station (home) is as follows : — Hops, 6s. and 20J-. ; apples, 
 5^-. and 12s. iid. ; pressed hay, ^s. and gs. iid.; eggs, 6s. Sd. 
 and 20s. Further, Prof. Hunter showed that while French fruit 
 is charged at the rate of 2^d. per mile to London by the South- 
 Eastern, the same Company charge Kentish farmers 5W. per 
 ton per mile, or more than double. 
 
 Nor do the Companies always confine their charges to the 
 legal maxima. Professor W. Hunter, who is one of the 
 greatest living authorities on railway rates, and who appeared as 
 a witness for the Farmers' Alliance, was examined as follows by 
 the Committee of 188 1-2. 
 
 " Q. Will you take the first case of the London and South- 
 Western Company, and give the Committee what in your opinion 
 are over-charges by that Company in respect of guano and 
 packed manure? 
 
 "^. From Petersfield to Nine Elms the charge is 12s. 6d., 
 and the maximum rate is gs. To Wimbledon the charge is 
 135-. 4d., and the maximum rate is Ss. 2d. To Woking the 
 charge for manure and guano is toj'. per ton, and the maximum 
 rate is 5^*. 4^. To Guildford the charge is 9^-. 2^., and the 
 maximum rate 4s. ^d. To Vv^itley the charge is 6s. 8^., and 
 the maximum rate 3^. To Haslemere the charge is 55. lo^., 
 and the maximum 2s. To Liphook the charge is 55-., and the 
 maximum is i^-. 6d. 
 
 ** Q. In some cases the charges are 300 or 400 per cent, above 
 the charges allowed by the Act ? 
 
 *'^. Yes. Then, taking hops from Nine Elms to Exeter the 
 charge is 555"., and the maximum 48i-. 6d. To Basingstoke the 
 charge is 255-., and the maximum 115. gd. From Petersfield to 
 Exeter the charge is 60s.., and the maximum is 365". For dead 
 poultry and meat, the charge from London to Windsor is igs. 
 2d., and the maximum Ss. 6d. 
 
 *' Q. Now let us take the London and Brighton Railway. 
 Can you give the Committee some particulars with regard to 
 potatoes ? 
 
 "^. For new potatoes the charge from London to Sutton is
 
 76 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 6s. Sd., and the maximum is ij-. gd. From London to Three 
 Bridges the charge is loj-. lod., and the maximum 35-. Sd. 
 From Horsham to Portsmouth the charge is i6s. 3^., and the 
 maximum is 6s. From Brighton to Portsmouth the actual 
 charge is 155-., and the maximum is 55-. Sd. From Tunbridge 
 Wells to Red Hill the charge is ioj". lod., and the maximum is 
 35-. 6d. From West Grinstead to Hastings the charge is ijs. 
 6d., and the maximum is 6s. Sd. Now, taking the London, 
 Brighton and South-Coast Railway Company's trade rates for 
 meat, poultry, eggs, butter, and vegetables (of course I can 
 only compare the charge with the maximum charge for goods), 
 they have a scale ; and I have taken the distance at twenty, 
 forty, fifty, and eighty miles. At a distance of twenty miles 
 they charge 20s. per ton. The maximum rate for eggs is 3^-. 4^., 
 and the maximum rate for other articles is 6s. Sd. Then at 
 forty miles they charge 305'., the maximum rate for eggs being 
 6s. Sd., and for meat i7,s. 4^. At fifty miles they charge 40^-. 
 per ton ; the maximum for eggs is Ss. 4^/., and for other things 
 16s. Sd. At eighty miles they charge 60^. per ton for eggs; 
 the maximum is 13^. 4d., and for meat 26s. Sd. 
 
 " Q. Will you give the Committee some examples of charges 
 upon the London, Chatham and Dover Railway ? 
 
 "A. From Dover to Shepherds Well, where manure is 
 sent in quantities of not less than four tons, the charge is 
 2S. I id. per ton, and if carried in quantities of less than four 
 tons, 3^. 4d. per ton, the legal maximum being gd. per ton. 
 Then from Canterbury to Faversham the charge is 2s. iid.f 
 in quantities of not less than four tons, and 35. 4^. in quantities 
 of less than four tons, the maximum rate being is. 3^. per 
 ton. Then from Faversham to Sittingbourne there is the same 
 rate, 2s. iid. per ton for four tons or over, and 35. 4^. for under 
 four tons, the maximum rate being lo^d. Now, as regards 
 guano and packed manures, from Faversham to Whitstable, in 
 quantities of less than two tons, the charge is 35-. 4d. per ton, 
 and the maximum rate is gd. From Sevenoaks to Blackfriars 
 the charge for hops is 21^. Sd., and the maximum rate is 8^-. jd. 
 From Canterbury to London the maximum rate is 20s. 'jd., and 
 the charge is 355. 
 
 " Q. Will you be good enough to give the Committee some 
 examples of the charges made by the South-Eastern Company ?
 
 THE BLIGHT ON AGRICULTURE 77 
 
 ''A. From Tunbridge Wells to Wadhurst, for fruit the charge 
 is 8j-. 4d. per ton; for dead game, etc., loi-. 10^., the maximum 
 rate being 2s. To Hastings, for fruit, etc., the charge is 155. 
 10^. per ton ; for dead game igs. yd., the maximum rate being 
 gs. 4d. Then from Hastings to Robertsbridge, the charge is 
 10^. 5^. for fruit, 145. 2d. for dead game, the maximum rate 
 being 4^. 4^."^ 
 
 1 See Summary of Evidence, RaikiHiy Rales and Radical Rule, by J. B. 
 Pope, pp. 55—65.
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE PLAINT OF THE PASSENGERS 
 
 The most significant feature of our passenger traffic is the 
 wonderful growth of the third class. From being an utterly 
 despised kind of freight, he has emerged into the proud position 
 of providing the Companies with the bulk of their passenger 
 income. Up to Mr. Gladstone's famous Cheap Trains Act of 
 1844, he had not even a legal status. Many Companies would 
 not carry him at any price, others put him into dirty open 
 goods trucks, and hauled him through the country attached to 
 cattle trains. Packed in his bufferless box, with two wooden 
 bars crossing each other in the middle, he was carelessly 
 shunted about for hours, and often enjoyed the delights of 
 remaining at a wayside station all night. Even when he finally 
 got to his destination, sore with his buffetings and worn out 
 with the delays, a flaring poster consoled him with the an- 
 nouncement that " the Company's servants are strictly ordered 
 not to porter for wagon passengers." ^ Mr. Hole states that 
 the South-Eastern Railway directors definitely instructed their 
 officials to place third-class trains in sidings, where they stood 
 for hours. The then manager (Major Walter) tried to get 
 better treatment for them, but was told by Lord Torrington 
 that "it was an utter subversion of the Company's revenue, and 
 any such revolutionary experiment was sure to result in ruin." ^ 
 While the Duke of Wellington, with that aristocratic prejudice 
 which characterized his excursions into the domain of social 
 affairs, declared that " third-class facilities are a breach of con- 
 
 1 Coruhill Magazine. ^ National JRaihvays, p. 15 1. 
 
 78
 
 THE PLAINT OF TPIE PASSENGERS 
 
 79 
 
 tract, a premium to the lower orders to go uselessly wandering 
 about the country." ^ 
 
 Now for every first-class passenger there are twenty-eight 
 third-class, and for every second-class fourteen third-class. 
 The growth has been very rapid since about 1870. In 1871, 
 upon the London and North- Western for example, the number 
 of passenger miles for the respective classes were as follows — 
 
 First Class. 
 
 101)155)333 
 
 Second Class. 
 160,644,800 
 
 Third Class. 
 264,013,600 
 
 While in 1888 the figures w^ere- 
 
 First Class. 
 88,085,600 
 
 Second Class. 
 70)377)984 
 
 Third Class. 
 663,341,867 
 
 Showing a decrease of 12-9 per cent, in first class, and 56*2 per 
 cent, in second class; and the enormous increase of 151*3 per 
 cent, in third class.^ From 1876 to 1885, upon the Midland, 
 the average number of passengers carried in each first-class 
 carriage decreased by 2,251, or 54 per cent., while during the 
 same period the number of passengers for each third-class 
 carriage increased by 1765, or about 10 per cent.^ A similar 
 great increase took place over the whole railway system, and 
 has been consistently maintained, as the following table^ shows — 
 
 Year. 
 
 First Class. 
 
 Second Class. 
 
 Third Class. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1886 
 
 32,330,838 
 
 60,686,485 
 
 632,567,067 
 
 725,584,390 
 
 1887 
 
 31)323,739 
 
 64,139,35^ 
 
 638,215,386 
 
 733,<^7^,53^ 
 
 1888 
 
 30,261,717 
 
 63,303,919 
 
 648,933,528 
 
 742,499,164 
 
 1889 
 
 30,074,810 
 
 62,687,927 
 
 682,420,336 
 
 775,'i83,o73 
 
 1890 
 
 30,187,067 
 
 62,859,854 
 
 724,697,125 
 
 817,744,046 
 
 1891 
 
 30,423,776 
 
 63,378,397 
 
 751,661,495 
 
 845,463,668 
 
 1892 
 
 30,602,324 
 
 61,847,813 
 
 771,985,251 
 
 864,435,388 
 
 1893 
 
 30,048,982 
 
 59,989,640 
 
 783,138,430 
 
 873,177,052 
 
 1894 
 
 29,821,010 
 
 60,161,714 
 
 821,430,202 
 
 911,412,926 
 
 1895 
 
 29,990,006 
 
 58,567,859 
 
 841,213,044 
 
 929,770,909 
 
 ^ National Railways^ p. 151. 
 
 ^ The Working and Management of an English Railway, p. 309. 
 
 ^ Railway Problems, J. S. Jeans, p. 502. 
 
 * Board of Trade Report for 1895, c. 8208.
 
 8o 
 
 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 Looked at from the point of view of gross receipts, the growth 
 of the third class has been quite as remarkable. 
 
 From 1866 to 1870, under the old system, the income from 
 the third class increased on— 
 
 The Midland ... ... ... 44 per cent. 
 
 London and North^Vestern ... 22 ,, ,, 
 Great Northern ... ... ... 20 ,, ,, 
 
 But from 1870 to 1873, under the improved system of adding 
 third class to more trains, the increase in the third class was 
 on — 
 
 The Midland 
 
 London and North-Western 
 Great Northern 
 
 155 
 128 
 126I 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Taking intervals of five years for the quarter of a century from 
 1870 to 1895, t^^^ receipts from the three classes on all the 
 railways were as follows ^ — 
 
 Year. 
 
 First Class. 
 
 Second Class. 
 
 Third Class. 
 
 1870 
 
 ;^3, 330,000 
 
 ;^4, 365,000 
 
 ^6,177,000 
 
 1875 
 
 3,983,000 
 
 3,293,000 
 
 11,082,000 
 
 1880 
 
 3,250,000 
 
 3,061,000 
 
 12,750,000 
 
 1885 
 
 2,646,000 
 
 2,494,000 
 
 15,212,000 
 
 1890 
 
 2,637,000 
 
 2,278,000 
 
 18,164,000 
 
 1895 
 
 3,034,449 
 
 1,935,029 
 
 23,796,137 
 
 Between 1876 and 1885 the average receipts from each first- 
 class carriage of the Midland decreased by ;^283 per annum, 
 or 46 per cent., while in the same interval the receipts from 
 each third-class carriage increased by ;£iio, or 14 percent. 
 In 1885 each third-class carriage earned nearly three times as 
 much as each first-class, and carried nine times as many 
 passengers.^ 
 
 Taking the years 187 1 and 1888 for purposes of comparison, 
 Sir George Findlay says that the gross receipts of the London 
 
 1 The Million on the Rail and Raihvay Dividends (1878), by G. W. 
 Jones. 
 
 2 Board of Trade Returns. ^ Railway Problems, p. 502.
 
 THE PLAINT OF THE PASSENGERS 
 
 8i 
 
 and North-Western Railway from passenger traffic (including 
 season tickets) were as follows ^ — 
 
 Year. 
 
 First Class. 'Second Class. 
 
 Third Class. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1871 
 
 1888 
 
 ^758,665 
 550,535 
 
 ;^903,627 
 366,552 
 
 ;^990,05I 
 
 2,487,552 
 
 ^2,652,343 
 3,404,619 
 
 Increase 
 Decrease 
 
 208,130 
 
 — 1,497,501 
 537,075 — 
 
 752,276 
 
 So that the first-class receipts decreased 27 per cent., and the 
 second-class 59 per cent. ; while the third-class increased by 
 151 per cent. ; the total increase from all classes being 28 per 
 cent. Within the same period the capital invested in the 
 undertaking increased to the extent of about 46 per cent. But 
 it is in comparison between the net receipts from the different 
 classes where the vast importance of the " democratic third " 
 is fully seen. In the work already quoted, Sir George Findlay 
 gives this comparative table of net receipts upon his line for 
 1 87 1 and 1888, and rightly says that its significance can hardly 
 be exaggerated ^ — 
 
 Year. 
 
 First Class. 
 
 Second Class. 
 
 Third Class. 
 
 
 Working 
 Expenses 
 percent. 
 
 Net 
 
 Profit 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Working 
 Expenses 
 per cent. 
 
 Net 
 
 Profit 
 
 percent. 
 
 Working 
 Expenses 
 per cent. 
 
 Net 
 
 Profit 
 
 per cent. 
 
 1871 
 1S88 
 
 55 'OO 
 92-05 
 
 47-00 
 7-95 
 
 51-55 
 
 72-55 
 
 48-45 
 27-45 
 
 36-35 
 42-25 
 
 63-65 
 
 57-75 
 
 From this it will be seen that the net profit on first-class traffic, 
 which in 187 1 was nearly half of the gross receipts, has 
 diminished, until in the year 1888 it represents not quite 8 per 
 cent, of the gross receipts. The profit upon second-class 
 traffic, which in 187 1 was also nearly half the gross receipts, 
 has now, from the same causes, dwindled to little more than 
 a quarter, while that of the third-class has only decreased by 
 6 per cent. 
 
 ^ The Working and Management of an English Railway^ pp. 308-9. 
 - Ibid. p. 312. 
 
 G
 
 82 
 
 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 Another calculation by the same eminent authority shows 
 that the net earnings per passenger per mile, after payment of 
 working expenses, for the two periods under comparison, were 
 approximately as under — 
 
 Year. 
 
 First Class. 
 
 Second Class. 
 
 Third Class. 
 
 1871 
 1888 
 
 d. 
 •85 
 
 •12 
 
 d. 
 •65 
 •34 
 
 d. 
 •52 
 
 So that, under the old state of things, the first-class traffic 
 paid best, but the second-class paid better than the third ; 
 while under present conditions the third-class is the most 
 remunerative traffic, the second-class comes next, and the 
 profit on first-class appears to be very small indeed.^ Still 
 more recently Sir George Findlay has stated that^ "to obtain 
 ;^ioo from first-class passengers it cost the 
 
 London and North-Western Railv/ay ;^92, but from third- 
 class only ;£"42. 
 
 Great Northern ;£"94, but from third-class only ^53. 
 
 London, Brighton and South Coast ^76, but from third-class 
 only ^30." 
 
 And on the same occasion he submitted an able analysis 
 of the North-Western accounts for the year 1888, made by 
 Mr. R. Price Williams, C.E., which showed that in that year 
 working expenses for the 
 
 First class amounted to 
 
 97-0 per cent, of receipts 
 
 Second 
 
 io4'44 „ » 
 
 Third 
 
 41*0 „ „ 
 
 Put in another form — 
 
 Of the II 1-3^. received in that year from each of the 
 51,500,000 third-class passengers, 6^. each was net profit; of 
 the 5i-. received from each of the 1,915,815 first-class passengers, 
 the profit was only i 1-3^. each; while the 3,331,935 second- 
 class passengers were carried at a loss of ;£"i 5,000. Thus the 
 third-class passenger has not only provided practically all the 
 
 ^ The Working and Management of an E7iglish Railway, p. 312. 
 ^ Paper before Society of Arts, Feb. 14, 1890.
 
 THE PLAINT OF THE PASSENGERS 83 
 
 profit derived from passenger traffic, but he is also compelled 
 to make up the loss involved on account of the second-class 
 passenger. Or, to again quote Sir George Findlay — 
 
 " The Companies, in short, have spent and are spending 
 large sums of money in providing the most luxurious accommo- 
 dation and every facility and convenience for the benefit of the 
 superior classes, but they are doing this practically at their own 
 expense, and it is really the humble and once despised third- 
 class traveller who furnishes the sinews of war." ^ 
 
 Many of the Companies have found it more profitable in 
 fact to follow the example of the Midland in abolishing the 
 second-class carriages. The Great Northern has aboHshed the 
 second class for long-distance traffic, with the result of trans- 
 ferring it to the third, but probably with no ultimate loss. 
 The Manchester and Sheffield line has also ceased to issue 
 seconds on certain portions of its lines. The Hull and 
 Barnsley has abolished the second class, and the result is 
 an increase of 9 per cent, of passengers, and 3^ per cent, in 
 receipts. All the Scotch railways have abandoned the second 
 class (except the Highland), and the second class may be 
 considered as doomed.'^ 
 
 While, however, the third-class passenger has the honour of 
 paying the piper, he has not the right of calling the tune. It is 
 true that all Companies have seen the wisdom of providing him 
 with many more trains than the minimum of one per day re- 
 quired by the Act of 1844. It is equally true that most of the 
 Companies give him the advantage of travelling by many of the 
 express services. And it is boasted that he can have a selection 
 from one of several alternative routes, with trains starting and 
 arriving at practically the same time. But this is very largely, 
 as Professor Mavor puts it, "a delusively attractive service — 
 delusively attractive because trains start at the same hour from 
 each station, whereas the public convenience would demand 
 that they should be so arranged as to give the maximum num- 
 ber of opportunities for travel." ^ There are 37 trains per day 
 
 1 p. 316. 
 
 - For an exceedingly interesting and able discussion of the statistical 
 aspects of passenger traffic the reader may be referred to a series of articles 
 by Mr. R. A. Cooper in the Weekly Times and Echo during December and 
 January last. 
 
 ^ ** Scottish Railway Strike," Economic Journal, March 1891, p. 209.
 
 84 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 from London to Manchester by four routes, 32 to Liverpool by 
 four routes, and 1 8 to Edinburgh by three routes. The great 
 majority of these dupUcated services start from the different 
 stations within a few minutes of each other, which is of no 
 special advantage to the public. It would suit them much 
 better to have half the total number of trains to Manchester, 
 but to have them at different times by the shortest route* 
 And a portion of the surplus might then be used for improving 
 the services to and from other places which now suffer from a 
 deficiency. But it would be the merest pedantry to belittle 
 our express services to and from London and the North. They 
 are probably on the whole the most admirable in the world in 
 the matter of speed ; and in comfort and internal convenience 
 they compare favourably with those of any other country. 
 They are provided with luxurious carriages, with lavatories, 
 and with ladies' compartments. Some have corridor-carriages 
 and Pullman dining-saloons. The fact is, however, that the 
 express service is to the other passenger service very much 
 what an only son is among a family of middle-class daughters. 
 He is the chief object of attention, and that he may shine well 
 in the world, and shed lustre upon his family, expense is 
 lavished upon him to the neglect of his sisters. And so with 
 the railways. We find the advantages attending the express 
 services are by no means universal. They are, indeed, the 
 exception and not the rule. Speaking generally, the Times is 
 constrained to declare that — 
 
 " In the matter of the comfort and convenience of the rail- 
 way traveller, it is hardly too much to say that we are only just 
 beginning to escape from the tyranny of established fact and 
 routine. . . . The light afforded is still so scanty and so incon- 
 veniently placed that comfort in reading is altogether out of 
 the question. On the shortcomings of the costly, cumbrous, 
 and ludicrously inefficient method of heating railway carriages 
 by means of hot-water tins we need hardly dwell at length. 
 The whole system is a barbarous anachronism, of which the 
 utmost that can be said is that it is, perhaps, a little better than 
 nothing, and that, in the event of a colHsion, there is no possi- 
 bility of its increasing the catastrophe by setting fire to the 
 train. It must be obvious that in both these respects there is 
 room for an almost indefinite amount of improvement, and no
 
 THE PLAINT OF THE PASSENGERS 85 
 
 sensible man will consider that the comfort and convenience of 
 railway travel have even begun to approach their limits until 
 railway carriages are warmed in cold weather to a temperature 
 conducive to health and comfort, and lighted in such a manner 
 that a passenger of average sight can read at night without 
 serious injury to his eyesight." ^ 
 
 The condition of things upon some of the chief southern 
 systems, and especially in their suburban traffic, is nothing short 
 of a scandal. Take the South-Eastern and the London, Chat- 
 ham and Dover for example. "Many of their carriages," to 
 quote Sir Francis Peek, "are hardly fit for cattle trucks, and 
 all are dirty and generally ill kept." - A similar description is 
 equally applicable to the suburban thirds of the Great Eastern. 
 Nor do most of them think it necessary to provide proper 
 light; the Chatham and Dover being apparently satisfied if 
 one light out of five survives in a journey from Kentish Town 
 to Victoria. The District and Metropolitan District make a 
 profit out of their neglect in this respect by giving their cus- 
 tomers the option of putting a penny into a slot-lamp for the 
 privilege of getting sufficient light to read. 
 
 The deficiency of accommodation is a feature from which 
 none of the Companies running into London, at least, are free, 
 although some of them are much greater sinners than others. 
 On several oi the lines, as Lord Chief Justice Russell has put 
 it — " Men, women, and children are forced into the trains in 
 a way they would not herd sheep or bullocks."^ The over- 
 crowded carriages that come into Liverpool Street, Waterloo, 
 London Bridge, Ludgate Hill, and other London termini are 
 nothing short of disgraceful. It is no uncommon thing to 
 see crammed into compartments registered for ten people as 
 many as twenty and twenty-two passengers, especially on wet 
 days, when their clothes give off an effiuvia as dangerous as 
 it is offensive. Even as this chapter is being written there 
 appears the report of an inquest upon a woman suffocated 
 through travelling in an overcrowded Great Eastern train from 
 Stratford to Bow, a distance of less than a mile.^ 
 
 Bus, Tram, and Steamship Companies are heavily punished 
 
 1 June 9, 1S92. 2 Times, Feb. 5, 1892. 
 
 ^ National Railways, p. 155. 
 ^ Daily Navs, April 22, 1897.
 
 86 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 for what the Railway Companies are allowed to do with 
 perfect impunity. And, if a third-class passenger tries to 
 escape from the packed boxes into an empty second or first- 
 class carriage, he is fined for " defrauding the Companies." 
 
 Many passenger stations are in a most unsatisfactory con- 
 dition. A considerable number have outgrown the needs of 
 the traffic. Especially is this the case in London, where the 
 County Council have passed a strong resolution demanding 
 their overhauling and needful alterations. But strangely 
 enough the Board of Trade have no power over the condition 
 of a station once its original plan has been passed, and none 
 of the Local Government Authorities have had any power as 
 to structural conditions conferred upon them. The fearful 
 catastrophe upon the North London Railway at Hampstead 
 Heath Station a few years ago, when seven people lost their 
 lives, was entirely due to the fact that the barrier was at the 
 foot instead of the head of the long staircase. To prevent 
 another calamity at the same place, the necessary alteration 
 has been made there, but at scores of other stations a precisely 
 similar accident might occur any day from the same cause. 
 Not only are conditions of safety absent from many stations, 
 however, but a still larger number are comfortless and in- 
 convenient. Sir Francis Peek, in the letter to the Ti7nes already 
 quoted, appeals " for help on behalf of the long-suffering resi- 
 dents in the south of London, who day by day are exposed 
 not only to great discomfort, but often to physical danger, 
 through the failure of the Railway Companies to carry out the 
 moral, if not legal, obligation of supplying proper station 
 accommodation, as well as a sufficiency of decent carriages 
 and reasonable facilities for the convenience of the districts 
 over which Parliament has granted them a monopoly. The 
 three chief offenders are undoubtedly the London, Chat- 
 ham and Dover Railway, the London and South-Western 
 Railway, and the South-Eastern Railway. On the first, the 
 two nearest stations to my residence supply a large and 
 populous district, and the platforms are often crowded, yet the 
 only stations provided are wooden sheds, put up about thirty 
 years ago for temporary purposes." ^ 
 
 There are a large number of minor causes for legitimate 
 1 Feb. 5, 1892.
 
 THE PLAINT OF THE PASSENGERS 87 
 
 complaint, which are as vexatious as they are absurd. The 
 brief limit of time for which tickets are available, the refusal 
 to permit journeys to be broken, the objection to transferring 
 return halves of tickets, the refusal to treat bicycles and 
 bassinettes as passengers' luggage, and the ridiculous charges 
 made for them; and the petty restrictions placed upon the 
 issue of tickets for parties, and athletic clubs, and schools. 
 All these and many others are really quite trivial, but they 
 are all so needless, and yet so exasperating, that there is neither 
 rhyme nor reason for their continuance under a properly 
 organized railway system. 
 
 Then there is the exceedingly important question of punctu- 
 ality, which of course affects all classes. An impression 
 prevails in some quarters that an almost ideal punctuality is 
 practised by our Railway Companies, with certain notable 
 exceptions. This is very far from being the case. 
 
 Dealing with the Board of Trade returns for 1891, the 
 Times declared that the punctuality "leaves much, very much, 
 to be desired. In September, for instance, the percentage of 
 punctuality of up trains on most hues was under 10 per cent. 
 On the Great Northern and the Midland it was more like 
 5 per cent. On the Caledonian, between Aberdeen and 
 Edinburgh, it fell to under i per cent., a figure that is only 
 beaten by the down trains of the Highland from Perth to 
 Inverness, which show 77 per cent, punctual, as against 40 
 per cent, over 30 minutes late. Surely directors and managers 
 should lay to heart the lesson of these figures. It can hardly 
 be claimed that they are creditable to English railway 
 management." ^ 
 
 The following is a summary of the only returns made last 
 year, and which only cover the months of June, July, and 
 August, 1895, and train-runs of more than 50 miles- — 
 
 1 Railway {Times of Trains) Return 113, 1S96. 
 
 2 Dec. 26, 1S92.
 
 88 
 
 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 Name of Line and Terminus. 
 
 Total No. of Trains. 
 
 Percentage unpunctual 
 by more than 5 minutes. 
 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 August. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Great Western (Paddington) 
 
 1,085 
 
 1,196 
 
 1,196 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 72 
 
 London and South-Western 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Waterloo) ... 
 
 I»I33 
 
 1,294 
 
 1,293 
 
 S4 
 
 49 
 
 59 
 
 London, Brighton and South 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coast (Victoria) . . . 
 
 i>o34 
 
 1,193 
 
 1,171 
 
 57 
 
 69 
 
 82 
 
 (London Bridge) ... 
 
 1,271 
 
 1,440 
 
 1,427 
 
 42 
 
 50 
 
 66 
 
 London, Chatham and Dover 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Victoria) ... 
 
 697 
 
 795 
 
 771 
 
 41 
 
 61 
 
 57 
 
 (Holborn) ... 
 
 ^n 
 
 766 
 
 736 
 
 ^^ 
 
 77 
 
 62 
 
 (St. Paul's) ... 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 30 
 
 39 
 
 53 
 
 ^1 
 
 South-Eastern (London Brdg. ) 
 
 854 
 
 1,078 
 
 1,038 
 
 35 
 
 44 
 
 57 
 
 (Cannon Street) ... 
 
 883 
 
 1,109 
 
 1,068 
 
 36 
 
 45 
 
 59 
 
 (Charing Cross) ... 
 
 902 
 
 1,132 
 
 1,090 
 
 54 
 
 59 
 
 72 
 
 But the chief count in the third-class passenger's indictment 
 against the present system is the exceedingly high fares that 
 are charged. Fares are as rigidly fixed by combination be- 
 tween the Companies as the rates for goods. Lord Randolph 
 Churchill, as a member of the Select Committee of 1 88 1-2, 
 asked Mr. Grierson if there was precisely the same combination 
 for fixing fares as for fixing rates? "Yes," replied the Great 
 Western Manager, "the fares between all competitive places 
 are agreed." ^ The Parliamentary maximum of a penny per 
 mile for the shortest route is made the Companies' minimum, 
 as the following typical cases taken from the ABC Guide 
 will show — 
 
 FROM LONDON TO— 
 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Swansea. 
 
 Per Great Western 203!) 
 
 ,, London and North-Western ... 278 / 
 
 Single 
 
 Third-class P'are. 
 s. d. 
 
 17 2 
 
 Hereford. 
 
 ,, Great Western I44t\ 
 
 ,, London and North-Western ... 213!^/ 
 
 ... 
 
 12 
 
 1 Q. 12,861-2. 
 

 
 THE PLAINT OF THE PASSENGERS 89 
 
 FROM LONDON TO— 
 
 Miles. Single Third-class Fare. 
 
 DOWLAIS. S. d. 
 
 14 I 
 
 Per Great Western 177^ 
 
 ,, London and North- Western ... 254^/ 
 
 Dudley. 
 
 ,, London and North-Wcstern ... 121^ ,0 i 
 
 ,, Great Western 138I/ 
 
 Liverpool. 
 
 ,, London and North-Western ... 201 \ 
 
 ,, Midland I ^ 15 5 
 
 , , Great Northern j 
 
 ,, Great Western 229 j 
 
 Manchester. 
 
 ,, London and North-Wcstern ... 1S3.M 
 
 ,, Midland 1S5 I iq ri 
 
 ,, Great Northern 203.M 
 
 ,. Great Western J 
 
 22 
 
 Newcastle. 
 
 ,, Great Northern 272 ) 
 
 ,, Midland 297.^) 
 
 Glasgow. 
 
 ,, London and North- Western ... 401 H 
 
 „ Midland r ••• 33 o 
 
 ,, Great Northern 444 j 
 
 Hastings. 
 
 ,, South-Eastern 62 \ 5 O-i 
 
 ,, London, Brighton and South Coast 76/ 
 
 Ramsgate. 
 
 ,, London, Chatham and Dover ... 79\ g 7 
 
 ,, South-Eastem 86) 
 
 Mr. Grierson assured the Committee that no Company carries 
 at a loss, and admitted that while the Company with the 
 longest route would probably make a profit of 10 to 20 per 
 cent, that with the shortest would make 30 or 40 per cent, 
 because of having a much less train mileage to run.i As a true 
 disciple of the renowned Dr. Pangloss, Mr. Acworlh endeavours 
 to show that the high fares in England are all for the best in 
 this best of all possible worlds. To be strictly accurate, what 
 he tries to show is that passenger fares in the different countries 
 
 ^ Q. 12,870-8,
 
 90 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 vary according to the relative ability of the average wage-earner 
 to pay them.^ This is plausible enough as a theory, but it is 
 not borne out by the facts, for the fares ought to vary with the 
 wages of the workers in the respective countries. This they 
 do not do, as the following tables show. 
 
 Country, 
 
 Weekly wages according to Mulhall. 
 
 England 
 
 3 IS. oci. 
 
 France 
 
 21 S. Oil. 
 
 Holland 
 
 20S. od. 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 20S. od. 
 
 Belgium 
 
 20S. od. 
 
 Germany 
 
 i6s. od. 
 
 Hungary 
 
 i6s. od. 
 
 Austria 
 
 i6s. od. 
 
 Sweden 
 
 iSs. ^d. 
 
 Italy 
 
 1 5 J. od. 
 
 Russia 
 
 I5J-. od. 
 
 But this is the order in which the third-class fares (or fourth- 
 class where they exist) come out according to the Archiv fur 
 Eise7ibahnivesen — 
 
 Country. Pfennigs per kilometre. 
 
 France 5*42 
 
 England 5 -5 
 
 Holland 4*25 
 
 Switzerland 4"i6 
 
 Italy 4-07 
 
 Sweden 3*92 
 
 Hungary 3 -24 
 
 Belgium 3*0 
 
 Russia 2 "81 
 
 Germany 2*0 to 4*67 
 
 Austria 2*o 
 
 But the suggestion that the railways should be allowed to 
 charge what they think we can afford to give is as dangerous 
 as it is absurd, and its fallacy was effectively exposed by Mr. 
 Gladstone in 1844, when he declared that — ''It is no sound 
 reason that because this country is rich it should pay Railway 
 Companies more than necessary, or that cheap travelling should 
 not be provided for the public. But there is no likelihood 
 that the great experiment of the greatest possible cheapness to 
 the public will be tried under the present system." ^ 
 
 1 Nineteenth Century^ September 1891. 
 ^ Hansard, June 1844.
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 workmen's trains and crowded cities 
 
 It might have been supposed that three classes of carriages 
 were sufficient, even for the most insistent sticklers for the 
 artificial barriers of class distinction, without adding a fourth 
 in the shape of workmen's trains. But the reason for the 
 addition is not far to seek. The demand for cheap transit for 
 the toilers to and from their daily duties was found irresistible. 
 How was it to be met without jeopardizing the Parliamentary 
 maximum of a penny per mile for the third-class passenger ? 
 That was what the Companies set themselves to solve. If the 
 new cheap tickets were made available for the ordinary third- 
 class train, it was clear that they could not logically resist 
 their universal issue. So, as a compromise, the expedient was 
 resorted to of creating the Workmen's Train. Of course the 
 workmen's train is a constituent part of the general passenger 
 problem, but as, under present circumstances, it is peculiarly 
 associated with the city health and housing problem, it will be 
 more convenient to deal with it in a separate chapter. And 
 while it seriously affects every district with an industrial 
 population, it is in London where its deficiences are most 
 vitally felt. It will, therefore, be best for us to discuss the 
 question chiefly in the light of the metropolitan needs and 
 experiences. 
 
 No feature of our modern civilization is more terrible m 
 its results than the constant growth of our towns. Forcibly 
 detached from the soil by the automatic operation of our bad 
 land system, and by other economic causes, of which, as we 
 have already seen, the action of the Railway Companies in 
 
 91
 
 92 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 conceding preferential rates for foreign to the exclusion of 
 home produce is among the chief, there is a ceaseless flow of 
 our rural population to the great industrial centres. Here 
 they herd and crowd together under most injurious and 
 unhealthy conditions, until their vitality is sapped, and if they 
 themselves do not bear visible traces of physical degeneration 
 their children do, in stunted growth, blanched faces, and 
 shorter leases of life. This process is fearfully accelerated in 
 the subsequent generations up to the fourth, when, unless 
 replenished with fresh infusions from the country, the physical 
 capacity to bear children practically ceases. Astounding as 
 this may seem, it is unfortunately true that a Londoner of the 
 fifth generation is as rare as a swallow in the City. Says 
 Professor Alfred Marshall — " The large towns, and especially 
 London, absorb the very best blood from all the rest of 
 England ; the most enterprising, the most highly gifted, those 
 with the highest //^j^/^2/^, and the strongest characters go there 
 to find scope for their abifities. But by the time their children, 
 and children's children have grown up without healthy play 
 and without fresh air, there is little trace left of their original 
 vigour. This is seen even in trades that require but little 
 muscular strength; only a very small proportion of those 
 artisans, to whom London owes its pre-eminence as a centre 
 of highly-skilled work, come from parents who were born there ; 
 and there are scarcely any whose grandparents were born 
 there."! 
 
 Overcrowding is one of the chief factors in bringing about 
 this most calamitous degeneration. Long ago Dr. Farr and 
 others pointed out that there is "a constant increase of 
 mortality running parallel with the increase of density of 
 population."^ And this has been most conclusively shown 
 by the Health and Housing Committee of the London County 
 Council. In a report emphasizing the grave need for cheap 
 trains, 3 they declared that the mean death-rate in different 
 groups of districts in the metropolis, during the seven years 
 ending 1891, is as follows — 
 
 ^ Principles of Economics^ p. 257. 
 2 Vital Statistics,^. 173. 
 ^ November 21, 1893.
 
 WORKMEN'S TRAINS AND CROWDED CITIES 93 
 
 Mean death-rate 
 per looo. 
 
 Districts with a density of under 40 persons per acre ... 15 '27 
 
 40 to 80 ,, „ ... 19-04 
 
 8otoi30 ,, ,, ... 19-24 
 
 ,, ,, ,, ,, 120 to 160 ,, ,, ... 22-60 
 
 ,, ,, ,, over 160 ,, ,, ... 23-88 
 
 County of London with a density of about 57 persons per acre ... 19-90 
 
 Mr. R. Williams, A.R.I. B. A., has supplanted these terrible 
 figures with some that are even more terrible. He gives the 
 following examples of close density of population and high 
 death-rate — 
 
 Death-rate per looo. 
 
 Borough-ro.id Sub-District, 2597 per acre 32"3 
 
 " Model " Dwellings, 2, 500 per acre 26-0 
 
 Typical Rookeries, 3,600 per acre ... ... ... ••• 40'° 
 
 Contrast these with the declaration of Sir B. W. Richardson 
 that there is no natural reason why we should not have 
 
 Death-rate per looo. 
 A City of Health, with 25 persons per acre, and only 8-o^ 
 
 8-0 per thousand applied to Inner London's population of 
 4j370j^35 ii^ i894» gives an annual death-rate of 34,745 ^^ 
 natural. The actual number in that year was 75,705,'- so that 
 the unnatural deaths amounted to the awful total of 40,745 
 for a single year. 
 
 But the rate of mortality is only a part of the evil. To 
 quote Dr. Farr — "The very conditions which diminish the 
 numbers killed in the battle of life diminish the numbers of 
 wounded, and as every single death by violence implies the 
 injury or mutilation of survivors, so nearly all the zymotic 
 diseases leave irreparable traces in the blind, the deaf, the 
 weak in body or brain. By removing the discovered causes 
 of death you at the same time remove conditions which prevent 
 the progress towards perfection of the English race." ^ 
 
 ^ London, November 5, 1895. 
 
 2 Annual Report (1894) Medical Ojjiccr of Health, London County 
 Council. 
 
 ' Vital Statistics^ p. 131.
 
 94 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 But, as the Health Committee of the London County 
 Council declare — "There is no known method by which 
 population can be crowded as in London without danger to 
 health and loss of life. Additional air space is impossible 
 within the business limits of London ; room must be sought 
 outside, and improved means of locomotion provided. Rail- 
 ways imist^ for the most part, be relied upon for conveying 
 passengers a sufficient distanced ^ 
 
 The Royal Commission upon the Housing of the Working 
 Classes came to precisely the same conclusion. The Majority 
 Report, signed by H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, the Marquis 
 of SaHsbury, Lord Brownlow, Lord Carrington, Mr. G. J. 
 Goschen, Sir Charles Dilke (the chairman), and others, 
 declared that — " If the railways are to be utilized for the 
 benefit of the poorer wage-earning classes, two conditions must 
 be satisfied — First, the fares must not exceed the difference 
 between the rent of their homes in the over-crowded districts 
 which ought to be relieved, and the lower rents in the suburbs j 
 secondly, the Companies must provide carriages at these 
 reduced fares which will bring the people to and from their 
 work at C07ivenient\iOMx?>r - And in dealing with the contention 
 of several Companies that the requirements of the Act of 1883 
 were somewhat inconvenient, this same Majority Report declares 
 that — " The State has interfered in this matter (of workmen's 
 trains) in the public interest rather with reference to what the 
 working classes can afford than to what will pay the Companies. 
 The State assumes and exercises the right to control the price 
 of conveyance, on account of the monopoly which the Com- 
 panies are presumed to exercise in the conveyance of traffic." ^ 
 It is important to bear in mind that the upgrowth of 
 suburbs is now primarily dependent upon railway faciHties. 
 As Sir Blundell Maple says, builders and capitalists will 
 not put up houses for the working classes in the outer suburbs 
 until a maximum low fare supersedes the penny a mile, and it 
 is impossible for those employed in the metropolis to reside in 
 the outer suburbs until houses are built for them to inhabit.'' 
 But the health and general well-being demand not merely that 
 
 ^ Report, November 21, 1893. 
 
 2 First Report, Housing of the Working Classes, 1885, c. 4402, p. 49. 
 Jbid. p. 50. 4 London, May 2, 1895.
 
 WORKMEN'S TRAINS AND CROWDED CITIES 95 
 
 the workers should be taken out of the " stifling alley, noisome 
 den," and planted in districts free from the evil of over- 
 crowding. They also require them to be freely distributed 
 among other classes of the community, and in houses built 
 upon land that possesses the first elements of sanitary fitness. 
 Neither of these conditions are fulfilled by the present system. 
 There was no human necessity why Greater London, in its 
 outward growth, should not have spread its roots and branches 
 almost entirely over high and healthy ground. But under our 
 go-as-you-please railway policy, the growth of districts has not 
 been determined by health considerations at all, but by railway 
 facihties. Thus the Great Eastern Railway Company had 
 running powers through the Essex Marshes, north of the 
 Thames, and along the Lea Valley. Suddenly it utilized them 
 by giving special facilities in workmen's trains. Thereupon 
 Tottenham and West Ham spring up from small places into 
 huge centres of industrial population, with vast estates of jerry- 
 built boxes, having bogs for foundations, ditches for pathways, 
 and stagnant pools for gardens. They are a veritable Garden 
 of Eden — as Martin Chuzzlewit and Mark Tapley really found 
 it ! Partially lying below the river level (part of Tottenham is 
 below the level of the Lea), it is painfully instructive to contrast 
 their death-rates with other districts lying on higher ground in 
 the outskirts of the London County, and in the ring of 
 
 Greater London. 
 
 Death-rate 
 per 1000. 
 
 Tottenham iS'o 
 
 West Ham 16 2 
 
 Stoke Newington I3'4 
 
 "Wandsworth I4'8 
 
 Hampstead ... ... ... ... I2'0 
 
 Croydon ... ... ... ... ... 7*9 
 
 But the evil of town growth upon marshy ground only 
 represents a small part of the gross evils which arise from a 
 single Company giving very special facilities for workmen's 
 trains. Facilities in only one direction mean that there will 
 be an undue congregation of workmen's houses there. This
 
 96 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 means two things. First, it means that the cost of public 
 education, poor law administration, and local government is 
 much heavier, because the proportion of children requiring 
 Board schools will be greater, the number of paupers will be 
 larger, and the cost of local government in consequence of the 
 jerry-builder and " field-ranger " will be more for an equal 
 standard of public sanitation, than in either a mixed or well-to- 
 do district. And, on the other hand, the rateable value of 
 workmen's property will be much less. We can clearly see 
 this effect by a comparison of rates with the same districts as 
 before — 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Tottenham 8 8 
 
 West Ham 8 o 
 
 Wandsworth 6 ll^ 
 
 Stoke Newington 6 I 
 
 Hampstead 6 i 
 
 Croydon ... ... ... ... ... 5 2 
 
 Such inequahties of rateable burdens might, of course, be very 
 largely remedied by a generous extension of the Equalization 
 Act. But the social evils must be met by a freer distribution 
 of the classes, and this can only be done by cheap railway 
 facilities being compulsory upon every line. As the Health 
 and Housing Committee declared — " If the Great Eastern 
 Railway Company had not been induced to start their cheap 
 service, the exodus of workmen to Enfield and other places on 
 the Great Eastern line would not have taken place ; and if the 
 Great Western Railway Company had but placed workmen's 
 trains on its system twenty years ago, that Company, like the 
 Great Eastern, would now have been carrying thousands of 
 workmen daily to and from their work." ^ 
 
 By the Workmen's Train Act of 1883, the passenger duty 
 upon the Parliamentary fare of a penny per mile was abolished 
 on condition that the Companies ran a convenient number of 
 workmen's trains between six and eight in the morning. 
 This condition has been ignored by practically all the Com- 
 panies so far as the time-limit is concerned, although the Great 
 
 1 May 8, 1894.
 
 WORKMEN'S TRAINS AND CROWDED CITIES 97 
 
 Eastern run an excellent service up to a little after seven. 
 The Housing Commission were very emphatic in their report 
 upon this breach of agreement. "The Act of Parliament of 
 1883 mentioned eight o'clock in the morning as the limit of time 
 for workmen's trains, but at present most of them are run 
 before seven o'clock, and it is said that if the Companies were 
 compelled to run them till eight, it would tell very hardly upon 
 them in interfering with the clerks' traffic, which begins just 
 then. It is therefore contended, for this reason and for others 
 which were given in evidence, that the powers under the Act 
 of 1883 must be exercised with great discretion. Your 
 Majesty's Commissioners are, however, of opinion that under 
 it a bargain was struck between the nation and the Railway 
 Companies, the consideration for the remission of a part of 
 the passenger duty being the provision of a certain number of 
 workmen's trains." ^ 
 
 The criticisms of the existing service may be grouped under 
 three heads : — 
 
 1. The service is inadequate. 
 
 2. The restrictions are vexatious and unnecessary. 
 
 3. The fares are too high. 
 
 I. — The extreJiie distaiice and 7iumber of statiojis to and from 
 which zvorkme?is trai7is are run varies a good deal with the 
 different li?tes. The most distant stations are — ■ 
 
 To the North — Enfield Town lof miles 
 
 ,, South — South Croydon i\\ ,, 
 
 ,, Enst — Dartford 17 ,, 
 
 ,, West — Weybridge ... ... 19 ,, 
 
 Taking the thirteen separate Companies we find that the 
 number of stations and greatest distance served by workmen's 
 trains come out as follows - — 
 
 ^ Sec /'Vrs/ A'c/'or/, p. 50. 
 
 " Loudon County Council Rcf'ort^ April 1S92. 
 
 H
 
 98 
 
 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 Railway Company. 
 
 No. of Stations. 
 
 Most Distant. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 
 3 
 
 £2 
 
 e5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 § 
 
 
 Wey bridge 
 
 
 London and South- Western ... 
 
 29 
 
 7 
 
 .^6 
 
 19 
 
 South-Easteni 
 
 4 
 
 n 
 
 17 
 
 Dartford 
 
 17 
 
 London, Chatham and Dover 
 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 Penge 
 
 7i 
 
 London, Brighton and South 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coast 
 
 S 
 
 T,2 
 
 ,37 
 
 South Croydon ... 
 
 Hi 
 
 London, Tilbury and Southend 
 
 4 
 
 ^ 
 
 7 
 
 Barking 
 
 8 
 
 Great Northern 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 HadleyWood ... 
 
 IO| 
 
 Great Eastern 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 36 
 
 Enfield Town 
 
 IO$ 
 
 MetropoHtan District 
 
 IS 
 
 44 
 
 SQ 
 
 Hounslow Barracks 
 
 i6i^ 
 
 Midland 
 
 s 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 South Tottenham... 
 
 8 
 
 North London 
 
 
 i6 
 
 i6 
 
 Poplar 
 
 6h 
 
 London and North- Western ... 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 S 
 
 Sudbury 
 
 8 
 
 Great Western 
 
 
 IQ 
 
 IQ 
 
 Hammersmith 
 
 8^ 
 
 Metropolitan 
 
 4 
 
 43 
 
 47 
 
 Kingsbury Nessdon 
 
 9i 
 
 From this it will be seen that the Companies who show up 
 most unfavourably are the London and North-Western, London, 
 Tilbury and Southend, North London, Great Western, South- 
 Eastern, Midland, and London, Chatham and Dover. 
 
 A great disparity is also shown in the number of workmen's 
 trains run by the different Companies : ^ — 
 
 Company. 
 
 No. Up-trains. 
 
 No. Down-trains. 
 
 London and South-Western 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 South-Eastern 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 London, Chatham and Dover 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 London, Brighton and South Coast 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 London, Tilbury and Southend 
 
 7 
 
 
 Great Northern 
 
 17 
 
 II 
 
 Great Eastern 
 
 50 
 
 13 
 
 Metropolitan District 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 Midland 
 
 I 
 
 
 North London 
 
 21 
 
 — 
 
 London and North- Western 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 Great Western 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 Metropolitan 
 
 17 
 
 14 
 
 ^ London County Council Report^ 1892.
 
 WORKMEN'S TRAINS AND CROWDED CITIES 99 
 
 Which shows that the service is conspicuously meagre upon 
 the Midland, South-Eastern, London and North-Western, 
 Great Western, and London, Tilbury and Southend. 
 
 With regard to the Great Western, the London County 
 Council report^ — " There are no workmen's trains on their main 
 line. A special inquiry has been made as to the need for such 
 trains, and for that purpose the following places have been 
 visited — Acton, 4 J miles from Paddington ; Ealing, 5f miles ; 
 Castlehill, 7 miles ; Hanwell, 7 J miles ; and Southall, 8 J 
 miles. At all the above places the need for early trains, not 
 only for working men, but for all classes of early business 
 people, is urgent, and the demand, accordingly, a very pressing 
 one. There are no trains at all, at specially reduced rates, for 
 working men, and for the general public there is practically 
 but one early train reaching Paddington before 8 a.m. — the 
 7.17 a.m. from Southall. There is much local dissatisfaction 
 at this utterly inadequate service, which is regarded by residents 
 in the district as having acted for years past as a powerful 
 check to its development, as compared with other parts of 
 suburban London. . . . Dissatisfaction is frequently and 
 publicly expressed . . . and the local authorities, it is stated, 
 have on several occasions taken it up and urged upon the 
 Company the urgent need for a better service, but apparently 
 without the slightest effect. . . , A police-constable at Ealing 
 states that he has to call workmen as early as 3.30 a.m. to 
 enable them to walk to Shepherd's Bush, a distance of about 
 four miles, the nearest station at which they can get a work- 
 man's train to take them to London. This also occurs at 
 Acton and Hanwell, in the latter case the distance the men have 
 to walk to Shepherd's Bush being stated to be about six miles." 
 
 Of the London and North- Western they say — " The service is 
 a poor and complicated one, and in one respect appears to have 
 retrograded rather than advanced since the publication of the 
 last Board of Trade report." 
 
 London, Tilbury and Southend — " An inadequate and un- 
 satisfactory service for a district so largely occupied by the 
 poorest of the working classes." 
 
 Midland — " An utterly inadequate provision for such a great 
 line as this." 
 
 1 Lotidoii County Council Report^ 1892.
 
 loo RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 But even upon such a line as the Great Eastern, which has 
 done so much with the workmen's train, the service is not run 
 nearly late enough. The Act of 1883 stipulated eight o'clock, 
 but, as we have said, none of the Companies comply with it in 
 this respect. The result is the greatest inconvenience. Much 
 of the work in London does not start until eight o'clock. 
 Especially is this the case in the City, in the printing, tailoring, 
 and lighter trades. And if the workers in these trades desire 
 to secure the advantage of the workmen's ticket they are 
 compelled to come up needlessly early, and wait about for 
 some time. Where the factories and workshops do not open 
 before 8.30 or nine, the waiting about is really a serious 
 matter, particularly with the hundreds of girls who come up 
 from such places as Tottenham, Edmonton, West Ham, 
 Walthamstow, Woolwich, Wandsworth, etc. But the Com- 
 panies have persistently refused to make any material alteration. 
 For example, two years ago the Board of Trade endeavoured to 
 get an extension of cheap workmen's trains up to eight o'clock 
 in the morning for the convenience of poorly-paid women 
 workers. Here is the unanimous way in which the Companies 
 refused to do anything — 
 
 Metropolitan. 
 
 " We are not prepared to extend the time of issue to a later 
 hour, as our experience is, that the concession {sic) is grossly 
 abused." 
 
 Great Eastern. 
 
 " Directors are of opinion that the workmen's train and fare 
 arrangements on this railway are at the present time sufficient 
 to meet all the reasonable requirements of workmen and work- 
 women, and they regret their inability to add to them." 
 
 London, Tilbury and Southend. 
 
 " Board cannot admit the alleged necessity for the provision 
 of later cheap trains for workwomen on this Company's line." 
 
 Great Northern. 
 
 "It is somewhat remarkable that, although we run a large 
 number of workmen's trains, no such representation as that
 
 WORKMEN'S TRAINS AND CROWDED CITIES lol 
 
 received by the Board of Trade has ever been made to this 
 Company." ^%* \ \ >' ;'*-, J«" 
 
 London and South-Western. -•. ;. 
 
 " Do not find that any workwomen traveihng by out' work- 
 men's trains make it a practice to remain at this station until 
 the opening of their places of employment." 
 
 North London. 
 
 "It has been, for some years past, the practice of this 
 Company to treat workmen and workwomen on the same foot- 
 ing as regards tickets, which are issued by all trains up to 
 8 a.m." 
 
 Metropolitan District. 
 
 " Beg to say on behalf of this Company that there is no real 
 demand on this railway for the extension of the accommoda- 
 tion alluded to." 
 
 London and Brighton. 
 
 "We do not find, from particulars I have had taken, that 
 workwomen travelling by our workmen's trains have to wait 
 until such time as they can be admitted into their business 
 establishments." 
 
 Midland. 
 
 "Does not appear to be any sufficient demand for cheap 
 tickets for workwomen by later trains than those mentioned." 
 
 London and North-Western. 
 
 " Accommodation is more than sufficient for the extremely 
 limited traffic of this description which passes over the London 
 and North-Western Railway." 
 
 London, Chatham and Dover. 
 " Are of opinion that ample accommodation for workwomen
 
 102 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 travelling by this line is, given by the considerable number of 
 cheap trains nov/ )^un,over our system." ^ 
 
 „ AgJiipj, as^ ?;he. result of^the recent dispute in the London 
 biiivdih;> h,ade^> the^time of starting work in the morning has 
 been thrown later in winter. So, to meet the convenience 
 of its 40,000-odd members, the Building Trades Federation 
 approached the Railway Companies to get the time of work- 
 men's trains extended to eight o'clock. I have been kindly 
 permitted to see the replies, and, without exception, they abso- 
 lutely decline to do anything. 
 
 2. — There are mafiy harassmg and unnecessary conditions 
 attaching to the issue of 7vorkme?i's tickets. The chief of these 
 is the time-limit during which workmen may return. Except 
 upon the Great Northern and the Brighton and South Coast 
 lines, no workmen can return with his ticket before twelve. 
 And even then they are frequently restricted to certain slow 
 trains. In some cases they are compelled to give their name, 
 address, trade and employer, as evidence that they are bond 
 fide workmen. Several Companies insist upon workmen taking 
 tickets to a station beyond the one required ; while two others 
 prohibit the use of workmen's tickets at intermediate stations. 
 Others again limit the amount of luggage a workman may take 
 to a few pounds. And in all cases the amount of compensation 
 recoverable for the death or total disablement of a work- 
 man's ticket-holder is limited to ;!fioo, although in the 
 case of other passengers the amount is left to the discretion 
 of juries. 
 
 3. — The fares are 7nuch too high. And the most effective 
 way of showing how high are the London workmen's train-fares 
 will be to show them in comparison with those m operation in 
 the chief capitals of Europe. And this we are able to do from 
 an admirable report prepared by Mr. Reid, of the London 
 County Council. 
 
 To get at the mean London rate he gives the following 
 table 2:— 
 
 1 Board of Trade Report of Correspondence, c. — 7657 (1895). 
 ^ Workmen's Trains Report, adopted April 18, 1893.
 
 WORKMEN'S TRAINS AND CROWDED CITIES lo' 
 
 Cheap Workmen's Ticket. 
 
 
 Railway Company. 
 
 
 Mean cost per mile 
 d. 
 
 London and South- Western 
 
 
 0-332 
 
 South-Eastern 
 
 
 0-350 
 
 London, Chatham and Dover ... 
 
 
 0-336 
 
 London, Brighton and South Coast 
 
 
 0-320 
 
 London, Tilbury and Southend 
 
 
 0-275 
 
 Great Northern 
 
 
 0-329 
 
 Great Eastern 
 
 
 0-319 
 
 Metropohtan District 
 
 
 0-322 
 
 Midland 
 
 
 0-325 
 
 North London 
 
 
 0-293 
 
 London and North- Western 
 
 
 0-295 
 
 Great Western 
 
 
 0-377 
 
 Metropolitan 
 
 
 0-284 
 
 Mean Rate for London 
 
 0-320 
 
 And this is the comparison with the 
 
 capital 
 
 cities of the 
 
 Continent — 
 
 
 Per mile. 
 d. 
 
 Paris 
 
 
 0-172 
 
 Brussels 
 
 
 0-127 
 
 Vienna 
 
 
 0-182 
 
 Budapest 
 
 
 0-190 
 
 Berlin 
 
 
 0-189 
 
 Average 
 
 0-172 
 
 London 
 
 
 0-320 
 
 Put in another form, the report declares that — " For every 
 145. id. di London workman has to spend in travelling to and 
 from his work, his confrere abroad has to pay in — 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Paris 
 
 Brussels 
 
 Vienna 
 
 Budapest 
 
 London ... 
 
 Or 78 per cent, more than the average of these five capitals 
 of Europe."
 
 lo4 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 After such a startling comparison, these remarks of the 
 Housing Committee of the London County Council will not 
 be deemed too strong — 
 
 ''The relative position of London — as would be anticipated 
 from the most cursory examination of the foreign tables — is 
 thus an extremely unfavourable one, and fully justifies the 
 demand for a reduction in the cost of workmen's tickets. 
 Making every possible allowance for whatever differences may 
 exist between the circumstances of London and those of the 
 Continental cities referred to, it remains inexplicable on what 
 grounds so glaring a disparity in tariffs can any longer be even 
 excused, much less justified. 
 
 " The onus of showing the necessity for charging a London 
 workman, on the average, ^Z per cent, {equivalent to 15-6 shill- 
 ings in the pound sterli?ig) more than a workman on the Conti- 
 nent has to pay, is thus forced upon the London Railway 
 Companies, and it is difficult to conceive on what possible plea 
 the legitimate demand for a more equitable adjustment of 
 these charges can be resisted. 
 
 " However the question may be viewed, the reasons which 
 plead for this much-needed concession — whether moral, social, 
 or economical — are irresistible ; and even the narrow, selfish 
 interest of the shareholders may be forcibly appealed to in its 
 favour." 1 
 
 Nor is there any real hope of securing an adequate service 
 under the present system. The London County Council have 
 secured a number of so-called concessions from the Companies 
 by nieans of friendly negotiation on the one side, and as a 
 condition of withdrawing opposition to new railway bills on 
 the other. But there is no chance of securing a really proper 
 service, even for London, in this way. The hopelessness of 
 the task may be gathered from the following. 
 
 A conference of London vestries, dozens of workmen's con- 
 ferences and organizations, and all the united strength of the 
 London County Council endeavoured to secure certain reason- 
 able "concessions," which in the case of the London County 
 Council were formulated as follows — 
 
 I. That workmen's tickets be made available for return by 
 any train carrying third-class passengers. 
 
 1 Report, April 18, 1893.
 
 WORKMEN'S TRAINS AND CROWDED CITIES lo^ 
 
 2. That the issue of quarterly or monthly third-class tickets 
 be extended to all stations within the limit of the cheap train 
 service. 
 
 3. That the conditions as to the issue of workmen's tickets, 
 the fares, kind of tickets supplied, and trains by which available, 
 be published not only in the book of time-tables of each Com- 
 pany, but be conspicuously advertised by means of posters at all 
 stations served by workmen's trains. 
 
 4. That, except in the case of quarterly or monthly third-class 
 tickets, all workmen's tickets be daily ones. 
 
 5. That all third-class trains, whether on main or branch 
 lines, arriving at the London termini up to 8 a.m., be work- 
 men's throughout the area of the cheap train service. 
 
 6. That all third-class trains from London termini, up to 
 7.30 a.m., be also workmen's trains throughout the same area. 
 
 7. That when insufficient third-class accommodation is pro- 
 vided in a workmen's train, the holder of a workman's ticket 
 be allowed to travel by a superior class without extra charge. 
 
 8. That the model zone system suggested in the Committee's 
 report is one worthy of adoption, and which might fairly be 
 made applicable to all future as well as present metropoUtan 
 railway undertakings. 
 
 And this is the result, in the official language of the London 
 County Council — 
 
 " We have now to report upon a communication made to 
 the Board of Trade by Sir Henry Oakley on the part of the 
 Companies, conveying the result of their consideration. . . . 
 We think this doac?ne?it ?nust be taken as a definite declaration of 
 the extent to which the Conipa?iies are prepared volimtarily to go, 
 and that further arguments are not likely to advafice matters. . . . 
 On the main point Sir Henry Oakley maintains a 71071 possu7nus 
 attitude. His argiimejit ajnounts to sayi7ig that the 'syste7n of 
 cheap fares 07i the metropoHta7i raihuays is 7iot practicable^ except 
 on lines traversi7ig throughout thickly populated districts T ^ 
 
 ^ London County Council Report, May 1S94.
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 CONDITIONS OF RAILWAY ExMPLOYMENT 
 
 The army of railway workers have little more reason to be 
 enamoured of the present system than either the farmers, the 
 traders, or the travelling public. For physique, for intelligence, 
 for skill, and for character, they compare favourably with any 
 other industrial class, and more than favourably with most. 
 But their general conditions of employment are below the 
 average of other workers. Though their occupation is the most 
 dangerous but one in the country, their wages, instead of con- 
 forming to the economic theory of higher remuneration for 
 extra risk, rank with those of the lowest paid. Their hours of 
 labour have been characterized by responsible statesmen as 
 inhumanly long. They have also been frequently denied the 
 right to combine for the amelioration of their lot. 
 
 First as to wages. The Statistical Department of the Board 
 of Trade published in 1893 a report upon the wages paid in the 
 United Kingdom to railway workmen (/. e. excluding station- 
 masters, superintendents, managers, clerical staff, lads, etc., but 
 including gangers and foremen). This is a summary — 
 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Percentage 
 
 Received 
 
 over 
 
 40J, 
 
 9,891 
 
 3-8 
 
 Received between 
 
 35^. and 40i-. 
 
 6,598 
 
 2-5 
 
 J 1 
 
 
 30^. „ 35^- 
 
 15,045 
 
 57 
 
 9 > 
 
 
 255-. ,, 30J. 
 
 38,441 
 
 14-5 
 
 
 
 2.0s. ,, 2$S. 
 
 76,770 
 
 29-0 
 
 ) > 
 
 
 i5i-. „ 20^. 
 
 111,086 
 
 42-0 
 
 it 
 
 
 los. „ iSs. 
 
 6,595 
 
 2 '5 
 
 j> 
 
 
 Up to 10^. 
 
 24 
 
 •0 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 264,450 
 
 lOO-Q 
 
 A further analysis by Mr. Giffen shows that railway men 
 compare most unfavourably with other industries. 
 
 106
 
 CONDITIONS OF RAILWAY EMPLOYMENT 107 
 
 64 
 73 
 68 
 
 65 
 61 
 60 
 60 
 
 Annual average for all workers as shown by summary 
 
 of wages census 
 Building trades 
 *Domestic servants (large householders) ... 
 *Merchant seamen 
 *Employes in hospitals 
 *Employcs in lunatic asylums 
 *Railway men... 
 ♦Including estimated value of food and clothing where necessary. 
 
 A great deal of evidence was given before the Labour 
 Commission, when it was shown that many railway men were 
 working for 70 hours a week for a wage of 141. 
 
 As to the Companies working their men inhumanly long 
 hours, let the facts speak for themselves. According to a 
 Board of Trade report of 1890, the following hours were worked 
 in March of that year by the men on the fifteen large lines :— 
 
 Class of 
 Labour. 
 
 Passenger guards 
 Goods guards 
 Drivers and firemen 
 Signalmen 
 
 Number 
 employed. 
 
 3'93i 
 8,692 
 
 27,741 
 16,029 
 
 Number of instances of men 
 being employed for more thai 
 
 12 hours 
 at a time. 
 
 More than 
 15 hours. 
 
 417 I 156 
 
 6,146 5.523 
 
 22,743 29,273 
 
 3,542 I 940 
 
 More than 
 18 hours. 
 
 12 
 862 
 
 3>97i 
 79 
 
 After being 
 
 on duty 
 15 hrs., re- 
 sumed with 
 less than 8 
 hrs. rest. 
 
 40 
 
 498 
 
 ,313 
 672 
 
 And these are the terms of Mr. Channing's resolution, moved 
 in the House of Commons on January 23rd, 1891, sup- 
 ported by 124 to 141 members, and which resulted in the 
 Select Committee on Hours being appointed—" That, in the 
 opinion of this House, the excessive hours of labour imposed 
 on railway servants by the existing arrangements of the Railway 
 Companies of the United Kingdom constitute a grave social 
 injustice, and are a constant source of danger both to the men 
 themselves and to the travelling public. ..." 
 
 Here are some cases taken haphazard by Messrs. Webb and 
 Cox 1 from among the employes of the North British Railway 
 Company : — 
 
 " A. B., a fireman.— Hours worked each fortnight during the 
 
 1 The Eight- Hour Day.
 
 lo8 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 last eight months : 174, 174, 156, 186, 193, 188, 193, 254, 168, 
 193, 190, 192, 198, 155, 167, 194. Average per day, 15I 
 
 "B. C, an engine-driver. — Hours worked for two months 
 prior to the strike, per fortnight : 202, 186, 204, 172. Average 
 per day, 15 hours 55 minutes. 
 
 " C. D., in Goods Department. — On duty in week (six days) 
 ended Saturday, 20th December, 78 hours 50 minutes. Daily 
 average, 13 hours 8 minutes. 
 
 "D. E. (grade not stated). — Hours worked in the three fort- 
 nights preceding the strike, 198, 191, 183; at work 24 hours 
 on December 4; shortest day, 10 hours. Daily average, 15 
 hours 53 minutes. 
 
 "E. F. (grade not stated). — Hours worked between 3rd 
 November and 20th December, with three week-days and five 
 Sundays off, total 564 hours 47 minutes. Daily average, 14 
 hours 7 minutes ; longest day, 23 hours. 
 
 " F. G., a goods driver. — ' Hours worked during the week 
 ended 21st December, 99 only, as I was one of the very few 
 who resolutely refused to work without getting sufficient rest ' ! " 
 
 Said Sir Michael Hicks-Beach, as Chairman of the Railway 
 Servants' Hours of Labour Committee, in his report — 
 
 " The evidence given by railway servants, and by trade union 
 representatives and others on their behalf, went generally to 
 show that long hours were, to a large extent, systematic, and 
 that the calculation of the hours by the week or fortnight, 
 instead of by the day, leads to the regular and systematic 
 recurrence of hours far in excess of a fair day's work." 
 
 Sir Michael then cited the following instances among others — 
 
 " On the Caledonian, weeks of 90 hours 5 minutes ; 88 hours 
 50 minutes, and 91 hours 35 minutes, were worked by goods 
 drivers and guards. 
 
 " On the North British a driver and fireman worked 181 hours 
 40 minutes in ic days, including days of 21 hours and 25 hours. 
 
 " Another driver and fireman worked 360 hours 50 minutes 
 in 21 days, the largest spell being 26 hours ; another driver and 
 fireman worked a five-day week of 102 hours 15 minutes, the 
 longest spell being 33 hours 45 minutes, and the shortest 13 
 hours; another 156 hours 20 minutes in nine days; weeks are 
 still producible of 9 2 J, 96, 98, and 99 hours of drivers and 
 goods guards. 
 
 " On the Great Western one man's average for three months
 
 CONDITIONS OF RAILWAY EMPLOYMENT 109 
 
 was 77 hours per week. About thirty guards at Stourbridge 
 worked weeks ranging from 70 to 90 hours 30 minutes. 
 Specially long days were quoted on the Lancashire and York- 
 shire Railway of 17 hours 15 minutes, 19 J hours, 21 hours, 22 J 
 hours and 20J hours." 
 
 Sir Michael gave dozens of other instances, of which the 
 foregoing are average specimens. The Railway Servants' 
 Hours Labour Act has checked the wholesale practice of 
 excessive hours to some extent. Last year, of 97 complaints 
 under the Act, the results of 87 are given, showing successful 
 only 22, partially successful 22, unsuccessful 22, no ground of 
 complaint 7, under consideration 21. But, as the Railway 
 Review says, excessive hours are still painfully prevalent ; 
 while Mr. Acworth goes so far as to declare that — "The 
 further clauses of the Act, empowering the Board to take the 
 management of the railway out of the hands of the Company 
 and to decide in detail how many hours an individual servant 
 or group of servants ought to work, have been a dead letter. 
 The Board dare not attempt to put them in force ; and in three 
 successive reports its officials have stated their conviction that 
 to do so would not be in the interests of the men themselves." ^ 
 This is probably an exaggeration, but it shows how difficult it 
 is to enforce proper conditions, in face of an organized opposi- 
 tion, such as the united Railway Companies can present. 
 
 Then with regard to the dangers attending railway employ- 
 ment at present, the annual report of the General Railway 
 Workers Union for 1893, grimly says that "the railway 
 service may generally be termed the ' slaughter-house ' of the 
 workers, if we take into account the percentage of accidents 
 occurring according to the number employed." 
 
 In 1895 there were 481 railway men killed, and 13,930 injured, 
 or a proportion of one out of 1,052 killed and one out of 175 
 injured. Speaking at Battcrsca, Mr. Johii Burns, M.T., said — 
 
 "Li the eighteen years from 1874 to 1893, 12,000 men have 
 been killed and 160,000 injurt-don tlic railways of the kingdom. 
 In seven years 1,220 out of 14,000 shunters have been killed, 
 and 11,690 injured on all our railways, which means that eighty 
 per cent, can look forward to being killed or severely injured in 
 seven years." - 
 
 1 Letter Weekly Times and Echo, October iith, 1S96. 
 
 2 November I9tli, 1893.
 
 no 
 
 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 But the real point is not the total number of accidents, but 
 whether these accidents are preventible to any extent. And 
 this can be seen from a comparison with one Company and 
 another; and an historical comparison showing the number 
 and proportion of accidents twenty years ago with those 
 taking place in 1895. Let us take the last first. This table and 
 footnotes are from the 1896 report of the Board of Trade — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Proportion of accidents occurr- 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 By ' 
 
 Accic 
 
 Train 
 
 ents. 
 
 By Accidents 
 on Railways, ex- 
 clusive of Train 
 Accidents. 
 
 ing to Servants of Companies 
 by Train and other Accidents 
 to the whole number em- 
 ployed, on the assumption 
 mentioned below.* 
 
 Total 
 
 Numbers 
 employed.* 
 
 
 Killed. 
 
 Injured. 
 
 Killed. 
 
 Injured. 
 
 Killed. 
 
 Injured. 
 
 
 1874 
 
 46 
 
 271 
 
 742 
 
 2,544 
 
 I in 320 
 
 I in 89 
 
 250,000 
 
 1875 
 
 21 
 
 239 
 
 744 
 
 3,379 
 
 I „ 334* 
 
 I „ 70* 
 
 255,000* 
 
 1876 
 
 28 
 
 236 
 
 645 
 
 2,364 
 
 I „ 386* 
 
 I „ IOC* 
 
 260,000* 
 
 1877 
 
 22 
 
 154 
 
 620 
 
 2,009 
 
 I „ 414* 
 
 I „ 123^ 
 
 265,000* 
 
 1878 
 
 15 
 
 156 
 
 529 
 
 1,847 
 
 I „ 500* 
 
 I ,> 135* 
 
 270,000* 
 
 1879 
 
 8 
 
 118 
 
 444 
 
 1,836 
 
 I „ 619* 
 
 I „ 143* 
 
 280,000* 
 
 1880 
 
 23 
 
 118 
 
 523 
 
 1,962 
 
 I „ 531* 
 
 I „ 139* 
 
 290,000* 
 
 1881 
 
 19 
 
 168 
 
 502 
 
 2,278 
 
 I „ 576* 
 
 I „ 123; 
 
 300,000* 
 
 1882 
 
 21 
 
 153 
 
 532 
 
 2,423 
 
 I „ 570* 
 
 I ,, 122* 
 
 315,000* 
 
 1883 
 
 II 
 
 87 
 
 543 
 
 2,378 
 
 I ,, 596* 
 
 I „ 134* 
 
 330,000* 
 
 1884 
 
 23 
 
 115 
 
 523 
 
 2,204 
 
 I „ 634 
 
 I „ 149 
 
 346,426 
 
 1885 
 
 13 
 
 81 
 
 438 
 
 2,036 
 
 I „ 768* 
 
 I „ 163* 
 
 346,426* 
 
 1886 
 
 4 
 
 81 
 
 421 
 
 1,929 
 
 I „ 815* 
 
 I „ 172* 
 
 346,426* 
 
 1887 
 
 8 
 
 109 
 
 414 
 
 1,966 
 
 I „ 821* 
 
 I „ 167* 
 
 346,426* 
 
 1888 
 
 7 
 
 93 
 
 389 
 
 2,100 
 
 I „ 874* 
 
 I ,> 157* 
 
 346,426* 
 
 1889 
 
 4 
 
 117 
 
 431 
 
 2,652 
 
 I „ 877 
 
 I „ 138 
 
 381,626 
 
 1890 
 
 12 
 
 147 
 
 487 
 
 2,975 
 
 I „ 765* 
 
 I „ 122* 
 
 381,626* 
 
 189I 
 
 12 
 
 154 
 
 537 
 
 3,007 
 
 I „ 695* 
 
 I „ 121* 
 
 381,626* 
 
 1892 
 
 9 
 
 92 
 
 525 
 
 2,823 
 
 I „ 714* 
 
 I „ 130* 
 
 381,626* 
 
 1893 
 
 10 
 
 73 
 
 450 
 
 2,558 
 
 I „ 829* 
 
 I „ 145 
 
 381,626* 
 
 1894 
 
 6 
 
 62 
 
 473 
 
 2,649 
 
 I „ 796* 
 
 I „ 140* 
 
 381,626* 
 
 1895 
 
 12 
 
 88 
 
 430 
 
 2,566 
 
 I „ 1,052 
 
 I „ 175 
 
 465,112 
 
 Nofe.— These figures include accidents to contractors' servants, of whom 
 8 were killed and 18 injured during the year 1895. 
 
 * The numbers employed are known accurately only for the years 1874, 
 1884, 1889, and 1895. The figures marked {*) are estimated for the years 
 1875 to 1883, and those from. 1885 to 1888 and 1890 to 1894 are calculated 
 upon the numbers given in the years 1884 and 1889 respectively. The 
 number of contractors' servants cannot be estimated.
 
 CONDITIONS OF RAILWAY EMPLOYMENT iii 
 
 So that while i in 320 was killed in 1874, i in 1,052 was 
 killed in 1895, °^ more than three times as many twenty years 
 ago than to-day. While the injured were twice as many in 1874 
 as in 1895, or i in 89, as compared with i in 175, This is 
 conclusive proof that many accidents took place a few years 
 ago from preventible causes which have since been removed. 
 
 The next question is whether we have yet reached a maxi- 
 mum of preventibility ? Certain it is that some Companies 
 show a much higher proportion of accidents than others. 
 This disparity the representatives of the railway workers declare 
 is due to the fact that several Companies escape from the incen- 
 tive to care supplied by the particular liability for each acci- 
 dent supplied in the Employers' Liability Act, by " contracting 
 out" their men, while others give their workmen free scope 
 under the Act. Do facts justify this explanation ? I will 
 take the London and North-Western Railway and the Midland 
 Companies as the two lines employing the largest number of 
 men. The Midland allows its men complete freedom under 
 the law, while the London and North-Western Railway con- 
 tract them out, and, as is well known, were the chief advocates 
 of the clause which wrecked the Liability Bill in 1893. And 
 here is the startling result, as shown in the Board of Trade 
 figures for eight years — 
 
 
 London and North-Western. 
 
 Midland. 
 
 
 
 Killed. 
 
 Injured. 
 
 Killed. 
 
 Injured. 
 
 1888 
 
 52 
 
 547 
 
 . 2>e ... 
 
 85 
 
 1889 
 
 ... 64 
 
 ... 825 .. 
 
 44 
 
 144 
 
 1890 
 
 74 
 
 925 
 
 51 
 
 143 
 
 I89I 
 
 53 
 
 922 
 
 60 
 
 94 
 
 1892 
 
 ... 67 
 
 ... 762 .. 
 
 52 
 
 124 
 
 1893 
 
 52 
 
 646 
 
 42 
 
 67 
 
 1894 
 
 62 
 
 692 
 
 42 
 
 117 
 
 1895 
 
 43 
 
 626 
 
 . 48 ... 
 
 116 
 
 467 5>94S 375 S90I 
 
 Of course the North-Western employs the largest number of 
 men, so we will look at the figures in the light of proportions. 
 The average staff for the eight years of the North-Western was 
 
 ^From Board of Trade Railway Accident Returns for the several years.
 
 112 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 about 60,000, and of the Midland about 50,000. The pro- 
 portion therefore comes out thus — 
 
 Killed and Injured. 
 London and North- Western ... i in 9 for whole period. 
 
 Midland ... i in 40 ,, 
 
 or 
 London and North- Western ... i in 72 per year. 
 Midland I in 320 ,, 
 
 In Other words, the "contracting out " line shows nearly five 
 times as many accidents as the " non-contracting out." For 
 comparison, it is interesting to see that the next three largest 
 lines (all non-contracting out) show for five years the following 
 average yearly proportion of accidents to staff employed — 
 
 Great Western ... ... ... ... ... i in 105 
 
 North-Eastern i in 125 
 
 Great Northern i in 200 
 
 All much below the single large "contracting out " line. 
 
 Taking two small Companies doing a similar traffic, the one, 
 London, Brighton and South Coast, " contracting out," and 
 the other, London, Chatham and Dover, " non-contracting 
 out," we find the annual proportion of accidents to staff 
 employed — 
 
 London, Brighton and South Coast i in 200 
 
 London, Chatham and Dover ... ... ... i in 255 
 
 A remarkable fact, as bearing upon this point, is that the 
 London and North- W^estern, which shows the highest propor- 
 tion of accidents, is the Company which most flagrantly dis- 
 regards the recommendations of the Board of Trade as to the 
 adoption of preventive measures. Here is an extract from the 
 official report of the SubTnspectors for 1895, upon the acci- 
 dents inquired into, and the number of recommendations made 
 and adopted —
 
 CONDITIONS OF RAILWAY EMPLOYMENT 113 
 
 Name of Company. 
 
 Recommcndi^tions made by the Sub-Inspectors in cases 
 into which inquiries had been held. 
 
 
 .E -w - 
 
 
 is 11 
 
 
 1 
 
 11" 
 pi 
 
 R. 
 
 A. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 - 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 2 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Caledonian 
 
 Great Eastern 
 
 Great Northern 
 
 Great Western 
 
 Lancashire and Yorkshire ... 
 London and North-Western 
 London and South-Western 
 London, Brighton & S. Coast 
 Manchestr., Sheffld., Linclnsh. 
 
 Midland 
 
 North British 
 
 North-Eastern 
 
 South-Eastern 
 
 TaffVale 
 
 A. 
 
 R. 
 
 A. 
 
 R. 
 
 I 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 - 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 - 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 - 
 
 " 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 
 12 
 
 II 
 
 2 
 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 - 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 - 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 - 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 - 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 - 
 
 II 
 
 8 
 
 I 
 
 - 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 - 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 - 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 Total 287 175 
 
 No^e. — (k) means "recommended" and (a) "adopted." 
 
 From which it will be seen that only in 175 out of 287 cases 
 did the Companies adopt the precautionary measures recom- 
 mended, and the London and North-Western Railway only 
 complied in fifteen out of forty-five cases. 
 
 The conclusion is, therefore, certainly justified that many 
 accidents occur to-day which are preventible, and that given 
 State-ownership, the proportion of accidents would be at least 
 as low as on the " best " line to-day. 
 
 Unfortunately the evidence of railway workers being denied 
 the freedom to combine is far too ample. Only a few weeks 
 ago there was the particularly glaring case of the London and 
 North-Western Railway deliberately picking out seventy promi- 
 nent members of the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants 
 and discharging them on the strength of a stray paragraph in a 
 newspaper speaking of a supposed threatened strike. Flappily 
 permanent victimization was prevented by the unanimous ex- 
 pression of public opinion, and the timely intervention of the 
 Board of Trade under the Conciliation Act. The same Com- 
 pany were guilty of an almost similar piece of tyranny in 1889, 
 when they discharged several old servants for their political 
 
 I
 
 114 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 opinions. One Joseph Jones had been employed by the Com- 
 pany for thirty-three years, and another, William Urquhart, had 
 been employed for thirty-two years, and both were discharged 
 for no other reason than that they happened to be actively 
 identified with the local Radical Association. 
 
 AVriting to the Editor of the Creive Chronicle at the time, 
 Mr. Gladstone said — 
 
 " The case at Crewe, as it is set forth in your letter and in the 
 Crewe and Nantwich Chronicle, is so scandalously bad that you 
 must forgive me for saying I am compelled to suspend my belief 
 until I know what any such among the local officers of the 
 London and North-W^estern Railway Company as are included 
 in the charge have to say upon it. They, paid servants of a 
 great commercial company, which is not, I apprehend, a Prim- 
 rose League, are accused of allowing their own political opinions 
 to weigh, and to weigh penally, in the employment and promo- 
 tion of workmen ; which, if it be true, is neither more nor less 
 than a shameful malversation in a public trust. . . . Their con- 
 duct is in the last degree shameful and unworthy." ^ 
 
 Again, Thomas Wright, a loyal servant of the London and 
 North-Western Railway, was discharged from Crewe in Decem- 
 ber 1893, because he was opposed to contracting out, and on 
 December 23, 1893, in the House of Commons, Mr. W. McLaren 
 gave the case of another man named Reay, who was discharged 
 by the same Company for a similar reason. Yet again, in the 
 Minority Report of the Hours of Railway Servants' Committee 
 presented by Mr. Channing, a number of specific cases were 
 given of men being victimized for giving evidence, or respect- 
 fully asking for a reduction in their excessively long hours of 
 labour. And finally, the gross case of Station-master Hood 
 discharged from the Cambrian Railway will be well within the 
 memory of all. The Select Committee itself declared that — 
 "John Hood was dismissed from the service of the Railway 
 Company mainly in consequence of charges arising out of the 
 evidence given by him before the Select Committee upon the 
 hours of labour of railway servants." 
 
 The Directors, it will be recollected, were called to the Bar 
 of the House and severely admonished by the Speaker, who 
 said — 
 
 1 Crezve Chronicle, Dec. 5, 1889.
 
 CONDITIONS OF RAILWAY EMPLOYMENT 
 
 II 
 
 "You have by your conduct intimidated a witness before 
 this House. ... It is a very grave and serious offence you 
 have committed. The House, in its judgment, and in its 
 mercy, I should add, has decided that I should admonish you. 
 I do most seriously admonish you, and I warn you that any 
 repetition of this offence — for it is an offence — will be visited 
 by this House with its very severe rebuke and disapproval. A 
 great principle has been infringed — the principle that evidence 
 given before this House shall be free and unrestrained. I warn 
 you against ever repeating an offence of this kind." ^ 
 
 ^ Daily Chronicle, March 3, 1892.
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 THE WOES OF IRELAND 
 
 The railway system in Ireland presents so many exceptional 
 fc atures that do not obtain in Great Britain, as to merit special 
 treatment in a separate chapter, (i) Not only has it all the 
 evils of preferential rates, but in a much greater degree than 
 here. (2) Its rates and fares are higher even than in England, 
 which we have seen are above those of the Continent. (3) Its 
 deficiencies in facilities and accommodation are nothing short 
 of scandalous. (4) Its management is the most wasteful in 
 Europe. (5) Unique among the railway systems of the United 
 Kingdom, it has repeatedly received heavy subsidies from the 
 Imperial Exchequer. (6) And finally, its complete acquisition 
 by the State has been officially recommended by a Government 
 Commission. 
 
 Let us take these points in order. 
 
 I. The Select Committee of 188 1-2 reported that the 
 witnesses from Ireland, besides complaining of the inequalities 
 similar to those in England, and which called for the same 
 remarks ("many of these differential charges afford substantial 
 ground for complaint "), also made several special complaints. 
 They alleged that the local rates were high out of all proportion, 
 as compared with those on through traffic between stations 
 in England and stations in Ireland, to the great injury of Irish 
 traders.^ Mr. Robert Dennis, in his Industrial Irelajid^ 
 declares that the evil of preferential rates is so widely preva- 
 lent that it is difficult to particularize. For equal distances 
 the most absurdly varying rates are charged, and " in many 
 ^ Report, p. xi, 
 116
 
 THE WOES OF IRELAND 117 
 
 cases the longest distance has the lowest rates." Thus coal 
 from 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 ; Belfast Quay to Annaghmore ... 
 
 * ,, „ Armagh 
 
 ,, ,, Glasslough 
 ,, ,, Monaghan 
 
 ••• 35 
 ••• 39 
 ... 49 
 
 ••• 55 
 
 4 
 3 
 5 
 4 
 
 6 per ton 
 6 ,, 
 
 3 n 
 
 8 M 
 
 Again, artificial manure from 
 
 
 
 
 Belfast to Sligo 
 
 „ ,, Enniskillen 
 
 ... 136 
 ... 87 
 
 19 
 19 
 
 2 „ 
 9 „ 
 
 And so on all over Ireland. 
 
 But it is the "through" or "foreign," as against the "local" 
 or " home " rate, that is " the greatest grievance of all." Accord- 
 ing to Mr. Dennis, and he is borne out by the report of the 
 Select Committee, by the specific evidence of numerous 
 witnesses, and by the admissions of Sir George Findlay, the 
 Irish Railway Companies are under the thumb of the English 
 Railway Companies, and it is the aim of the latter to get traffic 
 for themselves by making English goods cheaper in Ireland 
 than are the Irish goods. Consequently they compel the 
 Irish railways to carry English goods from the Irish port of 
 arrival into the interior at a much lower rate than they charge 
 for goods which do not come "through." By the operation 
 of this arrangement, the London or Birmingham or Manchester 
 manufacturer is enabled to beat the DubHn, Belfast, or Cork 
 manufacturer in all the markets of Ireland. ^ 
 
 In reply to a circular from the Commission on Trade De- 
 pression, the Flax Supply Association, Belfast, reported that 
 the linen trade is heavily burdened by the high rates of 
 carriage charged by the Railway and Steamship Companies from 
 Belfast to the English and Scotch markets. For instance, it 
 costs about as much to deliver linens in the centre of England 
 as in the centre of America, and, on the other hand, the 
 carriage of linens from Belgium to London is only about one- 
 half that charged on Irish linens from Belfast to London.- 
 
 Mr. John F^ox, a large bedding manufacturer in Cork, a 
 witness before the same Commission, said — "What seems to 
 
 ^ Iiidustrial Ireland^ p. 184. - Vol. ii. p. 410.
 
 ii8 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 me a great anomaly is, that we send feathers from Cork 
 to London at 523-. dd. per ton, dead-weight measurement, and 
 the same goods, if they are stopped at Manchester upon the 
 way to London, are charged 651. per ton, and if we send the 
 goods to Manchester first, and then afterwards change our 
 minds, and send them forward from Manchester to London, 
 they would cost us 135^". a ton/' 
 
 Asked, " Do you attribute the fact tbat the foreigner is able 
 to undersell the British manufacturer to the lowness of freight 
 he has to pay ? " he replied — " Yes, that is one of the things ; 
 in fact, that is the main thing." ^ 
 
 Mr. T. A. Dickson, M.P., stated that Belfast competed with 
 French flax manufacturers, but while the through rates from 
 Lille to London were only 285-. 9^. per ton, those from Belfast 
 to London were 525-. 6^., or nearly double. "These preferential 
 rates," he added, "are a great prohibition to the trade in the 
 coarser and heavier descriptions of goods." Again, from 
 Stranorlar, County Donegal, to Belfast, is Z6 miles, and_ the 
 rates are 215. Zd. per ton for flax, but from Ghent, in Belgium, 
 via Goole or Hull or Leith, and Fleetwood or Glasgow, the 
 rate is only \Zs. Sd. to Belfast.^ 
 
 Mr. K. Brady Williams, corn merchant. Mallow, stated 
 before the Revision of Rates Committee, 1890, that a single 
 ton of flour from Cork to Tralee was charged 10^. lod. ; by 
 the wagon-load the rate was Ss. gd. ; but when flour was sent 
 through Cork from Liverpool, the rate for the whole distance, from 
 Liverpool to Tralee, was loj-. only, although the direct rates from 
 Liverpool to Cork amounted to i is. id., including harbour dues 
 and transfer charge. Complaints had been made loud and deep 
 that the foreign traffic was dealt with after this fashion. The 
 millers had no objection in the world to equal rates being charged, 
 but they think it excessively unfair that such a premium should 
 be put upon the foreign article. The Irish trade could hold 
 its own if it were treated fairly, but the preferential system 
 adopted by the Railway Companies was tending gradually to 
 abolish it altogether.^ 
 
 Mr. J. Hole declares that — " The coal and mineral rates of the 
 (Irish) local lines check all enterprise, and are prohibitive to 
 
 1 Q. g/^ieetseq. 2 (2. i-^c^T et seq. 
 
 3 Waghom and Stevens Report ("Digest of Evidence"), p. 69.
 
 THE WOES OF IRELAND 119 
 
 the industry of the country. It is cheaper to send cattle by 
 road than by rail, cheaper to take coal from Scotland to 
 seaport than to take it ten miles inland ; cheaper to carry goods 
 to Engla?id and have them re-shipped to Ireland at through 
 Efiglish rates than to pay the local rates. Goods are ofte?i 
 shipped from the easter?i seaboard for Sligo and Balliria via 
 Glasgoiu.^^ 1 A witness before the Committee on Irish Industry, 
 said that the rates for the carriage of soap were so high that 
 it is the practice to send the goods to England, and have them 
 re-shipped to Ireland, in order to get the benefit of the through 
 English rates.^ 
 
 Speaking as Chairman of the Irish Dairy Farmers Asso- 
 ciation, Count Moore stated in Dublin, as recently as 
 December, that — "To bring a bullock by rail from Cork to 
 Dublin cost lyj". 9^., to send him from Dublin to Manchester 
 cost only 9^-. 8^. \ it was cheaper to transport a bullock from 
 Montreal to Bristol than from Kilkenny to Bristol. The charge 
 upon a ton of butter from Tralee to Cork i^^t miles) was 
 £^\ 2S. 6d., that is ;£"i 2>s. per 100 miles, against a minimum 
 for France of 35-. 3^. It could be sent from Fermoy to 
 Liverpool, via Dublin (299 miles), for ;^i 135. ^d. To haul a 
 ton of Irish pork from Dungannon to Belfast (40 miles) cost 
 155. lod. ; the carriage of a ton of American bacon from Belfast 
 to Dungannon cost only loi". Bricks could be landed from 
 England in Dublin at a smaller charge than was made from 
 Kingscourt (50 miles) from Dublin to that city. x\ barrel of 
 flour could be brought from Chicago, 1000 miles by rail and 
 3000 miles by water, and landed at Liverpool for less money 
 than it cost to bring it from Londonderry to Manchester. The 
 railway charge for a ton of apples from Armagh to Belfast 
 (30 miles) was 125-. 6d., or ^2 per 100 miles; the same apples 
 could be carried from Liverpool to Lisbon (1147 miles) for 
 ;^i IS. It only cost a little over twice as much to bring a 
 barrel of fish from Sacramento (California) to London as it did 
 to bring one from Galway to London. The carriage of butter 
 from Fermoy to Cork (38 miles) was 155. 6d. per ton, or 
 ;£"i 195. per ton per 100 miles. A hundredweight of butter 
 
 ^ Naiiotial Railways, p. IC5. 
 
 ^ "State rurchase of Irish Raihvays," Foi-iiiii^htly A'rrvWi', December 
 1886,
 
 120 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 was about the produce of every acre of land, and 55. an acre, 
 roughly speaking, was paid per acre by the farmer in poor- 
 rate, county-cess, and income-tax, and thus his butter was 
 taxed to that amount, while the Dane was free from that charge 
 when he landed his butter in this country. The Armagh fruit- 
 growers had been destroyed by railway rates, for with a charge 
 of I2S. 6d. per ton for the thirteen-mile railway journey to 
 Belfast it was cheaper not to grow the fruit. The flax-raising 
 industry had been destroyed in much the same way. Belfast 
 and the other factory towns got nearly all their flax now from 
 the Continent and the West Indies. Why? It cost ^i i^. Sd. 
 to bring a ton of flax by rail 86 miles from Stranorlar, in 
 Donegal, to Belfast, while the combined railway and seaborne 
 charges from Ghent for the same article was only iSs. 8^." 1 
 
 2. According to such able defenders of the present system as 
 Mr. W. M. Acworth and Mr. Grierson, the high rates and fares 
 in England as compared with the Continent are largely due to 
 the much larger primary cost of construction here than else- 
 where. If this contention were really sound, then the Irish 
 rates and fares ought to be about on an equality with the 
 German and Belgian, for while the English lines have cost on 
 an average ^45,000 per mile to construct, the Irish have cost 
 only ;^{^i 4,000. In addition to this contention, there are two 
 other favourite theories submitted by the apologists for the 
 higher English rates. The first is, as urged by Mr. Acworth, 
 that the great difference in passenger fares in the several 
 countries is due to the operation of a fundamental economic 
 law that the prices of commodities vary with the purchasing 
 capacity of the community ; and the next is, that the rates and 
 fares are lower on the Continent because of the slower services. 
 Again, therefore, they ought to be lower in Ireland than here 
 because the purchasing capacity is very much lower, and the 
 speed of the trains would scarcely have alarmed even the first 
 Select Committee on Railways. But the facts in Ireland are 
 at complete variance with these very plausible theories. Taking 
 the Irish rates for goods first, Mr. Waring assures us 2 that they 
 are often 30 per cent., and sometimes 50 per cent, higher than 
 
 1 Cor/c Constitution, December 26, 1896. 
 
 '^ "State Purchase of Irish Railways," iF<?r///z>/z//j/ Review, December 
 1886.
 
 THE WOES OF IRELAND 121 
 
 the English rates. Thus the average EngHsli charge for 
 merchandise is 5^. 6^d. per ton, the Scotch is $s. 2.W., while 
 the Irish charge is 6s. Shd. Again, the average English charge 
 for minerals is about i^. S\d., the Scotch charge is is. 5W., 
 while the Irish charge reaches the high average of 2s. 4^^. 
 The rates are often so prohibitive that where a trade is not 
 entirely annihilated, it is sent by road. As far back as 1865, 
 a Royal Commission, presided over by the late Duke of 
 Devonshire, reported that it was cheaper for Irish farmers and 
 cattle-dealers to drive lean stock by road than to send it by 
 rail. And no substantial alteration has been made from that 
 day to this. A number of cases were cited by witnesses before 
 the Select Committee on Irish Industries in 1885, and repeated 
 before the Revision of Rates Committee in 1890. But not 
 only is stock sent by road, there is also, as Mr. Waring assures 
 us, a continuous road traffic in general merchandise between 
 Irish towns which are connected by railways. Mr. J. S. Jeans 
 declares ^ that — " There scarcely appears to be any room for 
 doubt that the industrial development of Ireland has been 
 greatly retarded by the want of proper railway facilities. The 
 country is not without considerable mineral resources. It is 
 said to contain deposits of sulphur, iron, tin, and zinc ores. 
 Professor Sullivan, who had inquired into the prospects of 
 these several resources, informed the Royal Commission of 
 1867 that the railway charge for the transport of sulphur ore 
 from the Vale of Avoca to Kingstown — a distance of only 
 39^ miles — was 50 per cent, on the actual value. The same 
 authority stated that the zinc mines of Xenagh would have 
 sent out three times the quantity of mineral if they had only 
 got proper freights from the railways. Many similar cases could 
 be cited." 
 
 The amount of cartage done in Ireland along routes 
 traversed by railway lines is almost incredible. Even for 
 distances of twenty and thirty miles the road is found to be 
 preferable to the rail. There arc many roads in Ireland along 
 which traffic passes in a continuous procession, notwithstanding 
 that railways run parallel to them, and are worked to no more 
 than perhaps a tenth of their carrying power.'- 
 
 Mr. T. A. Dickson, M.P., says — '*I consider that in the great 
 ^ Raikuay Problems, p. 395. - Ituiustrial Trelmtd, p. 179.
 
 122 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 majority of cases the rates are prohibitory, especially in con- 
 nection with agricultural produce and local manufactures. 
 Turnip rates are so prohibitive from Dungannon to Belfast, 
 that Belfast customers get them from Wigtownshire in Scotland ; 
 while Indian corn, valued at ^6 lo^. per ton, is carried from 
 Donoughmore to Belfast at 6s. per ton, potatoes, valued at 
 ^2 los., are charged js. 6d., and turnips, worth 13^. 4^. to 15^". 
 per ton, are charged 55., and hay and straw (^2 to ;£"4 per ton) 
 are charged j^i a ton. Nearly all the agricultural produce 
 coming from Portadown Bay is carted to Belfast, a distance of 
 twenty-four miles, farmers earning los. to ;^i for two days' 
 pay for carting. The public complain very much that since 
 1873 (when, through the prices of coal and iron and wages 
 being advanced so much, rates were increased) no reduction 
 in rates and fares has been made."^ 
 
 Before the Revision of Rates Committee, 1890, Mr. J. E. 
 Bigger (Londonderry), a dealer, who stated his annual purchase 
 of pigs amounted to between 30,000 and 60,000, declared that 
 his firm had to close Clones and several other markets on 
 account of the high rates.^ Mr. Boyd, Hon. Secretary of 
 the Ulster Provision Curers Association, stated that the Irish 
 farmers were seriously handicapped by the rates, which were 
 prohibitive. He also stated that a large traffic is done by carts, 
 which at the present rates can live and thrive in opposition to 
 the railways. For instance, there is a regular weekly traffic by 
 the road from Magherafelt, the rate from this town to Belfast 
 being Ss. per ton, and the distance forty-two miles. From 
 Dungannon to Belfast, the distance being two miles shorter, 
 the railway rate is 1 2s. 2d, per ton. "We therefore contend that if 
 the carters can carry goods remuneratively, as they do, for 85-., the 
 Railway Companies should not be allowed to charge more 
 where they have not any opposition." ^ Mr. P. J. O'Connor 
 Glynn, representing the great firm of Guinness, gave evidence 
 showing mileage rates for porter of 2s. A,d. and 2s. 2d. per ton 
 on Irish railways, as compared with only ^d. and 8^. in England.* 
 Mr. T. Sherlock, Secretary of the Irish Cattle Traders Associ- 
 ation, said that what the London and North-Western Railway 
 
 '^ Select Cominittce, \%%i. Q^. 6'j<)0 et seq. 
 
 ^ Wagho]-7i and Stevens Report^ p. 65. 
 
 3 Ibid. p. 64. ^ Ibid. p. 67.
 
 THE WOES OF IRELAND 123 
 
 proposed as a maximum for a small cattle-truck for thirty miles 
 was £,1, Irish £^\ 8^. 4^; fifty miles, £^\ 10, Irish ^2; 
 seventy-eight miles, £,2 4^., Irish £2 \/^s} And Count Moore 
 assured the Irish Dairy Farmers Association that from the 
 chief cattle fair at Ballinasloe (by rail, some ninety miles west 
 of Dublin), the drovers preferred to tramp for five days along 
 the road, driving their herds, rather than pay the extortionate 
 toll of £2 55-. per charge for truck demanded by the Railway 
 Company.- While Mr. Waring, after exhaustive inquiry, goes 
 so far as to declare that — " All efforts to revive the woollen 
 industry have been frustrated by the high rates. The growth 
 of flax is decreasing for the same reason. The railways have 
 killed the milling industry. The witnesses say that you may 
 count silent mills in Ireland by the thousand. The freight 
 turns the scale against the home produce. A parcel which 
 travels 500 miles in England for 6^., costs one shilling for thirty 
 miles in Ireland." ^ 
 
 Then, turning to the passenger fares, we find they also are 
 excessive. The peasantry still prefer, as a Commission told us 
 they did in iSGy,"^ either to walk or hire a car, to go long 
 distances, because of the greater cheapness. The railways in 
 Ireland are free from passenger duty, and one might have 
 thought that passengers would benefit from so substantial an 
 exemption. Not so, however. The fares are higher than in 
 Great Britain, where the duty is imposed to the extent of a 
 quarter of a million a year. Thus the average fare in England 
 is 8Jy/., in Scotland loj^., and in Ireland i^. z\^-> ^^ niore 
 than 80 per cent, more than in England. So little is done in 
 the matter of pleasure traffic, and it is stated to be cheaper for 
 Irishmen to visit England and Scotland than to go to their 
 own holiday resorts.^ Thus we find that while in 1S84 there 
 were twenty-three passengers in England for every inhabitant, 
 and fourteen in Scotland, there were only four in Ireland. 
 
 3. Mr. Waring declares that "the Irish system is poverty- 
 stricken and inefficient, without spring, vitality, and power of 
 
 ^ Waghorn and Stevens Report, p. 70. 
 "^ Cork Constitution^ December 26, 1S96. 
 ' Fortnightly Rczitiv, December 1S86. 
 * Railway Problems, p. 396. 
 ' fortnightly ReT'ie-w, December 1SS6.
 
 124 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 self-recovery and development, and that as a result the gross 
 insufficiency of accommodation continues." Mr. Banks, the 
 Cork Manager of the Clyde Shipping Company, told the 
 Committee of 1881 that there was an insufficiency of rolling- 
 stock on all the Irish lines.^ Mr. James Shanks, Vice-President 
 of the Irish Conference, representing some hundreds of 
 Chambers of Commerce, Corporations and Town Councils, 
 giving evidence before the Committee of 1890, said that 
 throughout the whole of Ireland there was the strongest com- 
 plaint of the inadequacy of the station accommodation. For 
 cattle, especially, nothing practically was provided ; the animals 
 lay about in the road half a day at a time, waiting for wagons, 
 and if any terminal was charged at all it should go to the 
 highway authorities and not to the Railway Companies. ^ Mr. 
 Sherlock said that at Kells, "where there are 800 cattle on an 
 average at the fairs, they are often kept waiting from 9 a.m. 
 till I p.m. for trucks, and injure one another through deficiency 
 of pens. Only one watering trough was provided."^ Mr. 
 R. N. Boyd, Hon. Secretary to the Ulster Provision Curers 
 Association, stated that although the traffic in dead pigs from the 
 various centres in Ulster to the curing stations is very extensive, 
 the accommodation given by the Railway Companies is of the 
 most meagre description. " Instead of properly ventilated cars 
 such as are used for dead meat in England, they supply coal 
 and cattle wagons, or whatever sort they happen to have 
 handiest. And as a sample of the services rendered, Sir 
 Samuel Hayes of Stranorlar called on us to arrange about 
 getting pigs from Stranorlar market to Belfast. The pigs came 
 for a season, but the delivery was so slow (a day longer than 
 was expected) that we had to drop the place altogether . . . 
 I am acquainted with a curer in Ayrshire who was in the habit 
 of getting pigs sent him from Ballina to Ardrossan. The 
 transit occupied from Monday morning till Thursday morning. 
 He found that he could get pigs brought from Copenhagen in 
 nearly as short a time and for one-third less freight. He 
 accordingly dropped his Irish supply, to the detriment of the 
 Mayo farmer." * 
 
 4. The management of the Irish lines has long been notori- 
 
 ^ Q. 5063. "^ IVaghorn and Stevens Report, p. 66. 
 
 ^ Ibid. p. 70. ^ Ibid. p. 64.
 
 THE WOES OF IRELAND 125 
 
 ously wasteful. In 1867 the Hon. W. Monsell, in his separate 
 report, asserted that three intelHgent business men sitting in 
 Dubhn would do the business better than the (then) 430 
 directors of the 56 lines (most of them with a separate Board) ; 
 further, that the lines seemed to have no tendency to amalgama- 
 tion. Of 35 Companies he said two were bankrupt, two at a 
 standstill, six had paid no dividend for years on some part 
 of their preference stock, ten had paid no dividend on their 
 ordinary shares, seven paid a less percentage than the Funds 
 (two of these less than i per cent.). 
 
 And more recently (as quoted on p. 23), Sir George Findlay 
 has declared that he could do in four days a week, all the 
 work done by all the Irish managers and directors, and take 
 the remaining two for fishing on the Shannon. Mr. Banks 
 pointed out to the 1881 Committee, that for the Cork and 
 Passage Railway, of seven miles, there was a separate Board 
 of ten or twelve directors, a secretary and an engineer.^ And 
 that Committee reported - that " the management of the Irish 
 railways is needlessly expensive, in consequence of their being 
 owned by a number of Companies, each having its own staff — 
 there being in Ireland 270 directors, 37 secretaries, 20 managers, 
 and a corresponding staff of subordinate officers, for the adminis- 
 tration of railways having a capital of ^36,000,000 ; whereas the 
 Great Western Railway of England, having a capital of nearly 
 twice that amount, is managed by a single Board of eighteen 
 directors, a secretary, and a general manager. As to this last, 
 your Committee are agreed that the further amalgamation of 
 the Irish railways would tend to economy and efficiency of 
 working, and that such amalgamation should not only be urged 
 on the Companies concerned, and meet with every facility 
 which Parliament can offer for effecting the requisite arrange- 
 ments, but also, if necessary, be made the subject of direct 
 Parliamentary action." 
 
 5. The ordinary railways in Ireland have received in Govern- 
 ment subsidies about ^4,000,000, while the Government sub- 
 sidies to light railways also amount to a considerable sum. 
 Mr. Arnold Grove told the Committee of 1S90 that in 1847 
 the Government advanced ;^62o,ooo to the Great South and 
 Western, Waterford and Killarney, and Dublin and Drogheda 
 1 (?• 4875-9- ^ Report, p. xii.
 
 f26 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 Railways, and in 1849, ;^5oo,ooo to the Midland Great 
 Western. This Company was also assisted by guarantees from 
 the baronies in respect of Mulligan and Galway extensions. 
 Again in 1866,^500,000 was given to Irish Railway Companies 
 to meet pressing liabilities.^ 
 
 6. A Special Commission was appointed in 1868 to inquire 
 into the expediency of the State acquiring the Irish railways, 
 and reported in favour. In the course of their report they 
 declared that — " We do not feel it to be within the spirit of 
 the instructions which we have received, to speculate upon the 
 degree of material prosperity which w^ould be given to Ireland 
 by the adoption of a great reduction of rates and charges, and 
 a concentration of management. It is, however, useful to know 
 that if our anticipations of the increase of traffic resulting from 
 the reduction be realized, the public using the Irish railways 
 would pay for such increased traffic during a period of twelve 
 years, the sum of ;^i 2,000,000 less than they would have paid 
 for such traffic at the existing rates ; but instead of this advan- 
 tage being obtained by means of any permanent sacrifice on 
 the part of the State, a clear profit of ^50,000 would be 
 secured in the twelfth year, after payment of working charges, 
 cost of increased accommodation, and additional rolling-stock, 
 and interest on all capital previously advanced, and a profit of 
 ^^90,000 in the thirteenth year." - 
 
 ^ lVagho?'n and Stevens Report^ ?• 71- 
 
 ^ " State Purchase of Irish Railways," Fortnightly Review^ December 
 1886.
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 IS PRIVATE OWNERSHIP HOPELESS? 
 
 Before giving a final reply to this crucial question, it is 
 necessary to gather up a few threads scattered through the 
 preceding pages. We have seen that while the present system 
 suffers from all the wastes of an elaborate competitive ma- 
 chinery, there is no real competition. We have seen that 
 competition between the various firms of carriers upon the 
 individual fine was killed by the railway promoters themselves 
 becoming practically the sole carriers; while the competition 
 between the several lines, constructed merely to compete, has 
 been frustrated by means of amalgamations, subsidies, "pools," 
 and rate conferences. We have seen that even the competition 
 of the canals has been largely stamped out by the Railway 
 Companies adroitly acquiring certain navigations, and either 
 allowing them to become derelict, or exacting excessive tolls. 
 As a result of this monopoly, British agriculture and industry 
 have been grievously burdened with extortionate rates, and 
 seriously handicapped by the lower rates and preferential treat- 
 ment extended to their foreign competitors. The third-class 
 passenger too, though providing the sinews of war, is univers- 
 ally charged excessive fares, and upon certain lines is accorded 
 poor and insufficient accommodation. And with the failure 
 of competition to effectively protect the public, we have seen 
 a continuously growing meed of State control exerted on their 
 behalf. Such, roughly, is a summary of the preceding pages. 
 
 At different periods of English railway history, defenders of 
 private ownership have submitted three alternatives by which 
 the public might be protected from, the possible effects of that 
 
 127
 
 128 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 system. The first and, let it be said, the most devoutly 
 worshipped in its time, was that competition would do for 
 the railway service all that was claimed for it in the case of 
 ordinary commodities where the power of production was 
 limitless. The second, that even if the railways became one 
 huge, or several very large monopoHes, the enlightened self- 
 interest of the management would secure the generous treat- 
 ment of the public. And the third, that as a final resort the 
 Railway Companies might be coerced into sweet reasonableness 
 by means of State control. The almost invariable experience 
 of three-quarters of a century has entirely shattered faith in 
 the efficacy of competition alone as a regulator of Railway 
 Companies. There is still, however, a lingering band of 
 adherents to private ownership who have the temerity to pro- 
 fess belief in the enlightened self-interest of the railway 
 managements to secure the proper treatment of the pubHc. 
 Let us, therefore, see what justification there is for hope in 
 this direction in the future. The late Sir George Findlay 
 may be taken as the ablest exponent of the theory, and he 
 takes the view that hitherto farmers and traders have had 
 nothing to complain of in their treatment by the Companies 
 while pursuing the policy of an enlightened self-interest, and 
 for this reason he strongly objects to the State revising rates. 
 These are his words — 
 
 "The Companies have strenuously opposed this demand 
 (that the State should fix rates), on the perfectly logical ground 
 that Parliament having sanctioned the existing railways, with 
 power to take certain tolls for their use, upon the faith of 
 which the capital for their construction has been subscribed, 
 had no just claim to deprive the shareholders of a portion of 
 their profits, unless it was prepared to compensate them for 
 their loss. It is also argued, and is easily susceptible of proof, 
 that the Railway Companies, so far from having unfairly taxed 
 the trade of the country, as is asserted by their assailants, have 
 been its best friends, and have done everything in their power to 
 foster and eiuourage it; trcatifig the public fairly and liberally^ 
 and keeping well withi7i their powers as regards tolls. They 
 would indeed have been suicidal in acting otherwise, for their 
 course is shaped by men of business, who are well aware that 
 the prosperity of trade means the prosperity of the Railway
 
 IS PRIVATE OWNERSHIP HOPELESS? 129 
 
 Companies, and that, in short, the welfare of each is dependent 
 upon the other." ^ 
 
 But the hopelessness of the self-interest theory lies deeper 
 than this spirit of self-sufficiency. The Companies only pay an 
 average dividend of less than four per cent., which is not 
 deemed exorbitant as interest on private investments go. Now 
 any reductions in rates and fares to be effective must be 
 substantial, and it is certain that substantial reductions in 
 rates would enormously increase the traffic. Indeed the 
 practical certainties are, that there is a very low point down to 
 which rates and fares can be reduced, with the effect of so 
 increasing the traffic as to more than compensate for the 
 reduction. But there are certain risks involved in feeling for 
 that point with test rates. The public interest is of course to 
 get as much traffic carried as possible at the lowest rate. On 
 the other hand, the Companies' interest is not necessarily to 
 carry the greatest gross tonnage, but to secure the greatest 
 amount of net receipts. Thus, say the Companies now carry 
 four tons at 2^". a ton and thereby make a profit of 4^. 
 Let us then suppose they reduce the tonnage rate to ij"., 
 and thereby double their traffic, without (by a better 
 utilization of their rolling-stock) increasing their expenditure. 
 They still only secure 4^. profit, and are no better off than 
 before, although the public will have benefited enormously by 
 the change. Ultimately, it is possible, they may even more 
 than treble the traffic by such a reduction, but they may not 
 do so for some time, and immediately there is the certainty of 
 a loss. Thus, with an immediate loss certain, a doubled traffic 
 for half-rates say, reasonably certain in a short time but prob- 
 lematical, and an ultimate substantial profit, through a great 
 increase in traffic somewhat remote, it is no wonder that the 
 railway managements adopt Mr. Acworth's advice and "let sleep- 
 ing dogs lie !"- The same writer, in another place, further admits 
 what little prospect of substantial redress the public can hope 
 for in this direction, because " one of the few disadvantages of 
 private as compared with State railways is that they cannot 
 afford to try bold experiments. It ought to be added that, as 
 
 ^ The Working aud Management of an English Railway ^ p. 2S3. 
 * Nineteenth Century^ St-ptember 1 891. 
 
 K
 
 130 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 an historical fact, they hardly ever do." ^ The factor of the 
 
 speculating shareholder must not be ignored either in this 
 connection. As Professor Hadley says — "There is almost 
 always a certain opposition between the present and future 
 interests of a railroad." ^ Any substantial reduction in rates 
 for the future development of traffic would show itself on the 
 current statement of traffic receipts, published weekly, and the 
 stock-market would at once feel the shock. Mr. Waring has 
 put this aspect of the case very pithily. " Assuming that there 
 is a rate, a very low rate, which would develop traffic immensely, 
 and at the same time afford good profits to the Companies, they 
 cannot find it. They cannot even search for it efficiently, 
 because an efficient search involves risk ; risk involves loss ; 
 loss lowers dividends ; and sin against dividends no manager 
 will commit." ^ 
 
 And in the matter of workmen's trains we have already seen 
 the official declaration of the London County Council that 
 " further argument with the Companies is useless." 
 
 Thus with competition practically dead, and with the self- 
 interest of the Companies either not enlightened enough, or 
 not sufficiently coincident with the interests of the public, to 
 afford the cheapest facihties, we are left to see what hope there 
 is in the weapons of coercion, the instruments of State 
 control. 
 
 The two great instruments of State control are, (i) the 
 general Parliamentary revision of the maximum rates, and 
 (2) the power of appeal to the Railway Commissioners upon 
 specific grievance. And fortunately we have had a sufficient 
 experience of both in England to approximately appraise their 
 value to the traders as a means of defence. 
 
 THE FARCE OF REVISION. 
 
 Throughout the reports of the Royal Commissions and 
 Select Committees upon Railway Rates, for the last sixty years, 
 there is a striking crescendo in the volume of complaint against 
 the Railway Companies. What in 1838 was a mere whispering 
 
 1 " Railway Mismanagement," Nineteenth Century^ December 1892. 
 
 ^ Railroad Transportation. 
 
 ' State Purchase of Railways^ p. 70.
 
 IS PRIVATE OWxXERSHIP HOPELESS? 13! 
 
 murmur of complaint, becomes in 188 1-2 a loud growl of 
 indignation. And, surprising as it may seem, this increase of 
 protest is not merely due to the traders becoming familiarized 
 with the value of agitation, but very largely mirrors the actual 
 measure of grievance from time to time. In other words the 
 position of the English farmer and trader was in respect of rates 
 relatively worse fifteen years ago than it was fifty. It is true 
 that, following the general economic tendency of the century, 
 many railway rates have been reduced. This, however, has 
 been by no means universal, for witness after witness before the 
 Committee of 188 1-2 testified to rates being actually lower 
 thirty and forty years ago than at that time! But even 
 admitting a general reduction, the relative position was often 
 w^orse in the eighties than many years ago, because in the latter 
 case the system of preferential foreign rates had not been 
 developed, and English traders and farmers w^re able to get 
 upon the home markets, whereas latterly they have been ousted 
 by the foreign producer and trader, thanks largely to our 
 " railway-rate-in-aid." 
 
 We have compared the condition obtaining in the eighties, 
 rather than now, because in the meantime the position of the 
 traders has been very seriously worsened. 
 
 As was stated in Chapter II., the Act of 1888 provided for a 
 compulsory revision of all railway rates, and a new and simpli- 
 fied classification. And as this Act and Revision were the 
 definite outcome of the traders' bitter complaints before the 
 Committee of 188 1-2, not unnaturally a general hope pre- 
 vailed, that by their means substantial reductions would be made 
 in the excessive rates, and that the system of undue preferences 
 would receive its quietus once and for ever. It is true that 
 Professor Hunter, with his unique experience, on the one side 
 warned the traders that the revision might only become a delu- 
 sion and a snare, while Mr. W. U. Acworth cynically assured 
 them, from the other, that they stood to lose anyhow, for if their 
 rates were reduced the Companies could withdraw an equiva- 
 lent in facilities, and while some rates would be reduced others 
 were certain to be increased. But with an abiding faith in 
 Select Committees— worthy of a better object— the optimism 
 of the farmers and traders was unrufiled by these prophecies. 
 So into the crucible of Revision went the dozens of millions of
 
 132 
 
 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 railway rates. For 130 days the inquiry lasted ; 85 days were 
 occupied before the Board of Trade, and 45 more before the 
 Joint Committee; 211 witnesss were examined, and 43,000 
 questions were asked and answered ; 4000 objections from 
 1500 objectors were considered, and separate tables of figures 
 to the number of 2,256 were put in, while exhaustive legal 
 arguments seemed more interminable than the endless string 
 drawn from the conjuror's side. The official minutes alone 
 run to 3,926 pages. Surely it was inevitable that out of such 
 a labyrinth the magnificently organized Railway Companies, 
 with their brilliant band of skilled experts, should come trium- 
 phant ! What could the scattered traders and isolated farmers 
 do ? Here and there Chambers of Commerce and of Agricul- 
 ture, and special Conferences, were able to meet the Companies 
 effectively. And splendid service was rendered by the Mansion 
 House Association. But all their efforts combined only covered 
 a fractional part of the whole ground. And with a Committee 
 prepared to judge upon the merits of the case as it was pre- 
 sented to them, and with the Chairman benevolently anxious 
 to " spht the difference," surely the result could not be other- 
 wise than favourable to the Companies ! 
 
 Finally the result came, and what it was may be gathered 
 from independent evidence. In an analysis of the revised rates, 
 Mr. J. W. Gray, a recognized authority upon the subject, 
 showed that of 2,054 class-rates between Bradford and 313 
 other places, the result was as follows — 
 
 Of 176 Rates in Class B 
 
 , 313 
 
 
 >} 
 
 , c 
 
 , 313 
 
 
 
 , I 
 
 , 313 
 
 
 
 , 2 
 
 , 313 
 
 
 
 , 3 
 
 , 313 
 
 
 
 , 4 
 
 , 313 
 
 
 
 n 5 
 
 Are 
 Increased. 
 
 Are 
 Reduced. 
 
 130 
 
 .. 42 ... 
 
 228 
 
 .. 76 ... 
 
 . 169 
 
 .. 134 ... 
 
 210 
 
 .. 88 ... 
 
 133 
 
 .. 173 ... 
 
 in 
 
 .. 201 
 
 155 
 
 .. 153 ••• 
 
 Are 
 Unchanged. 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 7 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 1 136 
 
 867 
 
 51 
 
 An equally startling analysis was worked out by the Daily 
 News in an able article upon the results of the revision, in which 
 they showed what the Companies were and are allowed to charge.
 
 IS PRIVATE OWNERSHIP HOPELESS? 133 
 
 The following is their comparison, the rates, of course, covering 
 all the hundreds of articles included in each class — 
 
 Per ton. 
 
 Classes 12 3 4 5 
 
 s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 
 
 {Old Rate. 
 27 6 32 6 37 6 50 o 70 o 
 New Rate. 
 31 I 39 10 46 6 55 II 66 o 
 {Old Rate. 
 84 9 2 II 8 15 o 22 o 
 New Rate. 
 8 8 10 4 12 I 14 4 17 o 
 f Old Rate. 
 
 ^ . J II 3 14 2 15 10 19 2 22 6 
 
 R"ghy 1 New Rate. 
 
 i II II 14 4 16 8 19 9 23 II 
 } Old Rate. 
 
 ^ , I 22 6 28 4 34 2 40 o 50 o 
 
 London ^ New Rate. 
 
 i 24 ^ 29 7 34 2 40 10 49 4 
 f " Old Rate. 
 
 ^ ^ , ^ . II 8 14 2 16 8 21 8 27 6 
 
 Bourne End to London -I New Rate. 
 
 i 14 I 16 6 19 4 22 8 26 9 
 
 {Old Rate. 
 20 10 25 10 32 6 37 6 42 6 
 New Rate. 
 21 o 25 10 29 8 35 8 43 II 
 {Old Rate. 
 711 9 7 12 II 18 9 25 5 
 New Rate. 
 19 o 22 7 26 6 31 8 37 o 
 
 Part of this difiference is accounted for by the fact that collection and 
 delivery were not covered by the old rates. 
 
 In a summary of the results prepared by Mr. Edwin Clements 
 and issued to the members of the Mansion House Association 
 on Railway and Canal Traffic, it was shown that upon six of 
 the chief railways, for every two reductions made in rates there 
 were five increases. Nearly every trade and industry was ad- 
 versely affected by the Revision, and the unprecedented out- 
 burst of anger from all parts of the country, when the new 
 rates came into operation in January of 1893, has now become 
 a landmark in commercial history.
 
 134 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 All branches of agriculture, already so badly hit, were severely 
 affected. Here are some comparative rates for grain which Mr. 
 Hole gives ^ — 
 
 Old Rate. 
 
 New Rate. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 Smethwick to \ r q .. i ^ 
 Canterbury ...j ^^ ^ 4-ton lots . 
 
 .. 25 2 
 
 2-ton lots 
 
 Diss i6 8 4 „ 
 
 .. 22 3 
 
 2 „ 
 
 Market Drayton 6 lo 4 ,, 
 
 ..92 
 
 4 ,> 
 
 Bristol to Cardiff. . . 422 ,, 
 
 .. 8 9 
 
 2 ,, 
 
 Plymouth 10 9 2 ,, 
 
 • 13 4 
 
 2 ,, 
 
 Smethwick to 1 ,, _ 
 
 Ipswich / '5 10 4 „ 
 
 
 
 .. 17 
 
 4 ,, 
 
 Aberdare 10 10 4 ,, 
 
 •■ 15 3 
 
 2 „ 
 
 per ton. 
 
 To some of these places no 4-ton rates appear to be quoted. 
 
 Mr. E. O. Greening, Managing Director of the Agricultural 
 and Horticultural Association, stated that "of 200 rates received 
 from the South-Eastern Railway Company in respect of over 
 70 stations on their line to which we send goods, a comparison 
 with previous rates shows the following rates — In 38 cases there 
 have been reductions and in 211 cases increases. The 38 re- 
 ductions amount to 105. 4^. all told. The 211 increases total 
 ^P to ^22 iQj-. 2d. The advances on the heaviest traffic — 2- 
 ton and 4-ton lots — amount to 5 J per cent, after deducting the 
 decreases. The advances on the rates for smaller lots of goods 
 amount to nearly 40 per cent., and there are no decreases under 
 this head." At a meeting of the Mansion House Association, a 
 gentleman declared that the charges on milk had been increased 
 by from 50 to 100 per cent,, and that the increase represented 
 a tax of ^8 a year on every cow whose milk was transmitted 
 by rail. Speaking for a deputation of agriculturalists to the 
 Board of Trade, organized by the Mark Lane Express, Mr. 
 BayHs, of the Berkshire and Hampshire Chamber of Agriculture, 
 declared that — "In artificial manures increases had been made 
 of \s. to 45'. per ton (special rates), and that the increase, being 
 chiefly on 2-ton lots, hit the small farmer ; a Company had 
 made an increase on the same article of \s. 2d., is. 2,d.., and 
 IS. ^d. above the maxima ; on two tons of beet ioj-. was charged 
 
 ^ Natiflftal Faihvays, p. 332. 
 
 I
 
 IS PRIVATE OWNERSHIP HOPELESS? i35 
 
 instead of 35. 3^., and onions 12s. 6d. against 6s. id., equal to 
 
 '^ An^'otfet member of the deputation stated that, " without the 
 sale of straw, thousands of acres would go out of cultivation, 
 that a difference of only is. per ton represented a depreciation 
 of /'i 0,000 in Berks and Oxon, but the advance from Newbury 
 to London was from 13^. 4^- to 15^., and from Hungerford from 
 i^^ Ad. to 161. Pressed hay from 6^. Sd. to 15^. 4^-, by which 
 the whole trade had been disorganized." The market gardeners 
 and fruit-dealers also sent a deputation to the Board of Trade 
 complaining of the increased charges and the intensifying of the 
 
 preferential system. . , . i • . a ^^,.,,1-0 
 
 The traders were equally loud in their complaints. A deputa- 
 tion of the Mansion House Association, through their President, 
 Sir Tames Whitehead, told the Board of Trade that, among other 
 things, "leather conveyed by the Midland from Bristol to London 
 under the old rates stood at 325. 6d. per ton while under the 
 new rates it stood at 44^- 9^- Paper carried from Darwen to 
 London formerly was charged 28^. 4^. per ton, and now it was 
 charged K is. M. per ton. From the same place to Leicester the 
 old ?ate was 22s. 6d., compared with a new rate of 34j. 7^ 
 Heavy drapery from Lancashire to the west of England had 
 been 485. 8^., and was now 52.. M. From London to Norwich 
 iron tanks formerly cost for carriage 205-. lod., and now cost 40^. 
 q^ Hitherto makers of stove grates, kitcheners, baths, and such 
 classes of ironwork, have had breakages, which of course are 
 considerable, returned and replaced free of carriage by Railway 
 Companies. Now both the return and replacement are to be 
 charged, and not even at the original rate of consignment, but 
 at what are called ' small ' rates. The old rate for small goods 
 -that is, parcels which do not come under 'per ton rate, are 
 raised about 50 per cent. For the carriage of smalls -parce ^ 
 that is, not exceeding 3 cwt. in weight-the old scale was suf- 
 ficiently complicated, but the nature of the new scale may be 
 gathered from the fact that it differentiates now nine times 
 according to the tonnage rate between y. ^d and 61. «^o ana 
 the new table contains 216 columns or divisions as against the 
 48 columns in the old. . , 
 
 "Sugar formerly enjoyed exceptional treatment in special 
 rates, and as the most important article of imported food next to
 
 136 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 com it certainly deserves similar treatment now. Nevertheless 
 the rates have been raised to an extent equal on the whole con- 
 sumption of the country to a burden of ;^i 50,000 a year. In 
 addition to this, the distributing trade of London will be 
 seriously injured if the new rates are to be enforced. Further, 
 and most important of all, the preferential rates in favour of the 
 foreign refiners, which have been so long injurious to the Eng- 
 lish trade, are not only continued, but the discrepancy is even 
 greater than it was before. This is particularly the case on the 
 Southern lines, where the rates from London have been very 
 materially increased, while through rates on foreign sugars have 
 been left untouched." The deputation represented a trade of 
 something like 400,000 or 500,000 tons a year. 
 
 The following resolutions were passed at a great Conference 
 of Traders called by the Mansion House Association, at the 
 Mansion House, on Jan. 30, 1893 : — 
 
 " That this meeting of traders and agriculturists, from all 
 parts of the United Kingdom, is of opinion that, in view of the 
 persistent efforts made by the Railway Companies for many years 
 past to secure additional powers of charge, the large and general 
 increase in rates which they have recently made (in spite of their 
 frequent denial of any intention to do so, and immediately after 
 obtaining such powers) has shown conclusively that the fixing of 
 actual rates ought not to be left to their irresponsible discretion. 
 
 "That, in the opinion of this meeting, the rates and charges 
 made by a Railway Company ought to be, and were always 
 intended by Parliament to be, reasonable ; and that (looking to 
 the necessity for immediate action for the protection of trade 
 and agriculture) the most effectual mode of attaining reasonable 
 rates will be the prompt passing of an Act for so extending the 
 powers conferred upon the Board of Trade by Section 3 1 of the 
 Railway and Canal Traffic Act, 1888, as to give them jurisdic- 
 tion in cases of complaint or dispute to determine what an actual 
 rate or charge shall be." 
 
 At another meeting of the same Association, a leading iron- 
 master gave this example of revised iron rates — 
 
 Old Rate. New Rate. Increase Old Rate. New Rate. Increase 
 
 d. s. d. per cent. s. d. s. d. per cent. 
 
 3 7 61 69 
 
 30 5 4 11 
 
 30 62 105 
 
 4 7 
 
 7 
 
 II 
 
 72 
 
 4 6 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 3 10 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 69
 
 IS PRIVATE OWNERSHIP HOPELESS? 137 
 
 In this case not a single reduction was made. 
 
 Resolutions rolled in from everywhere. The Swansea 
 Chamber of Commerce resolved — That "the rates of the Great 
 Western Railway Company have had a most disastrous effect 
 upon the trade of Swansea. . . . Unless a remedy is devised 
 Swansea will soon be without trade." 
 
 Similar resolutions were adopted by a number of other Cham- 
 bers of Commerce, including those of Liverpool and Glasgow. 
 A meeting of wholesale tea merchants and grocers, presided 
 over by Mr. T. Lough, M.P., passed a resolution to the effect 
 that " owing to the bulk of the commodities being sold at fixed 
 retail prices, the increased expense (in rates) will operate as a 
 tax which cannot be borne." While the London Chamber of 
 Commerce, through Sir Albert Rollit, its President, declared 
 that " there were many articles, the consumption of which had 
 been large among the poorer classes, among these being 
 petroleum, the carriage of which has been doubled in price, and 
 the consequence was that one village in Hampshire had been 
 put in darkness, as the increased rate of carriage could not be 
 paid. Similar increased rates had been applied to many articles 
 in the grocery trade. In coal and iron, agricultural and dairy 
 produce, and fruit, there had also been a very large increase in 
 the rates. The whole of the timber trade had been disorganized 
 by these rates." And even the President of the Board of Trade 
 was constrained to say — "The present state of things cannot 
 last ; the Companies are straining the patience of the trading 
 public. . . . I'he smaller traders are being most grievously 
 oppressed." ^ And again, " I assert that these rates, if per- 
 sisted in, will be most detrimental in their effect upon the 
 general trade of the country." - 
 
 But the most telling comment upon the action of the Com- 
 panies was this resolution of the House of Commons passed 
 neni. con. on March 3, 1893. I^ says more than a thousand 
 Blue Books could say on the subject — "That in the opinion of 
 this House the revised railway rates, charges and conditions of 
 traffic, are most prejudicial to the industries and agricultural and 
 commercial interests of the country, and this House urges ui")on 
 the Government the necessity of dealing promptly and effec- 
 tively with the subject." 
 
 * To deputation of 200 Members of Parliament, Feb. 16, 1893. 
 ^ Letter to the London Chamber of Commerce, Feb. 17, 1893.
 
 138 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 Two months later it was found necessary to appoint a Select 
 Committee to inquire into the action of the Railway Companies 
 under the new Acts. The report of this Committee is one of 
 the most remarkable documents to be found in railway history. 
 For strength of language and unqualified condemnation of the 
 Companies it has certainly not been equalled since the first 
 Railway Act was passed in 1823. The new Acts only provided, 
 of course, for maximum rates and charges. As finally settled 
 they made considerable reductions in several articles of traffic, 
 to a point in many cases even below the actual rates charged. 
 In others they left the maximum charges at nearly the point at 
 which the rates were then fixed by the Companies. In others 
 they left the maximum charges, though reduced, considerably 
 above the rates actually charged, while in others they raised 
 the maximum charges. 
 
 The Committee begin by asking whether Parliament, in 
 forcing reductions upon the Companies in certain directions, 
 contemplated that they would recoup themselves by raising the 
 rates in other cases where the " actuals " were below the new 
 maxima? To this they give an emphatic "no," and intimate 
 that in taking the step they had done, the Companies had broken 
 faith. " Your Committee are of opinion that the effect of the 
 statements of the railway managers before the Board of Trade 
 Committee, and the Joint Committee of the House, was to lead 
 these bodies, and the traders, to believe that the Companies 
 could not recoup themselves for any losses resulting from a 
 reduction of the maximum charges, by a general raising of 
 rates which were below the maxima. If there had been any 
 general expectation of such action, it is most probable that the 
 Provisional Orders would not have passed into law, for they 
 would have been strongly opposed by the traders who had the 
 benefit of the existing rates, and who have objected to their 
 being raised for the benefit of other traders whose rates were 
 to be reduced." In support of their contention that Parliament 
 had been misled by the Companies, the Committee quote 
 extracts from the evidence of the managers. Mr. Lambert, 
 Manager of the Great Western, said — "The same circumstances 
 as exist to-day in the matter of competition will, no doubt, exist 
 for years to come, and I do not see any possibility of substan- 
 tially increasing our rates beyond what they are to-day. ... I 
 am bound to say, after careful consideration, that I do not see
 
 LS TRIVATE OWNERSHIP HOPELESS? 139 
 
 how we are to recoup ourselves for these losses. We get the 
 best rates we can at the present time. . . . We could not, 
 without interfering with trade in a serious manner, put up those 
 rates which were below the maxima." 
 
 Sir Henry Oakley, Manager of the Great Northern, and Secre- 
 tary of the Railway Association, stated — " We do not hope that 
 we shall get any increase of receipts by exercising any margin of 
 power which the Committee may give us, simply because we 
 think we should damage the trade, and if we thought now that 
 an increase would not damage the trade, we would make an 
 addition at this moment." 
 
 It is of course impossible to reproduce at length the Report 
 of the Committee, but one or two extracts v.ill indicate its 
 general character. 
 
 " Your Committee feel it difficult to understand fully the 
 explanations afforded by the Railway Companies, and still more 
 difficult to justify what they do understand of them. They 
 cannot but think that the course of the Companies was mainly 
 actuated by their determination to recoup themselves to the 
 fullest extent by raising the rates of articles when the maximum 
 rates were above the actual rates. . . 
 
 " In view, however, of the action of the Railway Companies 
 during the i)resent year, and of the alarms felt by traders as to 
 the future, they are of opinion that matters cannot be left as 
 they are now, and that some greater security should be pro- 
 vided against unreasonable increases of rates. 
 
 " It would appear that the Great Western Company had been 
 able, not only to recoup itself completely for the ^80,000 a 
 year loss entailed upon it by the decision of the Joint Com- 
 mittee, but were making a small annual profit of ;^i4,ooo. In 
 other words, the Company had buccceded in raising the rates of 
 one class of trades by ^^94,000 a year, in order to recoup itself 
 for reductions to other traders to the amount of ^80,000 a 
 year. 
 
 " The complaints extend to the rates for nearly all classes of 
 merchandise, and they are csjiccially emphatic as regards rates 
 for agricultural and dairy produce, an industry quite unable 
 to bear any additional burthen at the present time. 
 
 " Not only do they atTect the money charges, but they bear 
 uj^on the changes made in the conditions of traffic, which,
 
 I40 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 so far as the Board of Trade have at present been able to 
 examine them, are all against the interest of the trader." 
 
 And here are a few typical phrases scattered throughout the 
 Report — 
 
 "The reply of the Companies is neither complete nor satis- 
 factory," "the effect was to lead the traders to believe," " such 
 a course was most unsatisfactory," " the Companies were not 
 justified in dislocating trade and alarming so many interests, 
 and in compelHng traders," "not to be expected that the letter 
 of the Companies would relieve the minds of traders," " loud 
 complaints of the new rates," " almost universal dissatisfaction," 
 "a feeling of indignation," "will refund the overcharge," "not 
 surprised that there should be very strong feeling," "exces- 
 sive and unreasonable," " a sense of insecurity lest rates may 
 be again raised to the maximum," "traders should be protected 
 against the imposition of unreasonable conditions of transport," 
 and so on and so forth. ^ 
 
 THE FUTILITY OF LITIGATION. 
 
 The Committee, however, gave up the prospect of another 
 Parliamentary Revision, and urged that the Railway Commis- 
 sion should be given power to take the complaints of the traders 
 in detail, and where they saw fit compel the Companies to 
 return to the rates in operation before the wholesale increase. 
 In the result, the idea of a re-Revision was given up, and the 
 Act of 1894 was passed, handing on the task of finding a remedy 
 to the Railway Commissioners. With competition and en- 
 lightened self-interest and Revision all hopeless, let us turn to 
 the Railway Commission and see whether it is efficacious to 
 protect the traders. 
 
 No stronger criticism has been written showing the hopeless- 
 ness of the Railway Commission, or any other tribunal for pro- 
 tecting the traders, when faced by the superb organization of 
 the Railway Companies, than that penned by Mr. W. M. 
 Acworth. He says — " For every shiUing cut by an expeditious 
 tribunal off a rate, it is easy for the Railway Companies, if they 
 
 ^ Second Report of the Select Committee on Railway Rates and Charges^ 
 1893, No. 462.
 
 IS PRIVATE OWNERSHIP HOPELESS? 141 
 
 are agreed to act in harniony with each other, to withdraw two- 
 shillings' worth of facilities ; and the traders may make up their 
 minds that this is what must inevitably happen if the Railway 
 Companies are confronted with lower rates simultaneously with 
 a rapid rise of working expenses. Assume that your tribunal 
 can fix a reasonable rate, what is the use of it unless it can 
 schedule to its judgment a minute specification of the quality 
 of service to be given in return for the rate ? . . . The railways 
 can bring down troops of expert witnesses. How can the 
 tribunal refuse to hear them, when every student of railway 
 economics knows that the reasonableness of each particular 
 rate depends not merely on its own individual circumstances, 
 but on a comparison with all the other rates and a consideration 
 of the Company's entire business? But for a fariner or shop- 
 keeper, with the assista7ice, possibly, of the local attorney, to under- 
 take to fight trained railway experts with a lifetime's experience 
 and with every fact and figure at their fingers^ end, is only to court 
 defeat:' 1 
 
 The fear of suffering in the way indicated by Mr. Acworth is 
 a most potent factor in the present problem. Thus the Secre- 
 tary of the Notts and Midland Merchants and Traders Asso- 
 ciation wrote to the Committee of 1881 that — " Your memorial- 
 ists have received from the members of this Association many 
 complaints with regard to the inequalities of railway rates very 
 materially affecting their financial interests, but the members 
 individually do not desire to appear prominently before your 
 Committee lest they should suffer owing to any adverse views 
 that the Railway Companies might take with regard to their 
 complaints."- 
 
 Before the same Committee Sir Alfred Hickman gave evi- 
 dence upon the monstrous case of tlie Chatterley Colliery Com- 
 pany. Thinking they were illegally overcharged by the North 
 Staffordshire Railway Company, they took them before the 
 Railway Commission, proved their case, and secured an order 
 confining the railway within the legal maximum. Thereupon 
 the Railway Comi)any flatly declined to carry the tratlic of the 
 Chatterley Company. They were again taken before the Com- 
 mission, and at once ordered to resume the traffic, subject to a 
 penalty of jQ^o a day for refusal. They complied with the 
 ^ The Kaihuays and the Traders. - Appendix, p. 90.
 
 142 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 letter of the order, but " under as awkward and inconvenient 
 circumstances for the Chatterley Company as the Railway 
 Company could possibly arrange." And Sir Alfred Hickman 
 declares that though technically the Chatterley won everything, 
 they could not compel the Railway Company to afford them 
 ordinary facilities such as were necessary to carry on their 
 business, so they were obliged to compromise the matter upon 
 worse terms than the Commissioners had allowed. This 
 result had deterred him from challenging the Railway Com- 
 panies, because if he beat them on one point, they could beat 
 him on the others."^ Sir Benjamin Hingley gave similar 
 evidence, and asserted that the Chatterley experience had 
 caused him and many others to bear much that they thought 
 unreasonable and unfair, lest worse befel them.^ The London 
 and North-Western Railway Company refused to carry the 
 coal of the Neston Colliery Company because they declined 
 to pay what they considered a gross overcharge upon the part 
 of the Railway Company.^ Sir W. B. Forwood, in reply to a 
 question from Mr. W. S. Caine, stated that a trader hesitated 
 to move because he would be a marked man with the Railway 
 Companies.* And Mr. J. Nash Peake, a large pottery manu- 
 facturer at Tunstall, declared — "Not many of us like to quarrel 
 with a Railway Company ; and this very fact goes far to nullify 
 any legislation that may be advanced for the protection of the 
 public against the Companies." ^ But one of the most astonish- 
 ing examples of this railway retaliation was the case of Messrs. 
 Howards, of Bedford. The Midland Railway Company in- 
 creased their charges more than loo per cent, against Messrs. 
 J. and F. Howard for bringing a complaint against them of 
 overcharge. The Commissioners reported — " These changes 
 (the increasing of the rates) applied to no place but Bedford, 
 and establishing as they did preferential rates between other 
 places on the lines of the two Companies and Bedford, and 
 doing this for no other purpose but to retaliate upon Messrs. 
 Howard for claiming a terminal allowance, they were a distinct 
 abuse of the powers entrusted to Railway Companies of regu- 
 lating their charges for conveyance ; an abuse indeed that was 
 
 1 Q. 4481 ei seq. ^ q^ 5564-8, 
 
 3 Q. 2994. 4 Q. 1804. 
 
 ^ Staffordshire Sentinel, July 30, 1888.
 
 is PRIVATE OWNERSHIP HOPELESS? 145 
 
 so plain, that on the second day of the hearing the counsel 
 for the Companies informed us that foreseeing we should 
 have no alternative but to set aside such rates, he would 
 not say a word in defence of them."^ 
 
 Even Mr. S. Laing, the Chairman of the Brighton Railway, 
 admits that railways " could easily retaliate, under a sense of 
 injury, by measures which no control could prevent unless it 
 was prepared to take on itself the entire responsibility of the 
 detailed management of the line." - And speaking as an en- 
 tirely outside and impartial observer, Professor Had ley says — 
 
 "The Railway Companies can behave in an exasperating 
 manner without endangering any of their well-recognized 
 rights. Such impudence as was displayed by the Companies 
 in the face of the early decisions of the Railway Commis- 
 sioners would be all but impossible in America. . . . But in 
 the majority of cases it may fairly be said that honestly- 
 managed American Corporations have really tried to conform 
 to the requirements of Commissioners even before the Courts 
 have taken the steps to render such compliance necessary. 
 This has not been the case in England." ^ 
 
 But it is not merely the fear of retaliation that deters traders 
 and farmers from taking cases before the Railway Commis- 
 sioners, even where they believe they have a perfectly just 
 grievance. The Committee of 188 1-2 report that — 
 
 " Traders complain, and the complaint has been supported 
 by many witnesses, that it is not for the interest or pecuniary 
 advantage of almost any trader to take a Railway Company 
 before the Commission. 
 
 " I. Because the expense of obtaining redress is so great 
 that the trader, even when completely successful, will almost 
 invariably sustain ])ecuniary loss. 
 
 " 2. Because ex[)cricnce has shown that Railway Companies 
 are prepared to litigate to an extent which few traders dare to 
 contemplate ; and — 
 
 *' 3. Because Railway Companies have so many oppor- 
 tunities of putting traders to inconvenience and loss by with- 
 holding ordinary trade facilities and otherwise, that traders are 
 
 Q. 421 et sft/. Select Committee, iSSi, 
 
 * ^. 421 er scij. select Lommitt( 
 ' Fortnightly Revieiv, April 18S6. 
 
 * Railroad Transportation ^ p. xii.
 
 144 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 afraid of the indirect consequences of taking a Railway 
 Company into Court." ^ 
 
 With the third point I have already dealt. Dealing with 
 the first and second, the Committee declare that — *'The evi- 
 dence submitted to us shows that there is some ground for 
 these apprehensions on the part of traders, and the considera- 
 tion of their relative positions clearly shows that it is to the 
 pecuniary advantage of a trader to submit to overcharges, or 
 to suffer from undue preference to others, instead of taking a 
 Railway Company before the Commissioners. Perhaps no 
 more instructive or illustrative case could be adduced than 
 that stated by the Chairman of the London, Chatham and 
 Dover Railway Company : ' Last year that Company issued a 
 circular stipulating for a special service tariff, and tenders for 
 the carriage of hops by the Company. According to this 
 tariff the rate for hops from Sittingbourne, for example, was 
 3 6 J". Sd. per ton, from which 5^. might properly be deducted 
 for delivery in London, leaving 3ii-. Sd. as the charge for 
 conveyance on the railway. On behalf of the hop-growlers, it 
 is contended that the maximum legal charge by the Company 
 for conveyance from station to station is 18^. gd.; and if the 
 contention is well founded, the Railway Company surcharged 
 125'. 11^. per ton. The quantity of hops annually carried by 
 the London, Chatham and Dover Railway Company is about 
 4000 tons. The alleged surcharge on this quantity amounts 
 to an important sum, and this the Railway Company would 
 have to stake in any action, but this surcharge to the indi- 
 vidual hop-grower would hardly tempt any prudent man to 
 litigation.' " - 
 
 Recent experience has more than confirmed these remarks. 
 Under the Act of 1894, a case was taken before the Railway 
 Commission by the Mansion House Association on behalf 
 of its members in Northampton, who urged that the rates 
 which had been increased should be reduced to the 1892 
 level. After nearly two years' delay, and the expenditure 
 of some hundreds of pounds, the Railway Companies w^re 
 defeated, and the traders believed that they had settled a test 
 case, which would rule the others.^ Not so however. The 
 
 ^ Raih'oad Transportation, page xii. ^ Ibid. 
 
 ^ Report^ Alansion House Trader s'' Association, 1897.
 
 IS PRIVATE OWNERSHIP HOPELESS? 145 
 
 Companies philosophically accepted the decision as applying 
 to the particular case, and smilingly await proceedings from 
 other traders who desire to challenge any of the remaining 
 millions of rates, and have the temerity to run the responsibility 
 of the expense. Similarly a number of Southern farmers and 
 traders through the Mansion House Association challenged the 
 preferential foreign rates from Southampton, at a cost of some 
 ;^20oo. In certain of the particular instances cited as to specific 
 quantities of hops, hay, and fresh meat, the Commissioners 
 ordered the Companies to abolish the preference.^ But it merely 
 settled the particular cases and rates in (question, and in no sense 
 affects the millions of other rates, each of which will have to 
 be considered " upon its own merits." So that it simply comes 
 to this, every case of excessive or preferential rates will have 
 to be separately challenged at an expense of some hundreds 
 of pounds, or the traders will have to continue under the 
 grievance. When we remember that there are 250,000,000 
 separate rates, and if we only allow that a small pro- 
 portion are excessive or preferential, and if we only assume a 
 cost of two or three hundred pounds in challenging each, it 
 will be seen that, either the traders will have to grin and bear 
 the burden, or spend, in attempting its entire removal by 
 litigation, a sum probably greater than the whole amount 
 required for the com})letc acquisition of the entire railway 
 system. 
 
 Thus with competition dead, with the interest of the Com- 
 panies opposed to that of the public, with coercion through 
 revision a failure, and through the Railway Commissioners 
 impossibly costly, and futile, I am surely justified in definitely 
 saying that from the standpoint of the public and of national 
 trade the present system is hopeless beyond redemption. 
 
 ^ Rfport^ Mansion /louse Traders' AssodatioHy 1897.
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 STATE RAILWAYS IN PRACTICE — IN EUROPE 
 
 For many years past there has been an ahiiost general 
 tendency throughout Europe from private to State-ownership 
 of railways. This tendency has increased in intensity during 
 the last few years, and at present there is not a single sign of 
 any movement in an opposite direction. Nor is the explana- 
 tion far to seek. It lies in the fact that the difficulties of 
 control have been found greater, and the financial risks of 
 ownership less. But, above all, the Governments have been 
 roused to the idea of the supreme importance of a railroad 
 policy as an element in the industrial and even in the political 
 life of nations, and have felt that nothing short of complete 
 ownership and direct management of railroads would give 
 them the power to which they aspired. Before deahng with 
 each country in detail, a few points of general comparison will be 
 of advantage, such as the relative lengths of State and private 
 lines, the relative cost of administration under the two systems, 
 and the relative transit rates for different countries. Accord- 
 ing to the last Statistical Abstract, the following was the mile- 
 age of State and private lines respectively in operation in 
 Europe in 1894 ^ — 
 
 Countries. 
 Russia in Europe 
 
 Norway 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Lines. 
 /Companies 
 \ State... _ 
 /Companies 
 \State... 
 /Companies 
 1 State 
 
 Miles. 
 
 9,516 
 
 11,182 
 
 42 
 
 958 
 
 3,835 
 1,899 
 
 ^ Statistical Abstract of Foreign Countries, 1896. 
 146
 
 *,^o TXT T3P\rTTrE— IN EUROPE i47 
 STATE RAILWAYS IN PRACllLE 
 
 Countries. 
 Denmark ... 
 
 Germany: Prussia... 
 Alsace & Lorraine 
 Bavaria ... 
 Saxony ••• 
 \Vurtemburg 
 Baden 
 Hesse 
 
 Holland 
 
 Belgium 
 
 France 
 
 Switzerland... 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Spain 
 
 Italy 
 
 Austria (Proper) 
 
 Hungary ••• 
 
 Roumania ... 
 
 Lines. 
 r Companies ... 
 \State... 
 
 f Companies ... 
 \State 
 
 /Companies ... 
 V State 
 
 (Companies ... 
 \State... 
 (Companies ... 
 \State... 
 (Companies ... 
 \State... 
 (Companies ... 
 \State... 
 (Companies .. 
 \State... 
 
 (Companies ... 
 \State... 
 (Companies ... 
 
 \State 
 
 (Companies ... 
 
 \State 
 
 I Companies .. 
 
 (Companies 
 \Slale 
 /companies .. 
 
 /Companies .. 
 \ Slate 
 
 /Companies .. 
 \ State 
 
 (Companies .. 
 \ State •• 
 
 f Companies .. 
 \ Slate 
 
 Miles. 
 
 301 
 
 1,069 
 
 1,064 
 15.175 
 
 7 
 894 
 548 
 
 3.170 
 
 79 
 
 1,711 
 
 II 
 
 1,057 
 
 34 
 
 . 872 
 
 340 
 
 151 
 
 Total length of line .•• ^S.^^j 
 
 7S1 
 
 8S5 
 
 795 
 
 2,043 
 
 23.334 
 
 1,634 
 
 2,201 
 
 7,301 
 
 9,280 
 
 5.865 
 4,288 
 
 2,923 
 4,618 
 
 1,603 
 
 1 ♦T.or \ho cost of administration is 
 The 4uest>on as^lo w;U^^ <_;- -;j„,„, ^3 one of vital 
 greater ""^cr S ate or pr ^. ^^^^^ number of 
 
 importance. There are ou ^ , ^ilways on prm- 
 
 people who ;"<^\-''.<^Vl'l^ '". "jSration should be greater 
 ciple, even if their cost °| •^^"''" f " \,,c,c is certainly a very 
 than under private owncvshii.. And tnere
 
 148 
 
 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 great deal to be said for their contention, for the railroads have 
 become the virtual highways of the country, and the theory of 
 using the highways for the development of the country, regard- 
 less of whether they " pay," might not unreasonably be applied 
 to the railways, if necessary, as a final resort. But, on the other 
 hand, there are a great many people — probably a large 
 majority of the business classes — who are only prepared for 
 the State to take over the railways as a purely commercial 
 transaction ; and who would certainly oppose the transfer if they 
 believed the State would be more prodigal of expenditure than 
 the administrators of the present system. It will, therefore, 
 be of advantage to take the question out of the realm of 
 abstract principle, and refer it to the test of experience for a 
 moment. Sir George Findlay has made a general assertion 
 that the Government administration of railways would be more 
 costly than private administration, but he has adduced no facts 
 in support of his contention, and the evidence of experience is 
 against him. The proper basis of comparison for this purpose 
 is, of course, the cost of administering, not a State line in one 
 country with a private line in another, but the State and Com- 
 panies' Hnes respectively, side by side, in the same country. 
 And this comparison has been most effectively made by Mr. 
 J. S. Jeans. He gives this comparative statement, showing the 
 percentage of total working expenses expended on administra- 
 tion on the State and private lines respectively of different 
 European countries — 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Germany 
 
 Austria- Hungary 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Denmark 
 
 France 
 
 Italy 
 
 Norway 
 
 Holland ... 
 
 Roumania ... 
 
 Pvussia 
 
 State lines. 
 
 Companies' 
 lines. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 9-40 
 
 13-10 
 
 6 50 
 
 847 
 
 505 
 
 10-13 
 
 689 
 
 5 77 
 
 i6-i6 
 
 958 
 
 649 
 
 8-76 
 
 7-30 
 
 7 00 
 
 530 
 
 10-35 
 
 4-40 
 
 10 -So 
 
 9-27 
 
 13-70 
 
 ^ Kaihuay Problems, p. 474.
 
 STATE RAILWAYS IN I'RACTICE-IN EUROPE UO 
 
 It will be noticed that in France alone is the cost of State 
 administration considerably greater than private administration 
 This difference, Mr. Jeans tells us, is explained by the fact 
 -that the State only own the feeders and Companies the main 
 trunks. France, therefore, is exceptional. lUit in the ca.se of 
 countries where the conditions of the comparisons are more 
 parallel, the State lines will be seen to be invariably the more 
 economically managed as regards administration. Belgium 
 supplies one of the most notable examples of this cconom>, 
 the State-controlled lines being administered for less than one- 
 half the relative cost of the lines belonging to pnvate Com- 
 
 ^'"^This statement shows the percentage of total working 
 expenditure appUed to the maintenance of way and traffic 
 expenses respectively - — 
 
 
 Mainten.ince of W.ny. 
 
 Traffic Expenses. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 State 
 lines. 
 
 Private 
 lines. 
 
 State 
 lines. 
 
 Private 
 lines. 
 
 Germany 
 
 Austria- Hungary 
 
 Iklgium 
 
 France 
 
 Italy 
 
 Holland 
 
 Roumania 
 
 Russia 
 
 per cent. 
 
 35*90 
 3812 
 
 2.\ -04 
 
 1 24-15 
 2201 
 
 i 29-70 
 38-10 
 40-40 
 
 per cent. 
 28-20 
 30-21 
 2486 
 20-83 
 266S 
 
 25-59 
 29 20 
 
 31-03 
 
 per cent. 
 
 3I-IO 
 
 29-03 
 25-96 
 
 27-57 
 35-98 
 36-90 
 22-70 
 11-83 
 
 per cent. 
 35-30 
 32-54 
 32-79 
 
 3477 
 3114 
 35-53 
 28-40 
 
 21 34 
 
 Two facts stand out with special prominence in this table— 
 the first, that the cost of maintenance of way is generaly 
 higher on the State lines ; the second, that traffic expenses take 
 a hiiiher range on the lines of private Companies. 
 
 '- U might be easily contended, and even proved beyond a I 
 doubt " says Mr. Jeans, "that the first characteristic is a result 
 of the' better condition in which the State keeps the permanent 
 way ; and so far as this is the case, the public convenience, 
 safety, and general advantage are promoted. The higher 
 rancrc of traf^c expenses on Companies lines undoubtedly 
 
 1 Kailii>ay Probhnis, p. 474- 
 
 2 IbU. p. 475-
 
 i^o 
 
 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 argues greater laxity of management, since, as we have already 
 shown, this is one of the most elastic of items, and may be 
 either very high or very low according as economy or extrava- 
 gance is the prevailing system. So far then as we have already 
 gone, the experience of Continental Europe points unmistakably 
 to the exercise of greater economy in State management. We 
 might easily proceed to show that this essential difference is 
 equally characteristic of other and more technical features 
 of railway administration." ^ 
 
 The next, and most important point, is the question of 
 transit rates and charges. The consideration of passenger 
 fares we will postpone for treatment in a separate chapter, 
 and confine our attention at this stage to the consideration 
 of goods rates alone. This aspect of the problem has been 
 comprehensively investigated by Sir Bernhard Samuelson so 
 far as Holland, Germany and Belgium are concerned ; and the 
 following table of comparative rates is taken from the masterly 
 report which he presented to the Associated Chambers of 
 Commerce. 
 
 Bar Iron, etc. : 
 
 Brettle Lane to Liverpool ... 
 
 ,, Hull 
 
 ,, ,, Paddington ... 
 
 ,, ,, Manchester ... 
 
 ,, ,, Nottingham... 
 
 North Staffordshire to Liverpool 
 
 ,, ,, ,, London 
 
 Iron Wire : 
 
 Birmingham to London {Zfaled 
 „ Coventry I P^^^'^^g^ 
 
 Hardware : 
 
 Birmingham to London 
 
 ,, ,, Manchester 
 
 Cutlery : 
 
 Sheffield to Hull, export 
 
 
 For 
 
 same distance. 
 
 British. 
 
 / 
 
 German. 
 
 Belgian. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 ii/o 
 
 8/8 
 
 6/8 
 
 8/3 
 
 14/4 
 
 ii/i 
 
 7/3 
 
 9/5 
 
 15/0 
 
 9/4 
 
 6/10 
 
 8/7 
 
 1 1/6 
 
 7/0 
 
 6/4 
 
 7/3 
 
 lo/o 
 
 6/2 
 
 6/1 
 
 6/6 
 
 7/6 
 
 4/8 
 
 5/0 
 
 4/8 
 
 13/4 
 
 9/10 
 
 6/4 
 
 8/8 
 
 24/4 
 
 10/4 to 1 1/2 
 
 8/1 1 
 
 8/2 
 
 15/2 
 
 8/6 
 
 8/1 1 
 
 8/2 
 
 2S/0 
 
 I 1/7 to 12/7 
 
 9/4 
 
 8/7 
 
 17/6 
 
 9/6 
 
 9/4 
 
 8/7 
 
 8;'8 
 
 3/2 to 3/5 
 
 3/6 
 
 3/3 
 
 5;'o 
 
 2/11 
 
 3/6 
 
 3/3 
 
 23/6 
 
 1 1/4 
 
 13/11 
 
 11/3 
 
 17/8 
 
 9/1 
 
 11/7 
 
 9/6 
 
 6/7 
 
 8/9 
 
 6/0 
 
 [For small consignments the German rate would be 12/1. 
 
 Railway Prohhms^ pp. 463-4.
 
 STATE RAILWAYS IN PRACTICE— IN EUROPE i;i 
 
 Cotton Goods: 
 
 
 British. 
 
 For 
 
 ;ame distance. 
 
 r 
 German. 
 
 Belgian. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Manchester to London 
 
 ■"(2 
 
 36,0 
 I ex 
 
 20/0 
 port. ) 
 
 to 23 
 
 18,1 
 
 14^4 
 
 ,, Liverpool 
 
 
 10 6 
 
 5 4 
 
 ., 5'it 
 
 5 9 
 
 4/2 
 
 i 
 
 ■"(6 
 
 10 ex 
 
 30rt.) 
 
 
 
 
 ,, Oxford 
 
 
 420 
 
 16/ 1 
 
 t M 19/5 
 
 163 
 
 12/4 
 
 ,, Bristol 
 
 
 31 
 
 18/10 ,, 3/5 
 
 174 
 
 14,0 
 
 Woollen, Worsted, and Stuff 
 
 Goo 
 
 )S : 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bradford to London 
 
 
 39 4 
 
 20 8 
 
 M 23 8 
 
 18/4 
 
 14/6 
 
 ,, ,, Manchester 
 
 ... 
 
 144 
 
 6/0 
 
 , , 6/1 1 
 
 6/9 
 
 4/8 
 
 ,, Hull 
 
 
 15 2 
 
 8/2 
 
 .. 9/7 
 
 9/3 
 
 6/2 
 
 ,, ,, Norwich 
 
 
 41.0 
 
 21/2 
 
 .. 24/2 
 
 18,7 
 
 X4/7 
 
 • General Machinery: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i Leeds to Hull 
 
 
 250 
 
 
 4 '6 
 
 80 
 
 5'6 
 
 
 (i2 6 export.) 
 
 
 5 5 export.)' 
 
 Cotton : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Liverpool to Manchester 
 
 
 7/2 
 
 
 4 '2 
 
 46 
 
 42 
 
 Wool: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Liverpool to Manchester 
 
 
 92 
 
 
 4 '2 
 
 411 
 
 4/2 
 
 Cattle : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hull to Manchester 
 
 
 59 '3 
 
 
 386 
 
 29 '6 
 
 376 
 
 ,, ,, Leeds 
 
 
 346 
 
 
 23 6 
 
 203 
 
 249 
 
 Worcester to Birniingliam ... 
 
 
 19,0 
 
 
 152 
 
 131 
 
 16 II 
 
 Hops: 
 
 
 
 
 un pressed. 
 
 
 Staplehurst to London 
 Sittingbourne to London 
 
 Herrings: 
 
 Edinburgh to Birmingham .. 
 
 322 
 
 294 
 
 60 'o to 68 '4 
 
 13 s 911 II '9 
 4 2 (large lots pressed. ) 
 
 14 4 10 8 12 6 
 4 5 ('''irge lots pressed.) 
 
 German. 
 23 8 to 26/1 
 
 Mr. W. A. Massey, of the Hull Chamber of Commerce, 
 gave this typical instance before the 1 88 1-2 Committee — 
 
 " I should just like to mention the rates that are charged 
 upon the German railways, from some of the German manu- 
 facturing centres to the sea-board, in order to enable the 
 German manufacturers to compete with the English manu- 
 facturers in foreign markets. From Birmingham to Newcastle, 
 which is the longest haulage that I can conveniently lay my 
 hands upon for hardware, a distance of 207 miles, the rate is 
 25^-. per ton, or 1*449^. per ton per mile. Now, given this 
 low rate, and comparing it with what the Germans have from 
 Dortmund, which is a large hardware manufacturing centre, 
 to Rotterdam (the port of shipment for this centre), a distance
 
 152 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 of 153 miles, the rate charged is loj-. per ton for the whole 
 distance, or 0784^. per ton per mile. Then we will deal with 
 Essen, another large manufacturing centre, to Rotterdam, the 
 port of shipment; the distance is 132-J miles, and the rate is 
 Ss. 4^., or o"j6od. per ton per mile." ^ 
 
 From the beginning of the railway era, State-ownership of 
 railways has prevailed in several of the German states, but 
 soon after the unification of the Empire had been achieved 
 in 1870, the idea of a great imperial system was conceived. 
 And in 1876 Prince Bismarck bent his energies to co-ordinate 
 the existing State lines, to acquire the private undertakings, 
 and to weld them into one complete whole. It has frequently 
 been alleged that the sole motive for this acquisition by the 
 State was one of military strategy. This, however, is not borne 
 out by the evidence. Military and political reasons certainly 
 there were, but they were merely coincident with the industrial 
 and commercial needs of the nation, which were the real 
 factors that determined the policy. Thus, in 1872 (four years 
 before Bismarck formulated his Imperial Railway plan) the 
 German Handelstag, representing the united Chambers of 
 Commerce, petitioned for sweeping railway reforms in the 
 interests of commerce and industry. And this is what they 
 said — 
 
 " There exist in Germany at one and the same time Empire 
 railways. State railways, private railways under State adminis- 
 tration, independent railways, and railways let on lease, with 
 about fifty different administrations and a number of different 
 unions. This diverse system is the true cause of the constantly 
 increasing inefficiency of our railway system. 
 
 " The character of the railways, as trade undertakings based 
 on monopoly, was contrary to the idea of their institution for 
 the public good, and had the actual effect of making the 
 railway administration the absolute masters of the pubhc. 
 
 "Competition did not protect the public against monopolist 
 oppression, and that Railway Companies generally and easily 
 resolved themselves into a coalition of those interested in the 
 monopoly." 
 
 Their conclusion was that — 
 
 *'A comprehensive reform could only be hoped for when 
 1 Q. 9S84 £■/ se^j.
 
 STATE RAILWAYS IN PRACTICE— IN EUROPE 153 
 
 all the railways of Germany were managed as one system, and 
 subject to the condition that this administration, like the past, 
 should offer that guarantee which no written law would ever 
 succeed in infusing into private railways. It was only the 
 State which could afford such a guarantee, and for this reason 
 the transfer of the whole railway system to the State was 
 necessary. Therefore they recommended the establishment 
 of an Imperial Railway Office." ^ 
 
 And Sir John Walsham, British Charge d' Affaires at Berlin, 
 reported to the EngUsh Government that "the argument in 
 favour of the State incurring this additional burden is the 
 benefit to be derived from the possession of all lines of 
 communication and from the power of being able to introduce 
 a simpler and cheaper goods tariff, as well as to put an end to 
 the possibility of differential tariffs in this respect." ^ From 
 which it will be seen that military strategy, though a factor, 
 was not the chief factor that determined the acquisition. 
 Although the Government have been steadily pursuing their 
 policy of purchase since 1876, they are still a good way off 
 a complete imperial system. This has been owing largely to 
 the mutual jealousies between the Confederated States. 
 
 Sir Bernhard Samuelson, already quoted from, states that 
 — " The net returns on the cost of construction of the 
 railways in the hands of the Governments, after payment of 
 preference shares, debentures, etc., were 5-01 per cent., re- 
 duced, however, on the actual cost to the Governments, in 
 consequence of the premiums paid on the purchased railways, 
 to 4*65 per cent. On the private railways these figures were 
 respectively 4*93 and 4-61 per cent. On the Prussian State 
 railways, taken by themselves, these returns were 5*55 per 
 cent, on cost of construction, and 5*09 per cent, on the cost 
 after including premiums on purchase. The purchased lines 
 were paid for by Consols, bearing 4 per cent, interest ; and 
 the money employed in the construction of the lines by the 
 Government itself was borrowed at about the same rate, hence 
 there appears to be a clear profit to the Government of i per 
 cent, on the capital invested in its railways, after setting aside 
 an amount, which is however not very large, as a sinking fund. 
 
 1 State rwchasc of Railways^ p. 26. 
 
 2 Foreign OJice Report^ No. 41, 1883.
 
 IH RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 In comparing these results with those of our English railways, 
 it must be borne in mind that the average cost of construction 
 has been considerably less in the case of the German railways 
 than of our own. On the other hand, however, the proportion 
 of net to gross receipts is not unfavourable to the German 
 lines ; and this is all the more remarkable when it is considered 
 that the tariffs are much lower for both passengers and, as will 
 be hereafter shown, for goods, than in this country ; that the 
 cost of materials consumed by the railway is, generally speak- 
 ing, higher; and that large sums, which with us would be 
 charged to capital, are in Germany defrayed out of revenue."^ 
 
 And dealing with the effect of the transfer to the Government, 
 he asserts that — "The transfer of the railways from private 
 management to that of the State, administered as above 
 described, was intended to produce, and has produced, decided 
 economy in the cost of working the traffic, greater uniformity 
 in rates, and increased accommodation to the public ; and the 
 result of the inquiries which I instituted in numerous centres of 
 trade, manufactures, and consumption, enables me to state that 
 these advantages have been secured without any drawbacks." ^ 
 
 Terminal rates are fixed low so as not to interfere with short- 
 distance traffic. A rate once fixed is tolerably permanent, not, 
 as in America, changed at the arbitrary will of the managers, 
 sometimes two or three times a week, seldom giving their 
 customers any schedule of rates, and probably not adhering 
 to them when they do. 
 
 The system of management is admirably calculated to serve 
 the best interests of the public. It consists of an Imperial 
 Railway Board, and of a number of Provincial Railway 
 Boards, who consult with what are called the District Con- 
 sultative Committees. These consist of representatives of 
 commerce, manufactures, agriculture, and forestry, elected for 
 periods of three years by the Chambers of Commerce and 
 Agriculture. Each District Council advises the Provincial 
 Railway Board which directs the lines supplying its district ; 
 and the Board is bound to consult the Council on all important 
 questions affecting the trafific of the district, and especially on 
 questions of tariffs. But the Councils are not restricted to 
 
 ^ Report on Foreign Goods Rates to Chambers of Commerce, 1 886. 
 2 Ibid.
 
 STATE RAILWAYS IN PRACTICE— IN EUROPE 155 
 
 merely giving opinions when consulted ; they may also 
 originate proposals in regard to all raihvay matters that appear 
 to them of importance for the welfare of their districts. 
 The natural consequence of this common-sense procedure is 
 universally recognized. Even railway managers, as well as 
 traders, acknowledge that the District Consultative Councils 
 are of great practical utility in the adjustment of tariffs, and, 
 generally, in the prevention of friction. ^ 
 
 In the matter of passenger accommodation, Baedeker declares 
 that the German second-class carriages are more comfortable 
 than our first.^ The second-class long-journey carriages are 
 provided with a lavatory, and " many," says Hole, "who would 
 in England, France, Belgium or Italy ride first-class, are content 
 with the second-class German." The German railways also 
 manage the system of refreshments better than we do. Soup, 
 tea, coffee and lemonade, good and at moderate prices, are 
 generally obtainable there and rarely here.^ 
 
 Taking all the State railways of the German Confederacy 
 together, the Berlin correspondent of the Times showed that 
 for the ten yeo.rs ending 1890-91, there had been an increase of 
 22 per cent, in the mileage, of 41 per cent, in the receipts, and 
 of 23 per cent, in the net revenue, as compared with 10 per 
 cent., 20 per cent., and 15 per cent, respectively for the corre- 
 sponding period in England. He also showed that while the 
 German Hues earned an average rental during that period of 
 4-86 per cent., the EngUsh earned 4'io or "66 per cent. less. 
 And all this, be it remembered, after giving rates and charges 
 that are in most cases incomparably cheaper than under the 
 system of private ownership in this country.^ 
 
 Though the conditions of employment of most classes of 
 German workers are considerably worse than in the case of 
 similar classes in England, the State railway servant is certainly 
 better off than our English railway workers. From the Appen- 
 dix it will be seen that not only are the Prussian wages better 
 than here, but large allowances are made for houses, and every 
 workman and his widow and orphans are entitled to pensions 
 as Civil servants ! ^ 
 
 1 Report on Foreign Goods Rates to Chambers of Comffierce, 1886. 
 
 2 Acworth, Nineteenth Century, September 1891. 
 
 =* National Railways, p. 257. ** November 14th, 1S92. ^ Appendix A.
 
 is6 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 Prussia has the largest actual and proportional mileage of 
 State railways. And in spite of its low rates and fares, it 
 makes a very large profit. As evidence of this, the following is 
 taken from an official report of the American Government — 
 
 " The immense financial importance of the State railways 
 to the Kingdom of Prussia is shown by the figures contained in 
 the Budget for 1896-97, just published. The gross receipts 
 from State railways in Prussia, according to the Budget, 
 is 1,027,173,000 marks (244,467,174 dollars, equal to 
 ;£'5o,35i,6i7), or more than half the net revenue of the State 
 from all sources, the latter being 1,941,000,000 marks 
 (461,981,800 dollars, equal to ;^95, 147,095). The net earn- 
 ings of the Prussian State railways, after the payment of 
 223,700,000 marks (53,240,600 dollars, equal to ;^io,965,686) 
 interest on the working capital and for sinking fund, is 
 214,500,000 marks (51,051,000 dollars, equal to ;^io,5i4,705), 
 which will be turned into the treasury for the use of the State. 
 This sum is 46 per cent, of the net receipts of Prussia, and 
 larger than the income derived from taxes of all kinds, which is 
 181,300,000 marks (43,149,400 dollars, equal to ;£'8,887,2 55)^ 
 only 39 per cent, of the total State revenue. 
 
 " The railways are naturally great buyers of home industrial 
 products. This is illustrated by the fact that 26,000,000 marks 
 (6,188,000 dollars, equal to ;^i,274,5io) are set aside for 
 repairs, and 38,500,000 marks (9,163,000 dollars, equal to 
 ;^i,867,255) for new rolling-stock. From the latter sum are 
 to be bought during the year 1896-97, 386 locomotives, 479 
 passenger coaches, and 5,750 freight cars. In addition to the 
 latter, 4,600 freight cars are to be bought, which are to be paid 
 from the 'extraordinary fund.' The number of freight cars 
 owned by the Prussian State railways was 201,070 in 1892, 
 and this number will have increased to 234,350 in 1896. 
 
 "The State railway also set aside the sum of 17,000,000 
 marks (4,046,000 dollars, equal to £833,333) for beneficial 
 purposes, and 14,000,000 marks (3,332,000 dollars, equal to 
 ;£"686,2 74) for taxes and other public contributions." 
 
 In 1894 the kingdom of Saxony possessed 1700 miles of 
 State railway, which had been constructed at a cost of 
 ^£36,859,000. There were carried 40,272,744 passengers, as 
 compared with 33,632,845 in 1890, and 17,760,027 tons of
 
 STATE RAILWAYS IN PRACTICE-IN EUROPE 157 
 
 goods as compared with 16,461,056 in 1890. The gross 
 receipts were ;^4, 684, 960, and the working expenses ;^3, 107,678, 
 leaving ^1,577,282 as net receipts, being 4*28 per cent, on 
 capital and 3*96 on cost of construction. The receipts per 
 train-mile were 'jo'id. and the expenses ^6'6d} 
 
 In the same year the length of State lines in Wurtemburg 
 was 854 miles single and 203 miles double, constructed at a 
 cost of ^25,338,000. The number of passengers carried 
 increased from 15,829,000 in 1890 to 20,440,935, and the ton- 
 nage of goods from 5,058,000 to 5,742,000 in the same period. 
 The receipts were ^1,911,000, and the working expenses 
 ;2{^i, 187,362, showing net receipts 2*85 per cent, on capital and 
 2*86 per cent, on cost of construction. The receipts per train- 
 mile were 62'4^., as compared with 37 "9^. for working ex- 
 penditure.- 
 
 T'he Grand Duchy of Baden in 1894 had 906 miles of State 
 railways, which earned ;£2, 536,000, at a cost of ^^1,663,000, 
 leaving a profit of ^872,224, being equal to 378 i^er cent, on 
 cost of construction and 379 on capital. Per train-mile the 
 receipts were 6-]' 2d. and the working expenses 44* i^. Within 
 four years the passengers increased from 20,472,726 to 
 23,164,570, and the tonnage of goods from 7,898,769 to 
 9,417,500.3 
 
 The 3170 miles of State line in Bavaria have cost ^57,182,809 
 in construction, and in 1894 they yielded a gross revenue of 
 ^5,837,486 at a cost, in working expenses, of ^3,916,317, 
 leaving in net receipts 3*65 percent, on cost of construction and 
 3*55 on capital. The number of passengers in the four years 
 increased from 23,509,000 to 29,813,898, and the goods from 
 i^59ii375 tons to 12,584,731 tons. The receipts per tiain- 
 mile were 6o'^d., and the working expenses 39*2^'.^ 
 
 The State railways of Belgium have proved an unqualified 
 success in every way — in cheapness of rates, in efficiency of 
 service, and as an investment of public monies. As Austria 
 borrowed the Zone idea from an I^iglishman (Mr. Raphael 
 Brandon) and has made such excellent use of it, so did the 
 enlightened King of the Belgians, Leopold, for, appreciating the 
 wisdom of Thomas Gray, he provided from the first for State 
 railways in his little kingdom. And his foresight has been 
 1 S/atisitcal Abstract, 1S96. = Ibid. 3 Jlnd. "» IbiJ.
 
 iS8 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 richly rewarded. While up to 1894 the State lines cost 
 ^32,000,000 to construct, they earned a net profit of 
 ;£"6o,ooo,ooo, or just double their cost price. ^ And this is too 
 the very smallest part of their gains. The Government have 
 always treated the question of earning a profit as of quite minor 
 importance. The policy has been to constantly use surpluses 
 for cheapening rates and increasing facilities. This policy was 
 first adopted in 1856, and the effect was immediate. In the 
 first eight years the traffic increased by 106 per cent., and the 
 receipts by 49 per cent. From 1870 to 1883 the receipts 
 increased by 168 per cent. Nor are the traders and farmers 
 troubled with the practices which mar our EngHsh system. 
 Differential rates between individuals are unknown, and the 
 complete publicity secured by State-ownership has prevented 
 the unfairness of secret rebates and special contracts. Says 
 Mr. Charles Waring — " The advocates of State railways are 
 entitled to take credit for the fact, that side by side with State 
 administration and the successive reductions of rates and fares, 
 the country has developed a degree of material prosperity 
 unequalled by any other nation of similar area, population, and 
 resources in the world." ^ 
 
 And Professor Hadley is equally unsparing in his eulogies, 
 though he takes the most impartial view of State-ownership 
 per se. He says — " In judging the railroad policy of Belgium by 
 its results, all must unite in admitting that they are in many 
 respects extraordinarily good. What their average rates are, we 
 have already seen. The passenger rates are lower than any- 
 where else in the world, except perhaps on some East Indian 
 railroads. The freight rates are much lower than anywhere 
 else in Europe. Their classification is also excellent. They 
 have now got matters into such shape that the schedules 
 themselves (which go quite into details) furnish a system of 
 rates adapted to the wants of different lines of business and of 
 different localities."^ 
 
 " The experience obtained in Belgium of the working by the 
 State of at least a portion of the railways existing in that country, 
 is entirely in favour of that system Notwithstanding 
 
 ^ C. Waring. 
 
 2 State Ptir chase of Railways, p. 24. 
 
 ^ Railroad Transportation^ p. 216.
 
 STATE RAILWAYS IN PRACTICE-IN EUROPE 159 
 
 the superior financial result, the lines worked by the State are 
 those kept in the best order, and the working of which gives 
 the greatest satisfaction to the commercial world and the public 
 in general, as regards regularity of conveyance, cheapness of 
 transit, and the comfort of travellers. 
 
 " The State not being solely guided by the prospect of 
 financial gain, but having constantly in view the interest of the 
 public which it represents, is in a better position than private 
 Companies to introduce all desirable improvements, not only as 
 regards the efficient performance of the service, but also as 
 respects the cost of conveyance, without however altogether 
 disregarding the increase of revenue which its operations may 
 bring into the public treasury." ^ 
 
 In spite, however, of low rates, the State lines still earn a 
 handsome profit. In 1894 the gross income w^as ;£"6,ii8,996, 
 while the working expenses were ^f 3, 46 1,499, thus leaving 
 a net profit of 4'46 per cent, on the cost of construction, 
 and 4'43 per cent, on capital."^ In addition to this, it 
 should be borne in mind that the Belgian Government pays 
 nothing for the conveyance of its mails, while we have to pay 
 about a million a year to our Railway Companies. Sir H. 
 Barron, in an official report, ventures the opinion, that "it is 
 certain that if managed solely as a commercial enterprise, the 
 Belgian State railways would not have proved such a stimulus 
 of national prosperity." '-' 
 
 Rather more than half the railways of Holland are in the 
 hands of the State, or 965 miles out of a total of 1837. The 
 State lines cost ;^22, 178,000 to construct up to 1894. In that 
 year their gross receipts amounted to ^1,656,633, and their 
 working expenses to ^1,520,323, leaving a net profit of o"6i per 
 cent, on cost of construction. But the Government have 
 almost consistently pursued the policy of ignoring profit, and 
 given the traders the advantage in improved facilities and 
 cheaper rates. Thus during five years the profits have only 
 been 75, '49, '^^, 71 and "61 respectively, while during the 
 same period the passengers increased from 6,664,434 to 
 11,682,144, and the goods traffic from 4,378,798 tons to 
 
 ^ Railway Problems, p. 464. 
 "^ Statistical Abstract, 1896. 
 ^ State Purchase of Railways, p. 22.
 
 i6o RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 5,904,424 tons. So satisfactory has State-ownership proved, 
 that private lines are being continually taken over by the 
 Government, and for the nine years preceding 1894, nearly 100 
 miles were added to the State system, 1 
 
 The State owns nearly the whole of the railways in 
 Denmark, or 225 out of 286 miles. From 1891 to 1894 the 
 gross receipts increased from ^^8/0,036 to^992,io7, while the 
 working expenses were ;£697,9o5 in the former year and 
 ;i^79i,o52 in the latter. During the same period, the number 
 of passengers jumped up from 9,804,448 to 12,998,637, and 
 the goods from 31,154,000 tons to 37,065,000 tons. The State 
 also works in connection with its railways a fleet of 11 steamers, 
 II steam ferries, and 93 boats for ice transport.- 
 
 About a third of the railway mileage in Sweden is in the 
 hands of the State. In 1894 the gross receipts were 
 ;^i, 297,890, and the working expenses ;^88o,7o3, leaving net 
 receipts of 271 per cent, on cost of construction.^ In Norway 
 the State owns all but 42 miles, and in these it holds 60 per 
 cent, of the preference shares. And in this connection an 
 interesting object lesson arose of the difficulty of attempting to 
 work a system of divided ownership between the State and 
 private individuals. The Government proposed that the 
 estimates of the Company with the 42 miles of railway should 
 be submitted each year to the Parliament, so as to secure direct 
 interference in its management, and assimilation in that respect 
 to the State railways. But to this reasonable proposal the 
 shareholders raised loud objection, on the ground that such 
 action would be illegal and would seriously jeopardize their 
 interest.* 
 
 Up to the present France has done little in the direction of 
 State-acquisition of her railways. She has, however, fully 
 anticipated State-ownership by stipulating that all railways 
 become automatically the property of the State at the end of 
 ninety-nine years, and before that time at the option of the 
 Government. But France has done much more than this. 
 Practically the whole canal system has been acquired by the 
 State, and so cheap and efficient has it been made that it has 
 served as a powerful lever to keep down railway rates, and to 
 
 1 Statistical Abstract^ 1896. ^ Ibid. ^ Ibid. 
 
 * Board of Trade Journal ^ February 1893.
 
 STATE RAILWAYS IN PRACTICE— IN EUROPE i6i 
 
 procure a good railway service for merchandise. There is no 
 doubt that the tendency of opinion is rapidly in the direction 
 of State-ownership of the whole railway system. Even more 
 detailed State regulation of the Railway Companies than ours 
 has been quite insufficient to secure minimum rates and 
 maximum services where the State canals do not compete. The 
 experience in the revision of rates which we passed through in 
 1 89 1-2, France passed through in 1886. As with us, some 
 maxima were reduced below the wonted " actual," others were 
 left intact, and others again were increased, to meet any excep- 
 tional contingencies that might arise in the cost of service. 
 And according to the report of a debate in the Chamber of 
 Deputies furnished to the English Government,^ the Companies 
 did as ours did under similar circumstances. Reductions were 
 made on the Paris-Lyons Mediterranean line to the extent of 
 5,000,000 francs on one set of rates, but the Company recouped 
 by increasing others to the extent of 8,000,000 francs — or made 
 a profit of 3,000,000 francs out of the " reductions." Similarly 
 the French Companies indulge in the luxury of preferential 
 rates, and strangely enough, like our Companies, " all for the 
 sake of the consumer." And in the result, the French farmers 
 and traders are swifdy veering to the views of President 
 ^\'addington when he declared that — " Everywhere reforms are 
 being made in railway tariffs ; everywhere there is an increasing 
 objection to leaving in the hands of private enterprise, however 
 respectable it may be, the solution of questions which exercise 
 such weighty influence on the economical development and 
 industrial life of a country." - 
 
 By the Referendum a few months ago the Swiss people 
 decided definitely in favour of nationalizing their whole 
 railway system, which has been constructed at a cost of 
 ;^45, 000,000, and which earned in 1894 a profit of yS percent, 
 on capital, and 3-6 per cent, on cost of construction. 
 
 The case of Italy has fretiuently been cited as an instance in 
 which State railways have proved a failure. This is perfectly 
 erroneous. It is true that State-ownership in Italy has not 
 shared in the great success which has attended State-ownership 
 in other European countries. But the State railways in Italy 
 
 J r. 4725. 1SS6. 
 
 - C". NVaiiiii;, p. 1 1 . 
 
 M
 
 i62 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 are much more successful than the private lines in that country. 
 They are better managed, more cheaply managed, and yield a 
 greater profit than the private lines. Thus Mr. Jeans shows 
 that while the working expenses of the private lines reach the 
 high proportion of 80*28 per cent, the State are SySg per 
 cent. ; and whereas the private lines earn a dividend of only 
 o"82, the State lines show one of 3*29. In face of such facts, it 
 is absurd to say that the State railways are a failure as com- 
 pared with the private system. ^ 
 
 ^Railway Problems, p. 62.
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 STATE RAILWAYS IN PRACTICE — IN AUSTRALIA 
 
 Nearly the whole of the raihvays in our AustraHan Colonics 
 are in the hands of the State, and the experience derived from 
 their administration has for us a special significance. When 
 we point to the striking success of the State railways in several 
 Continental countries, we are met with the plausible criticism 
 that State lines have beaten private lines because of the lack of 
 self-reliance among the peoples of those countries. Thus Mr. 
 Acworth declares that — "I am no foe of Government railways. 
 On the contrary, I believe that in countries with a population 
 less self-reliant than our own, such a policy is necessary. In a 
 country with a bureaucracy as well-trained and as well-organized 
 as that of Prussia, it may even be desirable." ^ Now the success 
 that has attended State railways in our Australian Colonies 
 cannot be discounted with such facility ; for no one would 
 urge that the Colonials are less self-reliant than ourselves, or 
 that they have either a better trained or better organized 
 bureaucracy. 
 
 It would be absurd to deny that the Australian raihvays have 
 been somewhat handicapped by several mistakes, but these 
 mistakes have been the inevitable outcome of all early experi- 
 ments. True to the peculiar genius of the Anglo-Saxon race, 
 the Australian settlers have done with their railways precisely 
 what they and we have done in all great undertakings. Instead 
 of logically pursuing a policy rigidly based upon a preconceived 
 theory, they have thrown logic and theory to the winds, and 
 merely moved from practical experiment to practical experi- 
 ^ Preface, Kaihvavs and the Trcuicrs. 
 1^3
 
 i64 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 ment, with the perfectly natural result that while they have 
 gained a great deal of valuable experience, it has occasionally 
 been at the expense of somewhat costly blunders. Thus they 
 recognized the need of constructing railways for the purpose 
 of opening up undeveloped countries, and straightway they 
 built certain railways that could not pay for some years to 
 come. And as these railways preceded population, they had 
 to pay the penalty of borrowing money at almost a speculative 
 price. Hence the railroads are still handicapped by a burden- 
 some interest. Then again, without experience in the best 
 method of control, they rightly "erred on virtue's side," by 
 preferring to adopt a crude method of direct democratic control, 
 rather than run the risk of subjecting themselves to the dangers 
 of an inflexible bureaucracy. But a few years showed that 
 control by railway amateurs, because they were popular poli- 
 ticians, told against efficiency, though nobody has suggested 
 serious personal corruption. Nor have the Colonists hesitated 
 to utilize the lessons they have learned, by removing the railways 
 from direct poHtical influence, without however handing them 
 over to an undiluted bureaucracy. Their present system of 
 control is a happy combination of administrative efficiency and 
 democratic influence. 
 
 But upon these points of over-construction and political 
 control, the Australian railways have been subjected to the 
 most ruthless attack by the advocates of private ownership. 
 For example, the Hon. J. W. Fortescue, in a violent attack 
 upon the Colonies, under the title of "The Seamy-side of 
 Australia," 1 prophesied imminent public bankruptcy, because 
 of the huge public debts piled up by the Colonies. He then 
 treats as " public debts " the sum expended upon the railways, 
 although he urges in another place that the railways should be 
 sold to redeem these debts, which is ridiculous. They are in 
 fact a splendid asset. Lord Carrington, for some time 
 Governor of New South Wales, declares that the railways can 
 at any time be sold for a price equal to the debts of the 
 Colony.2 And this is supported from all sides. Says the 
 Australian Year Book for 1893 — 
 
 " The railways of Austraha represent the assets for the 
 
 1 Nineteenth Century, April 1891. 
 - Ibid. August 1 89 1.
 
 STATE RAILWAYS IX PRACTICE-IN AUSTRALIA 165 
 
 National debts of each Colony, and to-day would probably 
 realize, if they were to be disposed of, fully the amount of the 
 National indebtedness. // is, however, improbable that the 
 people concerned will ever alhnu these great possessions to pass 
 inti^ private hands, believing that they should be retained to open 
 up and develop the resources of the Colo?iies, and aid in the material 
 progress of Australia:' And the same authority still further 
 declares that "the adverse criticism (as to the overweighting 
 of Australia with railway debt) has not, however, up to the 
 present had a shadow of justification. Let it be remembered 
 that the money borrowed has not been sunk in undertakmgs 
 which will give no return, but has been expended in works 
 which are reproductive, yielding a direct return on the capital, 
 and representing a greater value than what they originally cost ; 
 for instance, the New South Wales lines, costing about 33J 
 millions, are estimated to be worth more than 40 millions 
 sterling. Further, the money has been spent in developing 
 large resources, which add to the wealth of the Colonies. It 
 is wise to emphasize this point, as it has been overlooked to a 
 large extent ! In Europe the National debts of the various 
 countries have been incurred principally through the expenses 
 of prolonged wars, and the money has gone beyond recovery; ; 
 but in these Colonies the expenditure is represented by pubic 
 works, which are more valuable than the entire National debt, 
 and pay a direct return, in some cases equal to the interest due 
 upon the capital invested." . 
 
 At present the administration of the railways in most of the 
 colonies is in the hands of Permanent Commissioners, subject 
 only under special circumstances to the Ministry of the day, 
 but in Victoria and New Zealand the Ministry has recently 
 been given an extended power of supervision. \\ ith regard to 
 new lines, a Parliamentary Committee, called the Public W orks 
 Committee, and the Railway Commissioners both have a voice 
 in the matter. The Commissioners furnish reports as to the 
 probable traffic on the proposed new line, and as to the prob- 
 ability or otherwise of its proving a commercial success. The 
 Public Works Committee then make a special and personal 
 investigation, and decide upon the necessity, desirability, route, 
 and commercial prudence of entertaining the proposal. And 
 upon their decision practically depends the adoption or rejection
 
 166 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 of any scheme. And this system is found to work satisfactorily. 
 Probably the most serious error committed by the Australians 
 in their railway policy has been the adoption of a different 
 gauge in each Colony. AVhether this is to be attributed to an 
 excess of local patriotism, or a lack of foresight in anticipating 
 the development of the Colonies, and their ultimate need of 
 intercommunication, the unfortunate fact remains that the 
 gauges vary from 3 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft. 3 in. This table shows at 
 a glance the gauges of the respective Colonies — 
 
 ft. 
 New South Wales ... ... ... ... 4 
 
 Queensland , 
 
 South Australia j 
 
 Victoria ... 
 Western Australia 
 
 '2 
 
 3 6 
 5 3 
 3 6 
 5 3 
 3 61 
 
 The effect of these differential gauges is of course that goods 
 in going from one place to another have often to be unpacked 
 and reloaded several times, at a large extra cost, delay, and 
 inconvenience. But it is anticipated that ere long a uniform 
 gauge will be adopted in all the Colonies, and already promising 
 steps have been taken in that direction. 
 
 In proportion to population Australia is the best served in 
 railway mileage of any country in the world. Here are some 
 comparative figures — 
 
 Australia .... ... ... I mile of railway to 339 population. 
 
 America i ,,. ,, ,, 350 ,, 
 
 Germany ... .. ... i ,, ,, ,, 1800 ,, 
 
 Great Britain i ,, ,, ,, 1888 ,, 
 
 But even this striking comparison gives but a very small 
 idea of the position. When we remember how much of our 
 railway mileage in Great Britain is confined to the crowded 
 industrial centres, how sparsely served are our agricultural 
 districts, and that Australia's population is mainly dependent 
 upon agriculture, it will then be realized how much better in 
 the matter of railways are the Australian farmers than their 
 English confreres. 
 
 Again, in the United Kingdom the capital invested in 
 1 A7t strati an Year Book, 1893.
 
 STATE RAILWAYS IN PRACTICE— IN AUSTRALIA 167 
 
 railways per head of population is ^22 I'js. 5^., whereas in 
 Australia it is ;£^26 18^. 4^.^ 
 
 The State railways pay a substantial profit. But unfortun- 
 ately the community does not get the full advantage of this 
 profit, owing to the high rates of interest at which the money 
 for the earlier railways was borrowed. Though the average 
 of these rates of interest is a little over three per cent., an 
 average does not accurately express the position. The earlier 
 loans for the construction of railways were raised at guaranteed 
 interest of frequently six per cent.; the more recent loans have 
 been raised at less than three per cent. 
 
 Under the able directorship of Mr. E. M. G. Eddy, a well- 
 known English expert, and his fellow-commissioners, the 
 railways of New South Wales have made great progress. 
 Upon his appointment in 1889, Mr. Eddy corrected several 
 of the earlier errors, and placed the administration upon a 
 strict business basis, and in spite of some carping criticism from 
 a certain section of politicians, he carried the Colony with him 
 in his reforms. Contrasting the seven years (1S82 to 1888), 
 before the Commissioners were appointed, with the four years 
 (1889 to 1892), the results showed that during the former 
 ])criod the net earnings did not increase ; in the latter period 
 they augmented 5 6 "04 per cent. The net earnings per mile 
 open in 1885 were ;;^43i, in 1892 £s4^i ^^^^ P^r train-mile 
 they rose from 2s. i^^/. to 2s. io|y/. And the returns for 1896 
 show a still further improvement. These are the figures — 
 
 New South Wales. 
 
 Length 2616 miles. 
 
 Capital cost ;^36,852,i94 
 
 ,, per mile Zi4,S99 
 
 Gross revenue /2, 820,417 
 
 Working expenses /^i, 551,888 
 
 Net earnings ;{,"i,268,529 
 
 Percentage of working expenses to revenue ... ... 55"^- 
 
 Gross earnings per train-mile ... ... ... ... ^7i'- 
 
 Expenses 48]./. 
 
 Net profit 39H'' 
 
 This satisfactory result was not secured by raising rates. 
 
 ^ Australian Year Book, 
 
 ' The Handbook of Australia.
 
 i68 
 
 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 On the contrary it was obtained by an economy in adminis- 
 tration and by reducing rates, and thereby increasing the traffic 
 in a greater proportion. This reduction was made both in 
 goods rates and passenger fares. This table exemplifies the 
 reductions — 
 
 Charges per ton per mile. 
 
 Coal and shale 
 Fh'ewood ... 
 Grain and flour ... 
 
 Hay, straw, and chaff 
 
 Wool 
 
 Live stock 
 
 General merchandise 
 
 It is interesting to know that there are no third-class carriages 
 on the New South Wales Railway. Mr. Hole gives this com- 
 parison between the first and second London suburban lines — 
 
 1879. 
 
 1891 
 
 d. 
 
 d: 
 
 1-25 
 
 .. 076 
 
 1-26 
 
 .. I'lo 
 
 1-27 
 
 .. 0-66 
 
 2-20 
 
 .. 0-46 
 
 2 -So 
 
 .. 2-49 
 
 2-90 
 
 .. 1-85 
 
 2-66 
 
 .. 2-10 
 
 Single Tickets. 
 
 London Suburban \ 
 
 1st Class/ 
 
 New South Wales 1 
 
 ist Class / 
 
 London Suburban | 
 
 2nd Class/ 
 
 New South Wales \ 
 
 2nd Class/ 
 
 3 miles. 
 
 5 miles. 
 
 7 miles. 
 
 10 miles. 
 
 13 miles. 
 
 15 miles. 
 
 -/6 to -/8 
 
 -/8 to i/- 
 
 -/8 to 1/4 
 
 1/4 to 1/9 
 
 1/9 to 2/5 
 
 2/- to 2/9 
 
 -/4 
 
 -/6 
 
 -/8 
 
 i/- 
 
 1/4 
 
 1/6 
 
 -U to -/6 
 
 -/6 to -/o 
 
 -/6 to i/- 
 
 i/- to 1/2 
 
 1/3 to 1/9 
 
 1/6 to 2/3 
 
 -/3 
 
 -is 
 
 -/6 
 
 -/8 
 
 -/lO 
 
 -/ii 
 
 20 miles. 
 
 2/6 to 3/10 
 
 2/- 
 2/- to 2/9 
 
 1/2 
 
 Return Tickets are also less in the same proportions. 
 
 The London lines referred to are the London and North-Western, Great 
 Northern, Midland, Great Eastern, London and South- Western, London 
 and Brighton, South- Eastern, London, Chatham and Dover, and Great 
 Western.^ 
 
 Or, comparing the New South Wales second-class with our 
 third, it comes out thus- 
 
 New South Wales (2nd class) 
 London (3rd class) 
 
 3 miles. 
 
 5 m. 
 
 7 m. 
 
 10 m. 
 
 13 m. 
 
 15 m. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 ^ National Railways, p. 227.
 
 STATE RAILWAYS IN PRACTICE— IN AUSTRALIA 169 
 
 Which shows that for distances above five miles the Australian 
 gets a second-class accommodation for much less than the 
 Londoner gets third-class accommodation. Female members 
 of a family are allowed to travel at half-price, and so are children 
 up to t6 (instead of 12 as here). Again, University students 
 and school-pupils, first-class, are charged half-fares; second- 
 class, if under 16 years, quarter-fares, if over 16 half- fares. 
 And passengers are permitted to break the journey. 
 
 An intere'sting object lesson of the intense regard with which 
 the Colonists view the State system was supphed in 1882 in 
 Queensland. Sir Thomas Mclhvraith, the Premier, and his 
 Government entered into negotiations with a British capitalist 
 syndicate, to whom they promised a free grant of a large tract 
 of country, in return for which a private railway was to be 
 constructed. As soon as the negotiations leaked out, the 
 indignation of the Colonists became so powerful that the 
 Government were compelled to resign, were badly beaten, the 
 syndicate was left in the cold, and the State system of railways 
 remained intact.^ 
 
 In 1896, 2,386 miles of railway had been opened at a cost 
 of ^17,347,780, or ;£'7,024 per mile. The gross earnmgs were 
 ;£"i, 052,024, and the working expenses ^644,362, leaving 
 ;^407,662 net profit, or 2-66 per cent, on capital. The gross 
 earnings per train-mile were 4-f. 7^o and the working expenses 
 2S. 81^.2 ^^ ^ 
 
 The railways of South Australia have suffered severely in 
 revenue from the depression of the last few years, and this 
 has been enhanced by a serious drought and the failure of the 
 harvest. In 1891 a revised tariff" was put into operation 
 making sweeping reductions in the goods rates. And in 
 1892 passenger return tickets for long journeys were made 
 available for six months.^ Up to last year 1722 miles had 
 been opened, at a cost of ;£i 2,583,443, or ^7,3o5 pe^ mile. 
 The gross receipts were ^986,500, and the working expenses 
 ^£583,02 2, leaving £403 Al^ as net earnings Since the rail- 
 ways were first opened they have earned ^16,152,000, at a 
 cost of ;£io,222,487. The earlier portions of the system were 
 built with loans borrowed at 6 per cent, and 5 per cent., but the 
 
 1 Australian Year Book, 1893. ' Handbook of Australia, 1897. 
 
 ^ Australian Year Book, 1893.
 
 ijo RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 bulk of the loans have been raised at 4 per cent. It is expected 
 that in twenty-three years from now, the whole of the 5 per cent, 
 and 6 per cent, bonds will be redeemed by half-yearly pay- 
 ments.i 
 
 The following table shows the financial position of the rail- 
 ways in Victoria last year. 
 
 Length 
 
 3,i22|miles. 
 
 Capital cost 
 
 ... /•38,io8,i5i 
 
 ,, ,, per mile 
 
 ... /I2,272 
 
 Gross earnings 
 
 ... ;^2,40i,392 
 
 Working expenses 
 
 ... ;^854,9i7 
 
 Earnings per mile open 
 
 ... £169 
 
 Working expenses 
 
 ... £a9^ 
 
 Percentage of working expenses ... 
 
 64 '40. 
 
 Earnings per train-mile 
 
 64K 
 
 Expenditure ,, ,, 
 
 4ii-'^. 
 
 Net profit 
 
 2.24 per cent.- 
 
 That the working expenses should be 64*40 per cent, is an 
 expressive comment upon the fact that in this Colony the 
 control is more definitely subject to ministerial influence than 
 in either of the others. But Victoria suffers badly in its cost 
 of management from the differential gauges which exist upon 
 the several separate railways, and this has probably more to 
 do with the high percentage of working expenses than the 
 nature of the controlling authorities. It is satisfactory however 
 to know that considerable reductions have recently been 
 effected in the working expenses, for in 1892 they were 69-08 
 of earnings. The administrators have also claimed that though 
 their working expenses are higher, the Victoria lines have been 
 built more substantially, and therefore in the long run more 
 economically than in the other Colonies. And independent 
 authorities bear out this assertion.^ 
 
 Western Australia possesses one mile of railway for every 
 96 inhabitants, which is the greatest proportional mileage in 
 the world. In relation to area, however, she has a very low 
 average, only possessing one mile of railway to 2,100 square 
 miles. But with the recent rapid development of the Westralian 
 
 ^ Handbook of Aiisti-alia. ^ Ibid. 
 
 ^ Australian Year Book.
 
 STATE RAILWAYS IN PRACTICE— IN AUSTRALIA 171 
 
 gold-fields, these proportions are being considerably modified. 
 A prominent feature of the railway policy of this Colony has 
 been the " land-grant " system, by which private capitalists 
 have been given large tracts of land upon their undertaking 
 to construct the railways for their own profit.^ 
 
 The following are the figures of the State railways for last 
 year — 
 
 Capital cost ... ;,^2,3i6,824 
 
 Cost per mile ;^3.995 
 
 Gross earnings ;^529,6i6 
 
 Working expenses ^^263, 705 
 
 Percentage of working expenses 4979 
 
 While there was a loss of ;(^6, 527 in 1S90, there is now a profit or;^265, 91 1.- 
 
 The Government of Tasmania have made repeated re- 
 ductions in their rates and fares. From 1870 to 1891, accord- 
 ing to the Government Statistician, these reductions amounted 
 to 82'3o in rates and 59*15 in passenger fares. Last year there 
 were 475 miles of State railways open, at a cost of ;£^7,935 
 per mile. The receipts were ;^i62,4i5, and the working 
 expenses ^127, 708.^ 
 
 The great bulk of the New Zealand State railways are only 
 of some twenty-odd years' growth. In 1870 there were only 
 46 miles opened. Last year there were 2,014 miles. The 
 earnings were ^1,183,041, the working expenses ^£^75 1,368, 
 and the profits ^431,673, giving 2*80 per cent, on the cost of 
 construction — ^^15, 425, 532. The proportion of expenditure to 
 revenue was 63*62, which is very high, but which has arisen 
 from the policy of very low rates, and not from the extravagance 
 of management."* 
 
 In reply to the suggestion that the railways should pay a 
 larger interest, the Government remark that in "making many 
 of the lines, the anticipated advantage was the settlement of 
 the country rather than direct returns from the railways them- 
 selves." And, further, that outlay still continues on which no 
 direct returns can at present be expected, and will even make 
 the financial results from the existing railways less favourable. 
 
 The Colonists have endeavoured to pursue the principle 
 
 ^ Australian Year Book. 
 ^ Handbook of Australia. '^Ibid. ^Ihid.
 
 172 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 laid down by Mr. Charles Waring, when he says — "The 
 proper principle, no doubt, is that accounts should balance, 
 that the railways should be self-supporting, and that the 
 profits should go in reduction of rates." ^ And they are justly 
 proud of the result, for, to again quote the Year Book of 
 Australia — 
 
 " The result of the railway system of the Colonies must be 
 considered as very satisfactory. Already, as a whole, they pay 
 a fair return for the capital that has been expended, zvhile the 
 benefits they confer in openiiig up 7ieiv lands for settle?nent and 
 develop??ient, i?t providing a cheap and co?ivenient mode of transit, 
 and generally in furthering the trade and interests of the 
 Colonies, ai'e incalculable.^' 
 
 ^ Fortnightly Revieiv, June 1886.
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 THE ZONE SYSTEM AND REDUCED FARES 
 
 Englishmen may be pardoned if they feel a certain degree 
 of national satisfaction in the fact that the Zone system of 
 fares, which has made the Austrian and Hungarian State 
 Railways famous, is a plant of British origin. Mr. Gait and 
 Mr. Raphael Brandon, two of England's most zealous railway 
 reformers, divide the honour of propounding to the world the 
 idea, and to the latter M. Baross, the Hungarian Minister of 
 Commerce, acknowledged his indebtedness when introducing 
 the scheme into Hungary. 
 
 The peculiarity of the Zone system is that fares jump instead 
 of slope up as with us. That is to say, instead of fares varying 
 as in England with eacli additional mile, under the Zone 
 system they are only altered for every ten or fifteen miles ; and 
 within the limits of each zone, fares are uniform. This of 
 course means great simplification, and consequent saving of 
 needless expenditure, which is still further secured by the 
 avoidance of distinctively printed tickets for each station. 
 
 The passenger takes his ticket for the particular zone, and it 
 is available in any part of that zone, ^^'hat this would mean 
 in England can scarcely be realized. Take a radius of six 
 miles from St. Paul's for example. Within this area are probably 
 three hundred railway stations, and for every one of these 
 stations a complete set of separately printed tickets for each 
 of the four classes, first, second, third, and workmen's trains, 
 without including "halves" and "seasons," and others, is 
 required. 
 
 173
 
 174 
 
 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 This means that some 650,000 distinctively printed tickets 
 have to be provided for this area alone. If passengers were 
 given the advantage of a through ticket for all lines the number 
 would, on the assumption of three hundred stations, work 
 out as follows — 300 "from" tickets x 299 "to" tickets x 
 four classes x two (return and single) = 717,600 distinctive 
 tickets. 
 
 A small tabular statement will show the complications even 
 more effectually. Let us take the Midland suburban line to 
 South Tottenham, with only its fourteen stations and single 
 tickets for four classes, and this is the result — 
 
 
 4) 
 
 (U 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 2 
 < 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 c 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 
 
 C 
 i^ 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 : 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 § 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 ~ 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 : 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 
 
 :! 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 Pi 
 
 c 
 
 
 1 
 
 1— > 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 >> 
 
 X 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 X 
 
 u 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 u 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 >^ 
 
 bJO 
 rt 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 "a 
 c 
 
 < 
 
 C/3 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 rt 
 g 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 
 Moorgate 
 
 Aldersgate 
 
 Farringdon 
 
 King's Cross 
 
 Camden Road 
 
 Kentish Town 
 
 Highgate Road 
 
 Junction Road 
 
 Holloway 
 
 Hornsey Road 
 
 Crouch Hill 
 
 Harringay 
 
 St. Ann's 
 
 South Tottenham 
 
 = 52 
 = 52 
 = 52 
 -52 
 = 52 
 = 52 
 = 52 
 
 - 52 
 = 52 
 = 52 
 
 - 52 
 
 - 52 
 = 52 
 = 52 
 
 Total 
 
 728 
 
 The inclusion of the next station, Blackhorse Lane, adds 
 112 more tickets, a sixteenth station will add 232, and a seven- 
 teenth will bring the total up to 1108 ; and so on, in an ever- 
 increasing ratio. Now under the Zone system, with the indi- 
 vidual station ignored, where we require 1108 distinctively 
 printed tickets, they manage with a single ticket for each class, 
 or four in all for each zone !
 
 THE ZONE SYSTEM AND REDUCED FARES 175 
 
 But the Zone system derives its popularity, not so much from 
 this simpUcity, which is its great intrinsic merit, as from the 
 fact that it was chosen by both the Hungarian and Austrian 
 State Railway authorities as the medium through which to 
 effect sweeping reductions in fares — reductions that simply 
 staggered the whole private railway management of Europe. 
 Of course these reductions are no essential part of the Zone 
 system, and could have been effected without it. The 
 Governments chose otherwise, however, and hence in the 
 popular mind cheap fares are indivisibly wrajjped up with the 
 Zone system. The revolutionary character of these reductions 
 may be gathered from a brief comparative table of old and new 
 fares on the Hungarian railways. ^ 
 
 
 Slow Trains. 
 
 Express Trains. 
 
 
 First 
 
 Second 
 
 Third 
 
 First 
 
 Second 
 
 Third 
 
 
 Class. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Buda-Pest- Kaschan— 
 
 I S. d. 
 
 £. s. d. 
 
 £ s. d 
 
 £ s.d 
 
 £ s.d. 
 
 £ s. d 
 
 Old 
 
 I 7 4 
 
 19 2 
 
 13 8 
 
 I II 8 
 
 I 2 2 
 
 15 8 
 
 New 
 
 13 4 
 
 098 
 
 068 
 
 16 
 
 II 8 
 
 8 
 
 Buda-Pest- Klauscnburg — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Old 
 
 2 I 
 
 I 8 2 
 
 I 
 
 242 
 
 I II 2 
 
 14 4 
 
 New 
 
 13 4 
 
 098 
 
 068 
 
 16 
 
 II 8 
 
 080 
 
 Buda-Pest-Cronstadt— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Old 
 
 3 10 2 
 
 2 8 2 
 
 I 12 4 
 
 3 17 6 
 
 2 14 6 
 
 I 18 8 
 
 New 
 
 13 4 
 
 098 
 
 068 
 
 16 
 
 II 8 
 
 080 
 
 Buda-Pest- Agram — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Old 
 
 I 17 10 
 
 I I 10 
 
 19 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 New 
 
 13 4 
 
 098 
 
 6 8 
 
 16 
 
 II 8 
 
 080 
 
 Buda-Pest-Fiume — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Old 
 
 3 I 10 
 
 268 
 
 I 11 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 New 
 
 13 4 
 
 098 
 
 068 
 
 i6 
 
 II 8 
 
 080 
 
 The zones of Austria and Hungary differ somewhat from 
 each other. It will therefore be more convenient to glance at 
 them separately. In Hungary, where the system was first 
 ap[)lied, the country is divided up into fourteen zones, but in 
 Austria there are twenty-eight zones. The fares and distances 
 in Hungary are as follows- — 
 
 ^ Foreijcn OJJuc Rrf^ort Com. No. ii, 1891, 
 "^ Com. No. II, 1S91.
 
 76 
 
 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 
 Distance in Miles. 
 
 Express Trains. 
 
 Slow Trains. 
 
 Zone. 
 
 First 
 Class. 
 
 Second 
 Class. 
 
 Third 
 Class. 
 
 First 
 Class. 
 
 Second 
 Class. 
 
 Third 
 
 Class. 
 
 
 
 S. d. 
 
 S. d. 
 
 s. d 
 
 S. d. 
 
 .y. d. 
 
 S. d. 
 
 I 
 
 I to 15 ... 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 15 >, 25 ... 
 
 2 
 
 I 8 
 
 I 
 
 I 8 
 
 I 4 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 25 ,, 34 ■■• 
 
 3 
 
 2 6 
 
 I 6 
 
 2 6 
 
 2 
 
 I 3 
 
 4 
 
 34 ,, 44 ■•• 
 
 4 
 
 3 4 
 
 2 
 
 3 4 
 
 2 8 
 
 I 8 
 
 5 
 
 44 „ 53 ■•• 
 
 5 
 
 4 2 
 
 2 6 
 
 4 2 
 
 3 4 
 
 2 I 
 
 6 
 
 53 ,, 63 ... 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 2 6 
 
 7 
 
 63 „ 72 ... 
 
 7 
 
 5 10 
 
 3 6 
 
 5 10 
 
 4 8 
 
 2 II 
 
 8 
 
 72 „ 81 ... 
 
 8 
 
 6 8 
 
 4 
 
 6 8 
 
 5 4 
 
 3 4 
 
 9 
 
 81 ,, 91 ... 
 
 9 
 
 7 b 
 
 4 6 
 
 7 6 
 
 6 
 
 3 9 
 
 lO 
 
 91 „ 100 ... 
 
 9 10 
 
 8 4 
 
 5 
 
 8 4 
 
 6 8 
 
 4 2 
 
 II 
 
 100 ,, 109 ... 
 
 10 10 
 
 9 2 
 
 5 6 
 
 9 2 
 
 7 4 
 
 4 7 
 
 12 
 
 109 ,, 125 ... 
 
 II 10 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 7 8 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 125 „ 140 ... 
 
 14 
 
 10 10 
 
 7 
 
 II 8 
 
 8 10 
 
 5 10 
 
 14 
 
 140 upwards 
 
 16 
 
 II 8 
 
 8 
 
 13 4 
 
 9 8 
 
 6 8 
 
 But for short distances, or what is called " neighbouring 
 traffic," there is an important modification. In regard to this, 
 two subsidiary zones exist, numbered i and 2, and the fares 
 from any given spot to the next station are regulated by the 
 special tariff applied to Subsidiary Zone i, while the fares to the 
 second station are regulated by the special tariff applied to 
 Subsidiary Zone 2. The fares are as follows ^ — 
 
 Subsidiary- 
 Zone. 
 
 First 
 Class. 
 
 Second 
 Class. 
 
 Third 
 Class. 
 
 I 
 2 
 
 d 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 d. 
 
 3 
 
 44 
 
 d 
 2 
 3 
 
 The following: are the fares and distances in Austria for its 
 
 twenty-eight zones ^ — 
 
 1 Com. No. II, 1891. 
 
 2 Ibid.
 
 THE ZONE SYSTEM AND REDUCED FARES i77 
 
 
 Distance in Miles. 
 
 Passenger & Mixed Trains. 
 
 Express. 
 
 
 Third 
 
 Second 
 
 First 
 
 Third 
 
 Second 
 
 First 
 
 Zone. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Cla< 
 
 .s. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Class. 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. 
 
 ^. 
 
 X. d. 
 
 S. d. 
 
 I 
 
 6i 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 I2i 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 I 
 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 I 6 
 
 3 
 
 i8S 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 I 6 
 
 
 9 
 
 I 6 
 
 2 3 
 
 4 
 
 25 
 
 8 
 
 I 4 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 3ii 
 
 10 
 
 I 8 
 
 2 6 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 2 6 
 
 3 9 
 
 6 
 
 40i 
 
 I I 
 
 2 2 
 
 3 3 
 
 I 
 
 7i 
 
 3 3 
 
 4 loi 
 
 7 
 
 50 
 
 I 4 
 
 2 8 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 62i 
 
 I 8 
 
 3 4 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 7 6 
 
 9 
 
 78" 
 
 2 I 
 
 4 2 
 
 6 3 
 
 3 
 
 li 
 
 6 3 
 
 9 4i 
 
 lO 
 
 93f 
 
 2 6 
 
 5 
 
 7 6 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 7 6 
 
 II 3 
 
 II 
 
 i09i 
 
 2 II 
 
 5 10 
 
 8 9 
 
 4 
 
 4i 
 
 8 9 
 
 13 H 
 
 12 
 
 125 
 
 3 4 
 
 6 8 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 i56i 
 
 4 2 
 
 8 4 
 
 12 6 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 12 6 
 
 18 9 
 
 H 
 
 187^ 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 22 6 
 
 15 
 
 2l8| 
 
 5 10 
 
 II 8 
 
 17 6 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 17 6 
 
 26 3 
 
 i6 
 
 250 
 
 6 8 
 
 13 4 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 17 
 
 281^ 
 
 7 6 
 
 15 
 
 22 6 
 
 II 
 
 3 
 
 22 6 
 
 33 9 
 
 iS 
 
 3i2i 
 
 8 4 
 
 16 8 
 
 25 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 37 6 
 
 19 
 
 343f 
 
 9 2 
 
 18 4 
 
 27 6 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 27 6 
 
 41 3 
 
 20 
 
 375 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 45 
 
 21 
 
 4o6i 
 
 10 10 
 
 21 8 
 
 32 6 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 32 6 
 
 48 9 
 
 22 
 
 437-^ 
 
 II 8 
 
 23 4 
 
 35 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 35 
 
 52 6 
 
 23 
 
 468!^ 
 
 12 6 
 
 25 
 
 37 6 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 37 6 
 
 1^ 3 
 
 24 
 
 500 
 
 13 4 
 
 26 8 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 25 
 
 53ii 
 
 14 2 
 
 28 4 
 
 42 6 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 42 6 
 
 63 9 
 
 26 
 
 562^ 
 
 15 
 
 ' 30 
 
 45 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 45 
 
 ! 67 6 
 
 27 
 
 593^ 
 
 15 10 
 
 i 31 8 
 
 47 6 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 47 6 
 
 71 3 
 
 28 
 
 625 
 
 16 8 
 
 33 4 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 75 
 
 A comparison with a few typical English third-class fares will 
 serve best to bring out the remarkable cheapness of the 
 
 Austrian 
 
 and H 
 
 ungarian fares— 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 To 
 
 Distance. 
 
 Fares. 
 
 
 From 
 
 English. 
 
 Austria. 
 
 Hungary. 
 
 
 
 
 s. d 
 
 s. d 
 
 S. d. 
 
 Lon( 
 
 Ion 
 
 Richmond 
 
 9l 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Gravescnd 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 Hriijhton 
 
 51 
 
 4 2\ 2 6 
 
 2 6 
 
 
 
 Birmingham ... 
 
 "3 
 
 9 5 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 York 
 
 188 
 
 
 7 6 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Manchester ... 
 
 i83i 
 
 15 .S* 
 
 7 6 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 400 
 
 32 8 
 
 16 3 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 401 i 
 
 33 
 
 16 3 
 
 8
 
 1^8 
 
 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 Workmen and school-children are given special cheap 
 tickets. 
 
 The Zone tariff was introduced upon the Hungarian railways 
 on August ist, 1889, and the following figures compare the 
 number of passengers for the twelve months after its introduc- 
 tion with the twelve months immediately before ^ — 
 
 
 From August i, i88g, to July 31, 1890. 
 
 From August i, 
 
 1888, 
 
 
 Short 
 Distances. 
 
 Long 
 Distances. 
 
 Total. 
 
 to July 31, 
 
 1889. 
 
 August 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 December 
 
 January 
 
 February 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 592,465 
 637,909 
 629,833 
 607,653 
 554,608 
 514,154 
 503,346 
 596,825 
 681,330 
 728,425 
 739,690 
 842,920 
 
 613,183 
 599,966 
 521,080 
 441,709 
 386,213 
 348,505 
 335,032 
 423,354 
 538,459 
 506,331 
 514,886 
 
 598,436 
 
 1,205,648 
 
 1,237,875 
 
 1,150,913 
 
 1,049,362 
 
 940,821 
 
 862,659 
 
 838,778 
 
 1,020,179 
 
 1,219,789 
 
 1,234,756 
 
 1,254,576 
 
 1,441,356 
 
 532,227 
 521,761 
 
 504,577 
 417,767 
 404,899 
 372,488 
 334,294 
 415,972 
 496,721 
 535,436 
 558,945 
 589,758 
 
 
 7,629,158 
 
 5,827,154 
 
 13,456,712 
 
 5,684,845 
 
 " There was, therefore," says a Foreign Office Report, "in the 
 first twelve months after the introduction of the Zone tariff, 
 an increase in the number of passengers carried amounting to 
 7,771,867, or 1367 per cent, over the number in the preceding 
 twelve months. The total receipts for the twelve months from 
 the I St of August, 1889, to the 31st of July, 1890, from passengers 
 and luggage, were ^£"954, 347, and for the preceding twelve 
 months, viz., from the ist of August, 1888, to the 31st of July, 
 1889, the receipts were ^785,334, or an increase of ;^i69,oi3 
 since the introduction of the Zone tariff. It is evident that the 
 increase is maintaining itself, as the statistics from the ist 
 August to the 30th November, 1890, show an increase of 
 1,076,114 passengers carried and of ^26,040 receipts over the 
 corresponding four months in 1889. The above figures suffi- 
 ciently prove the fi7iancial success of the schej?ie} 
 
 1 Com. No. II, 1 89 1. 2 jf^i^.
 
 THE ZONE SYSTEM AND REDUCED FARES 179 
 
 The subsequent completed years, for which I have been able 
 to procure reports, show the following increases — 
 Year. No. of Passengers. 
 
 1890 22,890,071 
 
 1891 33'i54,oo3 
 
 1892 3S,325>i5i^ 
 
 Or a 600 per cent, increase in four years, as compared with 1 1 
 per cent, increase in the United Kingdom during the same 
 period ! 
 
 The Zone system was adopted in Austria in June 1890, and 
 the following figures show the number of passengers carried 
 the year before its introduction, and the years since — 
 
 Year. 
 
 No. of Passengers. 
 
 1889 ... 
 
 ... 42,582,726 
 
 1890 ... 
 
 ••• 51.089,513 
 
 1891 ... 
 
 ... 68,818,513 
 
 1892 ... 
 
 ... 74,945.110 
 
 1893 ... 
 
 ... 77,846,049^ 
 
 1894 ... 
 
 ... 102,897,828 "-^ 
 
 That is to say, where two passengers travelled in 18S9, five 
 travelled in 1894. The effect on net receipts was beneficial, 
 for whereas in 1888, the year before the Zone was introduced, 
 the Hungarian railways were paying 3-48 per cent., in 1892 
 they were paying 3*62 per cent. And whereas on the Austrian 
 lines the profits in 1889 were 4-01 per cent., in 1894 they were 
 4 "08 per cent. 
 
 The official representatives of the British Government speak 
 in quite enthusiastic terms about the success of the experiment. 
 And so important is such testimony that there need be no 
 apology for a lengthy extract from the report of Consul Faber 
 to Lord Salisbury — 
 
 " Our much-vaunted ' parliamentary ' sinks into insignificance 
 in the face of such achievements as those of M. de Baross. 
 When it is considered that you can travel from one end of the 
 country to the other, not by a slow ' parliamentaiy,' but first- 
 class and by express, at the rate of a penny and one-third a 
 1 Statistical Absh-act, 1896, ^ Bid.
 
 l8o RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 mile, and third-class at one-half that price, and that even these 
 low rates are further reduced by 15 or 20 per cent, by means 
 of circular tickets ; when it is further considered that this has 
 been achieved without a decrease in the receipts, without the 
 necessity of large investments for rolling-stock, and that the 
 large increase of passengers has been carried without loss to 
 the State, it is needless to affirm that M. de Baross has every 
 
 reason to feel proud of the result M. de Baross has 
 
 thus offered to his countrymen the stimulus of cheapness for 
 travelling purposes in an unprecedented degree, in order by 
 this means to overcome their aversion, and this has been 
 effected, as it appears, with unparalleled success, such as is 
 likely to induce other countries to follow suit, which they can 
 the more readily do after having profited by the experience 
 gained by Hungary, in what was to her a leap in the dark. 
 Cheapness, such as is offered by excursion trains in England, 
 will not bear comparison with the scheme of M. de Baross." ^ 
 
 Is it practicable to apply the Zone system, with the foregoing 
 scale of fares, in the United Kingdom ? By this I mean, can 
 a self-paying traffic be procured at the reduced fares ? I cer- 
 tainly see no reason to the contrary. Mr. W. M. Acworth has 
 endeavoured to show in one place that the Hungarian scale is 
 impossible with us for certain reasons, which in another place 
 he most adroitly refutes. Thus in discussing the Zone system 
 in the Nineteeftth Century , Sept. 1891, he says — 
 
 " It is, I believe, almost impossible to set bounds to the 
 potential traffic between, say Liverpool and Manchester, or 
 London and Brighton, if only the fares were low enough ; but 
 no possible reductio7i of fares can develop to any great extent the 
 traffic along country lines, for the simple reason that the people 
 are not there to travel.'" But in the Nineteenth Century for 
 December 1892, in an article on "Railway Mismanagement," 
 he suggests the adoption of the Hungarian scale in Ireland, 
 because it " seems to me to have many points in common with 
 Hungary. Both countries are poor, inhabited by a scattered and 
 backwood agricultural population little used to travel, a popula- 
 tion, moreover, fond of horses and accustomed to make such 
 journeys as they find necessary, anywhere at least within twenty 
 miles of their homes, by the aid of their own or their neigh- 
 1 C. 6205—114. 1891.
 
 THE ZONE SYSTEM AND REDUCED FARES iSr 
 
 hour's car or cart. In Hungary a reduction of local fares from 
 about a penny to a point which may possibly be put at some- 
 thing like a third of a penny per mile on an average, has 
 resulted in a quite marvellous development of traffic. . . . The 
 railways have certainly not lost, while the gain to the peasantry 
 is undeniably enormous. Similarly^ I believe that a reduction 
 of third-class fares in Ireland from a penny to a halfpenny 
 would have a?i iimnense effect on the ^^t'osperiiy of the country. ^^ 
 
 This is certainly a remarkable contradiction, for it seems to 
 be beyond comprehension that a reduction in fares should be 
 a useful thing iii Ireland because of its scattered population, 
 and a useless thing in rural England for the same reason. But 
 w^ithout stopping to labour the point, let us take the substantial 
 admissions of Mr. Acworth as an able opponent. He believes 
 it is-^ 
 
 (i) Almost impossible to set bounds to the potential traffic 
 between large towns, if the fares were low enough ; and 
 
 (2) He thinks that the Hungarian scale could be successfully 
 applied in Ireland (although he would guard against the risk of 
 possible loss by means of a State guarantee). 
 
 The first admission, however, he tries to neutralize by 
 declaring that the English lines and stations are already filled 
 to overflowing, and " the effect of a reduction of fares would 
 be to intensify the existing congestion of traffic." And the 
 final conclusion to which Mr. x'Vcworth comes upon the matter 
 is the somewhat lame one, that " on the w^hole, the Railway 
 Companies are probably wise to let sleeping dogs lie."^ But 
 the country cannot afford to do this. Again, the late Sir 
 George Findlay, in discussing the passenger problem, declared 
 that— 
 
 " As regards long-distance traffic, it is very doubtful whether 
 the reduction of fares, or any other concessions, tend to 
 materially increase the volume of business ; as a rule people 
 do not take long journeys unless they are called upon by actual 
 necessity to do so, and in that case they will travel whatever 
 the fare may be within reasonable limits. Of course this 
 remark is not intended to apply, however, to the traffic 
 between large towns and seaside and other holiday resorts, 
 which all the Companies encourage by granting return tickets 
 ^ Nineteenth Ccntn?y, Sept. 1891.
 
 i82 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 at low fares during the summer months, this being a case in 
 which, by judicious concessions, a traffic is created which 
 would not otherwise exist to anything like the same extent. 
 ... As regards increasing the passenger traffic greatly beyond 
 its present volume, there is probably not much to be hoped for, 
 the country being Hmited in extent and the possibilities of 
 expansion being circumscribed by the amount of the popula- 
 tion, although it will naturally always fluctuate with the pros- 
 perity of the country. . . . The only thing to be done in this 
 direction is to follow out the poHcy v/hich has already been 
 adopted by most of the Companies, of granting low fares and 
 season-ticket rates between all the large centres of population 
 and places within a radius of about twenty miles, so as to build 
 up a residential traffic by encouraging the people to live in the 
 healthier suburbs instead of in the larger towns in which they 
 pursue their avocations." ^ 
 
 Sir George Findlay doubts whether long-distance traffic can 
 be materially increased by a reduction in fares. Belgian 
 experience shows conclusively that it can. A few years ago 
 public opinion demanded a reduction in fares that were already 
 low. No alteration was made for short distances — that is, up 
 to twenty-two miles. Provisional decreases were made in the 
 intermediate stage between twenty-two and forty-nine miles, 
 and large and definite reductions were made for longer dis- 
 tances. In the last stage the first-class fare was reduced from 
 1-24^. to 0-46^. per mile, or on a distance of 155 miles from 
 165. to 6s. Second-class was reduced from 0*93^. to 0-32^. 
 per mile, or from 12^. to 4^". 2d., and the third-class from 0*62^. 
 to o'2^d., or from Ss. to 3^. The Belgian first-class fare 
 became less than half our third-class, the second-class less than 
 a third of our third-class, and the third-class less than a fourth 
 of the English fare. 
 
 In the year after the reductions in Belgium, the increase of 
 passengers in the zone where no change was made was 2 per 
 cent., the increase where the provisional reduction was made was 
 20 per cent., and in the long distances where the large and defi- 
 nite reduction was made it was 92 per cent.- The passengers on 
 the State railways rose from 43,032,882 in 1880, to 50,465,963 
 
 ^ T/ie Working and Management of an English Railway, p, 320. 
 ^ C. Waring, p, 19.
 
 THE ZONE SYSTEM AND REDUCED FARES 183 
 
 in 1884 — a larger proportionate increase by 3 per cent, than in 
 the United Kingdom. In spite of Sir George Findlay's opinion 
 to the contrary, there is no real reason to believe that we are 
 anywhere near the final limits of our potential passenger traffic. 
 It is true, as he says, that "as a rule people do not take long 
 journeys unless they are called upon by actual necessity to do 
 so." But this is largely because the fares are now prohibitive. 
 In fact, it may be said that, except by " cheap-trip " trains, nearly 
 the whole of the present third-class traffic is a traffic of neces- 
 sity. If, in an admittedly non-travelling country like Hungary, 
 travellers can be increased sixfold in four years by cheap fares, 
 the passenger traffic in the United Kingdom can surely be 
 multiplied to almost any extent. Mr. W. R. Bogle, an experi- 
 enced Scotch railway authority, who has ably advocated the 
 adoption of the Zone system here, declares that — 
 
 "Railway travel is now a matter of necessity, no greater 
 distance is traversed than can be avoided, chiefly because of 
 the high fares. But alter this, reduce fares to one-fourth or 
 about one farthing a mile, and you will at once universally 
 increase the traffic, take away from travel the question of cost, 
 and admit of a free use of the railway by all classes of the com- 
 munity. We have now such a magnificent service of fast trains 
 covering all parts of the country that it has become quite 
 practicable, so far as time is concerned, to perform a railway 
 journey, involving say two hundred miles or more in one day, 
 leaving ample margin for either business or pleasure, but when 
 it requires sixteen shillings and eightpence to pay for the cost 
 of the railway tickets instead of four shillings, it will be at once 
 seen that the trip, which would be undertaken without much 
 consideration because of the distance and time involved, 
 becomes a serious question financially and reduces the matter 
 to one of actual necessity."^ 
 
 Nor is there any substantial ground for agreeing with Mr. 
 Acworth's contention that in England the potentialities of a 
 new passenger traffic only exist between one large town and 
 another. There are infinite possibilities of developing a great 
 traffic between the country and large towns. Take a single 
 aspect of the matter. A third of London's population was 
 
 ^ Tiiislcy's Magazine, July 1S91.
 
 i84 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 born in other parts of the United Kingdom.^ Many it is true 
 were born in the large towns, but many hundred thousands, if 
 not the great majority, were born in places other than great 
 towns. There are 50,000 Scotchmen, 80,000 Irishmen, 25,000 
 Welshmen, 60,000 Devonians, and 33,000 Gloucestershire men 
 in London, the great bulk of whom are certainly from the 
 country districts.^ And in going through Mr. Charles Booth's 
 monumental work on London's Life a?id Labour of the People^ 
 one is struck with the greater ratio of immigrants from the rural 
 in contradistinction to the industrial counties. Now with the 
 Britisher's love of home, and particularly with the Celtic clan- 
 nishness, it is perfectly safe to assume, that in this huge country 
 population there must be the potentialities of a frequent traffic, 
 if the fares were only sufficiently low. It is quite certain that 
 thousands of London residents are deterred from often visit- 
 ing the homes of their childhood by no other than purely 
 financial considerations ; and the same thing applies to every 
 large town in the United Kingdom, w^here there are great 
 numbers of " countrymen." 
 
 The excursion traffic is the best paying of all passenger 
 traffic in the country, for it almost invariably means full train- 
 loads. And the merest shred of an excuse is sufficient to 
 attract passengers, if the fare is only reasonably low. A foot- 
 ball or cricket match of second-rate importance, a Lord 
 Mayor's show, or the sight of Royal wedding or Jubilee decora- 
 tions a couple or three days before the ceremony, all sufficient 
 to bring overloaded excursion trains into London from all parts 
 of the country. It is at once retorted that occasionally, for 
 special excursion trains, it might be possible to reduce fares to 
 a very low level, but that to reduce them all round to such 
 a low level would not be possible. This is, perhaps, true, but 
 between the ordinary fare and the excursion fare, and probably 
 nearer the latter than the former, there is the ideal fare which 
 will secure the maximum of traffic. But we are not likely to 
 find it, for the reason given by Mr. Acworth, that private 
 Companies cannot afford to experiment for it. And similarly, 
 though the Zone is an excellent system in itself, we are not 
 
 ^ This applies to Inner London only, the proportion of country-born 
 people in the outer suburbs being still greater. 
 
 2 Appendix, vol. ii. Life and Labour of the People.
 
 THE ZONE SYSTEM AND REDUCED FARES 1S5 
 
 likely to get its adoption under private ownership ; because, to 
 again quote Mr. Acworth, " it needs no argument to show 
 that such an arrangement as this is impossible in Great Britain, 
 with its numerous independent Railway Comi)anies inter- 
 changing traffic with one another at different points." ^ All of 
 which shows that Mr. Gladstone was perfectly right fifty years 
 ago, when, in introducing his State Purchase Act, he declared 
 that " there is no likelihood that the great experiment of the 
 greatest possible cheapness to the public will be tried under 
 the present system." 
 
 ^ Nineteciilh Century, Sept. 1891.
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 SOME OBJECTIONS TO STATE-OWNERSHIP CONSIDERED 
 
 The three chief objections by the spokesmen of the present 
 system against the State acquiring the raihvays are — 
 
 1. A probabiUty of a general strike of raihvay men. 
 
 2. The service will be inefficient. 
 
 3. It will place a large amount of additional patronage in 
 the hands of the Government which will give rise to political 
 corruption. 
 
 To prove the negative of these assertions is, of course, 
 logically impossible, but by discussion we can see how far 
 they are reasonably justified. The late Sir George Findlay 
 laid special emphasis upon them in his able work on the 
 Working afid Manage7?ient of an English Railway. With 
 regard to the labour troubles, he said — "The Government 
 would become the direct employers of a vast army of men of 
 all classes, from labourers to highly-trained artisans, clerks and 
 officials ; they must come in contact with trades unions, face 
 the question of employer's liability, and all the other difficult 
 labour questions which from time to time agitate the industrial 
 community, and at times they would even have to deal with 
 strikes. In all matters of this kind, they, as a Government, 
 would occupy a very invidious position as compared with the 
 Railway Companies, who are merely mercantile bodies dealing 
 with labour as a marketable commodity, under the ordinary 
 laws of supply and demand." ^ 
 
 The Hon. G. C. Brodrick has put this alleged danger in 
 even a stronger light. He asks — " If all the railways became 
 
 ^ P- 293. 
 186
 
 SOME OBJECTIONS TO STATE-OWNERSHIP 187 
 
 State property, would there be no danger of a general strike on 
 the part of all the railway men in the kingdom for better pay 
 or shorter hours? and might not a strike on so vast a scale 
 against the Government of the country grow into something 
 very like civil war ? " ^ 
 
 In the first place, it will be well to correct Sir George 
 Findlay's statement that the present railways are " merely 
 mercantile bodies." They are nothing of the kind. They are 
 monopolies issuing from the State, protected by the State, 
 regulated by the State, and expressly withdrawable under the 
 Act of 1844, whensoever the State decides. So that for the 
 State to have to deal direct with railway labour, is only to do 
 itself what in a way it has hitherto done by proxy. And surely 
 there is nothing invidious in that ! In the next place, let us sup- 
 pose that a general strike of railway men should take place under 
 the State, what greater danger is there in that than if the same 
 thing happened under the existing system. The dislocation 
 and inconvenience and economic efTccts would be no greater 
 than under the existing order of things. Nor would the risks 
 of political corruption in this connection be any more danger- 
 ous than exist to-day, as I hope to show later on. But why 
 anticipate such a conflict? Great strikes are not mere acci- 
 dental outbursts of emotionalism. They usually have their 
 foundation in reason, and are as a rule deliberate protests 
 against very genuine grievances. And so elaborate is the trade- 
 union machinery which has to be put into operation ere a 
 strike can be declared, that nothing in the nature of a large 
 dispute is likely to be undertaken without the most calm 
 discussion and profoundest sense of responsibility, unless indeed 
 a gross case of injustice is inflicted, when a more rapid move- 
 ment may be undertaken. But even then, as was shown a 
 few months ago, in the case of the victimization of the seventy 
 North-Western men, the men's Society moved so deliberately, 
 that the Board of Trade had time to step in and secure the 
 reinstatement of the men before anything more untoward had 
 haj)])ened. A review of the serious railway disputes during 
 the last ten years will fully bear out this statement. After the 
 debate in the House of Commons on Mr. Channing's motion 
 (quoted on p. 107), the report of the Hours of Railway Servants 
 ^ Natiotial A'at'/wajs, p. 372.
 
 1 
 
 i88 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 Committee, the passing of the Act to regulate the hours, and 
 the reading of Professor Mayor's book,^ no one will attempt 
 to say that the Scotch railway men were not fully justified in 
 their prolonged dispute in 1891. And the same holds with the 
 Taff Vale strike in 1892. Let the hours of railway labour be 
 reduced, and wages increased to only the average of other 
 employments requiring the same amount of skill, and the 
 probabilities of strikes will be reduced to zero. Let us go 
 a little further however, and by the pressure of the Social 
 Conscience, get the Government up to Sir H. Campbell-Ban- 
 nerman's ideal of being "in the first flight of employers," 
 and all the much-maligned professional agitators, from the 
 Archbishop of Canterbury to Mr. Edward Harford, would not 
 drag the State railway men out on strike, even if they were 
 animated by so unlikely a desire. Even at present, with the 
 Government in the lowest flight of employers, the rarity ot 
 strikes among their workers is almost startling. Thanks to the 
 industry of my wife, I possess practically a complete record of 
 all British labour disputes for the last nine years, indexed to 
 date. A careful perusal shows that w^hile during that period 
 strikes have taken place in practically every industry and 
 occupation under private enterprise, from the singing in choirs 
 down to the manufacture of sausages ; with the exception of 
 the postmen's and policemen's strike, and one or two trivial dis- 
 putes with sections of skilled dockyard men, the Government 
 service has been free from labour dislocations. Even doctors, 
 lawyers, organists, and school-masters have "gone out" on 
 strike, while Government victualling yardmen on seventeen 
 shillings a week have refrained from using that weapon of 
 amelioration. Indeed, if there is any fear, it is not that the 
 State railway men will want to strike, but that they will remain 
 too passively indifferent to their well-being. 
 
 With regard to the alleged inefliciency of railways under the 
 State, Mr. S. Laing proves it to his own satisfaction by an 
 interesting little anecdote of a single case of several months' 
 delay upon a French State railway. This is how the Chairman 
 of the Brighton and South Coast Company puts it^ — 
 
 "To show what the working of a State railway means in 
 
 ■^ The Scottish Railway Strike. 
 ^ Fortnightly Revieiv^ April 1886.
 
 SOME OBJECTIONS TO STATE-OWNERSHIP 1S9 
 
 practice, I may give an amusing illustration from what actually 
 occurred in France." Then follows his little story and this 
 profound deduction — " The country would never tolerate the 
 inevitable rigidity, circumlocution, and delay of State manage- 
 ment, or of an inflexible tariff; and practically there is no 
 alternative but to leave the responsibility and discretion of 
 managing railways to directors and their officers, trusting either 
 to competition or control for protection against abuses." 
 
 What would Mr. Laing say if advocates of State-ownership 
 adopted the same line of reasoning ? This would be somewhat 
 the style — " A hen laid twelve eggs and hatched a brood of 
 chickens while in transit from Brighton to London. A bonnet 
 went out of fashion during conveyance from London to Dover. 
 A school-boy bids good-bye to his parents at Gravesend, but 
 upon arrival at London Bridge he has become a young man. 
 Ergo^ the country will never tolerate the delays, etc., of 
 private management," etc. Or take an actual case that hap- 
 pened the last week in April of this year, when a Stratford 
 merchant recovered damages at the Bow County Court from 
 the Great Northern, for the loss of vegetables which had 
 grown too stale for food while on a journey of only seventy 
 miles from Huntingdon to London. If any one attempted to 
 argue from that that the Great Northern were hopelessly in- 
 efficient, he would be rightly regarded as unfair, not to say 
 ridiculous. Yet it is by a single isolated story of delay that 
 Mr. Laing attempts " to show what a State railway means in 
 practice." Sir George Findlay, however, is much more serious. 
 He asserts that under State-ownership " trade would suffer 
 from the absence of the efforts now put forth by the different 
 Railway Companies, by granting low rates, constructing branch- 
 lines, and by other faciHties, to develop the comi)etition of 
 markets, and to open up new districts." ^ And again — ** All 
 exi)erience of the working and of the scale of expenditure of 
 Government departments, is strongly opposed to the belief 
 that so vast and difhcult an undertaking as the administration 
 of the railways of the country should be carried on econom- 
 ically and upon sound commercial i)rinciples by a department 
 of State. Complaints would be innumerable, and the House 
 
 ^ Working and Manage mait of an English Raihvayy p. 293.
 
 190 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 of Commons, already overburdened with matters of detail, 
 would, by the multitude of questions to be asked and answered, 
 find its labour so much increased that the business of the 
 country would be seriously interfered with. The traders, who 
 have now the advantage of free access to the officials engaged 
 in the management of the railways — men trained to under- 
 stand their business and their needs, and willing and anxious 
 to meet their views and assist their operations — would find 
 themselves confronted by the attitude of a Government official 
 bound inflexibly by hard and fast rules, with no personal 
 discretion, and with, above all, a great disinclination to incur 
 any responsibility." ^ 
 
 Everybody will admire Sir George Findlay's magnificent 
 courage in claiming for the Companies the virtue of charging 
 low rates with the altruistic object of developing the com- 
 petition of markets, even though they may deny the wisdom 
 of permitting the managers to exercise so risky a prerogative 
 as to vary their rates to regulate competition — not between 
 themselves, but between their customers. Nor will many 
 people admit that the rates are low except upon foreign 
 merchandise. But I have dealt elsewhere with this point, 
 and with the question of the relative economy of private and 
 State management. It is only with the alleged inefficiency 
 that I now desire to deal. Sir George Findlay says that the 
 business of the country would be interfered with because of 
 the multitude of questions on detail to be put and answered 
 in the House of Commons. No one proposes to trouble the 
 House of Commons with details of administration, any more 
 than it is troubled with the details of the Post-Office or the 
 Education Department to-day. Then, says the late Manager 
 of the North- Western, the traders instead of being able to go 
 to a body of officials "trained to understand their business 
 and their needs, and willing and anxious to meet their views 
 and assist their operations, will find themselves confronted by 
 the attitude of a Government official bound inflexibly," etc. 
 There is no reason to expect any such vivid contrast as is here 
 pictured. Well-trained officials the Railway Companies certainly 
 possess, who are willing and anxious to meet the traders' views. 
 But they are quite unable to do so, in the grand essential 
 ^ Working and Alanage men t of an English Railway, p. 294.
 
 SOME OBJECTIONS TO STATE-OWNERSHIP 191 
 
 matter of rates, because of the rigid combinations of Companies. 
 The sweeping reductions of rates, however, that can be secured 
 by the State will almost universally do this. If by "personal 
 discretion " is meant the power to discriminate between dis- 
 tricts and traders, it is not only not a drawback to deprive 
 officials of it, but a consummation devoutly to be wished. 
 Personal discretion under the present system has meant pre- 
 ferential treatment, and favouritism and secret rebates, in 
 spite of express laws to the contrary. To end this will be 
 one of the chief gains of State-acquisition. 
 
 But as to "the well-trained officials who understand the 
 traders' wants," these are as easily procurable by the State as 
 by the Companies. Nobody proposes to man the State rail- 
 way department with a lot of academic amateurs, or political 
 hangers-on. Nobody proposes to do other than run it with 
 the most experienced body of trained railway officials. And 
 for this purpose, the whole of the present staff, from general 
 managers down to greasers and wheel-tappers, are as available 
 for the State as they are for any or all the Companies. Upon 
 this point let us adduce the unimpeachable testimony of Sir 
 H. W. Tyler, the ex-chief of railway inspectors. He said a few 
 years ago — "All the organization and machinery are already 
 provided, even if it had all to be taken over at once, for 
 working it. Further, this organization, complicated as it may 
 be, and widespread as are its ramifications, is kept in working 
 order by constant duty; and it is just as available for work 
 under the State as it is for work under boards of directors. 
 The different railway systems have their general managers, 
 their traffic superintendents, their locomotive superintendents, 
 and their engineers ; and these have their departments, with 
 men, machinery, and plant in active operation. The officials 
 would, further, have more time and attention to devote to 
 their duties, and better means of performing them, if they were 
 all working under one general management, and for one 
 common object — whether a joint-stock association or the 
 State — than under the present system. Parliamentary railway 
 contests would cease, lawsuits between Railway Companies 
 would be no more. Traffic would not be forced in wrong 
 directions. Facilities would be increased. Through rates and 
 fares at lower figures would prevail. There would be no
 
 192 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 clashing arrangements between rival Companies at junction 
 stations. Managers would cease to outmanoeuvre one another, 
 and would devote themselves each to the improvement of his 
 own district ; and a rivalry of efficiency would thus take the 
 place of perversity or hostility in working." ^ 
 
 Nor must the vital factor of publicity be left out of account. 
 Anomalies that are now only possible in the dark and devious 
 paths of secrecy, subjected to the light that is shed upon 
 Public Departments, would vanish. Publicity has kept our 
 Post-Office efficient, and free from the taint of jobbery and 
 corruption. 
 
 Said the Secretary of the Post-Office, at a meeting in 
 Edinburgh — " If the efficiency of the Post-Office resulted from 
 the special talent or the special energy of any particular set 
 of men, the Post-Office might decay when those men had 
 passed away. The great establishment of which he was speak- 
 ing was rendered efficient because it was worked under the 
 eye of the public, its master ; because it was brought face to 
 face with the master, not merely from day to day, but from 
 hour to hour ; because it did work that was absolutely neces- 
 sary to its master — which when well done was of the highest 
 possible advantage, and which if ill done was utterly intoler- 
 able. It (the efficiency) resulted simply from the pressure 
 which was put upon that branch of the Civil service by the 
 public. A dilatory letter-carrier, or a postmaster who could 
 not cash a money order, or a telegraph clerk who made 
 blunders, brought down a terrific complaint from the offended 
 person." 
 
 And continuing, the Secretary said — "If at any time the 
 Government should take upon itself the acquisition of the 
 railways, somewhat similar results would follow . . . But if ever 
 the Government should acquire the railways and establish a 
 department for their management, depend upon it that the 
 public would keep that department in order ; and that being 
 brought face to face with it, depending upon its well-doing for 
 their convenience, and having to look to it for their security, 
 they would take care to see, through the Press and Parliament, 
 that the officers of that department were thoroughly efficient, 
 zealous, and up to the work." ^ 
 
 '^ Journal of Statistical Society, 1873. ^ Ibid. p. 217.
 
 SOME OBJECTIONS TO STATE-OWXERSHIl^ 193 
 
 _ The assertion that the State-acquisition of raihvays will give 
 rise to political corruption is serious, because, without the least 
 attempt to establish its accuracy from evidence, it vividly 
 appeals, like several other well-worn phrases, to the prejudice 
 many people possess against extending the sphere of the State. 
 But before attempting to meet it, it will be well to see whether 
 the present system is free from grave political abuses, or from 
 practices that verge closely upon corruption. 
 
 The financial jobbery incident to the mid-century railway 
 promotions, stands out as one of the blackest spots in modern 
 English history. Notorious swindlers exploited the credulity 
 of the public to amass great fortunes out of perfectly bogus 
 schemes. Mr. Herbert Spencer has probably written no 
 stronger attack upon any abuse, than his scathing indictment 
 of this phase of railway history.^ And it is a common fact 
 that the opposition of the House of Lords to the London and 
 Birmingham Railway was bought off by the promoters, who 
 bribed several prominent inmates of the gilded chamber. Thus 
 an hostile vote was reversed within a few days.- It is true 
 that several of the most glaring of these promotion abuses 
 have passed away, and with the growth of the railway con- 
 struction, opportunities for their practice on a large scale have 
 also been removed, but many still prevail. 
 
 The following somewhat lengthy extract from the Chairman 
 of the Brighton and South Coast Railway Company throws a 
 good deal of light upon the peculiar ways of the promoter — 
 
 "And the unpopularity of Railway Companies, as being 
 uncontrolled monopolies, is such that it is impossible after 
 forty years' experience to predict what is likely to be the result, 
 before Parliamentary Committees, of any measure brought for- 
 ward as an attack on existing Companies. The existence of 
 this feeling, and the utter uncertainty of contests before Par- 
 liamentary Committees, afford a basis of which professional 
 financiers, solicitors, engineers, and contractors are always 
 eager to avail themselves for getting up competing lines to 
 bring grist to their mill. The real history of most of the 
 expenditure of ;^5, 000,000 by Railway Companies (see Chap. 
 HL), and perhaps as much more by promoters, in Parliamentary 
 
 ^ Raihvay Morals and Kailway Policy. 
 ^ Our Iron Roads^ by F. S. Williams.
 
 194 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 contests, is this — Certain shrewd professional gentlemen cast 
 about to see where local agitation against a Railway Company 
 exists or can be got up, or when rival Companies may be 
 played off against each other. They subscribe a certain sum 
 to pay the expenses of surveyors and a Parliamentary contest, 
 on the speculation that, if they get their Act, they will get their 
 money back many times over, either by inducing the public 
 to subscribe the requisite capital, or by getting the Company 
 assailed, or some of its rivals, to take them over. Parliament 
 assists this speculation by making the deposit on application 
 for a Bill quite illusory. It is almost invariably found by 
 borrowing consols from a Bank with an undertaking from the 
 solicitors not to take the final stage of the Bill unless the 
 deposit has been replaced or satisfactory security given for it. 
 Thus it may and not infrequently does happen, that, after 
 Committees of both Houses have spent weeks of valuable time 
 in listening to counsel and witnesses, their labours are made 
 nugatory by the withdrawal of the Bill at its final stage of third 
 reading. In fact, what the promoters buy for cash out of 
 pocket required for a contest is what, in the language of the 
 Stock Exchange, is called an 'option,' to be exercised or not 
 according to their calculation of the chances of getting back 
 their deposit and expenses if they take their Act. And if they 
 exercise their option and go on, the result, as I have already 
 shown, is almost necessarily bad for the public. The fear of 
 competition, which is a real protection, is gone, for, fike the 
 potential energy of a weight which has run down, it has done 
 its work and is exhausted, and nothing remains but the 
 certainty of combination, with a closer monopoly than ever, 
 two capitals to pay instead of one, and two poor Companies 
 instead of one prosperous one. It is to avoid these evils that 
 I consider a control of railways in the public interest to be 
 essential. But it must be thorough and effective, and of such 
 a nature as to satisfy all legitimate wants, and command the 
 respect of the interests affected." ^ 
 
 Nor must the way in which the railways use their huge 
 voting power in Parliament be forgotten. Addressing a half- 
 yearly meeting of shareholders in 1880, the Chairman of the 
 London and North-Western Railway said — " As they were 
 1 Fortnightly Reviezv, April 1886.
 
 SOME OBJECTIONS TO STATE-OWNERSHIP 195 
 
 aware, Government and Parliament to railway people meant 
 ill-treatment and oppression. They did not look for any rrood 
 from them. On the contrary, every year they had rather 
 mcreased the burdens of Railway Companies. The railway 
 mterest had hitherto borne the treatment, and been content 
 with the British grumbler, but sooner or later they would all 
 have to combine, and when they did, no matter what Govern- 
 ment was in power, the interests of the share and dcbenture- 
 ho ders and people who were depending for their livino- on 
 railway working, were so powerful that no Government could 
 afford to say they would not attend to them." 1 This threat 
 was certainly no idle exaggeration, for at the time the Raihvay 
 Companies had no less than one hundred and fifty-eitrht 
 salaried servants in Parliament. Of these, fifty-one were 
 members of the House of Lords and one hundred and seven 
 members of the House of Commons. Nor were the lawyers 
 architects, contractors, and surveyors, generally dependent 
 upon railways for their living, included in the list of one 
 hundred and fifty-eight.^ It merely embraced the salaried 
 directors. And at the present time there are one hundred and 
 forty railway directors in the two Houses.^ Addressui- a 
 meeting of traders, the President of the Board of Trade 
 declared in 1893 that the railway interest in Parliament was 
 so powerful that it was impossible for him, even in his official 
 capacity, to do anything unless the traders and farmers of the 
 country were solidly united at his back. 
 
 To illustrate the ways in which this Parliamentary power is 
 used, one or two examples will suffice. After the overwhelmino- 
 evidence against the Companies given before the Select Conf- 
 mittee on Rates in 1881-2, their representatives upon the 
 Committee felt that a whitewashing process was necessary 
 Thereupon one of their number moved this clause into the 
 report— "That on the whole of the evidence they (the Com- 
 mittee) acquit the Companies of any grave dereliction of their 
 duty to the public." Ten memljers voted for, and nine 
 against the motion, and out of the kn, seven ivere railway 
 directors ! ^ -^ 
 
 ^ Railioay Rates and Kadical Riih\ p. 2S0. - Ibid, 
 
 ■' Bradsha-w's Raikvay Manual, 1^96. 
 ' Railxvay Rales and Radical Rule, p. 51.
 
 196 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 And this extract from a speech of the Chairman of the 
 Hull and Barnsley Railway Company speaks for itself — 
 " I did think, after the fight had been lost and won, that 
 there was a reasonable prospect that we might have lived in 
 amity with the North-Eastern, but the North-Eastern turned 
 up in the House of Commons in the shape of their Chairman, 
 and after making a very acrimonious speech, in which he 
 charged us with everything short of actual dishonesty — indeed 
 I am not quite sure whether he did not charge us with that — 
 sheltered under the privilege of Parliament, he succeeded in 
 throwing out the Bill. . . . The motion was seconded by Mr. 
 Cropper, Director of the Midland Railway Company ; and I 
 may tell you that the Manager of the Great Northern told me 
 he had from these railway directors in the House of Commons, 
 who were interested in such matters, no fewer than one 
 hundred and thirty-six promises to vote against us." 
 
 Upon which he proceeds — 
 
 " Of course that shows what the power of the railway 
 directors is in the House. Well, I am a railway director 
 myself, and I am in the House of Commons myself. If it is 
 on any future occasion proposed that the votes of railway 
 directors, or even shareholders, should not be allowed in the 
 House of Commons on matters in which they have a distinct 
 interest, I for one, railway director as I am, shall vote in 
 favour of the proposition." ^ 
 
 This extract from Sir Edwin Chadwick - will also explain 
 the adverse decision of the Devonshire Commission in 1867 
 upon the question of putting Mr. Gladstone's Act into operation. 
 — " I confess that I was somewhat surprised at its (the Com- 
 mission) composition, in which the mistake appears to have 
 been made, in assuming that the interests of railway directors 
 and others who have profited largely by the existing system, 
 and 7vJio constitute the majority of the ine?nbers of the Commission^ 
 were identical with the interests of the ordinary shareholders, 
 who, as a class, have lost or been ruined by their management. 
 If I had made a fortune by the system in question, or belonged 
 to a house which had received large sums on account of it, or 
 had derived greatly augmented values of land from it — if I 
 
 1 Railway Rates and Radical Rule, p. 51. 
 
 - 1867. Report Social Sciettce Association, ^. 594.
 
 SOME OBJECTIONS TO STATE-OWNERSHIP 197 
 
 owed my public position to it ... I should have felt that 
 my proper position would be that of a witness, or of an 
 advocate, rather than of a judge upon the system. Immedi- 
 ately the composition of the Commission generally was seen, 
 the directorates and private enterprisers were at their ease 
 upon it, and their confidence was early confirmed by the 
 course of its investigations. . . . Out of a committee of twenty- 
 seven members (if one excepts the votes of those gentlemen 
 who were on their trial) only three are responsible for the 
 decision." 
 
 Such voting of interested parties would certainly appear to 
 be against the spirit of Parliamentary usage, if indeed it is not 
 against the actual letter of the law, which lays it down that no 
 Member of Parliament shall vote upon a question in which he 
 has a direct pecuniary interest. ^ 
 
 During the historic discussion upon the State Purchase of 
 Railways, before the Royal Statistical Society in 1873, Mr. 
 D. Chadwdck, M.P., said he objected to the proceedings 
 of railway directors who used their immense influence in 
 Parliament to obtain legislative enactments to restrict the 
 amount of damages for loss of life caused by their negligence.- 
 Mr. Hamilton said he could not conceive that any amount of 
 Government jobbery would equal the jobbery which had taken 
 place in connection with railways.^ 
 
 How some of the Companies have dealt with men holding 
 " undesirable " opinions and with witnesses before Committees, 
 we have seen in our chapter on the condition of the railway 
 workers; and how they have dealt with clients seeking to 
 prevent overcharges, we have seen in our chapter on the hope- 
 lessness of the present system. Says Mr. Waring — *' It may 
 reasonably be doubted whether railway property, conferring 
 the power involved in its possessions, backed by a compact 
 phalanx of peers and M.P.-partners in the estate, and 
 influencing legislation in its support, can consistently with 
 the interest of the people be much longer left in the sole 
 control of the Companies."-^ 
 
 With this condition of things clearly in our minds, we may 
 
 ^ Erskine May's rarliameiitary Practice, p. 354 (5th edition). 
 
 J Journal Statistical Society, 1873. 
 
 " if^id' ^ State Purchase of Railways, p. 134.
 
 I9S RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 reasonably turn to the other side and ask whether political 
 abuse and corruption is Hkely to be anything like so virulent 
 or so dangerous with the railways under the State ? 
 
 Sir George Findlay says — "The Government would be invested 
 with a large amount of patronage, not only in the appointment 
 and promotion of the staff, but in the placing of contracts for coal 
 and iron and other materials, in granting railway facilities, and 
 in many other ways, and they would always be open to the 
 accusation of making use of this patronage for political pur- 
 poses." 1 Let us take these points in order. First then as to 
 the danger of political influence from those dependent upon 
 the railway service. The acquisition by the State would at 
 once get rid of the one hundred and forty Director-Members of 
 Parliament as definite railway-interest men. They might still 
 continue to sit in Parliament, but it would not be as the definite 
 representatives of an interest opposed to that of the public. 
 Then, in the second place, such acquisition would get rid of 
 half-a-million shareholders, the majority of whom are voters, as 
 a potential single interest in opposition to that of the com- 
 munity. This would leave the half- million railway workers, of 
 all ages and grades. Of these only about 100,000 enjoy the 
 franchise, and as they are distributed throughout the whole of 
 the 670 separate constituencies, their influence to affect legisla- 
 tion in a single self-interested direction would be very small 
 indeed. Even in the half-score constituencies where their vote 
 predominates, experience goes to show that their opinions are 
 so divided, and their sympathies so diverse, that coalition for a 
 single sordid object is not only not probable but scarcely 
 practicable. The dangers in this direction are in fact very 
 small indeed, and side by side with the removal of the danger- 
 ous director- and shareholder-interest as a political power, 
 hardly worth serious thought. 
 
 Then with regard to the alleged danger of Governments 
 corruptly developing a system of patronage to pitchfork their 
 needy partisans into comfortable railway positions, this is 
 certainly more imaginary than real. 
 
 Mr. J. S. Jeans says — " It has been suggested by many that 
 the patronage that the Government of the day would possess, if 
 they had the railways in their own hands, would be so great 
 ^ Workmg and Manage7?ietit of ail English Railway, p. 293.
 
 SOME OBJECTIONS TO STATE-OWNERSHIP 199 
 
 as to be a serious political consideration. This must cause 
 alarm, either from the fear of the political influence to be 
 exercised by an employer over his workmen, or of the nepotism 
 to be exercised by putting worthless men into situations for 
 which they are unfit. From the first of these the ballot is a 
 more than sufficient protection ; the fear of the latter danger is 
 imaginary. In the lirst place, the magnitude of the service 
 would make it altogether a special one, in which no one would 
 be admitted who had not served a regular apprenticeship, as 
 in the Army or Navy, beginning with the lowest grade at an 
 early age and gradually working upwards. The Civil Service 
 is not usually considered to be so lucrative as to be very 
 attractive to indigent men, and if the question of social status 
 were ignored, the traditions of the railways would expect such 
 hard work as to hold out no inducement to men unfit for the 
 post to covet the position of traffic-managers or station- 
 masters. On the whole then, it may be assumed that there is 
 no political danger to be apprehended from this source." ^ 
 
 The abuse of patronage is after all, as Mr. Waring says, now 
 comparatively a thing of the past, more especially as regards 
 the higher appointments in the gift of the State. If any one 
 doubts it let him try, for himself, for his son, for any relation, 
 to obtain any appointment worth having in the public service. 
 Great must be the influence, indeed, which can force the 
 defences of the Civil Service Commissioners or those of the 
 examiners for the Naval and Military Service. They arc 
 strengthening their outworks and enlarging their fortress con- 
 tinually ; and if the Railway Service ever is administered by 
 the State, they will no doubt look upon it as " fresh fields and 
 pastures new " for their operations. But independently of their 
 interference in robbing patronage of its charms, there are other 
 considerations which make railway appointments no sinecure. 
 Among the great mass of railway employes the work is hard 
 and the pay light. The responsibilities and risk are not in- 
 considerable. They must begin in the lowest positions as 
 porters, clerks, booking-clerks in the traffic departments ; as 
 labourers, platelayers, fitters, pupils, and apprentices in the 
 engineering departments ; and they can only rise to the higher 
 positions gradually, and for the most part after ample experi- 
 
 ^ Raihvay Probler/is, p. 191.
 
 200 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 ence as they show themselves fitted for their work. That work 
 has to be performed, much of it under the eye of the pubhc, 
 whether with Company management or with State management, 
 and those who fail to perform it properly are soon found out. 
 In a word then, all the objections against State-ownership 
 are, under our system of Government, more fanciful than real, 
 and the dangers that are anticipated in that direction are in 
 reality much greater under the present system. 
 
 V 
 
 I
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 
 THE FINANCIAL ASPECTS 
 
 Eefore discussing the terms upon which tlic State will 
 acquire the raihvays, it is exceedingly important to emphasize 
 the fact that there will be no need to raise a single halfpenny 
 of the purchase-money by taxation. The process will be 
 essentially one of simple conversion. Assuming that Parlia- 
 ment decide that the Government shall acquire the railways 
 for the people, then upon a given day a State scrip will be 
 st'ibstituted for the present railway share-certificate. If share- 
 holders desire to realize in cash, all they will have to do will be 
 to sell the Government scrip as they sell Consols to-day. So that 
 the taxpayer need feel no alarm at the financial magnitude of 
 the undertaking. 
 
 The terms of State-acquisition are broadly fixed by the Act 
 of 1844.1 This declares that the price payable to the 
 Companies, if Parliament decide to take over the railways, 
 shall be twenty-five years' purchase of the "annual divisible 
 profits estimated on the average of the three then next i)re- 
 ceding years." This, however, is subject to one or two impor- 
 tant provisos. Among these is one to the effect that " if the 
 average rate of profits for the said three years shall be less than 
 the rate of ten pounds in the hundred, it shall be lawful for the 
 Company, if they shall be of opinion that the said rate of 
 twenty-five years' purchase of the said average profits is an 
 inadc(|uate rate of purchase of such railway, reference being 
 had to the prospects thereof, to require that it shall be left to 
 arbitration in case of difference, to determine what, if any, 
 additional amount of purchase-money shall be paid to the said 
 
 1 Clause H. 
 20 i
 
 202 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 Company." A second proviso exempts from the rights of com- 
 pulsory acquisition the lines constructed prior to 1844; a 
 third provides that this Act shall not be put into operation 
 without the express sanction of Parliament ; and a fourth requires 
 the Companies to present exhaustive analyses of accounts for 
 the purpose of arriving at an exact basis for arranging the terms 
 of acquisition. 
 
 What will twenty-five years' purchase mean upon the basis of 
 the Board of Trade Railway Returns for the three years ending 
 1895, which are the latest official figures available? In those 
 years the profits upon the paying lines varied from ^ per cent, 
 to 10 per cent., and amounted to an average yearly sum of 
 ^£'36, 695, 1 18.^ In addition to this there was ;£6o, 7 99,060 
 capital invested in lines in 1895 ^^^^ did not pay anything.- 
 If we allow upon this 2 per cent, we shall have a further annual 
 sum of ;^i,2i5,98o. Then again there was ^4yi6g,^S6 
 invested in railways in course of construction,^ and upon this 
 an allowance of 3 per cent, would probably be fair. This 
 would mean ;^i 2 5,085 a year. Thus — 
 
 Divisible Profits (Net Receipts on Paying Lines) 
 
 1893 £34,93^,773 
 
 1894 ;^37,i02,4i8 
 
 1895 ^^38 ,046,065 
 
 Average for three years = ;^36,695,ii8 
 
 Proposed allowance on Non-Paying Lines with 
 
 capital in 1895 of ^60,799,060 at 2 per cent. = ;^i,2i5,98o 
 Proposed allowance on Lines in course of con- 
 struction with capital in 1895 of 2*45169,586 
 
 at 3 per cent =; ^^125, 085 
 
 ;^3^,036,i83 
 Which at 25 years' purchase ... = -^951,004,575 
 
 In 1895 ^-he paid-up* Capital 
 on the Railways amounted to ;!^i, 001, 100,000 
 ' ' Less ^ amount included in 
 above representing nominal 
 additions on the consolidations, 
 conversion and division of 
 
 stocks ^88,500,000" = /9 1 2, 600, 000 
 
 ;^38,404,575 
 
 1 Railway Returns for 1895. ^- 8181, p. v. 
 
 ^ Ibid, vi-vii. '^ Ibid, vi-vii. 
 
 * & 5 I have quoted the exact words used in the Board of Trade 
 Report on Share and Loan Capital, Traffic and Working Expenditure for 
 1895. C. 8208.
 
 THE FINANCIAL ASPECTS 203 
 
 So that in receiving twenty-five years' purchase, the share- 
 holders would get ;^38,404,575 more than the actual paid-up 
 capital value of the railways. 
 
 It is possible, but scarcely probable, that under the Arbi- 
 tration Clause this sum may be substantially increased. The 
 right of the arbitrator to aw^ard more than twenty-five years' 
 purchase is expressly conditioned by ^^ refej-C/icc beijig Jiad to 
 the prospects " of the railways. The prospects will have to be 
 largely determined by the tendency of recent years, and this 
 is to a diminution in the net earning capacity of the railways. 
 Taking intervals of five years since i860, the percentage of 
 net profits on capital and the working expenditure of gross 
 income have varied as follows ^ — 
 
 
 Average Net 
 
 Percentage of 
 
 
 Profit. 
 
 Working Expenses. 
 
 i860 ... 
 
 ... 4*19 .-. 
 
 ... 47 
 
 1865 ... 
 
 ... 4-II ••• 
 
 ... 48 
 
 1870 ... 
 
 ... 4-41 ... 
 
 ... 48 
 
 1875 ... 
 
 .-. 445 ••• 
 
 ..• 54 
 
 1880 ... 
 
 ... 4-3^ ••■ 
 
 ... 51 
 
 IS85 ... 
 
 ... 4-02 ... 
 
 ••• 53 
 
 1890 ... 
 
 ... 4"io ... 
 
 ... 54 
 
 1895 ■•• 
 
 ... 3-So ... 
 
 ... 56 
 
 So far, therefore, as the prospects of the railways are 
 indicated by present tendencies, there can be no reasonable 
 ground for an arbitrator aw\arding more than the very hand- 
 some statutory allow^ance of twenty-five j-ears' purchase. The 
 late Sir George Findlay made an extraordinary suggestion. This 
 was nothing less than that the Government should compensate 
 the shareholders for the prospective increase in value which 
 would be given in view of the Government acquisition ! That 
 A should compensate B for the prospective privilege of making 
 better use of B's property when purchased than B has been 
 able to do, is certainly as amusing as it is amazing. These are 
 his own words — "We believe that if the principle of State- 
 purchase were decided ui)on, it would ultimately have to be 
 carried out somewhat in the following manner — As regards 
 the lines that are now earning a profit. Government should 
 guarantee a rate of dividend, which might be taken at the 
 average of, say, three years preceding the purchase, and this 
 1 Railiuay Rcturmfor 1895. C. 8181, p. 5.
 
 204 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 would certainly not be putting too high an estimate on their 
 prospective value, which would have a tendency to increase in 
 view of the Government guarantee." ^ But this, however, is 
 not likely to be seriously entertained. 
 
 It has been further suggested that the basis of purchase 
 should be the " market price " of the shares. But this proposal 
 has probably been made in ignorance of Mr. Gladstone's Act 
 of 1844, which so clearly defines the terms of acquisition. Apart 
 however from this specific bargain, which is binding between 
 the Companies and the nation, the " market price " is an im- 
 possible basis. It is as ephemeral as a rainbow, as fluid as the air. 
 Variations in the w^eather, or a shaking of the political kaleido- 
 scope, or any other chance circumstances, materially affect the 
 " market price." And the moment the agitation for State- 
 ownership took definite form, the ever-watchful Stock-Exchange 
 operators would go to work, and up would go the market price by 
 leaps and bounds. So that while the country will loyally abide 
 by their agreement with the railways, who secure handsome 
 conditions under the measure of 1844, they are not likely, 
 with their eyes open, to deliberately allow themselves to be 
 overreached by the habitues of the Stock Exchange. The 
 investing shareholder will be justly treated, and so will the 
 mere speculator. 
 
 The length of lines that were exempted from compulsory 
 purchase by the Act of 1844, ^s having been constructed prior 
 to that date, amounts to 2,320 miles, out of a total railway 
 mileage of 21,174.^ But as they have practically all been 
 absorbed by amalganiation since, and as amalgamation schemes 
 have been under special Railway Acts, every one of which has 
 been made subject to the general Act of 1844, it is doubtful 
 whether even these early lines are not subject to the compulsory 
 purchase clause, as well as to other portions of that Act. There 
 is certainly strong reason for believing that they would be, for 
 while they were also expressly exempted from the powers of 
 compulsory revision of rates under that Act, they have since 
 been brought under them, chiefly by their Acts of amalgama- 
 tion. The point however is a purely legal one, and when the 
 time comes will have to be decided by the proper tribunals. 
 
 ^ VVorldng and Management of an English Railway, p. 290. 
 2 See Appendix B. 

 
 THE FINANCIAL ASPECTS 205 
 
 And how will the State come out of the bargain fixed for them 
 in 1844? 
 
 It is practically certain that the State Railway Stock will 
 be gladly taken up at zh per cent, as a maximum. This will 
 leave a margin of nearly i J per cent, on the transaction. But 
 then there are the savings to be derived from the present 
 streams of waste, which, taking the lowest of the authoritative 
 estimates given in Chapter III., will give us ^^ 10,000,000. 
 Thus — 
 
 The present profits = ;^38,046,o65 
 
 Saving by unity of management ... ... = ;^io,ooo,ooo 
 
 ;^48,o46,o65 
 Less annual interest of 2h % on Govern-^ _ r ^ ^ ^ 
 ment Railway Stock of 2*95 1,004,575/ ~ ^23, 775, 075 
 
 Total annual net profit = ;^ 24,270,990 
 
 What can be done with this net profit ? In the first place, 
 goods rates and passenger fares ought to be at once reduced. 
 These reductions will pay for themselves, of course, very shortly, 
 by an increased traffic. But immediately, and for the first and 
 possibly the second year, provision will have to be made for 
 possible decreases in net receipts. The conditions of railway 
 employment ought also to be greatly improved, and sweeping 
 reductions in the hours of labour ought to be made, while a 
 sinking fund may be established for securing redemption of 
 purchase. Thus — 
 
 Net profits after paying interest /■24,270,99o 
 
 Less 20 % reduction 'in goods) _ .^ ^ 
 
 rates of ^^44,035,000 ... j " ^^^07,000 
 
 „ 20 % reduction in pas-") _ ^ 
 
 sengerfaresof;{;'37,36i,ooo/ " /,7j47-;200 
 
 Reduced hours and improved) - 
 
 wages ... j = /^4.ooo,ooo 
 
 Still leaving to provide for a1 '^£?'-79j^200 
 
 sinking fund and excep- - £ 3>99i>790 
 
 tional contingencies ... J 
 
 The recoupment from increased traffic could be used for still 
 further reducing rates and fares, and augmenting the sinking 
 fund to facilitate redemption of purchase, remembering always, 
 however, that the lower the rates and fares are reduced to a 
 certain point, the greater the traffic, and the better for the nation.
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 At the risk of some repetition, it is necessary to briefly sum- 
 marize the preceding pages, before passing to final conclusions. 
 Chapters II. to XII. are occupied with an indictment of the 
 present system, and from them we have seen how the wastes 
 and leakages of several hundred managenients act as a perfectly 
 needless tax upon the trading and travelling public. We have 
 seen that, except in the limited sphere of passenger accommoda- 
 tion, competition between the Companies has disappeared. 
 From the individual line it has disappeared through the Rail- 
 way Companies becoming themselves the carriers, the collect- 
 ing and delivery agents. Between alternative routes competi- 
 tion has been strangled by means of amalgamations, subsidies, 
 pools, and rate conferences. And even the once effective com- 
 petition of the canals has been very largely annihilated through 
 the absorption of carefully selected navigations by the Railway 
 Companies. With this general disappearance of competition 
 the Railway Companies have become for all practical purposes 
 a monopoly. The Companies rigidly keep up rates and fares, nor 
 can one Company reduce without the consent of the others. 
 The result is that our rates and charges are the highest in the world. 
 And this is not the worst. Pursuing their specious doctrine of 
 charging what the traffic will bear, they convey foreign produce 
 and merchandise over their lines at much less than they do 
 those of the home producer and manufacturer, to the ruin of 
 individuals, the serious hurt of some trades and districts, and the 
 grave danger of the highest national interests. We have seen how 
 costly is the whole passenger service and how deficient and incon- 
 venient is the service upon many lines. We have seen too how 
 
 206
 
 CONCLUSION 207 
 
 grossly inadequate is the workmen's train service, and how 
 gravely this is affecting the vital well-being of our great cities. 
 Then the condition of railway employment is bad. "Wages 
 are low, hours are long, the accidents are prolific, and the 
 restrictions upon freedom of action are often harsh and unjust. 
 Turning to Ireland, we have seen how terribly handicapped is 
 that unfortunate country by its costly, inadequate, and often 
 grossly inefficient railway management, and by the excessive 
 preferences extended to foreign merchandise. And what are 
 the remedies under the present system ? General revision of 
 rates by a Parliamentary Committee, and the redress of proved 
 and specific grievance by the Railway Commission. We have 
 seen the traders' experience of both these remedies for many 
 years. We have seen that the last great revision which was 
 expected to reduce rates generally, and only to increase possibly 
 in particular instances, resulted, after 130 days' inquiry, in par- 
 ticular reductions and general increases. We have seen some- 
 thing of the operation of the Railway Commission. We have 
 seen how traders have been victimized by the Companies, even 
 when they received favourable verdicts. We have seen how 
 the Companies tight every case, and how in consequence even 
 wealthy traders are deterred from contesting alleged over- 
 charges and illegal preferences by the huge costs involved. 
 Particularly have we seen how, after contesting for two years 
 the illegality of the rates increased in 1893, ^^^ being worsted, 
 the Railway Companies declined to accept the case as a "test," 
 with the result that every specific increased rate will have to be 
 taken upon its merits. And this is simply impossible for the 
 traders, for the particular case in point (Northampton) cost 
 them between two and three thousand pounds to amend half-a- 
 dozen rates. With nearly half-a-century's experience of Rail- 
 way Commission and Parliamentary revision, and with the 
 latest position worse than the first, we have, therefore, come to 
 the conclusion that State-control is a failure so long as it has 
 to fight the well-organized, alert and hugely wealthy organizations 
 of the Companies, whose interests are not coincident with 
 those of the community. 
 
 Thereupon we have turned to the Continent for their ex- 
 perience under State-ownership. What have we found ? We 
 have found that the rates and charges upon the State lines arc
 
 2o8 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 very much lower than ours. We have found that the cost of 
 administering State lines, side by side with private lines in 
 the same country, is considerably less, thus getting rid of the 
 contention that State administration is more costly than private 
 enterprise. We have found that the iniquity of giving foreign 
 traders preferential terms does not exist. We have also seen 
 what has been the effect of the adoption of the Zone system 
 and the sweeping reduction in passenger fares upon the Austro- 
 Hungarian lines. 
 
 But we have not confined our attention to European ex- 
 perience. We have turned to our Australian Colonies and 
 seen what has been the experience of Anglo-Saxon administra- 
 tion of State railways. And there too, in spite of one or two 
 initial blunders, we have found great advantages attending the 
 State-ownership of the railways. Rich and fertile lands, that 
 admittedly would not have been opened up had the railways been 
 left to private undertakers, have been developed by a wise and 
 liberal State railway policy. The Colonists have pursued the 
 "highway" theory in their railway administration, and on the 
 whole their poHcy has been fully justified. As an indication 
 of the public regard for their railways, we have seen how the 
 Ivlcllwraith Government in Queensland was overwhelmed in 
 an attempt to let in " private ownership." 
 
 Then we have turned to the opponents of State-ownership 
 and dealt with three of their chief objections. We have seen 
 that their fear of a universal strike is really unfounded, and 
 proceeds from a total misapprenhesion of the motives and 
 forces which make for great labour dislocations. We have 
 seen too that their plea of inefliciency of State administration 
 is neither borne out by actual experience nor by the probabiUties 
 of the case, seeing that the present practical staff of the Com- 
 panies will be as freely available under the State as under private 
 Companies. Then with regard to their sweeping assertions 
 about corruption and dangerous political patronage, we have 
 seen that they are very largely groundless in view of the purity 
 of the Post-Oflice administration, and the compulsory examina- 
 tions regulating Civil Service appointments, and that the risks 
 of corruption are in fact very much less than under the 
 present system, because of the complete publicity which will 
 be an essential element of State-ownership.
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 209 
 
 Finally, we have discussed the purely financial aspects of the 
 question, and find that the twenty-five years' purchase provided 
 as the price of acquisition under the Act of 1844, will give 
 the shareholders ^^38,000,000 more than the actual paid-up 
 capital value of the railways, but will permit, after 2^ 
 per cent, interest on the State Railway Consols, of an annual 
 margin of some ;^24,ooo,ooo, for reducing rates and fares, 
 improving the conditions of labour, and providing for a 
 sinking fund, and effecting great improvements. 
 
 The State-ownership of railways in the United Kingdom, 
 therefore, presents itself both as a necessity and an advantage. 
 It is necessary, inasmuch as something must be done to 
 lighten the transit burdens of the traders and of agriculture ; 
 and State-ownership is the one single untried avenue through 
 which this may be secured. Unshackled competition and 
 private ownership J^h^s State-control have both been exhaust- 
 ively tried, and have failed. State-ownership alone remains. 
 State-ownership comes, however, commended alike by ex- 
 perience and by the financial prospects which an analysis of 
 the statutory terms of purchase shows to exist. And in this 
 connection it is of more than passing significance that what 
 presents itself to-day, after three-quarters of a century of ex- 
 perience, as a necessity, was advocated as the right policy by 
 Thomas Gray, the Father of the Railways, before a single 
 Railway Act had passed, and before Stephenson had con- 
 clusively demonstrated the value of the locomotive. Gray, 
 with quite prophetic vision, foresaw the future of the railway, 
 and urged that at least the main lines should be constructed 
 and retained by the State. He published a book on the sub- 
 ject, and drew up a map of the suggested routes, which, re- 
 markably enough, have been closely followed by the great 
 trunk lines. But, like many another prophet, poor Gray was 
 laughed at for his pains, where he was not denounced as a 
 knave paid by France to circumvent the ruin of England ! ^ 
 His general idea of an iron road, however, was soon " attached " 
 by men with a faculty for finance, while he was left to die 
 " unwept, unhonoured, and unsung," except by Chevalier 
 Wilson, who vainly tried to get a Government pension for 
 him.^ 
 
 1 Our Iron Roads. ^ 77^^ Railway System and its Author (1845). 
 
 P
 
 2IO RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 The forces making for State-ownership are by no means 
 limited to the grievances of the pubUc. Responsible railway 
 authorities themselves, irritated by the repeated extension of 
 the controlling functions of the Railway Commission, have 
 more than once declared that the State had better step in and 
 take the full responsibilities of management by becoming actual 
 owners. 
 
 Thus Mr. Price, M.P., Chairman of the Midland Railway 
 Company, said some time ago — " If on all hands it is admitted 
 that the public must interfere by legislation with the rights of 
 property, whose working is so valuable to them as to be no 
 longer private enterprise, and if finally it can be shown that 
 legislative interference to be of any use must be arbitrary and 
 inquisitorial, it follows that the only course left for the nation to 
 pursue is to make legislative interference real, by being man- 
 agers of the railways themselves — that is, that the State should 
 purchase the railways." ^ But probably the most instructive 
 declaration of all was that of the late Mr. Grierson, the Manager 
 of the Great Western Railway. Professor Hunter had urged 
 before the Select Committee of 1 88 1-2 that rates should be 
 fixed according to the cost of service. Examined upon this 
 proposal Mr. Grierson declared — " If Parliament were of opinion 
 that any such legislation were desirable, the proper and equit- 
 able course to adopt would be for the Government to acquire 
 the railways and try it themselves." ^ While Mr. Acworth, 
 in the preface to his Railways and the Traders^ after bravely 
 assuring us "the Railway Companies have learnt the lesson 
 of triumphant democracy," and "in every direction show 
 their anxiety to meet and even to forestall the demands of 
 public opinion," expresses the opinion that "popular feeling 
 is running strongly in the direction of substituting for the 
 old English system of legal redress for proved injuries, of 
 Government inspection, a new system of direct State regula- 
 tion, of constant and minute interference of a Government 
 department." " The attempt to substitute the one system for 
 the other, not as a part of a well-thought-out and deliberately- 
 adopted course of policy, but by a series of haphazard and 
 piecemeal decisions, can, I am persuaded, only lead to failure 
 and disappointment. // ivill before long, in my judgment — and 
 1 loitrnal Statistical Society, 1873, ^ Q. 12,369,
 
 CONCLUSION 211 
 
 an author has a traditional right to be egotistical in a preface— laiid 
 the country^ quite imexpectedly^ in a logical impasse, from which 
 there can he no outlet except by Statepurchase of the e?iiire 
 raihvay system^ 
 
 There is already a good deal of scattered opinion expressly 
 favourable to State-ownership. Nor is this opinion confined 
 to any particular section of the community. Here are a few 
 samples of commercial opinion taken from the evidence before 
 the Select Committee of 1 88 1-2 — 
 
 Mr. C. F. Clark, President of the Wolverhampton Chamber 
 of Commerce and Hon. Secretary of the Hollow Ware and 
 Ironfounders Association, was asked by — 
 
 " Mr. Monk : Do you think those things (as to rates) would 
 be better managed if the railways were the property of the 
 Government ? 
 
 " Mr. Clark : I certainly do think so. I think that a great 
 deal of money which is now spent in Parliamentary fights would 
 cease to be expended ; we have to pay interest upon that 
 money, and we should avoid what I believe is the case now, 
 that is the double terminal charges at junctions. 
 
 " Mr. Monk : Do you think that is the general opinion of 
 the traders at Wolverhampton ? — Yes, I think so. 
 
 "Mr. Monk: Those opinions have been expressed in your 
 Chamber of Commerce more or less ? — Yes, they have." ^ 
 
 Mr. Isaac Banks, Manager of the Clyde Shipping Company, 
 and late Cork Agent for the Great Western line of steamers, and 
 ex-Traffic Manager of the Waterford and Limerick Railway, gave 
 the following evidence — 
 
 " Mr. O'Sullivan : Seeing the very expensive mode of manage- 
 ment we have in Ireland, what would you suggest for their im- 
 provement generally ? 
 
 " Mr. Banks : It is my opinion that the lines will never be 
 worked for the benefit of Ireland until they are taken up by 
 the Government. I believe the same good results would follow 
 as in the case of the postal telegraphs and the penny postage, 
 if the Government held the reins. 
 
 '' Lord Randolph Churchill : You would not be against the 
 purchase of the Irish railways by the State ? 
 
 " Mr. Banks : I am very much in favour of it. I think it 
 
 ^ Q- 5842-45.
 
 212 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 would be the very best thing that ever happened to the 
 country. 
 
 " Do you think that would be the opinion of the mercantile 
 community generally ? — The mercantile community would be 
 all in favour of it."^ 
 
 In reply to Lord Randolph Churchill, Mr. Pirn, of Pim Bros., 
 Dublin, said — 
 
 " I think it would have been a great benefit if the State had 
 purchased the Irish railways." ^ 
 
 In reply to Sir Edward Watkin, Mr. T. A. Dickson, Com- 
 missioner of Inland Navigation, and member of the Belfast 
 Chamber of Commerce, said — 
 
 " I consider that a great political mistake, not merely com- 
 mercial mistake, was made by the Government not taking up 
 the whole of the railway system in Ireland and extending it."^ 
 
 Mr. Field, M.P., is devoting much time to the advocacy of 
 State-ownership in Ireland, and on the conclusion of a lecture 
 of his before the Conference of the Irish Dairy Farmers 
 Association, Count Moore, amid the approving cheers of the 
 audience, declared that for his own part he agreed with Mr. 
 Field that nothing could be done to amehorate the grievance 
 of the farmers and traders without nationalizing the railways. 
 
 The Trades Union Congress, with its million and a half of 
 working-class members, have passed a resolution unanimously 
 in favour of State-ownership.'* Both the Amalgamated Society 
 of Railway Servants ■' and the General Railway Workers Union 
 have done the same.^ And thus the JDaily Chro7iicle (September 
 i8, 1894)— 
 
 "Altogether the look-out is a black one, so black indeed that 
 we are surprised that a movement is not initiated by far-seeing 
 shareholders for persuading the State to take over their 
 property. The railways are becoming the subject of State-control 
 down to the minutest detail. Nothing is sacred from the Board 
 of Trade and Mr. Giffen. Would it not be wise, before the stocks 
 are darkened still more by shadows of coming events, to make 
 a judicious proposal for the surrender of the lines in exchange 
 for Consols ? " 
 
 1 G 4887 and 5 1 10- 14 and 5 15 1-2. 2 <2. 8385-6. '^.6939. 
 
 ^ Amztial Report, 1894. ^ Railway Review {KQ'goxi, 1 896, Congress). 
 
 ^ Ammal Report f J897.
 
 CONCLUSION 213 
 
 The London Chamber of Commerce have issued a pamphlet 
 by Mr. Balfour Browne, Q.C., advocating the immediate appli- 
 cation of the State-ownership principle, because of the futility 
 of the recent Revision and consequent litigation. j\Ir. Browne, 
 however, advocates the State beginning with the poorest lines. 
 But this will not do, for, as Professor Hadley says, " to do any- 
 thing efficient, it (Government) must control not a few lines, 
 but the whole system." ^ Moreover, as the complete acquisi- 
 tion will be made to depend upon the financial success of the 
 initial experiment, it would be palpably absurd for the State to 
 handicap itself by starting with the derelict lines. And experi- 
 ence is dead against another suggestion made a few years ago, 
 that while the State ought to purchase the lines, they should 
 sub-let them for working to private Companies. It means 
 friction, and many other of the worst evils of the present 
 system. But this is somewhat of a digression. Another 
 evidence of the growing opinion in favour of State-ownership 
 is the establishment of the "Railway Nationalization League," ^ 
 which is carrying on an active agitation in favour of Mr. 
 Gladstone's Act securing early adoption. 
 
 With the great railway system in the hands of the community, 
 and administered purely in their interest, we may confidently 
 look for sweeping reductions in goods rates and passenger 
 fares, and the entire abolition of the dangerous preferential 
 system. We may expect to see British agriculture escape from 
 the continuous gloom of depression from which it has suffered 
 so long, and to see the fields, now silent and neglected, again 
 occupied with their army of industrious workers. Nor will 
 it be too much to expect, on the one side an arrest of that 
 ceaseless flow of our rural population to the murky congestion 
 of the towns, and on the other a healthy exodus from the 
 crowded slums to the green fields and cultivated gardens of 
 distant and widely-scattered suburbs. Again, with lowered 
 railway rates, and the abolition of foreign preference, we ought 
 to hear less of that doleful legend '' INLade in Germany." State- 
 ownership will also mean, with the pressure of the growing 
 
 1 Pamphlet Scries, No. 22, 1S97. 
 
 2 The League was started in 1895. The Secretary is Mr. W. H. ISIead, 
 47 Victoria Street, S.W., who will be pleased to send inquirers all inform- 
 ation.
 
 214 
 
 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 social conscience, shorter hours and improved conditions of 
 employment for the overworked and underpaid railway worker. 
 It will mean the development of neglected districts, the aboli- 
 tion of needless wastes, and the raising of the administration of 
 all railways to the efficiency of the systems which are best ad- 
 ministered to day. It will mean an end of the futile litigation 
 before the Railway Commission ; it will free the House of 
 Commons from the troubles and wastes of constant railway 
 legislation, and from the presence of 120 paid servants of a 
 single private interest. It will mean a vast improvement in 
 our Post-Office, and an end to the absurdity of sending horse- 
 coaches out from London to Brighton, to Chatham, to Chelms- 
 ford, and so forth, to avoid the heavy railway charges. 
 
 The State-ownership of railways carries within it then the 
 ])Ossibilities of such great and far-reaching social benefits, that 
 in conclusion I would express the hope that our greatest states- 
 men and all lovers of true reform may be enlisted in the army 
 of its advocates, and that ere long a supreme effort may be 
 made to carry out Mr. Gladstone's Act in the highest and best 
 interests of the nation.
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 Wages, etc., of Workers on Prussian State Railways. 
 
 Class of Official. 
 
 Presidents .. 
 
 Members of the Railway Directories and Traffic Directors, 
 as also Heads of Departments of the works at Essen... 
 
 Members of the Traffic Offices, Inspectors of the Line, 
 of Buildings and Machinery, and Traffic Inspectors .. 
 
 Telegraph Inspectors 
 
 Auditors of Accounts at Central Offices 
 
 Auditors of Booking Office Accounts 
 
 Cashiers at Central Offices 
 
 Book-keepers and Railway Secretaries .. 
 
 Secretaries in Works 
 
 Works and Traffic Controllers 
 
 Draughtsmen and Clerks, Class I. ... 
 
 Draughtsmen and Clerks 
 
 Ticket Collectors and Office Servants 
 
 Station-masters, Class I, 
 
 «:. Station-masters, Class II 1 
 
 b. Ships' Captains, Class I ] 
 
 a. Station Inspectors and Station Assistants .. \ 
 
 b. Ships' Captains, Class II ] 
 
 Telegraph Clerks 
 
 Foremen Shunters and Foremen of Carriage Works 
 
 Pointsmen, Class I 
 
 Doorkeepers, Ticket Collectors, Pointsmen, Foremen 
 
 Loaders, and Bridge-keepers 
 
 Line Inspectors, Class I 
 
 Line Inspectors, Telegraph Superintendents 
 
 Line Watchmen, Loaders, and Night Watchmen... 
 
 Auditors of Station Accounts and Goods Station Supe 
 
 intendents 
 
 Station Receivers and Goods Despatchers 
 
 Foremen Loaders 
 
 a. Engine Drivers 
 
 h. Ships' Engineers 
 
 c. Engineers for Electric Light Establishments 
 
 a. Locomotive Stokers 
 
 b. Ships' (ferry) Stokers 
 
 c. Engine Cleaners 
 
 d. Bridge Toll Receivers 
 
 rt:. Chief Guards (Zugfiihrer) 
 
 b. Ships' Mates 
 
 Master Packers 
 
 a. Guards 
 
 b. Brakesmen 
 
 c. Sailors 
 
 Workshop Directors 
 
 Workshop Superintendents 
 
 Foremen in Workshops 
 
 Administrators of Stores, Class I. ... 
 Administrators of Stores, Class II. ... 
 Store-keepers 
 
 215 
 
 S 
 
 £, s. 
 
 525 o 
 
 
 525 c 
 
 210 o 300 
 
 80 0240 
 
 50 0,200 
 
 240 0:240 
 
 60 01200 
 
 50 
 
 OS 
 70 
 
 135 
 
 82 10 
 
 75 o 
 
 SO o 
 
 105 o 
 
 90 o 
 
 75 
 
 60 o 
 
 60 o 
 
 50 o 
 
 40 o 
 
 90 o 
 
 75 o 
 
 35 o 
 
 120 o 
 90 
 
 60 o 
 
 60 o 
 
 50 o 
 
 55 o 
 55 o 
 
 40 o 
 
 50 
 
 [80 o 
 
 180 
 
 0II30 
 o 80 
 105 0150 
 75 Olio 
 75 
 
 K< 
 
 Class. 
 IL 
 
 in. 
 
 IV. 
 IV. 
 IV. 
 IV. 
 IV. 
 IV. 
 IV. 
 IV. 
 IV. 
 V. 
 IV. 
 
 130 o IV. 
 
 no o IV. 
 
 90 o V. 
 
 80 o V. 
 
 75 o V. 
 
 160 o 
 
 130 o 
 
 90 o 
 
 100 o 
 
 V. 
 IV. 
 IV. 
 V. 
 
 IV. 
 IV. 
 V. 
 
 IV. 
 
 75 o V. 
 
 75 o; IV. 
 
 75 o| V. 
 
 60 o, V. 
 
 IV. 
 
 IV 
 
 V. 
 
 IV. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V.
 
 2l6 
 
 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 According to the tariff of the law of May 12, 1873 {Collection 
 of Laws^ p. 209), respecting the house-rent allowances of public 
 servants, the yearly amount of such allowances are — 
 
 
 In Places Grouped under — 
 
 Average 
 for 
 
 Description. 
 
 A.* 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 £ s. 
 36 
 30 
 24 
 15 
 5 8 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 Calcula- 
 tion of 
 Pension. 
 
 For Class I. 
 
 II. 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 V. 
 
 60 
 
 45 
 27 
 12 
 
 C s. 
 60 
 45 
 33 
 21 12 
 9 
 
 £. s. 
 45 
 36 
 27 
 18 
 7 4 
 
 jC s. 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 21 
 
 10 16 
 
 3 12 
 
 £ 
 30 
 27 
 18 
 9 
 3 
 
 £ s. d. 
 40 2 
 
 33 
 
 24 12 
 
 14 17 7 
 
 5 12 9 
 
 * To the Group A belong, according to the Law of May 28, 1887 [Imperial 
 Law Sheets, p. 152), the following places within the sphere of the Prussian 
 Railway Administration : — Berlin, Altona, Bremen, Frankfort-on-Main with 
 Bockenhcim and Bornheim, Hamburg. 
 
 All railway servants are given retiring pensions. 
 
 HOURS OF DUTY 
 
 Preliminary Observation. 
 
 A regular day's work, the admissible limits of which are laid 
 down in the following paragraphs, is understood to be the period 
 between two entirely free spells of at least 8 hours each (or in 
 the case of railway servants employed on trains — such as guards, 
 drivers, stokers, or brakesmen — of 10 or 6 hours, according as it 
 is spent at their domicile, or away from it). During the day's 
 work the persons in question, in accordance with the scheme of 
 the time-tables, are actively employed, or must hold themselves 
 ready for active employment. 
 
 It includes any shorter periods of rest which may occur within 
 such time. 
 
 I . — Line- Keepers. 
 
 I. The regular day's work of line-keepers on sections on which 
 only day-trains are run, or on which there is only a night service, 
 must not, as a rule, exceed 14 hours. Only in cases where the 
 conditions of the traffic are so simple that the line-keepers have
 
 APPENDIX A 217 
 
 repeated periods of inactivity within their workng time— as, for 
 instance, on branch lines where very few trains are run— may the 
 day's work, including the time when the line- keepers are expected 
 to be at their posts, although not actively employed, be exceptionally 
 extended to 16 hours. The same holds good in cases where the 
 regular work is interrupted by a rest of several consecutive hours. 
 
 2. On sections where there is a full day and night service the 
 regular daily hours of labour for line-keepers must not exceed 13. 
 This may only be exceptionally extended to 14 hours on days 
 when a change in the train service takes place. 
 
 3. In cases where the line-keepers are unable to find lodgings 
 near the line, the time occupied in walking to and from their posts 
 is to be included in the day's work. 
 
 II. — Pomtsjnen. 
 
 1. The regular hours of duty of pointsmen who are not employed 
 in signal-boxes, and whose points are on so busy a section of the 
 line that no considerable intervals occur in their work, must not 
 extend over more than 8 hours. 
 
 2. In other cases the regular day's work of pointsmen may 
 amount to 12 hours, and, in cases where the local conditions of 
 traffic admit of repeated and considerable intervals of rest, as also 
 on days when the train service is changed, may be extended to 14 
 hours. 
 
 In exceptional cases the day's work maybe extended to 16 hours, 
 if after 8 hours' labour an interval of at least 4 hours' complete rest 
 can be allowed. 
 
 3. The daily hours of work of pointsmen employed in signal- 
 boxes in places where the management of the points requires un- 
 interrupted attention and activity, shall not exceed 8 hours. ^ In 
 other cases the duty in signal-boxes is subject to the conditions 
 laid down above under paragraph 2. 
 
 \\\.—Statio7t Officials. 
 
 1. The regular hours of out-door station work, in cases where 
 the number of incoming and outgoing trains, or incessant shunt- 
 ing, does not admit of sufficient periods of rest, shall not exceed 
 8 hours. . 
 
 2. In other cases the day's work of out-door station officials may 
 be extended to 12 hours, and on days when the train service is 
 changed to 14 hours. In cases where the conditions of the traffic 
 are very simple, as on branch lines where few trains are run, and 
 where the officials have repeated and considerable periods of rest, 
 the competent authorities may exceptionally extend the hours of
 
 2i8 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 work, including the time when the officials must be at their posts, 
 although not actively employed, to i6 hours. 
 
 3. The service at secondary stations (Haltestellen) is regulated 
 by the rules laid down for station officials ; that for stopping-places 
 (Haltepunkte) according to the regulations for line-keepers. 
 
 IV. — Telegraph Clerks, 
 
 1. The regular hours of duty for telegraph clerks, in cases where 
 the train and message service is so great that it requires un- 
 interrupted attention and activity on their part, must not exceed 
 8 hours. 
 
 2. In all other cases the daily hours of duty of telegraph clerks 
 may be regulated by the rules laid down under III. 2, for station 
 officials. 
 
 V. —Shtinfing Masters. 
 
 1. The regular hours of duty for shunting masters, in cases 
 where the work requires their uninterrupted activity, must not 
 exceed 10 hours. 
 
 2. In other cases the regular day's work of shunting masters 
 may amount to 12 hours, and on days when the train service 
 is changed to 14. 
 
 VI. — Rolling-Stock Inspectors, 
 
 The regular day's work of rolling-stock inspectors (Wagen- 
 meister) may extend to 12 hours, and on days when the train 
 service is changed to 14. 
 
 VII. — Train Officials. 
 
 1. The hours on which train officials (drivers, stokers, guards, 
 and brakesmen) are on duty shall be so arranged that in each 
 month the average day's work of any one official shall not exceed 
 II hours. Further reductions of the hours of duty, in con- 
 sideration of special demands made upon the men, are to be 
 determined by the competent railway authorities, on their own 
 responsibility, at the beginning of each season when a new time- 
 table is issued. 
 
 2. The extension of single periods of duty on a train up to 
 16 hours is only permissible if considerable periods of rest are 
 included in that time, and if the demands made upon the men are 
 of so simple a nature that, according to the responsible opinion of 
 the competent authority, there can be no question of over-work.
 
 APPENDIX A 219 
 
 In the case of drivers and stokers, the regular time spent on the 
 engine while running the train must not exceed 10 hours. 
 
 3. After a period of 14 or 16 hours' duty on a train the 
 men must, as a rule, be allowed a longer period of rest in their 
 domicile, and such rest must be arranged to fall, if possible, between 
 the hours of 7 p.m. and 7 a.m. 
 
 4. In estimating the length of the spell of duty on a train the 
 time spent in taking over, or being relieved of duty before the 
 departure, and after the arrival of the train, should be considered. ^ 
 
 1 Foreign Office Annual Series, 1893. C. 6855-109.
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 Railways Authorized by Parliament to the end of the 
 Session of 1843, and which are now open. 
 
 Birkenhead— 
 
 Chester to Birkenhead 
 
 Bodmin and Wadebridge 
 
 Bristol and Exeter... ... 
 
 Caledonian— 
 Glasgow, Garnkirk, and Coatbridge 
 
 Pollock and Govan 
 
 Paisley and Greenock 
 
 Dundee and Newtyle 
 
 Wishaw and Coltness 
 
 Dublin and Drogheda 
 
 „ „ Kingstown 
 
 Dundee and Arbroath 
 
 Glasgow and South-Western— 
 
 Main line 
 
 Kilmarnock and Troon 
 
 Paisley and Renfrew 
 
 Great Eastern— 
 
 London to Colchester 
 
 Stratford to Newport ... 
 
 Hertford to Ware 
 
 Yarmouth to Norwich 
 
 Great Western— 
 
 London to Bristol 
 
 Didcot to Oxford 
 
 Swindon to Cheltenham 
 
 220 
 
 MILES. 
 
 MILES. 
 
 16 
 
 
 Mi 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 2i 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 loi 
 
 
 13 
 
 571 
 
 
 :? 
 
 51 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 3 
 
 64 
 
 51 
 5j 
 
 
 21 
 
 ii5i 
 
 ii8i 
 48 
 
 176
 
 APPENDIX B 
 
 Lancashire and Yorkshire- 
 
 
 JULES. 
 
 MILES. 
 
 Manchester to Normanton 
 
 50 
 
 
 Preston and Wyre 
 
 20 
 
 
 Manchester and Bolton 
 
 II 
 
 Si 
 
 Lancaster and Preston Junction 
 
 
 20i 
 
 Llanelly 
 
 ... 
 
 20^ 
 
 34 
 
 London and Blackwall ... 
 
 ... 
 
 London and North-Western— 
 
 
 
 London and Birmingham 
 
 ... 112. 
 
 
 Grand Junction 
 
 ... 83f 
 
 
 Liverpool and Manchester 
 
 3^i 
 
 
 Manchester and Birmingham 
 
 ... 3o| 
 
 21;- 
 
 
 Chester and Crewe 
 
 
 Leamington Branch 
 
 8j 
 
 
 Blisworth and Peterborough 
 
 ... 47 
 
 
 Aylesbury 
 
 ::: 3 
 
 
 Kenyon, Leigh, and Bolton and Leigh 
 
 
 West Landon 
 
 3 
 
 
 North Union 
 
 ... 40 
 
 
 St. Helen's 
 
 10 
 
 405 
 
 London and South-Western— 
 
 
 
 Nine Elms to Southampton 
 
 ... 78i 
 
 
 Bishopstoke to Gosport 
 
 ... 15I 
 
 94 
 
 London, Brighton and South Coast— 
 
 
 
 London to Croydon 
 
 ... 8| 
 
 
 Croydon to Brighton 
 
 ... 42 
 
 50.^ 
 
 Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire— 
 
 Manchester to Sheffield 402 
 
 Maryport and Carlisle 28| 
 
 IDLAND — 
 
 North Midland 
 
 73i 
 
 Midland Counties 
 
 5«* 
 
 Birmingham and Derby Junction ... 
 
 :: ::: 1 
 
 Sheffield and Rotherham 
 
 Bristol and Gloucester 
 
 ... Soi 
 ... 55i 
 
 Birmingham and Gloucester 
 
 Leicester and Swannington 
 
 ... 16 
 
 2S9J
 
 222 
 
 RAILWAY NATIONALIZATION 
 
 North British— 
 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow 
 
 Wilsontown, Morningside and Coltness 
 
 Edinburgh, Leith and Granton 
 
 Monkland 
 
 North-Eastern — 
 
 Brandling Junction 
 
 Durham „ 
 
 „ and Sunderland 
 
 Great North of England 
 
 Hull and Selby 
 
 Leeds „ „ 
 
 Newcastle and Carlisle 
 
 }, „ Darlington Junction 
 
 Pontop and South Shields 
 
 York and North Midland 
 
 Newcastle and North Shields 
 
 Whitby and Pickering 
 
 West Hartlepool— 
 
 Hartlepool 
 
 Great North of England, Clarence and Hartlepool 
 
 Junction 
 
 Clarence 
 
 Stockton and Hartlepool 
 
 Preston and Longbridge 
 
 Scottish North-Eastrrn— 
 Arbroath and Torgar 
 
 South-Eastern— 
 
 Reigate to Dover 
 
 Canterbury to Whitstablc 
 
 Maidstone Branch 
 
 Bricklayers' Arms Branch 
 
 London and Greenwich 
 
 Stockton and Darlington, including the Bishops 
 
 Auckland and Weardale Railway 
 
 Taff Vale 
 
 Ulster (Belfast to Portadown) 
 
 Total 2,320 ^ 
 
 ^ From paper presented by Sir H. W. Tyler to Royal Statistical Society, 1873. 
 
 [ILES. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 46 
 
 
 Sh 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 94i 
 
 otI 
 
 
 -/2 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 174 
 
 
 48 
 
 
 31 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 SI 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 27 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 37 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 390I 
 
 6i 
 
 
 67 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 9| 
 
 
 
 
 4" 
 
 
 3l 
 
 88i 
 
 69 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 25 
 
 118
 
 INDEX 
 
 A. B.C. Guide, 88 
 
 Accidents on G. W. R., iii ; G. N. R., 
 Ill ; L. B. & S. C. R., Ill ; L. C. & 
 D. R., hi; L. & N. W., iii ; M. 
 R., hi; and contracting out, iii ; 
 preventibility of, iii ; statistics of, 
 109, 110, III, 112; at^ Hampstead 
 Heath Station, 86 
 
 Acts, all Railway subject to Act of 
 1844, 14 
 
 Acworth, W. M., 26, 54, 89, 109, 120, 
 129, 130, 131, 140, 155, 163, 180, 181, 
 184, 210 
 
 Administration, cost of State and pri- 
 vate, in Europe compared, 148 ; 
 Anglo-Saxon, 6, 163; method of 
 Australian State railway, 165 
 
 Agricultural and Horticultural Associ- 
 ation, 134; Society, Royal, Sec. of, 
 70, 73, 74 ; Rate Act, 68 
 
 Agriculture, blight on, 68—77; Berk- 
 shire and Hants Chamber of, 134 ; 
 Central Chamber of, 70; Cheshire 
 Chamber of, 74 ; effect of preferen- 
 tial rates on, 68 ; and increased rates 
 under revision, 134 ; illegal charges 
 on produce, 75-6 
 
 Alizarine, preferential rates on, 62 
 
 Amalgamated Society of Railway Ser- 
 vants, 113 ; and State-ownership, 212 
 
 Amalgamation of Companies, 14, 31 ; 
 North-Eastern Company, 31 ; bene- 
 fits of, 31 ; dangers of, 32 
 
 Amateurs, not intended to manage 
 State railways, 191 
 
 Andrews, S., 62 
 
 Anglo-Saxon administration, 6 ; genius 
 and State-ownership, 163 
 
 Apples, preferential rates on, 75 ; pre- 
 ferential Irish rates, 119 
 
 Appropriation of the Raikimys ly the 
 State. See Williams, A. J. 
 
 Arbitration, under Gladstone's Act, 
 203 
 
 Archiv ficr Eise7ibahmvesen, 90 
 
 Australia, Y ear-Book of, 164, 166, 
 169, 170, 171, 172 
 
 Australia, South, statistics of State 
 railways, 169 ; gauges of, 166 
 
 Australia, Western, and land grant 
 system ; differential gauges, 166 ; 
 State railways, statistics of, 171 
 
 Australian State Railways, 163-72 ; 
 burden of high interest on, 164; high- 
 way theory on, 171 ; initial mistakes 
 on, 164 ; increasing value of, 165 ; 
 method of administering, 165 \ mile- 
 age to population, 166 ; profit on, 
 167 ; unjust criticisms on, 164 ; wastes 
 of differential gauges, 165 (See also 
 under respective Colonies.) 
 
 Austria, State railway, mileage, 147 ; 
 comparative cost of private and 
 State administration, 148-9 ; eftect 
 of reduced fares in, 179 ; fares, de- 
 tails of, 90, 177 ; fares, compared 
 English, 177 ; Zone system explained, 
 177 
 
 Bacon, preferential rates on, 74 ; Irish 
 rates on, 119 
 
 Baedeker, 155 
 
 Banks, Isaac, 124, 125, 21 r 
 
 Barclay, J. W., M.R., 72 
 
 Barley, preferential rates on, 71 
 
 Barron, Sir H., 159 
 
 Barross, M., 173, 179, 180 
 
 Battle of the gauges in Australia, 165 
 
 Bayliss, Mr. (Berks Chamber of Agri- 
 culture), 134 
 
 223
 
 224 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Belfast Chamber of Commerce, 212 
 
 Belgian State railways, mileage, 147 ; 
 cost of administering compared with 
 Company lines, 148-9 ; fares, 90 ; 
 effect of low fares, 182; and mails, 
 159 ; policy as to rates and profits, 
 158-9 ; rates, iron and steel, 61; coal, 
 56-7 ; rates compared, 150-51 
 
 Bell, T., 72 
 
 Berks and Hants Chamber of Agricul- 
 ture, 134 
 
 Bigger, J. E. , 122 
 
 Birmingham navigation, 44 ; rates on 
 canal, 49; Chamber of Commerce, 55 
 
 Birmijighani Daily Mail, 58 
 
 Bismarck, Prince, 152 
 
 Board of Trade, and accident preven- 
 tion, 112, 113; Conciliation Act, 
 113, 187 ; farmers' deputation to, 
 134 ; Journal, 160 ; as mediators, 
 ig ; power of supervision, etc. , 12, 
 13 ; President on power of the Com- 
 panies, 195 ; on ruinous effect of 
 increased rates, 137 ; and railway 
 workers' long hours, 107; and wages, 
 106; report, 1895,79; returns, 1896, 
 202; and unpunctuality of trains, 87 ; 
 and workmen's trains, 102 
 
 Bogle, W. R., 183 
 
 Boom, great railway, 1844, 12 
 
 Booth, Charles, 184 
 
 Bousfield, C. E., 63 
 
 Boyd, R. N,, 122, 124 
 
 Bradshaw s Railway Mamial, 195 
 
 Brandon, Raphael, 157, 173 
 
 Breach of faith, alleged Company's, 
 
 Bricks, Irish rates for, 119 
 
 Bridgewater Canal, 45-6 
 
 Brighton and South Coast Company, 
 
 22 ; accidents on, in 
 British coal rates compared with foreign, 
 
 56-7 
 British Iron Trades Association, 56 ; 
 
 report of deputation on German and 
 
 Belgian competition, 59 
 Brodrick, Hon. G. C. , 186 
 Browne, Balfour, Q.C., 68, 213, 
 Brownlow, Lord, 94 
 Building Trades Federation, London, 
 
 102 
 Burns, John, M.P., L.C.C., 109 
 Butter, Irish rates, 119; preferential 
 
 rates, 74 
 Butterworth, A. K,, 10, 11, 15, 19 
 
 Caine, W. S,, 142 
 
 Cambrian Railway Directors at the Bnr 
 of the House, 114 
 
 Campbell-Bannerman, Sir H., 188 
 
 Canal competition, killing of, 43 ; and 
 railways, relative cost, 43 ; of select 
 committee of 1883, 43, 44 ; mileage 
 controlled by railway Companies, 44 ; 
 Regent's, 44 ; competition, effect of 
 killing, 45-6 ; illegal acquisition by 
 railways, 45 ; how railways have 
 acquired, 45 ; Bridgewater, 45 ; con- 
 trolled by Great Western, 47 ; rates 
 prohibitive, 48 ; owned by London 
 and North-Western Company, 45, 
 49 ; by Manchester, Sheffield and 
 Lincolnshire Company, 48 ; rates, 
 effect of excessive, 48, 49 ; Birming- 
 ham, rates on, 49 ; policy of making 
 derelict, 49 ; Market Weighton, 
 rates on, 49 ; Huddersfield, rates on, 
 
 49 
 
 Canals owned by North-Eastern Com- 
 pany, 50; State acquisition of, in 
 France, 160 
 
 Canterbury, Archbishop of, i88 
 
 Canvassers, waste of, 26 
 
 Carriers, Companies become, 9, 10, 11 ; 
 relation to Companies, 10 ; evidence 
 of, against Companies, 10 ; law of, 10 
 
 Carrington, Lord, 94, 164 
 
 Cattle, preferential rates, 72 ; Irish 
 rates as compared with English, 123; 
 Irish rates, 119 
 
 Chadwick, Sir E. , 28, 196 
 
 Chadwick, D., M.P., 197 
 
 Chambers of Commerce and railway 
 rates, London, 53, 68, 137 ; and State- 
 ownership, 213 ; Birmingham, 53 ; 
 North Staffordshire, 53; Sheffield, 
 53; Newark, 54; Wolverhampton, 
 53, 211 ; Glasgow, 137 ; Hull, 151 ; 
 Liverpool, 137 ; Swansea, 137 
 
 Chambers of Commerce, Associated, 
 
 150 
 Channing, F. A., M.P., resolution, 
 
 107, 114, 187 
 Chatterley Colliery Company.and illegal 
 
 treatment of, 141 
 Cheap Trains Act, 78 
 Cheese, preferential rates, 74 
 Cheshire Chamber of Agriculture, 74 
 Churchill, Lord Randolph, 88, 212 
 Civil Service examinations and political 
 
 patronage, 199
 
 INDEX 
 
 225 
 
 Clark, C. F., 211 
 
 Clearing House, Railway, establish- 
 ment of, 15 
 Clearing House, waste of, 24 
 Clements, Edwin, 43, 44, 47, 49, 64, 
 
 133. 
 
 Coal rates, 54 ; comparative, British, 
 German, and Belgian, 56-7; Irish 
 preferential rates, 117 
 
 Coal, tonnage raised and carried, 55 
 
 Colliery owners and rates, 55 
 
 Combination, freedom of, and London 
 and North- Western, 113 
 
 Comfort of passengers, defect in, 84 
 
 Competing lines, theory of, 12 
 
 Competition, railway, how killed, 4, 31; 
 waste of, estimated total, 28 ; the 
 breakdown of, 30 ; impossibility of, 
 30 ; of markets, theory of, 38 ; by 
 water, 39 ; by rival railways, 40 ; 
 with private ownership, failure of, 
 128 
 
 Complication in rates and fares, waste 
 of, 24 
 
 Conciliation Act, 113 
 
 Conder, F. R,, 43, 44, 45 
 
 Conditions of railway employment, 
 106 ; in Prussia, 155 
 
 Conference of Traders, Mansion House, 
 136 ; rates. See Rates Conferences 
 
 Consolidated Act, 1845, 14 
 
 Contracting out and accidents, in 
 
 Cooper, R. A., 83 
 
 Copper, preferential rates, 61 
 
 Cork Co?istitution, 120, 123 
 
 Corn, Indian, Irish rates, 122 
 
 Cornhill Magazijie, 78 
 
 Cost of canals and railway carriage, 
 relative, 43 
 
 Cost of State purchase of English rail- 
 ways, 202 
 
 Cotton manufactures andj-arns, prefer- 
 ential rates, 63 
 
 Cotton, preferential rates, 62 
 
 Cotton, Sir Arthur, 43 
 
 Court of Common Pleas, 17 
 
 Cox, Harold, 107 
 
 Crewe, tyranny at, 114 
 
 Crewe Chronicle, 114 
 
 Cropper, Mr. (Midland Director), 196 
 
 Crowded cities and workmen's trains, 
 91 
 
 Daily Chronicle, 58, 64, 66, 72, 115 ; 
 and State-ownership, 212 
 
 Daily News, 85, 132 
 
 Daily Telegraph, 58 
 
 Dairy Farmers Association, Irish, 119, 
 123, 212 
 
 Dairy produce and preferential rates, 74 
 
 Demurrage on "empty goods,'' the 
 effect of, 27 
 
 Denmark, Railways, mileage, 147 ; 
 relative cost of administering State 
 and private lines, 148 ; statistics of 
 State railways, 160 
 
 Dennis, R. , 116, 117, 121 
 
 Density of population and rate of 
 mortality, 93 
 
 Depression of Trade Commission. See 
 Trade Depression 
 
 Derelict canals, particulars of, 50 ; 
 policy of making, 49 ; railways, and 
 proposal to at once acquire, 213 
 
 Development of the country the object 
 of Australian State railways, 171 
 
 Devonshire Commission, 31, 121, 196 
 
 Dickson, T. A., M.P., 118, 121, 212 
 
 Dilke, Sir Chas. , 94 
 
 Directors, wastes of. Boards of, 23 ; 
 Cambrian, at Bar of House, 114; 
 wasteful excess of Irish, 125 
 
 Don navigation, excessive rates on, 48 
 
 Druce, Mr., 71 
 
 Dunraven, Lord, 53 
 
 Duplicated offices, wastes of, 25 ; 
 passenger trains, wastes of, 26 ; pas- 
 senger trains, loss by, to L. and 
 N.-W., 27 
 
 Dutch rates, 150-1 
 
 Economic Jourfial, 83 
 
 Ecroyd, Farrar, 53 
 
 Eddy, E. Isl. G., 167 
 
 Eggs, preferential rates on, 75 
 
 Eight hours day and workmen's 
 
 trains, 102 ; and Prussian railways, 
 
 155, 216. See Webb & Cox 
 Employers' Liability and Accidents, in 
 English and Foreign Railway Rates. 
 
 See Grierson 
 English fares, 13, 88, 90, 103, 123, 
 
 168, 177 
 English, Hungarian and Austrian fares 
 
 compared, 177 
 "Enlightened Self-Interest" theory, 
 
 128 
 Equality clause, 14, 16 
 Equalization of Rates Act, 96 
 Evening Slandara', 58 
 
 Q
 
 226 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Excursion traffic, easily created, 184 
 
 Exemption Clause, Act 1844, lines 
 under, 204, 220 
 
 Experiments, inability of private Com- 
 panies to make, 129 
 
 Express service, excellence of English, 
 84 
 
 Faber, Consul, 179 
 Facilities, deficient Irish, 123 
 Fares, average English, Scotch and 
 Irish, 123 ; comparative, different 
 countries, 90 ; London and N. S. 
 Wales compared, 168 ; and rates 
 excessive, English, 13 ; and rates 
 excessive, Irish, 120; low, effect of, 
 in Belgium, 182 ; minimum unlikely 
 under present system, 90, 185 ; 
 reduced, under State - ownership, 
 205 ; low, and potential English 
 traffic, 181. 
 FaiT, Dr., 92, 93 
 
 Feathers, Irish rates, 117 
 
 Field, Mr., M.P., 212 
 
 Field, The, 74 
 
 Financial aspects of State purchase, 
 201-5 
 
 Findlay, Sir Geo., 23, 24, 27, 28, 31, 34, 
 35. 37. 38, 39. 42. 79. 80, 81, 82, 83, 
 117, 125, 128, 129, 148, 181, 182, 183, 
 186, 187, 189, 190, 198, 203 
 
 First-class, decrease in traffic, 79 ; 
 receipts, 80, 81 ; earning capacity 
 of, 81, 82 ; fares, 82 ; Austrian and 
 Hungarian fares, 176-7 ; New South 
 Wales and London, 168 
 
 Fish industry, effect of high rates on, 
 66; Irish rates, 119; preferential 
 rates, 66, 67 
 
 Flax, Irish rates, 117 ; preferential 
 rates, 63 
 
 Flour, Irish rates, 118; preferential 
 rates, 72 
 
 Food, adulteration of foreign, 69 
 
 Foreign competition, 6 
 
 Foreign Office Report, on German 
 railways, 153 ; Zone system, 175, 178 
 
 Fortescue, Hon. J. W., 164 
 
 Forwood, Sir W. B., 142 
 
 Fossdyke, Channel of, and G.N. agree- 
 ment, 47 
 
 Fox, John, 117 
 
 France, canals, State-ownership of, 
 160 ; railway mileage, 147 ; policy, 
 160 ; fares, 90 ; State - ownership, 
 
 growth of opinion favourable to, 161 ; 
 
 results of revision, 161 ; rates, iron 
 
 and steel, 61 ; State and private Unes, 
 
 comparative cost of administering, 
 
 148-9 
 Fruit, Irish rates, 120 
 Fruit and vegetable preferential rates, 
 
 7Z 
 Fruit growers and increased rates under 
 
 revision, 135 
 Functions of railway promoters, 
 
 change of, in early, 9 
 
 Gait, William, 173 
 
 Gauges, wastes of differential, in 
 
 Australia, 165 
 General Railway Workers Union, 109 ; 
 
 and State-ownership, 212 
 German State railways, benefits of, 154 ; 
 cost of administering compared with 
 private lines, 148, 149; coal rates on, 
 56, 57 ; difficulty of co-ordinating, 
 152 ; fares on, 90 ; Foreign Office 
 Report on, 153 ; industrial and 
 commercial reasons for, 152 ; Han- 
 delstag, 152 ; iron and steel rates, 
 61 ; management, system of, 154 ; 
 mileage of, 147 ; profits of, 153 ; 
 purchase, method of, 153 ; rates, 
 150-1 ; rate book, simplicity of. 25 ; 
 revenue compared with English, 155 
 Giffen, R., 106, 213 
 Girders, preferential rates, 61 
 Gladstone, Rt. Hon. W. E., i, 13, 64, 
 78, 90, 114, 185, 196, 201, 204, 213, 
 214 
 Glasgow Chamber of Commerce, 137 
 Glynn, P. J. O'C, 122 
 Goods trains, empty, wastes of running, 
 
 27 
 Goschen, G. J., 94 
 Government employes, rarity of strikes 
 
 among, 188 
 Grain, preferential rates, 71 
 Gray, J. W. , 132 
 Gray, Thomas, 8, 157, 209 
 Great Northern, accidents on, iii ;■ 
 Channel of Fossdyke agreement, 47 ; 
 Witham navigation agreement, 47 ; 
 canals controlled by, 47 
 Great Western Act^ 10 ; accidents, 
 III ; canals controlled by, 47 ; 
 Companies subsidized by, 33 ; re- 
 coupment of, by increased rates, 139 
 Greening, E. O., 134 
 
 i
 
 INDEX 
 
 227 
 
 Grierson, J., 27, 28, 37, 41, 88, 89, 120, 
 
 210 
 Grotrian, F. B., 48 
 Grove, Arnold, 125 
 Gurney, H., 65 
 
 Hadley, Professor, 39, 45, 130, 143, 
 158, 213 
 
 Half-loads, waste of, 27 
 
 Hampstead Heath Station, accident, 
 86 
 
 Handbook of Australia, 169, 170, 171 
 
 Hansard, 13, 90 
 
 Harford, Edward, 188 
 
 Hay, Irish rates, 122 ; preferential rates, 
 72, 75 
 
 Health, a city of, 93 
 
 Health and Housing Committee, Lon- 
 don County Council, 92, 94, 96, 
 104 
 
 Hickman, Sir A., 22,55, ^41' ^4^ 
 
 Hicks-Beach, Sir M., 108 
 
 Highway system, 9 ; theory on Austra- 
 lian railways, 171 
 
 Hill, Sir Rowland, 31 
 
 Hingley, Sir Benjamin, 45, 48, 142 
 
 Hole, James, 20, 23, 32, 46, 73, 78, 79, 
 85, 118, 134, 155, 168, 187 
 
 Holland, State railways, cost of ad- 
 ministration compared with private, 
 148-9 ; mileage of, 147 ; policy on, 
 159 ; rates upon, 151-2 ; statistics of, 
 
 159 
 Hollow Ware and Ironfounders Asso- 
 ciation, 211 
 Hood, John, dismissal of, 114 
 Hops, preferential rates, 70, 75 
 Hours of Railway Servants Act, 109; 
 Committee, 107, 187 ; examples of 
 excessive, 107, 108, 109, 
 House of Commons, on effect of in- 
 creased railway rates, 137 ; number 
 of railway directors in, 195 
 House of Lords, number of railway 
 
 directors in, 195 ; bribery of, 193 
 Housing of the Working-Classes Com- 
 mission, 94, 96 
 Howard, J. & F., illegal coercion of, 
 
 by railway Companies, 142 
 Huddersfield canal, rates on, 49 
 Hull & Barnsley Company, speech of 
 
 chairman, 196 
 Hull Chamber of Commerce, 151 
 Hungary, State railways, mileage of, 
 147 ; fares compared with English, 
 
 90, 177 ; Zone system, details of, 
 175-6, fares under, 176 ; effect of 
 reduced fares in, 178-9 
 Hunter, W. A., 10, 11, 15, 75, 131, 
 210 
 
 Illegal charges, 75, ^6 
 
 Inadequate service of workmen's trains, 
 97 
 
 hidiistrial Ireland. See R. Dennis 
 
 Inefficiency, alleged, under State owner- 
 ship, 188 ; evidence of, inadequate, 
 188 ; practical staff available to pre- 
 vent, 188 ; publicity, importance of, 
 to prevent, 192 
 
 Inland navigation. International Con- 
 gress on, 43, 44 
 
 Inspectors, Board of Trade, recom- 
 mendations re accidents, 113 
 
 Interest, suggested on State railway 
 consols, 205 
 
 Intimidation of aggrieved traders by 
 Companies, 141 ; of witnesses, 114 ; 
 of workmen, 114, 137 
 
 Ireland, the woes of, 116 — 126 
 
 Irish Cattle Traders Association, 122 
 
 Irish Dairy Farmers Association, 119, 
 123, 212 
 
 Irish Industry, Select Committee on, 
 
 23 
 Irish railways, deficiency in facilities, 
 123 ; directorates, wastes of, 23 ; 
 management of, wasteful, 125 ; rates 
 and fares on, high and preferential, 
 116, 120, 121; State subsidies given 
 to, 125 ; purchase recommended, 
 126 
 Irish Rates Conference, 36, 124 
 Irish rates and average purchasing 
 
 power, 120 ; and road traftic, 121 
 Iron castings, preferential rates, 61 
 Iron Railway or Tramway Act, 9 
 Iron and steel comparative rates, 60 
 Iron wire, preferential rates, 61 
 Iron, rates, increase in, 136 
 Italy, State railways in, 161 ; mileage, 
 147 ; fares, 90 ; comparative cost of 
 administering, 148-9 ; more success- 
 ful than private, 162 
 
 Jeans, J. S., 28, 55, 60, 79, 80, 121, 
 
 123, 148, 149, 150, 159, 162, 198 
 Joint Committee, 1872, 17 
 Jones, G. W., 80 
 Jones, J., dismissal of, 114
 
 228 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Journal of the Railway and Canal Lords, House of, bribery of, 193 
 Traders, 61, 64, 67 j Lough, T., M.P., 137 
 
 ! Louth navigation, 44 
 Killing of canal competition, 43—51 I Lubbock, Neville, 53 
 
 Labour, Commission, 107 ; improved 
 conditions of, under State-ownership, 
 205. See Hours, Wages, etc. 
 
 Laing, S., 20, 21, 22, 31, 143, 188, 189, 
 
 193 
 
 Lambert, Mr., 138 
 
 Land, cost of, to different Companies, 
 21 ; anomalous system, effect of, 68 
 
 Lard, preferential rates, 74, 
 
 Law of supply and demand, 12 
 
 Law and Parliamentary expenses, 20 
 
 Laws, Captain, 28 
 
 Lee, Sir J. C, 62 
 
 Leeds Mercury, 58 
 
 Legal maximum, theory of, 2 
 
 Legality of charges, 18 
 
 Leopold, King, 157 
 
 Life and Labour of the People. See C. 
 Booth 
 
 Linen, preferential rates, 63 
 
 Litigation, the futility of, 140; impos- 
 sible costliness of, to farmers and 
 traders, 145 
 
 Liverpool, and Manchester line, 9 ; 
 Chamber of Commerce, 137, waste 
 of duplicated offices in, 25 
 
 Lloyd, E. J., 47, 48, 49, 50, 
 
 Locke, J., 21 
 
 Locomotive toll, 10 
 
 London, 93, 94 
 
 London, density of population in, and 
 rate of mortality, 92, 93 ; population, 
 potential country traffic from, 184 ; 
 workmen's trains in, 92 — 105 
 
 London, Brighton, and South Coast, 
 accidents on, iii 
 
 London Chamber of Commerce, 53, 
 68, 137 ; and State-ownership, 213 
 
 London, Chatham, and Dover, acci- 
 dents on, III 
 
 London County Council and work- 
 men's trains, 86, 92, 93, 94, 97, 98, 
 99, 102, 105, 130 
 
 London and North-Western, accidents 
 on. III ; passenger traffic, analysis 
 of, 81 ; illegal coercion by, I-J2 ; loss 
 to, by duplicated passenger tra: is, 27; 
 threat of chairman, 194; victimiza- 
 tion of men, 114, 187 
 
 Long-distance traffic and low fares, 182 
 
 Mcllwraith, Sir Thomas, and over- 
 throw of Queensland Government, 
 169 
 
 " Made in Germany," 214 
 
 Mails and Belgian State railways, 159 
 
 Maintenance of way, cost of State and 
 private, in Europe, 148, 149 
 
 Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincoln- 
 shire Company, canals owned by, 48 
 
 Mansion House Association on railway 
 and canal traffic, 64, 66, 132, 133, 
 134, 135, 146, 144, 145 
 
 Manure, artificial, Irish rates, 117 
 
 Maple, Sir Blundell, 94 
 
 Market gardeners' deputation to the 
 Board of Trade, 73 
 
 Market price, impossible basis of pur- 
 chase, 204 
 
 Market Weighton Canal, rates on, 49 
 
 Mark Lane Express, 134 
 
 Marshall, Professor A., 92 
 
 Martin, Biddulph, 32 
 
 Martin, J., 71 
 
 Martin, L. A., 64 
 
 Massey, W. A., 151 
 
 Mavor, Professor, 83, 188 
 
 Maximum mileage toll, 9, 11 ; legal 
 rates, 13, 38 ; legal rates, ruinous 
 character of, 39 
 
 May, Erskine, 196 
 
 Mead, W. H., 213 
 
 Meat, preferential rates, 70, 72 
 
 Medical Officer of Health, London 
 County Council, 93, 
 
 Method of State ptuxhase proposed, 
 201 
 
 Midland Railway Company, accidents 
 on, in; illegal coercion by, 142 
 
 Midland Counties Timber Merchants 
 Association, 65 
 
 Mill, John Stuart, 2 
 
 Mineral rates, average tonnage, 55 
 
 Mineral Statistics, 54 
 
 Mining Association, 'on coal rates, 55 
 
 Mitchell, Sir H., 63 
 
 Monk, Mr., 211 
 
 Monopolies, railways essentially, 31, 
 187 
 
 Monopoly on single lines, how secured, 
 II
 
 INDEX 
 
 229 
 
 Llonopoly, how railways maintain, 
 32 
 
 Monsell, Hon. W., 125 
 
 Moon, Sir R., 22 
 
 Moore, Count, 119, 123, 212 
 
 Morning Post , 57 
 
 Mortality, rate of, and density of popu- 
 lation, 93 
 
 Mulhall, 47, 54, 90 
 
 Munton, F. K., 26 
 
 Muntz, P. A., 53 
 
 Nails, preferential rates, 61 
 
 Na Hon al Ra ilways. S ee J . Hole 
 
 Navigation, Birmingham, 44 ; Don, 
 48 ; Louth, 44 ; Inland, Congress 
 on, 43, 44 
 
 Neston Colliery Company, illegal 
 treatment of, 142 
 
 Neve, George, 73 
 
 Newark Chamber of Commerce, 54 
 
 Newcastle Ckro?iicle, 59 
 
 Newcastle Daily Journal, 59 
 
 Newcastle Farmers' Club, 72 
 
 New South Wales, State railways 
 gauge, 166 ; administration of State 
 railways, 167 ; statistics of, 167 ; 
 fares compared with London, 168 ; 
 concessions to passengers, 168 ; 
 reduced rates in, 168 
 
 New Zealand, State railways, statistics 
 of, 171 
 
 Normanton Rates Conference, 36 
 
 North British Company, cost, etc., 
 fighting Caledonian, 20 
 
 North-Eastern Company, amalgama- 
 tion of, 31 ; accidents on, 11 1 ; and 
 Directors' votes in Parliament, 196 
 
 Northampton rates case, cost of, 144 
 
 North Staffordshire Chamber of Com- 
 merce, 53 
 
 North Staffordshire Railway Com- 
 pany, illegal coercion by, 141 
 
 Norway, railway mileage, 146 ; rela- 
 tive cost of administering State and 
 private lines, 148 
 
 Nottingham Guardian, 59 
 
 Notts and Midland Merchants and 
 Traders Association, 141 
 
 Oakley, Sir Henry, 105, 139 
 Objections to State-ownership, 186— 
 
 200 
 Officials, trained, available under State, 
 
 191 
 
 Onr Iron Roads, See F. S. Wil- 
 liams 
 
 Our Rail'uays. See Parsloe 
 
 Overcharges, futility of traders trying 
 to recover, 144 
 
 Overcrowding of cities, effect of, 92 ; 
 and workmen's trains, 85 
 
 Palmer, Sir C. M. , 53 
 
 Parliament, number of railway directors 
 
 in, 195 
 Parliamentary fare, 13, 88, 89 
 Parliamentary Practice. See May 
 
 Parsloe, J. 
 
 25. 32 
 
 Passenger duty, 96 
 
 Passengers, treatment of, 3 ; laws 
 affecting, 19 ; the plaint of, 78 ; 
 receipts, decrease of first and second, 
 increase third, 80 ; traffic analysis 
 London and North-Western, 81 ; 
 comparative earnings of different 
 classes, 82; comfort, defect in, 84; 
 stations, deficiency in, 86 ; trains, 
 unpunctuality of, 87 ; minor griev- 
 ances of, 87 ; fares excessive, 88, 89 ; 
 fi.xed between the Companies, 89 ; 
 traffic, limitless with low fares, 181-5 ; 
 how restricted by high fares, 183 
 
 Passengers, concessions to N. S.Wales, 
 168 
 
 Peake, J. Nash, 142 
 
 Pease, Sir J., 196 
 
 Peek, Sir Francis, 85, 86 
 
 Perks, R. W., 23 
 
 Pianos, preferential rates, 65 
 
 Pigs, Irish rates, 122 ; cause of fall off 
 in Irish sales, 124 
 
 Pim, Mr., 212 
 
 Plated goods, preferential rates, 65 
 
 Political corruption ; alleged, under 
 State, 193 — 200 ; bribery of the 
 House of Lords, 193 ; case of iS3r 
 Committee, 195 ; directors voting, 
 against Parliamentary usage, 197 ; 
 directors on, 195 ; number of 
 directors in Parliament, 195 ; mo?t 
 virulent under private system, 193 ; 
 less danger of, under State, 198 ; pro- 
 motion abuses, 193 ; Spencer, 
 Herbert, on, 193 ; threats of Lon- 
 don and North-Western chairman, 
 194 ; and comparative purity of Civil 
 Service, 198-9 
 
 Political opinions, railway men dis- 
 charged for, 114
 
 230 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Pools, how worked, 31, 35 
 Pope, J. Buckingham, 39, jj, 195 
 Pork, Irish rates, 119 
 Portugal Railway, mileage, 147 
 Post-Office, 10, 12, 192, 214 
 Potatoes, Irish rates, 122 ; preferential, 
 
 71. 73 
 Preference, undue, i8 
 Preferential rates, 3 ; unreasonable, 16 ; 
 
 injustice of, 40 ; and the Press, 57 ; 
 
 effect on iron trade, 60, 61 ; effect on 
 
 cotton trade, 62 ; on Irish railways, 
 
 116; (Irish) absurd effect of, 118; 
 
 foreign, Southampton case, 145. 
 
 See also Rates 
 Press and preferential rates, 57 
 Price, Mr., M.P., 210 
 Principles of Economics. See Marshall 
 Private ownership. Is it hopeless ? 
 
 127 ; theories for public defence 
 
 against extreme effects of, 127 
 Private sidings, 18 
 Professional agitators and their cause, 
 
 188 
 Profits of English railways, 205 ; 
 
 under State purchase, 202 
 Promotion expenses, 20 
 Prussian State railways, profit on, 153 ; 
 
 wages and conditions of workers, 
 
 155 ; statistics of, 156 
 Publicity, factor in State-ownership, 
 
 192 
 Purchasing power and Irish rates, 120 ; 
 
 and Continental fares, 90 
 
 Queensland Government, overthrow of, 
 169 ; State railways, gauge, 166 ; 
 statistics of railways in, 169 ; regard 
 for State-ownership in, 169 
 
 Railroad Transportaiion. See Hadley 
 Railways, authorities and State-owner- 
 ship, 210 ; and canals, relative cost 
 of, 43 ; Traffic Act 1854, 16 ; Traffic 
 Act 1888, 18, 51 ; Traders Associ- 
 ation, see Mansion House Associa- 
 tion ; Commission, Devonshire, 1865, 
 31, 121, 196; establishment and early 
 career of, 15 ; new powers of, 17, 18 ; 
 Commission, 142; directors in Par- 
 liament, number of, 159 ; directors, 
 proposal to abolish voting of, 196 ; 
 employment, conditions of, 106 ; 
 interests, Parliamentary power, how 
 abused, 195 
 
 Railway Servants' Hours of Labour 
 Act, cases under, 109 ; monopoly 
 how maintained, 33 
 
 Railway Morals and Railway Policy. 
 See Herbert Spencer 
 
 Railway Nationalization League, 213 
 
 Railway Problems. See Jeans 
 
 Railway Review, 109, 212 
 
 Railway promotion, corruption of, 
 
 193 
 
 Railway workers, \\ages of, 106 ; in 
 Prussia, 155 
 
 Railways and monopoly, 187 
 
 Rates, Belgian, 150, 151; British, com- 
 plication of, 25 ; British and foreign 
 compared, 150; coal, 54; coal, 
 British, German, and Belgian, 
 56-7 ; and colliery owners, 55 ; 
 conferences, 31 ; and commission 
 on trade depression, 52; conferences, 
 details of different, 36, effective char- 
 acter of, 37 ; Dutch, 150, 151 ; 
 French, result of revision, 161 ; Ger- 
 man, 150, 151 ; Irish, apples, 119, 
 bacon, 119, bricks, 119, butter, 119, 
 cattle, 119, 123, coal, 117, feathers, 
 117, flax, 117, 118, 120, fish, 119, 
 flour, 118, 119, fruit, 120, Indian 
 corn, 122, hay and straw, 122, 
 manure, artificial, 117, pigs, 122, 
 pork, 119, potatoes, 122, turnips, 
 conference, 36, high, 120 ; impos- 
 sibly costly to fix before Railway 
 Commission, 145 ; and charges, 
 maximum revision of, 13 ; simphcity 
 of (German), 25 ; iron and steel, 
 comparative, 60 ; wholesale, increase 
 in, 19 ; legal maximum, 38 ; mineral, 
 average tonnage, 55 ; Northampton 
 case, cost of, 144 ; preferential, aliza- 
 rine, 62, apples, 75, bacon, 74, but- 
 ter, 74, cattle, 72, cheese, 74, copper, 
 61, cotton, 62, 63, dairy, 74, eggs, 
 75, fish, 66, 67, flax, 63, fruit and 
 vegetable, j^' girders, 61, glass, 64, 
 grain, 71, hay, 72, hops, 70, 75, 
 injustice of, 40 ; iron casting, 61, 
 sheet-iron, 61, iron wire, 61, lard, 74, 
 linen, 64, meat, 70, 72, nails, 61, 
 pianos, 65, plated goods, 65, prin- 
 ciple of fixing, 38, rates, 75, sheep, 
 72, sugar, 64, timber, 64, 6^, woollen, 
 63, 74. (See W. A. HuntV.) 
 
 Rates, reasonable, 19 ; reduced under 
 State purchase, 205 ; through, 18
 
 INDEX 
 
 231 
 
 Raihvay Rates and Radical Rule. 
 
 See J. Pope 
 Raihvay Rates and Traffic, See A. 
 
 K. Butterworth 
 Reasonable facilities, 16, 18 
 Reduced fares and the Zone system, 
 
 85. 173 
 
 Referendum and Swiss decision to 
 acquire railways, 161 
 
 Refreshments on German State rail- 
 ways, 155 
 
 Regent's Canal, 44 
 
 Regulation of Railways Act, 1873, 17 
 
 Reid, Mr,, and workmen's trains, 102 
 
 Revenue, earning, secondary object of 
 State Railways, 156, 158, 159, 171, 
 172 
 
 Revised railway rates (analysis of), 132; 
 increase in, 132 — 140 
 
 Revision of rates, 19 ; committee, 1890, 
 121 ; the farce of, 130; of rates, 1891, 
 result of, 131 ; of rates committee, 
 1890, 122 
 
 Richardson, Sir B. W., 93 
 
 Rigby, T., 74 
 
 Rival railway competition, 40 
 
 Road toll, 9 
 
 Rollit, Sir A., 137 
 
 Roumania, railway, mileage, 147; rela- 
 tive cost of administering State and 
 private lines, 148-9 
 
 Rowlandson, S. , 71, 72 
 
 Royal Agricultural Society, secretary 
 of, 70, 73^ 74 
 
 Rural population in London, 184 
 
 Russia, relative cost of administering 
 State and private lines, 148 
 
 Russia, railway, mileage, 146 
 
 Russian fares, 90 
 
 St. James's Gazette, 58 
 
 Sahsbury, Lord, 94, 179 
 
 Samuelson, Sir Bernhard, 25, 57, 70, 
 
 150, 153, 154. 155 
 Savings, under State-ownership, 205 
 Saxony, State railways, statistics of, 
 
 156 
 School-children, railway fares of, in 
 
 Australia, 169 
 Scotch rates conference, 36 ; railway 
 
 strike, cause of, 188. See also Mavor 
 Second-class, abolition of, 83 ; decrease 
 
 in, 79 ; loss on, 8r, 82 ; German, 
 
 comfortable, 155 ; earning capacity 
 
 of, 81, 82 ; fares, London and New 
 
 South Wales, i68, Austrian and 
 Hungarian, 175, 176, 177 
 
 Select Committee on hours of railway 
 servants, 107, 108 ; on Lish indus- 
 tries, 23, 121 ; on canals, 1883, 43 ; 
 on railways and rates, 1832, 30 ; 
 1839-40, 9, II ; 1844, 13, 21 ; 1846, 
 14, 39 ; 1881, 18, 37, 41, 44, 45, 46, 
 48, 49. 50. 55. 61, 63, 65, 72, 73, 88, 
 116, 118, 124, 125, 131, 141, 142, 
 143, 210, 211, 212 ; 1881, abused by 
 railway directors, 195 ; 1881, major- 
 ity of railway directors voting, 195 ; 
 1893, remarkable report of, 138, 140 
 
 Shanks, J., 124 
 
 Shareholders, speculating, effect on 
 management of, 130 
 
 Sheep, preferential rates, 72 
 
 Sheet-iron, preferential rates, 61 
 
 Sheffield Chamber of Commerce, 53 
 
 Sherlock, T, , 122, 124 
 
 Shorter working day and workmen's 
 trains, 102 
 
 Simplicity of Zone system, 174 ; Ger- 
 man rate book, 25 
 
 Social conscience, 188 
 
 Southampton case, re preferential rates, 
 
 145 
 
 South-Eastern Railway, subsidy to, by 
 Brighton and South Coast not to run 
 to Eastbourne, 34 
 
 Spain, railway, mileage, 147 
 
 Special Committee, 1852, 16 
 
 Spence, Mr., 44, 46, 49, 50, 51 
 
 Spencer, Herbert, 21, 193 
 
 Staffordshire Sentinel, 142 
 
 Standard, 57 
 
 State administration and Anglo-Saxon 
 genius, 163 
 
 State-ownership, more economical, 150; 
 German history of, 152 ; growth of 
 French opinion, 161 ; objections to, 
 186 — 200 ; financial aspect of, 201-5 '• 
 necessity for, 209 ; advantage of, 
 209 ; opinions favourable to, 209-14 ; 
 railway authorities on, 210 ; Trade 
 Union Congress on, 212 
 
 State purchase, arbitration provisions, 
 203 ; cost of, 202 ; of Irish railways, 
 126 ; improved labour conditions 
 under, 205 ; method of, 201 ; mar- 
 ket price impossible, 204 ; interest 
 on Government stock, 205 ; present 
 profits, 203 ; Act, i ; provision for, 
 13 ; piecemeal impracticable, 213 ;
 
 INDEX 
 
 reduced rates and fares under, 205 ; 
 savings under, 205 ; terms of, under 
 Gladstone's Act, 201 ; working 
 expenses, 203 
 
 State Purchase of Railways. See C. 
 Waring 
 
 State raihN-ays in Australia, 163 ; absurd 
 criticisms of, 164 ; initial mistakes 
 on, 164 ; increase in value of, 165 ; 
 how administered, 165 ; wastes of 
 differential gauges, 165 ; burden of 
 high interest, 164 ; profits on, 167 
 
 State railways, Belgian, 157, 158, 159 ; 
 Baden, statistics of, 157 ; colonial, 
 6 ; control, rise of, 8 ; control, failure 
 of, 128 ; railways in Europe, 146 ; 
 in European countries, relative cost 
 of administration, 148 ; foreign, 6. 
 German, profits on, 153 ; method of 
 purchase, 153 ; benefits of, 154 ; 
 system of management, 154 ; refresh- 
 ments on, 155 ; second class, 155. 
 Holland, statistics of, 159; success 
 of, 159, 160; policy of, 159. Italy, 
 more successful than private, 162 ; 
 mileage, different countries, 146-7. 
 Prussian, profit on, 153 ; wages and 
 condition of workers, 155; statistics 
 of, 156. Saxony, statistics of, 156 ; 
 statistics of, in Denmark, 160 ; 
 \\^urtemburg, statistics of, 157 ; 
 stock, probable interest on, 205 
 
 Statistical Abstract of Foreign Co7i?i- 
 trics, 146, 157, 159, 160, 179 
 
 Stevenson, Robert, 4 
 
 Stevenson, George, 9, 209 
 
 Stewart, Mr. (L. & N.-W.), 27 
 
 Stock Exchange and State purchase, 
 204 
 
 Stockton and Darlington Act, 2, 9 
 
 Stratford-on-Avon canal, derelict, 49 
 
 Straw, Irish rates, 122 
 
 Strikes, alleged probability of, under 
 State, 186; needless alarm of, 186-7 ! 
 how arise, 186-7 '< rarity of, among 
 Civil servants, 186-7 ; reasonable 
 conditions will prevent, 186-7 ; cause 
 of Scotch Railway and Taflf Vale, 
 186-7 ; among professional men, 188 
 
 Subsidies, number of Companies 
 receiving, 32 ; State, to Irish railways, 
 125 
 
 Subsidizing other lines, 31 
 
 Suburbs, modern, dependent on rail- 
 way facilities, 94 ; need for selecting 
 
 healthy sites for, 95; London, rela- 
 tive health of, 95 ; unhealthiness of 
 marshes, 95 ; relative rates in, 96 ; 
 relative mortality in, 95 
 
 Sugar, preferential rates, 64 
 
 Sullivan, Mr. O., 211 
 
 Sullivan, Professor, 12 x 
 
 Surrey Iron Railway Company, 9 
 
 Swansea Chamber of Commerce, 137 
 
 Sweden, railway mileage, 146; railways, 
 difficulty of joint control, 160 
 
 Swedish fares, 90 
 
 Swiss fares, 90 
 
 Switzerland, railway mileage, 147 ; 
 decision to acquire railways, 161 
 
 Systems, different, of railway manage- 
 ment, I 
 
 Taff Vale railway strike, cause of, 18S 
 Tea merchants, meeting of, 137 
 Terminal charges, 18; low German, 154 
 The Million on the Rail. See Jones, 
 
 G. W. 
 The Railways of England. See 
 
 Acworth 
 The Working and Management ofonr 
 
 English Railways. See Findlay 
 Third-class, early treatment of, 78 ; 
 present treatment of, 83 ; defective 
 carriages, 85 ; fatal overcrowding, 
 85 ; relative fares, different countries, 
 90 ; Austria-Hungarian, 175-6-7 ; 
 London and New South Wales, 168 
 Tickets, needless number of, 174 
 Timber, preferential rates, 64-5 
 Times, 23, 26, 41, 57, 84, 85, 86, 87, 
 
 15s 
 Tonnage rate, average, English, Irish 
 
 and Scotch, 121 
 Torrington, Lord, 78 
 Trade depression. Commission on, 52, 
 
 55, 56, 61, 62, 63, 71, 72, 117 
 Trade Union Congress and State- 
 ownership of railways, 212 
 Traders, the bitter cry of, 52 ; and 
 
 increased rates under revision, 135 ; 
 
 Association. See Mansion House 
 
 Association 
 Traffic facilities, 18 ; expenses, State 
 
 and private, in Europe compared, 
 
 149 
 Train-load, average, different countries, 
 
 28 
 Train-mile receipts, 28 
 Turnips, Irish rates, 122
 
 INDEX 
 
 233 
 
 Tweeddale, Marquis of, 20 
 Tyler, Sir H. W., 5, 191 
 
 Ulster Provision Curers Association, 
 
 122, 124 
 
 United States, railway system in, i 
 University students, fares of, in Aus- 
 tralia, 169 
 Unpunctuality of trains, 87, 88 
 Urquhart, W., dismissal of, 114 
 
 Victimization of railway men, 113, 114 
 Victoria State railways, gauge, 116 ; 
 
 reduction in working expenses, 170 ; 
 
 statistics of, 170 
 Vital Statistics. See Farr. 
 
 Waddington, President, 161 
 
 Wages, relative average, different coun- 
 tries, 90 ; of railway workers, 106 ; 
 compared with other trades, 107 ; of 
 Prussian railway workers, 155 
 
 Waghorn and Stevens, 25, 118, 122, 123, 
 124, 126 
 
 Wales, H.R.H. Prince of, and work- 
 men's trains, 94 
 
 Walsham, Sir John, 153 
 
 Walter, Major, 78 
 
 Waring, C, 23, 32, 34, 119, 120, 121, 
 
 123, 126, 130, 153, 158-9, 161, 172, 
 182, 197, 199 
 
 Wastes of canvassers, 26 ; Clearing 
 House, 24 ; complications, 24 ; com- 
 petition, total estimated, 28; direc- 
 tors, 23 ; duplicated offices, 25 ; du- 
 plicated passenger trains, 26 ; empty 
 goods trains, 27 ; "half-loads," 27; 
 Irish management, 125 ; manifold 
 ownership, 5, 20 
 
 Water competition, 39 
 
 Watkin, Sir Edward, 212 
 
 Webb, Sidney, 107 
 
 Weekly Times and Echo, 83, 109 
 
 Wellington, Duke of, 78 
 
 Western Mor>iit?g A^eT.os, 66 
 
 " What the traffic will bear " theory, 38 
 
 Wheat, preferential rate, 71 
 
 Whitehead, Sir James, 135 
 
 Williams, F. S., 8, 21, 193, 209 
 
 Williams, A. J., 24 
 
 Williams, K. B., 118 
 
 Williams, R. Price, 82, 93 
 
 Wilson, Chevalier, 210 
 
 Witham navigation agreement, 47 
 
 Wolverhampton Chamber of Com- 
 merce, 54, 211 
 
 Woollens, preferential rates, 63, 74 
 
 Workers, condition of railway, 3, 106, 
 107, 155 
 
 Working expenses, present English, 
 203 
 
 Workmen, benefits of wide distribution 
 of city, 96 
 
 Workmen's Train Act, 94, 96 ; trains. 
 Companies unite to restrict, 100 ; and 
 crowded cities, 91 ; mean average 
 fare, London, 102-3 ; fare compared, 
 European capitals, 103 ; excessive 
 fares, 103 ; hopelessness of improved 
 service under present system, 105 ; 
 inconvenience of, 97, 100 ; reason 
 for instituting, 91, and shorter work- 
 ing day, 102 ; vexatious restrictions, 
 102 
 
 Wright, Thomas, dismissal ot, 114 
 
 Wurtemburg, statistics of State rail- 
 ways in, 157 
 
 Y ear-Book of Australia, 
 trail an Y ear-Book. 
 
 See A US- 
 
 Zone system, application of, to Eng- 
 land and Ireland, iSo; Austrian, 
 fares under, 177 ; Austrian, mileage, 
 177 ; English origin of, 173 ; ex- 
 plained, 173 ; Hungarian, effect of 
 reduced fares under, 178-9 ; Hunga- 
 rian, fares under, 175-6 ; mileage of, 
 176 ; increase of passengers, 178-9 ; 
 and reduced fares, 173—185 ; sim- 
 plicity of, 25 ; and superfluous tickets, 
 174 ; why popular, 175
 
 Richard Clay & Sons, Limited, 
 London & Bungay.
 
 A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS 
 
 AND ANNOUNCEMENTS OF 
 
 METHUEN AND COMPANY 
 
 PUBLISHERS : LONDON 
 
 36 ESSEX STREET 
 
 w.c. 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 
 FORTHCOMING BOOKS, 
 
 PAGI 
 2 
 
 POETRY, .... 
 
 11 
 
 ENGLISH CLASSICS, 
 
 13 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BOOKS, . . . . 
 
 13 
 
 HISTORY, ..... 
 
 14 
 
 BIOGRAPHY, .... 
 
 16 
 
 GENERAL LITERATURE, 
 
 19 
 
 SCIENCE, .... 
 
 22 
 
 PHILOSOPHY, .... 
 
 22 
 
 THEOLOGY, .... 
 
 23 
 
 LEADERS OF RELIGION, 
 
 25 
 
 FICTION, .... 
 
 26 
 
 BOOKS FOR BOYS AND GIRLS, . 
 
 34 
 
 THE PEACOCK LIBRARY, 
 
 35 
 
 UNIVERSITY EXTENSION SERIES, 
 
 35 
 
 SOCIAL QUESTIONS OF TO-DAY, 
 
 36 
 
 CLASSICAL TRANSLATIONS, • 
 
 37 
 
 EDUCATIONAL BOOKS, 
 
 33 
 
 MARC LI 1897
 
 March 1897. 
 
 Messrs. Methuen's 
 
 ANNOUNCEMENTS 
 
 Poetr 
 
 y 
 
 GEORGE WYNDHAM 
 SHAKESPEARE'S POEMS. Edited, with an Introduction and 
 Notes, by George Wyndham, M.P. Crown %vo. 6s. 
 
 W. E. HENLEY 
 ENGLISH LYRICS. Selected and Edited by W. E. Henlev. 
 Crown Svo. Buckram, ds. 
 
 Also 15 copies on Japanese paper. Demy Zvo. £2, 2s. 
 P'ew announcements will be more welcome to lovers of English verse than the one 
 that Mr. Henley is bringing together into one book the finest lyrics in our 
 language. The volume will be produced with the same care that made ' Lyra 
 Heroica' delightful to the hand aud eve. 
 
 Travel and Adventure 
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON, KC.B. 
 BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA. By Sir H. H. JOHNSTON, 
 K.C.B. With nearly Two Hundred Illustrations, and Five Maps. 
 Crown a^to. 30J. 
 
 Contents. 
 (i) The history of Nyasaland and t (5) The Missionaries. 
 British Central Africa generally, with a t£\ t^x, c r xt 1 j • 1. 
 
 detailed account of evenis during the last • S^ ^^^ ^"^""^ °^ Nyasaland, with much 
 seven years. information concerning its big game. 
 
 (2) A detailed description of the various 
 races considered anthropologically and 
 ethnologically 
 
 (3) '1 he languages of British Central 
 Africa. 
 
 (4) The European settlers, their mode 
 
 (7) The flora and the minerals. 
 
 (8) The scenery' (copiously illustrated to 
 show the remarkable natural beauty of 
 the country), and 
 
 (9) A concluding chapter on the future 
 of life; coffee, cultivation, etc. | prospects of the country. 
 
 CAPTAIN HINDE 
 THE FALL OF THE CONGO ARABS. By Sidney L. 
 HiNDE. With Portraits and Plans. DeinyZvo. 12s. ed. 
 This volume deals with the recent Belgian Expedition to the Upper Congo, which 
 developed into a war between the State forces and the Arab slave raiders in 
 Central Africa. Two white men only returned alive from the three years' war- 
 Commandant Dhanis and the writer of this book, Captain Hinde. During the 
 greater part of the time spent by Captain Hinde in the Congo he was amongst 
 cannibal races in little-known regions, and, owing to the peculiar circumstances 
 of his position, was enabled to see a sideof native nistory shown to few Europeans. 
 The war terminated in the complete defeat of the Arabs, seventy thousand of 
 whom perished during the struggle.
 
 Messrs. Methuen's Announcements 3 
 baden-powell 
 
 SCOUTING SKETCHES IN RHODESIA. By LiEUT. 
 Colonel Baden- Powell. With numerous Illustrations, Maps, 
 etc. Demy %vo. Cloth, i^s. 
 
 PRINCE HENRI OF ORLEANS 
 
 FROM TONKIN TO INDIA. By Prince Henri of 
 Orleans. Tianslated by Hamley Bent, M.A. With over lOO 
 Illustrations and 4 Maps. Demy %vo. 2,\s. 
 The travels of Prince Henri in 1895 from China to the valley of the Bramaputra 
 covered a distance of 2100 miles, of which 1600 was through absolutely unexplored 
 c'untry. No fewer than seventeen ranges of mountains were crossed at altitudes 
 of from 11,000 to i^.o'o feet. The journey was made memorable by the discover}- 
 of the sources of the Irrawaddy. To the physical difficulties of the journey were 
 added dangers from the attacks of savage tribes. The book deals with many of 
 the burning political problems of the East, and it will be found a most important 
 contribution to the literature of adventure and discover^'. 
 
 L. DECLE 
 THREE YEARS IN SAVAGE AFRICA. By Lionel Decle. 
 With an Introduction by H. M. Stanley, M.P. With 100 Illus- 
 trations and 5 Maps. DemyZvo. 7.\s. 
 
 Few Europeans have had the same opportunity of studying the barbarous parts of 
 Africa as Mr. Decle. Starting from the Cape, he Nisited in succession Bechuana- 
 land, the Zambesi, Matabeleland and Mashonaland, the Portuguese settlement on 
 the Zambesi, Nyasaland, Ujiji, the headquarters of the Arabs, German East 
 Africa, Uganda (where he saw fighting in company with the late Major ' Roddy* 
 Owen), and British East Africa. In his book he relates his e.xperiences, his 
 minute observations of native habits and customs, and his views as to the work 
 done in Africa by the various European Governments, whose operations he was 
 able to study. The whole journey extended over 7000 miles, and occupied 
 exactly three years. 
 
 H. S. COWPER 
 THE HILL OF THE GRACES: OR, the Great Stone 
 Temples of Tripoli. By H. S. Covvper, F.S.A. With Maps, 
 Plans, and 75 Illustrations. Demy %z-o. \os. 6d. 
 
 The Turkish prohibition against all European travel in their African Pashalics has. 
 during the last seventeen years, rendered impossible both geographical and 
 archaeological research. The author, however, was enabled to make two ioumeys 
 through the hill range of Tripoli in 1895 and 1896, and this voiume deals chiefly 
 with a remarkable series of megalithicTemples and Trilithons, which he found 
 to exist there in extraordinary numbers. These ruins have hitheno been quite 
 uninvestigated, and to Enclishmen should have an exceptional interest, from the 
 light it is believed they will throw on our own national monument of Stonchenge. 
 In all about one hundred sites were visited and photographed, and the volume will 
 be fully illustrated by maps, plans, and photographs. Chapters will also be devoted 
 to modern Tripoli, the little visited ruins of Leptes Magna, the ancient and 
 modem geography of the district generally, and the author's personal experiences. 
 
 W. CROOKE 
 THE NORTH-WEST PROVINCES OF INDIA: Their 
 Ethnology and Administration. By W. Crooke. With Maps 
 and Illustrations. Demy 2>z-o. \os, 6d.
 
 4 Messrs. Methuen's Announcements 
 History and Biography 
 
 MORRIS FULLER 
 THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF JOHN DAVENANT, 
 D.D. (1571-1641), President of Queen's College, Lady Margaret Pro- 
 fessor of Divinity, Cambridge, Lord Bishop of Salisbury. By the 
 Rev. Morris Fuller, B.D., Vicar of St. Mark's, Marylebone. 
 Crown Svo. Js. 6d. 
 Dr. Davenant, Bishop of Salisbury, the maternal uncle of Dr. Fuller, lived at a very 
 critical time in our history (1571-1641). He was one of the British representatives 
 of the first great Synod of the reformed churches held at Dort, was one of Arch- 
 bishop Laud's Suffragans, and assisted him in carrying out his reforms. 
 Precis is given of some of the Bishop's writings, and a very celebrated sermon, never 
 before published and supposed to have been lost, is printed in extenso. 
 
 EDWARD GIBBON 
 THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 By Edward Gibbon. A New Edition, edited with Notes, 
 Appendices, and Maps by J. B. Bury, M.A., Fellow of Trinity 
 College, Dublin. In Seven Volumes. Demy Svo, gilt top. 8.y. 6d. 
 each. Crown Svo. 6s. each. Vol. III. 
 
 J. WELLS 
 
 THE CITY AND UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD. By J. 
 
 Wells, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Wadham College. Illustrated 
 by E. H. New. Fcp. Svo. 2s. 6d. 
 
 This is a Guide — chiefly historical — to the Colleges of Oxford. It contains numerous 
 full-page illustrations. 
 
 C. H. GRINLING 
 
 A HISTORY OF THE GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY, 
 
 1845-95- By C. H. Grinling. With Maps and Illustrations, 
 Crown Svo. 6s. 
 A record of Railway enterprise and development in Northern England, containing 
 much matter hitherto unpublished. It appeals both to the general reader and to 
 those specially interested in railway construction and management. 
 
 Naval and Military 
 
 DAVID HANNAY 
 
 L SHORT HISTORY OF THE ROYAL NAVY, From a 
 
 Early Times to the Present Day. By David Hannay. jI 
 
 Illustrated. 2 Vols. Demy Svo. I'^s. I| 
 
 This book aims at giving an account not only of tne fighting we nave done at sea, 
 but of the growth of the service, of the part the Navy has played in the develop- 
 ment of the Empire, and of its inner life. The author has endeavoured to avoid 
 the mistake of sacrificing the earlier periods of naval history — the very interesting 
 wars with Holland in the seventeenth century, for instance, or the American 
 War of 1779-1783 — to the later struggle with Kevolutionary and Imperial France.
 
 Messrs. Metiiuen's Announcements 5 
 
 COL. COOPER KING 
 THE STORY OF THE BRITISH ARMY. By Lieut.-Colonel 
 Cooper King, of the Staff College, Camberley. Illustrated. Dewy 
 Svo. ys. 6d. 
 
 This volume aims at describing the nature of the different armies that have been 
 formed in Great Britain, and how from the early and feudal levies the present 
 standing army came to be. The changes in tactics, uniform, and armament are 
 briefly touched upon, and the campaigns in which the army has shared have 
 been so far followed as to explain the part played by British regiments in them. 
 
 Theology 
 
 E. C. S. GIBSON 
 THE XXXIX ARTICLES OF THE CHURCH OF ENG- 
 LAND. Edited with an Introduction by E. C. S. Gibson, D.D., 
 Vicar of Leeds, late Principal of Wells Theological College. /// 7'7vo 
 Volumes. Demy %vo. is. 6d. each. Vol. II. Articles IX. -XXXIX. 
 
 W. H. BENNETT 
 A PRIMER OF THE BIBLE. By Prof. W. H. Bennett. 
 
 Crown Svo. 2s. 6d. 
 
 gebotional <Scrir5 
 
 C. BIGG 
 THE CONFESSIONS OF ST. AUGUSTINE. Newly Trans- 
 lated, with an Introduction, by C. Bigg, D.D., late Student of 
 Christ Church. With a Frontispiece. iSmo. is. 6d. 
 This little book is the first volume of a new Devotional Series, the volumes of which 
 will be edited by competent scholars, printed in clear type, and published at a 
 very low price. 
 This volume contains the nine books of the ' Confessions,' which are suitable for 
 devotional purposes. The name of the Editor is a sufficient guarantee of the 
 excellence of the edition. 
 
 F. E. BRIGHTMAN 
 THE DEVOTIONS OF BISHOP ANDREWES. Newly Trans- 
 lated, together with his ' Manual of the Sick,' with an Introduction 
 by F. E. Brightman, M.A., of the Pusey House, 0.\ford. \Svio. 
 IS. 6 J. 
 
 The inclusion of Andrewes' 'Manual of the Sick' will greatly increase the value of 
 this edition of the ' Prcces Privata;.' 
 
 Sport 
 
 H. MORGAN BROWNE 
 SPORTING AND ATHLETIC RECORDS. By H. MoRG.\N 
 Browne. Crown Svo. ^s. 6d. 
 
 This book gives, in a clear and complete form, accurate records of the best perform- 
 ances in all important branches of Sport. It is an attempt, never yet made, to
 
 6 Messrs. Methuen's Announcements 
 
 present all-important sporting records in a systematic way. In many brandnes of 
 athletics world's records will be properly tabulated for the first time. Records at 
 many of the great public schools will be given. While complete lists of the 
 wianers of lmporta:it events in the world o-r sport (jt-g. principal hors« rac«B, 
 Inglish Amateur Championship*, Oxfoid and Camlwidafe Boftt-racov etc. etc) 
 will be found in an Appendix. 
 
 General Literature 
 
 ARTHUR SHERWELL 
 
 LIFE IN WEST LONDON: A Study and a Contrast. 
 By Arthur Sherwell, M.A. Crown %vo. 2s. 6d. 
 
 H. A. SALMONE 
 
 THE FALL AND RESURRECTION OF TURKEY. By 
 
 H. Anthony Salmon e. With Portraits. Crown Svo. 3^-. 6d. 
 
 LAURIE MAGNUS 
 A PRIMER OF WORDSWORTH. By Laurie Magnus. 
 Crown Svo. 2s. 6d. 
 
 R. USSHER 
 
 NEO-MALTHUSIANISM. By R. Ussher, M.A. Cr.Zvo. Si-. 
 An Enquiry into that System, with regard to its Economy and 
 Morality. 
 
 This book deals with a very delicate but most Important matter, namely, the volun- 
 tary limitation of the family, and how such action affects morality, the mdividual, 
 and the nation. 
 
 Educational 
 
 C. STEPHENSON AND F. SUDDARDS 
 ORNAMENTAL DESIGN FOR WOVEN FABRICS. By 
 C. Stephenson, of The Technical College, Bradford, and 
 F. Suddards, of The Yorkshire College, Leeds. With 65 full-page 
 plates, and numerous designs and diagrams in the text. Demy Svo. 
 7^. 6d, 
 The aim of this book is to supply, in a systematic and practical form, information on 
 the subject of Decorative Design as applied to Woven Fabrics, and is primarily 
 intended to meet the requirements of students in Textile and Art Schools,_or o! 
 designers actively engaged in the weaving industry. Its wealth of illustration it. 
 a marked feature of the book.
 
 Messrs. Methuen's Announcements 
 
 
 
 R. E. STEEI- 
 
 
 MAGNETISM 
 
 AND 
 
 ELECTRICITY. By R. 
 
 Elliott 
 
 Steel, M.A. 
 
 F.C.S. 
 
 With Illustrations. Crown Svo. 
 
 4J. 6d. 
 
 E. B. WHITFIELD 
 PRECIS WRITING AND OFFICE CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 By E. E. Whitfield, M.A. Crozvn Svo. 2s. 
 
 {Comnurcial Serus. 
 
 ESSENTIALS OF COMMERCIAL EDUCATION. By 
 E, E. Whitfield, M.A. Crown Svo. is. 6d. 
 
 A guide to Commercial Education and Examinations, which ought to prove most 
 useful as showing what is now being done in this country to promote commeraal 
 education, and also as giving valuable information to those who may wish tocnter 
 for some of the commercial examinations now held by the London Chamber of 
 Commerce and other bodies. 
 
 Methuen's Classical Texts 
 
 general editor 
 E. C. MARCHANT, M.A. 
 
 OF TRINITY COLLEGE, OXFORD; FELLOW OF PETERHOISE. CAMBRIDGE; 
 
 ST. Paul's school, london. 
 Messrs. Methuen propose to issue a new series of Classical Texts, edited 
 by eminent scholars, for the use of English-speaking students. The books 
 will be well printed and bound, and will be published at a very low price. 
 The first volume of every author will contain a brief Introduction in English, 
 not exceeding eight pages, in which the necessary information about the MSS. 
 will be given, and the salient features of the author's style indicated 
 
 The critical notes, which will be at the foot of the pagf , will exhibit only 
 th- important MS. variants and conjectures of special val-e. They will 
 contain very little argument ; and there will be no explanatory notes. Every 
 volume of the series will contain a short Index Rerurn et Aominum 
 Special attention will be paid to the typography of the series. 
 The following, among many others, are arranged :— 
 
 author. editor. ^ . ^ ^ 
 
 \K^cHVLUs K. Y. Tyrrell, D Liit., LL.D., P.egius Professor of 
 
 AESCHYLUS, . Greek inlhe linivers.ty of Dublm. 
 
 Professor Tyrrelu , ^ . . ^ „ 
 
 W. J. M. Starkik, M..\., Fellow of Trmity CoUege, 
 
 Dublin. ^ , « L 1 
 
 W. S. Hadlkv, M.A., Fellow and Bursar of Pembroke 
 
 College, Cambridge. , „ . n 
 
 E. C. March ant M.A.. lellow of Petcrbousc, Cam- 
 
 bridge; St. Paul 5 School. 
 
 J. E. Sandys. Litt.D., Public Orator in the Liniven.ity 
 of Cambridge. 
 
 Aristophanes, 2 vols. 
 Sophocles, 
 
 Euripides, 3 vols., 
 
 Thucydides, 2 vols., . 
 
 Demosthk.nes, 3 vol?.
 
 Messrs. Methuen's Announcements 
 
 ClCKKO-- 
 
 Speeches, 3 vols., 
 
 Philosophical Work 
 Letters, 2 vols., 
 
 Tacitus, 2 vols. 
 
 Terence, . 
 
 Lucretius, 
 
 Vergil, 
 
 Horace, 
 Ovid, 3 vols. , 
 
 Juvenal, . 
 Phaedrus, 
 
 Martial, . 
 
 J. S. Reid, LittD., Fellow and Tutor of Caius College, 
 
 Cambridge. 
 J. S. Reid 
 L, C. Purser, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Trinity 
 
 College, Dublin. 
 G. G. Ramsay, LL.D., Litt.D., Professor of Humanity 
 
 in the University of Glasgow. 
 W. M. Lindsay, M.A., Fellow of Jesus College, 
 
 Oxford. 
 J. S. Duff, M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- 
 bridge. 
 A. S. WiLKiNS, M.A., Professor of Latin, Owen's 
 
 College, Manchester. 
 James Gow, Litt.D. , Master of Nottingham High School. 
 S. G. Owen, M. A., Senior Student and Censor of Christ 
 
 Church, Oxford. 
 S. G. Owen, M.A. 
 Robinson Ellis, M.A., LL.D., Corpus Professor uf 
 
 Latin in the University of Oxford. 
 W. M. Lindsay, M.A. 
 
 Methuen's Byzantine Texts 
 
 GENERAL EDITOR 
 
 J. B. BURY, M.A. 
 
 fellow and tutor of trinity college, DUBLIN, PROFESSOR OF MODERN 
 HISTORY IN DUBLIN UNIVERSITY. 
 
 Messrs. Methuen propose to issue a series of texts of Byzantine Historians, 
 edited by English and foreign scholars. It will consist mainly of Greek texts, 
 but vi^ill also include English translations of some Oriental works which are 
 important sources for Byzantine history. The Greek texts, which will be in 
 all cases based on original study of MSS. , will be accompanied by brief critical 
 notes, and preceded by short introductions, containing the necessary explana- 
 tions as to the material which has been used for the determination of the text. 
 A special feature of these volumes will be very full indices Graecitatis, framed 
 with a view to the collection of material for the Lexicon totius Graecitatis of 
 the future. Each volume will of course also be provided with an Index Reruni 
 et Nominum. 
 
 The collaboration of a considerable number of eminent foreign scholars has 
 been secured ; so that this series can justly claim to be regarded as inter- 
 national. 
 
 John Schmitt, Ph.D. 
 
 Professor J. B. Buky. 
 
 Professor Lambros of Athens. 
 
 Professor L^on Parmentier of Liege and 
 M. Bidez of Gand. 
 
 Professor J. B. Bury. 
 
 Professor Leo Sternbach of Cracow. 
 
 Chronicle of Morea, 
 Constantine Porphyrogennetos, 
 Ecthesis Chronica, 
 evagrius, 
 
 Genesius, 
 
 George Pisides, .... 
 John ok Nikin (translated from the 
 
 Ethiopic), 
 
 Psellus (Historia), .... 
 Theodore of Cyzicus, . 
 
 Rev. R. H. Charles. 
 Monsieur C. Sathas. 
 Professor Lambros.
 
 Messrs. Metiiukx\'s Announcements 9 
 Fiction 
 
 MARIE CORELLIS ROMANCES 
 
 A^cw and Unifonn Edition, La)-c Crcnvii Hzo. 6.. 
 WORMWOOD. £i^/i//i Editiofh 
 THE SOUL OF LILITH. Ninth Edilion. 
 
 BARABBAS: A DREAM OF THE WORLD'S TRAGEDY. 
 
 Tzvcniy- ninth Edition. 
 
 THE SORROWS OF SATAN. Thirly-fourth Edition. 
 
 The above will be issued in the uniform edition of Marie Corelli's books. 
 
 ANTHONY HOPE 
 PHROSO. By Anthony Hope, Author of 'The Prisoner of 
 
 Zenda,' etc. Illustrated by H. R. Millar. CfvunSzo. 6s. 
 
 ROBERT BARR 
 THE MUTABLE MANY. By RoiiERT B.\rr, Author of Mn 
 
 the Midst of Alarms,' * A Woman Intervenes,' etc. Cr(runi>- \ f- . 
 
 EMILY LAWLESS 
 
 A NEW BOOK. By The Hon. Emily Lawless, Author of 
 ' Hurrish,' ' Maclcho,' etc. Croivn 8t'^. 6.r. 
 
 S. BARING GOULD 
 GUAVAS THE TINNER. By S. Barinc; Gould, Author of 
 ' The Broom Squire,' etc. Illustrated by Frank Dadd. Craivn %vc, 
 6s. 
 
 A Historical Romance of the time of F^Iizabcth. 
 
 W. E. NORRIS 
 CLARISSA FURIOSA. By W. E. Norkl<^, Author of 'The 
 Rogue,' etc. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 
 GILBERT PARKER 
 
 THE POMPOFTHELAVILLETTES. By Gilbert Parker, 
 Author of ' The Seats of the Mighty,' etc. Ovzvh Svo. p. 6J. 
 
 J MACLAREN COBBAN 
 
 Wn;r thou have this woman .^ By J. >L Cobban, 
 Author of ' The King of Andaman.' Crvun Stv. 6s. 
 A 2
 
 lo Messrs. Metiiuen's Announcements 
 
 H. MOERAH 
 THE FAITHFUL CITY. By Herbert Morrah, Author of 
 'A Serious Comedy.' Crown Svo. 6s. 
 
 J. F. BREWER 
 
 THE SPECULATORS. By J. F. Brewer. Crow7i Zvo. 6s. 
 
 A. BALFOUR 
 BY STROKE OF SWORD. By Andrew Balfour. Illus- 
 trated by W. CuBiTT Cooke. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 JAMES GORDON 
 THE VILLAGE AND THE DOCTOR. By James Gordon. 
 Crown Svo. 6s. 
 
 IDA HOOPER 
 
 THE SINGER OF MARLY. By Ida Hooper. Illustrated 
 by W. CuBiTT Cooke. Crown 2>vo. 6s. 
 A romance of adventure. 
 
 H. G. WELLS. 
 
 THE PLATTNER STORY ; and Others. By H. G. Wells, 
 Author of 'The Stolen Bacillus,' *The Time Machine,' etc. Crown 
 Zvo. 6s. 
 
 MARY GAUNT 
 
 KIRKHAM'S FIND. By Mary Gaunt, Author of 'The 
 
 Moving Finger. ' Crown Zvo. 6s. 
 
 L. S. McCHESNEY 
 UNDER SHADOW OF THE MISSION. By L. S. McChes- 
 NEY. Crown %vo. 6s. 
 
 M. C. BALFOUR 
 
 THE FALL OF THE SPARROW. By M. C. Balfour. 
 Crown %vo. 6s. 
 
 S. GORDON 
 
 A HANDFUL OF EXOTICS. By S. Gordon. Crown Zvo. 
 
 Zs. 6d. 
 
 A volume of stories of Jewish life in Russia. 
 
 P. NEUMANN 
 
 THE SUPPLANTER. By P. Neumann. Crowii Zvo. 3^-. 6d. 
 
 H. A. KENNEDY 
 A MAN WITH BLACK EYELASHES. By H. A. Kennedy. 
 Crown Zvo. Ji". 6d. 
 
 HANNAH LYNCH 
 AN ODD EXPERIMENT. By Hannah Lynch. Cr. Zvo.
 
 A LIST OF 
 
 Messrs. Methuen's 
 
 PUBLICATIONS 
 
 Poetry 
 
 RUDYARD KIPLING'S NEW POEMS 
 
 Rudyard Kipling. THE SEVEN SEAS. By Rudyard 
 Kipling. Third Edition. Crown 2>vo. Buckram^ gilt top. 6s, 
 
 ' The new poems of Mr. Rudyard Kipling have all the spirit and swinsx of their pre- 
 decessors. Patriotism is the solid concrete foundation on which Mr. Kipling haa 
 built the whole of his work.' — Ti»tes. 
 
 ' Full of passionate patriotism and the Imperial spirit.' — I'ofkshire /Vi.'. 
 
 ' The Empire has found a singer ; it is no depreciation of the songs to say that states- 
 men may have, one way or other, to take account of them.' — Manchester 
 Guard i at!. 
 
 ' Animated through and through with indubitable genius.' — Daily Telegraph. 
 
 'Packed with inspiration, with humour, with pathos.' — Daily Chronicle. 
 
 ' All the pride of empire, all the intoxication of power, all the ardour, the energjs 
 the masterful strength and the wonderful endurance and death-scorning pluck 
 which are the very bone and fibre and marrow of the British character are nerc' 
 —Daily Mail. 
 
 Rudyard Kipling. BARRACK-ROOM BALLADS; And 
 
 Other Verses. By Rudyard Kipling. Tenth Edition. Crown 
 Svo. 6s. 
 
 ' Mr. Kipling's verse is strong, vivid, full of character. . . . Unmistakable genius 
 
 rings in every line.' — Times. 
 ' The ballads teem with imagination, they palpitate with emotion. We read them 
 with laughter and tears ; the metres throb in our pulses, the cunningly ordered 
 words tingle with life ; and if this be not poetr>-, what \i,V— Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 "Q." POEMS AND BALLADS. By "Q.," Author of ' Green 
 
 Bays,' etc. Crown Svo. Buckram, ^s. dd. 
 ' His book will be read with interest by the most fastidious lovers of poetry-, and it 
 will please many who think they have no taste for poetry- at all." — Scotsman, 
 
 "Q." THE GOLDEN POMP : A Procession of English Lyrics 
 from Surrey to Shirley, arranged by A. T. Qu iller Couch. Crou-n 
 Svo. Buckram, ds. 
 * A delightful volume : a really golden "Pomp."' — Spectator. 
 
 " Q." GREEN BAYS : Verses and Parodies. By " Q.," Author 
 of * Dead Man's Rock,' etc. Secottd Edition. Crown Svo. y.6d. 
 ' The verses display a rare and versatile gift of parody, great command of metre, and 
 a very pretty turn of humour.' — Times.
 
 12 Messrs. Methuen's List 
 
 H. C. Beeching. LYRA SACRA : An Anthology of Sacred Verse. 
 Edited by 11. C. Beeching, M.A. Crotun Svo. Buckram. 6^. 
 
 •An anthology of high excellence." — Athenceum. 
 
 ' A charming selection, which maintains a lofty standard of excellence.* — Times. 
 
 W. B. Yeats. AN ANTHOLOGY OF IRISH VERSE. 
 Edited by W. B. Yeats. Crown Svo. 3s. 6d. 
 
 ' An attractive and catholic selection.* — Times. 
 
 ' It is edited by the most original and most accomplished of modern Irish poets, and 
 against his editing but a single objection can be brought, namely, that it excludes 
 from the collection his own delicate lyrics.' — Satiirday Review. 
 
 E. Mackay. A SONG OF THE SEA : My Lady of Dreams, 
 
 AND OTHER PoEMS. By Eric Mackay, Author of * The Love 
 Letters of a Viohnist.' Second Edition. Fcap. Svo y gilt top. <^s. 
 
 • Everywhere Mr. Mackay displays himself the master or a style marked by all the 
 characteristics of the best rhetoric. He has a keen sense of rhythm and of general 
 balance; his verse is excellently sonorous.' — Globe. 
 
 Ibsen. BRAND. A Drama by Henrik Ibsen. Translated by 
 William Wilson. Second Edition. Crown Svo. 3s. 6d. 
 
 'The greatest world-poem ot the nineteenth century next to "Faust." It is in 
 the same set with " Agamemnon," with " Lear," with the literature that we now 
 instinctively regard as high and holy.' — Daily Chronicle. 
 
 "A. G." VERSES TO ORDER. By"A. G." Cr.Svo. 2s.6d. 
 net. 
 
 A small volume of verse by a writer whose initials are well known to Oxford men. 
 ' A capital specimen of light academic poetry. These verses are very bright and 
 engaging, easy and sufficiently witty.' — St. James s Gazette. 
 
 F. Langbridge. BALLADS OF THE BRAVE : Poems of 
 
 Chivalry, Enterprise, Courage, and Constancy, from the Earliest 
 Times to the Present Day. Edited, with Notes, by Rev. F. Lang- 
 bridge. Crown Svo. Buckram. 35. 6^. School Edition. 2s. 6d. 
 
 'A very happy conception happily carried out. These " Ballads of the Brave" are 
 intended to suit the real tastes of boys, and will suit the taste of the great majority.' 
 —Spectator. ' The book is full of splendid things.' — World. 
 
 Lang and Craigie. THE POEMS OF ROBERT BURNS. 
 
 Edited by Andrew Lang and W. A. Craigie. With Portrait. 
 Demy SvOf gilt top. 6j. 
 
 This edition contains a carefully collated Text, numerous Notes, critical and textual, 
 a critical and biographical Introduction, and a Glossary. 
 
 'Among the editions in one volume, Mr. Andrew Lang's will take the place of 
 authority.' — Titnes. 
 
 * To the general public the beauty of Its type, and the fair proportions of Its pages, as 
 well as the excellent chronological arrangement of the poems, should make it 
 acceptable enough. Mr. Lang and his publishers have certainly succeeded in 
 producing an attractive popular edition of the poet, in which the brightly written 
 biographical introduction is not the least notable {taiiuic.'— Glasgow Herald.
 
 Messrs. Methuen's List 13 
 
 English Classics 
 
 Edited by W. E. Henley. 
 
 ' Very dainty volumes are these ; the paper, type, and light-green binding are all 
 
 very agreeable to the eye. Simplex munditiis is the phrase that might be applied 
 
 to them.' — Globe. 
 ' The volumes are strongly bound in green buckram, are of a convenient size, and 
 
 pleasant to look upon, so that whether on the shelf, or on the table, or in the hand 
 
 the possessor is thoroughly content with them." — Guardian. 
 
 THE LIFE AND OPINIONS OF TRISTRAM SHANDY. 
 By Lawrence Sterne. With an Introduction by Charles 
 Whibley, and a Portrait. 2 vols. 7^. 
 
 THE COMEDIES OF WILLIAM CONGREVE. With 
 an Introduction bv G. S. Street, and a Portrait. 2 vols. is. 
 
 THE ADVENTURES OF HAJJI BABA OF ISPAHAN. 
 By James Morier. With an Introduction by E. G. Browne, M. A. , 
 and a Portrait. 2 vols. 75. 
 
 THE LIVES OF DONNE, WOTTON, HOOKER, HER- 
 BERT, and SANDERSON. By Izaak Walton. With an 
 Introduction by Vernon Blackburn, and a Portrait. 3^. dd. 
 
 THE LIVES OF THE ENGLISH POETS. By Samuel 
 Johnson, LL.D. With an Introduction by J. II. ^Millar, and a 
 Portrait. 3 vols. loj. 6d. 
 
 Illustrated Books 
 
 Jane Barlow. THE BATTLE OF THE FROGS AND MICE, 
 translated by Jane Barlow, Author of * Irish Idylls,' and pictured 
 by F. D. Bedford. Small 4I0. 6s. net. 
 
 S. Baring Gould. A BOOK OF FAIRY TALES retold by S. 
 Baring Gould. With numerous illustrations and iniiial letters by 
 Arthur J. Gaskin. Second Edition. Crown Zvo. Buclram. 6s. 
 'Mr. Baring Gould is deserving of gratitude, in re-wTiting in honest, simple style the 
 old stories that delighted tlie childhood of "our fathers and grandfathers." _ As to 
 the form of the book, and the printing, which is by Messrs. Constable, it were 
 difScult to commend overmuch. — Saturday Kn'ietv. 
 
 S. Baring Gould. OLD ENGLISH FAIRY TALES. Col- 
 lected and edited by S. Baring Gould. With Numerous Illustra- 
 tions by F. D. Bedford. Second Edition. Crown %vo. Buckram. 6s. 
 A charming volume, which children will be sure to appreciate. The stories have 
 been selected with great ingenuity from various old ballads and folk-tales, and, 
 having been somewhat altered and readjusted, now stand forth, clothed in Mr. 
 Baring Gould's delightful English, to enchant youthful readers.'— d?«ar<//a«.
 
 14 Messrs. Methuen's List 
 
 S. Baring Gould. A BOOK OF NURSERY SONGS AND 
 RHYMES. Edited by S. Baring Gould, and Illustrated by the 
 Birmingham Art School. Btickram^ gilt top. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 ' The volume is very complete in its way, as it contains nursery songs to the number 
 of 77, game-rhymes, and jingles. To the student we commend the sensible intro- 
 duction, and the explanatory notes. The volume is superbly printed on soft, 
 thick paper, which it is a pleasure to touch ; and the borders and pictures are 
 among the very best specimens we have seen of the Gaskin school.' — Birming- 
 ham Gazette. 
 
 H. C. Beeching. A BOOK OF CHRISTMAS VERSE. Edited 
 by H. C. Beeching, M.A., and Illustrated by Walter Crane. 
 Crown Svo, gilt top. ^s. 
 
 A collection of the best verse inspired by the birth of Christ from the Middle Ages 
 to the present day. A distinction of the book is the large number of poems it 
 contains by modern authors, a few of which are here printed for the first time. 
 
 'An anthology which, from its unity of aim and high poetic excellence, has a better 
 right to exist than most of its fellows.' — Guardian. 
 
 History 
 
 Gibbon. THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN . 
 EMPIRE. By Edward Gibbon. A New Edition, Edited with 
 Notes, Appendices, and Maps, by J. B. Bury, M.A., Fellow of 
 Trinity College, Dublin. In Seven Volumes. Demy Svo. Gilt top. 
 Ss. 6d. each. Also crown Svo. 6s. each. Vols. I. afzd II. 
 
 ' The time has certainly arrived for a new edition of Gibbon's great work. . . . Pro- 
 fessor Bury is the right man to undertake this task. His learning is amazing, 
 both in extent and accuracy. The book is issued in a handy form, and at a 
 moderate price, and it is admirably printed.' — Times. 
 
 ' The edition is edited as a classic should be edited, removing nothing, yet indicating 
 the value of the text, and bringing it up to date. It promises to be of the utmost 
 value, and will be a welcome addition to many libraries.' — Scotsman. 
 
 'This edition, so far as one may judge from the first instalment, is a marvel of 
 erudition and critical skill, and it is the very minimum of praise to predict that the 
 seven volumes of it will supersede Dean Milman's as the standard edition of our 
 great historical classic' — Glasgow Herald. 
 
 * The beau-ideal Gibbon has arrived at last.' — Sketch. 
 
 'At last there is an adequate modern edition of Gibbon. . . . The best edition the 
 nineteenth century could produce.* — Mattchester Guardian. 
 
 Flinders Petrie. A HISTORY OF EGYPT,fromthe Earliest 
 
 Times to the Present Day. Edited by W. M. Flinders 
 
 Petrie, D.C.L., LL.D., Professor of Egyptology at University 
 
 College. Fully Illustrated. In Six Volumes. Crown Svo. ds. each. 
 
 Vol. I. Prehistoric Times to XVI. Dynasty. W. M. F. 
 
 Petrie. Second Edition. 
 Vol. II. The XVIIth and XVIIIth Dynasties. W. M. F. 
 Petrie. 
 ' A history written in the spirit of scientific precision so worthily represented by Dr. 
 Petrie and his school cannot but promote sound and accurate study, and 
 supply a vacant place in the English literature of Egyptology.*— T/w^x.
 
 Messrs. Methuen's List 15 
 
 Flinders Petrie. EGYPTIAN TALES. Edited by W. M. 
 
 Flinders Petrie. Illustrated by Tristram Ellis. In Two 
 
 Volumes. Crown Zvo. 3^. 6^. each. 
 ' A valuable addition to the literature of comparative folk-lore. The drawings are 
 
 really illustrations in the literal sense of the word.' — Globe. 
 ' It has a scientific value to the student of history and archaeology.' — Scotsman. 
 'Invaluable as a picture of life m Palestine and 'Egy^x..'— Daily News. 
 
 Flinders Petrie. EGYPTIAN DECORATIVE ART. By 
 W. M. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L. With 120 Illustrations. Crown 
 Svo. 3x. 6d. 
 
 ' Professor Flinders Petrie is not only a profound Egyptologist, but an accomplished 
 student of comparative archaeology. In these lectures, delivered at the Royal 
 Institution, he displays both qualifications with rare skill in elucidating the 
 development of decorative art in Egypt, and in tracing its influence on the 
 art of other countries.' — Times. 
 
 S. Baring Gould. THE TRAGEDY OF THE C^SARS. 
 
 The Emperors of the Julian and Claudian Lines. With numerous 
 Illustrations from Busts, Gems, Cameos, etc. By S. Baring Gould, 
 Author of ' Mehalah,' etc. Fourth Edition. KoyalZvo. 15J. 
 
 • A most splendid and fascinating book on a subject of undying interest. The great 
 
 feature of the book is the use the author has made of the existing portraits of the 
 Caesars, and the admirable critical subtlety he has exhibited in dealing with this 
 line of research. It is brilliantly written, and the illustrations are supplied on a 
 scale of profuse magnificence.'— '/>a?/y C/zr^«/c/^. 
 
 • The volumes will in no sense disappoint the general reader. Indeed, m their way, 
 
 there is nothing in any sense so good in English. . . . Mr. liaring Gould has 
 presented his narrative in such a way a^ not to make one dull -^s-z.^.'—Aihcr^ruir.. 
 
 H. de B. Gibbins. INDUSTRY IN ENGLAND : HISTORI- 
 CAL OUTLINES. By II. de B. Gibbins, M.A., D.Litt. With 
 5 Maps. DeinyZvo. \os. 6d. Pp. 450. 
 This book is written wth the \-iew of affording a clear view of the main facts of 
 English Social and Industrial Histor>' placed in due perspective. Beginning 
 with prehistoric times, it passes in review the growth and advance of industry 
 up to the nineteenth century, showing its gradual development and progress. 
 The author has endeavoured to pl.ice before his readers the historj- of industry 
 as a connected whole in which all these developments have their proper place. 
 The book is illustrated by Maps, Diagrams, and Tables, and aided by copious 
 Footnotes. 
 
 A. Clark. THE COLLEGES OF OXFORD : Their History, 
 their Traditions. By Members of the University. Edited by A. 
 Clark, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Lincoln College. 8:'^. I2x. (>d. 
 
 ' A work which will certainly be appealed to for many years as the standard book on 
 the Colleges of O.xford.'— ^Mt-w^r;/;;/. 
 
 Perrens. THE HISTORY OF FLORENCE FROM 1434 
 TO 1492. By F. T. Perrens. Translated by Hannah Lynch. 
 
 %V0. \2S. 6J. 
 A history of Florence under the domination of Cosimo, Piero, and Lorenzo de 
 
 Medicis. . „. , • • . u i i 
 
 ' This is a standard book by an honest and intelligent historian, who has deserved 
 
 well of all who are interested in Italian history.'— .l/<inr/;/-j-.Vr Cuanlian.
 
 i6 Messrs. Methuen's List 
 
 J.Wells. A SHORT HISTORY OF ROME. By J. Wells, 
 
 M. A., Fellow and Tutor of Wadham Coll., Oxford. With 4 Maps. 
 
 Crown %vo. y. 6d. Z^o pp. 
 This book is intended for the Middle and Upper Forms of Public Schools and few 
 
 Pass Students at the Universities. It contains copious Tables, etc. 
 ' An original work written on an original plan, and with uncommon freshness and 
 
 vigour. ' — Speaker, 
 
 E. L. S. Horsburgh. THE CAMPAIGN OF WATERLOO. 
 
 By E. L. S. Horsburgh, B.A. With Plans. Crown Svo. ^s. 
 
 'A brilliant essay — simple, sound, and thorough.' — Daily Chronicle. 
 ' A study, the most concise, the most lucid, the most critical that has been produced.' 
 — Birmingham Mercury, 
 
 H.B. George. BATTLES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. ByH.B. 
 George, M.A., Fellow of New College, Oxford. With numerous 
 Plans. Third Edition, Crown Svo. 6s. 
 
 ' Mr. George has undertaken a very useful task— that of making military affairs in- 
 telligible and instructive to non-military readers — and has executed it with laud- 
 able intelligence and industry, and with a large measure of success.' — Times. 
 
 ' This book is almost a revelation ; and we heartily congratulate the author on bis 
 work. ' — Daily Chronicle. 
 
 0. Browning. A SHORT HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL ITALY, 
 A.D. 1250-1530. By Oscar Browning, Fellow and Tutor of King's 
 College, Cambridge. Second Edition, In Two Volumes. Crown 
 Svo. ^s. each. 
 
 Vol. I. 1250-1409. — Guelphs and Ghibellines. 
 
 Vol. il 1409-1530. — The Age of the Condottieri. 
 
 'A vivid picture of mediaeval Italy.' — Standard. 
 
 ' Mr. Browning is to be congratulated on the production of a work of immense 
 labour and learning.' — Westfftinster Gazette. 
 
 OGrady. THE STORY OF IRELAND. By Standish 
 O'Grady, Author of ' Finn and his Companions.' Cr. Svo. 2s. 6d. 
 'Most delightful, most stimulating. Its racy humour, its original imaginings, 
 make it one of the freshest, breeziest volumes.' — Methodist Times. 
 
 Biography 
 
 Baring Gould. THE LIFE OF NAPOLEON BONA- 
 PARTE. By S. Baring Gould. With over 450 Illustrations in 
 the Text and 13 Photogravure Plates. Large quarto. Gilt top. 36J. 
 
 A brilliant and attractive volume. It impresses first by reason of its bulk, 
 and next by reason of its substantial and striking binding. Within, it is 
 remaikable, to begin with, for the considerable number and unusual excellence 
 of its illustrations. Never before, it is safe to say, have so many pictures 
 relating to Napoleon been brought together within the limits of an English 
 book. The portraits alone are multitudinous ; Bonaparte is presented to us 
 at all ages, in all sorts of costume, and amid very varied circumstances. Then 
 tliere are reproductions of statuettes, busts, and medals, caricatures, portraits of 
 his connections by birth and marriage, representations of events in which he took
 
 Messrs. Methuen's List 17 
 
 part, and what not. The list of illustrations i-i the text covers nine pages, and in 
 addition there are a dozen full-page photogravures, in which famous paintings are 
 reproduced. Altogether, this is a table-book of the first class. But it is more. It 
 embodies "a study of the character and opinions of Napoleon " on which Mr. 
 Baring Gould can be freely congratulated. The writer's plan has l>een to " lay 
 on one side what concerned Napoleon's military achievements and the political 
 importance of his life, so far as did not bear on the development of his mind and 
 the movements of his heart." By this means a novel point of view has been 
 secured, and the result is a narrative of which the chief characteristic is an agree- 
 able freshness.' — Globe. 
 
 R. L. Stevenson. VAILIMA LETTERS. By Robert Louis 
 StevExNSON. With an Etched Portrait by William Strang, and 
 other Illustrations. Second Edition. Crown ^vo. Buckram. 'js.6d. 
 
 ' The Vailima Letters are rich in all the varieties of that charm which have secured 
 
 for Stevenson the affection of many others besides "journalists, fellow-novelists, 
 
 and boys."' — The Times. 
 ' Few publications have in our time been more eagerly awaited than these " Vailima 
 
 Letters," giving the first fruits of the correspondence of Robert Louis Stevenson. 
 
 But, high as the tide of expectation has run, no reader can possibly be disappointed 
 
 in the result.' — St. James's Gazette. 
 ' For the student of English literature these letters indeed are a treasure. They 
 
 are more like " Scott's Journal " in kind than any other liter.ary autobiography.' 
 
 — National Observer. 
 
 Victor Hugo. THE LETTERS OF VICTOR HUGO. 
 Translated from the French by F. Clarke, M.A. In Two Volunus. 
 Demy Zvo. los. 6d. each. Vol. I. 1815-35. 
 
 This is the first volume of one of the most interesting and important collection of 
 letters ever published in France. The correspondence dates from Victor Hugo's 
 boyhood to his death, and none of the letters have been published before. The 
 arrangement is chiefly chronological, but where there is an interesting set of 
 letters to one person these are arranged together. The first volume contains, 
 among others, (i) Letters to his father ; (2) to his young wife ; (3) to his confessor. 
 Lamennais ; (4) a very important set of about fifty letters to Sainte-Beuve ; (5) 
 letters about his early books and plays. 
 
 ' A charming and vivid picture of a man whose egotism never marred his natural 
 kindness, and whose vanity did not impair his greatness.' — Standard. 
 
 J. M. Rigg. ST. ANSELM OF CANTERBURY : A Chapter 
 
 IN THE History of Religion. By J. ^L Rigg, of Lincoln's 
 
 Inn, Barrister-at-Law. Demy ^vo. "js. 6d. 
 
 This work gives for the first time in moderate compass a complete portrait of St. 
 Anselm, exhibiting him in his intimate and interior as well as in his public life. 
 Thus, while the great ccclcsiastico-political struggle in which he played so prominent 
 a part is fully dealt with, unusual prominence is given to the profound and subtle 
 speculations by which he permanently influenced theological and metaphysical 
 thought ; while it will be a surprise to most readers to find him also appearing as 
 the author of some of the most exciuisite religious poetry in the Latin language. 
 
 ' Mr. Rigg has told the story of the great Primate's life with scholarly ability, and 
 has thereby contributed an interestingchapter to the history* of the Norman period.' 
 — Daily Chronicle. 
 
 \ \
 
 i8 Messrs. Methuen's List 
 
 F. W. Joyce. THE LIFE OF SIR FREDERICK GORE 
 OUSELEY. By F. W. Joyce, M.A. With Portraits and Illustra- 
 tions. Crown Svo. *js. 6d. 
 
 * The book gives us a complete picture of the life of one who will ever be held in 
 
 loving remembrance, and who in the history of music in this country will always 
 occupy a prominent position on account of the many ser\dces he rendered to 
 the art.' — Musical News. 
 'This book has been undertaken in quite the right spirit, and written with sympathy, 
 insight, and considerable literary skill.' — Times. 
 
 W. G. Collingwood. THE LIFE OF JOHN RUSKIN. By 
 W. G. Collingwood, M.A., Editor of Mr. Ruskin's Poems. With 
 numerous Portraits, and 13 Drawings by Mr. Ruskin. Second 
 Edition. 2 vols. Svo. 321. 
 
 ' No more magnificent volumes have been published for a long time.' — Times. 
 ' It is long since we had a biography with such delights of substance and of form. 
 Such a book is a pleasure for the day, and a joy for ever.' — Daily Chronicle. 
 
 C. Waldstein. JOHN RUSKIN : a Study. By Charles 
 Waldstein, M.A., Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. With a 
 Photogravure Portrait after Professor Herkomer. Post Svo. 55. 
 'A thoughtful, impartial, well-written criticism of Ruskin's teaching, intended to 
 separate what the author regards as valuable and permanent from what is transient 
 and erroneous in the great master's writing.' — Daily Chronicle. 
 
 W. H. Hutton. THE LIFE OF SIR THOMAS MORE. By 
 
 W. H. HuTTON, M.A., Author of ' William Laud.' With Portraits. 
 
 Crown Svo. ^s. 
 
 ' The book lays good claim to high rank among our biographies. It is excellently, 
 
 even lovingly, written.' — Scotsmaft. ' An excellent monograph.' — Times. 
 
 M. Kaufmann. CHARLES KINGSLEY. By M. Kaufmann, 
 
 M.A. Crozuji Svo. Buckram, ^s. 
 A biography of Kingsley, especially dealing with his achievements in social reform. 
 'The author has certainly' gone about his work with conscientiousness and industry. — 
 
 Sheffield Daily Telegraph. 
 
 A. F. Robbins. THE EARLY PUBLIC LIFE OF WILLIAM 
 EWART GLADSTONE. By A. F. Robbins. With Portraits. 
 Crown Svo. ds. 
 ' Considerable labour and much skill of presentation have not been unworthily 
 expended on this interesting work.' — Times. 
 
 Clark RusseU. THE LIFE OF ADMIRAL LORD COL- 
 LINGWOOD. By W. Clark Russell, Author of ' The Wreck 
 of the Grosvenor.' With Illustrations by F. Brangwyn. Third 
 Edition. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 
 * A book which we should like to see in the hands of every boy in the country.' — 
 
 St. James's Gazette. ' A really good book.' — Saturday Review. 
 
 Southey. ENGLISH SEAMEN (Howard, Clifford, Hawkins, 
 Drake, Cavendish). By Robert Southey. Edited, with an 
 Introduction, by David Hannay. Second Edition. CrownSvo. ds. 
 
 'Admirable and well-told stories of our naval history.' — Army and Navy Gazette. 
 
 ' A brave, inspiriting book.' — Black and White.
 
 Messrs. Methuen's List 19 
 
 General Literature 
 
 S. Baring Gould. OLD COUNTRY LIFE. By S. Baring 
 
 Gould, Author of ' Mehalah,' etc. With Sixty-seven Illustrations 
 by W. Parkinson, F. D. Bedford, and F. Masey. Large 
 Crown Svo. los. 6d. Fifth and Cheaper Edition, ds. 
 ' " Old Country Life," as healthy wholesome reading, full of breezy life and move- 
 ment, luil of quaint stories vigorously told, will not be excelled by any book to be 
 published throughout the year. Sound, hearty, and English to the core.' — World. 
 
 S. Baring Gould. HISTORIC ODDITIES AND STRANGE 
 EVENTS. By S. Baring Gould. Third Edition. Crown%vo. ts. 
 
 ' A collection of exciting and entertaining chapters. The whole volume is delightful 
 reading. ' — Times. 
 
 S. Baring Gould. FREAKS OF FANATICISM. By S. Baring 
 
 Gould. Third Edition. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 * Mr. Baring Gould has a keen eye for colour and effect, and the subjects he has 
 chosen give ample scope to his descriptive and analytic faculties. A perfectly 
 fascinating book.' — Scottish Leader. 
 
 S. Baring Gould. A GARLAND OF COUNTRY SONG : 
 
 English Folk Songs with their Traditional Melodies. Collected and 
 arranged by S. Baring Gould and II. Fleetwood Sheppard. 
 Demy a^o. 6s. 
 
 S. Baring Gould. SONGS OF THE WEST: Traditional 
 Ballads and Songs of the West of England, with their Traditional 
 Melodies. Collected by S. Baring Gould, M.A., and IL Fleet- 
 wood Sheppard, M. a. Arranged for Voice and Piano. In 4 Parts 
 (containing 25 Songs each). Parts /., //., ///., 3^. each. Part 
 J v., 5^. In one Vol., French tjiorocco, i$s. 
 ' A rich collection of humour, pathos, grace, and poetic ia.nzy.'— Saturday Rez'ietv. 
 
 S. Baring Gould. YORKSHIRE ODDITIES AND STRANGE 
 
 EVENTS. Fourth Edition. Crown 2>vo. 6s. 
 
 S. Baring Gould. STRANGE SURVIVALS AND SUPER- 
 STITIONS. With Illustrations. By S. Baring Gould. Crown 
 ^vo. Second Edition. 6s. 
 * We have read Mr. Earing Gould's book from beginning to end. It is full of quaint 
 and various information, and there is not a dull page in it.' — Notes and Queries. 
 
 S. Baring Gould. THE DESERTS OF SOUTHERN 
 FRANCE. By S. Baring. Gould. With numerous Illustrations 
 by F. D. Bedford, S. Hutton, etc. 2 vols. Vc::-y 2>zo. 22s. 
 
 This book describes the great barren tableland that extends to i c south of Limousin, 
 a country of dolomite cliffs, and canons, and subterranean rivers. The region 
 is full of prehistoric and historic interest, relics of cave-dwellers, of medixval 
 robbers, and of the English domination and the Hundred Years' War. 
 
 'His two richly-illustrated volumes are full of matter of interest to the geologist, 
 the archaeologist, and the student of hi>iory and manners.' — Sctfisman.
 
 20 Messrs. Methuen's List 
 
 R. S. Baden-Powell. THE DOWNFALL OF PREMPEH. A 
 
 Diary of Life with the Native Levy in Ashanti, 1895. By Lieut. -Col. 
 Baden-Powell. With 21 Illustrations, a Map, and a Special 
 Chapter on the Political and Commercial Position of Ashanti by Sir 
 George Baden-Powell, K.C.M.G., M.P. Demy %vo. \os. 6d. 
 
 * A compact, faithful, most readable record of the campaign.' — Daily News. 
 ' A bluff and vigorous narrative.' — Glasgow Herald. 
 
 G. W. Steevens. NAVAL POLICY: With a Descrip- 
 tion OF English and Foreign Navies. By G. W. Steevens. 
 Demy Svo. 6s. 
 
 This book is a description of the British and other more important navies of the world, 
 with a sketch of the lines on which our naval policy might possibly be developed. 
 It describes our recent naval policy, and shows what our naval force really is. A 
 detailed but non-technical account Is given of the instruments of modern warfare — 
 guns, armour, engines, and the like— with a view to determine how far we are 
 abreast of modern invention and modern requirements. An ideal policy is then 
 sketched for the building and manning of our fleet ; and the last chapter is 
 devoted to docks, coaling-stations, and especially colonial defence. 
 
 'An extremel}^ able and Interesting work.' — Daily Chronicle. 
 
 W. E. Gladstone. THE SPEECHES AND PUBLIC AD- 
 DRESSES OF THE RT. HON. W. E. GLADSTONE, M.P. 
 Edited by A. W. Hutton, M.A., and H. J. Cohen, M.A. With 
 Portraits, ^vo. Vols. IX. and X. \2.s. 6d. each, 
 
 Henley and Whibley. A BOOK OF ENGLISH PROSE. 
 
 Collected by W. E. Henley and Charles Whibley. Cr. Svo. 6s. 
 
 'A unique volume of extracts — an art gallery of early prose.' — Birjninghavt Post. 
 
 ' Anadmirable companion to Mr. Henley's "Lyra Heroica."' — Saturday Review. 
 
 ' Quite delightful. The choice made has been excellent, and the volume has been 
 most admirably printed by Messrs. Constable. A greater treat for those not well 
 acquainted with pre-Restoration prose could not be imagined.' — Athen<Fuin. 
 
 G. W. Steevens. MONOLOGUES OF THE DEAD. By 
 
 G. W. Steevens. Foolscap Svo. ^s. 6d. 
 
 A series of Soliloquies in which famous men of antiquity — Julius Caesar, Nero, 
 Alclbiades, etc., attempt to express themselves in the modes of thought and 
 language of to-day. 
 ' The effect Is sometimes splendid, sometimes bizarre, but always amazingly clever. 
 —Fall Mall Gazette. 
 
 J. Wells. OXFORD AND OXFORD LIFE. By Members of 
 the University. Edited by J. Wells, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of 
 Wadham College. Crown Svo. y. 6d. 
 
 This work contains an account of life at Oxford — Intellectual, social, and religious — 
 a careful estimate of necessary expenses, a review of recent changes, a statement 
 of the present position of the University, and chapters on Women's Education, 
 aids to study, and University Extension. 
 
 ' We congratulateMr. Wells on the production of a readable and Intelligent account 
 of Oxford as it is at the present time, written by persons who are possessed of a 
 close acquaintance with the system and life of the University.'— .(4//it^«<yww.
 
 Messrs. Methuen's List 21 
 
 W M. Dixon. A PRIMER OF TENNYSON. By W. M. 
 Dixon, M.A., Professor of English Literature at Mason College. 
 Crown %vo. 2s. 6d. 
 ' Much sound and well-expressed criticism and acute literary- judgments. The biblio- 
 
 . N^bS esnma."e'S?het«L.u„a.e's workha, y., been published HU *«ch 
 
 of Tennyson's life contains everything essential ; his bibliography is full and con- 
 cise : his literar>' criticism is most interesting.'— G/aj^^f Herald. 
 
 W. A. CJraigie. A PRIMER OF BURNS. By W. A. Craigie. 
 
 Crown Svo. is. 6d. 
 Tins book is planned on a method similar to the ' Primer of Tennyson." It has also 
 
 a glossary. , , , —. 
 
 ' A valuable addition to the literature of the poet. —Times. 
 ' An excellent short account.'— Pa/ 1 Mail Gazette. 
 ' An admirable introduction.'— G/^i^f. 
 
 L WhiWey. GREEK OLIGARCHIES: THEIR ORGANISA- 
 TION AND CHARACTER. By L. Whibley, M.A., Fellow 
 of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 
 •An exceedingly useful handbook : a careful and well-arranged study of an obscure 
 subject.'— Titnes. ^ r> u nr u r- tt. 
 
 ' Mr. Whibley is never tedious or pedantic. —Fa/l Matt Gazette. 
 
 W B Worsfold. SOUTH AFRICA : Its History and its Future. 
 
 By W. Basil Worsfold, M.A. JVtih a Map. Second Edit ton. 
 
 Crown Svo. 6s. 
 •An intensely interesting book.'— -Ca/Zy C/:r^«:V/<". ^ 
 
 ' A monumental work compressed into a very moderate compass, —n oria. 
 
 C H Pearson. ESSAYS AND CRITICAL REVIEWS. By 
 
 C H. Pearson, M.A., Author of 'National Life and Character. 
 
 Edited, with a Biographical Sketch, by H. A. Strong, M.A., 
 
 LL.D. With a Portrait. Demy Svo. \os. 6d. 
 •These fine essays illustrate the great breadth of his historicaland literary- sj-m- 
 
 pathies and the remarkable variety of his intellectual interests -^l^S^ "j^c^s- 
 ' Remarkable for careful handling, breadth of view, and thorough knowledge. -Scots- 
 
 j,tan ' Charming essays. 'Spectator. 
 
 L F Price. ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND PRACTICE. 
 
 ByL. F. Price, M.A., Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. Lrown 
 
 Thi^book Consists of a number of Studies in Economics and Industri.-vl and Social 
 
 ' Th^'bookTs well written, giving evidence of considerable litcn^ry .ability, and clear 
 mental grasp of the subject under consideration. -U cstern Momift,t: Anus. 
 
 C F Andrews. CHRISTIANITY AND THE LABOUR 
 OUES riON. By C. F. Andrews, B.A. Crowfi S-'o. 2s 6d 
 
 ' A bold and scholarly survey of the principle and motive which have shaped and 
 determined the conflicts of l^hovn-'—S/eaAer. 
 
 Ouida. VIEWS AND OPINIONS. By Ouida. Crown Svo. 
 
 Second Edition. 6s. 
 Ouida is outspoken, and the reader bf this book will not have a dull moment. The 
 book is full of variety, and sparkles with entertaining matter. —Speaker.
 
 22 Messrs. Methuen's List 
 
 J. S. Shedlock. THE PIANOFORTE SONATA: Its Origin 
 and Development. By J. S. Shedlock. Crown %vo. 55. 
 
 ' This work should be in the possession of every musician and amateur, for it not 
 only embodies a concise and lucid history ot the origin of one of the most im- 
 portant forms of musical composition, but, by reason of the painstaking research 
 and accuracy of the author's statements, it is a very valuable work for reference.' 
 
 — A tJiencEU7n. 
 
 E. M. Bowden. THE EXAMPLE OF BUDDHA: Being Quota- 
 tions from Buddhist Literature for each Day in the Year. Compiled 
 by E. M. Bowden. With Preface by Sir Edwin Arnold. Third 
 Edition. i6??io. 2s. 6d. 
 
 J. Beever. PRACTICAL FLY-FISHING, Founded on 
 Nature, by John Beever, late of the Thwaite House, Coniston. A 
 New Edition, with a Memoir of the Author by W. G. COLLINGWOOD, 
 M.A. Crown %vo. 35. dd. 
 A little book on Fly-Fishing by an old friend of Mr. Ruskin. 
 
 Science 
 
 Freudenreich. DAIRY BACTERIOLOGY. A Short Manual 
 for the Use of Students. By Dr. Ed. von Freudenreich. 
 Translated from the German by J. R. Ainsworth Davis, B.A., 
 F.C.P. CroivnZvo. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Chalmers MitcheU. OUTLINES OF BIOLOGY. By P. 
 Chalmers Mitchell, M.A., F.Z.S. Fully Illustrated. Crown 
 8w. 6s. 
 
 A text-book designed to cover the new Schedule issued by the Royal College of 
 ^hvsicians and Surgeons. 
 
 G.Massee. A MONOGRAPH OF THE MYXOGASTRES. By 
 
 George Massee. With 12 Coloured Plates. Royal Zvo. \%s. net. 
 ' A work much in advance of any book in the language treating of this group of 
 organisms. It is indispensable to every student of the Myxogastres. The 
 coloured plates deserve high praise for their accuracy and execution.'— A'a/wrif. 
 
 Philosophy 
 
 L. T. Hobhouse. THE THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE. By 
 L. T. Hobhouse, Fellow and Tutor of Corpus College, Oxford. 
 Demy 8vo. 21s. 
 
 ' The most important contribution to English philosophy since the publication of Mr. 
 Bradley's "Appearance and Reality." Full of brilliant criticism and of. positive 
 theories which are models of lucid statement.' — Glasgow Herald. 
 
 * An elaborate and often brilliantly written volume. "The treatment is one of great 
 freshness, and the illustrations are particularly numerous and apt.' — Times.
 
 Messrs. Methuen's List 23 
 
 W. H. Fairbrother. THE PHILOSOPHY OF T. H. GREEN. 
 By W. H. Fairbrother, M.A., Lecturer at Lincoln College, 
 Oxford. Crown Svo. 3^. 6d. 
 
 This volume is expository, not critical, and is intended for senior students at the 
 Universities and others, as a statement of Green's teaching, and an introduction to 
 the study of Idealist Philosophy. 
 In every way an admirable book._ As an introduction to the writings of perhaps the 
 most remarkable speculative thinker whom England has produced m the present 
 century, nothing could be better.' — Glasgow Herald. 
 
 F. W. BusselL THE SCHOOL OF PLATO : its Origin and 
 its Revival under the Roman Empire. By F. W. BussELL, ^LA., 
 Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. De?ny Svo. los. 6d. 
 
 ' A highly valuable contribution to the history of ancient thought.'— G/^u^f/ry Herald. 
 ' A clever and stimulating book, provocative of thought and deserving careful reading.' 
 — Manchester Guardian. 
 
 F. S. Granger. THE WORSHIP OF THE ROMANS. By 
 
 F. S. Granger, M.A., Litt.D., Professor of Philosophy at Univer- 
 sity College, Nottingham. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 
 The author delineates that group of beliefs which stood in close connection with the 
 Roman religion, and among the subjects treated are Dreams, Nature Worship, 
 Roman Magic, Divination, Holy Places, Victims, etc. 
 
 ' A scholarly analysis of the religious ceremonies, beliefs, and superstitions of ancient 
 Rome, conducted in the new instructive light of comparative anthropology.' — 
 Tzjfies. 
 
 Theology 
 
 E. C. S. Gibson. THE XXXIX. ARTICLES OF THE 
 CHURCH OF ENGLAND. Edited with an Introduction by E. 
 C. S. Gibson, D.D., Vicar of Leeds, late Principal of Wells 
 Theological College. In Two Volumes. Demy Sz^o. "js. dd. each. 
 Vol.1. Articles I. -VIII. 
 
 ' The tone maintained throughout is not that of the partial advocate, but the faithful 
 
 exponent.' — Scoistnan. 
 'There are ample proofs of clearness of expression, sobriety of judcrmont, and breadth 
 
 of view. . . . Thebook will be welcome to all students of the subject, and its sound, 
 
 definite, and loyal theology ought to be of great service.' — National Observer. 
 *So far from repelling the general reader, its orderly arrangement, lucid treatment, 
 
 and felicity of diction invite and encourage his attention.' — Yorkshire Post. 
 
 R. L. Ottley. THE DOCTRINE OF THE INCARNATION. 
 By R. L. Ottley, ]\LA., late fellow of Magdalen College, Oxon., 
 Principal of Pusey House. In Two Volumes. Demy Svo. \^s. 
 
 ' Learned and reverent : lucid and well arranged.'— /vt'c^'r^. 
 
 ' Accurate, well ordered, and judicious.' — National Obser^'cr. 
 
 'A clear and remarkably full account of the main currents of speculation. Scholarly 
 
 precision . . . genuine tolerance . . . intense interest in his subject— are Mr. 
 
 Ottley's merits.' — Guardian.
 
 24 ' Messrs. Methuen's List 
 
 F. B. Jevons. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY 
 OF RELIGION. By F. B. Jevons, M.A., Litt.D., Tutor at the 
 University of Durham. Demy Svo. los. 6d. 
 Mr. F. B. Jevons' ' Introduction to the History of Religion' treats of early religion, 
 from the point of view of Anthropology and Folk-lore ; and is the first attempt 
 that has been made in any language to weave together the results of recent 
 investigations into such topics as Sympathetic Magic, Taboo, Totemism. 
 Fetishism, etc., so as to present a systematic account of the sjrowth of primitive 
 religion and the development of early religious institutions. 
 'Displays mental power of no ordinary kind, and is the result of much and well- 
 directed study.' — Scotsman. 
 
 S. R. Driver. SERMONS ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED 
 WITH THE OLD TESTAMENT. By S. R. Driver, D.D., 
 Canon of Christ Church, Regius Professor of Hebrew in the Uni- 
 versity of Oxford. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 
 * A welcome companion to the author's famous ' Introduction.' No man can read these 
 
 discourses without feeling that Dr. Driver is fully alive to the deeper teaching of 
 the Old Testament.' — Guardian. 
 
 T. K. Cheyne. FOUNDERS OF OLD TESTAMENT CRITI- 
 CISM : Biographical, Descriptive, and Critical Studies. By T. K. 
 Cheyne, D.D., Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scrip- 
 ture at Oxford. Large crown Svo. Js. 6d. 
 This important book is a historical sketch of O. T. Criticism in the form of biographi- 
 cal studies from the days of Eichhorn to those of Driver and Robertson Smith. 
 It is the only book of its kind in English. 
 
 * A very learned and instructive work.' — Times. 
 
 C.H. Prior. CAMBRIDGE SERMONS. Edited by C.H. Prior, 
 M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Pembroke College. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 A volume of sermons preached before the University of Cambridge by various 
 
 preachers, including the Archbishop of Canterbury and Bishop Westcott. 
 'A representative collection. Bishop Westcott's is a noble sermon.' — Guardian. 
 
 H. C. Beeching. SERMONS TO SCHOOLBOYS. By H. C. 
 Beeching, M. A., Rector of Yattendon, Berks. With a Preface by 
 Canon Scott Holland. Crown Svo. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Seven sermons preached before the boys of Bradfield College. 
 
 E. B.Layard. RELIGION IN BOYHOOD. Notes on the 
 Religious Training of Boys. With a Preface by J. R. Illing- 
 WORTH. By E. B. Layard, M.A. iS^tio. \s. 
 
 W. Yorke Faussett. THE DE CATECHIZANDIS 
 RUDIBUS OF ST. AUGUSTINE. Edited, with Introduction, 
 Notes, etc., by W. Yorke Faussett, M.A., late Scholar of Balliol 
 Coll. Crown Svo. 3^. 6d. 
 An edition of a Treatise on the Essentials of Christian Doctrine, and the best 
 methods of impressing them on candidates for baptism. The editor bestows upon 
 this patristic work the same care which a treatise of Cicero might claim. There 
 is a general Introduction, a careful Analysis, a full Commentary, and other useful 
 matter. No better introduction to the study of the Latin Fathers, their style and 
 diction, could be found than this treatise, which also has no lack of modern mterest. 
 'Ably and judiciously edited on the same principle as the ordinary Greek and 
 Latin texts.' — Glasgmv Herald.
 
 Messrs. Metiiuen's List 25 
 
 2Detononal Book^* 
 
 With Full-page Illustrations. Fcap. %vo. Buckram. 3^. dd. 
 Padded morocco^ ^s. 
 THE IMITATION OF CHRIST. By Thomas a Kempis. 
 With an Introduction by Dean Farrar. Illustrated by C. M. 
 Gere, and printed in black and red. Second Edition. 
 'Amongst all the innumerable English editions of the " Imitation," there can liave 
 been few which were prettier than this one, printed ii. strong and handsome type 
 by Messrs. Constable, with all the Hory of red initials, and the comfort of buckram 
 binding.' — Glas^mo Ilcraia. 
 
 THE CHRISTIAN YEAR. By John Kekle. With an Intro- 
 duction and Notes by \V. Lock, M.A., Sub-Warden of Kcble College, 
 Ireland Professor at Oxford, Author of the * Life of John Keble.' 
 Illustrated by R. Anning Bell. 
 
 'The present edition is annotated with ail the care and insight to be expected from 
 Mr. Lock. The progress and circumstances of its composition are detailed in the 
 Introduction. There is an interesting Appendix on the Mss, of the "Christian 
 Year," and another giving the order in which the poems were ^v^itten. A "Short 
 Analysis of the Thought" is prefixed to each, and any difficulty in the text is ex* 
 plained in a note. — Guardian. 
 
 'The most acceptable edition of this ever-popular work.' — Globe. 
 
 Leaders of Religion 
 
 Edited by H. C. BEECIIING, M. A. With Portraits, cro-vn %vo. 
 
 A series of short biographies of the most prominent leaders 
 of religious life and thought of all ages and countries. 
 
 The following are ready — 
 CARDINAL NEWMAN. Bv R. H. Hutton 
 JOHN WESLEY. By J. H. Overton, M.A. 
 BISHOP WILBERFORCE. By G. W. Daniel, M.A. 
 CARDINAL MANNING. By A. W. Hutton, M.A. 
 CHARLES SIMEON. By H. C. G. Moule, M.A. 
 JOHN KEBLE. By Walter Lock, M.A. 
 THOMAS CHALMER.S. By Mrs. Oliph.\nt. 
 LANCELOT ANDREWES. V>y R. L. Ottlev, M.A. 
 AUGUSTINE OF CANTERBURY. By E. L. Cutts. D.D. 
 WILLIAM LAUD. By W. H. Hutton, M.A. 
 JOHN KNOX. By F. M'Cunn. 
 JOHN HOWE. By R. F. HORTON, D.D. 
 BISHOP KEN. By F. A. Cl.\rk:e, M.A. 
 GEORGE FOX, THE QUAKER. By T. HODCKIN, D.C.L. 
 Other volumes will lie announced in due course. 
 
 3/6
 
 26 Messrs. Methuen's List 
 
 Fiction 
 
 SIX SHILLING NOVELS 
 
 Marie Corelli's Novels 
 
 Crown Svo. 6s. each. 
 A ROMANCE OF TWO WORLDS. Fourteenth Edi lion. 
 VENDETTA. Twelfth Edition. 
 THELMA. Sixteenth Edition. 
 ARDATH. Tenth Edition. 
 THE SOUL OF LILITH. Ninth Edition. 
 WORMWOOD. Eighth Edition. 
 
 BARABBAS : A DREAM OF THE WORLD'S TRAGEDY. 
 Twenty-7iinth Edition. 
 
 * The tender reverence of the treatment and the imaginative beauty of the v/riiing 
 
 have reconciled us to the daring of the conception, and the conviction is forced on 
 us that even so exalted a subject cannot be made too familiar to us, provided it be 
 presented in the true spirit of Christian faith. The amplifications of the Scripture 
 narrative are often conceived with hi.2;h poetic insight, and this "Dream of the 
 World's Tragedy " is, despite some trifling incongruities, a lofty and not inade- 
 quate paraphrase of the supreme climax of the inspired narrative.' — Dublin 
 Revieiv. 
 
 THE SORROWS OF SATAN. Thirty-fourth Edition. 
 
 ' A very powerful piece of work. . . , The conception is magnificent, and is likely 
 to win an abiding place within the memory of man. . . . The author has immense 
 command of language, and a limitless audacity. . . . This interesting and re- 
 markable romance will live long after much of the ephemeral literature of the day 
 is forgotten. ... A literary phenomenon . . . novel, and even sublime.' — W. T. 
 Ste.^d in the Review of Reviews. 
 
 Anthony Hope's Novels 
 
 Crown 8vo. 6s. each. 
 THE GOD IN THE CAR. Seve?ith Edition. 
 
 ' A very remarkable book, deserving of critical analysis impossible within our limit ; 
 brilliant, but not superficial ; well considered, but not elaborated ; constructed 
 with the proverbial art that conceals, but yet allows itself to be enjoyed by readers 
 to whom fine literary method is a keen pleasure.'— Tlte World. 
 
 A CHANGE OF AIR. Fourth Editio?t. 
 
 'A graceful, vivacious comedy, true to human nature. The characters are traced 
 with a masterly hand.' — Titnes. 
 
 A MAN OF MARK. Fourth Editioji. 
 
 * Of all Mr. Hope's books, " A Man of Mark " is the one which best compares with 
 
 " The Prisoner of Zenda." ' — National Obserz'er.
 
 Messrs. Methuen's List 27 
 
 THE CHRONICLES OF COUNT ANTONIO. Third 
 Edition. 
 'It is a perfectly enchanting story of love and chivalry, and pure romance. The 
 outlawed Count is the most constant, desperate, and withal modest and tender of 
 lovers, a peerless gentleman, an intrepid fighter, a very faithful friend, and a most 
 magnanimous foe. ' — Guardian. 
 
 S. Baring Gould's Novels 
 
 Crown Svo. 6s. each. 
 *To say that a book is by the author of " Mehalah " is to imply that it contains a 
 story cast on strong lines, containing dramatic possibilities, vivid and sympathetic 
 descriptions of Nature, and a wealth of ingenious imagery.'— 5/^a>trr. 
 •That whatever Mr. Baring Gould writes is well worth reading, is a conclusion that 
 may be very generally accepted. His views of life are fresh and vigorous, his 
 language pointed and characteristic, the incidents of which he makes use are 
 striking and original, his characters are life-like, and though somewhat excep- 
 tional people, are drawn and coloured with artistic force. Add to this that his 
 descriptions of scenes and scenery are painted with the loving eyes and skilled 
 hands of a master of his art, that he is always fresh and never dull, and under 
 such conditions it is no wonder that readers have gained confidence both in his 
 power of amusing and satisfying them, and that year by year his popularity 
 widens.' — Coiirt Circular. 
 
 ARM I NELL : A Social Romance. Fourth Edition. 
 URITH : A Story of Dartmoor. Fifth Edition. 
 
 ' The author is at his best.' — Times. 
 
 IN THE ROAR OF THE SEA Fifth E ditto Ji. 
 
 'One of the best imagined and most enthralling stories the author has produced. 
 — Saturday Review. 
 
 MRS. CURGENVEN OF CURGENVEN. Fourth Edition. 
 
 ' The swing of the narrative is splendid.'— .Sw^^^.r Daily Neivs. 
 
 CHEAP JACK ZITA. Fourth Edition. 
 
 ' A powerful drama of human p:iF.sion.'— If 'est?;! iftsicr Gazette. 
 'A story worthy the author.' — National Obse>'jer. 
 
 THE QUEEN OF LOVE. Fourth Editioft. 
 
 ' You cannot put it down until you have finished h.'—runch. _ 
 
 ' Can be heartily recommended to all who care for cleanly, energetic, and interesting 
 fiction.'— .Sw^^r-r Daily News. 
 
 KITTY ALONE. Fourth Edition. . 
 
 ' A strong and original storv, teeming with graphic description, stirnng incident, 
 and, above all. with vivid and enthralling human interest. —Daily I ele^rafih. 
 
 NO^MI • A Romance of the Cave-Dwellers. Illustrated by 
 
 R. CaTON WOODVILI.E. Third Edition. 
 
 • " Not-mi •■ is as excellent a tale of fi-hting and adventure -^ one may wish to meet. 
 
 The narrative also runs clear and sharp as the Loire itself. -Pall Mall Gazette. 
 'Mr. Baring Gould's powerful story is full of the strong lights and shadows and 
 vivid colouring to which he has accustomed wi.'—Statuiara. 
 
 THE BROOM-SQUIRE. Illustrated by Frank Dadd. 
 
 Fourth Edition. , , . u 
 
 • A strain of tenderness is woven through the web of his tragic talc, and its atmosphere 
 
 is sweetened by the nobility and sweetness of the heroine s character. — Daily ^ eivs. 
 ' A story of exceptional interest that seems to us to be letter th.-in anything he has 
 written of late,'— .b/raXrr.
 
 28 Messrs. Methuen's List 
 
 THE PENNYCOMEQUICKS. New Edition. 
 DARTMOOR IDYLLS. 
 
 * A book to read, and keep and read again ; for the genuine fun and pathos of it will 
 not early lose their effect.' — Vanity Fair. 
 
 Gilbert Parker's Novels 
 
 Crown Svo. 6s. each. 
 PIERRE AND HIS PEOPLE. Third Editio7i. 
 
 * Stories happily conceived and finely executed. There is strength and genius tn Mr. 
 Parker's sX.y\^:— Daily Telegraph. 
 
 MRS. FALCHION. Fourth Editioj:, 
 
 ' A splendid study of character.' — AthcncBunt. 
 
 ' But little behind anything that has been done by any writer of our time.' — Pall 
 Mall Gazette. ' A very striking and admirable novel.'— St. James's Gazette. 
 
 THE TRANSLATION OF A SAVAGE. 
 
 'The plot is original and one difficult to work out ; but Mr. Parker has done it with 
 great skill and delicacy. The reader who is not interested in this original, fresh, 
 and well-told tale must be a dull person indeed.' — Daily Chronicle. 
 
 THE TRAIL OF THE SWORD. Fourth Edition. 
 
 'Everybody with a soul for romance will thoroughly enjoy "The Trail of the 
 Sword." ' — St. James's Gazette. 
 
 ' A rousing and dramatic tale. A book like this, in which swords flash, great sur- 
 prises are undertaken, and daring deeds done, in which men and women live and 
 love in the old straightforward passionate way, is a joy inexpressible to the re- 
 viewer.' — Daily Chronicle. 
 
 WHEN VALMOND CAME TO PONTIAC : The Story of 
 
 a Lost Napoleon. Fourth Edition. 
 
 ' Plere we find romance— real, breathing, living romance, but it runs flush with our 
 own times, level with our own feelings. The character of Valmond is drawn un- 
 erringly ; his career, brief as it is, is placed before us as convincingly as history 
 itself. _ The book must be read, we may say re-read, for any one thoroughly to 
 appreciate Mr. Parker's delicate touch and innate sympathy with humanity.'— 
 Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 'The one work of genius which 1895 has as yet produced.' — New Age. 
 
 AN ADVENTURER OF THE NORTH: The Last Adven- 
 tures of * Pretty Pierre.' Second Edition. 
 ' The present book is full of fine and moving stories of the great North, and it will 
 add to Mr. Parker's already high re^MX^tiox)..' —Glasgow Herald. 
 
 THE SEATS OF THE MIGHTY. Illustrated. Sixth Edition. 
 
 The best thing he has done ; one of the best things that any one has done lately.'— 
 
 St. Ja7nes's Gazette. 
 ' Mr. Parker seems to become stronger and easier with every serious novel that he 
 
 attempts. . . . In " The Seats of the Ivligbtj- " he shows the matured power which 
 
 his former novels have led us to expect, and has produced a really fine historical 
 
 novel. . . . Most sincerely is Mr. Parker to be congratulated on the finest 
 
 novel he has yet written.' — A thencpunt. 
 'Mr. Parker's latest book places him in the front rank of living novelists. "The 
 
 Seats of the Mighty" is a great book.'— Zf/ac-t and White. 
 ' One of the strongest stories of historical interest and adventure that we have read 
 
 for many a day. ... A notable and successful hooV.'— Speaker. 
 ' An admirable romance. The glory of a romance is its plot, and this plot is crowded 
 
 with fine sensations, which have no rest until the fall of the famous old city and 
 
 the final restitution o^Xovft.'- Pall Mall Gazette.
 
 Messrs. Methuen's List 29 
 
 Conan Doyle. ROUND THE RED LAMP. By A. Conan 
 
 Doyle, Author of 'The White Company,' 'The Adventures of 
 Sherlock Holmes,' etc. Fourth Edition. Cro-wn Svo. 6s. 
 
 * The book is, indeed, composed of leaves from life, and is far and away the best riew 
 
 that has besn vouchsafed us behind the scenes of the consulting-room. It is very 
 superior to "The Diaiy of a late Physician." '—Illustrated London News. 
 
 Stanley Weyman. UNDER THE RED ROBE. By Stanley 
 Weyman, Author of ' A Gentleman of France. ' With Twelve Illus- 
 trations by R. Caton Woodville. Eleventh Edition. Crown Zvo. 6j. 
 
 *A book of which we have read every word for the sheer pleasure of reading, and 
 which we put down with a p^ng that we cannot forget it all and start again.'— 
 Westminster Gazette. 
 
 'Everyone who reads books at all must read this thrilling romance, from the first 
 page of which to the last the breathless reader is haled along. An inspiration of 
 "manliness and courage."' — Daily Chronicle. 
 
 ' A delightful tale of chivalry and adventure, vivid and dramatic.'— C/<7<5^. 
 
 Lucas Malet. THE CARISSIMA. By Lucas Malet, 
 
 Author of 'The Wages of Sin,' etc. Third Edition. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 This is the first novel which Lucas Malet has written since her very powerful ' The 
 Wages of Sin.' 
 
 * A very able story. Only a very few of our novelists can write so well.'— Sketch. 
 
 Lucas Malet. THE WAGES OF SIN. By Luc.\s 
 
 Malet. Thirteenth Edition. Crown "bvo. 6s. 
 Mrs. Clifford. A FLASH OF SUMMER. By Mrs. W. K. 
 
 Clifford, Author of * Aunt Anne,' etc. Second Edition. Crown 
 
 %vo. 6s. 
 
 ' The story is a very sad and a very beautiful one, exquisitely told, and enriched with 
 many subtle touches of wise and tender insight. It willj undoubtedly, add to its 
 author's reputation — already high — in the ranks of novelists.' — Speaker. 
 
 Emily Lawless. HURRISH. By the Honble. Emily Law- 
 less, Author of ' Maelcho,' etc. Fifth Edition. Crown Sz'o. 6s. 
 A reissue of Miss Lawless' most popular novel, uniform with ' Maelcho.' 
 
 Emily Lawless. MAELCHO : a Sixteenth Century Romance. 
 By the Honble. Emily Lawless, Author of 'Grania,' ' IIurrish,'etc. 
 Second Edition. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 
 * ArcaWy great hook.'— Spectator. 
 
 •There is no keener pleasure in life than the recognition of genius. Good work is 
 commoner than it used to be, but the best is as rare as ever. All the more 
 gladly, therefore, do we welcome in " Maelcho" a piece of work of the first order, 
 which we do not hesitate to describe as one of the most remarkable literary 
 achievements of this generation. Miss Lawless is possessed of the very esserx:e 
 of historical genius.' — Manchester Guardian. 
 
 J. H. Findlater. THE GREEN GRAVES OF BALGOWRIE. 
 
 ByjANElI. Findlater. Th ird Edition. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 
 'A powerful and vivid story.'— Standard. 
 
 ' A beautiful story, sad and strange as truth itself.' — I'ani/y Fair. 
 
 * A work of remarkable interest and originality.' — National Obsen-er. 
 'A very charming and pathetic tale.' — Pall Mall Gaze'te. 
 
 'A singularly original, clever, and beautiful stor^'.' — Guardian. 
 
 ' " The Green Graves of Balgowrie" reveals to us a new Scotch writer of undoubted 
 
 faculty and reserve force.' — Spectator. 
 ' An exquisite idyll, delicate, affecting, and beautiful.' — Black and While.
 
 30 Messrs. Methuen's List 
 
 E. F. Benson, DODO : A DETAIL OF THE DAY. By E. F. 
 
 Benson. Sixteenth Edition. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 ' A delightfullj' witty sketch of society.' — Spectator. 
 ' A perpetual feast of epigram and paradox.' — Speaker. 
 
 E. F. Benson. THE RUBICON. By E. F. Benson, Author of 
 * Dodo. ' Fifth Edition. Crown Zvo. 6s. 
 ' An exceptional achievement ; a notable advance on his previous work.' — National 
 Observer. 
 
 M. M. Dowie. GALLIA. By Menie Muriel Dowie, Author 
 of ' A Girl in the Carpathians. ' Third Edition. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 ' The style is generally admirable, the dialogue not seldom brilliant, the situations 
 surprising in their freshness and originalitj'-, while the subsidiary as well as the 
 principal characters live and move, and the story itself is readable from title-page 
 to colophon.' — Saturday Review. 
 
 Mrs. Oliphant. SIR ROBERT'S FORTUNE. By Mrs. 
 
 Oliphant. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 ' Full of her own peculiar charm of style and simple, subtle character-painting comes 
 her new gift, the delightful story before us. The scene mostly lies in the moors, 
 and at the touch of the authoress a Scotch moor becomes a living thing, strong, 
 tender, beautiful, and changeful.' — Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 Mrs. Oliphant. THE TWO MARYS. By Mrs. Oliphant. 
 
 Second Edition. Crowft Svo. 6s. 
 W. E. Norris. MATTHEW AUSTIN. By W. E. NoRRiS, Author 
 of * Mademoiselle de Mersac, ' etc. Fotirth Edition. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 ' "Matthew Austin " may safely be pronounced one of the most intellectually satis- 
 factory and morally bracing novels of the current year.' — Daily Telegraph. 
 
 W. E. Norris. HIS GRACE. By W. E. Norris. Third 
 Edition. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 ' Mr. Norris has drawn a really fine character in th<^ Duke of Hurstbourne, at once 
 unconventional and very true to the conventionalities of life.' — Atkenaum. 
 
 W. E. Norris. THE DESPOTIC LADY AND OTHERS. 
 
 By W. E. Norris. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 ' A budget of good fiction of which no one will tire.' — Scotsman. 
 'An extremely entertaining volume — the sprightliest of holiday' companions.' — 
 
 Daily Telegraph 
 
 H. G. Wells. THE STOLEN BACILLUS, and other Stories. 
 By H. G. Wells, Author of 'The Time Machine.' Crown Svo. 65. 
 ' The ordinary reader of fiction may be glad to know that these stories are eminently 
 readable from one cover to the other, but they are more than that ; they are the 
 impressions of a very striking imagination, which, it would seem, has a great deal 
 within its reach.' — Saturday Review. 
 
 Arthur Morrison. TALES OF MEAN STREETS. By Arthur 
 
 Morrison. Fourth Edition. Crovm Svo, 6s. 
 
 ' Told with consummate art and extraordinary detail. He tells a plain, unvarnished 
 tale, and the very truth of it makes for beauty. In the true humanity of the book 
 lies its justification, the permanence of its interest, and its indubitable triumph.' — 
 Aihenaum. 
 
 ' A great book. The author's^ method is amazingly effective, and produces a thrilling 
 sense of reality. The writer lays upon us a master hand. The book is simply 
 appalling and irresistible in its interest. It is humorous also ; without humour 
 it would not make the mark it is certain to make.' — World.
 
 Messrs. Methuen's List 31 
 
 Arthur Morrison. A CHILD OF THE JAGO. By Arthur 
 Morrison, Author of 'Tales of Mean Streets.' Second Edition. 
 Crown Svo. 6s. 
 
 This, the first long story which Mr. Morrison has written, is like his remarkable 
 ' Tales of Mean Streets,' a realistic study of East End life. 
 
 ' The book is a masterpiece.' — /'a// il/a// Gazette. 
 
 ' Told with great vigour and powerful simplicity.' — Athenetum. 
 
 J. Maclaren Cobban. THE KING OF ANDAMAN : A 
 
 Saviour of Society, By J. Maclaren Cobban. Crown Zvo. ds. 
 
 'An unquestionably interesting book. It would not surprise us if it turns out to be 
 the most interesting novel of the season, for it contains one character, at least, 
 who has in him the root of immortality, and the book itself is ever exhaling the 
 sweet savour of the unexpected. . . , Plot is forgotten and incident fades, and 
 only the really human endures, and throughout this book there stands out in bold 
 and beautiful relief its high-souled and chivalric protagonist, James the Master 
 of Hutcheon, the King of Andaman h\msc\i.'— Pall Afall Gazette. 
 
 H. Morrah. A SERIOUS COMEDY. By Herbert Morrah. 
 
 Crown Svo. 6s. 
 'There are many delicjhtful places in this volume, which is well worthy of its title. 
 The theme has seldom been presented with more freshness or more force.' — 
 Scotsman. 
 
 L. B. Walford. SUCCESSORS TO THE TITLE. By Mrs. 
 
 Walford, Author of ' Mr. Smith, 'etc. Second Edition. CrownSz'P.6s. 
 ' The story is fresh and healthy from beginning to finish ; and our liking for the two 
 simple people who are the successors to the title mounts steadily, and ends almost 
 in respect. — Scotsman. 
 
 T. L. Paton. A HOME IN INVERESK. By T. L. Baton. 
 
 Crown 8z'0. 6s. 
 'A book which bears marks of considerable promise.' — Scotsviait. 
 ' A pleasant and well-written story.' — Daily Chronicle. 
 
 John Davidson. MISS ARMSTRONG'S AND OTHER CIR- 
 CUMSTANCES. By John Davidson. Crown %vo. 6s. 
 
 ' Throughout the volume there is a strong vein of originality, a strength in the 
 handling, and a knowledge of human nature that are worthj* of the highest praise.' 
 — Scotsman. 
 
 J. A. Barry. IN THE GREAT DEEP : Tales of the Sea. 
 
 By J. A. Barry. Author of * Steve Brown's Bunyip.' Crczvn %vo. 6s. 
 
 ' A collection of really admirable short stories of the sea, very simply told, and placed 
 before the reader in pithy and telling English.' — H'estminster Goi^ettc. 
 
 J. B. Burton. IN THE DAY OF ADVERSITY. By J. Bloun- 
 
 DELLE Burton, Author of ' The Ilispaniola Plate.' Second Edition. 
 
 Crown Svo. 6s. 
 ' Unusually interesting and full of highly dramatic situaUons-'—C uartfian. 
 ' A well-written story, drawn from that inexhaustible mine, the time of Louis XIV. 
 
 —Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 J. Bloundelle Burton. DENOUNCED. By J. Bloundelle 
 
 Burton, Author of ' In the Day of Adversity,' etc. Second Edition. 
 Crown %vo. 6s. 
 • The plot is an extremely original one, and the local colouring is laid on with a 
 delicacy of touch and an accuracy of detail which denote the true ^t\\%\..'— Broad 
 A rrevL'.
 
 32 Messrs. Methuen's List 
 
 E. Johnston. DR, CONGALTON'S LEGACY. By Henry 
 
 Johnston, Crozvn Svo, 6s. 
 
 ' The story is redolent of humour, pathos, and tenderness, while it is not without a 
 
 touch of tragedy-' — Scotsman. 
 ' A worthy and permanent contribution to Scottish creative literature.'— G^asg^ow 
 
 Herald. 
 
 Julian Corbett. A BUSINESS IN GREAT WATERS. By 
 Julian Corbett, Author of 'Forgotten Gold,' 'Kophetua xiii,' 
 etc. Crown Zvo. 6s. 
 ' Mr. Corbett writes with immense spirit, and the book is a thoroughly enjoyable 
 one in all respects. The salt of the ocean is in it, and the right heroic ring re- 
 sounds through its gallant adventures.' — S-beaker, 
 
 L. Cope Cornford. CAPTAIN JACOBUS ; A ROMANCE OF 
 
 THE ROAD. By L. Cope Cornford. Illustrated. CrownZvo. 6s. 
 
 ' An exceptionally good story of adventure and character,' — World. 
 
 C. PMlips WoUey. THE OUEENSBERRY CUP. A Tale 
 of Adventure. By Clive Phillips Wolley, Author of ' Snap,' 
 Editor of ' Big Game Shooting.' Illustrated. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
 * A book which will delight boys: a book which upholds the healthy schoolboy code 
 of morality." — Scotsvran. 
 
 Robert Barr. IN THE MIDST OF ALARMS. By Robert 
 
 Barr, Author of 'From Whose Bourne,' etc. Third Edition. 
 
 Crown Svo. 6s. 
 
 'A book which has abundantly satisfied us by its capital humour.' — Daily Chronicle. 
 
 'Mr. Barr has achieved a triumph whereof he has every reason to be proud.' — Pall 
 
 ■ Mall Gazette. 
 
 L. Daintrey. THE KING OF ALBERIA. A Romance of 
 the Balkans. By Laura Daintrey. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 
 ' Miss Daintrey seems to have an intimate acquaintance with the people and politics 
 of the Balkan countries in which the scene ot her lively and picturesque romance 
 is laid. On almost every page we find clever touches of local colour which dif- 
 ferentiate her book unmistakably from the ordinary novel.'— Glas^^ozu Herald. 
 
 M. A. Owen. THE DAUGHTER OF ALOUETTE. By 
 
 Mary A. Owen. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 
 A story of life among the American Indians. 
 'A fascinating story.' — Literary World. 
 
 Mrs. Pinsent. CHILDREN OF THIS WORLD, By Ellen 
 
 F. Pinsent, Author of 'Jenny's Case.' Crown %vo. 6s. 
 ' Mrs. Pinsent's new novel has plenty of vigour, variety, and good writing. There 
 are certainty of purpose, strength of touch, and clearness of vision.' — AthencBunt. 
 
 Clark Russell. MY DANISH SWEETHEART. By W. 
 Clark Russell, Author of 'The Wreck of the Grosvenor,' etc. 
 Illustrated. Fourth Edition. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 
 G. Manville Fenn. AN ELECTRIC SPARK. By G. Manville 
 Fenn, Author of ' The Vicar's Wife,' 'A Double Knot,' etc. Second 
 Edition. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 
 Ronald Ross. THE SPIRIT OF STORM. By Ronald 
 Ross, Author of ' The Child of Ocean. ' Crown Svo. 6s. 
 A romance of the Sea. 'Weird, powerful, and impressive.'— ^/«c/C- ami White,
 
 Messrs. Methuen's List ^^ 
 
 R. Pryce. TIME AND THE WOMAN. By Richard Pryce, 
 
 Author of ' jNIiss Maxwell's Affections,' 'The Quiet Mrs. Fleming,' 
 etc. Second Edition. Crown Svo. 6s. 
 
 Mrs. Watson. THIS MAN'S DOMINION. By the Author 
 of ' A High Little World.' Second Edition. Crczvn ^vo. 6s. 
 
 Marriott Watson. DIOGENES OF LONDON, and 
 Other Sketches. By H. B. Marriott Watson, Author 
 of ' The Web of the Spider.' Crown Svo. Buckrani. 6s. 
 
 M. Gilchrist. THE STONE DRAGON. By Murray Gil- 
 christ. Crown Svo. Buckram. 6s. 
 
 • The author's faults are atoned for by certain positive and admirable merits. The 
 romances have not their counterpart in modern literature, and to read them is a 
 unique experience.' — National Observer. 
 
 E. Dickinson. A VICAR'S WIFE. By Evelyn Dickinson. 
 
 Crown Svo. 6s. 
 E. M. Gray. ELSA. By E. M'Queen Gray. Cro-un Svo. 6s. 
 
 3|6 
 
 THREE-AND-SIXPENNY NOVELS 
 
 Crown Svo. 
 
 DERRICK VAUGHAN, NOVELIST. By Edna Lyall. 
 MARGERY OF QUETHER. By S. Baring Gould. 
 JACQUETTA. By S. Baring Gould. 
 SUBJECT TO VANITY. By Margaret Benson. 
 THE SIGN OF THE SPIDER. By Bertram Mitford. 
 
 A story of South Africa. 
 
 ' Far superior to any of the tales ot the Transvaal with which we arc acquainted. 
 Not for a moment is the interest allowed to slacken.'— //'(7r/^. 
 
 THE MOVING FINGER. By Mary Gaunt. 
 
 JACO TRELOAR. By J. H. Pearce. 
 
 THE DANCE OF THE HOURS. By 'Vera,' Author of 
 
 * Blue Roses.' 
 A WOMAN OF FORTY. By Esme Stuart. 
 A CUMBERER OF THE GROUND. By Constance 
 
 SiMITH. 
 
 THE SIN OF ANGELS. By Evelyn Dickinson. 
 
 ' The story is extremely well told ; it holds the attention and is decidedly clever.' — 
 Leeds Mercury. 
 
 AUT DIABOLUS AUT NIHIL. By X. L. 
 
 THE COMING OF CUCULAIN. A Romance of the Heroic 
 
 Age of Ireland. By Standish O'Grady. Illustrated. 
 THE GODS GIVE MY DONKEY WINGS. By Angus 
 
 Evan Abbott. 
 THE STAR GAZERS. By G. Manville Fenn.
 
 34 Messrs. Methuen's List 
 
 THE POISON OF ASPS. By R. Orton Prowse. 
 THE QUIET MRS. FLEMING. By R. Pryce, 
 DISENCHANTMENT. By F. Mabel Robinson. 
 THE SQUIRE OF WANDALES. By A. Shield. 
 
 ' Vastly interesting . . . Ca.^na.\\y ynhtcn.'— Black and White. 
 
 A REVEREND GENTLEMAN. By J. M. Cobban. 
 A DEPLORABLE AFFAIR. By W. E. NORRIS. 
 A CAVALIER'S LADYE. By Mrs. Dicker. 
 THE PRODIGALS. By Mrs. Oliphant. 
 
 HALF-CROWN NOVELS 
 
 A Series of Novels by popular Authors. 
 
 1. HOVENDEN, V.C. By F. Mabel Robinson. 
 
 2. ELPS CHILDREN. By G. Manville Fenn. 
 
 3. A DOUBLE KNOT. By G. Manville Fenn. 
 
 4. DISARMED. By M. Betham Edwards. 
 
 5. A MARRIAGE AT SEA. By W. Clark Russell. 
 
 6. IN TENT AND BUNGALOW. By the Author of Indian 
 
 Idylls.' 
 
 7. MY STEWARDSHIP. By E. M'Queen Gray. 
 
 8. JACK'S FATHER. By W. E. NORRIS. 
 
 9. JIM B. 
 
 10. THE PLAN OF CAMPAIGN. By F. Mabel Robinson. 
 
 11. MR. BUTLER'S WARD. By F. Mabel Robinson. 
 
 12. A LOST ILLUSION. By Leslie Keith. 
 
 2/6 
 
 Lynn Linton. THE TRUE HISTORY OF JOSHUA DAVID- 
 SON, Christian and Communist. By E. Lynn Linton. Eleventh 
 Edition. Post 8vo. is. 
 
 Books for Boys and Girls o/A 
 
 A Series of Books by well-known Authors^ well illustrated. ^\ 
 
 1. THE ICELANDER'S SWORD. By S. Baring Gould. 
 
 2. TWO LITTLE CHILDREN AND CHING. By Edith 
 
 E. CUTHELL. 
 
 3. TODDLEBEN'S HERO. By M. M. Blake. 
 
 4. ONLY A GUARD-ROOM DOG. By Edith E. Cuthell. 
 
 5. THE DOCTOR OF THE JULIET. By Harry Colling- 
 
 WOOD. 
 
 6. MASTER ROCKAFELLAR'S VOYAGE. By W. Clark 
 
 Russell. 
 
 7. SYD BELTON : Or, The Boy who would not go to Sea. 
 
 By G. Manville Fenn.
 
 3/6 
 
 Messrs. Methuen's List 35 
 
 The Peacock Library 
 
 A Series of Books for Girls by well-known Aut/iors, 
 handsomely boiifui in blue atul silver, and well illHstrattd. 
 
 1. A PINCH OF EXPERIENCE. By L. B. Walford. 
 
 2. THE RED GRANGE. By Mrs. Molesworth. 
 
 3. THE SECRET OF MADAME DE MONLUC By the 
 
 Author of * Mdle Mori.' 
 
 4. DUMPS. By Mrs. PARR, Author of 'Adam and Eve." 
 
 5. OUT OF THE FASHION. By L. T. Meade, 
 
 6. A GIRL OF THE PEOPLE. By L. T. Meade. 
 
 7. HEPSY GIPSY. By L. T. Meade. 2j. 6d. 
 
 8. THE HONOURABLE MISS. By L. T. Meade. 
 
 9. MY LAND OF BEULAH. By Mrs. Leith Adams. 
 
 University Extension Series 
 
 A series of books on historical, Hterary, and scientific subjects, suitable 
 for extension students and liome-reading circles. Each volume is com- 
 plete in itself, and the subjects are treated by competent writers in a 
 broad and philosophic spirit. 
 
 Edited by J. E. SVMES, M.A., 
 
 Principal of University College, Nottingham. 
 
 Crown %z'0. Price {with some exceptions) 2s. 6d. 
 
 The following volumes are ready : — 
 
 THE INDUSTRIAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND. By H. DE 
 B. GiBBiNS, D.Litt., M.A., late Scholar of Wadham College, Oxon., 
 Cobden Prizeman. Fourth Edition. With Maps and Plans, y. 
 'A compact and clear story of our indnstri.il development. A study of this concise 
 but luminous book cannot fail to give the reader a clear insight into the principal 
 phenomena of our industrial historj-. The editor and publishers are to be congrat- 
 ulated on this first volume of their venture, and we shall look wiih expectant 
 interest for the succeeding volumes of the series.'— 6'wii'rr-^;/^ Extcnsu-n Journal. 
 
 A HISTORY OF ENGLISH POLITICAL ECONOMY. By 
 L, L. Price, M.A., Fellow of Oiiel College, Oxon. Second Edition. 
 
 PROBLEMS OF POVERTY : An Inquiry into the Industrial 
 Conditions of the Poor. By J. A. Hobson, M.A. Third Edition. 
 
 VICTORIAN POETS. By A. Sharp. 
 
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. By J. E. Symes, M.A. 
 
 PSYCHOLOGY. By F. S. Granger, M.A., Lecturer in Philo- 
 sophy at University College, Nottingham.
 
 36 Messrs. Methuens List 
 
 THE EVOLUTION OF PLANT LIFE : Lower Forms. By 
 
 G. Massee, Kew Gardens. Wiih Illustrations. 
 AIR AND WATER. Professor V. B. Lewes, M.A. Illustrated. 
 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE AND HEALTH. By C. W. 
 
 KiMMlNS, M.A. Camb. Illustrated. 
 THE MECHANICS OF DAILY LIFE. By V. P. Sells, M.A. 
 
 Illustrated. 
 ENGLISH SOCIAL REFORMERS. H. de B. Gibbins, 
 
 D.Litt., M.A. 
 ENGLISH TRADE AND FINANCE IN THE SEVEN- 
 TEENTH CENTURY. By W. A. S. Hewins, B.A. 
 THE CHEMISTRY OF FIRE. The Elementary Principles of 
 
 Chemistry. By M. M. Pattison Muir, M.A. Illustrated. 
 A TEXT-BOOK OF AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. By M. C. 
 
 Potter, M.A., F.L.S. Illustrated. 3^. 6d. 
 THE VAULT OF HEAVEN. A Popular Introduction to 
 
 Astronomy. By R. A. Gregory. With numerous Illustrations. 
 METEOROLOGY. The Elements of Weather and Climate. 
 
 By H. N. Dickson, F.R.S.E., F.R. Met. Soc. Illustrated. 
 A MANUAL OF ELECTRICAL SCIENCE. By GEORGE 
 
 J. BuRCH, M.A. With 7iumerous Illustrations. 3^. 
 THE EARTH. An Introduction to Physiography. By Evan 
 
 Small, M.A. Illustrated. 
 INSECT LIFE. By F. W. Theobald, M.A. Illustrated. 
 ENGLISH POETRY FROM BLAKE TO BROWNING. By 
 
 W. M. Dixon, M.A. 
 ENGLISH LOCAL GOVERNMENT. By E. Jenks, M.A., 
 
 Professor of Law at University College, Liverpool. 
 THE GREEK VIEW OF LIFE. By G. L. DICKINSON, 
 
 Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. 
 * Sensible, accurate, and interesting . . . Written with great clearness and real in- 
 sight . . We think highly of this little volume.'— /'a// il/a/ZCas^/^^. 
 
 Social Questions of To-day 
 
 Edited by H. de B. GIBBINS, D.Litt., M.A. 
 Crow7i Zvo. 2s. 6d. 
 
 2J6 
 
 A series of volumes upon those topics of social, economic, 
 and industrial interest that are at the present moment fore- 
 most in the public mind. Each volume of the series is written by an 
 author who is an acknowledged authority upon the subject with which 
 he deals. 
 
 The following Volumes of the Series are ready : — 
 TRADE UNIONISM— NEW AND OLD. By G. Howell, Author of 
 ' The Conflicts of Capital and Labour.' Second Edition.
 
 Messrs. Methuen's List 37 
 
 THE CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENT TO-DAY. By G. J. Holyoake, 
 
 Author of ' The History of Co-Operation. ' Second Edition. 
 MUTUAL THRIFT. By Rev. J. Frome Wilkinson, M.A.. Author of 
 
 ' The Friendly Society Movement.' 
 PROBLEMS OF POVERTY : An Inquiry into the Industrial Conditions of 
 
 the Poor. By J. A. Hobson, M.A. Third Edition. 
 THE COMMERCE OF NATIONS. By C. F. Bastaple, M.A., Professor 
 
 of Economics at Trinity College, Dublin. 
 THE ALIEN INVASION. By W. H. Wilkins. B.A., Secretary to the 
 
 Society for Preventing the Immigration of Destitute Aliens. 
 THE RURAL EXODUS. By P. Anderson Graham. 
 LAND NATIONALIZATION. By Harold Cox, B.A. 
 A SHORTER WORKING DAY. By H. de B. Gibbins, D.Litt., M.A.. 
 
 and R. A. Hadfield, of the Hecia Works, Shefifield. 
 BACK TO THE LAND : An Inquiry into the Cure for Rural Depopulation. 
 
 By H. E. Moore, 
 
 TRUSTS, POOLS AND CORNERS: As affecting Commerce and Industry 
 
 By J. Stephen Jeans, M.R.I., F.S.S. 
 THE FACTORY SYSTEM. By R. Cooke Taylor. 
 THE STATE AND ITS CHILDREN. By Gertrude Tuckvvell. 
 WOMEN'S WORK. By Lady Dilke, Miss Bulley, and Miss Whitley. 
 MUNICIPALITIES AT WORK. The Municipal Policy of Six Great 
 
 Towns, and its Influence on their Social Welfare. By Frederick 
 
 Dolman. 
 SOCIALISM AND MODERN THOUGHT. By M. Kaufmann. 
 THE HOUSING OF THE WORKING CLASSES. By R. F. Bowmaker. 
 MODERN CIVILIZATION IN SOME OF ITS ECONOMIC ASPECTS. 
 
 By W. Cunningham, D.D., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. 
 THE PROBLEM OF THE UNEMPLOYED. By J. A. Hobson, B.A., 
 
 Author of ' The Problems of Poverty." Crown 8:v. as. 6d. 
 'A ver>' good book — the work of an evidently sincere man, and one who carefully 
 
 weighs his words.' — Spectator. 
 
 Classical Translations 
 
 Edited by H. F. FOX, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose 
 College, Oxford. 
 
 Messrs. Methuen are issuing a New Series of Translations from the 
 Greek and Latin Classics. They have enlisted the services of some 
 of the best Oxford and Cambridge Scholars, and it is their intention that 
 the Series shall be distinguished by literary excellence as well as by 
 scholarly accuracy. 
 
 .^SCHYLUS — Agamemnon, Choephoroe, Eumenides. Translated by Lewis 
 Campbell, LL D. , late Professor of Greek at St. Andrews, 51. 
 
 CICERO— De Oratore I. Translated by E. N. P. Moor. M.A., Assistant 
 Master at Clifton, 3.?. 6d.
 
 38 
 
 Messrs. Methukn's List 
 
 CICERO — Select Orations (Pro Milone, Pro Murena, Philippic ii., In 
 Catilinam). Translated by H. E. D. Blakiston, M.A., Fellow and 
 Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford. 55. 
 
 CICERO— De Natura Deorum. Translated by F. BROOKS, M.A., late 
 Scholar of Baliiol College, Oxford. 3^. Sd. 
 
 LUCIAN— Six Dialogues (Nigrinus, Icaro-Menippus, The Cock, The Ship, 
 The Parasite, The Lover of Falsehood). Translated by S. T. Irwin, 
 M.A,, Assistant Master at Clifton; late Scholar of Exeter College, 
 Oxford. 35. 6d, 
 
 SOPHOCLES— Electra and Ajax. Translated by E. D. A. Morshead, 
 M.A., late Scholar of New College, Oxford; Assistant Master at Win- 
 chester. 2.f, 6d. 
 
 TACITUS— Agricola and Germania. Translated by R. B. To\VNSHEND, 
 late Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge, aj. 6d. 
 
 Educational Books 
 
 CLASSICAL 
 TACITI AGRICOLI. With Introduction, Notes, Map, etc. By R. F. 
 
 Davis, M.A. , Assistant Master at Weymouth College. Crown 8vo. 2s. 
 TACITI GERMANIA. By the same Editor. Crown Svo. zs. 
 HERODOTUS: EASY SELECTIONS. With Vocabulary. By A. C. 
 
 LiDDELL, M.A., Assistant Master at Nottingham High School. Fcap. 
 
 Svo. IS. 6d. 
 SELECTIONS FROM THE ODYSSEY. By E. D. Stone, M. A., late 
 
 Assistant Master at Eton. Fca/>. Svo. is. 6d. 
 PLAUTUS : THE CAPTIVI. Adapted for Lower Forms by J. H. Fresse, 
 
 M.A., late Fellow of St. John's, Cambridge, is. 6d. 
 DEMOSTHENES AGAINST CONON AND CALLICLES. Edited with 
 
 Notes and Vocabulary, by F. Darwin Swift, M.A., formerly Scholar 
 
 of Queen's College, Oxford ; Assistant Master at Denstone College. 
 
 Fcafi. Svo. 2S. 
 
 GERMAN 
 
 A COMPANION GERMAN GRAMMAR. By H. de B. Gibbins, D.Litt., 
 M.A., Assistant Master at Nottingham High School. Crown Svo. is. 6d. 
 
 GERMAN PASSAGES FOR UNSEEN TRANSLATION. By E, 
 M 'Queen Gray. Crown Svo. zs. 6d. 
 
 SCIENCE 
 
 THE WORLD OF SCIENCE. Including Chemistry, Heat, Light, Sound, 
 
 Magnetism, Electricity, Botany, Zoology, Physiology, Astronomy, and 
 
 Geology. By R. Elliott Steel, M.A., F.C.S. 147 Illustrations. 
 
 Second Edition. Crown Svo. 2s. 6d. 
 
 • Mr, Steel's Manual is admirable in many ways. The book is well calculated to 
 
 attract and retain the attention of the young.' — Saturday Review. 
 ' If Mr. Steel is to be placed second to any for this quality of lucidity, it is only to 
 Huxley himself; and to be named in the same breath with this master of the 
 craft of teaching is to be accredited with the clearness of style and simplicity of 
 arrangement that belong to thorough mastery of a subject.' — Parents' Review. 
 ELEMENTARY LIGHT. By R. F^ Steel. With numerous Illustrations. 
 Cro7vn Svo. 4^. 6d.
 
 Messrs. Methuen's List 39 
 
 ENGLISH 
 
 ENGLISH RECORDS. A Companion to the History of England. By 
 
 H. E. Malden, M.A. Crown Zvo. y 6^- 
 A book which aims at concentrating information upon dates, genealogy, oflRcials, 
 
 constitutional documents, etc., which is usually found scattered in different 
 
 volumes. 
 THE ENGLISH CITIZEN: HIS RIGHTS AND DUTIES. By H. E. 
 
 Malden, M.A. is. 6d. 
 
 ' The book goes over the same ground as is traversed in the school books on this 
 subject written to satisfy the requirements of the Education Code. It would 
 serve admirably the purposes of a text-book, as it is well based in historical 
 facts, and keeps quite clear of party rmitters.'—ScofsfftaH. 
 
 METHUEN'S COMMERCIAL SERIES 
 
 Edited by H. de B. GIBBINS, D.Litt., M.A. 
 
 BRITISH COMMERCE AND COLONIES FROM ELIZABETH TO 
 
 VICTORIA. By H. de B. Gibbins, D.Litt., M.A., Author of 'The 
 
 Industrial History of England,' etc., etc., 2s. 
 COMMERCIAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. By H. de B. Gibbins. 
 
 D.Litt., M.A., IS. 6d. 
 THE ECONOMICS OF COMMERCE. By H. de B. Gibbins. D.Litt.. 
 
 M.A. IS. 6d. 
 A MANUAL OF FRENCH COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 By S. ?1 Bally, Modern Language Master at the Manchester Grammar 
 
 School. 2J. 
 GERMAN COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. By S. E. Ballv. 
 
 Assistant Master at the Manchester Grammar School. Crown ^vo. 2s. 6d. 
 'A thorough-going and practical work, that covers the ground of the usual examina- 
 tions in its subject.' — Scotsman. 
 A FRENCH COMMERCIAL READER. By S. E. Balt.y. zs. 
 COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY, with special reference to Trade Routes. 
 
 New Markets, and Manufacturing Districts. By L. W. Lyde, M.A., of 
 
 the Academy, Glasgow, zs. 
 A PRIMER OF BUSINESS. By S. Jackson, M.A. is. 6d. 
 COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC. By F. G. Taylor, M..^. tt. M. 
 
 WORKS BY A. M. M. STEDMAN, M.A. 
 
 INITIA LATINA: Easy Lessons on Elementar)' Accidence. Second Edition. 
 
 Fcat> Bvo. IS. 
 FIRST LATIN LESSONS. Four/k EdUion. Crown Zvo. is. 
 FIRST LATIN READER. With Notes adapted to the Shorter Latin 
 
 Primer ani Vocabulary. Third F.dit ion. CrownZvo. is. 6d. 
 EASY SELECTIONS FROM CAESAR. Part i. The Helvetian War. 
 
 iZmo. is. 
 EASY SELECTIONS FROM LIVY. Part i. The Kings of Rome. i8w^. 
 
 i^. 6d. 
 EASY LATIN PASSAGES FOR UNSEEN TRANSLATION. Fourth 
 
 Edition. Fcap. Zvo. is. 6d. 
 EXEMPLA LATINA. First Lessons in Latin Accidence. With Voc.ibular>'. 
 
 Crown Bvo. is.
 
 40 Messrs. Methuen's* List 
 
 easy latin exercises on the syntax of the shorter 
 
 AND REVISED LATIN PRIMER. With Vocabulary. Sixth. 
 
 Edition. Crow?i Svo. 2S. 6d. Issued with the consent of Dr. Kennedy. 
 THE LATIN COMPOUND SENTENCE : Rules and Exercises. Crown 
 
 Svo. js. 6d. With Vocabulary, zs. 
 NOTANDA QUAEDAM : Miscellaneous Latin Exercises on Common Rules 
 
 and Idioms. Second Edition. Fcap Svo. is. 6d. With Vocabulary. 25. 
 LATIN VOCABULARIES FOR REPETITION: Arranged according to 
 
 Subjects, Fo2irtk Editiofi. Fcap. Svo. is. 6d. 
 A VOCABULARY OF LATIN IDIOMS AND PHRASES. iSmo. is. 
 STEPS TO GREEK. iSmo. is. 
 EASY GREEK PASSAGES FOR UNSEEN TRANSLATION. Fcap Svo. 
 
 IS. 6d. 
 GREEK VOCABULARIES FOR REPETITION. Arranged according to 
 
 Subjects. Second Edition. Fcap Svo. is. 6d, 
 GREEK TESTAMENT SELECTIONS. For the use of Schools. T/iird 
 
 Edition. With Introduction, Notes, and Vocabulary. Fcap Svo. 2s. 6d. 
 STEPS TO FRENCH. iSmo. Sd. 
 FIRST FRENCH LESSONS. Crown Svo. is. 
 EASY FRENCH PASSAGES FOR UNSEEN TRANSLATION. Second 
 
 Edition. Fcap. Svo. is. 6d. 
 EASY FRENCH EXERCISES ON ELEMENTARY SYNTAX. With 
 
 Vocabulary. Crown Svo. 2s. 6d. 
 FRENCH VOCABULARIES FOR REPETITION : Arranged accordmg to 
 
 Subjects. Fourth Edition. Fcap. Svo. is. 
 
 SCHOOL EXAMINATION SERIES 
 
 Edited by A. M. M. STEDMAN, M.A. Crown Svo. 2s. 6d. 
 
 FRENCH EXAMINATION PAPERS IN MISCELLANEOUS GRAM- 
 
 MAR AND IDIOMS. By A. M. M. Stedman, M.A. Eighth Edition. 
 
 A Key, issued to Tutors and Private Students only, to be had on 
 
 application to the Publishers. Second Edition. Crown Svo. 6s. net. 
 
 LATIN EXAMINATION PAPERS IN MISCELLANEOUS GRAM- 
 MAR AND IDIOMS. By A. M. M, Stedman, M.A. Sixth Edition. 
 Key issued as above. 6s. ?iet. 
 
 GREEK EXAMINATION PAPERS IN MISCELLANEOUS GRAM- 
 MAR AND IDIOMS. By A. M. M. Stedman, M.A. Fourth Edition. 
 Key issued as above. 6^. net. 
 
 GERMAN EXAMINATION PAPERS IN MISCELLANEOUS GRAM- 
 MAR AND IDIOMS. By R. J. Morich, Manchester. Third Edition. 
 Key issued as above. 6s. net. 
 
 HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY EXAMINATION PAPERS. By C. H. 
 Spence, M. A., Clifton College. ^ ^ r. 
 
 SCIENCE EXAMINATION PAPERS. By R. E. Steel, M.A. , F.C.S., 
 Chief Natural Science Master, Bradford Grammar School. In tzvo vols. 
 Part I. Chemistry ; Part II. Physics. ,, ,, 
 
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE EXAMINATION PAPERS. By A. M. M. 
 Stedman, M.A. Z/izV^ -E^/V/on. Key issued as above, js. vet. 
 
 Printed by T. and A. Constable, Printers to Her Majesty 
 St the Edinburgh University Press
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
 Los Angeles 
 
 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. 
 
 'orm L9-2.5m-9,'47(A5618)444 
 
 UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA 
 
 AT 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 
 TTRRARY
 
 OUiV 
 
 aliaation^ 
 
 1898 
 
 ,.yC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 
 
 AA 001 007 271 8 "" 
 
 EE 
 3017 
 E26r 
 1898 
 
 DO X E Y