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1
THE
FRISIAN LANGUAGE
AND
LITERATURE:
A HISTORICAL STUDY.
BY
VV . T . H E W E T T .
ITHACA, N. V.
FINCH Of APGAR.
1879.
i
^
^^yW\'e^S^^
Copyright, 1879, by
Finch & Apgar.
H S^9S
THE FRISIAN
LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
A HISTORICAL STUDY.
I. EARLY EXTENT OF FRISIA.
1. CLASSICAL REFERENCES TO FRISIA.
Pliny, who wrote about 17 A. D., says: ''In the Rhine itself is
the most renowned island of the Batavi and the Cannenefates and
other islands of the Frisians, Chauci, Frisiavones, Sturii and Mar-
sacii, which are scattered between Helinium and Flevuin. These
are the names of the two mouths into which the Rhine divides. It
empties its waters to the north into the lakes there, and to the west
into the Maas." ' The two branches of the Rhine here mentioned
are the eastern and western. The eastern was formed from the
Sala or Yssel with which the waters of the Rhine were connected
by the canal of Drusus, and which flowed through Lake Flevo and
entered the sea between the islands of Terschelling and Ameland.
Its lower course bore later the name of the Fli.^ The western
^ In Rheno autem ipso nobilissima Batavorum insula et Cannenefatium
et aliae Frisiorum, Chaiicorum, Frisiavonum, Sturiorum, Marsaciorum
quae sternunter inter Helinium et Flevum : ita appellantur ostia in quae
effusus Rhenus a septentrione in lacus ab occidente in amnem Mosam se
spargit. — Plifiy, Nat. Hist., Lib. IV, c. 29.
2 See Alting, Notitia Germanice Inferioris Antiques , p. 82. He holds
that Helvloet and Briel (Bree-Hel) are remains of the name Helinium.
See also Siratingh, Aloude Staat des Vaderlands, vol I, p. 144. The
central branch of the Rhine called the Old Rhine enters the sea near
Leiden.
Ivi4:4927
branch was the VahaHs (Waal) Avhich entered the sea near the pres-
ent E^Vtierdarri, <' I '' /r : ;
It is notictiable tbat'tbe Chauci are here associated with the Fri-
<>iainji,.'^s<they',£ti;e' Jatdr their neighbors to the east on the coasts of '
*'"th6 North 'S6a. ' '^ "' ''' ' •'
TacituH, writing about 100 A. D., describes the Frisians as dwell-
ing along the Rhine and among great lakes as far as the ocean.
They were divided into Greater and Lesser Frisians, according to
the resources of the two nations." ^
The Lesser Frisians, or Frisiabones, are supposed to have resided
between the mouths of the Maas and the Fli, in South and North
Holland.^ An apparent branch of the Frisians bearing the name
Frisiabones resided in the district of Limburg on the borders of
Liege and South Brabant.^
Ptolemy, who wrote between 139 and 161 A. D., places the Fri-
sians north of the Bructeri extending along the coast as far as the
river Ems. To the east between the Ems and the Weser resided
the Lesser Chauci, then the G-reater Chauci between the Weser and
the Elbe, and next in order upon the neck of the Cimbrian peninsula
the Saxons."* The Chauci here appear as occupying w^hat was later
East Frisia. Tacitus, however, places the Greater Chauci between
the Ems and the Weser and the Lesser Chauci between the Weser
and the Elbe.^ The home of the Chauci seems to have been be-
tween the Ems and the Weser, and those residing to the east of the
Weser simply an outlying colony.
1 Angrivarios et Chamavos a tergo Dulgubinii et Chasuarii cludunt,
aliaeque gentes haud perinde memoratae a fronte Frisii excipiunt, maiori-
bus minoribiisque Frisiis vocabulum est ex modo virium Utraeque
nationes usque ad Oceanum Rheno praetexuntur ambiuntque immensos
insuper lacus et Romanis classibus navigates. — Germ., c. 34.
2 See Alting, I, 71, and Siratingh, II, p. 1 11.
3 Pliny, Lib. IV, c. 31.
^ Tt^v de TCapooueaviTiv xarexovdiv vitep fxev rot)? Bov-
6axTspov<i oi $pi6ioi JJ-expi tov ''Ajiitdiov Ttorajuov ; fj-eza 8e
Tovrovi Kavxoi oi juixpoi jJ-sxpi tov Ovtdovpyiov Ttorajuoi)
sira Kavxoi oi juet^ov^ M^XP^ Tov''AX/Jio<i Ttorajuov ; kq)e^rji 8e
\7ti TOV dvxsva zr/S Kiju/jpixj^^ x^P^^''^^^^^ 2d^ovE^. — Geog.,
Jb. II, c. XL
. 5 Sunt vero et in septentrione visae nobis Chaucorum qui maiores
minoresque appellantur. — Pliny, XVI, c. I. The description of their
country which follows applies strikingly to East Frisia and the district of
'^ij^terland.
Strabo, who wrote earlier at the beginning of the Christian era,
does not mention the Frisians. In a Hst of nations dweUing be-
tween the Rhine and the ocean he mentions the Sicambri, Chamavi,
Bructeri, Oimbri, Chauci, Chaulki, Ampsiani and many others/ In
another hst embracing these tribes he omits simihirly the Chauci.
The term ^Afiipiavoi is a geographical one, denoting the dweU-
ers along the Ems and may w^ell have included the Frisians. In a
Xotitia Gentium^ written at the beginning of the fourth century,
the Frisians are placed between the Chamavi, the inhabitants of
Hamaland and the Amsivarii. A similar list of the fourth century,"^
ascribed in some codices to Julius Caesar places the Frusiones or
Frisiones, as appears in another manuscript, next to the Cannifates
who occupied the western part of the Batavian island. The G-eog-
rapher of Ravenna, w^ho Avrote in the last half of ihe seventh cen-
tury, places Dorostate (Duurstede) on the north bank of the Rhine
in the country of the Frisians "in Frigonum or Frixonum patria."
The Frisians, according to him, extended still farther to the south
into the district of Testerbant adjoining Flanders.
At one time the Frisians advanced up the Rhine and established
themselves temporarily on the lands reserved for the military colo-
nists between Wesel and Diisseldorf, but were soon obliged to retire
across the Rhine.'* The first Roman to come in contact with the
Frisians was Drusus, who, after the construction of his famous canal,
connecting the Rhine and the Sala or Yssel, sailed into Lake Flevo,
and received the submission of the Frisian nation. The campaign
of Germanicus against the Saxons was through Frisia to the Ems.
Later the Romans suffered a terrible defeat in the Baduhenna forest
by the Frisians,^ but w^ere afterwards subdued under the vigorous
military administration of Corbulo, and became regular allies of
Rome. The Roman governor placed them under the government of
^ npo's Se T(^ GOHeavGj 2ovyajufjpoi re xai Xajiia/3ot uat
BpovKvepoi Kai Kii.if5poi Kavuoi re uai KaovXxoi nai ''Aixii)ia-
vol Koi aXkoi nXEioV^. — Geog., Lib. VII, c. I.
2 Amsivari, Angri, Chattuarii, Chamavi, Frisiavi, Amsivarii. — Milllen-
hoff, Germania Antiqua, p. 157.
3 Quae gentes sint in provinciis oceani orientis, Catti, Cauci, Cerisci,
Usippi, Quadi, Frusiones, Cannifates, Theutoni, Cimbri. — Ibid, p. 159.
^ AnnaL, XIII, 54, A. D. 59.
5 A final., IV, c. 72, 73.
— 6 —
a senate, magistrates and laws.^ Only scattered traces bear witness
to the relations of the Frisians to Rome during the next few cent-
uries. Frisian soldiers served in the Roman armies in England, and
in Italy where they were members of the Emperor's body guard. ^
The Relations of the Frisians to the other German Tribes.
The passages already quoted from classic authors show the inti-
mate relations which existed between the Chauci and the Frisians.
The former are associated with them, according to Tacitus, in the dis-
trict between the two arms of the Rhine. They are also placed as
their neighbors on the east, in the region between the Ems and the
Weser. The references in Beowulf to Frisia are of interest. The
sixteenth, seventeenth, thirty-fifth and fortieth cantos relate to a
w^ar between the Frisians and the Danes. The Traveler's Tale re-
lates^ how Fin, son of Folcw^alda, king of the Frisians, fights with
Hnaef a Hoeing, the leader of the Scildings in Finnesburh or Finnes-
ham and slays him. Hengest the Dane assumes command, a truce
is negotiated and hostages are given. Botli armies go together to
Friesland. In the winter the strangers are prevented by frightful
storms and ice from returning home. They think more of ven-
geance and the slaughter of their kindred than of seeking their na-
tive land. At last reinforced they attack again the Frisians and slay
their king, and carry captive Hildeburh, the daughter of Hoce to
Denmark. Hygilac, King of the Goths, falls* in a battle with the
Frisians. Beowulf escapes by swimming to his own country.
The name Chauci appears in Hugas (Hockings) wdio inhabit Fri-
sia, and perhaps in that of Hoce, the father of Hildeburh. That Fin
the Frisian king ruled over the Jutes as well as the Frisians is inad-
missible. No reference is made to the Jutes in this song.^ There
1 A7tnal, Xni, 54, A. D. 59.
'^ In 1836 there was found at Watemore, near Cirencester, a memorial
stone of a Frisian Knight, who was a member of the Thracian cohort
serving in England. Other Roman remains found at the same place be-
long to the time of Diocletian and Constantine, and this inscription is
probably to be assigned to the same period. For inscriptions found in
Italy, see in Gruter, Nos. 12 and 13; also Orelli. See also Dr. Lee-
marts^ in the Vreie Fries ^ vol. Ill, p. 5.
3 Boezvtdf, XVI, 1052-1129.
^ Lines 1202, 15 11, 2356-2359.
•^ The word Eotenas has been shown by Rieger to apply to both Fri-
sians and Danes. — Zeitschrift fiir deiUsthe Philologie, vol. Ill, p. 400.
is no distinction io the terms employed in the poem between North
and West Frisia, as is often claimed.^ Whenever the term is used it
seems to apply to the Frisia of the main land, not to the North
Frisia of the peninsula. Freswale may denote a frontier castle.
Grimm^ calls attention to the similar mode in which the Frisians,
Chauci and Bructeri are characterized. These three tribes of north-
eastern Germany are each divided into Lesser and Greater, a distinc-
tion which was employed among no other German tribes, even though
many were much larger and occupied a greater extent of country
than these. Grimm would also make the Bructeri closely related
to the Chauci and Frisians, though their political action was often
different.^ He claims that the mighty race of the Chauci, whom
Tacitus called the noblest of all the Germans, could not be extin-
guished, but that being so closely related to the Frisians they were
absorbed in them. The east and north Frisians are the descendants
of the Chauci, while the west Frisians have retained their name and
original seat*
Eichhorn holds conclusively that the Fi-isian name includes the
tribes of the Chauci. The Saxons must be regarded as later immi-
grants into East Frisia, the original abode of the Chauci.^
Grimm calls attention to the fact that in the remains of the epic po-
etry of northeastern Germany, the Frisians and Chauci constantly ap-
pear, while the Germans of the interior, of Saxony and of Swabia,
take no part.^ In Gudrun, w^hose composition is of a later date, but
^ By Heyne, Beowulf, p. 109. The terms used for Frisia are in line
1 127 Frysland, in 2916 Fresnaland, while in 2358, it is the plural Fres-
londum.
2 Geschichie der deuischen Spracke, 676.
3 See Tacitus, An^ials, I, 60.
^ Nach allem diesem stellen sich Friesen und Chauken nur als ver-
wandte Zweige desselben Volkschlags dar, als der siidwestliche und nord-
ostliche, und man begreift warum der Chaukische Name allmahlich
ganz erlosch. Ostfriesen und Nordfriesen scheinen mir Nachkomm-
linge der alten Chauken, Westfriesen die der eigentlichen Friesen. Wohn-
ten die alten Chauken an der Seekiiste, so miissen sie nothwendig die
Striche inne gehabt haben, auf welche nachher audi der friesische Name
erstreckt wurde. Vernichtet worden sein kann der machtige Chaukische
Stamm nicht; er wechselte bloss die Benennung. — Ges.der deitt. Spr.,
'"" Der Friesische Name begreift daher unzweifelhaft die Chaukischen
Volker da die Sachsen in deren Gegenden nur als Einwanderer betrachtet
werden konnen. — Eichhorn, Deut. Staats-und Rechtsgeschichte, vol. I, p.
50 and note to p. 51.
6 Ges. der deut, Spr., 471.
is based upon early legends and historical events associated with
which that region, we have the proper names as centres of incident.
Holzune lant (Holstein) 1374, 3. MateUne, 760, 3 (Matlinge (?)
in South Holland), Selant (Zeeland), Sewen (also Zeeland, possibly
named from the Suevi), 706, 1. Tenelant (Denmark), Westerwalt
(possibly Westerwold) 945. Dietmers 639, (Dietmarsch) a? well as
Frieslant.
Hetele, king of the Hegelinge, is the ruler of Friesland, of Dit-
marsch and Waleis (the district of the Waal).
*' Er was ze Friesen herre, wazzer iinde lant ;
Dietmers unde Waleis was in siner hant." — 2o8, i.
Alorunc is lord of the march of Waleis.
" Moruiic der snelle da her von Friesen reil." — 271.
Irolt, a vassal of Hetele, is the ruler of Ortland (Northland), and a
part of Fi-isia.
" Ouchkumt uns her Irolt, des mag ich wohl jehen,
Erbringet vil der Frisen, als ich mich kan versehen,
Und ouch der Holsaezen ; daz sint ziere helde." — 1374.
*' Irolt von Ortriche und Morunc von Friesenlant." — 480.
2. EXTENT OF FRISIA DURINa THE FRANKISH
PERIOD.
The greatest extent of the Frisian race and name seems to have
been attained in the sixth and seventh centuries. The great move-
ment of the G-erman tribes in the fifth and sixth centuries erased all
traces of Roman dominion. The tribal dominions and relations
were re-adjusted in the period following. The Frisians extended on
the east to the Weser and the Elbe, and occupied the islands along the
coast of Schleswig. Southward they occupied both banks of the
Rhine, Utrecht, G-elderland, Antwerp and Bruges. Between 600
and 785 A. D., the conflict between the Franks and the Frisians,
occurred. Dagobert captured Utrecht then occupied by the Fri-
sians, and called Wiltenburg, and founded in 630 A. D. the first
Christian church in the North Netherlands. The period which fol-
lowed is that of the labors of the first Anglo-Saxon missionaries
among the Frisians. Possibly earlier under the Roman dominion
missionaries began labor in the Netherlands, but no traces of such
efforts were left. Only as the power of the Frankish kings was
felt by the Frisians, could missionary operations among them be
safely carried on. Pepin of Heristal resolved in 689 or 692 to
bring the Frisians under the Frankish yoke. He defeated them
and made them pay tribute and receive Christian missionaries.
Kadbod, their king, the brave defender of the liberties of his country,
rose again but w^as defeated at Dorestadt, now Wijk-bij-Duurstede,
and Utrecht came again under Pepin's dominion. Radbod's daugh-
ter, Theudesnede, was given in marriage to G-rimoald, Pepin's son,
A. D. 697. The Frisians fought again a great battle under Radbod,
at Cologne, in 716, and defeated the East Franks, Charles Martel
re-assembled his army and won a victory over the Frisians at Stablo,
He followed them into Frisia, and defeated them in a battle on the
Middle Sea. The Frisians then sued for peace. Radbod, their king,
died in 719 A.D. Adegild II succeeded him, but the Franks no longer
permitted him the title of king, but that of hertog or duke. The
Frisians now followed the Franks in their wars. Later they joined
the league against the Franks, formed by the Saxon duke Wittekind
which embraced the Danes under their king Siegfried, and the Fri-
sians under their duke Radbod. This formidable alliance was
finally overcome by Charlemagne, and the independence of Frisia
forever lost, A. D. 785. Later the country was governed by Frank-
ish counts, deputies and stadholders.^ It becomes necessary to de-
fine the exact boundaries of Frisia as an aid in determining the ex-
tent of the Frisian language, as it is probable that the Lex Frisionum
received its present form substantially at this time.
Frisia was divided into three parts, and these divisions are men-
tioned in the divisions of the Empire of 846 and 870. In the di-
vision of the Empire in 839, Lothair received the duchy of Frisia
which at that time extended to the Maas.'' In the division of 870,
Lewis the G-erman received East and Central Frisia.^
^ Foeke SJoerds, Hist, yaarboeken, vol. I, p. 406, ff.
* " Ducatum Frisiae usque Mosam." — Hlud. I, Capit. Fertz, Mon. Ger.
vol. Ill, 373.
3 Et haec ist divisio quam sibi Hludowicus accepit. De Frisia duas
Western Frisia was situated between the river Sinkfal in the vi-
cinity of Bruges in Flanders and the FU ; Central Frisia between the
Fli and the Lauwers ; Eastern Frisia between the Lauwers and the
Weser. These divisions gave rise to certain special provisions in
the Frisian laws, and often marked the limits in which those laws
prevailed. The passages in the Lex Frisionum which specify these
districts are the following : " Haec lex inter Laubachi et Flehum
custoditur^ caeterum inter Flehum et Sincfalam pro huiusmodi causa
talis est consuetude." — Tit. XIV, 1. " Apud occidentales Fresiones
inter Flehi et Sincfalam.'*— Additio Sapientum, Tit. Ill, § XLIX.
" Inter Fli et Sincfalam." — Tit. I, § X. " Hoc inter Laubaci et Sinc-
falam."— Tit. IV, § VI. '' Inter Laubachi et Wiseram et cis Fh
similiter."— Tit. I, § III.
The position of Sincfal as a harbor or bay is implied in the men-
tion of the length of the voyage from Ripa in Denmark to Sincfal,
given by Adam of Bremen, as two days and two nights, while from
Sincfal to Prol, the opposite point on the Enghsh coast, it is speci-
fied as two days and one night. ^
The Tenth Kiire, composed about 1200 A. D., specifies as a grant
from Charlemagne that the Frisians should not be required to
serve as soldiers beyond the Weser on the east and the Fli on the
west, and no further to the south than would be possible for them
to return in an evening, in order to protect their country against the
sea and foreign enemies.^
partes de regno quod Lotharius habuit. Et haec ist divisio quam Carolus
de eodem regno sibi accepit, — de Frisia tertiam partem. — Annal.,
Bert, Pars III, Pertz, I, 489, 490.
^ De Ripa in Flandriam ad Cincfal velificari potest duobus diebus et
totidem noctibus. De Cincfal ad Prol in Angliam duobus diebus et una
nocte. Illud est ultimum caput Angliae versus austrum et est processus
illuc de Ripa angulosus inter austrum et occidentem. — Scholion, 96, AI.
Adami, Gesta Ham.^ Lib. IV. The author, a canon of Bremen, died
about 1 125.
2 Decima petitio est : Frisiones non oportere exercitum ducere, ulterius
quam ad Wiseram versus orientem, et versus occidentem usque Fli ; ver-
sus austrum non remotius quam possint in vespere redire ut eorum pos-
sint patriam tenuere contra fluctus et gentilem exercitum. Petivit autem
rex Karolus quod ipsi ultra proficisci vellent in orientem ysque Hiddes-
ekkere et in occidentem usque Singfallum. Et obtinuerunt id Frisiones
apud Karolum quod ipsi bannos suos non ultra servarent quam in orient-
um ad Wiseram et in occidentem usque P'li. — Friesische Rcchtsquellen
J^ichthofett, pp. 17, 18.
The Rustringer text has: "Thit is thiu tiande liodkest, thet wi Frisa
Sincfal is undoubtedly Zwin, a small river in Flanders, as Maer-
lant, the Flemish poet, who hved from about 1220 to 1300 A. D.,
says :
* ' Al Vrieslant verre ende na
Tusscen der Elven end Sincval
Rekent men te Sassenal." — I Partie Boek, I, c. ^;^.
*' Teenen tiden quam sulc geval
Den volke dat tusscen Sincval
Enter Wesere sat alleene.
Dat daer was ene scare gemene
Ende altemale Vriesen hieten,"
** Tusscen der Wesere en ten Zwene
Dat tien tiden hiet Sincval."
*' Tfole dat upter zee v^^oent al
Tusscen der Wesere ende Sincval
Dat vt^i Frieslant helen bi namen."
*' Alle die lieden ghemeelike
; Die lanes der zee saten hene
Tusscen der Wesere an ten Zwene
Dat tien tiden hiet Sincval
Wart ane Gode bekeert al
Bi Willeborde, bi Willade
Ende bi Bonifacis predicade."
—Ill Partie Boek, VIII, c. XCIII.
In the Rijm Cronijk of Melis Stoke, written between 1283-1287,
we find :
" Die Scelt was dat west end Sine,
Also sie valt in de zee
Oest streckende mine no mee
Van toter Lavecen ofter Elven." — Book I, 46.
ne thuron nene hiriferd fara thruch thes kininges bon, ni nen bodthihg
firor sitta, tha Wester to tha Fli and aster to there Wisura, suther to there
Wepilinge and north to heves ouere. Tha welde thi kinig Kerl tha liode
firor leda wester to Sinkfalon and aster to Hiddisekre. — Tenth Kesta.
It is possible that Charlemagne made this concession, but in fact the
Frisians formed a part of his army in his campaign across the Elbe, and to
the south against the Dalmatians, and in Spain where, at Roncesvalles, their
last king, the grandson of Radbod, was killed. — Enhardi^ Annal, FiUd.y
A. D. 789.
** Nu west in Vlandren so verre comen
Dat Brueghe stont in 's Coninx's hant, .
En bider zee aldat lant
Sender die Dam metten Swene
Also oestwaert 'tiant ghemene."— VI, 1146.
*' Van hemsse haer Jan bedochte,
Dat hi selve voer ter Sluse
En bernede daer vele huese
En quam weder sonder strijt.
Doe gheviel een an der tijt
Dat de Vresen voeren over
Tote Caetsant an den hoever,
En stichten roof en brant." — IV, 914.
*' En trecte opt uterst van Zeelant
Tote Vlissinghe on dat zant
En zom toten zouten lande. — IV, 907."
In a charter of 1241, given bj Thomas, count of Flanders and Hen-
negau, Muiden is made a city free from duties, also the district around
Damme and the harbor called in the vulgar language Sincfal. The
name indicates therefore a bay or harbor accessible to sea-going
ships. It extended between Sluis and Damme and north of Bruges.^
This stream called the Zw^in (Sine) entered the Hunte or Wester-
Scheldt Avhich here separates Flanders (Cadsand) and the island of
Walcheren. Zeeland then included a district south of the Scheldt,
and within the boundaries of Frisia. The see of Utrecht then em-
braced Bruges. The Hunte is not mentioned before 1161. It was
then an insignificant stream, and did not attain its present size until
the fifteenth century.^
Euoteberus, who slew his brother Baldwin, is said to have made
in the year 1071 an hostile expedition into Frisia which borders on
Flanders.^
^ Thomas Flandrie et Hannonie comes ; fecimus apiid Mudan frankam
villam et concessimus omnibus ilHs de Muda scabingium et legem ville
Brugensis . . absolvimus universos infra dictum scabinagium de Muda
manentes et omni teloneo infra villam de Dam et undique infra portum
qui vulgaritur appellatur Sincfal. Quoted by Stmtingk, I, 115. See also
Kluit. Hist. Crit. Com, Holland^ II, 1032, for a charter of 1275, con-
taining a similar grant.
3 Va7i den Bergh^ Handboek der Middel-Ned. Geog., p. 82.
^ Ruoteberus atque in Fresiam, quae confinio est Flandriae irrup-
tionem fecit. — Lamberti, AnnaL^ Fertz, VII, 181.
— 13 —
Walcheren appears first as an island in 837 A. D.^ Frisian insti-
tutions still exist in Zeeland, as the divisions of estates according to
the number of cattle. Frisian words and forms are still found in
Dutch Flanders. Ylaardingen near Rotterdam also bears the name
constantly of a Frisian city.^
The eastern limit of West Frisia is called in the Frisian laws Fh,
Flelii or Flehum, and is of frequent mention in the monastic chron-
icles and charters.^ The early Roman writers say that the eastern
branch of the Rhine emptied into the lake Flevo,* flowed through it
and sought the sea at Flevum, between the present islands of Vlie-
land and Terschelling. The islands of Texel and Vlieland were at
that time united. The river flowed past Stavoren and along the pres-
ent coast of Friesland. Hence the present provinces of North and
South Holland, as well as the islands of Zeeland, formed a part of
West Frisia. The name Holland, Holtland or forest-land, appears in
the early records of the see of Utrecht. The name was first applied
to the district around Dordrecht, along the Maas and the Meriwede.
The separation from Central Frisia, both by rivers and the lake of
Flevo, produced early differences in the laws of the two sections and
political separation. Holland became the property of the! Counts of
Holland. They bore the title Counts of Frisia until 1083, when
^ Nordmanni tributum exactantes in Walchram venerunt. — Annal.^
Field. Pertz, I, 361. Ea tempestate Nordmanni irruptione solita Frisiam
irruentes in insula quae Walcria dicitur imperatos aggressi . . . et ad
Dorestadum eadem Frisia pervenerunt. — Annal., Bei't, A. D. '^yj. Com-
pare. Igiturimperator disposita Frisiaemaritimaeque custodia; that is, Zee-
land and Frisia ; similarly Campania et maritima is used in classical Latin
where but one district is meant. — Amial. Bert.^ Pertz^ I, 430, A.D. 837.
2 Vlaardingen sic enim haec regio Frisionum vocatur. — Alpert De
Divers, Temp. Pertz, VI, 719, A. D. 1018. Deinde exercitum navalem
per Renum duxit in Fresiam contra Gotefridum eius que adiutorem Dio-
dericum, ibique duas urbes munitissimas cepit, Rinesburg et Flaerdin-
gen. — Lamb. Anna!., A. D. 1047, Pertz, VII, 154.
3 Apud occiden tales Frisiones inter Flehi et Sincfalam. — Lex Fris.
Ad., Ill, 58, XLIX. " Ecclesiam in occidentali Fresia in Villa Meden-
h\^c.''—Pertz, II, 389, A. D. 1 118. Fresones occidentales qui habitant
trans vadum Occenvorth in agros oppiduli Alcmare conscenderunt. —
Pertz, XVI, A. D. 1166.
* Later called Aelmere. *' Trans stagnum quod in lingua eorum dici-
tur Aelmere." — Viia S. Bonifat, Pertz, vol. II, 34. The present name
Zuider Zee does noes not appear until the thirteenth century.
— 14 —
Dirk y styled himself " Theodore, by the grace of God Count of
Holland."^
The city of Egmont was long the boundary between the country
of Holland and Frisia. The Fli as a division line was early recog-
nized. Wittekind is said to have destroyed the churches and ex-
pelled the priests, and forced the people as far as the Fli, to return
to paganism." The Western Frisians do not seem to have joined in
the league against Charlemagne, composed of East Frisians, Danes
and Saxons.
The western boundary of Central Frisia was the Laubachi or
Lauwers, at present a small stream flowing north into the Lauwers-
Zee, and forming the boundary between the provinces of Friesland
and Groningen. It seems early to have been a division line and
the Frisians who resided beyond it adhered ' longer to their old
paganism. Charlemagne constituted Liudeger a teacher in the five
districts which lay to the east of the Lauwers, (Labeke).^ Similarly
Gregory, the successor of Boniface as bishop of Utrecht, preached
to the east of the Lauwers.* There are also in charters constant
references to the Lauwers as forming a boundary line between Cen-
tral and East Frisia, as "all the lands from Stavoren as far as the
1 Quot autem in Hollandia vel Frisia. — AnnaL, Erphard^ A. D. 124-9.
Pertz, XVI, 37. Wilhelmus Romanorum rex occiditur a Fresonibus
Medemblik prope Hollandiam morantibus. — An?iaL^ Stad. A. D. 1276.
Comitatus Hollandensis et Fresonicus et unum pertinent comitem et
utriusque populi confinium et quasi divisio est villa Ekmundensis. — Pertz^
XVI, 466. Fresones extremi versus occidentem qui dicuntur Westlingi
(West Flingi). — Mat. AnnaL, II, 157, quoted by Richthofen XV.
*' Theodericus dei gratia Hollandensis comes." — Kluit. II, 138, quoted
by Van den Bergh, p. 219.
' Radix sceleris Widukint evertit Fresones a via Dei combussitque ec-
clesias et expuUt Dei famulos et usque ad Fleo fluvium fecit Fresones
fidem relinquere et immolare idolis juxta morem erronis pristini. — Vita
S. Liud,, A. D. 782.
3 Gloriosus princeps Karolus constituit eum (Liudgerum) doctorem in
gente Fresonum ab orientali parti fluminis Labeki super pagos quinque
Hugmerchi, Hunusga, Fivilga, Emsiga, Federitga. — Pertz, IV, 410, A. D.
785.
* Doctrina sua beatus Gregorius Traiectum, antiquam civitatem, et
vicum famosum Dorstad cum ilia inradiavit parte Fresoniae, quae tunc
temporus Christianitatis censebatur ; idem usque in ripam occident-
alem fluminis quod dicitur Lagbeki, ubi confinium erat Christianorum
Fresonum ac paganorum cunctis diebus Pippini regis. — Vita S. Greg.
Aeta SS. Benedic. Saec. Ill, P. II, p. 295.
— 15 —
Borne and the rest of Frisia from the Borne to the Lauwers," ^ the
''lands of Frisia situated between the Ems and the Lauwers." "^
The eastern boundary of Frisia at the promulgation of the Lex Fri-
sionum was the VYeser river. Certain portions of the laws apply to
the country between the Lauwers and the Weser : ^ " all the lands,
islands and districts in all Frisia between the Weser and Meeres-
diep," "all Frisia from the Zuider-Zee to the Weser." ^ We thus
find Frisia at the time in which the Lex Frisionum was in force
divided into three parts; West Frisia, which included a strip of
country in Flanders along the southern shore of West Scheldt, Zee-
land ^ and Holland? Central Frisia between the Fli, the eastern
shore of the Zuider-Zee and the Lauwers, separating the provinces
of Friesland and G-roningen. This has been the permanent seat of
the Frisians where the Lex Frisionum originated, and where the
language is still retained in use. That these divisions of Frisia
had a certain centre of union and a government by a law with in
the main similar provisions is shown by the quotations already
given.
3. THE EXTENT OF FRISIA TO THE NORTH.
The extent of the Frisian dominion to the north, and the period
in which the North Frisian islands were occupied, cannot be de-
termined with accuracy. Ptolemy speaks of a tribe of ^ipat6oi as
dwelling in Skandia, or southern Sweden. There is a district also
in West Grothland having the name Frisjo. This may indicate an
^ Omnes a Stavria usque ad Bornedam reliqua vero pars Fresiae a
Borneda usque ad Lavicam, A. D. 1230. Quoted by Richthofen, Lex
Frisio7ium^ p. XHL
2 Allen sinen landen, luden, onderzaten ende hulperen gezeten tusschen
der Lauwers ende der Wezere. — Cha^'terboek von F^'iesland, I, 389.
3 Inter Laubachi et Wiseram et cis Fli, see in the Lex Frisionum. —
TiL I, 3, 4, 5, 10; IX, 13; XI; XXII.
* Alle de lande, eylande, en omlande omtrent 't gemeine Frieslant ge-
legen tuscben de Weser en 't Meersdiep. — Brenneisen, I, P. 2, p. 2t2n
quoted by Richthofen, XIV. Des gemenen Frieslandes von der Zuder-
zee to der Wezere. — Rengers 14'erken, I, 125.
^ This district from the Zvvin to the Maas received in the eleventh
century the name Se-land or Zeeland. The territory between the Maas
and Alkmaar received the name Holtland (Holland). A small district
to the north of Alkmaar still bears the name West Friesland. The Ger-
man application of the term to the present province of Friesland is
wrong historically, and contrary to national use.
— i6 —
early settlement in Scandinavia.^ There is in Beowulf, in the battle
of Finnesburg, a possible reference to an outlying border castle.
In the Egilsaga of 1220 A. D. there is a refenence to the land lying
between Frisia and Denmark.'* Helgoland was in the eighth century
Frisian and apparently the centre of the w^orship of Fosite,^ and
possibly the residence of the king Radbod."* The Strand Frisians
are mentioned as early as the thirteenth century under that name.®
The inhabitants of Ditmarsch between the Elbe and the Eider
were closely and early connected with the Frisians, probably both
by language as well as blood. The Frisians often appear associated
with them. We read that in the year 1226, maijy Frisians entered
Ditmarsch to aid in the defense of the country against the Danes.®
Eichhorn holds that the Strand Frisians who resided on the west
coast of Schleswig, and on the former island of Nordstrand took pos-
session of that district after the third century."^ Falck declares for
the time of Charlemagne or somewhat earlier.^ The occupation of
this district, north of the Elbe and bordering on the Danes by a
mixed population of Saxons and Franks, is manifest as early as the
year 882 and shown by a letter from the Emperor Lothair to the
pope, in which he says that on the borders of the empire there is a
^ Corresponding to Dahlmann's view of the early residence of Frisians -
in the north. — Geschichte von Ddnemark, I, 1 6.
2 })eir koma til landamaeris ])ar er moetiz Danmork ok Frisland, ok
lagu ]?a vit land. — Quoted by Grmun.^ Ges. der deut. Spr., p. 466.
3 An effort has been made to connect the word Frisian with the Norse
Fro and Freir, and the name of the Frisian goddess Fosite, Norse, Forseti.
— Zur Stammes-tind Sagengeschichte der Friesen und Chauken, Volckinar,
4 Unde accepit nomen ut Heiligland dicatur. — Vita S. Willebrord,
Fositesland appellari discimus quae sita est in confinio Danorum et
Fresonum ; Sunt et aliae insulae contra Fresiam et Daniam sed nulla
eorum tam memorabilis. — M. Adami Gesta, Ham. Book, I, 279.
s Rex Danorum Abel Strantfrisones ab insolentia eorum volens com-
pescere, inopinata morte eiis est occisus. — Pertz, XIV, 373.
6 Multi Frisones corruerunt in Thidemaerskia et tamen Thidemaerskia
Danis subjugata est. — AnnaL, Fye^ises, Pertz, XVI, 407.
7 Ich bin geneigt anzunehmen dass die Nord oder Strand Frisones
des Herzogthums Schleswig seit dem dritten Jahrhundert eingewandert
sind. — Deut. Staats-und Rechtsgeschichte, vol. I, p. 50.
^ Handbtich des Schleswig- Hoist. Privatreckts, I, 80.
race of Saxons and Frisians which had formerly received the Cliris-
tian faith/
Frisia probably extended to the south as far as the branch of the
Ehine called the Waal. Utrecht^ (Utra-jectum) which bore the
name Wiltenburg was a Frisian city. It was captured l)y Dagobert,
who founded here the first Christian chapel in the North Nether-
lands. The districts of Drenthe, Over-Yssel, and Utrecht were
largely Frisian, though later occupied by a mixed population of
Salian Franks. It is said that the Frisians, who are called Destar-
benzon,^ either because they occupied the territory of the latter or
because they were closely related, won a great victory over the
Normans in the year 885. The country of Teisterbaut or Tester-
bant, which lay between the Rhine and the Old Maas, and the
countries of Betuwe and Hattuarias,. (X^cupying a part of the Bata-
vian island bore this name at the division of the empire in 870.*
Deventer was originally Frisian, the name itself being Frisian.^
Frisian colonies were also scattered along the Rhine far to the
south. Birthen between Xanten and Rheinberg, near Weser, was
Frisian.^ Mainz' had a large proportion of Frisian citizens, and in
^ Est eniam gens in partibus nostri regni Saxonum scilicet et Frisonum
commixta in confinibus Nordmannorum et Obodritorum sita quae evan-
gelicam doctrinam iam dudum audierat et acceperat sed propter vicinita-
tem paganorum ex parte in firma religione constat et ex parte iam pene
defecta. — Translatio S. Alex, A. D. 863, Pertz, II, 677.
A septentrione vero Nordmannos gentes ferocissimas, Ab ortu autem
solis Obodritos et ab occasu Frisos a quibus sine intermissione vel foedere
vel concertatione necessario finium suorum spacia tuebantur. — Jbid^, II,
675.
2 Et apud Traiectum quod Fresiam respicit. — Vita Poppon, A. D.
1050, Pe?iz, XIII, 305. Anno dominicae incarnationis 1039, imperator
Chuonradus ipso anno diem sanctam pentecostes apud Traiectum civitatem
Fresiae celabravit. — Vila ChiLonrad, Imp. Pej'tz, XIII, 274.
^ Interea Frisones qui vocantur Destarbenzon. — Aniial. Fuld, A. D.
885, Pertz, I, 402.
* Bant here denotes district, and the name of the people is a geograph-
ical one. The form Twente, in early documents Tuvanti, is the classical
Tuibantes : in like manner also Drenlhe must have had the form Thrianti
which recalls the Tribantes of Tacitus. See Grimm, Gcs. der dent. Spr.,
412, also Sb-atingh, Part II, 130.
Nordmanni portum qui Frisica lingua Taventeri nominatur, succend*
/unt. — AnnaL, Field. Pertz, V, 397.
^ Nordmanni Biorzuna ubi pars maxima Frisionum habitabat incendia
concremarunt. — Annal., Ftild. A. D. 937.
7 Optima pars Mogontiae civitatis ubi Frisones habitant conflagravit
incendio. — Atinal., Fitld. A. D. 886.
.a description of the country around Worms by the bishop Tliendola-
chus A. D. 873, we find a Frisian Speier mentioned.^ On the river
Silz in this vicinity lies Friesenheim, w^hich may have been a Fri-
sian colony. We cannot suppose that the Lex Frisionum ever pre-
I'ailed to the south of the Rhine. The Salian \slw was early intro-
duced along the YsseL Bequests were made, not according to
Frisian law, but according to Ripuarian and Salian law.^ W^ijk-bij-
Duurstede is frequently mentioned as Frisian.' Meppel was Saxon^
as early as the eighth century.'*
It has been attempted to determine the limits of Frisian territory
by the appearance of the termination um in proper names of places.
This has been held to be a characteristic of Frisian occupation
everywhere. This um is in many cases a relic of the older herriy
Frankish Aeim, Saxon em, English ham as in Durham. In a regis-
ter of the Abbey of Werden of the year 983, wa find Falconhem
(Yalkum); Sahsinghem (Saaksum), Werfhem (Warfum), Midlist-
hem (Middelstum). The termination heim or hem appears but a
few times in names of places in the Netherlands. In Helgoland
alone in 800 A. D., there were forty places having the termination
um. In 1200 A. D.^ the names of eighty-two places in North
Frisia ended in um, while in West Frisia there were seventy-two
places having that termination: in East Frisia twenty -four, in
Nordstrand nineteen, in Eiderstedt four. Over seventy-six places in
the present province of Frisia end in um. The termination um ap-
pears in the names of but few places outside of the provinces of
Friesland, Groningen and the west coast of Schleswig-Holstein.
This termination predominates in names of places on the islands of
' De loco qui dicitur Frisonen-Spira usque ad Rhenum ipsi Frisones
restauranda muralia procurent. Rudolsheim, Gunsheim, Turkheim,
Alsheim, Mettenheim a super dicta Spira usque ad locum qui Rheni-
Spira vocatur provideant. — Amia/., Worm, A. D. 873. These places lie
north of Worms, between Worms and Oppenheim.
2 In a grant given in 855, we find, •* Ego Folkerus, quasdam proprie-v
tatis meae res in page Hamuland in comitatu Wigmanni, nee non in
Batuwe, coram testibus secundum legem Ripuariam et Salicam, nee non
secundum e7i>a Fresonum tradidi." — Lecomblet, Rheinisches Urkundenbuch^
I, 30. Richthofen claims that the specification of " not according to the
law of the Frisians," is an interpolation from another diploma.
3 Inde egressi per Dorstatum et vicinia Fresonum transeuntes. — Vita
S. Anskarii, c. 8.
^ Oppidum est in Saxonia notum plurimis Meppea nominatum. — Vita
S. Liud., Lib. II, 25. Acta Benedict Saec, IV.
— 19 —
Fohr and on the southern half of the island of Sylt To the east
the names of places are Danish and Low Gremiaii, with few Frisian
forms. The termination hull^ Dan. hoi and holle. possibly hilttel in
Wolfenbiittel, meaning a cottage, which does not appear on old
charts of West and East Frisia, is found in the earliest records of
]N'orth Frisia. On the west coast of Schleswig-Holstein and on the
]!^orth Frisian islands, more than a hundred names of places have
this ending^.
II. LITERATURE,
That the Frisians had early a distinct form of speech is evident
from the early mention of their language, even before we possess
literary remains. We find the Friska lingua mentioned in the an-
nals of Fulda of 882 A. D., also in the life of St Boniface, Fresonum
lingual This language always bears the name Frisian, and does not
seem to have been included under the general term deuiscJu The
likeness of the Frisian to the Anglo-Saxon admitted of a certain
degree of intercourse, for the early Anglo-Saxon missionaries en-
tered at once upon active labor on arriving in Frisia.^
Boniface is said to have spoken to his companions at the time of
the Frisian attack upon him in the speech of his own land, patria
voce, Anglo-Saxon. It is thus evident that work among the Fri-
sians w^as based upon the acquisition of their language. It is as-
serted that the Frisians promised to receive the gospel, provided
Charlemagne would send to them some one who could speak their
own language, and Liudger, who was of Frisian birth, was sent
to them.^ A general similarity between tlie languages of Ger-
1 Vita S. Bonifat, Lib. II, c. 25.
2 Wilfred labored a few months in 678 with great success. — Vita S.
Wilfred in Acta SS. Bened., c. 25. Wigbert labored two years unsiic
cessfuUy, from 690-692, owing to the opposition of their chief Radbod.
He was followed by Willebrord, bishop of Utrecht, A. D. 693 ; Adel-
bert, the patron saint of Nortli Holland who founded the church in Eg-
mont; Wulfram, bishop of Sens, 690; Boniface, 719-755, who was slain
at Dockum by the Frisians.
3 Si eis ahquis deretur cujus loquelam intelHgere possent. — Vita S.
Litidgeri, c. 16. Quoted by Mone, Altniederldndische Volksliteratu?'^
P- 372.
20
many was early recagnized. Thus it is said that all the bar-
barous nations living between the Rhine and the Weser, and be-
tween the Danube and the ocean, resemble each other in language,
but in dress and custom are very dissimilar.* Augustine is said by
Bede to have taken Frank interpreters with him to England
from France (Gaul).^
Of national popular songs in Frisian there are no traces, and yet
we have shown that the scene of Beowulf is partly on Frisian
soil, and that Gudrun includes, mixed with its northern elements,
many legendary events of Frisian history. There were Frisian bards,
but their songs were neA^er written and consequently have perished.
In the hfe of St. Liudger we find that he met at Hellewird a
blind singer, Bernlef, who sang of the deeds and conflicts of the
ancient Frisian kings, and who was greatly beloved by the people.^
These songs could only exist when the country was free from for-
eign influence^ and where there was the bond of a national spirit
and common history. The Frisian language has disappeared in
North Holland, in East Frisia except in the Saterland^ and in the
districts of North Brabant, Drenthe, and Over-Yssel. In the west it
has yielded to the Frankish or its modern representative, the Neth-
erlandish, and in the east it has given way before the predominat-
ing political influence of the Saxon or Platt-deutsch. For 150 years
the Frisians were constantly exposed to attacks from the North-
men. The last invasion occurred in 1010, when the Northmen en-
tered Frisia and advanced into Holland. Frisia was given to the
Norman chief Godfrey by Charles the Fat. Godfrey was soon
assassinated, and Gerolf, the son of Theodore, a Count of Frisia,
regained his hereditary domain. The Emperor Lewis gave Frisia
to Herolt the Dane,* but the Norman dominion was always doubt-
1 Omnesque praeterea barbaras nationes, quae inter Rhenum ac Wis-
eram fluvios oceanumque atque Danubium positae sunt, hngua quidem
pene similes sed habitui vel moribus valde dissimiles, ita perdomuit iit
eas sibi tributarias facerat. — Pertz, XI, 361. Hist. EccL Ex. Hugo
Floriacensisy A. D. 1 100.
2 Hist. EccL, Lib. I, c. 25.
3 Et ecce illo discumbente cum discipulis suis, oblatus est ei caecus vo-
cabulo Bernlef, qui a vicinis suis valde diligebatur, eo quod esset affabilis et
anliquorum actus regumque certamina bene noverat, psallendo promere.
— Vita S. Liud., Lib. H, c. l. Acta Benedict. Saec. IV, p. 25.
* Tunc dominus imperator magnam partem Fresonam dedit ei [Heriolt
de Danais]. Thegani — Vita Hind. Imp. FertZy II, 597. Frisia and Eng-
ful, and we cannot assume that the language was greatlj affected
during then- uncertain supremacy. In the eleventh century Frisia,
between the Lauwers and the Ems, passed under the temporal sov-
ereignty of the bishops of Utrecht, and Frisia between the Ems and
Weser became subject to the bishops of Bremen. During this
period of incessant warfare and occasional temporary subjection to
the Danes, perished probably all native literature, if any written
memorials existed. Frisian chronicles speak of a magnificent temple
at Stavoren, the seat of the Frisian kings, and of a long line of his-
torical writers, among whom are mentioned Witho, the " wise," the
chief of the Druids, who died A. D. 132 ; of Hanco Fortemannus,
who lived in the tmie of Charlemagne and who wrote an account
of his campaigns ; of Sulco Fortemannus, who wrot^ a record of Fri-
sian history from Frixo, the mythical founder of the race and
brother of [Aeneas, to Radbod II ; of Occo van Scharl, who lived in
the tenth century, and who wrote the history of his time. ^lost
of these statements rest on the authority of Suffridus Petri, who
Uved in the sixteenth century, and whose writings are marked by
creduHty and a love of romancing. There are no exivSting remains
of the early language other than the words contained in the Lex
Frisionum, and in the proper names contained in the monastic
records.
An interesting fact which connects the earliest writings in the
Frisian language with the writings of the other German nations,
and which bears indirect witness to their age and authenticity, is
the use of alhteration employed in their laws. Wiarda* called atten-
tion first to the alliterative character of these laws. He held the ad-
ditions to them to be in part fragments of popular songs, poetic
glosses, which gave to the people information regarding the origin
and meaning of the laws.
In the second Kiire in the Rustringer text we have :
Colnaburch hit by alda tidon Cologne hight in olden times
^grip anda alda noma; And by olden name Agrip.
Tha/irade us i^rison Then was strange to us Frisians
Thiu/ire menote. The foreign money.
land are said to have become subject to the Danes at the same time.
Atque ex illo tempore Fresia et Anglia in ditione Danorum feruntur.— J/.
Adami Gesta, Lib. I, A. D. 876.
1 Asegabuch, pp. 11, 167, 340.
And us inconvenienced,
Then the heavy penny.
Set (estabhshed) we ourselves
An especial coin,
And there was with it,
Two and seventy pounds.
Laid and valued,
Two and seventy shilhngs
Of the stamp of Rednath, or
Of Kawing's stamp.
Rednath and Kawing.
So were hight the first.
Two that in Friesland
The penny stamped.
Three pounds to the magistrate.
That is one and twenty
And us 5werade
Tha thi swera panning ;
iSetton tha sehm
^S'undroge menote.
And warth ther with thet
Twa and siuguntich punda,
Zeyd and ekgad,
Twa and siuguntichs killinga
Rednathes slekes ieftha
Kawinges slekes.
Rednath and Kawing
Alsa hiton tha/orma
Twene ther to i^'islande
Then ^annig slogon.
Thriu _pund tha frana,
Thet ist en and twintich
Skillinga thruch thes Kyninges
bon. . Shillings by the kings decree.
Of historical poems there are few traces. Lines appear which
seem to have formed part of some Yolkslied, as :
*' Hi was minnera
And hi was betera
Hi stifte and sterde
Triwa and werde.
And hi setta thera kenega ieft
And allere liuda kest
And landriucht
And allera londa eccum sin riucht." ^
Rask holds that these lines may have been taken from some poem
relating to Charles Martel. Compare with these the following lines
from a register of the kings who established good laws.^
Thesse fiuwer heva. These four lords
Bi/mlpon us Helped us
i^rison /rihalses Frisians to liberty
And/ridomes, And freedom
With thene kinig With King Charles,
^erl, hwanda alle Because all
Rechtsquellen^ p. 343.
2 Ibid, p. 133.
— 23 —
Frisa er north /zerdon Frisians to the north were subject,
Anda grimma Aerna. To the grim nations.
Rhyme appears later, and there are few traces of it in Frisian
writings of unquestioned early date. Wiarda qirotes as an ex-
ample.^
Forth scele wi se halda, Hereafter these will we keep,
And God seel urse walda, And God shall rule o'er us,
Thes reddera and thes stitha The w^eak and the strong.
And alle unriuchte thing formitha. xlnd all things Avrong we will shun.
These lines form a conclusion to a gloss to the XVII Kiiren and
the XXIV Landrechte in the Hunsmgoer and Emsiger laws.
A rhymed poem of uncertain, but probably late date, contains the
grant of special privileges made to the Frisians by Charlemagne.^
The language of the poem does not differ much from the Hunsing-
oer text of the Kesta. The poem begins :
*' Thit was to there stunde,
Tha the kening Kerl riuchta bigunde,
Tha waster ande there vSaxinna merik,
Liudingerus en hera fele steric.**
Of glosses upon the Scriptures and translations into the Frisian,
which form so large a part of early German literature, we find
scarcely any traces, although in the laws of the different districts as
well as in the ecclesiastical law (Sindriucht), there are constant provi-
sions regarding priests, fasts, the sanctity of churches, obedience to
spiritual authorities, etc. We have a fragment regarding the last
judgment, also the ten commandments, with a sort of scriptural gen-
ealogy, to wiiich is joined lists of the Roman emperors and of the
early bishops who ruled over Frisia. The original dates of the ren-
dering of these into Frisian cannot be determined, but the hsts of
kings who instituted wise laws is not earlier than the beginning of
the fourteenth century. The earliest forms in the Frisian language
are the words which occur in the Lex Frisionum.
1 Asegabuch, p. 167. Rechtsquellen^ p. 81.
2 Rechtsqicelle7t, p. 351.
3 A Latin version of this charter is given by Schotanus. — Beschrijvmge
end Chfonijck van H'eerlickheydt von Frieslandt, p. 64, 1655. Another
copied from the state archives in Brussels is given in the Charterboek of
Frisia, Vol. I, p. The Latin version was long held to be original, but
its genuineness is no longer maintained.
— 24 —
LAWS IN LATIN.
Date of the Lex Frisionx'm.
The iiest edition of the Lex Frisionuni appeared in 1557 at
Basel.* The law stands between the Lex Anglorum et Werniorum
hoc est Thurin<xorum, and the Leges Burgundiorum. No original text
of this law is known, and it is not known from what source Herold
obtained the text which he used.'^ The editor states that for the
Lex Salica he used a manuscript of Fulda, and that among those who
contributed to this edition or aided in its collation were scholars of
Basel, Milan and Worms. Herold speaks in one place of Saxmundus,
one of the authors of the Additio Sapientum, as living in 600 A. D.
Siccama assigns the collection of the laws to the time of Clothaire II,
613-628, or to his son Dagobert 628-638. Eichthofen, however,
with better reason, divides the laws into three parts, each of which
he assigns to a different period. He holds that the oldest part was
compiled after the subjugation of Frisia by the Franks under Charles
Martel, in 734, and that it was in force in Central Frisia either dur-
ing his reign or that of his son Pippin, 741. The second part of the
law was in force throughout all Frisia after the conquest of East
Frisia by Charlemagne, 785.
The third part or the Additio Sapientum, by which the provisions
of the law were changed and difterently applied, is subsequent to
the year 802. The historical considerations which determine the
date of these laws may be briefly given. The laws are in Latin,
with many Frisian words. None of the laws of the G-erman na-
tions were written down until after the introduction of Christianity.
With the single exception of the Anglo-Saxon laws, these laws
were all written first in Latin. Dagobert I founded a Christian
church at Utrecht on the borders of Frisia. The city was captured
by the Frisian king Radbod and the church destroyed. The bishop
of Cologne claimed jurisdiction over Utrecht in consequence of the
J Originum ac Germanicarum Antiquitatum Libri. Opera Basilii loan-
nis Herold. Basiliae, 1557.
2 Richthofen, in his edition of the Lex Frisionum, republished under the
auspices of the Frisian Society, has refuted the theory of Gaupp that Lin-
denbrog in his edition of 1613, and Siccama, in his edition of 161 7, used
a manuscript original, by showing that these editions add nothing to the
first edition of Herold. Huydecoper, in his edition of the Rijm Cronijk
of Melis Stoke, Leiden, 1772, vol.1, 142, has doubted the genuineness of
these laws. But a more complete study and a comparison with the laws
of other German nations has established their genuineness.
— 25 —
chapel founded there by Dagobert, the ruins of whieh av ere discov-
ered b}' Willebrord, which belonged to the diocese of Cologne.* At
the period of the earhest missionary efforts in the seveni/' century,
Frisia was an independent kingdom free from Frankish% ninion,
Anglo-Saxon missionaries had a transient tolerance there under
Adegikl, and even hater under Radbod, the most determined sup-
porter of Frisian liberty and of his ancestral religion.
After Radbod's death in 719, AVestern Frisia or Frisia west of the
Fli, came under the dominion of the Franks. Central Frisia retained
longer its practical independence and it was not subdued by Charles
Martel until 734. Still the people held obstinately to their old
heathenism, and in 755 the Archbishop Boniface was slain by them
at Dockum. Beyond the Lauwers all w^as pagan. ^ Charlemagne
entered this region A. D. 780,^ and it was not until 785 that it w^as
fully subdued.
West Frisia Avas therefore subject to the Franks from 697 to 734.
West and Central Frisia from 734, and West, Central and East
Frisia from 785. We must therefore ascribe the extension of these
uniform laws to these periods. Only when the whole country had
come under the control of one sovereign could a uniform code of
laws have been prepared. Within this period and the reign of
Charlemagne we fix the date of the Lex Frisionum. The Norman
invasions began immediately subsequent to this, and continued
^ Coloniensis episcopus dicit sedem Utraiectinam ad se pertinere, prop-
ter fundamenta cuiusdam destructae a paganis ecclesiolae, qiiam Wille-
brordus dirutam usque ad solum in castello Traiecto referit, et repert
quia ab antique rege Francorum Dagoberto castellum Traiectum cum
destructa eccelesia ad Coloniensen parociam donatum fuisse. Letter of
Boniface to Pope Stephen, i. D. 754. — Van Mieris, Charterboek. I'he
statement of Richthofen that the Frisians and Franks lived at peace from
689-714 is not quite correct, as in 694 Pippin invaded and overran Frisia.
Pippinus dux Ratbodum ducem Fresonum bellando vicit Fresiamque
sibi subiugavit. — Anna/., Xant. 655-714, Pertz, II, 220.
2 Lagbeki ubi confinium erat christianorum ac paganorum cunctis die-
bus, Pippini regis. — Vita S. Greg. Acta. Bened. Saec. IV, p. 295.
3 Carolus iterum ingreditur Saxoniam . . . et Windorum, sen et Fri-
sorum at Nordlandorum multitude credidit. — A^mal. Lobiens, Pertz,
II, 195. See also Vita S. Willehad, Pertz. II, 391. Chron. Moissiacen,
A. D. 787, and Vita S. Lind, Lib. II, 25.
Hinc Carolus primus Frisonum marte magister.
Pingitur et secum grandia gesta manus,
—Ermwold Nigel., Lib. IV, A. D. 826, Pertz, II, 506.
— 26 —
from 834^ to 1024 A. D., and anything like the compilation of a
general code of laws would have been during this period impossi-
ble.
Later, during the reign of Lewis the Pious, these laws could not
have received form, as various provinces of Frisia had been given
to the leading Norman chiefs. It is impossible that any law em-
bracing in any respect similar provisions, could at that time have
originated and been applied to a country so divided and under so
varying governments. Certain specifications i-egarding the amounts
of fines and indemnities, the rules of proceedure, the relations of the
moneys specified, lead to assign one portion of these laws to the
period between 734-785,'* a second portion to the period succeed-
ing the conquest of East Frisia by Charlemagne, hence after 785,
and the third portion to the general examination and codification of
all the laws of the different tribes at Aachen in 802.
The term ewa for law appears first in an early record of 855, al-
ready quoted, in which property in Hamaland is conveyed accord-
ing to the law of the Salian and Ripuarian Franks, nee non secundum
ewa Fresonum. Many provisions in the Lex Frisionum are unques-
tionably of remote heathen origin. The law recognizes ancient na-
tional customs (Gewohnheitsrecht) continued beside the recognized
common law or Volksrecht. All distinctively pagan features are re-
moved from the law, save a single passage which has given rise to
much controversy. It provides that whoever shall violate a shrine
and carry away any of the sacred objects, shall be conducted to the
shore of the sea, and that there his ears shall be slit and he shall be
sacrificed to the gods whose temple he has violated. This occurs
under Title XI of the Additio Sapientum, given by Wulemarus
one of the revisers.^ His name shows him to have been a Frisian.^
* This is the earliest mention I find of a Norman invasion. Interim
etiam classis de Danis veniens in Frisiam aliquam partem ex illo devas-
tavit, et per Vetus-Traiectum ad emporium quod vocatur Dorestadus,
venientes omnia diripuerunt. — AnnaL, Bert, Pertz, I, 428.
2 Richthofen, p. XLL
3 Hoc trans Laubachi de honore templorum. Qui fanum effregit et
ibi aliquid de sacris tulerit, ducitur ad mare et in sabulo quod accessus
maris operire solet, finduntur aures eius et castratur et immolatus diis
quorum templa violavit.
This seems to be more the statement of a custom th^n a law. The
subjunctive would have been used in the verbs ducatur and imnioletur
were it any other than a mere note written by some reviser, as Richthofen
suggests.
After Charlemagne had been crowned in Rome A. D! 800,^ he
observed the defects in the laws of the different tribes under his
dominion, and that provisions of law even among the Salian and
Ripuarian Franks were often dissimilar. He therefore sought to
remedy these deficiencies by the addition of Capitula — special brief
tstatements Avhich removed any inconsistency, and yet left the sub-
stance of tlie law unchanged. The laws of the different tribes
were reduced to writing, and it was even directed that national
songs commemorating the deeds of their kings should be preserved.
In the year 802, at a great council of princes, nobles, clergy and
jurists, these laws were read before the emperor and translated.''
Emendations were made, and the law as amended was written
down in order that "judges might administer justice according to
that which was written, and not receive bribes." ^ Later to wise
and learned men was entrusted an examination into the operations
and results of these laws.'* All defects were to be reported to the
1 Post susceptum imperiale nomen, cum adverteret multa legibus populi
sifi deesse, nam Franci duas habent leges in plurimis locis valde diversas,
cogitavit quae deerant addere et discrepantia unire, prava quoque ac per-
peram prolata carrigere : sed de his nihil aliud ab eo factum, nisi quod
pauca capitula et ea imperfecta legibus addidit. Omnium tamen nation-
um quae sub eius dominatu erant, iuraque scripta non erant describere ac
Uteris mandari facit. Item barbara et antiquissima carmina quibus veter-
um regum actus et bella canebantur, scripsit el memoriaeque mandavit.
Inchoavit et grammaticam patrii sermonis. — Einhara'i, Vita Caroli M. %
^9- . . . .
2 Sed et imperator interim, quodipsum synodum factum est, congregavit
duces comites et reliquo Christiano populo cum legislatoribus, et fecit om-
nes leges in regno sue legi et tradi, unicuique homini legem suam et emen-
dare, ubicumque necesse fuit, et emendatam legem scribere, et ut judices
per scriptum judicassent et munera non accepissent. — AjtnaL, Lauresh,
A. D. 8o2. Periz, Mon. Ger. SS. I, -1%.
3 The laws of the Frisians, Thuringians, Salian and Ripuarian Franks,
and of the Chamavi are supposed to have been reduced to writing at
this time.
* Karolus elegit ex optimatibus suis prudentissimis et sapientissimis
viros tarn archiepiscopis quam et reliquis episcopis, simulque et abbates
venerabiles laicosque religiosos, et direxit in unive.sum reguimi suum et per
eos cunctis subsequentibus secundum rectam legem vivere concessit.
(Jbi autem aliter quam recte et juste in lege aliquit esse constitutum, hoc
diligentissimoanimo exquirere jussit et sibi innotescere, quod ipse, donante
Deo, meliorare cepil ut longa consuetude, quae ad utilitatem publicam non
impendit, pro lege servetur et quae diu servatae sint, permanent. Capit.
A. D. 813, c. 17. Volumus ut hommes talem consuetudinem habent
sicut antiquitus Longobardorun fuit, A. D. 823, c. 14. — Pertz, SS. I,
'93-
— 28 —
emperor for adjustment. Long standing national custom was to be
retained and to ha\''e equal force with written law, unless there was
a conflict between them, when the written law was to be followed.
Ewa was equivalent to a law embodying national usage, (Gewohn-
heitsrecht).
The Lex Frisionum consists of two parts, the law proper and the
Additio Sapientum. The former is divided into twenty-two titles,
each embracing many separate specifications; the latter contains
eleven titles and also many separate specifications. Penalties are
specified with great fullness and exactness, for murder, theft, vio-
lence, mismarriage, unchastity, incendiarism, violation of oaths, in-
demnity for injuries and personal affronts. In many cases the num-
ber of the witnesses or judicial supporters (Eideshelfer) of the ac-
cused are given. Penalties are assessed not merely according to the
rank of the injured, but according to that of the transgressor. These
are estimated in money of different coinages, old and new. The fines
are uniform throughout Frisia only in a few cases. The three divi-
sions of Frisia, each of which had in part an independent legal status
are mentioned. The home of Frisian law was unquestionably Cen-
tral Frisia, and variations for the other districts from the legal re-
quirements here, are specified in notes.
If the law does not denote definitely for what district its state-
ment holds, the preface indicates for entire; Frisia or the special di-
vision to which it applies. If the passage relates to the central
part, short remarks specify the penalties and the oath-helpers for the
other parts. Only one passage of the revisers, Wlemarus and Sax-
mundus, is incorporated in the text.^ This may show contempo-
rary revision. The penalties in the law and in the Additio do not
correspond. For bodily injuries they are increased threefold.^
That the laws were composed under the reign of the Prankish kings
is evident from the use the titles, of king and duke, side by side ; also
from the payment of the fredum or peace mony to the king. There
are no traces of Roman law in the Lex Frisionum and the influ-
ence of other tribal laws cannot be certainly shown.
Certain penalties for bodily injuries are the same in the Lex Fri-
> At the end of Tit. II, $ lo.
2 See Wilda^ Strafrecht der Deutschen^ 618-622. De Geer holds that
these enactments were made in the tenth and eleventh centuries. — Over
de Zamens telling van de Lex Frisionum^ pp. 189-195.
— 29 —
sonum and the Lex Anglorum. Once the enactment is said to be
from the king.^
The Relation of the Frisians to the Angles as Suggested in the
Lex Frisionum.
It has been attempted to determine a connection between the
Angles and the Frisians, by a comparison of the Lex Frisionum
with the Lex Anglorum et Werniorum hoc est Thuringorum. The
latter code is undoubtedly old in substance, but in the form in which
we possess it has been subject to revision.^ The law exhibits no
traces of Christian influence and ideas, and evidently has its origin
in times of pure paganism. The frequent mention of the duel in it
is especially noticeable. It has been held to have originated in
Schleswig, in a district on the Maas called Thuringia or Thoringia,
and in the present Thuringia in Central Germany. It must have
originated in a district where Frisian and Frankisli forms were
mixed both in the laws as well as in the language.® The Frankish
element predominates. There is great similarity to the Lex Cham-
avorum.
According to Zoepti,"* the law may have received its name either
because it originated in Thuringia or was carried to Denmark by
way of North Thuringia. Some form of this law was carried to
England, Avhere it bore the name Lex Werniorum et Thuringorum.
The term Anglorum was dropped, as applying to the laws of the
Angles, wdiich originated on English soil.
In the Constitutiones de Foresta of Canute a fine is assessed ac-
cording to the law of the Werni and Thuringians.^ It is suggested
' The laws of only two tril^es seem to have emanated from their kings,
those of the Longobards under king Rothari 636-652 A. D., and those of
the Anglo-Saxons, Titles I, III, $§ 1-7; lY, ^ 1-8; IX, ^ 1-3,
are held to belong to the old national law (Volksrecht). Titles II, V,
XI, XIV, to previous unwritten custom- law, Gewohnheitsrect. Franki&h
enactments in Frisia are shown in III, §§ 8, 7; IX, §^ 14-17.
2 Gaupp, Das A He Gesetz der 1 hiiringer.
3 See H. M tiller. Der Lex Salica und der Lex Anglorum et Werni-
orum Alter und Heimath, ^ 19; also Merkel, Lex Salica, Nachtrag
in Lex Saxonum 1853. — Gengler's Germanische Rechtsdenmaler, p. 166.
^ Dent. Rechtsgeschichte, P- 51-
5 Et emendet secundum pretium hominis mediocris, quod secundum
legem Werniorum, i. <?., Thuringorum, est ducentorum solidorum Qui
liberum occiderit C. C. solidos componat. — Schmidt, Geseize der Aitgel-
achsen p. 321. Also Lex Anglorum et Werniorum, I, $ I.
— 30 —
that kinp: Harold to whom had been given a district north of the
Elbe/ carried this law to Schleswig-Holstein, the early home of the
Angles.^ He is said to have given laws and statutes to those who
dwelt across the Elbe, as well as the Frisians.
Whether the Lex Noricorum et Danornm, wliich it is claimed
prevailed in the noi-th of France, was carried thence to England
may be questioned. The Lex Salica and the Lex Ripuaria cer-
tainly influenced early English law, and penalties are specified
based upon provisions in these laws.^ Danish law pre^^iT^ in
Norfolk, Suffolk and Kent, and William the Conqueror confirmed
this law and directed its genc^ral enforcement as being nobler than
the laws of the British tribes.* This was based on a general resem-
blance between the Lex Noricorum or Norwegensium and the Lex
Danorum.^
That a Thoringia existed on the right bank of the Rhine, we
have that statement of G-regory of Tours, who in speaking of the
crossing of that river by the Franks, says : " Many affirm that the
Franks settled first on the shores of the Rhine, which they after-
wards crossed and passed through Thoringia, where they elected
kings to rule over them from the families of the nobles." Chlogio
is said to have been king of the Franks, whose camp or citadel was
at Dispargum, on the borders of Thoringia.^
^ Et quia interdum pacifice in regno sue Herioldus rex consistere non
poterat, dedit ei memoratus Augustus (Hludowicus) ultra Albiam benefi-
cium, ut si quando ei necessarium esset ibi subsistere possit. — Vita S.
Anska7'ii, c. 8, 9.
2 (Haroldus) transalbianis et Fresonum genti leges et jura constituit,
quae adhuc pro tanti anctoritate viri servare et contendunt. — Albert^ Stad.
A. D. 983.
3 In the laws of Henry I are found various penalties prescribed ac-
cording to these laws. "Secundum legem Saligam," c. 87, % 10; also c.
89, ^ i; also "secundum legem Ribuariorum solvatur," c. 90, % 4. —
Schmidt, pp. 482, 485.
^ Erat etiam Lex Danorum in Northfolc at Suthfolc at Canlibrigesire,
. . In omnibus aliis causis et forisfacturis eandem legem habitant cum
supradictis Norvvensibus. Quam cum rex Willielmus audisset, cum aliis
sui regni legibus maxime appretiatus est eam, et praecepit ut observaretur
per universum regnum. Proferebat enim . . . quod antecessores ejus
de Norweja olim venissent, et hac auctoritate leges eorum cum praedictis
Danorum, et regni sui legibus asserebat debere sequi et observare. —
Leges Edw. Confess.^ c. 33, 34.
^ Stobbe asserts that there is no proof that Canute carried the Danish
law to England, and that under the name Lex Danorum the Lex Thur-
ingorum is to be understood. — Rechtsgeschichtc^ i860.
6 Tradunt enim multi eosdem primum quidem litora Rheni amnis in-
— 31 ~
Childerich fled to Basinus, in the neighborhood of the Scheldt.
This Thorino-ia must have been in the neighborhood of the sea, as
Basina says: 'Mn transmarinis partibus aliquem cognovissem utih-
orem te." Chlodwig made war on the Thoiingians and brought
them under his dominion. He was separated from the present
Thuringia by intervening tribes. The Thuringians are frequently
joined with the inhabitants of Brabant, in the early epics, as in that
of king Rother, 4829.^
*'Dorringen unde Brabant, Vriesen imde Hollant,
Gaf he vier h^ren, die mit ime waren
Uzir lande gevarin."
Sahsen und Turinge, Plisum uiid vSwurven
Gaf he zen graven,
wdiere Thuringia adjacent to Holland, Fi'iesland and Brabant is
meant.
In the Traveler's Tale two Thuringias — Thyringas and East]?yrin-
gas ^ — are mentioned.
Historical notices of the Werni place them in the centre of Ger-
many near the Angles,^ wdio reside as far east of the Longobards
as the centre of the river Elbe."*
Procopius^ places the Werni later on the shores of the Rhine, near
the mouth. Here they were associated with the Angles and the
Suevi.^ The Angles and the Suevi are associated in the Traveler's
coluisse, dehinc, transacto Rheno, Thoringiam transmeasse. Ferunt
etiam tunc Chlogionem utilem ac nobihssimum in gente sua regem
Francorum fuisse, qui apud Dispargum castrum habitabat, quod est in
termino Thoringorum. — Greg, of Tours, 2, 9.
^ Quoted by Grimm, Ges. der dent. Spr., p. 417, 3d ed.
2 Lines 320, 17; 322, 16 and 323, ^o. Quoted by Grimm, 42.
2 Tacitus, Ger. 40. Reudigni deinde et Aviones et Anglii et Varini
fluminibus aut silvis muniuntur.
^ TcDV Se kvroi Kai /j.E6oyEiGdv tBvoov jusyidra /nev tdri to
TE TcSv ^ov^fSaov T(^v ^AyyEiXc^v 01 e16iv dvaToXzHooTEpot
T(^v Aayyo/Japdaov dvaTEivovTe'^ 7tpd<^ Tcci dpuTOVi J^^XP^
/UEdoDv T(^y Tov"AX/Jio<^ TtoTajuov, Kai to tcSv 'Sovrj^Gov tc^v
2eJLIv6vG9V OITIVE^ dlT/KOVdl /J-ETOC TOV "AXf5tV (XTtO T OV ElpT}'
/iiivov HEpovi Ttfjo's dvaroXd<^ iJ.expi tov ^ovrjfdov TtoTajtiov.
—PtoL, Lib. n, XL
^ 4, 20.
6 The early name of Zeeland may come from S'jevi, Zee wen. It is
possible that the Frisians formed a part of the great southern migration
— 32 —•
Tale, Engle and Swaefe. Traces of the Werni appear in the name
Weringouwe, a district on the Werra, and possibly in Warmond,
the name of a village near Leiden.^
Traces of the onward march of the Angles to the sea are found
in the term Engilgowe, on the TJnstrut in Thuringia, Engelen in
North Brabant, Hengeloo in G-elderland, and Over-Yssel, and in the
Pays de F Angle in West Flanders, near Burburg, as well as in
Angeln. between the bays of Flensburg and Kiel in Schleswig. It
remains for us to assume a double movement of the Angles pro-
ceeding from Thuringia, one to the north along the Elbe and ter-
minating in the present Angeln on the Baltic, and a second down
the Rhine to the sea, or as G-rimm asserts^ from the north up the
Elbe and thence to the Weser. Anglo-Saxon records unite in plac-
ing the home of the Angles who invaded England on the peninsula
of Sclileswig-Holstein and the islands of the Baltic Sea to the East.^
It cannot be doubted that they occupied a great extent of coast,
and hence their migration in large numbers was to be expected.
The Frisians are mentioned as one of the three nations which settled
England, the others being the Angles and the Britons/
In what proportions these different tribes contributed to the pop-
ulation and to the language of England, it is impossible to deter-
mine. It is certain that the Frisians in England at no time existed
as a separate political unit in the people or government.
of nations, and settled with the Suevi in Switzerland, according to a na-
tional tradition.
1 Grimm and Latham point to a possible relation between the words
Werni, and Werra and Weser.
2 Grimm, p. 421.
See the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, A. D. 449; King Alfred's Orosius,
Book I, c. I ; Bede, Hist. Ecch, Lib. I, c. XV.
3 Bpirriav 6e Trjy rrj6ov sQvt/ rpia TtoXvavOpGOTtorara
exovdi, /5adtXsv? re eii avtoor ekcc6t&) ecpsdrr/Her, oro/uara
de K€irai roii eovsdi rovroi? ^AyyiXoi re uai $piddovei ual oi
T^ rTJdoD ojUGDVojuevoi Bpirro'vsi. — Prncopiiis, De Bello Gothico, Lib.
IV, c. 19.
— 33 —
I LAWS WRITTEN IN FRISIAN.
These were not composed by the people, but by their judges or
representatives, in general assemblies. In content they relate to the
most varied domain of law. They contain, like the Lex Frisionum,
carefully detailed statements of the personal rights of individuals
and the laws of property with penalties for their violation. The Fri-
sian laws, like the Anglo-Saxon, bear the name domar^^ judicial de-
crees also kesta or liudkesia^^ that is, law^s enacted by the popular
will, (Willkuren). Single laws bear the name landriachta (land-
rechte), or common law of the -country. The ecclesiastical lawMs
also specially defined in distinction from this, so also is the law pro-
ceeding from the emperor. The distinction prevailing elsewhere in
Germany, between landrecht and lehnrecht is seldom made,* that be-
tween national, the common law of the land, and city law (Stadt-
recht) appears later.
General Laws in Force throughout all Frisia.
1. The Seventeen Kesta of the twelfth century. These are pre-
served in Latin (Petitiones), Frisian and Low German versions.
They contain provisions Felating to the tenure of real estate, coinage,
records of judicial proceedings, proof, mihtary service, the preserva-
tion of the peace, bodily injuries. In many cases reference is made
to enactments or special grants of Charlemagne, To the body of
the laws are added Weriden or exceptions. Manuscripts written in
the Hunsingoer, Emsiger and Rustringer dialects are preserved.
2. The Twenty-four Landriuchta. These were composed before
1252 A. D., and treat of landed property and of its alienation, inher-
itance, crime, blood-revenge, indemnity for injuries, etc. The stat-
^ Nu aegh di grewa dine Asega toe bannane toe een riuchta doem. —
Rechtsquellen^ Wester-laivers Lazvs, p. 4, 2, 6. Hyr bigannath thar
domar ther alle Am-sgane bi riiichtat. — E??isiger Laws^ p. 194, i.
* Brocmen kiasath thet to enre kere. — Laius of the Brocmen, p. 173,
24. Tha ur ief lis thi kinig Kerl, sa hvver sa alle liode enne kere kere.
Tha keron Rioslringa tha kera. — Lacus of the Rustringer, p. 115, 2, 5.
3 Sineth- (synod) riuchta and landriucht. — Hunsingoer Lazos, p. 342,
34. Ney riochta keysersrificht ende landriocht. — tjrku7tde of 1374,
Rechtsquellen, p. 560, 12.
^ Wirlh aeck ean kynd stom of blynd of fuetlos of handloes berren dat
mey eerfnama wessa, ney na landriucht ende naet ney leenriucht. A child
born dumb or blind, or without hands or feet, may not receive an inherit-
ance, neither according to feudal nor national law.
— 34 —
ntes use in part the XVII Kesta. The characterization is broad
and poetic. Later these laws were included in the special laws of
the seven Seelands.V
3. The General Boetregisters or classifications of fines of about
the same date as the preceding. These contain penalties for various
criminal offenses.
4. The additional Kesta or Ueberkiiren. These are seven in
number and are of the thirteenth century. They are preserved in
a Hunsingoer and Emsiger Frisian, and in a Low German version ;
also in a later form, but we cannot determine in what district they
originated.
5. The Upstallbomer laws of 1323. These were not in force
east of the Ems. They consist of resolutions or enactments of rep-
resentatives of the seven Seelands, consisting of grietmen, magis-
trates, bishops and clergy,^ who met yearly at Upstallbom, near
Aurich. These occnr in a Frisian and in a longer Latin version.
Seven additional propositions were added in an assembly at Gronin-
gen, in the year 1361, which were to be in force for six years.
They contain an agreement for mutual assistance in case of attack,
also special penalties for crimes, to be enforced throughout the seven
Seelands.
II. THE LAWS OF SINGLE COMMUNITIES OR STATES.
Frisia at our earliest acquaintance with it was divided in separate
^ The seven Seelands are described in a document of the fifteenth cen-
tury. The first. West P>isia, the present North Holland, embracing
Horn, Enkhuizen, and Medemblik, which became early subject to the
counts of Holland ; the second, the district east of the FHe between
Stavoren and Leeuwarden, including Westergo ; the third, Ostergo — the
east half of the present province of Friesland, between the Borne and th^
Lauwers ; the fourth, Drenthe, which became subject to the bishops of
Utrecht, and the south western part of the present province of Friesland ;
the fifth included the district about Groningen between the Lauwers and
the Ems ; the sixth, the country along the coast between the Weser and
the Elbe ; the seventh, the country of the Rustringers and the land to the
north of the Elbe, possibly extending to the Eider and including the
Strand or North Frisians. The map of Alting is his Notitia Germaniae
Inferioris Antiquae, 1698 A. D., differs greatly from this account.
2 Grietmanni, iudices, praelati et clerus terrarum, Oestergoe et Wester-
goe, cum caeteris Zelandiis. — Rechtsqtiellen^ p. 102.
These assemblies ceased to be held early in the thirteenth century, but
were resumed in A. D. 1323.
— 35 —
parts by natural boundary lines of river and lakes. In the life of
Boniface it is said that he visited the country of the Frisians^, which
was divided into many separate districts, which though called by
different names yet are occupied by one race/ These laws were
occasionally enacted by delegates from two states in common ses-
sion, as in statutes of the Brocmen and Emsigers.^
I. THE LAWS OF THE RUSTRINGER.
These were in force in the district of Rustri, west of the mouth
of the Weser in the present Oldenburg. Manuscripts in Frisian of
the thirteenth century, also in Netherlandish of the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, exist. They contain keran or kesta, new keran,
a boetregister or hst of fines, judicial decrees, a statement of taxes
due the priests, etc. (Priester Bothe), said to have been authorized
by Charlemagne and Pope Leo, a sendbrief or in part ecclesiastical
charter containing a statement of the authority and prerogatives of
the Archbishop of Bremen, also obligations due the church ascribed
to Charlemagne, Leo and Bisliop Willehad, a fragment relating to
the Last Judgment and the Ten Commandments. Connected with
these is a list of the kings who have established law. These laws
joined to the general Frisian laws, have been called arbitrarily by
Wiarda, the Asegaboek or the book of the judges.
2. Laws in force among the Brocmen, a district in the neighbor-
hood of Aurich. These contain two series of Kesta in Latin, en-
acted jointly by the Brocmen and the Emsigers, a Latin sendbrief
of the year 1251, a treaty or reconciliation between the Bishop of
Munster and the four districts of Brockmerland, Emsigerland, Reid-
erland and Alombechta (or Oldeampt). of 1276 in Latin, Frisian
and Netherlandish, and the Brocmerbrief which is closely related to
the Emsiger Pfenningschuldsbuch of the thirteenth century.
3. The laws in force in Emsigerland, the region of Emden.
These contain the Emsiger Domar of 1312, which are preserved in
Latin and in two Frisian texts, also in Netherlandish ; the so-called
Pfennigschuldbuch from pannengskelde with which is begins. It
J Autemque paganam Fresonum visitavit quae interea centibus aquis in
multos agrorum dividitur pages ita ut diversis appellati nominibus unius
tamen gentis proprietatem portendunt (protendunt). — Vita S. Bonifat^ c.
34, A. D. 755.
2 Statuerunt iudices Brocmanine et Emesgonie. — Rechtsquelletiy p. 137.
-36-
treats of debt, inheritance, private rights, penalties, a Fiaeid ' and
the methods of ecclesiastical courts or judgments.
4. The laws of Westerwold, a district west of the Ems and south
of Winschoten, in the present province of Groningen. These con-
sist of a landrecht of 1470, together with a later revision of the
same in 1567, confirmed by Philip II and Margaret of Parma.
This is perhaps the latest of the whole body of Frisian laws.
5. The laws of Fivelgo, a province north east of the city of G-ron-
ingen and west of the Ems. A considerable portion of these laws
are only found in Latin and Netherlandish versions. They are in
great variety and are often enactments in common of the provinces
of Hunsingo and Fivelgo. They contain provisions relating to
criminal law, and several relating to inheritance. The Appingdam-
merbrief was enacted by delegates from all Frisia at Upstallbom in
1327.
6. The laws of Hunsingo, a district east of the Hunse river, north
of Groningen on the coast, extending to the mouth of the Ems.
These contain Kesta of 1252, possibly from a Latin original, the
Ten Commandments, the Five Keys of Wisdom, list of kings who
established law, also the rhymed charter of Frisian liberty from
Charlemagne, undoubtedly of late origin,^ and a list of penalties
(Boetregister). The other laws of the fourteenth century are in
Latin and Netherlandish.
7-9. The Laws of Humsterland, between the Hunse and the
Lauwers, northwest of the city of Groningen, of Langew^old, east of
the Lauwers and south of Humsterland, and of Fredewold south of
Langewold and west of Groningen in the province of Groningen.
^ The nature of this oath is uncertain. Grimm considers it an oath
taken upon money marked with a cross. — Rechtsalterthiimer^ p. 907.
In another case it seems to be an oath taken by a woman on the thresh-
hold of her home, accused of the concealment of some portion of her
husband's estate. — Rechtsquellen, 166, 18. It was also taken in certain
cases of bodily injury.
2 The genuineness of the bull of 802, given by Charlemagne, granting
to the Frisians perpetual liberty is extremely doubtful. It exists in vari-
ous forms in Latin and Low German. That some such grant was made
can scarcely be doubted, as it is referred to in the charter confirming the
rights and privileges of the Frisians given by king William at Aachen in
1248, — C/iarterboek, I, 94. This rhymed version is probably the expres-
sion of a national tradition, but elaborated to enforce the popular belief
in freedom from foreign dominion in the sixteenth century. — Rechls-
quellen^ p. 351.
— 37 —
These are of the thirteenth century, and are only preserved hi
Ketherlandish versions from Latin originals.
10. The laws of Friesland, west of the Lauwers, the present
province of Frisia. This district is to be regarded as the earliest and
the most permanent abode of the Frisians* It was divided into
three parts — Ostergo, the district between the Lauwers and Borne,
embracing the neighborhood of Dockum and Leenwarden ; Wes-
tergo, between the Borne and the Flie, and including the region of
Franeker, Harlingen, Bolsward and Stavoren ; and Sevenwolden, a
narrow tract south of Ostergo and Westergo, between Drenthe and
the Zuider-Zee. This collection is very extensive.
The laws are of two kinds : general, extending over the whole
district of Friesland west of the Lauwers ; and, special, relating to
particular provinces. The general laws contain numerous specifica-
tions regarding the authority of the count or deputy who adminis-
tesed justice (Schulzenrecht) in the emperor's name, and of the
Asega or judge. The laws include provisions regarding Wergeld,
Marktrecht, a criminal code of the year 1276, enactments regard-
ing coinage, the so-called Emperor Rudolph's book, containing state-
ments of law mixed with reflections and historical references, a
treatise on ^' What is law ?", a fragment regarding Charles Martel
and the Frisian king Radbod, also the Kesta of Magnus.
The special laws contain in additional to the general provincial
laws, the laws of certain local districts. The most of these laws are
of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
IV. The meagre remains of laws in force in the province of
Drenthe are only preserved in Latin and Netherlandish.
Y. Laws of the North Frisians, residing north of the Eider along
the coast of Schleswig and on the adjacent islands.
1. For the southern portion of North Frisia, emj^racing the region
of Eiderstedt, Utholm, and Everschop are preserved laws dating
from 1418 to 1446.
2. Of laws relating to the northern part of North Frisia there
exists the Siebenhardenbeliebung. This is a brief code of twenty-
three paragraphs enacted on the island of Fohr in 1426, by seven
communities, residing in part on the North Frisian islands, and in
part on the adjacent coast. The language of all these laws of North
Frisia is more nearly Low German than Frisian.
Of Frisian laws in force in North Holland we have no remains.
-38-
This region became subject to the courts of Holland in the eleventh
century
The oldest manuscripts of any portion of the Frisian laws are not
probably earlier than the fourteenth century, that of the Rustringer
laws preserved in the grand ducal library at Oldenburg^ is of about
the year 1300. A copy of the Rustringer Busstaxen of 1327 A. D.
is preserved in the grand ducal library at Hanover. A parchment
manuscript of the laws of the Brocmen of 1345, is also contained in
the same library. A parchment manuscript of the Hunsingoer laws
of about 1400 is preserved at Leeuwarden. Two charters exist with
the original seals still upon them^ one of 1374 at Franeker, and one
of 1390, at Leeuwarden.
Among the literary remains which belong to what may be termed
the middle period of Frisian literature, and which deserve mention
as memorials of the language, are two works called Thet Freske
Riim and the Gesta Fresonum. The Freske Riim was written in
Frisian, but translated from the Latin of a certain Master Alwijn,
who was rector of the Latin School at Sneek about 1400. Alwijn
was learned in Roman law and church history. His title of Master
was received from some foreign university. His narrative begins
with the Creation, rambles through sacred and profane history,
through lives of Jewish patriarchs and Roman kings. His Frisians
served in Asia the king of heaven, but sailed to Europe and were
enslaved and forced to become idolaters by a Danish king. The
poem, which is but a fragment when compared with the existing
Netherlandish version, contains 1671 unequal rhymed lines. The
poem was evidently divided at first into separate parts, each bearing
a special title, as the " Rhyme of Noah and his Child," etc. The nar-
ration is tame and spiritless. The rhyme is monotonous from the
repetition of the same final words. The language is in the main
pure, and the forms, those of Frisia west of the Lauwers.
The Gesta Fresonum is a translation into Frisian of a prose nar-
rative called the Q-esta Frisiorum, written in Netherlandish in the
latter part of the fifteenth century. A rhymed history written in
the same language, called the '* Olde Freesche Cronike," also exists.
Both point to an earlier Latin original. The same events are relat-
ed in both in about the same terms, but in a different order. The orig-
inal author drew from the legends of St. Lebuinus, of Boniface and
Liudger, the Bishop's Book of Utrecht and a Saxon and Frisian chron-
— 39 —
i<5le. The author was a Frisian who resided at Utrecht not later
than 1474. The subject of this work is the usual mingling of script-
ural and early mythical Frisian history with the lives of the saints>
The blending of Saxon and Frisian legends is manifest in all these
early chronicles. The brothers Saxo, Bruno and Friso sail from an
island in. India, called " Frisia the Blest," where St Thomas had
preached. They reach the coast of Europe ; Saxo settles on the Elbe^
and becomes the ancestor of the Saxons ; Bruno resides on the Weser
and founds Brunswick ; Friso settles Frisia, and gives to his seven sons
the Seven Seelands. A daughter, Wijmolt^ resided on the east of
the Weser and gave her name to the country, which embraced Dit*
marsh. There is an echo here of the story of Hildeburg in Beowulfv
The order of narration is confused and inconsequential. The Ian*
guage is not entirely pure, and the influence of Netherlandish forms
is manifest
THE LANGUAGE.
Upon the west, the Frankish in its present representative the
Netherlandish, has supplanted the Frisian in North Holland. Of the
language spoken in West Frisia between the Scheldt and the Flie^
there are no remains except those left in a few proper names and
early records, and it is not possible to determine the dialect of Fri-
sian which was spoken there. The language was spoken as late as
the middle of the seventeenth century in the Waterland north of
the IJ.^ The pronunciation of the letters 2, v and sch in North
Holland is Hke that of the Frisian s, /and sk"^ The political separ-
ation of the two portions of Frisia east and west of the Flie, was so
great as to produce alienation and often warfare. The irruption of
the ocean which produced the Zuider-Zee in the thirteenth century
completed the separation. To the east the Saxon has occupied the
whole of the district between the Weser and the Ems. In Gron-
ingen, Netherlandish is spoken. The East Frisian is a Uving lan-
guage only amid the moors of Saterland on the Leda, and on the
island of Wangeroog. Frisian is spoken at present in the province
of Friesland, east of the Zuider-Zee. The ^language of the schools
^ Over de Taal en deTongvallen der Friezen. — Winkler, p. il.
2 y. H. Halbertsma in the Vrije FrieSy vol. X, 346.
— 40 —
and the pulpit is however Netherlandish. In the cities and larg-er
towns Frisian is scarcely heard. The language of the Bildt is old
Netherlandish mixed with Frisian forms. The so-called city Fri-
sian, stadfriesch, which hitherto prevailed in the larger towns as in
Leeuwarden, Dockum, Bolsward, Franeker, Sneek and Harlingen is
the language of the south of Holland of the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries. The dialect of Hendeloopen on the Zuider-Zee presents
many old as well as unusual and strange forms, not contained in
the other dialects.
On the north the Saxon has supplanted the Frisian in Ditmarsch,
Eiderstedt and in the islands of Nordstand and Pellworm. Only in
thirty-eight parishes of the three counties of Tondern, Bredstedt
and Husum which lie on the west coast of Schleswig, and upon some
islands and haUigs of the North Sea is Frisian still spoken. The
number of inhabitants in these districts does not exceed 30,000.
Even here, there is a great variety of forms, expression and pro-
nunciation. On the mainland, the language is purest in the Risum
Moor and in the district south of Wiedau, along the coast to Bred-
stedt. The speech of the inhabitants of the islands of Fohr, except
in the parish of Wijk, and on the islands of Sylt and Amrum is
different from that of the mainland and can scarcely be understood
there. The language is more ancient but ruder. The East Mor-
ingers use the dual of the personal and possessive pronoun where
the West Moringers use the plural. The language here is free
from both Low German and Danish elements.*
The language in which the Frisian laws were written presents
several dialects with well defined lines of difference. Commencing
at the east the Rustringer dialect, spoken west of the Weser in
Oldenburg, has preserved the original forms of words most closely,
and is to be taken as the basis of comparison with the other dialects
and the Anglo-Saxon, Old Saxon and Norse. West of the Rustringer
dialect is the speech of Brokmerland, in the neighborhood of Aurich ;
further to the west existed the speech of Emsigerland, the region of
Emden, then the language of Fivelgo, a district west of the Ems ; of
Hunsingo, east of the Lauwers-Zee, and north of Groningen, ex-
tending along the coastjof Westerlauwersches Friesland, and embrac-
ing the present province of Frisia ; containing the two provinces of
^ Die Nordfriesische Sprache nach der Moringer Mundart. —Bendsen,
p. XXIII.
— 41 —
Ostergo and Westergo. The speech of Ostergo, most nearly re-
sembles the forms of the dialects to the east, while that of Westergo
presents the most variations from these dialects. The Fivelgoer dia-
lect is nearest to the Frisian west of the Lauwers.
The External Relations of the Frisian Language.
The Frisian presents both in inflections and vocabulary greater re-
semblance to the Anglo-Saxon than to any other Grermanic dialect.
It is less rich in inflections than the Anglo-Saxon, but exhibits far
greater facility and variety in the formation of compound words.
In forms of consonants it exhibits remarkable parallelism to the
modern English, not always in words as written but as pronounced.
The Frisian more nearly than any other dialect of Germany re-
sembles the Norse. Analogies are found in the nominative plural
of masculine nouns, which present two forms in a or ar, correspond-
ing to the masculine and feminine nouns of the A-declension and
to the masculine of the weak declension in Icelandic. This form is
like the old High German iV, which is in that language limited to
neuter nouns. The infinitive of all verbs also ends in a, the n hav-
ing been dropped.
The form assumed by the palatals h and g present a wide range
of analogy to the English, h before e, i^ ia and iu in the umlaut be-
comes often sz or sth^ tz or ts. This occasioned a series of parallel
forms of words existing beside the original form, as kerke (church)
sthereke, skiurke and tsiurke^ in which the lingual aspirate th passes
into the lingual sibilant, modern Frisian tjerke. This change is
found in all the Frisian dialects. The Rustringer, however, shows
only the afiricative aud presents few examples of the simple palatal.
The other dialects all exhibit parallel forms as ketel^ kittle, szetel^ tsetel^
tsietel; kerl, churl, tzerl^ modern Frisian tzierl; hiasa, choose,
tziesa; kise^ cheese, tzise. In the inlaut of words the same change
appears as lega, lay, ledsa^ Udsia, and hia^ modern Frisian, Udze ;
breka^ break, part, ebreken^ ehreszen^ hretsen^ hritsin^ modern Fri-
sian, hritzin ; strika. stroke, striza^ modern Frisian, stritzen ; so also
dekke^ deck, modern Frisian, ditzen, stekke^ stick, stitzen ; sega, say,
sidze.
In weitsje^ wake, reitsje^ rake, haitsje^ look, this change has taken
place in the present tense while the participle retains the palatal A;,
as wekke, rekke, lokke.
— 42 —
The range of analogy is far greater in modern Frisian and mod-
ern English, even than in old Frisian and Anglo-Saxon ; and a com-
parison of the every day speech of the country people, presents
striking correspondence with various local dialects in England. A
system of parallel changes has gone on the tv^^o languages.
A BRIEF VIEW OF FRISIAN FORMS AND
INFLECTIONS.
VOWELS IN FRISIAN.^
In many cases the quantity of the vowel cannot be determined
definitely, but may be inferred from a comparison with the other
Germanic dialects. Heyne calls attention to the remarkable pre-
sentation in Frisian, as in Gothic, of sentences in which the primitive
vowels a, «, u predominate, as
And thiu pund tha frama, thet sJcelma ligta oppa en end twintich
schilUnga. — Mnsigef, Kesta, II.
Aha thi asega nimth tha unriuchta mida and tha urlouada pa7ini7iga.
— Rustringer^ Kesta^ III.
In other sentences the vowel e predominates.
lef Fresona capmen and thera sogen stretena engere wertha henet —
Mnsiger, Kesta, IX.
I § Short Vowels. A.
i. Original a is preserved in Frisian before m and n, either alone
or doubled, or joined with mutes, also before a single consonant
with a or u in the following syllable, as framd, Ger. fremd, kanna^
Ger. kennen, land, land, fara, fare.
ii. The tendency to become o is also manifest, as man man and
mon, land and lond.
iii. An e in the final syllable produces umlaut, as hangst, hengstes,
Ger. Hengst
iv. With a doubled consonant following, a remains generally be-
fore combinations with I and £c; before r the umlaut appears Sis/alla,
fall; waa:a, increase; herd, beard.
The earHest Frisian forms in the Lex Frisonum present less fre-
quent cases of umlaut, as magad, maid for later megith.
' See Heyne' s Laut und-Flexiouslekre, 3d ed. Compare Rusk's Friesche
Spraakleer. Translated into Dutch by M. Hettema; also, Helfensteiti' s
Comparative Gram?nar of the Teutonic Language.
— 43 —
E.
i. E appears derived from o, i and u; from a in two ways, by
umlaut as henda (to take) from hand^ hand, and secondly like the
Anglo-Saxon a from a, by a simple weakening of the sound This
is especially common in the preterit of strong verbs as brek from
breka^ break, jef from ieva, give; also before doubled mutes and
combinations with r, as ekker^ acre, gers, grass, bern, bairn.
ii. E from i. This corresponds with Old Saxon and 0. H. G. e
in helm^ as Mlpa^ heljl^ sivester. sister. The vowel e is not changed
in the conjugation of strong verbs in the present tense, hence, bersta,
burst, berstet
iii. E appears for original u^ often through an intermediate change
into o, fella^ full.
In the participles heleUj concealed, breken, broken, and in similar
verbs the e represents the vowel of the infinitive where other verbs
have 0. A.-S. gebrocen,
I.
i. I remains unchanged in Frisian in many combinations espe-
cially when followed by m and n as himul^ Ger. Himmel ; and be-
fore V with a dental following-, where the A.-S. has eo, as hinder^
hinder; hirte^ heart, A.-S. heort.
ii. I is broken to iu before clit^ as siiicht^ for siht^ sees ; riucht
for richt^ right.
0.
i. represents the obscuring of u^ as in the other Germanic dia-
lects, hoi, hole, boga, bow. It remains before m and n^ where it
often takes the place of a, as nama^and noma^ name.
U.
i. U represents an original u ; it passes into o, as sumur and som&r^
summer, but holds in general the same position in Frisian as in the
other Germanic dialects.
§ 2. Long Vowels.
A.
i. Long a appears in a few words as the representative of the
0. H. G. a, as ndtha^ 0. H. G. gi-ndda^ Mod. Ger. Gnade.
ii. Long a appears in the auslaut of a few words, as hwa^ who,
A.-S. hwd., 0. S. hue; twd^ two; ma, man.
— 44 —
iii. Long a appears in a few cases of contraction as fa, G-er.
fangen, Old Eng. to fang.
iv. Long a appears in Frisian as the representative of the Grothic
ait, A.-S, ea ; as age, eye, A.-S. edge, Grothic, augo ; hdp, purchase,
Eng. cheap, A.-S. kedp, Gr. haupon ; Fr, gd, Gr. gaujans, Ger. Gau.
V. Long d occasionally represents Gothic ai as in dga, have, G.
aigan; dskia, ask, A.-S. dscian.
vi. Long a appears in the preterit plural in the second class of
ablaut verbs, as ndmon from nima, take. ,^
E.
i. Long e represents Gothic e as in mel, Gr. mel, Ger. Tna/i?, A.-S.
mael.
ii. Long e represents the contraction of the diphthong ei, Gr. ei or
a?", Uda, lead, A.-S. ledenn, Gr. ga-lei\an ; het, hot, Gr. /ie?*to, 0. S.
/ie^, Mod. Fr. Met
iii. Long e represents the Grothic au, A.-S. e«, as ntth, Ger. Nutz-
en, G. wat*]?s, A.-S. wead
iv. Long e represents the umlaut of o, as dema, doom, G. doms,
A.-S. dom,
V. Long e represents the umlaut of u as hide, hide, A.-S. hud,
Lat. cw^^'s.
vi. Long e occasionally represents the Gothic iu, A.-S. eo ; bineta,
rob, 0. S. biniotan, A.-S. beneoten, deprive, G. ga-niutan.
vii. Long e appears in the root of a iew originally reduplicating
verbs where a appears in the root before combination with n as /a,
feng, Gr. fahan, faifah ; t also appears, as fing
I.
i. Long i represents the Gothic ei, 0. H. G. i ; as min, my, G.
meins.
ii. Long I appears in consequence of contraction in a few words,
as 7iia, new, G. niujis.
iii. Long i also appears derived from ei, where a gutteral has
been vocalized, as di from dels, gen, degis, day.
0.
i. Long 6 corresponds to Gothic and A.-S. 6, 0. H. G. it, as F.
brother, also broer, G. bro\ar, 0. H. G. bruder.
ii. It represents e in a few words, as Fr. and A.-S. mona, moon,
G. mena, 0. S. mdno.
— 4S —
iil It remains in the preterit of some verbs as ndmon, took, homo'tl,
came.
U.
i. Long u represents the long u of the other German dialects, as
huSj house.
ii. It represents the contraction m, asjiucht iovfiiucht
iii. It appears in the auslaut in cases of contraction in monosyl-
lables, as hua^ hang, dua^ da
3 § DIPHTHONGS.
Old Frisian has the single diphthong iu^ with the variations io and
ia ; io and iu appear in words where io or u is found in the following
syllable, ia where an a appears in the final syllable. The Rustringer
dialect retains the weakening to, the remaining dialects the fuller itu
Iu prevails in the auslaut, as hiu this ; ihivu, that In certain strong
verbs m remains in the root of the first pers. sing, and iu or io in
the second and third persons sing., as hiase^ choose, hiosest., kioseth^
pi. kiasaih,
EI.
M is a later formation, occurring in cases of contraction, espe-
cially in the terminations, ag^ and eg, as wei, way, gen. wiges or wmes^
dat. wige or wei; so also in dei, day, gen. deges or deis ; kei, key, A.-S.
caeg ; brein^ brain, A.-S. hraegan ; kid ior legad, laid. In the plural
of nouns the g again appears as dega or degar, days.
ii. Ei frequently become I, for del, di
iii. Ei for e corresponds to ei in a few forms in 0. H. Or. and
0. S., in place of an original a, as deil, dd, dale and dell, 0. S. dal^
0. H. Gr. tal, Norse dal,
iv. Ei also appear where other dialects exhibit w, iu and ow, as
hreid, bride, A.-S. hrfd, 0. S. hrHd, Icelandic, hri^r.
V. Ei appears also as a weakening of ai in foreign words, keisar^
caesar, A.-S. casere, 0. S. kesur.
vi. Au appears developed from dhy a w following, as bid, blauv)^
blue.
-46-
4i WEST-LAUWERS VOWELS,
I. Short Vowels.
i. The umlaut of the a is more uniform.
ii. The tendency of a to become o is less frequent, hence man,
man, hand^ hand.
iii. I is a frequent substitute for other vowels :
i. Before Z, m, n and r, it frequently takes the place of a ; as in
hird^ beard, where the other dialects have e^ as herd^ Ger. and IcL
hart ; schil^ shall; hinxt for hengst ; nimmer for nammer.
ii. Similarly i takes the places of e before liquids in hirg^ Ger.
herg / of u in stirta^ East Fr. sterta^ O. H. G. sturzen.
before ?i with a following consonant usually takes the place of
w, as yoTi^ for jung.
Breaking.
1 before I is often broken ; becoming ie^ ielder^ elder.
Long Vowels.
Long a appears for the East Frisian e in the preterit plural of
certain strong verbs, as sdgen, seen. East Frisian segin.
Diphthongs.
1. le stands for E. Fr. ia, as tziesa for hkisa^ choose.
2. lo stands occasionally for E. Fr. iu.
3. Au and ou appear later, produced by the dropping of I, as gond
for gold, and saut for salt.
The combinations hw, hw^ sw, dw, tw and thw, remain in the an-
laut, where in English the w has become vocaUzed, as in which,
(Jiuiisch),
§5. CONSONANTS.
Liquids.
The Liguids Z, m, n, r, correspond in general to the Anglo-Saxon.
M in endings has become n. In the inlaut n is dropped, as
in the Anglo-Saxon, before s,/and^y^; hence m for uns, us, f if for
finf, five, muth for munth, mouth, and -ath for -and in the plural
terminations of the present, as ner-ath for ner-and. In the termin-
ation of the infinitive n has been dropped. It reappears however
in the gerundive, as werthande.
The metathesis of r is common, as kersten for kristen, gers for gres,
grass, warold for wrold, world, hars and hors for 0. H. G. hros.
Rhotacismus is common, was, was, pi. weron.
— 47 —
Spirants, w^f^ r, y, th^ s, z.
I. W. The Anglo-Saxon tendency to vocalize the v) only ap-
pears in a few cases as in the Brokmer and Emsiger suster for the
Rustringer sivester, also in kuma for kvema, come. ii. W in the in-
laut corresponds to 0. H. Gr. w, as triuwe^ triwa, true. iii. In the
auslant w remains, or is dropped, with the lengthening of the pre-
ceding vowel, frowe^ Ger. Frau, tre, tree, Gr. triu, A.-S. treow.
H, CH.
L In the inlaut, h is often dropped, as Uan, Eng. ten, 0. S, tehan^
or becomes g, as from sid^ Eng, slay, pret slogon.
ii. Ch stands for h in the auslaut, and before t in the inlaut, hdch,
high, achta^ eight
J.
J is represented by i in the manuscripts.
It represents an original spirant/, also g in other dialects. It is
frequently vocalized when final
i. In derivatives from ja stems and in inflection it is vocahzed
and does not again appear ; /er, year, ieva and geva^ give, hiri^ Gr»
hirjis^ army, gen. hiri.
S.
S corresponds to s in 0. S. and 0. H. Gr. sc. It becomes sch in
the Emsiger dialect before e and i. In the preterit plural of many
verbs, r takes the place of s, hiase^ choose, pret has^ pi. keroru
Z appears in later Frisian.
F. V.
F represents the labial aspirate, ph in the anlaut, also in the in-
laut before ti or a dental mute, and in the auslaut
F appears in the inlaut , gref^ grave, gen. greves.
The gemination of /occurs only in foreign words.
MUTES.
Labials.
P initial appears in but few native Frisian words. It remains on
the same step as in the Grothic. The labial aspirate ph has passed
into the spirant/ or v. B initial remains unchanged, as also in
cases of gemination, and in the combination m&, otherwise it passes
into the aspirate.
Palatals.
i. The palatals g and k are in a few words represented by j before
and ie, as jild for geld ; iet for gat^ hole, Eng. gate.
— 48 —
ii. K in the anlaut may become sz or sth, fs, fz or fsz. K in the
inlaut before t becomes ch^ as seka^ seek, sdchta^ mega, may, mdchta.
iii. G remains generally unchanged in the anlaut. G in the inlaut
is often vocalized; gg in the inlaut may become dz, or is vocalized,
as A.-S. leggian, 0. H. Gr. legjan, Fr. lega or Udza, or leia.
LiNGUALS.
The hngual mutes correspond in general to the same letters in
Anglo-Saxon. T final is sometimes dropped after ch, as riuch
for riucht; it stands occasionally for the ending -th of verbs, as nima-t
for nima-th, takes ; otherwise it occupies the same position as in
the other Low German dialects.
The hngual aspirate appears only as th. It may have had a softer
sound in the inlaut and auslaut, like the Anglo-Saxon ^.
In the inlaut d is protected from change by a preceding n, as
hinda, bind ; the combination nth drops the n ; d final remains, ex-
cept in the terminations of verbs, where it becomes th, as werp-th
for werp-d.
Letters Dropped.
H and w are often dropped when initial and a previous word is
joined to the one they begin, as nella for ne wella.
West Frisian Consonants.
i. N remains before ih, as in munth.
ii. Initial hi, hr, hu and hw lose their aspiration and become gen-
erally r, Z, n, w ; thw becomes dw.
iii. Sh becomes sch. iv. The spirants / and v in the inlaut and
auslaut are frequently dropped, as sterva, die, Eng. starve, part.
sturen and storn. This occurs generally after r.
Dropping of Consonants.
This is especially frequent in the inlaut, and afifects principally the
dentals, and corresponds to similar disappearance in the Nether-
landish, as broer for brother, moer, moder.
§ 6. THE FRISIAN VERB.
The verb has two tenses, present and preterit. The future and
perfect tenses are formed by the auxiliaries, sTdla, hebha, wesa;
wertha is used in forming the passive.
There are four moods, indicative, subjunctive, imperative and in-
finitive. Verbs are divided into two classes, strong and weak.
The absence of complete forms makes it impossible to classify ac-
— 49 —
curately these verbs. The analogy of those which present fuller
forms must often be taken, also that of the other dialects to de-
termine the quantity of the vowels and the class to which each verb
belongs.
The following table exhibits the different classes of strong verbs :
REDUPLICATING VERBS.
ABLAUT-VERBS.
Present. Pret.
Part.
Pres.
Pret. Sing.
Plur. Part.
1. a. i. e.
a.
1.
i, e.
a.
U. U.
2. e. i, e.
e.
2.
1, e.
a, e.
a, e. i, e.
3. e. i, e.
e.
3.
i.
e'.
i. i.
4. d. (i, io?6).
a,
e.
4.
iu, ia,
(u).
k
e. e.
5. 6. e. (i, io?).
0,
e.
5.
a, e.
'^ 6.
6. a, e
Traces of previous reduplication have been greatly obscured.
Long e represents in most dialects the previous reduplication.
Long t appears in the Rustringer before ?^, but elsewhere e, as /a,
feng, to seize.
In the first class of ablaut- verbs i appears in the present before
n, doubled or in combination with a mute, u is retained in the par-
ticiple as winna^ wan^ wunnon^ win.
In the second class of ablaut- verbs i remains in root, ending in a
vowel, sia^ see, also in verbs formed with the lengthened root in ja.
The preterit plural has a before m, as mma, nam and nom^ ndmon,
otherwise e in the sing, and e in the plural. The vowel of the
present remains unchanged in inflection in all forms of the present.
STRONG CONJUGATIOK
INE
ICA
TIVE PRESE
NT.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Sing.
1.
finde
kiase
finde.
kias-e.
2.
find-e-st.
finst
kios-e-st.
kiost.
finde,
kias-e.
3.
find-e-th.
fint.
kios-e-th.
kiost.
finde.
kias-e.
Plur.
1.
find-a-th.
kias-a-th,
finde.
kias-e.
2.
find-a-th,
kaas-a-th,
finde.
kias-e.
3.
find-a-th,
PRET.
kias-a-th.
finde.
kias-e.
Sing.
1.
2.
fand,
k4s.
fund-e,
fund-e.
ker-e.
ker-e.
3.
fand,
kas,
fund-e,
ker-e.
1.
fund-on,
ker-o-n.
fund-e.
ker-e.
2.
fund-on.
ker-o-n.
fund-e.
ker-e.
3.
fund-on,
ker-o-n,
fund-e,
ker-e.
Imp.
Participles.
Sing.
2.
find.
kios.
find- and,
]
kias-a-nd
Plur.
2.
find-a-th,
kias-a
L-th, find
-en,
ker-en.
Inf.
find-a,
kias-a
— 50 —
For e in the 2d and 3d persons sing, i is often found, as ist^ ith.
The subjunctive drops n in the plural of both tenses. When the
characteristic connecting vowel in the 2d and 3d persons, sing, is
dropped and the personal endings are joined to a dental d-st be-
comes st ; tli-st becomes st ; d-th and s-st become t.
The tendency of the ending th to become t is also manifest. Rho-
tacism takes place is dissyllabic preterits.
Pres.
1. a,
2. 4,
3. e,
4. a, (!)^
5. 6, e,
REDUPLICATING VERBS.
Pret.
i, ^,
i, d,
1, d,
ft io),
(i, 10, 6),
First Class.
bonna, )
banna, f
fa, se^ze,
falla,
gunga,
hald,
hua,
fall,
hold,
hang,
h^ta, call,
swepa, sweep.
ben,
feng,
f 61, w.
geng,
hild,
heng,
aka,
bennon,
fengon,
folen, w.
gengon,
hildon.
Second Class.
bla, hlow, ble,
lita, let, lit,
reda, advise, red,
slepa, sleep,
Third Class.
hit, hiton,
Fourth Class.
increase,
hew.
hlapa, run,
steta, push,
floka, curse,
hropa, call,
wepa, weep,
hlep,
Fifth Class.
[rop.]
Part.
a.
e.
e.
a, e, (6).
6, e.
S bonnen.
\ bannen, w.
\ efangen.
\ fenszen.
fallen.
gangen.
halden.
j huen,
) huinsen.
leten.
slepen,
heten.
aken.
\ havren.
( hauwen.
hlepen.
stoten.
eflokin.
j hropen.
\ hrepen.
wepen.
— 51
ABLAUT VERBS.
Prcs.
Pret. Sing.
Pret. Plur.
' Part.
1. i, e,
a,
"j
u,
2. i, e,
a, e,
a, e.
i,e,
3. \
e,
1,
h
4. iu, ia,
(A),
a,
^
e,
5. a, e,
6,
o,
a, e.
First Class.
bersta,
bursty
bursten.
binda,
bind,
band,
banden, w.
bunden.
brida?
draw,
bruden.
delva,
delve,
dulven.
derva,
Ger. derben, derf. w.
drinka,
drink,
drunken.
finda,
find,
fand.
funden.
efunden.
worth,
gald.
gulden.
gulden.
bi-ginna, )
bi-ienna, f
begin.
gonnen, w.
gunnen.
helpa,
help,
hulpon.
hulpen.
h] werva,
turn,
ierva.
cut, (carve),
kurven.
kringa,
acquire.
krungon.
krungen.
renna.
Sfiow,
} (run).
ran,
runnen.
singa.
sing,
sang.
skelda,
scold.
skouden.
springa,
spring,
sprung,
w.
sterva,
die,
sturvon,
sturven.
swinga.
swing,
thwinga,
force.
thwang.
thwungon,
thwungen
werpa,
throw.
wurpon,
wurpen.
willa.
soil,
wullen.
winna.
win.
wan.
Second
wunnon.
Class.
wunnen.
Pres.
Pret. Sing.
Pret. Plur.
Part.
bera,
bear,
beren.
bidda,
beg.
bed.
bidon.
biden.
breka,
break,
brek,
brekon,
breken.
eta,
eat,
etten.
ita.
bi-fella.
command, bi-fel,
bi-felen,
bi-felen.
bi-f41.
bi-folen.
fiuchta.
fight,
fuchton.
fuchten.
ia.
affirm,
iech.
eien.
ieva.
give.
ief.
ievon,
ieven.
kuma.
come,
{ kom,
\ kam,
komon, )
kamon, C
ekimin.
52
lesa,
read,
gelesen.
lidsa, f
lie,
lai, w.
lidsen.
meta,
measure.
, met.
nima,
take,
nam,
namon,
nimen.
sia,
see,
sach.
sagon.
sien,
sitta,
sit,
set.
seten.
skera,
shear.
sker.
eskeren,
skia,
happen,
ske.
esken.
spreka,
speak,
sprek.
sprekon,
spreken.
stela,
steal.
stelon.
stelen.
wega,
move,
Third Class.
Pres.
Pret. Sing.
Pret. Sing.
Part
bita,
bite,
bitin.
blika,
glance,
bliken.
driva,
drive.
driven.
glida,
glide.
gliden.
gripa,
grasp,
grep.
gripen,
gripen.
(h)lia,
confess,
hlien.
(h)niga.
how,
tinigun,
kivia, )
szivia, \
chide,
kriga ?
obtain,
bi-liva,
remain,
bilef,
mida,
avoid,
rida.
ride.
reden,
riden.
riva,
rive,
eriven.
skina.
shine,
skriva,
write,
skref,
eskriven.
snida,
cut,
snithen.
spia,
spit.
espien.
stiga,
ascend,
Fourth Class.
Pres.
Pret. Sing.
Pret. Plur.
Part
biada,
offer,
bdd.
bedon,
beden.
briuwa,
brew,
browen.
bruka,
use.
bruken.
driaga,
deceive,
drein.
driapa,
drip,
flia,
flee,
(Mch),
flegon,
flain.
fliaga,
fly,
fliata,
flow.
flat,
kiasa,
choose^
kds,
keron.
ekeren.
kriapa,
creep,
ur-liasa,
lose,
leren.
mka,
lock,
leken.
letzen.
— 53 —
luka,
draw,
letzen.
skiata,
shootj
esketen.
sliapa,
slip,
sluta,
shut,
sl4t,
spruta,
sprout,
tia,
draWy
tach,
tegon,
tein.
Fifth Class.
Pres.
Pret. Sing.
Pret Plur.
Part.
drega,
drew,
droch,
drogon,
dregen.
fara,
fare,
f6r,
f 6ron,
faren.
heva,
heave,
h6f,
hoven,
geheven.
hlada,
load.
hleden.
skeppa,
make.
skop,
skopon,
skepen.
sla,
strike.
sloch,
alogon,
1 slain.
/ slagen.
swera,
swear,
swor,
sworen,
sweren.
waxa,
wax.
wox,
woxon,
waxen*
wada,
wade,
wod,
Irregular forms are
geddn; wesa, be, wes,
tenden.
seen in dua, do, dede, deden^ eden, 'den and
weron, wesen; start, stand, stod, stodon, es-
WEAK CONJUaATION.
Two forms of verbs are preserved as in the Anglo-Saxon and
Old Saxon. They correspond in part to the Gothic weak verbs, in
ja and o. The connecting vowel of the preterit of these verbs is
the weakened e, as nera, nerede, or nerde.
In many verbs gemination has taken place, developed by the ja
of the lengthened root, as sella, 0. S. sellian, A.-S. sellan, Icl. seija;
thekka, deck, A.-S. \eccan, 0. H. Gr. thecian ; seka, say, A.-S. secgan^ .
0. S. seggian ; also in tella, tell, 0. H. Gr. zaljan, A.-S. talian.
The preterit is formed by adding de or te to the root, verbs end-
ing in a liquid, or sonant mute, or simple s which join the term-
ination directly to the root without a connecting vowel, add de to
form the preterit ; verbs ending in a surd mute or double s add te to
form the preterit, as in the Old Saxon. The past participle adds d
to roots whose vowel is long, id or ed to roots whose vowel is short.
When the preterit is formed by adding te, the participle ends in t;
lira, teach, lerde, wisa, point out, wisde; thekka, deck, thachta; resta,
rest, pret. reste. What is termed for convenience riickumlaut ap-
pears in a few verbs, ending in k, as seka, seek, sochte, Gr. sokjan.
The termination of the 0. S. preterit, -da, connecting vowels i and
— 54 —
Of Anglo-Saxon de^ connecting vowels e and o, is in Frisian c?e, with
the connecting vowels e and a ; compare 0. S. ner-i-da, and seaiv-
6-da ; A.-S. ner-e-de, and sealf-6-de ; Frisian ner-e-de^ and sealf-a-de.
The forms which still show a/ in the present tense are often further
lengthened to "ige-^ -^^-, •^ffi'-i as endia^ end, endigia, endgia.
FIRST WEAK CONJUGATION.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
First Weak Conjugation. Second Weak Conjugation.
Sing. 1. ner-e,
sek-e,
ask-je.
2. ner-i-st^ ner
-St,
sek-i-st, sek-st.
ask-a-st.
3. ner-ith, ner-
-th,
sek-i-th, sek-th,
ask-a-th.
1. ner-a-th,
sek-a-th,
ask-ja-th.
2. ner-a-th,
sek-a-th,
ask-ja-th.
3. ner-a-th,
sek-a-th,
ask-ja-th.
Preterit.
Preterit.
Preterit.
Sing. 1. ner-e-de, nerde,
s6ch-te.
ask-a-de.
2. ner-e-dest,
soch-test,
ask-a-dest.
3. ner-e-de,
s6ch-te.
ask-a de.
Plur. 1. ner-e-don, ner-don
, soch-ton.
ask-a-don.
2. ner-e-don,
soch-ton,
ask-a-don.
3. ner-e-don.
soch-ton,
ask-a-don.
Subjunctive Mood.
Present.
Present.
Present.
Sing. 1. ner-i (e)
sek-i (e)
ask-je.
2. ner-i,
sek-i.
dsk-je.
3. ner-i,
8^k-i,
dsk-je.
Plur. 1. ner-i,
sek-i (e)
4sk-je.
2. ner-i.
sek-i.
ask-je.
3. ner-i,
sek-i,
ask-je.
Preterit.
Preterit.
Sing. 1. ner-de,
soch-te,
ask-a-de.
2. ner-de.
soch-te.
dsk-a-de.
3. ner-de.
s6ch-te.
ask-a-de.
Plur. 1. ner-de,
soch-te.
ask-a-de.
2. ner-de.
soch-te.
ask-a-de.
3. ner-de,
soch-te.
ask-a-de.
Imperative.
Sing. 2. ner-e,
seke,
ask-ja.
Plur. 2. nerath.
sek-ath,
ask-ja-th.
Inf. nera.
s^ka,
ask-ja.
Part nerand,
sek-and,
dsk-ja-nd.
nerid,
s6ch-t,
ask-a-d.
— S5 —
Anomalous Verbs.
Impf.
Pres. Sing.
Pres. Plural
Pret.
L kunna,
know J
kan,
i konnen,
\ konath.
konde.
thura,
dare^
thur,
thuron.
thorste*
thurva,
j need^
thurf,
thurvon*
} be alhw^d^
IL skila,
owe^
skil,
skiln,
skolde.
mega,
able^
mei, mi,
machte.
III. dga, I
hdga,(
have^
^h,
agon,
achte.
wita,
Jmow,
wet, wit,
IV. duga,
to be worth,
duch,
mot,
y. mota?
mustj
mostev
West-Lauwers VerbSv
The distinguishing features of these verbs are in brief:
1. The changes by ablaut are not uniform in verbs of the first
class, as binda, bandj banden, bonden ; helpa, hulp^ hulpen^ hulpen^
2. The tendency to employ o instead of u in the preterit and
participle.
3. The fourth ablaut-class shows ie for m, io for iu,
4. The fuller vowels in the endings of inflection have become e.
5. The th of the third person singular and the plural is t or d.
6. A few infinitives, and the subjunctive in the plural show w, as
gduj go, qv4n, say.
§ 7. DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
Strong Declension.
A-DECLENSION.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Sing. Nom. fisk.
jeve,
Gen. fiski-s, (-es),
jeve,
je/e.
Dat. fisk-a, -e, -i.
Ace. fisk.
jeve,
Plur. Nom. fiskar, -a,
jeva.
G-en. fisk-a,
jeve-n-a,
Dat. fisk-um, -on,
-em, jevu-m, -or
Ace. fiska, -ar.
jeva,
Neuter.
word.
skip.
word-is, -es.
skipi-s, -es.
word-a, -e.
skipa» -e.
word,
skip.
word (a),
skipu, -0.
word-a,
skip-a
wordu-m, -on,
skipu-m, -on.
word-a, skipu, -o.
The masculine nominative plural exhibits two forms in -a and -an
When r is omitted the plural corresponds to that of the weak de-
clension. Compare 0. H. G-. neuters in -^r and Icl. masculine and
neuters in -ar.
t^
-56-
The genitive singular of the mascuhne and neuter nouns in is^ is
retained in the Rustringer dialect, while the other dialects exhibit
the weakened es.
The dative in a is retained in the Hunsingoer and Emsiger dia-
lects. The Rustringer has i and the Brokmer e.
In the dative plural the Rustringer has o?i, the Brockmer um and
the other dialects em. When in the feminine singular a appears in
the oblique cases, the forms of the strong and weak declensions
correspond. The genitive plural has often a instead of ena, 0. H. G.
Sno, A.-S. ena. Neuter nouns have in the plural two forms accord-
ing as the root has a long or short vowel. The short syllabled neu-
ters show u as in the A.-S. and 0. S., commonly represented by o,
Emsiger e ; the long-syllabled show a as jer, year, pi. jera. Dis-
syllabic neuters in el and en form the plural in e, weakened from u,
as in the Anglo-Saxon, as beken^ beacon, pi. hehene. Compare
A.-S. hedcen^^l. bedcenu.
Of themes in ja no traces are left, except in the termination -e of
the nom. sing, of a few masc. and neut. nouns, as hodere, hat-bearer.
/ appears for j- vocalized in hiri, army, Gr. harjis.
I-DECLENSION.
This declension contains only masculine and feminine nouns.
Only four masculine nouns remain, liode^ Grer. Leute^ only found in
the plural; fot^ foot, ^\. fet ; toth, tooth, both of which belonged to
the ii-declension originally. The feminine nouns are declined like
nouns of the same class in Anglo-Saxon. The dative plural shows
the forms -im, -em, -um, -on.
Masculine, fot, foot. Feminine, ned, need.
Sing. N. fot, ned,
G-. fote-s, nede.
D. fote, nede.
A. fot, nede.
Plur. N. fet, neda, -e.
Gr. fot-a, neda.
D. fote-m, -on, ned-im, -em, -um, -on.
A. fet, neda.
U-DECLENSION.
This declension retains but two masculine nouns sunu, son,
frethOj peace, and the neuter ^la, Grer. vieh, G.failhu.
Masculine, Sing. N. sunu, -o, Gr. suna, D. suna, A. sunu.
Plur. N. sun-ar, -a, Gr. (suna), D. sun-um, A. sun-a-r, -a.
Neut. N. fia, G. fias, D. and A. fia.
57
WEAK DECLENSION.
Sing.
Feminine. Neuter.
tunge, tongue,
tunga,
tunga,
tunge,
tunga,
tungan-a,
tungum,
tunga,
The Emsiger, Hunsingoer and Fivelgoer dialects exhibit a ten-
dency to restore the u which has been lost, as frowe^ Ger. Frau,
frowan.
Masculine.
N. hona, cock,
G. hona,
D. hona,
A. hona,
Plur. N. hona,
G. honan-a, (-ona),
D. honu-m,
A. hona.
age, eye,
are, ear.
aga,
ara.
aga,
ara.
age.
are.
agon.
ara.
agen-
■a?
agen
, aren-a.
agenu
:"^'
aru-m.
agon.
agene,
ara.
CONSONANT STEMS IN -R AND -AND.
Sing. N. brother, friund, friond.
G. brother-es (-s), friunde-s.
D. brother-e, friunde.
A. brother, friund.
Plur. N. brother-a (-e), friund.
G. brother-a (-e), friund-a.
D. brother-um, friund-um, -on, -em.
A. brother-a, -e, friund.
The feminine nouns moder, mother, swester, sister, and dochter,
daughter, are declined in the same way. The genitive singular may
have -e instead of -s, as modere.
8. DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES.
Strong Declension.
Masculine. Feminine.
Sing. N. blind, blind-e,
G. blind-es, blind-ere, (-re),
D. blind-a, (-e), blind-ere, (-re),
A. blind-ene, (-ne, -en), blind-e,
Plur. N. blind-a, (-e), blind-a, (-e),
G. bhnd-era, (-ra), bhnd-era, (-ra),
D. blind-a, (-e), bhnd-a, (-e),
A. bUnd-a, (-e), blind-a, (-e),
Neuter.
bhnd.
blind-es.
blind-a, (-e).
blind.
bhnd-a, (-e).
blind-era, (-ra).
blind-a, (-e).
blind-a, (-e).
-58-
WEAK DECLENSION.
Masculine. Feminine. Neuter.
Sing. N. blind-a, blind-e, blind-e.
G. blind-a, blind-a, blind-a.
D. blind-a, blind-a, blind-a.
A. blind-a, blind-a, blind-e.
Plur. D. blind-a, blind-a, blind-a.
G. blind-ena, blind-ena, blind-ena.
D. blind-um, blind-um, blind-um.
A. blind-a, blind-a, blind-a.
Participles both present and perfect are declined like adjectives
of the strong and weak declension The present participle when
uninflected shows a final e from a fuller formative y, sl^ findande.
The infinitive has a dative form in e, before which it resumes the
consonant ti, lost from the infinitive as to far arte, to fare. The Rus-
tringer dialect shows the form to farande^ as if influenced by the
present participle.
Adjectives are compared by means of the suffixes ir and or^ and
ist^ ost and ast. The weakened forms er and est are frequent.
The old comparison in m is preserved in for-m-a first, super-
lative for-m-est Adjectives in the comparative degree are in-
flected only according to the weak declension, those in the super-
lative degree, according to both the strong and weak declensions.
The numerals afford no especial occasion for remark. They pre-
sent few variations from Anglo-Saxon and Old Saxon forms.
West Lauwers Declension.
This dialect shows a tendency to form the plural of masculine
nouns from vowel themes in n. as eth^ oath, plural, ethan. The fem-
inine nouns do not exhibit this tendency in the same degree.
§9.
PRONOUNS.
Personal Pronouns.
III Pers.
1 Pers.
II Pere.
III.
Mas.
Fem.
Neut.
Sing. N. ik,
thu,
hi, he.
hiu, se.
hit.
G. min.
thin,
sin.
sin],
hiri.
[sin].
D. mi.
thi,
lim.
hiri,
him.
A. mi,
thi,
hini, (-e,
-a). Ilia, se.
hit.
Plur. iST. wi,
hia, se.
G. user.
iuwer,
hira, hiara.
D. us.
iu, io,
him, hiam,
A. us,
iu, io;
Ilia, se.
— 59 —
For the pronoun of the third person, is used the demonstrative hi
as in Anglo-Saxon, and in the nominative mascuUne of the Old
Saxon. The genitive singular, masculine and neuter, is supplied by
the form sin, not marking gender, as in 0. H. Gr. There is a
marked tendency to join the nominative of this pronoun, to other
forms of the same pronoun and to the demonstrative, as hit for hi hit ;
hint for hin hit ; hitha for hit tha.
The indefinite ma, G-er. man, is early distinguished from the con-
crete man or mon. It is often joined to a following pronoun,
as maSj for ma thes.
Possessive Adjective Pronouns.
min and mein, my. unser and W. F. ouse, our.
thin and dein, thy. iuwe, '' iuw^er, your.
sin, his, its.
The inflection is like that of the strong adjective. The effort to
form a possessive from the feminine pronoun is early manifest, as
hire kindis and hires hirnes, of her child. Compare the similar de-
velopment of the form ir, in Middle High Grerman.
Demonstrative Pronouns.
thi-
Mas.
Fern.
Neut.
Sing.
Nom. thi.
thiu.
thet.
Gen. thes.
there,
thes.
Dat. tham, tha,
there,
tham.
Ace. them.
tha.
thet.
Inst.
thiu.
Plur. Nom.
tha.
Gen.
thera.
Dat.
tham, tha.
Ace.
tha.
The
lengthened demonstative
from the old forms
tja and sa
i-s.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Sing.
Nom. thi-s, the-s,
thiu-s.
thi-t.
Gen. thisses.
thisse,
thisses.
Dat. thissa.
thisse,
thissa.
Ace. (this-ne).
thisse,
thit.
Plur.
Nom. thisse, thesse,
thisse,
thisse.
Gen. thessera,
thessera,
thessera.
Dat. thisse, thesse,
thisse.
thisse.
Ace. thisse,
thisse,
thisse.
The demonstrative jen^ G. jains, is vranting in Frisian as in Old
Saxon.
— 6o
Interrogative Pronouns.
Masculine and Fern. Neuter. ''
Sing. Nom. hwa, • hwet.
Gen. hwammes, hwammes.
Dat. hwam, hwam.
Ace. hwane, hwene, hwet.
Relative Pronouns.
The Frisian uses the demonstrative or the particle ther for the
relative.
The Indefinite Pronouns
Are Sum^ some, ek^ each, monich, many, enich, any, annen, one, nen
and nanen, no, one, ammon, immen^ 0. S. eoman^ any one, awei,
ought, nawet, naught, al, frequently uninflected, all, ek, each.
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